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WISCONSIN GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY

*V *

E. A. BIRGE, Director W. O. HOTCHKISS. State Geologic

A. R. WHITSON, In Charge, Division of Soils

SOIL SURVEY IN COOPERATION WITH THE COLLEGE OP AGRICULTURE

H. L. RUSSELL, Dean

BULLETIN NO. 54- A

SOIL SERIES NO. 23

SOIL SURVEY

OF

BUFFALO COUNTY

WISCONSIN

BY

A. R. WHITSON, W. J. GEIB, T. J. DUNNEWALD, AND 0. J. NOER

OF THE

Wisconsin- Geological and Natural History Survey

AND

CLARENCE LOUNSBURY AND L. CANTRELL

OF THE

U. S. Department of Agriculture

SURVEY CONDUCTED IN COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BUREAU OF SOILS
MILTON WHITNEY, CHIEF
CURTIS F. MARBUT, IN CHARGE SOIL SURVEY

MADISON, WISCONSIN
PUBLISHED BY THE STATE
1917

:> » i

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey

BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS

&

EMANUEL L. PHILIPP,
Governor of State.

CHARLES R. VAN HISE, President,

President of the University of Wisconsin.

CHARLES P. CARY, Vice-President,

State Superintendent of Public Instruction.

HENRY L. WARD, Secretary,

President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

STAFF OF SURVEY

ADMINISTRATION:

Edward A. Birge, Director and Superintendent. In immediate
charge of Natural History Division.

William 0. Hotchkiss, State Geologist. In immediate charge of
Geology Division.

Lillian M. Veerhusen, Clerk.

GEOLOGY DIVISION:

William O. Hotchkiss, In Charge.

T. C. Chamberlin, Consulting Geologist, Pleistocene Geology.

Samuel Weidman, Geologist, Areal Geology.

E. F. Bean, Geologist, In Charge of Field Parties.

0. W. Wheelwright, Geologist, In Charge of Field Parties.

R. H. Whitbeck, Geologist, Geography of Lower Fox Valley.
Lawrence Martin, Geologist, Physical Geography.

F. E. Williams, Geologist, Geography and History.

NATURAL HISTORY DIVISION:

Edward A. Birge, In Charge.

Chancey Juday, Lake Survey.

H. A. Schuette, Chemist.

DIVISION OF SOILS:

A. R. Whitson, In Charge.

W. J. Geib,* Editor and Inspector.

W. M. Gibbs, Analyst, in charge of Soil Survey Laboratory.
T. J. Dunnewald, Field Assistant and Analyst.

st.

r arge 13241

3. Deoartm

DOCUMENTS OlVi&iQKi

•Scientist in So$ Survey J^Irl charge I «2E£fiteld o.
the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Deoavtment of Agricult

l orations in Wisconsin for
ire.

TABLE OE CONTENTS

Page

Table of Contents . 3

Illustrations . 5

Introduction . 7

Soil Classification . 9

CHAPTER I.

General Description of the Area . 11

Soils . 16

CHAPTER II.

Light Colored Upland Soils . 17

Knox silt loam . 17

Knox silt loam, steep phase . 18

Lintonia silt loam . 23

CHAPTER III.

Dark Colored Upland Soils . 27

Waukesha silt loam . 27

Bates silt loam . 29

Bates fine sandy loam.. . 31

Chemical composition and management of dark colored up¬
land soils . 33

CHAPTER IV.

Light Colored Fine Sandy Loam Soils . 34

Boone fine sandy loam . 34

Plainfield fine sandy loam . 38

Lintonia fine sandy loam . 39

Chemical composition and management of light colored fine

sandy loam soils . 41

CHAPTER V.

Light Colored Sands and Fine Sands . 42

Lintonia fine sand . 42

Boone fine sand . 43

Waukesha gravelly sandy loam . ’. . 44

Plainfield fine sand . 45

Plainfield sand . 47

Chemical composition and management of light colored sands

and fine sands . . . 48

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI.

Miscellaneous Material . 53

Rough stony land . 53

Genesee fine sandy loam . 54

Genesee silt loam . 56

Genesee silty clay loam . 57

Wabash loam . 58

Peat . 59

CHAPTER VII.

General Agriclu.ture of Buffalo County . 60

CHAPTER VIII.

The Problem of Soil Erosion in Buffalo County . 66

CHAPTER IX.

' Climate . 69

SUMMARY.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plates and Figures.

page.

Plate I. View along the Mississippi River . 12

Plate II. View showing Lintonia silt loam on a terrace joining

steep slopes of the upland . 22

Plate III. View across the valley of the Buffalo River . 58

Plate. IV. View showing how ravines may start on a gentle slope 66

Fig. 1. Sketch map showing areas surveyed . 11

Fig. 2. Showing average dates of last killing frost in the spring. . 74

Fig. 3. Showing average dates of first killing frost in the fall. ... 74

MAP.

Soil Map of Buffalo County, Wisconsin . Attached to hack cover.

INTRODUCTION

Before the greatest success in agriculture can be reached, it
is necessary that the farmer should have a thorough knowledge
of the soil upon his own farm. A soil may be well adapted to one
crop, and poorly adapted to another crop. Clover will produce a
vigorous growth and profitable yields on the average loam soil
which contains lime and is in a sweet condition ; but on a sandy
soil which is sour, or in an acid condition, clover will not make a
satisfactory growth. We may say, therefore, that failure is cer¬
tain to be invited when such important facts are disregarded, or
overlooked. The degree of success which it is possible to win on
any farm is in direct proportion to the practical knowledge pos¬
sessed by the farmer concerning the soil and its adaptation to
crops. A thorough knowledge of the soil is as essential to the
farmer as a knowledge of merchandise and business methods is to
the merchant.

The State of Wisconsin, working in cooperation with the
United States Department of Agriculture, is making a careful
study of soils and agricultural conditions throughout Wisconsin,
and is preparing soil maps and soil reports of all counties in the
State. A soil map shows the location and extent of the different
kinds of soil. Tracts of 10 acres and over are mapped, but often
areas of even smaller extent are shown. The soil map is pre¬
pared by trained men, who go over a county thoroughly, and
examine the soil by making a sufficient number of borings to a
depth of 36 inches to keep account of all variations. A report is
also made, to accompany and explain the map, and this is based
upon a careful study of the soils within the region surveyed, and
upon such other features as have a direct bearing upon the agri¬
culture of the area.

It is the object of this survey to make an inventory of the soils
of the State, and to be of practical help to farmers by locating
and describing the different soils, by determining their physical

8

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

character and chemical composition, and by offering suggestions
for their management, based upon the work of the Soil Survey
within the area, covered in the report, and upon the results of
field tests made by the Experiment Station.

Soil fertility depends upon two factors : first, upon the physi¬
cal characteristics of the soil, such as water holding capacity,
workability, etc., and second, upon the chemical composition of
the material composing the soil. The chemical composition de¬
pends upon the mode of origin of the soil, and the source of mate¬
rial from which the soil is derived.

Water holding capacity, and other physical properties of soil
all depend chiefly upon texture , which refers to the size of the
individual soil grains, or particles. A coarse sandy soil, for ex¬
ample, will not retain moisture so long as a loam soil, or clay
loam, because the finer the soil grains, the greater will be the
total soil-grain surface area to which moisture may adhere. Tex¬
ture is determined in the field by rubbing the soil between the
thumb and fingers, and with experience one soon becomes expert
at judging the size of soil grains. This field judgment is verified
in the laboratory by a mechanical analysis, which is made by a
simple method of separating soil grains into different groups, of
which there are seven. These are known as clay, silt, very fine
sand, fine sand, medium sand, course sand, and fine gravel, and
the following table gives the size of the soil particles of which
each group or separate is composed.

TABLE SHOWING SIZE OF SOIL PARTICLES

Fine gravel .

Coarse sand .

Medium sand .

Fine sand .

Very fine sand .

Silt .

Clay .

1 millimeter equals .03937 ol an inch.

Millimeters
2.000-1.000
1.000- .500
.500- .250
.250- .100
.100- ; 050
.050- .005
.005- .000

A chemical analysis is also made of the soil to determine the
amounts of various essential plant-food elements which are pres¬
ent. A chemical analysis shows whether the soil contains a large
store of plant food, or only a small quantity, and it indicates
which kinds of plant food will probably be needed first. The
amount of organic matter in the soil is also determined, and tests
are made to show conditions relative to soil acidity.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

9

SOIL CLASSIFICATION.

Soils are grouped according to texture into soil classes, a soil
class being made up of soils having the same texture, though dif¬
fering in other respects. A fine sand, for example, may be light
colored and of alluvial origin, while another fine sand may be
dark in color and of residual origin, while a third fine sand may
have been blown into sand dunes by the wind, yet all of these
soils would belong to the same class, because the greater propor¬
tion of the soil grains have the same size or texture. Thus we
may have different kinds of clays, loams, sands, etc., and the class
to which any soil will belong depends upon the size of the indi¬
vidual soil grains of which it is composed, and not upon its
color, origin, topographic position, or agricultural value.

SOIL CLASSES

Soils Containing Less Than 20% Silt and Clay

Coarse sand. — Over 25% fine gravel and coarse sand, and less than 50%
of any other grade of sand.

Sand. — Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand, and less than
50% fine sand.

Fine sand. — Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel, coarse
and medium sand.

Very fine sand.— Over 50% very fine sand.

Soils Containing Between 20-50% of Silt and Clay

Sandy loam. — Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand.

Fine sandy loam. — Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel,
coarse and medium sand.

Sandy clay. — Less than 20% silt.

Soils Containing over 50% of Silt and Clay

Loam. — Less than 20% clay, and less than 50% silt.

Silt loam. — Less than 20% clay, and over 50% silt.

Clay loam. — Between 20 and 30% clay, and less than 50% silt.

Silty clay loam. — Between 20 and 30% clay, and over 50% silt.

Clay. — Over 30% clay.

Soils may be grouped in another way. Where soils are closely
related through similar sources of the material from which
derived, mode of origin, topographic position, etc., so that the
different soils constitute merely a graduation in texture of other¬
wise uniform material, such a group is called soil series. It

10

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

corresponds to the family which is made up of different individ¬
uals having the same parentage. The Miami series, for example,
includes light colored, glacial material where the soils have been
derived largely from the underlying limestone, and the soils in
the series range in textuie from a clay loam to sand and gravel.
The Plainfield series includes light colored soils in regions where
no limestone is present, where the parent rock was largely sand¬
stone, and where the material occurs as outwash plains or stream
terraces. The soils in this series also have a wide range in tex¬
ture. The name used for a soil series usually indicates the local¬
ity where that particular series was first recognized and mapped
by the Soil Survey.

By uniting the name of the soil class which refers to texture,
with the name of the soil series which refers chiefly to origin, we
get the soil type which is the basis or unit of classifying and map¬
ping soils. A soil type thus, is a soil which is uniform through¬
out its entire extent in texture, color, topographic position, and
other physical properties, and having a distinct agricultural
unity, that is, being adapted to the same crops, and requiring
the same treatment. It is also uniform in the source of material
from which it is derived, and the mode of origin which, taken
together, determine the chemical composition. Since the soil
type is the unit in classifying and mapping soils, and the basis
upon which experimental work should be conducted, every farmer
should be familiar with the soil types on his farm, and their lead¬
ing characteristics.

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY,

WISCONSIN,

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

Buffalo County, Wis., borders the Minnesota State line about
midway between the south State line and Lake Superior. It is
bounded on the north by Pepin and Eau Claire Counties and on

K£Ct»MD/SWCC SURVEY

Of NORTH FART OF

TGOiy JOISSflNCf SUi

'////wa '"/'a

/ y x MRTHWfrsTSft/y W/SCOKS/A /

LINCOLN

WmmmW/,

RECOA/WISSAMCE SURVEY

771 YW*

tornm*** tern y/sco*s//y

WAUPACA

[portage

OUTAGAMIE

TREMPE¬

ALEAU

MANITOWOC

WINNEBAGO

ADAMS

"MONROE

MARQUETTE! GREEN

SHEBOYGAN

VERNON

RICHLAND

CRAWFORD

rGRANT

RACINE

WALWORTH

GREEN

LA FAYETTE

JKENOSHA

IIVfcmifckB;

IH.1M.1IBS!

FIG. 1.— Sketch map showing area surveyed.

the east by Trempealeau Comity, the southern part of the east¬
ern boundary line following the Trempealeau River. The south
boundary line runs in a southeast and northwest direction, and

12

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

the county is separated from Wabasha and Winona Counties,
Minn., by the Mississippi River. The northwestern part of the
county is separated from Pepin County by the Chippewa River.
The county is about 27 miles wide in the northern part and grad¬
ually tapers to a point at the southern extremity. It is about
381/2 miles long, and has an area of 687 square miles, or 439,680
acres.

Topographically, Buffalo County consists of two plains, a lower
and higher. The latter covers nine-tenths or more of the total
area of the county, the former occurring only in the northeastern
part as belts of lowland, one of them being followed by Buffalo
River to Mondovi and continuing in about the same direction
northwestward to the county line and beyond, and another, fol¬
lowed by Elk Creek. These are connected by a belt along Buffalo
River south of Mondovi. This is a rolling and undulating plain
lying about 300 feet below the level (1,100 feet) of the higher
plain. It is the extreme western part of an extensive plain lying
to the east, and has been formed on a soft sandstone of Paleozoic
age. It is bounded by an escarpment terminating in a rather
abrupt slope from the higher plain. The two branches of the
lower plain are separated by an outlying remnant of the upper
plain. The lower plain is the product of erosion in an advanced
stage of development, and lies now at low relief.

The topography of the upper plain is hilly, due to complete
dissection and it now stands in a stage of maturity.

According to the census of 1910, the population of Buffalo
County is 16,006. The rural population is evenly distributed
through the county.

Alma, with a population of 1,011, is the county seat. It is
situated on the Mississippi River and has the advantage of both
railroad and water transportation. Fountain City, with a popu¬
lation of 1,031, is also on the Mississippi River in the southern
part of the county. Mondovi, with a population of 1,325, is the
largest incorporated town in the county. It is situated on the
Buffalo River, in the northeastern part of the county, and is the
center of a prosperous agricultural community. Nelson and
Cochrane are smaller places on the railroad, while Gilmanton,
Montana and Waumandee are small villages off the railroads.

All the railway lines thus far built have kept to the valleys.
There are thus considerable areas which are at some distance
from shipping points. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Rail-

Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey.

r

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

13

road, running from Chicago to Minneapolis and St. Paul,
traverses the county, following close to the Mississippi River and
passing through Fountain City, Cochrane, Alma, and Nelson.
The Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha Railway from Fair-
child reaches into the northeastern corner of the county and
terminates at Mondovi. A branch of the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St. Paul Railway follows the Chippewa River to the Mississippi
on the Buffalo County side, but is of little service to the county,
since for most of its extent it lies within the flood plain of the
Chippewa River, and is very difficult to reach. The extreme
southern end of the county is crossed by a branch of the Chicago
& North Western and also by the Green Bay & Western railroad.
The distance from Alma to Minneapolis over the Chicago, Bur¬
lington & Quincy Railroad is 89 miles and to Chicago 353 miles.
From Mondovi to Chicago over the North Western line the
distance is 327 miles, and to Milwaukee 246 miles. The Missis¬
sippi River affords water transportation, but at present is used
to a comparatively small extent.

The main dirt roads throughout the upland portion of the
county are usually kept in good condition, as the predominating
soil material naturally makes a good roadbed; but hills are
numerous, and the grades are often steep, so that hauling heavy
loads is difficult. Throughout sandy portions of the county,
where foreign material has not been applied, the roads are nat¬
urally sandy. All parts of the county are supplied with rural
mail-delivery service, and telephones are common throughout the
country districts.

Local towns provide a market for varying quantities of farm
produce and suppty shipping points from which produce is ship¬
ped to outside markets. Winona, Minn., just across the Mis¬
sissippi River, constitutes a market for produce from the south¬
ern part of the county. Minneapolis, St. Paul, Chicago, and
cities within the State receive produce from Buffalo County.

Buffalo County lies in the unglaciated part of Wisconsin and
in its geologic formations, topography, and soil conditions is rep¬
resentative of a very large area in the southwestern and western
part of the State. Three general physiographic divisions are
easily recognizable: (1) The uplands proper, which are gently
undulating to strongly rolling and in places even steep and
rough in topography; (2) the terraces and level valley areas

14

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

occurring in the position of terraces; and (3) the overflow plains
of the present streams.

The soils in the last two divisions have been derived to a very
large extent, if not wholly, from the soils of the first division
and represent wash material transported by the streams and
deposited in their flood plains. The material of the first bot¬
toms is of recent deposition and the process is still going on;
but those in the terraces are much older, some probably dating
back to glacial time or before, with the result that through
weathering the surface has come to be more like that of the
uplands than that of the first bottoms.

The upland soils are predominantly silty, as is the case
throughout the unglaciated area of the State. The great extent
of silty soils has led some to believe that a blanket of wind blown
material originally overspread most of the region and that the
soils are derived for the most part from this deposit and are
residual from the underlying formations which in an undecom¬
posed state are now usually found at a depth of less than 15 feet
from the surface and outcrop in many places. The silty material
is of a rather smooth texture and comparatively free of stone
or other coarse material, but it is just such material as would
be expected to result from the mature weathering of the country
rock, consisting of fine and cherty limestones, shales, and sand¬
stones.

Over a large part of the county the uppermost rock consists
of the lower Magnesian limestone. Once the limestone was con¬
tinuous as the surface formation, but as the result of erosion
which has deeply dissected and worn away much of the old plain,
it is now found only as remnants capping the higher hills and
ridges and giving way in all the lower levels to the Potsdam sand¬
stone, the immediately underlying formation. The limestone
and a massive phase of the Potsdam sandstone outcrop along the
upper slopes and give rise to steep stony slopes and cliffs. At
lower levels the principal rock is a thin-bedded sandy shale or
shaly sandstone with occasional layers of a heavier shale,
underlain by limestone, characterized in general by a brownish-
gray to brown silty soil underlain by a yellowish brown or buff-
colored silty clay loam subsoil, are classed in the Knox series.
The soils of the slopes below the limestone lying mainly on the
sandstone and shale layers and which have been made up in part
or wholly of materials derived from the sandstone, have been in-

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

15

eluded in the Boone series. Where these slope soils are distinctly
dark in color, they are included in the Bates series. The Boone
series includes a fine sandy loam and a fine sand. The Bates
series, of which the area is small, includes a silt loam and a fine
sandy loam.

Distinct terraces are developed in the Mississippi Valley and
also in the larger tributary valleys. The terraces in tributary
valleys are occupied largely by soils which are predominantly
silty, with comparatively little sand, while in the Mississippi Val¬
ley and Chippewa Valley the greater part of the material out¬
side of the present flood plain is of a sandy nature. This tei-
race material is classed with three series — the Waukesha, which
is black or dark brown ; the Lintonia, which is light colored and
not underlain by gravel or other coarse material ; and the Plain-
field, which is light colored and rests upon a substratum of sand
and gravel. In the Waukesha series there are two types, the
gravelly sandy loam and silt loam. In the Lintonia series three
types are recognized — the Lintonia silt loam, fine sandy loam,
and fine sand; and in the Plainfield series three types — sand,
fine sand, and fine sandy loam.

In many of the smaller valleys tributary to the Mississippi and
Chippewa Valleys the present flood plain consists of a dark-col¬
ored material, variable in texture and color, and poorly drained.
This material has been carried down from the unglaciated higher
lands, transported by streams and redeposited. Such material
is classed with the Wabash series, and in the present survey one
type — the Wabash loam — is recognized and mapped. The soil
of the present flood planes of the Chippewa and Mississippi Riv¬
ers which, in addition to being poorly drained, is subject to over¬
flow by these streams at intervals, has been classed with the Gen¬
esee series. This series includes a fine sandy loam, silt loam, and
silty clay loam.

On the steep slopes throughout the upland part of the county
there are extensive tracts where the outcrops of rock are so
numerous or the surface so steep and broken that the land is of
no agricutural value except for the little pasturage it affords.
Such land has been classed as Rough Stony Land and may be
considered as non-agricultural.

A few low-lying acres occur in which the material consists of
vegetable matter in various stages of decomposition. Such tracts
are mapped as Peat.

16

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

The following table gives the name and the actual and 1 da¬
tive extent of each of the soils* mapped in Buffalo County.

Soil

Acres

Per cent

104, 256 £

105, 2 16 J

47.6

62,912

14.3

36,480

8.3

31,872

7.3

20,200}

1,984$

6.7

W’flnlrP'Rh a silt, loam .

19,520

4.4

T.intnnifl silt lnnm .

7,168

1.6

Bates sift, loam . .

7,168

1.6

Bnonp finp sand . . . .

6,656

1.5

Pp^t .... .

6,409

1.5

Plainfipld fine sandy loam .

6,00

1.4

Lintonia. finf* Rflndv loam .

3,904

.9

Plainfield fine sand .

3,776

.9

Plainfield sand .

3,776

.9

Bates fine sandy loam .

1,344

.3

Waukesha gravelly sandy loam .

1,088

640

.2

Lintonia silt loam .

.1

Total . .

439,680

* The soil classified in this report as Knox silt loam -with its steep phase, includes
what was mapped by the U. S. Bureau of Soils as Boone silt loam, with a rolling
phase, and Union silt loam with a steep phase. The Waukesha silt loam and gravelly
sandy loam were originally included in the La Orosse series. The Plainfield fine sandy
loam and fine sand also include some soils previously mapped by the Bureau of Soils
as belonging to the La Crosse series.

LIGHT COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

17

CHAPTER II.

LIGHT COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

Knox Silt Loam

Description. — The surface soil of the Knox silt loam to an aver¬
age depth of 10 inches consists of a light-brown or grayish friable
silt loam. When dry it has a smooth, floury feel. The amount of
organic matter present in the soil is rather small, and this ac¬
counts, in part, for the light color. The subsoil consists of a yel¬
lowish-brown or buff-colored silt loam, which becomes heavier,
more compact, and claylike with increased depth, until, at about
18 to 24 inches, it is a silty clay loam. The soil mantle extends to
an average depth of probably 8 to 12 feet. The underlying rock
was not reached with the soil auger except in local spots on a
narrow ridge, at the edge of a bluff, or at the head of a ravine.
Both soil and subsoil are practically free from stone, gravel, or
other coarse material, although occasional fragments of chert
are to be seen on the surface or in the subsoil close to the lime¬
stone rock. On account of the heavy subsoil and the uniformly
silty character of the soil, the type is commonly referred to by
farmers throughout the county as a clay.

The most important variation in this soil has been designated
as the steep phase, on account of its steep slopes and rough, un¬
even topography. This phase is described in greater detail fol¬
lowing the description of the typical soil.

Minor variations in the typical soil occur, chiefly on the nar¬
row ridges, where the surface soil has sometimes been removed
and the heavy subsoil exposed. In such places the depth to the
underlying rock is also less than over the more extensive areas
of this type and in some instances it can be reached with a 3-foot
auger. On some of the lower slopes the wash from adjoining
higher land has accumulated to a small extent, and the surface
soil in such places is somewhat deeper than the average. On some
slopes the soil is somewhat darker in color and contains more

18

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

organic matter than typical. While a number of such minor
variations occur, this soil, taken as a whole, is remarkably uni¬
form.

Extent and Distribution. — The Knox silt loam, with its steep
phase, is one of the most important soil types in Buffalo County.
It occurs in all parts of the county and occupies the limestone
ridge tops of the entire upland portion of the survey. It lies at
a higher level than any other type and includes all of the lands
above the rough stony escarpments. It also covers many of the
valley slopes descending to the level valley terrace soils.

Topography and Drainage. — The topography of the Knox silt
loam as it occurs on the ridge tops may be classed, in most cases,
as undulating to gently rolling. On the narrower ridges and at
the heads of valleys it becomes more rolling and grades into the
steep phase, while over portions of the broader ridges the surface
is nearly level. That part of the typical soil occupying the lower
slopes and lower outlying ridges is gently rolling, but often
grades abruptly into the steep phaze or Rough Stony land.

On account of the fine texture and the peculiar structure of
this soil a considerable proportion of the type is subject to ero¬
sion, and care must be exercised in selecting crop rotations and in
the cultivation of all slopes, even though the slope is gentle.
Some erosion will take place even on rather gentle slopes where
intertilled crops are grown or where the ground is left bare and
not cultivated for a considerable time. Wherever the slopes are
so steep that intertilled crops can only be grown at intervals,
or where no crops other than grass can be grown without danger
of serious erosion, such slopes have been included with the steep
phase.

Owing to the character of the topography, the natural surface
drainage of the type is good, so that tile drains will doubtless
never be necessary except possibly on some of the broader ridges,
where the surface is more nearly level than elsewhere.

Origin. — The Knox silt loam has the uniform silty texture,
the buff-colored subsoil, and other held characteristics of a loes-
sial formation, though it is considered that part of the material
has been derived from the underlying rock, the lower Magnesian
limestone. The material forming this soil is sometimes found to
be in a slightly acid condition. The subsoil is less acid than the
soil, and frequently shows no acidity at all.

LIGHT COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

19

Native Vegetation. — The original timber growth on this type
consisted chiefly of white, black, and bur oaks. Maple, poplar,
hickory, white birch, and basswood are also commonly seen, and
hazel brush is frequently abundant. Some of the older settlers
state that most of the timber was originally on the ridges, and
that many of the valleys were treeless, being burned over an¬
nually by the Indians, who used some of the land for grazing.
Some of the wider valleys, with dark-colored slopes, were tim¬
bered sparsely with oak and were called ‘ ‘ oak openings. ’ ’ Most of
the timber which is now standing is confined to the steepest slopes
and associated chiefly with the Rough stony land. Small wood
lots are also seen on top of some of the narrow ridges.

Present Agricultural Development. — By far the greater part
of the typical Knox silt loam is under cultivation and highly im¬
proved, while much of the steep phase is still in timber or pas¬
ture land. The leading type of agriculture followed consists of
dairying in conjunction with general farming. As the grow¬
ing of wheat, which was a very important industry 20 to 25
years ago, declined, the raising of live stock and the dairy in¬
dustry gradually developed.

The principal crops grown at the present time and the average
yields obtained are as follows : Corn, 40 to 45 bushels ; oats, 35
to 45 bushels; barley, 30 to 35 bushels; wheat, 20 to 25 bushels;
and hay, 2 to 2y2 tons per acre. Oats are grown more extensively
than any other grain crops. The acreage of barley is consider¬
ably smaller than that of oats and the acreage devoted to wheat
is still less. The quality of the small grains grown on the Knox
silt loam is excellent, and this soil is generally held to be a better
grain soil than any of the other soils of Buffalo County. Corn,
on the other hand, does not do so well on this type as on the-
darker colored soils of the Wabash or AVaukesha series, though
the crop is successfully grown wherever this soil occurs. Most of
the grain and corn grown is fed to stock on the farms, though
elevators at Alma, Fountain City, and Mondovi still ship much
oats and barley and some wheat. AAThere the land is well farmed
but little trouble is experienced in growing clover. When the
snowfall is light the alternate freezing and thawing of the ground
sometimes kills out clover. Pasturage, in general, is excellent,
being scant only in very dry weather, or on shallow slopes or
knolls exposed directly to the sun.

20

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

Buckwheat, rye, and sorghum are produced on this soil, but
their acreage is never large. Alfalfa is successfully grown by a
few farmers and the acreage will no doubt be gradually increased,
as the crop provides excellent feed, which is of great value,
especially to the dairy farmers. Potatoes are grown for home
use on practically every farm, but seldom on a commercial scale.
Tobacco is grown to a small extent, but the crop is not increasing
in favor. Beans and peas are not extensively grown on this type,
being confined chiefly to soils of lighter texture. Garden crops,
such as strawberries, tomatoes, lettuce, radishes, and cucumbers,
and bush berries all do well and are grown for home use, but
seldom on a commercial scale.

The rotation of crops most commonly followed on the Knox
silt loam consists of a small-grain crop, such as oats, barley, or
wheat, with which clover and timothy are seeded, hay being cut
for two years, after which the land is plowed for corn. A field
may be pastured for a year, but on account of the large amount
of steep land on most of the farms such land is used for pasture
and the hay fields are not often grazed.

When the soil is cultivated under the proper moisture condi¬
tions but little difficulty is experienced in securing a good seed
bed. If handled when too wet there is danger of puddling.
Where the clay loam subsoil is near the surface or exposed on
the narrow ridge tops, cultivation is more difficult than on the
broad ridges where the surface soil has a good depth. Because
of the rather low organic-matter content, the type is somewhat
less loamy than some of the other silt loams. Practically the only
fertilizer used on this soil is stable manure. A second crop of
clover may be plowed under, but the practice of green manuring
is not at all common. Fall plowing is practiced to some extent,
and this is advisable where there is but little danger from ero¬
sion, but on slopes which are apt to wash it is better to plow in
the spring.

W hile farming is well developed on this type and most farmers
are prosperous, there is considerable room for improvement.

Land of this type has a considerable range in value, depending
upon location, improvements, and the character of the surface.
The best improved farms, conveniently located, and with a large
proportion of their acreage on the broadest ridge tops, range in
value from $75 to $100 an acre. Most farms include land of the
steep phase of this type, and many include some Rough stony

LIGHT COLORED U PL AND SOILS.

21

land, which detract from their value. In some remote parts of
the county, and where there is a large proportion of the steep
land on the farms, values range from $30 to $60 an acre.

Knox Silt Loam, Steep Phase. — In general physical character
and appearance the soil of the steep phase is essentially like the
typical soil, the basis of separation being one of topography. As
a whole the color and texture of the soil may be slightly lighter
than the typical soil, and the average depth to rock is less. Be¬
cause of its steep, broken character, this phase has a lower agri¬
cultural value than the typical soil.

The steep phase of the Knox silt loam occurs in all parts of
the county intimately associated with the main type and fre¬
quently grading into it in such a way as to make the drawing of
a definite boundary line difficult. It occupies steep slopes gen¬
erally about the heads of small streams heading in the lime¬
stone areas above the Rough stony land. On these slopes, which
form the more or less steep sides of the valleys, the silt soil is sub¬
ject to erosion and careful methods are often necessary to prevent
destructive ditch formations while these slopes are under culti¬
vation. When the steep slopes are neither wooded, in pasture,
nor covered by a growing crop to protect them, the soil washes
badly and ditches are quickly and deeply cut into the hillsides.
When erosion has once started in this way it is difficult to check,
so that methods of prevention are very important.

The natural drainage of the steep phase is good, except in
small areas along the slopes where springs and seeps may occur.
The greater part of it is so rolling that too large a percentage of
the rainfall runs off, and crops often suffer from lack of moisture.

The Knox silt loam, steep phase, has practically the same ori¬
gin as the typical soil, though as a rule there is less depth to bed¬
rock, and chert fragments occur on the surface and through the
soil mass in greater abundance. As with the typical soil, it is
partly residual from a cherty magnesian limestone and partly of
loessial origin.

The original timber growth consisted of the same trees as on
the typical soil, oak predominating. Most of the standing tim¬
ber outside of the bottom lands is now found on this phase and
on the Rough stony land with which it is associated, though a
considerable proportion of the steep land is cleared and either in
cultivation or pasture land.

22

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

The same crops are grown on the steep phaze as on the typical
soil, but less corn and other intertilled crops are grown and

more of the land is in grass and pasture than on the main type.
The ordinary yields of all crops are somewhat lower. Because

of the steep character of the surface the phase is more difficult
to work than the typical soil. The steepest portions of the phase
are now in timber or pasture land and the remainder is devoted
to general farming.

Land values are subject to considerable variation. The phase
usually forms only a portion of the farms, occurring in associa¬
tion with the typical soil and in some cases also with Rough
stony land. It is estimated, however, that the value of this class
of land alone would range from $25 to $50 an acre, depending
upon the degree of slope and the area under cultivation, as well
as upon the location and improvements.

Chemical Composition and Management. — Numerous analyses
of the Knox silt loam indicate that it contains on the average
about 900 pounds of phosphorus, 35,000 pounds of potassium
and 2,700 pounds of nitrogen in the surface soil eight inches
of an acre. Analysis of the timbered soil as compared with
cultivated fields indicates that cropping reduced the content of
phosphorus in the virgin soil to a considerable extent in some
cases. The most severe drain on phosphorus was probably during
the grain raising days of 30 or 40 years ago and the removal of
this element of plant food is possibly not so rapid now under
the dairy system of farming.

The total potassium is sufficient to meet the needs of crops
for a long time to come, but the availability of the mineral for
the use of plants can be greatly increased by having a supply
of decomposing organic matter in the soil. The improvement of
this soil as a whole calls for more organic matter and may be
added in the form of green manuring crops turned under or as
manure.

Many fields have become sour or acid on the surface through
continued cropping, especially on the higher ridges, the soil in
the valleys and on the slopes being supplied with lime dissolved
by rain and flood water from the limestone which caps the ridges.
Where trouble with clover or alfalfa is had, lime will be needed
and such fields should be tested with blue litmus paper for acid¬
ity. Where the soil is acid a ton of finely ground limestone per

VIEW SHOWING LINTONIA SILT LOAM ON THE TERRACE JOINING THE STEEP SLOPES OF THE UPLAND.

On many of these steep slopes the soil is shallow, and the underlying- rock frequently outcrops. Care should be taken to prevent erosion on such slopes

when the timber is removed. The steepest slopes should be allowed to remain forested.

Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. Plate II

LIGHT COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

23

acre will be found to help clover, while for alfalfa 2 tons or more
should be used.

The question of erosion is an important one on this type of
soil and especially on that part designated as steep phase. In
many cases the loss of organic matter and phosphorus from the
soil by erosion is considerable, and often the fertility and yields
on some fields could be greatly improved by proper attention
being paid to the arrangements of the fields and crops and the
protection of the fields from erosion.

When the slope becomes so steep that the bare ground washes
to any extent, care should be used to keep that field in hay or
pasture as much as possible or it should be laid out in alternate
strips of cultivated crop and sod land if practicable. Where the
slope is so steep that modern farm machinery cannot be used,
cultivated crops should seldom if ever be grown. When timbered
such slopes should remain so and be used for pasture only.
Badly eroded slopes can be restored by proper cropping and
management. For further data on erosion see Bulletin 272 of
the Wisconsin Experiment Station.

Chemical analyses of Lintonia silt loam show it to contain on
the average slightly more of the essential plant food elements
than occur in Knox silt loam which it very much resembles in
texture, structure, and color. Suggestions offered for the
improvement and management of the Knox silt loam will also
apply to this type of soil except as regards erosion. While this
soil is eroded in some cases, the topography being level sheet
erosion does not often occur, and methods for combatting gullies
only are necessary.

Lintonia Silt Loam.

Description. — The surface soil of the Lintonia silt loam to an
average depth of 10 inches consists of a brownish-gray, friable
silt loam, which becomes lighter colored on drying and frequently
has a whitish appearance. The amount of organic matter pres¬
ent in the surface soil is comparatively small, and this accounts
in part for the light color of the material. A slight acid condi¬
tion has developed in places in the surface soil, as indicated by
the litmus-paper test. The subsoil consists of a yellowish-brown
or buff-colored silt loam, which usually becomes somewhat heavier
and more compact with depth, and at 24 to 30 inches may be

24

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

a silty clay loam. Below this depth there is often a considerable
amount of fine and very fine sand, and this mixture extends to
a depth of 3 feet or over and grades into stratified fine sand,
with layers of gravel in the lower depths. The type is subject
to some variation, and in Glencoe Township and the valley of
Buffalo River the soil is somewhat darker than typical.

The soil quite closely resembles the Knox silt loam in texture
and color, but differs from it in topography, origin, and the
position which it occupies.

