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TT tes TT} An pt ed 5 ey a ’ - | wwe a ee aren CP Vue: 4 tute cht ’ 4 siatiaye a es tik » « 3 ‘ a Py ECUA-; | ARTHUR EIGENMANN = 4 BIA OM H 1914 ¥ 3 1 es Bee INDIANA: UNIVERSITY STUDIES January 16, 1914 IN@g aly) BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA [Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of Indiana University. No. 133.| New Fishes from Western Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru By Cari H HigGENMANN, ARTHUR HENN, AND CHARLES WILSON The following species of new fishes were coilected for the most part by Mr. Charles Wilson and Mr. Arthur Henn; one was pur- chased from Rosenberg and the remainder were collected by or under the direction of Mr. Manuel Gonzales. Mr. Wilson collected during January, February, and March of 1913 in the lower Patia and its tributary, the Telembi, in the upper San Juan basin, and in the Atrato basin. His expenses were pro- vided for by Mr. Carl G. Fisher and Mr. Hugh McK. Landon of Indianapolis. Mr. Henn collected during the entire year of 1913 in the upper and lower Patia basin, in the lower San Juan basin, and in Western Ecuador. His entire expenses were provided by Mr. Landon. Full accounts of these two expeditions will appear in the gen- eral account of the fishes of the regions covered. LANDONIA! EFigenmann and Henn, gen. nov. A genus of Tetragonopterinse characterized by its teeth. Allied to “Astyanax. | Maxillary with two very broad straight edged teeth, their cutting edge continuous and more than half the length of the maxillary: premaxiliary teeth in two rows very closely pressed together, three teeth in the outer row, alternating with the four of the inner row, all these teeth incisor like, finely notched; the entire series of premaxillary teeth about as wide as the first of the maxillary teeth, mandible with five or six teeth on each side, the posterior three similar but narrower than those of the maxillary, the anterior two narrower and finely denticulated, the cutting edges of the teeth continuous; second suborbital long, leaving a narrow naked margin; lateral line complete, caudal naked; gill rakers 17-+S, Slender; half os long as eye, those of the upper arch similar to those of the lower. 1Mor Mr. Hugh Mek. Landoi, who has made the stud’e: possiole. 2 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Landonia latidens Eigenmann and Henn, sp. nov. Type, 56 mm., paratypes, 5409 a-b C. M., 18100 I. U. M., 14 specimens, largest 59 mm. Vinces, Ecuador. Arthur Henn. 54938 a-d C. M. 18101 I. U. M. 22, 28-52 mm. Colimes, Rio Daule, Ecuador. Arthur Henn. Head 4; depth 3.3-4; D. 11; A. 31-82; scales 8 or 9-45 to 50-5 or 6; eye 2.5 in head, greater than interorbital. Compressed, clupeoid, ventral regions rounded, predorsal area rounded with a median naked line; parietal fontanel longer and considerably wider than the frontal, skull smooth; lower jaw very oblique, its tip entering the profile; mouth small, maxillary shorter than eye; dermal border of opercle wide; teeth as in generic description. Dorsal pointed, its origin in middle of length, reaching about half way to caudal, about equal to length of head; adipose well developed; caudal equilobed, the lobes about equal to length of head; anal falcate, its origin under end of dorsal; its lobe about equal to length of head less opercle; ventrals sinall, considerably in advance of the vertical from the origin of the dorsal, not reaching anal; pectorals narrow, reaching to or beyond origin of ventrals. Scales regularly arranged; few or no radials; caudal naked; a few scales along the bases of the anterior anal rays; lateral line sagging in front of the dorsal. Male with a glandular pouch and thickenings on the caudal rays just below the middle ones and one to three hooks on each of the anterior anal rays. A conspicuous black spot on the basal two-fifths of the middle caudal rays, upper caudal lobe margined with dark; tip of dorsal dusky; no humerai spot, a narrow silvery band. PHENAGONIATES Eigenmann and Wilson, gen. nov. Mouth minute, teeth in a single series in each jaw, tricuspid except in posterior part of maxillary where they are conical, gill-opening wide, much compressed; chest not trenchant; pectorals iarge, reaching to middle of ventrals; anal very long, its origin far in advance of the dorsal; dorsal a little behind middle of body. No adipose fin, lateral line incomplete. Phenagoniates wilsoni Eigenmann, sp. nov. 354 ©. M. Type, 41 mm. Paratypes, 18030 I. U. M. 7, 21-88 mm. Manigru. Charles Wilson. 53855a C. M. Paratypes, 30 mm. Certegui. Charles Wilson. : 5356a C. M., 18081 I. U. M. Paratypes, 30 & 37 mm. Truando. Charles Wilson. Kead 4.6; depth 3.83; D. 9; A 53-55. Scales 7-7+34-7 (9435 in one), Kye 2.2 in the head. Much compressed, dorsal profile highest at origin of dorsal, ventral profile deepest at origin of anal; preventral area rounded, without distinct median series cf scales; occipital process about as broad as long; occipital fontarnel much wider and twice ag Jaz ; ee Secs “ag as the parietal, cheeks narrow and EIGENMANN: NEW FISHES FROM WESTERN COLOMBIA 3 long, entirely covered by the second suborbital; the mouth very small, the maxillary not reaching to the eye; lower jaw with nine teeth on each side, premaxillary with six, maxillary with eight, the first four tricuspid, the last four conical. The first four forming a continuous series with those of the premaxillary the four conical ones on the distal, curved portion of the bone. Gill rakers about 5-+4S. Seales thin, the margins obscure, a single row of scales along the base of the anal rays; a few scales along the base of the caudal lobes. Origin of dorsal slightly behind the middle of body; height of dorsal equals length of head; caudal lobes about equal to the height of the dorsal; origin of anal about equidistant from the snout and origin of its last third; ventrals small, reaching the anal; pectorals equal to the head less snout, reaching to middle of ventrals. Translucent, a median dusky band along middle of caudal peduncle, fading out forward and continued narrowly on middle caudal rays; scales of back faintly marked with chromatophores, which become restricted to the margin of the scales on the upper part of the back. Chin and maxillary black, sometimes a dark streak back from upper part of gill opening. MICROBRYCON Eigenmann and Wilson, gen. nov. Very similar to Gephyrocharax, the lateral line incomplete and the anal much shorter. Microbrycon minutus Eigenmann and Wilson, sp. nov. 5422 C. M. Type, 24 mm, 13109 I. U. M. Paratype 24 mm. Truando. Wilson. Eleadeabpout 3.66; depth 3.5; BD. 10; A. 18; seales about 32; eye equals interorbital, 2.5 in head. Skull broad, the fontanels linear, expanding into a rhomboid at the last occiptal process; second suborbital narrow, covering the entire cheek; mouth large, oblique;. maxillary two thirds as long as eye, with one tocth ; premaxillar with four teeth in the outer series, five in the inner; lower jaw with about eleven teeth on the sides, most of which are minute, conical; four larger teeth in front, of which the first and third are the largest. Origin of dorsal abcut one and a half times as far from the snout as from the caudal; its highest ray shorter, the caudal lobes longer than the head; adipose well developed; anal comparatively short, its origin but little in front of the vertical from the front of the dorsal; ventrals reach- ing or not quite reaching origin of anal, pectorals to posterior third of ventrals; anal emarginate, its last ray considerably produced. Seales thin without apparent lines. Caudal] and anal naked. A black line along the sides: a large spot at base of caudal; a few chromatophores along base of anal; back with scattered chromatophores, without black median line, CERATOBRANCHIA Eigenmann, gen. nov. A Tetragonopterid in which the outer series of teeth of the premax- illary has become the dominant one, 4 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Lateral line complete, caudal with scales on its basal third; adipose fin well developed, origin of dorsal near middle of body; second suborbital in contact with the preopercle below; premaxillary with two parallel series of teeth, four teeth in each series, outer series more prominent. Teeth of lower jaw graduate. Obtusirostris Ei genmamn, sp. nov. 13154 I. U. M. Type 65 mm.-. Chauchamago, Peru. ‘Purchased from Rosen- berg. Head 4.66; depth 4.66; D. 10; A. 16; scales about 4-35-2; . eve 3.33 in head, equals interorbital or opercle, longer than snout. Elongate, dorsal and ventral profiles very little arched, profile wel! rounded, the mouth horizontal, terminal; occipital only about 1/9 in the distance to the dorsal; skuli almost convex; bo parietal fontanel; occip- ital fontanel narrow, about two thirds as long as eye; second suborbital considerably narrower than eye, leaving a naked area behind it; maxillary about .66 as long as eye, its first tooth forming a series with the outer series of premaxillary; premaxillary with an outer series of four teeth of about equal size, each with three graduate lateral cusps and a dispropor- tionately large median cusp; three perfectly similar teeth along the upper half of the maxillary, the first one as large as the mawnillary teeth, the last about one third as large. Teeth of the inner row of the premaxillary very similar to those of the outer but smaller and the median tooth asymmetric. Mandibulary ramus with nine graduated teeth, very smilar to those of the outer series of the premaxillary, the median cusp much larger. Gill-rakers about 7-11. these near the sngle three-pronged or with lateral horns. Dorsal rounded, the longest ray equal to head less snout, adipose fin well developed; caudal lobes about equal to the length of the head; origin of anal and last dorsal ray equidistant from snout; last anal ray consider- ably in advance of the vertical from the adipose; origin of ventrals more than an orbital diameter in front of the dorsal, just reaching the anal; pectoralis reaching ventrals. Seales large, thin, with numerous nearly parallel striae, regularly imbricate, lateral line nearly straight; anal with a sheath formed of a single series of scales; basal portion of caudal scaled. A large vertical humeral spot crossing the third and fourth scales of- the lateral line; a dusky lateral band extending on middle caudal rays. KMasily distinguished by its mouth, teeth, gill-rakers and shape. / Bryconamericus cismontanus Higenmann, sp. nov. 5459 C. M. Type, €0 mm. Villavicencio, Manuel Gonzales. Allied to B iheringli differing in the teeth, anal, ete. Head 3.8; depth 3; D.10; A. 16; scales 5-37-4; eye 3, equal to inter- olbital; depth of caudal peduncle 1.5 in its length, 2 in the head. Compressed, head slender, snout blunt; predorsal area with a median series of of ten scales; occiptal process about one seventh of the distance between its base and the dorsal; bordered on the side by two scales; KIGENMANN: NEW FISHES FROM WESTERN COLOMBIA o interorbital slightly convex; frontal fontanel blunt in front, about half as long as the parietal ; mouth slightly more iferior than in B. theringii; maxillary slender, about .66 as long as the eye; width of third suborbita) absut .66 diameter of the eye; a naked angle below the suture between the second and third suborbitals. Five or six teeth in the outer series of the premaxillary, the second and fifth of the right side and the second and fourth of the left side with- drawn to form an incipient middle line; four teeth in the inner series; Inaxillary with two broad teeth; mandible with seven simijar graduate teeth, the first three much the larger. Gill-rakers very slender, 7+10. Scales thin, regularly imbricate, with about six striae; anal with a few scales along the base of the anterior rays; caudal naked; lateral line nearly straight; no axillary scale (7) Origin of dorsal fin very little nearer snout than caudal; the penulti- mate ray more than half the length of the longest, which is about 4.5 in the length; caudai equals length of the head; origin of anal below last dorsal ray; vertrals reaching anal, pectorals reaching ventrals. A_ vertical humeral spot; middle caudal rays dusky. 5460) CMa 13155 1. Us -M. Two smaller specimens 438 and 50 im. from Rio Orquiza in the same drainage may betong to this species. The scales are 6-39 or 40-5; D. 10; A. 20. Maxillary with three teeth; denticles of teeth more pointed ana arranged in a straight line, (the five denticles of the inner series of the premaxillary of the type in a curve) ; outer series of the premaxillary com- posed of two to four teeth. The second behind and to one side of the first che and opposite the space between the first and second tooth of the inner series. Bryconamericus deuterodonoides Hig *nmann, sp. nov. a461 ©: M. Type, 43 mm. 5462. a-q, C. M. 18156 I. J. M. Paratypes 13. largest 4S mm. Rio Negro, Quebrada at Villavicencis. Gonzales. Allied to B. hyphessus. Dentition in both species very similar to that of Deuterdon. Head 4.38; depth 3,66; D. usually 10, rarely 9; A. 17 or 18, scales 4 (rarely 50')-385 to 38-3 to ventrals; eye longer than snout, about equal to interorbital, about 8 in head. Slender, compressed, dorsal and ventral profiles equally arched; pre- ventral area rounded, without a distinct median series of scales; predorsal azea rounded with a median series of 12 scales; occipital process a nearly equilateral process about one ninth the distance from its base to the dorsal, bordered on the sides by one or two scales; frontal fontanel triangular, not half as long as parietal; snout blunt, lower jaw included, maxillary-pre- maxillary border a regular curve; maxillary a little longer than premax- illary, about—75 of eye; cheek entirely covered by the suborbital which is somewhat pitted; maxillary usually with three, rarely with four, graduate 7-9 pointed teeth, occupying more than half the length of the margin; pre- maxillary usually with two, rarely with three narrow 3-5 pointed teeth, opposite the spaces between the first and second and second and third teeth of the inner series; four teeth similar to those of the maxillary but the 6 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES line joining their tips more arched and the largest point nearer the outer than the inner margin; each ramus of the lower jaw with seven to nine regularly graduate teeth; overlapping and slightly asymmetric on the side of the jaw. Gill-rakers about 4+7, minute, the tip of one not reaching the base of the next, Scales large, thin, with very few striae, regularly imbricate, without interpolated scales; caudal lobes with a few scales; a series of scales in part along the base of the anal in part on the sides; lateral line complete, decurved. Origin of dorsal midway between tip of snout and caudal; highest dorsal ray about one sixth the length; adipose fin behind the vertical from the base of the last anal ray; caudal lobes equal to the head; origin of anal in front of vertical from last dorsal ray; ventrals very short, not reaching anal, their origin a little in advance of the origin of the dorsal; pectorals not reaching ventrals by two or more scales. A faint vertical humeral spot crossing the fifth and sixth scales of the lateral line; a silvery lateral band, sometimes ending in a caudal spot extending, in part on the caudal; fins all hyaline. This species differs from Deuterodon in the complete armature of the cheeks, the presence of but four teeth in the inner series of the premaxi!- lary. It differs in the nature of its outer premaxillary teeth from the typical Bryconamericus. Bryconamericus henni Kigenmann. sp. nov. Type, & 48 mm. 5410 a-d C. M., 18102 I. U. M. Paratypes over 40, largest 53 mm. Vinces, Ecuador. Arthur Henn. 5411a-j C. M., 13124 1. U. M. Paratypes many, Colimes, Rio Daule, Ecuador, Arthur Henn. Very similar to Landonia laticeps. 3 Allied to Argopleura in the presence of a glandular structure on the middie caudal rays; differing from it in the absence of prominent lower caudal fulcra; first ten-and last ten developed rays of the anal of the mate with hooks. Head 4; depth 3-3.5; D. 10, A. 33; scales. 8-38-5; eye 3 in head, slightly greater than interorbital. Slender, compressed; ventral surfaces rounded, predorsal surface with a median series of scales; snout pointed, mouth terminal, or superior; skull rounded, parietal fontanel much longer and wider than the frontal ; maxillary abeut .66 as long as eye, not nearly reaching suture between first and second suborbital; maxillary with a single, minute, hidden tooth, pre- maxillary with three teeth in the front series and four in the back series ; mandible with five graduate teeth; a naked angle below the suture between the first and second suborbitals; gill rakers 12+11 all slender, the longest about half the length of the eye. Origin of dorsal equidistant from base of middle caudal rays and middle of eye, the fin pointed, less than length of head in height; adipose fin well developed; caudal lobes equal, about equal to length of head. Anal falcate, the last ten rays in the male forming a second lobe; ventrals EKIGENMANN: NEW FISHES FROM WESTERN COLOMBIA i reaching to or nearly to anal; pectorals at least to ventrals, sometimes to end, of axillary scales. Scales very regularly arranged; a row of scales along base of anal rays, caudal naked, lateral line scarcely decurved. Dorsal tip dusky; a small sub-circular spot at base of the middle caudal rays; margin of upper caudal lobe dark; a submarginal dark band from the caudal spot along the upper margin of the lower caudal lobe; a narrow lateral band. Middle caudal ray of male covered with a thickened membrane, the scales on the base of the lower middle rays enlarged, arching over a space beneath them. Bryconamericus alpha Eigenmann, sp. nov. HAGSa Cy M. Type, 59: mm. H546ta-@ C. M. 13157 1. U..M. Paratypes, 6, largest 64 mm. Villavicencio, Oriente, Colombia, Manuel Gonzales. Allied to B. caucanus differing among other things in the shorter niax- illary. Head 4+ ; depth 3; D. 10; A. 28/4, 24/1, 26/8, 27/1; scales 6-40-4 or 5; Eve 2.66 in head, a little greater than interorbital. Maxillary considerably less than the eve; mandible with four or five large teeth and smaller ones on the side; maxillary with 4/2, 3/4, 2/2 teeth where the denominator represents the number of specimens, the enumerator the number of teeth. A vertical humeral spot, a lateral band continued as a dark band to the end of the middle caudal rays. Bryconamericus beta Figenmann, sp. nov. £ 5465a, C. M.. Type 57 min, 5466a-d C. M. 13158 I. U. M. Paratypes nine, largest 75 mm. Villavicencio, Manuel Gonzales. Head 4-4.25; depth, 2.65-2.8; D. usually 10, rarely 9; A. 25/1, 26/1, 27/3, 28/4; seales 5 or 6-36/2, 37/4, 38/1, 39/1-3 or 4 to ventrais. Hye 2.8-3, equal or a little less than the interorbital; maxillary teeth 4/1, | Ce Base of upper caudal lobe scaled for a fourth, that of the lower for a -third of its length. Ventrals to or not quite to the anal; -pectorals about to ventrals; sometimes falling a little short or extending a little beyond origin of ventrals. Color much faded, lateral band to end of the middle rays. This may be synonymous with alpha. The present description may Serve to call attention till better material comes to hand. Bryconamericus scopiferus guaytare EKigenmann and Henn, sp. nov. 5474 C. M. Type, 76 mm, 13168 I. U. M., Paratype 83 mri. Patia at mouth of Rio Guaytara. March 13-14, 1918.. Henn. Five smaller specimens from the same place may belong to the same variety. § INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Head 4.25; depth 31/7; D: 11; A. 27; scales 6-38-39-6; eye 11/7-11/3 in interorbital 5-3.53 in the head. Depth of caudal peduncle equals its length. A Very similar t- simus from the Chota valley which lacks the caudai spot. Hemibrycon colombianus Eigenmann, sp. nov. 5470a C. M. Type, 106 mm, 138162 I. U. M.; Paratype 106 mm. Rio San Gil, Santander, Colombia. o471la C. M. 138163 I. U. M., Paratypes 2, larger 79 mm. Rio Piedras, Sap- tander. , D4A7T2a C. M. 18164 I. U. M., Paratypes 2, larger G3 mm. Quebrada Deoeca Monte, Santander. b4738a-e, C. M. 13165 I. U. M., Paratypes 10, largest 55 mm, Quebrada Mararari, Santander. Fead. 4.33-4.5; depth 323.5:—D..10; A. 24 or 25; seales 8 or 9:47 ts 53-7 or 8; eye equals snout, 3.5 in the head, 1.25-1.33 in interorbital ; depth of caudal peduncle but little greater than its !ength, 1.66 in the length of the head. Robust, ret greatly compressed, ventral :reas rounded, preventral area without a distinct median series of scales; predorsal area rounded with about 17 rows of scales, not in a median series; interorbital convex, abcut one-eighth in the distance between its base and the dorsal; parietal font- anel not quite twice as long as the frontal in the adult; second suborbital as wide as the eye, its margin very convex, in contact with the preopercle both below and behind; maxillary about as long as eye, not quite reaching the suture between the first and second suborbitais; maxillary-premaxii- lary border equal to snout and half the eye; four teeth in each row of the premaxillary, the outer series slightly curved; about seven heavy teeth occupying most of the edge of the maxillary, the anterior teeth tricuspid, the pestericr triangular or conical; four large quinque cuspid teeth in the mandible, the middle point much the heavier and larger; abruptly small ones on the sides. Scales small, regularly arranged, the series not deflected toward the anal; numerous nearly parallel radials; an anal sheath of several series of teeth; base of caudal with large scales; a well developed axillary scale; lateral line decurrent to the tenth scale, thence nearly straight. Origin of the dorsal but little nearer the snout than the base of the caudal; its height a little less than the length of the head; adipose well developed; caudai lobes, including the scaled portion, about 3.5 in the head ; anal low, its margin nearly straight, its origin under last dorsal ray, but little nearer opercle than caudal; ventrals small, not reaching anal by one to three scales; pectorais not reaching ventrals by one to three scales. An obscure vertical humeral spot crossing the lateral line between the fourth to sixth scale; middle caudal rays dark. Very largely described from the two largest specimens. Piabira analis Figenmann, sp. nov. Mouth as in Creagrutus, anal long. BKIGENMANN: NEW FISHES FROM WESTERN COLOMBIA : NW DATS FIype, about 37 mm. Caceres, May 23, 1909. THaseman. Resembling Bryconamericus alburnis but with a longer maxillary. Head 4.3; depth 3.8; D. 10; A. 27; seales 5-40-3.5; eye 2.7; inter- orbital 2.5. Compressed with less than half of the depth; preventral area rounded, with a median series of twelve scales; predorsal area rounded with a median series of fifteen scales. Occipital process about 1/10 of the distance from its base to the dorsal}, bordered by two scales on the sides; interorbital slightly convex; fronta: fontanel a little shorter than the parietal; snout blunt, mouth small, the lower jaw included, manillary two-thirds as long as eye; second suborbita! covering the entire cheek; five teeth on one side, six on the other in the original front series, the second and third withdrawn, four teeth in the inner series; four teeth on ocne maxillary, five on the other; three or four large teeth in front on each mandible, several much smaller, similar and graduate teeth on the sides. . Seales as in argenteus. Origin of dorsal a little nearer end of lateral line than the snout; origin of anal on the vertical from the first dorsal ray; vertrals reaching anal pectorals to second scale behind origin of ventrals. Silvery, a very faint vertical humeral spot crossing the third and fourth scale of the lateral line. Hyphessobrycon ecuadoriensis Eigenmann and Henn, sp. nov. Type, 51 mm, 5417a-x C. M. 13105, paratypes. many hundreds. Forest pool near Vinces, Ecuador. Arthur Henn. Allied to panamensis from which specimens of equal size differ in the wider second suborbital, the broader predorsal area, the smaller eye, the shorter anai, the color, etc. Head 3:5; depth 2.6-3; depth of caudal peduncle 7-8; D. 11; A. 22-24. Scales about 30 in a longitudinal series, about 11 in a cross series, but few seales with pores; Eye 5 in head, greater than interorbital. Compressed, rather deep, caudal peduncle slender: predorsal area rounded, with a median series of about 11 scales: preventral area rounded, without distinct median series ef scales; skull smooth, fontanels very large; second suborbital with a strongly convex margin, leaving but a narrow naked margin; mouth oblique, terminal, the maxillary short, but two-thirds the length ef the eye. Premaxillary with 6 or S teeth, the lateral one conic the rest all tricuspid, a smaller tricuspid tooth in front of the space between the second and third of the inner series, occasionally between them and forming a continuous series with them. Maxillary with Q-3 minute teeth; mandible with 10 or more graduate teeth of which the anterior ones are tricuspid the rest conical. Gil rakers well developed 02 both arches. Origin of dorsal a little behind the middie, its height 4 in the length. adipose well developed; height of anal lobe +5 in the length, caudal lobes 3; origin of anal under middle of dorsal, ventrals reaching anal or further, pectorals to or beyond origin of ventrals. Lateral line developed on five or Six scales. 10 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES A conspicuous vertical black humeral spot, sides gray. no caudal line, no silvery lateral band or caudal spot, caudal and anal obscurely margined with dark. Color in life brilliant; ventrals, anal and caudal bright cherry red. dorsal sometimes with less red; region above anal with many cherry chromatophores. Astyanax hasemani Figenmann, sp. nov. 5476 C. M. Type, about 55 mm, 5477a-e C. M. 13170 I. U. M. Paratypes, 9, 25-55.mm. Porto Alegre, Jan. 21, 1909. Haseman. This species resembles A. essequibensis but differs in the more complete armatuile of the cheek, in the more decurved Jateral line, etc. It forms a perfect bridge between Astyanaz and some species of Bryconamericus. It always resembles the latter genus in the complete armature of the cheek; it usually resembles the former in having five teeth in the inner series of the premaxillary, but in two of the specimens there are but four teeth in this series. These specimens are typical members of the genus Bryconameri- cus in all but the arrangement of the teeth in the outer premaxillary series which are in a straight line, a condition which is alse found in Brycon- americus theringt. Head 4.25; -depth: 3:25-3:33. Db: ee A. 21-24: scales 5-36 sl0e51- a. eye equals postorbital portion of head, 2.5 in ae interorbital 3 in head: depth of caudal peduncle 2 or a little less than 2 in the head. mae Compressed, dorsal and ventral profiles aie arched; predorsal area narrow, with about 12 scales in a median row. : Occipital process about 1/8 of the distance between its base and the dorsal; interorbital more convex than in essequibensis; frontal fontanel narrow, triangular, shorter than the parietal; second suborbital leaving a very rarrow haked margin behind, in contact with the premaxillary for its entire length below; maxillary long, narrow, maxillary-premaxillary border equal to the full length of the eve; premawnxillary with an anterior series of three or four teeth in a straight row; four teeth in: the second row in two specimens, five in the others, maxillary usualivy with four (rarely 3 or 5) minute teeth; mandible with four or five tricuspid, rarely quinquicuspid teeth ard about ten abruptly minute conical or tricuspid cnes on the side. Scales everywhere regularly imbricate, no omitted or interpolated scales; scales with up to seven radials, usualiy not more than two: anal sheath cemposed of a single row of scales along the base of the anterior rays: a few scales on bases of caudal lobes; axillary scale well developed, lateral line deflected so that a line between its origin and end passes aleng the upper exposed angles of the series of scales above it. Origin of dorsal slightly behind the middle; origin of ventrals but slightly in advance of the vertical from the dorsal; anal but slightly emarginate; pectorals never quite reaching ventrals, sometimes falling short of the width of two scales; ventrals not reaching anal. Silvery, no distinct markings. EIGENMANN: NEW FISHES FROM WESTERN COLOMBIA 11 Astyanax mete EKigenmann, sp. nov. 5457 C. M. Type 130 mm, 5458 C. M., 13153 I. U. M. Paratypes, 6, 103-130 mm. Rio Negro, Villavicencio. Manuel Gouzales, Head 4+ ; depth about.2.5; D. 11; A. 29, 31, 25, 29, 28, 30, 30 in seven specimens. Scales §$-40-G; 9-40-G, 9-41-6, S-40-6, 8-40-7 in five specimens. Eye 1 in snout, 3.5-3.7 in head, 1.3-1.5 in interorbital: depth of caudal peduncle 2 in head. Compressed, rather heavy forward: preventral area rounded. with small scales and without distinct median series; pvedorsal area bluntly keeled, with a median series ef 10 or 11 scales; occipital process exter ding about one-fourth of the distance to the dorsal, bordered by four scales on each side; skull convex, parietal fontanel about twice as long as the frontal; second suborbital convex, leaving a naked area of equal width about its entire border, except below the angle in front where the naked space is a little wider: premaxillary with four teeth in the outer series, four or five in the inner, when five the lateral one minute; mawnillary with a single tooth; maxillary a trifle longer than the eye: each ramus of the mandible with four large teeth and a few similar minute ones on the side: gill-rakers slender, about a third as long as eye: 14 on the lower arch. Origin of dorsal fully an orbital diameter nearer the snout than the caudal; highest ray of dorsal equal to the length of the head or a little shorter: adipose fin well developed: caudal lIcbes longer than the head: origin of anal under base of last dorsal ray: ventrals barely reaching anal, their origin slightly in advance. of the vertica! from the first dorsal ray: pectorals reaching at least to the origin of the ventrals. Lateral line but slightly decurved: scales regularly imbricate except over the anal muscles and here the irregularity is slight: a sheath of a Single row of scales along the anal; base of caudal similarly sheathed: a large axillary scale. Faint traces of lines fellowing the scales; no humeral spot: a large dark band extending from the tips of the middle ray and the three rays above the middle of the caudal to their base, expanding on the caudal peduncle and downward and forward. fading out above the origin of the anal. Closely allied to maximus, differing from all other species in the Oblique band on the tail. Astyanax heterurus Eigenmann and VWi!lson, sp. nov. 5592 C. M. Type about 50 mm, 13085 I. U. M., Paratype about 46 mm. Turando. Charles Wilson.- Head 3.25; depth 3.25; eye 2.75 in the head, about equal to the -interorbital. Origin of dorsal equidistant from tip of snout and base of middle caudal rays; pectorals about equal to head without opercle, reaching past origin of ventrals; ventrals slightly beyond original cf anal; anal falcate. its highest ray reaching to the last fourth or fifth of the base of the fin. A vertically elongate humeral spot: a small rcund spot cn the end of the caudal peduncle: color of caudal unique fcr the genus. Middle cauda! 1D, INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES rays black to near their base, margins of the fin black, the lower marginal black, wider and more conspicuous and connected with the black of the middle caudal rays by a short black bar across the base of the lower lobe. This species, evidently very closely related to fasciatus, is readily distinguished by the peculiar color of the caudal. Curimatus patie Kigenmann, sp. nov. 5ac8 C. M. Type, 168 mm., 53869a-c C. M: and 13055 I. U. M. Paratypes 15, 96-1€0 nm. Barbacoas. Henn and Wilson. Head 3.6-4; Depth 3-3.838; D. 11 (rarely 12); A. 9; seales 9-48:8 type, S cr 9-44 to 48-7 or 8 (7 or 8-88 to 44-6 or 7 in lineapunctatus). Very similar to dineapunctatus, a little more slender, the scales smaller, the lateral spots faint tending to run together to form longitudinal lines. Parodon ecuadoriensis Kigenmann and Henn, sp. rov. Local name, ‘Roneador.’ Type, 49 min, 5413a-c, C. M., 18103 I. U. M. Paratypes 17, 34-51 mm., River and forest pools, Vinces, Ecuador. Arthur Henn. 5423a-f -C. M., 13110 I. U. M.. Paratypes 28, 30-42 mm. Colimes, Rio Daule, Ecuadcr. Arthur Henn. Head 4; depth usually 5.5, rarely 4.5. D. 12 A. 9; scales 4-37-3.5. Eve equals snout, 3.5 in head, less than intererbital. Sub-cylindrical, elongate. Preventral area dattish, with a median series of about twenty scales; predorsal area rounded with a median series of 11 or 12 scales; skull smooth; no fontanels, the two frontals and the two parietals interlacing occipital crest decurrent, not superficially evident; second suborbital covering entire cheek; mouth small, distinctly inferior as in other members of the genus; four broad graduate, straight edged or rounced edged teeth in each premaxillary, each tooth with 11-16 rotches; mandible without apparent teeth: maxillary with a single smal: dentate tooth. Gill rakers short slender, about fifteen in the lower arch. Origin of dorsal in advance of the middle of the body, usually equidis- tant from tip of snout and end of adipose, its height about 4.5 in the length; adipose well developed; caudal lobes four ih the length; anal six in the length; ventrals under posterior part of dorsal, not nearly reaching anal, pectorals not reaching ventrals by about four scales. : Lateral line straight, scales everywhere regularly arranged; scales of sides with as mary as five more or less divergent radials;. Axillary scale well developed, caudal and anal naked. A moniliform band from the eye along the lateral line and onto but usually not to the end of the middle caudal rays; area below the band white; a light stripe above the band; back dark, with the margins of the dark area and eight streaks from margin to margin darker; base of caudal with a dark spot cr streak on each lobe. Parodon terminalis Eigenmann and Henn, sp. nov. Type 41 mm. 5415a-b ©. M.; 13104. I. U. M. Paratypes, ten, 32-50 mm. Vinces, river ard ferest pools. Arthur Henn. EIGENMANN: NEW FISHES FROM WESTERN COLOMBIA i Very similar to P. ecuadoriensis. Tread 3.7; Depth usually 4.5, rarely 5; mouth terminal ov subterminal very different from the distinctiy inferior mouth with projecting snout of other species of this genus. Lateral band continuous, sometimes not extending forward beyond the edge of the preopercle, not moniliform; back uniformly dark; spots at base of caudal lobes more diffuse than in ecuwadoriensis. Otherwise as ii ecuadariensis, Hewaderiensis and terminalis are unquestionably very closely related. It is possible that the cre is the river form aid the other the forest pool form. The specimens from the two localities have not been kept distinct. Nematobrycon amphiloxus Eigenmann and Wilson, sp. nov. Nematobrycon palmeri Kigenmann (non Higenmann 1907). Indiana Uni- versity studies 18, 3, June (March) 19138. type 39 mm. -Paratypes 12819 J. U: M. 26 and 14 mm. Boca de taspadura, Higenmann. 53853a-1 C. M. 13027 I. U. M. Paratypes 54, largest 42 mm. ‘Tambo. Charles Wilson. 535la C. M., Paratype, Manigru. Chas. Wilson. 13028 1L..U. M. Paratype,:Istmina. Chas. Wilson. 53852a-e, 13029 I. U. M. Paratypes, 20, largest 44 mim., Raspadura, Charles Wilson. Very similar to palmeri, more robust, dorsal lower, caudal filaments shorter, anal less falcate, dark band not bord2red by a light line above. Head 4 (3.66) ; depth 2.5 (2.66-2.75) ; D. 10; A. 32-86. Seales 6 or 7-6+28-5; eye 2.5. in head, greater than interorbital. Highest dorsal vay 3.5-4 in the length; outer and middle caudal rays about 3.5 in the length. Band of the sides broad, fading out toward the upper part of the sides in front, more abruptly lighter above the anal but without a distinct light line along its border. Peecilia fria Figenmann and Henn. sp. nov. Type, female 28 mm; 5420a-x C. M. 18107 I. U. M. Paratypes, largest female 33 min., largest male 19 mm. Pool 44-15 feet. Vinces, Ecuador. Arthur Henn. Head 4-4.25; Depth 3.75-4; D.8; A. 10; scales 3-29-4 to ventral. Eye a little longer than snout, a little nivore than half the interorbital, three or a little more than three in the length of the head; width of mouth absut three in length of head; about twenty-four teeth in the outer series of each jaw; large pores arcund preopercular margin; distance of origin of dorsal from base of middle of caudal 1.75-2, in its distance from the snout in the female, 1.5-1.66 rarely 2 in the males. Height of dorsai a little mcre than half length of head; caudal rounded; depth of caudal peduncle in females 2.5 in its length; caudal rounded, origin of anal in females nearer base of middle caudal rays than snout, in males much nearer snout than caudal; modified anal of male about two in the length. Variable number (as many as 22) vertical cross lines, most conspicu- ous between origin of ventrals and last dorsal rays; the one over secoud 14 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES anal ray (second line in front of. dorsal) in the female usually plainest; males with the corresponding line also plainest. Very rarely a vertically elongate humeral spet in the male; dorsal of male with more or less well defined marginal and basal dark bands. This species, differing in the number of scales, position of dorsal, size of the intromittent organ and color, is very closely allied, if not identical with Poecilia festae Boulenger from the hot springs, 35° Centigrade, S. Vincenta. Microglanis variegatus Eigenmann and Henn, sp. nov. Type, 45 mm. 18106 I. U. M. Paratypes 36-45 mm. Forest pool near Vinces. Arthur Henn. Head 3.5; depth 5; D. 6; A. 10 or 11; width of head a little greater than its length; eye 3 in interocular, about 54 in the head. Head covered with thin skin; frontal fontanel extending to postericr margin of eye; occipital fontanel minute; mouth terminal, the lower jaw slightly the long- er; width of mouth about equai to half the greatest width of the head: premaxillary bands of teeth very narrow, without backward-projecting angles, the length of the bands about half the width of the mouth; max- illary barbels extending to tip or a little beyond tip of humeral spine; posterior mental barbel but little shorter than the maxillary barbel; the anterior mental barbel to or a little beyond the gil!l-opening; gill-mem- branes narrowly joined to the isthmus; occipital process articulating with the dorsal plate which it meets about half way; origin of dorsal nearly equidistant from snout and adipose, the spine strong, shorter than the rays, 3 in the head: adipose fin reaching caudal, its length not equal to its distance from the dorsal, its posterior margin free, its Jength about 5 in the length; caudal slightly emarginate, about 5 in the length, its fulera prom- inent; base of anal about equal to base of adipose, its tip reaching caudal ; ventrals not reaching anal, their origin on or behind the vertical from the last dorsal ray; pectoral spine stout, one-half to two-thirds as long as head, with about 8-13 strong hooks behind, less prominent spines in front ; humeral spine reaching to near middle or last third of the pectoral spine. Adult variegated; fins like the body, traces of a darker band through the dorsal; belly white. Young marbled or less finely variegated. A lighter area through basal half of caudal. Hemicetopsis amphiloxus EHigenmann, sp. nov. 53832 ©. M. Type 88 mm. Creek near San Lorenzo, Patia basin. Jan. 14, 1913. Henn and Wilson. 13040 I. U. M. Paratype, 97 mm. Rio San Juan at mouth of Rio Munguido. Henn. 13009 I. U. M. Paratype, 53 mm., Quibdo. Coll. Wiison. Head. 4.5-4.66: depth 433-5; D.7; A..303 V.-GioriG Snout broader and more blunt than in othonops. Eye 2.5 in interor- bital, 7 in head. Premaxillary with two irregular series of teeth, vomer with a single series; mandible with a single series on the sides, two or three near the symphysis; first dorsal ray not prolonged in a filament; inner ventral ray adnate for half of more of its length, the longest ray EIGENMANN: NEW FISHES FROM WESTERN COLOMBIA 15 reaching the anus; pectoral ray not prolonged. Distance between base of last anal ray and base of middle caudal ray equals depth of caudal peduncle; base of anal 2.5-3 in the length; origin of anal midway betwevi eye or tip of snout and base of middle caudal rays; origin of ventrals equidistant from snout and fourth, fifth or second third of anal. Profusely covered with chromatophores; dorsal dusky. ie oh - At UNIVERSITY es en a. eg ee INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES No. 20 BLOOMINGFON, INDIANA Marcu 15, 1914 Pretatory Note The present study is a continuation of ‘Indiana University Studies,’ No. 16, 18, and 19. It presents results obtained from a study of extensive collections of fishes from South America. These collections belong in part to Harvard University, and were made by Louis Agassiz in Brazil; in part they were made by Dr. John Haseman, and belong to the Carnegie Museum of Pittsburgh. The more important of the results are based on various collections made in Colombia and Keuador by Prof. Higenmann, and under his dire:- tion with the co-operation of Mr. Hugh McK. Landon by Manuel Gonzales, Charles Wilson, and Arthur Henn. Accepted for publication in the INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES. SAMUEL B. HARDING, WiLL D. Howe, ARTHUR L. FOLEy, Committee. Tele: IV. Contents Lines and Methods of Evolution in some Characid Fishes.............. 4 The Glandulocaudinae, a new Subfamily of Characid Fishes with Innate Potentialities for Sexual Dimorphism...........::............. 16 On the Resemblance between the Faunas of Transandean Colombia and Southeastern Tropical America............. ee Pas Core a a ae 20 New Genera and Species of South American Fishes........................ 28 Editor’s Note—Issued April 25, 1914. (1S) (Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of Indiana University, No. 139.) Some Results from Studies of South American Fishes By Cari H. EigGENMANN, Professor of Zodlogy in Indiana University, Curator of Fishes, Carnegie Museuin, Pittsburgh I. LINES AND METHODS OF EVOLUTION IN SOME CHARACID FISHES In the first volume of the American Characide, a study in Convergent and Divergent Evolution,’ which has just been com- pleted, there are considered the Tetragonopterine, Rhoadsine, feuanodectine, Stethaprionine, Stichanodontine, and the Glandu- locaudine. All but the last of these fall within Gtnther’s defin1- tion of the ‘Tetragonopterina.’ There are recognized in the volume just completed fifty-three genera, and two hundred and seventy- five species, of which thirty-three genera, and one hundred and seventy-one species were described during the preparation of the ‘monograph, either by himself or by my students, chiefly Mrs. Marion Durbin Ells. The subfamily Tetragonopterine, which is at present the dom- inant group of tropical American fishes, was defined by Gunther (Catalogue of Fishes, British Museum, V, 1864) to inelude Pia- bucina, Alestes, Brachyalestes, Chirodon, Chaleeus, Bryecon, Chal- cinopsis, Chaleius, Gasteropelecus, Piabuea, and Agoniates, be- sides the genera listed below. Eliminating these genera, which are now relegated to various separate subfamilies or which (Alestes and Braechyalestes) are geographically extra-limital, there remain of Gtinther’s South American Tetragonopterina: Tetragonop- terus, with thirty-two species; Scissor, with one species; Pseudo- chaleeus, with one species; Bryconops, with two species; Creagru- tus, with one species; making a total of five genera, with thirty- seven species. Of the Iguanodectine which were included in Gtinther’s Tetra- evonopterina he recorded two species belonging to the genus Piabuea. (20) SOUTH AMERICAN FISHES 2] He recorded four species of Corynopoma and placed them in his Erythrinina. They are the Stevardia albipinims considered be- low in the discussion of the new subfamily, Glandulocaudine. In the last general review of the groups under consideration, that of Gunther, there were thus considered a grand total of seven genera and forty-three species, as compared with the fifty-three genera and two hundred and seventy-five species, known today. A. THE TETRAGONOPTERINAE The Tetragonopterine are small Characid fishes with lighly differentiated teeth in more than one row in the premaxillary, and in a single series in the dentary and sometimes in the maxillary. They are sealed. The origin of the dorsal is near the middle of the body. The breast 1s rounded, atid the gill-membranes are not united. There is no predorsal spine. There is usually an adipose fin, sometimes not. The caudal is sealed or naked; the anal is sealed or naked; the lateral line is complete or not; the maxillary kas no teeth, or may have one or two teeth or more teeth extend- ing sometimes along the entire edge of the bone; the scales usually eycloid, may be ctenoid; the premaxillary teeth may be in two rows or in three; the anal may be very short (nine) or very long (over forty) ; the form may be compressed and very deep, the depth be- ing equal to half the length or slender, subfusiform ; the scales may be regularly imbricate (slender species), or there may be inter- polated series causing the rows to deflect toward the anal (small- sealed, deep species). The cheeks may be nearly naked, or the second suborbital may be expanded and cover the entire cheek; the ventral area may be rounded and have a distinct median series of scales, or two series of scales of opposite sides may meet in the center, or the ventral area may be compressed, the edges of the lateral scales bent over the middle line or not; the caudal lobes may be equal, or one of them may be longer; the teeth in the lower jaw may be all alike, or abruptly minute on the sides. They are found everywhere from the United States to Pata- gonia, and from sea level to about 11,500 feet above it. The genera are distinguished from each other by the various combinations of the alternative characters mentioned above. It 1s quite certain that some of these characters have been developed independently several times, so that while it is easy to define the genera it is difficult to point out their inter-relationships. It is also quite certain that, smee not all possible combinations have D2, INDIANA UNIVERSITY been noticed, the characters were either not assorted by chance, or there was a distinct weeding out of certain possible combina- tions whenever they appeared. It is possible that some of these predicable combinations exist but have not yet been discovered. The Tetragonopterine are now at their prime; they abound in individuals and species, and they live in the greatest possible varie- ties of environment to be found in tropical America. (What is true of the Tetragonopterine, is true, of course, of the Characide to which they belong, but it is not true of any other subfamily of the Characide.) These conditions make a study of the lines and methods of evolutions profitable, even if the causes for them are not at present obvious. The one fact that forces itself most conspicuously upon the attention is that the same character present in different members of the Characins in general and in the Tetragonopterine in parti- cular may have arisen independently several times. The lateral line may become and has become incomplete re- peatedly, and is undergoing that change now. Three series of teeth have been derived from two, several times, and the process is going on now. The caudal has possibly become scaled a number of times, and it may be that the condition is being produced now in certain species of Astyanax and Hyphessobrycon. Teeth have developed along the entire maxillary a number of times, and the process is still in operation. The teeth have disap- peared entirely from the maxillary a number of times, and it is safe to say that this end result is being approached in different series now. Seales have become crenate, or ctenoid, more than once. A single series of teeth has given rise to two series, or of two series one has become lost several times, and the process is going on now. ~ The second tooth of the dentary has moved forward several times. The predorsal line, fully sealed in many species, has become partly naked several times. The second suborbital has expanded to touch the preopercle many times, and is making that change now in several instances. The adiopose fin has disappeared in diverse types, and the pro- cess of its disappearance can also be seen at the present time. The anal has increased or decreased in length in many differ- ent genera or species as a glance at the variation of the same species in different localities will show. SOUTH AMERICAN FISITES ho ce To go beyond the Tetragonopterine : A pair of conical teeth has appeared behind the front series independently several times. The pectorals have become enlarged and the pectoral muscles have become enlarged, and a greater or less trenchant ridge along the breast has developed independently several times. This independent origin of characters is responsible for the fact that some of the accepted genera of the Tetragonopterine are of polyphyletic origin, 1. e. our definitions of genera are in many eases enumerations of characters frequently independently ac- quired, not enumerations of the characters of the ancestral type of the genus from which the species have diverged. A result of this independent divergence is that frequently in a restricted, isolated area the species of different genera represented in the area are more nearly related to each other than to members of their own genera in remote regions. For instance Astyanax feste and Bryconameri- cus peruanus of the Pacific slope of Ecuador are more intimately related than festw is to Astyanax anterior of the upper Amazon. And in this ease, Astyanax brevirostris or Bryconamericus brev- trostris whichever it may be, is intermediate between the two. [| am not competent to say whether brevirostris is moving from Bryconamericus to become an Astyanax, or whether it has just eompleted the reverse process. Certainly festw and brevirostris are more intimately related, have had a common. ancestor at a less remote time, than either of them with an Astyanax or Bryconamer- icus of southeastern Brazil. We recognize two types of genera, one a group of closely re- lated species, descended from a common ancestor and having eertain distinguishing characters in common. Phenacogaster is such a genus. The peculiar scaling of the ventral surface has been developed but once; and the species are all closely allied, differing from each other in but a few characters. The other, a polyphy- letic type, consists of species having a certain combination of definite characters in common which easily distinguish members of the genus, but which, instead of indicating a single ancestral line from which the species have diverged, are acquired possibly one at a time along distinct lines converging to a common defini- tion... Sometimes the polyphyletic origin can be detected, some- times not. Bryconamericus seems to me to be such a genus; 1JIn traveling in the tropical forest, two plants that pleased the eye more than any others are the glorious, independent, self-sufficient palms, and the plumose bamboos; to me the most startling thing was the convergence of the two types to become climbers. 94 INDIANA UNIVERSITY Hemibrycon, Deuterodon, and the larger genera are probably also polyphyletic. Since it is difficult, or impossible, to say in any case which of the given characters has appeared first, it is extremely difficult to point out lines of evolution leading to different genera or species. We can only insist that certain innate possibilities may become actualities anywhere along the line, possibly wherever they may prove advantageous, though the advantage, to say the least, is not always obvious. We may be permitted to assume that the more frequent charac- ter is the primitive one, although this is certainly not always a safe assumption. In recent years it has been fashionable to assign causes for certain observed phenomena. This has led to the long-drawn out discussion of Lamarckism, Neo-lamarckism, Darwinism, Ortho- genesis, etc. Without for the moment entering into the reasons, it may be worth while to give several instances of each of a few of the many changes that have evidently happened repeatedly, or are happening frequently now. The common possessions of all members of the Tetragono- pterine enumerated above, permit us to picture the ancestral type of the subfamily. In brief, it must have been a fish similar in most characters to Astyanax fasciatus Cuvier. This species, be- sides possessing all the characters common to all members of the subfamily, possesses also many of those positive (as contrasted with absent) characters enumerated for the family, and lacks some characters, ike the highly specialized sealing of the ventral surface, etenoid scales, extreme length of anal, extreme develop- ment of second suborbital, which are evidently highly specialized eharacters in a few of the genera. It is more widely distributed than any other species and has given rise to numerous variations. It represents an average in length of head (4.8), depth, (2.6-3) ; length of anal (about 30); scales (about 38) ; size of eye (2.5-3) ; general shape (compressed subfusiform) ; position of dorsal (its base being in the space above the origins of the ventral and anal) ; size of mouth; and the characters of the teeth. The fossil fishes found at Taubaté—south of Rio de Janeiro—are similar to it im most characters. They are a little larger and may be members of the genus Brycon. In all but the teeth, they are very similar io Astuanax fasciatus. Their teeth have not been exainined. Without attempting to follow the lines of evolution from the Astyanax fasciatus type of the genera now dominant, we can SOUTIT AMERICAN FISHES 2D readily point out characters that have undoubtedly arisen inde- pendently in different genera. Very frequently the process is going on at present. In some rare cases, where a species is widely distributed, it may be in a state of stable equilibrium in one plage, or over most of its territory; while at some definite locality it is changing, or, to make the statement conservative, it is unstable. see Clenobrycon hauxwellianus below. Assuming that the more frequent condition is the original one, there are enumerated below specific instances of a few of the cases where independently one character has changed to enother The character that has been changed more frequently than any other is the lateral line. This has become incomplete re- peatedly ; and it is becoming incomplete in many instances at the present, unless we consider the instability itself a specific charac- ter of the species showing the change. Similar changes have taken place in other Characins-of America and Afriea and ia Cyp- rinids. Following is a table of genera with a complete lateral line and their relatives with an incomplete line: Genera with Genera with lateral line incomplete lateral line complete. Tetragonopterus none. Entomolepis ; none. Moenkhausia Hemigrainmus (further changed into Pristella and Thayeria). Astyanax Hyphessebrycon (into Hasemania). Iknodus none. Markiana none. Gymnocoryinbus none. Ctenobrycon Psellogrammus. Creatochanes Brycochandus. Bryconops none. Creagrutus none. Piabina none. - Microgenys none. Bryconamericus none. Zygogaster none. Ceratobranchia none. Landonia none. Deutercdon — none. Ilemibrycon Pollandichthys and Pseudochalceus. Phenacogaster Vesicatrus. Scissor none. Henochilus none. Psalidodon none, 26 INDIANA UNIVERSITY Of particular interest are the following instances where the complete lateral line is giving rise to an incomplete lateral line: 1. Ctenobrycon hauxwellianus Cope. Of this species I was able to examine nearly 1,400 specimens from the Amazon between Montalegre and Tabatinga. In ail of these, the lateral line is complete. I also examined 19 specimens collected by Haseman in the Lagoa de Parnagua, of the Paranahyba basin. In seven of these, the lateral line is complete, six are mutiliated, so it is not possible to say whether it is complete or not, and in six it stut- ters; that is, while it extends quite to the caudal, many scales along the line are without pores. 9. nov. 5499a C. M. Type, 40 mm. to base of caudal; 5499 C. M. paratypes, six, the largest over 50 mm. Corumba. April 27, 1009. Haseman. Head 4.66-5; depth 3.33; D. 10, rarely 11; A. 31-34; lateral line 8 to 11+26 to 28=36 to 388, 8 between ventrals and dorsal; eye 3 in the head, about equal to interorbital. iy Elongate, compressed. Breast with a series of large median scales ; belly between pectorals and ventrals trenchant, the margins of the scales of one side bent over the middle line; no median series of scales; predorsal with a median series of about 16 scales, the series less regular near the occipital process which extends about one-eighth to the dorsal ; skull smooth convex ; frontal fontanel large, triangular, a little more than half the length of the parietal; second suborbital in contact with both the posterior and lower limb of the preopercle; mouth very oblique, maxillary-premaxillary border a little more than orbital length; about 20 teeth on the maxillary, those on the posterior half larger, pointing backward and outward; seven premaxillary teeth;. mandible with six or seven tricuspid teeth, the first and last distinctly larger than the middle ones, abruptly several minute teeth on the sides. Origin of dorsal nearer base of middle caudal rays than to the eye; origin of anal in front of the dorsal; first developed anal ray heavy and much prolonged, the second less so, outer ventral ray filiform, extending beyond the origin of the anal, pectorals te near the middle of the ventrals; pectorals placed, low, their base oblique, their shortest ray about .2 of the outer ray, Which is similar to the outer ventral and first developed anal ray. Scales everywhere regularly imbricate, with few radials, a series of very small scales along the base of the anal, caudal naked; axillary scales small. No color markings; margin of anal in the male dusky. 18. Bleptonema amazone Higenmann sp. nov. 0497a C. M. type, 54. mim., 5498 a-c C. M. paratypes, three, 50-55 mm. San- tarem. Dec. 9, 1809. Haseman. This species is very similar to paraguayensis, The scales are 8 to 14+26 to 30=388 to 41, 9 or 10 between ventrals and (44) : SOUTH AMERICAN FISHES 45 dorsal; the anterior anal rays are much shorter; the origin of the dorsal is equidistant from the base of the middle caudal rays and the anterior margin of the eve. XI. PARECBASIS Eigenmann gen. nov. Teeth tricuspid, in a single series on anterior part of mandible and premaxillary, nore on the maxillary abd sides of mandible: an upper narrow part of the maxillary heavy, abruptly a thinner, blade-like ex- panded portion ending in the convex free margin; sides of mandible edge raised; adipose fin well develeoped; caudal partly scaled; lateral line complete. 19. Parecbasis cyclolepis Eigenmann sp. nov. d495 C. M. type. 74 mmm., 5496 C. M. paratype. 80 mm. San Antonio, de Rio Madeira. Novy. 3, 1909. Haseman. Eead 4; depth 2.75; D.11; A. 24; scales 6-88-5;. eve 3+ in the head, equal to interorbital. Compressed, fusiform in outline, the dorsal and ventral outlines equally symmetrically curved; preventral area rounded, with a nearly complete median series of 14 scales, predorsal area rounded, with a median series of ten seales; occipital process bordered by four scales, extending one-fourth to dorsal; skull convex in cross-section; -frcntal fontanel + times as long as the parietal; second suborbital in contact with both the vertical and horizontal limb of the preopercie. covering entire cheek, maxillary not reaching to below eye; mouth clupeoid. the premaxillary transverse, with- out an antero-posterior extent; teeth mipute, confined to the premaxillary and the portion of the mandible in contact with it when the mouth is closed. Origin ot dorsal equidistant from tip of snout and end of adipose or a little nearer the latter; dorsal falcate: origin of anal below last dorsal ray, faintly emarginate: origin of ventral below origin of dorsal, just reaching anal, or a little shorter; pectorals short. just about reaching ventrals. ; Seales thin, the margins convex, with many radials; lateral line but little decurved: anal naked; caudal lobes scaled for one-fourth of their length. A small, but couspicucus humeral spot, about equal to the size of the pupil, over the fourth scale of the lateral line; a faint dusky streak par- allel with the margin-ip the middle and upper lobe of the caudal, the rays berond them dotted. 20. Fowlerina franciscensis Eigenmann s2. noy. 5240 C. MA Type 72 mm. and 5561 C. M. Paratypes 46-72 mm. Barreiras. Lagoa of Rio Grande. Jan. 3 and 4, 1908. Haseman. 9966 C. M. Paratypes, 18, 46-73 mm. Lagoa de Porto. Dec. 24, 1907. Hasemanh- 5565 C. M. Paratypes, 4, Jaozeiro. Nov. 28, 1907. Haseman. a507 C. M. Paratypes, 27, 51-79 mm. Piropora. Dee. 15, 1907. Haseman. pab4 C. M. Paratypes. 2. 61-63. mm: Cidade do Barra. Dec. 6, 1907. Hasemai. 5562 C. M. Paratypes, 2, about 23 mm. Rio Grande, Cidade do Barra. Dee. 26, 1807. Haseman. 46 INDIANA UNIVERSITY 5063 C. M. Paratypes, 7, 46-57 mm. Lagoa de Pereira. Dee. 23, 1907. Haseman. vovv08 C. M. Paratypes, 7, 31-63 mm. Boqueirao near mouth of Rio Preto. Jan. 6, 1908. Haseman. 5969 C. M. Paratypes 40, 32-67 mm. Penedo. March 20, 1908. Haseman. 5070 C. M. Paratypes, 23,.largest 75 mm. Santa Rita. Jan. 24, 1908. Haseman. M. C. Z. 3, 60-SO'mm. Rio San Francisco below the falls. 1867. Hartt. This species, first collected by Hartt in 1867, was found by Haseman in the San Francisco from its mouth to Piropora. It is as far as known confined to the San Francisco basin. In the Paranahiba just north of the San Francisco basin, fF. orbicularis is found. Most readily distinguished by its simple, spine-like, predorsal spine. Head 3.75; depth about 1.7-2; D. 10 or 11; A. 34-38; scales 8-33 to 37-8; eye 2.75 in head, a little greater than interorbital. Compressed, the more elongate specimens oval, the deeper ones sub- rhomboidal, the deepest point at the origin of the anal; preanal region very narrowly rounded; predorsal, in part, with a naked median line, in part with the scales of one side or the other bent over. the ridge; occipital process about 3 in the distance from its base to the first dorsal ray, bor- dered by about 5 seales along each side; nape depressed; interorbital broad, convex; frontal fontanel equal to the parietal; second suborbital leaving a wider naked border below than behind; maxillary-premaxillary border 2-2.5 in the head; usually four teeth in the outer row of the pre- maxillary, five in the inner; maxillary with two teeth; mandible with four large teeth, the second out of line, and five to seven minute teeth an- teriorly on the sides, the greater part of the sides of the lower jaw being without teeth. Predorsal spine harrow, pungent, without lateral hooks, about three- fourths as long as the eye; dorsal variously falcate, the third ray highest, in extreme cases reaching the caudal, sometimes only two-thirds to tip of adipose; origin of dorsal a little nearer snout than caudal; origin of anal about under middle of dorsal, for the most part low, its anterior lobe com- posed of but few rays, the second of the developed rays highest, sometimes reaching middle of caudal; ventrals small, just reaching anal; pectorals sinall, reaching to above middle of ventrals. Scales everywhere regularly arranged except over anal muscles, where the rows are but slightly deflected; a sheath of two rows of scales on the anterior part of the anal, none on the last, the scales in the middle of the fin attached to the membranes, in front not attached; caudal lobes sealed, the scales extending a little further on the lower lobe. Prolonged rays of dorsal and anal, black. Two faint humeral bars in the darker specimens. 