1 ndian Insect L1f( ^i. LIBRARY OF I885_l©56 FRONTISPIECE. Mat ok India. Thr black shading indicates the Himahiyan and Palearctic portions to the North and, in India, areas above tlie dividing line of tropical and sub-tropical India, usually above 2,000 feet. The dotted black line to the North is the political boundary, inclusive of Cashrair and Sikkim. The red lines and letlering indicate the faunal zones of Tropical India as described in the Section on Geographical Distribution below. The dotted lines dividing the West Coast indicate probable sub-regions and correspond to the Palghat and Goa gaps in the Ghauts Subtropical faunal zones are not indicated. INDIAN INSECT LIFE A MANUAL OF THE INSECTS OF THE PLAINS (TROPICAL INDIA) H. MAXWELL-LEFROY. M.A.. F.E.S., F.Z.S., Entomologist, Imperial Department of Agriailtme for India; Author cj '■^Indian Insect Pests," etc Assisted by F. M. HOWLETT, B.A., F.E.S., Second Entomologist, Imperial Department of Agriculture for India [ Published under the Authority of the Government of India] AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, TUSA CALCUTTA & SIMLA THACKER, SPINK & CO W. THACKER & CO., 2, Creed Lane, London 1909 I'RINTHH BY 4'HAi'KEli, SPINK AM) ('(IMl'ANV, TALCUTTA To My Mother " Plus je connais les peuples, Plus j' aime les insectes." ACKN(t\VLEI)(iMENTS. The sections on Mallnjiliaija. D/jili'ra, Cimir'uhr and Ano/ilitia have heen prepared 1)V Mr. Hewlett, and the Interlude on Insects and Flowers by Mr. I. H. Burkill, Reporter on Economic Products. Illus- trations marked I. M. N. are from the stock of drawinjrs accumulated by my predecessors in the Indian Museum, and used in Indian Museum Notes. Those marked F. M. H. have been drawn by Mr. Hewlett, whu has directed the preparation of those illustratinf; the sections he has written. Where not otherwise acknowledjred, all the plates and illustrations are the work of the Artist statf of this Institute under my or Mr. Howlett's direction ; it may be pointed out that these artists are wholly Natives of India, trained in Art Schools of this country ; it is needless to emphasise how much the book owes to their beautiful work as also to the enterprise of the publishers, who have done the work of reproducing all the illustrations in this country. I wish to specially express my appreciation of the work of Mr. Slater of the Calcutta Phototype Company in the printing of the Colour Plates, carried out under very trying climatic conditions and for the first time in this country. As regards the text, it is, where not stated to Ijp a (juotation. orig- inal : I have acknowledged every direct source of information. The book owes something to the work of my staff, since it i> based on the Pusa collections to which thev have contributed specimens and observ- ations. I have acknowledged this where I can. The volume is largely a product of my s[)are time and scant}- holiiiays ; such a volume has been so much required that I have fell, that even an impertect one was better than none. Six years ago the work of this section commenced and if the book contains imperfections, the critic will recog- nise that it is based on collections, observations and reference books that have been accumulated only in that short time ; I shall be glad if those who see omissions or errors will point them out, as it may be that a better volume will be built up on this basis, when the study of Indian Entomology is further advanced. I may also emphasise the fact that where little is said, little is known and the blanks in the book are ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. designedly promiuent to emphasise the enormous scope there is for work. I trust also that the volume may be a real stepping-stone to better things and may help those who are advancing our knowledge of the insect life of India. June, 1909. / ^- ^^- ^^ CONTENTS. Page. Acknowledgments Classification adopted 1 ix Introduction 1 Diaguosis 1 Zoological position 2 Instinct and Habit 2 Classification 10 Number of species 14 Nomenclature 15 Identification 15 Entomology in India 17 Zoo-geographical Divisions . . 20 Food and Habitat 27 Insects and Man . . . . 35 Aptera 43 Orthoptera 47 Where Insects live 54 Cosmopolitan Insects 62 Deceptive Colouring 90 Attraction to light 106 Neuroptera 108 Gregariousness 123 Aquatic Insects 131 Relative Duration of liife . . 140 Hymenoptera 161 Galls 167 Size of Insects . . . . . . . 169 Sex 188 Insects and Flowers 222 Coleoptera 234 Myrmecophilous Insects 268 Insects as Food 276 Lepidoptera 397 Migration 419 Emergence from the Cocoon 481 Silk 485 How Insects protect themselves 521 CONTENTS. Thysanoptera DlPTERA Blood-sucking Insects Rhynohota Song in Insects Index of Plants General Index 542 545 659 665 720 765 773 SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION. The following is a complete list of the families into which insects are divided, tabulated under orders. The families in heavy type, thus Porficulidae should be familiar ; those in ordinary type, thus Campodeida;, are of smaller importance but occur in India : those in italics, thus Sm/pithin-iihr, are not yet known to occur in India. Page. Page. APTERA 43 Odonata 125 'L'hysaxura. Ephemerida- . . 137 Campodeida' . . 43 Planipenxia. .lapygidie 44 Siahda' 143 Machilidic 44 Panorpida' . . 145 Lepismidte 45 Hemerobiidse 146 COLLEMBOLA. Trkhoptera 1.57 Lipuridic 46 Poduridic 46 HYMENOPTERA 161 Smiinthuridri'. Sessiliventres . . 164 Xci-Udrr. Ccphidcp ORTHOPTERA 47 Siricidse Tenthredinidae 164 164 C'URSORIA. ForficulidEe . . 49 Parasitica 165 llrniitHcridw CynipidiP 166 Blattidae 56 Proctotrypida- 168 Mantidse 64 Drvinida' 170 Phasmida^ 71 Chalcida' 172 Ichneumonidse 177 Saltatokia. Acridiidae . . 74 Braconidse . . 178 Locustidse . . 91 Stcplianiidic .. 180 Qryllidse 97 Mcgah/ridiF Eviuiiida' 180 NEUROPTERA 108 Pch'cinidiC. Pseudoneuroptera. Trigonalid;e . . 181 Mallophaga . . 110 Tukulifera. Embiida' 112 Chrysidse 182 Termitidse 115 Aculeata, Fossores. Psocida? 121 Mutillidae . . 185 Amphibiotica. Thynnida' . . 192 Perlidsc 124 Scoliidse 192 SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION. Pompilida' Sphegidae . . DiPLOPTERA. Sumenidse .. Vespidaj Miisanda'. Anthophila. CoUetida' Apidse HETEROtiYXA. Pormicidse COLEOPTERA Lamellicornia. Passalidie Lncaiiid;r Scarabseidae Melolonthidse ADEPHA(iA. Cicindelidse Carataidae Paussidiv Rliysodida' . . A'lnphizoidcB. Pclubiida. Dytiscidse . . Haliplida' . . Gyrinida' POLYMORPHA. Hydiopliilida; PhUij psijllido'. Li'lAinidce. 8ilpliid;e Scydmanidfe (jnoxtidrr. Psolaphida'.. Staphylinidae Sphceriida: Tiichopterygidir Hi/droscnphida-. Coivlojiliidie Scaphidida' . . Sijiilcliid(f. HisteridBB . . Plialacrida' . . Nitidulidse . . C'ossyphodidas Page. 194 199 210 213 216 217 224 234 241 242 243 245 252 259 262 266 272 272 279 280 281 283 286 287 287 288 291 292 292 292 294 295 297 Colydida' Lathridiida' . . Trogositidse Mdiiotomida' Cucujida' Cryptophajiida' Helotida' Tliorcitida' . . Erotylida' Mycetophafiida' Coecinellidse Eiidomvchida' Mi/ahrldir. A',lim,'iid,r. Dermestidae. . ByiThidw Cyaihoceridce. Geoiyssidre Heteroceridis . . Paiiiida; Derodontidw. Cioidse Sphiudidii . Bostrichidae Ptinidae Malacodermata. Malacodermidae C'leiidffi Lyniexylonida Rhagophthalmida^ Dascillidw Rhipiceiida . . Sternoxi. Buprestidae. . ThioscidiP . . Eucnemidtp . . ('erophi/lida'. Elateridse . , Dicronythida^ riastoccridce. Cebrionida? Heteromera. Tenebrionidae Cistelidw Lagriidai Othuiida? AcqialHidw. Monommidse . . Page. 298 298 299 300 300 302 302 302 .302 303 .303 309 310 311 312 312 313 313 313 317 319 325 327 327 327 327 328 331 331 332 334 334 335 339 340 340 340 SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION. Page. Pa"e. NilionidcB. Pythidic 341 Mohiiidrvidw . . Ml Pyrdcluoidn' . . .'541 Aiitliiiid:v :U2 Oedi'incridro . . 342 Mord('llid:i' 343 Cantharidse. . 343 Tricteu(it(iiiiid;v 347 I'uvroniAiiA. BnichidEe 349 Chrysomelidse 351 Cerambycidse 368 RHYNCHorHllKA. Aiitliiiliichi' . . 379 Curculionidse 380 BifUtliida' 392 iScolytidfe 393 Aglycyderidw. Proterhinifhr. Stvlopid;ie 395 LEPIDOPTERA 397 Rhopalockra 401 Nymphalidse 404 Xeitieiiliiidw 415 Pieridse 41(i Papilionidee 421 Ijycsenidse . , 423 Hesperiidse 429 HF.XEHOrHKA 432 Syntomidae 433 Arctiidae 4.34 Agaiistidw 439 Noctuidse 440 Pti'iotliysanida' 458 Lymaxtriiu.e 459 Hypsidae 462 Sphingidae 464 Cymatophoridft' 469 Eiipterotida- 470 Notodontidip 471 Geoinetiida- 473 Saturniidae 475 Bombycidae 483 Brahmeidnf . . 490 Ceratocampidce. Uraniidte 490 Psychidae 491 fI(l(rofi>iti id(s. Arbeliidae 493 .hyi/lntlfllldll'. Ratardida. .. 494 Cossidae 494 Lasiooanipid;r 496 Endromida: ( 'hn/sniinlnmidrp. I'crojilidn'da-. Md/alopilijidrr. Limacodidiie 498 Dalccridw. Ncocastniidse 501 VdMniidtv. Euxchcmonidce. MiCROLEPIDOPTERA 501 Zygrenidaj .502 Callidiilidfe 504 Diepanida? 504 Thyridid.T' . . .505 Pyralidae 505 Oineodida' .526 Pterophoridae 526 Sesiida' 528 Tortricidse 529 Tineidae .531 Protolepidoptera. Hopialidise . . 541 Microptrrtfjidce. THYSANOPTERA 542 Terebrantia. Aeolothripidas 544 Thripidfe 544 Tl'nrLIFERA. PhlceothripidiC 544 DIPTERA 545 Orthorhapha NeMOC'ERA 554 Psychodidae .557 Chironomidae 560 Culicidae 564 Dixida' 576 Blcphaldcrrida- .576 Tipulidae 578 Cecidomyiidae 580 Mycetophilidic 583 Bibiomdfe 586 Simuliidae 587 SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION. Page. Pai. Orphnephilidiip 589 Coreidse 679 Rhyphidw 589 Beiytidre 685 Orthorhapha Brachycera. Lygseidae . . 685 Stratiomyidi* 589 Pyrrhocorldae 690 Leptidne 591 Tinjiidif 692 Tabanidse. 592 Aradiaa> 69.3 CyrtidiB 595 HebiiduR 693 NiMiiestrinidfe 596 Hydrometridse 694 Bombyliidse 597 Heiiicooephalida' 696 ApioceiidiB 600 PhvtnatidiB 696 Scenopinidre 600 SalclidiT 696 Therevidpp 601 Reduviidse . . 697 Mydiiidiv AsiUdse 602 ArpophilidfP 602 CViatocombidse 702 Empidai DolichopodidiO 605 Cimicidae . . 702 606 Antliocoridrp 705 Piioridae 608 PolyctenidfP 705 Lonchopfpriilce 609 Capsidse 705 Cyclorhapha Aschiza. Cryptocerata 709 Syrphidse 610 Pelogonidre . . 709 PlatypezidiC 612 Nepidse 710 Pipunculid:e 612 Nanrorid:!" . . 712 Cyclorhapha Schizophora. 6U Belostomidse 713 Acalyptrate Muacoida 617 Notonectidse 715 Calyptrate Muscoids 641 Corixidae . . 716 Oestridae 651 Homoptera 717 Pupipara. Cicadidse , 718 Hippoboscidse. 65-t Pulgoridae 722 StreUidw MembracidsB 729 Nycteribiidfe 656 Cercopidae , , 7.32 Br.aulidifi 657 Jassidse 7.34 Siphonaptera. Pullcidse 657 Phytophthires 740 PsyllidiB 742 RHYNCHOTA .. 665 Aphidae 743 Heteroptera 667 Aleurodldae. . 748 Coccidse 752 Gymnocerata . . 667 Fentatomidse 668 PEDICULIDiE 762 INDIAN INSECT LIFH, INTRODUCTION. The insects are tracheate, hexapodous arthropoda, witli a distinct head bearing antennae, with a great degree of complexity in their devel- opment during which a series of moults are undergone, culminating in the appearance of functional generative organs and wings ; in the higher forms, the development is sharply divided into three distinct periods, the last of which is marked by the inactivity of the organism as a whole and the complete reorganisation undergone by the tissues ; they are essentially air-breathing animals, living on land, but some have become adapted to living in fresh water. The number of jointed legs separates them clearly from other tracheate Arthropods, just as the metamorpho- sis, the possession of wings and the form and the number of segments does. They are regarded as being most closely related to Peripatus of all present forms of life, and undoubtedly represent a great branch of the tree of life whose development equals, if not excels, that of any other branch. In numbers, in species, in all but one form of mentality, the insects are the dominant form of life on the land at the present time, but the limitations put on them are of such a nature that their dominance must remain within bounds and, unless man be removed, cannot be actual and entire. Insects are of all sizes from sVth i'^ch long to over six inches ; their numbers are incalculable, the number of their species being put at about three millions; their lives are very short, (a week,) up to as long as over ten years, though rarely actually exceeding more than three years, and being in the larger number limited to an active life of less than three months. On the surface of the earth, as in fresh water, they are found wherever nutriment is available, even in the bodies of warm-blooded animals and man ; over the three-fourths of the earth's surface covered by the sea they are practically non-existent, a very small number of IIL 1 2 INTRODUCTION. species being able to support life near, in or on the sea. Their position in the animal world is shown in the table : — Protozoa. PoRiFERA (Sponges). CcELENTERATA (Anemones, etc.). Ctenophora (Jelly-fish. etc.). ECHINODERMATA (Sea-urchins and starfish). Verme.s (Worms). POLYZOA. Arthropoda. — Crustacea (Lobsters, etc.) Prototracheata (Peripatus). Myriapoda (Centipedes and millipedes). Insecta (Insects). Arachnida (spiders, mites, scorpions, etc.). MoLLUSCA (Snails, etc.). Brachiopoda. Chordata. — Hemichordata. Tunicata. Cephalochordata. Craniata. Cyclostomata. Pisces (Fish). Amphibia (Frogs). Reptilia (Snakes, etc.). Aves (Birds). Mammalia (Mammals). Economically, the insects are the most important group of animals next to the Mammals, Birds and Fishes. Their activities affect man daily, either from the nature and extent of their injuries to economically valuable plants, or to domestic animals, or to wild animals, or to stored produce, or from their value in yielding useful products ; or from the part they play in the economy of nature, in fertilising flowers, in scaveng- ing and cleansing the earth, in rendering waste matter available as plant food, in preserving the condition of the soil and in furnishing food for birds and fishes. Instinct and Habit. — What is the life of an insect ? In what way can it be compared with our own or with the life, for instance, of any of INSTINCT ANI> HARIT. 