Extent and Distribution. — The most extensive areas of Lin-
tonia silt loam are found in the Buffalo River Valley in the
vicinity of Tell, where terraces of this soil have a width of from
one-half to three-fourths of a mile, and these frequently extend
back to tributary valleys for 1 mile to 3 miles. A number of
areas also occur in Little Bear Creek Valley in the northwestern
part of the county. Lower Big Waumandee creek valley and
tributaries, and tributary valleys of the Trempealeau River in
the southeastern part of the survey also contain quite extensive
remnants of Lintonia silt loam terraces.

Topography and Drainage. — The surface of the Lintonia silt
loam is usually level or nearly so, frequently having a gentle
slope toward the stream channels along which it occurs. The
type occurs as terraces, usually rather narrow, but extending
along the streams for considerable distances. The part adjoining
the upland rises slowly and frequently grades into the Knox silt
loam so gradually that the boundary line must be arbitrarily
placed. Near the Mississippi Valley the terraces of this soil have
an elevation of 20 to 30 feet above the present flood plain, but as
the distance back from the Mississippi River increases, the eleva¬
tion of the terraces above the flood plain becomes less, and the
difference finally is not over 4 or 5 feet. As this type is found
chiefly at the foot of considerably higher lying slopes, which are
often very steep, large quantities of water must pass over the
terraces during heavy rains, and as a result deep ravines are
frequently formed. Such gullies may become a source of great
expense and loss to individual farms. The natural drainage of
this type is usually good, but there are a few places where the
surface is nearly level, and in places over such tracts tile drains
could be installed to advantage.

Origin. — The material composing the Lintonia silt loam is
largely of alluvial origin and was deposited during glacial

LIGHT COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

25

periods when the melting ice sheets greatly increased the vol¬
ume of water flowing down the Mississippi River and many of its
tributaries. The high water in the Mississippi River itself
caused a backwater or partly ponded condition in the tributary
streams. In these more or less quiet waters the finer particles
now forming the soil were deposited. The coarser particles in
the deep subsoil were deposited earlier, before the ponded condi¬
tion prevailed and when the current was swifter. It is probable
that a portion of the surface material, especially close to the foot
of the bluffs, is partly colluvial, having been washed down the
steep slopes from the Boone and Knox silt loam areas, which
are always found at a higher elevation.

The gravel in the Lintonia terraces is of glacial origin. In the
valley of Buffalo River such gravel is found as far up as Mon-
dovi, though none is found in this valley more than a mile east
of Mondovi. Such gravel, however, is found in the valley of
Farrington Creek to the west of Mondovi.

Native Vegetation. — The original timber growth on the Lin¬
tonia silt loam consisted chiefs of oak, with some hickory and a
few other species. Most of the timber has been removed. In the
ravines there is now a second growth of sumac, hazel, and other
brush.

Present Agricultural Development.* — Practically all the type,
except the more eroded areas, is put to some agricultural use,
and most of it is cultivated regularly. The land where erosion
is most active is kept in pasture most of the time, or the grass
may be cut for hay. The crops generally grown and the yields
obtained are : Corn, 45 to 50 bushels ; oats, 25 to 40 bushels ;
barley, 30 to 35 bushels; and hay, iy2 to 2 tons per acre. Pota¬
toes are grown on the type to a small extent for home use, but
seldom on a commercial scale. The usual rotation consists of
corn followed by a small grain, either oats or barley, or some¬
times by one year of each of these crops, and then by clover and
timothy mixed, seeded with the grain, the field being cut for
hay one or two years, before returning to corn. The stable
manure is usually applied to the sod to be plowed under for the
corn crops. The methods of cultivation, fertilization, and treat¬
ment are practically the same as those practiced on the Knox silt

*For chemical composition and management see the discussion on
composition of Knox silt loam on page 22.

26

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY .

loam. The soil is not difficult to cultivate, and where the areas
are of sufficient size to form fields or the larger part of a farm,
this terrace soil may be considered one of the most desirable
types in the county.

Farms made up largely of soil of this type sell for $50 and $80
an acre, depending upon the location and improvements.

DARK COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

27

CHAPTER III.

DARK COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

WAUKESHA SILT LOAM.

Description. — The surface soil of the Waukesha silt loam to
a depth of 12 to 18 inches consists of a dark-brown or black silt
loam containing a high percentage of organic matter. Its high
percentage of silt and organic matter gives the soil an extremely
smooth feel. The subsoil consists of a brown or buff-colored silt
loam, which gradually becomes heavier in texture and lighter in
color and at 24 to 30 inches consists of a yellowish-brown, com¬
pact, heavy silt loam or silty clay loam. In local areas where the
drainage is deficient the subsoil shows a slight mottling of light
gray or drab. This heavy subsoil extends to a considerable depth
and the soil section will probably average 7 to 8 feet in thick¬
ness. Below this heavy mantle are to be found stratified beds of
sand. Along the Mississippi and Buffalo Rivers and Farrington
Creek some glacial gravel may also be found with the sand.

Extent and Distribution. — The largest areas of this soil occur
in Little and Big Waumandee Valleys, where it is most typically
developed. In the vicinity of Anchorage the black soil occupies
most of each valley for a distance of 6 or 7 miles. The area varies
in width from one-fourth to three-fourths of a mile. A compara¬
tively extensive area is mapped also at the mouth of Schultz and
Newton Valleys west of Mondovi and in Farmington Valley
northwest of Mondovi. Strips of this type about one-fourth mile
in width and from 1 mile to 3 miles in length are found in a
great many of the smaller tributary valleys scattered over the
county.

Topography and Drainage. — The surface of the Waukesha silt
loam is level or has a very gentle slope toward the streams along
which it occurs. In places it occupies a distinct terrace and lies
about 6 to 10 feet above the present flood plain of the stream,
while in other places it occupies an entire valley floor through

28

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

which the stream has cut its channel, with the present water
level from 3 to 10 feet below the surface of the type. Natural
drainage over most of this type is fairly good. A few of the
lower areas are subject to overflow during the heavy rains of
spring, but by far the greater proportion is not subject to
inundation. A considerable part of the type would be benefited
by tile drains, though these have not been installed to any great
extent. Because of the gentle slope or level character of the
surface, there is no danger of erosion.

Origin. — The material composing the Waukesha silt loam is of
alluvial origin and occurs in the valleys of many streams through¬
out the county. The upper section, consisting largely of silt, was
deposited in comparatively quiet waters, but the beds of sand
forming the lower section were deposited by more rapidly mov¬
ing currents. The dark color of the soil is due to the large con¬
tent of organic matter resulting from the growth and decay
of rank vegetation in the presence of moisture.

Native Vegetation. — The native vegetation consists largely of
grasses, with some timber, mainly oak, elm, and soft maple. The
greater part of the merchantable timber has been removed.

Present Agricultural Development A — Practically all of the
Waukesha silt loam can be cultivated, and the greater propor¬
tion of it is now in farms and well improved. It is one of the
most highly valued soils of the county, and with the soils of
the Bates series comprises the best corn land. The yields of
corn range from 60 to 80 bushels per acre during favorable years,
and the ordinary yields are larger than those from the other
types in the county. The small grains do well, but the quality is
not so good as that of grains grown on the Knox silt loam. Oats
and barley each yield about 40 to 45 bushels per acre. An ex¬
cessive quantity of straw is apt to be produced and these grains,
especially oats, are likely to lodge. Clover and timothy do well
and pasturage is always good.

A rotation frequently followed consists of corn followed by
small grain for 1 or 2 years and then hay for 2 years. Corn is
often grown on the same field for 2 or 3 years in succession, and
on the whole not enough consideration is given to the rotating
of crops. Because of the natural fertility of this soil farmers

*For chemical composition and management of this type of soil see
page 33.

DARK COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

29

have abused it. Cropping has been heavy and in many cases no
element of fertility has been returned to the soil.

The Waukesha silt loam is not difficult to handle under proper
moisture conditions, but it can not be worked under so wide a
range of moisture conditions as the Bates silt loam, which has
better drainage. Where the soil is well drained alfalfa can be
successfully grown.

Land of this character brings from $80 to $150 an acre,
depending upon location and improvement.

The following table gives the results of mechanical analyses of
samples of the soil and subsoil of the Waukesha silt loam:

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF WAUKESHA SILT LOAM

Description

Fine

gravel

Coarse

sand

Medium

sand

Fine

sand

Very fine
sand

Silt

Clay

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Per ee tt

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Soil .

0.0

0.3

0.4

1.6

10.9

73.4

13.4

Subsoil .

.0

.1

.2

.6

11.4

72.3

15.4

BATES SILT LOAM.

Description. — The surface soil of the Bates silt loam to an
average depth of 12 to 14 inches consists of a heavy, black to
dark-brown silt loam. The amount of organic matter in the
surface soil is large, and the material has the smooth feel char¬
acteristic of silt. Litmus-paper tests indicate that the soil is in
an acid condition. The subsoil consists of a heavy silt loam of a
brown or chocolate-brown color, which gradually becomes lighter
in color with depth. At 24 to 30 inches the material becomes a
yellowish-brown, slightly sticky, heavy silt loam. Below this
depth it frequently becomes lighter in texture and at 40 inches
there is usually an appreciable amount of fine and very fine
sand. On the higher slopes and tops of knolls the soil is lighter
in color than elsewhere, and in such locations the surface material
has been eroded, leaving the subsoil exposed. On some of the
lower knolls underlain by sandstone the soil is thin and there is
more or less coarser material mixed with it, giving it a somewhat

sandy texture.

«/

30

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

Extent and Distribution. — The Bates silt loam is of small
extent, the largest areas occurring directly north of Hondo vi,
occupying the sloping land bordering Big Bear Greek Valley,
along the North Fork of Elk Creek, and the valleys of Big
Waumandee and Kammuler Creek. Other scattered areas of
small extent occur in various parts of the survey.

Topography and Drainage. — The position which the type occu¬
pies is intermediate between the Waukesha silt loam of the ter¬
races and the Knox silt loam of the highest parts of the country.
It occupies gentle slopes and even rather rolling upland areas,
but these are always parallel with the alluvial valleys and imme¬
diately bordering them. The type grades into Waukesha silt
loam on the one hand and Knox silt loam on the other, so that
there is quite a range in the color of the material. On account
of the sloping surface, the natural drainage is excellent, while
the slopes are seldom steep enough to cause any considerable
damage from erosion.

Origin. — The silty material composing this type of soil is prob¬
ably of residual origin from a shaly phase of the Potsdam forma¬
tion or it may be partly loessial. It differs from the Boone silt
loam principally in its higher organic-matter content.

Native Vegetation. — The type as a whole is generally known as
“oak openings,” having been originally timbered with scattered
clumps of large oak trees, while the intervening spaces were in
a semiprairie condition, supporting a more or less heavy growth
of prairie grass.

Present Agy'icultural Development.* — The Bates silt loam is
one of the desirable types of soil in the county. Because of its
great natural fertility, it frequently has been ill used, too little
attention being given to crop rotation and fertilization. All the
general crops grown in the region do well on this type, and the
average yields of some of the crops are considerably higher than
on most of the other soils. The soil is especially well adapted to
corn, of which the ordinary yield is 50 to 60 bushels an acre.
This type and the Waukesha silt loam are the two best corn soils
in the county. Barley produces 30 to 35 bushels and oats 30 to 40
bushels per acre. Wheat is still grown to some extent and yields
of 25 to 30 bushels per acre are not at all uncommon. The qual¬
ity of the small grains is not so good as of those grown on the

*For chemical composition and management see page 33.

DARK COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

31

Knox silt loam. Clover and timothy produce iy2 to 2 tons per
acre, and the pasturage is generally excellent. The rotation of
crops most generally followed consists of corn, small grains, and
hay. Of the small grains, oats is most commonly grown, though
barley may also be grown in the rotation following the oats. A
few small fields of alfalfa have been established on this soil.
Where the acid condition is corrected and the soil inoculated this
crop promises very well.

Dairying is the chief branch of farming followed, and hog
raising is carried on quite extensively on many of the dairy
farms. The buildings and other improvements on this soil are as
a rule better than the average. Silos are in quite general use.

Farms located on land of this type have a selling price rang¬
ing from $75 to $100 an acre, depending upon improvements and
nearness to markets.

Below are given the results of mechanical analyses of samples
of the soil and subsoil of the Bates silt loam :

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BATES SILT LOAM

Description

Fine

gravel

Cbarse

sand

Medium

sand

Fine

sand

Very fine
sand

Silt

Clay

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Soil .

0.0

0.4

0.4

1.4

13.2

68.6

15.9

Subsoil .

.0

.2

.2

1.5

16.6

66.7

14.9

BATES FINE SANDY LOAM.

Description. — The surface soil of the Bates fine sandy loam
to an average depth of 10 to 12 inches consists of a dark-brown
to black fine sandy loam, which contains a large amount of
organic matter. When dry the material has a dark-grayish
appearance. Litmus-paper tests usually indicate an acid condi¬
tion. The subsoil consists of a choclate-brown fine sandy loam or
loam which becomes lighter in color with depth. At 22 to 24
inches it is frequently a heavy silty loam, and sometimes is quite
clay-like in appearance. At 38 or 40 inches the material is
usually a yellow fine sandy loam.

The soil is subject to some variation and over small areas
ranges from a fine sandy loam to a loam in texture, although the
greater proportion of the material is a fine sandy loam.

32

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

Extent and Distribution. — The Bates fine sandy loam is one of
the minor types of the county, occupying only 2.1 square miles.
Nearly all of this type is found on the slopes bordering the south
side of the Buffalo River Valley east of Mondovi. Here it occurs
as a narrow strip from one-fourth to one-half mile wide, parallel¬
ing the valley in an east and west direction for nearly 4 miles.

Topography and Drainage. — This type occupies the lower por¬
tion of a long, gently rolling, residual fine sandy loam slope
which leads down to the valley from the limestone ridges 3 miles
south. The surface of the type is gently undulating and nearly
level in places, but usually has a gentle slope toward the river.
In a few places it is gently rolling. Because of the texture of the
soil and the gentle sloping surface, the natural drainage is good,
and there is no serious danger from erosion.

Origin. — While the field work was in progress some doubt was
felt as to whether or not this type was in part an old alluvial
terrace formation, but because of the undulating to gently roll¬
ing surface and the fact that sandstone was found outcropping
at its lower edge along the river bottom, the soil was mapped
as an upland type and placed in the Bates series.

No evidence of stratification in the subsoil was found, although
the soil section has an average depth to the underlying sandstone
of 15 to 20 feet.

Native Vegetation. — The original growth of oak on this type
was more evenly distributed than on the Bates silt loam, and it
appears that no portion of the type was in the condition of
prairie.

Present Agricultural Development. — Practically all of the
type is now under cultivation, and it is considered a valuable
soil. Dairying and hog raising is the leading type of farming,
and this is carried on in conjunction with general farming. Corn
produces 50 to 55 bushels, oats 35 to 40 bushels, barley about 25
bushels, and clover 11/2 to 2 tons per acre. For a long period
wheat was the most important crop grown on this soil and yields
of 15 to 18 bushels per acre were obtained. The acreage of wheat
at present is very small. This is a very good corn soil, ranking
with the Bates and Waukesha silt loams in this respect. It is
also well adapted to a number of truck crops, but trucking has
not been developed to any extent. The soil is easy to cultivate.
About the same methods are followed as on the silt loam.

DARK COLORED UPLAND SOILS.

33

Land of this type sells for $65 to $90 an acre, depending upon
such factors as location and improvements.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MANAGEMENT OF DARK COLORED

UPLAND SOILS

These dark colored soils are naturally the most fertile soils
in the area. They are generally well supplied with the essential
plant food elements and with organic matter which gives them
their dark color. The total amount of phosphorus in the surface
8 inches is approximately 1,500 pounds per acre. The total
potassium is 35,000 pounds, and the nitrogen from 4,500 to 5,500
pounds per acre 8 inches. Many fields on these soils which have
been cropped for some time will in all probability be benefited by
the use of a phosphorus fertilizer in addition to the use of
manure.

These soils all show some acidity, although it varies with the
location and past treatment of particular fields. Where clover
and alfalfa do not do well the soil should be examined for acid¬
ity and if acid an application of 1,500 to 2,000 pounds of ground
limestone per acre to the sour fields will be found beneficial.

Lying at lower levels than the upland soils, these soils often
receive the run-off water from higher land, and level or low spots
especially need drainage or special methods for taking care of
storm water. In some cases tile drainage would be beneficial, in
others surface ditches rightly placed would keep the land dry.

On account of their level topography and large content of
organic matter, these soils are especially adapted to corn, hay,
and other root crops. Grain crops often give large yields, but
the quality is often not as good as on the lighter colored soils and
oats and barley often lodge badly on these soils. This character¬
istic varies greatly with the character of the season. In case of
low yields on well drained fields, the use of a phosphate fertilizer
would hasten the maturity of crops.

34

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY .

CHAPTER IV.

LIGHT COLORED TINE SANDY LOAM SOILS.

BOONE FINE SANDY LOAM.

Description. — The surface soil of the Boone fine sandy loam to
an average depth of 8 to 10 inches consists of a grayish-brown
fine sandy loam, which in some places contains a considerable
amount of medium sand. The amount of organic matter present
is not large, but a slightly acid condition is found to exist over
most of the type. The subsoil consists of a brown to yellowish-
brown fine to medium sandy loam, which usually extends to a
depth of over 3 feet.

Both soil and subsoil of this type are subject to considerable
variation, though none of the variations are found of sufficient
extent or importance to be mapped separately, except the more
rolling tracts, which are usually shallow. This variation has
been termed the rolling phase and shown separately on the soil
map. In smaller sandy areas in the valleys of Bygolly and Little
Bear Creeks the subsoil is a brown sandy loam, becoming lighter
m color with depth and containing a few small bits of sandstone.
Bordering Buffalo River in T. 24, R. 11, in the northern part of
the county the soil is slightly finer and heavier than usual, vary¬
ing from a fine sandy loam to a loam, and often grading into a
compact sandy clay loam layer at 18 to 24 inches. This heavy
material is again underlain by a yellow sand at 24 to 40 inches.
The differences in texture are due in part to the presence of a
shaly sandstone layer under the soil in places and also to the
proximity of heavier and higher lying soils from which finer par¬
ticles are often washed. Outcrops of sandstone are not uncom¬
mon, though they are not extensive and seldom interfere to any
marked extent with cultivation. The depth to the underlying
rock is variable, and while it averages considerably over 3 feet,
there are places on the tops of ridges and on knolls where there
may be as little as 2 or 3 inches of soil. There are also places

LIGHT COLORED FINE SANDY LOAM SOILS

35

over gently rolling tracts where the soil has a depth of only 2 or
3 feet, but such areas are not extensive.

Extent and Distribution. — The Boone fine sandy loam is one of
the important types in the county, though there are several
which are more extensive. The largest area occurs in the north¬
eastern part of the survey in Naples and Mondovi Townships,
lying mostly south of the Buffalo River. A number of smaller
tracts are found in the vicinity of Gilmanton along the slopes
on the south side of Elk Creek and its two chief branches. Other
small tracts are scattered throughout the northwestern corner
of the county, and to a more limited extent through the southern
part.

Topography and Drainage. — The surface of the Boone fine
sandy loam, including the rolling phase, varies from undulating
to rolling, and in places it becomes quite steep, though there are
but few small areas where the surface is too steep to prevent the
growing of the ordinary farm crops. Where the limestone cap
remains with sandstone outcropping below, a rather steep, nar¬
row belt of fine sandy loam following the contour is produced,
as at the base of the river bluffs at Cochrane and Fountain City.
Where the limestone covering is thinner, and where more of the
sandstone is exposed, as in Little Bear Creek and Spring Creek
Valleys and a few other places, long gently rolling or undulating
slopes are found, being rather steep or rolling only near the
limestone ridge. In the largest area in the northeastern part of
the county, where the limestone capping has been entirely re¬
moved, the topography is nearly level in places. The surface
rises with a gentle gradient up to long, gently rolling slopes, cul¬
minating in low, rolling, oak-timbered knolls, which slope away
again to the next valley. The surface of this soil becomes rolling
also and even rough in places along the southern edge of the
area bordering the outliers of the limestone ridges which pro¬
ject into this type. South of Gilmanton, bordering Elk Creek
Valley, is an irregular area of this type covering 3 or 4 square
miles where the topography varies from gently rolling to rough
and broken.

Because of the sandy nature of this type and its absorptive
capacity it withstands erosion fairly well. On some of the steeper
slopes, however, and over long, more gentle grades, where the
run-off from an extensive area converges, there is some danger
from erosion.

36

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

On account of the sandy character of the soil and the surface
features, the natural drainage of this type is excellent. Where
the soil is shallow and where the slopes are steep the type fre¬
quently suffers from lack of sufficient moisture, though as a
whole it retains moisture fairly well.

Origin. — The original Boone fine sandy loam is largely resid¬
ual, having been derived from the weathering of the Potsdam
sandstone and from a shaly phase of this formation. On some
of the slopes it is probable that some of the sandy material has
been moved short distances down the slope by washing. Where
there is silty material incorporated with the soil it is probable
that a part of this has been washed down from higher lying silt
loam types. Thus it will be seen that the type may also be partly
of colluvial origin, though this phase is of minor importance.
In a few places sand dunes have been formed, but these are also
of small extent.

Native Vegetation. — The original timber growth consisted
partly of black and scrub oak covering the shallow knolls and the
lighter portions of the type. On the heavier portions there was
some birch and maple. Sumac, hazel brush, poplar, and wild
cherry form the second growth in uncultivated places.

Present Agricultural Development .* — By far the greater pro¬
portion of the type is put to some form of agricultural use, and
most of it is cultivated. The wooded portion is confined chiefly
to the steeper slopes and shallow knolls, which are covered mainly
with small oak. As is the case with the county as a whole, most
of the type is devoted to general farming, with dairying as the
most important branch. In connection with dairying quite a
number of hogs are raised. The chief crops grown and the
ordinary yields are as follows : Corn, 40 to 50 bushels ; oats, 30
to 40 bushels ; barley, 35 to 40 bushels ; and hay from 1 to 2 tons
per acre. Some rye is also grown and it gives fair yields. On
some of the level portions of the type some farmers report an
increasing difficulty in getting a good stand of clover. Others
on the gently rolling phase report no trouble at all, none having
been lost in the last seven or eight years. Some very fine stands
of clover appear on some of. the lighter portions of the type,
even though the soil showed a slight indication of acidity in
response to the litmus-paper test.

*For chemical composition and management see page 41.

LIGHT COLORED FINE SANDY LOAM SOILS

37

When the county was first settled wheat was grown extensively
on this soil, but very little is now produced. It is considered a
fair corn soil, and the yields are practically the same as on the
Boone silt loam. Potatoes can be grown successfully, though the
acreage is not large.

The rotation of crops most commonly practiced consists of
corn, followed by oats or barley, with which clover and timothy
are seeded. Hay is cut for one or two years, and the field may
be pastured for a year before being again plowed for corn.
Cultivation of this soil is not difficult, and a lighter class of
implements and stock can be used than on the silt loam type.

The selling price of land of this type is quite variable,' depend¬
ing upon location, character of the surface, texture of the soil,
and improvements. In the area near Mondovi the gently sloping
and nearly level portions of the type sell for $60 to $100 an acre.
The rougher places which are more distantly removed from towns
are held at $40 to $50 an acre. In Little Bear and Spring Creek
Valleys the price of land of this class ranges from $25 to $50 an
acre.

Boone Fine Sandy Loam, Bolling Phase. — The rolling phase of
the Boone fine sandy loam is separated from the typical soil for
two reasons. In the first place the topography is more rolling
than the typical soil and in the second place the depth of the soil
material to the underlying rock is less than the average for the
type as a whole. Because of these two conditions the agricultural
value of the phase is considerably lower than that of the typical
soil. In fact a considerable proportion of the rolling phase has
been left wooded because of its lower value.

In texture the rolling phase is a somewhat lighter fine sandy
loam than the main portion of the type, and the depth to rock,
which is mostly the Potsdam sandstone, ranges from 1 foot to 3
feet. A few rock outcrops occur, but these are not extensive.
The surface of the phase is nowhere found to be so steep as the
steep phase of the Knox silt loam, but may be described as con¬
sisting of rather low ridges with geptle slopes and as regions
where the topography is gently rolling to rolling. Some of the
narrow areas of this type found bordering Knox silt loam or
Rough stony land have been included with the rolling phase.

The rolling phase has the same origin as the typical soil and
the original vegetation is the same. Where this class of land has
been cleared the yields are lower than usual for the type, the

38

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

soil is more subject to drought, and as a whole is less desirable
for farming. That which is now in timber should be allowed to
remain so, and where cultivated the most careful methods of
soil management should be practiced in order that the produc¬
tivity may be increased.

PLAINFIELD FINE SANDY LOAM.

Description. — The surface soil of the Plainfield fine sandy
loam to an average depth of about 14 inches consists of a reddish-
brown heavy fine sandy loam. At about 16 to 20 inches the color
becomes a lighter reddish-brown fine sandy loam, and this grades
into stratified yellow fine sand at from 24 to 36 inches. Gravel
occurs in places in the subsoil of this type south of Mondovi.
While this is about the normal for the type, there are a number
of variations, and the texture may range from a heavy fine
sandy loam to a medium, and in a few places a rather coarse
loamy sand. Some variations in color also occur, these ranging
from dark brown to nearly black in places. None of the varia¬
tions, however, were of sufficient extent to be indicated on the
soil map.

Extent and Distribution. — The largest and most important
area of this type is a long terrace lying between the bluffs and
the Mississippi River in the vicinity of Cochrane. This belt
varies in width from one-half to a mile, parallels the river for a
distance of 6 or 7 miles, and has an elevation above the flood
plain of 5 to 20 feet. The texture and organic matter content of
this area vary somewhat, it being more sandy and of a lighter
color on the side bordering the river than next to the bluffs. The
soil occurs also as a narrow belt occupying a terrace bordering
the Buffalo River in the northeastern part of the county. A few
smaller tracts are found in various stream valleys throughout the
county.

Topography and Drainage. — The Plainfield fine sandy loam is
a terrace soil and the surface is usually level or slopes gently
toward the streams along which it occurs. There are a few
places, however, where the surface is undulating or even gently
rolling, though such tracts are of small extent. On the whole
the type has good drainage, but there are a few places where the
surface is lower than usual and in these there is an excess of
moisture during part of the year. On the other hand, some of the

LIGHT COLORED FINE SANDY LOAM SOILS

39

lighter textured higher places are apt to suffer at times from
drought.

Origin. — This is largely an alluvial soil, the materials having
been deposited by the streams when flowing at a much higher
level than at present. It is noncalcareous and the type is now
slightly acid.

Native Vegetation. — A forest, largely oak, with some elm and
soft maple in the lower places, originally grew on this soil. The
growth was rather open, with grass among the trees. Some por¬
tions of the type were originally in a semiprairie condition.

Present Agricultural Development A — By far the greater pro¬
portion of the Plainfield fine sandy loam is under cultivation. It
is considered a good farming soil. The chief crop grown is corn,
which yields 45 to 50 bushels an acre. Oats yield 35 to 40
bushels an acre and barley about 30 bushels. A small acreage of
wheat is grown and yields of 20 to 25 bushels an acre are
obtained. The yields given above are for the average develop¬
ment of the type. On the more sandy tracts they are somewhat
lower, and on the areas of heavier texture they are higher than
indicated. This is especially true of corn. Timothy and clover
are grown and alfalfa has been tried, but not extensively. Pota¬
toes do well on this class of soil, and it would seem that this crop
could well be grown more extensively.

Land of this type sells for $35 to $40 an acre, depending upon
location, improvements, etc.

LINTONIA FINE SANDY LOAM.

The surface soil of the Lintonia fine sandy loam consists of 10
inches of light-brown or grayish-brown fine sandy loam which
contains only a comparatively small amount of organic matter
and which is acid in some places. The subsoil is a yellowish-
brown, compact fine sandy loam to a depth of 24 to 30 inches,
where the texture and color usually become lighter. In a few
instances a layer of compact clay loam was found at 24 inches.
This lighter material, which would be classed as a loamy fine
sand in most instances, extends to 36 or 40 inches or even deeper,
where stratified fine sand is usually found. The terraces upon
which- this soil is found are often 25 to 30 feet high, and in such
places this stratified material extends at least to this depth.

*For chemical composition and management see page 41.

40

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

The soil is somewhat variable in texture and in some places,
especially on the higher elevations, the surface material is a
loamy fine sand. In its texture the type is quite similar to the
Boone fine sandy loam, and it is subject to about the same varia¬
tions.

The Lintonia fine sandy loam is of limited extent and occupies
only 6.1 square miles. The largest areas are those bordering the
Buffalo River south of Mondovi and along the south side of Far¬
rington Creek west of this place. There is also some of the type
in Kammuler Valley north of Fountain City. Small tracts occur
in various other places in the county.

The surface of this type is level or gently sloping toward the
stream channel along which it occurs. The terrace which the
type occupies has the same position and drainage conditions as
the terraces of Lintonia silt loam, and this soil is subject to the
same danger from erosion. The material composing the soil is
also of the same origin, having been deposited when the waters
were flowing at a much higher level than at present.

The original timber was chiefly scattered oak, but practically
all of this has been removed, except where erosion has rendered
the land unfit for cultivated crops.

The greater proportion of this type is under cultivation. It
appears that the crop returns are somewhat better from the
small areas of this soil in the small valleys than from the larger
tracts found in the valley of the Buffalo River. Practically all
of the crops common to the region are grown on this soil. Corn
yields 30 to 50 bushels; oats, 25 to 40 bushels; barley, 25 to 30
bushels; and clover, 1 ton to 1 y2 tons an acre. While the soil
was frequently found to be in an acid condition by the litmus-
paper test, no difficulty was reported by the farmers in getting
a stand of clover, except during dry years. Rye is grown, but
not so extensively as oats or barley. Fairly good yields are
obtained. During ordinary seasons good crops of corn and fair
crops of hay are always had. When the rainfall is scanty, how¬
ever, the soil suffers from the lack of moisture and crop yields are
reduced to a greater extent than on soils of heavier texture.

The rotation most commonly followed consists of corn, small
grain, and hay. Potatoes might be added to this list. The type
is also well suited to small fruits, strawberries, and a number
of truck crops.

LIGHT COLORED FINE SANDY LOAM SOILS

41

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MANAGEMENT OF LIGHT COLORED FINE

SANDY LOAM SOILS.

The chemical analysis of the soils of this group shows them to
be intermediate in chemical composition as well as in texture and
value between the light colored heavy upland soils and the light
sandy soil group. The total amount of phosphorus in the sur¬
face 8 inches is about 800 pounds per acre, of potassium about
20,000 pounds, and of nitrogen from 1200 to 1600 pounds.

Varying degrees of acidity are found on these soils and where
best results are not obtained with clover and alfalfa, it will be
advisable to apply 1500 to 2000 pounds of ground limestone per
acre.

In improving these soils it is necessary first to see that the
supply of organic matter is increased. This may be accomplished
by growing green manuring crops of which the legumes are
best — such as clover, the second crop of which should be plowed
under before ripening. The supply of stable manure is often
too limited and mineral fertilizers in addition to green manuring
crops will be found to increase crops in such cases. Phosphorus
in the form of acid phosphate applied at the rate of 300 pounds
per acre once in 3 or 4 years will supply the plant food needed.
By applying phosphorus and lime any trouble with clover or
alfalfa should be overcome and when once these crops are suc¬
cessfully growing the greatest difficulty in building up soil has
been overcome.

These soils are adapted to a variety of crops. Corn and small
grains do very well but dry weather often injures crops such as
grass and clover on these soils more than on the deeper and
heavier soils. They are also adapted to potatoes and other truck
and garden crops. A rotation which gives good results con¬
sists of small grain, followed by clover — the first crop for hay and
the second plowed under. Next year corn or potatoes are grown.
When the organic matter content has been sufficiently increased
or when there is plenty of manure, the second clover crop can
be cut for hay or ripened for seed.

42

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

CHAPTER V.

GROUP OF LIGHT COLORED FINE SANDS AND SANDS.

LINTONIA FINE SAND.

The surface soil of the Lintonia fine sand consists of a light-
gray or yellowish loose fine sand extending to a depth of about
8 inches. This is underlain by a yellow loose fine sand which ex¬
tends to a depth below the reach of the soil auger. In texture,
structure, and color this type is quite similar to the Boone fine
sand, but differs from that type in origin and topography. Like
the Boone fine sand, it contains only a very small amount of
organic matter and is in an acid condition.

The Lintonia fine sand is of very small extent and minor im¬
portance in the present survey. It covers only 1 square mile,
the largest area occurring in the northeastern part of the county
along the south side of the Buffalo River. It occupies a ter¬
race position between the present flood plain and areas of Boone
fine sand.

The surface of this type is nearly level to gently undulating,
with a gradual slope toward the Buffalo River. On account of
the loose structure the natural drainage is excessive and the soil
is droughty. While the type occupies a position above the pres¬
ent flood plain, the elevation is never so great as that of the other
types of this series, which also occur as terrace soils.

As indicated above, the type occupies a low terrace and the
material composing it is of alluvial origin. Possibly a small
amount of material has also been washed down from the higher
land adjoining, but the proportion of the type that is of colluvial
origin is small.

The original timber was chiefly oak, but the growth was rather
scattering.

At present nearly all of the type is under cultivation, and
most of the crops common to the region are grown. Yields are

GROUP OF LIGHT SANDS AND FINE SANDS

43

low, however, and the soil can only be worked profitably under
the best methods of soil management.*

BOONE FINE SAND

The surface soil of the Boone fine sand consists of a brown to
yellowish-brown or grayish-brown fine to medium sand extend¬
ing to an average depth of about 8 inches. This is underlain by
a fine sand of a lighter yellow color than the surface, extending
to a depth considerably below 3 feet. The amount of organic
matter present is very low. There is some variation in the tex¬
ture of both soil and subsoil and portions of the type might be
classed as medium sand, but as the type is inextensive and as
the fine sand seemed to predominate it was considered advisable
to include all of the material in one type. In section 19 and
vicinity in Manville Township the soil is slightly heavier than
typical. A portion of it is also somewhat loamy, and as a result
more productive than the typical soil.

The largest area of this soil, covering about 3!/2 or 4 square
miles, occurs in Spring Creek Valley, in T. 24, R. 13. Most of
the medium sand was found in this region. South of Mondovi
and along the south side of the Buffalo River wind-blown areas
occur. A few other patches of small extent are found associated
with the Boone fine sandy loam in the northern part of the
county.

The surface of this type varies from very gently undulating
to gently rolling. There are a few low ridges and some low sand
dunes, and where the type borders Rough stony land or other
types occupying the steep slopes, the surface near the boundary
frequently has considerable slope. On account of the surface
features and the loose, open character of both soil and subsoil,
the natural drainage is excessive and the type is droughty.
None of the slopes is sufficiently steep to make the prevention of
erosion an important factor in the management of this soil.

In origin the Boone fine sand is largely residual, having been
derived from the weathering of Potsdam sandstone. There is
but little organic matter present and such a small amount of
silt and clay that the loose surface material is readily blown by
the wind, and in a number of places low sand dunes have been

*For chemical composition and management see page 48.

44

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

formed. The material composing the type is in an acid condi¬
tion, as indicated by the litmus-paper test.

The original timber growth on this type consisted chiefly of
scattered scrubby oak. Coarse grasses and sand burs are also
found growing on the type, though there are a number of places
where the surface is bare of vegetation and the soil is now drift¬
ing.

On account of its loose, open character and the resulting
droughty condition, its low content of organic matter, and the
fact that, it is subject to drifting in places, this soil has a low agri¬
cultural value. While most of it is cleared, there is a consider¬
able proportion which is not farmed because of the small yields.
Corn produces 20 bushels per acre where the rainfall is well dis¬
tributed, but the crop if often a failure. Rye produces 8 to 12
bushels, and buckwheat 10 to 12 bushels an acre. Grass and
clover are not successfully grown, and the coarse, wild grasses
supply little pasturage. Potatoes are not grown extensively, and
the yields are small. A portion of the type in section 19, Man-
ville Township, is better than the average. Here corn frequently
produces 30 bushels and buckwheat as much as 30 bushels an
acre during favorable years. #

The selling price of most of the land of this type ranges from
$10 to $15 an acre. The heavy phase, indicated above, has a
somewhat higher value.