21. Agoniates anchovia Kigenmann sp. nov. 5216 C. M. Type 127:mm., 5217 C. M. Paratypes, nine, 87-108, mm. Villa Bella. Haseman. Head 5; depth 4.75-5; D. 11; A. 31-34; scales 5-45 to 48-4; eye 1.25 in snout, 4.2 in head, 0.8 in interorbital. Long and slender; head compressed, anchovy-like; preventral area SOUTH AMERICAN FISHES 47 keeled, prepectoral ridge being very sharp; predorsal area rounded, with- out a complete median series of scales; dorsal profile nearly straight from tip of snout to dorsal; ventral profile regularly arched from the chin to the ventrals; occipital process about 18 in the distance from its base to the dorsal; skull slightly rounded, narrowed forward; frontal fontane!l extending to above the anterior margin of the pupil, narrower than the parietal but of about equal length; mouth very oblique, narrow, a distinct angle between the premaxillary and the maxillary, whose upper anterior margin is rounded; lower jaw with about 10 conical teeth, the first small, the next two larger and equal, the third very long, the middle one of the remainder largest; a pair of small conical teeth behind the first pair of ike front series; premaxillary with three conical teeth in an outer series and four long conical teeth graduated from the large first one, a ininute notch on one or both sides of these teeth near their tip; maxillary with about 20 conical teeth, smallest and close set near the premaxillary ; second suborbital leaving a wide naked margin; gill-rakers 7+13, the lower limb of the arch long; adipose lid leaving only the pupil free. Lateral line complete, sharply decurved on its first four scales and then running straight to the middle of the lower caudal lobe; fins naked; axillary scales large, a large flap just above the pectoral more than half the length of the head. Dorsal very small, its origin equidistant from base of middle caudal rays and head or nearer the former; adipose fin small; anal low, its origin under the origin of the dorsal; yentrals very small, almost half as long as the head; pectorals large, longer than head. _A dusky stripe from upper angle of opercle to the middle of the caudal. dpe Astyanax scabripinnis paranae Eigenmann var. nov. Type 11631 I. U. M. 139 mm. Parana, yon Ihering. Paratypes 116382 I. U. M. 62-127 mm. Parana, von Ihering. 3402 C. M. Three’, 83-95 mm. Rio Grande, below the falls near Bom Jardin. July 8, 1908. Haseman. 3403 C. M. Five’, 59-about 90 mm. Rio Grande, above water-fall, near Bom Jardin, July 7, 1908. Haseman. 3404 C. M. Forty-three’, 31-105 mm. Burmier, May 14, 1908. Haseman. 3405 C. M. Three. 31-40 mm. Mogy das Cruzes, July 19, 1908. Haseman. -38406 C. M. Nine, 32-65 mm. Alta da Serra, July 25, 1908. Haseman. 3407 C. M. Nine, 37-53 mm. Mogy Guassu, Aug. 25, 1908. Haseman. 3408 C. M. One, 49 mm. Rio Paranahyba, Aug. 15, 1908. Haseman. 3409 C. M. Ten, 26-68 mm. Bebedouro, Sept. 1, 1908. Haseman. 3410 C. M. Four, largest 59 mm. Piracicaba, Sept. 7, 1908. Haseman. 3411 C. M. Two hundred twenty-nine, the largest 129 mm. Serrinha. Parana, Rio Iguassu, Dec. 22, 1908. Haseman. 3412 C. M. ‘Twenty-five, the largest 87 mm. Porto Uniao, Rio Iguassu, Dec. 28, 1908 - Haseman. Head 3.6; depth 2.6 in females, 3.66 in males; A. 17-23; scales 6 or 7-37 to 41-5 or 6; eve 5 in the head in the old, interorbital 3.25; snout 3.5: maxillary 3 in the largest female, 4 in the largest male; premavxillary- Nel 72 Nis 2Two with A. 17, three with A. 18. 3Anal in four with 19, 17, 17, 18 rays. 48 INDIANA UNIVERSITY maxillary border nearly half the length of the head in the largest female, Shorter in the vounger females and in the males. Heaviest at end of pectorals; preventral area broad, rounded, with irregularly placed scales; postventral area rounded, rather broad; predor- sal area broad, completely scaled but without a distinct median series of scales; about 15 series of scales in front of the dorsal. Occipital precess 6 in the distance frem its base to the dorsal; interor- bital smooth, convex; second suborbital short and deep, its margin very convex, leaving a narrow naked area of about equal width around its entire margin in the females, in the males much less convex, the naked area much wider. Outer series of premaxillary with three to five teeth, inher row with five teeth, the tooth at the symphysis three-pointed, the rest five-pointed incisers. Maxillary with one to seven teeth, the outermost sometimes conical. the innermost three-pointed. Mandible with four large teeth, two smaller ones and about eight minute ones, all about five-pointed. the middle-point much the longer. Scales cycloid, with very many (often twenty or more) diverging striz, regularly imbricate, except just over the origin of the anal, the exposed edges of the scales of the sides about half as wide as high; caudal naked; anal sheath of a single series of incon- spicuous. scales confined to the first nine anal rays; lateral line but littie decurved, the row of scales below it parallel with it. Origin of dorsal equidistant from tip of snout and last scale at base of iniddie caudal rays, its penultimate ray half as high as the highest, which is 6 in the length; anal slightly emarginate, its origin behind the vertical {rom the last dorsal ray, its base just equal to the distance between the dorsals or shorter, 4 in the distance from the pupil to the caudal in the largest female, 6 in the length in the largest male; ventrals a little, if any, in advance of the crigin of the dorsal, short and rounded, reaching to the anus; pectorals quite small, reaching half-way to the middle of ven- trals in the largest female, a little further in the largest male. A vertical humeral bar just behind the opercle, a silvery lateral band becoming dark toward the caudal and continued, but much narrower on the middle caudal rays the continuation on the caudal being sometimes searcely apparent. 23. Pygidium hasemani EKigenmann sp. nov. ¢ 5238 C. M. type, 5239 C. M. paratypes, many, largest 18 mm. Santareim. Dec. 11 ,1909. Haseman. This species resembles Pygidium amazonum (Steind.) in the posterior position of the dorsal. ‘The origin is on the vertical or a little posterior to the vertical from the anal. Efead 5.5; depth 7; D. 7-or 8; A. 6 or 7; caudal with AZ ragiains rays and numerous accessory rays, both above and below. Eyes about 5 in the head, about 2 in the interorbital; posterior margin of eye in advance of middle of head; poctoral prolonged in a filament; maxillary barbel not extending beyond the preopercular spines; pectoral about equal to length of head; ventrals but little over half length of head. A series of about 8 diffuse dusky spots along the middle of the back in front of the dorsal; middle of sides with about 8 minute more intense spots, the last of which is at the base of the middle caudal rays. ~ Vo., XII, No.5. INDIANA UNIVERSITY BULLETIN May 15, 1914 “IN DIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES - No.21. COOPER IN GERMANY. By Preston A. Bara, Ph.D. FOR. SALE AT UNIVERSITY BOOKSTORE ~ PRICE 35 CENTS Ur: of the contributions to knowledg: students of the University. At Saya ee istipe & numbers are issued a aK TO BG 4 Stns 2 eee Se ey Sepleyeborh Peso ane Lie sanahie WR Be TSE RS 1908, at the postoffice at Bloc Published from the University February, March, April, May, an November, and December. MOOIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES No. 21 BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA Mise 55 1914 Prefatory Note The manner of their reception and the subsequent influence in Europe of the works of James Fenimore Cooper, the first American man of letters to gain general recognition beyond the Atlantic, must be of some interest to the student of American literature. In no country was Cooper's influence more vital than in Germany. The study here presented takes up Cooper in his relations to that country. It is hoped that it may be not entirely without value as a contribution to the history of German American cultural rela- tions. This study appeared first in the German American Annals (a continuation of the quarterly Americana Germanica), Jan.- Feb., 1914. The Editor, Professor Marion D. Learned, of the University of Pennsylvania, has very kindly consented to this re- publication. PRESTON A. BARBA, PH.D. Instructor in German. Indiana University, Bebp; 21, 1914. Accepted for publication in the Indiana University Studies, SAMUEL B. HARDING, A. L. Foury, W. D. Howe, Committee. Contents PAGE IOIOIG KIO a he Se ee 52 Ie Cooper's Influence.on German Literature ............. 56 Miemeocper.s Iravels in Germany. ...... 2 ee es 13 ie Gooner and German Criticism:.:... 12... 2.6.5. =e he, V.- German Translations of Cooper’s Works.............. 93 (51) Cooper in Germany By Preston A. Barpa, Ph.D., Instructor in German, in Indiana University. I. INTRODUCTION However highly we may regard the works of the earlher epochs of American hterature, the fact nevertheless remains that prior to the third decade of the nineteenth century not one of its writers was recognized in Europe as having produced a work typically American. Charles Brockden Brown, Washington Irving, and James K. Paulding had not been altogether unmindful of the lter- ary asset which the new world offered to the writers of fiction. Brown had not hesitated to introduce the American Indian in his Gothic romance ‘Edgar Huntley’ (1799) ; Irving had written inter- esting accounts of his travels in western America in ‘Astoria’ (1836) and the ‘Adventures of Captain Bonneville’ (1837) ; Pauld- ing, far more national than Irving and Brown, had given excellent portrayals of life among the early settlers of New York and Ken- tueky in ‘The Dutechman’s Fireside’ (1831) and ‘Westward Ho!’ (1832). Not one of these writers, however, was in any way repre- sentative of that great Americanizing spirit which moved always westward and in the course of half a century established a republic extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Certainly the opening up of western America must be looked upon as one of the greatest achievements of the nineteenth century. On its fron- tier, ever receding before the impatient forward surge of the young nation, were enacted the deeds for its future epics. The first to seize upon and exploit this immeasurable wealth of lterary mate- rial with adequacy was James Fenimore Cooper. Although he had had little literary schooling, Cooper was in some respects admirably fitted for his work. He was distinetly an American product, remarkably free from old-world culture, and extremely national in his views. Huis entrance upon a literary career was quite accidental and when his first novel ‘Precaution’ appeared he was already thirty-one years of age. His second work, ‘The Spy,’ enjoyed an unprecedented success at home and was translated into the various languages of Hurope. Cooper was soon recognized as the first representative American writer. To (52') — { ew COOPER IN GERMANY him belongs the eredit of having given American literature a respectable place beside the literatures of Kurope. From his works the European first received a comprehensive idea of American life, and of the social and political aspirations of the new republe. Cooper’s popularity spread to nearly all of the civilized coun- tries of the world, and rose to a height perhaps unparalleled in the history of fiction. Lounsbury, in his excellent biography of Cooper, quotes the following passage from a letter written by the inventor Morse in defense of Cooper: ‘‘I have visited, in Hurope, many ‘countries, and what I have asserted of the fame of Mr. Cooper I assert from personal knowledge. In every city of Europe that I visited the works of Cooper were conspicuously placed in the win- dows of every bookshop. They are published as soon as he pro- duces them in thirty-four different places in Europe. They have been seen by American travelers in the languages of Turkey and Persia, in Constantinople, in Egypt, at Jerusalem, at Ispahan.’’ William Cullen Bryant, in his ‘Commemorative Discourses,’ gives further testimony to Cooper’s popularity in Europe. He writes: ‘“A gentleman who had returned from Europe just before the death of Cooper was asked what he found the people of the Conti- nent doing. ‘They all are reading Cooper,’ he answered; ‘in the ttle Kingdom of Holland, with its three millions of inhabitants, I looked into four different translations of Cooper in the language of the country.’ A traveler, who has seen much of the middle classes of Italy, lately said to me: ‘I found that all they knew of America, and that was not little, they had learned from Cooper’s novels.’ ”’ : The works of an author so intensely American by temperament could not have been so widely read by the peoples of Kurope with- out also affecting their subsequent hterature. In no country was -Cooper’s influence more vital than in Germany. When the German transiation of ‘The Spy’ made its appearance in Germany in 1824 there was no German novelist, who pre-emi- nently commanded the attention of the reading public. The only notable contributions to German novelistie literature in the imme- diately preceding vears were the fragmentary ‘Kronenwichter’ (1817) of L. A. von Arnim, ‘Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre’ (1821) of Goethe, and several of the phantastic novels of E. T. A. Hoffmann. The one dominating influence in German fiction at this time was a foreign one, namely that of Walter Scott, whose works had been appearing in German since 1815. —Cooper’s usur- pation of Scott’s place in the hearts of the German reading publie 2—870 o4 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES and his great popularity among the lower classes, are to be ex- plained, at least in part, by the nature of the contents of his novels. Cooper had, so to speak, broken virgin soil in the domain of litera- ture. In the primeval forests of Cooper’s novels the tired spirits of Europe found a fresh and invigorating atmosphere. Then, too, the people were fascinated by the splendid portrayal of life among the aborigines, for the employment of the American Indian as a legitimate character for purely literary purposes was new. The American Indian himself was, however, by no means a novelty to the Germans. A quarter of a century before, Chateaubriand had made him the medium for the conveyance of Rousseau’s doctrine of the goodness of primitive man, a doctrine which was an outgrowth of the prevailing social discontent in Europe. Chateaubriand’s ‘Atala,’ ‘Rene,’ and ‘Natchez,’ with their poetic but weak por- trayals of Indian life in America, had enjoyed great popularity, ‘and translations of them were widely circulated in Germany.' The American Revolution had also served to eall attention to the Amert- can Indian, and he was made the subject of several poems. Herder had occupied himself with the Indian in his ‘Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit’ (1784-1791). Ethnographical works and journals of travel had further helped to cultivate an interest in the American Indian. | But even more attractive to the German reader than the Indian were Cooper’s pictures of American life, especially frontier life, which appealed directly to the Germans who at this time took great interest in America. It was the period preceding the reaction commonly known as the ‘‘Young German’’ movement. Germany was suffering political ignominy. Under the fearful rule of Met- ternich there was little hope that the German’s dream of the cen- turies, a united Fatherland, could ever be realized. . Ting an die Geschichte der amerikanischen Revolution von Ramsay zu lesen. Nov. 4. Fing an den Piloten von Cooper zu lesen. 19. Retouchirte das Jagdstiick. 20. Revision der Jagd-Novelle fortgesetzt. GOOPER IN GERMANY AY from intercourse, and little affected by the spirit of the times, he éarly beeame a close observer and lover of nature and later one of her keenest interpreters. Stifter had always been considered one of the most original of writers. It is therefore of special interest to note that Cooper’s works struck a responsive chord in Stifter’s nature which was attained frequently in his works. The poetry of Lenau, who had drawn inspiration from the primitive forests of North America, was familiar to Stifter. Sauer also intimates that Stifter may have been acquainted with the novels of Sealsfield. At least Stifter seems also to have felt a certain ‘“‘Drang nach Amerika.’’ In a letter he exclaims he should like to leap arm in arm with his future beloved into Niagara Falls. In ‘Der Kondor’ (one of his Studien) the artist goes across the At- lantic. The preceding action of the ‘Feldblumen’ is laid in America. It appears that Stifter has nowhere in his works mentioned Cooper. Sauer, however, assumes that Stifter read all of the ‘Leatherstocking Tales’ in German, and that Natty Bumpo was a familiar character to him. Cf. ‘Commcmorative Discourses.’ Prose Writings. N. Y. 1884. Vol I. >" Cf. Vorwert to -Amerikanische Gedichte.’ Lpz. 1872. °° Cf. ‘Geschichte der Deutschen Diehtung.” 3. Rd. 1881. s. 1345. (92) 94 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 1824.—‘Die Ansiedler oder Gie Quellen des Susquehanna.’ Ubersetzt von L. Hermann. 3 Bde. Leipzig. Klein. ‘Der Ansiedler, etc.;’ aus d. Engl. v. *r. Lpz. Wienbrack. ‘Der Spion. Roman aus d. hordamer. Revolutionskriege: tibersetzt von L. Hermann. Lpz. Klein. ‘Der Spion, od. das neutrale Land.’ Aus d. Engl. v. *r. Lpz. Wien- brack. 2. Aufl. 1826. Auch Lpz. Focke. ‘Der Lootse, od. Abentheuer an England’s Kitiste.’ Lpz. Wienbrack. 1825.—‘Lionel Lincoln, od. die Belagerung von Boston.’ Aus d. Hngl. *r. Lpz. Wienbrack. Auch tibersetzt v. Chr. Michaelis Lpz. 1826.—‘Der Spion.’ Eine Erzihl. aus d. amer. Kriege. Hrsg. v. Chr. Fischer. frankfurt a. M. Sauerliinder. ‘Der Letzte der Mohikaner.’ Eine Erzihl. aus d. J. 1757, aus d. Engl. von H. Doring. Ebendaselbst. ‘Die Ansiedler. Aus d. Eng. von Juditta. Ebendaselbst. ‘Der Spion, od. das neutrale Land.’ Hrsg. v. Ph. Petri. 3 Bde. Gottingen. ‘Der Letzte der Mchicans.’ Eine Erzihlung aus d. J. 1757 schweig. Vieweg. Stuttgart. Brodhag. ULpz. Lauffer. 1827.— Der Lootse.’ Kin SeegemAlde; aus d. Engl. v. M. Treu. Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlinder. 1827-1828. ‘Die Prairie” Ein Roman; aus d. Engl. tibers. Berlin. Duncker u. tet. 1828.—‘Lionel Lincoln ;’ tibers. v. IX. Meurer: Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlander. ‘Die Steppe;’ tibers. v. K. Meurer. Ebendas. ‘Red Rover;’ aus d. Engl. von G. Friedenberg. Berlin. Duncker bos bs ‘Der rothe Freibeuter.’ Hine Erzihl. aus d. Bngl: v. IK. Meurer, Frankfurt a. M. ‘Der Nordamerikaner, geschildert von einem reisenden Junggesellen. Stuttgart. Brodhag. 1829.—‘Der Nordamerikaner. Ubers_ vy. Ungewitter. Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlander. ‘Die Griinzbewohner (Puritaner), oder die Beweinte von Wisch- Ton-Wiseh;’ aus d. Engl. v. K. Meurer. Ebendas. ‘Comanchet u. die Puritaner in Connecticut;’ aus d. Engl. v. Gfr. Wriedenberg. Berlin. Duncker u. H. 2 1830.— ‘Die Wassernixe, od. der Streicher durch die Meere;’ aus d. Engl. v. Gtr. Friedenberg. Berlin. Duncker u. H. 1831.—‘Die Wassernixe, od. die Tummler der Meere. Hine HErzihlung; aus d. Engl. vom Bearbeiter der humorist. Geschichte New-Yorks, v. W. Irving. Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlander. 1832.—‘Der Bravo. Aus d. Engl. tbers. Hbendas ‘Der Bravo.’ Eine venetian. Geschichte; aus d. Engl. von Dr. Gfr. Friedenberg. Berlin. Duncker u. H. ‘Die Heidenmauer, oder die Benediktiner ; schil. Braunschw. Vieweg. 1833.— ‘Die Exeidenmauer.’ Frankfurt a. M: Sauerlander. . ‘Der Scharfrichter von Bern, oder das Winzerfest.’ Ebendas. Braun- * aus d. Engl. v. Th. Spor- COOPER IN GERMANY 95 1834.—‘Der Henker, oder das Winzerfest.. Roman. Aus d. Engl. v. Jh. Sporschil. Braunschweig. Vieweg. 1835.—‘Die Monikins.’ Uhbers. v. Karl Meurer. Frankfurt a. M. Sauer- liinder. ‘Die Meerkatzen. Aus d. Engl. Braunschweig. Vieweg u. Sohn. 1836.—Ausfitige in die Schweiz.’ Aus d. Engl. tibers. v. C. F. Nietsch. Frankfurt a. M. Sanerlainder. ‘Die Monikins.” Eine wunderbare Geschichte. Aus d. Engl. v. Geo. Biirmann. “Awickau. Schunann. ‘Streifereien durch die Schweiz.’ Aus d. Engl. v. Birmann. Berlin. Duncker. 1837.— ‘Aufenthalt in Frankreich, Ausflug an den Rhein und zweiter Besuch in der Schweiz.” Aus d. Engl. v. Nietsch. Frankfurt a. M. Sauer- lander. ‘England u. das sociale Leben d. Hauptstadt.’ Ubers. v. Nietsch. Ebendas. ‘Erinnerungen an Eurepa. Ubers. v. Nietsch. Ebendas. ‘England. Mit Skizzen aus den Gesellschaften der Residenz. Aus d. Engl. v. A. v. Treskow. Quedlinburg. Basse. ‘Hrinnerungen aus Europa.’ Aus d. Engl. v. F. Steger. Braun- schweig. G. Meyer, Sen. ‘Erinnerungen aus Europa.’ Aus d. Engl. v. A. v. Treskow. Qued- linburg. Basse. ‘Lebensbilder aus Frankreich, den Rheinlindern und der Schweiz.’ Frei nach d. Engl. ven F. Steger. Braunschweig. G. Meyer, Sen. 1838.— ‘Italien’ Aus d. Engl. v. Nietsch. Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlander. ‘Die Heimfahrt, oder die Jagd.’ Seeroman. Avs d. Enel. vy. Nietsch. Ebendas. . ‘Wanderungen in Italien. Nach d. Engl. v. F. Steger. Braun- schweig. Vieweg. ‘Die Heimfahrt. oder die Jagd. Ubers. v. Joh. Sporschil. Leipzig. Tauchnitz, jun: ‘Evchen Effingham oder die Heimath. Eine Fortsetzung ‘der Heim- fahrt. Aus d. Engl. v. Nietsch. Ebendas. ‘Der Spion.’—‘Der Letzte der Mohikaner..— Die Ansiedler..— Der Lootse. Neue Ausgabe mit Cooper’s Bildniss. 4 Bde. Frank- furt a. M. -Sauerlinder. ‘Lionel Lincoln.’—Die Steppe.—‘Der rothe Freibeuter.—‘Die Grenz- ~ bewohner.—‘Die Wassernixe.—‘Der Bravo. Neue Ausgabe. 6 Bde. Ebdas. 1840.—‘Geschichte der nordamerikan. Seemacht u. ihrer Kriegsthaten.’ Aus d. Engl. tibers. v. H. Niinzel. Ebendas. ‘Der Pfadfinder oder der Binnen-See.” Aus d. Enel. tibers. Ebendas. 1839. ‘Der letzte Mohikan.’ Ubers. vy. L Tafel. Stuttgart. Lieschine. 1841.— ‘Der Pfadfinder oder das Binnenmeer. Ubers. vy. G. Kolb. Ebendas. ‘Mercedes von Castilien.. Hin Roman aus den Tagen des Columbus. Frankfurt a. M. Sauerliinder. ‘Der Hirsehtédter’ Aus d. Engl. v. O. v. Czarnowski. Ebd. 1841- 1842. 96 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES ‘Die Wassernixe.’—‘Der Spion.’ Stuttgart. Lieschine. ‘Der Spion.’ Nach der von dem Verfasser durch gesch., verb., mit einem neuen Vorwort u. mit Noten begleit. Ausg. tibertragen v. C. Kolb. Ebd. ‘Donna Mercedes ven Castilien’ Ubers. vy. C. Kolb. Ebd. ‘Der rothe Seerduber.’ Enel, v. Gottfr. Friedenberg. Ebda. ‘Die Beweinte von Wish-Ton-Wish.’ Engl. v. Gottfr. Friedenberg. Hbd. 1842.—‘Die zwei Adwmiirale” Win Seeroman. Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlinder. ‘Lionel Lincoln, oder die Belagerung von Boston.’ Nach der letzten vom Verf. durchgeseh., verb. u. mit Anmerk. verseh. Ausg. tiberty. von Ed. Mauch. Stuttgart. Liesching. ‘Der Wildtoter.’ Eine Erzihlung. Eng. v. Gust. Pfizer. Ebd. ‘Die Prairie’ (Steppe). Hine Erziihlung. Engl. v. Gottfr. Frieden- berg. Ebd. ‘Die Ansiedler an den Quellen des Susquehanna.’ Hbd. ‘Der Lootse.’ Hin Seegemiilde. Hngl. v. Ed. Mauch. Ebd. ‘Die beiden Admirale.’ Hin Seeroman. Wnegl. v. Ed. Mauch. Ebd. ‘Der Irrwisch oder das Ikaperschiff.—‘Der Bravo.’ Ebd. ‘Das Irrlicht oder der Kaper’ Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlander. 1844.—‘Wvandotté oder der Hiitten-Hiigel.’ Ebd. ‘Ned Myers oder ein Vormast-Leben.’ Ebd. ‘Zu See u. zu Land, oder Abentheuer des Miles Wallingford.’ Ebd. ‘Wyandotté oder das Blockhaus. Engl. v. Ed. Mauch. Stuttgart. Liesching. ‘Hdward (7) Myers, oder Hrinnerungen aus dem Leben eines Seemannes.’ Deutsch bearbeitet von Erwin vy. Moosthal. Im belletristischen Ausland. Hrsg. vy. Carl Spindler. Stuttgart. ‘Der letzte Mohikan.’—‘Der Pfadfinder.—‘Der Ansiedler am Susque- hanna.’—‘Die Prairie.—‘Der Lootse.’—‘Der Spion.’-—‘Lionel Lin- coln.—‘Der rothe Freibeuter.—‘Die Beweinte von Wish-Ton- Wish.’—‘Die Wassernixe.’—Donhna Mercedes von Castilien.— ‘Der Wildté6dter.’— ‘Die beiden Admirale.—‘Der Irrwisch, oder der Kaper.—‘Der Bravo.—-‘Wyandotté oder das Blockhaus.’-— Ned Mvers.’—‘Die franzdsische Erzieherin.—‘Miles Wallingford.’— ‘Lucy Hardinge.” Ausgabe mit Titelbildern in Stahlst. Stutt- gart. Liesching. 1844, 1845, 1846. ‘Miles Wallingford’s Abentheuer.’ Hrsg. v. Fd. Philippi. Grimima. 1844, 1845. 1845.—‘Ned Myers. Aus dem Leben eines Vorkastellmatrosen.’ Hnegl. y. Id. Miavuch——‘Die franz6sische Hrzieherin, oder das gesticktc Taschentuch. Engl. v. Ed. Mauch.—‘Miles Wallingford’s Aben- theuer zu Land u. zur See.” WDngl.:v. Ed. Mauch. Stuttgart. Liesching. ‘Lederstrumpf-Erziihlungen.’ Fir die Jugend bearb. v. Fra. Hoffman. Stuttgart. Schmidt u. Spring. ‘Die Heidenmauer.’—‘Satanstoe oder die Familie Littlepage.’—‘Die — Heimkehr oder die Verfolgung.’-—‘Der Scharfrichter.—Eva Effine- ham.’—‘Der Kettentriiger. Stuttgart. Liesching. 1845, 1846. 1843. COOPER IN GERMANY Q7 ‘Lucy Hardinge. Fortsetzung des Romans: ‘Zu See u. zu Land. Krankfurt a. M. Sauerlinder. ‘Satanszehe oder die Familie von Littlepage. Ebd. ‘Der IKettentriger od. die Familie y. Littlepage.’ aus der Colonie. Ebd. ‘Ravensnest oder die Rothhiute.” Erzihlung aus der Colonie. Ebd 1847.—‘Ravensnest.’ Stuttgart. Liesching. ‘Die Heidenmauer. Eine Rheinsage. Engl. v. C. Kolb. Ausgabe mit Titelbiidern. Ebd. ‘Die Heimkehr.’ Ebd. ‘Lucy Hardinge.’ Fortsetzung u. Schluss v. Miles Wallingford’s Abenteuer. In’s Deutsche tibertr. v. A. Kretzschmar. Grimma. 1848.— Mark’s Riff oder der Krater” Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlinder. ‘Eva Effingham oder die Heimath. Stuttgart. Liesching. ‘Der Scharfrichter.’—‘Satanstoe.’ Ebd. ‘Mark’s Riff od. der Krater.’ Engl. v. C. Kolb. Ebd. ‘Das Marcus-Riff od. der Krater. Ubers. vy. G. Biirmann in ‘Dem belletristischen Ausland.’ Stuttgart. Hrsg. v. Carl Spindler. 1849.—‘Capitiin Spike oder die Golf-Inseln.’ Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlinder. ‘Die Seel6wen oder die verlorenen Robbenjiiger.’ Ebd. ‘Der IKettentrager oder die Handschriften der Familie Littlepage.’ Stuttgart. Liesching. ‘Ravensnest oder die Rothhiute. HEbd. ‘Die franzosische Erzieherin oder das gestickte Taschentuch. Engl. v. Hd. Mauch. Ebd. 1850.—Der Bienenjiger oder die Hichen-Lichtungen.’ Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlander. ‘Die SeelOwen.’ In’s Deutsche tibertr. v. Joh. Hack. Grimma. 1851.—‘Der Lootse.’ Hin Seegemiilde. Engl. vy. Ed. Mauch. Stuttgart. Liesching. ‘Der Wildtodter.’—Die beiden Admirale. Engl. v. Ed. Mauch. Ebd. ‘Der Bravo.” Frankfurt a. M. Sauerlinder. 1853.—Cooper’s amerikanische Romane,’ neu aus dem Engl. tibertragen. (Neue Aufl.) 30 Bde. Stuttgart. 1853, 1854. Hoffmann. ‘Der letzte Mohikan.’ Engl. v. Leonh. Tafel. ‘Der Pfadfinder.’ Engl. vy. C. Kolb. Ansiedler.’ Engl. v. C. IXolb. ‘Die Prairie.’ Engl. v. G. Friedenberg. ‘Der Lootse. Iingl. vy. Ed. Mauch. ‘Der Spion.’ Hine amerik. Erzihlung. Engl. v. C. Kolb. ‘Lionel Lincoln.” Engl. v. Ed. Mauch. ‘Der rothe Freibeuter.’” Engl. v. G. Friedenberg. ‘Die Beweinte von Wish-Ton-Wish.’ Engl. v. G. Friedenberg. 10. ‘Die Wassernixe.’ Enel. vy. G.. Friedenberg. 11. ‘Donna Mercedes von Castilien.’ Engl. vy. C. Kolb. 12. ‘Der Wildtédter.’ 13. ‘Die beiden Admirile” Engl. v. Ed. Mauch. 14. ‘Der Irrwisch.” Wnel. v. Ed. Mauch. 15. ‘Der Bravo. Engl. vy. G. Friedenberg. 1846. Wine Erziihlung He we Done S) = tq) ot _~ Od see coer 98 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 16. ‘Wyandotté oder das Blockhaus.’ Engl. vy. Ed. Mauch. 17. ‘Ned Myers.—'‘Die franzosische Erzieherin.’ 18. ‘Miles Wallingford’s Abenteuer.’ Engl. v. Ed. Mauch. 19. ‘Lucy Hardinge.” Engl. v. C. Kolb. 20. ‘Die EHeidenmauer. Engl. vy. C. Kolb. 21. ‘Die Heimkehr.’ Engl. v. C. Kolb. 22. ‘Eva Effingham, oder die Heimath.’ 23. ‘Der Scharfrichter, oder die Winzerabtei.’ 24. ‘Satanstoe, oder die Familie Littlepage.’ 25. ‘Der Kettentriger.’ 7 26. ‘Ravensnest, oder die Rothhiiute.’ 27. ‘Mark’s Riff oder der Krater.’ 28. ‘Kapitan Spike, oder die Golf-Inseln.’ 29, ‘Die Seel6wen, oder die verlorenen Robbenjiger.’ 30. ‘Der Bienenjiger, oder die Kichen-Lichtung.’ 1862.—‘Cooper’s Lederstrump-Erzihlungen.’ Fur die Jugend bearb. Mit 6 Zeichhnungen v. Bartsch. 2. Aufl. Berlin, 1864. 4. Aufl. Neu- Ruppin, 1868. 1866 —‘Cooper’s Seegenmilde. Fiir die Jugend bearb. 1, u. 2. Aufl.. Berlin, 1866, 1869. Von. G. Bartsch. 1874.—'Lederstrumpf. Bilder u. Scenen aus dem fernen Westen. Nach James Fenimore Cooper der reiferen Jugend erzihlt von A. Huin- mel. Leipzig. ‘Seegemilde” Fur d. Jugend bearb. v. Adam Stein. Leipzig. 1875.—‘Der rothe Freibeuter. Nach J. F. Cooper f. die reifere Jugend bearb. v. Otto Hoffmann. Stuttgart. 4. Aufl. 1891. ‘Die Wassernixe od. das Schmugglerschiff.” Von Otto Hoffmann bearb. Stuttgart. ‘Lederstrumpf-Erzahlungen. Ftir die Jugend bearb. v. Adam Stein. Leipzig. ‘Mark’s Riff od. der Krater.” Hine Erziihlung aus dem stillen Weit- meere. Aus d. Engl. fiir die reifere Jugend bearb. v. Carl Wirth. Leipzig. 1876.—‘Lederstrumpf Erziihlungen.’ fiir die Jugend bearb. v. Frz. Hoft- mann. Stuttgart. 1877.— Lederstrumpf-Erzitlungen.’ Ftir die Jugend bearb. v. Fr. C. v. Wickede. Ntirnberg. ; ‘Der letzte Mohikan. Deutsch v. Otto Randolf—‘Der Spion.’ Deutsch vy. Demselben. Beide in Reclam’s Univ. Bibliothek. Leip- Zig. 1877-1882. 1878.—Der Spion.’ Von Frz. Hoffmann bearb. 2. Aufl. Leipzig. 1879.— ‘Der Lootse. Ein Seegemiilde.’ Fiir die reifere Jugend bearb. v. Otto Hoffmann. Stuttgart. ‘Lionel Lincoln oder die Belagerung von Boston.’ Von Frz. Hoff- mann bearb. Teschen. 1880.— ‘Der rote Freibeuter. Fiir die Jugend neu bearb. v. EH. Trautmann. Stuttgart. ‘Lederstrumpf-Geschichten.’ Nach Cooper neu ftir die Jugend bearb. von Gust. Hocker. 1880-1882. COOPER IN GERMANY GY ‘Lederstrumptf-Erziihlungen. Ftir die Jugend bearb. v. Adam Stein. 15. u. 16. Aufl. Leipzig, 1880-1882. 20. Aufl. Leipzig, 1886. 22. ‘Aufl. 1890. 1881.—‘Der rote Freibeuter. Fiir die reifere Jugend bearb. vy. Fr. Hoff- mann. Leipzig. ‘Der Bravo.” Wine venetian. Geschichte v. Fenimore Cooper. Ubers v. Helene Lobedan. 1881, 1882. ‘Die Belagerung von Boston.’ Von Frz. Hoffmann bearb. Esslingen. ‘Mark’s Riff.’ Wir die reifere Jugend bearb. 3. Aufl. Stuttgart. 1882.— ‘Lederstrumpf-Geschichten’ Ftir die Jugend bearb. v. Fr. Hoffmann. Berlin. Auch Berlin, 1885; 10. Aufi., Berlin, 1887. 1883.—‘Cooper’s Lederstrumpf-Erzihlungen. Fur die Jugend bearb. vy. Frz. Hoffmann. Mit 16 Stahlst. 11. Aufl. Stuttgart. Schmidt u. Spring. 12. Aufi., 1889. ‘Mark's Riff” Nach-der. Erzahig. v. J. Ff. Cooper ftir die Jugend bearb. v. M. Barack. In’ Universal-Bibliothek ftir die Jugend. Stuttgart. 1885-1886. 1884.—Cooper’s ‘Lederstrumpf-Erzihlungen.’ Tiir die Jugend bearb. von Fr. C. v. Wickede. 2. Aufl. Neue Ausg. Nitirnberg. Neugebauer. 1886 —‘Comanchet, der Indianerhaiuptling.’ Fiir die reifere Jugend vy. Frz. Hoffman bearb. 6. Aufl. Stuttgart. 7. Aufl. 1895. 1887.—Coopei’s “Lederstrumpf-Erzihlungen’ in 1 Bd. Hrsg. v. J. H. Campe. ‘Lederstrumpf-Erzihlungen.” Der reiferen Jugend erviihlt von A. Eummel. 4. Aufl. Leipzig. 1888.—‘Lederstrumpf-Erzihlungen.’ Aus d. Engl. v. C. Kolb, G. Friedenberg, tL. Tafel. Neue durchgeseh. Ausg. in 5 Bdn. Berlin. ‘Der Wildtoter. Eine Erzahlg. f. d. Jugend frei bearb. v. P. Moritz. Stuttgart. Thienemann. 2 Aufi. 1895. ‘Der Wildt5ter.—‘Der letzte Mohikaner.” F. d. deutsche Jugena bearb. v. O. Berger. Reutlingen. ‘Der letzte Mohikaner.’ Eine Erziihlg. aus dem J. 1757. Berlin. ‘In Bibliothek interessanter Erziihlungen. Mtihlheim, 1887-1889. Bagel. ‘Die Ansiedler;’ ‘Der Letzte der Mohikaner;) ‘Der Pfadfinder ; ‘Der Wildsteller;’ ‘Der Wildtodter.’ Alle bearb. v. Carl Zastrow. ‘Der letzte Mohikaner.’ Bearb. v. A. Helms. Leipzig. ‘Dassalbe,’ hrsg. v. Thdr. Weyler. Weipzig, 1887-1889: 1889.— Lederstrumpf-Geschichten.’ Fiir die Jugend bearb. vy. E. Schmidt. Berlin. . ‘Der Pfadfinder, Lederstrumpf, Die Ansiedler, Der Wildsteller, und ‘Die Prairie,’ in 1 Bd. Reutlingen. ‘Der Letzte der Mohikaner.: Dresden, 1888-1889. ‘Dasselbe,’ frei bearb. v. P. Moritz. Stuttgart. 1890 —‘Der Letzte der Mohikaner.’ Bearb. vy. O. Heinrichs. Prachtausgabe. Miinster. 2. duchgeseh. Aufl., 1899; 3. Aufi., 1909. ‘Lederstrumpf oder die Ansiedler.—‘Der Pfadfinder. Beide fiir dio Jugend frei Bearb. vy. Moritz. Stuttgart. Thienemann. ‘Der Pfadfinder.’. 2: Aufl.;. 1895: 100 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 1891.—’Die Ansiedler ap den Quellen d. Susquehannah.’ Ftir die deutsche Jugend bearb., sowie m. WHinleitg. u. Erliutergn. versehen vy. O. Heinrichs. In ‘Aschendorff’s Prachtausgaben wertvoller Jugendschriften.’ Mitin- ster i. W. ‘Der letzte Mohikaner.’ F. d. Deutsche Jugend bearb. vy. O. Hein- richs. In ausgewiihlIte Volks- und Jugendschriften. Minster i. Wi: ‘Comanchet od. die Ansiedler in Connecticut.’ Der reiferen Jugend erzihlt v. Ferd. Braun. Leipzig. ‘Lederstrumpf.’ Fitinf Erzihign., fur die liebe Jugend frei bearb. v. Osk. Hécker.. Stuttgart. 1891-1894. 7. Aufi., 1896; 10. Aufi., 1903 3125 Aud 19082 ts Ane Ouse ‘Der Wildsteller od. die Prairie.’ Wine Erziihlg. f. die Jugend frei bearb. v. Paul Moritz. Stuttgart. 2. Aufli., 1896. ‘Waldliufer- u. Lederstrumpf-Erzihlungen. Fitir d. liebe Jugend hrsg. v. P. Moritz u. O. Hocker. Stuttgart. ‘Lederstrumpf-Erzihlungen.’ Ftir die Jugend bearb. v. Paul Moritz. Gesant-Ausg. Stuttgart. 2. Aufl., Stuttgart. 3. Aufl., 1900; 5 Aufl., 1907. 1892 —‘Die Prairie.’ Fitir d. deutsche Jugend bearb. v. O. Heinrichs. In ‘Aschendorff’s Prachtausgaben wertvoller Jugendschriften.” Mitin ster i. W. | ‘Die Ansiedler an den Quellen d. Susquehanna.’ Fiir d. deutsche Jugend bearb., sowie m. EHinleitg. u. Eriiutergn. versehen v. O. Heinrichs. In : > x HSVGIYM 2? H.LNOW NOLLINAL NOLONIHSYM, \\© Laodsaaymaz PI AMT ZIMANC NOLONIH.LAIOM. wzIsngds ATTINSNILYAVW SITODYNVIGQNI A TIASATION YTLSTHINIM PROFILE: WEST FORH OF WHITE RIVER 26 J5/ 46 23 90 8S STVOHS Veodaywe OLNENIGCT NOLLINAL ATALANTA GHOTHION SNINN TOD NMOL STALLOW NMOL SLHOINH ATLSVI MIN eeOPY LEE LAol LOR. OF WHITE FIVER DIAGRAM No. 1. Figures along the tops of the two diagrams, A to B, are fall in river from one town to the next one mentioned. Figures along the bottoms of diagrams, C to D, represent distance in miles from one town to the next one mentioned. Figures at right end of curve show elevation of river at Winchester and New Castle above sea level. (\’ YS (X) ‘ AX) PSA AN Kult < {\ N Qn \ N > N IN N N N ee \ | ( Diora 02. iy A typlcdl Section of the intrenched ff, meanders dnd course of the Channel th if, the restrict valley reeion of the Fest fork 2 376 D 83 99/ B 376 LD SEL 116 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES work before it; that is, there is still a great amount of upland. The streams in this case are small, usually straight, swift, heavily loaded with sediment, and characterized by falls and rapids. A stream with these characteristics is termed a young stream. He may see stages in which the work is half completed; that is, in maturity, in which the plain is so cut up that it is all ridges and valleys. He may see stages in which the work is almost finished; that is, in old age, in which the valleys are wide; the streams have many meanders; a few monadnocks rise above the general relief; and the stream is sluggish, and is building up its lower course instead of lowering it. These, in a few words, are the charactertistics of streams in the three stages of youth, maturity and old age. If the general leveling of the land is the function of a stream, then we must next-see how and in what manner it does this. As the rain falls it beats on the ground and gathers particles of soil; then, uniting into small rivulets, flows away in response to the force of gravity. These little rills, turbid with sediment held in suspension, unite into brooks, and these in turn combine to form larger streams, which are also turbid. The particles held in sus- pension have a tendency to fall to the bottom, but are kept up by the various upward currents that are to be found in flowing water, due to the unevenness of the bed of the streams, or to rocks or other debris on the bottom. The sediment may rest on the bot- tom for a time, but it will be gathered up and carried on down stream and will finally arrive at its resting place in the ocean. Not only is the sediment gathered up by the little rills, but the main stream is constantly widening and often deepening its channel. This process also furnishes another source for the der- ivation of sediment. For instance, the Mississippi River car- ries into the Gulf more sediment than the tributaries bring into the main stream. (Dole and Stabler, ‘Water Supply Paper, 234.’) The ability of a stream to carry sediment depends upon the velocity, the volume, the nature of the material to be carried, and the presence of upward and cross currents. Any one who has observed a stream knows that the velocity is not continuously the same, and that the velocity is less at the sides than at the middle, and less on the bottom than on the surface. The thread of swiftest flow is ordinarily in the center of the stream and about one-third of the distance from the surface to the bottom. (I. C. Russell, ‘Rivers of North America.’) The bottom of the current is held back by the friction on the bed, and the surface by the friction of the air. If the stream is heavily loaded, the highest per cent of BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD oF 1913 117 sediment is found where the current is less—that is, near the bot- tom, surface, and sides of the stream. Another class of debris that is carried by a stream in times of flood includes tree trunks, logs, rails, bridge planks, boards, telephone poles, and everything that will float or that can be held up by the current. These things cause much damage in that they have a tendency to form a dam whenever they may become lodged. In this way many bridges are washed away. The road west of Martinsville was damaged to a great extent by the cross currents set up by the debris catching on the wire fence on the north side of the road and forming a dam. IL. C. Glenn, in‘ Professional Paper No. 72, U. S. G. S,’ cites many illustrations of mills and power plants having been destroyed by floating debris becoming lodged against them and finally forcing them from their foundations. GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE OF INDIANA Since the drainage of both forks of White River is closely associated with the geological structure, a brief discussion will be given at this time. The geologic history of the State is embraced by the Paleozoic times. The geological scale for Indiana is as fol- lows: f ( Merom sandstone Pennsylvanian...... { Coal measures | Mansfield sandstone. Chester sandstone and limestone Mitchell limestone Oolitic limestone (Salem) Harrodsburg limestone | Knobstone sandstone and shales | Goniatite limestone. | Mississippian....... Paleozoic..... { New Albany black shale Sellersburg limestone Silver Creek limestone Jeffersonville limestone Devonian ys. 4 os. | Waterline Silurian............. , Niagara limestone | Clinton hmestone. Richmond limestone and shales Lorraine limestone and shales Eden shales and limestones Trenton limestone. Ordoviciane=). 118 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES The geologic history of Indiana begins with an old sea which gradually retreated to the southwest as the region to the northeast was raised. The general dip of the rocks is to the southwest, at the rate of twenty to thirty feet to the mile. In some places the dip is much more, at times, being as much as a hundred feet to the mile. Beginning with the Ordovician formations which are the oldest rocks found in Indiana, the other formations are exposed as one goes from east to west across the State, until the Merom sandstone is reached at the extreme western part of the State. In each case, the older passes under the younger, and each is ex- posed at the surface for a distance dependent upon the thickness of the formation and the amount of stream erosion. Ordovician. The Ordovician rocks are the coldest rocks ex- posed in Indiana. They consist of a series of hardened clays and thin bedded limestones, commonly designated as the Cincinnati group. This region includes a strip from fifteen to twenty-five miles in width extending from the Ohio River northward to the northern part of Wayne County. The entire territory is drained by Whitewater River, and other streams that flow into the Ohio River. Since shales are easily eroded, the relief is rather pro- nounced, being as much as four hundred feet. The limestones of the region are very thin, rarely more than a few inches in thickness, thus affording very little protection to the shales. The region in general is one of the physiographic divisions of the State and may be called the Eastern Highland, the elevation above the sea being from 700 to 1,200 feet. Silurian. The Clinton and the Niagara limestones of Silurian age succeed the Ordovician rocks. They are the surface rocks along the Ohio River, extending in a narrow strip northward through the eastern part of Clark County, the middle of Jefferson County, the eastern part of Jennings County, thence with the western limit near Greensburg and Rushville, northwest past Noblesville, as indicated on Chart No. 1. From Rushville south the outcrop will average fifteen miles in width, except at the extreme southern part. The Clinton limestone, which is basal Silurian in Indiana, is a rather thin bed, varying from a few inches to about seven feet in thickness. The Niagara group, which overlies the Clinton limestone, is composed of several divisions of limestone and shales, aggregating in all about one hundred and twenty-five feet, in the southern part of the State. To the north where the Niagara passes under the glacial drift, it reaches a thickness of four hundred feet. The topography of the Niagara limestone outcrop is rather j pire Jey Dae a ll PANG Bil eri immo ; Nig) ar eatwie fee Cee area eal ee ty meee eo ae —- Wi 48 he Regt Won cdi % . Ry cai ONY a + irate Seem oiet | PORTER < LAKE JASPER ages MET ONES [lercasr se BENTON kurgie LaPoRre dette ST JOSEPH ymca iss RSHALL STARKE ee Earete res FULTON PULAS Ky { CASS WHITE 2 mechs ts ELKHART NOBLE Asger Kosciusk Sen DEKALG hel Fe Ware WHITLEY ALLEN WA BASH egeyten beedyer oy yas LAGRANGE STEUBEN ait = SE RAN rarer f IA i Andean c= ht ‘ NES — oy) Yi ——} ea LUGEW>d Mansyrurd ya ty ange Jers ve Bare be Pasrr sky berg te Were, Fe Seal Weaverey We aby Teny te dah Genrvetire tes | Aim Awan BS UR: MWe Aste AW rekon) ident wa SS in ceca Bay Cuart No.1. Geologic map of Indiana, showing width of the White River valleys in different formations. . Aint Fic. 3. Hole where a haystack had been. in the background, a crew replacing the grade that we washed out on the east side of B. & O. bridge across White River, three and a half miles south of Bedford. Fie. 4. long by 30 feet deep. 120 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES rough, the steep slopes being the result of the predominating lime- stones, and is somewhat in contrast to the rounded hills of the Eastern Highland of southeastern Indiana. The general slope is to the west. The eastern rim of the Clinton and the Niagara is the dividing line between the White River and Whitewater River systems. The streams flow southwest down the dip of the rocks and the Niagara is exposed in the bed of the streams for several miles to the west of the general outcrop. Devonian. The Devonian rocks succeed the Silurian, and may be grouped into two main divisions, the lower being limestones and the upper soft shales. The most important limestone is the Corniferious, or Jeffersonville, which is a rather hard bluish gray limestone, the combined strata averaging about sixty-five feet in thickness. To the north it seems to be partly replaced by the Geneva, a buff or brownish colored magnesian limestone. Above the Jeffersonville limestone, are two thin beds of limestone known as the Silver Creek and the Sellersburg. These outcrop in the extreme northern part of the region. On top of these limestones occur the New Albany Black Shales, which will average 125 feet in thickness. These shales are sulphurous and contain so much bitumen that they will burn when thrown on a fire. Weathering takes place very rapidly in these shales and as a result the region is worn down almost to base level. This region about New Albany, Scottsburg, Seymour, Columbus, and Franklin averages about 10 to 15 miles in width, and is known as the Eastern Lowland. It is from 500 to 700 feet above the sea. The East Fork of White River flows southward through this trough for many miles to Rock- ford in Jackson County, where it turns to the southwest, and flows ‘through a gorge in the succeeding formations. Mississippian. The Mississippian strata, in Indiana, occupy the middle portion of the southern half of the State, and next to the Pennsylvanian, are the most important rocks in the State. The Mississippian in Indiana is divided into six divisions, which ageregate over a thousand feet in thickness. These divisions will be treated in the order in which they occur, beginning with the Goni- atite limestone, which is the oldest. The Goniatite limestone is unimportant, but is remarkable in its consistency in underlying the whole Mississippian system. It is generally less than six feet in thickness. The Knobstone group is composed of shale at the bottom, while near the middle are massive dark blue calcareous and clayey sandstones, and near the top is a light brownish sand- BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 VA stone intercalated with shaley layers. The Knobstone is between 400 and 600 feet in thickness. The area of outcrop is from twenty- five to thirty miles in width and extends from the Ohio River north- ward through Floyd County, western Clark, eastern Washington, western Scott, nearly the whole of Jackson, Brown, Morgan, Hen- dricks, and Montgomery Counties, passing under the glacial drift in Benton County. The topography of this region is the most rugged of any in the State. The Knobstone rocks absorb water readily, but being impervious, transmit it very poorly, so that these rocks are readily shattered by freezing and thawing. The region is weathered and eroded into steep-sided valleys, the bottoms of which are from 200 to 400 feet below the general level of the land. The topography of Brown County is a good example of these steep- sided valleys. Since the elevation of the region is from 700 to 1,100 feet above the sea, it is known as the Central Highland. The courses of both forks of White River are to the southwest directly across the Knobstone region. The valleys are from two to five miles in width and are bordered on either side by abrupt, bluish bluffs, ranging from 150 to 250 feet in height. Typical bluffs of this kind are to be found on the West Fork above Martins- ville and on the East Fork at Brownstown and Sparksville. The Harrodsburg limestone which overlies the Knobstone, is a coarsely crystalline, fossiliferous, hard, blue stone from 35 to 100 feet in thickness. Its outcrop is between a quarter of a mile and three miles in width. The topography is very similar to that of the succeeding formations. The Salem limestone overlies the Harrodsburg limestone. It is a massive, oolitic, buff to bluish, fossiliferous limestone, known over the United States as one of the best building stones. The softness of the freshly quarried rock makes it very easily worked, and upon exposure to the air it gets hard and durable. The thick- ness of the Oolitic limestone varies from a few feet up to 90 feet. The Mitchell limestone is a hard, fine grained fossiliferous, blue stone, having a thickness ranging from a few feet up to, possibly, 250 feet. This limestone is easily soluble and is pitted over its en- tire outcrop with sinks. The region of its outcrop is largely drained by underground channels. It-is in this formation that some of the largest caves of the world are found. Some of the noted caves found in the Mitchell limestone are Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, and Wyandotte and Marengo Caves of Crawford County, Indiana. Lost River in Orange County is a typical underground stream for thirteen miles of its length. Green River, Kentucky, drains Mam- 2—1424 2, INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES moth Cave and is another example of the solubility of the Mitchell limestone. The Harrodsburg, Oolitic or Salem, and the Mitchell limestones are shown in Chart No. 1 as one formation. Through this limestone region both forks of White River narrow down to about a quarter of a mile in width. This narrowing of the valley in passing from the region of soft shales and sandstones to the hard limestones had remarkable effect on the flood conditions, as will be mentioned in another place. The last division of the Mississippian is the Chester. This consists of a series of thin limestone, shales and sandstones, aggre- gating 190 feet in thickness. There are three thin limestones with sandstone and shales between. Coal Measures. The Mansfield sandstone is a massive, coarse-grained sandstone and is the basal member of the coal mea- sures in this State. On top of the Mansfield Sandstone is a series of shales, sandstones, coal seams, fire clays, and limestones. The shales make up the greater part of the coal measures. The Merom sandstone hes next above the coal measures. Mr. J. F. Newsom in the ‘26th Annual Report of the State Geologist,’ says: ‘Lying above the productive coal measures and separated from them by an unconformity is a sandstone with a thickness at Vincennes of from 40 to 50 feet. This sandstone has been known as the Merom sandstone, owing to its good exposures at the town of Merom. In general appearance it resembles the Mansfield sandstone, for which it has sometimes been mistaken. Whether it is of carbon- iferous, or later, age has not been satisfactorily determined.’ | It is interesting to note that the size of the valley depends on the material through which the river flows. Above Gosport, on the West Fork, the river flows through the Knobstone region, which is composed of shales and thin bedded sandstones. ‘These shales are easily eroded and as a result the valley is wide; being one to three miles in width. As the Limestone region is reached below Gosport, the valley narrows to between a quarter and three- quarters of a mile, until it leaves the Mansfield sandstone below Bloomfield, where it again widens even more than above Gosport. The same conditions are present on the East Fork. At Sparks- ville the wide valley narrows to a mile or less as it leaves the Knob- stone region and enters the limestone area, and continues very narrow until it leaves the Mansfield sandstone at Shoals. Thus there is a remarkable constriction in the valleys of both forks where they flow through the limestone rocks and the more resistant Mans- field sandstone. It may be stated that House Rock and Jug Rock, BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 123 at Shoals, are in the Mansfield sandstone. As the valley becomes narrow, the depth of the water is increased and the amount of damage per acre is increased. At Romona, on the West Fork, the valley is about a quarter of a mile in width, and as a result the water during the flood was about thirty feet in depth on the valley, and the entire valley was swept clean (Fig. 1). DRAINAGE AREA OF WHITE RIVER Both forks of White River rise near the highest point in the State, which is in Randolph County. This elevation is about 1,285 feet above sea level. The Mississinewa and the Whitewater Rivers also have their sources in this county. The East Fork rises in the very southwest corner of the county. The West Fork flows in a westerly direction through Muncie, and Anderson, to Noblesville, then almost due south to Indianapolis. From Indianapolis it takes a direct southwesterly course to Peters- burg. The West Fork flows through the Wisconsin glacial drift from its source to Martinsville, a distance of 125 miles, and in the Ulinois glacial drift from Martinsville to the forks, a distance of 180 miles by the river. The East Fork flows in a tortuous, winding manner, thus increasing its length and decreasing its fall by numerous meanders. The East Fork flows through the Wisconsin glacial drift from its source to Columbus, about 155 miles. Then in the Illinois drift from Columbus to Brownstown, a distance of 40 miles. From Brownstown it flows through the unglaciated part of the State for about 90 miles, and the last 40 miles are again in the Illinois glacial drift. The writers have measured the drainage area of White River with a planimeter on a large scale map. (‘Geologic Map of In- diana,’ compiled by T. C. Hopkins, 1901-1903.) The areas were measured four times, with the following average results: Mest Pork of White River.....:.............. 5,340 square miles. Berevork of White River:...—.-.......-0.5... 5,580 square miles. White River between the forks and Wabash..... 175 square miles. Pietra bchramare area. ©. oo. hs ee lows 11,095 square miles. 124 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE No. 1—Profile of the West Fork of White River. Dis- ee Feet of Fall per mile be- STATIONS. tance eee Elevation. Fall bet- tween Stations, Apart. obles- ween Sta- in Feet. ville. tions. Noblesville...... 0 0 741 0 0.0 Indianapolis..... 34 34 675 66 1.9 Martinsville. .... 43 77 600 | 75 7 Spencer... a. .0 5. 38 115 540 60 1.6 Worthington..... 32 147 506 34 1.06 Newberry....... 38 185 476 30 0.8 Edwardsport..... 29 214 445 31 IO Washington...... 25 239 419 26 1.0 JUNCHIOnS ee os Le 256 400 19 0 Mouth cease: 50 306 376 24 0.45 Profile of East Fork. Dis- Distance Fall Fall per Mile STATIONS. tance | from Mor- |Elevation.| Between Between Apart. ristown. Stations. Stations. Morristown...... 0 0 741 0 0.0 IDoriale Wiese tes. ol | 50 50 625 116 203 Columbus.:......! Zit ll 602 23 iba ROCkhOrd= #.e04 25 96 556 46 1.8 IWMiedoraneee se | 30 126 505 ol Loa Riverdale ses... | 40 166 A479 26 0.65 Shoals! aes. | 50 216 450 29 0.58 Junction’ =... | 58 274 400 50 0.86 MiOuGI Ee see | 50 324 376 24 0.45 1W.M. Tucker, Indiana Department of Geology and Natural Resources, 1910. The last two columns were added by the writers. A study of the two profile tables shows a noticeably high fall at _ the source of the two streams, which rapidly decreases until Columbus is reached on the East Fork, and Noblesville on the West Fork. (Diagram No. 1 shows this very well.) The fall above Noblesville is between three and four feet to the mile. On the Hast Fork BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD oF 1913 125 the fall between Rivervale and Medora becomes as low as eight inches to the mile and between Rivervale and Shoals as low as seven inches to the mile. On the West Fork there is only one place where the fall goes below a foot to the mile, and that is between Worthington and Newberry, where the fall is a little less than ten inches to the mile. METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS Conditions for March 23-27, inclusive.2. There is nothing to be found in a study of the weather maps of the period preceding the heavy rains that would indicate such conditions as caused the downpour that followed. The ‘low’ on Sunday night, March 23, 1913, overlaid southeastern Nebraska. On that day there were heavy rains from central Illinois to Western Ohio, over a strip of country probably 200 miles wide and 500 miles long, the focus of the heavy rains being in northeastern Indiana and northwestern Ohio. Rain fell uninterruptedly over the above territory, Sunday night March 23. The amount of precipitation, however, was not so great as on the following day. In Illinois, on March 24, rain ceased, but the intensity over southern Indiana and southern Ohio increased and was greater than on the previous day. Here an important thing is to be noted: On March 23, the heaviest rainfall was on the head waiters of the Wabash, White River, and the rivers of Ohio that flow into the Ohio River from the north; and on March 24, the heaviest rainfall had shifted to the lower parts of these rivers. This is a reversal of the ordinary conditions; for the ordi- nary storm moves from the lower part of these streams to the upper portions of their drainage areas, thus giving the water that first falls a chance to run away before the rainfall of the second period reaches it. Monday night, March 24-25, brought a continuation of the rain over Illinois, Indiana, and northern Ohio. The same belt of heavy rain extended along the lower part of the Great Lakes down the St. Lawrence valley, into northern New England. As on the day before, the area of heaviest precipitation was in central Indiana and in central and northern Ohio during the daylight hours of March 25.- It was the rainfall of this day, Tuesday, March 25, with its average of 4.46 inches of rain at sixteen out of the twenty stations in the White River drainage area, that sent the streams of central Indiana on their mission of unprecedented destruction. Weivonihly Weather Review, March, 1913. 126 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES The position of the ‘highs’ and the ‘lows’ during the period of March 23-27, is responsible for the continuation of the excessive downpour in the Ohio Valley. As nearly as possible, the following is the succession of events that caused the continuous downpour: In advance of the first storm, that formed on the 22nd and centered in the lake district on the morning of the 24th, a great bank of high pressure moved across the United States and settled in and over the Bermudas, remaining there until the 27th. Thus while the second storm was pushing eastward on the 24th, an area of high pressure existed off the Atlantic coast, and another area of high pressure existed north of the Great Lakes, and was spreading eastward. On the evening of March 24th, the two areas of high pressure were separated only by a long narrow trough extending northeast by southwest across the Ohio Valley. This trough con- nected the receding storm with the approaching one, making al- most continuous rainfall. On the morning of March 25th, the trough extended from Texas to New England, with centers over Arkansas and the Ohio Valley. The high pressure in the Canadian - region and in the Bermudas kept the area of low pressure over the Ohio Valley from moving on to the eastward. On the 26th the south- ern portion of the trough moved to the eastward and settled over North Carolina. When the southern portion of the trough passed over the drainage areas of the streams that flow into the Ohio River from the south, the latter were also caused to assume flood stages, thus making doubly sure the resultant destructive flood stages on the Ohio River. On the 27th the high pressure over the Bermudas gave away and the area of high pressure in Canada moved over the Atlantic Ocean, thus permitting the areas of low pressure to move on into the Atlantic ocean, relieving the flood- stricken Ohio Valley. Thus the two storms passed across the Ohio Valley so close together that the rain areas of the two blended, and the second storm was held back by the two ‘highs,’ concentrating the rain- fall for two successive days in the same place, while the southern portion of the trough moved across the southern tributaries of the Ohio, flooding them at the same time. At no time in the history of the Ohio Valley had so much rain fallen in a 72-hour period as fell last March 23-27. In many local areas, as large an amount of rain has fallen in an equal length of time, but never has there been such a heavy rainfall over so large an area in so short a time. Again it is of special interest that no low temperatures existed — immediately before, during or after this period of flood. At no “BUOTI VIS IOYICIM 7B []eyUred oY} PUG IOATY OFIT AA JO SYIOJ OM OY} JO suiseq es vulvap suUIMOYg ‘SG “ON LAVAD “Word? 35 NPIANG ABdYLRIM oO WPj- Ucey SAYIN Gg SS et ee WR} WEY SSYIUT Qf — —— ee WR-ULeY Saou p puy SOUL Y waamlag ------- Paget Wey-Utwy sayosupg —— — — a Wey 20 Sauouyy weyr ssaq Rue saysuyy ——— ——— Stary abeurrsg jo fRaepunog = —————— . ¢ - JUIN SWRA 6 i aece gartey ¥ iis \ . one a riod swv5oy . 4) Boundary of Drainage Areas 5 ——— —— inches and less than 2Inches of Rain-fal’ — > — —— Bnches Rain-tar\ Between Linches and4)nches Rain-fall — ~— — l0}nches Rarn-farr --——-- OSlnches Rain-r, ain-fart © Weather Bureau Statven Cart No. 2. Showing drainage basins of the two forks of White River and the rainfall at weather stations. BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 1 AI place in the Ohio Valley was the ground frozen, nor was there any ice or snow stored away in any part of the basin to aid in causing flood conditions. In Indiana there had been enough rain previous to the down- pour to saturate the ground to such an extent that there was no room left for the absorption of the surplus water; and it is hardly possible that the small amount of water absorbed, even if there had been no rain for some time before the downpour, would have made much difference in the height of the flood. A complete history of the meteorology of these storms, with charts and tables, will be found in the publications of the United States Weather Bureau. The above is based on the information taken from these publications. 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Precipitation | Precipitation Total Departure |Greatest Fall for March, for March, | Precipitation from the in Twenty- 1-22. 23-27. for March. Normal]. four Hours. West Fork— Anderson,............ 1.32 6.99 8.50 4.71 Bd Os) Bloomington......... 3.83 9.20 13.03 le 6.56 Eminence............. Dealt iyRPA5) [st Demitd onai lie apaglavesons coe 1.95 Harmiland ss. e.isa. .. 1.78 8.94 11.12 OU OU 4.42 Hickory Hill......... 2.89 7,53 OA eee ia are eee tess ar 4.39 Indianapolis.......... 1.47 6.0) C05 ai6 0) 2.76 Washington........... 3.08 8.91 11.99 6.97 5.83 Whitestown.......... 1.86 7.05 SHEL SG (a ena a wr 3.07 Worthington.......... 2.54 7.59 10.13 6.10 4.25 East Fork— Butlerville............ 2.92 9.27 12.36 7.59 4.43 Columbus............ 2.05 9.92 12.01 8.45 7.00 French Lick.......... 3,28 6.52 OPER TR ihe Fey tes ernie 4.85 Greenfield............ 1.58 7.28 RESO ss his Ne ans, ees 2.56 IMIG eee at ae 2.42 9.65 12.08 8.45 5.59 INashivillen es. Dele, 8.97 STEN GO rests Ps Eten eee el 6.01 Scottsburg........... 22 oll 10.04 5.36 3.41 Seymour seq ccc 2.76 8.05 10.82 6.46 5.43 Shelbyville........... 2.18 7.11 ee eae le ll Ab ybear eee meer ORO SOF SR oir laaniituc 4.08 9.06 TO ATA Mee Tu ieeatecn se cee ceten 6.66 Greensburg........... 1.61 8.45 9.96 5.3 4.01 Average for West Fork.... 2.54 &.36 10.92 6.93 4.85 Avecage for Hast Fock.... QE32 8.21 10.14 6.17 4.08 Average for both Forks... 