6 the animals familiar to us ? No answer can be easily given, for the senses, the instincts, the modes of expression of insects are so totally diverse from our own that there is scarcely any point of contact. In the case of mammals, of birds and to some extent of reptiles, we have in the eyes, in the features and in the movements, a clue to their feelings, to the emotions that sway them, to the motives that guide their actions ; in insects we have none, and the great index of insect feeling, the antenna, has no counterpart in higher animals, and conveys nothing to our un- informed brains. We can judge then only from the movements of in- sects, from their actions, and this is so extraordinarily meagre a clue that it is not surprising that even the greatest familiarity with the life of an insect inspires no feeling that one has to do with a live organism having feelings and passions, having motives and a will, but suggests that one has before one a beautiful machine, tuned to respond mechanically to certain outside stimvili, to answer to particular influences and to behave in all things as a perfect mechanical structure ; even the highest, the social insects and the fossorial wasps, inspire no other feelings, give one no sense of any relations between the individual insects but those mechanical ones concerned with daily life, and leave one with the conviction that the mentality of the higher animals is wholly absent, that no smallest trace of the emotions, of the will, of the thought proces.ses of ourselves or other mammals, have any part in the lives of insects. Yet there are events in the lives of insects which, for a brief moment, impress us with the conviction that individuality, emotioi\ and feeling may play their part; and though we see this exceedingly seldom, the few suggestive phenomena may be sufficient to warrant the assump- tion that in ways we cannot comprehend, in channels that are beyond our ken, the living active insect is in touch with every other living insect in its environment, by mental and physical processes that make no out- ward sign, that may proceed independently of any external sense organ that we can see or study and which possibly pass from mind to mind with no outward physical action or movement ; what occurs when bees swarm, when locusts swarm, when the white ants emerge from the nest, when a stray bee from one nest enters another and is promptly attacked and killed ? Are these wholly due to reflex actions and mechanical instincts, or are they the product of an individual will and mind in each and every insect ; a locust swarm may be the product of a blind impulse INTRODUCTION. sweeping over a host of insects just as a blind impulse ranges through a crowd of human beings by means which are certainly not normal or in daily use ; the emergence uf the flying ants suggests a similar blind im- pulse, an unreasoned compliance with fixed instincts like the blowing up of a boiler wlien certain physical conditions are arrived at ; do the ants have councils and decide when the nest shall be moved to a new locality, or is it simply the common impulse of the community, simxdtaneously born of the same reaction to certain physical conditions ? So wide apart are om- senses from those of insects, so divergent are our means of expression, and the mechanism of our bodies, that no answer can be given to these <|uestions; we cannot establish any connection with the individuality of insects, we can get no common basis of thought, no pos- sible means whereby even to ' ' tame ' " them or to get even so little response to our efl'orts as a tame bird will give. To us, the closest study of large numbers of the sime species reveals no individuality, nothing but a mechanical sameness in a large number ; perhaps this is because we cannot get near enough ; to the ordinary man, sheep are sheep and while differing in small points are alike ; to the shepherd they are as individual as human beings and have a similar mental individuality ; I have never seen that this was the case with insects, and none that have been kept in activity, fed, cared for and most closely observed, have shown more than very small traces of individual mentality or even responded to advances. (That this is not the view every author takes is evident from the writings of naturalists who state that butterflies in particular become tame and welcome their captor's visits ; but these cases are not sufficiently numerous or well authenticated to be valid.) It is not unreasonable to con.sider that, in freedom and living under natural surroundings, nearly every insect is solitary ; an individual insect appears to take no notice of any other, save such as it may prey on or parasitise ; it goes about its business of food-getting and the like, it makes no smallest sign that it is aware of the existence of any other insect, and so far as can be judged from its actions, is leading an abso- lutely and wholly solitary life ; there are exceptions, of course, but very few ; the social insects are apparent exceptions, but even there it is extremely doubtful how far individuals are not isolated ; they work to- gether it is true, but in a manner that suggests two machines under the same controlling conditions, not two sentient reasoning organisms acting INSTINCT ANI) H.UilT. 5 in ajiieeinent ilue to any mental process. The same is true of termites, of iocnsts, of all the social insects which exhibit such wonderful phenomena. The Pyrrliocoiid I phita Umhoia is gregarious and lives in colonies on the bark of trees; is there any communication, any individuality, any mental process other than a blind reaction to some outside stimulus, under which all alike fiml that a i)articular spot is perha])s the warmest or the best suited foi some such reason 't There aie other exceptions whicli are perhaps more valuable: the courtship of butterHics is a beautiful thing, suggesting two perfectly liapp\- beings enjoying to the full the delights of e.* llallopliaga.* Pseudonpuroptera • Termitiilaj .. f Psociila> I Porli la; Isopteia Corrodentia.* Plecoptera.* > Corrodi'titia. N'EUROPTRRA An\|.liiliiotica ■ Odonata Odonata Odonata. ( Epheneridaa . Epliemerida ... Eplicmoriil.n. 1 Sialidai Platvptera * Planipennia < PanorpidiB .. Mecoptera.* ! HemerobiidiE Neurnptera. * *N'eiiroptera. VTrichoptera Pliryganeidne Trichoptera.* We believe the most logical atid workable system of insect classi- fication to be the following : — 1. After A. 2. forficulid^.. 3. Blattid^. 4. Orthoptera (•") families). 5. Termitid^. 6. Mallophaga. 7. Pseudoneuroptera. (Embiidse, Psocidse). 8. Neuroptera Amphibiotica. !). Neuroptera Planipennia. 10. Trichoptera. 11. Hymenoptera, Phytophac.a. (.Sessiliventres). 12. ,. Parasitica. 13. „ tubulifera. 14. ,, Aculeata. 1.5. Coleoptera. 16. Lepidoptera. 17. Diptera, Orthorhapha. 18. ., C'yclorhapha. 19. Siphonaptera. 20. Rhynchota, Heteroptf.ra. 14 introduction. 21. Rhynchota, Homoptera. 22. Phytophthires. 23. Anopleura. 24. Thysanoptera. It is, however, impossible to express accurately the relationship of insects by adopting any one sub-division of equal value throughout, and the student may be warned against getting to attach too mucli importance to any classification systems except as working conven- tions which have as much regard to truth as circumstances will allow. What systems of classification we adopt is, in the present state of confusion, immaterial ; the Fauna covers only parts of four orders and we can there adopt the system in use ; beyond that we must unfortu- nately anticipate the "Fauna." The system adopted is the following; it is as near to Sharp's insects as possible, and we have contrasted it with the system in use in America as a guide to the student who wishes to refer also to American literature. We may remark that classification is not an end in itself but is the means to an end ; with so vast and com- plex a subject, it is imperative that we should be able to classify, to fix the position of an insect with regard to its fellows, simply for ease of working. Our main object being the observation of living insects as they afTect man, classificaton in this case becomes necessary to enable us to record and collate our observations ; for this reason we aim at a simple system, on which we can arrange our collections, file our notes and, by working with one system, follow each other's work at once with- out having to readjust our ideas or bother more than is necessary with the way our things are arranged. The insects in one collection are arranged exactly as they are in another ; a worker from a distance can take up work in Pusa without mastering a fresh system, and whether our classification be correct or not, it is, and must be, the standard and will be, we hope, with small modifications, the .standard in India for many years. Number of Specie,?. — Blanford in 1881 published a numerical enumeration of the known Fauna of India (J. A. S. B., p. 263). He in- cludes Beluchistan, Kashmir, the Himalayas, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, British Burma, Tennasserim, Ceylon, Andamans, Nicobars, Ortlioptera 350 (?) Neuroptera 350 Hymenopteia 850 Coleoptera 4,780 Lepidoptera 4,(520 Diptera 500 (?) Rhynchota (550 Total 12,100 NOMENCLATURK. 