WAUKESHA GRAVELLY SANDY LOAM.

The type mapped as Waukesha gravelly sandy loam is of very
small extent and of minor importance in the present survey. It
occurs in two separate tracts which have a somewhat different
texture. That just northwest of Cochrane has a surface soil
which consists of 12 to 16 inches of black or dark-brown loam.
This contains a considerable quantity of coarse, rounded sand
particles, and in a number of places the surface soil is a sandy
loam. There is usually sufficient clay present to make the soil
sticky when wet. The subsoil consists of a yellowish sandy loam
to about 24 to 30 inches, where rounded, rather fine gravel is en¬
countered. This bed of stratified gravel and coarse sand is com¬
pact and difficult to penetrate with the soil auger.

*For chemical composition and management see page 48.

GROUP OF LIGHT SANDS AND FINE SANDS

45

The second area is found on the terrace near Nelson. The
texture of the soil here is somewhat more silty than that of the
first mentioned area, though here also the soil varies to a coarse
sandy loam, and in a few places a coarse loamy sand appears at
the surface. This area is also underlain by stratified gravel.
In a few localities this fine gravel outcrops, and there is consider¬
able gravel scattered over the surface in such places. The sur¬
face soil is in an acid condition, as indicated by the litmus-paper
test.

The surface of the type is level or very gently sloping. On
account of the underlying sand and gravel beds the drainage is
thorough, sometimes excessive, and, except where the covering
over the gravel is deeper than usual, the type is inclined to be
droughty during dry periods.

The type is a terrace soil situated well above the present flood
plain. Portions of it appear to lie in an abandoned stream chan¬
nel, later filled by sediment and now having the same elevation
as the remainder of the terrace. In such places the gravel is
as much as 4 feet below the surface.

The Waukesha gravelly sandy loam is a prairie soil, the native
growth consisting chiefly of grasses.

At present the greater part of it is under cultivation, and dur¬
ing favorable years as much as 40 to 50 bushels of corn are grown
per acre. Oats may yield 30 to 40 bushels and hay 1 ton to iy2
tons per acre. During dry seasons, however, the yields are con¬
siderably lower and crops frequently suffer greatly from lack
of moisture.

PLAINFIELD FINE SAND

The surface soil of the Plainfield fine sand to an average depth
of about 10 inches consists of a dark-gray to dark-brown fine
sand having a loose structure and a comparatively low content
of organic matter. Litmus-paper tests indicate that the soil is
acid. The subsoil consists of a fine to medium sand, which be¬
comes lighter in color and grades into stratified sand in the lower
subsoil. There is some variation in the texture and some of the
material included with this type could be classed as a medium
sand if the areas were of sufficient extent.

The type is of small extent and of minor importance. The
largest areas are found in Spring Creek and Little Bear Valleys.

46 SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY .

The soil in Spring Creek Valley is somewhat coarser in texture
than typical. In the vicinity of Waumandee there is also a
small amount of this soil, and here the type is better than the
average, having a finer texture and containing enough silt arid
clay to make it slightly loamy.

Generally the surface of the type is level or slopes gently
toward the streams. In a few places there is a billowy topog¬
raphy, and small undulations are common. These, are doubt¬
less due to the action of the wind. On account of the loose, open
structure of the material, the natural drainage is excessive.
There are some portions of the type where erosion has cut rather
deep channels, especially on the gently sloping terraces in Little
Bear Valley.

Areas of this type occur within valleys of streams which head
within the driftless region, and there is no glacial material, even
in the stratified subsoil. The sand was doubtless derived from
Potsdam sandstone and later carried down the slopes by the ac¬
tion of water and deposited by stream action when the volume
of water was much greater than it is at present, and when the
streams were running at a much higher level.

The original growth on the Plainfield fine sand consisted
chiefly of a few scattering scrub oak and some prairie grass.

A relatively large proportion of this soil is under cultivation,
but it is doubtful if the average crop is profitable under present
conditions of farming. Corn is grown to some extent, but the
yields are low. Probably the average is not over 15 bushels per
acre. During dry years the crops usually fail. Rye, which is
grown more extensively than other small grains, usually yields
about 8 to 12 bushels per acre. Buckwheat yields 10 to 12 bush¬
els per acre. Clover and the grasses do not thrive and the pas¬
turage is of little value except early in the season. Potatoes are
of fairly good quality, but yields are small. This type is low in
organic matter, and in order that farming operations may be
profitable the most careful methods of soil and farm management
are necessary.*

Land of this type sells for $10 to $20 an acre. Farm buildings
are usually inferior and fences and other improvements in poor
condition.

*For chemical composition and management of this soil see page 48.

GROUP OF LIGHT SANDS AND FINE SANDS 47

PLAINFIELD SAND.

The surface soil of the Plainfield sand to an average depth of
about 12 to 14 inches consists of a fairly loose, brown to dark-
brown loamy sand of medium texture. There is a considerable
amount of fine sand mixed with the medium sand in places, and
in such places the soil might be classed as a fine sand if of suf¬
ficient extent. Litmus-paper tests indicate that the soil is acid.
The subsoil consists of a lighter brown medium sand which gradu¬
ally becomes a yellow sand at from 28 to 36 inches. The deep
subsoil consists of stratified sand in which varying amounts of
gravel may be found. As a rule the soil next to the bluffs is
darker and slightly heavier than that close to the river.

The largest area of this type mapped in the present survey oc¬
curs as a narrow terrace along the Chippewa River Valley in
the northwestern part of the county. This terrace ranges in
width from one-eighth to one-half mile, and has a length of over
10 miles and an elevation above the flood plain of the river of 20
to 50 feet or more. The rise from the flood plain is quite abrupt
in most places. At the mouth of Big Waumandee Creek there is
a terrace of the same soil about 4 miles long and in its widest
place about three-fourths of a mile across. None of this type is
found outside of the Mississippi and Chippewa Valleys.

The terrace occupied by this soil has the same position as that
occupied by the La Crosse fine sandy loam, and the surface is
usually level or gently sloping toward the streams. In places
there is an undulating or billowy topography, where the wind
apparently has altered the original surface features to a slight
extent. On account of the loose, open structure of the material
the type is excessively drained and subject to drought.

Being of a terrace formation, the type is alluvial in origin, the
material having been deposited by the Mississippi River during
the glacial period, when the volume of water carried by that
stream was much greater than at the present time. A small
quantity of gravel is mixed with the sand in the low ei sections,
and this gravel is doubtless of glacial origin, as is also a part of
the sandy material.

The greater proportion of this type was originally in the con¬
dition of a prairie, with only a few scattered sciubby oaks.
Prairie grass was the most common growth, though this was not

heavy.

48

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

More than half the area of the Plainfield sand is under culti¬
vation, although as a whole it must be considered of rather low
agricultural value. During the most favorable years, when the
rainfall is well distributed, fair crops are obtained, but usually,
owing to the lack of moisture and of plant food, the ordinary
yields are not satisfactory. That part of the type immediately
along the bluffs has probably been influenced to some extent by
the wash from the heavier upland soils, and for a short distance
from the bluffs yields are usually better than along the outer
margin of the type. Some areas are uncultivated practically all
of the time, because of their extremely sandy nature and con¬
sequent low productiveness. On some fields a crop is grown
every second year and the ground fallowed in alternate years.

On this type rye is an important crop and yields of 20 to 25
bushels per acre are common during the most favorable years.
Corn yields 25 to 40 bushels per acre under the most favorable
conditions, but the ordinary yields are far below these figures.
Buckwheat is grown to some extent. Clover can be grown suc¬
cessfully only on the lower, darker portions of the type, and
even here the yields are not large. Potatoes do fairly well, but
only a few are grown for market.

The selling price of land of this type ranges from $10 to $40
an acre, depending upon location, improvements, etc.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MANAGEMENT OF SANDS AND FINE

SANDS.

On chemical composition these sandy soils show much less of
the important plant food elements than do the upland silt loam
soils of this county. The total phosphorus in the surface 8 inches
averages 700 to 800 pounds per acre, while the amount of po¬
tassium is about 16,000 pounds in an acre inches. The organic
matter in these soils is about half that in the Knox silt loam
and less than one third of that in the dark prairie soils of the
state.

Since Potsdam sandstone is the chief source of essentially all
of these soils, they are low in lime carbonate, except in a few
places where the sand occurs at a lower level than the beds of
limestone, and thus receives a small amount of lime carbonate in
the water from the higher slopes. The surface soil of all these
types is acid, and will require lime. While these soils are defi-

GROUP OF LIGHT SANDS AND FINE SANDS

49

cient in all of the important elements, they have certain advan¬
tages for special crops, and it is possible to profitably supplement
their natural supply of plant food material by the use of fertil¬
izers. All systems of farming on such land should be planned in
such a way as either to conserve its natural fertility, or supply
it by the use of commercial fertilizers.

The most important differences between these sandy types of
soils and heavier classes, such as silt loams and clay loams, how¬
ever, are not of a chemical nature, but of a physical nature, hav¬
ing to do with their water holding capacity, drainage, tillage,
etc. Suggestions for the improvement of these types are based
upon field experiments, chemical and mechanical analyses, and
upon studies and observations covering a variety of sandy soils.

In the management of these sandy soils it should be kept in
mind that they are naturally low in organic matter and in the
mineral elements required, the water holding capacity is poor
and the soil is acid. As all of the types in this group are in an
acid condition they would be greatly benefited by the application
of lime.

When the amount of organic matter or humus forming mate¬
rial in the soil is increased, the water holding capacity is also
increased. The humus forming material can best be increased
by applying stable manure and by plowing under legumes as
green manure. Of the legumes red and mammoth clover are
perhaps better adapted to sandy soils than any of the others,
but neither of these nor alfalfa will make the most satisfactory
growth until the acid condition is corrected. The mineral ele¬
ments required may be supplied by the use of commercial fertil¬
izers.

When a soil can be made to produce a fair crop of clover, with¬
out an excessive expenditure, that soil can be successfully and
profitably improved. It is therefore important that the first
efforts in building up a soil should be directed toward the estab¬
lishing of conditions which will be favorable for the growth of
clover.

From experiments conducted it seems advisable to sow clover
without a nurse crop, where the fertility of the soil is very low,
since it will then have all of the moisture in the sand for its own
growth. There is also some danger of the young plants being
damaged by the hot sun when the nurse crop is removed. The
field intended for clover should be plowed in the fall, or as

50

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

early as possible in the spring, and a top dressing of ground
limestone applied at the rate of 2,000 pounds per acre. The
field should be harrowed at short intervals to kill all weeds, and
this harrowing should be kept up until about the middle of May.
Fifteen pounds of seed per acre should be sown and covered to
a depth of iy2 to 2 inches. The seeding should be followed by
a roller to compact the soil around the seed, and the roller should
be followed by a light harrow to roughen and loosen the im¬
mediate surface to check evaporation and blowing of sand by
the wind, or a corrugated roller can be used to do the work of
both. Where it can be secured a top dressing of well rotted
manure should be applied before the last harrowing. If ma¬
nure is not available about 300 pounds of acid phosphate or
ground steamed bone-meal and 100 pounds of muriate of potash
should be applied at the time of seeding to clover. If only a
small amount of manure is available it may be supplemented by
ground rock phosphate, and this can be sprinkled over the ma¬
nure in the spreader and applied -at the same time.

Peat may often be used to advantage as a fertilizer if peat
marshes are close at hand. It contains a high percentage of
nitrogen, but should be supplemented by potash and phosphate
fertilizers, as it is deficient in these elements. The use of a light
application of manure will assist in making the nitrogen of the
peat become available to plants.

Late in the summer it may be necessary to clip the weeds
which are sure to come. The cutting bar should be run high
and the clipping left on the field as a mulch. The second year
the first crop should be cut for hay and the second crop plowed
under as green manure to prepare the land for a cultivated crop.
After the first application, ground limestone should be applied
at the rate of about 1,000 pounds per acre once during every
rotation. The amount of commercial fertilizers containing phos¬
phorus and potash which should be subsequently applied will
depend on the crops to be grown and especially on the amount
of manure produced on the farm.

Soybeans or yellow lupine or spring vetch may be grown on
sandy soils and if plowed under they furnish organic matter
and nitrogen to the soil. When the soil has been built up, a
nurse crop may be used in seeding clover and other legumes to
better advantage than when the soil is run down and poor.

GROUP OF LIGHT SANDS AND FINE SANDS

51

A three, four, or five year rotation may be followed. If but
little stock is kept, a three year rotation consisting of a cultivated
crop of corn or potatoes followed by rye or oats and clover the
third year works well. The second crop of clover should be
plowed under. If manure is scarce, acid phosphate and potash
must be applied in addition to green manuring crops to keep up
the fertility of sandy soils. If considerable stock is kept the
rotation can be increased to four years using the clover field
one year for pasture before plowing up. The manure applied
in the winter or early spring of the year the clover is pastured
increases the value of the pasture and benefits the next crop.
The silo should be used to supplement pasture on sandy soil.

In a five year rotation alfalfa, may be introduced, but this
requires that considerable stock be kept, since none of the alfalfa
should be sold. The field should be left in alfalfa for three years
with two years given to cultivated crops and grain. Manure
should be applied to the cultivated crop and also to the first year
of alfalfa. This system is very desirable except that it does not
provide any pasture. To overcome this the farm may be divided
and both the four and the five year rotation practiced. Alfalfa
may also be grown by itself and kept on the same field year after
year, in which case its place in the rotation should be filled by
clover. When the alfalfa begins to run out, the field should be
reseeded.

In the cultivation of the sandy soils fall plowing for rye, and
spring plowing for all other crops, is the usual practice. The
seed bed should be prepared to a depth of at least 8 inches and
organic matter should be worked in deeply as well as near the
surface to increase the water-holding capacity and to induce a
deeper development of the roots. When the land is plowed in
the spring it is often advisable to pack the soil with a roller, but
this should be followed by a light harrow to secure a mulch on
the surface. Where the fields are exposed, and the soil is blown
by the wind, an effort should be made to prevent damage from
this source. The most effective plan is to lay out the land in
long narrow fields so as to have crops that cover the ground in
the early spring, such as clover and rye, alternate with the culti¬
vated ground.

With the successful growing of clover and possibly alfalfa,
the dairy industry may be developed to a much greater extent
than at present. By plowing under a crop of clover every few

52

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

years and by following a definite rotation and approved meth¬
ods, the yields of potatoes will be greatly increased; and this
crop may well be depended upon as one of the chief sources of
income for the sandy soils of the area. Beans, peas, sweet corn,
etc., could be profitably grown to a much greater extent, and the
trucking industry should be extended where arrangements can
be made for marketing. The soil warms up early and is well
suited to cucumbers, strawberries, and all quick maturing
vegetables.

MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL

53

CHAPTER VI.

MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL.

ROUGH STONY LAND.

Rough stony land includes rock exposures, cliffs, and land
which is too steep and rough to plow or cultivate profitably. It
may be considered nonagricultural, as it is of value only for the
small amount of timber and pasture which it supplies.

This type occupies a large part of the steep walls bordering
the valleys and forms a border between the valley bottoms and
the high land of the ridges. The type is developed as narrow
bands, many miles in extent, winding in and out of the valleys
and coves, but confined to the steepest slopes. A part of the type
occurs as narrow ridges upon which areas of soil too small to be
mapped are sometimes found. The bluffs and cliffs are highest
along the western portion of the county, and frequently reach an
elevation of 450 to 500 feet above the valley bottoms there. The
ridge tops are also wider here than elsewhere, and range in
width from one-half to 1 mile, while in the interior of the county
and along the eastern portion the valleys ramify more exten¬
sively, the ridge tops are narrower, and the steep valley walls
are not so high. The elevation of the ridge tops ranges from
150 to 250 feet above the valley floor throughout most of the
interior of the county.

Rough stony land is quite uniformly distributed throughout
the upland portion of the county and is intimately associated
with Knox silt loam and the steep phase of that type. Wherever
there are a few inches of soil it is usually a silt loam, though there
are exceptions to this in the region of sandstone rocks where the
soil is sandy. The greater proportion of the rock exposed con¬
sists of lower Magnesian limestone, though there is also consid¬
erable Potsdam sandstone exposed directly below the limestone.

54

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

The forest growth consists of white oak, red oak, hickory, and
a few birch and elm trees. The best of the timber has been re¬
moved and the remainder serves to protect the slopes from wash¬
ing.

The inclusion of Rough stony land in farms reduces the value
of better land and it renders the fields and farms on the ridges
less accessible. It makes hauling to market difficult, as many of
the roads from the valleys to the upland cross steep strips of
this class of land.

THE GENESEE SOILS.

This series of soils includes all material deposited in the pres¬
ent flood plains of the Mississippi and Chippewa Rivers which
border the county on the west and north, and of the lower part
of Buffalo River in the center of the county. Owing to the mixed
nature of the material and difficulty in seeing much of it, the
separation of types on the floodplains is not done in a strictly de¬
tailed manner, the main object being to separate the sandy soils
from the heavier ones.

GENESEE FINE SANDY LOAM

This type includes all the sandy material of the floodplains
above mentioned. Much of the soil which is a fine sandy loam
consists of 6 to 10 inches of compact dark brown fine sandy loam
on yellowish brown fine sandy loam or fine sand. Layers of
medium or coarse sand often occur in the subsoil at varying
depths. Considerable variations in the texture of this type
occur. Chocolate brown fine sandy loam or loam soil often bor¬
ders the banks of the sloughs or sand knolls and ridges occur
with intervening swales and low spots of heavier loam or silt
loam soil on sand. This type of soil follows the channels of the
Chippewa and Mississippi Rivers and the sloughs connected with
them all along the north and west sides of the county, occupying
a considerable portion of the 32,000 acres of flood plain land in
the county. Some of thte islands in the Mississippi River are
mere banks or flats of sand built up by the river, others are
sandy around the edges with heavier soil in the interior. Con¬
siderable amounts of the more sandy phase are included also

MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL

55

in Sections 12, 13, 24, and 25 east and north of Maxwell Station.

The Genesee soils lie upon a low level to flat irregularly wooded
plain cut by sloughs and old stream channels. Some of the sandy
knolls are more elevated, the t}Tpe lying from 1 to 10 feet above
normal water stage. Some of the higher sandy knolls are seldom
if ever flooded but most of the bottom land is subject to flooding
especially in spring. Occasionally as much as 6 or 8 feet of water
has covered the bottoms. Floods are less frequent since the dis¬
continuance of logging operations and dams on the sloughs. In
general the highest elevations occur along sloughs and along the
rivers.

The soil material has been deposited in the valley bottoms by
the more recent floods of the rivers and is largely derived from
glacial material brought down by the streams from farther north
and east.

In the lower portions and bordering the sloughs the soil is
timbered, often quite heavily, to elm, oak, birch, and soft maple
or birch and willow brush. More elevated or sandy portions
subject to considerable drying out at times, have scattered oak
and in some cases a semi-prairie condition with red-top grass and
scattered oaks, is found.

Some small patches of the soil have been under cultivation and
very good yields obtained. Most of the soil cannot be used and
serves only as a pasture land and furnishes some hay. The
higher sandy portions which are cultivated in one or two places,
produce good rye, potatoes, or corn, but in dry seasons are sub¬
ject to drought due to the open sandy subsoil which prevents
capillary rise of water. Less elevated portions of the soil which
are also somewhat finer are reported to have produced as much
as 60 bushels of corn, 250 bushels of potatoes, and 60 bushels of
oats per acre in favorable seasons. These yields cannot be
depended upon because these lower portions of the soil type are
often subject to overflow.

Low Phase Genesee Fine Sandy Loam. — Within the area of fine
sandy loam (largely wooded) are included low open areas of
overflow land which are covered with water most of the time.
The vegetation consists of reeds, sweet flag, and generally coarser
marsh grasses. Where such areas are extensive they have been
separated out as low phase of the fine sandy loam.

The soil on such overflow areas is generally heavier than that
on the wooded portions and varies greatly in depth and texture.

56

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

The soil is generally a grayish drab or mottled brown loam on a
sandy loam subsoil. The surface heavy layer is often only 2 to
8 inches deep, but may be as much as 3 feet deep in the larger
open areas. Coarse sand layers may be found in the subsoil in
shallow places and bluish sticky clay layers are also found where
the soil is deeper. In Section 1 southwest of Nelson, the soil of
this phase is a mealy chocolate-brown loamy material containing
much organic matter, fine silt, and coarse sand grains. This is
6 to 10 inches deep on dark brown sandy loam.

None of this phase of the soil has ever been cultivated and
it now has little agricultural use, the amount of hay cut on it
being limited because of the generally coarse nature of the
grasses which grow on most of these low areas.

GENESEE SILT LOAM.

This is a compact mealy chocolate-brown silt loam becoming
lighter brown in color at 8 to 12 inches. Fine and very fine sand
particles are found in the subsoil in increasing amounts until
at about 16 to 20 inches the soil often becomes a fine sandy loam
with yellowish brown sandy loam at 20 to 30 inches. The depth
of surface soil varies from 8 to 30 inches. In low wet marshy
places the soil is a grayish or bluish mottled color with a sticky
clay loam subsoil underlaid at greater depth by sandy loam
material.

This type covers about 17 square miles of the bottom lands
from Alma north along the Mississippi and Chippewa Rivers.

The surface is level with some small knolls and is cut by old
sloughs and drainage courses or slightly lower marshy areas.
The elevations are greatest near the larger streams and the best
drained areas border the Chippewa and Mississippi Rivers.

Like the other Genesee types the soil was deposited by over¬
flow waters of the rivers and is still subject to overflow in time
of high water.

The vegetation consists of heavy timber composed largely of
big trees. Elm, soft maple, oak, and cotton wood are interspersed
with more open glades covered with a dense growth of tall blue
joint grass. Lower more continually flooded marshy areas are
covered with coarser grasses, reeds, and sweet flags as well as
patches of brush-alder, willow, and birch .

MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL

57

Outside of pasture land and the cutting of blue joint hay, very
little agricultural use is made of the soil at present. Farms have
been started at a number of places, but the almost annual floe
ing and uncertainty of crop yields has led to their partial or
complete abandonment in most cases. The soil material is highly
fertile and in favorable seasons excellent yields of corn, small
grain, potatoes, and tame hay have been produced. Drainage
would require expensive dikes or levees to keep-off floods, but if
its drainage could be accomplished this soil would make excellent
farm land.

GENESEE SILTY CLAY LOAM

This is a dark brown sticky silty clay loam on medium to fine
sandy loam. The depth of heavy surface soil varies from 8 to 30
inches or more. The deepest dark brown surface layer occurs on
the higher portions near the streams. Grayish or mottled brown
silty clay loam with blue clay subsoil at 18 to 24 inches is found in
the lower open marshy areas near the main land. As with the
other Genesee types, this soil type is not entirely uniform and
includes some soil of lighter texture. A sticky brown or mottled
loam or sandy loam on a sandy loam subsoil occurs in places,
especially along the immediate banks of the sloughs.

The silty clay loam covers about 8 square miles of the bottoms
from Fountain City south to Marshland.

The topography is level with slight knolls or slightly elevated
areas interspersed with lower wet areas. In dry years with low
water, some of the more elevated portions have sufficient drainage
for cultivation. The lower marshy portions and all of the type
in times of high water is too wet to cultivate and drainage by
diking ditches and probably pumping are necessary to make the
land available for continued farming.

The soil is an alluvial deposit laid down in more quiet water
than that in which the coarser soils to the north were deposited.

As in the case of the silt loam, the soil is partly timbered with
large elm, oak, soft maple, basswood, and birch trees. Tall blue
joint grass grows among the more scattered trees. Much of the
soil is in a marshy condition and coarse grasses and sweet flags
cover these portions with scattered clumps of birch and willow
tree brush.

58

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

In the southwest corner of the county a part of this type of soil
has been protected from overflow and partially drained by
straightening the channel of the Trempealeau River by closing
some of the sloughs and dredging a main ditch through the area.
Crops consist mainly of corn, hay, and some potatoes. Only the
higher knolls are cultivated, hay being cut on the lower portions.
The soil is fertile material and when well drained produces very
good yields.

WABASH LOAM.

The Wabash loam where typically developed consists of a
black loam surface soil extending to a depth of 12 to 16 inches,
underlain by drab or grayish loam or silt loam which, in the
lower subsoil, grades into sandy material. As found in this
county, however, the type is quite variable and there is a consid¬
erable proportion which does not conform closely with this
description. In a number of places the surface soil contains vary¬
ing quantities of fine and very fine sand, and in such places the
color is usually lighter than where the texture is a loam or silt
loam. In a number of places the subsoil is darker than the pres¬
ent surface soil, owing to the fact that the original black surface
has been covered by wash of lighter colored material from the
adjoining slopes. Frequently large amounts of sand and frag¬
ments of limestone have been washed out over the soil from the
tributary valleys and ravines and the variations which result
from such conditions could not be indicated. The material com¬
posing the type, however, is better adapted to agricultural devel¬
opment than most of the Genessee Series and was therefore sep¬
arated from that series.

The Wabash loam is found most extensively along the Buffalo
and Trempealeau Rivers and Big and Little Waumandee Creeks
and some of their tributaries. It occupies narrow strips along
these streams and is the lowest land in the bottoms. The surface
usually has a gentle slope toward the streams and most of the
type is subject to overflow. By straightening and deepening
stream channels much of this type doubtless could be reclaimed.
Tile drains could also be used in draining such tracts.

In origin this type is largely alluvial, though there are many
narrow valleys and ravines having a small amount of this soil

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MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL

59

along the bottoms where the material is colluvial in origin. In
such places there is a great rush of water during heavy rains,
but this quickly runs off on account of the steep grade.

The growth on this soil consists of willow, hazel brush, poplar,
cherry, elm, and soft maple. There is a rank growth of grass over
much of the type, affording excellent pasturage, and frequently
hay is cut where there is no brush to interfere.

The cutting of hay and pasturing are the only agricultural
uses to which the Wabash loam is put at present. If properly
drained, as some of it could be, it would be adapted to corn,
small grains, timothy hay, alsike clover, and a number of other
crops.

PEAT.

Description . — The material mapped as Peat consists of vege¬
table matter in various stages of decomposition and with which
there has frequently been incorporated a very small quantity of
mineral matter. The surface is black or dark brown and is
usually fairly well decomposed, while the underlying material is

of a brownish color and fibrous in most cases. The Peat extends
to a depth greater than 3 feet in all cases, and it is probable that
it exceeds 10 feet over most of the areas, though the exact depth
was not determined.

Extent and Distribution. — The Peat in this survey is of rather
small extent. The largest area extends from about 3 miles west
of Mondovi west and northwest to the county line and south¬
ward through several stream valleys. The area comprises the
divide between Farrington Creek, flowing east into Buffalo River,
and Big Bear Creek, flowing west into the Chippewa River.
This divide, however, is not marked, and no differences in eleva¬
tion in the marsh can be detected by the eye. Other areas of
Peat are encountered in various stream valleys throughout the
county, the largest occurring along the Trempealeau River in the
southeastern part of the county. These consist of low, wet tracts
bordering the river, and it would be difficult to reclaim them.

Native Vegetation.— Some of the areas of Peat are timbered
with a dense growth of tamarack, while other portions are treeless
and support a thick growth of coarse, wild grass. In Fanington
Creek Valiev both conditions are found. Over the open marshes

60

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

the wild grass is frequently cut for hay, and this is the extent of
the present agricultural use of this soil.

In a number of the Peat areas reclamation is practicable.
When properly handled the Peat should yield good crops of corn,
timothy, and alsike clover, and even small grains can be grown
successfully.

None of the Peat soil has been artificially drained, its agri¬
cultural use being confined to pasture and production of hay.

Chemical Composition and improvement of Genesee soils and
Peat.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF BUFFALO COUNTY

61

CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

Agriculture in Buffalo County dates back to the first settle¬
ments of this region, which were made between 1845 and 1850.
As was the case in other parts of Wisconsin, the production of
grain early became the chief branch of farming, and for a con¬
siderable time wheat was grown more extensively than all other
grains combined. As late as 1885 wheat still constituted about
50 per cent of the grain produced, while oats made up about 27
per cent and corn about 16 per cent. The history of grain
growing in this region is similar to that of other parts of the
State. Fields were cropped to grain continuously for .such a long
period that the productiveness of the soil was gradually reduced,
and when the prices began to decline and insect pests became
troublesome the crop was not very profitable. During the last
25 or 30 years there has been a gradual falling off in the produc¬
tion of wheat, andi in 1910 the total acreage for the county was
only 4,575 acres. With the decline in wheat growing there has
been an increase in the production of oats, hay, and corn, and
the system of farming which is followed at present is a much
better one than that practiced a half century ago.

The present agriculture consists of general farming, with
dairying as the most important and highly specialized branch,
and the tendency throughout the county is toward a still greater
development of the dairy farming. With this industry are com¬
ing better methods of farming, improved grades of live stock,
and a greater interest in all lines of agricultural development.

The general farm crops most extensively grown, in the order of
their acreage, are oats, hay, corn, barley, rye, and wheat.

Oats are grown more extensively than any other crop in the
county, and in 1909, according to the census reports, 1,377,555

62

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

bushels were produced from 46,304 acres, or about 30 bushels to
the acre. Part of the crop is marketed through elevators at
Fountain City, Alma, Mondovi, and Winona, Minn., but the
greater part is fed to stock on the farms. Oats form the bulk of
the grain fed to horses and are ground as part of the ration for
feeding cattle and hogs. The crop is grown mainly on the Knox
silt loam. It is grown quite extensively also on the Lintonia silt
loam, Boone fine sandy loam, Bates silt loam, and Waukesha silt
loam, on all of which good yields are obtained. On the more
sandy types yields are considerably lower. The quality of all
small grains is best where grown on light-colored soils, and the
Knox silt loam is considered to be the best small-grain soil in the
county. On dark soils the growth of straw is apt to be too rank
and the plants frequently lodge. Also, the grain is slightly
inferior in quality, and is lighter in weight than that grown on
the lighter-colored silt loam types.

Hay is the second crop in importance. In 1909 hay was cut
from 40,709 acres, producing 75,059 tons, or an average of about
1% tons per acre. Clover and timothy constitute the greater
part of the hay grown. There is a considerably greater acreage
devoted to timothy alone than to clover alone. Much wild hay
is cut from areas of Peat and Genessee Soils and some from wet
areas of Wabash loam. There are a few fields of alfalfa in the
county, but this crop is grown only to a very small extent at
present.

Corn ranks third in acreage. From 25,043 acres in 1909 a
yield of 838.441 bushels was obtained, or an average of over 33
bushels per acre. The A\ aukesha and Bates silt loams are the
best corn soils in the county and on these types yields of 50 to 60
or even 70 bushels per acre are obtained under favorable condi¬
tions, and the average yield is always considerably above the
average for the county. A large quantity of corn is cut and put
into the silo each year, and the quantity is gradually increasing
as the dairy industry develops. Practically all of the corn
allowed to mature is fed to hogs or other stock on the farms where
it is produced, and comparatively little is sold. Dent varieties
are grown most extensively, and improvement is being made
through the use of more carefully selected seed.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF BUFFALO COUNTY

63

Barley ranks fourth in acreage, 24,911 acres in 1909 giving
632,422 bushels, or an average yield of slightly over 25 bushels
per acre. Barley is grown on most of the soils of the county,
except the extremely sandy types. It appears to do better
than oats on sandy and fine sandy loam soils. The acreage on
the Knox silt loam has been decreasing more rapidly than on
some of the other types, probably because of the growth of the
dairy industry on this type. As in the case of oats, grain of
the best quality is produced on light-colored soils.

Rye is one of the most important crops on the light-textured
soils of the county, though it is grown to some extent on prac¬
tically all of the cultivated types. The acreage in 1909 was
4,663 acres and the production 67,511 bushels, or slightly over
14 bushels per acre. This crop is better adapted to sandy soils
than the other grains grown in the county.

In 1909 wheat was grown on 4,575 acres, with a production
of 88,302 bushels, or about 19 bushels per acre. The crop is
grown mainly on the Knox, Lintonia, and Bates silt loams. Some
of the fine sandy loams also are used for the production of wheat.
The Knox silt loam produces a very good quality of wheat, as
well as of other small grains.

Potatoes are not grown on a commercial scale, except in a
few instances. The potato patch seldom covers more than an
acre or two. According to the census, 1,423 acres were devoted
to the crop in 1909, producing 177,849 bushels, or about 125
bushels per acre. During favorable seasons yields of 250 bushels
an acre are obtained from fields which have received special at¬
tention.

In the vicinity of Alma and Fountain City small fruits and
grapes are grown successfully, and the trucking industry has
been developed to a small extent. In the southern part of the
county about Marshall and also in the northeastern part about
Mondovi there is a little trucking carried on, and it would seem
that this industry might be profitably extended. Peas and beans
are not extensively grown, but cucumbers, chiefly for pickling,
are grown in various parts of the county, Alma and Fountain
City having pickling stations. Raspberries, currants, strawber¬
ries, etc., do very well. Many farmers have small apple orchards
from which fruit of good quality is usually obtained, but apples

64

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

are not grown on a commercial scale. There are a large number
of excellent orchard sites throughout the county, the climatic con¬
ditions are favorable, and it would seem that apple growing
might well be developed on a commercial scale.

In 1913 there were 17 cheese factories and 10 creameries in
Buffalo County, and the output of dairy products is gradually
increasing. Dairying is carried on in all parts of the county,
but is most highly developed on the silt loam and fine sandy
loam soils. Considering the county as a whole, dairying is prob¬
ably better adapted to the Knox silt loam than to any other
type. This type is excellent grain, grass, and clover soil, fair
corn soil, and has associated with it a large amount of steep land
and Rough stony land which provides an abundance of excellent
pasturage.

Most of the dairy herds in the county are made up of grade
animals, with occasional herds of pure-bred Holstein, Guernsey,
and Jersey. The use of purebred sires is gradually bringing the
dairy stock of the county to a higher standard. Beef cattle are
raised to some extent. Among the pure beef breeds the Short¬
horn and Aberdeen Angus are represented most largely. There
is some Hereford blood in the county also, and the number of all
purebred animals is gradually increasing, though most of the
beef cattle are grade stock. A considerable number of calves and
young stock are shipped out of the county each year.

On the dark, level soils of the valleys corn is grown more ex¬
tensively than in the upland regions, and therefore in these
sections hog raising is carried on to a greater extent than else¬
where, though some hogs are raised in all parts of the county in
connection with dairying. More hogs and other stock are raised
in the Waumandee Valley and in the vicinity of Mondovi than
in other portions of the county.

There are more horses raised in Buffalo County than in any
other section of the State, and purebred Percheron, Morgan,
Clydesdale, and Belgian horses are to be seen throughout the
county. Most farmers raise their own work stock, and many plan
to have a heavy draft team to sell every few years. There are a
few farmers who make a business of raising horses.

Sheep raising is carried on to some extent, and there are a
number of farmers raising purebred sheep in various parts of the
county.

The adaptation of soils to crops is recognized to some extent.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF BUFFALO COUNTY

64a

The dark Waukesha and Bates soils are known to be better corn
soils than the lighter colored types, and the Knox silt loam is
held better adapted to small grains than are the dark soils. Rye
and buckwheat are confined principally to the sandy types of
soil, because experience has shown that these soils can be used
profitably for this crop.