2.43 8.28 10.53 6.55 4.46 The average rainfal! for the West Fork of White River, taken at nine stations, for the month of March, was 10.14 inches. An aver- age of the amount of rain that fell at the above nine stations for the period commencing with March 23rd and extending through to March 27th, is about 80 per cent of the entire precipitation for the month, or 8.21 inches. At seven of the nine stations therefore, an average of 4.08 inches of rain fell on March 25th, or in other words, 50 per cent of the rain that fell on and between March 23rd and March 27th, fell on March 25th, at seven of the nine stations. That is, 42 per cent of the rainfall for the month fell on March 25th. On the East Fork of White River there were eleven stations that reported to the United States Weather Bureau. During the five days of the flood there was an average of 8.35 inches of rain- fall at these stations. The average for the entire month was 10.92 inches. Thus 76.5 per cent of the precipitation for the month fell during the five days of the flood. Also at nine of the stations an average of 4.85 inches of rain fell on March 25th, or 58 per cent of the rain that fell during the five days of the flood fell in one day, i. e., 44 per cent of the rainfall for the month fell in one day. Taking both drainage areas together, there was an average of 10.53 inches of rainfall for the month of March. During the ille to Mt. Carmel division. Four railroad, Evansv o —J i Washout at Summers ditch crossing, B Ihices fy. Washout near Summers ditch, Gibson County. Fie. 6. on County S 1b C and. s ts of fine gravel and son County. Gi and and gravel, mostly gravel. tois si A large depo: BEG S: SN Fic. 10. Sand and gravel deposits in a cornfield. Gibson County. —~ —“ BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 Me: five days of the flood there was an average of 8.28 inches of pre- cipitation at the twenty stations. That is, 78 per cent of the rain for March fell in five days. Also an average of 4.46 inches of rain fell at sixteen out of the twenty stations on the 25th day of March. There was an equally large rainfall at the other four stations on March 24th. Thus 56.6 per cent of the water, that caused the flood, fell in one day and 42 per cent of the entire precipitation for the month of March fell on one day, March 25th, in White River valley. The general storm conditions of White River valley were about the same as those of the entire Ohio Valley, which have already been discussed. As-was stated above, melting snow, ice jams, and frozen ground did not enter into the consideration of the cause of the flood, as all were absent from the conditions of this State. Neither was abnormal temperature present either immediately before, during, or immediately after the five days of excessive rainfall. However, on March 25th, in the northern part of the State, a light fall of snow occurred, which added misery to all concerned in the flood stricken parts of the different cities. This fall of snow was due to the spreading out of the area of high pressure that was centered over the Great Lakes district. There is no question but that the flood was caused solely by the enormous rainfall, in the short time of five days, and the fact that 56 per cent of the precipitation fell within the short period of twenty-four hours. If the ground had been frozen, or if there had been floating ice to form jams, or if very cool weather had followed, the deluge, the damage to property and the loss of life would have been vastly greater. On account of the fact that none of these other factors acted in conjunction with the continued downpour of rain, and on account of the fact that the rains came in the latter part of March at a time when there was a minimum of growing crops, or crops in storage, the amount of damage was at a mini- mum to crops, buildings, and human life. It is difficult to tell whether the soil was washed as badly then as it would have been if the storm had occurred later in the season. The chances are that the soil was damaged more on account of the recent freezing and thawing. : Considering everything, the damage was about as light as it could possibly be, with such an enormous rainfall in so short a time. - 134 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES CAUSES OF FLOODS IN THE OHIO VALLEY Floods above the danger line, in the Ohio Valley, have re- sulted from the following causes, acting alone, or in conjunction: 1. Heavy rainfall over extensive areas. 2. Rapid melting of large accumulations of snows. 3. The formation and the breaking of ice jams. 4. The failure of reservoirs. 5. ‘The breaking of levees. The first two of these causes acting together are responsible for a very large percentage of the floods that occur during the first | four months of the year. A great number of the floods occur dur- ing the first four months of the year. For instance, at Paducah, out of the twenty-nine floods that have been above the danger line all have occurred during the first four months of the year. At Evansville, out of the eighty-six floods that were above the danger point, only ten occurred outside of these months; and at Cincinnati, only three out of forty-six occurred outside of the months of January, February, March and April. The last three of these causes generally act in conjunction with the first two, and in themselves seldom do any great amount of damage over any but a small area. The last flood was caused by excessive precipitation over a large territory, and was not aided in the least by the other flood-causing factors. The hat in the foreground below Freedom. . & lve R Whites de of i ts on the east s dea of the depth of the sand. i Sand depos 5 Ic Fie gives an 1 pencer. s south of S two mile ? des Creek i ted at the mouth of McBr si iment depo in sed Sun cracks 12 Fie Fiag. 13. Shows long rows of sycamore trees along the bank which are beneficial in keeping the bank from being easily washed. Below Romona, Owen County. Fia. 14. A typical steep bank at the outside of a meander. BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD oF 1913 Oe PART II.—OBSERVATIONS DAMAGE TO SOIL Soil Washing and Erosion. When the water begins to flow across the flood plain, sand silt and debris are deposited, their position being determined largely by the velocity of the current. In many places where the current is strongest the top soil is removed and in some places great holes are cut. The amount of cutting depends upon the velocity of the cur- rent, the kind of soil, and the amount and nature of the sediment carried in suspension. I. C. Russell, in ‘Rivers of North America,’ gives the following table on the transporting power of a stream: TABLE No. 3. Velocity of Current. Size of Material Moved. BRINCINESHDEISCCONG: 5.50... 0e wet ee kee Fine clay and silt. OpiMehes|PeniSCCONd..... 0-0... 0 eee ee ee ee es Fine sand. WZMIMNOITES WETHSCCOMGs-5 6 feos see cc be es Pebbles 1% inch in diameter. DY HOG FOIE SO OLNG ee eee ee a ar Pebbles 1 inch in diameter. PRSZ MEO PCTESECONG . i. une veces de ye yee be eee ee Pebbles 2 inches in diameter. SR OMeetmper SECONG <2. 2 eee eee ne. Pebbles 3 inches in diameter. BNE CURMEIE SC COM: 25. etn ny bowen eege ten Pebbles 4 inches in diameter. MNCC LMOCISSCCOMG 3 2. osu eee See es Pebbles 5 inches in diameter. PROM E CADE SECONG. 6. 6 6s So bbe or eb neces Pebbles 6 inches in diameter. MiP OMCCURDETISCCOMG:. @ 25 oof a4. es oa hee Des we Pebbles 7 inches in diameter. WMOOMCCENPEINSECONG.. 66 ee iv he oe Pebbles 8 inches in diameter. GmiceuMenSeCONd =)... 2.6 i. ee ee ee: cay ae Pebbles 9 inches in diameter. Russell says concerning the above table: ‘It must be under- stood that the currents referred to in this table are bottom currents, and in general may be taken at about half the central surface cur- rent.’ A study of the table shows that the transporting power increases in a greater ratio than the increase in velocity. Le Conte, in his ‘Elements of Geology,’ shows that the trans- porting power of a current varies as the sixth power of the velocity. Thus, under this Jaw it will be seen that by doubling the velocity of a current the transporting power will be increased sixty-four times. That is, if a stream having a given velocity will carry a pebble weighing two ounces, it will carry a pebble weighing 64 ounces if its velocity is doubled. This law applies only to material held in suspension. Larger materials may be rolled along on the bottom of the stream bed. 3—1424 138 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Streams, like White River, which have many meanders have their velocities greatly increased when they assume flood stages, and take a more direct course. The water passes over a shorter dis- tance than when it follows the old winding channel, while the fail between the source and the mouth of the stream remains the same at all times. Thus the velocity of the current is greatly increased, making it more effective as an agent in removing the top soil. A very heavy compact soil will be less affected by strong currents of water than a light loose soil, as muck or sandy soil. However, a very compact heavy soil will be readily cut into holes if the cur- rent has sufficient tools with which to work. In many places — where the current broke across the neck of a large meander great holes were cut, one to two hundred feet in width, five to ten feet in depth, and in several places three or four hundred feet in length. This was the case at Worthington near where the Eel River enters White River. Mr. East is finishing the new channel and will make a permanent cut-off, thus shortening the river three-quarters of a mile. About a mile above Worthington was another example of the current starting to make a channel for itself across the neck of a large meander. In no case did the current cut a new channel all the way across the neck. If these new channels were extended entirely across the neck in the form of a ditch twelve or fifteen feet in width the increase in fall would soon cause the water to en- large the channel so that it would carry all of the water of White River, thus making a permanent cut-off. Holes. Where a stump, hay stack, tree, rock or any other obstacle was in the path of the current, the evenness of the current was disturbed and a spiral downward swirl started on the leeward side of the obstacles which acted in the same manner as water in a whirlpoo!. It was no uncommon thing to see holes in a field where there seemed to be no cause; but upon inquiry we would be in- formed that there had been a hay stack, stump, rock or post at that place. Figure 3, shows a hole where there had been a hay stack. Farm implements were seen buried or in holes that had been excavated under them, due to the swirling action of the waters as the current passed around the obstacle. Corners of buildings were let down in the same manner. (See Figure 46.) These holes were sometimes ten or fifteen feet in depth and forty to a hundred feet in length. A break in a levee always caused a large hole to be excavated on the lower side of the break. Generally, the material taken from the hole was carried a short distance below and deposited in the form of a sand and gravel bar. Fie. 15. The current has removed the top soil to the depth to which it is plowed. In the first bend of White River south of Spencer, in the northeast corner of Section 29. The ridges are caused by the land side oi the plow. Sand deposit near the trees along the river bank. Pie. 16. A thirty-foot bridge that was car:ied a half mile down stream from the publie road north of Brownstown. 140 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Sand and Gravel. When there is a noticeable decrease in the current, sediment is deposited. Gravel and sand in the order of their size and specific gravity, and then the coarsest silt, and last the very fine silt, is the order of deposition. ‘Trees on and near the river bank tend to check the current, causing it to drop the heaviest sediment close to the river, thus building up a natural levee, while the finer silt is carried out to enrich the valley land. There was a tendency for corn stalks to retard the lower current, causing sand to be deposited that otherwise might have been carried on farther. Fences generally had sand deposits on the down stream side. Wire fences caught the floating debris, forming a sort of dam that tended to check the current, and in this way causing a deposit of sand on the lower side, and in some instances on both sides like snow drifts. It was not uncommon to see as much as twenty-five acres covered with from a few inches to five or six feet of sand and gravel. There were several places where there was as much as sixty and even eighty acres covered with sand. Just below Waverly there was a tract of ninety acres covered. About a mile above Spencer there was about sixty acres, while in the first bend in the river to the south, below Spencer, there was a very large amount of sand. Just below Newberry, there was a tract of about twenty acres, and just below the bridge at Freedom, on the east side of the river, there were about ten acres. (See Figure 11.) Also below ‘Blue Hole,’ at Wash- ington, there was as much as sixty acres covered with sand, from a few inches to four feet in depth. In most of these cases it will take several years to reclaim this land and get it in good productive condition. Silt. Where the water was backed up over a considerable area, silt was deposited. The amount of sediment deposited depends on the length of time that the water stood on the ground and the amount of sediment in suspension. The greatest amount of sediment was deposited at the fork of the two branches of White River and at the junction of Muscatatuck with the East Fork of White River. A considerable amount of silt was deposited in the outside of the large meanders, as in the loop at Worthington, where Eel River joins White River. The current from Kel River had a tendency to hold back that part of the White River current that followed the old channel, thus depositing silt and fine sand. Figure 12 shows a small valley just south of Spencer on the east side of the river, in which the back water stood, causing silt to be deposited more than a foot in depth. Mud cracks were developed here in an in- Fic. 17. Middle ground shows where water had stood on wheat in an old lagoon. In the trees is the bridge that had been carried from the road north of Brownstown. Fig. 18. Top soil washed away and gravel deposited later. Gibson County. ay INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES teresting fashion. McBrides Creek flows through this valley and furnished part of the sediment. Bank Cutting in General. Any obstacle or obstruction on or near the bank of a stream causes the current to be deflected to the opposite side of the channel, where it begins to cut away the bank, and is again deflected back to the side where it first started. This is the beginning of a meander. Bank cutting causes the velocity of the current to be retarded on account of the increased friction. The increased length of the course as well as the increased load also reduces the velocity of a stream. These conditions, resulting from bank cutting, all | tend to reduce the velocity of the stream, thus making the flood stages higher. As a rule, a flood plain is made up of materials that are easily eroded or moved. A great many observations along the river showed that the top soil was from one to ten feet in thickness, while the under layers were composed of sand and gravel. This sand and gravel is easily moved by the current which washes it out from beneath the top soil or loam, permitting the latter to cave in. This accounts for the very steep banks on the out- side of the meanders, and for the rapidity with which the current removes the material from the outside of the meander. ‘The sand and gravel is carried to the inside of the meander and deposited in the form of sand bars; this is done in a large measure by the cross currents. The soil is lighter and is carried farther down stream and in many cases carried out and deposited on the flood plain. The sand and gravel has been moved from one side to the other many times. Many beautiful cross sections of large sand bars were seen. Figure 15, shows a typical vertical out- side bank of a meander. It seems that the shifting of the stream goes on more rapidly when the bank is just full or only partly full of water, for when the water is over the banks that which is left in the old channel seems to have less erosive power, or at least not any more than when the bank is just full. Even if the rate of bank cutting were the same during the over-flow stages of the river as when the banks are just full, the latter conditions occur much more often than the former, and it is therefore evident that there should be some measures taken to prevent rapid formation of meanders. Effect of Trees on Bank Cutting. Trees along the river bank will to a great extent retard bank cutting. Sycamores and willows are possibly the best for this purpose. Figure 13 shows the roots ‘ict gc laa apap pga = Fie. 19. Before the flood reached the crest. Gibson County. 144 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES of sycamore trees reaching down several feet, helping to hold the bank together. Also small trees and shrubs along the bank will tend to check the current, causing sediment to be deposited, and thus building up a natural levee and at the same time protecting the banks from being eroded. Figure 15 shows this process oH building natural levees. We have seen that the soil from the outside of the meander is carried down stream, while the sand and gravel is carried across the stream to the inside low bank by the cross currents, where it is made into high bars, as seen in Figure 29. In this instance as much as forty acres have been carried from the outside and deposited in the form of a desolate waste, on the other side of the river, in the short time of ten years. It takes many years to reclaim this desolate waste, and after it is reclaimed it belongs to the man who owned land on the other side of the river, the original owner con- tinues to pay taxes on it while the other man farms it. The old saying, ‘What is one man’s loss is another’s gain,’ is somewhat ap- plicable here. The thing that needs to be emphasized at this point is that bank cutting takes place every time that there is a channel full of water, and that the cutting power of the current is as efficient then as when the stream has assumed flood conditions. This phase of the flood situation can be controlled to a great extent, and the most serious cases greatly retarded, if not entirely stopped. Effect of Trees on Deposits. Two and one-half miles north of Martinsville on the west half of section 19 on the land belonging to Mr. W. E. Hendricks, is a row of trees extending east from the river as seen in Chart No. 2. Mr. K. I. Nutter owns the land east of the row of trees, which formerly extended as far east as the in- terurban line, but were removed by him. After a glance at the chart the result of the removal is evident. About 90 acres south of the row of trees was covered with silt from one to nine inches in depth, while east of the trees the current was unobstructed and as a result took two to four inches of the top soil from Mr. Nutter’s land. Effect of Grass-Sod on Erosion. Three miles southwest of Spencer on the land of Mr. John M. Dunn, the current left the river and made a short cut across a long meander. Where the current left the river there was a plot of grass some ten acres in extent. The ground covered with grass was not washed or denuded in the least, while the ground below this was robbed of three or four inches BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD oF 1913 145 of the top soil. (See Chart No. 3.) Mr. Dunn is of the opinion that it would be better to put the entire bottom land that he owns in timothy, and farm the upland. Considering the price of timothy hay, and the resistance that a good grass sod maintains during flood times, it seems that this would be a very good plan. Summary of Damage to Soil. The following table gives the amount in acres that was covered with silt, sand, or gravel, and the amount denuded, and the number of acres lost by bank cutting on White River. TABLE No. 4. Bank : Country. Denuded. Cutting. Sand. Silt. West Fork Weawilessees (se Sa ee 299 30 Tel 2,000 GmOxee per tS 275 28 50 1,000 GReemen Mra ee. 1,812 38 256 3218 Oneness ee 1,699 22 223 289 INOW GAME ges kw es 438 27 264 2,370 otal eee. pees. 4,723 145 870 8,850 East Fork. JACKSON... oo one Se ee 1,084 9 50 2,400 Weashimetomc. 6.2.4... 143 Very, little. 50 300 WAWCINCE es. Go es ele SO) Very little. 550 3,280 IMM Leyy EUS 5 oe 1,660 Very little. 50 . 780 THO aM ee sie Ne ane mer 33 SPACE 1165) 700 6,760 ~ otal for both Forks. 7,850 160 1,570 15,600 At $20 per acre. | At $75 per acre. | At $50 per acre. Hstimated loss. ......... $157,000 $12,000 $77,500 provletocssanwollars to Soltis: < 5s. es oo ft eae ae $246,500 As far as possible, every farmer was questioned as to the effect of soil wash on succeeding crops. The general consensus of opinion was to the effect that there would be about half a crop the first year, two-thirds the second, three-fourths the third year, and if a subsequent flood did not come there would be a full crop 146 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES the fourth year. An ordinary crop on good bottom land is at the very least worth $20 per acre, and on much of it $30 would not be too high. One-half plus one-third plus one-fourth of $20 equals $21.60. This is the basis on which $20 is used as the loss per acre due to soil wash. Thirty dollars may not be too high. The value of the bottom land varies from $75 per acre to $100 per acre, and there is a greater portion of it worth $100 per acre or more than there is worth less; but it is better to put the price too low than too high. The land lost by bank cutting is a complete loss, hence the loss per acre was placed at $75. The land that is covered with sand and gravel is almost useless for several years, | but can be reclaimed after a considerable number of years, so that 450 per acre seems to be a fair estimate of this sort of damage. ‘The farmers say that the ground that is covered with silt does not pro- duce a full crop the first year, but that after the new soil has been ‘rozen the following crop will more than make up for the loss of tne first year. | On the West Fork there were some who thought that the sediment which is being brought down in recent years is not so good as that which was formerly deposited over the flood plain. Others could see no difference. The investigators are of the opinion that the silt is not as good as it was before so much of the forest was cut from the steeper slopes. This is especially true of the un- glaciated portion of the drainage basin of White River. During the last few years the steeper slopes have been robbed of their forests. The farmers have tried to farm these steep hills and as a result much gullying has taken place. The results of this process is to be seen in the western part of Monroe County and in the eastern part of Greene County. As much as twenty acres can often be found in one area that has been stripped of its grass sod, and numerous gullies have been cut down into the red limestone soil, exposing the limestone below. This soil is easily carried away and when dropped on the fertile alluvial flood plain is not as productive as the finer particles of humus that were gathered from the wooded areas several years ago, and deposited in the same places where the red clay is being deposited by every great flood. ‘To one who has spent three summers studying the geology of the unglaciated part of the State, there is no doubt but that the deposits derived from this part of the White River basin are less productive than formerly and this decrease in productivity is due in a large measure to de- forestation. There are several hundred acres in Monroe and Greene Counties that are in the same condition. A fuller report on this Public road at Waverly, after the flood. enlarging a cellar under a house. The hole in the foreground was caused by the current Fig. 21. Notice the large sand bar near Large area of sand in the bend of the river west of Spencer. IRGle Pe the trees 148 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES subject will be published later. For a full discussion of the effects of deforestation on erosion, see Mr. L. C. Glenn’s, ‘Denudation and Erosion in the Southern Appalachian Region, (Professional Paper, Nov.72; U:S.G.s.). LEVEES AND EMBANKMENTS One of the most interesting phases in the study of the flood conditions was found in levees and embankments. We will first consider the levees and the embankments as to their relation to the river, their ponding effect upon the flood waters, their effect upon the land, both above and below them, and the effect of the high waters on the levees themselves. Then will follow a con- sideration of their general effects and conclusions concerning them. They will be taken up in the order in which they came under the notice of the investigators in the progress of the river work. Con- stant reference to the maps will help the reader to understand the text. Morgan County. White River in Morgan County flows through the exposed Knobstone sandstones and shales. Since this rock structure is easily weathered and eroded, the valley is remarkably wide, being from one to four miles in width. This great and valuable strip of alluvial land is cut through by the conspicuosly meandering river which does not tend to remain constant in its channel. Asa result of this latter condition, man has attempted to hold it in its present channel by means of riprapping and leveeing at different places along the channel. Levees, however, have not been built for that purpose alone, but for protecting the alluvial soil from wash and for the protection of growing crops. We will see with what success these constructions have served their purpose. The first construction that came to our attention was the public road extending northeast across the valley from Waverly. The water was completely over the embankment which was about ten feet in height in the stretch between Waverly and the cement bridge, a distance of about one-eighth of a mile. On the north side _ of the bridge it was much less in height. This was a new rock road and was almost entirely destroyed, the rock being carried several hundred feet below and deposited with other debris in a large bar. Next to the town not only was the grade washed out, but a deep hole was made. This was because of a swirl starting from the cellar of a house that was washed away. A very strong current raged at this place, due to the fact that the river turns nearly a right angle Fic. 23. Looking southwest across White River at Gosport, March 26, 1913; showing ripples as water flowed over Monon track. Fie. 24. Monon station, Gosport, March 26, 1913. 150 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES just above Waverly. and the overflowing water tended to sweep around the edge of the town in a more majestic course. The new cement bridge over the river was not damaged, but there is no doubt but that its massiveness and small cross section helped to direct the water to either side. Both approaches to the bridge were washed out. North of the bridge the road was washed away and the rock deposited in the fields below. About a quarter of a mile north of the bridge the largest wash occurred, where a cur- rent went across from above. About one acre of land was washed, from two to four feet deep, on each side of the road as a result of the unevenness of the flow caused by going over the road bed. A small levee planted in trees extended from the bridge to about one-half mile down the river, being parallel with it and about six rods away. This levee did not seem to have any effect outside of keeping the current confined to the river side. The strip of land between the levee and the river was badly denuded. About two miles southwest of Waverly a small stream enters the river from the west. Parallel with this stream on the section line of 22 and 27 is a large levee extending from nearly one-half mile back to near the river, where it turns at a right angle to follow the river for about one and three-quarter miles. This levee was high enough to be above the waters of the flood, but was broken in three places. The first two breaks were near the turn where the western extension reached the main levee parallel to the river. At each of these breaks occurred a hole from four to twenty feet below the valley land. These holes were made by the concentrated current rushing through the vents made in the levee. Beyond these holes were gravel bars from one to three feet in depth, each covering about an acre of good ground. These two breaks were evidently caused by groundhogs, since several places were literally honey- combed by their burrows. The third break in this levee was nearly a mile below the first two breaks. This one was very severe indeed. Some twelve to fifteen rods of the levee was entirely swept away and a pond of over a half acre in extent was left in its place. This pond is succeeded by a sand and gravel bar from one to four feet in depth and covering an area of about ninety acres. The bar ends abruptly in a terrace from two to three feet in height, nearly a half mile below the break. A strong current seemed to have hit the levee at this point causing the break, and there might have been a point of weakness here, due to the numerous groundhog burrows. Perhaps as much water flowed through this opening as flowed down the BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 15] main channel. This alone would account for the immense sandbar below. By consulting the map it will be seen that this was a natural course for the river to take after the levee was broken through. The current took a short course while the river takes a circuitous course to reach the point where the current entered the channel again. This levee has perhaps done much good in the past and would have done much good this time had it not been broken through. The water would naturally back up from below and cover this large area of some four hundred acres, and being quiet, much silt would be deposited. -- 156 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES over a vast area as in the preceding county, and was consequently much deeper. At places the water was as much as thirty feet in depth on the first bottom. Such was the case at Romona. This great depth increased the head, reduced the friction, and conse- quently increased the velocity. The result of such an immense amount of water in such a narrow valley can easily be conjectured. The valley was swept clean. A glance at the map will show the conditions. Since the valley is narrow and meandering, the farm land is not seen in vast stretches, but is in irregular patches of no great extent. There is no such occasion for building levees as there is in the preceding county. Again, perhaps, experience has taught the farmers that levees and embankments do not avail much when it is possible for the water to get thirty feet deep over the valley. At least there are only a few, possibly two, places that demand consideration here. } The first is the Monon grade at Gosport. A glance at the map shows that the railroad grade is in a curve across the valley. The grade is from twelve to twenty-five feet in height, and the only opening is at the bridge over the river, consequently this grade impeded the water and ponded a great amount of it above until it rose sufficiently to flow across. Eye witnesses said that a fall of three to five feet was produced, and that the water broke over in a mighty ripple almost a milein length. The greatest damage was done to the grade itself. It was more than half swept away, the track being completely turned over with the ties on top of the rails. It was ten days before it could be put in sufficient repair for temporary traffic. The bridge was also injured by the river bed being deepened near one of the piers. Below the embank- ment the land was heavily silted. At the railroad bridge about an acre was cut from one to four feet in depth. The railroad company suffered the greatest damage here. It seems that there should be at least another section added to each end of the bridge, and to insure traffic against the highest floods there should be some trestle besides. The grade was replaced just at it was before the flood. The second place of interest in Owen County with regard to embankments is two and one-half miles east of Freedom, on the land belonging to Mr. Frank C. Dunn. Here the river makes a complete semi-circle. It enters Section 23 flowing south, but soon curves to the west, and in Section 22 has curved until it is flow- ing north. Inside of this loop there are about two hundred acres ‘2 BB! betaine v Gs tH BA eA Z ZH White Ricer Weites) Le sen Mosq on Cer Sana t ATINSVILLE, i) Sin Dewvseran Benn Corrs as % Br wereaire Weles Blwte Ling Cart No 3, West fork of White River from Waverly to Gosport, showing effects of flood. 1 MA ‘ - S Rea BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 157 of land of which one hundred and forty acres are tillable. Where the river leaves the bluff at the upper part of the loop, a levee be- gins and extends parallel with the river for nearly one-quarter of a mile. This levee was almost completely washed out and ad- jacent to it some four acres of land were cut from one to four feet in depth. Below this badly cut area there were some fifty acres badly denuded, while forty acres were silted towards the western edge of the loop. This levee heretofore had done good service for Mr. Dunn. As long as the water did not get over it, not only was his land in the loop protected, but the water was directed in such a manner as to rob his neighbor across the river and add a corresponding amount to the inside of the bend. Mr. Dunn has declared his intention of rebuilding the levee. Greene County. In Greene County the river gets wider, and below Worthington it is much wider. ‘This is due to the out- cropping of the soft and easily eroded coal measures and to the effects of the Illinois glacial sheet. In pre-glacial times the river ran as much as four or five miles to the west of its present course. It probably ran through the gap that is now occupied by Switz City, thence southward by the present site of Lyons. It seems to have been pushed over to its present position by the great ice invasions of the glacial times. The entire area from Switz City and Lyons eastward to the river is not wholly valley land; it has several great tracts of hill land in it, which are set in the midst of the great alluvial area. The vast stretch of valley land from Switz City and Lyons, southward and eastward to the river was not all under water, but the most of it was near the danger line. Few levees were noticed near the river, but railways and public road embankments offered interesting situations in reference to the flood waters. In Sections 13 and 14, three and one-half miles east and a mile north of Worthington, a group of levees occurs that demands consideration. ‘They are in a great loop to the south, about which the river runs, coming back northward for a considerable distance. The loop has in it about three hundred acres of farm land. Where the river enters Section 13, a levee was built a year before the flood by Mr. U. G. Clark, who owns the land. The levee which ex- tended along the right side of the river for over a quarter of a mile was washed entirely away. A hole from one to four feet deep was in its former position. ‘The current which left the river here and washed the levee away spread out over and denuded perhaps a Fie. 29. A huge sand and gravel bar, below the mouth of Veal Creek. The.bar is more than six feet above the level of the water. Fic. 30. Soil erosion on James Blackmore farm, west of Newberry. BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 159 hundred acres of land in Sections 18 and 14. The wash was worse adjacent the railroad, which follows the foot of the bluff all along the valley. The current in its lower course before entering the river evidently became sluggish, as much silt was deposited in the western part of Section 14. Farther down in the loop is a levee extending southward some distance from the river, and on approaching the river, which has turned to the westward, the levee turns at a right angle and extends parallel to the river, but some distance removed from it. The west wing of the levee stands much higher above the land than the north wing. The top of it, however, is no higher than the north wing. Presumably the idea is to have no part lower, and to have all parts above the flood stage. From near the turn in the levee another wing extends to the northeast. This extension is considerably lower and a hedge is growing upon it. This levee system was of no service during the last flood. It was broken in numerous places and heavy denudation occurred at the breaks. Much of the intervening land was denuded. This group of levees has been of much benefit in the past. They were so arranged that they prevented a current from flowing over the land in the loop, but would permit the back waters to come up on the land, thus depositing a heavy silt and enriching the land. They were not built to cope against a flood that would completely envelope them. The question arises whether it would be a paying proposition to construct levees for such exigencies. This will be considered later. An interesting situation occurs at Worthington. Eel River flows through a narrow gap between the rocky hill of east Worth- ington and the steep bluff of ‘Old Point Commerce,’ northeast of Worthington. This gap is about one-eighth of a mile in width. (There is no doubt that Eel River once flowed to the west of the present site of Worthington.) This small gap is dammed _ by the Vandalia railroad grade, except at the bridge over Eel River, where an opening of one hundred and eighty-two feet is left. The grade is at least twenty-five feet in height. The country north and west of Worthington is-really what may be termed ‘second bottom,’ belonging to Eel River. During the flood the water from Eel River had to go through the narrow opening in the Vandalia railway grade. The opening was too small to carry the water and as a result the water was ponded at least three feet higher on the upper side of the bridge than it was on the lower side. The E. & I. R. R. grade running northwest 160 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES from Worthington prevented the pent-up waters from escaping over the ‘second bottom’ west of Worthington, but finally the slight grade gave way and the excess water of Eel River found an outlet to the west of Worthington, down Morgan ditch or Dead ditch, which does not get its ordinary flow of water into White River until near the vicinity of Bloomfield. This release of the water of Hel River caused the water which had been ponded above the Vandalia Railroad grade to fall, but it was this water that flooded the west- ern part of Worthington, thereby doing much damage. It is evident from the above that the E. & I. R. R. grade for a time protected Worthington from an overflow, and if this grade ~ had been higher and firmer, Worthington would have been safe from the overflow. It is evident also that the Vandalia grade was an obstruction to the free passage of the waters of Eel River, and was a direct agent in the flooding of that city. Without doubt the opening in the Vandalia grade at the bridge should be made longer. This argument is much truer since Mr. Z. I. East has prolonged Eel River nearly one-half mile by directing the channel of White River across a loop, thus shortening its course and causing the old channel of White River to become the Eel River channel for one-half mile. In the matter of embankments, the situation at Bloomfield is striking. A public road and two railroads cross the valley here at right angles and all within a short distance of each other. The public road with a grade some twelve feet in height comes first on the north side. The Illinois Central Railroad crosses mostly on trestle work a short distance below. The Monon Branch Rail- road is just a short distance below the Illinois Central grade. The Monon grade is made almost entirely of stone and is ten or twelve feet in height. There are very few openings in the Monon grade with which to accommodate the flood waters. Some distance above the public road the river swings from a middle position in the valley to the western side, and after passing the three con- structions mentioned, it makes a great long loop to the south and finally swings back almost to the Monon Railroad. Then the river turns again, flowing along the Monon grade a short distance until it is deflected southward by the bluff. The meander here makes a letter ‘S’ with the top of the letter to the west. (See Chart -No-5)) It might be mentioned again here that the Illinois Central grade has no effect upon impeding the flood waters, since it is composed mostly of trestle work. A short stretch of the trestle a Mbyte Hieae Vere e OMEN Conant y Cuarr No. 4. Showing the action of the West Fork from Gosport to Farmers. j Waa ; N . * 5 { ‘ t ut wal fey u f aie jong ' Ps ‘ ( thos ' j } D il Sa iy iar : 1 1 eee ; aa x * ‘ Mis ak : i ‘ . in i i G aay Cay : j Hat Rake ; ‘ i i ' ) ; h cj 4 " ' \ . ; 1 os a 7 ) A t) 1 ‘ a y ‘ hae? . } i ; fet p i i ; . ; i i % fe gt = ; , { L * i . Ps . \ } iy i rf ae Gy r H vie . ae, ‘ j yay ) ‘ ' igs , i f { : Y = i} 4 rH 4 it é ‘ i \ : - ‘ ' B , A ie . Ma at ha wa) ‘i ot i, nh ‘ ™, \ y cA : it A ; | 4 / ‘ es , j f sd “a, * ) ri r SASS EE ee LY, LiL Fig. 32. West of Brownstown. The channel here is more than 40 rods in width. The opposite bank is being cut away very rapidly while the bank on the right of the picture is being extended in the form of a low sand bar. : ; { Fig. 34. Public road bridge at Rivervale after the flood. BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 163 work and part of the grade were carried away near the eastern end where a.strong current raged along the bluff. In a very short time they had trains crossing on schedule time. The public road grade broke in spite of all that was done to save it. It also broke near the western side of the valley, as the grade was lower at that point. About one-third of the material of which the grade was constructed was washed away and the part remaining was cut and washed to the extent that it was impassable for more than two months after the flood. This grade has been rebuilt and paved with cement and this will make it able to with- stand the floods of the future. Immediately below this grade the soil was removed, but only for a short distance, as the current was checked by the Monon grade. The Monon grade, though it was constructed of rock, fared very badly. Just below where the Illinois Central trestle was injured, the grade was entirely swept away. The raging waters tore up much of the grade between this point and the river bridge, and removed all of the track from the grade. It was more than two months after the water had gone down before the road bed was sufficiently repaired for traffic to be resumed. This was quite a contrast to the Illinois Central Railway, which resumed traffic in less than four days. Below the Monon grade great holes were cut and the land was denuded very severely below these holes. It would have been much worse if it had not been for the peculiar return of the main river current in forming of the above mentioned letter ‘S.’ In the southern part of Greene County, just opposite Newberry, is a grade similar to the road grade at Bloomfield. It is some eight to ten feet in height and goes directly across the valley from the bridge next to the bluff on the southern side of the valley. There are, however, two openings in the grade over which are steel bridge spans. About one-third of this grade was removed from the top for over one-half mile. All of the rock was removed and part of the grade that remained was badly cut and washed. The grade was still unrepaired two months after the flood. The land was considerably washed both below and above the grade. About fifty rods below the road at Newberry is a high levee with a strip of trees and bushes before it and on it. It is built at right angles to the river and parallel to the road grade. It does not extend quite to the river, and lacks several rods of extending to the bluff at the other end. As a result, the water rushed around it at both ends. Many trees and bushes kept the land from being 164 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES cut or washed at the river end of the levee, while at the other end where there were no trees, the land was washed very badly for some distance below. To the leeward of this levee about eighty acres was covered with a heavy deposit of silt. In some places the silt was over a foot in depth. This levee was not built with the intention of protecting the valley land, but was built years ago in connection with the old canal between Terre Haute and Evansville. It is interesting to note the situation where the C. T. H. & S. E. railroad crosses the valley in southern Greene County and northern Daviess County. Long stretches of trestle work are frequent and at the river there is a long stretch. The trestle work permitted the water to pass by, practically unimpeded. Consequently little or no damage was done to the railroad or to the land either above or below the grade. The advisability of trestle work was clearly shown here. Knox and Daviess Counties. White River, i-tween Knox and Daviess Counties, is a long series of meanders : & Wide and dismal stretch of valley land. For as much as three-t~- rths 0. the distance no upland is visible from the river. The val!., nd seems so plentiful that little care is taken of either its imp.cvement or its protection against the meandering river. Each year acre after acre of this fertile land is taken from the outside of the numerous meanders, and corresponding low sandy wastes are made on the inside of the meanders. If this meandering could be stopped, or the river straightened and kept straight, hundreds of acres of fertile land could be utilized, which now are either sandy or swampy waste areas. But the valley land is, perhaps, yet too plentiful for such measures to be considered. The flood damage between these two counties was not so great as might be supposed, since the valley is so wide the waters spread out in some places as much as five miles. This prevented it from being very deep and from being confined in definite currents, except locally. It was only locally that the soil was denuded by the cur- rent passing over it. The greatest damage was in the bank-cutting on the outside of the meanders. As bank-cutting is no worse in times of flood than when the banks are just full, or partially full, the flood did no more damage than any other ordinary high water, so far as soil wash was concerned. The problem of bank- cutting lies in straightening the river and then keeping it straight. It is a question as to whether the benefits derived would meet the cost of keeping it straight. — | 2 i _ as i eat 4 \ : : ; ey. i aA a ‘ + i Ley Ata ve 4 i dite 3 Ms yk Fl ' i ey ‘ ; J _— Pa af oe Vee 1, i } aa 4 . au e : i : ‘ i yi 5 A ” } : é va 1 Pes oo . ‘ 7 oy ne ~ ° fh . ' - 4 { J . - ; ‘ ' - ‘ ai y- heaNy be J : $ i . fa Sa \ 7 - , i ~ a en 5 F a 4 ‘ - 7 ? A ° dy 5 Poet 4} A if : ; 1 7 i , c 4 : i i « : t ’ : ’ = a ‘ By * r ’ P r Tee a Dal "Wy, ’ e 1, . Ny ns 4 i y \ if A ae Py Me 7 W oss shy Ba eh) OER } oi 4 D ; ; a ite es j oe i" aes oh i * r E ay 1 eh PS >: ‘ iit a stat a Bey ae P : ne one ues i ¢ i a “* Rete i ry hs ee 4 AS 2 so h \ ~ SNC DS Nd . Ze Ns eaes i ae MSA | Asti A BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 165 In regards to levees and embankments very few were present for consideration. The levees near the river were insignificant and seemingly had no effect for bad or for good. Only one embank- ment occurs that deserves consideration. Outside of the damage done by bank cutting, nearly as much damage was done below the B. & QO. Railroad grade near Washington as was done within the entire river scope of the two counties. The grade is high, being perhaps twenty feet on the average. ‘There is no trestle-work west of the river and very little east of it, thus compelling the enor- mous amount of water to rush under the bridge. The central pier was washed out and the steel bridge collapsed. Nearly a mile east Fig. 35a. Frogeye, in Shoals, looking south. of the river there was a short trestle-work across a hole known as the ‘Blue Hole.’ This trestle-work was carried out and part of a train was carried down with it. Four lives were lost here. The bodies of two of the victims were not found until two weeks later, when they were found under several feet of sand. Below this ‘Blue Hole’ sixty acres were covered with sand from a few inches to five or six feet in depth. On the west side of the river just below the bridge two acres were cut from the bank where the water rushed against it in coming through the opening under the bridge. Large trees were washed out and carried away. Six hundred acres were denuded, and forty acres of wheat were washed away, and eighty acres were covered more or less unevenly with white sand. 166 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Most of the damage done here was due to the railroad grade. Had there been sufficient trestle work the damage would have been slight. Despite all of this, no trestle work is being constructed. East Fork of White River. That part of the East Fork of White River which was investigated as to the flood conditions has only a few features In common with the West Fork. In the first place, the waters were much higher, mainly because of the superior abundance of rainfall within its basin; secondly, because of the narrowness of the valley itself, which is very similar to the West Fork in Owen County; and thirdly, because of slighter fall. | Fig. 35b. Frogeye, in Shoals, looking south. The region above the junction of the Muscatatuck River with White River, is similar to the Morgan. County region of the West Fork. Here the valley is wide for the same reason that the valley of the West Fork is wide, i. e., it is in the Knobstone region, with its soft and easily eroded sandstones and shales. Below Sparksville the valley ranges from less than a quarter of a mile in width to about a mile. It seldom gets over three-quarters of a mile in width, and generally is about one-half mile wide. Through this latter region the valley is really a great meandering groove with the river passing from one side to the other as the entrenched meanders of the val- ley turn in one loop after another. The channel itself has for ages, so to speak, remained in its present site. It does not cut BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 167 its bank on the outside of the great meanders, because the outside of these meanders is the outside of the valley itself, and is usually a steep rocky wall, one to three hundred feet above the stream. There were no levees noticed in the stretch of river between Brownstown and Shoals, but there were a few railway embank- ments that need consideration. The first of these is the Balti- more and Ohio Southwestern embankment near Medora in Jackson County. The valley here is nearly three miles in width. It is in the Knobstone region. This B. & O. grade across the valley will average some fifteen feet in height. There are no trestles east of the river and only three or four short stretches to the west of the river. The grade comes to the bank of the river on both sides. As a result of this inadequate trestle-work, as much as a mile of the grade was washed out, or partially so, The short stretches of trestle-work on the west side of the river were washed out on account of the concentration of the current at these points. The second pier from the east end of the bridge was undermined and the structure collapsed. (See Figure 33.) The land was badly washed below this grade, and sand and gravel were deposited in several places. On the west side of the river ten acres were covered with sand from a few inches to three feet. Before the grade broke, the water was much higher on the north side than it was on the lower side. This caused the village of Medora to suffer considerably. This condition was due to the inadequacy of the trestle-work. If the water could have passed freely, much damage would have been avoided, and several thousand dollars would have been saved the B. & O. Railroad. The B. & O. bridge over White River south of Bedford was not damaged, but about two hundred feet of the high grade on the south side of the river was removed. (Fig. 3 shows the crew replacing the grade instead of putting in trestle-work.) It seems that these grades should be replaced with trestle-work, but it may be less expensive to have traffic tied up for short intervais, and to build new bridges than to go to the expense of putting in trestle-work. The Monon Railroad crosses the valley at right angles, three miles south of Bedford. There is no trestle-work here. The grade approaches to the very river banks. As a result considerable stretches of the track were washed out. Again the grade was re- built and no trestle-work installed. The situation at Shoals is very peculiar. The special plate shows the -relations. As can be seen, the part of the town east of the river is built on a hill situated in the middle of an alluvial Fic. 1. Showing hole cut by current where it passed over a levee. One mile south of Romona. go ee Fig. 2. A typical hole washed out by the current. One mile south of Romona. ee: eed rat pe | aoe lm Pa a = ok DN -. ; ’ s = ¥ Thee ; oe 3) 10 MEd * Ohh | On ee eb Pha aoe id | |Z an nese Whitt Raver N SEG Baurween Knox ann Daxviss Countres WS ee SOY IS ek Washing on Hs Ath: i if SS AS bias Cutie ana Qweavel Des STE [o| Meters Sion Yvne Fic. 2. A typical hole washed out by the current. One mile south of Romona. BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 169 valley. The plate indicates the part of the B. & O. track and grade that was removed. (See also Figs. 35 to 40.) There is no doubt that the railroad grade at this place should be partly replaced with trestle-work. On the west side of the river not only the railroad grade but the street that connects West Shoals with Hast Shoals served as an obstruction for the water. The cement sidewalk was torn away, but neither of the grades was badly injured. ‘The great bulk of the water went around to the east of the town and came into the river again near where Beaver Creek enters the channel. In all, forty-four houses were either removed from their foundations or carried away. ‘his would have resulted regardless of the railroad grade, the houses themselves being situated on the flood plain within reach of high waters. Conclusion. ‘The consideration of the levees along both forks of White River brings out the fact that during the March flood all of the levees brought disaster. Not only were they damaged them- selves but they caused the adjacent territory to be washed and de- nuded, in many cases very badly. Now, since this was true in the recent flood, it will be true of future floods that approximate the recent one. We are now ready for the pertinent question: Is it worth while to provide protection against such floods in the future? We will presume that the above question is answered in the affirm- ative, just for the sake of showing how simply and practically protection may be provided in regard to railroads and public road embankments. From a study of the conditions as they are briefly given above, the following conclusions present themselves: 1. Railroad embankments have almost invariably impeded the free passage of the water and caused it to be ponded above for a time. 2. Railroad embankments suffered severely and in some cases bridges were destroyed. 3. By the breaking of the embankment, the land below has been greatly damaged and in some cases injured beyond reclamation. 4. A noticeable lack of trestle-work was the cause of the water being impeded and ponded. ) 5. Near Riverside, Greene County, the C. T. H. & S. E. R. R. had plenty of trestle-work and no serious damage was done, either to the embankment or to the land immediately below. 6. The I. C. R. R. at Bloomfield was only slightly damaged because of the long stretch of trestle-work that permitted the water to pass unimpeded. 5—1424 Mill Street, West Shoals, looking south. EGe3 0: Pate: Jae & east of Shoals, after the flood. grad B.&O. 37 Fig. Fie. 38. B.& O. grade between East and West Shoals. Note crooked track. SERRE SERS SS RASS Fie. 39. Water flowing over railroad grade between bridge and West Shoals. 4 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 7. Public road grades, such as at Henderson Bridge in Morgan County, at Bloomfield, and at Newberry suffered considerable damage because of the inadequate passage-way for the water at the bridges. 8. Some public roads suffered because the flood waters were high above them rather than because they impeded the waters. 9. Where trestle-work was sufficient near the river, neither the bridges nor the grades nor the land below suffered any con- siderable damage. From these conclusions, it seems that the way to prevent damage by future floods, so far as railroads and public road embankments are concerned, would be to provide more trestle-work. This remedy is both simple and practical. The levee question along White River above the junction oi the two forks is but little related to such a question in a great valley like the Mississippi River Valley. In the Mississippi valley the object in view is to keep the great volume of water that comes from ~the upper tributaries confined to a relatively narrow channel, and to keep it from spreading over the entire valley, or at least any considerable portion of it. Along White River the object in view is to protect small areas from currents which would wash and carry away the top soil. In many cases it is not de- sirable that the water should be kept off the land, as back water generally enriches the land with its deposit of silt. However, the levee question along White River is related to the lower Mis- sissippi River problem in the fact that White River is a tributary to the Mississippi River, and the rate of discharge, etc., all have an appreciable effect upon the lower course. For instance, should all of the tributaries be improved before the lower course of the river was improved, serious consequences would follow. Local improvement only tends to make the damage more intense farther down the course. The levee situation on White River has little in common with the levee situation of the lower Mississippi River, but there must be some co-operation in the plans of the improve- ment of the two different parts of the same river system. Improve- ment should begin at the lower course and be extended toward the tributaries. The levees which were encountered during the flood investi- gation were all built with the idea of protecting a small area of land, and they were all wisely planned for that purpose. ‘These levees served well in ordinary overflows. In the March flood they were all failures. They were not strong enough to withstand the pres- heard sn ee! SR era h RO 7 Ae aden Se oromiramnpioe see hab . van px : r He; d : ef ML RY VALLonia. 2% 27 37 my), iy Bie IIA we Tasy Tork WHT e Res Beckson Connty weg y gunvecry O} waves ner echt ren valeae) ieselomN eer ci \ Cuarr No. 7 Map of Wast Fork from Brownstown to Sparksville. . r re E « f { abe ee nore helo Ln a wine v tt Ree ee Te? ; ia) ‘ at - Ah: a x DBs ae 5 ; as BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD oF 1913 Iie sure of the water, or were not high enough. Would it be practical to construct levees both strong and high enough to protect the land from floods of the proportions of the recent one? The writers believe that it would be practical to construct levees of such a nature. Several of the levees considered were high enough, but were weak in places. In most cases it would be well to have them higher. A levee is like a chain; it is no stronger than its weakest link. The weak places should be strengthened. The most dangerous enemies to the levees seemed to be the ground- hogs. In very few cases do the levees need to be protected with a rock covering, but it would be well to have trees and shrubs grow- ing on them. The levees considered in this paper were effective for years before the 1913 flood, and would have been effective then if they had been a little higher and a little stronger in a few places where they were subject to unusual strain. The extra expense in making them flood proof would be nominal, and if they are to be used at all they should be made strong, for a weak levee causes much damage when it breaks. There are many places along White River which could be pro- tected by levees. Even in many of the narrower confines of the valley, levees could be made with much benefit to the land. For instance, along the East Fork of White River the valley itself is continually turning to the right and to the left and the river crosses from side to side in its tendency to be always on the outside of the turn. Where it leaves a bluff on one side to cross to a bluff on the other side, the river bank is usually low; sometimes there is no bank at all, and a low strip of land continues to ‘B,’ on to ‘C,’ but usually it is much lower at ‘A’ and ‘B’ than it is at ‘C,’ where the current enters the river channel. The current flows in this low strip when- ever there is even a minor flood. A levee placed at ‘A’ would be hard to hold, but one placed at ‘B’ would not be so likely to be washed away since the current from the river channel would not strike it. A levee placed at ‘B’ would need to be very little higher than the valley land near the river where it is usually highest. Such a levee would in time cause the low strip to fill with silt and would be a great improvement to the land. The low area to the leeward of the levee would probably become a pond or be very wet, but this condition could be overcome by tiling. } | Fic. 40. Railroad bridge at Shoals. Fic. 41. Water ponded in little stream about Southern Indiana Power Company’s dam at Williams. BEDFORD ~~~ —=- al enteral (A Yon Sess [a] veer us Saws ears Caarr No. 7. Map of East Fork from Ft. Ritner to a place five miles southwest of Williams. On BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD OF 1913 ] BankK-CuTTING Several times in this report, bank cutting has been partic- ularly mentioned as an important phase of the flood situation. Mention has also been made of the fact that bank-cutting is not confined to flood stages, but to stages when the water is three or more feet above low water mark. As a rule, the bottom of the river channel and the lower part of the banks is somewhat tougher than any part above. No bank cutting goes on in the low water condition; but as soon as the water has risen three or four feet in the channel, it begins to come against the outside bank of the river in rounding a meander, and comes in contact with the looser material above the tough, compact, lower part. Caving is then an immediate result. As the water rises higher, it gains in velocity and its efficiency for bank cutting increases until the channel is bank full. This is probably the most favorable condition for bank- cutting, for, as soon as the water begins to flow over the valley land, across the neck of the meander, some of the force of the cur- rent is taken in the direction of the overflow, and the velocity of the current is checked, thereby lessening the cutting power. More- over, when the water rises high over the valley land, the thread of swiftest flow is raised, perhaps, above the banks and bank-cut- ting is lessened. It is interesting to note the relation of the height of the river banks to the width of the valley. On the West Fork above Gosport and on the East Fork above Sparksville, the valleys are from one to four miles wide, due to the very susceptible erosiveness of the Knobstone Group of Rocks. In these regions the banks are low, ranging from six to twelve feet above low water mark. From Gosport to Worthington, on the West Fork, and from Sparksville to the southwestern corner of Martin County, on the East Fork, the valleys range from less than a quarter of a mile to a mile in width, due to the highly resistant erosiveness of the Upper Mis- sissippian rocks and the Mansfield sandstone of the Lower Penn- sylvanian rocks. The banks in these regions are from twelve to forty feet above low water mark. The remaining parts of both forks are in the easily eroded coal measures, and the valleys are, therefore, wide. Again, the banks are low, ranging from eight to fifteen feet m height. Thus, in the wide valley regions, the river banks are low, and in the restricted valley regions the river banks are high. The above conditions and relations are easily explained. In +s 176 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES the wide valley region, the streams meander about in the wide allu- vial expanse, continually cutting on the outside of the meanders and shifting the channel of the stream constantly. This constant shifting or changing of the river channel gives no time for the in- cision of the stream bed, or for the building up of natural levees along the banks. This shallowness of the channel keeps the stream in the easily moved sand and gravel underlying the sandy soil of the surface, and does not permit it to have the tougher, compact material for its banks. Such conditions favor bank-cutting and meandering. Should the stream have time to cut down into the more resistant material, it is likely that the bank-cutting would be less. The alluvial material of the valley however is deep, since the valley is a filled valley; probably seventy-five feet in depth below the present river channel. In the narrow valley regions, the channel does less mean- dering and especially in the East Fork region, where there is little or none. Consequently, it has remained in its present channel for a very long time, and has cut down into the more resistant material. Trees have grown along the banks and natural levees have been made. The channel, therefore, is deep. Perhaps the most im- portant factor in keeping the channel constant is the narrow winding valley itself. The valley in these restricted regions is a great in- trenched meandering gorge. The channel crosses from one side of the valley to the other, always keeping its outside bend against a precipitous limestone or sandstone cliff, with the valley always on the inside of the bend. This condition exists because of the winding valley itself. It is impossible for further meandering to take place, because the outside of the bends is always against a rocky cliff generally over a hundred feet in height. This is sufficient to explain the much greater depth in the constricted regions of the White River valleys. Before considering the details of bank cutting along White River, something should be said about the need of the preserva- tion of the land affected and the loss to society in general because of the consequent loss in production. If the present rate of in- crease in population continues, there will be 200,000,000 people in the United States by the year 1950. When we stop to con- sider what it means to produce twice as much as we are producing now, we are constrained to think of vast numbers of acres called into use which are not at present available. As the population increases, more and more food is needed; but the subsistence space does not increase. It is even made less, for actual room is used | eS gander 0M tellin ph pends Rn ce gene emanate WAH (ike ok ae som merle a ee ‘ Br . # Cay te Sieh Ma) ocr ep meena SORT ES Hi i : ny ahi Pere - ; A ? , H Sennett Dee au ips enapeeer tere (our eed Leap hiprtegdiinsj wah “ _ n ie x 3 : SUL EASE (Nea Ne Secon See . 