15 which is practically the area now covered by the ' ' Fauna of British India." We reproduce his figures :— 1,700 400 3, COO 6,000 10,000 LOOO 3,000 29,700 giving also an enumeration of our own based on the available figures. Thus the Fauna of India and Hampson's later papers enumerate about 8,000 moths, there are about 1,500 butterflies, and we estimate 5(X) Tineids, etc. Mr. Distant has already enumerated 2,500 Rhynchota, and we anticipate 4(X) more with 100 Coccidse. Nomenclature. Could we divide all known insects into, say, 300 families of roughly 1,(X)0 species each, and group these systematically, our nomenclature would be a simple matter, As we have explained above, the general object is to make families the basis of classification ; but we have in this volume to steer a middle course between the really accurate classification of the pure systematist, which changes as knowledge grows, and the practical point of view of those for whom we write ; we cannot keep remodelling our arrange- ment and nomenclature. Odonatn, for instance, may be a sub-order composed of say seven families ; for us and for all field entomologists it is practically a family. Whenever possible, family names end in — idee, sub-family names in — inw, and the names of tribes or sub-divisions of families in — itii ; the student must, however, remember that sub-family names frequently end in — ides ; and tribes in — ines. It is to be regretted that no uniform system can be introduced, and that were we to rigidly adhere to some system in this volume, the student would be puzzled when leading foreign text-books or literature. Identification of Spkcimens. — Insects are known by names, nomi- nally of Latin or Greek form, given to them by the entomologist 16 INTRODITCTION. who first describes them. That is, every distinct species of insect that has been described or accurately figured is designated by the specific name assigned to it by its first describer. The problem then is, with living or preserved insects on one side, and the mass of descriptions or figures on the other, to correlate the two. Only working entomologists ever realise the immense labour in- volved in this work, except in the case of the fauna of a locality such as England where the insects have been studied very closely, where there are ample books, and reference collections. Where one has either a description of every species of insect of a country or a good reference collection, identification is a matter of so much comparison, but where as in India, the only handbooks contain descriptions only of part of the known insects, or where there are no handbooks at all, only scattered descriptions, and where there are no reference collections and access to the National Collections at the British Museum is impossible, the actual identification of an insect is not an easy matter and is not, as a rule, even possible in India. The question must remain so until there are complete handbooks such as the Fauna of India, which are kept up-to-date, and also complete reference collections of Indian insects, accurately named ; progress to these is being slowly made, but very slowly indeed. Actually if an insect belonging to one of the families described in the Fauna of India is sent in for identification, it is examined, referred to some division of its family, worked out with the generic key in the volume and compared with the descriptions in the volume ; if it exactly agrees with the description of a particular species, it is believed to be that species and is, if possible, compared with a specimen that has been identified by a specialist in that family. If it agrees with no species in the volume, it may be either a species described since the volume was prepared, or a species known from another country but not from India, or a new species ; to determine this requires an expert knowledge of the family, a complete literature of the family and a reference collection. On the other hand, if a beetle, for instance, is sent in, it is examined, referred to its family, and compared with any accurately named speci- mens of its kind which are available ; if it agrees with none of them it must be sent to a specialist in that family who has the literature, the reference collection, and, after years of work on that particular family, KNTOMOLOGY IN INDIA. 17 the requisite special knowledge. If proper attention was devoted to entomology in England, all specimens could be sent to the National Collection at the British Musuem and there compared : at present this is not possible, and we are largely dependent on the kindness of workers in Europe and the United States. It can be seen that the accurate identification of an insect is no easy matter in every case ; in many cases it means months of waiting, and even years, as there are no workers for a large number of groups. As an aiccurate identification is necessary before publishing matter about any insect, this question is one of great importance ; a large number of insects have been accurately identified and can be seen in the Pusa Collections ; every assistance will be given in identifying insects, but the reader must realise what it means and be prepared to do the only thing he can to help, namely, to always send enough good specimens to allow of some being sent on to Europe, if the species is one that cannot be named from the Pusa Collection. This matter is discussed here because requests are constantly received for the name of an insect of which perhaps one mangled specimen is sent, and surprise is expressed because the identification is not immediately forthcoming. (See also Indian Insect Pests, page 57.) Entomology in India.— This volume has been compiled primarily for the use of students of entomology in India and for those interested in the subject. A few words as to the present state of the subject in India will not be out of place. Entomology, as a subject, occupies the whole time of one section of the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, and in this Institute alone there are three Entomologists with English Univerisity qualifications, and a staff of trained native workers. In connection with this Institute, there are a limited number of entomological assistants employed by the Agricultural Departments of each province for purely agricultural work and simple teaching. Whilst the ultimate object of work at Pusa is mainly agricultural and directed to useful practical ends, the work must rest on a scientific basis, and the collection, study, and classi- fication of all insects of the agricultural areas of India is a necessary part of the activities of the staff. It is open to any worker in India to visit Pusa or to write there for advice or assistance, which will be freely given. HI. 2 18 INTRODUCTION. Our aim is to be in toucli with every worker in India and to invite co- opeiation and mutual help. Elementary and advanced teaching in entomology is also given at Pusa and at no other place in India at the present time. For many vears, the Indian Museum, Calcutta, was the centre of entomological work, where a special staff was devoted to this subject, including the economic aspect. At the present time, the economic work has been transferred to Pusa, and systematic entomology takes its place as one branch of the systematic zoology which forms the work of one section of the Musuem. Collections of insects are preserved there, are constantly added to and are sent to specialists to Europe, just as the Pusa collections are. There is a large exhibit collection open to the public and the reference collections, while not open to the public, are generally available to work- ers in entomology. Forest entomology is solely dealt with in the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, by the Imperial Forest Zoologist and his staff, and all enquiries regarding insects injujious to forests are referred there. The study of insects injurious to tea is the work of the Entomologist to the Indian Tea Association stationed at Hilika, Assam. Apart from minor and inconsiderable collections in Provincial Museums, the only other public collections exist at the rooms of the Bombay Natural History Society ; members of this society refer specimens to the Committee who, if the Society's collection and library cannot furnish the required information, refer them to either of the above Indian Institutions or to Entomologists in Europe. Excepting private workers who own private collections, there are no other centres of entomological activity in this country. Publications dealing with entomology in its different aspects are issued as follows : The Imperial Agricultural Department issues, from Pusa, the " Agricultural Journal of India," in which are contained articles and notes relating solely to those insects injurious to crops or to those of economic value. Other and similar work is issued in bulletins ; the more scientific or lengthy work is issued in memoirs and purely popular and useful information as leaflets, KNTOMOLUCiV IN 1NI>IA. 19 Tlie Imperial Forest Kesearch Institute ]niljlishe.s infoniiatioii relative to Forest Entomology in " Forest Records and Memoirs,"' and some has appeared in the pages of the " Indian Forester." " The Bulletins of the Tea Association '" contain the bulk of the work on insects injurious to tea, supplementary to the volume on Diseases and Pests of the Tea Plant by Watt and Mann. The Indian Museum, in " Indian Mu.seum Records " and " Memoirs of the Indian Museum," issues articles mainly on systematic entomology but also bionomic work. The ■' Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society"" is the recog- nised medium for most purely systematic work and for some bionomic work ; the papers in this Journal are of extreme value and nuist be consulted. We have referred below to the more important papers. The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal contain also papers on general entomology and on systematic work. This exhausts the present publications dealing with the various aspects of this subject in India ; occasional papers on systematic entomology appear in the proceedings of learned Societies in England. Europe, the United States. A summary of these is contained in the Annual Report of the Board of Scientific Advice in India, as is a summary of all entomological work and publications in India. It is necessary to mention one further publication no longer in exist- ence. For over fifteen years. " Indian Museum Notes" was issued from the Indian Museum, Calcutta, and contained papers, notes, etc., dealing with economic and systematic entomology. We have made con.stant reference to it below and practically all information contained in it. dealing with the insects of the plains, is abstracted or referred to here, or is amplified in Indian Insect Pests. The best feature of this publica- tion was its beautiful photogravure plates ; the originals of manv of these are here reproduced as text figures. Sets of this publication are still available at Pusa, and complete sets can be consulted in most official or public libraries in India. With the exception of the Bombay and Asiatic Societies, the above publications are issued by Government and copies of most of them are available to serious workers. All can be seen also in most public libraries, and the published work in entomology is generally available. It is impossible to refer here to other literature ; the reader will see 20 INTRODUCTION. below from how many sources we have drawn the published informa- tion of past years and these scattered papers are often very difficult to see. The best entomological libraries known to me in India are that of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, and of the Pusa Research Institute. Of books dealing only with Indian Entomology, the Fauna of India is the only systematic one of real value now. It covers Aculeate Hymen- optera (2 vols.), a small part of Coleoptera (2 vols.), nearly the whole of Lepidoptera (6 vols.), Rhynchota to the end of Jassidse (4 vols.). Progress with this is being steadily made and the student should ascer- tain what volumes have since been issued. They are the standard guides to the systematic entomology of India, Burmah and Ceylon and are essential in the arrangement and identification of species. West- wood's Cabinet of Oriental Entomology is with Donovan's " Insects of India," remarkable chiefly for beautiful plates in coloiu- of many striking Indian insects, mainly butterflies, moths, large beetles and Fulgorids. It is the only book of its kind but is of little value at the present day except (in the words of Westwood), "that, by finding its way to the table of the Indian drawing room, it may gain additional converts to the study of a science full of curiosity and awaken an interest in the objects of pursuit, thus supplying an engaging occupation to our Indian friends." A very short introduction to entomology is given in ' ' Indian Insect Pests," which also treats of insects injurious to agriculture. It is the only general book on pure entomology relating solely to India published recently (1906), and contains short instructions regarding necessary apparatus, methods, etc. We assume every reader to have as much general knowledge as is included in the first part of that volume and in the second appendix. Zoo-Geogkaphical Divisions. — British India is not a distinct zoo- geographical area, and it is necessary to define very carefully the faunal zone that is dealt with in this volume. The " Fauna of India" series deals with the Fauna of the Indian Empire and Ceylon, i.e., Himalaya, Hindustan, Assam, Burmah, Ceylon, regardless of faunal zones, and we endeavour here to indicate the zoo-geographical status of this region. In the first place, we wish to make clear that a fundamental point is elevation ; starting from the plains of North India at an elevation of, ZOO-GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. 