While crop rotations vary on the different soils throughout
the county, probably the most common rotation consists of corn
followed by a small grain, such as oats, barley, rye, or wheat one
year, or possibly two years, and then seeded to timothy and
clover. Hay is usually cut for two years. Very often the hay
field is not pastured, since there is a large area of rough land
on most farms which is devoted largely to grazing. On the
sandy soils the ordinary rotation is somewhat different, and may
consist of one year corn, followed by one year rye seeded to
clover, followed by corn. On some farms but little thought is
given to the selection of crop rotations best suited to the condi¬
tions, but more attention is each year being given to such mat¬
ters, with the result that farm methods are gradually improving
and yields increasing.

Stable manure is about the only fertilizer generally used at
present within the county. Some green manuring is practiced,
but it is not at all common, and commercial fertilizers are sel¬
dom used, except in a small way for special purposes. The
methods of cultivation followed by the majority of the farmers
are thorough, and agriculture is highly developed in nearly all
parts of the county. The Waumandee Valley is considered to be
one of the richest sections of the county, chiefly because of the
rather extensive areas of level, black silt loam which are to be
found there. On the Bates silt loam and fine sandy loam, as
well as on the Knox and Lintonia silt loams, very fine farms
are to be found. Special methods of cultivation are frequently
required in this county, because of the danger of erosion on the
steep hillsides. These special methods of hillside cultivation are
covered under the discussion of the various soil types to which
they refer.

Of the weed pests which are found in Buffalo County the Can¬
ada thistle and quack grass are probably the most troublesome.

Farm improvements vary with the character of the soil, but

64b

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY

as by far the greater proportion of the soil in the county is
productive most of the farms are well improved, and the build¬
ings are substantial and kept in good repair. The best farms
and buildings are found on the Knox, Waukesha, and Lintonia
silt loams, and on the Bates silt loam and fine sandy loam. On
the extremely sandy soils the poor quality of the soil is reflected
in the buildings, fences, crops, and farm machinery.

Obtaining farm labor is sometimes difficult, and on account of
this condition the systems of agriculture followed are often more
extensive than would otherwise be the case. In many instances
all of the work is done by the farmer and his family. When a
man is hired for the entire year the monthly wage is about $25
to $30.00 with board and washing free. When employed only
for the summer or the growing season or for haying and harvest¬
ing the wage is higher. When married men are employed, a
house, fuel, and garden patch are often supplied in addition
to the regular wage.

According to the census of 1910, 92.8 per cent of the land in
Buffalo County is in farms, and of this 49 per cent is classed
as improved. The average size of farms is given as 189 acres and
the average amount of improved land on each farm is 92 acres.
Eighty-one per cent of the farms are operated by their owners,
and considerably over half of these are free from mortgage debt.
In most cases where land is rented, cash rather than share pay¬
ments, are made.

During the period from 1900 to 1910 the value of lands in
Buffalo County increased 67.7 per cent. Values vary greatly,
depending upon the soil, location, improvement, etc. The best
farms in the county have a selling value of $100 to $150 an acre.
The poorest farms, on the extremely sandy soils, could probably
be bought for $10 to $15 an acre. Farms on the Waukesha silt
loam, Bates silt loam, Bates fine sandy loam, Knox silt loam, and
Lintonia silt loam have a higher value than those on other types.
These are recognized as the best soils of the county. The Knox
silt loam is the most extensive type but some of the others men¬
tioned, while of small area, are highly improved. In Waumandee
Valley, for example, farms on the Waukesha silt loam are as
highly developed as, or possibly more highly developed than,

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF BUFFALO COUNTY

65

those in any other section, and Wanmandee Valley is considered
one of the richest agricultural sections of the county.

In general, it may be said that the methods of farming and
agricultural practices followed in the county are fairly well
adapted to the existing conditions.

66

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY

CHAPTER VIII.

THE PROBLEM OF EROSION IN BUFFALO COUNTY.

The most important single problem in soil management in Buf¬
falo County is due to the large amounts of steep or rolling land.
The county is in the so-called residual portion of the state where
the streams which drain the area have cut down their beds
through the formerly level elevated plain lying on limestone and
into the sandstone beneath. These valleys have never been al¬
tered or filled by action of glaciers which once covered most of
the state. The valleys were at first mere erosion ditches or small
stream beds which have been enlarged and deepened during
geological ages till their beds lie from 200 to over 400 feet below
the limestone topped ridges which extend between. The valleys
and their tributaries radiate like the veins of a leaf and the
steep slopes which lead down from the ridge top to valley bot¬
tom make up a considerable part of the area of the county.

Most of the soil on the sloping land is heavy and is included in
the steep phase of the Knox silt loam. These slopes which origi¬
nally were timbered or brush-covered have been largely cleared
and cultivated. Because of their unprotected condition and ex¬
posure to the work of surface run-off water from higher land,
fields on this type of soil are often extensively washed and gul¬
lied by the descending storm water and the water from melting
snow in spring.

Other soils subject to erosion are the soils of the Boone series
derived from sandstone and which often occupy lower slopes in
the valleys. The soils of the Lintonia series which lie in narrow
benches along the sides of the valley bottoms are also subject to
severe gullying. The swift flowing water from the ridges and
slopes must cross these benches before reaching the valley stream
and deep ravines, gullies, and ditches are developed. Soil erosion
is a farm problem not only because fields are cut by ditches and
gullies which make cultivation difficult, but because erosion re¬
moves the finest and most fertile soil particles first and reduces

Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. History.

.

THE PROBLEM OF EROSION IN BUFFALO COUNTY

67

the fertility and yield of fields by removing fine soil and organic
matter from the surface. The causes of removal of soil from the
surface without formation of gullies generally lie in improper
methods of cultivation or poor arrangement of fields. Fields
where this kind of erosion occurs are often only gently rolling or
undulating and the rain water does not collect in larger swift¬
flowing rills or streams which have power to cut ditches, but fol¬
lows the cultivated rows such as corn or potatoes or the drill
rows of grain fields and the soil is removed only from the knolls
and deposited in the hollows.

Contour cultivation and arrangement of the crop rows across
the slope instead of with or down the slopes retards the move¬
ment of soil in such fields. Keeping the most exposed places in
sod as much as possible and the cultivation of the field in alter¬
nate strips of crop and sod across the slopes are inconvenient
but often necessary methods.

Rotation of crops in such a way that two cultivated crops do
not follow in succession gives the field opportunity to recover
from its losses under cultivation and avoiding a hard bare condi¬
tion of the eroded ground after harvest as much as possible pre¬
vents surface wash in the fall. A cover or catch crop of rye or
peas in the corn rows helps protect the soil after harvest and fur¬
nishes pasture until winter.

Deep plowing and plowing under of straw, manure, or a sec¬
ond crop of clover to increase the organic matter in the soil also
give the surface of the field greater absorbing capacity and
resistance to erosion.

Gullying occurs where greater volumes of water collect form¬
ing cutting-streams where steeper slopes cause the water to flow
faster or in places where the soil has an unstaple foundation of
sandy material which easily undermines when the water once
cuts through the surface soil and establishes a fall which cuts
back in the sandy subsoil. In favorable situations large gullies
y2 mile or more in length are sometimes cut during a single sea¬
son.

In their beginnings most small gullies are easily handled.
Small drainage-ways or shallow ditches can be filled with straw
or manure and plowed shut. Such shallow drainage-ways should
be left in permanent sod. The plow can be easily thrown out in
passing across them. On the level terraces or where heavy soil
lies on light sand or sandy gravelly subsoil, small ditches must

68

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

be immediately tended to because all ditches on such soil are
dangerous.

Where the subsoil is clay and where clay or silt soil material
is being brought down by the flood water, large gullies may be
made to fill by putting in a dam of stumps, brush, and logs.
Where the subsoil is sandy much greater care is required. If
dams are built in the latter case, they need to be carefully con¬
structed to prevent the water from cutting around them.

Dams of concrete, stone, wire mesh, and brush have been suc¬
cessfully used. Flume devices also have been used to carry the
water over the head of the ditch and down into it preventing its
continued growth.

Planting willows and bushes on the sides and bottom of ditches
too deep to fill often arrests the growth of the ditch. Sorghum,
sweet clover, or rye make good emergency crops on eroded spots
and fields which later need to be seeded to grasses and left in
permanent sod.#

♦See Bulletin 272 of the Wisconsin Experiment Station.

CLIMATE

69

CHAPTER IX.

CLIMATE*

“Among the factors which influence the agriculture of a state
none is more important than climate. The class of crops which
can be grown is largely determined by the length of the growing
season, and the amount and distribution of the rainfall.” Any
one of these factors may determine the type of farming which
can be followed to best advantage.

“The distribution of rainfall over Wisconsin is remarkably
uniform, the average yearly precipitation having a range of
from 28 to 34 inches, while the mean for the state as a whole is
31 inches. This is a slightly heavier rainfall than is received by
eastern England, northern France, most of Germany, Sweden,
and the Dundee Valley. As compared with other portions of
this country, Wisconsin has a total rainfall equaling that of cen¬
tral Oklahoma and Kansas, northern Iowa, Michigan, Northwest¬
ern New York, or the Puget Sound Basin of Washington. But
owing to its northerly location, the lessened evaporation probably
makes the precipitation as effective as that of Arkansas, Illinois,
or Virginia. ”

The local distribution of rainfall varies, however, from year to
year, some sections receiving more rain one year, and other sec¬
tions more in other years. The variation is caused largely by the
movement of cyclonic storms. The average rainfall for the en¬
tire state during the driest year was 21.4 inches, and for the
wettest year 37 inches.

“Of equal importance, in agriculture, to the total rainfall, is
its seasonal distribution, and in this respect Wisconsin is un¬
usually fortunate, since about half of the total rainfall comes
in May, June, July, and August, and nearly 70% from April to

♦This chapter has been taken largely from Wisconsin Bulletin 223
on The Climate of Wisconsin and its Relation to Agriculture. This
bulletin should be consulted if more information is desired concerning
climate. All quotations indicated are taken from this bulletin.

70

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

September, inclusive. June has the heaviest rainfall, averaging
4.1 inches, while July averages 4 inches and May 3.9 inches.
The precipitation during the winter, on the other hand is slight ;
December, January, and February each averaging from 1 to 1.5
inches of rain and melted snow. The average rainfall for
the state during the winter is 3.9 inches, during spring 8.3
inches, during summer 11.4 inches and during autumn 7.4 inches.

Most of the rainfall occurs just preceding and during the
period of plant growth, thus being received by the .crop at the

most effective time. Wisconsin receives during the growing sea¬
son, April to September, inclusive, an average of 21 inches, which
is as much rain as is received during the same months by eastern
Texas, Illinois, Ohio, or eastern New York. The small winter
precipitation in Wisconsin, mostly in the form of snow, on the
other hand, causes virtually no leaching of fertility from the soil,
or erosion.

Another phase of rainfall distribution of great importance
is its variation within a period of a few weeks. Frequently
periods of drought and periods of unusually heavy rainfall occur,
continuing for from one to four weeks, and occasionally longer.
Observations taken at Madison over a period of 30 years, from
1882-1911, inclusive, show that there are, on the average, three
ten day periods during each growing season when the amount
of rainfall is so slight that crops on a reasonably heavy soil
(Miami silt loam) actually suffer from the lack of moisture.

Buffalo County lies partly within the Mississippi Valley and
partly within the Southern Highlands, which are recognized as
forming two of the eight climatic provinces in Wisconsin. The
Mississippi Valley is a rather deep depression, the warm influenc.e
of the lower altitude being apparent from Dubuque, Iowa, as
far north as Grantsburg, Wis. This narrow valley is much
cooler and has drier winters than the Lake Michigan shore. The
mean summer temperature averages about 78° F., and is similar
to that of New Jersey, southeastern Pennsylvania, Ohio, or
southern California. The mean winter temperature in the north¬
ern part of this valley resembles that of northern Vermont,
northern Michigan, or eastern Montana. On an average of seven
days during the winter the thermometer drops to -10° F. or
lower, while during summer afternoons a temperature of 95°
may be expected. The growing season in this valley ranges from
150 to 175 days, about the same duration as that of the Hudson

CLIMATE

71

River Valley, nearly all of Ohio, the northern half of Illinois,
western Kansas, or the Columbia River Valley.

The Southern Highlands includes the rough and rolling region,
generally over 1,000 feet in elevation, extending from Clark
County south to the Illinois line, and lying between the Missis¬
sippi Valley on the west and the Wisconsin and Rock River
Valleys on the east. It is characterized by a cooler temperature
than the adjoining valleys, the summer temperature (66° to 29°
E.) being similar to that along the Michigan shore, while the
mean winter temperature is only 2° higher than along the
Superior shore. The growing season, averaging 145 days, is
apparently 20 to 30 days shorter than on the lower lands of the
State in the same latitude, while in the river valleys and ravines
in this section the frost danger is still greater.

The first of the following tables gives the mean monthly and
annual temperature and precipitation at Wabasha, Minn., and
at Whitehall, Wis. Wabasha is situated just across the Missis¬
sippi River from Buffalo County, and Whitehall is located in
Trempealeau County, which borders Buffalo County on the east.

The station at Wabasha has an elevation of 681 feet above sea
level and the station at Whitehall is 675 feet above sea level, so
that these records indicate the weather conditions of the Missis¬
sippi Valley and the Trempealeau River Valley rather than of
the whole region surveyed. The greater part of the county is
from 200 to 400 feet higher than the river valleys, and varies
somewhat in the length of growing season, as indicated above.

The second table gives the normal monthly, seasonal, and
annual temperature and precipitation and the average dates of
first and last killing frosts at Eau Claire, about 14 miles north
of the north county line. This station has an elevation of 800
feet. A comparison with the tables from the other points men¬
tioned may be of interest.

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY.

i

9

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AND
WABASHA, MINN., AND WHITEHALL,

PRECIPITATION AT
WIS.

Month

December
January .
February
March ...

April .

May .

June .

July .

August . .
Sep tern b r
October . .
November
Annual . .

Wabasha, Minn.,

14 years

Tempera-

Frecipita-

ture

tion

°F.

Inches

20.2

1.19

14.4

.99

16.7

.95

30.5

1.77

47.5

2.52

59.3

4.2S

67.8

4.12

12.3

3.54

70.0

3.43

62.4

3.56

49.7

2.84

33.1

1.56

45.3

30.68

Whitehall, Wis.,
17 years

Tempera¬

ture

Precipita¬

tion

°F.

Inches

18.8

1.34

14.1

.84

14.2

.96

30.5

1.58

46.2

2.41

57.0

4.06

66.2

4.30

70.2

3.45

68.3

3.63

61.6

3.80

49.2

2.46

33.9

1.39

44.2

30.22

NORMAL MONTHLY, SEASONAL, AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURE PRECIPITA¬
TION AT EAU CLAIRE, EAU CLAIRE COUNTY

Temperature

Precipitation

Month

Mean

Absolute

maximum

Absolute

minimum

Mean

Total
amount
for the
driest
year

Total
amount
for the
wettest
year

December .

°F.

18.7

°F,

54

“F1.

—28

Inches

1.48

Inches

0.27

Inches

0.84

January .

13.1

54

—34

1.00

0.32

0.32

February .

14.3

59

—40

1.28

2.26

0.87

Winter

15.4

3.76

2.85

2.03

rch .

8.7

75

—18

2.04

2.85

2.10

April .

45.6

88

11

2.58

2.22

3.72

May .

57.0

94

20

4.37

1.96

7.03

Spring

43.8

8.99

7.03

12.85

June .

66.8

97

25

4.66

1.50

2.44

.July .

70.7

103

41

3.47

1.27

8.78

August .

69.2

98

36

3.26

0.23

5. €9

Summer .

68.9

11.39

3.00

16.31

September .

61.1

99

.0

3.93

0.77

5.13

9.12

October .

48.6

86

10

3.22

1.99

November . ... .

32.1

72

—15

1.67

1.79

0.65

Fall .

47.3

8.82

7.69

11.76

Year .

43.9

103 '

— 10

32.96

* 20.57

42.95

Average date of first killing frost in autumn, October 1; of last in spring, May 10.

CLIMATE

The extremes in temperature show a wide range. The highest
ever recorded was at Wabasha, where 105° F. was reached, while
the lowest was at Whitehall, where a temperature of -46° F. was
once recorded. Such extremes are very rare, however, and of
short duration.

Reference to the following figures gives the length of growing
season in Buffalo County as compared with other portions of the
state.

The average date of the last killing frost in the spring at
Wabasha is May 1 and at Whitehall May 6. The average date
of the first killing frost in fall at Wabasha is October 5 and at
Whitehall October 4. This gives an average growing season at
these two stations of approximately 150 to 155 days. On the
higher elevations and in small valleys and ravines the season is
somewhat shorter than at the stations where the records were
taken. It is very seldom, however, that corn is damaged by early
frosts, even where the growing season is the shortest. At Eau
Claire the growing season appears to be a few days shorter than
at the other two stations. The records from these three stations
may be considered as representing fairly well the respective por¬
tions of Buffalo County having about the same elevations as the
stations.

Good water is available in nearly all parts of the county,
though on the higher ridges it is often necessary to drill to con¬
siderable depths. While there is overflow land along the larger
streams, swamps are rare and healthful atmospheric conditions
prevail throughout the region.

74

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY

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mented by private records.

CLIMATE

75

SUMMARY

Buffalo County is situated midway along the west State line
of Wisconsin and comprises 687 square miles, or 439,680 acres.
It may be divided broadly into two divisions, the valleys and
the uplands. The topography of the valley is level to undulat¬
ing, becoming gently rolling in a few places, and in the upland
the surface is gently rolling to hilly. The slopes are usually
steep and rocky. On the ridge tops and gentle slopes are found
the most extensive areas of highly developed soil in the county.

The first settlements in the territory embraced within the
county were made between 1845 and 1850. All parts of the
county are now well settled.

Three railroad systems enter the county, and these with the
Mississippi River provide adequate transportation facilities,
except for interior points. Alma, the county seat, is 353 miles
from Chicago, over the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad,
and 89 miles from Minneapolis.

The mean annual temperature of the county is about 45° F.
and the mean annual precipitation about 30.5 inches. The
length of the growing season is about 150 to 155 days.

Over practically all the county agriculture is well developed
and prospering. The leading type of agriculture is general
farming, with dairying as the main feature. The crops most
extensively grown are oats, hay, corn, barley, rye, and wheat.
The steep slopes afford excellent pasture and are usually kept
in grass to prevent erosion.

Buffalo County lies within the unglaciated portion of the
State and the soils have been derived largely from the disin¬
tegration products of the underlying limestones, shales, and
sandstone, although probably there has been influence in places
by wind-blown material or loess, and from the material washed
down from the slopes, transported by the streams, and deposited
as terrace formations.

Including Rough stony land, Peat, and the Genessee Soils,
19 types and 3 phases of soil are recognized in the county.

The Knox silt loam, with its steep phase, is an extensive type
and is found throughout the upland portion of the county. It

76

SOIL SURVEY OF BUFFALO COUNTY

is a good general farming soil and upon it dairying is carried on
quite extensively. It produces a better quality of grain than any
of the other types.

The Waukesha series consists of dark-colored terrace soils,
found as terraces along many of the streams throughout the
county. This series includes some of the finest agricultural land
in the county. The types mapped are the Waukesha silt loam,
and gravelly sandy loam.

The Boone series of soils is derived from the disintegration
of the Potsdam sandstone.

The Lintonia series forms the light-colored terraces through¬
out the county, but is not very extensively developed. The
types mapped are the silt loam, fine sandy loam, and fine sand.
The Lintonia silt loam is very similar to the Knox, except in
topography and origin.

The Plainfield series of terrace soils includes the sand and
fine sandy loam found along the Buffalo, Chippewa, and Mis¬
sissippi Rivers. The fine sandy loam is used for general farming,
farming.

The Bates series is similar to the Boone, but the soils are
black instead of light colored. The types mapped include some
of the best soil in the county. The Bates silt loam and fine sandy
loam are recognized and mapped as belonging to this series.

Peat comprises areas of partially decomposed vegetable matter

which occupy low, poorly drained positions, chiefly along

streams. This soil is rather inextensive in Buffalo Countv.

•/

Rough stony land includes rock exposures, cliffs, and land
which is too steep and rough to cultivate profitably. It is only
of value for the small amount of timber and pasture it supplies.

The Genessee soils include a fine sandy, loam, silt loam and
silty clay loam. Soils on flood plains of streams and subject
to occasional or frequent over flow make up this series.

KEEP THE MAP

The Experiment Station will publish bulletins from time to
time dealing with the management of the different types mapped,
so that some way should bo found by each person receiving a
copy of this report to keep the map permanently. If the map is
folded in such a way as to have the part you are interested in of
a convenient size, and then have a simple frame with glass made
to hold it, it can be kept indefinitely. Since some of the colors
fade after being exposed to strong light for a long time, it would
be a good plan to have a protecting flap of dark cloth over the
map when not in use.

WISCONSIN GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY

W. O. HOTCHKISS, Director and State Geologist.

A. R. WHITSON, In Charge, Division of Soils.

SOIL SURVEY IN COOPERATION WITH THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

H. L. RUSSELL, Dean.

BULLETIN NO. 54B

SOIL SERIES NO. 24 .

SOIL SURVEY

OF

JACKSON COUNTY

WISCONSIN

BY

A.. R. WHITSON, W. J. GEIB. AND T. J. DUNNEWALD OF THE
WISCONSIN GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY, SURVEY,
AND A. L. GOODMAN, G. W. MUSGRAVE AND C. B.
CLEVENGER OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF SOILS.

SURVEY CONDUCTED IN COOPERATION WITH THE UNITED
STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF SOILS,

MILTON WHITNEY, CHIEF.

CURTIS F. MARBUT, IN CHARGE SOIL SURVEY

PUBLISHED BY THE STATE
MADISON, WISCONSIN
1923

t

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Table of Contents . 3

Illustrations . 5

Introduction . 7

Soil Classification . 9

CHAPTER I.

General Description of the Area . 11

Soils . 15

CHAPTER II.

Group of Heavy Soils . 19

Knox silt loam . 19

Knox silt loam, steep phase . 23

Lintonia silt loam . 24

Bates silt loam . 26

Vesper silt loam . 27

Chemical composition and improvement of heavy soils . 28

CHAPTER III.

Group of Medium Heavy Soils . 31

Boone loam . 31

Boone fine sandy loam . 32

Vesper fine sandy loam . 34

Chemical composition and improvement of medium heavy soils 36

CHAPTER IV.

Group of Sandy Soils . 37

Boone fine sand..... . 37

Boone fine sand, level phase . 38

Boone fine sand, low phase poorly drained . 40

Plainfield sand . 41

Plainfield fine sand . 43

Plainfield sandy loam . 44

Vesper sandy loam . 44

Chemical composition and fertility of sandy soils . 45

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER V.

Group of Soils Lacking Good Drainage . 48

Dunning sand . 48

Genesee fine sandy loam . 49

Genesee silt loam . 50

Wabash loam . 51

Wabash silt loam . 51

CHAPTER VI.

Miscellaneous Soils . . 53

Peat . 53

Chemical composition and fertility of peat . 57

Rough stony land . 60

CHAPTER VII.

Agriculture of Jackson County . 62

Types of farming . ; . 62

Cultural methods . ' . 63

Rotation of crops . 64

Erosion . 68

Drainage . 70

Liming . 71

The use of fertilizers . 73

Farm products and agricultural statistics . 76

Agricultural history . 79

CHAPTER VIII.

Climate . 80

Summary . 83

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES AND FIGURES.

Page

Plate I. View showing typical crops and topography on Knox

silt loam . 22

Binding grain on rolling portion of Knox silt loam. ... 22

Plate II. View of Wildcat Mound . 32

Topography and vegetation typical of Boone fine sandy
loam . 32

Plate III. View showing topography and vegetation in sand and

marsh country in eastern part of Jackson county 42
View of corn on Plainfield sand . 42

Plate IV. Clover growing successfully on Plainfield sand . 46

Field of rye on Plainfield sand at Hancock, Wis . 46

Plate V. View of buildings on Experimental Farm at Han¬
cock, Wis . 64

Alfalfa on Plainfield sand on Experimental Farm at
Hancock . 64

Figure 1. Sketch map showing areas surveyed . 12

Figure 2. Map showing length of growing season in the state - 80

Soil Map . . . Attached to hack cove r

INTRODUCTION

Before the greatest success in agriculture can be reached it is
necessary that the farmer should have a thorough knowledge of
the soil upon his own farm. A soil may be well adapted to one
crop, and poorly adapted to another crop. Clover will produce
a vigorous growth and profitable yields on the average loam soil
which contains lime and is in a sweet condition ; but on a sandy
soil which is sour, or in an acid condition, clover will not make
a satisfactory growth. We may say, therefore, that failure is
certain to be invited when such important facts are disregarded,
or overlooked. The degree of success which it is possible to win
on any farm is in direct proportion to the practical knowledge
possessed by the farmer concerning the soil and its adaptation
to crops. A thorough knowledge of the soil is as essential to
the farmer as a knowledge of merchandise and business methods
is to the merchant.

The State of Wisconsin, working in cooperation with the
United States Department of Agriculture, is making a careful
study of soils and agricultural conditions throughout AVisconsin,
and is preparing soil maps and soil reports of all counties in
the State. A soil map shows the location and extent of the dif¬
ferent kinds of soil. Tracts of 10 acres and over are mapped,
but often areas of even smaller extent are shown. The soil map
is prepared by trained men, who go over a county thoroughly,
and examine the soil by making a sufficient number of borings
to a depth of 36 inches to keep account of all variations. A re¬
port is also made, to accompany and explain the map, and this
is based upon a careful study of the soils within the region sur¬
veyed, and upon such other features as have a direct bearing
upon the agriculture of the area.

It is the object of this survey to make an inventory of the
soils of the State, and to be of practical help to farmers by lo¬
cating and describing the different soils, by determining their
physical character and chemical composition, and by offering
suggestions for their management, based upon the work of the

8

INTRODUCTION

Soil Survey within the area, covered in the report, and upon
the results of field tests made by the Experiment Station.

Soil fertility depends upon two factors : First, upon the phys¬
ical characteristics of the soil, such as water holding capacity,
workability, etc., and second, upon the chemical composition of
the material composing the soil. The chemical composition de¬
pends upon the mode of origin of the soil, and the source of
material from which the soil is derived.

Water holding capacity and other physical properties of soil
all depend chiefly upon texture , which refers to the size of the
individual soil grains, or particles. A coarse sandy soil, for ex¬
ample, will not retain moisture so long as a loam soil, or clay
loam, because the finer the soil grains, the greater will be the
total soil-grain surface area to which moisture may adhere.

Texture is determined in the field by rubbing the soil between
the thumb and fingers, and with experience one soon becomes
expert at judging the size of soil grains. This field judgment
is verified in the laboratory by a mechanical analysis, which is
made by a simple method of separating soil grains into different
groups, of which there are seven. These are known as clay, silt,
very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand and fine
gravel.

A chemical analysis is also made of the soil to determine the
amounts of various essential plant-food elements which are pres¬
ent. A chemical analysis shows whether the soil contains a
large store of plant food, or only a small quantity, and it indi¬
cates which kinds of plant food will probably be needed first.
The amount of organic matter in the soil is also determined,
and tests are made to show conditions relative to soil acidity.

INTRODUCTION

9

SOIL CLASSIFICATION.

Soils are grouped according to texture into soil classes, a soil
class being made up of soils having the same texture, though
differing in other respects. A fine sand, for example, may be
light colored and of alluvial origin, while another fine sand. may
be dark in color and of residual origin, while a third fine sand
may have been blown into sand dunes by the wind, yet all of
these soils would belong to the same class, because the greater
proportion of the soil grains have the same size or texture. Thus
we may have different kinds of clays, loams, sands, etc., and the
class to which any soil will belong depends upon the size of the
individual soil grains of which it is composed, and not upon its
color, origin, topographic position, or agricultural value.

SOIL CLASSES

Soils Containing Less Than 20% Silt and Clay

Coarse sand. — Over 25% fine gravel and coarse sand, and less than 50%
of any other grade of sand.

Sand. — Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand, and less than
50% fine sand.

Fine sand. — Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel, coarse
and medium sand.

Very fine sand. — Over 50% very fine sand.

Soils Containing Between 20-50% of Silt and Clay

Sandy loam. — Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand.

Fine sandy loam. — Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel, coarse
and medium sand.

Sandy clay. — Less than 20% silt.

Soils Containing Between 20-50% of Silt and Clay

Loam. — Less than 20% clay, and less than 50% silt.

Silt loam. — Less than 20% clay, and over 50% silt.

Clay loam. — Between 20 and 30% clay, and less than 50% silt.

Silty clay loam.— Between 20 and 30% clay, and over 50% silt.

Clay. — Over 30% clay.

Soils may be grouped in another way. Where soils are closely
related through similar sources of the material from which de¬
rived, mode of origin, topographic position, etc., so that the dif¬
ferent soils constitute merely a graduation in texture of other¬
wise uniform material, such a group is called a soil series. It
corresponds to the family which is made up of different indi¬
viduals having the same parentage. The Miami series, for ex-

10

INTRODUCTION

ample, includes light colored, glacial material where the soils
have been derived largely from the underlying limestone, and
the soils in the series range in texture from a clay loam to
sandy and gravelly loams. The name used for a soil series usually
indicates the locality where that particular series was first recog¬
nized and mapped by the Soil Survey. By uniting the soil class
with the soil series we get the soil type which is the basis
or unit of classifying and mapping soils. A soil type thus, is
a soil which is uniform throughout its entire extent in texture,
color, topographic position, and other physical properties, and
having a distinct agricultural unity, that is, being adapted to
the same crops, and requiring the same treatment. It is also
uniform in the source of material from which it is derived, and
the mode of origin which, taken together, determine the chemical
composition. Since the soil type is the unit in classifying and
mapping soils, and the basis upon which experimental wTork
should be conducted, every farmer should be familiar with the
soil types on his farm, and their leading characteristics.

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

WISCONSIN

CHAPTER I

DESCRIPTION OF AREA

Location and boundaries. — Jackson county is located in the
west central part of Wisconsin, and has an area of approxi¬
mately 978 square miles or 625,920 acres. It is bounded on the
north by Clark and Eau Claire counties, on the east by Wood
and Juneau, on the south by Monroe and La Crosse, and on the
west by Trempealeau county. It has an extreme length east
and west of forty-two miles. The eastern portion of the county
is only eighteen miles wide, while the western two tiers of
townships give the county a width of thirty-six miles.

Topography. — The surface features of the Jackson county
fall into two very distinct divisions. The approximate boundary
between the different zones is marked b}" the Black River from
the southwestern corner of the county to a point three miles
north of Black River Falls. From this point northward, the
Chicago and Northwestern Railway Line marks the dividing
line. The county to the west consists of a series of valleys
and narrow ridges which give the region a hilly to broken to¬
pography. To the east the surface is nearly level.

Geological History. — In the early geological history of the
region there wras a smooth initial surface underlaid by lime¬
stone, with sandstone in turn beneath it. The lower Magnesian
limestone which originally covered this region has practically
all been removed by erosion, and remnants of the elevated plain¬
like surface have been reduced by weathering and erosion to
very narrow, winding irregular ridges on which the outcroppings
of sandstone are frequent. In but few cases in the county is
there any tillable land on the narrow crest of these high ridges.

12

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

The headward streams from one drainage system have inter¬
locked with adjacent systems so that the divides are crooked,
rocky ridges. This gives the west half of the county a rolling,
rugged appearance, the greatest irregularity of surface being
along the western extremity of the county and becoming less
pronounced going eastward to the Black River.

The eastern portion of the county consists of a very extensive
sandy plainlike region where the surface is nearly level and
from the floor of which there arise numerous cliffs of sandstone
more resistant than the bulk of the underlying rock. These
mounds form a conspicuous feature of the landscape.

FIG. 1. SKETCH MAP SHOWING AREAS SURVEYED IN THE STATE.

Much of the eastern portion of the county within this sandy
plain is low and poorly drained, and includes extensive marsh
areas made up largely of peat. These marshy areas are most
extensive in the extreme eastern tier of townships where over
from 75 to 80 percent of the land area is marsh.

Tin oughout the marshy tracts and within the regions where
shale lay ei s occur with the sandstone as well as along the first
bottoms of streams, the natural drainage is deficient. Else¬
where the natural drainage is good.

Water courses. — The Black River which enters the county
near the center of the north side and leaves at the southwest

DESCRIPTION OF AREA.

13

corner, receives the drainage waters from the greater part of
the area. From the east it receives the drainage waters from
the East Fork of the Black River, Morrison Creek, Perry Creek,
Robinson Creek and others, while from the west it receives
Halls Creek, Town Creek, Roaring Creek, and Douglas Creek.
The extreme western border of the county drains westward
chiefly through tributaries of the Trempealeau and Beef Rivers
into the Mississippi. From the southeastern portion of the
county some of the drainage water reaches the Wisconsin River
through the Lemonweir River and its tributaries.

Settlement. — The first settlement in Jackson county was
made in 1818 or 1819 when a saw mill was erected on Town
Creek, but this was not permanent. The Indians did not cede
away their right to the region until 1838, and in 1839 the first
permanent settlement was made on the present site of Black
River Falls. The Mormons bought a mill here in 1843 which
they operated for part of two years. Later a Mormon settle¬
ment was established at Knapp in the country to the east of
Millston. Jackson County was established in 1853, and the vil¬
lage of Black River Falls was incorporated in 1866.

Black River Falls, with a population 1,796 in 1920, is the
county seat of Jackson county and also the largest city. It is
situated on the Black River near the center of the county, and
is a distributing center, market and shipping point for a large
territory. Merrillan, Hixton, Taylor, Hatfield, Pray, and Mill¬
ston are smaller railroad towns. In 1920 Jackson county had
a population of 17,746.

Railways. — Two railway systems traverse the county. The
Chicago and Northwestern Line crosses the area from the south¬
east to the northwest passing through Millston, Black River
Falls, and Merrillan. From Merrillan a branch runs northeast
through Neillsville, Marshfield, and Wausau, to Green Bay.
From Fairchild, just above the north county line a branch ex¬
tends west to Monclovi in Buffalo county. The Green Bay and
AVestern Railway crosses the county from east to w^est passing
through Pray, Hatfield, Merrillan, Hixton, and Taylor. The
southwestern corner of the county is more remote from railroad
facilities than any other section of the area, but this has not
prevented the development. In fact this is one of the best im¬
proved and most highly prosperous farming communities in the

14

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

county, and centers about the inland town of Melrose which is
connected with Black River Falls by stage.

Highways. — The main dirt roads throughout the western part
of the county are usually graded and kept in good condition, as
the predominating soil material usually makes a good roadbed,
but hills are numerous and grades are frequently steep ; so
heavy hauling is difficult. Throughout the sandy portion of
the county most of the roads are very sandy, but in some in¬
stances shale or clay, where available, has been used in improving
the highways with very satisfactory results.

Other improvements. — At Hatfield there is a large dam across
the Black River just above the rapids, and this forms an exten¬
sive reservoir known as Lake Arbutus. A power house is located
several miles south of the dam, and from here the electric powTer
is carried over high tension transmission lines to La Crosse
and other points.

Nearly all parts of the county are supplied with rural free
delivery service, and telephones are in common use.

Markets. — The towns within the area afford markets and ship¬
ping points for the farm produce raised. From Black River
Falls to Madison, it is 127 miles and to Milwaukee 209 miles.
It is 250 miles to Chicago, and 152 miles to Minneapolis, Minne¬
sota.

Farm equipment. — The farm buildings and equipment in the
Knox silt loam and Boone fine sandy loam and loam country
are generally modern and up to date in all ways. In the vicinity
of Melrose and the north side of the Trempealeau River valley,
large barns and silos, electric lights and wTater supply systems
are common. A number of farms use tractors, although the
amount of steep and rough land precludes the use of some types
of tractors for field work.

In the more sandy districts, farm buildings are generally
less pretentious, occasional abandoned farms are seen, and
equipment and machinery are of a less complete order. Al¬
though there are sometimes very good buildings and equipment
on sandy farms, the general condition of these is usually a fair
indication as to the fertility of the soil or the profitable nature
of the farming done.