7 t ps “— ee Widen acu alae Bp ichindas ek sed! | 1 petal ae By eS ¥ ye : £ ; : 5 j ot 2 = Siar eee. TZ ie “a ous, Ipdiany Ne gtennd NOS EVE Wy We SN Nos A ON White Rainer in WNartin Se ea\ Cnarr No. 8. [Jase Lane Extending from Chart 7 down Enst Fork to Loogootec. Q\urx [a]seves 0 Bark Curtin and SSADVBS HY BYBEE-MALOTT: THE FLOOD oF 1913 lee which might otherwise be areas of production. Since the subsist- ence space never becomes greater, the land that is not now practical for production is the land that is the most desirable. Valley lands with their deep alluvial material are, as a rule, fertile. They form the cream of the land. For ages the rich soils formed on the up- lands by decaying vegetation and animal life have gradually accu- mulated in the valley lands. The vast fertile stretches of the Mississippi valley, one of the greatest and most fertile areas in the world, are perhaps the greatest asset that the American people have. Yet there are thousands of acres lying in idleness, waiting for the time to come when the population has so increased that these areas will be demanded for subsistence space. The time is coming near; already the clamor is heard in the numerous schemes and plans for making this land available for production. Let us see what it means for an acre of land to be lost by bank- cutting and caving. It is true that land thus cut out by the waters is not absolutely lost, but it is unavailable for at least ten years, and probably twenty years. All figuring, however, is done on the least number of years; but it is to be understood that double the loss due to the lack of production may be figured, and the result be as nearly correct. The coarse material cut from the outside of the meander is carried across the stream by cross currents and deposited on the lower and inner side of the meander. The finer material is carried on in suspension, and usually the most of it is deposited as silt over the valley land where the waters are relatively quiet. The sand and gravel bar thus made on the lower inner side of the meander grows larger each year, and gradually vegetation grows upon it. This vegetation, though scanty at first, is an im- portant factor in causing silt to lodge, and gradually the bar is built up with a layer of fertile silt or soil on top. But it takes at least ten years, or probably twenty, for this to take place. Our acre of land has been lost for ten years at least. During this time it could have been producing sixty bushels of corn yearly. At fifty cents a bushel this could have brought thirty dollars. In ten years three hundred dollars have been lost to society, plus the seventy-five dollars that the acre of land itself would bring at pres- ent. In figuring this, one of-the cheapest crops has been used; but it is a crop that is now practical for such acres as are now being lost annually along White River. If the figures were for one of the more intensive crops, they would show a loss running into the thousands. The time is coming when the loss will be so ca. ulated. Bank-cutting is not much of a problem in the constricted val- 178 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES ley regions, and especially so in the constricted region of the East Fork, since the channel does little or no meandering except to follow the intrenched meanders themselves. Considerable bank- cutting occurred, however, in the constricted region of the West Fork. This will be explained later. When in flood stage, the water tends to go directly across the valley next to the sloping bluff, rather than follow the channel across to the other side and sweep around the cliff on the outside of the intrenched meander. (See Diagram 2.) The position where the water leaves the channel (‘A’ in Diagram 2) is usually low, and sometimes considerable bank- cutting is done. : ‘ ee . i j f e ‘ j 2 = Fi ‘ = 4 : 7 x . | \ ' S 4 ; ‘ i “ > . ‘ E tee : if ) f eb 1 “ 1 G . . 4 . 5 , a z » aoe f ‘ \ ! ; 4 is ‘ < ; 1 . 2 es ail y . ; ; i , i ) “3 ; . J 7 3 “, in . t - " f ‘ , - 7 i . ; r \ i i , ; rf : ‘ é “ we ins 7 7 ¥, J y 4 . = ‘ . f oa ~~ 4 1915 3 LY: ‘UNIVERSI DIANA UNIVERSITY BULLETIN Fesrvary 15 us- PEOPLE OF INDIANA AND THEIR p, Professor of Ind NS FOR PURPOSES OF VOCATIONAL LEONAR . = ERT = By Rose ATION. Li = J ae not vers Uni the of studenis = st Contents Reig ESE By OH MEARIIB IE SOPH ee ery a ee Ae wl PRES UIEOSGIE OAD IMENEATRY 0 os ce wa Po oe ee ee le be eee ve ubs Chap. Tp ie Sahih Acts. CONCERNING THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA :...............5...-. Sieeereopiuation and stave Rank... fie oe ce ee alee WERE St A benVinona GION, ssi 8 os cc cee Se ee SR ee Le ee §3. Distribution of Residents in Rural and Urban Communities. Riese orarca and White Residents... a2 25.05 Se ee ee Soe eeNative and Moreign Born Residents... 2.7.5. 0....... 0.08. SO DBE ECR A Ciyee 71s eee ea pede ee re ‘Bam OCCUPATIONS OF THE PRopLE OF INDIANA ...-......:.:....... $1. Methods of Determining Importance of Occupations......... §2. The Distribution of Workers in the Nine Groups of Occu- OMS eee eg eas Fo er ine Webern 23 2 ke. §3. Occupational Pursuits of Various Age Groups............... AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS... .:. eae Re ep re enh ee ae mete General Status of Agriculture... .. 22.202... See Stee Number of Agricultural Workers............-.2........-+-- $2. Number of Farms and Extent of Farm Acreage in 1910...... Nomemevecrtuce Ol Harm PPrOPCEbY 2.14.55 35 oe keel ee ee es Nematic rom-barm= brOdUGtUS. ts. > ets oe §5. Character and Tenure of Farm Ownership.................. age A ericuliural Pursuits m Indianas. 22. 223...) oe Sia Summarized Acricultaral Pursuttse< 02. 062... 200s oe. 2. Number of Workers in Specific Agricultural Pursuits. ....... § $3. Specific Agricultural Pursuits of each Age Group............ INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES PAGE IV. MANuFrAcTURING AND MECHANICAL PURSUITS .04,.- 3 eee 65 Part 1. Occupational Distribution of Industrial Workers............ 65 $1. Number employed in Industrial Occupations and General Status:of Industrial Pursuits. 20). 2 ee 65 §2. Workers in Summarized Industrial Pursuits:.....-232 3). 67 §3. Workers in Specified“Industrial’ Pursuits: 2-32 29h ee 68 1... Building Trades... 2020 oe Ss Pea ee ce 68 2... Metal: Industries .c0 52... 535 a Sa ne eee ec 69 3. ‘Clothing, Industries .00 Ee ee 70 4A. Wood, Industries... oso ey ee (fal 5.. “Miscellaneous: Pursuits... 20 4 aoe ee 72 6: Clay; Glass;Stone, Htc: Industriess)2.3) 3a 72 Le Omhetals. ee a See ee 13 S..HMeIneGers es ease OCR ee y nmin iol me ees 73 9: ~Food: and Confectionery Industries:.2. a7 73 10: Printing and Publishing 33205 see ee ee 74 11. Leather and Rubber: Industries.23 5.22 © ee 74 12. Textile Industries 2 2.35 615 74 13; Painters, Glaziers, and: Varnisherss soe 75 14. Cigar and Tobacco Industries... 35452 75 15.-.Chemuical- Industries: . 2.3.0 eee 75 16." Liquor and Beverage-Industries).. <3 2 = ee 7 Ive Light, Heat,-and)Fuebs: 202 occ sa ee 76 18): Paper and Pulp; Mills, 3y cio ae eee re 76 19. Jewelry, Gold:and Silver Workers: 3a) eee 216 $4. Specific Industrial Pursuits of Each Age Group of Males and Females. cof tes Ee eee 76 Part u. Specific Facts concerning Manufacturing Establishments.... $7 $1. Number of Establishments, Amount of Wages, and Value of Products. ea a a as 87 §2. Localization of Manufacturing Establishments.............. 88 $3. Number of Boys and Girls and Men and Women Employed in Manufacturing Establishments... 2325022) eee S9 $4. Number Employed in Manufacturing Establishments, Wages Paid, and Value of Products) 33.2 90) §5. The Principal Manufacturing Interests in Indiana........... 92 Part 11. “Interstate Comparisons -2)-3 2a .0 2. ie 92 $1. Industries in Which Indiana Ranked First, Second, and Tir dd eee Be ee A IT ee 92 VIP: VIII. XII. CONTENTS 3 PAGE “TP TR YANTD BY Os STL GUS ea 94 Sie soummanized abradeseursurts. 202k cake kk 94 SU SDC CLIC MUA OMUESULUS: Sanna (cS oll Slee Pinan ge chine 95 Soe eopecuic Pursuits of Age Groups: ..¢..:. 05.52.21. 02..-- ee ee PoOMESTIC AND PERSONAL SERVICE PURSUITS...........:.... oe 100 Sie UIMIMaArized: VuUnsuitsey eek fl ek eee 100 Sm ODE CUCM UT GUUS parce ni Mert he hee Oe hae es ae 101 Soe ODeCIiC VWiOnKiOM Age Groups, 4.6. 62 alo. Phe UE eee. 102 SRRAN SP ORATION MENURS ULES ori eae 5.88 muah dt ces hse: elt wok batts 105 Nie OUMMINMN AT CCMEUInSUNGGa ne wea tae cea Lee lS Ee 106 Se OPC Cle aUINGUItSa a's ios ee rere bal eS OM 107 See SDeCInCeVVOLK Of Age Groups... oe ee 109 EFRODESSKONATH ols URS ULES ait ek ea Re a EY oe, OP hee vats 113 Simeopeciic Professional: Pursuits. so. -S:. 6st Ss oo. en 113 Wen opecwic Work of Various Age-Groups.. 42)... 20. oss 114 Oar ROWERS OTT fae on eetns g aee! Baa hielo Jas we 116 Nig SMectineN Ole Cal ME UnSULUS osu... ere oe a eh el ae 116 Wee eopecnic Work of Various Age Groups. = 3.2: .2.550...2.0....: 116 ENN GM GUIS WLS Mert: te, ep Seer ae ES ee 118 Sinope cuie WVimMimesRurSUItS 7-245) cc. Ae. 2. 118 Sh Specific Work of Various Age Groups-....... 2. ......2.--.- 118 BIG OME VICH EO URSUITS ts oki. seekers Oe ee! Sep ieee 120 SIP SC Glin Ce UNG UN b Siete 0 ore eee eee: Sine ats Ler len ON 120 wee pectic Workor Various Age Groups: =... 2.22.20... ...---- 120 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL Pursuits. 122 $1. Comparative Number of Workers in Agriculture and Industry. 122 Nee New, Workers Emterme Industry. .<<2)2.. 0... a... 5-02 s 22s 124 Nowe Decreascunpbanmaranditarm Acreage... =-.2.5..¢.2+--°- 125 $4. Comparative Value of Agricultural and Manufactured RO MUCUS Wee were Ment eee cris a ie a veo Sas a 127 Soe Value oiMarmebroperby...... 2. .....4.-f4:F a4 thet BS 27 So. Industry Now as Important as Agriculture.................\128 4 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES PAGE XII. Depucrions RELATIVE TO EDUCATION... <0. 5) ee 130 Part i. Relative to Population and General Education.............. 130 $1. Widely Distributed Responsibilities for General and Voca- tional Rducation238:... 7.5. ee See Peal ie ieee 130 §2° Illiteracy in the Entire Population)... 3 ee 130 $3. Stability-of Population..02.. a ee 131 §4. Education for Native White Residents. 3.) (a5...) ee 131 §5. Education for Colored Residents. = 214) 2 131 §6. Education for Foreign Born Residents... 22226) 46 131 Part u. Relative to Industrial Arts for Elementary Schools......... 132 $1. Elementary Period and Fundamentals Concerning Course of Study oe Pee se ee 132 §2. Industrial Art in Hlementary Grades: 7. 2 eee 133 Part 11. Content of Courses for Pre-vocational Period for Grammar and High Schools, Junior High Schools, etc., Based on Occupational Facts 2.30.5 yee 134 $1. Fundamental Assumptions 0. 5 ee 134 §2: Local Surveys.and Courses of Study. 2.27. ete 134 §38. General Facts Concerning Courses, Based on Occupational Statistics of Indiana ’)i. 24.0 °° oS 2 a ee 136 §4.. -Courses-for Boys. oes ea. Dees See 136 $5. .« Courses for’ Girls 3 Se ee ee 138 Part iv. Content of Courses for Vocational Schools: Day, Part-time, and: Continuation. 05.0055 5 6.15 eo ee 140 §1.. Local Surveys-and Courses of Study... 2222 140 §2. Courses for Day Vocational Schools: 4. 4 2 140 §3. Courses for Part-time Vocational Schools........... Neng nies 141 Part v. The Need of Occupational Surveys and Analyses............ 142 $1. The Limitations of. the: Census Data 3200) 2312 142 $2. Local Occupational Surveys. ..o. 3.22. 2) ee 143 §3.. Occupational Analyses:. 5. 5520) 2255 dee: eee eee 148 PSeDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES No. 26 BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA FEBRUARY 15, 1915 Purpose and Scope THE purpose of this study is, first, to establish a fact basis for the consideration of vocational education and the development of vocational schools and courses in Indiana; second, to serve as a reference and compendium of information concerning the people of the State and their occupations; and, third, to isolate specific problems requiring further study and investigation. The facts herein recorded may be used as a basis for determin- ing the general content of courses in elementary industrial art, pre-vocational courses in agriculture, industry, commerce, domestic and personal service, and vocational courses in ‘‘constant’’ occupa- tional pursuits in the State. Since the occupational data concern the State as a whole, the facts are useful only in a general way for determining the specific day, part-time, and continuation voca- tional courses adapted to local communities. As a compendium of information, it records the population facts of number, sex, age, residence in rural and urban com- munities, nativity, and illiteracy. It also records occupational facts showing actual and relative distribution of workers in the nine groups of occupations, the specific pursuits in each of the nine groups, together with the number of males and females so engaged, the number of boys and girls, youths, men, and women in each pursuit, and the number and percentage of skilled, un- skilled, and semiskilled workers in the industrial occupations as well as the number of helpers and apprentices. Concerning manu- facturing establishments, it records the number and distribution of factories in places of various sizes, an enumeration of the types of factories on the basis of the product, the number of males and females employed in each of the types of factories, the amount of wages paid workers, and the value of the manufactured products. The manufacturing enterprises in which Indiana ranks first, second, and third, compared with all States in the Union, are also specified. 6 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES The scope of the data is revealed by briefly stating the present status of the clothing industries in Indiana as recorded in the study. The clothing industries are grouped under the manu- — facturing and mechanical pursuits, which, compared with the num- bers employed in the eight other group occupations, rank second, there being 310,402 males and females so engaged, or 29.9 per cent of the working population of the State. In the manufactur- ing and mechanical pursuits, the manufacture of clothing ranks third on the basis of total number employed, there being 3,565 males and 24,019 females. It is seen that over 80 per cent of the workers in this industry are females. The specific clothing pur- suits in Indiana include dressmaking, employing 3 males and 13,469 females; sewing-machine operating, 165 males and 4,356 females; millinery, 96 males and 4,210 females; tailoring, 2,243 males and 756 females; suit and coat making, 315 males and 193 females; hat making, 184 males and 19 females; also 104 male and 149 female laborers, 504 male and 651 female semiskilled operatives, and 1 male and 216 female apprentices. Of all those engaged in the clothing industries in Indiana about 918 of each 1,000 workers were skilled, 64 semiskilled, and 9 unskilled, together with 8 apprentices. Concerning clothing manufactured in establishments or factories _ it is noted that 4,073 workers were engaged in manufacturing men’s clothing, including shirts, that their wages* amounted to $1,305, and that the value of the product* was $8,029; 1,933 were engaged in manufacturing hosiery and knit goods, receiving $687 in wages, the value of the product being $2,502 ; 1,582 were engaged in manufacturing cotton goods, receiving $478 in wages, the prod- uct being worth $2,502; 129 engaged in manufacturing women’s clothing, receiving $449 in wages, the product being worth $2,058 ; 776 engaged in manufacturing woolen and worsted goods, receiv- ing $293 in wages, the product being worth $1,570; 468 engaged in manufacturing boots and shoes, receiving $159 in wages, the product being worth $978; and 166 engaged in making millinery trimmings and lace, receiving $59 in wages, the product being worth $538. On the basis of the value of the manufactured prod- ucts, the clothing industries ranked below the tenth. Concerning the number of boys and girls under 16 engaged in the clothing industries, there were no boys reported as so engaged, but 589 girls were reported employed as follows: 99 dressmakers’ apprentices, 8 dressmakers, 319 sewers and sewing- *Wxpressed in thousands throughout this section. PURPOSE AND SCOPE ~ machine operatives, 88 milliners, and 75 tailoresses. The specific clothing pursuits of women between the ages of 21 and 44 years and over 44 years are also recorded. The two problems isolated for further study are, first, that of deriving and establishing a simple method by which local school authorities may ascertain the number and distribution of workers in the various occupational pursuits, and the age, sex, nativity, education, and educational deficiencies of these workers; second, that of detailed occupational analyses in terms of knowledge and skill required, etc., in these industrial pursuits: coal mining, marble and stone quarrying, slaughtering and meat packing; the chemical industries, manufacturing sewing-machines, automobiles, railroad cars and car parts, wagons, carriages, and agricultural implements. The facts contained in the study were derived from the reports of the 1910 United State census, particularly from volumes one and two (‘‘Population’’), volume four (‘‘Occupations’’), and volume six (‘‘Agriculture’’), and volumes eight, nine, and ten (‘“‘Manufacturers’’). Though the facts contained in these reports were derived in 1909 and 1910, it is thought that, in the main, they are relatively true for 1914, since changes in population, occupations, ete., have been in degree rather than in kind. In this connection, however, several facts should be suggested. In 1913 the section of the Indiana school law concerning com- pulsory education was modified so that now working permits may be issued only to youths over 14 years of age who have completed the fifth grade, and all youths between the ages of 14 and 16 must be either attending school or profitably employed. This change in the law may have reduced the total number and per- centage of boys and girls under 16 years of age profitably em- ployed. Also, in all probability at the present time the number and percentage of residents in urban communities has increased so that now the population of Indiana is evenly distributed be- tween the eities and the country. The number and percentage of workers engaged in industrial pursuits has also probably increased since 1910. The number and percentage of women in industry, trade, transportation, and public service has also probably in- creased. The-manufacturing of automobiles and parts has also assumed a degree of greater importance since 1910. In scope, the occupational Information pertains to the State as a whole and State distributions, percentages, averages, etc., must not be apphed alike to cities, towns, villages, and rural districts. 8 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Thus, while for the State as a whole about 270 of every 1,000 females between the ages of 16 and 20 were profitably employed in wage- earning pursuits, this number and distribution are incorrect for both the cities and the rural districts, smee in Indianapolis about 530 of every 1,000 females between 16 and 20 were profitably employed, whereas in country towns the number was much lower. It is thought by the writer that the number of apprentices and helpers, as distinguished from laborers and semiskilled operatives, was not correctly measured by the census enumerations, and also that the distribution of industrial workers into skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled groups may be questioned, since there are as yet no clearly defined standards for this differentiation. For those not wishing to read the entire bulletin, the material is so arranged that the condensed facts may be ascertained by reading the ‘‘ Abstract and Summary’’ and ‘‘ Deductions Relative to Education.’’ Abstract and Summary CHAP. I. FActs CONCERNING THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA §1. Population and State Rank. The population of Indiana in 1910 was 2,700,816, and the State rank was ninth. §2. Interstate Migration. Indiana has lost in population through interstate migration. Up to 1910, there were living of those born in Indiana, 2,805,517, but of this number’ only 2,031,345 were residing in Indiana. This loss amounts to 774,171 persons. However, natives of other States to the number of 501,420 moved to Indiana, reducing the net loss to 272,751, or 7.8 per cent. §3. Distribution of Residents in Rural and Urban Communities. During the last thirty years the rural population has decreased and urban population has increased so that in 1910, 57.6 per cent of the people lived in the country and 42.4 per cent lived in places of over 2,500 inhabitants. ; Indiana, while gaining substantially in population from 1889 to 1910, lost in rank from sixth to ninth place, and the rate of increase during the same period lowered from 18.1 per cent to 7.3 per cent. From 1890 to 1910 the percentage of rural population decreased from 73.1 per cent to 57.6 per cent, and the urban population increased from 26.9 per cent to 42.4 per cent. The absolute number of residents in rural places was 5.1 per cent less in 1900 than in 1910, while, during the same period, the absolute gain in urban places was 30.5 per cent. In 1914 the number of residents in Indiana was doubtless evenly divided between rural and urban commu- nities. The greatest increase in population from 1890 to 1910 occurred in places from 10,000 to 25,000 inhabitants, and in places of this size 12.6 ABSTRACT AND SUMMARY i) per cent of the people resided in 1910, a percentage greater than in other classes of places save the rural. From 1900 to 1910 the number of places having a population or 10,000 to 25,000 increased from fourteen to twenty; those having from 5,000 to 10,000, from twenty-three to twenty-six, and those having 2.500 to 5,000 decreased from thirty-eight to thirty-seven. Aside from rural commu- nities, the class of places where the greatest percentage of people resided was the 10,000 to 25,000, the percentage being 12.6 per cent, a gain of 3.9 per cent over 1900, and 6.0 per cent over 1890. $4. Colored and White Residents. Considering the State as a whole, colored residents constitute but 2.2 per cent of the entire population. In 1910 over 97 of every 100 inhabitants were native white born, and only two of every 100 were native colored born. Though from 1890 to 1900 the colored population increased 27.2 per cent as compared with an in- crease of 14.5 per cent of whites, from 1900 to 1910 the colored increase was only 4.9 per cent and the white increase 7.4 per cent. §5. Native and Foreign Born Residents. Considering the State as a whole, but 5.9 per cent of the inhabitants in 1910 were foreign born. In 1890, 93.3 per cent of the residents in Indiana were native born, and in 1910 the percentage was 94.1, leaving 5.9 per cent foreign born in 1910 as compared with 6.7 per cent in 1890. Of the 159,322 foreign born whites in Indiana in 1910, 111,396 lived in urban communities and 47,926 in rural communities. There are a sufficient humber in the following places to constitute a real educational problem : IGA CHANEY OOS 4:5) 5 5 ateneile: Gleses ieee cans 19,767 MRerRe UE alent icueose ae oe a otis vos 3,796 SOwiila JBCINCE 3 6'5 seeraa Sia oabuo on 13,420 TGakbary eb betes cee stcseae pany seneen: este 2,019 NSC MICAS Osc sics as eke ow on 10,295 TWA D OTE CR anew erence ee: 1,954 (CANIS Peet omnes elk ine hele Bee 8,242 IMGESIMEN YUEN Goo ao wiceue one dG © 1,803 JENOIELE. AV EVN VANE) 5 ten ona a ester ee ae 7,204 EOWA Geter caster errsmUeN sae: industries’ = ..... 0252. 6. : Sepa ANE ey te PHIL 399 mu 379 IVES COMMENTS OU Sar Cee er Es area eae ee hinge hal ahe 306 255 105 334 Glayeolass: ond Stone: .... ov... Ss. eee eat wu cnae aie: 167 SHE tee 508 Engineers (mechanical and electrical)......... 1,000 See Mood) and; comfectionery. {4:5 2... i cet ee 446 207 ee 347 Rrimiinerand: puplishimen is ss Sec ws acs ceases 738 219 ars 40 Weather and Tub ber oc aes Secs iee eo dicts eles « Sail 483 She 192 *Including mining so as to make data comparable with previous decades. yDoes not include mining. 14 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Semi- A ppren- Un- Skilled. skilled. tices. skilled “bey qrilley AMAUGNTISHPUS soos oo eas ode ae Gobo k eos ee. 3 834 pate 158 Painters, glaziers and varnishers..............1,000 Cigar and) tobacco wOLrkers\he 4) o sisisalet ih vere ic i 940 Rea 6 @hemi call Pain GuStEie Sees | pee eee eed ee eee fae 421 eae 476 Iquor and sbevierasesreween. gira ilers ar aoe eee Tee 124 act 876 ichtheatwands tu elimrecicgees scence eee eee eta Shae 996 JER Vor rool yoniNyay oboe ws oom on Bee so doo eo Al ae 368 evans 632 Of each 1,000 workers engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pur- suits in Indiana in 1910, there were approximately: 871 skilled, 285 semi- skilled, 8 apprentices, 334 unskilled.* On the basis of 1,090 in each of the manu‘acturing and mechanical pursuits, workers were distributed in specific skilled, semiskilled, apprentices «nd un skilled occupations as follows: BUILDING TRADES SKILLED SEMI: KILLED APPRENTICES UNSKILLED Carpentersi=y. 22540. 309 Helpersacen-eiae 22 | General | bo ers .......363 Painters, glaziers and Apprentices........ 5 Varnishers: 20 .. 101 Building contractors. 72 Brick and_ stone MASONS ase PAS Plumbers, gas fitters. 36 ® Plasterers vito 24 Paper hangers....... 18 Motalece ete: 608 TRotalepeessence 27 Votalvmatepiecnyt 363 METAL INDUSTRIES Machinists and mill- Steel workers and Blast furnaces.......... 127 WHGNtSSa sae eae 229 rclling mills...... 70 Steel works and rolling Blacksmiths. ....... 113 | Blast furnaces... .. 38 |*. Zeca Tate Meee near me 97 Tron molders and Car and railroad | Car and railroad shops. 48 GASLEISSereee hee 68 ShOpS: cee: 33 Auto factories......... 23 AINSmithSsiesee ee 27 | Auto factories...... 23 Miscellaneous......... 10 Boiler makers....... 21 | Miscellaneous...... 10 Rollers ea ees 15 Miscellaneous....... 40 otaliaeeerr te ollS Motalsecs ers: 174 Totalea ater 305 CLOTHING INDUSTRIES Dressmakers and Clothing factories... 41 | Dressmakers and baborenshe wae i) seamstresses....... 490 | Suit and coat fac- milliners:h es - eaS Sewers and sewing CORES emer: Cee S machine operatives. 164 | Hat factories....... 5 | Tailors and tailoresses 108 | Milliners and mill- inery dealers...... 156 *Workers are here enumerated as skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled on the basis of the census classification. ABSTRACT AND SUMMARY UD WOOD INDUSTRIES SKULLED SeMUSKILL™D APpPRUNTICHS UNSKILLED Cabinet makers. .... 93 | Lurniture, plano and Saw and planing mills. 120 AWAVCLS eimai 68 organ factories... 183 Furniture and bine Coopers............ 32 | Wagon and carriage factories ....... 101 Wood carvers....... 11 factories........ 3 Wagon and carriage Wheelwrights....... 10 | Miscellaneous pur- factories ... 90) SULGS Ry re GLO Miscellaneous pursuits. 68 Saw and planing mill operators......... 30 Moana aiiat.: 217 Moca ye ew 7 395 | A Otel anit ees Gee ee 379 MISCELLANEOUS PURSUITS Firemen (except loco- pote factor- Miscellaneous facto- Laborers- iszellaneous Mote wand wuine 2 eS ee 19 TIOGA nic esunta 105 LACTORIS Aas a ee 318 departments.) .... 153 Bleciacal supply fac- Liborers-Electrical : sup- Mechanies.......... 45 POTIES ew plytactories).... 2.2.16 Pattern and model Paper and box fac- MAKETS oe. 34 bORIES ie ue hee ete: Upholsterers........ 28 Machinery oilers.... 10 Piano and organ GUIMETSE at ee ) Miscellaneous....... 72 Motaliees ele. 3 306 MRotaletss sen 255 A oyeesl bees reyes nea 105 ERO Gal lee Uae alee 234 CLAY, GLASS AND STONE INDUSTRIES Glass blowers....... 126 | Glass factories... .. 183 Laborers — Stone cutters....... 41 | Brick and terra cotta lass factories ...... 192 factories Bees Ora 50 Brick, tile and cement 170 “Potteries... oe 33 Lime, cement and Marble and_ stone gypsum factories... 107 yards... 28 Marble and stone | Lime, cement and NEMO GM acetic 6 26 factories si 18 Pottenlesse sen wise als ms Motal sesh eee S7 Motaleae wae - 167 ARO Gare Mate teers 508 ENGINEERS Stationary engineers. 658 | Hlestricians and elec- trical engineers.... 319 Mechanical engineers. 23 | Mo tala 1,090 | FOOD AND CONFECTIONERY ‘ SUMO at | eet , Bakers..... ce eee 273 |-Candy factories...> 69 |) La orars— Millers (grain, flour Slaughtering and planeh tone a and meat and feed) ........ 124 meat packing.... 44 packing .... 173 Butchers and dressers Fruit and ean Flour and grain ) mills 53 (slaughter houses). 49 | — canners. 29 Miscellaneous. ...... 43 _ Bakeries. . 26 Fruit and vegetable Butter and cheese Canners..2 06 ee 37 | faetories..... 22 iBalkenies see 21 | Flour and grist mills. 17 Butter and cheese facthoniesses esnnts qe () Mobalee eyes 446 Motale pean 207 Mo tals ere eee ceca 347 16 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES PRINTING AND PUBLISHING SKILLED SEMISKILLED APPRENTICES UNSKILLED Compositors, lino- Semiskilled......... 219 typers, typesetters. 589 | Unskilled.......... 40 iPressmen conte. tear 91 Engravers.......... 29 Lithographers....... 15 Electrotypers....... 14 Motalivs aseepare.: 738 otaleece see 259 LEATHER AND RUBBER Shoemakers and cob- Rubber factories.... 194 laborer blers (not in fac- Harness and saddle. 175 Rubber factories. ... 150 OLY) Sorter: 321 | Shoe factories...... 80 Rannierieser aces ses oO Tanneries sss 6. 34 Shoe factories....... 12 morale ie agi} = Totals... 483 Totaly eee 192 TEXTILE INDUSTRIES Loom fixers......... 3 | Miscellaneous...... 376 Laborers— Weavers. . 320 Textile mills (other Spinners. . 68 than cotton and Winders, wheelers. . Woolen) eee se 63 and spoolers... 36 Woolen mills..... .. 59 Carders, combers and Cotton mills). 5....: 36 lappers.ia- howe -2 20 Bobbin boys, doffers and carriers...... 11 Drawers, rovers and LWIStCLStone sane Motale ee 3 Motaleececmee ae 834 Total: Satpal: 158 PAINTERS, GLAZIERS AND VARNISHERS | | Painters, glaziers and | | varnishers. 100 | | | — = CIGAR AND TOBACCO INDUSTRIES | Cigar and tobacco.. 940 Cigar and tobacco..... 60 | CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES £ Miscellaneous chem- Miscellaneous chemical ical factories... .. 326 | factoriesenaeee ee. 452 Powder and _ cart- Powder and ecartridge.. 56 DISC se eee 70 Fertilizer factories. .... 41 Paint factories. .... 25 Paint factories........ 27 Totaleeresseeee 431 Tho ball eee ne 476 LIQUOR AND BEVERAGES | Miscellaneous...... 77 aborersse eee 471 Distillers sees eee 47 Laborers, breweries.... 405 otal peer 124 Totals eee 876 ABSTRACT AND SUMMARY 17 LIGHT, HEAT AND FUEL SKILLED SEMISKILLED APPRENTICES UNSKILLED = ——|| — —— | | Laborers— Oil refineries........ 345 Gasiworks-- eee eolD Light power plants... 302 Charcoal and coke WORKS=ss Sener 26 Motaleun a eee 998 PAPER AND PULP MILLS | Paper mills....... 368 (baper mills2... >. 2... 632 Ocala 368 | Motaliqe sr sae & 632 §4. Specific Industrial Pursuits of Boys and Girls Under 16. The actual number of boys and girls under 16 in the industrial pur- suits was as follows: 30ys under 16 Girls under 16 PES uuriTl Girne = (UTERO MES ee eer cy 661 (613 laborers) IGUAL: “5.8 ee Bide td ice ch eee er 414 41 ROO CME Fett ermal entre cies lar sticcehas ve) widcbie apa lates sont 642 84 (CIO MDS <5 at dene Oe ee ae 589 IVINS COMENIUG OU Cae tes Sete cuts es aye eee Gis late yor eee 911 (8830 apprentices) 224 CGlanyaralasssvam@nStONe ns 2. sae wast cscs we te Talal 51 JESTGNOSTES) «55d Sieger ene ee ae anee et ee eerie 6 MOOdEAN de ConnectlOnery.... 2.5.4. .c8a0e ee es 25 56 TIMMS MGs pPUDLSHINS . 6. - c t a e 42 49 Weabherrande rubbers. ......:..-.. SCN Ae 125 Painters, glaziers, and varnishers.......... 33 ia RCODACCOR Gs cers wicck ob tise eke ee 16 222, GOGAT eae ete oe | al 4 TC MOTRIN DEVELRASES. a. se ee nce ee 61 Paper guncl juho swMilisee sooo ooo ecco eG ooe 34 SPESSTHLIO G29 .6 Gs Neyssee] eee Sr Ns mean ce Aya 250 Part Il. Specific Facts Concerning Manufacturing Establishments $1. Number of Establishments, Amount of Wages, and Value of Products. The number of manufacturing establishments increased 841 from 1898 to 1909. In 1899 there were 7,128 manufacturing establishments in Indiana, while in 1909 there were 7,969, a net increase of 841. or over 11 per cent. The value of manufactured products increased over 71 per cent from 1899 to 1909. In 1899 the value of manufactured products, expressed in thousands, Was $337,072, while in 1909 it was $579,075, an increase of $242,003, or 71.8 per cent. §2. Localization of Manufacturing Establishment. In 1910, 62.7 per cent of all manufacturing establishments were located in places of less than 16,600 inhabitants. 2—2930 18 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Of the 7,969 manufacturing establishments in Indiana in 1910, 2,975, 37 per cent, were located in places of over 10,000 inhabitants, and 4.994, per cent, in places of less than 10,000 inhabitants. In 1910, 60.5 per cent of all employees in manufacturing establish- ments were working in factories located in places of over 10,000 inhabitants. Of the 186,984 workers in factories in 1910, 112,658, or 60.3 per cent, were employed in factories located in places of over 10,000 inhabitants, while 74,826, or 39.7 per cent, were in places of more than 10,000 in- habitants. In 1910 the value of the products of factories in places of 10,000. in- habitants and over was 60.2 per cent of the total value of all products. Of the total value of Manufactured products, $579,075,046, we find that $348,759,733, or 60.2 per cent, was from factories in places over 10,000 in- habitants, while $230,315,3138, or 39.8 per cent, was from places of less than 10,000 inhabitants. $38. Number of Boys and Girls and Men and Women Employed in Manufacturing Establishments. Of those employed in manufacturing establishments in 1910, 19 of every 1,000 were under 16 years of age. Of each 1,000 employed in manufacturing establishments in 1910, 862 were males over 16 years old and 119 females over 16 years old. or pe or 62.7 §$4,5. Number Employed in Manufacturing Establishments, Wages Paid, and Value of Products. The Principal Manufacturing Interests in Indiana. The ten leading manufacturing pursuits and enterprises of Indiana from the standpoint of the number employed in 1910 were: Foundry and machine shops; car manufacturing and repairing; iron and steel works and rolling-mills; furniture and refrigerator; lumber and timber products; glass; carriage and wagons; automobiles, including parts and bodies; printing and publishing; agricultural implements. The ten leading manufacturing pursuits and enterprises from the standpoint of the value of the products in 1910 were: Slaughtering and meat-packing; flour and grist-mills; foundry and machine shops products ; iron and steel works and rolling-mills; liquor and distillery products; automobile, including parts; lumber and timber products; furniture and refrigerator manufacturing; car manufacturing and repairing; printing and publishing. Part Ill. Interstate Comparisons $1. Industries in Which Indiana Ranked First, Second and Third. From the standpoint of the value of the products, on an interstate comparison basis, Indiana ranks first, second and third in the fol- lowing: First rank. Second rank. Third rank. Sewing-machines. Calcium light. Street railroad cars. Wool pulling. Cement. Glass. Saws. Musical instruments. Windmills. Children's carriages and Carriages, wagons and sled materials. ABSTRACT AND SUMMARY 19 CHAP. V. TRADE PURSUITS. §§1, 2. Summarize Trade Pursuits; Specfiic Trade Products. Com- merce and trade engaged 99 of each 1,000 male workers and 81 of each 1,000 female workers in 1910. Of each 1,000 workers in trade pursuits there were 334 retail dealers, 242 salesmen and saleswomen, 124 clerks in stores, 57 commercial travelers, 50 deliverymen (store), 31 insurance agents, 28 real estate agents, 22 store laborers, 17 bankers and bank officials, 16 newsboys, 12 sales agents. This list includes 983 of the 1,000, the remaining 67 being divided among ten other pursuits. §3. Specific Pursuits of Age Groups. The actual number of boys and girls under 16 in the various trade pursuits was as follows: Boys under 16. Girls under 16. Sale Sinemet rss Se eat, br co cana ed aah ete ee 333 LD (CUEEKS MIMS COMES Ha ete aes We deecctie le shoei ers 331 196 WaborernssamdypWOnbersis cays us. ls shelecotetecs 108 Ve temic Caller Sumer class eds, sie ciate haaee Ds TD SVC TRV AD OSV;Sies. bee ences. gece. or 25 fale = aaa 343 INGWSID OW Siaest Nees saree enon one cee Senne 1,290 IMWEGTIE’ CMHC HeNEISP oe, eters, aug enaaiteas Geo ua iN GIaloRate 2 CHAP. VI. DOMESTIC AND PERSONAL SERVICE PURSUITS §§$1, 2. Summarized Pursuits; Specific Pursuits. Domestic and per- sonal service pursuits engaged 32 of each 1,000 male workers, and 360 of each 1,000 female workers in 1910. Of each 1,000 workers engaged in domestic and personal service pur- suits there were: 296 servants; 128 launderers and laundresses (not in Jaundry) ; 77 barbers. hairdressers, and manicuristS; 67 cooks; 62 house- keepers and stewards; 55 boarding and lodging-house keepers; 86 waiters; 34 janitors and sextons; 31 laundry operatives; 31 saloon-keepers; 30 bar- tenders; 28 nurses (not trained); 20 porters (except in stores); 19 restaurant, cafe and lunch-room keepers; 15 hotelkeepers and managers; 18 laborers. This list includes 937 of each 1,000, the remaining 63 being divided among thirteen minor pursuits.. §3. Specific Work of Age Group. The actual number of boys and girls under 16 in the domestic and personal service pursuits was as follows: Boys under 16. Girls under 16. SOIPL VEIT ES Err Sa a yc 2 a eager ee 250 2,209 aU ey-70}) CLALIVES Users is tus ats ee eee eee 3 AMD CT Seren ehhh as nays Pode te rsaratee gic pcos sam eine dee 30 oNOU/STIILETSS ASI Cae er ek He ia rand CSRS ay Mer Sa ears er 25 66 APA HONS) een a Pe Gee ee te oracee ene cia a Sno 22 ILGIDOMOES HG ohio p bide 6 Src Gb oka Cea eie ocx D2 TO ORGS RS cic poreera nanan nek orate ocG MRRP areca ee 45 HENUTNGIGEC SSCS ieee o ays ie ce rupee Asters ae 43 INGOT DRESS) oa Pes ook nie cae eto boln ke eecionons Gero ec me: 4 CHAP. VII. ‘TRANSPORTATION PURSUITS §$§1, 2. Summarized Pursuits; Specific Pursuits. Transportation pursuits engaged 82 of each 1,000 male workers and 25 of each 1,000 female workers in 1910. Of each 1,000 workers engaged in transpor- 20 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES tation pursuits, there were: 209 laborers (steam railroad) ; 192 teamsters (expressmen and draymen) ; 49 telephone operators; 45 brakemen (steam railroad) ; 45 locomotive engineers; 43 laborers (road and street build- ing) ; 40 telegraph operators; 39 switchmen (steam railroad) ; 37 locomo- tive firemen; 32 foremen and overseers (steam railroad) ; 31 conductors (Steam railroad) ; 30 mail carriers; 29 stable hands; 17 motormen (street cars) ; 17 conductors (street cars); 14 steam railroad inspectors; 14 tele- graph linemen. This list includes 843 of each 1,000, the remaining 157 being divided among thirty-four minor pursuits. §3. Specific Work of Age Groups. The actual number of boys and girls under 16 years of age in the transportation pursuits was as follows: Boys under 16. Girls under 16. TAD OLELS hace fei eee Teen ls Malaise ange MeN 108 Ticket and baggage agents............. 2) TTPO AIMS ECES: S57 ca woe: Gascaees Rule Me alee SH Sa onan 99 NSWLiEH Oy Keseesel a2 Yi allo Keep aR ree lS EAC ee Ne Nie 66 Hack fdriviersunicc cae oie Sree eee 3 Telegraph: Op eLTavOrsivetne seit. cnene acess 3 Telegraph! ame men se avec: qosucee ten ueleneeces 2 MiatliGarniersias. cetnre one ociscceieih cain ae ee ae 2 Bie Telephone vioperavorsi eye oye ceee) oe den Grete ee es 138 CHAP, VIII. PROFESSIONAL PURSUITS $1. Specific Professional Pursuits. Professional pursuits engaged 33 of every 1,000 male workers and 128 of every 1,000 female workers in 1910. Of every 1,000 engaged in the professional pursuits, there were: 3891 school teachers; 108 physicians and surgeons; 83 musicians and teachers of music; 76 clergymen: 74 lawyers, judges, and justices; 33 trained nurses; 24 dentists; 20 editors and reporters; 19 photographers ; 18 civil engineers and surveyors; 16 showmen; 14 draughtsmen; 13 vet- erinary surgeons; 12 artists, sculptors, and teachers of art; 12 attendants and helpers; 11 actors. This list includes 924 of every 1,000, the remain- ing 76 being engaged in seventeen minor pursuits. §2. Specific Work of Various Age Groups. The actual number of boys and girls under 16 years of age in the professional pursuits was as follows: Boys under 16. Girls under 16. IMG ST CLANS IIA re rian nnanih oases Re come eerie eaneesTi tae ara 20 35 REP OTECRS aa cask tceas ay ele ieen asaereet ae ote eaRte 1 PHOTOS ADINET Sica sen ene ein aac oleae einen 5 Civil PCNSIMCERS yee aS ewe alae meet oedema 1 SHOWA TT a rccateaeyreta in eet crsaia acts een ener Sn an 16 ATEN GaMtSc Av ccs resscres sents hie Aue ea al ost ae 9 ACCEOL. Siac attoccnabve yt oiaecamitelees las sties tay elle esite ieee espe ies an 17 CHAP. IX. YLERICAL PURSUITS §1. Specific Clerical Pursuits. Clerical pursuits engaged 27 of each 1,000 male workers, and 96 of each 1,000 femate workers in 1910. Of each 1,000 workers engaged there were: 321 clerks (not in stores); 3138 bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants; 200 stenographers and typists; - ay 2 a ABSTRACT AND SUMMARY On 41 shipping-clerks; 41 agents; 32 messengers and errand boys and gitls; 25 collectors; 19 canvassers; 9 bundle and cash boys and girls. §2. Specific Work of Various Age Groups. The actual number of boys and girls in the clerical pursuits was as follows: Boys under 16. Girls under 16. Clerks and” shippime clerks: 2... 0.0.0... 181 62 TS COKKMECW ELSIE cima atneilajersto Wiccan ie wicca cede 22 39 Stenographers and typists.............. 6 61 OOM Cae COMGGEORSEL tiers cacltis) siciee eee. 30 3 Messenger, bundle and office boys....... 765 133 CHAP. X. MINING PURSUITS $1. Specific Mining Pursuits. Mining engaged 28 of each 1,000 male workers in 1910. Of each 1,000 workers so engaged there were: 785 coal mine operatives, 120 quarry operatives, 38 oil and gas well opera- tives, 20 foremen and overseers, 18 operators. The list includes 981 of each 1,000, the remaining 19 being divided among nine minor pursuits. §2. Specific Work of Various Age Groups. 511 boys under 16 years were employed as coal mine operatives. CHAP. XI. PUBLIC SERVICE PURSUITS $1. Specific Public Service Pursuits. Public service pursuits en- gaged 11 of each 1,000 male workers and 2 of each 1,000 female workers in 1910. Of each 1,000’ workers so engaged there were: 174 guards, watchmen, and keepers; 125 officials and inspectors (U. S8.); 121 policemen; 101 laborers; 100 firemen; 94 officials and inspectors (county); 93 soldiers, sailors, and marines; 91 officials and inspectors (city) ; 30 marshals and constables; 18 officials and inspectors (State) ; 12 detectives. The above listed pursuits include 977 of each 1,000, the remaining 23 being divided among five minor pursuits. CHAP. XII. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL PURSUITS $1. Comparative Number of Workers in Agriculture and Industry. In 1910 there were as many workers in industrial as agricultural pursuits. In 1880, 52.2 per cent of all workers in Indiana were farmers; in 1890, 46.0 per cent; in 1900, 39.0 per cent; in 1910, 32.2 per cent, showing a direct and continued decrease in percentage of agricultural workers. In in- dustrial pursuits, however, in 1880, 17.2 per cent of workers were engaged ; in 1890, 20.5 per cent; in 1900, 29.9 per cent; in 1910, 32.2 per cent.* While in each decade from 1880 to 1910 there was but a very slight percentage of increase in the number of agricultural workers, the greatest in any decade being 1.0 per cent, during the same period of time the per- centage increase in industrial workers ranged from 34 to 64. *Includes mining in 1910, as in the previous years, 1880 to 1910, mining was listed in the census under the manufacturing and mechanical group. 2 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES From 1880 to 1890 agricultural workers increased about 1.0 per cent; from 1890 to 1900, considerably less than 1.0 per cent; and from 1900 to 1910, considerably less than 1.0 per cent. During the same period the in- crease in industrial workers was 44.0 per cent from 1880 to 1890; 34 per cent from 1890 to 1900; 64 per cent from 1900 to 1910. §2. New Workers Entering Industry. Of the increased number of workers in Indiana from 1900 to 1910 one of each 100 was a farmer, and 97 were industrial workers. From 1880 to 1890, of the increased number of workers 9 were farm- ers and 87 industrial workers; from 1890 to 1900 practically no additional farmers, but 34 industrial workers; from 1900 to 1910, 1 farmer and 97 industrial workers. §3. Decrease in Farms and Farm Acreage. The number of farms and farm acreage is decreasing, but the number of manufacturing es- tablishments is increasing. From 1900 to 1910 the number of farms in Indiana decreased 6,412, or 2.9 per cent; farm acreage decreased 519,800 acres, or 1.5 per cent, but the number of manufacturing establishments increased 841, or 11.6 per cent. $4. Comparative Value of Agricultural and Manufacturing Pursuits. Manufactured products were estimated as being worth almost twice as much as agricultural products. In 1909 all farm products were valued at $339,849", and manufac- tured products at $579.075.* The value of Manufactured products increased at a higher rate than agricultural products. From 1899 to 1809 the value of farm products increased $135,399, or 66.2 per cent, while manufacturing increased $242,008, or 71.8 per Cent. $5. Value of Farm Property. The value of all farm property in- creased over 84 per cent from 1900 to 1910. In 1900 all farm property was valued at $978,616,471, while in 1910 it was estimated at $1,809,135,238, an increase of $830,517,767, or 84.9 per cent. Capital invested in manufacturing increased over 131.9 per cent from 1900 to 1910. In 1900 the capital invested in manufacturing amounted to $219,521,000, while in 1910, $508,717,000 was so invested, an increase of $289,896,000, or 131.9 per cent. $6. Industry Now as Important as Agriculture. From all stand- points the manufacturing and mechanical pursuits in Indiana are as important as the agricultural pursuits. CuaPp, XIII. DerpuctTIONS RELATIVE TO HDUGCATION. Part I. Relative to Population and General Education $1. Widely Distributed Responsibilities for General and Vocational Education. The population of Indiana is widely and evenly distributed over the entire State, thus widely distributing the responsibilities for general and vocational education. *Wxpressed in thousands. —— ABSTRACT AND SUMMARY 2: §2. Illiteracy in the Entire Population. Illiteracy, though reduced considerably since 1910, is still present, and, considering the relatively small percentage of foreign born living in the State, is far too high. §3. Stability of Population. The population of Indiana is fairly stable in character. §4. Education for Native White Residents. The principal problem confronting the Indiana schools is educating native born residents. §5. Education for Colored Residents. The high percentage of illit- eracy among colored residents indicates a need for stricter enforcement of compulsory education laws. §6. Education for Foreign Born Residents. Illiteracy among for- eign born has increased and schools and employers of labor should co- operate in the establishment of night schools, factory schools, and part- time schools to reduce illiteracy and general ignorance. Part Il. Relative to Industrial Arts for Elementary Schools $1. Elementary Period and Fundamentals Concerning Course of Study. The elementary period is here considered as comprising grades one to six. Courses should be uniform, should contain only facts essen- tial to all people, and should include study of the primal industries. §2. Industrial Art in Elementary Grades. Primal industries are present in Indiana and carried on all over the State, thus forming an apperceptive basis for their study and opportunities for observation. ‘The primal industries are here interpreted as including food, clothing. wood, metal, clay. and earth products. In Indiana in the field of food production and manufacturing there is farming, dairying, fruit growing. stock and poultry raising, ete., and in manufacturing foods there is baking, slaughtering, meat packing, milling, fruit and vegetable canning, sugar refining, and the manufacture of butter and cheese. In textiles there is manufacturing of cotton and woolen goods; in clothing manufacturing there is the manufacture of shoes, hats, suits, coats, dresses, and under- wear. In the field of the wood industries we find manufacturing of fur- niture, refrigerators, carriages, Wagons, agricultural implements, etc., and the pursuits of carpentering, wood carving, wheelwrighting, and saw-milling. In the field of the metal industries we have the manufacturing of iron and steel, cutlery, railroad cars and parts, tin and enamel ware, automobiles, sewing-machines and the pursuits of machinists, tin, and coppersmiths., moulders, casters, etc. In the field of clay and earth products we find the manufacturing of lime, cement, brick, tile, terra cotta, pottery, and glass, including the pursuits of mining. marble and stone-quarrying, glass-blow- ing, ete. Considering the presence of these primal industrial pursuits carried on all over the State, and that the business of the school is to help intro- duce children to the social order, there is no reason why schools should continue to squander the valuable time of pupils by having them pursue courses in paper and yarn weaving, basketry, and exercises in wood in- stead of introducing courses dealing with the primal industries. 24 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Part Ill. Content of Courses for Pre-Vocational Period for Grammar and High Schools, Junior High Schools, Htc., Based on Occupational Facts §1. Fundamental Assumptions. One of the functions of courses for pupils of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades is to furnish a wide range of experiences and activities to assist in determining pupils’ inter- ests and capacities. §2. Local Surveys and Courses of Study. It is held that local surveys are not needed for determining kinds of pre-vocaticnal courses, since courses looking toward ‘‘constant’’? occupational pursuits in the State are desired in this period. §3. General Facts Concerning Courses Based on Occupational Sta- tistics of Indiana. Pre-vocational schools should include courses per- taining to agricultural, industrial, commercial, household and domestic service, and professional pursuits. §4. Courses for Boys. Courses for boys should include: In the field of agriculture, farming, gardening, dairying, fruit growing, stock raising and forestry; in the industrial pursuits courses in the building trades, metal trades, wood industries, electrical pursuits, printing and publishing, and the manufacturing of clothing; in the commercial pur- suits—salesmanship, wholesaling and retailing, importing and export- ing, work of agents, telegraph operating, bookkeeping, stenography, collecting, ete. §5. Courses for Girls. A variety of types of courses should be pro- vided for girls in order to assist them in determining aptitudes, inter- ests, and capacities. These courses should include: In the field of agriculture—gardening, greenhouse working, dairying, and poultry raising; in the field of industry—dressmaking, millinery, tailoring, composing, proofreading and bookbinding; in the field of commerce— selling, bookkeeping, stenography, and typing; in the professions (aside from teaching )—nursing, photography, architecture, and social work. Part IV. Content of Courses for Vocational Schools: Day, Part-Time, and Continuation §1. Local Surveys and Courses of Study. Before vocational schools and courses are established, communities must discover primal occu- pational pursuits and the type of education needed for these pursuits. §2. Courses for Day Vocational Schools. The constant pursuits in the State of Indiana are suggested in the pre-vocational courses, and these are safe lines for day vocational schools, provided it is found that day vocational courses in these fields are needed in local com- munities. §3. Courses for Part-Time Vocational Schools. The specific needs for particular part-time classes can be determined only py asceriain- ing the lines in which young people are employed in the local com- munity. Part-time courses complementary to the profitable pursuits will be possible for all engaged in the agricultural pursuits, and such courses ABSTRACT AND SUMMARY 25 would reach about 21,000 youths, the greater number being boys. Comple- mentary part-time vocational education is possible for about one-fourth of those engaged in all other pursuits. The great need in Indiana is for part-time courses for general educa- tion. Such courses are needed immediately for about 10,000 boys and girls. Such courses should be eligible for extra State aid, and the law shculd be modified to provide adequately for this educational obligation. Part V. The Need of Vocational Surveys and Analyses §1. The Limitations of the Census Data. The census data were de- rived in 1909 and 1910, and occupational data concern the State as a whole and cities of over 25,000 inhabitants. §2. Lecal Occupational Surveys. A simple method must be derived by which local school authorities may themselves obtain data concern- ing age, sex, nationality, and occupational distribution of workers and their education and educational deficiencies. §3. Occupational Analyses. Occupational studies are vitally needed in mining, stone quarrying, slaughtering and meat packing, in the manufacture of cutlery and surgical instruments, sewing-machines, au- tomobiles, railroad and street cars and car parts, carriages and agri- cultural implements, and in the chemical industries. 26 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES CHAPTER FACTS CONCERNING THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA $1. Population and State Rank The State of Indiana ranked ninth in the Union on the basis of the number of inhabitants in 1910, having a population of 2,700,876. In 1900, the State ranked eighth, the population being 2,016,462. In 1890, the State rank was eighth, the population being 2,192,404, and, in 1880, the rank was sixth and the popula- tion 1,978,301. It is thus noted that Indiana, while gaining sub- stantially in population during the last thirty years, has dropped in rank from sixth to ninth place. Interstate migration is to a small degree responsible for this loss in rank, the actual loss from this cause to 1910 being recorded as 272,571. Doubtless many other factors are responsible for this loss in rank, but no data are available to determine or evaluate other possible causes. The great number of immigrants settling in several of the other States, and the relatively few locating in this State, is perhaps one of the greatest factors. The paragraph on interstate migration and the section relative to nativity treat these topics in greater detail. It is further noted that the State has not only lost in rank when compared with the other States, but its own rate of increase has also lowered in the last twenty years. From 1880 to 1890 the actual increase in population was 214,103, or 10.8 per cent; from 1890 to 1900, 324,058, or 14.8 per cent; and from 1900 to 1910, 184,414, or 7.3 per cent. Comparing the percentage of increase in population in Indiana during these years with the average percentage ierease in population in the United States as a whole, Indiana has not kept pace in growth, since the average increase of all States from 1890 to 1900 was 20.7 per cent and from 1900 to 1910, 21.0 per cent. Table 1 summarizes the facts relative to population thus far presented. ) ~ Facts CoNCcERNING THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA 2 TABLE 1. POPULATION OF INDIANA FROM 1890 ‘TO 1910 | INCREASE IN POPULATION. Crensus.| Total. eae Indiana. | Wes: 4 Year Periods.! Number. | Per Cent. Per Cent. 100k. | 2,700,876) 9 1900 to 1910 184,414 | 7.3 21.0 1900....| 2,516,462 8 ~ 1890 to 1900 | 324, 058 Feralas 20.7 1890... .| 2,192,404 8 1880 to 1890 ZIA M03! |= 21078 PA £5) $2. Interstate Migration It was noted in the opening paragraph of this section that up to 1910 Indiana had actually lost through interstate migration. This is in striking contrast to some of the Western and Middle Western States that have gained materially in this way. Of her own native born population still living in 1910, 2,805,516, there were 774,174, or 27.6 per cent, living in other States, leaving 2,031,345 native born living in Indiana. On the other hand, 501,420 persons born in other States were, in 1910, living in Indiana. Thus, up to 1910, Indiana actually lost through interstate migration 272,751, or 7.8 per cent. Table 2 summarizes the facts relative to interstate migration. TABLE 2. LOSS IN NATIVE POPULATION THROUGH INTERSTATE MIGRATION, INDIANA—1910 | Total Number. | Per Cent of Total. BonMeMOelMgaMa oo... ke. 2,805,516 | imine im other States. ....2...... | 774,171 27 .6 : iivane invindiana,......-..:.5..+- | 2,031,345 Born in other ee living in| Ninclitamlaneen ck el tea. 501,420 19.8 Loss through interstate migration.| 272,751 7.8 §3. Distribution of Residents in Rural and Urban Communities As a preliminary measure in determining the kind and char- acter of vocational education needed in a State, the facts relative to the number of residents in rural and urban communities are of great importance. For instance, in those sections where the great 28 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES majority of the people live in rural communities the problems of rural life are uppermost and are, therefore, the basis for the kind of voeational edueation to be recommended. On the other hand, in the centers of population, as a rule, the economic and social interests relate to commercial and industrial activities and the adjustments incident thereto; such problems, therefore, form the basis for certain phases of vocational education. In 1890, it could have been truly said regarding Indiana that from the standpoint of vocational education the needs of the masses were largely for agricultural training, since 73.1 per cent of the entire population resided in rural communities and 52.2 per cent of all wage-earners were engaged in tilling the soil, raising live stock, ete. In 1910, the population was almost evenly divided between rural and urban communities, the ratio being 57.6 per cent to 42.4 per cent, the greater per cent, however, still resid- ing in the country. From 1890 to 1910 there was not only an actual increase in the number of residents in urban places, but an actual decrease in the number of residents in rural places. Thus, from 1900 to 1910 the actual increase in urban population was 267,541, or 30.5 per cent, and the actual decrease in rural population was 83,127, or 5.1 per cent. Comparing Indiana with the United States as a whole, it is seen that this increase in urban population has been general. Table 3 presents the facts concerning urban and rural population and Graph 1 illustrates the variations in dis- tribution from 1890 to 1910. TABLE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN INDIANA IN URBAN AND RURAL COMMUNITIES, 1890-1910 INCREASE AND 1910. 1900. 1890. DECREASE* 1900-1910. + Perle. en platen |e Per Per Number. Gane: Number. Gane Number. Cen Number. Gant: Total..... .|2, 700,876) 100-0/2, 516,462) 100-0|2, 192, 404)-10020|\ eee Urbanao:= 1,148,835) 42.4) 876,294) 34.3] 590,039) 26.9) 267,541) 30.5 | Rural...... 