2l say, 1,000 feet and going steadily up the Himalayas to say. 10,000 feet, one passes from, through and into three distinct life-zones, which we may call tropical, subtropical and temperate ; the tropical extends to 2,000 feet elevation ; it is marked by one period yearly of intense dry heat or a limited season of moist weather ; the subtropical covers 2,000 feet to between 5,000 and 6,000 feet and is marked by a greater humidity, a more even and less intense temperature, a less limited period of rainfall ; the temperate extends above about 6,000 feet. To accurately define the limits of the subtropical zone would require much elaborate detail ; it commences for instance at an elevation of about .500 feet at the foot of the Eastern Himalayas, at about 2,000 feet at the foot of the Western Himalayas ; in the Nilgiris it commences at about 2,-500 feet on the Mysore plateau side but runs down to well under 1,000 feet on the Western Ghaut side ; a large part of the Deccan above 1,000 feet is tropical ; the Western Ghauts from 600 to 2,000 feet and over are subtropical, and in this case the dry tropical area (as at Poona and Nasik) is at a greater elevation than the moist subtropical belt. The zone is of course not definable merely on elevation ; it is the raoister more agreeable climate produced by the abun- dant rainfall falling on the slopes of moderate elevation which run up from the level plains to the Himalayas or to the various ranges of hills ; it is a zone of varied vegetation, often forest or dense jungle ; it is the zone in which tea, coffee, rubber, and similar crops are grown, and it is, in India, a belt along the hills, rumiing up the valleys, as well as more or less isolated patches on the hill ranges of Central India, the Deccan and South India. The .student can get some idea of it from the 2,000 feet elevation line on Eliott's meteorological atlas of India. The fauna of the subtropical zone is far more varied than that of the tropical zone or of the temperate zone and is quite distinct. There are some prominent features of the tropical and subtropical faunae which may be very briefly discussed here. We omit any discus- sion of the temperate fauna as, except in South India, it is certainly not " Indian " but is holarctic or Indo-Chinese. The subtropical fauna is far more varied than the tropical ; the number of species that can find food and can support existence in the extremely varied vegetation and moist equable climate of the former is far greater than those that can endure the intense dry heat and more limited vegetation of the latter. 22 INTRODUCTION. Ill addition to this, which is true of nearly every family of insects, there are families which are confined to the subtropical region, or which im- mensely predominate there as compared with these families in the plains, and there are also families which occur far more abundantly in the tropical plains. The Phasmidce. SiricidcB, Tenthredinidw, SialidcB. ParwrpidcB, Passalidw. Lucanidce. SimuUidcB, Aradidce. Phymatidw, SfisiidcB, ZyqcenidcB are practically confined to the moist forested lower hill slope.3 ; the Rhopalocera are characteristic of the subtropical region, especially the NymphalidcB and PafilionidcB ; the CicadidcB, TipulidcF. MycetopMlido', Locustidw, Dynastidce, Cetoniidw, ErotyUdcB. Endomychidw. BoslrichidcB, ScolytidcB are found abuiidantly in the subtropical, rarely in the tropical areas ; Chrysomelidw, Bupreslidce, Capsidce, Syrphidw occur in both but in immense profusion only in the former : I.imacodidce and Phry(janeid<£ stand out conspicuously in the same way. On the other hand, the AcridiidcB, Carahidce, Dytiscidce, Hydrophilidw, Gyrinidw. TenehrionidcB, Myrmeleonince, AscalaphincB, Scaraboeidw are far more abundant in the plains, though occun-ing also in the lower hills. Allow- ing for the fundamental excess of species in the subtropical region owing to its varied flora, the other large families are more proportionately represented in both areas. We would suggest also that the varied sur- face fauna of the plains is less marked a feature of the subtropical region, possibly because the surface soil offers protection from heat not required in the hills and because the usually dense perpetual vegetation of the hills produces a fauna centering more round the bushes and low vegetation (see below '' Where Insects Live " under Forficulidoe). This fundamental distinction is of the very greatest importance, and unless it is fully realised and clearly kept in mind, any conception of the faunal zones must be imperfect. We sharply mark off the fauna of the plains of India (usually below 2,000 feet) from that of the forested slopes of the hills and from that of the upper hills ; and, in this volume, we deal only with the tropical zone except where the number of species occurring in India is stated when we mean British India exclusive of the temperate upper Himalayas. India is placed by Beddard (Zoogeography 189.5) in the Oriental Region as the " Indian " subregion ; Ceylon is distinct as a subregion and is taken to include part of South India. The Himalayas, inclusive of Kashmir, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, are not part of the Indian subi-egion ZUO-ciEUCiltAlMIIIAl, invistUNS. 23 at all, being liolarctic, and we take the dividing line to be at about 0,000 feet. The extreme North-West of India is also not strictly " Indian " but is holarctic. Burmah, we exclude, as being Malayan and Indo- Chinese, and the hills of Assam are strictly Indo-Chinese in part. " In- dia " proper then does not include these areas at all and it must be clear- ly borne in mind that in these pages we do not use India in the sense that the " Fauna of India " does : the term " British India " is used throughout this volume for the political India covered by the Fauna ; the term " India " includes tropical and subtropical India, i.e., up to about 6,000 feet ; " subtropical India " denotes the moist forested slopes of the hills usually between 2,(X)0 and 0,000 feet ; " tropical India " or " the plains " means the great stretches of India lying between sea-level and about 2,000 feet, usually not forested and extending from Tinnevelly in the South to Rawal Pindi in the North, from the border of Sind and Baluchistan in the West to the Assam and Surma valleys in the East. It is the insects of this area that are discussed in these pages and for one insect in this area there are at least five in " subtropical India. " The frontispiece illustrates the divisions of tropical India according to fauna so far as we are able to tentatively delimit them ; the faunal zones of subtropical India are not indicated. In considering this cpiestion fully, the factors to be considered are (1) the physical features of the country ; (2) the geological formation composing it ; (3) its climate ; and (-4) its flora. The first three probably affect insects in much the same way as they affect plants, and we may take the flora as the basis of our divisions ; Sir J. D. Hooker, in his sketch of the flora of British India, divides the whole area into nine provinces as follows :— (1) Eastern Himalayas. — Sikkim to Mishmi mountains in Upper Assam. (2) Western Himalayas. — Kumaun to Chitral. (3) Indus Plain. — Punjab, Sind. Rajputana, west of the Araval- li range and the Jumna river, Cutch and Gujarat (to the Tapti). (i) Gangetic Plain. — From the Aravalli Hills and the Jumna river to Bengal, the Sundarbans, the plains of Assam, the low country of Orissa north of the Mahanadi. 24 iNTitomrnoN. There are three distinct sub-provinces ; the dry upper area, the United Provinces and Behar : the lower humid area, the Assam plain, Lower Bengal and Orissa ; and the Sundarbans. (5) Malabar. — The Western Ghauts from the Tapti river to Cape Comorin ; the Konkan, Kanara, Malabar, Cochin, Travancore, Laccadive Islands. This is better termed the "West Coast. (6) The Deccan. — The high plateau lying between the Eastern and Western Ghauts, south of the Gangetic and Indus plains ; the Coromandel Coast on the East Coast from the Mahanadi to Cape Comorin is included as a sub- province. (7) Ceylon and the Maldive Islands. (8) Burmah. (9) The Malay Peninsula. With the last three, as with the first two, we have no concern here. If on the basis of the above divisions we omit subtropical forest hill areas, and we take into account the influences on the fauna of these neighbouring areas, we shall get divisions as follows : — (1) The Indus Plain. (2) Desert India. (3) Central India, West. (4) Gangetic Plain, West. (,5) Gangetic Plain, East. (G) Sundarbans. (7) Central India, East. (8) Deccan. (9) West Coast. (10) Coromandel Coast. 1. The Indus Plain has a fauna containing many holarctic forms. The winter is cold, the hot weather is dry and intense and these two sea- sons are well marked. 2. Desert India is similar, but with a peculiar fauna and flora, owing to the arid conditions. ZOO-GEOGUArmCAL DIVISIONS. 25 3. Central India, PFesf.— An area of greater rainfall, a more definite period of humidity and less alternation of day and night temperature. 4. GangeticPJain, West.—\Ye\\ marked winter with moderate cold and rain, dry hot weather and moist rainy weather. Immigrants from the Himalayas for the cold weather. 5. Gamjetic Plain, East.—^o well-marked dry hot weather, the humidity higher in the cold weather and hot weather. Immigrants from the Himalayas and other hills for the cold weather and insect activity more general in the hot weather ; there is a marked Malayan element. (A feature of this area is the flooding that occurs over large stretches of land; the influence this exerts on the fauna may be a very marked one.) 6. Sundarbans. — Doubtfully distinct. Little alternation of temperature or humidity. Peculiar flora. Strong Malayan element. 7. Central India, East. — Well-marked dry hot weather when insect activity is suspended, followed by a prolonged moist warm period. Fewer insects hibernate than in the regions North and West. 8. Deccan. — Well-marked seasons, the dry hot weather following a marked cold weather, when hibernation sets in. y. West Coast. — The fauna is influenced by the neighbouring sub- tropical region of permanent forests and high humidity which produce a very large fauna equalled onlv by the lower slopes of the hills in Assam and the Eastern Himalayas. No hibernation in the plains below ghauts. Many Ceylonese forms. 10. Coromandel Coast. — Less well marked seasons to the Deccan, and a smaller flora to the West Coast. A large proportion of Ceylonese forms. We may roughly indicate the separate faunal zones into which we would divide British India as a whole exclusive of Burmah and Ceylon : — 1. Indus Plain. — Tropical. 2. Himalaya, West. — Western Himalayas above G,000 feet, inclu- ding Kashmir, Nepal and Kumaon. Holarctic. 3. Suh-Himalaija, West. — Lower slopes of Western Himalayas 2,000 to 6,000 feet. Subtropical forest fauna. 4. Desert India. — Tropical. 5. Central India, West. — Tropical. 20 TNTRODUCTION. G. Central India, West, //I'Ks.— Subtropical. 7. Gani/etic Plain, West. — Tropical. iH. Gangetic Plain, East. — Tropical. '.). Sub-Himalai/a, East. — Lower slopes of Eastern Himalayas 700 to 5.000 feet. Subtropical. 10. Himalaya, East. — Eastern Himalayas above 5 000 feet. Sikkim to Mishmi Mountains. Holarctic. 11. Assamia. — Hills of Assam and Assam-Burmah border, in- clusive of Kliasi hills, above 6,000 feet. Indo-Chinese. 12. Sub-.issamia. — Lower slopes of Assam hills, 500 to 5,000 feet. Subtropical with strong Malayan affinities. 13. Sundarbans. — Tropical. 14. Central India, East, Hills above 500 to 800 feet. Subtropical. 15. Central India, East, Plains. — Tropical. 1(3. Deccan. — Tropical. 17. West Coast, Plains. — Tropical. 18. Western Ghauts. — Hills up to (5,000 feet. Subtropical. This is probably divisible into three ; (a) Surat to Londa-Goa gap ; (6) Goa gap to Palghat gap with the Nilgiris, Coorg, Mysore Hills ; (c) South of Palghat gap. including Travancore, Pulneys, etc. 19. South India Hills. — Hills of West Coast and South India above 6,000 feet. The fauna of this zone is not sufficiently known, as apart from the fauna below 6,000 feet, for this division to be more than a doubtful one. 20. Coromandel Coast. — Tropical. 