DESCRIPTION OF AREA.

15

Farm tenure and labor. — Of the 2577 farms is Jackson county
reported by the United States census of 1920, the greatest num¬
ber, 991, lie between 100 to 175 acres in size, 622 farms were
50 to 99 acres in size, and 425 were 175 to 260 acres in size.
Moderate to large size farms are the rule, although where
special crops are grown exclusively the farms are often much
smaller. 86.3 per cent of the farms are operated by owners,
12.7 per cent by tenants, and 1 per cent by managers.

Labor on farms is generally American born, obtained from
the immediate locality. Prewar wages were from $30 to $40
per month with board, although during the last few seasons as
much as two times this price has been paid due to war condi¬
tions. In general, farm help is scarce and the special crops such
as tobacco and cucumbers have been reduced in acreage on many
farms because of the labor shortage.

Land values. — Farm land ranges greatly in price. The best
land in the well developed Knox silt loam country often sells for
$100 to $200 an acre, and an occasional wooded poorly located
piece can be bought for $35 to $40. In the east half and the
sandy districts, wild land may be had for $5 to $20 per acre
and partly developed land for from $20 to $40 per acre. Values
in all parts of the county vary greatly depending upon location,
lay of the land, improvements, soil, and the manner in which
fertility has been kept up. The producing capacity of farms
in each district varies even on the same soil according to the
methods followed, and the personal equasion of the farmer must
always be considered in passing upon the value of a farm.

SOILS

Jackson county lies almost entirely within the unglaciated por¬
tion of Wisconsin, and in its geological formations, soil condi¬
tions, and topography, it is representative of large areas in the
central and southwestern parts of the state.

Throughout nearly all of the county the uppermost rock con¬
sists of Potsdam sandstone. Over the western portion of the
area this rock outcrops in numerous places forming the steep
rocky slopes of valley walls, isolated mounds or long narrow
ridges where the rock has been more resistant to processes of
weathering. In the eastern portion of the county there are also

16

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

numerous isolated mounds of sandstone which, as indicated else¬
where, form a conspicuous feature of the landscape.

The outcrops of this rock determine the classification, and
make up a considerable portion of the type mapped as Rough
Stony Land.

Granitic rocks form the bed rock formation along the Black
. River from Black River Falls north. In the immediate vicinity
of City Point, in the extreme eastern part of the county, the
surface rock is also granite.

From the standpoint of soils, the whole county may be con¬
sidered as being unglaciated, but along the extreme northern bor¬
der of the county, there are various indications of glaciation.
These are chiefly glacial bowlders and gravel in places. No
pronounced moraine is found there. The glaciation repre¬
sented is Pre-Wisconsin, and because of its extreme age and
that its action along the southern border was very feeble, the
influence on the present-day soils is not sufficient to recognize
in our soil classification of Jackson county.

The surface of nearly all of the western portion of the county
is covered to a depth of from less than two feet to over ten feet,
with a mantle of extremely silty material which is undoubtedly
loess. It is extremely silty at the surface, the clay content grad¬
ually increasing with depth, and in cuts a laminated structure
is often observed. This material is supposed to have been de¬
posited by action of the wind, following early glacial periods.
It is extremely fine in texture having a smooth feel like flour.

At one time this entire western portion of the county was
doubtless covered with this material, which has been removed
by erosion in places, especally where the deposit was thin, and
the underlying sandy material or sand rock was exposed.

In the survey of Jackson County, the various soil forming
materials have been classified into ten soil series and nineteen
soil types, not including peat and rough stony land. In a num¬
ber of instances phases of types have been recognized. The soil
series, which correspond to the family groups, are not shown
on the map, which accompanies this report, and the series are
described here only briefly. The individual soil types, however,
are shown on the map, each being indicated by a distinct color.
It is the soil types in which we are especially interested since
the type is the unit in mapping and classifying soils. Following
is a complete list of the soil types mapped in the county, and

DESCRIPTION OF AREA.

17

the series or family group to which each type belongs. Follow¬
ing this general discussion of the soils will be found a full and
detailed description of all of the types, together with statements
covering the present uses of the soils and methods through which
each type can be best improved.

The soil derived in part from the loessial blanket and partly
from decomposed shale has been classified as Knox silt loam.
This is the most extensive soil in southwestern Wisconsin. No
other type was mapped in this series.

Along stream valleys throughout the western part of the
county, seme terraces or benches occur where the soil is rather
heavy, and where it has been derived from the uplands and re¬
deposited by water. There soils are of the Lintonia series, and
include the silt loam only.

The Bates series comprises dark-colored upland soils in the
loessial region where the original timber was thin or sparce and
where a semi-prairie condition prevailed. The silt loam was
the only type mapped.

In the stream bottoms of the western part of the county where
the soils are dark-colored and rather heavy in texture, the Wa¬
bash series has been mapped. The types Wabash silt loam and
loam were found.

On many of the slopes in western Jackson County and over
extensive tracts in the eastern part of the area, the material
forming the soil has been derived directly from the weathering
of the Potsdam sandstone. This material has been classified as
the Boone series, and the types Boone loam, fine sandy loam, fine
sand, with several phases were indicated on the soil map.

In a number of places, especially in the north central and
northeastern portions of the county the Potsdam sandstone
has a shaly phase associated with it, and from the weathering
of this material has come the Vesper series of soils. The sur¬
face is level, the soils are shallow over the shaly rock, and
usually contain varying amounts of clayey material in the sub¬
soil from the shale, which makes a tight subsoil and poor drain¬
age. The types mapped are Vesper silt loam, fine sandy loam,
and sandy loam.

Along Black River and its tributaries are extensive tracts of
alluvial land now found as terraces well above present flood
flow. The soil is light-colored and light in texture, and has

18

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

been classified as the Plainfield series. The types mapped are
Plainfield sandy loam, sand, and fine sand.

Throughout the eastern portion of the county are numerous
areas of marsh border soil which are dark-colored, low-lying,
and naturally poorly drained, and where the soils are of a sandy
nature, partly residual and partly alluvial, and aways acid.
These soils are placed in the Dunning series, and have been
classed as Dunning sand.

The first bottom light-colored soils subject to annual flooding
have been classified as Genesse, and the types silt loam, fine sandy
loam, and fine sand were mapped. Extensive areas of peat were
also mapped, and this consists of decaying vegetable matter in
various stages of decomposition, with which there is mixed a
small amount of fine earth, but seldom enough to permit the
use of the term Muck.

The following table shows the actual and relative extent of
each soil type, and in the following pages of this report each type
is fully described.

Areas of Different Soils

Soil

Boone fine sand _

Level phase _

Poorly drained phase..

Knox silt loam _

Steep phase _

Peat _ _ _

Shallow phase _

Boone fine sandy loam _

Rough stony land _

Vesper fine sandy loam...

Dunning sand -

Plainfield sand -

Acres

Per cent

Soil

Acres

Per cent

111,744

]

Boone loam _

22,400

3.5

14,656

\ 20.1

Plainfield fine sand _

18,880

2.9

2,176

1

Wabash silt loam _

7,808

1.2

73,920

i 18.9

Wabash loam _

7,488

1.2

47,296

Genesee silt loam _

7,296

1.1

89,536

15.7

Vesper silt loam _

4,800

.8

10,752

$

Genesee fine sandy loam

3,072

.5

54,400

8.5

Bates silt loam _

2,624

.4

42,496

6.6

Lintonia silt loam _

2,368

.4

40,000

6.2

Vesper sandy loam -

2,308

.4

37,888

5.9

Plainfield sandy loam..

1,536

.2

35,136

5.5

Total _

640,640

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

19

CHAPTER II

GROUP OP HEAVY SOILS

KNOX SILT LOAM

Extent and distribution. — The Knox silt loam all lies west
of the Black River. This is an important and extensive type
of soil in Jackson County, the towns of Melrose, Franklin, Gar¬
den Valley, Albion, Irving, Currian, and Northfield being made
up largely of it.

Description. — The surface soil of the Knox silt loam consists
of twelve inches of a grayish-brown or buff-colored silt loam,
having a friable structure and a smooth feel. While there is
present a small percentage of fine and very fine sand, but few
coarser grains are found. The lower portion of the soil usually
is of a yellowish color, but on drying, the surface becomes ashen
in appearance. As a whole, the texture of the material is very
uniform, but varies somewhat in depth. The subsoil consists
of a heavy, yellow silt loam, grading into a silty clay loam at
eighteen to twenty inches, and usually becoming a light clioco-
ate brown color at thirty to thirty-six inches. It is compact,
and is uniform throughout its entire extent, except as indicated
in the phase described below. The underlying rock lies from
four to ten or more feet below the surface.

The most important variation in this soil has been designated
as the steep phase on account of its steep slopes and rough, un¬
even topography. This phase is described in greater detail
following the description of the typical soil.

Minor variations in the typical soil occur, chiefly on the nar¬
row ridges, where the surface soil has in places been removed
and the heavy subsoil exposed. In such places the depth to
the underlying rock is also less than over the more extensive
areas of this soil, and in some instances it can be reached with
a three-foot auger. On some of the lower slopes, the wash from
the adjoining higher land has accumulated to a small extent,

20

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

and the surface soil in such places is somewhat deeper than the
average. On some slopes the soil is somewhat darker in color
and contains more organic matter than typical. "W hile a num¬
ber of such minor variations occur, this soil — as a whole is
remarkably uniform.'

Topography and drainage. — The Knox silt loam occupies a
section of country which consists of a series of hills and ridges.
The typical Knox silt loam is found occupying the tops of these
hills and ridges where the surface is nearly level to gently roll¬
ing, and also the more gentle slopes where erosion is not a serious
problem, and where all ordinary farm operations can be carried
on without difficulty. On the steeper phase, the fields are sub¬
ject to erosion, and in some places deep ravines and gullies
have been formed, causing considerable damage. Practically all
of this phase can be cultivated, though some of it is sufficiently
steep to make the operation of farm machinery difficult. Ero-

i

sion is the most serious problem to be considered in the cultiva¬
tion of the steep phase. On account of the uneven character of
the surface, the natural drainage is good. The type is quite
retentive of moisture, and suffers from drought only during long
dry spells.

The topography is such that drainage on this soil is almost
always efficient, and only in isolated spots will the drainage
ever need to be improved.

*

Origin. — The Knox silt loam in Jackson County lies directly
over sandstone rock which underlies all the ridges and knolls
at from two to ten feet beneath the surface. The surface soil is
partly of loessial origin, having been deposited as fine dust by
winds from the south and west in past geological ages. It is
often noticeable that slopes which would be exposed to such
winds are but thinly covered with the silt loam or the soil is
sandy while in the lee of hills and ridges, the silt loam surface
soil is often deeper than ordinary. This soil is also derived
in part from shale associated with the sandstone.

Most of this soil shows varying degrees of acidity; so much
so that difficulty in getting alfalfa started will generally be
experienced unless the soil is limed, heavily manured, and inocu¬
lated.

Native vegetation. — The natural timber on this soil in Jackson
County consisted mainly of wdiite, black and bur oaks, with

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

21

some white birch, basswood, maple and white pine. Most of
the soil having fairly level or undulating topography has been
cleared and cultivated for many years. A large part of the
steep phase is still timbered as are a few of the more isolated
forties which are not steep. The timber is mostly second growth
oaks, poplar, and white birch.

Present agricultural development. — The principal crops grown
at the present time and the average yields obtained are as fol¬
lows r Corn, 40 to 45 bushels ; oats, 35 to 45 bushels ; barley,
30 to 35 bushels; wheat, 20 to 25 bushels; and hay 2 to %y2
tons per acre. Oats are grown more extensively than any other
grain crops. The acreage of barley is smaller than that of oats
and the acreage devoted to wheat is still less. The quality of
the small grains grown on the Knox silt loam is excellent, and
this soil is generally held to be a better grain soil than any of
the other soils of Jackson County. Corn, on the other hand,
does not do so well on this type as on the darker-colored soils
of the Wabash or Bates series, though the crop is successfully
grown where ever this soil occurs. Most of the grain and corn
grown is fed to stock on the farms, though elevators at Hixton,
Fairchild, and Taylor, and numerous grist mills still ship much
oats and barley and some wheat. Where the land is well farmed,
but little trouble is experienced in growing clover. When
the snowfall is light, the alternate freezing and thawing of the
ground sometimes kills out clover. Pasturage, in general, is
excellent, being scant only in very dry weather, or on shallow
slopes or knolls exposed directly to the sun.

Buckwheat, rye, and sorghum are produced on this soil, but
their acreage is never large. Alfalfa is successfully grown by
very few farmers though the acreage will no doubt be gradually
increased, as the crop provides excellent feed, which is of great
value, especially to the dairy farmers. Potatoes are grown for
home use on practically every farm, but seldom on a commer¬
cial scale. Tobacco is grown to some extent, but the crop is
generally grown on lighter soil. Beans and peas are not exten¬
sively grown on this type. Garden crops, such as strawberries,
tomatoes, lettuce, radishes, and cucumbers, and bush berries
all do well and are grown for home use, but seldom on a com¬
mercial scale.

22

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

Fruit growing is not an important industry ; though most
farms have a few fruit trees, and there are a few fairly large
orchards.

Farm buildings are generally in good condition, and silos are
rapidly coming into general use especially in the towns of Al¬
bion, Springfield, Hixton, North Bend, and Alma.

Large numbers of cattle, hogs, and calves are raised and sold
as a part of the business of dairying. Stock buyers located at
Fairchild, Black River Falls, Hixton, Taylor, and Humbird
operate over adjoining territory.

The rotation of crops most commonly practiced is that of a
small grain crop with which clover and timothy are seeded, hay
being cut for two years after which the land is plowed for corn.

When wheat is grown, it may take the place of the second
grain crop. Hay may be cut for two years or the field may be
pastured one year after being cut for hay the first year. On the
steep slopes corn is sometimes omitted from the rotation because
the land is more apt to erode when in an intertilled crop than
when in a grain crop or in grass. The steepest slopes which
are used are often kept in grass for the greater part of the time,
though some attempt to cultivate crops on land of this character
is made. Stable manure is usually applied to the sod to be
plowed for corn.

Nearly every farmer produces euough potatoes for home use
and many have some to sell each year. The yield is usually
about 150 bushels per acre. The soil is not as well adapted
to this crop as some of the other types, especially the sandy
loams, though the quality of the potatoes grown is fair.

Tobacco was at one time more extensively cultivated than at
present. It is generally grown on the same field for four years
in succession, but during the first two or three years the yields
are best. The fields must be heavily manured, and this is often
done at the expense of the remainder of the farm. Tobacco
usually follows potatoes or corn, and is often followed by wheat.
The yieds secured range from 1,000 to 1,600 pounds per acre.
Since the crop requires careful attention and considerable labor,
the acreage devoted to it on any farm is comparatively small.

Alfalfa is being tried by a few farmers, and some have secured
a good stand without inoculating the soil. In order to secure
the best results, however, the soil should be inoculated and liming
is also necessary, since the type is slightly acid.

Wis. Geol. and Natural Hist. Survey

Plate I

View

showing

west

typical crops and topography in Knox
of Hixton, Jackson County. This soil

Silt Loam country north and
is good grain land.

Binding grain on a rolling portion of the Knox Silt Loam. Land slightly steepei
than this is mapped as Steep Phase where measures to prevent
erosion or washing of the soil are necessary. ,

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

23

Trucking and small fruit growing are not carried on to any
great extent ; though the ordinary garden vegetables and berries
are grown for heme use, and limited quantities are marketed in
the near-by towns. There are a few small apple orchards,
though the fruit industry has not received special attention on
this soil.

KNOX SILT LOAM - STEEP PHASE

Extent and distribution. — The steep phase of the Knox silt
loam occurs in all parts of the county intimately associated with
the main type, and frequently grades into it in such a way
as to make the drawing of a definite boundary line difficult.
It occupies steep slopes generally about the heads of small
streams heading in the areas above the rough stone land. On
these slopes, which form the more or less steep sides of the val¬
leys, the silt soil is subject to erosion and careful methods are
often necessary to prevent destructive gulch formations while
these slopes are under cultivation. When the steep slopes are
not wooded, or in pasture, or covered by a growing crop to pro¬
tect them, the soil washes badly, and ditches are quickly and
deeply cut into the hillsides. When erosion has once started
in this way, it is difficult to check ; so methods of prevention are
very important.

Description. — In general physical appearance and character,
the soil of the steep phase is essentially like the typical soil, the
basis of separation being one of topography. As a whole, the
color and texture of the soil may be slightly lighter than the
typical soil, and the average depth to rock is less. Because of
its steep, broken character, this phase has a lower agricultural
value than the typical soil.

Drainage. — The natural drainage of the steep phase is good
except in small areas along the slopes where springs and seeps
may occur. The greater part of it is so rolling that too large
a percentage of the rainfall runs off, and crops often suffer from
lack of moisture.

Origin. — The Knox silt loam, steep phase, has practically the
same origin as the typical soil, though as a rule there is less
depth to bedrock, and chert fragments occur on the surface and
through the soil mass in greater abundance.

24

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

Native vegetation.— The original timber growth consisted of
the same trees as on the typical soil, oak predominating. Most
of the standing timber outside the bottom lands is now found
on this phase, and on the rough stony land with which it is
associated, though a considerable proportion of the steep land
is cleared, and is either in cultivation or pasture land.

Present agricultural development. — The same crops are
grown on the steep phase as on the typical soil, but less corn
and other intertilled crops are grown and more of the land is
in grass and pasture than on the main type. The ordinary
yields of all crops are somewhat lower. Because of the steep
character of the surface, the phase is more difficult to work
than the typical soil. The steepest portions of the phase are
now in timber or pasture land, and the remainder is devoted to
general farming.

LINTONIA SILT LOAM

Extent and distribution. — This soil occupies part of the high¬
est levels of the terraces bordering the Black and Trempealeau
Rivers. The soil quite closely resembles the Knox silt loam in
texture and color, but differs from it in topography, origin, and
the position which it occupies.

Description. — The surface soil of the Lintonia silt loam to
an average depth of ten inches consists of a brownish-gray,
friable silt loam, which becomes lighter colored on drying and
frequently has a whitish appearance. The quantity of organic
matter present in the surface soil is comparatively small, and
this accounts in part for the light color of the material. A
slight acid condition has developed in places in the surface soil,
as indicated by the litmus paper test. The subsoil consists of
a yellowish-brown or buffcolored silt loam, which usually becomes
somewhat heavier and more compact with depth, and at twenty-
four to thirty inches may be a silty clay loam. Below this
depth there is often a considerable quantity of fine and very
fine sand, and this mixture extends to a depth of three feet or
over, and grades into stratified fine sand with layers of gravel
in the lower depths.

Topography and drainage— The surface of the Lintonia silt
loam is usually level or nearly so, frequently having a gentle
slope toward the stream channels along which it occurs. The

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

25

type occurs as terraces or benches usually rather narrow, but
extending along the streams for considerable distances. The
part adjoining the upland rises slowly and frequently grades
into the Knox silt loam so gradually that the boundary line must
be arbitrarily placed. As this type is found chiefly at the foot
of higher lying slopes, which are often very steep, large quan¬
tities of water must pass over the terraces during heavy rains,
and as a result deep ravines are frequently formed. The origi¬
nal timber growth consisted chiefly of oak, with some hickory
and a few other species. Most of the timber has been removed.
In the ravines there is now a second growth of sumac, hazel,
and other brush.

Origin. — The material composing the type is largely of allu¬
vial origin and was deposited during glacial periods when the
melting ice sheets to the north greatly increased the volume
of water flowing down these rivers. It is probable that the sur¬
face material, especially close to the foot of the bluffs, is partly
colluvial, having been washed down the steep slopes from the
Knox sit loam areas, which are always found at higher eleva¬
tions.

Present agricultural development. — Practically all the type
is put to some agricultural use, and most of it is cultivated
regularly. The crops generally grown and the yields obtained
are : Corn, 45 to 50 bushels ; oats, 25 to 40 bushels ; barley, 30
to 35 bushels; and hay, 1% to 2 tons per acre. Potatoes are
grown on the type to a small extent for home use, but seldom
on a commercial scale. The usual rotation consists of corn
followed by a small grain, either oats or barley, or sometimes
by one year of each of these crops, and then by clover and tim¬
othy mixed, seeded with the grain, the field being cut for hay
one or two years, before returning to corn. The stable manure
is usually applied to the sod to be plowed under for the corn
crops. The methods of cultivation, fertilization, and treatment
are practically the same as those practiced on Knox silt loam.
The soil is not difficult to cultivate, and where the areas are
of sufficient size to form fields or the larger part of a farm,
this terrace soil may be considered one of the most desirable
types in the county.

26

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

BATES SILT LOAM

Extent and distribution. — This type of soil is all found in
one locality. It covers four to five square miles of land just
north and west of the town of Alma Center. The soil is nearly
level to undulating, occupying part of valley flat and extending
up adjoining slopes and includes small knolls and elevations.
There is sufficient fall so that the drainage is generally good,
although where the land is quite level, the drainage is deficient
in places.

Description. — The surface soil of the Bates silt loam to a
depth of ten to fourteen inches consists of a dark-brown silt
loam containing a high percentage of organic matter. Its high
percentage of silt and organic matter gives the soil an extremely
smooth feel. Litmus paper tests indicate an acid condition over
most of the type. The subsoil consists of a brown or buff-col-
ored silt loam, which gradually becomes heavier in texture and
lighter in color, and at twenty-four to thirty inches consists of

41

a yellowish-brown, compact, heavy silt loam or silty clay loam.
In spots where the drainage is deficient, the subsoil shows a
slight mottling of light gray or drab. This heavy subsoil ex¬
tends to a considerable depth, and the soil section will probably
average seven to eight feet in thickness.

Origin. — The silty material composing this type of soil may
be of residual origin from a shaly phase of the Potsdam sand¬
stone formation, or more probably, loessial material. It differs
from the Knox silt loam principally in its higher organic mat¬
ter content.

Native vegetation. — The type as a whole is generally spoken
of as “Oak openings” having been originally forested with scat¬
tered clumps of large oak trees, while the intervening spaces
were in a semi-prairie condition, supporting a more or less
heavy growth of prairie grass.

The Bates silt loam is one of the desirable types of soil in
the county. All the general crops grown in the region do well
on this type, and the average yields of some of the crops are
higher than on most of the other soils. The soil is especially
well adapted to corn, on which the ordinary yield is 50 to 60
bushels per acre. Barley produces 30 to 35 bushels and oats
40 to 50 bushels per acre. The quality of the small grains is

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

27

not so good as of those grown on the Knox silt loam. Clover
and timothy produce from 1% to 2 tons per acre, and the pas¬
turage is generally excellent. The rotation of crops most gener¬
ally followed consists of corn, small grains, and hay. Of the
small grains, oats is most commonly grown, though barley may
also be grown in the rotation following the oats. Where the
acid condition is corrected and the soil inoculated, the alfalfa
crop promises to do very well.

Dairying is the chief branch of farming followed, and hog
raising is carried on quite extensively on many of the dairy
farms. The buildings and other improvements on this soil are
as a rule better than the average. Some farms produce beef
stock in connection with dairy farming. Silos are in quite
general use.

VESPER SILT LOAM

This soil consists of eight to ten inches of grayish brown
heavy silt loam on yellowish-brown or bluish, or mottled silty
clay loam subsoil. This subsoil is sticky and retentive of moisture.
Lenses of fine sand may occur in the clay subsoil and beneath
this clay, a layer of sand, or sandy clay loam lies at from twenty-
four to thirty-six inches. The sandy material lies nearest the
surface on slight knolls while on the flats and depressions, the
clay subsoil may extend to four feet or more in depth. In a
few places, shale or sandstone rock is found within three or four
feet of the surface especially on the slight knolls. On the flats,
one to three inches of the surface soil may be black with accu¬
mulated organic matter.

This Vesper silt loam covers about five to six square miles of
land immediately to the north and west of Merrillan. The soil
is not found in any other part of the county.

The topography of this soil is level or very slightly sloping.
Very slight elevations or knolls occur in a few places. These
have been outlined and indicated by the symbol (R) as rolling
phase of the type.

The drainage of the type is generally poor. This is due to
the combined effects of a sticky clayey subsoil and the level
topography. The drainage is so defective that cultivated crops
can seldom be matured on it except in dry season. The slight
knolls mentioned are well enough drained so that the soil can
generally be cultivated. Much of the land is retained in perma-

28

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

nent pasture or hay land. A large part of this soil is still
timbered or brush covered. The original timber was largely
pine with some hemlock, hardwood, and oak. Practically all
the merchantable timber has been removed. The present timber
consists of oaks, poplar, ash, and birch fifteen to twenty feet
high. Grass, willow, and alder cover the lower portions. The
soil is very acid, and a good deal of moss grows on the cleared
land.

The crops best adapted to this soil are hay (alsike and tim¬
othy), root crops, rye, and oats. Corn for ensilage can gen¬
erally be grown and in dry years ripe corn can sometimes be
produced. Most of the cultivated crops are grown on the
knolls. Potatoes are grown to some extent as well as buckwheat.
Yields of all crops except hay are very variable, and depend
almost entirely upon the character of the season.'

This land sells for from ten to forty dollars per acre depending
upon location and improvement.

The following table gives the mechanical analyses of samples
of the soil and subsoil of Vesper silt loam.*

Mechanical Analysis of Vesper Silt Loam

Number

Description

Fine

gravel

Coarse

sand

Medium

sand

Fine

sand

Very fine
sand

Silt

Clay

$

212819 .

312820 _

Soil _

Subsoil -

Per cent

1.4

.6

Per cent
4.5
4.4

.

t

Per cent Per cent
2.5 15.3

2.9 17.0

I

Per cent Per cent

16.3 41.9

24.9 33.9

Per cent

14.9

16.2

* The numbers used to identify these samples are the numbers of the U. S. Bureau of Soils,
the analyses having been made by the Bureau.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, FERTILITY AND IMPROVE¬
MENT OF HEAVY SOILS

The heavy soils have a fairly good supply of the mineral
elements of plant food. The Bates soil as its dark color indi¬
cates, is especially well supplied with organic matter, nitrogen
and a good amount of phosphorus. The lighter colored Knox
and Lintonia soils are considerably lower in nitrogen and also
phosphorus. The Vesper soil is fairly well supplied with all
the essential plant food elements but on account of its acidity
and lack of efficient drainage, measures to make these stores of
plant food available for crops are necessary. Average analyses

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

29

indicate the following amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium in these soils in pounds per acre, eight inches deep :

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Potassium

Average of Lintonia and Knox silt loams. . .

Vesper silt* loam

1,988

4,566

5,340

820

1,920

1,440

(In pounds)

33,800

Bates silt loam . .

35,200

•

•

It will be seen that there is a good deal of variation in the
amounts of the plant foods found in these different soils.

Nitrogen and organic matter. — The light colored Lintonia and
Knox soils have the smallest amounts of these elements. They
can best be added to the soil by growing and plowing under
green crops as clovers and alfalfa. Organic matter added to
these soils helps prevent erosion or washing away of the soil,
helps prevent drying out by increasing the water holding capac¬
ity of the soil, and enlarges the leaf and stem growth of crops
giving larger straw on the grain crops and improved yields
of silage and corn.

Acidity and liming. — Since all of these soils are medium to
strongly acid and usually show need of lime, difficulty with
growing clover and alfalfa may be corrected in part by apply¬
ing ground limestone. The soil should be tested before this
application, and this is done without charge by the University
Soils Department at Madison. The need for lime as shown
by the crops should also be considered. It should not be ex¬
pected that lime will remedy conditions where the soil lacks
good underdrainage as is often the case on the Vesper silt loam.

Phosphorus. — The Knox and Lintonia soils are lowest in the
supply of this element, and although they are and have been
the best grain soils in the county, if the farm does not produce
enough manure to revive the soil where grain is becoming poor,
small applications of phosphate fertilizer to help out the manure
will be necessary. Even if the supply of manure is liberal the
additional use of phosphate fertilizer will usually pay. Lodged
grain or light yield may be laid in part to an unbalanced ration
of plant food in the soil and addition of lime and small amounts
of phosphorus fertilizer often help to remedy this condition.

30

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

Potassium. — *These soils are all so well supplied with this
element that no artificial application probably will be needed
on general farm crops, when manure is used, unless in some
places on the Vesper soil where the drainage may be improved,
it may be found necessary to apply some of this fertilizer at
first until the supplies in the soil become available through
cultivation and exposure of the soil to the air.

Crops — fThe Knox and Lintonia soils are best adapted to
grains and grass and fairly so to corn, while the Bates soil
produces the best corn and barley. The Vesper soil produces
hay well (alsike and timothy) and fair oats, rye, and a little
corn. Methods to improve the surface and underdrainage must
be worked out to improve yields on this soil.

In cultivating the Knox silt loam, it should be kept in mind
that the soil is low in organic matter, and that much of it is
subject to erosion. The supply of organic matter may be
increased by supplementing the' stable manure with green crops,
especially legumes, plowed under. The second crop of clover
may well be utilized in this way. Erosion may be held in check
by putting the steepest slopes in grass. When necessary or
desirable to cultivate the steeper slopes, the plow should be
run at right angles to the slope. The drainage channel down
the hillside is sometimes left as a shallow sod ditch, while the
remainder of the field is cultivated.

The steep parts of the type should be kept in grass as much,
as possible, and dairying and stock raising are good lines of
farming to follow.

There are many good orchard sites on the Knox silt loam.
Bushberries, strawberries, etc., do well, and it would seem that
such fruits might be profitably grown on a commercial scale
since much of the type is within easy reach of shipping points,
shipping points. The growing of apples has been developed in
these and it is believed that apples could be successfully grown
on a larger scale in Jackson county than at present.

*For more information on commercial fertilizers and their uses see
page 73.

tFor more data on crop rotation, etc., see page 64.

31

GEOUP OF MEDIUM HEAVY SOILS.

CHAPTER III

GROUP OF MEDIUM HEAVY SOILS

BOONE LOAM

Extent and distribution. — This soil is a gradation between
the loessial Knox silt loam and the more largely residual Boone
fine sandy loam. This soil is generally distributed over the
western half of the county, and occupies gently undulating
secondary slopes or nearly level areas lying between the higher
land of heavier soil and the streams border areas of fine sand
or fine sandy loam. The soil usually lies on a valley slope.
This type covers a total area of 22,400 acres.

Description. — The Boone loam consists of a grayish-brown
loam or very fine sandy loam eight to ten inches deep on a yellow¬
ish-brown loam or sticky clayey sandy loam subsoil. The sub¬
soil is variable, being generally a compact sandy loam on the
knolls and a heavy loam or sandy clay loam on the slopes and
the level areas. In some cases sand or sandstone is found at less
than three feet on knolls, but in most cases the heavy subsoil
extends beyond the reach of a forty inch auger.

Topography and drainage. — The drainage of the soil is nearly
always good due to the generally sloping or undulating topog¬
raphy. The only exceptions are in the drainage ways, or bor¬
dering lower ground where small areas of the soil may be in¬
sufficiently drained at times.

Present agricultural development. — The Boone loam is a valu¬
able soil, and is highly developed farm land. Practically all
of it is under cultivation. Dairying and general farming are
practiced on this soil. The crops grown include oats, barley,
clover, corn, and some potatoes, wheat and root crops.

Yields of crops are about as follows: Corn, 50 to 70 bushels;
oats, 30 to 40 bushels ; wheat, 25 to 30 bushels ; barley, 20 to 30
bushels per acre. Clover does well but often freezes out in
winter. Improved land sells for from sixty to ninety dollars
an acre depending on its location, improvement, etc.

/

32

SOIL PURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

BOONE FINE SANDY LOAM

Extent and distribution. — The Boone fine sandy loam is an
important and fairly extensive type of soil in this county, cov¬
ering a total of 54,400 acres. Considerable areas of this soil
are found in the towns of Cleveland, Hixton, Alma, Springfield
in the western part of the county, and also in the vicinity of
Shamrock in the southern part.

Description. — The surface soil of the Boone fine sandy loam
to an average depth of eight to ten inches consists of a grayish-
brown fine sandy loam, which in some places contains a consid¬
erable quantity of medium sand. The quantity of organic mat¬
ter present is not large, and a slightly acid condition is found
to exist over most of the type. The subsoil consists of a brown
to yellowish-brown fine to medium sandy loam, which usually
extends to a depth of over three feet.

Both soil and subsoil of this type are subject to considerable
variation, though none of the variations are found of sufficient
extent or importance to be mapped as a phase, except the more
rolling tracts which are usually shallow.

Outcrops of sandstone are not uncommon, although they are
not extensive and seldom interfere to any marked extent with
cultivation. The depth to the underlying rock is variable, and
while it averages over three feet, there are places on the tops
of ridges and on knolls where there may be as little as two or
three inches of soil. There are also places over gently rolling
tracts where the soil has a depth of only two or three feet, but
such areas are not extensive.

Topography and drainage. — This soil generally occupies the
intermediate slopes lying between the high ridge lands and the
sandy flats bordering some of the streams. The topography is
generally gently undulating to rolling, some larger areas being
nearly level, and some portions near the ridges and rough stony
land having a fairly rolling surface.

Generally this soil withstands erosion well, both because the
soil can absorb much water quickly and because the surface is
generally not very rolling. In a few cases, erosion has gotten
beyond control and bad ditches and ravines have been formed.
Samples of these big ditches may be found along the Pine Hill
Road two miles west of Shamrock.

VVis. Geol. and Natural Hist. Survey

Plate II

View of Wildcat Mound. Sandstone ridges are included with the Rough Stony Land
type. Black Dunning marsh border soil in foreground and Tama¬
rack peat swamp in the rear, bordering mound.

Topography and vegetation typical of the Boone fine sandy loam. Sandstone

ridge of Rough Stony Land in rear.

GROUP OF MEDIUM. HEAVY SOILS.

33

On account of the sandy character of the soil and the surface
.features, the natural drainage of this type is excellent. Where
the soil is shallow and where the slopes are steep, the type
frequently suffers from lack of sufficient moisture, though as
a whole it retains moisture fairly well.

Origin. — The original Boone fine sandy loam is largely resid¬
ual having been derived from the weathering of the Potsdam
sandstone, and from a shaly phase of this formation. On some
of the slopes, it is probable that some of the sandy material has
been moved short distances down the slope by washing. Where
there is silty material incorporated with the soil, it is probable
that a part of this has been washed down from higher lying silt
loam types. Thus it will be seen that the type may also be partly
of colluvial origin, although this phase is of minor importance.
In a few places, sand dumes have been formed, but these are
also of small extent. The original timber growth consisted
partly of black and scrub oak covering the shallow knolls and
the lighter portions of type.

Native vegetatio?i. — On the heavier portions there was some
birch and maple. Sumac, hazel brush, poplar, and wild cherry
form the second growth in uncultivated places.

Present agricultural development. — By far the greater propor¬
tion of the type is put to some form of agricultural use, and
most of it is cultivated. The wooded portion is confined chiefly
to the steeper slopes and shallow knolls, which are covered mainly
with small oak. As is the case with the county as a whole,
most of the type is devoted to general farming, with dairying
as the most important branch. In connection with dairying
quite a number of hogs are raised.

The chief crops grown and the ordinary yields are as follows :
Corn, 40 to 50 bushels; oats, 30 to 40 bushels; barley, 35 to 40
bushels; and hay from one to two tons per acre. Some rye is
also grown, and it gives fair yields. On some of the level por¬
tions of the type some farmers report an increasing difficulty
in getting a good stand of clover. Others on the gently rolling
phase report no trouble whatever, no clover having been lost in
the last seven or eight years. Very fine stands of clover appear
on some of the lighter portions of the type, even though the soil
showed indications of acidity in response to the litmus paper
test.

34

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

When the county was first settled, wheat was grown exten¬
sively on this soil, but very little is now produced. It is con¬
sidered a fair corn soil, and the yields are practically the same
as on the Knox silt loam. Potatoes can be grown successfully,
though the acreage is not large.