1,557,041] 57.6)1,640,168) 65.7)1,602,365, 73.1) *83,127, 5.1 AVERAGE FOR UNITED STATES Facts CoNCERNING THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA 29 GRAPH I Distribution of Population in Urban and Rural Communities URBAN RURAL 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% © 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 10% 80% I | \ | 1890 {890 \900 1900 i910 SIO GAIN URBAN LOSS RURAL 40% 30% 20% 10% OQ 10% t The inerease in urban population and the decrease in rural population was not primarily due to places of less than 2,500 in- habitants enlarging their corporate mits, thus bringing them into the 2,500 class and apparently reducing the rural population. If this were true there would have been in 1910 more communities of the 2,500 to 5,000 class than in 1900, but it will be noted in Table 4 that in 1900 there were 38 communities of this class and in 1910 only 37. Aside from the decrease in the number of places in this class, a decrease in the actual number of inhabitants is also shown. This decrease amounted to 379 persons. The chief inerease has occurred in the cities of the 10,000 to 25,000 class, the actual number of such cities having increased from 10 in 1890 to 14 in 1900 and to 20 in 1910. Aside from the rural population which represents 57.6 per cent of the total population in 1910, cities of this class have for the last twenty years contained a greater percentage of the population than those of any other class. In 1890 this percentage was 6.6 per cent; in 1900, 8.7 per cent, and 1910, 12.6 per cent. The-actual number of residents in com- munities of the various class sizes for the last twenty years will be found in Table 4. Top ege‘zZ09'T On oaloe De Uechetetoe Cuno HO) OP EeKCO eVese) lairispeteHke Wnt cetieie ys 9: J¢ 1F0 ‘2S ‘T fede te OEORO. O00 uo. oll) ds Dy eas OSD cO:00- O.lOn Oo OPO Oo Ode OO Qin who [einyy sn SY 1¢8 ‘FOI Ig Pg LSE ‘9ET 8g 0'¢ 826°C Ue meieaigs Stem es aie 000°E ©4 00¢*% 5 ee G7 (60 81 V9 {ISL 191 8 OL 062881 Ciara See eae SG 000°0T 04 000°E H 5 S2 9°9 Ch6 SFI Ol IS E29 SIZ rI 9 ZI |966°66E OG isl an ean 000°E% © 000‘0T ~ = BE 99¢ OTT g OZ P6L 9LT if Hmeeal (6 IGF ‘Sh i oe ge eee cE a Range 000‘00T ©4 000°E% ee ‘ ‘ | ( ‘ a SP 9SF ‘GOT I 19 FOL 691 I Je 09 “Ez | Bes oR au Ree econ ae LIAO PUR YOO‘ OOT Z, é — ‘uoT} “UuOT} || “dor =< = [CLO eles mee "‘Soovld -etndog /| . "SOO = (cial (Ce Baalleae "‘SooV[q a [B10], Jo eter e Ne TOQUIN NA [BIOL jo gente laquinn || [BJO], jo HN LOQUIN NY a Jud) 19g yuory) Lod yuor) lod ‘SHOVIG JO SASSVT/) Z | a SASNA) 06ST 'SASNA)) 0061 | "'SASNAD) OT6I 0061 OL 0681 “SHOVId AO SHSSVIO AG VNVICGNI HO NOILVTNdOd 7% ATAVL 30 Facts CONCERNING THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA a4 Considering the percentage of increase in population from 1900 to 1910 in communities of the various class sizes in Indiana, it will be noted in Table 5 that the decrease in rural population was 5.1 per cent, whereas the increase in places from 2,500 to 25,000 was 26.1 per cent; in places from 25,000 to 100,000, 37.7 per cent, and in places of over 100,000, 36.7 per cent. TABLE 5. PER CENT OF INCREASE URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION, BY CLASSES 1910. 1900. 1900-1910. SIZE OF PLACES By POPULATION. : Per Cent Number. Number. Increase and | Decrease.* MOON Grmore. 2... .2. 233 , 650 170,963 36.7 PON to 100-0000... ..... 0. 0s I 245,421 178, 215 78 5500 20h 000 a or 664,764 527,116 26.1 [RU TEBE oe oi a ee ee PAS Bee 1,557,041 | 1,653,773 | 5.1 Summarizing the facts thus far presented, it has been shown that in the course of the last twenty years Indiana has changed from a State with a primarily rural population to one in which the population is almost equally divided in residence between rural and urban communities. Aside from the fact of mere residence, data contained in subsequent sections show conclusively that the social and economic interests of the State are now as largely related to industrial and mechanical pursuits as to agricultural pursuits, the number of industrial workers now being equal to the number of agricultural, and the value of industrial products far exceeding the value of agricultural products. $4. Colored and White Residents To a certain degree the presence of colored residents is bound to condition the kind of vocational education to be provided. In- diana, however, having 60,320 negro residents in 1910, represent- ing 2.2 per cent of the entire population, is not to be classed among those States in which the question of color constitutes a serious educational problem. This is not to say, however, that adequate provision for vocational education should not be made for this ES ——— ——_ = 32 INDIANA UNIVERSITY: STUDIES group. This phase of vocational education constitutes an entirely different problem and should receive full consideration. A glance at Table 6 shows that in 1910 there were but 595 orientals in the State, so that this element constitutes no serious problem. Con- eerning the growth of the negro population it is noted from this table that from 1890 to 1900 it amounted to 12,290, or 27 per cent, and from 1900 to 1910 to only 2,815, or 4.9 per cent. Indiana ranks high among the States on the basis of native born white residents, this percentage in 1910 being 97.7. The summarized facts relative to native and foreign born population are contained in Table 6. ser Gee noe laee Pe ec cee teat -depe ‘osouryg ‘uerpuy GeLG? w\06GRcL Orin AGS eG CIS ‘SP GEC Gog ‘2g 6 fe OCER OO RA en ene ea 0.190 N GPL {992° TTS VL 6SP IST GuZGi OG) OV lin Gllittes Zee20n ew |GOS: GPG sede Onm MILOG MOCO KG ieuee aati e cane OF} MA SPI |80 FE el PIP PST OLOOL 70, Cok Gilras0 UOhe cor ONaall yO O0T 1928 00% Claret aat ree [BIOL Ud) L9q | COQUINNT || JU) Lod | foaquinyy |)" Jue) dod] toquinyy || JuoD dAog|aaquinyy |} ued og] “oquinyy ‘OLGL-O68T ASVvaAION] OTGL-006T aSVERION] "SASNA) OG8T ‘SASNAD 006T ‘SOSNA) OT6T O16T OL 0681 “VNVIGNI JO NOLLVINdOd ALIAILVN GNV MO'TOOD 9 WIAViL 2980 3 34 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES §5. Native and Foreign Born Residents Considering another phase of the nativity of the population, number and per cent of native and foreign born, it will be noted that for the last twenty years the greatest percentage of foreign born residents was 6.7 per cent in the year 1890. In 1900 the percentage lowered to 5.6, and in 1910 rose to 5.9. These facts, as well as the number of native and foreign born, are recorded in Table 7. TABLE 7. NATIVE AND FOREIGN BORN POPULATION 1890 TO 1900 @unods Total Native Foreign Per Cent Per Cent oe Population: Born. Born. Native Born.| Foreign Born. 1910 eels a2 OO, ONO, 2 O42 Ltn 159, 663 94.1 5.9 NI GOORES Eta ieeD DIG 4624 2. Ol eroal 142,121 94.4 5.6 S90 eee ae 2,192,404 | 2,046,199 146, 205 93.3 EZ It is of the greatest significance to discover the nativity of the foreign born living within the State. The presence of foreigners from certain countries is very likely to indicate opportunities for employment along certain lines together with district social con- ditions, accompanying which are peculiar vocational educational problems. On the other hand, the presence of certain industries is very apt to bring certain types of foreigners. For instance, unlimited opportunities for employment in tailoring shops are apt to bring Russian Jews in great numbers. In Indiana in 1910, 65.3 per cent of all foreigners were born in Northwestern Europe, 30.0 per cent in Southeastern Europe; .7 per cent in Asia; 3.8 per cent in other American countries, and 2 per cent in all other eountries. The percentage from Southeastern Europe has increased from 1.6 per cent in 1890 to 5.9 in 1900, and finally to 30.0 per cent in 1910. The number and percentage from all these sections is recorded in Table 8. we OV Facts CoNCERNING THE PEOPLE oF INDIANA TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF NATIVITY OF FOREIGN BORN POPULATION LIVING IN INDIANA, 1890 TO 1900 | 1910. 1900. | 1890. TOTAL. | 7 , | Number, ak Number. eel | Number. ee Total, all countries.........| 159,663 100 0 142,121 | 100.0] 146,205 | 100.0 Northwestern Europe...... 104,250. 65.3) 126,447 | 89.0| 134,960 | 92.3 Southeastern Europe... | 47,901 | 30.0 s/409| 6.9|- 2376 | 1.6 Austen. 2) 50 aera | 1,092 | 7 427 3 tate Seen Other American countries... 6,029 | 3.8 6,043 4.3] 5 Oban) on5 Countries not recorded. ... | 329 ee | 387 3 286 2 Listing the ten leading countries from which the greatest num- ber of emigrants have come from 1900 to 1910, we have the fol- lowing in the order of their importance: Germany, Hungary, Austria, Ireland, England, Russia, Italy, Canada, Sweden, Scot- land. These ten countries have provided over 90 per cent of all of the foreign population. Germans, from 1900 to 1910, comprised over 40 per cent of the total; from 1890 to 1900, over 50 per cent, and from 1880 to 1890 almost 60 per cent. Table 9 lists these ten leading countries with number of immigrants from each from 1890 to 1900, and Graph 2 pictures these facts for 1910. 36 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE 9. NATIVITY OF FOREIGN BORN POPULATION LIVING IN INDIANA, 1890 TO 1910. NUMBER OF IMMIGRANTS FROM TEN FOREIGN COUNTRIES Countries— Parise Wier eroreninene ec Kn etal ore CouNTRY. 1910. 1900. 1890 Germany= 248 Sa ve a le 62 179 77,811 84,900 EME Se ees 14,370 1,379 436 ASIN cane a eee ean Lo tae gai 3.022 832 eS Eee Renee ple Gam 11, 266 16,306 | 20,819 Eng laridie te sos ose te reer ee 9,783 10,874 11,200 sea eee ne ee 9,599 22730) an 76 Thalys On tes te tone ea ee ee Peon 1,327 468 Canada ATO ae te eee sane oN 5,838 5, 934 4,954 SWedense.2e ctr Nar nea eer eae 5,081 4,673 4,512 COtland ye: ck here meet Ohare ge 3,419 2,805 2,948 All-othericountries 25% 20a ee 19, 386 MSE 77 14, 560 TRO Gal rie ae Sa aoe vies year aan 159, 663 142,121 146, 205 GRAPH 2 Nativity of Foreign Born Population 10900 20000 30000 40000 50000 60 000 BRS ee pe Ue ST FR Lunry TT Pee een | rho’ _—__ Engh.d sees why Canada Ps Scotland C7) Austria Russia Sweden 2° —“~ —~] Facts CONCERNING THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA Of the 159,322 foreign born white in Indiana in 1910, 111,396 were living in urban communities and 47,926 in rural communities. As recorded in the census, those places having more than 500 foreign born whites were: EnGenaApPOUS | 2.2.2 .5......- 19,767 Biichariecs sass sare oan 1.636 SELL 310 Se er 13,420 PIGSANS NOL cute eae ware Se 1,405 Mpaste ONieGaso.... 62.0.2... 10,295 ESIGHIMONG) ott! a ee eee 1,173 LEY | JES SSS eee 8,242 (ROCESS OM OSs fie ea een a cis Sah 977 POT WB ee 7,204 New: Alpany 22.2066 seeks 2 SOS [2 ST OITG 2 eer 0.003 UBER CV Opera sens aint tosses alt aiage Sree S40 1D PELL) GS 4,462 WEHTI@EEMNCS oct he Pe ee S16 Wer ATE OEY. 2. 2S ee 4528 IBWWOOGs 24.5 © oe eee eines 812 NEGRe DEIAWVEC) (oe... . . 3,196 TRCOROMN Orr ce: See se Sake Soe a nae 719 WeemeBCCHC Lt oe to i. 2,019 | BYTES Ui oes ie eet Pot OST SI ChuG She ea 1,954 WieneION iar ose Seo tee ue ae 564 WEISeRWaka 2. 2 ee 1,803 $6. Mliteracy In 1910 there was 66,213 illiterates in Indiana, or 3.1 per cent of the total population 10 years and over. An illiterate, according to the census, is a person over 10 years of age unable to write regardless of his ability to read. Of all illiterates in Indiana, 40,955 were native white, being 2.1 per cent of native white popula- tion; 18,200 were foreign born whites, being 11.7 per cent of the foreign born white population, and 6,959 were negroes, or 13.7 per cent of the negro population. Lhteracy in Indiana was re- duced from 4.6 per cent in 1900 to 3.1 per cent in 1910. the number of native white illiterates being decreased from 63,800 to 40,955, and negroes from 10,954 to 6,959. Llhteracy among foreign born increased in about the same ratio as the increase in foreign population, as there were 16,059 or 11.4 per cent in 1900, and 18,200 or 11.7 per cent in 1910. The following are the summar- ized facts concerning illiteracy : 1910. | 1900. ILLITERATES. (eat oe a eS Se ee ee Number. Per Cent. | Number. Per Cent. otal number... ....... 66, 213 3.12 >} 905539 | 4.6 Native white............ | 40,955 Det ly ale 62 S00... 3.6 Foreign born white....... 18,200 | jay, 16,059 11.4 INGeReeS. . 22.22. 6,959 ASE 10,594 22.6 UZSwCU02a=_ Tl ————-_——- i- ~~ - 38 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Compared with other States* as to illiteracy, Indiana’s rank is eleventh, there being ten States with a smaller percentage of literacy and thirty-eight States with a greater percentage. On the basis of native whites, Indiana’s rank was thirtieth, there being twenty-nine States with a smaller percentage and nineteen States with a greater percentage. Considering illiteracy among foreign born whites, Indiana ranked thirty-second, there being thirty-one States with a smaller percentage and seventeen with a greater percentage. On the basis of illiteracy among negroes, Indiana ranked thirty-first, there being thirty States where the percentage was smaller and eighteen where it was greater. These facts are presented in Table 10. * Including the District of Columbia. 39 OF INDIANA PEOPLE 1 4 RNING THE > 4; Facts Concer er tits — ee SSO eat ake a VMOT Tia () [esos "+> -LINOSST]A Shae) erence Dees puv]sy opoyy Cac ete ae 8} OSNYOUsse | 6° 6 Scire in Wie’ fet ciated AOS.10 f' MON (0 OT | slog si) ele tence) ve vee BIULO JIT eG" I Ait Ge Getep O- Os0s0e o SIOUTT|T 6: 1 | EO) Gl TWO! OSUTYSE M GO Ge. all ee puxysy opoyy 16 etiareos SBUTULOA AA Cat “* - erTueaATAsuUog QP ‘BUB LUO [TG eenes| soos, ee BvIuBvATASUUO Q°6 eee res vULOYeIYO |B (peeks hemp eas UBSIYOIIN 9} -omysdute FT MON Qe Qieees | eee eet OpRIoO[OD 6 [oe ee BUG UOT, eA -oarysdure yy MoN a spas “LINOSSIPA Te Quem ca S}JOSNYOVSSV | e . 6 ramtose ha oO 050. oxo UBSIYOITN Gi 0 yuo Beceo.0 Koso f MON ie ale OuIB iN 0 S sMeroa) lemeniet mer) furie alle OUIvIN (he 6 | @ el ep lenve ceiiemnelvebres ore BIULOAL A 6° a) niga iileguctitelsteh elie te “UISUODST AA di: re |p iseae Some, oats SIOUTT[T ZL Re Ee Oo cate “BUOZIIW 68 RE CR ai arene susuey ry 20 Bae sco otiectenns YOK MON Bs e is" etkar ola Geo b.o soe0 16 1UOULIO A ie ele ea eystaqaN 18 -1 5555552) TISTOOST AN 90 foo BAO] Le Fess BTEO TED Ted sa ClULON | B®) Ce Qe RE Nee ae tel doSsouUd J, CoarH A Vestine guipeamnie eae hee ec SBSUB yy PESOS Bie lS Sai i hata OpB.LO[OD 0-2 ae CUCAUOTNT PQ ets Caress lege Ayonquoy 9°0 pis a 9 NOT DUNO Qu Orie Sra ats he Sees a te BULULOA AA an) eaescees Arete OYyep] 2° "77 BUTTOIBD YQION COTBR (a scram ees eee BYSB.IGON Olay Clean po ae C2 Sa UBSITPTI\ e°9 =) Jonomjouu0s Tae 7G) GL UOPSUIYSE AA G2) eqreea tga S}JOSNY OSS (Ad eel ae Eee eS o1rugd 7S eee eae oe ee UBSTYIIA 92 sea “BPBAON can) “o> SUOUSUTTSR AA Gace Tas Se UISUO OSEAN CG le “vyoyecy TING Qip [erete ra BOSOUUIPY @g. fet BOSON] ee ee euripuy gg here “BPBVAON Tene ee ee BYSBIGON CAQ tetas: aewan BIOYVC YIAON [oe a ee ByIOYyVC YON Ce eee yqok MON 69. | ee ouepy Cy | eae BIUIOFI]RO) Oe 0 fcc BIOSOUUT Qe 2b oc Ott 0.0.0.0°0 SUTULOK AA Q°9 et fe sie “BUT[OIBD yynog FO eiaielng) «| ty fauiebvearecusltemis UOSIIC) 6'Z “B1OYVC yynog Come pees voy, yWAON GO oi he VMO] ayy pe ee vyoye INOS Cog ite eee cee yey QE = lar e: JUOULIO A eg fcc vOYRC, WON 0 Bere! “EPUAON pate pope eae ee SuSUR yy OT OebeCeis Cac Get ClO OfGNO yeiy 12.9 Sere keene lems i ev ekelet-eiis, u0sOI() r 0 e] since) =e ke) Ver efkes cel «aie te seme yey Cae cr je}Mey tehvey el is\paules “ol oltolumi ere, oyepy] CF atmo a 4 USbo “UISUODST AA 09 Rn er CGM OED BIBIOOL) r0 Pao eohon ian “BUBIUOTN OZ Sonos dxecoRo} One UOISUTYSB MA (Oe T Date=t) Orono. 6-0 UOLSUTYSB AA 6° G Gat: O=tin ands OO NG-oFdTo. Oo yey (GP () Ba OO; Gate te Ue UOJSUTYSB AA 6° I PaO DL Ono. NvO OO Loti uoda.1() Tv C3) Cac tO O =O60 BLOSOUUTT] (0 c oiiel 'eliae stents ‘ByOYVd yqynog Ge ) 6 io Gade On ao BUIUIOK AA 6° 1; ONO) tivo 0 10. 0"0-0 BYSBIGIN Vv G at etre Os O20: 004040 U0SdI(C) Q° - eereleiieate teh iviae. “UOJSUTYSV AA @ . () OPO) Gade dette O Oe OrOed O oyuRepy De I p00 1D OOO 0) ONG bron C0 SO BMOT ‘quod Jog "94819 “quod 10g "04810 “quo 10g "94819 ‘quoy 10g "91819 ‘SHOUDAN ‘HLIH AA NYO NOIMUOW ‘HLIH MA NYO AALLVN “NOLLVTONdOd GUlING SHOUDHN ANV ‘SHLIHM NYO NOIGUOd SHLIHM AALLVN ‘NOLLVTNdOd TVLOL NI AOVUALITTI JO SISVE AHL NO OT6T NI SHLVLS YHHLO HLIM GHUYVdWOO VNVIGNI NI AOVYUELITTI JO GOVINGOUAd AHL “OF ATA. ITY STUDIES S INDIANA UNIVER 40 poe |e vuRISMoTy ats Fs eum 6 FI + OOIXOTA ALO NT 06% occ vuRISMor] Ope vuEqRly ie OoIXoT MON eeT fe BURISINOT] 1@7 “+ -eurpoang nog os ae euTpOrRD YING O08. fo SBXxo al --- BUTTOURD, TION 7 ee vureqepy GC" 0¢ BeG-ub SOO OOO. 0-0 BIBLODX) 0: $2 Badu thio o40"%0. 6.0 BUBISTNO'T e OL Siehiieree “*BUILOLVD qyynog p 2 O00 Oooo oF 9 0rO ‘TAdISSISsty 9 ce VOTO ARORO IO ‘1ddIsstssyy 6: ez SedaDNor Eben BIUIBIT A 180M 0° OL OH EOEO MLO O “AYon UY 6 0Z Cele scacorey eencehc Ret tOose “BUOZLLY 6 1E “** BUTTOI’D YIION TEOZ “ eTuBATASUUO GaGua baci vara ee na VUE LTV JEQG Eel ae Ree eae ee BIDLOOL) 0) oe ele le (etns veticel We) tehilecsel te BIULOAT A, Q° 61 Ciairtiel=jenvetlc! wehsel tei elite, OLBMBIOC, rae 6 olden st ole) velviehre JOSSouUd J, C 0Z oY ei ieekel oa civeltel le ODIX9]\ MON 9°12 ee AST ONVUONT oi i eaeaet at aaa puvysyT opoyy OQ tas pee ee ee BIUTSAT A Ge Oifiticesy era eats BUILOIB) YLAON Ca 7 She sah eaten dOSSouuod J, PF SI ONO} OOUUOO) ry ie ee BTS TOOL) (det Sh aes Pana cenm Te cette BIULL A Te OC aera ek eee SVSUBY.LY TG ne os" Td ISSISSTIA] Gye cl ge ees ee ae SVSUBYIV OS Cres | Soci SN ee geal VPLLO[ QUOT BEE nee: IIVMBIOC Us ...) 100267 fa. 2 SELVICE Oh amen tee 25420) 2202) iam oe ey le eee L5ROOG| or Z Brofessionaliqs = 2 a= see P1s8ie 407) Clericalaiv =e 14,764 3.0 Publiciservice. 4.3. 263 .2:|| Public service........|) 44903 1.0 Wnknowauare ce cieiar 8, 088) S20 4) Uniniowiite. - see BZD OVO THE OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA Sil TABLE 14—Continued. | Men 45 YRARS AND OVER. Number. Per Cent. LC UidiL, [TEs GTO YO ER ee ne a 318, 528 100.0 TTB Sli TUCTEE See eee ee ch Bee ee ee a 264 , 293 82.9 2p SACLGULAMOTEGH 2 ee aa a 116, 207 43.9 Mampiaenuting and mechanical... -.2.. 2.2... 0. ee. 65,216 24.2 LEGS on cok cle See a ea ee ei aa 27 , 292 10.3 SAMS MOP EAHMOM Gs cS ll Se ec a oa eek es 15,839 6.1 "ST PEGSSL OTT co ck Oa ee eae et gr te 7,943 3.0 Domestic and personal service.......6.-......4...2-000. 7,148 2.8 NALLIDETINE © <2 che (Sg oper 4,757 ee) 2 TTI. SETS a ee ee 4, 0194 17 we LEETGEI. © 2.) 1 a ere oA ese Siete 3,498 L3 Uo LLSTDO TLD. go Teg SS ga ee 12, 299 Z| Work of Boys 10 to 13 Years Old Of the 102,400 boys between the ages of 10 to 13 living in Indiana in 1910, only 8,116, or 7.9 per cent, were at work. Eighty per cent of this number were employed on farms, and the next largest group, 11.4 per cent, in pursuits incident to trade. Of those at work on farms subsequent data reveal the fact that the greater number are working at home. According to the 1910 census the problem of productive wage-earning in the early years of boyhood is not a serious one. Work of Youths 14 to 15 Years Old Of the 51,838 boys of the 14-15 age group, 19,572, or 37.7 per cent, were at work in 1910. The greatest per cent at that age were engaged in agricultural pursuits, the total number being 10,970, or 56.1 per cent. 3,339 boys, or 17.1 per cent, were en- gaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, and occupations incident to trade involved 1,505, or-7.7 per cent. The remaining workers were distributed in small numbers in the other six pur- suits. It is very significant for purposes of education to note that 37.7 per cent of all boys of these ages are at work. In all probability this percentage is far too low since many boys are doubtless engaged in wage-earning who manage to evade the census enumeration. bo INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Work of Young Men 16 to 20 Years Old The majority of all males between 16 and 20 years were at work in 1910. The actual number was 101,951 of a_ possible 132,095, or 77.1 per cent. As with the younger age group, the larger group was still employed in agricultural pursuits, the per- centage being 42.5 per cent. Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits employed 25.3 per cent; trade, 7.4 per. cent; and the remainder were distrubted as indicated in the table. For the majority of young men these years are devoted to wage-earning and not school education. Work of Men 21 to 44 Years Old Ninety-four per cent of all males in this age group were at work in 1900, the total number being 487,047 of a possible 501.586. The percentage in agricultural pursuits was somewhat smaller than in previous years, it being for this period only 32.5 per cent. The percentage in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits mate- rially increased, being 28.6 per cent. Trade and transportation each employ about 9 per cent of all workers, and the remaining 14 per cent were distributed as indicated in the table. This is pri- marily a period of productive activity for all men. Comparing the percentage in agricultural pursuits in the various age groups, it 1s noted in these years that it is the lowest, while the percentage in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits is in these years the highest. Work of Men 45 Years Old and Over The percentage of workers in these years is lower than in the 21 to 44 age group, it being about 82.9 per cent or 264,293 workers of a possible 315,528. Nearly half of all of these men 45 years and over were engaged in agricultural pursuits and about one- quarter in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. Ten per cent were engaged in trade; and 6 per cent in transportation. These three activities engage the time of over 85 per cent of the total number of men; the remaining 15 per cent are distributed as indicated. It is interesting to note that while in the 21 to 44 age geroup the percentage in agriculture was relatively smaller than in previous age groups, the percentage in the 45 years and over group is relatively much larger and the manufacturing and me- chanical relatively smaller. THE OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA What Females of Various Age Groups Were Doimg im 1910 Table 15 shows the actual number and percentage at work in each group of nine groups of occupations. TABLE 15. TOTAL NUMBER OF FEMALES IN AGE GROUPS AND NUMBER AND PER CENT IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS, INDI- INAS 1910: Girus 10 To 13 GIRLS 14 ro 15 YEARS. YEARS. Num- | Per Num- | Per ber. | Cent. ber. | Cent. Moca im eroup.).2....:. 100,-734|100.0 || Total in group....... 50,115} 100.0 Morieanwore | 15,838) 10.8 || Lotal at work...:....| 5,167|' 10.3 Domestic and personal Domestic and per- SemVMCe er eS. 480} 57.3 sonal service....... 1,924) 737 2 ROMMCUNGUEAL 2 6. 2... 230) 27.4 || Manufacturing and Manufacturing and mechanical 2.5... 1,404) 27.1 MMECIMATIC A 0. SOO Oa brwaden cn Gols Ae 341) 6.1 Prades PHS t ole. Lio @leri@aly ss cas 32) 290)... D6 Mransportation <....... LOM 2s eAoriculturaly - 32... 241; 4.9 ronessional 9)... Ol 1223) Eransportation. 2: 2: 1287 226 ClemicCale ee. 8 OM Prolessional ic c.06 51 0 Winlksmonyn ee B84 071) EUbIIC Service. 6 h...3 Ti cceashrcet Unknown 3923 Tes ® ali) 7 YOUNG WoMEN WomEN 16 21 To 44 TO 20 YEARS. YEARS. Num- | Per Num- | Per ber. | Cent. ber. | Cent. Aotaliim, eroup....... 130,091/10020 || Totalaimcsroup 22... 479 , 254) 100.0 Moraeau work. 2 2. 1.35 5/771 27.01 Potal at work:.......|/ 83,891) 17.5 Domestic and personal Domestic and per- SOMVICC He eee. 12,136) 34.0 sonal service....... 27,406; 32.7 Manufacturing and Manufacturing and MAOCINAMTC AL 8 |--7, 260} 20.4 mechanical... ../... 16,595} 19.7 Clemictle he. AP STO 12 30) erotessional. 2). 14,061) 16.7 Madey ee 8 2h Sl Glericaler ya. a. 9,745) 11.5 FMONESSIOMAL 2 2 SUG Sle Weradie 0 eet ase, 7 068)= 8.8 Mransportation..........|. 1,605) 4.5 |) Agricultural...:...... 2,239) 2.6 PROC GURAL oo 667) 29 |e Eransportation ove.) OD) a1 29 muonline service... 0... Pier i deulplic: SenVices.. a. 154 ak Wiakwowm 3 oe BOSS 12S all Onnlkcan © yan een eee 5,008 6.0 =———- 54 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE 15—Continued. WomEN 45 YEARS AND OVER. | Number. |Per Cent. Totalimegroup siren oie Oe ies ary a Neh ht ate ee 290;,217.| 100.0 Totalat work. (ei si ar ohare coe eee 30, 258 10.4 Domestic and personal services.../ 00.4... see ee 13,894 45.9 Manufacturing and mechanical: W272" | ee 5; 750 18.9 Aoricull tural. cceh odes a8 onan cane cates ender ear oe See a 5,079 16.8 Proféessromaiiah yc) ee ei eo ee er Oe ie iho 6.0 Wrade soe hie ON Bae FSC nee NUN eee mea 1,328 4.4 Clericalerzse yak eee Re OT ie oY a ee 486 1.6 Transportation, ... ne eb ae ees ee ee ee 87 22 Public S6rvice sie oes ae ee ee oe eee 46 sll Unknowns) i340 F ee ee OS ae ee eer | SSAA 5.9 It will be noted that in each of the age groups the domestic and personal service occupations contain the largest number of workers, and the manufacturing and mechanical pursuits the next largest number of workers. Concerning women in industry, while it is impossible to determine from the figures at hand how long individual women remain in industry, the fact 1s established, how- ever, that from 16 to 44 almost a constant percentage of women wage-earners are here employed. Of those at work in age groups 14 to 15, 27.1 per cent are in industry; 16 to 20, 20.4 per cent; 21 to 44, 19.7 per cent, and 45 and over, 18.9 per cent. ‘These facts are contrary to the usual statement, that while girls may work for a time in industrial pursuits, they drop out before reach- ing the age of 20 years. All girls entering industry at 16 may drop out at 20, but the facts show that about the same number and percentage between the ages of 21 to 44 years are in industry as between the ages of 16 to 20. These may be entirely different individuals from those 16 to 20 years, but the chances are that they are not. The chances are that this 21 to 44 group is composed of a large number who entered industry from 16 to 20 plus other women who have entered in later life. Work of Girls 10 to 13 Years Old In 1910, of the 100,734 girls between the ages of 10 to 13 years, only 838 were listed as at work and 57.3 per cent of these were engaged in domestic and personal service pursuits. About one- fourth of the total number at work in this age group were in OT THE OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIANA BY agricultural pursuits and subsequent data show that they were helpers on farms. The numbers in the other groups of occupa- tions are too small for serious consideration. Work of Girls 14 to 15 Years Old With a possible 50,115 girls in this group, 5,167, or 10.3 per cent, were at work in 1910. Of this number at work, 1,924, or 37.2 per cent, were in domestic and personal pursuits, and 1,404, or 27.1 per cent, in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. These two groups embrace over 64 per cent of the girls at work. Trade, elerical, and agricultural pursuits each engage the time of about ) per cent or 6 per cent of the total number. If the report of the census is accurate, the number of girls at work between the ages of 14 and 15 is much smaller than usually thought to be the case. It is certain from these figures that girls below the age of 16 in wage-earning do not constitute much of a problem in Indiana. Work of Young Women 16 to 20 Years Old In this age group almost one-third of all females were at work in 1910, the total number of females in this group being 130,091. and the number at work 35,577. As with the previous age groups, the largest percentage was engaged in domestic and personal service, this group being 34 per cent of the total; manufacturing and mechanical pursuits contain 30.4 per cent; the clerical pur- suits 12.3 per cent; trade and professional each about 8 per cent, and the remaining were in pursuits incident to transportation, agriculture, and puble service. Work of Women 21 to 44 Years Old The number and percentage of women at work between these ages is less than in the 16 to 20 year group, there being, in 1910, 479,254 in this group and 83,891, or 17.5 per cent, at work. Of this number 32.7 per cent were in domestic and personal service, 19.7 per cent in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, 16.7 per cent in professional, 11.5 per cent in clerical, and 8.8 per cent in trade. There- was a notable change of relative numbers in this age group in the professional and clerical pursuits, the number being much higher than in previous and later years. 56 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Work of Women 45 Years Old and Over The total per cent of women at work in these years was about the same as from 16 to 20, being 10.4 per cent, and representing 30,258 women at work from the total of 290,217. The percentage in domestic and personal service was greater here than in any other period, since almost 50 per cent were so engaged, while the number in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits dropped to less than 20 per cent. The manufacturing and mechaneal group was largest in this age group, the total percentage being 18.9. CN ~] AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS OAR TE VEL AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS PART I. GENHRAL STATUS OF AGRICULTURE $1. Number of Agricultural Workers The agricultural pursuits in 1910 from the standpoint of num- ber engaged were the most important in the State of Indiana. ,=—_—————_ F2Fe<——_ woo ae PPT Fie See, lOO !DlU eS a ne 60 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Incident to all problems in agriculture is the related problem of farm tenure and ownership. The number of rented farms in various States 1s quite alarming. In 1890 in Indiana 74.6 per cent of all farms were operated by the owners and managers, while in 1910 this percentage decreased to an even 70 per cent, and the percentage of tenant-operated farms had increased to 30 per cent. The increase in tenant-operated farms constitutes a serious’ social problem. §5. Character and Tenure of Farm Ownership The character and tenure of farm ownership is shown by Table 20. TABLE 20. CHARACTER OF FARM TENURE AND OWNERSHIP, 1890 TO 1910 NO 1900. 1890. Num=- |- Per’ |- Num=|> Per s@Num="), Per ber. |Cent-| ber: (Cent. ber e|Cent. Farms operated by owners and | IMAM OLS:..c sae havnt ek eee eee 150,798) 70.0 |158,449) 71.4 |147,885| 74.6 Farms operated by tenants....... 64,687} 30.0 | 63,448) 28.6 | 50,282) 25.4 Summarizing the tendencies in agriculture in Indiana during the last three decades, it is seen that the percentage of total num- ber of workers engaged in agriculture has been progressively lower since 1880; that there is an actual decrease in the number of farms and amount of farm land, but that in spite of these facts, the value of farm products and farm property has increased enormously. In the words of the census, ‘‘Indiana has passed out of the elass of States that are adding materially to their total farm acreage, having less land in farms in 1910 than in 1900. There was an inerease of 154,000, or 7.3 per cent, In population in this State, but a decrease of 319,800 acres, or 1.5 per cent of the acreage of farm land. Since the relative decrease in the num- ber of farms was greater than in farm land, the average size of the farms increased, the increase amounting to 1.4 per cent acres.’’* *United States Census, 1910, Vol. 6, p. 461. AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS 61 PART IT. AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS IN INDIANA $l. Summarized Agricultural Pursuits The number of workers in various kinds of agricultural pur- suits in Indiana and the number of males and females in each in 1910 was as follows: Males Females Total Farmers and farm laborers.................... 323,800 8.156 331,936 Gardeners and greenhouse employes............ 4,041 aoe 5,274 Siier aA°Fculinral Pursuls......0..........-.. E735 s 1,740 STEERS Lee eer 1,33 117 1,451 Fruit growers and nurseryMen................. OTT 44 1,021 STEEDS TRCS 2a ee eae 696 38 TS Woresiry work and foresters..................- 669 ae 669 Eoulery raisers and laborers. ................-- S17 126 DUS Mishermen and oystermen..................-..-. 480 1 481 Me pMiSers) aNG NAWIErS 4... 6.5... k ee ee ee BoD 395 UUVTISIS Soe 6 GE ae ee ee 250 45 295 Peamdseape Sardeners........--..-..- PS sah a a eae 17 =o 17 LOGS) 2262 Se a i 335,609 S.S845 344.454 These same facts are pictured in Graph 9. GRAPH 9 Wokers in Agricultural Pursuits 100000 200,000 500,000 | >. NS arene eee Gardeners, etc. | YW] women $2. Number of Workers in Specific Agricultural Pursuits Farmers and farm laborers comprised by far the largest single eroup under the agricultural pursuits, and it will be noted from the following figures that in this group the greater number are farmers. Laborers working out represented about 25 per cent of the total, and home farm laborers about 15 per cent. Males Females Total RENIN rr esr ee er Pa eS ee at 194.073 5.133 199,206 Farm laborers (working out)...........------. T9.398 764 880,162 Rac laborers (home farm) .......:-..-..-..-- 49,337 1.762 51,099 ESE MEPRAIE CHOI of) 2) io ta ee Cee A eee ee 292 477 1.469 — ==s_ i. UT a Aa FGL COT 6F FOI DAU ECs iantb bis On abltpeon Of tino LOMO Ore oc culdunes Top ucmusd tne io Seek. cd sjins.and LIAO D C)P e GRe G coy) I CZ Fie Aa aes ee cies ee ce Se SLoUapABr) 2 E10°F6T | OI‘ F6 89126 Bere eS eee eee nea 868 62 608 FT SIL ‘OF CHF ‘6 GEE OG [irae bhceme ges al Sn age sae ner nee beth aes (JO SUTYIOM) S191OqQB] ULIE z 1ee 6F CQ, I QF ‘ET 110 fs IZ $09 oy 16Z KG Tre OI ven GP RIVeR MEA CoS | Me ar cae Pela Merch Uh RECO CPs al ct ek MRE SCY eer Micro Tae aCG (ouroy) SILOGV] ULIB 13542 = 75.940 Milornlmbn Caen CHUISETICS 85.5 6 2 th it in eee ee ee os SOO = 24 OL 2 et MG GBNIMNGHUISETOSii ses «cco eo 5 fat dyeks a ES Rule be wate se 21,470 1,084 -- 22.554 MiSeCellaneCOUS: PUTSUIUS. sac. ee ob tle ee ees 18,868 2.699 21,567 Clay class--and stone industries. .............. 17,860 Tiles a Reha: ECDL S * 5 25 Fre eer 14.586 504 15,090 ETDS TT @CES ao OSES SICA cane ee aa ee ile22S eee 2s Food and confectionery industries.............. (ALLE 1,082 8.799 MEAG DUDTISHING 58. ge lk ce ce ee ee 4,084 1,229 Eeeiliss Weanier ang-rubber, industries......2........665 5 4,709 468 Pyesler, Sie NaMUFE ITEC ETOCS (2. Sos ec cscs ols Coa cose vee eee OE 3,238 4,945 Painters, glaziers, and varnishersi.............. 3.540 fal 3,411 Giearsand tobacco industries ..:...-+;¢...0.- 0% 1,472 1,436 2,908 LP BITTT Ga e THC ASS eels 481 1,992 Eiguerand=beverage industries............6.... 1467 3 TS Oil rtemive seca PUCl. 5s .5. 6 cob eas sew ae eee 1440 20 1,460 Raper-ane= pulp INdUStrieSs .......0.--.5---0 00 1.143 141 1,284 RewerayecSOld-- ANG SLIVeL... 0.6... eet ee we see ee 456 3 490 GIB GSS a Neen 2713815 —- 339,087 310402 *=Txclusive of structural iron workers. yExclusive of carpenters. =Not incident to the building trades. ae “Ce Jide, Sei Die wee FF) oe 68 INDIANA UNIvERsITY STUDIES GRAPH 11 Workers in Industrial Pursuits 10000 = 20000-30900 =40000 50000 69000 40000 goooo ce ae) Metal industries Clothing industries WV-CVSduélttéhéhbthtttts Wood industries V, Miscellaneous pursuits Clay, glass, and stone industries Ey MB ven YY women fc Engineers Food and confectionery indus. J y Printing and publishing Leather and rubber industries Ze Textile industries Painters, glaziers, and varnishers = Cigar and tobacco industries Chemical industries 9 Liquor and beverage Light, heat, and_fuel ‘Paper and pulp mills kk poe a ee Se Jewelry, gold end silver workers 7 $38. Workers in Specified Industrial Pursuits 1. Bwilding Trades The two largest groups under the building trades are general laborers and carpenters, comprising about 65 per cent of the total number of workers. The trades and pursuits incident to building construction were as follows in 1910: Males Females ‘Total General and not specified laborers.............. 29,008 391 29,399 WAaTPeNnterss so ioeta terse ent ae or wae eae he eae 24,254 one 24,254 Painters, glaziers; and: varnishers......2¢....%: 8,200 6 8.206 Builders and building contractors.............. 0,11 il¥é 5,828 SLICK ANG —StOMesIMASONSz2.s oye cn ee 3.905 ee 3,905 Plumbers and gas and steam fitters............ 2,941 ae A 2,941 PITASCOT EES & vara. ehe ic See Ck ee eta ere 1,949 ae 1,949 Helpers in building and hand trades............ 1,769 TE 1,776 Paper-hanGersees see sae Geos ee rece a ee eee 1,485 53 1,488 Apprentices to building and hand trades........ 469 al 470 ROOTES aNd sSlatersucy wescs ee oka he are ee 194 sa 194 StLucturalp aroma wOllkerstee..- eee eee ee 176 ea 176 Ota ge Sak Rye, Bee uae tae oe eget at aera 80,111 475 — 80,586 MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL PURSUITS 69 2, Metal Industries The 75,940 workers in the metal industries in Indiana were employed in pursuits as’ indicated in the following tables. In general it will be noted that the larger per cent of all metal workers were in the skilled metal trades: machinists, moulders, copper and tinsmiths, ete. | SUMMARY OF WORKERS IN METAL INDUSTRIES, INDIANA Males Females ‘Total Machinists, blacksmiths, -efC. .........0.. 02.05 ce ws 29,393 37 =. 29,480 Steel works and rolling mill employees......... 18,903 629 19,532 Blast furnace employees (semiskilled)......... 12,959 180 13-439 Laborers (especially auto and car shops)....... 9,869 84 9,953 CoppercanG TINSMITNS Ho. So. bc ice ees ce ces serve ove 2,219 D Pepe Workers in metals other than iron and steel.... 1,248 422 1,665 SEGIBEUL 25 ASS Sees oy oa 74.586 1,354 75,940 The various occupations grouped together in the summary are enumerated in detail in the following tables: MACHINISTS, BLACKSMITHS, ETC. Males Females ‘otal Meaechimstscand -millwrights, ..... 0000... .. 0025 17,410 4 1%,414 PUCK SIMS 5 noi ce eso See net hic eee Nes eect ere RCE 8,604 re 8,604 yl SET AICOU Geer toledo che elev sb vbeies5 s bbe liele eo seb le 1,861 oe, 1,861 EME SEATIO SDOMSNETS. . 2. cc cee ee sees gee eee ee 723 PAK 744 GTETEOG GIES © sa =, SS ec ORC ae 370 6 376 POSIGTSS 2 SS Se pr ra 295 6 301 Tool-makers, die-setters, and sinkers............ 130 ee 1380 SUGGS ois Bice Cee oe eee eee 29,393 37 29,480 STEEL WORKS AND ROLLING-MILL EMPLOYEES Males Females ‘Total Other iron and steel works (laborers).......... 26.066 160 6,926 Other iron and steel works (semiskilled)........ 4,882 464 5,546 Iron-molders, founders, and casters............. Dsl 2 aa eye ohlers-and roll hands. (metal) ......6.0.....8. 1,191 3 1,194 LE GEES TGS 1 SE ae ena near ee a ae 624 fone 624 Forgemen, hammermen, and welders............ 184 Sta 184 Annealers and temperers (metal).............. a9 PTO UNC POOULETS ch «505.0. 05 Sesus 6 bales is acacn slab es 22 Sah 22 MEO Bel epee Sets hate ate Arete eel cis Liaw ae cla aces 8k 18,903 629 19,532 TO INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES BLAST FURNACH EMPLOYEES Males Females Total Blast furnaces and rolling-mills (laborers) ..... P52 89 9,661 Blast furnaces and rolling-mills (semiskilled) .. 2,860 91 2,951 Prd ers ye era soaks eialig Mesos a ate eae ee erences 334 es 334 Furnacemen and’ smeltermen.*, 225. -. eee 193 193 Totals Sas Bocas uate nea eee y see aoe ann Gp L8On 1S a139 LABORERS AND SEMISKILLED EMPLOYEES—CAR AND AUTO FACTORIES Males Females Total Car and railroad shops: (laborers): 22... oe 3,686 8 3,694 Car and railroad shops (semiskilled)........... 2,528 14 2,542 Auto™factories:Gaborers) oc. ] se ee 1,834 24 1,858 Auto factories (semiskilled)<. «3.0.4. 05 1,821 38 1,859 TROta Saat sek sie ce ee hs Ee ee ee 9,869 84 9,953 COPPER AND TINSMITHS Males Females Total SEEN SHAT ENS ene ssh sec eh aude aes aay ae ere 2,163 2 ZAGS Coppersmithss vite, eS, eae an ee ee ee eee 56 i) bo i) bo — A De) (028 era ee me eee rte sree an oie NG Nr a A derg (SDRC 2,219 WORKERS IN METALS OTHER THAN IRON AND STEEL Males Females ‘Total Tinware and enamel ware (semiskilled)........ 245 292 537 Tinware and enamel ware factories (laborers). . 353 44 397 Brass mts Wee taste sons ee ees cece ora ee one eats 128 15, 148 Brass-molders, founders. and casters........... 140 1 141 Brass; MUlS*Gaborers itn hs. eke a re ee 123 cate 23 Other metal factories (Semiskilled) .......... 74 39 113 Other metal factories “Glaborers)'5..3 cise a 65 ol 96 Copper: factories «(laborers) ice. ona sess ae eae (ab 71 Other molders, founders, and casters........... ae [ao headrand=zine (semiskilled ai. s2)- ts see 8 8 Meadvand zines abporers meee. oe eae ee 3 3 ROCA Pe -2cha.. steal sce hile See cUaesye hes tay eRe Tee 1,243 422 1,665 3. Clothing Industries In the State of Indiana in 1910, 27,584 persons were employed in the various clothing industries, this industry ranking third on the basis of number employed. As lhsted, manufacturing of textiles is not ineluded, but work of dressmakers, in and out of factories, MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL PURSUITS el milliners, tailors, hatmakers, ete., is included. About 87 per cent of the workers in the clothing industries were females. The exact numbers in the various branches are listed in the following table: Males Females ‘otal Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory). 3. 13.469.) 1342 Sewers and sewing-machine operatives (factory) 165 2 A356. 4,521 Milliners and millinery- dealers................. 96 4,210 4,306 anos and TALIONESSCSs.. ou. se vee oe ee 2,243 756 2.999 Other clothing factories (Semiskilled).......... 504 651 etd SHluemcodt. eve. (Semiskilled) 2.2.0.6... eee 315 193 508 Clothing industries (laborers). .....2.......6.. 104 149 253 Dressmakers and millinery apprentices........ 1 216 PHATE iat eachonies, (Semiskitled) -.. 0.00.5). oo... ee ee 134 19 153 SE GUEBIL. ee cae een ie ea ie era a tee 3,565 -24,019 27,584 4, Wood Industries The wood industries in 1910 ranked fourth in importance. As previously noted, carpenters and other workers in wood incident to building construction are listed under the building trades. In presenting the following table one is impressed with the fact that there are relatively such a small number of cabinet-makers and such a large number of laborers and semiskilled operatives. Males Females Total Furniture, piano and organ factories (semi- SUTIN) os ato ee eee ee 3, (60 A7T4 4,241 Saw and planing-mills (laborers).............. 2,192 i, 2,809 Wagon and carriage factories (semiskilled).... 2,242 202 2,444 Furniture, piano and organ factories (laborers) . ZeZoy) . SO 2,294 (Cou DTT EAG TOONS VCS a ee a a ee ar 2,174 ae ZATA Wagon and carriage factories (laborers)....... 2,002 37 2,039 Other woodworking factories (laborers)........ 1,469 97 1,566 SDI GER bs a a a A 1,530 1 LOS Other woodworking factories (semiskilled)..... iL asa 149 1,460 Saw and planing-mills (semiskilled)............ 73 52 788 WOODEN ee ee lee Wks as Gael (24 ane 724 Ome @aIeVCL Ge cc rs Soc oat alah ethos Woo I race celle 264 ee 264 yay LESS 17a TS Eee aoa grat en 220: es 220 BINGO Lee liege opciones 6 8 cht oye eG coyece 5 aah 6 gaa ess aya le's 21,470 1,084 22,554 We INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 5. Miscellaneous Pursutts Miscellaneous manufacturing and mechanical pursuits include laborers and semiskilled operatives whose exact work is not known, apprentices whose exact apprenticeship is not known, and foremen and workers engaged in a dozen or more industrial activities. Other ‘factories Claborers) oe ose ks Cee Other factories; (Semiskilled!) 225.) eo Firemen (except locomotive and fire department) OtNer ‘AD DTENTCES! iene eee ae Pee ee Electrical supply factories (semiskilled)........ Other -Amechanics: hers oe ee ea en eee Pattern ‘and: model-makers. wos kale: 2). ee WDHOISECRETS Hee hres casei ie teste anata ue ohne Sia acre Hlectrical supply factories (laborers)........:.. Paper and box factories (Semiskilled).......... Oilers” of ‘machinery eck eee eee ane ees Piagno: and: OPEANs LUNETSs.. 36 ween eee eee Clock and watch factories (Semiskilled)........ Other skilled ,occupallonS see kee. ae eee b Bag 2 ean ee ere aye TA i ara lai beg ic Se Leg ac chs. 5 HMnamelers, lacquerers, and japanners........:.. Gunsmiths, locksmiths, and bellhangers......... Turpentine distilleries (laborers)...... 6. Clay, Glass, and Stone Industries Males 6,332 3,079 3,304 Zsa 459 971 743 569 279 83 222 214 98 109 Females Total 522 «6 854 1,127 4,206 ee 48, 804 83 2,268 566 ~—s- 1,025 ay 971 6-749 47 616 64 348 217 300 as 299 2 216 46 144 2 111 10 98 i 67 65 8 2,699 21,567 The clay and allied industries represented in the State include glass, lime, cement, pottery, brick, tile, marble, stone, ete. These pursuits and the workers in each are enumerated as follows: Glass: factories (laborers) 4 oy: .3 22 2 Stays ne Glass factories .(semiskilled)*..:.22sss2:23532% Brick, tile, and terra cotta factories (laborers) . GIASS-DIOW EES rice Gd leeen oI aie ease BisiGuetene see randoms Lime, cement, and gypsum factories (laborers) .. Brick and terra cotta factories (semiskilled).... SLOMEy CULLELS i SOS ea yeie atewe a tee lot nnra cee wen Ree Potteries (semiskilled) 5 nak cae eee Marble ‘and stone «(semiskilled)).:43. 24.02. 24% 42) Marble and stone yards (laborers)............. Lime, cement, and gypsum (semiskilled)........ Potteries: \(laborers:): essere cee acce seh aeons sn eyemep ate Males 3,442 3,201 3,091 2,345 1,993 841 834 525 527 481 340 240 Females ‘Total 125 3,007 303 3,004 82 3,178 7 2,302 6 1,999 87 928 rege 834 85 610 527 7 488 6 345 a) 245 718 18,578 MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL PuRSsuITS 73 7. Officrals Manutacturing officials are, in every case, listed separately from either office-workers or wage-earners. Males Females Total IWRC OES ei ee Parlier Bele Oe rae fone, hsv ayn eto ie eg 5,990 73 6,063 Foremen and overseers (manufacturing)....... 4,961 387 5,348 OO RECT Spiess ee eas lea ig: Wie cb aie a 2o Shave gah ake 689 atal 700 Managers and superintendents................. 2,946 33 2,979 TR ONERUL ye eek Pees PR 14,586 504 15,090 8. Hngineers While there is considerable difference as to whether engineers should be ineluded under professional or the manufacturing and mechanical group, the census enumerates them under the latter, including the phases of engineering below indicated: Males Females Total meimeers -CStatlOMmeLry) 25 6.2.16 oe eee eee lee 7,369 1 7,370 Wlectricians and electrical engineers............ 3,585 dq 3,589 MeMNeeES = (StatlONELY ) 22. serch be a ee Os sce 7,369 1 7,370 TROUEEIL 55, 0S: oS See ea ee crates ete ey Aa Rn eB Beas oy eles 9. Food and Confectionery Industries All phases of food and confectionery, including the slaughtering of cattle, meat-packing, ete., and the actual preparation of various kinds of food are herein listed. Males Females Total VER @TES > 5 i 9G ES Pe te 2A 164 2,407 Slaughter and packing-houses (laborers)....... 1,471 58 1,529 Mailers: (erain, flour, and: feed)... 00... 4 2... 1,095 avert 1,096 Gandy. factories -(semiskilled). 2. .0.5.00.6.8.0%0. 2651: 341 602 Mlour-and grain mills (laborers).............-. AT5 a AT5 Butchers and dressers (slaughter-house)....... 417 seek 417 Slaughtering and meat-packing (semiskilled)... 322 46 386 Fruit and vegetable canning. etc. (laborers).... 264. 61 By Aa) Fruit and vegetable canning, etc. (semiskilled). 126 13 260 BAKES CSCMISKIMNed) fo ae ay Bere se ee ee 2 150 232 Other tood factories Caborers).... 065.00. .00..05: 165 3 199 Butter and cheese (semiskilled)................ 188 10 198 Bakeries (laborers) ........ Winnie cl Manco e Ten aus 149 38 187 Other food factories (laborers)... O22 c. el 162 Zo 187 Butter and cheese factories (laborers).......... 147 D 152 Mour and grist mills (Semiskilled)......6...... axe 15 aay Sugar factories and refineries (laborers)........ 10 ces 10 Fish canning and packing (laborers)........... 3 ae 3 Motaleoi.e sis: Da eg er ee hn gia rn eee cere 1,082 8.799 74 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 10. Printing ond Publishing The various arts incident to printing and publishing as well as the related arts are included under this head. It will be noted that over 50 per cent in the group are engaged as compositors, hnotypers, and typesetters. Males Females Total Compositors, linotypers, and typesetters......... 2,067 565 BS Printing and. publishing (S285) cicsa4 a ee a eee ilies DO: 1,164 Pressmen (printing) ... : Nice ame ROR I) 485 ae 485 Printing and publishing habs) Pe SS ne aR. ihc 149 67 216 BNET A VERS ei. ee a ay ace a cand 2 ee a 153 2D, 155 Lithographers! 20. Set oneal Menon Nae gen S1 2 83 Electrotypers and iereomn DEES eed eee eee oe 76 2 7S Ot ANS ete OR igh ae een ae CO ae a ee 4,084 1,229 Doi 11. Leather and Rubber Industries The remanufacture of leather is not developed to any consider- able degree in Indiana considering the large slaughtering interests in the State. Hides in great numbers are shipped to other States. The specific pursuits are herein enumerated as follows: Males Females Total Shoemakers and cobblers (not in factory)...... 1,656 10 1,666 Rubber. factories” (Ssemiskilled) 2c. :.423 ie ee S05 199 1,004 Harness and saddle industries (semiskilled).... 883 23 907 Rubber factories ;(laborers))).cnsi 1 sates aie ee ee 692 S7 119 Shoe factories’ (semiskilled).. 3.5 se ee ee 292 WS) AIT Tanneries 7(Semiskalled)): 22. tert. 2c os eee eee 174 € mals Tanneries: CGlaDOners ie ele wee soteren erence oe eee 152 4 156 Shoe factories” (laborers ire acc meena ae 5D WW 67 TOGA ce oi wi 2s ete oe tes Croan a ee ee 4.709 468 Daliee 12. Textile Industries With a total of only 4,954 emploved in the textile industries, it is obvious that these industries are of minor importance. Males Females Total Other occupations (sSemiskilled) ............... 725 32 1,857 Weavers i(Semiskalled i222 cs 214s aan eo ese oe ime 263 1,316 1,576 Spinners (Senniskille dyes ce encase cw -cietcys ene 58 278 BOO Other: textile” mills; (Gaborers!) 9 on. een a rele 183 esa 314 Woolen and worsted mills (laborers)........... 218 cal 289 Winders, wheelers, and spoolers (semiskilled)... 13 165 178 Cottonwmills'; (aDOrers:) jee seus secne setters ones cueneneie ee teae 131 41 G2 —l Or MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL PuRsuIts Textile Industries—Continued Males Females Total Carders. combers. and lappers (semiskilled).... AT 49 96 Bobbin boys. dofters. and carriers (semiskilled) . 32 21 D3 Beamers, warpers, and slashers (semiskilled)... 10 24 54 CT DERE LESSPETES Wy a 19 oe 19 Drawers. rovers. and twisters (semiskilled)..... 8 10 18 Sieh he BME ee ee ys Sas SS Suns Rees 1.707 3.238 4,945 13. Painters, Glaziers, and Varnishers Those listed under this head are employed in factories rather than in the building trades. The majority of them are doubtless engaged in furniture, carriage, car, and auto factories. Males Females Total Pamiers. Slaziers, and varnishers......-......- 5.340 TL 3.411 14. Cigar and Tobacco Industries These industries are of minor importance in Indiana, but it is significant that about 50 per cent of all engaged are women. Males Females Total Cigar and tobacco factories (laborers).......... 102 46 148 Cigar and tobacco factories (semiskilled)...... 1.570 1,390 2.760 Winer MP Soe cate Vee bce Ses hee Ss 1472 1,486 2.908 15. Chemical Industries The chemical industries represent a diversity of pursuits, the specified ones being the manufacture of -paint, powder, and fertilizer. Males Females Total Other chemical factories (laborers)............ S14 87 901 Other chemical factories (semiskilled)......... 295 355 C50 Powder, cartridges. fireworks, etc... factories BSCEBRESEULCO) alocesni ic 2k Sic «sie a> Eat See eI eee 116 25 141 Powder. cartridges, fireworks. etc., factories DE MRIRIRCSES Pree oto ee ees oe ose ae ee 106 iG 113 Beeniizer factories (laborers)... =..<.-.-..6.. 82 if 83 Eee reLOries. (laborers) >. 2... es ee ee 52 2 Dt Pe. bactories..(Semiskiiled) -....0..2.-6 58-055. 46 + D0 TNT Oe cee a Le 1,511 481 1,992 76 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 16. Inquor and Beverage Pursuits Although ranking high in the monetary value of the products, the manufacture of hquor and beverages engages but relatively few workers. Males Females Total Liquor and beverage industries (laborers)...... 705 + 709 Brewerless CSS oOo 2a ieee Me eee anc eat cece ane 600 9 609 Other liquor and beverage factories (Semiskilled ) 101 13 114 Distilleries;(semiskalled)) emit ea eee 61 8 69 Ro tallest Sees ai Sis ceca iet choc aia ean eu tone hers tes Ree 1,467 34 1,501 17. Inght, Heat, and Fuel Miners of coal are specified under the extraction of minerals, those under this head being engaged in refining oil, manufacturing charcoal and coke, and generating gas and electricity. Males Females Total Oil ‘refineries. Claborers ic: week Sal ciee ccc ee 500 4 504 Gas Works: (laborers) 3 8e3 ce atecde, Chia cetelet cee ATT ey ATT Electric light and power plants (laborers)...... 425 16 441 Charcoal and coke-works (laborers)............ 38 pave 38 A D6) ellos een ura aan gL bY AL cen uke ACN 2 1,440 20 1,460 18. Paper and Pulp Malls The manufacture of paper and pulp is of very minor impor- tance in Indiana. Males Females Total Paper and ‘pulp mills/Qaborers)* . 226 ieee 113 38 811 Paper and pulp mills (semiskilled).......%.,... 370 103 473 PO EAE ii ohe a ae ee eI eae 1,143 141 1,284 19. Jewelry, Gold, and Silver Workers Watch-makers and repairers comprise about 70 per cent of all workers in this group, which includes: Males Females Total Jewelers and watchmakers (not in factory)..... 342 3 345 Gold, silver, and jewelry factories (semiskilled) . 60 28 88 Goldsmiths. “and silversmith. i 34 2; 36 Jewelers: and Mapidariess.c. cues cn es shel eee 20 1 21 il WG) ts Weta MER Ric a py eee an rs es RON a Os Bi 456 34 490 | §4. Specific Industrial Pursuits of Each Age Group of Males and 5 Hemales The specific industrial pursuits in which boys and girls, youths, young men and young women, men and women, together with numbers in each pursuit, are indicated in Table 25. t oD) a _— =) op) fa =) fal -] ) fed sell Wis rete sor uelteMo/ cst cone 00) okteig after) etuey erie SLI]SBO pur ‘SLOPUNO J ‘SOPOT ZSO ‘ I GTZ FL9 OLT 7 BProura ity nc verdel je! vaca pl|\ Korte semeecmsileeptatm eet ett is}d| mati w teuietiveyielseryce? \veyn wPieu rolgio iKei Muto’ -e5 leqepliouleitie ihe te mel ley aus (qe) SOLIPUNO] uOAT —S)PU-BUrpjoy ‘SYysO M4 79975) ‘[e1O], |A9ACQ pus] ‘sivazx "SIBO "SIBVO ‘SIBOK | poytoodg SIvOX GP | PH OF IZ | 0 OF OT | ST OF FT | ST OF OT | ION 95 ‘SHIVIN—Sanoury) ADV | | "‘SLINSUNg penuyuoj—SHIVNGA AGNV SHIVN—dnOUuoD AOV HOVE AO SLINSHOd ONIYOLOVYIONVIA OLAIONdS SGA Tel Vda | G2 S — =) mM 04 as = < iS) is 4 < ae ie) a Hy = = Z c a aa = =) sa iS ) G01 ONG ONdnD Get to ORD O0n6 sqins.ind TOY.0 Ud, ras LU TH 1010 ; SPA amen ROAM TG liniltgiy utente CeO Ne Ae: (30, SR Peet a En ira | aiid aA AAS See need Sin aN On Conteh Onton toh ccc Sea sypiutsaaddog Be erode aie ete tn RAD eater Netenie Mors ee acest catoee ims SUp}TUISUTT, —syjrusur yf, pup waddoy) INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES i) (oe) 098‘ LT FG LCF ‘OL LGQE7 199 aa 190‘T Se LeEsculelwau nyo Rehisp ott oRl dno gel teile: darta\\elivef fon iepnes ce oj Kaliieiite/Wathtaaisirellitlc sc ueitenmel Kenisiets [BIOL G0 c xo bSO peo hierhettan POU dor oy Gt! | Dostinds coset Gece Ba oe or bay van ouster [tas Ciae aadepcee ee GT SCE ooKen mc pe eect 190‘ Sa eh eS Si ioundeL ou ORAa TU Ty PES gz 6S MOV ea (reece mia Fe seeayorr eal Pcise serra je Poeb chor s noe SO eos oacgdn ee fe 8.10}]N0-0U0}.G CZG 88 OTe ZS 6 opt obafoiel Me) Slole eshte) Xe Mist} | Cero fRagi apaomtoleleUNa ll afhTnth | va ca'e Mellott ouveteruTAceu oped lou (ot loys ceiaars a sh asteciasaietee fotcien cee vt atchew ina attetere rami otec ae (‘9 ‘g) Solo} 0g LZS TZ TOF QF tr Or Ocoee DOO. ec hteth Oo hoo} Oona ile Ao ithe Oacoeahor Ptr ics Oe pet tao sore onOn onan (‘9 Q) spava 9uo4s pue aque 18 | O9T ico PEL 27 EOF OAT On OA oe 8. hbeGucsorce Geb cnib stall no “Gbpe duos d-thideDan idsnaer Seace eteror mot deeds) (9 Q) 81409 C1104 ‘Ory ‘org 666 LEE G68 'T GE7 OT Z Gut Se rao kG Perm (cera soteck, A ieien Aeeaacrn on Ci bean thie Fis soca Galerr Dasitoedes (‘qerT) umsds3 ‘VUOULOD ‘OUIV'T Cre G GEG 696 1 Ifl e OO Ort) Cr Onn Dbtinte || ec dep CED LO On Dell O=te 0. Oho 0 a) (OS OMDM Oko Gr Or bo NOmD cD. DUMmo Und hoon Gan yo Moe OED eo aNd oo SILIMO[Q-SSB]) 160° e[G 686'T C6Fr 18 L Coheings auc, Ban kb mit 1. tec so CO MEG OMe Darin LOCH Be Gans ane em MOR INS ONS aries (‘qe'T) B1409 BIO} ‘Ory ‘yor 106 °€ COT 668 'T 902 COZ RT De hG D425 6h) deo bh oohiip ed Gemcec 70 tio “lich 6 <0 udedet «rb YU. Ot oeDen Oo pao (CS "Q) SOLLOJOR] SSVI) aaa G ZGQ ZOG I 1&6 OZE Ly Dei 20.00! DONlL Gente Ow Co oeOND Geb steOMoNGe > (Oo “oRdOvO- loeb. o 0 ONOMd coy O (“qe'yT) SOLILOZOV] SSB) “HNOLQ GNV SSVTD ‘AVID 898 ‘ST QhG ral 200 ‘F 810 ‘S CIs CE 789 ‘OL cieO (aC wiCnIO MOnORDMG, CMO TOMO cud (Dec comteombecnio coed 1th G20 Ona olan th Oud oD [BIOL OPENER emt ome Mel eM > roll oExopLe/nle leah ones ol ssiiolt | Vermin om oulatva’'scusiietirenll| tshiene sv och emtelteerel comer lier ty uettvelasiye rou. wilte: cia | Nett ecu amclnek cms me Z89 ‘OT Gi Gs.b ro Vat Oe btu-d Ueno. aMo=tag udp boson d' aiolnhno a “sqinsand ray}0 ool L, C16 991 CEG Fel 0z FCG. 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SPECIFIC FACTS CONCERNING MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS $1. Number of Establishments, Amount of Wages, and Value of Product As previously indicated, the second measure of industrial activ- ities relates to the number of manufacturing establishments and workers engaged in these establishments, value of the various manu- factured products, ete. Table 26 indicates these and other facts from 1899 to 1909. | TABLE 26. NUMBER OF MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS, WAGE-EARNERS, WAGES, VALUE OF PRODUCT, AND. PER- CENTAGE OF INCREASE; INDIANA, 1899, 1904, 1909 PERCENTAGE OF Value of INCREASE. CENSUS. _ Estab: Wage- Wages. *| Prod- Census. lishments.|Earners. x uct. Value of Wage- inne Prod- arners, uct. GY ee 7,969 |186,984 | 95,510 |579,075 |1899 to 1909 35.4 71.8 NGO ee: (O44 \154, 174 |- 72; 058 393,954 1904 to 1909 213 47 .O NCIS) ie 7,128 |1389,017 | 59,280 37,072 1899 to 1904 10.9 16.9 *Expressed in thousands, During the decade, 1899 to 1909, the number of manufacturing establishments increased from 7,128 to 7,969; the number of wage- earners from 139,017 to 186,984; the wages expressed in thousands from $59,280 to $95,510; the value of the products expressed in thousands from $337,072 to $579,075. These years clearly brought a wonderful development and expansion of industrial activities in Indiana. This development in Indiana was in keeping with the industrial growth of the country as indicated in Table 27. es ees =— Sma 9 ae (COIR ae =< wy it EAS a SSS = — ae aa 88 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE 27. PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF WAGE-EARNERS, VOL- UME OF PRODUCTS, AND VALUE ADDED BY MACHINERY OF UNITED STATES AS A WHOLE AND INDIANA, 1899 TO 1909 VALUE OF VALUE ADDED BY - V AGE-E|ARNERS. WaGE-EARNER PRopvwct. MACHINERY. 1899 | 1904 | 1899 | 1899 | 1904 | 1899 | 1899 | 1904 | 1899 to to to to to to to to to 1909. | 1909. | 1909. | 1909. | 1909. | 1904. | 1909. 1909. | 1904. United States as q woolen. 40.4 | -21.0 | 16.0 | 81225539..7 \9°29R i aGesslesoronl o0ne indiana. =... =... $4.5 | 21.37) 10.9 | 71 .8-(-47.0)| eg ee 22.3 §2. Localization of Manufacturing Establishments Considering the problem of places in which industrial voca- tional courses and schools should be established in Indiana, the localization of industrial establishments in various classes of places is an essential factor. This information is given for places of 10,000 population and over and places under 10,000 in Table 28. With 29.7 per cent of the population living in places of over 10,000 and 37.3 per cent of the number of establishments in such places we note that the percentage of wage-earners is 60.3 per cent. Although a greater percentage of wage-earners are to be reached in the places of over 10,000 population, there are, nevertheless, a considerable number who are industrially employed in the places of smaller size; a number sufficiently great to warrant serious con- sideration and to complicate the problem of the establishment of industrial vocational schools and courses. MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL PURSUITS TABLE 28. NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS, VALUE OF PRODUCT, AND VALUE ADDED BY MACHIN- ERY IN COMMUNITIES OF 10,000 OR OVER IN TION AND UNDER 10,000, INDIANA, 1909 | Praces 10,000 AND 89 WAGE-EARNERS, POPULA- ELSEWHERE. Manufacturing Establishments OVER. Total. Per Per Number. |Cent off Number. /|Cent of Total: Total. Populations .\&6:'.. . 2,700,876 802,265 | 29.7 1,898,611 |= 7023 Number of establish- | TCO ee ee eae 7,969 2 OT Onl ald 4,994 | 62.7 Average number of wage-earners.....| 186, 984 112,658 |} 60.3 74,326 | 39.7 Value of product .. 8579, 075,046 $348 , 759,733 | 60.2 |$2380,315,3138 | 39.8 Value added bee man- ufacture. . .. .|$244, 700,293 |$148,609,815 | 60.7 | $96,090,478 | 39.3 §3. Number of Boys and Girls and Men and Women Employed in The number of boys and girls under sixteen and the adult males and females employed in industrial establishments from 1899 to 1909 are recorded in Table 29. While it will be noted that, in 1899, 2.5 per cent of the total number were under sixteen, 1909 this percentage was only 1.9. in This connotes real social progress and tends to show that child labor is not a serious problem in Indiana. 90 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE 29. NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF BOYS AND GIRLS EMPLOYED IN INDUSTRIAL ESTABLISHMENTS, INDIANA, 1899, 1904, 1909 AVERAGE NuM- BER OF Per CENT oF TOTAL. WaAGE-EARNERS. CENSUS. Total. Under 16 Under 16 16 Years and Over.| Years, |16 Years and Over.| Years, Males Males and and Males. | Females.) Females.| Males. | Females.) Females. 1909E Ae 186,984 |161,117 225) 3.612 86 .2 11.9 1520) 190475. ee 154 AAaisie bol 19, 230 3,393 85.3 1235 Di?) L890 as eer 139,017 |119,580 15,917 3,520 86.0 14.4 De §4. Numbers Employed in Manufacturing Establishments, Wages Paid, and Value of Products In Table 30 the facts are presented showing the number of wage-earners employed in all the groups of manufacturing estab- lishments, the amount of wages expressed in thousands, and the value of the products expressed in thousands. It must be remem- bered that included in this table are only those workers who are employed in factories and manufacturing establishments; thus, carpenters, plumbers, plasterers, etc., are not here enumerated. For the reason stated, these figures cannot be compared with the numbers in the occupational tables, as they are measures of alto- gether different aspects of the industrial activities. MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL PURSUITS 91 TABLE 30. MALES AND FEMALES EMPLOYED IN MANUFACTUR- ING ESTABLISHMENTS, AMOUNT OF WAGES, AND VALUE OF PRODUCT, INDIANA, 1909 Wage- Wages Value of Earners, Paid Product INDUSTRY. Males | Expressed) Expressed and in Thou- | in Thou- Females. | sands.* sands. * Houndry and machine shops.........:..-::.. 15,809 8,857 39, 884 Czrshopiconstruction...0..... 00.000 .4.562- 12,884 8,081 17,128 Iron and steel works and rolling mills...... 127255 8,390 38 , 652 Haimmncunesand-netrigerator. © .2..0 01. ne. 11,284 5, 137 18,456 Lumber and timber products...........-... 10,317 4,492 23) 135, Wo es ee oe Oe 544 4,924 117593 @anuiaces and wagOns....:.5..-.5. 0.2. eee 8, 867 4,355 DAE G55) Auto industry, bodies and parts............. 6,797 A ABIL 23, 746 Enmbime and publishing. ............ 2.02. oe 6,756 3,522 14, 356 moncweural implements. -....-.....-...-:. 4,749 | 2,565 13,670 Slaughtering and meat-packing............. 4,423 2,161 47, 289 Camsesimect rarlroad:. 2... oe eee 4,084 1,991 9,498 Clothing (men’s), including shirts........... 4,073 1,305 8,029 bpmt@keam@attlGse ia. ci. en ee ce eo 3,788 1,835 4,719 Canmime and: preserving... 2... . 2. 6.2 Se: 3,406 879 8,758 Wanokerand stome-works 00.0... ee 3,283 1,943 5, 100 Micemicalmachmery.........-..... 62.25... 3,073 1,361 1, (18 MobAccommanuiactvuriIng. .<.. 20. 2,794 1 £26 4,155 Bread and bakery products: ................. 2505 1315 10, 209 Wemtemiee es al vee he te 2 olor |e L280 7,022 Pomeancecnrist-mills. i... 2,298 1216 40,541 omiemynand tenbarcCOtta. ..:.6..-.2:..545 04. DSO deel lOO 2,966 Copper, tin. and sheet-irom...... 2.2.5... 6:3 DMA 1,065 5,768 hlosiemy and knit. gO0dSs...... 6... 62. vec sin ee. 1933e. | 687 2,381 Mi SKCamIMStrUIMENtS. oak ke ede. 1 , 667 994 3,686 JUG WOES. TACIT 9 5 ee ee nev ree Lote al O19 8,313 @romecOOds CUCL. koe eee 582 478 2,502 rapekand wOOd pulp... 2.0.02. 5.02.6) 2 2s. 1,501 754 5, 202 SEOMeSEUMOSTUTMACES .. oc. . oeeee S es [eae SO Ziel 723 Deol SlormmesG@vomen’s) oi. ee ee te 291 449 2,058 \LESNCTE COO IS aa eRe ee ne aa 1, 240 DOr Zio Case wilumimnation and heat....5.-........-. 928 508 3,147 Cooperage and wooden goods............... 891 382 2,398 Wonmcemonenye ite. ihe hese oe ee. 885 298 2,999 Giueoseameistarcn 2. osc 866 | 480 5,750 Patent medicine....... PRS STE eae eee ar ret 801 354 4,344 BOOlenmmWwOrsbeG <2 30. ee ee ee. GLO S| 293 i 500 PAID CRECOOUSE ip ee ia. Re a st Ae oe AQ. 256 1,887 RPC MONK Os ke ee ee se 689 314 3,161 inne LCM ee Po 669 ols 1,448 Swulemyeane LOOIS. 2 6 ee ee 512) | 305 933 licemmammiactUring..<2-.,......... 025 Bde ys. 563 304 Eola Mattresses and bed springs...-..........