21. Eastern Ghauts. — Subtropical. Classing these zones under elevation and climate we get : — Temperate. Subtropical. Tropical. Himalay.a, West Sub-Himalaya, West Indus Plain. Desert India. Central In.lia, West, Hills Central India, Wt-st. East Sub-Himalaya, East Gangetic Plain, West. Assamia SubAssamia „ „ East. Sundarbans. Central India East, Hills .. Central India, East. Western Ghauts Deccan. West Coast. Soutl) India Hills Eastern Gliauts Coromandel Coast. KOOl) AND IIAIUTAT. 27 ( HOI.AliCTlC.) Himalaya Wt;.t. Baluchistan. Afglianistan. Indus Plain. Desert India. Central India, West. Cianyetic I'lain, West. (Scheme of In- dian Reslon.) (iNDd-t'HINESE ) Assaniia. Hitnalajii, Kast. Hurmxh Hills. Sub-Hinial.'iya, East. Sub-Assamia. Central Imlia, East- West Coast. Western Gliauls. South India Hills. Coromandel ('oast. Eastern Ghauts. Ceylon. (StNQHALKSE.) Ganj,'etic I'lain, East. Sunilarbans. Burniah Plains. Malay ia. (llALAVAN.) Food and Habitat. Insects live in a great diversity of waj-s, but it is jjossible to iTmg]il\- classify these into groups ; this classification is of considerable value to the student in placing his insect ; for instance, a tree-boring insect will be a member of one of a small number of families, and it will often assist in placing an insect to look up the families which have a particular habit i.e., it is useful to classify insects according to food and habitat, as well as by structure and genealogy. For this purpose we tabulate below the principal families that live in distinct wavs, using food and habitat t<»gethcr as tlie basis of our classification. r I.— LAND INSECTS.-,^ A. Herbivorous. ■{ r 1. Live in Fruits. 2 ,. ON .Seeds. 3. ., Flowers 4. Leaf and Stem Miners 5. Leaf and Stem Suckers. (J. Leaf and Stem Eaters. 7. Gall Makers. 8. Tree Borers. 9. Stem Borers. 10. Boot Eaters. 11. Root Borers. 12. Root Suckers. 28 INTRODUCTION. B. Parasites AND Predators. I.— LAND INSECTS <; —contd. C. Scavengers. 13. Parasites, Inter- nal OF Vertebrates. li. Parasites, Exter- nal OF Vertebrates. 15. Parasites, Internal OF Insects. 16. Predators, Sting- ing. 17. Predators, Biting AND Sucking. 18. Scavengers, Animal Matter. 19. Scavengers, Dead Wood. 20. Scavengers, Vege- table Matter. 21. Household Insects. II.— SALT WATER INSECTS. III.— FRESH W^ATER INSECTS. IV.— MYRMECOPHILOUS INSECTS. 1. Fruit Insects. — The Trypelidw are conspicuous, as are such Tortricids as the Codlin Moth {Carpocapsa) and Tineidw. Noctuids and Curculionid.s are found. In all cases it i,« the larvee that live thus ; Tenlhredinidce are rarely known. Some large moths (Ophideres) live on fruit juice. We exclude all " Scavengers " in decaying fruits, of cour.se, referring only to fruits on plants. 2. Seed Eating Insects. — Many insects feed habitually on .seeds while ripening ; BruchidcB, ScolytidcB, Tortricidce, Tineidw, Pterophoridce [Exelastis, Sphenarches), NoctiiidcB {Chloridea, Earias), PyraUdcB being typical examples ; the Lycacnid ( Viraihola isocrales) is an exceptional case. We omit all insects living on harvested seeds, classing them as Scavengers or household insects. 3. Flower Insects. — Forficulidce eat pollen, Masaridoe and ApidcB collect pollen. Fossores collect pollen, or feed on nectar. Phala- cridcB (larvae), Nitidulidw (larva) and adults), Mehjridce (adults), Lam- pyridcB (adults), Mordellidw (adults), Curculionidw (adults), Melolon- ihidce (adults), Cantharidw (adults) feed on pollen or flowers. Most moths and butterflies and many flies, especially Antliomyiidw, Syrphidw and Bombyliidcc, feed on nectar. TineidcB, Pterophoridce, Cecidomyiidce, Thysanoptera, Tingidce also live in flowers, as larvae or nymphs. FOUIi AND HABITAT. 29 4. Leaf and Stem Miners.— The Hispids and Halticids among Chrysomelids, and many Tineid.s mine under the epidermis of green leaves and green stems. Exceptional Micropterygids, Buprestids (Trachi/s) and Acalyptrate Muscids are also recorded. 5. Leaf and Stem Suckers.— The TIn/sanoptera, the whole of the Honwptera and Pfujtophthires, as well as most of the species of the fol- lowing families of Hemiptera live by sucking the sap of green parts of plants : — Pentntomidw, Coreidw, Berytidce, Lyr/widw, Pijrrhncoridce, Tingl- dcB, CapsidcB. 6. Leaf Eating Insects.— All Phasmidce and Acridiidce, most LocustidcB, aoiw Gnjllidce feed on leaves, as too do tlie larv and imagines. Raphidiides ; imagines. Panorpides ; imagines. M ijrmeleonides ; larvae all : ima- gine* ? some. larva>. larvie ? imagines. ,• larva\ Ascalaphides ; Mantispidcs ; Hevierohiidcs ; Chri/soplde.'i ; Coniopteri/(jides Eumenidce ; the wasps eat insects. Vespidce ; ,, ,, ,, ,, Ckindelidce ; all. Carahidce ; practically all. Silphidce ? Staph iiUnidcB ; probably all. Histeridcp ; some, under bark. Trogositidte ; some. Colydiidce ; some. Cucujidw. „ CoccineUidcF ; nearly all. Malacodermidce ; larva' all ; ima- gines ? CleridcE ; all. Antlin'hidre , Brenthida ; LycaenidxB. Nortuidcp ; some. imagines, larvsp ? (Spalgis). \ A few species feed Plii/citinw ; \ on Coccids. Tineidw. ( Hypatima) . Some Culicid larva-. Blepkarocerids ? Therevids ; fly and larva>. Muscids (Ochromyia). Some Anthomyiids & Ejihydrids. Some Scatomyzids. Lepfid(P ; larva> and flies. TabanidT ; ,, Asilidce ; all. Empidce. Dolichopidce. Phoridw ; larvae. Syrphidor ; ,, Bomhyliidce ? Pentatomidce ; some. Lygceidce ? many. Aradidce ? Henicocephalidw. Rediiriidw. Phymatidce. SaldidcB. 32 INTRODUCTION. 18. Scavengers of Animal Matter. — There is a very large class of insects that live upon refuse animal or vegetable matter as apart from those feeding on live plant tissue or on the blood or tissues of animal life. Of this class, a portion feed in dung, corpses, etc. The family Scaraboeidw are a notable example of the dung feeders, the SarcophagidcB notable as breeding in corpses, the Formicidce notable as carrying off dead insects. Other families are Blattidce, Silphidce, Staphi/linidce, Hist- eridoB,NitidididcE('i ) Cleridce, Mycetophilidce, Rhi/phidw, several Muscidce Acalyptratce (Borhoridie. Sepsidip) and many Calyptratw, ( ? ) Phoridce. 19. Scavengers of Wood. — The insects that feed in dry or de- caying wood are a distinct class, but it is difficult in some cases to distin- guish them from the insects that prey on them. The following nine fami- lies are well known : Termitidce, Bostrichida, Ptinidce (A7iobiides), Lytnexylonidce, Oedetneridce, Cerambycidce, Anihrihidce, ScolytidxF. Occa- sional Tenebrionids and Tineids may be added. 20. Scavengers of Veget.\ble Matter. — This is perhaps our largest individual class since we have not the data on which to break it up into such groups as in tlie case of Herbivores. It is of extreme im- portance in the daily routine of agricultural entomology to be able to distinguish the harmless insect eating dry dead leaves from the injurious one eating living parts of the plant. We can here only enumerate the more important families or those in which the habit is known, with the remark that fungi are included as food of this class as well as decay- ing leaves, fruits, blossoms and other soft parts of plants. Aptera. I Cryptophagidce. Blattidce. Erotylidce (? fungi). Emhiidce. | EndomychidcB (? fungi). PsocidcB (? feeding on living fungi). | Mycetceidce (fungi Passalidce (larvae). LucanidcB (larva;). MelolonthidcB (larva?). Scaphidiidw (fungi). HisteridcB ? NitidulidcB. TrogositidcB {Peltides on fungi). Latridiidce (fungi). Byrrhidw (plant sap). Cioidce (fungi). Sphindidw (fungi). DascillidcB (Eucinetus on fungi). Elateridw (? larva^). NilionidcB (fungi). ColydiidcB. j Melandryidce. FOOP ANP HABITAT. aa AnthicidcB. CalandrinfF. Mycetophilidw (fungi). Chironomidw. Psi/chodidcr. TipuIidT. BibionidfF. RhyphidcE. Lonchopteridfr. Syrphidw. Phoridw (larv:^). Tn/petidcE. Sapromyzidct. AntJiomyidce (larvnp). Thysanoptera ? AradidcF {? fungi). 21. Household Insects. — We cannot separate this class of insect clearly from the last or from some others logically, because our household insects are simply originally free-living ones that have found a living in man's dwellings. Nor can we malce a separate division of them on the same scale as the Myrinecophilous insects, as we should perhaps logically do. The student will find further information under the lieading Cosmopolitan insects below. The families concerned are : — CitcujidcB. NitidulidcB. Ptinidce. Bostrichidce. BruchidcB. CerambycidcB. Pyralidce {Galleriinw, Phycitinxe). Tineidce. Thysanura. Blattidw. GryllidcB. Psocidw. TermitidcB. {Nemopterides) Formi'cidw. Silphidw. Trogositid(B. We have excluded external parasites of mammals, though they may rightly be included here, since they are classed as above. II. Marine Insects. — Verv few insects live in, on, or within reach of salt water, probably on account of the difficulties of respiration due to the deposition of salts on evaporation of the water. Anurida among Aplera, Mpophihis among Coleoptera, 'Campontia among Chironomidce. Erintalis and some allies among Syrphidw live in sea water, Halobata. a genus of HydrometridcE lives on the sea. Some Forficulidw, Carahidce, Cicindelidce, Staphylinidce, and Miisrida' live in sea-weed on the beach. III. Freshwater Insects.— The student will find fuller informa- tion under the heading Aquatic insects after the family Odonata below. IIL 3 34 INTRODUCTION. We give here simply a bald list of families, but we make no attempt to class them into Herbivores, Parasites, Predators, and Scavengers as oould well be done : — ( 'olli-)nbn]fi. (Blnttidw). EphemeridcB. Odonata. PerlidcE. Sialidce {Hemerohiidce). Trichoftera. {Chalcidw). Amphizoidre. PeJobiidw. HaliplidcB. DytiscidcB. GyrinidcB. HydropMlidce. HeteroceridcB. ParnidcB. DasciUidce. Chn/somelidce. {Curcnlionidcp). (EupterotidcB). (Pyrnlid(e). CuUcidw. Chironomidce. Psychodidce. Dixidce. TipulidcB. Blepharoceridce. Simuliidce. StratiomyidcB. TahanidcB. {Syrphidcp,}. ( A caly pirate M.uscids) . Hydrometridw. PelogonidcB. NepidcB. NaiicoridcB. BelostomidcB. Notonectidce. CorixidcB. [AphidcB). IV. Myrmecophilous. — The student will find fuller information regarding Myrmecophilous insects under Paussidce. The more import- ant families of which species are found in ant's and termite's nests are : — Gryllidce. MelolonthidcB. Paussidw. Silphid'JB. GnostidcB. PselaphidcB. StaphylinidcB, HisteridcB. ThorictidcB. CossyphodidcB. Syrphidce. Psyllidce. Aphidce. CoccidcB. INSECTS AND MAN. 3o Insects and Man. — With tlie excpption of domestic aiiiiiials there is no single group of animal life wliich enters more into the daily life of man than inserts. They live on us and around us ; in our food, our clothes, our furniture, our houses ; we eat them or their products, we collect them and even sew them ou oui' clothing. All jieople eat honey, use bees-wax, clothe themselvirs in silk, and there is no one who has not, at one time or another, been dependent upon some member of the insect world. The luxury of the present age of civilised peoples has brought into being industries connected solely with the collection of the more beautiful aiul striking forms, which are worked up into wall ornaments, ]iaper weights, etc., and form a part of the art of this age. (Witness the advertisement m the Studio " Artistic Cases of Tropical Butterflies, exquisite colours and designs, supi)lied to many Art Schools, etc.") Man is, therefore, dependent on the insect world for so much, and though science may devise substitutes for the products derived from insects, some of them at least will never replace the genuine thing. No artificial honey will ever compare with the honey gathered by bees from thousands of flowers, fragrant of thyme or heather or logwood, though in this commercial age, chemically-prepared substitutes, composed of glucose and coal tar flavourings, are sold and accepted as genuine ; no substitute for bees-wax has been found, nor for shellac. It is likely that silk, as a commercial article among commercial nations, will be partly replaced by artificial substitutes, because the greatest value of true silk^durability — is of no value to an advanced civilisation which does not require to be clothed but costumed. Lac dye has been replaced by aniline, and though cochineal still holds its own for food colouring to some extent, it is probable that no insect- made dye will continue to hold its own against aniline dyes. These are the useful insects ; there are many that affect man in other ways. Why is it that almost every dry form of food sold and dealt in by commerce must be placed in a sealed package ? Why are millions of tins used yearly in a single city ? Why do we pay at