The rotation of crops most commonly practiced consists of
corn, followed by oats or barley, with which clover and timothy
are seeded. Hay is cut for one or two years, and the field may
be pastured for a year before being again plowed for corn.
Cultivation of this soil is not difficult, and a lighter class of
implements and stock can be used than on the silt loam type.

The selling price of land of this type is quite variable, depend¬
ing upon location, character of the surface, texture of the soil,
and improvements. In the most favorable locations, the gently
sloping and nearly level portions of the type sell for sixty to
one hundred dollars an acre. The rougher places which are
more distantly removed from towns are held at twenty-five to
fifty dollars an acre.

VESPER FINE SANDY LOAM

(. Including Vesper Loam)

The Vesper fine sandy loam is an extensive type of soil. It
lies in the east end of the county in a compact body three to
five miles wide extending from the vicinity of Merrillan east
to City Point.

The surface soil consists of six to ten inches of grayish-brown
fine sandy loam. On some places, the surface one-half inch is
dark brown or black due to more organic matter in it. The
subsoil is a yellowish or mottled fine sandy loam or fine sand.
At from twelve to thirty inches deep the subsoil becomes a stiff
compact, mottled, or bluish sandy clay loam or clay. This tight
clay layer varies from two to twelve inches in thickness beneath
which again is found sand, sandstone or shale rock. The rock
generally lies at about twenty-four inches beneath the slight
knolls while on the flats and lower ground, the surface soil is
generally somewhat sandier than usual, the clay layer thicker
and the rock lies at greater depths.

The topography varies from flat to gently undulating. In a
few places, bordering streams, the land is more rolling, but this
condition is not at all extensive. The drainage of this soil is

HBOUP OF MEDIUM HEAVY SOULS.

35

deficient. Because of the heavy clay layer and the shale rock
beneath it, the rain water cannot penetrate deeply into the soil.
The result is a soggy, cold condition of the land till late in the
season each spring. This is liable to be true even on gentle
slopes. The drainage is better in a few instances on small knolls
and bordering the stream courses, and these places are where
crops are most successfully grown. The drainage of Sections
4, 5, 9, 19, 12, 14 (Township 22, Range 1 West) is better than
the average as they border the East Fork of Black River.

The Vesper fine sandy loam is largely brush covered. The
original white and Norway pine timber has all been removed
and outside of a few oaks and Jack pine, there is very little
large timber. Poplar, birch, Jack pine and oak brush cover
most of the land. Willow, alder, mess, and sweet fern grow
on the lower portions.

In origin this soil is largely residual from the underlying
sandstone and shale.

Only a small proportion of the type is improved, and the
land has a comparatively low selling value. By many it is
considered as having limited possibilities, but demonstrations
which have been made with the use of lime and with phosphate
fertilizers seem to show that with drainage this soil can be
made to produce profitable crops. Yields of corn of 60 bushels
per acre are known to have been obtained.

For a discussion of the methods best suited for the improve¬
ment of this soil see page 36.

The following table gives the results of mechanical analyses of
samples of the soil, subsurface, and subsoil of the Vesper fine
sandy loam :

Mechanical Analysis of Vesper Fine Sandy Loam

Number

Description

Fine

gravel

Coarse

sand

Medium

sand

Fine

sand

Very fine

sand Silt

Clay

SI 2809 .

812810 .

812810a....

Soil .

Subsurface-
Subsoil —

Per cenl
0.2
.4
.6

Per cen
2.2
1.4
1.0

Per cen,

4.4

4.3

.8

Per cent
05.8
69.7
16.1

Per cev 1

11.8

11.7

21.7

Per ceni

11.2

8.8

29.0

Per cent

4.3

3.8

80.9

36

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF THE MEDIUM HEAVY

SOILS

These soils vary in the content of plant food as shown by the
chemical analyses. In general the loams are better supplied
with prosphorus and nitrogen than are the fine sandy loams.
The latter possess about 1,500 to 1,700 pounds of nitrogen per
acre eight inches deep while the loams have from 500 to 700
pounds more. The fine sandy loams show about 800 pounds of
phosphorus while the loams have about 1,000 pounds an acre,
eight inches.

Potassium is present in considerable amounts in all the soils,
varying from 20,000 to 40,000 pounds an acre, eight inches. The
acidity ranges from slight to strong.

The need for lime is most marked in the Vesper fine sandy
loam and to a somewhat less degree in the Boone fine sandy loam.
This group of soils is adapted to a variety of crops and with
the exception of the Vesper fine sandy loam, which is naturally
deficient in drainage they produce good crops of corn, potatoes,
oats, alsike clover and timothy and some tobacco.

It is more difficult to keep up the content of organic matter
in these soils than in the heavier silt loams. Lime will be
needed on all of the types when alfalfa is to be grown and
may be required to insure a good stand of clover. (See p.
for discussion on liming.)

The use of acid phosphate will in most cases prove to be profit¬
able. This applied broadcast to grain crop seeded to clover
will not only increase the grain crop but will aid in insuring a
good growth of clover or alfalfa which in turn will increase
the organic matter and nitrogen content of the soil (For dis¬
cussion of commercial fertilizer see page ).

On the Vesper fine sandy loam tile drainage is needed since
this soil is too wet much of the time for most crops to do well.
Tiling is made more difficult by the presence of the blue shale
clay and shale rock layers at varying depth in the subsoil.
Knolls and rolling areas in this soil produce good crops.

In the improvement of the type drainage is the first step.
The soil is low in organic matter and phosphorus and is in need
of lime, but the supply of potassium is large and this high po¬
tassium content appears to be general. With proper drainage
and fertilization together with the use of lime, this soil offers
good opportunities for agricultural development.

GBOTJP OF SANDY SOILS.

37

CHAPTER IV
GROUP OF SANDY SOILS

BOONE FINE SAND

Extent and distribution. — The Boone fine sand is widely dis¬
tributed over nearly all parts of Jackson county. It occurs
wherever the loessial or wind-blown silty blanket of soil failed
to cover the sandstone, or where the silt surface has since been
removed by erosion. In the east half of the county this soil
covers the greater part of the upland. In the western part
this soil is confined largely to the valleys and slopes surrounding
the sandstone ridges and outcrops. Pine, Low and Tank Creek
valleys in the towns of Hixton and Albion have much of this
soil.

Description. — The soil of the Boone fine sand, to an average
depth of six inches, consists of a brown or yellowish fine sand,
in the surface inch or two of which there is a very small amount
of organic matter. The soil is loose and open, and is occasion¬
ally blown into small dunes by the wind. Sandstone fragments
and some chert may occur upon the surface and be mixed with
the soil. The subsoil consists of a fine yellow sand, which con¬
tains fragments of sandstone and chert, and usually grades into *
disintegrated sandstone or into the solid rock at two to ten feet.
The texture may become coarser as the rock is approached. The
underlying rock frequently outcrops. The depth to rock is
variable and ranges from one foot to five or six feet. Where
the depth is greatest, rock fragments are seldom found; where
the soil is shallow, they may be very plentiful. As a rule, the
soil is thinner in the hill country than in a flat region. The
subsoil may have a reddish-brown color, but the type as a whole
is quite uniform, and what variations occur are of minor impor¬
tance.

Topography and drainage. — The topography of this soil varies
from very gently sloping to rolling. On the larger areas of

38

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

the soil, the surface is undulating for the most part, the rolling-
topography occurring only in the vicinity of the sandstone
mounds and ridges. Some of this soil is nearly level and in the
east end of the county the areas of level topography are out¬
lined as a level phase of the Boone fine sand. The level areas
outlined occur mainly in the towns of Bear Bluff, Knapp and
City Point.

The surface soil has in places been blown into low dunes.
On account of the loose, open character of the soil and subsoil
the natural drainage is excessive, and crops usually suffer from
drought during a portion of every season. On account of the
surface features and the loose, open character of both soil and
subsoil, the natural drainage is excessive and the type is
droughty. None of the slopes are sufficiently steep to make the
prevention of erosion an important factor in the management of
this soil.

Origin. — In origin the Boone fine sand is largely residual,
having been derived from the weathering of Potsdam sandstone.
There is but little organic matter present, and such a small
quantity of silt and clay that the loose surface material is
readily blown by the wind, and in a number of places low sand
dunes have been formed. The material composing the type is
in an acid condition, as indicated by the litmus paper test.

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth on this type
consisted chiefly of Norway and Jack pine and scattered scrubby
oak. Coarse grasses and sand burs are also found growing on
the type, although there are a number of places where the sur¬
face is bare of vegetation, and the soil is now drifting.

Present agricultural development. — The Boone fine sand is
one of the most extensive types of soil in Jackson County.
While a large part of it occurring in the western part of the
county with soils of greater agricultural value is used for some
agricultural purpose, a very large part of the soil in the east
half of the county is not cultivated. Large areas remain covered
with brush. Bushes or small trees and portions once cultivated
have been abandoned in many cases. Perhaps fifteen to twenty-
five percent of this soil is cultivated or used for some agricul¬
tural purpose. The presence of better types of soil in the vicin¬
ity always encourages the cultivation of this soil, but where this

GROUP OF SANDY SOILS.

39

soil occurs exclusively in large areas, agriculture does not thrive
notably on it.

Good yields of crops adapted to the soil are often produced
in favorable seasons where the land is properly cultivated.
Such crops as corn, rye, buckwheat, beans, cucumbers, tobacco
and clover are grown on this soil in different parts of the county.
Special crops succeed best on this soil because of its easy culti¬
vation, but the land can be very quickly run down and crop
yields greatly reduced where methods for keeping up the soil
fertility are not used.

Dairy farming is at a disadvantage unless the stock can
range over a large area of land, or in case the farm includes
bottom land or heavy soil for pasturage, for this soil furnishes
scant pasturage during the dry parts of the summer months.

Tobacco and beans are grown on this soil mainly in the val¬
leys west of Black River in the towns of Springfield, Northfield,
Albion, and Curran. Cucumbers are grown in the towns of
Brockway, Alma, and Komensky.

The chief crops grown and the average yields obtained during
the most favorable seasons are as follows : Corn, 15 to 20
bushels ; oats, 15 to 20 bushels ; rye, 12to 15 bushels ; buckwheat,
10 to 12 bushels ; and potatoes, 50 to 100 bushels per acre.

The yields of crops vary greatly on this soil, depending partly

on the location of the land, the kind of season, and in part on

how the land is handled. The best yields are generally obtained

where this land lies in such a position that it does not dry out

too readily in the summer months, such as on a north slope or

at the base of a slope where run-off and seepage of the rainfall

tend to keep the soil moist and still not too wet. Best yields

are also obtained where small patches of this soil are surrounded

%

on the farm by heavier soil. On such places, the farmer seems
to have more manure to spare for the light soil, and he often
has better success with clover. A slightly more compact sub¬
soil than normal is sometimes found in such locations as de¬
scribed above.

Very good yields of mammoth clover are sometimes obtained
on this soil, and in a number of places clover for seed is regu¬
larly grown. Some farmers find that spring sown clover with
oats does better than with fall sown rye on this soil. In other
locations where this soil is extensive, clover is practically never

40

BOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

grown and a good catch is very difficult to obtain. From $150
to $250 worth of tobacco an acre, from $100 to $150 worth of
cucumbers, from eight to ten bushels of white beans, and from
90 to 125 bushels of potatoes are some of the yields of special
crops reported in favorable seasons. The special crops are sub¬
ject to frosts and total failures sometimes result from this cause
as well as from dry weather. From one to three or four acres
per farm is generally the limit of acreage where these special
crops are grown, although on a few farms much larger acre¬
ages are grown.

The most successful farmers on this soil raise a small acreage
of special crops and for general crops, they grow mainly rye,
corn or buckwheat and generally are able to grown enough oats
for their own use. In some cases a three year rotation of rye
or oats with clover first year, hay and pasture second year, corn
third year is practiced. Where clover is seldom if ever grown
and farm manure is scarce a portion of the land is allowed to
lie fallow about one year in three. Very little commercial
fertilizer is used except by some of the cucumber growers. To¬
bacco fields are usually heavily manured and farm manure is
the main fertilizer used.

BOONE FINE SAND

( Poorly Drained Phase)

In Sections 23, 26, 34, 35 in Town 22 North, range 3 AV, three
or four miles south of Hatfield, there is an area of several square
miles of low lying upland soil which has rather poor drainage,
and which is separated from the typical Boone fine sand as a
poorly drained phase. This soil is somewhat variable, but in
the main, consists of a rather dark, medium to fine sand with
a subsoil which is yellow or sometimes mottled. There is no
shallow or heavy layer of clay in the subsoil, although sand¬
stone rock is sometimes found at three or four feet below the
surface. In a few instances a small amount of sticky material
was found in the lower depths.

A part of this land is cultivated and gives fair yields, espe¬
cially during the drier years.

There is another small area of this type lying in Sections 13
and 24 about one and one-half miles east of Black River Falls.
A considerable portion of this area is also under cultivation,

GROUP OF SANDY SOILS.

41

and in improved farm land. Over both of these tracts, the
surface is level to very slightly undulating. On the slight eleva¬
tions, the surface is lighter colored and better drained than the
lower areas. During wet years there is sometimes an excess of
moisture, but during dry season, this soil is much better sup¬
plied with moisture than the typical Boone fine sand. Because
of this condition and the presence of clay in deep subsoil, this
phase is considered to be a better soil than the typical Boone
fine sand, and one which is capable of being more highly im¬
proved.

PLAINFIELD SAND

FJxtent and distribution. — The Plainfield sand is located on
fiat-topped benches or terraces which rise abruptly from the
Black River, and extend back to the high bluff land on either
side. In places there are several levels or steps of from fifteen
to forty feet elevation each up from the river bottom to the
land of the highest terrace on which the residence portion of
the city of Black River Falls stands. This terrace level extends
several miles eastward along Morrison and Levis Creeks and
narrows again to a narrow bench above Hatfield in Clark county.
In the southern end of the county, only narrow strips of this
soil are found in or bordering the river bottom. Narrow strips
of this soil are found in Trempealeau and Beef River valleys
also.

Description. — The typical soil of the Plainfield sand consists
of a yellowish-brown sand of medium texture extending to an
average depth of eight to ten inches. The structure of the soil
is loose and open, and there is present a considerable amount of
iron, which gives the rusty color and a slight loaminess in places.
It also carries a small amount of organic matter, but the color
indicates a higher content than actually exists. A little gravel
is seen upon the surface in some places, and a small amount of
fine gravel is mixed with the soil. The subsoil consists of a
yellow medium sand, which usually becomes coarser in texture
with increased depth. The subsoil always contains more gravel
than the surface soil. Where the subsoil contains considerable
iron, as is the case in spots where the drainage has been im¬
peded for any reason, the material has a brownish or sometimes
a reddish color, but this usually fades as the depth increases.

42

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

Topography and drainage.— The topography of this soil is
level, the only variations being where streams have cut across
the terraces to the river bottom or at the abrupt rises from one
terrace level to another. Where specially marked, the terrace
intervals are indicated by cross-lining over the color represent¬
ing this soil.

Because of its generally loose and open character and the
porous condition of the subsoil, this soil is generally well
drained, and water passes through it so readily that crops are
liable to suffer for lack of water in any spell of dry weather.

Present agricultural development. — This soil is an extensive
type in the central part of the county. Large parts of it remain
uncultivated. The cultivated portion is occupied largely by
Polish people or Indians who cultivate small tracts. The vege¬
tation of the uncultivated portions consists of small scrubby
oak, Jack and Norway pine, poplar, birch, oak, cherry. Sweet
fern and blueberry brush cover the ground.

From twenty to thirty per cent of the type has been cleared
and cultivated at one time, but a considerable number of
farms have been abandoned, and no crops are being grown upon
them at the present time. The chief crops grown at the pres¬
ent time and the yields secured during the most favorable years
are as follows : Corn, 15 to 25 bushels ; oats, 20 to 25 bushels ;
buckwheat, 12 to 16 bushels ; and potatoes, 100 to 150 bushels
per acre. Potatoes form the chief cash crop, and do better
than any of the other crops grown.

In a few cases white beans are grown on this soil, and the
yield is as high as ten bushels per acre in favorable seasons.
Cucumbers are grown to some extent in the vicinity of Hatfield.
The yields of all crops vary greatly with character of the season,
and the treatment given the soil. Under most favorable condi¬
tions, very fair yields of clover and of mixed alsike clover and
rye hay are obtained; frequently fair corn is grown. But the
failures of crops are frequent on this soil, and because of the
poor pasture afforded, this soil is not well adapted to dairy or
general farming.

Some of the Polish farmers maintain a considerable number
of young stock by grazing them over large areas of this brushy
undeveloped soil, and on the flat shallow marshes which lie at
the borders of this type of soil. It is very difficult, however,

VVis. Geol. and Natural Hist. S

Plate III

urvey

View showing the topography and vegetation conditions in the sand and marsh
country in the east end of Jackson county. Marsh grass in the fore¬
ground, willows and tamarack clump in background.

VIEW OF CORN ON PLAINFIELD SAND.

This shows about an average crop where no fertilizers have been used. The stand
was fair but the corn was short, and the yield low.

GEO VP OF SANDY SOILS.

43

to raise enough feed on this soil to keep any considerable num¬
ber of cattle through the long winters.

Land is very cheap on most of this soil type. From six to
fifteen dollars an acre represents the selling price of much of it.
In the Trempealeau and Beef River valleys the soil is somewhat
higher priced due to the presence of better soils in the vicinity.

PLAINFIELD FINE SAND

Extent and distribution. — This soil is practically all confined
to the areas bordering Robinson Creek in the townships of Man¬
chester and Millston. Like the Plainfield sand, this soil occupies
the highest terrace level along the Black River valley and extends
back in a practically level plane eastward to Millston. The
texture of the soil seems to be slightly coarser at the east end
than at the west end of the area, but no definite boundary can
well be established as the change is not uniform nor distinct.

Description. — The surface soil of the Plainfield fine sand con¬
sists of a brownish-gray or yellowish loose fine sand extending
to a depth of about eight inches. The surface two inches con¬
tains more organic matter, making it a brown or dark brown
in its virgin state. This is underlain by a yellow loose, fine
sand which extends to a depth below the reach of the soil auger.
In texture, structure, and color this type is quite similar to the
Boone fine sand, but differs from that type in origin and topog¬
raphy. Like the Boone fine sand, it contains only a very small
quantity of organic matter, and is in an acid condition.

Native vegetation. — Only a small part of this soil is under
cultivation, the farms on it being confined to a small group near
Shamrock, near Millston, and at the Sandy Plains School in the
center of the area. The great majority of the soil is covered
with a second growth of Jack and Norway Pines, oak, poplar,
white birch, and hazel brush. A few large white pines in the
vicinity of Millston are the only remnants of an original Nor¬
way and White Pine forest covering the area.

Present agricultural development. — There are only a few
farms under regular cultivation on this soil, and the farming
is not of a very progressive kind. The farms are small and
considerable parts of the cleared area lie fallow or abandoned
where once cultivated. The crops grown consist of rye, corn,

44

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

buckwheat, and potatoes. Where grass marshes and stream
bottom land adjoin this soil, it is possible to keep young stock
and a few dairy cows. The soil is subject to drought, and does
not support a good quality of pasture when dry spells occur
in the summer season.

In favorable seasons on new ground corn yields 20 to
25 bushels, rye 15 bushels, oats 20 bushels. Beans and
cucumbers are grown by some of the farmers. The raising
of special cash crops is limited because of the hauling
distance to the railroad and the sandy roads. Potatoes yield
100 to 125 bushels. Wild land sells for from five xo ten dollars
an acre ; improved land for from twenty to twenty-five dollars.

PLAINFIELD SANDY LOAM

The Plainfield sandy loam is a brown sandy loam sixteen to
eighteen inches deep, resting on a subsoil which becomes lighter
in color, and if anything a little lighter in texture with depth,
and passes usually at about thirty inches into a yellowish sand.
The lower part of the soil section thus resembles that of the
Plainfield sand.

In Squaw Creek Valley this soil is reddish or chocolate-
colored in places, indicating the presence of a great deal of iron
due to a formerly poorly drained condition. This soil is not
an extensive one. It is associated with the Plainfield sand soil,
and includes several small areas bordering the river bottom or
tributary streams south of Black River Falls.

This type has the same origin as the Plainfield types, and also
supports about the same scrubby growth.

From an agricultural standpoint, it is somewhat better than
the sand type, but yields are lower, and special care is needed
in cultivating and fertilizing this type.

VESPER SANDY LOAM

This soil is mapped chiefly south and east of Merrillan, and
covers a total of about three square miles of area.

The surface soil is variable, running from a fine sand and
sandy loam to a sticky, clayey sandy loam. The subsoil at six
to twenty-four niches is a mottled or bluish clay loam, contain¬
ing sandstones or shale fragments of small size. In some cases,

GROUP OF SANDY SOILS

45

white sand or sandstone rock lies at thirty to thirty -six inches,
but generally the soil is over three feet deep.

The topography is nearly level and the drainage is often defi¬
cient both because of the level topography and the impervious
subsoil. Where the surface soil is more sandy, and the sub¬
soil clay layer lies at twenty-four to thirty inches or below this
soil is not too wet to raise fair crops. Several small clearings
are cutivated and corn, beans, potatoes, and rye are grown.

Most of the soil is uncleared, and the vegetation consists of
oak, poplar, jack pine, and willow brush. Moss and leather leaf
cover the surface of the ground.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF SANDY

SOILS

The sandy soils are generally lower in content of phosphorus
and nitrogen than the heavier soils. The fine sands and sandy
loams are somewhat better supplied than the sands. Per acre,
eight inches of soil, the sands have from 900 to 1,000 pounds of
nitrogen, and about four hundred pounds of phosphorus, while
the fine sands and sandy loams have from 1,400 to 1,600 pounds
of nitrogen, and five hundred to eight hundred pounds of phos¬
phorus. The potassium amounts to from twenty to twenty-
five thousand pounds per acre.

In some respects sandy soils have advantages over heavier
soils. They become drier and therefore warmer and can be
worked earlier in the spring and more quickly after rains than
heavier soils. These advantages are particularly important in
regions of short growing periods. But when the soil is too
sandy it does not hold sufficient water from one rainfall to
another to satisfy the needs of the growing crops and it there¬
fore suffers from drought. Moreover, some sandy soils are
lower in their supply of the chemical elements demanded by
crops than heavier soils. When these two factors become too
low they limit the profitable farming of these soils. In the
mapping of the Soil Survey those soils which are classed as
sandy loams have fairly good water holding capacity, and when
their fertility is properly maintained their good qualities in
regard to warmth and earliness can be taken advantage of and
they can be farmed with profit. But soils which are classified
as sands and some of the fine sands do not have sufficient water

46

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

holding capacity and their use for the growth of staple crops
is ordinarily unprofitable, unless unusual skill is used in their
management. It must be kept distinctly in mind, however, that
all types as mapped show some variation in texture or fineness
of grain. The chief factor limiting their agricultural use is
that of water holding capacity. This depends chiefly on the
texture or fineness of grain and can not be affected by any
treatment it is practicable to give them. The water holding
capacity can be somewhat increased by increasing the amount
of organic matter, but this is a comparatively slow process
and the amount of organic matter it is practicable to develop
and maintain in these soils will increase their water holding
capacity only to a limited extent.

When a sufficient supply of active organic matter is devel¬
oped in these soils more of the phosphorus and potassium will
undoubtedly be made available, but the use of fertilizers con¬
taining these elements in a more readily available form is de¬
sirable whenever these soils are farmed.

The starting point in the improvement of these soils is the
development of active organic matter through the growth of
legumes which are able to secure their nitrogen supply from
the atmosphere. But before legumes can be grown with the
greatest success the liming of the soil is necessary. The growth
of a good crop of mammoth clover or soj^beans through the use
of lime and mineral fertilizers containing phosphorus and
potassium is the best means of supplying this nitrogen and or¬
ganic matter. In most cases this legume should be plowed
under as a green manuring crop.

Probably the best way to get clover started is to seed with a
small grain. By using a light seeding of rye, disked or har¬
rowed in and seeded to clover in the spring, a good stand can
usually be secured. The seed should be put in a little deeper
than on heavy soils, and the drill should be followed by a corru¬
gated roller, or if this implement is not at hand, an ordinary
roller, followed by a light harrow should be used. When clover
is seeded with a small grain in this way the growing grain helps
to hold the soil in place and prevent blowing of the loose soil
by the wind.

As the result of careful experiments on extremely sandy soils
it appears that the best crop rotation for this class of land

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FIELD OF RYE ON PLAINFIELD SAND AT HANCOCK, WISCONSIN.

GROUP OF SANDY SOILS

47

consists of rye, clover, and corn. If the fertility is extremely
low, it will be advisable to plow under the entire clover crop.
If the fertility is fair the first crop may be cut for hay and the
second plowed under. While potatoes are quite extensively
grown on these extremely sandy soils this crop is not as well
adapted to the sand soils as to sandy loam types. It has been
shown by actual field tests that the yields of corn, for example,
can be more readily increased on the sand soil than can the
yield of potatoes. The potato when grown on sand soils does
not respond to methods of soil improvement as readily as when
grown on soils which contain somewhat more silt and clay. The
sandy loams and fine sands and fine sandy loams are much bet¬
ter adapted to potato culture than are the sand soils. It is
therefore advisable to reduce, where possible, the acreage of
potatoes on sand soils.

With an increased acreage of corn it will be possible to put
up enough silage so silage may be used for summer feeding.
With this practice less pasture will be required, and this again
will be desirable since the sand soils do not supply good grazing,
and are not well adapted to any of the grasses. This system
would make possible keeping more stock, and with the increased
supply of manure the fertility of the land could be more readily
maintained.

When properly managed alfalfa can be successfully grown
on very sandy soils. For further information on the manage¬
ment of soils, see Bui. 299, Wis. Exp. Sta.

48

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

CHAPTER Y

GROUP OF SOILS LACKING GOOD DRAINAGE

DUNNING SAND

Extent and distribution. — The Dunning sand is confined to
the sandy portion of the county east of Black River, and in
mapping, it was frequently made to include some of the land
lying between the marshes and the Boone fine sand. The soil
is not all black and not all distinctly flat marsh border land.
Small areas of higher land where the drainage is poor, and
where grass swales and depressions are too numerous to sep¬
arate, wTere included in this type.

Description. — The surface soil of the Dunning sand consists
of brown to nearly black, medium, or fine sand six to twelve
inches deep, containing a high percentage of organic matter,
wdiich imparts to the soil its dark color. The subsoil consists
of a grayish or whitish fine to medium sand, which has a leached
or washed appearance, and extends to a depth beyond three
feet. In places, the subsoil is stained by iron oxide and bluish
mottling is not uncommon. The depth of the surface soil varies,
but in other particulars the type is uniform.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of the soil is always
low and generally level. It is very little higher than the level
of the marshes and slightly lower than the bordering sands of
light color. On account of its low position and the nearness
of the water table to the surface, the natural drainage is poor,
and as a result the type is too wet for ordinary farm crops, ex¬
cept during the dry portion of the summer.

_ '

This type of soil is an extensive one in connection with the
sand and marsh country of the east half of the county. Agricul¬
turally it is not important as the soil is generally too wet to
raise crops, and very little of it is under cultivation.

Origin. — The Potsdam sandstone is the parent rock from which
the Dunning sand was derived. It has been reworked, trans-

GROUP OF SOILS LACKING GOOD DRAINAGE.

49

ported, and deposited by the action of the water, but to what
extent, it is impossible to say. Under moist conditions, it has
acquired a black color through the growth and decay of vege¬
tation. The whitish color of the subsoil may be due to the
leaching of organic acids. All of the soil is in a very acid con¬
dition at the present time.

Native vegetation. — The native vegetation consists of Jack
pine, poplar, sweet fern, common ferns, mosses, blue stem, and
several species of marsh grass. There is no timber of any value
on the type at the present time.

Present agricultural development. — As the type is low, poorly
drained, and acid, it is not cultivated except in a few places.
It is devoted chiefly to the production of wild marsh hay and
to pasture. Where cultivated corn and buckwheat are the crops
most grown. One farmer reported a yield of forty bushels of
corn, and 150 bushels of potatoes per acre. Before this type
can be farmed extensively, it must be drained, properly fertilized
and limed.

This soil has low natural fertility, but when properly drained,
limed and treated with stable manure or phosphate and potash
fertilizers it can be made to produce good yields of potatoes,
corn, oats, rye and clover.

For a discussion of the use of lime and commercial fertilizers
see pages 71 and 73.

GENESEE FINE SANDY LOAM

The Genesee fine sandy loam occupies a large part of the
bottom lands along the Black River. The soil occupies the same
level as the Genesee silt loam, but usually lies on slight eleva¬
tions from one to four or five feet above the silt loam. The
soil is quite variable due to its manner of deposit and occasional
overflow. The surface soil varies from a very fine sand to a
heavy fine sandy loam or loam. The subsoil is generally more
sandy than the surface. The color varies also from light brown
to a chocolate or reddish-brown.

This soil also is in large part timbered or brush covered bottom
land, but natural open areas or cleared portions are under cul¬
tivation. Generally occupying slightly higher elevations than
the Genesee silt loam, it is not affected by the smaller floods
so that during many seasons, portions of this soil can be culti-

50

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

vated. Good crops of corn, oats, and potatoes can be grown.
This land cannot well be permanently improved and protected
from floods, however, so that its agricultural value is compara¬
tively low.

GENESEE FINE SAND

This type includes several small areas of low-lying fine sand
soil on the first bottom land bordering the Black River south
of Melrose. The type is not extensive and because of its being
subject to frequent overflow, its agricultural value is low. Its
use is confined to pasture and wood lot purposes.

GENESEE SILT LOAM

The Genesee silt loam occurs as first bottom land along the
larger streams, and is subject to occasional overflow from the
streams. The soil is generally a grayish or drab silt loam with
a compact mottled or iron stained silty clay loam subsoil.
Sometimes the surface two or three inches of soil has a dark
brown or black color due to greater amounts of organic matter
in it.

The greatest amount of this soil occurs in the overflow lands
bordering the Black River from the city of Black River Falls
southward. Some was mapped along the Trempealeau River
and tributaries. The soil is a grayish-brown heavy silt loam
with a mottled iron-stained heavy silty clay subsoil. Variations
from this description occur where slight knolls of very fine sandy
loam occur, or sandy streaks along abandoned slough banks and
water courses..

In Sections 4 and 9 (Township 20, Range 4 West), this soil
lies on different levels and portions of it less subject to over¬
flow are cultivated. Grass and willow swales occur in the higher
levels where the soil is springy and wet.

The greater part of the Genesee silt loam bottoms are timbered
or brush-covered. The trees consist of large elms, ash, soft
maple, birch, and willow. In a few places, open areas occur
where the vegetation is mainly grass or small brush.

The land is used largely for pasture land and wood lots. Some
of the higher levels of small extent could be improved by tiling,
but most of the soil is too low and subject to too much overflow
to be profitably drained.

GROUP OF SOILS LACKING GOOD DRAINAGE.

51

WABASH LOAM

This soil is also of alluvial origin, and being situated in the
valley bottoms bordering the streams, and subject to more or
less overflow, the texture of the soil is not very uniform.

The surface soil of these bottoms is generally a dark brown,
drab or black loam or silt loam with a generally heavy mottled
clay loam subsoil which, however, may have sandy layers in it.
The surface soil also may be strewn with sand, gravel, stones,
etc., and sandy layers may be encountered at any depth within
the soil section.

The Wabash loam is found in a number of valley bottoms
scattered through the west half of the county. The soil type
is not extensive, as it comprises narrow strips of bottom land
only. Very little of the land is under cultivation, most of it being
generally too low and wet. It is, however, almost entirely used
for pasture as the soil occurs on the bottoms of the narrow val¬
leys whose slopes are also often used for pasture.

WABASH SILT LOAM

The Wabash silt loam consists of alluvial deposits, chiefly
along the upland streams. The areas are quite narrow, varying
from strips too small to map up to areas one-halt mile or so
wide. Because of its stream deposition in narrow bands and
the meandering of the streams, it is not very uniform. Gener¬
ally it consists of a grayish or light-brown silt loam to about
eighteen inches, below which as far as the auger will reach
occurs a black, mucky, silty loam. In certain places, however,
these conditions may be reversed.

A variation from the general black or drab color of this soil
is found along the Trempealeau River bottom near Taylor.
There the surface soil is reddish-brown or chocolate colored due
to large amounts of iron in it. There is a quite general layer
of spongy bog iron ore lying at from three to eighteen inches
beneath the surface soil in this latter area. This hard, chunky,
or gravelly layer is six to eight inches thick, and is underlaid
by sand or mottled or reddish sandy clay loam.

The Wabash silt loam is widely distributed in the valley bot¬
toms of the west half of the county. This soil because of its low
position is not generally under cultivation.

52

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

Much of this type has poor drainage and a good deal of it is
subject to one or more overflows each year, and consequently
cannot be depended upon for cultivation.

This soil is mostly of alluvial origin. The dark color is due
to accumulations of organic matter from decaying vegetation,
the growth of which was favored by moist conditions. Where
there is a covering of light-colored material over the dark soil,
this covering is often colluvial in origin, having been washed
down from the adjoining slopes.

This soil is used almost exclusively for pasture and hay land
for which it is especially valuable. Occasionally a fairly well
drained patch is cropped, corn doing especially well on it, yields
of 75 to 90 bushels per acre being reported. Hay will yield
from two to three tons per acre. Owing to the narrowness of
most of the areas and the low position of the land, it is doubtful
if much of this type could be successfully drained. Some of
the broader expanses where there is sufficient slope could be
much improved by installing tile drains.

MISCELLANEOUS SOILS.

53

CHAPTER VI
MISCELLANEOUS SOILS

PEAT

(. Including the Shallow Phase)

Description. — The material classified as peat consists chiefly
of decaying vegetable matter in varying stages of decomposition,
with which there is mixed a small but varying amount of min¬
eral matter or fine earth. In color the peat varies from a brown
to black. The depth of the material forming this type is also
extremely variable, and on the soil map has been grouped into
two phases. The typical peat is over 18 inches deep and may
be as great as 15 feet, although the average would probably be
4 or 5 feet. The shallow phase of peat varies from 6 or 8 inches
to 18 inches in depth. Usually the shallow peat is more thor¬
oughly decayed and when this is the case it is of a darker color.
The earthy subsoil under most of the peat consists of fine sand.

The color of the peat and the extent to which the vegetable
matter has decayed are also variable, and these variations are
of importance, although they have not been indicated upon the
soil map, except as they are brought out by the differences in
depth of the peaty material. By far the greater proportion of
the deep peat, including the large tracts in the eastern part
of the county, is brown in color having a raw, fibrous structure,
showing that it has not reached an advanced stage of decompo¬
sition. It has about the color of fine-cut tobacco and it is so
raw, fibrous or stringy that in many cases the stems, leaves and
grasses or moss from which it is formed can still be recognized.
This raw condition often extends to depths of from 3 to 6 or
more feet, but usually the lower depths are somewhat more
thoroughly decayed and of a darker color than the surface. As
a whole, the peat of the shallow phase is somewhat more de¬
cayed and of a darker color than the deep peat, and in a few
places, because of the larger content of fine earth approaches

54

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

a muck in composition. Such dark colored areas, which are
well decomposed, however, are of rather limited extent.

As indicated above, the earthy subsoil under the Peat con¬
sists for the most part of a white or grayish fine sand. There
are two exceptions to this which are worthy of note. The peat
areas which are associated with and border the Vesper fine sandy
loam in the northeastern part of the county, are frequently un¬
derlain by clay or shale the same as that which forms the sub¬
soil of the Vesper types. These peat areas are of limited extent
and form only a small proportion of the total area of peat in
the county. The other exception is found in the western part
of the county where there are small areas of peat land along
the bottoms of some of the drainage ways where the surround¬
ing uplands are heavy. In these places the subsoil of the peat
is frequently heavy in character, but here also this variation
is very limited in extent. In general it may be said that the
heavy subsoil is confined chiefly to regions where the subsoil
of the adjoining upland types is also heavy, but in such places
the subsoil is not uniformly heavy. This soil map does not
show this variation in the subsoil, because of its limited extent.