-.: 5} | 257 123% ibexes, fancy and paper........... GE helene 500 | 179 782 Butter, cheese, and condensed milk......... 488 | 262 3,957 Brassane bronze products.......:.:....:... 468 | 292 1,379 EMinsMMONNIESLOMC. 9... 06.02 oe ben cee ee | 468 227 851 VOOR AMONGNOCS ten gh | 436 | 159 978 ranoncssOISGiNed fie Meow ee eS 428 269 31,610 We ApMelACamMmMIne: EtG 8 ee 398 205 2,311 MitisteatkimstrumentS:. 2.22.5 eo. ee. 1, 667 994 3,686 GCasvand electrical fixtures. ........../......| 342 | 152 620 92 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE 30. MALES AND FEMALES EMPLOYED IN MANUFACTUR- ING ESTABLISHMENTS, AMOUNT OF WAGES, AND VALUE OF PRODUCT, INDIANA, 1909—Continued Wage- Wages Value of _ Earners, Paid Product INDUSTRY. Males | Expressed| Expressed and in Thou- | in Thou- | Females. | sands.* sands. * Scalesrand (halances sce ee ae ee 266 | 163 877 Raintrandévarnish es 2) s e e ee ee | 200 74 1,108 Millinery ‘and-lace: jc .5 0 sci see cs ee | 166 59 538 Alleother industries: ns 2-4 422 20 ee 21,688 10,428 88 , 643 Total... nse SO ee ee ee 186,984 | 95,511 | 579,075 *For year specified. 4 §5. The Principal Manufacturing Interests of Indiana The five leading manufacturing enterprises of Indiana from the standpoint of number of wage-earners employed are the following: Number Wage-earners Foundry and machine'shop ‘products. >... 2... 54:0. eee 15,809 Cars and general car shop- construction... 24s 12,884 Tron’ and steel: works: and: rolling-mills... .2 2-220 0 ee 12,555 Furniture -and: refrigerators. =. i... jc. . bes) stone eae eee 11,284 Lumber. .and: timber products 3.02.2 2 ace a ee 10,3817 On the other hand, from the standpoint of the value of the prod- ucts the five leading manufacturing enterprises are the following: Valueof Product Slaughtering ‘and meat-packing.:.. =2.%. <2. cms een een $47,289,469 BlOur and Srist=mil es og re eS ieee eins wae ae Ric tossed es eS ee 40.541,422 Foundry and machine shop* products: -.. 2.2 3. oss nee eee 39,883,774 Iron and steel works. and rolling-mills....).. 2.0.2 ee ee ee OS OD ESAS Liquor: and ‘distillery products: 2) 3...0.. 54.4225). ac eee 31,610,468 PART Ill. INTERSTATE COMPARISONS §1. Industries in Which Indiana Ranked First, Second, and Third Considering the States in the Union in the industries in which Indiana ranks as one of the three leading States, we note that it has first place in the manufacture of sewing-machines, and in wool- pulling; second place in the manufacture of calcium light, cement, saws, windmills, and carriage and wagon materials; and third place in the manufacture of street railroad cars, glass, musical instru- ments, children’s carriages and sleds, and in distilled liquors. Table 31 shows the ranking States in these manufacturing interests. aR) fen) MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL PURSUITS °C] -----gueEpuy are “<< Kyonquayy Oz ee SIOUNIT | te sionbi} por[4ysiq 6 ZI oo BURIpUT 6 61 S}POSNYOVSSeB A Ge Clana Nee ag cae OLUO Ne ene oe Spo|S puB SosVLLIVd Ss UOAPTIYO 6°81 --eueIpuy a oe SIOUTTT] 161 --Kosaop MON [oc S{UOLUNASUT [ROTSN]NY 9°ZI “-euRIpUy got lett o1yo 9° ¢¢ eustscuoy | Ssuyty Lo “eueIpuy | Sue ke STOUT] ] Gua GIUVATASUUOT. Ui a, a ee SUBD PBOAIB.L FOOTY CLOT ah ees es STOUT] G26); * BURIpPUT OTN he Malaria iets ory | STBIdoyvur pu ‘suoseM ‘soselLIey eT] -- UISUODST AA 6° OZ ---puRIpuy z'T9 et ST[PUApUT A, ane aera | soma: soul, | ~ puerpuy a Ze wrueapssuuog | ave COT - RTULO TLS T II : eueIpuy 8° 67 ‘erueapssuuog Rear een nO Mei an OR en an ak Le ered yuouro,) eee eee oe ery See ene ee eee Me a (aa ara re a Oke en og ey a aneeas en ae ig ee (ue oe eee kes | a iH “ONIVA [BIO], "a7BI9 “ONIVA [BIOL “OYBI9 “‘qgonpolg "OYBI9 soywjg poyuy| Buryuvy jsojwqzg poyug| suryuey |[vjoy, jo onjeA| suryueyy “XULSAGNT JO o8vqUod.10g pay, jo o9v U0DIOg puod0g jo o8eqU0d.10q 4ST] SLINSUNAd ONIMALOVANNVN NIVLYHO NI SHLVLIS FO ONDINVY Te GTA VL 94 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES CHAPTER V TRADE PURSUIES $1. Summarized Trade Pursuits From the standpoint of the number of people in Indiana en- gaged in the pursuits incident to commerce and trade, these pur- suits ranked third in 1910. The total number of workers was 99,676, of which 87,043 were males and 12,633 females. These pur- suits included but 9.6 per cent of all wage-earners in the State. The summarized pursuits included under this head and the num- ber of males and females in each were as follows: Males Females Total Clerks, floorwalkers, salesmen and saleswomen.. 26,639 10,647 37,286 Retail? dealerse sci e ae eee ee ce ee eee 32,093 Ze Oo ooO Brokers, insurance agents, real estate agents, etc. 8.338 d,210 8,548 Commercial travelers, demonstrators, sales AE agents (and: AUCtIONECES ssc cu ee 6,854 361 Tis Deliver yMe nn. isa ier eaale Sia aie eral ete eae ener 5,469 1 5,470 Employees lumber yards. coal vards, ete...... Te OU Serene 1,972 Officials; ;“ proprietors, ClC Wed Neg ete ee eeeene eee 1,879 wae 1,907 ING WSDOV Sic ei ahe Sos ais oh ke aan et I es ee eee 1,632 19 1,651 Other: PUTSULLS Sie ek shee coe ae nee nee eee 948: SO 1,028 Wmdertakersi sega d Fee A Oe ee aa te haeaee SOT Bo S40 Inspectors, gaugers, and samplers..3.00.05 0.23 259 12 Zi Decorators, drapers, and window dressers...... ISN 5) 158 Total te rate Oe ee eee 87,043 12,633 99,676 GRAPH 12 Workers in Trade Pursuits 10,000 2.0000 30,000 40,000 Cerks and salesmen a a 7 OO Se Brokers and agents A Se Commercial travelers, etc. J j Deliverymen Pee Ca MEN Wy WOMEN Lumber and coal yard employees ee Officials, proprietors Jj Newsboys i Other pursuits Undertakers | Inspectors, etc. } Decorators, drapers ] TRADE PURSUITS 95 $2. Specific Trade Pursuits The specific occupations under each of the general divisions above enumerated are listed in the following tables: Clerks, Floorwalkers, Salesmen, and Saleswomen Under this group the majority of those employed in stores are listed and of these employees by far the greater number are male salesmen. Males Females Total “Salesmen and saleswomen .........:......:0-. 17.113 7,118 24,231 < BUCLES SEG, STROSS Ce eae 6,952 SOO OVS: Laborers, porters, and helpers in stores........ 2,196 afalatt 2,307 Floorwalkers and foremen in stores........... okt 59 437 Wilonpalomts ee ner ek ee AL sha seid bee Bie 26,689 10,647 37,286 Brokers, Insurance Agents, Real Estate Agents, Ktc. These pursuits are, for the most part, limited to males, as noted from the following table: Males Females ‘Total LIDS UID GE. SiO RS eee ye 3,027 65 3,092 Real estate agents and officials................. 2,817 50 2,867 POKES aa DalK: OHICIAIS . 6. 24 cece cee beers 1,688 (6) 1.763 Commission brokers and commission men....... 426 a) 431 SEQ EIE GIG ERVETES 5 ig a 145 3 148 EOWEES | VHC prOMOLELS ((N-0.S:*) 6 ce ee ee 112 5 alee Loan brokers and loan company officials........ 101 4 105 Pawnbrokers 22 3 ZO TIGUDIL Soo Aue SRA a eee err 8,338 210 8,548 Commercial Travelers, Demonstrators, Sales Agents, and Auctioneers Commercial travelers and sales agents comprise the greater number under this head. Males Females Total SoOMMMeEClaAl EPAVECICIS 3. 65 26.) ieee ee bo eee 5,630 (Le 5,707 SELES - PSS es SS ae ee ec ae ee ao OM: 207 1,218 AACS OU GSIES Se aie Sra oe a ence ee Sli (easece at Rene 173 SURPASS EE BEOUGS 1 oo oe hs SIS he sh oie a olde wage be aS 40 Ct Ab Ere LGATBAL sc 25-2 56S SER ore 6,854 361 (PANS) Deliverymen : Males Females Total ee see COOH VOT YING)! icc oe chk fed one ieee eae sas 4,957 1 4,958 Bakeries and laundries (deliverymen ........ al PAS eae 512 DETER "Stet Rs Ae UR a -n e 5,469 af 5.470 *Not otherwise specified. 96 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Employees of Lumber Yards, Coal Yards, Etc. Salaried employees and proprietors are not here listed, the numbers given below being confined to wage-earners, including laborers, ete. Males Females Total Lumber: yard: laborers e336 35.2. ae ee se SOT ees 821 Mlevator TapOrerse ices ok ce ne ae ee ee ABA Sha Raa ae 434 Coals yard laborers 225 oo lee ick ae ee SU See ae 411 SEOCK VAT eee as ee Ft esa ca aN a es a Di eats 122 WiarehOUS@i cba kiceseiy sca ti scee ale see ee at tees ae 100 ee Meee 100 Foremen, warehouses and stockyards, etc...... S47 anna. 84 8 01 Mera nt UE MeL EMOTE a MN QUE eG EL in LOT 22 eo aa. EG, Officials and Proprietors, Etc. Under this section the number of wage-earners, rated as such, are listed. Males Females Total Wholesale dealers, importers and exporters.... 971 14 985 Proprietors; ‘ete: elevators 3) oo cue see ae 328 afi 329 Officials. of insurance: companies ...). 00. .6.. ss. 291 5 296 Other proprietors, officials, and managers....... 214 5 219 Proprietors,. ete, Warehouses. scnesus se eiomaee 62 1 63 Hmployment office keepers .....6....6...0...2% 13 2, 15 POta eg sks NS ee ea Se nea et Goes 1,879 28 1,907 Newsboys As noted from the first table under this section, there were in 1910, 1,634 boys and 19 girls engaged in selling newspapers. Other Pursuts Meat cutters, miscellaneous occupations, and fruit graders and packers are here included: Males Females Total Meat: CUGECES 202.02 creo deeetalerccenate ies conn ieee soeeone, ree 619 5 624 Other OCCUPATIONS)! Fee eis kets ievatem eke acedtts Bitten 326 75 401 Rruit- graders and packers cc, . vers cisco or ores ercieners Pa Mie Renee, OG 3 A Io 2) Le RR Then ERLE Mn Ne ro Mee A AS 948 80 1,028 §3. Specific Pursuits of Age Groups The specific work of males and females in the various age groups is listed in Table 32. : tt ‘SHTVINGH GNV SHIVIN—dNOUD HOV HOVH HO SLINSANd AAVUL OIMIOWdS ZS ATAVL 690F 'G 9£6 980 ‘& FOL T FOE bE Se re opera cera ofive leo Scee | led ce a ubcestss Leino mete! Tees elvelt oho Wehceltenjer iste Ms) \s)) sett olay AisalelMeneuleflenteMefie ehieiteme UdUTATOAT[OCT FCS ‘9 ECF‘ 680 ‘F 121 Meee eee ee C1 BPS Asso CepHiAd Color O ac. weanog Gatos oie OO Onde do Siud $0 waa du0y00'0.D [10 Pesaran ae ag te AN |S tae ee aera NIE ata | ec Pervart Mies eect (pra | eveeu amt erejaocmen esa eoGl| Reece ye Ae eure nem oie Gu| aeret okanstomolmene aihisl se CIS IDA RO ae Bel ee ay at ee ee oe Pe CNG GESE HAVOC del UO) COUNT f, 110-1 Q6F JF CZ I Be iat ike tenn ged ded Pacmag len tear rH en Goad He aetbedos OOD OM De oet po aio aco Oud Bet Opp nbs CLO POD. OSC b; DOO. 02/0 sjuose So[Bg eysxe) ‘ 5) 9Z6 2 ZO9 ‘ e ZOT Lee ms the ee Pay noe “WNL ermea rode Pauebaive) (stmrucleyirecl| medacaiea oduct iehierielusy inci|\ienmenmen (9 tjehseteledgie ness teumeurienceinetetciettlersergel oy. ot © am eue. en é momen eure SIO[OABI} [Bl0.1oULULO ‘OLY ‘SUATGAVUT, TVIOUAWINOD REE ‘Q ZRL‘e 996 ‘& Cee ee She lea ie iam [ol (cisco Rune Maen coneerin Seon mene geo cto [BIOL iS OOO e Bee OAT ROO Le Eee cd hosed og deased 4 Paseaocboricn cy terion ress aho co neAe Deh abi hoon laos gaurerondeo eTe sia en eg MG ae eee a Sint CeO AMSA Ce OU One Om reyere) ‘ if 862 618 Il Seen peg ei act tides || Cn eect tery cuca | srearoet Ssersum poe meattaeain| [i= ices] poamb aro MtemloUNerge all = ties opiie ts cee Dan iwebaeMksutin aimietaeierate uetimelmtes is er olds s[RIoygo pue SLOYUvE L118 ‘Z 1¢9‘T POT mak ZG, Ree AGS ee ORO. Gs bel este het Os TOS) fied abel ete sees tha Oth aceon | OORONCOOF Gri DAO Ome NNO COLORS Sods Ong hydro Org s[BLoyyo ‘squ05e 0484189 [voy Tee ece aT °76‘T CP Ce eo ae Ae elie eeeey cee he a cm del hoameo.-c dtOno -ocordy| for oo, 0 OmdU CHIE Cuno ooodsce Orihoko ays OD" sD: C=O. S[RIOYJO ‘squose QOUBINSUT OLY ‘SINAGDY ‘SuaMoUug £60 ‘Ze CEO FIT OLE IT 6F9 al 6 APN CO Ae eee aN IRE Ee Bee ene eh Oe rR ee ya CMe os cee pr comet aon ee Deca io eo] Msctacatencr ee tcomslire so[vop [reqoyy 629 ‘9Z C68 ‘F IF8 ‘Cl QO) Ff C9 rad Q1e Sees Wonca Sa EeT Un earn ae OR Duc ehet urs reMnmEboN ne Puerto ae Ola anal Mtreriianir a “ROL SF segs TPR ces Gr ones 2 ks ne Ree Rca CS Sr ee aac REE gre CSCI CR Co 0 CU CL0) 1 961 °% 6EP S08 ‘T OE v6 GM Wes laaccker ne aoe poet pt sos 71> (So1048 UL S19djey “S1e9r0d) Sie10qe7 Zo6°9 OFS CPG 'S ePs‘T FOE LT A neo oeb le tio |Rorc Ontebea.t: Oeakultc tn- 0 obfo t- TuINs Od: ONdlO “oMto coltheo (osOn ONO 0. td 80.1048 ul SyIIIO eT] LT O19 e 16¢ OT 6L¢ Z 182 OF Fe Cee Oe OO da lite tO Os th eos tet OOO by OF-or eet) Oe OPO FO) Cidoeicl Oh.ck ClO (a. 0-008 ODEO (So1048) UDUISITCG ‘OLY “NAWSATVO RO, "IOAQ) puB] “Sava z "SIVOZ "SIBVO ‘savaX |’ poytoodg ea sIvoX Gp | Pr OF 1Z | OZ 0F OT | ST OF FT | ST OF OT | ION 98 5 ‘SLINSUN ‘SHTVIN—Sdn0ur) ADV % : INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 98 SFG 191 £ge al eo Ree Beary 78) apse ia harins somone a pUbNr as oon did Ay cx [810], 0°89, '6 0°26, Mah U eOn OH (aro OmOMChUlciabe Oald lohan dma na sor ce ead’ | alo ste bee Tor a mC o7l [ft eter Sar rem lO MALY lcm n tary ee Can aCe So | Obey anh le See ER ae ma Ee ns Seba i ee cage EO eae Sule anal es sjinsand IYO OMT, 619 191 Pe ad a 8.19} 1ND JVOTN, —SPINSINg L2YIO Ze9 ¢ I ez ZF LIZ 68F 108 Aoi GAY OOP ATOMIC hOal [SOOM DIG COUR Ge caren dante ate Re ROR Gara Srl SAEED CoG CE CLONE. Gi obom ye hnen sOqSMoN 628‘ T GGP COG Il OO OP Oe GF aoe (Oy De kon O/oT Dy Oo Ue OuOs Ie = Loy pVah. labs Lal |MGLO 4) On0- O's 06-0 Oids Oo, 0eO-Onie Os On TOlt) te OOO ONO. Ou Ou=00-0.0 [VIOL Oto Mog adie haa ra.ih ice ote Gel on Oooh an Seeo dl Nat ret Giie semtantceicel Hic Seeeiciice aC Cebr ii Siecle aa NOBES tarh aa aman Carr Se ial Hic eee Wee Ne Tis em PUSS eee sate Pata aE | (eG ge i A hy, Re Pe WA Be ae GC A a Ay = oa aml s1oyottdoad ‘IOYIO 126 CCF GOG Il SEeY\ecuenieye, ol teiomich,|Kettellonuelusiivey ote uetuie’||\ el coucn) n) Set oflieltelWatysiall iene! sPiax ol ierielxelmo(eNel.e'erier e, (ote is bile) ts}iinuis ae) ipmiel ie) teh ehionis Aye) ‘S.Lo[Bap o[BSOTOU MA “SUOLHLUdOU ‘STVIOIMAGQ 626‘ T VACVG COF 99 OL gts SAA ©) ON ols eet cele (leet nope’ gre \ewrell Given) UE 15). //|l Fa ede seurel ie eae eM /elnne, (6! INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIE 104 SHTIVIN—dNOUD DOV HOV AO SLINSUNd AOIAUHS TVNOSUAd GANV OLLSHINOC OIWIONdS ‘SHIVNGY—SdAOUY) ADV CIGeGn GSS F 98e 9 Telcos ye 6LL ) Weim eo): 0 foipie, ne) woe el omtetine® jen bi \efen) Jal "ep ah evlosmeliey) di yeh tind Lo) ontie fetes el tegiel folned |®10L, $10 °% O16, 060 ‘T 989 Is Tk 0 10S 0 tisidn og sO O00) Cap nno a= J OuObCe OG 2.2.). (6 02 ae eee 130 Street-road=: (iNnSPeCtOrs)) "024 eee ee T4 Switchmen and flagmen (street) 2... . {esos 32 EP OE RTE ae Sie hie eet aes eee eee ee ae 3,S44 Mal Employees Mail carriers comprise approximately three-fourths of all employees. Males Mead CALPIGLS iiins Vag tene cali eens ot eset ae teen eee 2,946 Railwa yma tl Cherkes, - EO mQmOnontec.|outanon Ono 90 -eouoniinc! DO pa prt-p. teOlo OCF oa stiehrniee) Covet .siaedaeid sMvem of Veflfentat cantield hisiiceghs tise \sttel Nopheritel tel tlineime ‘sqinsand Loy }O YSU Chr ¢ 18 C19‘ T cQ9‘T RoI OL ChnG: CCal doe OF Ono sl | oe pdt io (ONO sO Odioy Oui tio 0 SOs OMI. Chidiety thst. al. OL ONOO SoAT}RI0do au0ydeya ‘SUOLVUAd(.) ANOHdATA T, ‘SHIVNG,]J—SdNOUr) ADV QIS ‘ Te 6E8 ‘CT ZIP ‘oP Tey 2¢ PLZ | OT 8ec aG aLOe elo pin) oominh feibicP attic fates Metectudenieiessistaes (pst jeilleirlarersi Nol seh tomrel ae Mtoghe, Nel Teive 18404 pur.y SS. 6) oo ho space || Of ob aD LOn0 ano Opi buied. ns uete aap ood No} tr On Dinca DEDIAO aD: |Pomcmomon to Owen Ol cde Geos chdlemena ten PSS Teeth Ce eR TORO R02 UND SOO ao! GeO AONOUG.O se Gadi sO) Getaged “SOAT}RIOdO suo0ydoya y, Be Borg 60 Ge Chon De Bede 0G sces Lo, Aso: | Pot, Gade “ceeoe-o canon pera Oe pe o> Ob On On pie tie OO ody Oe tie iO- cba [eostcidech Outen Oeste PLE a aetael lotam ierveriette stn Mens felnehastmee see ie; ket emnek emus) Cowrss Veale UOT} BY.LOdSUBIyY LOY AA SiS I. Oe ONG. Ha Pi [ike 0) Ono Dom aSD Reel Iain O=cG NG 0 nono. /OecG.! Ham Gic a, rekoplece lomorict 1 | io Pax ONG. OncInCRscNecs| leet b.cOmh-o cere 0d F1G eS cotinine Serie os Sel Ole LOdSUUa Ou yG) 118 ‘T 91Z Pop yee eee ce | eles es GORE ee re ee [exo], SER eres aust Mee Perceke sienssa | ele stayssiis Masta et aster stare | Me pecictet:foit/oicalNeltoune naomi wellualeso MM ofleMoy [elaretn oflfe/i| cvileimelmiaitietuar ces. ron jell |(>euhomte/ Con scigromnelltel lease CCT] Ae IoOaO OL Omcroeoecud p HOMO rdsded- <0 iss OO=chre Oo ay 8 amiroeOs OKO “sqyins.nd oqo XIQ +99 91z op Sh ce ee ee ee Ge s[BIoyJo proaypies ure}¢ ‘OL ‘SUMOVNVI, ‘SUANMO [BIO], |toAQ puBl| “sIvI_ "SIBO A "SABO A ‘suvoaX | poyroodg SIVOK Gh | FF OF 1Z | OS OF OT | ST OF FI | ST OF OT | ION 98 "SHTIVIN—Sanour) ADV ‘saIasungdg ‘ponulquoyN—SaqTVNAA GNV SH'IVIN—dNOU)D HOV HOVE AO SLINSHYAd NOLLVLYOdSNVaL OLdTOddS PvE ATAVL PROFESSIONAL PURSUITS 13 CHARI HR, Vit PROFESSIONAL PURSUITS $1. Specific Professional Pursuits In 1910 in Indiana there were 48,777 in the professional pur- suits, 28,855 being males and 19,922 females. On the basis of the number employed, these pursuits ranked sixth, the percentage of the total number of workers being 4.7. Professional pursuits with number of males and females engaged in each are as indicated in the table and pictured in Graph 15. Males Females Total TE GEYGLDSSES “(SCC 0' SS ac rn oir rea a,192 13 109- ~18:901. Ply Sielaniseeam@: “SUESCONS oe. ssl. Ske ewe eles 5,049 228 BVT Th Musicians and music teachers ..............6% 1,220 2,864 4,084 (CGTERAVITTIGIT > ERS ee a 3,679 D1 3,730 Lawyers, judges. and justices ..... ROMA ope tc okes 3,594 sere 3,611 ‘CETERA ETUDES SS a 96 1,516 1,612 NOON Sere | SS cir ee) oly 0. class oS andlor sre 1,174 36 120 VE BMY ROTESES FSH V0 I KE OY 0. el KS) Gs a a S41 158 999 PVG O SCR CINETES See en ae an ces ee a SOT 150 957 Ginleenoimeerscoh el! ei celve) lel selslollon cbcliccha. (o/"ekielis heluel a. "erteiselire sy19jo-surddiys pure SyIo[) ee ae : ‘SATIVA | —Sa Ou) apy ie oe ee 129 ‘82 S6F & £92 ‘FI COP‘ F GER 6FI Sti oad ooo) Oo) Hecs|boaAreoro, O100G- dros o telol oscbarcdeo Geo U. o-o/kueo. Chon cep abe a [VIO pur. | sie vet TE ieee Geib oral Batts ao Moat os ete doe eae areite sn a memes - OLS O6L OTG ical CT ©) pale ee 8) 66 eens Oe SOM TOD! 46 JOGO ROM ORO Delors) Oe eo epee Dom Ua g d 1] el) ene ennesectene S10JOO] [OP 892 ‘T Cl 1¢ LOE 1Z9 Pisce lesa a eee Oe a eee sAOG DFO puw o[pUN ‘S.losUaSSOTY COG ‘ I 0Z9 80% ‘ I OZ OT I Sinise JelacatHeniod inate ofi| hone tncvestel ten Yor center deli eW feline) yercvnueliiaalehentecels else oire Welisdeetileromie SLOSSVAUBO pue squ0s Vy 60 ¢ I CE $99 QIe 9 SHO ais 050 at OLIOA) Ponitesceiq Cacol curd hom Un (omacatce st (Dlscoao sce: Oned) AOl Ge) OnGracs dat eceaG. oe byte SHO} TIMod ay pure soy dvisoudyg GEL ‘9 66 6EL °F LL6 CGA Nike at AO? Tae at gag ieee oe OR (ma Bcc ie Pe SjyUBJUNOIOB pueB ‘S1OTYSvo ‘s1odvoyyood Col ‘ Il Peg ‘ I g9G ‘ 2 SEE 6 Dit 7 Gado soa G4 pOaduIOy pOdacL bu. Onde OboNchnosin Os Osc IC OLbId) UlamOstIo sOLGsds0 Sydopo-surddrys pue SYIOTO 1e}0 “IOAQ) pUv) “SIBOK "SABO X "SACO A ‘SIBOX | poyLoodg Pee SIVOX Gh | FF OF TZ | 0G OF OT | ST OF FT | ST 94 OT | ION 93 “‘SLINSUNg “SATVIN—Sdn0uy) ADV SaTVNGH UNV SHTIVIN—d1OUD HOV HOV FO SLINSUNd TVOTYATO OWWTOUdS “96 ATAVL 118 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES CHAPTER X EXTRACTION OF MINERALS §1. Specific Mining Pursuits In 1910 in Indiana 24,300 persons were engaged in the extrac- tion of minerals, 24,2938 being males and 7 females. Mining, on the basis of the number of workers, ranked eighth, these workers comprising 2.3 per cent of the total. Mining pursuits in Indiana are indicated in Graph 17 and the following table: Males Females Total Coal: mine! Operatives... mas econo eee 19,184 ape orale Quarry “Operativess se. eee eee ee 2,914 2 2,916 Oil and’ sas: well (operabivess... 40) tee eee S38 so Seen 38 Foremen and overseers ......... cee ke See ee 489 scare A489 OPOLALOTS ence eee sasen aed oes Sa eee ner Wea pea eee 436 1 437 Mamacers® Ay she sr cere ices casein oe) oye eee ee 215 1 216 All- other. mine Operativiesis 22h. t ae cele cree BD east te 32 OPMCTAIS: CAs srarata Reet aoe a Sato ee ee ret ep 22 22 Operators. (gold vanG = Silver) ict een eee ep 22 TNISPECHOLS. Hire coi cae ic ieee ha enacene, ace eto eee coon ee UD Soper. 15 [TON MINE OPeCVA LIVES se csi rer etess Sani eee opener ee eee ge aed, asa 14 Load. and zine Mine operatives: «S445... sae Die” a peels 9) Copper: Mine Operatives oss. nieve cckae shel et ee ee Ue are ee 4 Salt well and. works operatives 7.024... se ae 3 3 PROC a 2 5 ee, SEER sects eS eos ee oR ee ae 24,293 7 24,300 GRAPH 17 Workers in Mining Pursuits 5,000 10,000 15,000 2.0000 UR Quarry operatives PRESRS §2. Specific Work of Various Age Groups Miners were distributed in the various age groups as indicated in Table 37. SS ase ECs Sw 2 ae. 119 EXTRACTION OF MINERALS eae 2 Te Ee ae LE LD EN SSeS eee Be JS Gees ye EE RON See EE ee EE Ee ee == ' SR Wen RE Te 7 i SS naire AA See Be CO eet a oer De I Gan Ot Cae Ca dich MOeseERS Spe Seema clic tab ae all Weth/ouate mache nneeeicpMecerecact hen chya tail epototare Neate 0 DUES Denese SOE Be os 70 OL eacaeo Beir tr eben ONO poytoods you sqzins.ind INO J] | | ‘SHIVNG |—SdNOWD ADV 067 ‘FZ 1G)‘ 499 ‘CT COZ 6e 1GG 97 6z0‘E A AC ain ic hae ee aT onic ton Ie ate Rad ts sO tie [e1OT, puBry 6z0‘¢ 160 ‘1 YAKS GRC 99 8 6z0‘G POLS URE aa Ie Romer aati res syinsand Sururu TOYO WH9}UTLT, FST ‘6I 099‘& 162 All 919 Wr 16F 0% 5c Onto Ue tkG: Oant] oan Oko. Dbok-cmonceo OMG lolioud. blo. Deo. Oca 0S ta, Rota. Fee ks Sareea eee eat sic ancnt aieg eenare 10,028 340. =: 10,368 Graph 18 shows the distribution of workers in these pursuits. GRAPH 18 Workers in Public Service Pursuits 5,000 10,000 15,00C poe ey Re git og lel RASS cS | ee) Guards watchmen, a i a ae aan ne OD Officials, inspectors (U. 8.) VL Fs 1 GE aA INE ETE ee PE Other |) ae Firemen (fire dept) === es =6=6—hrhi Wwome™ Officials, inspectors (Co.) Soldiers, sailors and marin: Officials, inspectors (city) §2. Specific Work of Various Age Groups The specific occupations of various age groups of males and females are indicated in Table 38. — N i Pusuic SERVICE Pursuits een eeneee ee eee eee EEE a = oS Bidar ieee en reece || WE aru ieee ee AME Gah aegis en ace meal EC ash rhe AU Ted ster ae nacht an teat merges [Uta tee ana rand os es ZI1 ee ae shinsandiron doe Q7Z OF FC] 1Z I pA aceeh ai teal Hae ee aR ead| e esa Te tes cenit, one Cir wurat | ed Comte LAAN see en MepereDURIN aux gu Diem maaan gh Manhatten lay Seen ee CRS ETS s10joodsut pue s]RIOIO “SHTIVNGY—SdD OL) aqoVW : 0ZO ‘OL 60 ‘F 206 F COZ, oD Siilegicidekicneciteuteiveen = eG) Oe Gee HOSE kde DUO DeD Wd io cOnbtOs0s O24 Und Sigua a SoCs Teg aro Ot Dadeo [eIOL ora pee. oda ooo 3h) bed sabe 4 oebeanOsps Oa Seanad honor ie On Ontos Oath in luce Ong -Oaich ed 20 ron || [!Os0-O Oma NOmOn sora ec) AY pad toner earon oad one tied No” Epes ea nOMO Ste TPeD) Lek sono. 0 a0 “sqinsand Ig }O UdAIG 196 OF ey) tA eer eC Te erage Quire OE recede at oes etiam eae eS SouTIvUL pur ‘SIO]IES ‘SLOIPJOR 620 at OS8Z 6FL OT Baco odode ll beth bastings Banoo O- Onoda bor biste Gico eno at) coh Posro— oO tea o lon Ota 10 KOr Carthed 2cn teste Ch 0-09 02. Ga 050 (yuourz.edop oll) UdULOAT PIL ‘ if LEG QIG TS L Tek ice, Ore Cis Geo gold PO Ds Om bans fonenll 0 On | DeHondich SC? OOD bOr O00 a Oe Ona ihet ec Os On OU: Ca Go Cra (O0TALOS otpqnd) SLI1OGV'T CC ‘T Org, CE) ed a ee ee hee Gy es REP OSE EL Yee WoUOdT[Og 060‘ ZOG‘T TL¢‘T i er etcetera (Coe en eee eee tr pO nc ere erie s10joodsut pur sjeDowgo Z08‘T 61Z‘T 1G¢ Be aa gee tee een SF Re ae ee re ee ia stadooyatoop pue ‘TOUTY OIE ‘Spaeny yO -10AQ pur] “sivox "S10 K "S10 L ‘save |'peytoodg MOL | srvox op | pr 01 Tz | 0G 09 OT | Gt 09 FL | eT OF OF | ION O8V “SATVI\I—Sd004*) GOV "‘SLIOSUO dg SHTIVNGH GNV SHTVINN—dNOWD ADV HOVA AO SLINSUNd HOIAMHS OITHOAd OIMIOAdS “8 ATAVL 122 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES CEA TER, Xe RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL PURSUITS It has been customary to consider Indiana as one of the group of Middle Western States in which agriculture was the dominant pursuit. Twenty years ago this classification was correct, but all the facts available show this to be no longer entirely true. There — are fewer farms and a smaller farm acreage in Indiana now than in 1900, and a smaller per cent of the total number of workers are farmers. The value of farm property and farm products has, however, greatly increased, indicating perhaps that future agri- culture expansion will result from more intensive rather than extensive development. On the other hand, during the same period the number of manufacturing establishments has greatly increased, the capital invested in manufacturing has greatly increased, there is now a greater percentage of the total number of workers in industry than ever before, and the value of manufactured products now far exceeds former values. Also in the last two decades there has been a marked growth in the urban population. As a background for this section it is essential to recall the fact that in 1890 only 26 of every 100 people in Indiana lived in urban communities, increasing to 34 in 1900 and 43 in 1910. In all probability in 1914 one-haif of all residents in the State are living in cities and towns. The urban gain from 1900 to 1910 was 267,541, or 30.5 per cent. During this period the rural loss was 83,127, or 5.1 per cent. §1. Comparative Number of Workers in Agriculture and Industry Considering the number of workers in agriculture and industry, changes no less significant have been taking place. In 1880, 52.2 per cent of all the workers in Indiana were farmers; in 1890, 46 per cent; in 1900, 39 per cent, and in 1910, 32.2 per cent, showing direct and continued decrease in percentage of agricultural work- ers. In industry, however, in 1880, 17.2 per cent of all were so engaged; in 1890, 20.5 per cent; in 1900, 29.9 per cent, and in 1910, 32.2* per cent, showing a direct and continued increase in *Includes mining in 1910, as in the previous years, 1880 to 1910, mining was listed in the census under the manufacturing and mechanical group. IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY ie the percentage of industrial workers. Thus, in 1910, 334,702 per- sons or 32.2+ per cent of all workers were in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits and 334,454 persons, or 32.2 per cent, in agri- eultural pursuits. The occupational facts for 1914 would doubt- less indicate a larger number in industry than in agriculture. Table 39 contains the number and percentage of workers in these and Graph 19 pictures these same facts. TABLE 39. NUMBER AND PER CENT ENGAGED IN AGRICUL- TURAL AND MANUFACTURING PURSUITS, 1880 TO 1910 1910. 1900. 1890. | 1880. Num- | Per |Num-| Per | Num-| Per | Num- Per ber. Can ber. |Cent.| ber. |Cent.; ber. | Cent. All occupations.. 1,036,710 100.0 898,953 100.0 |744, 303) 100 .0 635, 080 100.0 Agriculture. ..... | 344,454] 33.2 [342,733] 39.2 |342,474| 46.0 [331,783] 52.2 Manufacturing | | and mechanical) 334,702/*32.2 | 206,611} 29.9 |152,825} 20.5 109,518 Me | | *Includes extraction of minerals. GRAPH 19 Percentage of Workers in Manufacturing and Agricultural Pursuits, 1880-1910 40% 30% 20% 10% 0 |0% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Ter 1580 1880 1690 1890 1900 }900 1910 Re) In connection with these facts the question immediately arises as to the increase in the total number of workers in all fields during this period, or, in other words, the relative and absolute increase in working population. Table 40 supplies this information together with the number and percentage of increase of workers in agyri- culture and industry. Graph 20 illustrates these facts. —e Se 5 ey ———— querrncpseeag See 124 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE 40. NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF WORK- ERS IN ALL OCCUPATIONS, COMPARED WITH NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE IN AGRICULTURAL AND MANU- FACTURING AND MECHANICAL PURSUITS, 1880 TO 1910 | 1900 to 1910. | 1890 to 1900. | 1880 to 1890. | Num- | Per | Num-;} Per | Num-| Per ber. |Cent.| ber. | Cent.| ber. | Cent. | | Al-OCCUPALLONS 52.40. tot a ee 137,757) 13. 154,650 Ve) SO 2231-16. ASTI CUICUTC Ress le ao ee ee EAU Eee 247| 10,691) 1. Mamufia ctuminie ss s2 sn ee oe 134,091) 64. 52,786) 34. | 44,304) 44. *Includes mining. tLess than .01. GRAPH 20 Percentage Increase of Numbers of Workers in Agriculture and Industry. 1880-1910 1900-1910 10% 20% 3O% 40 % 50% 60% Gain all occupations emer Pann eee Po bee re eiveoed Used IL Lalla Agricultural workers* Bie Prd Industrial workers 1890-1900 Gain all occupations Agricultural workers*' _ -_ Industrial workers [as 1880-1890 Gain all occupations REE Agricultural workers Industrial workers eee *(Less than .01%) $2. New Workers Entering Industry Table 41 shows the relative proportion of industrial workers and farmers of the total increased number of workers in Indiana from 1880 to 1910. Of each 100 of the increased number of workers from 1880 to 1890, 9 were farmers, and 37 industrial workers; from 1890 to 1910, .1 were farmers and 34 were industrial workers, and from 1900 to 1910, 1 was a farmer and 97 industrial workers. Graph 21 pictures these facts. IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY 1eeAs. TABLE 41. PROPORTION OF NEW WORKERS IN INDIANA, FROM 1880 TO 1910, WHO WERE FARMERS AND INDUSTRIAL WORKERS 1900 to 1910. | i890 to 1900. | 1880 to 1890. Ber. @ent:—— Jeer Cent: Per Cent. Agricultural workers........... ibe x 9. imaustrial workers. 2... 2. ...::. 97. , 34. Se *Less than .01 per cent. GRAPH 21 Percentage of New Workers Entering Agricultural or Industrial Pursuits. 1880-1910 [0% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% {00% [rae aaa es ner ss nl fics 1900-1910 Agricultural workers (.1%) ea 1890-1900 Acricultural workers (.1%) Industrial workers 1880-1890 Agricultural workers Industrial workers $3. Decrease in Farms and Farm Acreage Considering farms and farm acreage, it has been noted under the section on ** Agriculture’’ that in 1910 there were 6,412 fewer farms in Indiana than in 1900, and 519,800 fewer acres of farm land, representing a loss of 2.9 per cent in farms and 1.5 per cent In acreage. Comparing this with the number of manufacturing establishments in Indiana from 1899 to 1909, we note a gain of 740, or 15 per cent. These facts are contained in Table 42. INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 126 “SENGWHSTTEAVISS ONTYOLOVAIN VAT “HOVANOY WAV iT ‘SINUV Sel 2 £29 618‘ 1Z WES A CGS eee re OOG6T Gall IPS oA 008 61S 6% CIF ‘9 | 6962 €Z8 66% 1% GQY GHG se Oe OT6T ‘quod log *LOQUIN NT “quor) Log *Loq UIN Ny “yuor) 10d *“TOQUIN NT “LO UID NT *LOQUIN Ny “LO UID NT “UIBL) "SSO'T "SSO'yT "SASNHD O16T OL 006T “VNVICNI ‘SLNAWNHSITAVLSA ONIYOLOVA “ANVW HO UHEAWON NI NIVO CNV GHOVEMOV WUVd GNV SWNUYVY JO UAAWON NI SSOT ‘eh HTaVL IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY I LAAT $4. Comparative Value of Agricultural and Manufacturing Products The estimated value of farm products and manufactured prod- ucts affords another measure of the relative importance of agri- culture and industry in Indiana. Farm products include all crops, live stock, dairy products, ete., whether sold or consumed. The value of manufactured products, however, includes only articles made within manufacturing establishments, and the figures recorded do not include the value added to raw materials as a result of the work of the plumber, carpenter, plasterer, electrician, etc., save as these pursuits are incident to the products manufactured within factories. On the basis enumerated in 1899, manufactured products were worth, expressed in thousands, $337,072, while agricultural prod- ucts were worth only $204,450, or about 59 per cent as much. In 1909 manufactured products were worth $579,075 and agricultural products $239,849, or 58 per cent as much. From 1899 to 1909 the increase in the value of agricultural products was 66.2 per cent, while during this period the increase in the value of manu- factured products was 71.8 per cent. These facts are contained in Table 43. TABLE 48. VALUE OF FARM AND MANUFACTURED. PRODUCTS AND INCREASE IN VALUE OF THESE PRODUCTS, 1899 TO 1909 { Farm PRopuwctTs. MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. CENSUS. | Gain. f Gain. Value. | | Value. Amount.*| Per Gent | \\ i| | | Amount. *|Per Cent. MOOG es: $239 , 849 | $579,075 $135, 399 66.2 | | $242 003 71.8 1609020. | $204, 450 | $337,072 *Expressed in thousands. §5. Value of Farm Property From 1900 to 1910 the value of farm land, buildings, imple- ments, domestic animals, poultry, and bees increased 84.9 per cent. This in part represents the increase in capital invested in agri- culture. From 1899 to 1909 the capital invested in manufacturing increased 131.9 per cent. The value of farm property in 1910, however, was three times as great as the capital invested in manu- facturing. These facts are given in Table 44. 128 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE 44 VALUE OF FARM PROPERTY. CaPpiIraL INVESTED IN MANUFACTURING Gain. Gain. Value. Value. Per Per Amount. Cont Amount. Gane 1910 ./$1, 809, 135, 238 1909} $508,717,000 $830,518,767| 84.9 $289,396,000| 131.9 1900.| $987,616, 471 1899} $219,321,000 $6. Industry Now as Important as Agriculture In summarizing, all of the evidence presented points conelu- sively to the fact that while from every standpoint the agri- cultural pursuits are tremendously important, the manufacturing and industrial pursuits are now equally as important and in many respects more so. 7 Industrial pursuits, including mining, in 1910 engaged the time of more workers than did the agricultural pursuits. Since 1880 there has been practically no gain in the number of agricultural workers in Indiana, while the number of industrial workers has increased enormously, being 64 per cent from 1900 to 1910, as compared with a per cent less than .01 in agriculture for the same period. Of all the new workers in Indiana from 1900 to 1910, 97 of each 100 were in the industries and one in the agricultural pursuits. The number of farms has decreased, as has also farm acreage, while the number of manufacturing establishments has increased continually. The value of agricultural as well as manufactured products has inereased considerably from 1900 to 1910, but the greater increase has been in the manufactured products. Since 1899 the products of agriculture have been worth but 58 per cent of the value of the products of industry. The great increase in manufacturing cannot be due to the so- ealled ‘‘natural gas boom,’’ as the greatest growth has occurred between the years 1900-1910. Natural gas may have been re- sponsible for the beginning of the great industrial development, but it is thought that the resources of the State, the railroad faeil- ities, and the proximity of centers of population are the real and IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY 129 basic factors conditioning this development. Such being the case, the future will doubtless witness a much greater industrial expansion. In the words of the census: In 1849 Indiana ranked fourteenth among the States of the Union in the value of its manufactures, the total value of the products being $18,725,000. Each decade since then has shown a large increase, the value of the manufactured products of the State reaching the $100,000,000 mark in 1869, while in 1909 it amounted to $579,075,000, and the State ranked ninth in this respect. The growth has been dependent largely upon the natural resources of the State, consisting of an abundant supply of timber, im- portant agricultural products, and a large production of petroleum and natural gas. During the past decade the supply of timber, petroleum, and natural gas has fallen off greatly. and some of the industries depending upon these materials show a decrease in their output or less advance than in previous years. The manufacturing industries of the State as a whole, however, have continued to flourish, lumber having been secured from out- side the State to supplant the local supply, while the increasing amount of coal mined in the State has compensated manufacturing in many lines.* *Vol. 9, pp. 303, United States Census, 1910. 9—2980. 130 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES CHA PAM Ry Xeni DEDUCTIONS RELATIVE TO EDUCATION PART I. RHLATIVE TO THE POPULATION AND GENERAL EDUCA- TION §1. Widely Distributed Responsibilities for General and Vocational Education With 42 per cent of the entire population of Indiana distributed among one city over 100,000 inhabitants, four cities between 25,000 and 100,000, 20 cities between 10,000 and 25,000, 26 cities between 5,000 and 10,000, 37 towns between 2,500 and 5,000, and 57.6 per cent of the population in rural districts, it is readily seen that the people are very widely and comparatively evenly distributed in residence over the State. The responsibilities for all types of education are thus widely distributed and practically no district in the State is exempt from this duty. For purposes of general education, Indiana is committed to the permanent policy of making adequate provision for meeting the educational needs resulting from this wide distribution in place of residence by establishing and maintaining rural town- ship consolidated, town, and city schools. For the purposes of vocational education this wide distribution of population presents a much more difficult problem, more diffi- eult in degree than in most of the States thus far committed to a system of State-aided vocational schools. As the situation in Indiana is somewhat unique, it is particularly necessary that all the possible factors should be carefully considered before deciding upon definite and permanent state policies. §2. Iblliteracy in the Entire Population As a State, illiteracy, averaging all classes of the population, has been reduced from 4.6 per cent in 1900 to 3.1 per cent in 1910. This shows great educational progress. In spite of. this reduction, however, in 1910 there were ten States in the Union having a smaller percentage of illiteracy. Considering Indiana’s wealth and educational facilities and the relatively small per- centage of foreign born living in this State, it is thought that the DeEpuUCTIONS RELATIVE TO EDUCATION teil percentage of illiteracy is far too high. The illiterate popula- tion is relatively evenly distributed over the entire State and thus constitutes a problem for all school districts in Indiana. §3. Stability of Population The population of Indiana is fairly stable although up to 1910 the facts show that a considerable number of those born in Indiana have moved to other States, and that a considerable number now residing in Indiana were born in other States. However, com- paring Indiana with some of the Eastern and Western States, the population may be regarded as relatively stable. This fact very greatly simplifies the whole educational problem. §4. Education tor Native White Residents With 94.1 per cent of the entire population of Indiana in 1910 being native born whites, the schools are facing the problem of educating a native born population. Although illiteracy among native whites in the State was reduced from 3.6 per cent in 1900 to 2.1 per cent in 1910, there were, in 1910, twenty-nine States with a smaller percentage of illiteracy among the native white residents. This points definitely to the need for more vigorous enforcement of compulsory school education laws and perhaps to a need in some sections for extended educational facilities. §5. Education for Colored Residents Although in 1910 there were but 60,320 colored residents in the State, comprising 2.2 per cent of the entire population, the number is sufficiently large to- justify serious educational con- sideration, particularly in view of the fact of the high percentage of illiteracy among them. From 1900 to 1910 the percentage of illiteracy was reduced from 22.6 per cent to 13.7 per cent, show- ing marked educational progress. However, as most of the negroes in Indiana are born within the State, a direct need for a stricter enforcement of the compulsory education laws is shown. $6. Education for Foreign Born Residents The problem of education for the foreign born coming to Indiana is one of increasing importance and difficulty each year. Although but 5.9 per cent of the total population of Indiana were foreign born in 1910 and but 5.6 per cent in 1900, the percentage of illiteracy increased durine the decade from 11.4 per cent to BY INDIANA UNIversity STUDIES 11.7 per cent. It is thought that this increase was not due pri- marily to any increased inefficiency on the part of the schools, but rather to the increased number of foreigners coming to the State from the southwestern European countries. Attention has previously been called to the facts showing the shift in the tide of immigration to Indiana from Northwestern to Southwestern Europe. Concerning the residence of foreign born whites in Indiana, the facts show that they are living in cities in the proportion of about three of every four, and also that a considerable number of these foreign born are living in the cities and towns of the north-— western section of the State. To safeguard the stability of the State and make possible a high type of citizenship among the foreign born, schools and employers of labor must cooperate in eliminating illiteracy and ignorance. To this end, every possible facility should be pro- vided; night schools, factory classes and schools, and part-time classes. The State cannot afford to pay the price incident to general ignorance of the English language and a knowledge of the economic and social and personal ideals of our country. PART II. RELATIVE TO-INDUSTRIAL ARTS FOR HLEMENTARY SCHOOLS $1. Elementary Period and Fundamentals Concerning Course of Study In keeping with what is considered as the best educational theory and practice of the day, the elementary period is here con- sidered as comprising grades one to six, inclusive. The follow- ing factors are considered as basically fundamental for courses of study for this period: First, the principal content of elementary courses should be the same the country over, regardless of place, either State, city, or town. There must be uniformity in the fundamental content, but variety in methods of approach, emphasis of various units in the course and in time devoted to sections of the course. This unity is essential to insure the retention of common ideals, purposes, ete., and the variety within the bounds suggested, in making provision for teaching children of various nationalities, various degrees of natural capacity, etc. Second, in the main, this elementary course should center about those facts which should be taught to all children regardless of sex, future vocation; facts usually conceded to be essential to all people in all fields of productive activity. Third, as a unit of subject- DeEpucTIONS RELATIVE TO EDUCATION Les matter in this course, a study of the primal industries must be included and the interpretation must be broad enough and the content rich enough to secure the breadth of industrial intelli- gence necessary for good eitizenship and a rudimentary under- standing of our day and its problems. The course in elementary industrial art should include information and participation in the following fields: food, clothing, wood, metal, clay and earth products. $2. Industrial Art in Elementary Grades The question immediately arises, Are these primal industrial pursuits present in Indiana and distributed throughout the State so as to afford the children an apperceptive basis for their study and opportunities for making such studies vital and real by first- hand observation of the materials, processes, and people engaged in them? The facts show that the primal industrial pursuits are earried on in Indiana and distributed through the State in places of all sizes and types. - An enumeration of some of the specific pursuits of each of the primal industries is here made to indicate the great variety of occupational pursuits and thus the richness of the background for courses in Kiementary Industrial Art. In the field of food production and manufacturing the follow- ing pursuits are carried on: food production—farming, dairying, fruit growing, stock and poultry raising, ete. In the field of food manufacture and preserving—baking, slaughtering, meat-packing, milling. fruit and vegetable canning, sugar refining, and the manu- facture of butter and cheese. In the field of textile and clothing manufacturing: in textile manufacturing—cotton and woolen goods in great variety; in clothing manufacturing—shoes, men’s and women’s hats, suits, coats, dresses, underwear, ete. In the field of wood industries and pursuits: wood industries —manufacturing furniture, refrigerators, carriages, wagons, agri- cultural implements, piano and organ cases, barrels, etc. In wood pursuits—carpentering, woodearving, wheelwrighting, sawmilling, ete: : In the field of the metal industries and pursuits: metal in- dustries — manufacturing iron and _ steel, surgical instruments, cutlery, railroad cars and car parts, tin and enamelware, auto- mobiles, sewing-machines, ete.; metal pursuits—work of machinists, blacksmiths, tin and coppersmiths, moulders, founders, casters, polishers, grinders, ete. feat) ley! INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES In the field of clay and allied earth products: clay and earth products—manufacture of lme, cement, brick, tile, terra cotta, pottery and glass, and in the mining of gypsum, marble and stone; and the pursuits—glass blowing, stone quarrying and cutting, ete. With the presence of these primal pursuits in Indiana and the diversity of occupations among them, and the wide distribu- tion of these pursuits over the State, there are few physical obstacles in the way of environmental opportunity conditioning and making difficult the teaching of rich, well-rounded courses in industrial art. But few States in the Union present such a rich background for the introduction of industrial art courses. To continue manual training courses comprising, in the main, paper and varn weaving, basketry, and exercises In wood in the element- ary schools, is to fail to take advantage of the wonderful opportuni- ties within the State for developing industrial intelligence and ap- preciation by a study of the primal industrial pursuits within the State. PART Ifl. CONTENT OF COURSES FOR. PRE-V OCATIONAT, PE RTOD FOR GRAMMAR AND HIGH SCHOOLS, JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, ETC., BASHD ON OCCUPATIONAL FACTS $1. Fundamental Assumptions It is assumed that one of the functions of schools and courses for pupils in the pre-vocational period (roughly comprising grades 7, 8, 9 as schools are now organized) is to provide a considerable range of activities and experiences so as to furnish opportunities for all types of minds and also to assist pupils in determining interests and capacities, so that future education will yield larger results in terms of directness and purposefulness. It is also assumed that another function equally important for schools and courses of this period is to provide opportunities for specialized technical training for over-age boys and girls and for those who are likely to leave the schools soon and directly enter wage-earning pursuits. §2. Local Surveys and Courses of Study The question concerning the type courses which should be introduced into such schools has given rise to discussion and debate throughout the country. It is probably the concensus of opinion at the present time that a local school cannot be sure of the proper courses to introduce till exhaustive local surveys have been made. In keeping with this belief many cities and towns in dif- DeEpucTIONS RELATIVE TO EDUCATION 135 ferent parts of the country have been so ‘‘surveyed.’’ It is con- tended by the writer that local surveys cannot answer the question as to the type courses needed in the pre-vocational period because education in this period cannot be assumed to be for fitting the particular pupils of the community for the local pursuits carried on in the community at the time such surveys were made, con- sidering the local community to be bounded by the corporate limits of the city, town, or school district. Interpreting the term ‘‘community’’ as being bounded by the horizon of the pupil and his parents, then there is more justifica- tion for stating that pre-vocational courses must be adapted to community needs. Dr. Ayres* has shown that of the fathers living in seventy-eight cities only one in six is now living in the city in which he was born, and that of the boys only a little more than one-half are living in the city of their birth. Another conditioning factor is that the existence of an industry or a pur- suit or a type of industries or pursuits in a community today does not insure its or their presence twenty years from today. We know further that if the local pursuits are limited in variety, that the pupils’ interests, capacities, and potentialities will represent a greater range of distribution than the occupational opportunities for employment within the community. There are sufficient facts to justify the statement that, though local surveys are important, such surveys cannot condition and prescribe in the final analysis the proper types of courses for schools of the pre-vocational period. State surveys will yield more dependable data, and a national sur- vey would be even more satisfactory. Herein lies the value of Dr. Ayres’ study of Constant and Variable Occupations,* for it at- tempts to show the pursuits common to all communities and those largely localized in particular sections. Considering the fact that up to 1910 about 74 per cent of the people born in Indiana were still living in Indiana, and that the pursuits of Indiana are in the main not very different from those found in the States to which the 26 per cent have migrated, it is safe to conclude that the lines of pursuits found within the State of Indiana constitute a safe and sane basis for courses in pre- vocational schools. «Leonard P. Ayres, Some Conditions Affecting Problems of Industrial Educa- tion in Seventy-eight American School Systems. Russell Sage Foundation, N. Y. +Leonard P. Ayres, Constant and Variable Occupations and Their Bearing on Problems of Vocational Education. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 136 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES §3. General Facts Concerning Courses, Based on Occupational Sta- tistics of Indiana Though it is of primal importance to make adequate provision for the education of those who will complete the high school and college and enter the professions, it is not this group with which our data are most concerned, and for which these educational deduce- tions are intended. Our interest in this study is centered about those who will enter the pursuits of agriculture, industry, com- merce, and domestic and personal service. It is not within the province of this study to project ideals relative to the organization of schools. However, in passing, it might be said that a great injustice will be done individuals and society if special pre-vocational schools are established for in- dustrial, commercial, and domestic education for normal pupils. The establishment of such schools presupposes that pupils have made vocational choices and are directly preparing for wage-earn- ing pursuits. To assume that a child 13 or 14 years of age is cap- able of making an intelligent vocational choice is fallacious. On the other hand, as previously stated, a great injustice will be done over-age pupils and those about to leave school to go to work, if some provision for considerable technical training is not made. A safe and sane ideal to project, and the only feasible one for most of the towns in Indiana, is that of a school under one roof, containing many departments, each open to all under sane elective standards, standards permitting considerable shifting among courses and be- tween departments. Thus each shall know the work of all and each gain a variety of experiences. A graduate of any department of such a school should be permitted to enter, unreservedly, the next higher school. In the same school, however, provision for specialization for over-age boys and girls and for those about to 20 to work should be made. In keeping with the group occupational poncane in Indiana, these five general types of courses should be provided: agricul- tural; industrial, including mining; commercial, including trade; transportation and clerical; household and domestic and personal service; and professional service. §4. Courses for Boys No attempt is here made to enumerate or even lst the general courses for boys or girls or the courses related to the units of instruction here proposed. DeEpucTIONS RELATIVE TO EDUCATION 137 Agricultural Courses Since the agricultural pursuits in Indiana include general farming, gardening, dairying, fruit-growing, stock-raising, and forestry, the fundamentals in these lines should be included in courses of study together with other lines which give promise of increasing the agricultural productivity of the State. Industrial Courses In view of the occupational facts, the traditional manual train- ing courses in exercises In wood will have to give way to a study and participation in the dominant lines of industry represented in the State. The dominant pursuits adapted to school instruction comprise the building trades with the following lines: carpentry, painting, masonry, plumbing, and plastering; the metal trades, in- cluding machine operating and work of machinists, blacksmiths, sheet metal workers, forgers, casters, ete.; the wood industries, in- cluding machine operating, wheelwrighting, furniture-making, car- riage-making, ete.; electrical work especially looking toward elec- trical engineering; printing and publishing, including foundry work, composition and press work; and clothing industries, par- ticularly tailoring. It is not to be assumed that a school in a small city must include all of the above Hnes; any of them will be far more useful than the traditional manual training courses. It is thought that the minimum should be three of the suggested lines, but in cities of the 50,000 class and over all could be included at least in type. Many of the dominant industrial pursuits in Indiana are not included in this list, some because they are thought not to be adapted to school procedure, and others because they are largely unskilled. The manufacture of iron and steel and saw-milling are not adapted to schoolroom procedure and the percentage of. unskilled is too high in the following pursuits to justify school training: confectionery, leather and rubber, textiles, cigar and tobacco, chemical pursuits, and paper and pulp industries. Commercial Courses The clerical pursuits of bookkeeping and stenography, when studied alone, are too restricted in scope to permit pupils to gain any understanding of commercial hfe or any preparation for future commercial study and participation. The facts show the need for courses in merchandising, buying and selling, and all the 138 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES problems incident thereto. In detail, courses should include, in the field of trade, the elements of salesmanship, wholesaling and retailing, importing and exporting, work of insurance agents, ex- press agents, ete.; in the field of transportation, telegraph operat- ing, etc.; and in the field of clerical pursuits, bookkeeping and stenography, collecting, work of shipping-clerks, ete. §5. Courses for Girls It is assumed that in the pre-vocational period it is the duty of the school to provide the greatest possible range of type courses for girls as well as for boys. The courses for girls should aim to assist them in discovering aptitudes and capacities and interests with a view to more direct and specific vocational training in later years and for preparation for wage-earning for those who must leave school to enter wage-earning pursuits. One of the surest methods of making self-realization possible and exploitation impossible is to provide the training necessary for economic independence. This ideal is not at all incompatible with that of meeting and successfully solving the problem of home- making. The facts show that, for the State of Indiana as a whole, of the young women between the ages of 16 and 20, 270 of each 1,000 were at work. This is an average of country, village, town, and city, and, therefore, the number at work in cities 1s much high- er, being in Indianapolis about 530 of each 1,000. For the country as a whole, the average for these years is almost 40 per cent. The question may be asked, Why insist that the possibility of vocational training be provided for all girls when but about one- half the young women in cities are at work? In reply it may be said that it is impossible to know what girls are to constitute the female working population. Changes in the financial position of the head of the family or a sudden death or illness or personal choice force many girls and women into wage-earning pursuits. The occupational facts for Indiana indicate that in this period courses for girls should inelude the elements of agriculture, in- dustry, commerce, household and domestic and personal service pursuits, aside from those leading to the professions. Agricultural Courses These phases of agricultural education should be provided: eardening aud greenhouse working, dairying, and poultry-raising.. DeEpucTIONS RELATIVE TO EDUCATION 139 Industrial Courses The industrial pursuits which should be provided are: manu- facturing of clothing, including dressmaking, millinery, and tailor- ing; printing and publishing, including composing, proofreading, bookbinding, ete. Many other industrial pursuits are open to women in Indiana, but as they are largely unskilled, it is not thought wise to include them among proposed courses. Among these unskilled pursuits in which women are engaged in considerable numbers are candy-making, baking, cigar and cigarette making, textile manufacturing, glass-making, various iron and steel pur- suits, as well as a variety of wood pursuits. Commercial Courses The principal commercial nes open to women are selling (clerks and salesladies), bookkeeping, stenography, and typing. Courses in these fields should be provided. Telephone operating is also open to women, but the training of such operators is usually provided by telephone corporations. Household, Domestic, and Personal Service Courses Over 80 per cent of women employed in these pursuits in Indiana are servants, cooks, chambermaids, or laundresses. It is held that before schools are justified in training for these occupa- tions, and particularly for servants and laundresses, that more should be known as to hours of work, conditions under which work is performed, wages, etc. The work under this head is not to be confused with homemak- ing courses, which are, of course, held to be essential for all young women. As the census gives ro facts or figures concerning work of housewives and the problem of homemaking, no statements are here made concerning this most important field. Professional Courses Aside from teaching, courses for women should be given look- ing toward nursing, photography, designing, architecture, and social work. 140 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES PART IV. CONTENT OF COURSES FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS: DAY, PART TIME, AND CONTINUATION* $1. Local Surveys and Courses of Study While the presence of an occupational pursuit in a local com- munity may not be the final measure in determining whether or not vocational courses preparing for the pursuit shall be intro- duced into the local schools, from an administrative and teaching standpoint it is much more economical to localize vocational courses where the pursuits are fundamentally important. Thus, since there are large and permanent printing and publishing interests in Hammond, day vocational courses in printing would here be more easily taught and yield larger net returns than in Muncie. Part-time and continuation courses in printing might also be needed at Hammond, but the probability is that such needs would not exist in Muncie. The position is here taken that before establishing vocational courses, day, part-time, or continuation,* communities must first ascertain the extent and scope and importance of the various oc- cupational pursuits. The occupational facts contained in this study will be useful in this connection in showing the State-wide extent of local pursuits. §2. Courses for Day Vocational Schools The facts advanced in the previous section concerning the neces- sity for data showing the extent and scope of local occupational pursuits apply with directness in the consideration of courses for day vocational schools. On the other hand, are there no pur- suits constant throughout the State for which courses might be established without making local occupational surveys? The courses which are thought to be needed in nearly all cities in Indiana are specified in outline form under the section concerning pre-vocational courses in the fields of industry, commerce, and domestic and personal service. The question, however, as_ to whether day vocational courses and part-time courses or con- tinuation courses will best meet the needs of workers entering these pursuits is, in the main, a local problem. The Richmond survey has answered the question in a number of fields, but there is still little definite knowledge concerning a great number of pursuits. In order to have positive assurance that day vocational courses are vitally needed and will directly function, occupations *Day or evening general or vocational. DeEpucTIONS RELATIVE TO EDUCATION vat must be analyzed in terms of knowledge and skill required, and what the pursuit does or does not offer in terms of training for workers and also what the school could profitably offer. $3. Courses for Part-Time Vocational Schools Under the provision of the Indiana Vocational Education Law, local boards are authorized to require the attendance upon part- time classes of all youths, gainfully employed, between the ages of 14 to 16, in the pursuits for which part-time education is given. The need for such part-time classes is obvious, but the extent of the need is realized by but few. In Indiana in 1910 there were 28,678 boys and 6,005 girls under 16 years of age profitably em- ployed. Although the compulsory school laws have been modified since 1910, in all probability at the present time about 35,000 boys and girls in Indiana under 16 are now profitably employed. What type cf part-time education shall be provided? Aceord- ing to the law, part-time education, to receive special State aid, must be complementary to the practical work of the profitable employment. It is, therefore, first necessary for communities to ascertain the pursuits in which youths from 14 to 16 are engaged, and, second, to attempt to work out some plan whereby the part- time education may contribute to the suecess of the youths in their daily pursuits in terms of intelligence and efficiency, promo- tions, and increased wages. For this type of vocational part-time education the law has made provision; and, in those pursuits where youths are ap- prenticed or where lines of promotion are clearly defined, such part-time education will be constructively helpful. If this type of part-time education, for which the law provides State aid, 1s to be helpful to large numbers of boys and girls under 16, the occupational pursuits open to youths must be so organized as to contain factors for which the schools can train. A careful study of the tables herein contained, indicating the specific pursuits of boys and girls under 16 years of age shows the approximate numbers for whom part-time vocational education would be possible. For all those under 16 engaged in the agri- cultural pursuits complementary part-time education is possible. This would include about 21,000, the great majority being boys. During the winter months such boys could attend school two or three afternoons each week, and receive instruction in agriculture, which would give meaning and practical help to the work in which they are engaged during the remainder of the year. 142 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Of the 12,500 boys and girls under 16 who are engaged in all pursuits other than agriculture, about 4,000 are engaged in work for which part-time vocational education of the trade extension type could be provided, and about 9,500 in pursuits for which no part-time vocational education of the trade extension type is at all possible or necessary. For the latter, the general continuation school is needed, which aims to provide a type of general and pre- vocational education assisting them to discover aptitudes and lines of employment more promising than those in which they are engaged. For the 600 youths under 16 employed as general laborers in the building trades, what type of part-time education can be or- ganized to be directly complementary to this work? For the 200 girls under 16 rolling cigarettes and cigars, what type of school education can be complementary to this profitable employment? For the 1,000 bundle and messenger boys and girls, what comple- mentary education could be proposed? For the 125 female tele- phone operators under 16, what part-time complementary educa- tion is possible? The obvious need for about 75 per cent of the boys and girls who are profitably employed and under 16 years of age, aside from those employed on farms, is for general part-time educa- tion. The State Vocational Department has recognized this vital need,* and it is to be hoped that superintendents and employers may cooperate in establishing such part-time classes, and that at an early date special State aid may be provided for this most fundamental educational obligation. PART V. THE NEED OF OCCUPATIONAL SURVEYS AND ANALYSES $1. The Limitations of the Census Data During the course of this study the writer carefully reviewed all publications containing any phase of occupational information for Indiana. The United States census was found to be the only source of information at all adequate and reliable. The census report concerning ‘‘Occupations’’ was not published till the spring of 1914, and contains facts derived four years previous. Further, the occupational data are given only for the State as a whole and for places of over 25,000 inhabitants. At best, the occupational facts in the census are but rough preliminary measures. No oe- eupational studies in terms of knowledge and skill required, ete., are included in this report. *See Bulletin Vocational Series 4, Department of Public Instruction, State of Indiana, pp. 24, 25, W. IF’. Book. DEDUCTIONS RELATIVE TO EDUCATION 143 §2. Local Occupational Surveys The necessity for local communities knowing the extent of the presence of various occupational pursuits for purposes of voea- tional education has been fully demonstrated in previous sections. It is impossible for most Indiana cities to engage ‘‘survey experts”’ to gather these facts. If such information is to be obtained for the eities of Indiana, it must be gathered by those within the school systems. A simple method must be derived so that teachers and principals may efficiently study their own cities and determine for themselves the local needs. Two or three occupational surveys must be made in Indiana with a view of establishing a method of procedure which will be simple and accurate. The necessary in- formation will concern age, sex, nationality, and occupational dis- tribution of workers, and the education and educational deficiencies of workers. §3. Cccupational Analyses. The necessity for occupational studies has been established. In Indiana such studies are vitally needed in mining, in stone quarry- ing, in slaughtering and meat-packing, in the chemical industries, in the manufacture of sewing-machines, automobiles, railroad and street cars and car parts, surgical instruments and cutlery, and carriages and agricultural implements. = ve 1, 1915. ARCH a P [24 “iad vitae He ae oT * D gical NE GGER- a syc veR ativ' sR ‘ST of By or I Direct NTS 1 NAL MEASUREME V, holos ‘the. rch, : esea oper uo urea Director of the B : atory, and = ar, INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES No. 27 BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA Marcu 1], 1915 Introduction THE investigation which is here reported is the outcome of two requests which reached the psychological laboratory of Indiana University at about the same time, in the autumn of 1913. One came from Mr. S. A. Courtis, requesting that the laboratory under- take to be a clearing-house for the Courtis Standard Tests in Indiana. The other came from a committee of the Indiana City Superintendents’ Research Club for codperation in educational re- search. Asa result, twenty of the cities represented in the research elub gave the Courtis tests in arithmetic in May, 1914, and sent to the laboratory the tabulated results. These results were worked up 1n comparative studies and more than seventy charts were pre- pared and used in presenting the data to the meeting of the club at Wabash, Indiana, on October 28, 1914. These charts, which presented the essential facts in a detailed way, were then routed by the secretary of the club and sent to each of the cities which had participated in the investigation. Hach city was permitted to use the charts three days. By request, the club voted permission to the University to publish the results in bulletin form. Credit for this bulletin is due to the several hundred teachers who gave the tests and computed the individual and class scores, to the administrative officers who supervised the giving of the tests and arranged the class and school records for the University, and to the superintendents who have courageously undertaken to measure by scientific methods the results of their work. A number of persons have assisted in arranging the data in comparative tables and in making the necessary mathematical com- putations. Mr. Paul Mort corrected most of the class and school record sheets, and computed many of the city and individual medians and variabilities. He also rendered great assistance with the graphs, making the original charts which were sent to the several cities. Miss Glenora Swadener assisted in making the dis- tribution tables and the tabulations under the questionnaire. As- (385) 386 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES sistance was rendered in many ways by Miss Cecile White, Fellow in Philosophy, by Mr. C. C. Stech, Fellow in Edueation, and by Mr. Earl Moore, Technical Assistant in the Psychological Labora- tory. Valuable advice and service have been given also by Pro- fessors H. L. Smith and H. G. Childs, of the School of Education. This cooperative endeavor marks a new movement in the prog- ress of education in Indiana. Growing out of this investigation has come the suggestion for a permanent Bureau of Cooperative Research connected with the University. At a recent meeting the Board of Trustees authorized the formation of such a bureau, the details of which were set forth in a recent University News-Letter (Vol. FIL-No. 12). . In the discussion which follows, ttle more is attempted than to point out the sahent facts shown by the tables and graphs. The possible causes for high or low scores are numerous and complex, and can hardly be deciphered from the data at hand. In Part II an attempt is made to study two of the causes—namely, the time of beginning, and the amount of time spent on the subject. If results from the use of standardized tests continue to accumulate, we should be able to evaluate numerous other conditions affecting the psychology of learning. Contents MRE: PRG OIG ee ae eee ie ee es NE Se ee oar a 385 Partl. A ComMPaARATIVE Stupy oF TwENtTy INDIANA CITIES. ese eam Veh WNOC Sassi a AS Ree Aen ets, aaa ey ee Se eS 389 WihineceCoomerrcatiman 2s ee cee es ee 1 ee 390 EGE SUL HMMM AL CG eine ret ocean alae ay WIR nchs aN aep ese agua Tne ees 390 ve SUnicrmmn Cab MG acre heen eae er tee atte me eas in pice ne 424 WE CMeinM SG OLE Siew e fet ot octet hea Soest ol Oe Re ee eee 430 Me CiuCae MaLacupr Ole AOLtS soo. t ae ees wont Sees oso Oe ee 445 WW BiseMB] OU ULENY. cog Sane A ae et a7 gO at 445 Wepwenorioilliity mere ges feta ee. cbr ac oe a a tate no Da oka eee 446 Part II. Courtis Tests sas INSTRUMENT OF RESEARCH: TIME OF BE- GINNING ARITHMETIC AND TIME DevoTéD TO ARITHMETIC. eHeT MEO OMSICEALIONS 5 500) ies sive ea alee ee ha ns oe Ue nea 476 Merbimeonbeainning Arithmetic... 