least a fourth again uf the value of biscuits, simply because of the tin i Very largely because of the ubiquitous insect, who would get in and eat them, if these things were not thus protected. Let any house-keeper in India think for a moment of her store-room and the precautions she takes. Sugar must ■ 36 IMRODUCTION. be isolated or ants will carry it off ; Hour must be in a tightly-closed tin, or moth, weevil or beetle gets in ; no sweet thing is safe, once opened, unless isolated on water, dried fruits of every kind are spoilt by beetles, grain is eaten by weevils ; pulse of all kinds harbours moths or beetles ; even tobacco and dried drugs are not exempt. Daily and hourly mankind is fighting the ravages of the insect world, which seeks to take fiom him his last ultimate asset, bis stock of food. Think of the countless sealed mud grain-stores there are in India, many in every village, and all because of the insect life around us. Let us take another aspect, that of disease ; malaria, enteric, typhoid, yellow fever, plague, filariasis and elephantiasis, sleeping sickness (? kala azar, black water fever), each and every one of these means a yearly total of deaths, premature and unnecessary, caused by the agency of insects. Think of the enormous total of deaths from plague in India, since plague came into India little more than a decade ago ; think of the desolation caused by sleeping sickness in Africa, of the countless cases of malaria in the tropics, of the extraordinary mortality from yellow fever, in old days, in the West Indies ; go to the West Indies and see the numerous cases of elephantiasis ; men with legs like trees, men suffering from fever and ague for years which finally leaves them possessed of an elephant's leg or ann ; think of the death-roll from enteric ! And after all this we may dimly realise the important part the insignificant insect w^orld around us plays in our lives. This may be equalled by that part played by insects in inducing disease among our domestic animals. This is a purely artificia] case largely brought about both by our careless transfer of stock f^om one part of the world to another and by our own reckless disregard of the rudiments of science and of all reasonable precautions. Think again of the agriculturist and his foes ; of the locusts which lay waste a district, of the bollworm that takes a tenth of the cotton-crop in India, or perhaps three-quarters of it in an occasional year ; of the mothborer that kills one cane-shoot in three ; of the rice hispa that causes famine or the rice grasshopper that destroys the paddy over a whole division ; think of the trials of new and promising crops abandoned in the past, because insects ruined every plant on a small plot. Why does not tree cotton grow successfully in India, or improved American maize : why has no fruit industry been established in places where fruit INSECTS AND MAN". 37 grows ; why is shade-grown tobacco not a success, or the cultivation of sunflower or ground-nuts in North India ? What takes toll of every crop grown in this country to a greater or lesser extent ? Insects in every case insects ; and insects are a factor to be taken into account in agriculture ali the world over. Think of one's daily life ! There are cockroaches that smell, fish insects that eat our pajiers, ants that carry off our sugar, " gundie.= " and other smelly things that flavour our food when they fall in, wasps and hornets that sting, mosquitoes that bite and annoy, to say nothing of sand-flies, that no mosquito net keeps out, and the bug and flea which continually pester us, the mud wasps that build nests in our books and close our locks ; furniture beetles that wear out our chairs, the cheroot beetles that spoil our cigars, the book beetle that tunnels in our books, the moth that destroys our clothes. Daily and hourly we come in direct contact with insect life. Eead the doleful comments of the Calcutta resident in August, asking why science cannot check the insects that come to his lamp during dinner and make his life a burden ; or the sad tale of the District Officer who had to vacate his bungalow because the wasps wanted it and had been accustomed to have it ; or again the tale of the telegraph stores which were hurriedly wanted in large quantities, but could not be touched because hornets had built nests among them and actively resented any interference ; or that of the greatcoats ready to be distributed to the army, each being found with neat little holes eaten out by beetles. Impartial judgment and a dispassionate consideration of facts will show that insects have fully exploited man, and, that though man may think that he is dominant, he really is not, and that not tiie least among his functions is that of providing food and occupation for insects. It has been the custom of authors of all periods to refer all insects in some way to man's well-being and economy. Every insect was, to them, created with some definite object from man's point of view ; and one has only to accompany a party of visitors round a collection, even in this twentieth century, to find this view still expressed. " What is the use of this ? " "Why was that created ? " Man may or may not be the central being of this earth, but to attempt to refer the activities of all insects in some wav to his welfare is, at least, a problem that none 38 INTRODUCTION. would attempt. An American author says : " fleas are good for a dog, because they keep him from brooding over being a dog," and explana- tions of this kind are possible where our domestic insects are concerned. But, were insects given to that kind of mentality and speculation (as they may be), it would be interesting to get their views on man and his place in their nature. Assuredly it would not agree with ours ; equally it may be, that, from any standpoint, whether material, mental, moral or spiritual, man is on no higher a level than insects ; and it might be better to classify our activities as they affected insects than to refer each insect to its " use " to us. A rough classification of the ways in which insects affect man may be attempted, chiefly with a view to securing clearness of idea : — 1. Cause damage to growing plants directly. 2. „ ,, ,, ,, ,, indirectly. 3. „ „ „ stored products. 4. ,, ,, ,, domestic animals directly. 5. ,, ,, ,, .; ,, indirectly. 6. Personally distasteful. 7. Transmit disease to man. 8. Assist agriculture directly. 9. „ „ indirectly. 10. Yield useful products. It is needless to dilate upon the fiist class ; all the insects that feed upon, or live in growing plants that are useful to man, are included. Of the second, we would say that very little is known, but that there may be a very large class whose quite unimportant attacks on plants open the way to the entry of fungoid or bacterial diseases, which may then be- come of great importance. There is a great difference between the small damage caused by the cane-borer direct and that of the fungus it brings or lets in ; and the broader aspects of this question are as yet but little known. The insects injurious to stored products, to grain, flour, dry food-products of all kinds, to timber, furniture, books, paper, fabrics, to every kind of human merchandise, made of material of animal or vege table origin, these are only too painfully familiar to us all, and, in the genial warmth and moistness of the Indian climate, they find conditions adniiraV)ly suited to their plentiful increase. Insects that directly injure INSECTS AND WAN. Sit doiue.stit; animals include lice, ticks, fleas, horse-flies, bots, warbles and other parasites of cattle, horses, sheep, dogs, etc. Under the head of indirect injury is the transmission of disease, of wliicli (lies and ])ro- bably lice, fleas and horse-flies may be especially im])ortant. Of those personally distasteful, it is hard to speak. The mosquito tluit bites and sings, the cockroach that flies around before rain, the eye- fly that thinks its proper sphere is man's visual organ, the crawling cater- pillar that falls from on high, each (and many more) is dista.steful in some degree to different individuals. The dweller in Bengal is harried by hordes of perfectly amiable and delightful insects which join him when the lamps are lit. As I write, they swarm around me, in great variety, in pleasing profusion, adding, by their mere number and senseless gyrations, to the irritation caused by climate, w-earincss, liver, etc. Tn some places '" gundies " {('ijdninoe) are pre-eminent, in other places green fly (Jasaids) ; the geranium (Cydnics) is familiar to some, while our curse here is varied but largely composed of beetles {Scaritids chiefly). Whatever they are, their profusion, their ubiqiiitousness, their buzzings and tlieir singed or oily corpses cause an annoyance only to be appreciated bv experience, and which forms not the least of the ills we bear. Elsewhere the reader will find an account of the insects transmitting human disease, the go-betweens, which add so enormously to the death- roll, which cripple so many lives and which constitute the first and greatest menace to human life in tropical countries. So far all is ill and were we to consider this only, then insects would have but a sinister significance. There is another side and still taking our anthropocentric view, we may consider the classes of insects on which man's welfare depends. A very large class of insects promote tillage, by burrowing and excavating in the soil ; they sweeten the soil and ren- der the growth of plants possible. This is especially the case in tropical India, where worms are not so abundant ; it is impossiltle to bring accurate proiif (li this. l)ut it is easy to observe the countless borings of insects in undisturbeil soil, especially under trees and wlieic there has licen no cultivation. In addition tu this, insects do nmch directly to enrich the soil by carrying down dung, by burying carcasses, by causing the de- cay of fallen vegetable matter. It reqiures but little observation and thought tosee how large a part insects ]ilav in this, and how greatlv they 40 INTRODUCTION. assist in keeping the earth sweet and wholesome, and in rapidly restoring to the soil available food ; with the bacteria, the fungi and similar organ- isms, they play a great part in the constant cycle of matter through the soil to some form of life and back to the soil again. In these ways insects assist agriculture directly. Another great function they exercise is in pollination ; a large proportion of plants are dependent upon insects for their fertilisation and we largely owe the beauty of many flower forms of the plant world to the need the plant has of attracting the insect and of inducing it to carry the pollen. The significance of insects in this respect requires no proof ; one can observe it both in the plants themselves and in their numerous insect visitors. Indirectly insects are also a benefit as they check themselves and also help to keep down the undue prominence of weeds and particular forms of plant life. It is perhaps a paradox to ascribe as a virtue to insects the fact that they check themselves, because, if they did not exist, no check would be needed ; still it is a sober fact that parasitic insects are an important part of the insect world, and if they were absent for a few weeks, India would starve. Finally, there are the useful insects. These are connected with : — (a) silk, (h) lac, (c) wax, (d) dyes, (e) medicine, (f) food for man, {g) food for domestic animals, (h) ornament. Those that yield silk are perhaps pre-eminent at present since im portant industries are dependent upon the silk excreted by the pupating caterpillar of one of four moths. The value of the exported silk in 1906-7 was 204 lakhs, but much more was produced and used in the country itself. Lac is a large industry, one of the big staples of India, and, since its use is yearly growing and the source of supply is limited, it is an industry that brings increasing wealth to this country. The export in 1904-5 was valued at Rs. 3,47,00,000 and, besides that, a large amount was used in India. Wax is still an article of export, fetching a high price and we may see established in the future a large industry in the domesticated bee. for the production of both wax and honey. The yearly export for the last twenty years has fluctuated between 3,000 cwt. and 7,000 cwt. : the