Extent and distribution. — Peat is the third most extensive
type of land in Jackson county. It covers 15.7 per cent of the
area or slightly more than 100,000 acres. Of this amount about
90 per cent is deep peat and about 10 per cent is shallow peat.
The peat is more extensive in the eastern half than elsewhere.
In the towns of City Point and Bear Bluff there ar over 60
square miles of continuous marsh land in this county with more
of the same type of land in the adjoining parts of Wood and
Juneau counties. In the eastern portion of the county the
peat is closely associated with extensive sand areas of the Boone
and Plainfield series and with the Dunning soils which are
marsh border types. In the western portion the peat is found
as long narrow strips along the drainage ways. The shallow
peat is mostly found around the margins of the large marshes
and as small patches associated with the marsh border soils.
It may be considered as a gradation type between the Dunning
soils on the one hand and the deep peat on the other.

Topography and drainage. — The tracts of peat soil are all
relatively low, flat, and naturally very poorly drained. On
many of the marshes water stands on the surface during the

MISCELLANEOUS SOILS.

55

spring and early summer. In this soggy condition the land is
often so soft that it will not support the weight of stock. Dur¬
ing the late summer, especially during dry seasons the marshes
dry out so that farm stock can safely go almost anywhere, and
the peat frequently becomes so dry that the danger from fires
is something which must be considered. When fire once gets
started in the peat it is very difficult to extinguish, and some¬
times continues to burn until stopped by the fall rains. Prac¬
tically all of the material mapped as peat is sufficiently high
in organic matter so that it will burn when dry.

A number of large drainage ditches have been extended into
and through the large marsh tracts, but these only supply par¬
tial outlets and in order to have the land sufficiently drained
for the safe cultivation of crops numerous lateral ditches sup¬
plemented with tile drains are necessary. In the vicinity of
cranberry marshes the drainage is restricted by the dams which
form reservoirs for storing water so that the cranberries may
be flooded when necessary. Outside of the cranberry marshes
only very few lateral ditches have been installed, so that on
but few if any tracts are the peat lands properly and sufficiently
drained. From work already done there appears to be sufficient
fall so that from an engineering standpoint it would be pos¬
sible and profitable to drain all of the peat land in this county.

Native vegetation. — The present timber growth on the peat
marshes consists of tamarack, alder, poplar, willows, and various
other water loving trees. Only a comparatively small propor¬
tion of the peat marshes are timbered, most of them being open
and treeless or nearly so. The open marshes support a growth
of coarse marsh grass, wire grass or sphagnum moss, through
which are scattered a small and stunted growth of water loving
shrubs. Some of the grass marshes are pastured or cut for
hay. The moss and trees are usually found on the wettest parts
of the marsh while the grasses are most common on the parts
of the marsh land which are better drained.

Present agricultural development. — While peat is an exten¬
sive type in Jackson county it is at present of limited impor¬
tance agriculturally. Some cultivation is being attempted at
several points, notably on Trowe’s Marsh 5 and 6 miles north¬
west from Millston, on the Ring Marsh in Sec. 24 T. 21 N., R
2 W., and on the Albright Marsh in Sec. 30 and 31 T. 20 N.,

56

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

E. 1 E. In most of these attempts work has been done on a
rather large scale, tractors sometimes being used. In most cases
it has been found that due to insufficient laterals or tile ditches
the drainage is not adequate and crop failures have resulted
because of an excess of moisture, and on land which during a
series of dry seasons produced fair to good crops of timothy
hay. Commercial fertilizers and lime although needed, are not
used to any marked extent on the marshes now being cultivated.

The crops most commonly grown here on the peat are buck¬
wheat, rye, timothy, potatoes, root crops with some cabbage
and onions on a small scale. Some attempts are being made to
grow corn but because of the danger of summer frosts this crop
is very uncertain. These marshes can not be considered as
being in the corn belt.

Various sized tracts of the peat lands are being utilized to a
limited extent for pasture and hay, although the wild marsh
grasses have a low feeding value. These marshes are frequently
burnt over to destroy the dead grass and trash upon the surface,
and a fair stand of clean grass usually follows. While this is
young and tender it makes fair pasture. If the marshes are
burnt off during dry seasons there is danger of the peat itself
being burnt.

Without fertilization the yields of the crops mentioned when
grown on raw brown, fibrous peat are usually low and unsatis¬
factory. Where the peat is well decayed and of a black color
fair crops may be secured for a few years without fertilization,
but the readily available mineral plant foods soon become ex¬
hausted, when fertilization becomes essential. Where the sur¬
face few inches of the peat have been burnt there is a concen¬
tration of the mineral elements sufficient in some cases to insure
two or three fair crops but when this is used up fertilization
is again necessary. The fire, if not controlled, however, may
prove to be a damage rather than a benefit, for deep holes may
be formed, and the surface of the ground lowered to such a.11
extent that the land will no longer be sufficiently drained.

In some places an industry of limited importance has devel¬
oped in the cutting of wire grass which is cured like hay, baled,
and sold to the manufacturers of grass rugs.

Frosts on marsh land.— It is well known that frosts fre¬
quently occur on marsh land where there is no frost on higher

MISCELLANEOUS SOILS.

57

land. This is partly because the cold air which forms on the
surface of all the ground at night tends to flow down and col¬
lect in low places, but it is also the result of the fact that the
loose, spongy soil of peat marshes does not conduct the heat re¬
ceived from the sun during the day downward. In consequence
of this, the lower layers of soil do not become warmed in peat
marshes as they do in other earthy soils and the little heat left
in the surface inch or two of soil is rapidly lost at night by
radiation, so that the freezing point is frequently reached on
such soil when it would not be on more earthy soils such as
sandy loam or clay loam which would conduct the heat down¬
ward better during the day and so keep warm farther into
the night.

This difficulty with peat marshes can be overcome to a cer¬
tain extent by heavy rolling which, by compacting the soil, per¬
mits the heat to be conducted downward more readily. It will
also to a certain extent become less in time, as the peat decom¬
poses and takes on more of the character of muck. Neverthe¬
less, it must always be expected that marsh land will be more
subject to late spring frosts and early fall frosts than high land.
It may be stated as a general guide, that the occurrence of
killing frosts is as liable on marsh land at any given point as
it is on upland soil having good air drainage about 150 miles
farther north; in other words, the marshes of Dane county
are as liable to have a frost which will kill corn as early as are
the upland regions of Shawano, Marathon, or Clark counties.
The marsh land regions of Jackson county are liable to have
frost twro weeks or more earlier than the hill tops of the same
latitude. This means that corn and potatoes, while safe crops
for the upland region, are not safe crops for the marsh land
and should not be depended on as the chief crops.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF PEAT

The chief difference between peat soils and upland soils con¬
sisting largely of earthy matter, is that they have relatively
small amounts of the mineral elements phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, and magnesium, and have extremely high amounts of
nitrogen in the organic matter. The average per cent of phos¬
phorus in the peats in this region so far analyzed is 0.135 per
cent. This means that in an acre of soil to a depth of a foot

58

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

there is approximately only 675 pounds, or in two feet 1,350
pounds in comparison with upland soils which have approxi¬
mately twice these amounts. Moreover, the acid condition of
these soils renders the phosphorus less available than in a non-
acid soil.

The deficiency of potassium in these soils is greater than that
of phosphorus. They contain on the average 0.3 per cent of
this element, while good upland clay loam soils average two per
cent, or over six times as much expressed in percentage. When
the greater weight of the upland soils is taken into account it
will be found that they contain in the upper two feet 120,000
pounds per acre, while the peat soils contain but 3,000 pounds.

A large amount of organic matter in these soils gives them
an extraordinary amount of nitrogen. They average 2.5 per
cent of this element, while the upland silt loam soils of this
region contain but about 0.12 per cent and this only in the
surface eight inches — the amount in deeper layers being much
less.

As a result of this difference in the chemical composition the
peat soils are very unbalanced. Their rational treatment re¬
quires the use of fertilizers containing especially the elements
phosphorus and potassium. These elements are contained in
relatively small amounts in barnyard manure and good applica¬
tions of manure will secure good yields of crops on peat soils,
but manure contains large amounts of nitrogen not needed by
the peat, so that when a farm includes upland soils as well as
peat, the manure should be used on the upland soils and com¬
mercial fertilizers containing phosphorus and potassium used
on the peat land.

On the deeper peats which are in a very raw and acid condi¬
tion the use of lime in some form in addition to the commer¬
cial fertilizers will be found profitable. Occasionally a marsh
is found on which on account of coldness and high acidity at
first nitrification or the chemical change by which the nitro¬
gen in the organic matter becomes available to crops does not
take place readily and the use of a light application of com¬
posted stable manure to inoculate the soil with the proper organ¬
isms is very helpful.

Crops and system of farming on marsh lands. — Since the
growth of corn and potatoes to which these marsh lands would

MISCELLANEOUS SOILS.

59

otherwise be well adapted, is limited in this section on account
of the danger from frost, the best staple crops for this land
are grasses for hay and pasture, hardy root crops, and rye, and
to a less extent oats. When properly fertilized and limed,
clover, alfalfa, and other legumes can also be grown. On fairly
well drained marsh land well decomposed good pasture can also
be developed. The compacting of the soil resulting from the
use of this land as pasture is also a great benefit to it. When
peat land is placed under cultivation a heavy roller should
be classed along with implements necessary to its successful
management.

Where good pasture can be secured and other conditions are
the most favorable, selected portions of these marshes can be
successfully utilized for dairying or stock raising.

Certain special crops, such as cabbage, onions, buckwheat,
sugar beets, and rape, are adapted to such lands when well
drained and properly fertilized.*

Summarizing the peat situation for the future agricultural
development of the peat lands such as are found in Jackson
county it may be suggested that before farming on these lands
can be permanently successful there are several conditions with
which it is necessary to comply.

1. It is absolutely necessary that the land should be suf¬
ficiently drained. Large outlet ditches in themselves while nec¬
essary are not sufficient, and these must be supplemented with
open laterals and tile drains before adequate drainage is insured.

2. This type of land is low in potash, phosphorus and often
in lime and these materials must be supplied in proper form
and proper amounts before permanent, profitable production
can be expected.

3. It must be recognized that the danger from summer frosts
make such crops as corn and potatoes uncertain, and the crops
to be grown must be those which are not only suited to the soil,
but also to the climatic conditions.

4. Those purchasing this type of land must not only see
their way clear to pay for the land itself, but they must also
provide adequate drainage and fertilization, both of which
call for an added investment.

*For more complete discussion of the management of marsh soils see
bulletin on this subject by the Agricultural Experiment Station.

60

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

5. The use of a heavy roller to compact the soil is a prac¬
tical necessity in the cultivation of Peat lands.

It is suggested for those who desire to undertake the devel¬
opment of a Peat farm, in any region but have never had
experience with this type of land, that it would be a good plan
to rent such a farm for a year or two or possibly serve an ap¬
prenticeship on some successful peat farm. This would make
possible getting valuable experience without making a large
investment.

ROUGH STONY LAND

Rough stony land includes rock exposures, cliffs, and land
which is too steep and rough to plow or cultivate. It may be
considered non-agricultural, as it is of value only for the small
amount of timber and pasture it supplies.

This type occupies a large part of the steep walls bordering
the valleys and forms a border between the valley bottoms and
the high land of the ridges. The type is developed as narrow
bands many miles in extent, winding in and out of the valleys
and coves, but confined to the steep slopes. A part of the
type occurs as narrow ridges upon which areas of soil too
small to be mapped are sometimes found. The bluffs and cliffs
are highest along the western border of the county, and fre¬
quently reach an elevation of two to three hundred feet above
the valley bottoms along the sides of which they occur. The
ridge tops are also wider here than elsewhere, and range in
width from one-quarter to one-half of a mile. The elevation of
the ridge tops range from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
feet above the valley floor throughout most of the interior of
the western part of the county.

The rough stony land type also includes isolated mounds,
hills, and ridges of sandstone rocks rising above the compara¬
tively level plane of the eastern part of the county. None of
these rough stony areas, such as Saddle Mound, Bruces Mound,
or Stanley Mounds have any tillable land on their summits.

Rough stony land is quite uniformly distributed throughout
the western portion of the county and is intimately associated
with Knox silt loam, the steep phase of this type, and also with
some of the Boone types. The greater portion of the rock con¬
sists of the Potsdam sandstone, although there is also some
granite rock exposed along the bed of the Black River.

MISCELLANEOUS SOILS.

61

The forest growth still remaining consists of white oak, red
oak, pine, hickory and a considerable amount of undergrowth
and brush in places. The best timber has all been removed and
what now remains serves to protect the slopes from washing.

The inclusion of rough stony land in farms reduces the value
of better land and it renders the fields on or over the ridges
less accessible. It makes hauling to market more difficult, as
some of the roads cross steep strips of this class of land.

62

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

CHAPTER VII

AGRICULTURE OF JACKSON COUNTY

TYPES OF FARMING

At the present time, the agriculture of the west half of the
county is partly general, and partly dairying with grain raising
predominating in certain portions. There appears however
to be a gradual reduction in grain raising in favor of dairying
and general farming. There are several reasons why this por¬
tion of the county is best suited to dairying, and chief of
these is that all of the land can be utilized to better advantage.
When grain growing is followed exclusively it is impossible
to fully utilize the steep rocky slopes, but when dairying is
followed these slopes are made use of for they supply good
grazing. Thus the smooth land and more gentle slopes can
be used for growing winter feed for the stock, and the pasture,
which is a very important item to the dairymen, is provided
by land which in a grain growing program would not be util¬
ized. Another factor favoring dairying in this region is that
the steep slopes can be kept more permanently in grass which
prevents erosion and the washing away of the surface soil and
the loss of fertility.

The agriculture of the county east of the Black River except
for small areas where the better grades of soil predominate,
is still largly in an undeveloped state. While centers of farm¬
ing have started around the areas of better soil and around a
few small towns, the majority of the land is still covered with
brush and is not farmed. This is due in large part to the
poor quality of the soils. Groups of farms are found near
Shamrock, Millston, City Point, Pray, and Hatfield, and also
in the vicinity of Oak Ridge, North Settlement, and Knapp in
the interior of this part of the county.

The main crops of the west half of the county where agricul¬
ture is highly developed, are the grains and corn and hay

AGRICULTURE OF JACKSON COUNTY.

63

which are largely fed to cattle. The cash crops consist of
tobacco, beans, potatoes, rye and on some farms barley, wheat,
and oats are sold.

East of the river livestock farming does not thrive so well
because of the inferior pasturage produced, except on the patches
of better soil mentioned. Clearings are small, only a few head
of stock are kept, a little oats, rye and some corn are pro¬
duced. Partial support of many is derived from picking blue
berries, working on the cranberry marshes, or gathering moss or
wire grass.

CULTURAL METHODS

In the western part of the county on the heavy soils, some
fall plowing is done, but it should be confined to fields where
there is not serious danger from erosion. The tendency through¬
out the county is towards better methods of cultivation, fertili¬
zation, and seed selection. It is customary to apply manure
to fields to be plowed for corn. When the land is plowed in
the fall, manure is often hauled out during the winter and
scattered over the plowed field. This is a good practice except
where the surface is so steep that fertility is lost by being
carried away by rains and melting snows.

In the eastern part of the county where conditions are radi¬
cally different, other methods are necessary. Spring plowing is
better than fall plowing. Covering sandy soils during the fall
and early spring with a good growth is a good practice because
it prevents loss of plant food by leaching, and the loss of fine
sand particles by severe winds. Seeding rye in corn rows at
the time of the last cultivation or in potato fields at digging
time will prevent some loss of fertility, and this practice should
be more generally followed.

Rye seeded early in the fall will help to protect the soil from
blowing, but this crop has limitations, and the cheapest and
most profitable way of handling the blowing problem is to grow
clover and to do this commercial fertilizers may be necessary.
With clover to hold the soil in place and a wind break of Jack
pine and scrub oak to stop the wind, the blowing problem can
be overcome. The use of a corrugated roller is also desirable
since this insures a firm seed bed and an uneven surface which
offers more resistance to wind. This implement is also needed
on peat soil, and every sand and peat farmer should own or
have the use of such a roller.

64

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

ROTATION OF CROPS*

In discussing rotations, farm crops may be divided into three
classes :

1. Grain crops — generally shallow feeders, add little humus
or organic matter to the soil, and tend to weediness.

2. Hay crops — legumes, timothy, etc. Legumes have exten¬
sive root systems, tap roots, add organic matter or humus and
also plant food (nitrogen). They also improve the physical
condition of the soil.

3. Cultivated crops — Corn, potatoes, etc., conserve moisture,
favor decomposition of organic matter, and destroy weeds.
Some are deep feeders, as corn, while root crops are shallow
feeders.

A good rotation should necessarily include crops belonging
to each of these three classes. The value of such practice is
apparent in its effect on the physical condition of the soil, on
weediness, on organic matter supply, on plant diseases, and
on nitrogen supply of the soil. Better yields are, therefore,
obtained when crops are rotated than when a single cropping
system is followed.

Again, crop rotation permits raising livestock and means
diversified farming. No one will deny the benefits of this type
of farming in stabilizing farm business and making best use
of labor and equipment the year around.

It should not be understood, however, that crop rotation
means maintaining the supply of plant food better than where
a single cropping system is practiced. It is often said that
certain crops are “hard” on the soil in the sense that they
remove more plant food than other crops. In part that is true,
but a more important difference is that some plants remove
more of certain elements than others. Again a crop like corn,
because of its root development and length of growing season,
may utilize plant food that is less soluble.

Potatoes require relatively more potassium; corn draws
heavily on nitrogen ; while legumes are heavy feeders on lime
(calcium) and also require large amounts of phosphorus, po¬
tassium, and nitrogen (some of which may be extracted from the
air in the soil). Again, grain crops and roots require plant

*See Bulletins of Exp. Sta. for more information on Crop Rotation.

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AGRICULTURE OF JACKSON COUNTY.

65

food that is readily available, while corn is less particular in
this respect.

By properly rotating crops, therefore, the soil is subjected
to these different “feeding* characteristics. ” One crop compen¬
sates for the other, and there is maintained more nearly a bal-
anced condition than with the single crop system.

It is of great importance that in selecting crops to grow,
careful consideration be given to the question of climate. This
is about the only factor which the farmer absolutely cannot con¬
trol. A poor soil may be improved, better markets may be
found, and better labor secured ; but the farmer is powerless
to change climatic conditions. He must, therefore, select such
crops as are suited to his climate.

The soil is also a factor of great importance. As a general
rule, small grain crops do better on heavy than on light soils,
and the same is true of grasses grown for hay. On the other
hand, the same variety of corn requires a shorter season for
maturity on light than on heavv soil. Rather light soils and
those of intermediate texture are better adapted to potato grow¬
ing and root crops. Therefore, on light soils a greater acreage
should be devoted to cultivated crops than on heavy types.

Shipping and marketing facilities must also be considered
in planning a rotation. The farmer located on a sandy loam
farm close to a railroad station or home market will often find
it profitable to include potatoes in his rotation. If he is located
six or seven miles from a station, the profits from growing
potatoes will be much lessened. It will then pay him better to
raise more corn for stock feeding, and to convert his crops into
dairy products which are less bulky, and which for the same
bulk have a greater value.

There is no one best system of rotation. The rotation depends
on the system of farming, and this depends largely on the
personal choice of the farmer, for some prefer one system and
some another. It is highly desirable to rotate crops, but a
serious mistake to think that rotation takes the place of other
equally sound practices, such as liming and fertilizing.

Following are a few suggestions which will apply to the
western part of Jackson county, and may serve as outlines to
be modified according to varying conditions.

As much of the land in western Jackson county is quite roll¬
ing this factor should he considered in working out a rotation.

06 SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

One of the chief difficulties on long slopes is that of the tendency
of little streamlets to collect into larger streams which greatly
increase their eroding power. This difficulty can be overcome
to some extent by laying out the fields in long and comparatively
narrow strips on the hillsides so that the land which is in tilled
crops such as corn or potatoes will alternate with land in grain
or hav, thus greatly shortening the distance down the hill
through which this accumulation of streams may take place.
The sodded strips serve to check the flow of surface water, ab¬
sorbing it and carrying it off beneath the surface.

A rotation which adapts itself to this system consists of corn,
followed bv small grain followed bv hav for two years. In
some parts of the county grain is inclined to lodge. This ten¬
dency may be overcome somewhat by growing grain twice in
succession on the same fields. Where the slope is not too great
this may be safely done, and two crops of corn may also be
grown in this way where the slope will permit. A three year
rotation may also be used on much of this land. Corn may be
followed by a small grain and the grain by clover. Where
the fertility is rather low, the second crop should be plowed
under as a green manuring crop.

In the sandy portions of Jackson county, somewhat different
rotations should be followed. The following is probably the

best for most farms of sandy soil :

1st year : Clover with perhaps a light seeding of rye or oats.

2nd year : Clover for hay, leaving the second crop to be
turned under either in the fall or spring.

3rd year: Corn or potatoes.

4th year: Soybeans, which mav be used for feed, for hay,
and for green manure.

If any other crops are to be grown, they may be planted fol¬
lowing clover, thus eliminating one of the crops named. An¬
other rotation which is frequently followed on sandy soils con¬
sists of small grain followed by clover, followed by potatoes.
1 he second crop of clover in this system should be plowed under
as green manure crop.

It is better to use mammoth clover on the sandy soils than
red clover, for it is more hardy and more vigorous in growth,
being able to secure its plant food more readily. It grows to
about the same size on sandy soils as the medium red clover
does on heavy soils.

AGRICULTURE OF JACKSON COUNTY.

67

In some of the rotations suggested it may be desirable to
substitute rye for wheat or oats, especially on the sandy soils.

Tobacco can be grown on the same field for from two to three
years, followed by two years of corn and one of small grain
seeded to clover. With the tobacco a phosphate fertilizer should
be used to supplement the manure. A second crop of clover
can be plowed under, and thus save some of the manure for
other parts of the farm. Tobacco should not be grown on the
same field for a long period of years as is often the practice.

The growing of peas for canning could be made an important
crop in this section, and this crop could be readily introduced
into a four year rotation. Such a rotation might consist of small
grain, clover, cultivated crops, which would be followed by
peas. This may be made a five year rotation by adding timothy
and cutting hay for two years. This system would be best
suited to the western part of the county where the soils are
heavier.

On the marsh lands as •they are reclaimed, the question of
crop rotation should also be considered. There are three types
of farming to which marsh soils are adapted and these are stock
raising or dairy farming, trucking and a combination of the
two in which neither type predominates. Grain farming can
not as yet be recommended on marsh soils. Where a farmer
has 30 or 40 acres of peat he can divide the field into four parts
and raise cabbage on one, sugar beets on one, grain on one and
hay on the other. Thus a four year rotation of hay, sugar beets,
cabbage and grain would be practiced on the peat. On a dairy
farm two or three crops of corn may be grown in succession
but in this region one should take into account the danger from
frost. The corn may be followed by grain and this by alsike
clover and timothy. The hay may be cut the first year and
pastured the second. Potatoes may also be grown on peat land
but here again the danger from frost and the quality of the
product must be considered. In some localities outside of this
area in this and other states a one crop system is being followed
Avhere celery, peppermint, or some other crop is the entire
source of income. While a rotation of crops on such land is
not absolutely essential a change of crops is desirable to aid in
the control of weeds and insect pests.

68

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

EROSION IN JACKSON COUNTY

The most important single problem in soil management in
western Jackson county is due to the large amounts of steep
or rolling land. The county is in the so-called residual portion
of the state where the streams which drain the area have cut
down their beds through the formerly level elevated plain into
sandstone rock. These valleys have never been altered or filled
by action of glaciers which once covered most of the state. The
valleys were at first mere erosion ditches or small stream beds
which have been enlarged and deepened during geological ages
till their beds lie from 200 to over 400 feet below the ridges
which extend between. The valleys and their tributaries radi-
ate like the veins of a leaf and the steep slopes which lead
down from the ridge top to valley bottom make up a consider¬
able part of the area of the county.

Most of the so il on the sloping land is heavy and is included
in the steep phase of the Knox silt loam. These slopes which
originally were timbered or brush-covered have been largely
cleared and cultivated. Because of their unprotected condi¬
tion and exposure to the work of surface run-off water
from higher land, fields on this type of soil are often extensively
washed and gullied by the storm water and the water from
melting snow in spring.

Other soils subject to erosion are the soils of the Boone
series derived from sandstone and which often occupy lower
slopes in the valleys. The soils of the Lintonia series which
lie in narrow benches along the sides of the valley bottoms are
also subject to severe gullying. The swift flowing water from
i he ridges and slopes must cross these benches before reaching
the valley stream and deep ravines, gullies, and ditches are
developed. Soil erosion is a farm problem not only because
fields are cut by ditches and gullies which make cultivation
difficult, but because erosion removes the finest and most fertile
soil particles first and reduces the fertility and yield of fields
by removing fine soil and organic matter from the surface.
The causes of removal of soil from the surface without forma¬
tion of gullies generally lie in improper methods of cultivation
or poor arrangement of fields. Fields where this kind of ero¬
sion occurs are often only gently rolling or undulating and the
rain water does not collect in larger swift-flowing rills or

streams which have power to cut ditches, but follows the culti¬
vated rows such as corn or potatoes or the drill rows of grain
fields and the soil is removed only from the knolls and deposited
in the hollows.

Contour cultivation and arrangement of the crop rows across
the slope instead of with or down the slopes retards the move¬
ment of soil in such fields. Keeping the most exposed places
in sod as much as possible and the cultivation of the field in
alternate strips of crop and sod across the slopes are incon¬
venient but often necessary methods.

Rotation of crops in such a way that two cultivated crops
do not follow in succession gives the field opportunity to recover
from its losses under cultivation and avoiding a hard bare con¬
dition of the eroded ground after harvest as much as possible
prevents surface wash in the fall. A cover or catch crop of
rye or peas in the corn rows helps protect the soil after harvest
and furnishes pasture until winter.

Deep plowing and plowing under of straw, manure, or a
second crop of clover to increase the organic matter in the soil
also give the surface of the field greater absorbing capacity and
resistance to erosion.

Gullying occurs where greater volumes of water collect form¬
ing cutting-streams where steeper slopes cause the water to
flow faster or in places where the soil has an unstaple founda¬
tion of sandy material which easily undermines when the water
once cuts through the surface soil and establishes a fall which
cuts back in the sandy subsoil. In some situations large gullies
one half mile or more in length are sometimes cut during a
single season.

In their beginnings most small gullies are easily handled.
Small drainage-ways or shallow ditches can be filed with straw
or manure and plowed shut. Such shallow drainageways should
be left in permanent sod. The plow can be easily thrown out
in passing across them. On the level terraces or where heavy
soil lies on light sand or sandy gravelly subsoil, small ditches
must be immediately tended to because all ditches on such soil
are dangerous.

Where the subsoil is clay and where clay or silt soil material
is being brought down by the flood water, large gullies may
be made to fill by putting in a dam of stumps, brush, and logs.
Where the subsoil is sandy much greater care is required. If

70

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

dams are built in the latter case, they need to be carefully con¬
structed to prevent the water from cutting around them.

Darns of concrete, stone, wire mesli, and brush have been suc¬
cessfully used. Flume devices also have been used to carry the
water over the head of the ditch and down into it preventing
its continued growth.

Planting willows and bushes on the sides and bottom of ditches
too deep to fill often arrests the growth of the ditch. Sorghum,
sweet clover, or rye make good emergency crops on eroded spots
and fields which later need to be seeded to grasses and left in
permanent sod.*

DRAINAGE f

In Jackson county there are at least 150,000 acres of land
which would be classed as poorly drained, and which must be
provided with open ditches or tile drains before cultivated crops
can be safely grown from year to year. The major portion of
this poorly drained land consists of deep peat, and in the
eastern part of the county, the two townships, town 20 and 21
north, Range 1 East, have more than eighty per cent of their
area in deep peat. This means that there are over 36,000 acres
of this low land in one large body. In addition to this, there
are other extensive areas of peat throughout the eastern part
of the county. There are also extensive areas of Dunning sand
which consist of marsh border soil and this requires drainage,
and there is also some land along the Black River which is sub¬
ject to overflow and which is classed as poorly drained, which
is more difficult to reclaim. At the present time there are
46,760 acres of land in drainage enterprises. There are 25.5
miles of open ditches in these drainage enterprises, but only a
very small amount of tile has been installed up to the present
time. The capital invested in and required to complete opera¬
ting enterprises in Jackson county amounts to $113,570.

Quite a large number of open ditches have been constructed.
Statistics indicate that only 4,140 acres of this drained land
are improved at the present time. This means vast areas of
land within drainage districts are still lying idle. This is due
to the fact that even though outlet ditches have been installed,
laterals have not been constructed so that individual tracts of

*See Bulletin 272 of the Wisconsin Experiment Station.
tEor a full discussion of drainage questions consult the bulletins of the
Wisconsin Experiment Station.

AdKK'l L TVKK OF JACKSON COUNTY.

71

land do not have sufficient drainage at present. Then, too,
much of the land is raw, fibrous peat, and this class of soil re¬
quires special methods of cultivation and fertilization in order
to make its development profitable. It may be stated that
most of the marsh land in Jackson county is at present unim¬
proved. The most extensive use which is being made of the
marsh land is for wild hay, for moss, and wire grass. Some of
the marsh is also utilized for pasture.

The cranberry industry mentioned elsewhere has been devel¬
oped almost entirely on peat soils, and where this development
has taken place, thorough drainage is not wanted in that imme¬
diate vicinity. With the proper construction of reservoir and
ditches, however, the development of cranberry industry, and
the development of farming on cultivated lands need not inter¬
fere materially with one another, since the drainage water from
one tract may be used at a lower point on the cranberry bogs.
It is believed that there is a sufficient fall so that practically
all the marsh lands in this county can be successfully drained.
Where an area of low land includes part of several farms, the
owners can form a drainage district and sell bonds to pay for
the improvement. This is the method which has been used, and
a number of drainage districts have already been established
in the county. In this way the cost of drainage can be spread
over a number of years and paid for from the products of the
improved acres. Assistance in the development of such proj¬
ects can, and in fact, must be secured from the state authori¬
ties who pass upon the practicability of the project before
the court permits the organization of a drainage district. Where
the areas of marsh land are small and confined to one farm, and
where there is an outlet, the farmer can install tile drains and
establish his own drainage system.

For a more detailed discussion of drainage see bulletins 284
and 309, Wisconsin Experiment Station.

LIMING

Most of the soils in Jackson county are thought to be in need
of lime. All of the soil types show an acid condition which
ranges from slight to strong in degree. The subsoils of many
of the types also show some acidity to a depth of from two to
three feet. The heavy light colored upland soils are usually

72

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

acid at the surface, but the deep subsoil may in places be free
from acid or even slightly calcarious (containing lime).

The degree of acidity is quite variable, and each farmer may
find a wide variation in the need for lime on his farm. It is
essential that every farmer should have his various fields tested
before making an expenditure for lime. The county agent can
do this, or samples may be sent to the Department of Soils of
the University where free tests will be made. Failure of clover
and alfalfa are often an indication of the need of lime. About
three tons of ground limestone per acre is the usual application
on these soils when alfalfa is to be grown and two tons where
clover is seeded. The amount to be used, however, may vary
with the degree of acidity, the character of the soil, and the
crop to be grown. Such crops as alfalfa, sweet clover, peas,
cabbages, onions, and lettuce have a high lime requirement.
Clover, garden beans, barley, hemp, turnips, and raishes have
a medium lime requirement while vetch, white clover, oats, rye,
blue grass, potatoes, sorghum, and others have a low require¬
ment for lime. As a rule the heavy types of soil which are
acid need more lime than the sandy types showing the same
degree of acidity.

Ground limestone is doubtless the most economical form of
lime which can be extensively utilized in Jackson county. Lime
should be applied previous to planting the crop which is to be
benefited. It should be applied to plowed land and thoroughly
worked in by harrowing. Either fall, winter, or spring appli¬
cations mav be made.

The best way to apply lime which is dry is with a regular
spreader made for this purpose, and there are a number on the
market. The end gate type of spreader has given good re¬
sults in spreading dry or moist lime. A manure spreader may
also be used by first putting in a thin layer of manure or straw
and spreading the limestone evenly on top of this. Where sev¬
eral farmers are so situated that they can work together, a lime
spreader should be secured for this purpose.

After making a first application of two or three tons per
acre, it is not likely that another application will be needed for
four to six years, and the need should again be determined by
soil acidity test, as well as by the story which the crops them¬
selves tell.

AGUICU LTURF OF JACKSON COUNTY.

It should be remembered that most acid soils are also dificient
in available phosphorus, but applying lime will not add to the
total amount of phosphorus in the soil. The need of phosphorus
may be so great that but little result will be secured from lim¬
ing until phosphorus is also added. Frequently the application
of phosphorus alone to an acid soil will result in larger in¬
creases than the uses of lime alone, and for this reason it is
important that both deficiencies should be corrected to secure
the most economical production.

THE USE OF FERTILIZERS

We believe that most of the nitrogen needed for plant food
by Wisconsin crops can best be secured through the growth of
legumes and the use of stable manure. Since the legumes
require a good supply of available phosphorus, this ele¬
ment should be applied by the broadcast application of phos¬
phate when seeding down to a legume whenever needed. This
phosphorus in part becomes available along with the nitrogen
of the legume to the succeeding crop of corn, potatoes, sugar
beets, tobacco, etc., all of which on upland soils at least should
be grown in rotation with legumes, or else on manured land.
Only such additional amounts of phosphorus and potash should
be applied to these special crops as are needed. These can then
be applied in the hill or drill, if desirable.

Peat and muck soils are abundantly supplied with nitrogen
which can be made available by proper treatment but are prac¬
tically always low in potash and freqeuntly in phosphorus, and
even sometimes in lime as well.

Only such amounts of nitrogen should be purchased in com¬
mercial fertilizers as are needed to supplement the home grown
supply. Such supplementary nitrogen should ordinarily be in
immediately available form and be used to encourage early
growth. Where it is desired to use a fertilizer carrying nitro¬
gen, it is highly important that this fertilizer be applied with
a fertilizer attachment on the planter or in such a manner that
it will come within the root feeding radius of the plant. Fer¬
tilizer attachments are being used for the application of fer¬
tilizers for potatoes and corn. For sugar beets the fertilizer
should be applied at the time of planting the crop with a regu¬
lar fertilizer beet drill. Fertilizers for tobacco and cabbage
are usually applied broadcast previous to setting, athough it has

74

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

been found desirable to apply a small amount of the fertilizer
with an attachment on the tobacco or cabbage setter and the

c

balance to be applied broadcast after the crop has developed a
more extensive root system. For onions and other truck crops
it is usually desirable to apply the fertilize]- broadcast previous
to planting the crop.

There are three factors which must be considered in relation
to fertility and the yield of crops : First, the condition of the
soil itself and the supplies of the various kinds of plant food
which it offers in available form; second, the crops to be grown,
including the kinds and amounts of plant food they require ;
and third, the use of fertilizers which will supplement the sup¬
ply of plant food already in the soil in a way to meet the de¬
mand of the crops concerned.

Soils vary greatly in the total amount of plant food they
contain in available form and especially in the proportion of the
various elements required by crops. Sandy and light soils are
generally low in most elements. Light colored clay soils are
relatively low in nitrogen and are moderately well supplied
with phosphates, but contain potash in relative abundance.
Peat soils are always abundantly supplied with nitrogen which
can be made available by proper treatment, but are practically
always low in potash, and frequently in phosphates, and even
sometimes in lime as well.