0... 026.. 6. esc. ste ce bao ee eee 482 Baaadbime devoted to Arithmetic... 22.0%. 2420 ss) 25 i eho 489 iirowanans tandande ©harte. 40. 5 afc. tos eee) ese sees ee 505 LOINC eRe ee ere A aN Re PUR POS seaeh eae 507 DE IeNI@) CUANE Ingmar thos cae eee ahh coe anes ae eee Pata Sana 508 “THE time has now come when opinions, traditions, and rule-of-thumb methods should yield to a science of education. .:...°.. If we could. only realize what it would mean to have a science of education, a science of health, a science of conduct, surely all the resources of our civilization would be turned in this direction.’’— J. McKEEN CATTELL. (388) Arithmetic: A Cooperative Study in Educa- tional Measurements By M. E. Haccerty, Associate Professor of Psychology, Director of the Psychological Liboratery, and Director of the Bureau of CoGperative Research, Indiana University. PARDO A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TWENTY INDIANA CITIES Tests AND Merrnops ALL of the cities gave the Courtis Standard Test, Arithmetic, Series B. Some gave Test 7 in Series A, but for several reasons the results of the latter are not included in this study. In the ease of Series B, the tests were given as directed, the individual scores were computed, the results were transferred to score sheet No. 1, the median and per cent cf variability were computed on this sheet, and these two items were then transferred to score sheet No. 3. All of the above work was done by the teaching corps of the several cities. All of the material—individual score Sheets, record sheets No. 1 and record sheets No. 3—were then sent to the University. These records were then rechecked to see whether the work had been properly done. The general method was as follows: Sample individual score sheets were taken at random from each city. If these proved to be correctly done it was assumed that the class distributions on record sheet No. 1 were correct. If these individual score sheets were in error they were corrected and new distributions were made out. After this, the computations of medians and variabilities were verified and record sheets No. 3 were corrected. Owing to a rather general misunderstanding of some of the methods used the amount of corrective work was considerable; the compensation is the fund of highly dependable data here presented. (389) 390 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES CITIES CoOPERATING The list of cities cooperating in these tests is as follows: Alexanédria. Hartford City. Anderson. Kendallville. Bluffton. Laporte. Columbia City. Michigan City. Crawfordsville. Mount Vernon. Crown Point. Noblesville. Decatur. Plymouth. Elwood. Princeton. East Chicago. Rochester. Frankfort. Wabash. Total number of children reported, 8,712. In the tables, charts, and discussions which follow, these cities are indicated by numbers. The order is not alphabetical. Each city reported the children of four school grades, four tests to each grade. The results of each test are figured for the number of problems attempted (speed) and the number correctly solved (accuracy). This gives thirty-two measures of each school system. Further, the per cent of variability and per cent of dependability are computed. ReEstuutts: TABLES In order that the reader may have a fair view of all the results, they will first be presented in the form of distribution tables. Table I is for the number of problems attempted in the fifth grade in Test 1 (addition). It reads across as follows: In city 1, there are in the fifth grade: 1 child who attempted 1 problem, 2 chil- dren who attempted 2 problems, 7 children who attempted 3 prob- lems, and so on across the table; the total number of children taking the test being 156, the median 7.2, and the per cent of variability 25. Inasmuch as the number of children in the sey- eral cities differs widely a direct comparison is difficult. The tables have, therefore, been reduced to a per cent basis. Since the total number of children is given in each ease it is easy to find the num- ber making each score by multiplying the total number by the per cent in the score required. Table II represents the same facts shown in Table I and reads: In city 1, .6 per cent of the children attempted 1 problem, 1.3 per cent of the children attempted 2 problems, and so on across the table, the total number of children being 156, the median attempts being 7.2, and the per cent of variability being 25. 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S _ mo . eo} oD mele he Fe Vit — ah : 3 : : 5 ; CO 2 ai Bite ; nN cate : = 4 an - OD Veyron a as i + rm NX 2 rm rN a : = - re 1019 0 O 4 - oO = ee re _— | PA aN | P| N 191910 - AN oD tH OO K aa) o> col rm ae) rmao MN DHINOKRDASOHANMRYHOSRABS FZ <= = Se = = = SS 2S SS ee A! + H =) © onl Per Cent or CHILDREN MaAkiInG EAcH SCORE TABLE X ATTEMPTS ADDITION: RADE a q N City DIsTRIBUTIONS—SIXTH C Al os a1 © D a Yer) ~ ODD ALIO Se = = = = AYIPIGVIIG A OID ON ANA 19 16 19 8 Ho © quar) log NAA ae NAN NAAN N “I 31008 Se oe tear aaa epee 2 OS > DwwND OS onto on ~Eootoa a =) UsIp Iq, ) eonrenr ros = moO RM OH nl jo taquinyy 3 ; ahs : ae [210.1 el ee eS a o on a NI ian) os N ae : ox . . i D> — . aa) NX S) > i os : b oS 5 rm re (o.@) rm - 10 - 1d I= ov Taets 3 anes 5 | _—r * wD oS sare! — Smet = ee | . Voy Ren one bX 19 re a ° . —N Fj ry aa) a, Me oe 7 Peed a arse Ot 6 eo =O oie G . a Ol mts Saran eo seH To) =~ ye + p lan aYan itis Domi ccatny helen mgenta te MULE eMail ante Ean Ces 3 > et care . - Ho ee UENO an N : N = -Oot - Not AQ KAN oD oD st ae °-Ormes - ODO - re AN rhe N OD oD © Bs im ron sto 1d D> aa Sn “ : cS = aN oO nH Hom oOoumorRR 10 OD ok : be = — “aN le eS) DDD BRAN O19 OD OO HD oD o SDWOAN Or mon tHornrnod NO a) re Se ee ee ce — re b en —_ os I~ mm ON mud st = no N mo n Qntnr HOH MO HAhRHDIANSD ~ o> 1D = Ss — ae NR ne Te me Ss oS ee | me ON mw aS en Yo) O11 AN anon j sd r= OoOrnMAHHAHRONKRRDAOrRDQSBOUON KR Tee ee Set el SN re ON ON Ste SNe een son I oo Sal +a oO rote as 2. oD SH xH ak eS => 7 Hwmoaqnrwnoanwneor IBANAIDAANO ars i nr AA AN eRe eR RNA = tH OD © CD o> ONAIANTADA Toy xed oOrRKNAwOHtHO+tHtHR MOMOnmMHO LS =i el NN re mS A Ne NR — am oO Hos an IDDPRNDRNDANAN A Tee ie ee ok On! oe e Paar ere list cory DG _ Esp Mn OoHtNDOM Vomas | asa -Ot DH 19 @ ; bl Sem bth re a moO ri co] Ss Gol See D109 COmane CO OD Or A oD ON oo tr + = co No oo an) Ho too wD > a Oo a ~ wet neni iol pearl oe sna Stato Sarees eS AI 6 wr OAS s~ mo ornmnaesc = be coe ce oe | CUA, Motale: | | GG IV P 66S'S aati aks |S. aha ies tole desl eeanes cat alee aul eee 80° |VV i 66° |LO TPL GGL FPG 2 €6 6/89 CL/0O'STS9 FL SEETIGFOLZS8 ¢] TROL, 0c | GY |9 FV IPO DET O ME Sak SalViOn SaZe0 Pu SrenO 296 crass eae OG 61 | SV 9 VP IIIT sta 6 V¢ |l'8 8 O19 Gls PLO'SE 4 IES Ole 2 61 ShelGOL |esiaalGe 100 SILO |L 9 IE OE -chilL Sitio St T chig 16.00 Si St LI | 6V |G G |¥8 “iG? IL Gl GOV AVG ele eZ VAG NE OZ Oat OO: 9 te 8% LI ST |-99.\9 § |06 Ben et Kee SET WE Ese = OLS GiPacleSe Oe OieG Clic 29 ST | &9 '|9 V |60G | ! av pat SE i ie ll IPT 8°S [8S [98 |S ZI\0 ZL/9°E1/ E1/9 ZO OTIT 9 ST VE: OS-IT © VEL | L Se ee Le NW IG NG OLS CLSsOGlE Zhi VE On a9 vi SLSEST: |O2S: \S9 | ie STN NG OIG GLVASLZ Le CLP sShS OnSONG Gag. t €1 Ag SLSe | Se ciel a 6 (Sah 1S PlGF Si 2S 1S 21091 Chil ZU0028\ ack POV sey O90 \DA NGG 16°C 1S OZ TZ eh i2 the SES Gai Ol zez II OL | SPV \6 F |00Z 00°T GT 00° 100°% 00 'F/0 ZIj\00 8S 61/0 FIO ZLO°ST\00'8\00 °c] OL 6 TS |9 VP [POG 001 G g GT \6'¢ (6 & WV S18 STZ StiZ ThZ CliZ cls LEP 9 6 8 69 16 °& |02 | ‘WIP LT 98 18'S |S GLig Z IS ITS °SLi8 cls elie 2 8 Dl iy lee lee Se eel Nef be a lea} 2) | laa clogselnce (k-@ OIE att Olle ery 9 | ze lee lore ltteer bef feedelea be fede Tre lee lee teen Irerle-erle-er-erit-s | 9 g IG |6 € |€9 a has ISP EE SEE Gee LUT ¥E)9 cIIZ Od\& 9 Ss y | OV IG v GL ISG} 2 18°83 |S 6c SUL Sir 6126) - | F S98 GS SOE Gar iG 16) 1100 G00 LSC 6 67S 10 OG Sh Zaye VGA, ON Ome eases G | 89 |v € |89 accion deere seni peur bog Rl Deda esr Sp | 6°¢ j€ LZ 16'S |L°6L/2 PIE OT/9 ZTiS OT) Cc t |o¢ oe loot [cbt fee fee pecefeecte te Pete elg: leer lee le-t lee Ir-zait-orie-z lee le-erlo-orle-trle-¢ loo-e! 1 ee Se hele: | | a 2 oO 2 e SA {G1 VG EG GGs) 1G 06 | OL St | alee OL Si Vis Pel Gh Ole iG rs) L 9 g V 7:6 I 0 | (Je.q 8 Sle e/° * ley KILO E ; S AMO | AMOS HOV ONIMV NUT JO ONG) Ut “SLAOL »>NOLLIGGY—ddadvu*) HLXIQ—SNOLLOATULST ALI = WH K Ke IX WIAVL (401) 2—3102 Noo Sun Ore DOH & SSS eS oe oe Oot tN FO NNATNANAIAAN N | Ss NN mN ALI | ee ae ke aoe ad quar log AYIPIGBIG A | | g Iweg'z ff)" 1620" 620'|86T 9Te"/Ze9" eee THe Tee 'z/96 Fehr“ J/69TT|1O'ST ZEST GOTT|6zeT|6e F/¢F°ZI6L" SGT |620°|620'| “TROL, 6 9 : WT | lot |e 16 leet eed sile 9 lo ctlike Diane) | 0c 6 10ET Wey 6 81126 FS le Sy ers Clr Sees 16 | er eee Neo lege ipa. vomede Greenlee Gee ace ee oe lee aco ee ee 9°9 06 | PT = 120 162 io onle Ct icrl Ose ste eer) yl | OI °g |LIz C “We: |---le-g | e-zlp zg ISztlponi¢ rll Iilp etir'9 (9c er let le (|) St 18 (281 Pole ey we ler ep Welle] Wwe lp chee Gb ele eles Py 2 | || Wl TOL F9 1957 ‘lot 'z'9 |L-¢ F'6 |F'6 [8 'SIIS*Iz] “F1IS 2 |Z F 191 rat 6°8 (€IT 8 “Iy> [eg |e: leo leg [E-gtizczzig 112 2119 O11 F IST | ra ZS |TLT Se -l-l9° lee le6 166 1 s116-9c6 CLIL Ine ¢ 1S ko rat 6° 00Z L\¢ let ¢°z [¢-e:l¢-¢ |8'6 1¢6 | -2il “eziserl 6 Ig-2 | ee Or 8°6 |g0z }oclg: ge lo-e.| % 9 lest rr. Pe erlZ err 2 | @ | 1 6 6°62 foe feefectee fen fec der fer bof ot lors feereeretet-are-ero'e fe foc : sc) fey (Dota a tye et ci rem ee eee ee ele ered eee bere ; 68 lozz , Pel 2 |e ee 019 Cl OLLIE 11O-cT ed ee 9 9°2 |e9 9191 8% lr ior IP 11 (1 o'cer 2106] *8 jos ¢ G2 lez ae gz ler ies | 929 9rlpezio's lo'¢ FT lp Tel y 9°6 COs ets ‘lT-lbT 19°F 16.9 9:2 16 6 eco Ie © ewe ore | mie alate 9°8 |89 Jet [-+--| ce lot le-otlo Frigg |srezieetl9-zTl ~g let |e1 ae ere TOT 291 g log |: ¢'p lee | ‘orleztlg-er|t-zti2 etiz-z les Ire lo 9° lo I 4 Ze Gz | ae ec ec ie | 0c | Ol | Si \ 211 OL. G1 vl er al || OF} 6 1-8 | 21.9 |S 4p ee lc 11-0 = ! ALIO myo o GUOOS @YOOS HOVY ONIMVI\] NGUCGTIH() AO LNA) UAqG “Sld NALLY >NOILOVULFNAG—davur) HLXIG—SNOILONATYLSIC] ALI) IIx GHTavVo (402) MEAG RORICCGs Ce ete et SO are 29s fe 94° \28 T]19°G/SS°F 0G" L/0 TIGL PT RGET ITE ISTE L908 FGF E]Ps °G) 1eIOL 0g.) 959| 2 |&9 EtG 191 | Verily Weta OIG eclk Into 91 OIL We 61 | 0€ |8°9 [TTT S81 6 1 PF SPS ING SNS TUL Te TS 6 8 is) aol $1 G6 | 9 ee ce se 0° |" ]1'6 |29 [@-2I}2°9 |e"st/e 219 JS Sh LI | 08 |8°9 |*8 eT 9° |" "19°S J0°9 |9°6 O°SZIZ FIT GTI9'S |8°S PSST [OT | LT 91 | Lr \f°S [06 PT iy yy Gee Wir She 6 | TONS cicecs oT SI | 8& |€°9 |60z Pace) ‘|G (P'S [6'T [LS [OST ZTlL°S1/8 P19 OTS 9 \S'F EF [8 | ST PI | 68 |2°9 [281 M a hele ‘\8°S |P'T (8° [2°S |2°6 [6 OTE OTS ST/S°ST0'6 jh Sy (2s | FI gI | 1g |F'8 |F9 Ly ‘16°0L.Z'9 |L'PT[8'4 |6°IZ|T PIL jo'9 [2°> OT T's éI ZI | OF [8°24 [ell 6 16 “I'L ZO |L O16 91S ST/S'ST/S 21/86 [2S [9's 14S (6 | aT IT | Tg |6'9 |IZT “9 (ST G2 9'Z |8STie elo072 e186 2) 98 2s Oo | TT O1 | 88 jF'9 j00z ¢ ¢ OT O1/S 8 0 OF |S 210 E19 CIS ere c1S6 09 Of 06 | OF 6 | 6 |2'9 |£0z G |g’ [9% $e OF [0'F |F'6 [2'FI/8 OTS TI|2°ST/8 OLF'9 Ge [08 | 6 8 | Ze |P'9 [02 Ceo oe & 19°8 ZL |O°L |S PIL SIE PITS |S°SIie2 22 8h 6S] 8 er 1c) \ee Does Ble se eg errlesgelalecica a oe 9 | 86 |F'9 \02@ oe ee ZS Oe FP ILS 96 ZEllh OP IIL F16S 6¢ O88 PF] 9 G | 8P |P¢ |zo le OCS Ce Sy ir 96 WOES Vly 9056.19 6 oes V | 28 |2°9 \62 ee } fet love les jes jovszo'1r6-er6"er[s'z loz Iss | € | re |T°L |s0e cles |p Jer Jorg let fore lave love [eerjpret(g-orle-ct|s-or6'¢ jovg at lat | ¢ Z | GF |P'9 [89 ey erp 2 1878 18 TG OLL WIS 8.18 MES TO e 0g 8 cae c E. | 0¢ |8°2 (20% 19: GT 0.8 | 365) 0 18 716.01) 6 8 SS OlY 8 | 9 Gris | Saya et Se ep sliooe z ae Se eee Gc Ve | €e icc | Ie 06 | GF Sl 2 Oh en rl (Gl | Ci A Ol) G18 12 | OS |r 8 hie ah 0 ye [lsh — a ah ay 1 Salles eles NO Se Te ALO GWYOOS HOVY, ONIMVI) NGUCTIHD JO LNAD HAG “SEBO ‘NOMOVULEAQG—dAGVuL) HLXIG—SNOILOAETYLSIC] ALI) IX HWIAVL (403) 1 2 3 4 5 6 a ALIO APTTIQVIIG A quer) log 28 28 25 Per Cent oF CHILDREN Maxine Eacu Score ATTEMPTS. TABLE XIV Ciry DIstRIBUTIONS—SIXTH GRADE—MULTIPLICATION: aOIG | UIP 2} 6.1) 33 10 11 12 13 14 17 18 19 24 23 24 29 6.8) 28 8. 8. ne ¢ rc) 6 270, 7.1) 33 ¢ _ 169) 8.6 68| 6.9 69, 6.8 33| 8.3] 27 UaTPLD) JO LOQUINN [BIOL 64| 7.2} 23 | 20 84) 7.5) 24 33} 8.1) 26 111} 7.5} 26 70 64) 9.4 209| 7.2) 30 85 208| 7.4 200 170} 7.8 113} 7.9} 26 137 | ! | 2,526] 7.6| 28 er) N pale Zit sa N LO 08-2 ee mnie Ss 1S) ALT Ce ay a3 - [Ih .63/5.15 ar) 15 Eee) baste eZ eee 9 SCORE 2: 0\3d50\- 120123: 16 hielo Le OI ol 5 |e AD. oo. € 2.4/1.0 2 di Sau 6:9, 4° 3\223 3.6 8.9 16.1/12.8) 6.2 Srl deal Alo 18-8)8. 2) l= 6 25) 1-2 6.4) 4.8) 9.6) 4.8)... 15.5/11. 0.3)14.5 LG: 20. 32. 2 2.0)17.5)11.6) 6.0 2 9.4)17.4)14.1)14. 1/15.6)10.9] 7.8)... .| :20.4/20.3) 6.6/10.2 24. 8.9)16.3)14.1)13.5) y) Lio) 1522/10 205) VAD 8. WO 2 aes 1.5 11 3.5} 4.5/20. a) WA 2-0) O- HLS 26/15: (1S e710: Ol 427.015.7129] = 2.9} 4.4/20.3)23 6.7} 9.6)11.9)17.8/17.8) 8.2) 8.9) 5.9] 6. 2:9) 6. 7/13. 4)15; 417.711. Al 8.7) 8:7 Bolle. BU OPO, THIS MAL Oe PAS WANG AA Tb a .9| 2.8)16.4/22.6)21.8]12.7| 7.3) 9.1) 3.7] 1.8 2.4) 1.2/10.6)18.8 1.8} 5.3)10.6/15.1/16.7)19.4| 8.0} 8.9) 6.7 I 5) Pats) DS .6} 3.5) 4.1)12.9)12.4) 8.4/11.8)12.4)14.8)11.3 Oeil 3). On7 192312275). 9 7625). 2.9) 4.4) 8.9/13.2 5.2 22 N 229 9 3.6) 2.3] 2.3/19. 1/21.3/13. 2] 9.5)13.2) 5.9] 8.41... 2.9) 4.8) 4.8)13.4)17.1/19.6)10.0} 7.2) 8.6] 4.3] 3.3 1.2; 3.5/10.6/16.5)21.1/15.3)10.6| 8.2) 3.5) 4.7) 1 1.5) 5.1/11.0)13.9 5. LAG ss ol ol . 89/1. 27/3. 25/5. 62/11.76)17.98) 17.11)12.32/9 . 98/8 .87/6. 26/2. 26/1.31 CIEY: (404) 16 Total.. TRO], 0c 61 8T LI oT ma AO SHIH Ore DSH ALTO Lb T'S |ceo' 180; Gls Gl aon CG AG 1 1G0-G eaG Ganon 7.6 oe EF S166 OL|LL 01/96 'S |6LL'F we ey Bee ey cleo oleae cea lela pas cal ce oleae 2%) ve | over] oer) ter] S-2x| zea] 82 | #6 | BEA SOG ATG Eh ooo Siler MIS, SERS St ea eran aN ens Tale: S| 26.18 14801 7 Fly Pll Gecl etl One ase ori gra Wicecfee os peclesle ala ec eaten (etna Gaeeokeece eel rete it tein iain poe: 66 (oe | wel 16-1221] 16 ber a6 oe qe leo [o> eon eae Ape taco ec sce ie a as Fol oe | ter 66 | con 6 ml Te oom ol eee e avi b ae- dese a. Se eee alge pelea accede leaee aly Aas aelnctde ame ee legie€ yop el oor a colle ailocer CMe ras Ge Oca fie ie eal alaal beet cals dewere alse ss es aes CaO 6 E8581 8i7 6.987316 Sh 2.908 Gileo Galle Gale cnee|s0n6 waz Pea: (eee gee alk alleeoedae Seielee ie Eleee eee oe eye 1 ioe Poole e | citer rn eileum mera SLE | EBS TS TE Ae Restle AE sas pest set elf hae cen cea ey ie Mtoe yuna So 182 |S2°9 |2Z6°6 286 |€9 ST\E9 ST ST"LZTIIS' 2 [69°F [69°F |Zg°T | CEL Ge NEE A Glee SR SA ee Ee Ec lteter nee Foor tara cee 88° [LL T 02'9 |TE°S |T8°9TIFL'6 |I8°91/Z6'ST/98"8 |OS IIs Fh [ZL °T ETE SARS Se ACCA Reise) lteter a es a ea grace gc ee ee ee 6G" |ES°E |Z8°S |46°S |00 OT/SE°ST|00 OT|OL*LT|00 OT|ZT IT}¥9°2 |€6°Z OL | FF FS 00 J00°T [0° 0S’ [00'T [00'T |0¢°€ {00° |00°6 |00°O1|00 O1\00°6T|0S ZT|0S OT|00'9 |00°6 jos's | - GRA ST CRS 0G) Role erie: ae Seale lalate: Alaa obeys 6b 6h 86° SFE |248°9 [OFF [OE O1|ZE6 OL ITIT2°H1|6L 01/62 O1/Z8"8 \Ge"Z oy |e ese OEE VE eae om ene ol seca ear ee ice og°z log-z icz-¢ | ‘orps-ziler-izies-zi| -o1ls¢-@ @1-2 lee tc ey Ce ae el leas: llete ele e eel Cia zoe |'-“lex-etleo¢ et-ztltz:1zlet e1\60-6 |90°9 90-9 Se SS GaP OL oe aise | ooh Ie oleae sic eee aie a tL |8h'1 |PL (04° J61'S |29°9 |IF'L |80'FI|FE STISe ET/OE "91/299 |ST°8 Cee eSOn ae Clee avr leel cli a algae rare nc eee one (a ae else: LLY |8S°1 (8ST |9T'€ |86'2 |IT 1T0€ FIO FIITL TT/0L ZT/9F LT Be lcap are Ml eee etnies lee Corll las Slat eles oe Gag lela lec flee eile eel cost ce) ice lece s See Seale On COC mba ial alia ae tcl lane yaa ICS" |86° |86"° |86" [OEE |8E°S [ZT 'SIISh ST/ZL ST/SL°ST/80 ST/Ze"s |8G°S joe's Te T Gale VaORGeSOme aly aloe ale tala, eoe ues oe Rho eel eae oats ee 76'S [LPT LPT JIP'F |P6'S |ST OT/CLGLIZE GIST 9T\e% S1|F6°S [APL Se) GIGI sae eae ee pee Gils Qin ae GU) 8'C1 27 16618 | 68: |) 9 OL S868 PIPOcon 22 | 6 Si) vc 1 One Solas ae 4 2 ge Bee) oneee calle ALONG OR ett a2 LL SOE Oe I Sk ok Oe bei ek he 0 E. Shes FF g, MAOOG “AMOOS HOV, ONINVIA, NAM TIH() dO IND) UTG “SLHDIY :NOLMLVOIIdILIAY[—davur) HLXIG—SNOILAGIMLSIG] ALO AX HTAVL (405) Per CEntT OF CHILDREN MAKING EAcH Score TABLE XVI ATTEMPTS. . . City DISTRIBUTIONS—SIXTH GRADE— DIVISION 7 HA MHMOCrRAGOHAABAHINSKRDABOS AYTIGVIIB A, O-MMmWMROnHnOHROoOHH HO OHO es) ua 1a OHO HDA A NMBMDAMAAMHAHHAAHAS = Ua) Idd a00G BHoOowuwutnmnornnoe Dom tenor 10 it~ UBIPeT Ow~atrme O90 190190 ~~ OM 19D Drisgwvuori nt orc en) DODIAMOMONCOMHROR AOS = UsIp{Iyy) OOD SGERHRSSRHOHMOKDDHHO NX jo JaquInNy re oe N NA oN | = 1) [#39.L aN ) Ton) on = N oo on N AQ a : NX . ° 3 : N 5 1D BBY) fon) Nere rm oo Yo) me 15) Petes os ae (o-6) 6 — (de) 5 is é : ri 2 O19 OD - 10 = : aC ee GN HS Saree Se ance aie “A re = ore | r G 5 5 . = N19 60 oF Ine: COMI mannose ue Ra ca 44 al N — SGN . . . ae +219 0 a) + - 219 ie ST Gade) ea Q ae LOM ES LD DOmoN190 1919 a Or RS) a — oO AN _ Naan MOK Om OD is RE ~ Baaw#a OP ADT HSN OOS CO Noo a CO _ ld NO ao OO NOAN it~ oD ?Aowo nT Rr DOM OC mS C0 os N HONK +H S19 oOo tr M10 MOO K a Rie +HoontmOwWOWNMO 19 OO10%M ~ oO = as =| HH OoMHN SH OH OHM ON oO 4 2 — “NN ~ a Yor) -rSToOon lon ie oS = ol A 4 ; , e a SHAN MHtMOSCKRBDHOSCHNANHMAMOrRABNBS a a Ss =— = = = =| = SS S&S A + _ iS) oO a! 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Or Mtomicnicn = ole lo | lew |q-e lo: 9-6 6-9 ote Oller see ee: A Wert ye ee sled lee ie erleticore mie oe é L | 02 |2°019¢ "18°S [9°S [8°S 18'S IT IT/€’8 [SELF 6T/E'8 IT 118% L elec one ~o ee e sl ete) easier ioe lee i. 5 Ciera 0o he el be el le Woe ee et Nicolette @ lopree ee Ute A Bie onc aie celran. (i e lee cls eeu le NOES ea eee albi pale) G: odlecae gtenlecgeoce WN oe “ Ge 60 “OL TSz bP «OlS'T ih 9 |F'9 |8°9 |G O16 61 8°0z|8 F186 Fh IP We € Z | % |9°6 |6¢ LANCE Vee We 1 1G SUG CAE OU Rte cee SSeOa 2 Lal z Fete IS viecr =| Seog S918 VIS 16 hldee cS 16 8) POLI LiNGeOe Ole 2. eerie I Sele | melee a SalFe\2Ze! VOaReGe CG: WG 0G (Ole! Slane COLL Hl Sl ebalekl IeOb eG cle. yer eeiOie la Ge) pee c aria ce leet ia) B 8/3 5 =e | AJLIO — sR Se o | AMOI WHOOS HOVY DNIMVIA, NGYCTIH() JO INH) Hdd ‘SIdNaLLy >NOLLOVULEOS—AadVaL) HINGTAXHQ—SNOLLOGINLSIC, ALC) XX HTAV.L (410) TABLE XXI Per Cent oF CHILDREN MAKING Eacu Score RIGHTS. . ° Cirry DIsTRIBUTIONS—SEVENTH GRADE—SUBTRACTION CITY (411) SN wOtNOrRAOBOHBAN +i OF DAS AFTTIGVIUE A ADDAONMNDHMOGOONDHHADAAN “I DMDOANADMDAMDMDANMDAAAADAMAMMA A ae) qua) Jog 91099 Ooo tN + ~ DHoOHDH HAE OHH w oO uBIpo]N OAMdUUOOrr er WOOHOO Ol OO l~ Od kX L- ct UdIDII MOoOHMONONANTHONXMXHOORORHWHS oy PIO NOMDKRSEAHDKRADHOSHFASODBDSOOOS = re [®10.L | ox | | a“ “Q an NI pete ; a a1) - 1D — . . le D : ; Ye) Ss , [= ore) - - an L= — . 9 . lo) : 5 é Panes oeiah ee CO e . 3 g e . . re — — . . ° re ° 5 . Re irae it aie fence Le + - 0 CO - Sane eeen CQO te on & +h - 0 © 1D DD TOO AD AOE RS (ieee 2 = NHN . NN No HO -Homto : - ae a ee Ono § woo OOO 1D =H Cone ea eS ol OC on 1D ALD Sd Monn CO + wa oD ne wD ae ae nl - Kor at MOOS 12 _ HH ON OO AN MD P00 ON «ett 60 = a Mant nwe MOH OM Ahk O10 mo H Q mm ~rmOornmAOMNTWODOAND HOD A Fe OM ID : re eH — le) ES CONCOURS NCONSSOO ba 1d Pry ba) mo IN ae a DOD -OHt#nnrnnrnmMmMorneoewoetonnre . ms: re re — (02) — a4 Oo = ~~ HOMO NOOANN an AS S ONARSHPRATASCONHMHHNANDO |S res ord Al Feed orld aired td = rm me Om GS a HH OOoOmMmMAtInANnAN wWoOwAAmotT HM Ss D MOPMWIMDAONMNANDONANAHHMHA ARO + Tod GN ip vee fer Bec ee Aral a) Lara uel Mural Acre) tench mN m Hip DH MINA MMAMAWMAHK DOnHIDN 2 my WOAHMDOMMAHMANMHAAWMeRAAKR ~ = ara hae ral Apel Shon eo lesen iar Sareea a yenlle Deeml ered = | HID ON MOH oO Sar ODOOOMN MO tHtHHO B So | ft) (00) vet S300) Es) 0. 20> (00 G9) Sy COT 00S 00 Yo O OD O oO +orerent Oo wm aH Hw =~ 19 ONKRDODDHKROHDAMNRH OMOEA S re esr ri re = Ramah amp bien) me = am oO tw 10 nN = oD 19 ~~ OD =H ~ HIM AOSCHOMMNHOCOHHOHM COD = | OD rH 19 19 ~ronio rr wo on = cena eee oD | 09:19 09 1919 19 HO HN 09 00 ws OD Og od od | © aaa DOOD OoOMm oO LD 19 D119 O N N Coie ANHHHA oe Sea |e : re oO ++ + 4 or~rt QUOT SAS GT encom |e me aa mM -sH Se RANA ms |S . ° . . — ororkm © one BG Yor on Yo) aa oS aa No NON ca ie HNO HINOSCrRWOHROCHNHAHMOOKRAHOQDS ees et Total.. 1@ |9°8 |L16‘T Go" OL’ |E° |E° 92° |Z¢° [e6° lZh TGs Zs S|Te Sl69'SI 9S ETlPAST6eST/SSFT|2 L/2L°Z\e Tle" IL |so° | “Te | 0z | #2 |6°2 |9¢ ISTl (81st | "jos [st Irs [F's [7's |6°8 |9 O1/S"8z| “91/9 € /9'€ [8ST 02 61 | #2 |9°8 |T9 TO Pe Oye eer eve eS eeicil Sip Oren olleee Onn 61 81 | 02 |F'8 [Fre iets Se: 18 310 Gy L270 4 \erlic-cole nie 618 1) 2°) eal sI LI | ¥% |9 O1|29 So le"T et Ole | OG ONG One On 6 | O61) SiG 1] SS aes LI 91 | FE (8° |Z S| 1 18°C \Gay |Gev. Gee | Oe 8 6-8 ll 11G Zpo°on9.G1G 7 18 91 SI | 6Z |8°2 |Z9T “T9" 2-1 le'T (2h (0°42 |F'8 (8 O16 I1\e°61\6 FIP IT|h S | “& [9° cl PI | 22 |€°8 |08 ¥ 16 118 8S (8 S1S-ZTe II 9LIG*LIG 2 IS 9 Ie 1. | vl €1 | 2% |¢'6 |29 N@L |] GL POLS L (6 PL 6 PLE PIS 2 \6°PIIS TSF | gl ZI | 9% |2°2 |S01 T Vet * |" 166 18958 712 11 O Clie GLy SIS 2 18h 187 qe It | 22 |2'8 |€I1 mas 226: 12° (UL (@ STE Sl8°StiP ZIP GTS et] 81 II OL | ZZ |Z O109T es le" Nee 121 \0: 16 97. Ol Ol2-8TS Cll ent 8-18 9 16 116 11S: Ol 6 | 02 |F'6 |czr Ne So P| ie OS aI cele ers O16 St Oy te | yt 6 g | &% |F'8 |22 18°18) 19 7 lO) 11626-1896. .2.9 |G O18 GliS 6 iy ORI ls eres 8 L | ¥% |8°2 |98 ISIC | 105g 19°G 18-e 12 ONG FcO°G IG: F288 le. 8.6. L Gee Ce Lalcar SS eel8" 18) lie 18 ey fy 218-6, 2 Olli SiZ OllacleiGce16-¢ 9 ¢ | 0g |F'8 |09 EEL eG TO Wee Gt GC Senile a Lely leap ¢ y | 9% |6°9 |TZ else ae IT IPT | OL (€°8 [66 [6 9T16°08/8'Z1/9'S |2'F IFT v ¢ | & |2'6 |1Sz 19" 4°. 1% 1, 16 4718 OL ANE Ste CTE PU LMS WG Je ot g Z | 62 |2'8 |6¢ “WT WL 1 bs 18°99 S19 ene 8 SO19enic Ol Ltt rd L | 92 |2°6 [Per "16 1604 OT 16°. Cr G 19S \L21h TLE GE Sih EL 9SONS 169 | en ea! xcaaN | eta = Ole ner, Selon | 2a eae ec \-2.\- 2c) oc 1 1c 02 | 61h Sh 21) 9b St PT | 8h) Cho 01 68s) 2 Sees ly eke i 0 M/E. OS SER = | | slo p/aQ oS al Sh ALIO =e 5 2 o HWOIS AWOOG HOV ONIMVIA, NGUC TIA’) dO LNG) Yad “Sd WALLY > NOILVOITdI LTO JA] —advur) HLINHAHS—S NOILN ETH Lsi¢(y ALI) XX WIdViL (412) WO S216 Tp G0" |E° 9T IE 98° ISL (60 'ZIZO Fgh 9OlPs GIIGOTIZFETigo'STIOTel/FeOLF9 “9IFS FIGz°z eIOT oz | oF lg¢ loc er are ere ereene baron treme 2 hee hee eel os et | FF Ite {19 re cel sl lg ol loa les loro lo (8 pileccelo on lene Onlecml noonieee st | oF (9:9 [Fe a eee ea ee edhe ae oat merit ain ees ian Wie owe | on LE | Lb 19 129 S jav | 91S 2 VSS 7 Sf 2S Ob S0iy OL; 9 Ser Bal 34 $I |) 6S iV Vv \cZ Volare VVC Oe Sse OSS Oh St 2 ONO Gece orien Or Sh 26.10 S |Z91 ae ST (ST |b S FS 82 6 PIS '6L8 ET's E199 199 | “S| ST VI | 9F [oS (08 Se SeGulGsOn GeO sl ecOLiG RLY ski Zn eik; Gu Oil Siasal CaO hal vi SI | vé 199 |29 av Sick WOU) +9) Set 7 etl OUP 6G PGi 1G ap ie seals Curent cI | 6€ |€ ¢ |€01 I |056:16 G16 6189S 21S 0. Icy Siz Cy SGuGeioscealemol LSS iT eds 6 KiSe eS SSe he GrShG Sir Cuil visas) se Os II OL | 8 |r 2 |O9T i ie AN) 6 T6572 65S |9 20m ST e°9r PSTG2O eS 1S e2e ese Ona Oe OL Gre aGe 98 ra IGGr Skee S219 7 1G 83S ThA OF GSS TZ 01S 7162S0i9 tilt |9 ta 6 Seu Gralc 9 \GZ Re Gh ee hae a Vill Gu Sis 2dO8 |S OG G GCL Ore EliG F118 Gi\"8 Li | LS 9 G98 a) a SCR OTS Sen Orel a6 lira Oles eS ileaeOn Colceca mes De s67. 9) V1GGr | 9 ES "Cre 2 16°79: Sei ANS Sr Gayle GaGa eG SAAS OS) (CY) Le We WZ TS Se\Se8) le SO et GIy cher Ca nOM IGG a aeeallienG Vealecodlon ce LZ VT! WPT eT 16.6 '\6 6 |2:61/2 6019 Se Tila Wel eve F foo. 6G2 16; 9 SC V 3 (9 T 9S 1 € 6 6 |8 Gls SLL iis cle 6 7 9:19 T OT |) € Cael ee Sig S109 ‘|v € (8 ¢ 18 9 |S 8 |G'8 |[8'S |¢ ETc O¢/S'8 18 ¢ IS TIPS | Z@ E19 16,97 \rcr NO 105 05 NG EulG Caer es 1S) LLPePLS Ol Ci PePE Seon Svea Oatal ar Bees | ot ale ele Sis) So. | eaaeec | Co. | Ie OG 161 | SPA eon Gt | ple) en \ cia) Lh On) Glee Jo2 49 Wie) peleeyl sg lopig AE EEE™ | Bee oles ATO ce hee oF g, MOO AMON HOVE, ONIM VIA] NOUGAT?) LO LNA) Wad “SLHOTY =» NOLLVOTTdLLTO YA, —adavur) HINAHAAQG—SNOILAATHESIC, ALI) IIxXxX HIEAV.L (413) TABLE XXIV EACH SCORE 1 a 6 PreR CENT OF CHILDREN MAKIN ATTEMPTS. Ciry DISTRIBUTIONS—SEVENTH GRADE—DIVISION: ALI SBN OHA INORADAHBHOHAHBHHHORAGQDES “2A SS = = |= |= SS ES ee Ue Hf LET ETEN SAN MthOotNOnH Sn HEertnonennse | x» Udy Jo NANHAMAHAMAMDANAMDHMDAABAAH SH mA) UI) Jo | a100G OMOHNHAKRONNDOHOOHORMOWMMHRK HI wD uvBIpeT SBS 2: SOON Bai Be 2 TS S72 CO COS =O o.) : HPOoORHHONDAMONUMDROARARHHO todp [tty ) ASERSABKASNSSRSLSSSS | & [810], = te | a“ =) | N oD ; | : on ; ; wh 10 N See on eee Le ie ; | ee o 2 Pe ee N re 2 : | . (FP) . @), sume Pee eG e ° 5 en | re . | ones — . . Ro SS - ON N bs ora) fe SAME Mah dita a Bee ey : =f a — - = = . ron) SECO ane men: ~ A: = ce a N Onmmonr~ OOM 6 OWN Cnn: = _— Oi: oo Ney ae CDi ueenICN Hom - - ae * COURS a SH 2 os CON mi He COmanCD 10 ON oD < CO ES me Sn en OS | : 4 SSN Se A HMO NT ND OW se Cl ms dD DOR GtHOAHMNA OD LO Cane oy aes _ Oo NN CO Ononnooac sit iG: Coleman ee sl Cun 3) ae Ont - MO -HOMOa MS ON aot |S A ioe wd es = - OO AHO On et OD = nc oe BO ee Lo) | os a me no N RTT ORMDAMNOHH “-Omm | & 4 HOOMOAHIMMAHOOHAKRMMN OOD OLY . mo —_ a eo) 7 or. DOMOr-KDMOIMAAHMAN K © 0 st = DHA NDMIDOEAnrwntoonrntntoae : ise Saal re sre ct Es 1D A OOoON HK oO H DHrtHATDAANG bE nen SOA WMH DHRDODHDOONOCH HDHD . | — — = | =p) MONAKAHA+THOHeK s+ = oO oO KO > KOMAHORHROHOMRDORNMNOMORN fon) OA KrDOOAaANMDAHAOAHAIMOMMANAS = a WCHAHKRDAAWDMEBOMMORDHMBHWO OH ai = se SS ee | = HOD Ss a ror Ht annnoenmnt on oF a DAHA wmMmootDornornntAwmoernawmida NO oO MOBDHOOMKRMOrKRORN To) a ca ALIO APIGVIIG A yued log wotPTLYO jo LoquinN e190: GI 81" jan’ |6r" I'L feo Tes tt'¢ |t's IT S|IS'TT.96'GT/T€'2T)99'ET|9 OT /E'ST]G9 °G)6z." G2 190" | 4). Teta NAST Sat 21| == 6:01 P Olin La6 OLGETIIG we Ose0-e 0 PE AON GS Ale ize a) Ke Oar ee oe ee tree eee a 1G \Gaeanine “eease 1S 200i Siipe Gulp D Tole Celery, WeOnle Gi ceChigtel Gat 19. ae Cee eel 9 Poe NGoy he sO Ol CEN LE eli9tS GAS Eleanore G “1T'@ IT'S [LS OT IL PLS OLS OTL FIlL°SIlP Z1/8'F ISP I9°T V G 161 GG © WeCl0. S'S IPEGLiT Cele TIIGally Olas een ssa € ae lees Se Ge le eerie rcalhaneagey ee yl eee : 161 62h Gal See \sucal6: i 9°9 |€ I'S PIL OTIS F1IS Stl9'F | 16 T 6 I 3 | Bee espe) Sete 1e | 06 | OF | HUAI AUST VE ee eet Ole a ee ee eo ALIO GUO AHYOOS HOV DONIMVIA, NGUGTIH’) AO INA Ua “SUdNHLLY 10 = aCOMAS LO NS NN = Sl Ce | . ore) Yen) — a OO CO mame = oN N oD a4 HN : ee ao QO CO 19 ~~ a4: eS = Se eye NA a a aS -m 0D: 5 oO [=>) Yen) aa) OO N : -ae on owe : SN = ; of Sos Ch 0 Se Shecpeaene a ae — N Qos = | she IS sn SECON << rH S Na FON At eS A eet s ie 10 Oo HOomannan ntHt ROHN = = i SH aH O29 On Dig N -ttHanr Be a Om NAS +oHoHOn Hoo rONS = _ Ven) NAN - Awa OOOH OOM OH HHAM me aa mDto Aw HtpHoretornonoxnoawdtxs = < OHeo - Nw -MRwWOKRKR AOD N O 2919 . — 5 r re = We) 2 as +~reeoeo rprnornotontorndHtor Ss oe ey mH 10D DAHOORMBOAHOCOMOHAHO . = = LON et eee oh Aer eal tend = io or wa e DON AIMDAMWMOAADOON EHH ADOHO]D* 1S a SDBOHMOHODKANDNDDHDAHDHODON S _ = = Seer Te ee re oe OHONMSEOHOANAKONMHE + — Oo eel wade Pine, Se ae ee i en me om ome em ae Py LO FO my FO ee XD 2 = = Ok OKMNMNMNMARDOMDOAHDAMAXHAN al es Dnteat er HOODMAN RONKRNAHAMYS q = OHNMMDRHBMURREMOBDAMA BOR — a mao NAN Fess nt ne TD TN AQ — 1D DOHODNHAMHONAMOHHROHD q SP ONwHMDOOCHOHRAOROHMHRON + Al = Ns A Son esse N ri — = re OAD KOK AMA DOWH HHO HO “I Dey D NHomrmotomntototnwottnraonwarnr é re 5 ce AD coon AD cee BD | er heal — DO Orr rRFMOnTDOHANMANAOHHONLR DO nN + MD 09 HD 1D ED 00 1 OD 10 09 1 1 Oe ele aornrewttaHMmMno N Yon) - 1 SI a HIMONANHHtHt MMOH AN Yo) ae : _OnmtaA Aa eS) Yo) a) = + ie) Qh oO FN a oPh ee = 4 re : — = Ge) S CO ht oe i Beaks 4 4 Ss oA N _ : aN | aS | oH oa) oo ae ~ | - OD N ase tS a od . oo ba ass) > SHAM HOH OSCRORKBDOCHENHAMNYODRBABES = Se es A oe ee eo | PA oO (418) [8 16:8 |¢F9- 1 | 1" 190° ier 81 €° (29° 126° |G6'1/F9'T 613120 FPO 9/968 SZOTZOTT/S S198 11% 6 |19°9/98'F/98'°zl2G'Tl6Z° lbs | [e109], 0z | &Z |6'6 Ig ST Ge 12S 19'S 19°S' 9°56 16 OLIFOLIG O16 19 PHIL 6 OVG.18 LAST ole” = leno 61 | 82 [16'S |&6 ae ia NGO MTL) 1 IS. lGeP Gn LEGeOne6a(h Silat ile sen OnsalGeOn\clicqal tes 61 TP Yee Ip ee) Cor GT IG2Ej18 T OT 12-9 19°F IS OLS 9 SOLO STIL 2122 1896 O57 G1 iGan 1G TeiGat SI LT | &F ILL 199 9°] LS OR OT 2 Pil ee 6 Lee ee 16 Oe OTIS ON 1G! On GR Olean) aya) One lee eal eT 91 | 9€ |9°8 |F9 On TO SOS 21S 2 16 OLE 6S PE CLPSCET Se Sey 16 Suit ea Oo a ay a noua atgy SI | 08 | 8 I€al g° |g 8 OL 18° |Z'S 12'S [82 18 110:6 182 '6°PLIG'FLIE 2 IS:2 ISOS: Iles OL | ST PI | SE 8°8 IFZ WTih? i4c \2°% (69 |9°6 |L' 2 ITF l€°Ztl ‘26 9 1o-on6 OLE F IPT 22 vi €1 | Sz /9°6 |6g | PT ea ites GONG ST So TLISALTIZ: SWINE SOR GeSp Nl Go) te eee tee acer ear ZI | 2 | ‘0199 Pweg GING P (E247, Oe CUM SILOM CUGe eee hs Gh em ae ce tra Il | 0€ |6°8 (981 EO NGeS NG G29 WP OTIS COLPEIGAI LI Zc GG Grou. WCC ae tl hueeena| ea OL | 6% |9°6 [221 Be IS O51 19'S 1S "eee ITF 10'6 0165 O26 OSFLIL Ol. CCl Se 6ulO00L 1S «Same Ol 6 | 28 |8'8 |86 Jee aed sot 78 (CE L¢ OT. OTL ee. LLG GAIGeCU PLT GeOL WON Cael | coal tetpall Once Ola 6 8 | OF IT’S [8g eal eis ee EG |8°O FS OPUS LLSeO IL GUS 9 Seon eT roGe Wy sia 2 otis eee \Se\08 het 129 12°9 |2°9 [€ STlG STIT-OzIS ST Se | “oTIe's Ge L 9 | 62! 8 |66 OT ee SO Om Ol M10 nt Ose: Iie Onl le O Miele ssi Luclleu GhiGe Cabal Okc Opal Ole 9 G | ¥% |2°6 |9F Ob 1S 1S7% NGeP Gc O4 SLSSTZI6: TLSeGNe sk Gc 2.8 Ione Gig G py | 8% |£°2 |F9 Ape 9'T |9'T |Z°S |6°E |S°STlF'6 8 OT|2°1z|6 S19 21/%'e |9°T |9°T 2" | y € | ¥% |€'6 (SSI GGG: LOS 2 SP OL TP SliZ LUSOZIG SM OME cal oulQalalG £ Gane re \GuLucs 6° 6°% (6% |2°S (6% |2°8 IG I1/4'8 |L°6T/Z'8 |2°8 |2°¢ |2°8 16°2 | Z Peconic OOM eee TL Oo TaN Ss Or Ocal oC G: TalSecn ean lGaeIZeen Cun lie Sl N ce -—N : a | N . a) Ray aune aE Peo Pa a ae Oe mo) NS GCO ve al Yon) =— : : Len) oS : = N - Oman a rz % Oo -Ooo + IMD HMONKRKHHOMNOHA ® ope = Veo | O10 moma OnmmR tO eo ww A a = oor. N22 62 19 SO! SD LON SO SAND © — 1d ON N - MOO MAOCHMAHONY So ye _— = i l nm oOn- MH ODHONHTIONMHTIOMM OH ue mx _ NON Wd OOO DMOKRWMIOAHTWON DOS : ° es, = = Le) = = Doo RrMMAHARAANRrRUMOOHKR DHS pe) - SONOS DMDomMmot>wMmoreononmnoanrnsd : = : mo N teal i er Oona re ss APH OoOoOonwononrtOonrerec fae) — Re Giro ako SO. Filo oo @) tse) @. 1 ae ube, Sion f AU oe aice ty tle iain > NRE. Sent o Mics A - DOMADMHOMKRAMMIONMNMNWMODRDOM NX Ss re aN = = Sse ewe RN OO — m— es a NC CS BC ca SMS al Nes CD COCR SS |e bem! Sao aN Sho Saaz) eo) IN| eat 'Ge)! CO Ge! set OL SS OOS 1D AVINTO 100 1 SaaS eS SD DNRAWSOOSCOnAHHOR MMM OOH | of Ql = — ee —A — = = eS pas HON D> TONOSON OWA ASOnRMARO TS oO SHANSARSKSASaNRHDHOHaHASS |S = = mam N rm Lem! ee a! SDONDONHAHA RATA MOR MORO O 8 a SOUS SSHanuunesraddag |S impli cml ele ot IAI a4) ot Von b Ss se — AOMOhmPAUOUMHROnM-Ar-A MOAN O29 tins 2 HOIDOSHAKR DOMHDOODCHDAOMOEDH oe mK cor N ce = tht DBONDATOD WANA KH HwD OSes oO + 19 HS@AnAWSS ioacHddonwoe | % E hs ae) mm oe COW EECORSs Come : : for) Sy — oH NX =o eee 5 : | i Ta) DH N oD 1D oe) = of ss N a nN Qihes One 2 N | mI Meet: | Z a a MBN HM HINOrMAHOSOMRANANHMHANOrEAHOHS 3 = = == $= = = = SN aS — ie) © a! (420) TABLE XXXI Per CENT OF CHILDREN MaAkInG EAacu Scorn RIGHTS. City DistTRIBUTION—EIGHTH GRADE—MULTIPLICATION: HNO MIN SORDHAHOREN ~inwernas | AALO Sp ma BOS SOC a a orp ar oR AYTTIGVIIG A WDAMOMHOMMAOORADHKRHNANOSO ae | qua, 19g NANANAA MA BDHANAAAHHMHAHMHM ae | F 21009 rPODDAMDIDANAMINMDN MO HONK | oO UBIPO|N CuSO is CONS AS! 06) bs. OOO), oak OL Ie COU CO ~ DDADONDSHODHDAROCOHMRHOO Ss is UoIp|Iqy) SMHOFARDRHSANAHDSHKRASSESESMB = jo 1aquInN Lm Tae! Tact eal o ri | [®49.L | z “Q 3 H : NX of | ; os : N on n | NX = ; | a : : fon Ro) on : S ri 0 oa | fon : SEB) URS : ae) Ke 4 5 Meat) Mais eles ° > re . COIN | oe . : i : | a } 22 Ee | a es Seal . = Cae | D a | ° MCN % Beta ve ass — — N NX a | Dehea F y 3 Oo: eH orm eC ee Sa a oa) = 3 OD +: = al ae Cy —— ee as res res . o s aor o SS Nae ae a ea eelaepnare Kt 5 aa ead = CO rH 5 Wey GR Steet oy pe — oD ae ies Se aS Oomotownd OMOHN ea — IS GQl-Ga es GS mMON HOO -s Hoo aA a HOoOMANO - “NHrwnoaonnwnonnoa g 4 ON+HMO ;: 190M MHRHHMORRON ; sm | HREADOMNHAROARRHARDKRHAON Ba = | Pi SMONDNASB MOM BDMOHH HOOD : = a a r inal mals HRUoMOHMUIAKRR ARR 19190 HAD N S DiwWDH OCMOMAHBOMNOHKRRADKRS ors ret or re — Seseonetirc aba /ae ume She MWOonidwmornN sBs=RMatnrninanannna ws] O DO DH ie A MONK ODOHDODNODOOMOODNKRRAO — NONDOH MUOUNOwWMHAHMHASOHORK = iS mMmeSeoOoOt MOMOADDANHMOWVOM al i RBENANNAN TT: ao Se ee | = NAa+ ete Krwonownrewnoanwownoe S — NHAHANKEKAOWDMMNOMMAHHHEANHHROS - a SA eB A FS SES eS Yen aon! este Tet i telic Taeet = AN = DANDSHAMDHMHHHATHOMeE OMHeR OO = 1D NHHSSCOMNAHKRONOHNOSONHTAH | S — A Aaa m= | Ql 4 = RCRA RADTROAOKAN rok OHO OH To) =i ODiQKRAMAOOMHMDOMHAOKNOOHN oe - re ee | — ss 4 a CO en ee) ns aa +~Onr 1D HOOHMOHS oO oD COs DOwmonNnwnont -Honodton ee 9 | re : ven) > ky mi © QRS ION Somira ass m= Own :-rei00 0 — “N =e Va © No Colle) SHI) Al Ga Va col ep a 0 D OD 10 : oo 0D oon = am N - 00 m4 N No) pee = : : ne 1a TS QI Yo) KE 1910 aa a) =) eel 10 Ne hae N > i ae K 5 a AND HINO OH DRHOSOMAMHANDODEKEANOHS F = be oe ee ee ce ee ce ee LO | aS) aaa ° O | = (421) TABLE XXXII Per CEentT of CHILDREN MAkInG Eacu Score ATTEMPTS. City DistrinuTtions—EIGHTH GRADE—DIvISION: males Senator ea S AYTTIGVIIG A KRHKNOROCHOANMHMAKRMOONM =) quad og NANADANADMDAHDAANAMANAAAS a a100G Oana + +H OMA ANMO0 Yo) Oo CO HO NO = on = wipy | S*%deesegegneenseeacuan ls DIODDOBODANNDOHADMR +H190M 200 Yo) UoeIp[lyy) SMR HBGHFARH ANS SHRANASSSESSB =< jo Joquinn Dla oe ar: aw — T#40,.. me 10 ‘ : : D> . 1D an NN N Cie as : -O . Tt Conan ae) : : — N — 9 E mG mS] N ue ae N ion . NX : : Plc often) * 5 10 Wayne ICS) coma mee 10 N a GN see a . lon © oS 1D So ° N eS ae le Be Oligey is —| 6 ~~ Tera Sue Sa _ Manco os le N me Yen) °N BGA ep faa) I oe I OS as iG Ta) ID ON — 0 TSO KX 19 — > _ K HANAN ee Seen oO tH Ha a i HR OON eo ee oo oN a oD i = Siaoaes een SRO O19 NH MOOAMR a re i iS Ne ANON fon) rKOOoOON a4 HOD - — OIlI_MAHNNOOHMMHOBMDRMMMOSO Yo) = re sor ee Ronen Sn we +n OS am10 Kas + rN N - EAN -GDOHOOMBAH MOR HHANOOKLOS ie a a NDOOMoH esHrDOnRADOS = 10 Rl m = ONHHOnR Nottowodtoamnrne.s . e) = rt = = ti a a DAA ASMAMHANKDHHE HMO | S a Nor +tHMOWDONNAWMORTHOHH = re ere = er Ti er Calvan sat is Dotanmna con oOnm 4 NH oN ft 0 1a = MONKRMMAWOKRHDHDMMINDH ODORS X~ Tat = rs = a ~oareoantonton ino ODN O26 E= = DHANHHDMIOAOMHORDRRDSED OH x ; aS oS re co] = = (=P) DE NANAAOMHODAATNAOHARAADOND SO 2 Se DHwWwonooonrtowtwoontrnwowan : = = — Saal = o6) ODOrMOANHSRPHHTOH OMAN HR OSD R oO MNAHANNHOHMARAOHMOAOAGAKROOSO Ss NN xe eS = = =r = Toole ie DoaIimoe an a) Keenan Om 19 i a Mr WOAMMOORBDMNOCHDHOONOSOKR H19 Ss — SNS onion = = = _| = DPOoOANMAHIONHMHOMNMWYr19019 ~ 190% MH | © SHANNHHOMMOMHHHNOKRH+HHioh a Son A oe bo oO + Oo 0 ne aM O19 0 -& 0 Oo ne mot 0 O 6100-16 AS Sie ee oe foal wns z Uae 3 ee ENN ase ron on ten OMA HH ~eano ive) a ny a rn, in ne ee Pe Crm een we se! Ge > UGG faa) — 1D 19 09 OO OO AI ID OMAHOM HMA OO aes ao - Yo) o~ KRHA OANA iS oe on _ oD Cf oO -yHo. HON : : — N a oO KX Copa Ce) D N N me > CY) a < 10 Fn. x Yon) GN re j Bi: ; Ss ran 5 | on ete: 5 oof . 1 re 5 onl . K 5 ss =A ANAM HAIN OMPADHOSCANMAMNOSOrEAOAS i co Se = FS YS SS SS Se A ari) _ iS) oH | | Om GIsGyot ee al IPG ISP eSh 1SGs ey 16°12 T8G° 89°F 96°C aT LF8'C-e820L°8 0°S ER"661"6 18 °9|89 °F VS G99°E SS TT T | TetO.L 0c | OF 16 6 [SS gg © ¢ |6 OT/6 OT ST Secnisaclacr! MO) fe 4) 8 Mesh ag Sts tse! 0¢ 61 | Ze |8 6 |&6 ie ear ees eee Seok Gy ls allel cab, |Caveloc Ver Gem SaLa Gye Ob GO san O miso i cimial Gacmrcriian Om cea ea) 61 SI | OF |€ OT/S9 ee lel Gilet Oupule PG Croat O PCa alam 9 ay C 29 aaa Ge Gk Om Om Wan vcie | cee COO ma allies anaes |e 8I LI | 99 {2-2 |v9 nice Wee NIG PPS OO Ler aGial. aS Lav Si Zan veniO Seelieecw aay LI 9T | SV |€'8 {29 Biel Gal G27 SAS 1 29-1658 So LaiGapAl aS Go LEG er OL Peon Salas SONG = Gailey ia oT CP Ly SS (Sol 19.1 S 8. WCO rib? 67 12 SS OL Shh S17 Ml Oe SaceS Cuca ce OAC 3 ST UAL oxes aly eey aaa 4 eT) ee heel Dealer a cele Save 2a Ole Os VeG ZO N GeO oi OL aGs aCe aoe leas vi €I | VS |6 6 |69 Pea gees (Zea 2 lle ae ered eS al ates Z Oleg 8 SITS 9 7's |o O98 |Z T IZ T ie OTF € IZ TY él Gl | ZE 1G 6 |99 wt CS Oe AG IS ye Orla 6. Gree aS velo OND cOM INO a 4e2e Saye Seales Sia él OV eS ei SSit ito vice el Dee) ts) Ge Sec aida la SV elsG ore Gas laos SOL On EGliGas yates (SEG el tS G II OL | &€ |Z OL/ccT S Siren: Meni Os Mes GieGu Ge Caso a OROs Ona O iat Var MOM Oe ea6 6'§ Oni SaGalse OL 6 | VE |6 LT/66 eg ee Gli I G NRA. AGE LNG) GOUT Gall Ge On eS Ss Oeils On eat 6 8 3g | LZ \8S 6°9 |V € |€°OL GiGi. OG 1G SAORS |G iGNOiS IGG OeS OAS GeO CaS iO as = L OF |S’ 8 |6z VElVs iV E VE PV O16 9 |v OT/S8°ST, 8° ST/6 9 IV OLP OF & i eee L s c 8€ |6 2 166 ig Teil aa G oe Ca Pe Sams Sie TENS Ch Os Oo ess lee Gis aeCa ae G 8€ |Z 8 |9P a Gu Cae Cu Gull ian G9 \€ 7 |T T/4'8 |€ FV |S 9 |S 9 [E°STIL ETS 9 | Fs Pv GG | OS V 6G |G'8 |€9 Serle P| Cie le S19 TealeiGhSarall HS= hail TiS <6) eZ ee SrOr Oso aT ORE v g Ig |6 6 |S8T GES IGONG Se peit Wt W SC GRG 2, Ge e689, Op sV ECs Salk: OF eS) SsS al GucelGncn Se Gs Se & G Ly |S L (GE ac See Coby 636 9S 19°8 | €§ 19°8 |S°PT/6'S% |S IT/9 8 |S VI 66 | G I Go |9 CI/9OT ie ei see eGo 19 Sa Ol Get Mie OMitcOlevak El GirZ alZig yo] Sie e Suen Zoe Gee Osetra s\ Os 6 a I £ as nS b S ! 9 Fleas BI GSs] 8 | ve |e | ce | te | oc | or) st | ar) or jet) sr fer} zt |ijor) 6 js) 2) 9)e) Fr | ei) se) to BB er ae. ISIS or aie a —e AMOOg / i WWOOS HOVY ONIMVIA, NAUAIAS) HO LNA) UA “SLHOTYY >NOISTAI(]—4GVur) HLAOIN{—SNOLLOATMLSTC ALIC) WIXXxX WIAVL 434 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES RESULTS: GRAPHS While all the important facts are included in the foregoing tables they are much more clearly seen where shown in graphic form. In some of the graphs which follow only eighteen cities are included, since the results from two cities were not available when these graphs were made. The inclusion of these two cities would have altered koth the city and individual medians in many eases. Where discrepancies between the tables and graphs are ————, oO 143 147 = ee es ide (BRT BOSTON ————— COUR TIIS Aa rut aiipaet | | DETROIT 6 |b 5} ATTEMPTS 4 a} He} eS) 3S ee D q i] i} a | ije it i) 1 RIGHTS ie) ~-------------!e==y_--, SS Sia er AS eee ee ' \ ; ; : 68) 1241931951125 | 215 a 135 60, 212 80: 921 91 t | ' ' | bal ! 500 1000 ; 1500 2000 FIG.{ MEDIANS GRADES SERIES B ADDITION ERO Net a ee ee eS found it is due to the fact that in one case the group included. twenty cities and in another only eighteen. Three sorts of graphs are shown. The first represents the medians and may be designated Form I. The second represents the variabilities and may be called Form IJ. The third shows dependability and is designated Form IIT. In Form | the cities are arranged on the graph from left to right in an order determined by the number of problems attempted, the city at the left showing the fewest attempts. The several cities are indicated by figures placed at that part of the curve which represents the median of the city in question. The figures on C ATI STUDY IN ARITHMI HaGGERTY DETROIT BOSTON CITY INDIVIDUAL n n >| & a, as °o to) & em a, Be & ~ e Sn =) ie) g&8o 9 1s) AD fm O -- = SS SOS oie te —-— ee wr rr rrr rr rarer eases se el el 4s (Rilpelveve EN -- VSceoos Jed ae Se SS oe Se eS SS SS See hee eee Uae Lee eee pea ace ern nn yal SRLS eae Sh aS SS) Lee ' So ee » | S| ee Sa yt tL SH ae eg cea Ee Ye lp eg REE Oe UN Seth ‘ (patra a0 { io PoataiGestt ( ~ Sos ---bepLEIL-t SS Sheer > SS ee ees SS See ',! i I a Test nt { ~ ice. Se eae aie Gites. See Tig a aR Mega Re ST MCR a ea ae oO --- ----4q4deHbhJ--------------------* jee i Re Wether a Sel a ei Trea te Se a OS Se ieee \ ra \ WW { = - =a a = = _ - a7 FF OP eee ea eas a eae asec ee ' (hep = a (tes Tel } aA --- mmm me em — —- ee Ke ee eer er aan eee eee ce (een ioe [ ey hs whet (] ke | a | a (aor \ She Sfeeee| Gangpaeee cpap iris heey oa eo et ae ig ! tt I * ime i { Q | _ - > >t R ear oto re ee eee HH RH ee oe ie et ° 4 ioe) oe ee esi ls It [Sen 2 Lit Sesleri tale ghre Sone MR mt Lig oot i UE Scere a Ss iS att te Ry a ee orn tS 1000 1500 2000 SERIES B 500 MEDIAN. SUBTRACTION GRADE 5 FIG. 2 DETROIT 4 --- 41 7 —TINDIVIDUAL CITY Se er) — re RBOSTION b& = [i ip eed. ----beweg- = ti ~--- --beog - [5] = a = al & = Sf J-ti---tt -~!cCourRTIS MULTIPLICATION SERIES MEDIANS GRADE 5 FIG. 3 . DETROIT BOSTON COURTI 2.000 ; tly _— ee tl we ee we ee eS eS ee Con PDS Oat SSS OSS FS ae ka--------- 1S a ! i) DIVISION B ES RI E 1000 RADE 5 Gl 500 EDIANS HIG. 4 3 E < DETROIT BOSTON COURTIS BOSTON ae a J ew Dra (ees ' | tilt i -¢& 3 170 125 8 SERIES B = ADDITION ADE 6 G MEDIANS FRGS HAGGERTY: STUDY 1N ARITHMETIC 427 the left ordinate indicate the number of problems. The figures at the bottom of the form indicate the number of children reported from each city, and the horizontal space on the chart allotted to each city is proportional to this number. The dotted lnes represent attempts, and the solid lines show 10 ; I | ! ! 1 | DETROIT CITY 14 |! l eae ise ; Po 5 Ls | \ ' \ a § | 1 1 | ! p11 : fe 1 : oe hoe 1 : ie Wey ee trast \ ATTEMPTS 1 I ee tek oa 1 I ee I a \ lp | ih Daneel bee mel 7 | | ' co | | i | al CN seca a ot ier . = 1 al 1 ama ; 3 ee 4---b---7-U-L- 41-5 ee el eel fable eens t ~~ 4 ~ INDIVIDUAL —! eta | CC ot a = = rere es areca mene Jiao os See AAW ee oe pike Rae es aon ends SD a SSS Soo eae = om Oe ae late eae Se RIGHTS =] i] | ‘L ie I | 1 eee pees ty ene eaneelcs: 1 ! eae 1 \ \ Beets elie: ee ee, ie 1 ro lee i! 1 ae test lie | AP alter 1 | | 1 i 1 | \ ' ipo | I \ | | 1 | | 1 r Lien : iechctoae ie 1 J eee aes AF | I ee ae) | 1 i | | | | \ 1 ie | se el a | ve le, | f te i 1 | 1 ee! elie aem ea ee ila, tes { leas | ii | ue, ' alee | foe ie | noel : eS \ eles a \ eles \ Ie 1 feat 1 1 I | } esa V | miner a | | | 1 | \ 1 \ \ Nee \ ' 1 | | | | | 1 } 1 ZA Mg leis: 1! 1 : ae a aes ! os fal ia! | store ' ss | fese't 1 1 1 1 1 1 | i | | Ux, aeabiee! i 1 alas ' \ | est | ' 1 \ Nici! ite fee Sara ! Me ie VC tag ey 3 71/631 170 ! 184 5168) 135 3 200 | 135 | 113 | 101164, 204 ; 500 1000 1500 2000 FIG. 6 MEDIANS GRADE 6 SERIES B SUBTRACTION rights. Both the city and individual averages are represented by horizontal lines across the full width of the chart. Similarly there are Shown the Courtis general standard score for February, 1914, 3,618 children ; the Detroit score for February, 1914, 1,315 children ; and the Boston score for February, 1914, 20,441 children. All of these are indicated on the right of the chart?. The reader may study the tables in either of two ways. He 1Courtis,S. A. Bulletin Number Three (Detroit, 1914). 428 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES may study a table at a time, comparing one city with another as to median, variability, mode, minimum score, maximum score, etc., or he may choose one city and follow it through each of the thirty- two tables, noting the relation of problems attempted to problems correctly solved; the relation of efficiency in addition to efficiency feet | } ' | ee eee ee eel fear I | 1 I eee ! ! iat 13 H 1 { J | l ] i | ’ 1 1 | Yi | 1 i | | | 1 | 1 ! | a ; ei ee els: 7 ee eagle 5 0 Hh | a 1 t ' 4 ve ot t ; 1 I! ieee | l i= Pons ere Hace or bil 4 { feavike s) | | irae i nat ! pas WA pe { eet | Neal | 1 : 4 at gale aa! l a eet eet) ay ? het ‘ OF t « Bisa leat | ee ea 142 poll 13 pe ei | | ae | | 4 cid | i areas l ] eal ere ae ae bi UR ean oak - IID ETROIT - (COURTIS vk i4i2y Daal eae. | tt 5 =! ' | ; BOSTON r | eal | | ' \ 1 | Ur ! | i 1 k \ ' \ | ign pty ry 1 : ! | ! 1 | ay | Pat Dia baer fl be rie I | 1 | ! { | | | 1 | | I ATTEMPTS | | | | 1 | I } 1 4 oi os | ! | | asi ! | jigwst ee ee mes | is a ! | fest ! | i bol Vy | j | y { ae | ! j- = eel : ! \ 5 ! j Ee ~ Slit Ea fol Pe ee) ote —aef OS TLS - — L~| INDIVIDUAL Bs fg Seer enaria a (ag erew st Sian ey ele i ot tees pas pa Se CI x Et Pe pee ee ee een ac Ie I, rd | \(BOSTON sd J Deas rat Tae eat eee a by) DETROIT Ete iano moma ssa eer ne Sasa | +4COUKTIS ] 1 ! \ | Vy Les | tite 11! { ap! ees et | jae a 1! } } ' aiGHTsp? |) I 1 Haier Jas Maat rie eee Neon [fal a [ara pay | | ae hae ! ty | ieee, pee 1 fe ! y Teer 1 | i | ( 3 ! | | y | Pe | ! | J | | | ! Bia ! | | y j i | J | : fl \ u i J | | J J | | 1 I 1 } j 11 ' 4 ie wl | Fe ee nest j. | I seal ye f bes Alon i oe ble J | | | ji | i | \ H i] V5 2 ieee | 5 faa foes ed ee ihe jest l | eel ieee AAL 'y et | ia) | Wert ! , | ie ae iain fel Wer ara! ate tes i eh ee | | jal ein ate ' me ie | | } re | | tt] j 1 J j leas | | ! ! | | \ | | [ony ! Ben | nies, less Fee of! | il eo ; ] est Loaner I ies i) pt \ / res j | ieee 313 iol jo3'71 |65! 135 | 135' 209 64 204 '1011841170 '113 {70, 200 313, 168 '65) 500 1000 1500 2000 FIG. 7 MEDIANS GRADE 6 SERIES B MULTIPLICATION in subtraction, multiplication, and division; the relative efficiency of the fifth grade to the sixth, seventh, and eighth grade. As a sample of the first method let us take the record in Table Il. Take first of all the matter of minimum score. City 19 had .7 per cent of its fifth grade (1 child) who did not attempt one problem. Cities 1, 5, 6, 10, 11 had children who attempted only one. Cities 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 18 and 20 had two problems as the minimum attempts, and all of the children in cities 7, 13, 16, and 17 attempted at least three problems. The variation in HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 429 ease of maximum attempts is very much more striking. In city 5) no child attempted more than eight problems, while in city 1 one child attempted eighteen problems. In city 3, 11 per cent of the children attempted more problems than any of the pupils in eity 5. If, instead of studying the minimum and maximum scores, it is desired to see what the bulk of the children did in the several = I L r t | ! | - ) \ l ! a: | PZOMINISS 1 113 204 500 1000 “1500 2000 FIGS MEDIANS GRADE 6 ‘SERIES B DIVISION. cities, follow the mode which is the score made by the largest number of children. It is in bold face type. It ranges from six problems attempted,-which is the mode for thirteen cities, to eight problems, the mode for city 17. In cities 13 and 20 the distribution is bimodal. The information which one gets by studying the relative achievement of several cities as measured by any one test, say fifth grade addition, is very greatly supplemented by following a particular city through the several tables and graphs. 430 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES MEDIAN SCORES An accurate measure of group achievement is the median score shown at the right of the tables. It ranges from 4.8 problems attempted, in the case of city 5, to 7.6 problems attempted in the _ DETROIT & : ; BOSTON COURTIS 1 | ! | | . / | | j | 1 | | i | | | | | | | | | | eee =- -pesteee BOSTON 1 -t ] “4 ! i | | ! | | | 1 | i} = Bl eiac a ele cla eal ee ee ale oe fac [goatee a (oi a ae Pe eT DETROIT ) 1 Hoeahiieat Licata | he FE | | See eae es geet A ee --4--- 4--inpivpuaL phd aires ~4_, ss-t bee SNE 2 tareees een eee Sn sg Sele le O Se a = a el 2s eee ‘lj wer, en COURTIS Paatkie. et mre iment)! : i ae! a | , 5 | RIGHTS a oJ 1) ore | (Pee hd Bet) bel ; | | A | Jer ellis sa al ees het ety | ie lead | leat al | Pee ect 20 | eal | van poe a hea or “ol <1 fe \ iieal alc ely eat eect (he Ra ; } od | seal (emit eur Pal | Ps oleate \ ay 3 | Oe a RE et ee te 1 0% al a ; i eon | ee omleeot | fer sive) ah < ! | ae er ee Ae tee al e le fay Plies Wrest eamt MOMMY esc h T PD Oiar a ; der | os Toe es aie iene, ee (i 7 ’ va 2 ! heheh a (attest ee eT eo in J | | for aoa ihen Males a! (aan eats cal ! ; | hee et 1 ee 1 0 os ! fom | ete froth Tp <2 ee eee eee es \ en | es een eeelical | lear UT | | 1 | Le ee 20 oy 0 De) Se De sf 7 1 | ] | 1 | | | | | | | } | i I 1 | | | fa Sehr. at (hae eal met Ae , | hea | ret fe sei | onl asltaelsaenl 1 \ ' eat 122 | 113 +601 71156159|80 1103 17215456661 167 36, 160 , 124 1122 {7 i 500 1000 1500 FIG.9 MEDIANS GRADE7Z SERIES B ADDFTION ease of cities 13 and 17. In figure 1 the dotted line marked ‘‘at- tempts’’ at the left represents the medians shown in Table II except that cities 3 and 16 are not included for reasons before mentioned. The solid lne marked ‘‘rights’’ represents the medians shown in Tables III with the exceptions of cities 3 and 16. To facilitate study, the medians for all the cities in all the STUDY IN ARITHMETIC HAGGERTY : a ols Eg 53 : : SuEEee Be 3 c) iS) PR ath et CER AE PASO as reeds, ox ah et fee ean | 1500 UBTRACTION | | | | | 1 | | | | | | F a | —-_-—-A4 - -— B LE) Pic yl Bae erg boas ] 1000 ERI r a 226 = al I | ] | | | ! | | | | | | | | | | l | | | | | J J | | | | | | | 3 6 12 RADE 7 ce ee ees ee) [oes | eee) eee | eve | femme) en) omy ew) (ames, ends) | chew) omens) (eam ee ee ee faend WH cone Pil coat HAT cio OY eee a ees ee Ph coe 500 MEDIANS eee < ~--- pep - 4 eee te we ww eee FIG 10 — ms os aoe ee ee ee ew es am ose as os “as -—pPperewrewrew etre www wee ee oe 8 Sea iste Se ee Pe] ™ 14 10 9 8 Ss Y NIVERSITY STUDIE + } INDIANA 432 Reading across Table Fifth grade addition attempts, tests are brought together in Table XXXIV. XXXIV the medians for city 1 are: Y Lal Nn = ae z Ex ne S Aa iS AS) Zo ed Sm Ee = 4 SS ee - as nH Be a aA =) OC iets A See oe AOE One, TS Ee ett cine thn Stk ibe a eae are ern eee ees 5 —_—-—_— — |] — — seme oe me om as fF — 4 — py — Ke ee OO i a te th xn SS i \! feelal =) | | L. 14 oe er - Ss oy oe ee Soft Wa a mR OR Te ee ae. Se Se eS owe fs ae) aon oe i eee | < J (| CV 5 i! Je en ie ars Roos Sage, eae eae Sg ar ae Rig sa Bo can an aso pent 6 ee SS oS —--1)--—- mn ea tom ee Sk Sg ae ata ee ee ee) Oe i) nN 1 Wiehe Sy EM erate er Wiel ie to PS file Se its oe ee ee eee Mt pa la Lo) meee ae eel i ee OW BS = Seen ae a ee SS ot Gan Re a ee _— — — = — Ree es es ee Se ee ee = cal SS iS sot cermetert Bn Ve spite A si ies SU Reece pio Ce aR Ty yt 4 iil i ie sk Bein oe gt We ge sane ee Ee pee, eae ya r es hee tts Tas ee ee Se ch oe ag ae ee D Vi iy teal ao ae ey as eee ne MRE Fee Bs epee 0) a Slits sie Sajuenieeied Gir beers a a is ae See a i eee Ta NOV ae || i = ere 3 Len we-f----- Re - - - e ee rr or r n r er e rn ee re Qy, S cA aS SRS I cine goa en ae iv U nN i! | Q -_ adele as iar ee eg ig eg ™ Lo) = nm fap | \ sa! 1500 SERIES B MULTIPLICATION 1000 500 MEDIANS GRADE 7 FIG. 11 subtraction attempts, 8.1, rights, 5.4, and so on Seon: through the several points. right 9 —s 72 The city average at the bottom of Ar) an) iC ARITHMET STUDY IN HAGGERTY : the medians for the twenty cities Oo By this method each city is considered a ding tained by ad the table is ol 0. 2 go by o and dividin a, The individual average is unit, whatever the number of pupils. ™ ea allel ala atoad 4 a en ae ee ee eT) » te ts) ne | ea (tse ey mn min) 4 8 8 i eB 5 25 Ef 866 ms ot ee po Ex co) On 9 9 Ame oe) 7 2 Sie te a RC i II OCT CRC ee LSC Co eb ee ate | ' a art EA I | Seed eaajl- ox | - | a | - —_ _- _ _ - _ - — a | S | ' 1 Bae el a eeu A ee a a fas ass ok - i — — = paris | | | y I =o oe om ears ae ii += me samoe /comia (ena <>. a — - = a) —- o- = ay EMT The = -- — pee ae oe el — _ _ — a By a ep atl pel] ee ' | i | 1 L@) Ie | I ! ‘oO 1 | | i | 7 Sar eC ero -|- al = 4p am as a -* ; i = faim ; ly] See = - Ltd = Fr... —— + — ee le ime, [ 9 See B mak ele at Dm, cc Os ie cr ata a eee | i} te mg! ceri lear eas hg aera eee ee _ = at |) ' 1! \ S cae Peri el eae CN A A a RS A Seer Nee a ana al me Sea ie en IS Go ey OE PRE oT | ta } ' ta) pr oto ccc cee ---- ES rg Pte asia ] pak) ' ' ; 4 ' ' = Dy PG fh pone ah ead ed pers ee Ge eee Pres ' ' I ' ' n pe rg | PS Rahs ea mJ (ee eT) a ELT Mary TTC a a] ' VN LU elivees amr eae eet prom ape ee ee ee a ' | f] lal | ! ! : ' a Bie baa trent —|— = om (om ate od i _ ae ‘men. Want — ei = ome Lt (ar ei es aC SE arsine SC B 1; — ee ee ees re i, hn] a tl) = ian) fa] “ 1500 1000 FIG, 12 oO oS ity and findin Cc ot regardle Ss o the individual © addin ained by the median of all. obt Comparing the individual median with other available stand- ards, namely, Courtis general standard and the Detroit and Boston x D 4—310 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES BOSTON DETROIT COURTIS INDIVIDUAL CITY =--COURTIS —-DETROIT _— INDIVIDUAL — CITY arene nl = oe Pe ee ely aie eh r--- fe 1500 1000 500 ADDITION SERIES 8 MEDIANS GRADE FIG. 13 439 STuDY IN ARITHMETIC HAGGERTY : INDIVIDUAL ICITY INDIVIDUAL DETROIT COURTIS CITY BOSTON ' \ | see! | 18! ie RR res Sa rae 1 pe ad ‘ | 0 ef aS Slss SoS oe SS om ot | 14 Ue oe abe SEA apes metry few de ao lope ioe a pe AL a aes Wor af PN = I —— ari ! Glee eeavae = pom tate SSbeSo Seas el eee oa |S Sees aoe = Ot RIGHTS|= | ! | | | | | | | | 1 | | | J | | | J J | 1 | } | J | ! } | | | | | | ! | ! | | | | 1 65) 106 55 5 | 29 66! 64 $4 55) SS a a a a a a SS a SS SS SS Ss eee Se ee eee SS 1500 1000 SERIES SUBTRACTION B MEDIANS GRADE 6 FIG, 14 436 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES scores for February, 1914, the Indiana standard falls in second place in grades five, seven, and eight. In the sixth grade it is in third place, being excelled by both Boston and Detroit. In all grades the Detroit scores rank first. If one uses the Indiana city average instead of the individual average as a basis of comparison, the rank for all grades combined is the same, namely, Detroit 1, Indiana 2, Boston 3, and Courtis general 4. For the sixth grade, Indiana gets first place, but drops to third in the eighth grade. Some of the Indiana cities do much better than either Detroit, Boston, or the Courtis standard, and the comparison of the group as a whole is decidedly favorable to Indiana. 437 STUDY IN ARITHMETIC HAGGERTY : DETROIT INDIVIDUAL CITY COURTIS | BOSTON ee eT tit sepeuwe ee wo o£ MULTIPLICATION SERIES B E 8 R MEDIAN FIG. 15 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 38 t OURTIS — — L — -INDIVIDUAL 1500 DIVISION INDIVIDUAL CITY DETROIT BOSTON DETROIT COURTIS ease es ee ea as ets eee eS ee SS ete a as SSeS ae ee eg aay a ee eee ERIE 1000 eee eae ae i eae ee sl — —_—-—_ — -¢§ ——_ — —- lc Cl Ne BS ey ee el GRADE 8 500 MEDIANS FIG. 16 Spe a ee a eS ee ge a ae ee eee mae a8 es gre SS SS eS ba = Se ee Se a SS a Se ee eee ee TABLE XXXIV ALSO SCORES Boru Ciry AND INDIVIDUAL MEDIANS ARE SHOWN. ror Derroir, Roston AND CouRTIS GENERAL Score, FEBRUARY 1914 s—Four TEsts. RADE \ x s—Twentry Crr1res—Four ( o MeEpIAN SCORE HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 439 To) _ trad oy To) a = = TNO HINSHORBOMAMMNSCKLARS« BEDE Se ord al lh ell al tt ih LON bat re Paes Ey oes S25 2 ew C = Oja\ea(O) 3 = DNDOMIRMOBHHRAMMDANOOHDODHMH OO S SIU sTYy SHOOMMAH Hoan Os Odtidisgtsisiod ‘DR 5 os ‘ Cr°xdqtoOorendtisDonwonteaswmrwnoreod to CO A SJQUIIIVV Pe eo ee oi ake ere 1s 2 SAOWM MDM ATMINGOPHNHTRATHADHO 19 =e STU oTY Ooo Oto Ht Hadidgigig igh Hin mie tid sisi stat + Ee == Be ' OAHWAAMDOHODAAHONDWIOHIONOSONHH A os = SPAULO}TV OWOWDDSKOODKRORKKORKROKRORKREKERNSO WB x a S OHA HHDHATAMHANMMOOMWOIOHTNO 4 ae SYSTY POR IDIDORODOOSONRDOOMIOSDONOODOSD © (S&S) = = = ADOMOPORAWDANAANMOWOROHARHO & S 8}duro}}V SDHOKKDHAGBWDHOWDOWDHOWDDAADWHNHH oD = ce ie OHAANBDIDORAOMHOOHSONOOOHHOR + 5 S}YSTY IDM iD Heo HHttin ists tH SHH Os ‘S = = DOAANRAPNABMRONHORAAWDHOMAHHMHM © << s}dure}7 y WOON SGiISSNOKOKKROOKRORKERRERKROO OIQH AMR MWONAGMNAHANABNNOOWNNS © = syysty NAO MANMOAANNHANHMMOMMANNANAN A ie DODOMAMDRANNHODANMR DMO 19 (e) $}du1e}} Vy Hinson sdon sg tH otto ttt HHO WIDOOOAANKR DO HARWINIONDINAROM © oS SP OTY CON HON HoH AN Hed tained oon too ston op eted ON = 9 6:5 ae. Ss DH HIDID OI HAHMON SHAN ACNNMINWH ae SJdUIN}9V | cig SistON SON SSONSSOHOSrOHOHHOSH © = A < ma S HOONDOMIODON MMMMOAMMHOOMN|D 10 ~ = SIS 16 001 HOG 1G ID Hos iG iS 8 Sig HS Oi9 19 19 191919 HH S a) 2 CASS Se Sn cole aoa oS Ye) is s}du19}}V CON GigONn RK OORRORROKORORROK © ND DOR OHKROBRBOSGONSHHOMNORNOSORN & S sys y OAHONHAN OMT MAO NINN HOOD OND OD 2 = x NOM DONO HIDHHOMONONMOHMOHOONA x sydurte},V Nis SistOONOSRERION DOORN OSSOOOCOnN B& | 7 fat. Baas © , c : =) #14512 . 