value being between 2f and 7 lakhs. The importance of insects as dye producers is gone. Even lac is of ni) value except on a small scale. Medicine is still dependent upon insects INSECTS AND MAN. 4] for Cantharidino, and the«e beetles may become a source of profit instnad of a source of loss. As food, the bodies of insects are valuable to all but the most civilised nations ; while a not unimportant branch of trade is the collection of immature FormiridcB (" Ant's Eggs ") for feeding tame game birds and the capture of flies and other small insects as food for cage birds and the like is carried out on a large scale. Finally, insects are enrolled, with every other description of natural product, in the list of materials used by woman in her personal adornment. This is not as insignificant as it may appear and, though few insects can be used directly (e.g., Buprestids) many provide models for both art and millinery. -CaMWiHHA M'Al'UVLI.Nl'S x \\1 (From Liihbofl:], APTERA. Wingless insects, the mouthparts mandibulate. Antennae and legs simple, the integument soft, clothed in scales or hairs, the segments undifferentiated and little co-adapted. There is no meta- morphosis, the development being gradual. Tlie onlt'i- includes only a small number of minute wingless insects of extreme delicacy, supposed to be .scavengers. The mouthparts are concealed, formed for biting. The legs are often long, and there are frequently abdominal appendages in the form of cerci, springs, etc. The body may be completely clothed with fine scales. There is no meta- morphosis and no changes take place in external appearance during life, except growth in size. Most of them live in concealment, their food con- sisting of dried or decaying vegetable matter, no far as is known. None are of importance economically, one genus, Lcpisma, being a minor household pest. Apiera are divided into two suborders and eight families. The Thijsanura have ten abdominal segments and consist of four families. The Collembola have six abdominal segments with a peculiar tube-like structure below the first. ( Campodeida'. ( LipiiridcB. n^ 1 JaiD/iiidcp. p^TTT.„T,^T, ) Pod in- idee. j Miichihdce. j Smi/vt/nmdw. iLcpismidce. I {N eel idee. CaMI'ODEID.B. The abdomen lerminates in a fair oj jointed (eni; the iiiouth'partu are concealed. The cosmopolitan insect Campodea staphijliiius Westd. (Fig. 1) or a form very close to it occurs in India in damp moss, among damp decay- ing vegetation and in similar positions. It is a slender white insect, with moderately long antenn;e, with cylindrical body and with two anal cerci. 44 Fig. 2— Japyx sp. Japygid^. The moidhparts are concealed. The body terminates in a pair of forceps. These delicate insects will be readily mistaken for young Forficulido', though the hidden mouthparts serve to distinguish them. They are said to live in moss and under leaves, stones, etc., on the soil, though nothing is on record as to their habits in India. Wood-Mason records finding a single species in Calcutta. (Journ. Asiat. Soc, Bengal, 1876 ; Ann. Nat. Hist. IV, 18). Japyx oudemannsi, Par., and J. indicus Oudem., are reported from Burmah. We have found one species (Fig. 2) common among decaying vegetation and in soil ; it is a delicate white in- sect, with the forceps chitinised and brown. It is common in Pusa and in Nagpur, and is probably common throughout the plains. Machilid^. Well developed compound eyes are present. The mouthparts are exserted and visible. Apparently more than one species of this family occur in India, one on rocks and an- other among dry decaying leaves. The latter is a dark grey insect found in the open. The body is elongate, a little over a quarter of an inch long (without the cerei) tapering from the base of the abdo- men to head and tail. Compound eyes are situated at the vertex of the head ; the antenurf are simple and tapering. The mouthparts are inconspicuous with long maxillary and shorter labial palpi. The body is denselv scaled and ends in three '''^- '-^';™'"-7°"^°''*' ■ ■ [from LiibbncK). I.EPISMIDAE. 45 cerci of whicli the midtlle is the longest. On the ventral surface of the second and third thoracic and each abdominal segment is a slender jointed appendage, those on the 6th, 7th and 8th abdominal segments being longest. The legs are simple, tapering, the joints little differen- tiated, the tarsi two jointed. The female has a straight slender ovipositor. These little insects run on rocks and live in the cracks ; they are apparently nocturnal and appear to feed on lichens on the rocks. Assmuthia is a termit- ophilous genus constituted by Escherich for the recep- tion of A. spinosissinia and A. inrrmis from India (Zool. Anz. 30, p. 744). Platy- stelea harhifer, Esch. is also recorded from nests of ter- mites in India. Lepismid^. Body flattened, clothed m scales; eyes s»iall, wouth- parts exserted. The common fish insects of houses are members of this family and are found throughout India, as pract- ically throughout the world. Annandale has recorded Lepisma (Acrotelsa) coUaris, Fabr.,asa fish insect of Cal- cutta (Journ. Asiat. Soc, Bengal, 1806, Vol. II, p. 346), and mentions this as the only recorded Indian species. The Himalayan species is apparently L. saccharina (Fig. 4). ./ \ \ if i k:. 1 f '-'■■ 1 'V, 4— Lepis.ma SACCHARIN.4 (From Lubbock). 4fi APTERA. Lepismids are common oiiougli, tliough all may belong to the above species ; tliey slum light, live behind books among paper and in dark corners and arc supposed to feed on starchy and sugary matter. Their body is clothed with flat scales which give them a greasy feel and the shiny appearance that characterises them. The surface of paper is commonly eaten by these insects probably because of the material used in glazing it and they can be in this way destructive. CoUemhoIa. We are not aware of any described Indian species and only a few have been collected or observed. Species of the first two families appear to be common in damp situations as in decaying vegetable matter and wet moss, under stones by streams, where water drips and undei' bark. In general one finds such conditions for so bi'ief a time in the plains that these delicate insects are probably not abundant, though they are so in the hills. Collecting. — Though of no economic importance, this order is well worth studying. The best method of collecting is to use a camel-hair brush which is dipped into a mixture of glacial acetic acid and strong alcohol and with which the little insects can be caught and put in a tube of this mixture. They are afterwards transferred to 70% spirit. Berlese's funnel trap is a good method of separating these insects from leaves, moss, etc. PLATE I. 1 cercus (arc V4^C 1 y « or-^'-tx/ia PL.\TE I. — OuTHOrTEllA Fig. 1. Forficulid. „ 2. Blattid „ 3. Mantid „ 4. Pliasinid. Aciidiid. Locustid. Giyllid. ORTHOPTERA. The antennae filiform or setaceous, of variable length. The mouthparts mandibulate, of the herbivorous type. The first pair of wings (tegmina) thickened, coloured or ornamented, narrow with nearly parallel sides. The second pair of wings large, membranous, with many fine nervures, hyaline and often coloured, folded below the first pair in repose. The forelegs formed for running or for capturing prey. The hind legs formed for running or leaping, in the latter case long and poweiful Cerci are usually present. There is no perfect metamorphosis, the young differing from the adult chiefly in size, colour and the absence of functional wings and reproductive organs. A small proportion ne\/ev become winged. The imaginal life is often longer than the nymphal life and occupies the greater part of active life. The order includes moderate to large sized insects, the majority scavengers or herbivores, a part predaceous on other insects. None are aquatic, social, or parasitic in living plants or insects. The order is divided into seven clearly defined families, four of which form one series in which the hind legs are normal, three of which form a second series in which the hind legs are long and formed for leaping. Forficididip. Abdomen terminates in forceps. Teg- mina shortened. (Plate 1, fig. 1). BJaithJce. Flattened, head deflexed, coxa' large. (Plate 1, fig. 2). Muntida. Forelegs raptorial. Prothorax long. (Plate 1, fig. 3). Phasmidcp. Mesothorax long. (Plate 1, fig. 4). Acridiidw. Antenna' short. Auditory organ on ab- domen. (Plate 1, fig. 5). Locustidcp. Antenna' long. Auditory organ on fore- tibia. Tarsi four-jointed. (Plate l,fig. 6). GryUidw. Antenna> long.* Auditory organ on fore-tibia. Tarsi three-jointed. Teg- mina angled. (Plate 1, fig. 7). " Except Tridnnty/hifi loco^'nisablc by the absence of hind tarsi and Oryllotalpa. Hind legs NORMAL. Hind leg.s FORMED FOR LEAPING. 48 ORTHOPTEEA. Whilst these families are in the main clearly distinct, their relation- ships are by no means clear. Many entomologists regard the Forficidi- dw as a separate order (Euplexoptera). Blattidce are a geologically an- cient family whose connection with present day insects is not clear. Phasmidce are also an ancient family from which may have branched the MantidcB on one side, the AcridiidcB as well as the Locustidw and Gryllidae on the other. The last two are nndonbtedly closely allied and such aberrant forms as Schizodactijhis may well be placed in either. GnjllidcB is much more an aggregation of divergent tribes which may or may not have a common ancestor and so be included in one family, than is for instance Acridiidce which is a homogenous family. Until further evidence is available, a reasonable view is to vegaid Blattida and Phasmidce as two archaic families still existing in a slightly modified form, from the latter of which descended the carnivorous Mantidw on one side, the common ancestor of the Acridiidce and the herbivorous LocustidcE on the other, from which we have the carnivorous Locxistidce, the burrowing crickets (from some such form as Schizodactylus), the various other tribes of GryUidce from other forms of primitive Locus- tidce. The Forficulidce are possibly an off-shoot from a primitive form of a Blattid ancestor and although retaining the characters of the primitive Orthopterous ancestor, are now distinct; it is equally probable that they are a distinct family more closely related to the primitive an- cestor of the Coleoptera. Whatever view may be held by science when more information is available, these seven families are usefully aggregat- ed in one order and the separate families are, as a rule, easy to distin- guish. It is unfortunate that the name Locvsta should have been applied by Linnieus to an insect that is not sufficiently close to the "locusts" to be in the same family ; the result is that taking the family name from the oldest named member, Locustidce does not include ' 'locusts' ' which are Acridiidce. Entomologists sometimes evade the difficulty by naming the Locustid family Phasyonuridce or by transposing the names and ap- plying the name Locustidce to the Acridiidce. Mr. Kirby calls our Acridi- ids, Locustidce, ourLocustids, Phasyonuridce, and our Gryllids, Achetidce. The more important papers are the following : — Stal, Recensio Orthopterorum (1873), Brunner, Revision du Sys- teme des Orthopteres (1893). Walker — Catalogue of Dermaptera Sal- FORFICULID.K. 49 tatoria (18W)-1871). Bolivar — Orthopteres de St. Josepli's College (Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1897, p. 282; 1899, p. 7G1 ; 1901, p. 580). ForficuliDjE. — Earwigs. Slender insects, the forewimjs short and covering the hindwings, which are large and radially folded ; the abdomen terminates in a pair of processes formed like forceps. Fig. 5— An earwig with expanded wings. The earwigs are medium-sized insects, rarely exceeding half an inch in length, rarely less than one quarter of an inch. The forceps at the extremity of the abdomen is characteristic of the family and while very diverse in form, is at once recognizable. There is a superficial resem- blance to the Staphylinid beetles but the latter never have forceps. The colours are sombre, black, brown and chestnut predominating; none are brightly coloured but all have the dull colour of insects that live in concealment or on the surface of the soil. The head and body are somewhat flattened, the legs of moderate length, adapted to running swiftly on the surface of the soil. The an- tennae are about half the length of the body, composed of a number of IIL 4 50 ORTHOPTERA. almost moniliform joints. The mouthparts are of the mandibulate type, the mandibles formed for crushing the food, the labium and maxillee for further mastication of the crushed food. The labial and maxillary pulps are apparently tactile organs, used to determine the nature of the food. The compound eyes are large with many facets; the thorax is of moderate size, its parts little coadapted ; the upper wings (tegmina) are short and thickened, rarely covering more than the base of the ab- domen. The lower wings fold into small compass, but are large, round, with short radial ribs, the outer part folding back on the basal, the basal folding radially as a fan does ; this wing is a beautiful structure, which can be opened with care and in which the method of closing is more com- plex than in the wings of any other insect. The abdomen is often broader than the rest of the body, the segments imbricate, terminating in the forceps which are in some species half the length of the whole body. These forceps vary immensely in size and structure in different species and are not constant in length even in the same sex of some species. Those of the male are commonly larger; bilateral symmetry is not always preserved, and in a few, one limb crosses the other. The sexes are similar in general appearance; the male, however, having a greater number (nine) of visible ventral segments, the female having only seven. There are wingless forms, also some in which the tegmina are reduced to functionless lobes. These species resemble the young of winged species, but the latter have a softer integument, less developed forceps and a smaller number of joints in the antenn«>. Little is known of the life history and habits of Indian earwigs, though that little agrees with what is known of the family elsewhere. Of these insects, as a whole, it may be said that the round white eggs are laid in a mass in the ground or in shelter, the female in some cases re- maining with them until they hatch. The young are white at first and while similar in general form to the adults are likely to be mistaken for Thysanura. The transformation is a gradual one, the number of moults not being known. The following account from Cuvier's Natural History relates to Forficula auricularia, Linn, the European Earwig : — "This curious insect," observes Mr. Kirby, " so unjustly traduced by vulgar prejudice — as if the Creator had willed that the insect world should combine within itself examples of all that is most remarkable in FORFICULID.E. 51 every other department in nature — still more nearly approaches the habits of the hen in the care of her family — she absolutely sets upon her eggs, as if to hatch them — a fact which Frisch appears first to have no- ticed— and guards them with the greatest care. Degeer, having found an earwig thus occupied, removed her into a box where there was some earth, and scattered the eggs in all directions. She soon, however, col- lected them, one by one, with her jaws, into a heap, and assiduously sat upon them as before. The young ones which resemble the parent, ex- cept in wanting elytra and wings, and, strange to say, are, as soon as born, larger than the eggs which contained them, immediately upon being hatched, creep like a brood of chickens under the belly of the mo- ther who very quietly suffers them to push between her feet and will often, as Degeer found, sit over them in this posture for some hours. This remarkable fact I have myself witnessed, having found an earwig under a stone which accidentally turned over, setting upon a cluster of young ones, just as this celebrated naturalist has described." Diplatys longisetosa, Westw. has a remark- able nymph (fig. 6), in which the abdomen terminates in a pair of long many-jointed pro- cesses, of which the basal joint, at the final moult, is transformed into the forceps (Green, Trans. Ent. Soc, London, 1898, p. 381 [Dys- critina] ). Equally little is recorded or known of the food of earwigs. Apparently it consists of decay- ing vegetable matter, of pollen, of the sap of plants and possibly often of small insects or other small forms of animal life. Earwigs are found in decaying trees, under bark, among rotting vege- tation and the deposit of leaves under trees, under stones, in flowers, in the tangled roots of plants (e.(j., sugarcane), and in other similar situations; they hide away and live principally under shelter in damp places. Their form is adapted Fi..6-DiPLATYSLONG,8E.*° ™"""^g l"^''^^^^ ^'^^ easily amoug leaves, TosA, NYMPH. grass roots, etc., and flight is but rarely utilised, {After Green). o ? ? < v 52 ORTHOPTERA. Labidura lividipes and L. riparia, fly at night and come frequently to light, the only Forficulids observed to have this habit. They are not formed for actual burrowing, but are part of the Fauna of the surface of the ground, as are the Carahidw, BlattidcB, Tenebrionidw, Lygceidce, etc. ; less is known of this "surface fauna" than of any other, from the great difficulty of observation. The function of the forceps is a mystery that will be cleared up only when their food-habits and general life are better understood. It has been suggested that the forceps, though not actual weapons of defence, appear as such and give the insect a more formidable appearance which protects them against the enemies that occur in their habitat; a few species can actually use their forceps as feeble pinching organs and the power to do so may have been more fully developed in the more primitive species; there is also some reason to believe that the forceps are useful in carrying out the rather complex folding of the hind wing ; neither explanation is a satisfactory one. Earwigs are most active in the rains and damp weather, being de- pendent upon moderately damp conditions ; in irrigated lands they are active throughout the year except when cold drives them to hibernation in shelter, as happens in colder parts of the plains. There appear to be no definite seasons for reproduction, and individuals of different ages may be found at any time. None are recorded as pests in India, though they are often believed to be injurious owing to their habit of coming to wounded tissues of plants to obtain sap ; they are thus found under very compromising conditions, but investigation has shown that the in- jury was caused by other insects, and there is no reason to believe that any can be regarded as pests. A few are constant frequenters of the sea-shore and are found almost throughout the world among the sea- weed and debris thrown up on the beach. Earwigs are found throughout the temperate and tropical parts of the globe ; they are less common in India than in other countries, but a fair number of species are already known from India. They do not fall into well-marked sub-families and may be regarded as a distinct and fairly homogeneous family. Bormans and Krauss describe 70 species from India including Burmah, the majority being Burmese species. Kirby's catalogue gives only 48 as Indian, and more have been described FORFICULID.E. 53 from India by Burr; this does not include species found in Ceylon only. The number of known species will be increased when more attention is paid to this group in India, and some of the commonest species have been found to be undescribed. The student should consult Burr's paper on Ceylon Forficulidije (Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, XIV, 59), his papers on Indian species (Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1905, p. 27 ; and 1906, p. 387); and his revision of part of the family (Trans. Ent. Soc, London, 1907, p. 91). Diplatys is represented by several sub-tropical species ; D. longi- setosrt, Westw. is marked by the long multi-articulate setae of the nymph, the basal joint of which is stated to be- come the forceps of the adult. Forci- pula has three species in India ; Labidura is represented by several species. L. riparia, Pall. L. bengalensis, Dohrn. (fig. 7) , and L. lividipes Duf. are common in grass and are obtainable in numbers when a grass lawn is flooded with water. An- isolabis maritima, Gene, is a world-wide species, found in sea-weed on the beach. A. annulipes, Luc. is a wingless species, found abundantly in the plains on the soil. Labia minor, L., is a common insect not only in Asia but in Europe, Africa and America, found in flowers and on plants, rarely seen on the wing by day. (lielisoches is represented by nine species, C. morio, Fabr. being spread over the coasts of the South Pacific and Indian Oceans. C. melanocephalus, Dohrn. has been found commonly in sugarcane roots and also in the tunnels of the borer caterpillars in the cane. Apterygida gravidula, Gerst. is widespread and there are other species of this genus. Several species of Forficula are recorded, though the widespread F. auricularia, L., the common earwig of Europe, has not been found. Collecting. — Earwigs will be found only by patient search if the)' are to be specially collected. In the course of general collecting one finds Fig. 7— Labidur.\ bengalensis. 54 orthopterA. them in flowers, under stones, among decaying vegetation and fallen leaves, among debris on the beach. Some are found in houses, especially in damp places, such as bathrooms in the hot weather ; others will be found at the roots of plants in the cold weather. Many come to sap, or are found in bored canes or in other situations where the sap of a plant is exposed. A few come to light, but this is rarely a useful me- thod of collecting them. When caught, they should be killed in a cyanide or B. C. bottle and pinned through the right wingcase. Care is needed to open the left lower wing, though this is not usually necessary. WHERE INSECTS LIVE. Insects are small creatures and very abundant; where are they all? At some times in the year one can easily gather at least one hundred thousand insects within one day over a space of, say a few acres; at another time there would not appear to be an insect obtainable in that space and yet the insects must be somewhere. It is when one comes to try to answer this question that one realizes the absolute truth of the statement that insects are to be found everywhere on the surface of the earth within a narrow zone which includes 20 feet of the solid soil, the vegetation that stretches vip from the soil for some 100 feet, and to a slight extent the air above. Excepting for the moment the artificial erections of man, we are not far from the truth in saying that this zone is very completely occupied by insect life in some form or other. It may be hoped that light will be thrown on this point some day by the very careful investigation of the fauna of, say one square mile of the earth's surface, including this zone we speak of, covering average areas of fallow, crop, grass land, bush, jungle and forest. The number of actual living insects in some form or other will be surprising. Commencing, say 20 feet down, there are the deeply burrowing insects, the termites, the dung beetles, the Cicadid nymphs, and the crickets ; within six feet of the sur- face we come to the insects that burrow, but do not go so deep ; the ants are conspicvious examples, as are all the above-mentioned insects which cannot go deep in some soils; Scarabaeid grubs are near the surface, as are Tipulid maggots, Cicindelid grubs ; nearer still to the surface are the surface crickets which only make tunnels as shelters, the many digger wasps and other boring Aculeates, the burrows of some Carabids, such as Anthia ; quite near the surface our fauna might be immense if we dug in winter, as we should find the countless pup» of the hibernating beetles, of moths, of Diptera ; we should also find the many adults which seek shelter there, as well as abundant egg masses and many half-grown larvas not yet ready to pupate. At any season there WHERE IXSKtTS LIVE. 55 would be many such, not hibernating, l>ut jnijiating or feeding or in tiie egg stage. The fauna of tliese few inciies woukl be of great interest, and we venture to assert that, in India at least, much light would be thrown on many insects' life-histories were it better known. Coniing to the actual surface a large fauna would reward us where any fallen leaves and the like offered shelter and food ; we have referred often to this fauna, a \ery extensive medley of black and dark brown insects, such as Ear»vi