3 s ; Olea Saro Ne : : 1S al CS -S. 5 Lael a - a > SP as tie ned ee ne 2S) eS ae it A ae IBorROAO EH SYP TABLE. XX X1IV—Continued 440 ALSO SCORES Boru Ciry anp INDIVIDUAL MEDIANS ARE SHOWN. MEDIAN ScoRES—TWwENTY CiTres—Four GRAaDES—Four TEsTtTSs. FoR Derroir, Boston AND CourRTIS GENERAL ScoRE, FEBRUARY 1914 CLEY: INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES RNS HINO OHOARNHHIOSCHOD SS SSS SSeS = S&S 20 Individual City Courtis Standard GRADE 8 Division SLYSTY '8 Detroit 6.9 |Boston © DIODE DIDS ADI ANBDM INI OD O19 NIM POO OM SHAANDONSSAAGAOH 6.3 $}du10}} Vy TD BN AVIO SHS SH SH IS DS 19 09 G2 >? 1 09 19 OO 09 69 CO 0H ARBOPOHBONMSMNAAPHSrUAMSSOW Sn ho i ee Multiphl- cation SPS s}dut0}} Vy SSMS DH N19 19 HD AN 09 10 10 9 SH OO PD 09 SH 19 19 OrMNOnDDDDK SCHON ONONOSOKRKNNES oS? DAMS HFOOMMOMOMOMANOIDID APSMSMPAAnANSOSHOSSSOSSHSHSS me Seq See Subtraction SUSY OO ODP NO DADO POON SOMO AAAP AIDS ARAN ADK HWOADSABWHHN AW HDHD HO $}.du10}}V Addition SPYSNY s}du10})V ONO CN 00 tS Pe G2 C219 10'S? OOO) Orit T= C0 ==) 00 IP HOHDOHHINDOIDN 01919 HID Orig i9 19 190K ANAM OMONMDADSDIQDAADPOMHOSOMNS SW WOHDAAAHORAWAWDODOARWAWOM GRADE 7 | Division Multipli- cation syysry MOCO ee CO ee Mab me BOSS SAS orl (C.0) CO) =) NO) I Cra tol OHiSWOWDINIDOKNRWODOODORHORKRROONIO s}duie}y Vy OO GYD C19 SHCA P= 00 CN LO 60) OO EC) CO Oe ape Oe) 2 ONe DAMEN ODPISNABGPNHMWHARDWHHWES 5.8 7.6 SYYSIY Cah Oe SO Oy CO OOD) CD CO SH HOD CON HH rt Or OID OF B19 81919 Hid 1d HN 16 15 51915 HO 19191915 O19 s}du10}}V Ba NN G2 SH mt 00 SH SH CN CN BS 8 C0010) CO) STN CO C2 G2) SOS PHOHAOGOOMH LN DAOWM AON NOHHMWHHHW Subtraction SPUSIY, SO 00 SH BS SH Or © OOH CO 0 Sit rat SOO iris C0800 >) GS OCHHHDSOKKKOHHSHDHOHROKROKRKRERKERENS sydute4.V Addition Syysry Oo) © OAOM APM MANDAONOADOAAOOS FRPSONSSSSSSSSSSSOSHSASSSAS See Sa poet prlte Sl oN ENE ETI ny psn tM PLEN| al DSEGN) UC) Arr OCaOte 1D 00 SO HH HH Hagin Hiding HH sigid od Hid Hdi6 s}dutoy. Vy HAS O 019 OO OO ISI NN OOM OSNSOOSONN DKODSDONNAWS SK OR DDOWDODKOHAD C CUEY Onto, cht Individual. Citivas. Detroit.... Bostona. = 20 ee ee mA HID OD Courtis Standard HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 441 In Table XX XV these medians are ranked. Rank 1 is given to the city having the highest median, rank 2 means second highest median, and so on. Reading down column 2, fifth grade addition attempts, we find city 1 has rank 5, city 2 rank 16, and so on to city 20 with rank 12. Inasmuch as the several cities do not maintain the same rank in all points, a composite rank is made by adding across the table the ranks made in the thirty-two points. On this basis a new ranking is made which may be regarded as showing the relative standing of each city in the entire set of tests so far as such relative standing is shown by median scores. The figures indicating this composite ranking are found in the first column to the left of the table. It is interesting to note that cities do not maintain the same rank in all the measures. Thus city 10, which has first place in seventh grade multipleation rights and which ranks 3 in the entire set of tests, falls to rank 13 in fifth grade division rights. City 13, ranking first in the entire set and having first in eleven of the separate tests, falls to rank 10 in seventh grade subtraction rights and 10.5 in eighth grade addition attempts. In the latter point it is no better than city 15 whose composite rank is 12. City 1 is interesting as ranking first in all eighth grade points except two, and ranking second in these, but falling to fourteenth place in fifth grade division rights and not rising above third place in any fifth grade measure. If the relative achievement of a school system is a valid measure of its work then it ought not be difficult for any one of the schoo! cities here concerned to locate its strengths and weaknesses. The sore spots are indicated by the high numbers and wherever the number is greater than ten that city is below the average. Numbers less than ten mean better than the average. These ranks indicate therefore where attention should be given. City 1 and city 9 should look to their fifth grades, city 15 is better everywhere than in its eighth grade, and city 13 is poorer in addition in three grades than in any of the other processes. In the seventh it 1s weakest in subtraction. There is consolation in this table, however, for every city. There is not a case where a city does not do better than the average in at least one thing. City 2, with composite rank 20, ranks 9 in seventh grade subtraction rights, and in several other points it approximates the average. In only five cases is it really the lowest; in every other case some one of the other cities is lower than city 2. 442 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Just because a city does vary so from measure to measure, the composite rank is probably not a good measure to rely upon. From the standpoint of administration it is worth very much more to know the city’s rank in a particular test. To find a city in rank 11 indicates to that city that its work should be improved. Just how it should be improved is not so clear. But to see that in the fifth grade addition attempts it ranks 3 while in rights it ranks 16.5 is to locate exactly the spot where attention should be given. DY IN ARITHMETIC = ) STu HAGGERTY 0c (G2 S Z ¢'él 9 9 g'8 g'6 c-F. 8 cP OI |G cr |¢ ‘OT v at po eae ec 0¢ 61 9 & ¢ ol Ol i¢°8 ZL ¢’s8 TES" 2 OT €I SIT |¢°9 Gg La CI Oizo ls Sie 61 SI CT EH al g el ae v1 TAG Sy. € Gee Vv C6 G ¢'6 8 Oia, | eo ee 81 LI € L, if fc OLS 8 Cl SeG 9 G v G gg Gy: 6 I Gal Cees sean ae LI 9T |¢ OT ST 61 (S81. OG 0c | SI Oe || Sa e|Se een GeO Oe Gee 61 ST LT Ol aes 9T ST er S.46 GL |S I VI CT |¢°8 9 GI S ¢ OT VEG Pl |S -0 S26 8 Gil oa eet as ST al 0c |S 9L Je! Dee GaGIe | Gl S/S eck GI OL IT |S OL Gl .|9'6 Gee, CCl Gl Clete See VI €1 I I I I [ee Peal GE G I I I I gy I G CT esha anes §1 cl |$ 6 Chee Gey 8 Ve S56, g c0 LSet 9 8 ¢'6 Sil vi 61 Lineet | eeae ae Gl II ST 61 iS P 6 Z jake teh Gl al Of Set Si Clea IS36 VE |g G 9 Cts | aaa II Ola SZ g L ¢°9 Cea Se6 9 v SI g ST € S V L v Gide Tecan Ol 6 €I Gls |S501 cI |G St v sh tes 8 GeLt 61 SI |S St Oc |¢ OL CT ia! 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UOTIVIG T}QUuS UOT UOISTAT TOT UOTIIBAIGN UuOTJIPp stake tis -1dy ny sjiheerees > 5 IpPpV sas iq “1 d19 Nyy I} C 4q S ytp V Q AdVUr) ¢ Udvar) SAWOOS NVIGH]\T NI SILI) ALNAM]T, HO ONIMNVY AXXX WTAVL INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES +4- 0¢ ¢ L ¢'8 V v Gus II 8ST |9°8 Il he Fi Se 61 Gl 9T Sica a tere et 0¢ 61 L Vv VI 6 c°6 CIT CT g 9 6 ¢ 91 L Gl ST |S Ob S28 Ors oe ene “61 8I € € ¢'9 ¢ Gl G G g’9 js c's Se cP 6 I GE G Il Seal Ss os ee) 8I LI |9'8t {Eh LI 9 Col i 9 ¢ Gl I II Gl 9 I CUT I v I GPa |e ae LI 91 rea CT [eh Zi 6 8 0c |S VI OG 9T OG Ol Sesh |S Or je)! Il Oils ae ce 91 CT [ile St) OL SL 1S; Sh VL |S. 6 ¢ or |g 8 OL |S tt Oa Sev ee Geen Ga ZL Gl sree ST Vie |S Si 1G Si Ola NSsGk> |S sit cl |S ctl 6 Gece a\S-9 GI Ese iG29 gg ¢'6 ¢ vl Ce ree ee vi &1 g g I! 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This fact is the very specific character of the habits formed in the learning of any one of the skills measured in these tests. A study of this table will show that efficiency in one process does not necessarily mean efficiency in any other process. Children may add well and subtract poorly as in the case of city 20, fifth grade, or may multiply well and add poorly as in city 5, seventh grade, or may divide well and subtract poorly as in city 19, eighth grade. What does this mean except that children learn those skills in which they are effectively trained? The others they do not learn. One does not learn subtraction by learning addition, nor does he learn division by drill on multipheation. To be sure there must be some overlapping from one process to another. There is some addition in multiplication and in long division both multi- plication and subtraction function. But apart from these evident overlappings there are habits quite specifically characteristic of each process which are learned only by drill in that process alone. The almost anarchic tendency shown in these tables for children to be strong in one thing and weak in another is doubtless to be accounted for by the specific nature of the habits demanded in each case. To learn addition is not to learn subtraction, and to learn subtraction is not to learn multiplication, and so on. To extend the argument one could say that to learn any one or all of the processes is certainly not to learn the whole of arithmetic or the whole of mathematics, nor is the learning of mathematics, however thorough, anything more than the acquisition of skills and habits thoroughly specific and limited. It is not ‘‘the train- ing of the mind’’ in any other sense. The virtue of such specific training is, of course, to be determined by the degree to which such specific: habits function practically in the life of the individual. _ VARIABILITY Just as the median-is a better measure of group achievement than the mode, so the per cent of variability is a better measure of the distribution of ability than are the minimum and maximum scores. In the tables the per cent of variability is given to the right of the median. In Table II it ranges from 24 in cities 7, 10, 18, and 15 to 30 in city 4, and 33 in city 5. The desideratum 446 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES for any class is of course a high median with a low per cent of variability. Measured by this combined standard city 13 stands first with a median of 7.6 and a variability of 24. City 10 is 7 80 : S40 70 12 > _18 OO ea a ee ERAGE: id a a os BG (ok fs Mi) eed ; RIGHTS 11 1 42 15 19 4, 6 50! 131k 20 aok | | | 30 | | El es fo _E | eee ell eaten , ie oe | |_| averace | : TEMPTS 20 10 e zx <3] 1S) ~ =} { jou FIGA7-VARIABILITY SERIES B GRADE 5 ADDITION almost as good, but falls .2 in median score. City 8 is essentially as good as city 10, having .1 better median but 1 per cent poorer variability. At the opposite end of the scale is city 5 with the lowest median in the group and with the widest range of ability in the same class. The variabilities for the several grades of the several cities are HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 447 brought together in Table XXXVI and are shown graphically in the Form II charts, Figs. 17-30. The Form II charts show the variabilities of the several grades in each of eighteen cities. Each column represents a city, the —_—_ 60 50 4 j=) jo) 3 ATTEMPTS 20 tel oe AL pen) eto ite Wit ean eo aoa sien, ate AVERAGE RIGHTS 14 15 I (i 135) 5. AN AVERAGE = i>) ER CENT AP vid; 15-VARIABILITY SERIES B_ GRADE 5 SUBTRACTION height of the column being proportional to the per cent of varia- bility shown. The solid part of the column represents variability in attempts; the open part of the column shows the variability in rights. The average for the eighteen cities is shown by horizon- tal lines across the chart. The figures on the left show per cents In Table XX XVII the several cities are ranked as to the var:- 448 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES abilities of the several grades. As in the case of the medians there is great fluctuation from grade to grade and from process to proc- ess within the several grades. At the left of the table there is given a composite rank. As in the case of medians, city 13 ranks 80 0 70 60 I} 45 12> Brie Wee Pe Pl FW ero A coaeNeE Tey RIGHTS : 10 8 | 1 0) 19 ; | 1G 3 of at et | te ee elaveexce: EIGIO-VARIABILITY SERIES B GRADE 5 MULTIPLICATION =) =) PER CENTS first and city 2 ranks last. Taking the entire group there is be- tween the rankings in the two tables a positive correlation of 194 figured by ‘‘method of rank differences.’’ Just why this cor- relation should oceur is not altogether clear. The per cent of variability of a class is a measure of the close- ness of grading. Closeness of grading is essentially grouping to- HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 449 gether pupils of the same ability. An apparent closeness of grad- ing may be secured by spending much time on the weak pupils and little on the strong so that all will do about the same work. 100 50 1 17 10 et sll) oe ee en ig : RIGHTS + 6 5 4 11 18 13 60 4 50 iS) AVERAGE AO ATTEMPTS 20 S) at CENT FIG.20- YARIAB ILITY SERIES B “GRADE GRADE 5 DIVISION The latter method seems to be regarded by some as efficient teach- ing. It may be doubted whether it really is. In any ease if the class is homogeneous, the students being all very much alike in achievement, the per cent of variability will be low. Inversely, a —3102 450 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES high per cent of variability means that the class is loosely graded, the same class containing children of very unequal achievement. Just how small the per cent of variability should be for good school work is as yet an undetermined fact. Muza. Courtis declares JO ____ AVERAGE RIGHTS 40 30 _— PER CENT O FIG. 21- VARIABILITY SERIES B GRADE 6 ADDITION that ‘‘the smaller the variability, other things being equal, the more efficient the teaching. Variabilities of 12 per cent to 15 per cent represent good work under present conditions. In the near future these will probably be reduced to 5 per cent and 10 per CON HaGcGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 451 Measured by this standard no one of the cities is doing ‘‘good work.’’ ae) oe ee) oe 29) ce 20) ond 28) oe Poe |e |e ee lee Ee ee a a E Bs = es E Ss = at = = cS a = a is st ss a cr a ae Kil® = aoe UOISTATCT Saniting UOLPOBAYGNS uOTyIPpV UOISTATCT ee UOTIOBIZQNG UOTJIPPY, Q adavur) G AdVur) ALIO SAILITIAVINV A TVONGIAIGNT AGNV ALI) OSTY SISA], YWNO.J—Sudavyr) YNOY—SHILI) ALNUMT], “SULLITIAVINV A [TAXXX AHTaAVL siry STUDIES INDIANA UNIVER 456 AYID|S 6S 86 IG €& €&Z |$° 86 TOS by 6G GV G& OF | Sc [E> |S°iz¢ eV SCs seen AVID [euprarpuy| op | og. | ve | ez | ie | ec | w | tz || ge | ce | w | a | ze | ee | op | oe |renpuapuy 0¢ OF 6& O€ IG GG GG VE IG OV O€ OF VG GE T€ &V 0) pee ist 0¢ 61 JENS 9G 9€ IG 8G 61 LV IG 9€ LE WV VG 6G 61 VE Gaal ae 61 8T OF 9G GE 9G LG IG SE IG ST LG OF OG 6G 6T 9€ CGA see Bas SI LT 9¢ SE Iv GG cP IG St VG 09 6& LV VG T€ 9T W [Gao ieee Li 91 CY LG JES 61 9€ 0G 69 9G ST cy 6S VE VE VG 09 OCS S| tee 91 ST lV 6& Iv O€ O€ VG rea GG GG LG LE 66 8é GG OG LCRA tN ease ST vl 6€ T€ SE 6G cs IG 0G 6G CY VE OV LG 9¢ 6G VV SGes tee, et ae vI real VE GG 6G 6T GG Ei GV 6G 66 6G VE LG 6G OG Gi Gastar €1 rat LE GE O€ GG GG OG G& &G OF 6G 6€ 9G 9G 6G cé GGA ee ‘GI II OV GE 9€ GG O€ GG LY OG 6g SE Iv LG 6& 6G Tg WS Glad eens pee ‘TI O1 Geel Gales (coe 0c, IG Oe ie lle el Sele cc Te. | or tees oe Ol 6 yo | ye. | ee | co loge |e, 166 | je) ge | -6c s\ ves |.0c || oc | 61 |e | ee i 8 8¢ OV 6G 6G OV VG vg 9G eV I€ cv GG GS ST OV GG et a ee 8 ! el oe Or lie | ee lig |e) eee oe ae | | ee ee 0c er ee 2 9 SE 6G VE 6G 6G 6I 6& 9G ike GG 6F LG GE 6G Tg CGez| aca ees *e) S SE GE cE VG VG 1G IV O€ 67 VE VE O€ O€ 6G Gi 86.5 | ee ee BG V 6G VG 9G LG 8G TG TE G& IV OF €& 9G 6G LG eV SGres | seo eg V g ie |e | ce | 6c-|¢9e 10 Ie. | cee | cell ce | ee ee ee oc er |e ee ¢ G LY LG 6& 6G VE €G LY &G Og TV €¢ 6G €& GG Tg CGe a A: ata ‘G I Gu 1G SC 1 Ole ie eee | 1h cele Ge0 |: co | 0G. | ec Tee leic le te fee a a eS a > a od a a a aa a ae a oe a > ‘cy = 09. = oa. = 09" ae icy = oa = icy = ‘cy es =e Ss = g = 2 = @ Sg fe eg ® =e fe ce E ee eee le ee ee ee ee ee a D a a a a a a ALIO ais Bees ALIO UOTSTATC sea UOTPIBIPGNY | UOTyIPpy UOTSIAT(] Woes uoTPOBAZGNG | UOTIPpy Baier G -1]d14 [NIV 6 N Se SRaeesaks “1d ry [nyjy au N qteg S AadVar) 2 AadVUury) SALLITIG VIE V A IVOCIAIGNT GNV ALC) OSTY ‘SISa,, YOAO4—Sadadvur) YOO4—SdAILI’) ALNGM [, “SALLITIGVINV A ponurjuo)—IAXXX ATaVi 457 StuDY IN ARITHMETIC HAGGERTY 0c L c’°G c'6 GT OT I I SI 19°6 ¢ CT G’G G's iE I C6 Gee se ate 02 61 |G’€ I T C6 c's G € OTe 2 '0E2 cL € Ont Si. iSt Li CT Coes |e 61 8ST 61 9T |9°6 C'6 6 i Ze Gy ahs a2 OPse Geb Gai Gi Ee 1GAéle Scr Gee Sacer ST LIT |G’ g’¢ ¢ V me cr ¢'6 g’¢ GSE iS Z cv OF 18201 61 9 ja OLSs sees LI 9I OT ST ST CT 61 0G 61 €T ial GE |G 2E- S281 41S 91 OT 0c |9'6 Chak = 9T cI OT Ol |G°2 ST vI |S 9L Cl 6 Si G v1 OL Sez g’G 0'8 CG [eee Seo ST I FI ial OT LT |G ‘OT BIE TT OT OT GI jS°6 g’¢ C*L OT (96 ¢'9 Olea a ees iat €1 G S G 14 ¢’9 6 € ¢’¢ G ¢ I v & CI G C'S [ie alee ee €1 ral pee ae IEE eaters C'6 c’§ 6 el G 8 CT Sl S St §I Vt Vile |G.Gr pie sid oth ar, cl II Gla GeEG Pe 1G Ck 19. ¢'9 6 C6 6 GP Ol Sarr OT 9 ¢’¢ OL |¢'9 Gilt ss lipsghalteee II Or ig ¢ OL EE V VE \S-¥ g 6 GT ¢ c’L 8 ¢ II 2) eae a ee OL 6 OL OT GE |G Gis |S 9r 6 €I 6 9 GE viG2Z bk 19260 0G OT cl LT Coe acon wee 6 8 SI |¢°8 Ge aiSs9 Celt €1 SI G C'6 T G'L GG 1G pr 19 & LVS GeO ies ee 8 L Il G Pee \G2Gr T ¢ OT 8 G IT OT GI jf 8. |06 c’s 6I |¢'% [alescs' ue rete I, 9 Sie Sect 6. !S°6I FI. |S 91 OT OG “All Cl 9 i CM IG LZ ¢ Gace Se eres Stores tec 9 ¢ 0G 0G 0c |S’ 61 0G 61 €T 9T LT ST 0% Glee | Oe Oc |S GI 0G Sas ees G V i ¢’¢ € ¢°9 CTT 6 9 €I i GT. .,6:6 Ot |S OL OT € 61 Bien sae saeay 4 € g’G g’G 14 C'6 8 €T 9 6 g € G G'S CaS Gay i Gl h (Gp oe ieee € G OT G12 |G-SE CT SI |G OL 0G er 0G CT 61 ST 61 OT SI ya OCS a ee G I 6 G8 9 Ce Gag a 9 14 CST OG OT LT |G 9T Il |S °6 ¢'9 OV abe Saas if ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ee ge ot 09 + ge ot ie) ot i} > VS} + ne) a 9 a |US's lessee | ee ee ee Le eee eee e S ao S e S Ke S Ve ie! e re) S 3 a Ss iBS a a a a a a a ee a ALIO ALIO UOISTAIC] ee uoTpRAIyqng | uoTZIPpy UOISIATC] sudan uoTpOBAYGnG | UoIppy Q Hava @ Aavury SAILITIAVIUVA NI SHILI) ALNAMT, JO MNVY WAXXX HTavViL PIN OD SHINO ODD INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES A.LIO al Eee GeO ae Gin e | Siey, Clie |SeG Vv Ges roy ype EE IS rea 0c |S OI OG See 0¢ Qe Sos GEC GG | Ga6. 1GicG v1 v vO FI OTe Sa eG Si I G Gea ears ps 61 Gi |Ge4 8 9T ZL. - \S"6 v Vv iA Sites EE IL Ge g eee [Ses Oe te ee SI 61 Ale NGS Ger 0G S56 OT VI 0G IT LL NGL OL L960 G Oko ae ee LY Ce G8 ia! G St |S VY 0G Jel WEE AL SE TO}IE 0G 0G ST ST 0G 61 Olge eee 91 vI ZN G28 02 |S SI |¢ 6I Gl SHE ey All Se GesI OG Galt Ole saci alps eas ST OL GI ST IT LA |G 6 ZV |S 0% GL |G Gl OES Sev 61 oh Sec) 1S28 Oe ns ia ¢ G g Ge SY, lL Te S01 L OF SV Gane 19395128 8 G yee ee &1 ao VIE 3/999 8 eee he LS OS 828 9 Ol Stk G or G GI je a aes cl 9T VA S° GG 41S ei CT vI i! 61 9T Sie OT CT ST vI Gis aa I v Vow \SeG Se |G bE \Ss62.. 1959 Vv CeG >> |S6 I 6 OT g i g Vos Or ST 6T |S°6 8 Gi 1GeZb, 1569 Vv Gg 9 3 |GET G g 3:5 |19 8 ro bene eee ee 6 0G 0G OG OL 57 Oy |S; Ob 61 Lil EL 4S6 eS ey 6I G CT S Vi ee ee ae 8 GE S28 ZUG Ly LenS 6 ST |G Or GT |S 61 Si Sez De AS VIS G68 a See L ‘8 TT {EE ble=)S2¢ GEG = \S°9 LI I I Sk IS vk rea seit ST al Sle 2 See 9 8 VI. |S’6 Cle ECan SOs 26 61 OTe Ghee 6I 8 GI pop ee AE pot Ronee ame g G & Ca Ge | SOmer Ce Oe er caG OG OT LI Gi (Seabees Sa 61 OL 1S 2h S| ee V Gar 1928 i W228 G oe SO 1S 9eee GOL RiGeG 2 Gee Ge Sey G G a4 g Gis RO ete € ZioedAGSS 9T IT Se ea Set Alle se SOE ya SI 6T yay OTs SbT ST al OG 2S na ee G i I SSG G L C156 L CeG G 9 OT OL OT Qe |S2S 1, Oewe roses I Ue le Ole ee eee cee ee i ee ee ee eee eee a Be a se ee Pe ee Be ee | Ble |B oe ye le oy |e ea ee See n a a a a a 2 Dee oreo | UOT} RO ue uol a Ur ‘ i el ( UOISIATCT aydiyynyy | COORIANS | wOTPPY UOISTAIC] aydiynpy | UOPBaNS | YOUIPpy S aavur) 1 ava 458 SHILITIGVIEUVA NI SHLLIY) ALNUMT JO ANVY penurjuo)—TAXXX WIAdV.L 40 PER CENT © HAGGERTY : FIG.26 VARIABILITY SERIES StTuDY IN ARITHMETIC GRADE 7 SUBTRACTION Se ee 459 460 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES 60 ATTEMPTS 2 50 6 17 14 19 8 11 AVERAGE QOL 1S S.A ND RS Se 40 ma [ee leer Ye JC am be P| beh FT == ~ RIGHTS Fs al oe 1) AVERAGE PERCENT © _FIG, 27 VARIABILITY SERIES _B GRADE 7 MULTIPLICATION HAGGERTY: SvTupy IN ARITHMETIC 461 Bem & 1 eee ll ikl 30 PER CENT 6 iii F agi a | S i =i aS ola ee | sy[ealieise . oe FIG. 28-VARIABILITY SERIES B GRADE | Abe _ AVERAGE | RIGHTS | AVERAGE |ATTEMPTS Z DIVISION 462 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES ae . wi ey 8 7 14 it 0 At i (ie ( RO ec he Sk IINNOS Gea RIGHTS 6 10 0 4 20 ie 12 — = PER CENT FIG. 2 9-VARIABILITY SERIES B GRADE 8 ADDITION 40 PER CENTS HAGGERTY : EG. 30 -VARLABILITY SERIES B StupDy IN ARITHMETIC a GRADE 8 SUBTRACTION 463 _ AVERAGE RIGHTS | | 22 AVERAGE ~ ele : ATTEMPTS 464 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES gs 50 15 17 40 2 allo eel er are Se AVERAG : RIGHT 5 ne S 30 12 20 13 eon A ‘8 i Sab z _g_ sal AVERAGE 3] PTEMP TT 10 - oe a 8 bay Quy - FIG.31-VARIABILITY SERIES B GRADE § MULTIPLICATION a 20 PER CENTOS 17 9 50 2 11, dh ISTE SH oS ee I PR TSS 0 So ee te A ec ce ee AYERAGE 40 : ae eee RIGHTS | / . : ; Haggerty: Stupy in ARITHMETIC 465 13 __L_ BB] Of} Je} |e 4 _ _AVerace tes ATTEMPTS FIG.32-VARIABILITY SERIES B GRADE 8 __ DIVISION 6—3 102 466 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES DEPENDABILITY There is still another way in which the results of these tests may be considered as a measure of school work. If a child tries five problems and gets correct results for all the five his work 100 80 60 40 20 & a =z elele uly alo|o Alm 0 FI@. 33 DEPENDABI PEIGR ES PER CENT SERIES B GRADE 3 ADDITION IG. 33 _ DEPENDABILITY SERIES B GRADE 3 ADDITION a ATTEMPTS 100 80 60} 40] 20 may be considered highly dependable. Another child may try five problems and get only two correct. His work is not dependable. It is possible to get a mathematical statement for this fact of dependability by. dividing the number of problems correctly solved by the number of problems attempted. By this means the first child may be said to be 100 per cent dependable; the second child & a a o kK =} 2 oe a KB > = Q {o) a R 1S) fe : _ RIGHTS es FIG. 34 DEPENDABILITY ATTEMPTS PER CENT SERIES B GRADE 5 SUBTRACTION al, HAGGERTY: StTupDY IN ARITHMETIC 467 only 40 per cent. Considering each of the cities in each of the sixteen tests and figuring the per cent of dependability we get Table XXX VIII. In the Form III charts each city is represented by its per cent oe 80. 60 AO anaes 5 a ele|Sl>]& RQ S ONS te ala||o|2| 1 SUL se 1o|17]18]19 [20 FIG. 35 DEPENDABILITY Ee TRELCENE PER CENT SERIES = GRADE 5 MULTIPLICATION 100 $0 60 20 is fe hee i218 | alli Alm Of FIG. 36 perenpapuuTy RIGHTS per chNT SERIES B GRADES _ DIVISION eee TEMPT Shee cee — ae of dependability. The horizontal line across the figure at the top indicates 100 per cent. The distance between this line and the top of each coiumn indicates how much that score falls short of 100 per cent. The figures on the left indicate the per cent. The cities are arranged in the same order in which they appear in the tables. To the left appear the columns for Detroit, Boston, 468 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES Courtis general, and the Indiana city and individual medians. Then follow the cities in order. No grade in any city attained more than 91 per cent of depend- ability. This maximum is attained by city 2, which ranks 20 in oe ies 2 g ° 3 B & rE ~~ > a}|o}o = FIG. 37 DEPENDABILITY BRIGHTS PER CENT ER B GRADE 6 TION : _DEPENDABILITY PER CENT GRADE 6. DITION _ FIG. 34 ATTEMPTS SERIES B ADDI 100 80 60 AO} 20 % — Zz = olf a Pa lS = ° a] 0 z RIGHTS FIG. 38 DEPENDABILITY aS. PER CENT ERIES B _GRADE 6 SUBTRACTION. both medians and variabilities. In fact this city which ranged so low by the other two measures of efficiency ranks above the average in every point but three, and in six of the sixteen tests actually ranks first. It 1s also first in composite ranking. City 13, which ranked first in medians, and first in variabilities, drops in fifth grade addition, to rank 2, with a per cent of dependability HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 469 of only 65. Its composite rank is 15. City 1, ranking sec- ond in medians and sixth in variabilities, here ranks fourteen. Compared with Detroit, Boston, and Courtis general standard, the Indiana city average ranks highest in every grade but eighth, where DETROIT BOSTON COURTIS INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS FIG. 39 DEPENDABILITY ATTEMPTS PER CENT SERIES _B GRADE 6 MULTIPLICATION el-/8| | 2 a i) 5 zB AE Fale Glee a [ [a4 =| iS) } > (2) f 1) 12 BOSTON DETROIT RIGHTS FG. DEPENDABILITY _PER CENT SERIES B_ SUBTRACTION _ 16.42 DEPENDABILITY 7 one 4 -PER CE ERIES B_ GRADE7 _ SUBTRACTION a slight inversion in division. At only two places, however, 1s the inerease very considerable. The sixth grade improves over the fifth 4 per cent in addition and 17 per cent in division. Many of the positive changes are very low. One can hardly find encourage- ment in a change from one grade to another of only 1 per cent, and even 9 per cent or 7 per cent is hardly exciting. ; HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 471 Just what dependability should be required is an open ques- tion. In setting his new scores Mr. Courtis assumes 100 per cent accuracy. This is a high requirement which few men attain in any field, even that of exact science. Elementary school children will hardly reach it with ordinary effort. The excessive effort 3) = = oe = ~ =) = 2 w a a Z FIG. 43 DEPENDABILITY Sear PER_ CENT SERIES B GRADE 7 MULTIPLICATION :00 §0 70 60 50 40 30 20 | 17 | FIG.44 DEPENDABILITY PER CENT SERIES B GRADE # IVISION TE OER UR RR ATTEMPTS el POD ERR p DETROIT BOSTON COURTIS INDIVIDUAL necessary to attain such skill is hardly repaid by the returns. Adding machines and methods of checking results easily make up the deficiency. Seventy per cent was the mark in addition for my college class. This was also the record for Boston eighth grade, but no Indiana city reached this mark, nor do any other of Courtis’ published scores. In view of these facts a 75 per cent depend- 472 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES ability in addition appears a good standard, and 80 per cent would represent an ideal which might be looked upon as satisfactory under present school conditions. In a class making 80 per cent there will, of course, be some who do much better. From this superior group will come the future accountants, bookkeepers, AA 19 }29 HT FIG. 45 DEPENDABILITY RIGHTS: GRADE 8 ADDITION ATT “ATTEMPTS: Tae 100 80 00 40 20 DETROIT BOSTON COURTIS CITY = °o ia 4 e ow i=) BOSTON COURTIS INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS ATTEMPTS FIG. 46 DEPENDABILITY PER CENT SERIES B_ GRADE 8 SUBTRACTION ete. The others should be led into other occupations for which they are better adapted. In Table XX XIX the several cities are ranked as to their dependability. The first column of figures gives the composite ranking for all the tests in all the grades. A careful study of this table would probably show that there is less fluctuation from Haacerty: StTupy 1x ARITHMETIC 473 gerade to grade within a single city than in the case of either medians or variabilities. Comparing the rankings of the cities in dependability with their standing in medians there is an inverse correlation of .46 (method of rank differences). This means that a considerable number of the cities with high median scores ( 17/18 | FIG. 47 _DEPENDABILITY acs PER CENT SERIES B GRADE 8 MULTIPLICATION “ATTEMPTS - _RIGHTS = I iN FIGAS DEPENDABILITY ATTEMPTS: PER CENT _SERIES B GRADES DIVISION COURTIS INDIVIDUAL DETROIT BOSTON So 60 40 DETROIT COURTIS INDIVIDUAL BOSTON have low rank in dependability, and that some cities with low median scores have high rank in dependability. That the corre- lation is less than .50 indicates that the inversion is far from absolute. Some cities with fairly high medians also have high dependability. 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Q Wavur) G Advur) | ALITIGVONGUdAC, NI SHIT) ALNUM TT, LO MNVYY XIXXX WTAV.L 476 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES PART tl COURTIS TESTS AS AN INSTRUMENT OF RESEARCH: TIME OF BEGINNING ARITHMETIC AND TIME DEVOTED TO ARITHMETIC GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Ir would by no means be fair to condemn or unduly praise a school system on the basis of the results of these tests alone. Many conditions conspire to place any particular city high or low in the sroup of twenty cities. It is quite possible that some cities have a higher rank in the fundamentals of arithmetic than they would obtain in a similar measurement of their work in reading, spelling, writing, geography, or history. No final judgment can be placed on any school system until such similar measurements in these other fields have been made. In fact until we have the measurements in the whole circle of school tasks we will not know just how much we should expect children of a particular grade to do in arithmetic and at the same time do what. they should do in all their other school tasks. It is perfectly certain that the various school sub- jects must exercise a limiting influence upon each other and de- termine to a degree the level of efficiency to be set for anyone. Thus what a fifth grade child should do in arithmetic will be in part determined by what he must do in reading and geography. Until we can thus set standards all around we can never be sure that our standards in arithmetic are fair to the child or that in obtaining a very high score in the latter we are not slighting even more important things. In the absence of such an all-round determination of standard scores there is one other means of determining how efficient a child should become. This is to discover the maximum ability demanded in practical life. If we could know what is the maximum ability required to ‘get on’’ it would set a standard toward which to work. I have tried one such measurement in the case of college students. I gave the Series B tests to sixty-eight students, most of whom were jun- lors, seniors and graduates. The median scores are shown in Table Xb, HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 4AT7 TABLE XL COLLEGE STUDENTS. MEDIAN SCORES Attempts. Rights. ALOVOMIEIOTIY <3 RAE ES SS Sn TS ee i 2) Oia rt ane eR Rt 12.4 9.3 STUDER ETI RES eB, he SS nec ces cg Waren 11626 14.1 MG MUp Rian WBE MeN OM eis sae a ces 1S cee cause oS ena e's Sc ee ne shelter e 11.9 8.7 Dy ape SE GUIANA a reece cio, Sera euicice 826 er sie, oUe soe we gle veces 1279 IDIAG This group included fifteen students who were doing their major work in mathematics, physics, or other subjects where con- stant practice in the fundamentals of arithmetic is demanded. Dividing the class into two groups, the practiced and unpracticed, and computing the medians for both we get Table XLI. TABLE XLI COLLEGE STUDENTS: PRACTICED AND UNPRACTICED. MEDIAN SCORES Attempts. Rights. Practiced. Unpracticed. Practiced. Unpracticed. A OVINUTIGO}00 206 ee ee eee eee ilajeal L2ES aS 3305) 8.7 ITA CEVOM 5 ate Sie i bs ied sl ene ies 15.9 15.3 13:25 MEIC ATION 6 ac. 6 o-oo 12.8 a Eats) 9563. 8.5 MONET OM eee gost ais s oidss/ clots ee « & Ga 122, 16.5 12 Comparing these results with the medians for the twenty cities we find that the practiced group is very much higher in every case. The superiority of the unpracticed group is not so evident. In both multiplheation and division the medians of this group are exceeded by the eighth grades in two or more cities, although most eighth grade classes fall below. The college group, even the un- practiced one, is superior to any eighth grade in addition and subtraction. If this finding is indicative of a general fact, it means one of two things: either that students who go on to college are above the average ability of eighth grade classes or they continue to improve in these skills after the eighth grade period is over. Prob- ably one or both of these causes operate in a specific case but the fact is evident that the standard of eighth grade achievement must be exceeded in order to become a successful college student. Miss Baylor, in testing thirteen saleswomen in an Indianapolis department store, found the following median scores: addition, 15-12.5; subtraction, 13-10.4; multiplication, 11.3-7.7; division, 9-6.7. Here, as in the case of the college students, is an evident superiority in addition and subtraction, but in multipheation the 478 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES scores are approximately those of the Indiana standard for the eighth grade, and in division there is distinet inferiority. Mr. Courtis has tested 41 employés in Wanamaker’s New York store and other adults. He concludes that the average adult adds at about the standard rate, but found that a group of clerks from the auditing department of the Wanamaker store considerably exceeded the standard. They did not, however, exceed the record of the upper 10 per cent of the children in the New York City schools. Mr. Courtis has also tested adults with a view to dis- covering whether any relation holds between skill in these tests and one’s practical efficiency as measured by his salary. He finds that a correlation exists along the lower salary scale, but that after the latter reaches about twelve hundred dollars per year the corre- lation disappears. Persons of essentially the same ability in these tests may draw any salary from two thousand to five thousand dollars a year. You have here again an exact quantitative meas- ure as to the maximum of effective skill in the fundamentals of arithmetic. It seems quite possible that by testing persons who have suc- cessfully advanced in various fields we may ultimately determine the standard of work that it is wise to strive for in the public schools. When such a standard has finally been determined it will be incumbent upon teachers and school officers to ‘‘show cause’’ why such a standard should not be met. No less must they justify the overtraining of children. As Mr. Courtis repeatedly insists, ‘‘A standard is not only a goal to be reached but also a limit not to be exceeded.’’ So important is this matter of the lmitation of training that [ quote from Mr. Courtis at length: If, for instance, the average man requires an ability in Test 7 repre- sented by a score of 12 examples in twelve minutes, then it is a waste of time for the child that has reached this degree of development to continue training until he is able to make a score of 24 examples right in twelve minutes. Thirteen clerks in the Actuaries Department of the New York Life Insurance Company, New York City, men and women earning $1,200 a year and upwards, averaged 16 examples right. Five clerks in the auditing department of Wanamaker’s Store, New York City, made an average score of 15.4 examples; a group of college professors, superintend- ents, and teachers in a class at the University of Oklahoma averaged 12.1 examples. The average score of 11,059 eighth grade children was 9.5 examples, which probably represents a reasonable degree of skill for this grade. But 38 per cent of these same eighth grade children had been so overtrained that they exceeded this score by from 10 per cent to 100 per HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 479 cent. The upper three per cent of the eighth grade children equalled or exceeded the scores of the aduit clerks. These high scores of school children represent waste effort. Until an adequate control of the fundamental tools by which mental work is done has been acquired, that is, until the necessary skill in the Three R’s has been developed, no school work is of greater importance; but when stand- ard ability has been attained, additional degrees of mechanical skill become products of the least importance. It is not the function of the public school to develop professional ability at any stage, and the exceptional child should neither be overtrained, just because he is capable of it, nor railroaded through the grades into the complex work of the high school which is of real benefit only to those of more mature tastes and develop- ment. The child of meager natural ability must at least attain standard in the fundamentals, even if it takes all his school time; for these are the tools by which his life work will be done. The average child will have time also for applied work designed to develop his initiative and executive ability, his general knowledge, aud to inspire him with worthy aims—the really vital work of the school. The exceptional! child will spend almost no time in drill; for him the incidental drill of the applied work of any year will so increase his mechanical skill that wt the beginning of the next year he will be found to be already of standard ability. Consequently his time can be given whoily to motivated work in a very wide range of industrial and social activities. Such use of standards will aid each child, whatever his natural ability, to make a yeat’s progress in the type of work of which he is capable in a year’s time. Each child will attempt only the problems which represent what are for him the next steps of advance, and each child will learn in. the peculiar way that best suits his personality. The product will be uniform in the sense that every graduate of the school will be able to perform various fundamental activities at very closely the same rate and with about the same degree of accuracy, but the product will be diverse in the sense that the uniform skill will have been developed in very different ways. and that it will be used by different individuals for very different ends. Street car conductors, mechanics, artists, poets, states- men, all make use of arithmetic, and all need to do so efficiently. The engineer and the professional accountant, and certain other special types of workers, it is true, need more extended training and higher degrees of skill. Uniformity must, therefore, end at the point in the course of study where vocational guidance and specialization become effective. But so far as abilities are truly fundamental, whether in arithmetic or in other sub- jects, a uniform product attained by careful development of the individual is the one means by which efficiency in all school work can be made possible.” Dr. J. M. Rice® concluded from his studies in arithmetic that having a definite standard and testing for results was the deter- mining factor in securing high scores. He held that the responsi- bility for setting such standards rested upon the supervisory force 2Courtis, S. A. Second Annual Accounting. Bulletin Number Two (Detroit, 1913). 3 Rice, J. M. Scientific Management in Education (New York, 19138). 480 INDIANA UNIversiry STupDIES and ultimately upon the superintendent. In the light of this con- clusion, the general standard determined by results obtained under widely different conditions becomes vastly important. It is not sufficient, however, to discover what the final goal of achievement should be. It is equally important to determine what part of the whole achievement should be attained by each grade. Mr. Courtis has tried to set both the ultimate standards and the individual grade standards. His present statement may not prove final. It is a great advance to have these definite aims even though further study may alter them in detail. Even when we have determined what the standard score should be we cannot condemn a school system for not meeting this standard without a thorough study of the causes operating to determine the particular score made. In fact it is quite likely that the most important result forthcoming from the use of standard tests will be an exact quantitative study of the causes which determine school products. It is worth while to measure a pupil, a class, a school, a city, or twenty cities, and discover that you can give the subject of your measurement a rank in relation to a standard score. It is worth very much more to the science of education if by making such measurements you can discover the conditions which induce to the high or low score of the subject measured. And just this latter desirable issue is what the use of the standard tests promises. Take the ease in hand. What any child or group of children do with the Courtis Arithmetic Tests, Series B, is the resultant of two forees, the inherited qualities of the children and the environ- mental conditions, remote and immediate, under which they have lived. From our studies of heredity we now know that tall fathers are much more likely to have tall sons than are fathers of small stature. It is quite likely that arithmetical ability is likewise in- herited. There is an accumulating body of evidence to show that this is so. With the advent of standardized tests we have the means of determining the extent to which such inheritance is a facet. Until we have made the determination we cannot be sure how to place the responsibility for the particular scores made nor be clear as to the effect of books, methods, or teachers. In view of the very probable effect of inherited qualities it is not at all clear how this factor functions in the several cities here reported. If East Chicago has a large foreign population and Kendallville has a homogeneous native population, the resultant scores in the two HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 481 cities may be very largely affected thereby. Just how, we cannot tell without an extended study. We do not yet know whether Hungarian immigrants are deficient in arithmetical ability, or whether the German settlers are highly proficient, or whether the third generation of New England emigrants are better or worse than either. It is hopeful, however, that the standardized tests give us the means for settling the question. In order to envisage the possible service of educational measure- ments in a clear way it may not be amiss to enumerate some of the environmental causes operating to produce the scores reported in this monograph. Suppose we state these causes as problems for solution. What is the relation of a high score to any one of the following conditions: Time of beginning the study of arith- metic? School time devoted to arithmetical study? Departmental teaching? Professional training of teachers? Salaries paid teach- ers? Salary of superintendent? Supervision by superintendent, principal, or supervisor? Particular textbooks and particular methods of instruction? Size of classes? Student self-govern- ment or military discipline? Home study or assembly room study ? Supervised study period? Accurate grading as by per cent or general grading as by letters? Keeping grades secret or sending monthly reports to parents? Parent-teachers’ meetings? Dis- couragement or encouragement by the teacher? Emphasis on ae- curacy or speed or both? Solution of long problems demanding analytic study? Drill on fundamental process? And so. on. through the long list of conditions whieh from time to time are advanced as explanations for good or bad school products. For the solution of every one of these problems the employment of standard tests is promising. Wide and extended investigations will be necessary, but the result is sure. In the present study we have some data to offer on two of the problems suggested above, the time of beginning and the amount of time spent on the study of arithmetic. | In order to get accurate data in these fields the superintendents of the schools reporting filled out a questionnaire submitted by the University. It will be best to discuss each of these topies separately. 482 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES A. -TrImMeE oF BEGINNING ARITHMETIC The questionnaire submitted on this topic was as follows: TIME OF BEGINNING STUDY OF ARITHMETIC City Rep ortine 7 eee Pe So oe ck ao i Re ae A ee eee Indicate the time when each class began the study of arithmetic. In order that results may be uniform, consider a class as beginning arithmetic the term when the first arithmetic grades were given. If your reeords are complete, this should be an easy matter. If records are at fault, estimate as accurately as possible and place estimate after your mark. Wighth: CrTades aoa oe os wnte sass oie Geko ws wie Bou alia'e calle. 405 NG ce heey Be ay ae SOV. CACC ie cis See oe aw eee bw btw eure ves hg vot BL wd se els nas UO NUINaFe ets oe Sik ih sora deren ee ease eis RS 8 Sas Ska wed ade Shana Bore eee eee WTEC: Ora der eho le Br a oa te Ren 25 Ee eae Oss noe a ees Each of the twenty cities returned the questionnaire complete. As a result we have the school year when each class reported in the tests began its arithmetic study in the school. This varies from city to city and at times from grade to grade within the same eity. Thus one city reported that its eighth grade began arith- metic in the first grade, but the fifth grade began in grade two. We are able here to bring together the scores for all fifth grade classes which began their work in the first grade, for all who began in the second grade, and for all who began in the third grade. No city reported a class in any grade beginning as late as the fourth grade. In Tables XLII to XLIV are gathered together all the data resulting from this questionnaire. The first three hori- zontal rows of figures of Table XLII are the medians. Reading across the table: Fifth grade children beginning their work in the first year of school, addition, attempts 6.9, rights 3; subtraction, attempts 7.5, rights 5.3, ete.; the total number of children included - being 492. Tice second and third rows are for children beginning arithmetic in the second and third years of school respectively. Then follow to the right similar data for sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Immediately below the medians are the ranks for the three groups in the several points, and at the extreme right are the ranks for each of the four grades and for the total of all grades. Similarly the variabilities and the ranks in variabilities follow on the lower part of the table. If one Judges by the tables of ranks it is clearly best for children HAGGERTY: STUDY IN. ARITHMETIC 483 to begin school work in arithmetic in the second year. In every ease the second-year beginners rank first for the total for each grade and for the total for all grades. This holds both in medians and in variabilities. The second best are the first-year beginners, and the third-year beginners are the poorest of all. But one excep- tion offers to this generalization, namely, in seventh grade medians where the third-year beginners outrank the first-year beginners. If one goes back to the rankings in the several points the supe- riority of the second-year beginners is not so clearcut. In thirteen of the thirty-two median rankings the second-year beginners are equalled or outranked by one of the other groups. Their supe- riority is most distinct in seventh grade and least so in the eighth. In the latter they are first but three of the eight times. Even less distinction attaches to the first rank if one goes farther back, to the difference in the medians which gives the rank. . 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OD 1D rH UOTVIPPY, Bais ee a5 8 o mo Ao feeitel Ge: Ones sale S| Qe 488 TABLE XLIV RANK IN DEPENDABILITY Time oF BEGINNING: INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES $1SO], | NAN mw [Re Ea e OSeRe UOISTAT(T eae NC pace ~ em uolyBoT[dIy [Ny S wopsondany | BB NN A < = fa o uoTpBAYGNY wonoenans oN BS ek uOIyIPpV wom | Tl oe a UOISTATIC] | Seis) (oY | i= uorzyBOT[dIy [NJ | CI HON Aa ee? oe ee é O UOTIIBIZGN woponangng | Varies a ok uolyIppy Sa IN UOISTAIC, | oh Fire 100) [eS 2 uoryBoT dry [ny | GNI een A fs | © UOTIIBATGNG i moe, UuOTJIPPYV wv | mae ac GCS ANN UOISTATC(] waa | * Ta ee 19 uoTyBOTLAIy ny “sono | Co A LE a f © UOTOBAVGNE | NGO | uOTyIPpY | BE ral oY | aie | Et ie HOS os ~ mm HAGGERTY: STUDY IN ARITHMETIC 489 B. Time DEvotTEeD To ARITHMETIC How much time is it profitable to spend on arithmetic? It did not seem safe to trust here to estimates of the total amount of time spent by each grade, so a detailed questionnaire was used as follows: TIME DEVOTED TO ARITHMETIC Ear TRGSDCI DIT 5S Bis tear Bib es Oe ae ts eam Pr er RE SiR BE A ae ae Report here both the time devoted to study and the time devoted to recitation. Give data in terms of minutes per week. In computing results a school year of 36 weeks will be assumed. If your school year varies from this, indicate that fact. Give data for each class separately, as follows: Highth Grade First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Year. Year. Year. Year. Year. Year. Year. Year. “aoe SSeud Olyete cee tee os ois epee cece ens Sy ti che cole asl shale eet aia as houermaoye eis aN es : ; one . ] BS CEZ Cra aN FTW 9a tog te epee eee a a a pa Rie RS Dc CP DEEN CE Manele a eee hes oe ee I ay eet Seventh Grade First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Year. Year. Year. Year. Wears Year: ‘Year. Mi BT CULO Ege et cnswa eos Se Sacp is Melis tnod Aalsoere a ate ieilole. cin 'e) arrokb ewe Sis conedgi-wsy coho co enauens Minutes TSEC 3 oy Wek 0 pee cts a a pee ae le es ale Ste co PTR PC Pi ge ae Seo per Week Total Sie! ec) eie.e, ©) 10) > © Ve-1efe) | oe. © 0) .0),0) oe) 6) (0.0. 2 elke © «0 0.01 6) (6, 2 10: 6 -0:,0) "0 1@.\e: (wie! ©) (© je) ©-.65,.0: 0110 Sirth Grade First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Wears eoVear sear. am Near: Year. Year. 2 DEUCE Yara cheests trite ee etere Joes sans scts. cweneder chatonenat totic bene nts ees isesredtGeie ssc Meeates ecition ee ee Mg ee © en eo ee ee Fifth Grade First Second Third Fourth Fifth Year. .Year. Year. Year. Year. j SUC Naguinre ces eater roe recs he ewer WSL Gs aah SERS cy Lara 1) Suan her caw: wie Saahone ppnules Recitation 222... ....- ee a ee Fee rue oe ee As in the former ease, all of the cities returned the question- naire. Inasmuch as the superintendents reporting have, for the most part, been in intimate touch with their school systems for a considerable length of time, the data derived from this question- naire are unusually dependable, and we have assumed them to be correct. Table XLV represents the results of the questionnaire by city and grade. 490 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES TABLE XLV NuMBER OF MINUTES SPENT IN ARITHMETIC WORK BY THE FouR GRADES IN Each oF THE TWENTY CITIES UP TO THE TIME OF TAKING THE TEST. City. Grade 5 | Grade 6 | Grade7 | Grade 8 Teradata eealan New MEA stand Sesame 26, 280 33, 480 42 480 51,480 DAMA ee Reeth eae or i EN BSN GS ..| 25,200 32, 400 41,400 50, 400 SESH alee Chae NEG ey cat 28 800 37,800 48 600 59, 400 Ap a ee ay Gi) Que ta 29 , 232 37, 332 48 564 60,444 is Were Ria eno eta: Se eat bars 28, 800 39, 600 55,800 | 68,040 Gres i conics ci Ge oa eee ee 29 160 39, 960 50,760 61,560 SAECO ad cot aete We ARs 33,300 38,700 40,500 49,600 Serene Dea ean oe fe Uae Bec, 19,800 30, 600 41,400 52,200 Qe sy ig) I, LOS ite 28, 800 37, 800 48,600 59, 400 Die ae A is cee ni MCE ee 23,400 34, 200 43,200 52,200 i cease AUER Ca OR) Yaaro ae 34,740 43,740 52,740 61,740 [er let es ret oonncet ees poe in Ge iCRRE Ss) 30, 600 41,400 50,400 | - 59,400 LER eg saver Sn 30, 600 41,400 52, 200 63 , 000 PAE OES eaten gill ie Se ae 25,560 32,760 40, 680 48 600 Pes eee iin ere Sy Gta 63, 900 83,700 90,900 98, 100 Gee ne he Chr trae. ia 27 , 000 36, 000 50,400 61, 200 I Aare rN IeNS oi ie ueay easter cc) ue aN, 44,100 52,200 57,600 63, 000 1G 2 a esi Ser thei rae 36, 900 47 ,700 58,500 70, 200 A REG a tea Ur A i oe ene acne 27 ,000 36, 000 48, 600 59, 400 OOS eM eT ey ne ae NN Wes 35, 100 45,000 55, 800 66, 600 | In Table XLVI the pupils reported are grouped into classes depending on time spent. Sixteen classes are indicated. Class 1 includes all pupils who had spent less than 25,000 minutes up to the time of being tested. Classes 2 to 16 differ each from the one next to it by 5,000 minutes. Children are found in each class excepting 12 and 14. The figures before the dash indicate the number of schools reporting pupils in a particular class; the figures after the dash are for the number of individuals reported. That the amount of time spent varies greatly is evident on a hasty glance at the table. In every grade one or more schools is giving almost double the amount of time spent by the average of the twenty cities. In the fifth grade one city gives almost three times what two others give. If such different time distributions are really important there should appear distinct differences in the medians, and variabilities of the cities which follow different methods. The facts as to this are shown in tables XLVIT to LIT. HAGGERTY: StTuDY IN ARITHMETIC 491 TABLE XLVI CLASSES oF Pupits BASED ON ToraL TIME SPENT ON ARITHMETIC UP TO TIME oF Taxine Test. (FIGURES BEFORE DasH INpIcATE NUMBER OF CITIES; Figures AFTER DasH INpDICATE NUMBER OF CHILDREN.) ; Fifth Sixth | Seventh) Eighth Class Minutes Grade | Grade | Grade | Grade Total Pee es. 0 to 25,000 | 2-302 0 0 0 2 hs meri ae 25,000 to 30,000 |10-1,530, 0 0) 0 10 Borger tes. 30,001 to 35,000 | 4-388 5-648 0 0 8) Mt iota SE ae 35,001 to 40,000 | 2-102 8-1, 144! 0 0) 10 Dee ae | 40,001 to 45,000 | 1-91 3-348 6-493 0 10 Gree tense et. 45,001 to 50,000 | 0 2-97 4-544 2-104 8 ees at eee: 50,001 to 55,000 | 0 1-84 5-470 4-298 10 So cite ee 55,001 to 60,000 | 0 0 4-237 4-469 8 OP ei, 60,001 to 65,000 | 1-211 0 0 6-486 i NO Ae 65,001 to 70,000 | 0 0) | O 2-101 2, 1 eek te ae tl 70,001 to 75,000 | O 0 |. 0 1-65 il 128 6 een a 75,001 to 80,000 | 0 0 | O 0) 0) 113)\23 eae er 80,001 to 85,000 | 0 1-209 0 0 1 NR tie cS ek 85,001 to 90,000 | 0 0) ) 0 0 15S 2 is 8 aaa 90,001 to 95,000 | 0 0 1-167 0) 1 NORE sa 840. 95,001 to 100,000 | 0 0 0 [1035 ole ee Table XLVII shows the medians for each of the sixteen classes and the four grades. Table XLVIII is a table of ranks based on the medians of Table XLVIT. Studying the ranking table one is struck by the fact that first rank in no case goes to the pupils spending the most time on arithmetic. The optimal time appar- ently falls between two extremes. In three grades the final rank for the grade gives first place - to the class spending the second greatest amount of time. In grade seven first rank goes to the class spending next to the least amount of time. And in every grade the placing of second and third rank indicates that excellence may be obtained without the exces- Sive amount of time spent by many schools. Fourth, fifth, sixth, and in one case seventh, rank goes to schools giving more than average time to arithmetic. 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In this figure the individual medians of the 8,712 children reported by the twenty cities are rep- resented by short horizontal lines across the page so drawn as to appear at mid-section of the vertical dimension. These lines are called the Indiana Standards. Each vertical line represents the scale for the test in question. The first, third, fifth, etc., lines represent the number of problems attempted in the several tests in the several grades. The second, fourth, sixth, etc., lines in a corresponding manner scale the examples right. The portion of each line below the Indiana Standard is proportional to the dif- ference between the zero and the median score. It is accordingly scaled into the proportional number of parts. The part of the line above the Indiana Standard is similarly sealed. Each vertical line is therefore a different scale from every other vertical line, since the median is different in every ease. It is possible on this form to graph the results from any elass, school, or city and to see quickly its relative standing. To do this you locate the proper score on its appropriate vertical line. If you join the points so located on the attempts scale by a solid line with the similar point on the rights scale, you have repre- sented the dependability of the work. If the line so drawn is parallel to the Indiana Standard the per cent of dependability is the same as the Indiana Standard. If the line slants upward to the right, the dependability is greater, If the line slants downward to the right, the dependability is less. Figures 50 and 51 show the results for two cities which are not represented in previous figures. The results from Anderson appear in the table but were not received in time to be included in the data from which the first graphs were made. The Bloomington returns do not appear in the tables. They are given here for their intrinsic interest. Both of these cities appear clearly above the Indiana Standard although each falls short in a few instances. This superiority is true also of their ranks in dependability as is shown by the general upward slant of the dependability lines. The causes for this evident superiority are not certain, but from the writer’s somewhat intimate knowledge of the situation in both of these cities he is willing to hazard a guess. In the latter case the Courtis tests have been used at frequent intervals during the past three or four years. As a result the teachers have become . BTA oe Be. 5 Se GRADE 5 A R FIG. 49 A R A R INDIANA STANDARD AiR: AGAR: MEDIANS AND AGAR A R DEPENDABILITY GRADE 7 INDIANA STANDARD * i fs ¥ 4 C A. ‘ 506 INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES familiar with the idea of standards and with the Courtis Stand- ards in particular. There has been an effort on the part of both teachers and superintendent to bring the children up to the stand- ard of ability set by Mr. Courtis. In the case of Anderson the Courtis tests had not previously been used. For a number of years, however, there has been very close supervision of the arith- metic work throughout the grades. This supervision has aimed among other things to bring each class up to a definite stage of progress month by month. It has inevitably, therefore, set stand- ards which, while not as objective as the Courtis standards, have vet had more objective value than the aim of an individual teacher or even of a single school building. Such a standard has, at least, city-wide value, and when impressed on the teachers by frequent. teachers’ meetings becomes a very definite objective aim toward which to work. | Thus in both Anderson and Bloomington there have been pres- ent in the minds both of teachers and supervisory foree very definite aims to be accomplished by the work in arithmetic. It is just possible that the presence of such a definite aim is the determining thing in bringing each city up to its high seore. If so, it is an interesting statistical measure of the value of an ideal. This interpretation agrees with the finding of Dr. J. M. Rice in his study of the causes of success and failure in arithmetic. It may be objected that the presence of a definite aim is only one of a number of causes which operate. Thus it may be pointed out that in Bloomington the teachers have more than average academic training, two years of college work being required. In Anderson the teachers are not only given definite aims to be accomplished but also detailed methods to use in reaching these aims. Anderson begins work in the second school year; Blooming- ton in the third; both give the optimal time to the subject. It would be foolish to deny all value to other causes, but. detailed investigation would probably show that they are not the determin- ing things, both good and bad scores occurring in a somewhat chaotic manner under the same conditions. It may be expected, on the other hand, that the presence or absence of a definite ideal to be accomplished in the fundamentals of arithmetic is determina- tive in character. Scores will be low as aims are general and vague or high when ideals are specific and clearcut. The opportunity offers for some school to make the crucial experiment. If in a school system there has been little supervision and each teacher has been allowed to set her own aims and reach Paps i veseninteeaansiet Miata a lope ta Ada IMME ACh RON 8 a Lavi eps OL MSA nel Sb osha aN NGA Le ke v4 Ne aM se esprit kam eal Whi eat Ali, gmanontniiny re: fv TAP econ ane, (aria ¢ hanes aansetic. Wi il MW j rei sl i f i & ‘ : ‘ t ‘ 4 7 > if is , 7 HY } é ee t 7 a ) id ‘ ae ; ‘ae 4 sie ah i Waa pI 7 i j My i My # a ( 4 a ¢ i i 7 epie YR MAM nace BY t i r é yy Ha Ki 4 é fi)" Pieay i a q Fd + \ t : , ; | es i i i , i I 3 i! : f ale | sh , } f ae me, s hy Ms i Hy i ‘ ; z i + i i fy i pers ph iawn gy ’ i 5 af _ . { ae ie | k i By A ae | oan . } ; ; Aa} : j ; atten 0, il ‘ b t ‘Diy % OH a nit ! f t 4 Ky ‘ i I ie | i : or i , e % re fy f ty R i ‘ } Sef pa i - { i ; o 2 x AN bs , rm | | ; 1 J ; t 3 t g iene Bain Wy c \ . ‘ i é ” i ; ie un 7g LS) f ‘ DAE B PNY } wr Cie oh i wal ‘ ; ; zi A HAGGERTY: StTuDY IN ARITHMETIC 507 them or not as she finds it possible, the experiment can be made by giving the standard test, determining the present standing of the group setting a definite aim to be achieved, and three months later measuring again for results. The chances are very great that there will be a decided change in the direction of the standard score. If the experiment is to be valid the other conditions must, of course, remain the same. Another way to get at the problem would be to measure a very large number of school cities and make a definite study of the degree to which such definite aims were present in the schools making different scores. CONCLUSION In conelusion it seems worth while te point the moral of this study. It is not that we have discovered some facts about teach- ing arithmetic, however important these facts may be. This work can be regarded only as preliminary. The really mmportant prob- lems are yet to be attacked. The significant thing is that we have found a way to work. Lord Kelvin noted that the great advance in physics came when physicists began to invent instruments of measurement and to make quantitative studies. There is hope that the standardized test will do for education what the footrule, the thermometer, the chemist’s balance, and other instruments have done for physical science. Every intelligent use of a standardized scale 1s a step toward a science of education. It is a thing of note that so many school systems should have taken this step. | Not less important than the discovery and acceptance of the standardized scale is the plan of codperation. The University would have experienced some difficulty in collecting a body of data as important and reliable as that here reported. The school superin- tendents and teaching corps did it in the course of their work. It had immediate value to them and their children. On the other hand, any school superintendent or group of school superintend- ents would have found it difficult to make the comparative studies. It has taken hundreds of hours of work of trained students and helpers and has cost the University a considerable amount of money to get the material into print. Whatever virtue the study may have is, then, the result of the codperative endeavor of the school officers on the one hand and of the University on the other. This plan of educational investigation has large possibilities of future usefulness for the State of Indiana. GRADE 3 GRADE 6 GRADE 8 13) 12 ii 7 INDIANA STANDARD 6 1 | INDIANA “GP STANDARD 10 A R A R ACER Age R: A R AR FIG 30 ANDERSON MEDIANS AND DEPENDABILITY rattan Dn Pe i tones he .) Pr aoa th Sa LOTS ean aS Te ena nuns Ni Guay Ray eetiat (ley ay i it) os ats i weiss ers AL Hig 4 Ne ma sie hy Bibliography Courtis, 8. A. First Annual Accounting. Bulletin Number One, Detroit, 1912. Courtis, S. A. Second Annual Accounting. Bulletin Num- ber Two, Detroit, 19138. Courtis, S. A. Better Teaching in Arithmetic. Detroit, 1913. Courtis, S. A. Median Scores, Series B. Bulletin Number Three, Detroit, 1914. Keuuy, F. J. Teachers’ Marks. Columbia University Contri- butions to Education, 1914. Rice, J. M. Scientific Management in Education. New York, 1913. STONE, CLIFF WINFIELD. Arithmetical Abilities and Some Factors Determining Them. New York, 1908. (508) PN Aye: ans aRernaaniomnisizags Sf tate, On taxis ee te SY PRE LG aE SE GRADE 5 GRADE 7 A R A R AR A R ACR FIG. 51 BLOOMINGTON MEDIANS AND DEPENDABILITY . if 7 Serr ore “J ey 7 5 ~ ¢ f ” if ; : f mi ‘ Lee eee se ‘ \ Nga | Hie re Sanne HEE “ ol entail ray Heh Ps PA * Fy Foes ne ; @ ey : erty Tete e111) | eeieeimtlel ii sah) Cor ae ee DAUD se TOTTI : An VN me SAaa . | Wwe an, Aguas Menurans Ana Lome ei eae ey ae xv | | | 4 yin tl i-Ahhue a al olan Gio aft LOE LOOL Le cor ‘@ Deane! SLA \|A ren , . | See gihiti? Ip Te [Vial . 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