With reference to crops, there are two things to consider :
first, the relative proportion of the different elements they re¬
quire; second, the total quantity needed. While there are un¬
doubtedly slight variations in the requirements of each single
individual crop, they can be grouped into classes fairly well.
Such crops as small grains and grasses, including timothy, re¬
quire a relative abundance of phosphates and moderate amounts
of potash and nitrogen. Such crops as corn, potatoes, tobacco,
and sugar beets require large amounts of nitrogen and potash
with moderate supplies of phosphates. Peas, clover, and alfalfa
. require large amounts of phosphate, potassium, and lime, but
under proper conditions can secure most of their nitrogen from
the air.

The total quantity of plant food needed depends largely on
the total weight of the crop produced. Such crops as small
grain, timothy, and flax require but moderate amounts of total

AGRICULTURE OF JACKSON COUNTY. 75

plant food per acre, while such crops as corn, sugar beets, cab¬
bage, onions, and potatoes, require much larger quantities.

The yields of crops are affected not only by the quantity of
plant food available, but by the moisture supply which the
climate provides and the portion of it which the soils on which
the crops are grown will retain until absorbed by the growing
plants.

In working out our ideas of the proper fertilizers to use in
Wisconsin, therefore, we must take all of these factors into
consideration and should use commercial fertilizers only to
supplement the natural fertility of our soils and system of
farming. Roughly this means that on any particular kind of
soil and for the growing of any one of the groups of crops men¬
tioned, the fertilizer best to use would depend on : first, whether
stable manure had been used or not ; second, whether legumes,
which would supply nitrogen but no other element, have been
grown ; or third, if the soil is unfertilized in either of these
ways.

Acid phosphate should be used on the heavier soils in the
general system of farming where a sufficient amount of manure
is produced to cover the cultivated land every fourth year.
This phosphate fertilizer should be used at rates of 125 to 350
lbs. per acre (depending upon the grade) and should be broad¬
casted or applied with a fertilizer grain drill at the time of
seeding to small grain and clover.

Mixed fertilizers high in phosphate (such as 2-12-2) may be
used on lighter soils where there is a limited supply of organic
matter. For small grain these fertilizers may be applied at
rates of 200 to 400 lbs. per acre depending upon conditions.
This fertilizer may also be used 011 corn at rates of 75 to
125 lbs. per acre and should be applied with fertilizer attach¬
ments on the corn planter. Fertilizer applied in this manner
for corn should be used only as a supplement to the usual
manurial treatment and in conjunction with a practice as pre¬
viously outlined.

Mixed fertilizers high in potash may be used for truck crops
where it is impossible to secure a sufficient amount of barnyard
manure. It is imperative that some legume such as clover or
soybeans be grown under this system in order to supply the nec¬
essary amounts of organic matter and partly supply the nitrogen.
For potatoes the fertilizer should be applied with fertilizer

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

7(i

attachments in the furrows at rates of 400 to 1,000 lbs. per acre.
For onions, cabbage, beets, tobacco, etc., the fertilizer may be
applied broadcast at rates of 400 to 1,500 lbs. per acre. The
conditions peculiar to the individual case will decide the amounts
and kind of fertilizer to use.

Phosphate and potash mixtures should be used ou the dark
colored soils where there is no need for nitrogen in the ferti¬
lizer. Soils ranging from the black sand loams to muck and peats
fall under this class. The kind of fertilizer and the rate of
application will depend upon the type of soil, the crop to be
grown and other conditions peculiar to the individual case and
no recommendations can be made unless all these factors are
taken into consideration.*

FARM PRODUCTS AND AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

Of the agricultural products of the county as a whole, the
cereals lead by far. The farm value of the cereals including
corn December 1, 1920, was over two million dollars, while hay
and forage were worth less than a half of this amount, and milk
produced had a value of over two million dollars.

Among the cereals, oats represent the greatest acreage and
production with corn second, barley third, and rye and wheat
about an equal fourth.

The towns of Garden Valley, Albion, Franklin, Irving, Cur¬
ran, Melrose, and Northfield produced the most grains, hay,
corn for silage and tobacco, and have the most cows, horses,
sheep, and silos. These towns have largely the Knox silt loam
soil.

The towns of Cleveland, Hixton, Alma and Springfield with
largely fine sandy loam and loam soil lead in acreage of corn
for grain, alfalfa, buckwheat, beans and wild hay, and second
in number of hogs, silos, and acres of wheat, tobacco, silage,
and potatoes.

The towns with largely medium to sandy soil including Gar¬
field, City Point, Manchester, and Komensky, lead in the pro¬
duction of rye, wild hay, and clover. Brockway, Millston,
Knapp, and Bear Bluff the most generally sandy towns led
in acreage of potatoes, cranberries, and wild hay. Being only

*For a more complete discussion of commercial fertilizers consult the
bulletins of the Wisconsin Experiment Station.

AGRICULTURE OF JACKSON COUNTY.

77

partly developed, they do not compare with the production of
the more highly developed towns having heavier soil.

Tobacco has the highest acre value of any of the special crops
grown in the county. The census of 1920 reports 209 acres de¬
voted to tobacco growing in the county. The acreage on any one
farm is small, and probably averages no more than two to
three acres ; so that tobacco is grown on about 100 of the 2,400

farms in the county.

* .

The production of cranberries is a special industry carried
on chiefly in the marshy parts of the east half of the county.
1910 census reports 529 acres of cranberries with a yield of
529,000 quarts. In 1920, 480 acres produced 548,648 quarts.

In 1917 about 460 acres of beans were produced in Jackson
county. In 1920 the crop was 232 acres yielding 2,344 bushels.
These also are generally grown on the sandy soils and in small
plots of one-half to two acres extent, although a. few fields of
from five to twenty acres of beans are grown. The white navy
bean is the variety generally grown. The greatest acreages are
usually in the towns of Alma, Albion, Hixton, and Garfield.

Potatoes are grown on a commercial scale in parts of the
county. The largest acreages are found in Cleveland, Irving,
Garden Valley, and Garfield and Alma townships. Potato ware
houses are located at Fairchild, Price and Black River Falls.
Alma Center, Humbird, and Levis.

Cucumbers are quite extensively grown in portions of the
county, chiefly on the sandy and sandy loam soils. Salting
stations are located at Merrillan, Black River Falls, Hatfield,
Levis, and Taylor. As high as $2.00 per bushel of fifty pounds
is paid for first grade cucumbers. Seed is generally furnished
and farmers are able to make $100 to $150 an acre from this
crop where soil and weather conditions are favorable. This
crop is very tender and occasionally early frosts in the fall or
the vield.

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

Is

Table of Agricultural Statistics for Jackson County for 1919 As
Compared With 1918 and 1909, From Bulletin No. 28 of the State
Department of Agriculture.

Number of Farms

Number of farms... _ _

Acreage in 22 cultivated crops, including tame nay _

Corn, total acreage... _ _ _ _ _ _

Production, bushels _ _ _ _

Corn for grain, acreage _ _ _ _ _

Production, bushels _ _

Corn for silage, acreage _

Production, tons - -

Silos, number . . . . . . .

Oats, acreage - - -

Production, bushels - - -

Winter wheat, acreage _

Production, bushels.. _ _

Spring wheat, acreage . . . . .

Production, bushels _

Barley, acreage _

Production, bushels _ _ _ _

Buckwheat, acreage . . . . . . .

Production, bushels.. . . . .

Rye, acreage _ _ _ _ _

Production, bushels.. . .

Peas dry, acreage _ _ _ _ _ _

Production, bushels . . . ....

Dry beans, acreage _ _ _

Production, bushels... _

Clover and timothy, acreage - - —

Production, tons - - - - -

Alfalfa, acreage _ _

Production, tons - - - - -

Other tame hay, acreage - - -

Production, tons . . . . .

Wild hay, acreage. _ _ _ _

Production, tons _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Potatoes, acreage _ _ _ _ _ _

Production, bushels _

Tobacco, acreage _ _

Production, pounds _ _ _

Cabbage, acreage _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Production, tons.. _ _

Sugar beets, acreage. . . . .

Peas for canning _ _ _ _

Other root crops. _ _ _ _ _ _

Flax, acreage _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

1919

1918

1909

2,479

2,382

138,928

132,564

120,563

23,675

22,204

160,058

1,089,050

865,956

10,418

8,215

_ _ _ — — _ V _

489,646

328,600

11,837

12,657

108,900

101,256

894

792

41,023

43,764

43,491

1,394,782

1,925,616

3,314

1,513

3,832

62,966

27,558

7,322

6,231

722

87,864

155,775

6,918

9,506

8,868

179,868

344,322

1,810

2,676

1,994

28,960

50,844

11,436

9,582

7,457

194,446

182,058

272

111

32

2,992

1,332

137

390

207

2,055

4,680

33,545

32,032

34,227

53,672

48,048

104

98

20

322

245

661

496

404

859

794

3,370

3,812

3,774

_

5,055

4,574

2,471

2,651

2,189

232,274

288,939

550

625

338

715,000

843,750

12

33

10

91

99

16

121

103

166

36

16

50

30

Acreage in 22 cultivated crops, including tame hay..

133,928

132,564

120,563

1920

1919

1910

Milk cows, number January 1 _

Other cattle _ _

Number of horses and mules, January 1

Number of swine, January 1 _

Number of sheep, January 1_._ _ _

Milk produced, cwt. _ . ...

19,762

23,978

9,044

29,662

12,198

876,865

19,391

22,879

9,291

30,615

14,630

17,077

14.756

8,514

18,615

7,966

Average production, per cow, 4,488 pounds of milk.

AGRICULTURE OF JACKSOX COUNTY.

79

AGRI C r LT I’RAL 1 1IST0RY

Agriculture in its early stages followed close on the heels of
the lumberman. Pine forests lined the Black River and cov¬
ered the east half of the county. During the process of mar¬
keting this timber, railroads were built, sawmills established,
and towns grew up around the sawmills and lumber camps.
Roads were opened fn m town to town, and the land seeker was
attracted to the locality.

The first settlement began about 1850. Wheat was the popu¬
lar crop at first because it always found a market. Many farm¬
ers hauled their wheat twenty to forty miles or more with ox
teams to the nearest railroad point. The grain raising was
confined to the western half of the county where most of the
soil is heavy and better adapted to grains than the soil of the

east half of the countv.

*

Bv 1880 there were 1600 farms which have increased to about
2500 at the present time. Since 1880 wheat raising has de¬
clined two-thirds while oat growing has increased four, and rye
seven times. Due to the too continuous raising of wheat, the
yields were reduced for a time and because also of low prices
and plant diseases the raising of this crop fell off. As commu¬
nication and marketing facilities became better, live stock and
dairy farming came to the front. At present much more live
stock is sold from the farms than formerly and cheese factories
and silos are becoming generally distributed in the Avest half
of the county, though grain raising still holds a large share of
the agricultural activity of several of the townships.

Agricultural development in the eastern half of the county
has been very slow, and by far the greater proportion of this
land is unimproved. Future progress in this region will depend
upon the drainage of the marshes and in the development of
methods through which the farming of the sandy soils and
marsh lands can be made profitable.

80

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY

CHAPTER VIII

CLIMATE

The climate of that portion of Jackson county lying east of
Black River is typical of the large area of central Wisconsin
which has been described in a study of the climate of Wisconsin*
as the Wisconsin River Basin. This region appears to be slightly

cooler than the Mississippi Valley to the west or the Michigan
shore to the east, being cooler than the former in summer, and
colder than the latter in winter. This Wisconsin River Basin
averages about ten days in winter when the temperature drops

*Wis. Exp. Station Bulletin No. 223.

CLIMATE.

81

lower than ten degrees below zero, and thirteen days in summer
when the termometer rises above ninety. The growing season
is somewhat shorter, owing probably to the altitude and the
sandy soil and marshy condition of much of the land. Mauston,
which is the county seat of Juneau county, has an average sea¬
son of 130 days between frosts as compared with 160 days at
La Crosse to the west, 149 at Oshkosh, and 167 at Sheboygan at
the east. Stevens Point has an average growing season of 126
days. From the accompanying chart it will be noted that the
growing season of the Wisconsin River Basin averages from 130
to 140 days between killing frosts. There are many places
with this basin, however, especially along the marsh land where
killing frosts may occur any month during the year.

The western part of Jackson county which ranges in elevation
from one to three hundred feet above the eastern portion, falls
within the southern Highlands Division as another climatic pro¬
vince in Wisconsin. This region is extremely rough and broken,
and by consulting the chart it will be noted that a portion of
this region has a growing season somewhat longer than the region
in the Wisconsin River Basin. This region is almost entirely
free from marshes; practically all of the land is well drained.

From the appended table of average temperatures and rainfall
from the station of Hatfield in Jackson county, it will be noted
that the annual temperature is 44.1 degrees Fahrenheit, and
the annual mean temperature is 30.62 inches. This rainfall is
so distributed that the greater part of it comes during the grow¬
ing season, and while this is true, it frequently happens that
during the latter part of the summer of some years, crops suffer
from a lack of moisture. This is especially true on the soils
of light texture, which predominate in the eastern part of the
county. The average date for the last killing frost in the spring
at Hatfield is May 20, and the day of the first killing frost in
the fall is September 21, giving an average growing season of
124 days. This is somewhat shorter than the period given for
the whole Wisconsin River Basin.

This short growing season as well as the sand soils aid in
explaining the comparatively small amount of corn raised in
this region, and the more extensive development of the potato
industry. While corn does not always mature in this region,
it can be safely grown as a crop for the silo, and for such use,
the acreage could be materially extended.

82

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY.

The following table gives the average annual temperature
and rainfall conditions at Hatfield, a station in the north central
part of the county on the Green Bay Railroad.

Mean temperature in degrees Fahrenheit :

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual

14.9 14.3 28.4 46.9 58.8 66.9 70.6 67.7 60.8 48.8 32.4 18.5 44.1

Mean rainfall in inches:

0.83 0.71 1.29 2.48 4.63 4.50 3.56 3.09 3.49 3.07 1.61 1.36 30.62

SUMMARY.

83

SUMMARY

Jackson county is located in the west central part of Wiscon¬
sin, and comprises 1,001 square miles or 640,640 acres. It may
be divided roughly into two distinct topographical and agricul¬
tural regions. The western part, west of the Black River, is
largely a rough rolling country with soil of good quality pre¬
dominating and an agriculture which is highly developed, while
east of the Black River the region is largely an extensive sandy
plain with many marshes, with the predominating soil of low
agricultural value and being but slightly improved.

While the first settlement was made as early as 1818 or 1819,
there was but little in the way of agricultural development prior
to 1850. The county was established in 1853, and the village
of Black River Falls was incorporated in 1866. All of the west¬
ern part of the county is now well settled, but in the eastern
part the region is very sparsely settled.

Two railway systems traverse the area, and these provide
transportation facilities for the region, although some portions
of the county are quite distant from the nearest shipping point.
From Black River Falls to Madison is 127 miles, and to Chicago
250 miles, while to Minneapolis it is 152 miles. These distances
are over the Chicago and Northwestern Line.

The mean annual temperature is about 43.8 degrees, and the
mean annual precipitation 31.6 inches. The marshy region in
the eastern part of the county is much more liable to have sum¬
mer frosts than the hilly country to the west.

In the western part of the county, agriculture is well devel¬
oped, and the region is in a prosperous condition, while in the
eastern part there is but little development, due to the sandy
and marshy condition of the soils.

Jackson county lies almost entirely within the unglaciated por¬
tion of the state, and the soils have been derived largely from
the disintegration products of the underlying sandstone and
shale, and also from the wind blown material known as loess.
In addition to these sources of origin there are also large tracts

SOIL SURVEY OF JACKSON COUNTY.

84

which have been modified by the action of water ami deposited
in the form of stream terraces or valley fill. Accumulations of
vegetable matter have also given rise to extensive bodies of
peat, and smaller accumulations of organic matter have modified
several of the various soil formations.

Including rough stony land and peat, twenty-eight types of
soil were recognized and mapped in Jackson county.

The Knox series includes the light-colored upland soils which
are largely of loessial origin, and which include the best exten¬
sive tracts of land in this region. Knox silt loam, with its steep
phase was mapped.

The Boone series includes soils derived directly from the
weathering of the Potsdam sandstone. In some cases some shale
and also loess had modified some of the types. The types mapped
are Boone loam, fine sandy loam, fine sand, sand, with phases
of some of these types.

Lintonia soils are made up chiefly of secondary loess now
found as terraces throughout the region of Knox soils. The
types mapped are Lintonia silt loam, loam, and fine sandy loam.

Bates soils are very similar to the Knox, except they are dark-
colored, semi-prairie soils. The silt loam was the only type
mapped.

The Plainfield series consists of light-colored alluvial soils
found as terraces, valley fill, or outwash plains. In this county,
the following types were mapped: Plainfield fine sandy loam,
sandy loam, sand, and fine sand.

The Vesper series consists of residual soils which have been
derived largely from a shaly phase of the Potsdam sandstone,
and which usually have a subsoil containing considerable clay
or shaly material. They are nearly level, and usually rather
poorly drained because of the shale in the subsoil. The types
mapped are Vesper silt loam, fine sandy loam, and sandy loam.

The Dunning series consists of low lying dark-colored poorly
drained sandy soils bordering marshy tracts. It may be resid¬
ual or alluvial in origin. Only the Dunning sand was mapped
in this area.

The Wabash series includes the dark colored bottom land soils
in the western part of the area, where the upland soils are
largely Knox silt loam. The types silt loam and loam were
mapped.

SUMMARY.

85

The Genesee series includes the light-colored first bottom soils.
The types mapped are silt loam, fine sandy loam, and fine sand,
Peat consists of decaying vegetable matter in various stages
of decomposition. Several depths were indicated in the field
work, and of these, the shallow phase is shown on the final map.

Hough stony land consists of steep, rough, and rocky land
which is too rough or too rocky to be cultivated. Its chief value
is for the limited amount of pasture which it affords.

WISCONSIN GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY

W: O: HOTCHKISS, Director and State Geologist
A: R: WHITSON, In Charge Division of Soils

3IL SURVEY IN COOPERATION WITH THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

H. L. RUSSELL, Dean

BULLETIN NO. 54--C

SOIL SERIES NO. 25

SOIL SURVEY

OF

WAUPACA COUNTY

WISCONSIN

BY

A. R. WHITSON, W. J. GEIB, and MARTIN O. TOSTERUD

OIF THE

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey

AND

CLARENCE LOUNSBURY

SURVEY CONDUCTED IN (
DEPARTMENT OF A
MILTC
CURTIS F. MARB

MADIS.

PUB LI SHI

STATES

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey

BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS.

EMANUEL L. PHILIPP,

Governor of the State.

EDWARD A. BIRGE, President.

President of the University of Wisconsin.

President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

CHARLES P. CARY, Vice-President.

State Superintendent of Public Instruction.

STAFF OF THE SURVEY, 1919.

ADMINISTRATION:

William 0. Hotchkiss, State Geologist, Director and Superintendent.

In immediate charge of Geology Division.

Ernest F. Bean, Assistant State Geologist.

Lillian M. Veerhusen, Chief Clerk.

Frances Walker, Clerk 'and Stenographer.

Angeline Doll, Clerk.

GEOLOGY DIVISION:

William 0. Hotchkiss, In charge.

Ernest F. Bean, Geologist, Mineral Land Classification.

T. C. Chamberlin, Consulting Geologist, Pleistocene Geology.

E. 0. Ulrich, Consulting Geologist, Stratigraphy, by cooperation of the

U. S. G. S.

H. R. Aldrich, Geologist.

R. H. Whitbeck, Geographer.

Edw. iSteidtmann, Geologist, Limestones

F. T. Thwaites, Geologist, Well Records, Educational Rock Collection.

NATURAL HISTORY DIVISION:
Edward A. Birge, In charge.
Chancey Juday, Lake Survey.

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CO

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BJ °

w £>

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E « H

DIVISION OF SOILS:

A. R. Whitson, In charge.

W. J. Geib, Inspector and Editor.

M. J. Dunnewald, Field Assistant and Analyst.

M. 0. Tosterud, Field Assistant and Analyst
F. J. O’Connell, Field Assistant
V. C. Leaper, Field Assistant
B W. H. Pierre, Field Assistant
£ J. E. Kubier, Field Assistant

^Scientist in Soil Survey, In charge of field parties for The Bureau of Soils, U.

Apartment of Agricult

° £
£ 5*

o

CO

ure.

S.

I

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TABLE OF CONTENTS . 3

ILLUSTRATIONS . 5

INTRODUCTION . 7

CHAPTER I.

General description of area . 11

Soils . 14

CHAPTER II.

Group of Heavy Soils . 18

Kennan silt loam . 18

Antigo silt loam . 19

Chemical composition and fertility of Kennan and Antigo silt

loams . 20

Superior clay loam . 22

Superior silt loam . 24

Superior silt loam, rolling phase . 25

Chemical composition and fertility of Superior clay, silt loam,
and silt loam, rolling phase . 25

CHAPTER III.

Group of Loams and [Fine Sandy Loams . 28

Kennan loam . 28

Kennan fine sandy loam . 30

Antigo loam . 32

Antigo fine sandy loam . «. . 32

Chemical composition and improvement of Antigo loam and

fine sandy loam . 33

Superior loam . 35

Superior loam, rolling phase . 36

Superior fine sandy loam . 38

Superior fine sandy loam, rolling phase . 39

Superior sandy loam . 41

Superior sandy loam, rolling phase . 41

Chemical composition and improvement of Superior loam, fine

sandy loam, and sandy loam . 43

*

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS .

CHAPTER IV.

Page

Group of Sandy Loams and Fine Sands . 45

Plainfield fine sand . 45

Plainfield sandy loam . 46

Coloma fine sand . 47

Vilas sandy loam . 48

Chemical composition and fertility of sandy loams and fine
sands . 50

CHAPTER V.

Group of Sand Soils . 53

Plainfield sand . 53

Vilas sand . 54

Chemical composition and fertility of sands . 56

CHAPTER VI.

Group of Poorly Drained Sotls . 59

Genesee fine sandy loam . 59

Genesee silt loam . 60

Whitman silt loam . 60

Dunning fine sandy loam . 62

Poygan clay loam . 63

Poygan fine sandy loam . 64

Poygan silt loam . 65

Chemical composition and fertility of Poygan clay loam, silt

loam and fine sandy loam . 66

Peat . 67

CHAPTER VII.

General Agriculture of Waupaca County . 72

Climate . 81

Summary . 83

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES AND FIGURES

Page

Plate I. View showing gently rolling features characteristics of

the Kennan series . . . 19

View showing utilization of stony land . 19

Plate II. An implement for lifting and removing large bowlders 27
View showing surface features typical of the Superior
series of soils . 27

Plate III. View showing rolling surface of Vilas sand
Typical level surface of Plainfield sand.. .

55

55

Figure I. Sketch map of state showing areas surveyed . 11

Figure II. Sketch map showing geological formations . 15

MAP

Soil map of Waupaca county, Wisconsin . Attached to back cover

INTRODUCTION

Before the greatest success in agriculture can be reached, it
is necessary that the farmer should have a thorough knowledge
of the soil upon his own farm. A soil may be well adapted to
one crop, and poorly adapted to another crop. Clover will pro¬
duce a vigorous growth and profitable yields on the average
loam soil which contains lime and is in a sweet condition; but
on a sandy soil which is sour, or in an acid condition, clover
will not make a satisfactory growth. We may say, therefore,
that failure is certain to be invited when such important facts
are disregarded, or overlooked. The degree of success which it
is possible to win on any farm is in direct proportion to the
practical knowledge possessed by the farmer concerning the soil
and its adaptation to crops. A thorough knowledge of the soil
is as essential to the farmer as a knowledge of merchandise and
business methods is to the merchant.

The State of Wisconsin, working in cooperation with the
United States Department of Agriculture, is making a careful
study of soils and agricultural conditions throughout Wiscon¬
sin, and is preparing soilmaps and soil reports of all counties
in the State. A soil map shows the location and extent of the
different kinds of soil. Tracts of 10 acres and over are mapped,
but often areas of even smaller extent are shown. The soil
map is prepared by trained men, who go over a county thor¬
oughly, and examine the soil by making a sufficient number of
borings to a depth of 36 inches to keep account of all varia¬
tions. A report is also made, to accompany and explain the
map, and this is based upon a careful study of the soils within
the region surveyed, and upon such other features as have a
direct bearing upon the agriculture of the area.

It is the object of this survey to make an inventory of the
soils of the State, and to be of practical help to farmers by lo¬
cating and describing the different soils, by determining their
physical character and chemical composition, and by offering

8

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

suggestions for their management, based upon the work of the
Soil Survey within the area, covered in the report, and upon
the results of field tests made by the Experiment Station.

Soil fertility depends upon two factors : first, upon the physi¬
cal characteristics of the soil, such as water holding capacity,
workability, etc., and second, upon the chemical composition
of the material composing the soil. The chemical composition
depends upon the mode of origin of the soil, and the source of
material from which the soil is derived.

Water holding capacity and other physical properties of soil
all depend chiefly upon texture, which refers to the size of the
individual soil grains, or particles. A coarse sandy soil, for ex¬
ample, will not retain moisture so long as a loam soil, or clay
loam, because the finer the soil grains, the greater will be the
total soil-grain surface area to -which moisture may adhere.
Texture is determined in the field by rubbing the soil between
the thumb and fingers, and with experience one soon becomes
expert at judging the size of soil grains. This field judgment
is verified in the laboratory by a mechanical analysis, which
is made by a simple method of separating soil grains into dif¬
ferent groups, of which there are seven. These are known as
clay, silt, very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand,
and fine gravel.

A chemical analysis is also made of the soil to determine the
amounts of various essential plant-food elements which are
present. A chemical analysis shows whether the soil contains
a large store of plant food, or only a small quantity, and it in¬
dicates which kinds of plant food will probably be needed first.
The amount of organic matter in the soil is also determined, and
tests are made to show conditions relative to soil acidity.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Soils are grouped according to texture into soil classes, a soil
class being made up of soils having the same texture, though
differing in other respects. A fine sand, for example, may be
light colored and of alluvial origin, while another fine sand may
be dark in color and of residual origin, while a third fine sand
may have been blown into sand dunes by the wind, yet all of
these soils would belong to the same class, because the greater

INTRODUCTION.

9

proportion of the soil grains have the same size or texture.
Thus we may have different kinds of clays, loams, sands, etc.,
and the class to which any soil will belong depends upon the
size of the individual soil grains of which it is composed, and
not upon its color, origin, topographic position, or agricultural
value.

■Soils Containing Less Than 20% Silt and Clay

Coarse sand. — Over 25% fine gravel and coarse sand, and less than
50% of any other grade of sand.

Sand. — Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand, and less than
50% fine sand.

Fine sand. — Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel, coarse
and medium sand.

Very fine sand. — Over 50% very fine sand.

Soils Containing Between 20-50% of Silt and Clay

Sandy loam. — Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand.

Fine sandy loam. — Over '50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel,
coarse and medium sand.

Sandy clay.— Less than 20% silt.

Soils Containing over 50% of Silt and Clay.

*

Loam. — Less than 20% clay, and less than 50% silt.

Silt loam. — Less than 20% clay, and over 50% silt.

Clay loam. — Between 20 and 30% clay, and less than 50% silt.

Silty clay loam. — Between 20 and 30% clay, and over 5»0% silt.

Clay. — Over 30% clay.

Soils may may be grouped in another way. Where soils are
closely related through similar sources of the material from
which derived, mode of origin, topographic position, etc., so
that the different soils constitute merely a graduation in text¬
ure of otherwise uniform material, such a group is called a soil
series. It corresponds to the family which is made up of dif¬
ferent individuals having the same parentage. The Miami
series, for examples, includes light colored, glacial material
where the soils have been derived largely from the underlying
limestone, and the soils in the series range in texture from a clay
loam to sand and gravel. The Plainfield series includes light
colored soils in regions where no limestone is present, where the
parent rock was largely sandstone, and where the material oc¬
curs as outwash plains or stream terraces. The soils in this
series also have a wide range in texture. The name used for a
soil series usually indicates the locality where that particular
series was first recognized and mapped by the Soil Survey.

30 SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

By uniting the soil class with the soil series we get the
soil type which is the basis or unit of classifying and mapping
soils. A soil type thus, is a soil which is uniform throughout
its entire extent in texture, color, topographic position, and
other physical properties, and having a distinct agricultural
unity, that is, being adapted to the same crops, and requiring
the same treatment. It is also uniform in the source of ma¬
terial from which it is derived, and the mode of origin which,
taken together, determine the chemical composition. Since the
soil type is the unit in classifying and mapping soils, and the
basis upon which experimental work should be conducted, every
farmer should be familiar with the soil types on his farm, and
their leading characteristics.

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY,

WISCONSIN

»

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OP THE AREA

Waupaca County is situated a little to the east of the center
of the State of Wisconsin. It comprises an area of about 759,
square miles, or 485,760 acres. Waupaca, the county seat, is 221
miles from Chicago and 146 miles from Milwaukee by rail.

/Figure I. Sketch map showing the areas surveyed.

The surface features of the region may be considered as fall¬
ing into three divisions. In the northwestern quarter of the
county, which is the highest portion of the area, the surface
varies from gently rolling to hilly, and in many places stones
and boulders are very plentiful. This portion of the county is
underlain by granitic rocks which outcrop frequently.

12

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

The southwestern quarter of the county is characterized by
extensive sandy plains. The surface is, for the most part, level
and is almost entirely stone free. In this region there are a
number of beautiful lakes chiefly in Farmington and Dayton
townships.

The region which may be considered as forming the third
class occupies the greater portion of the east half of the county.
The surface varies from level to gently rolling, and the most
characteristic feature is the heavy red clay subsoil. This is the
lowest portion of the county. While the underlying material
is of a clayey nature, and while the surface soil is also fre¬
quently heavy in character, there are a number of places
throughout this region where there are areas of fine sand which
appear to have been dumped down upon the red clay. It is
frequent to find therefore very sharp soil boundary lines where
the range in texture changes from a fine sand to a loam or clay
within a very short distance.

The region of highest elevation is found in the northwestern
part of the county, and the general slope is from this section
to the south and also to the east. Elevations above sea level at
various places are as follows: lola 930 feet; Waupaca 870 feet;
Manawa 828 feet; Northport 779 feet; New London 767 feet;
and Weyauwega 779 feet.

All of the county lies within the drainage basin of the Wolf
River, which flows in a southwesterly direction across the south¬
eastern portion of the county. The Embarrass River, which is
one of its largest tributaries, enters the Wolf near New London
n short distance outside of Waupaca County. The Little Wolf,
Pigeon and Waupaca Rivers are smaller streams within the
county. All of these drainage waters flow through the Wolf into
the Fox River and thence into Green Bay and Lake Michigan.

Scattered throughout the county arc numerous marsh areas
and some lakes. The most extensive tracts of marsh are found
in the southeastern quarter of the county along the Wolf River,
h or the most part the marsh areas of this countv arc still un-
developed.

The A\ olf River as it passes through this county is very slug¬
gish. The entire fall between Shawano and where the Wolf
joins the Fox River is less than one-half foot per mile. The
Embarrass River where it crosses the county is also sluggish.
I he st reams flowing into these two rivers, however, from the

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

13

west and coming out of the higher portions of the county, have
considerable fall. Water power is being used in a limited way
on these streams at Big Falls, Waupaca, Manawa, and Weyau-
wega. There is considerable water power on these small streams
which is still undeveloped. The water supply for stock and
farming purposes throughout the county is. excellent. In the
eastern half of the county there are many flowing wells and in
the western half excellent water can be secured without diffi¬
culty.

The first settler is reported to have arrived in Waupaca
County in 1843, settling at the present site of Fremont. By
1849 a number of settlers had taken up lands in the southern
part of the county. The county was organized practically as
now existing, in 1851 — claims to the territory being finally sur¬
rendered by the Menomonie Indians in 1852.

In 1910 the population *of Waupaca County was 32,782. Of
the total population 83.7% is classed in the census report as
rural. The density of the rural population is given as 36.1%
persons per square mile.

Waupaca, the county seat, had a population in 1910 of 2,789.
New London, with a population of nearly 4,000, is located on
the east county line, partly in Waupaca and partly in Outa¬
gamie County. Among other towns and villages within the
area are Clintonville, Marion, Manawa, Ogdensbiirg, Scandi¬
navia, Iola, Weyauwega, Fremont, Royalton and Northport.

Three railway systems have lines extending into this county.
These railroads offer good transportation facilities to nearly all
portions of the county. In the southwestern portion and in
other regions where the soils are sandy, the wagon roads are
usually of a sandy nature. Throughout the remainder of the
county where the soils are heavier, the roads are naturally bet¬
ter. In many places they have been macadamized, and new and
improved highways are constantly being built. Rural mail de¬
livery routes reach all parts of the county, and the telephone is
in common use through the country districts.

The towns within the county provide markets for consider¬
able farm produce, but most of the surplus from the farms is
shipped to outside markets. Live stock goes mostly to Chicago

* In the edition of this report published by the U. S. Bureau of Soils
the population of Waupaca County was erroneously given as 23,782

for 19il0.

34 SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

and Milwaukee, as does also the potato crop. Daily products
find a market throughout the middle west.

SOILS

Waupaca County, in common with several other counties in
the central portion of Wisconsin, owes the general character of
its surface material to several distinct methods of accumula¬
tion. These materials may be glacial, lacustrine or alluvial.
To these important agencies may be added the accumulation of
organic matter in low places which has resulted in the forma¬
tion of peat.

In the geological classification based upon the character of
the underlying rocks, the county falls into three divisions. The
surface rock in the northwestern portion of the county consists
of crystalline rock, chiefly of granite and gneiss. Throughout
this granitic rock region, rock outcrops are frequently seen.
Stone and boulders are plentiful.

In the extreme southeastern corner of the county in the
southeastern portion of Caledonia township, there is a remnant
of Lower Magnesian limestone which outcrops or comes very
near the surface in Sections 11, 12, 13 and 14.

All of the remainder of the county, which makes up a total
of over half of the area surveyed, has Potsdam sandstone as the
surface rock formation. As this rock is rather soft there are
but few outcrops, and in most cases it is buried at a consider¬
able depth by glacial, lacustrine and alluvial materials. The
accompanying sketch shows the extent of the three rock forma¬
tions within Waupaca County.

All of the county has been traversed by an ice sheet of the
Late Wisconsin glaciation. The section of the county having
the most pronounced glacial features is the west half of the
county, and especially the northwest quarter. Stream terraces
and outwash plains are numerous in the southwestern part of
the county, and rather extensive terraces are also found along
Pigeon River in the north-central part of the county. Exten¬
sive alluvial deposits occur along the Embarrass and Wolf Riv¬
ers. Pot-holes, recessional moraines and drumlins are other
evidences of glaciation which are found in various parts of the
county. Marshes are quite plentiful, and from a geological
standpoint the topography of the whole area is young. The

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

15

large number of boulders which occur have probably not been
transported for any great distance.

The rock formations in the county have contributed to a
greater or less extent in the formation of the soils. By far the
greater proportion of the material has come from crystalline
rocks and from sandstone. Since these materials were first de¬
posited by the ice sheet they have been modified by running wa¬
ter, by the action of wind, by weathering and by accumulation

Fig. 2. Sketch map showing the surface rock formations in Waupaca County. All of
these formations have contributed to the making of the soils.

and decay of vegetable matter. In the soil survey of Waupaca
County the soils have, been classified into eight series and thirty-
two types, not including peat. In several instances, phases of
some of the types have been recognized.

The soil series (which correspond to the family groups) are
not shown on the soil map which accompanies this report, and
are described here only very briefly. The individual soil types,
however, are shown on the map, each being indicated by a dis¬
tinct color. It is the soil type in which we are especially inter¬
ested, since the type is the unit in mapping and classification
of soils.. Following is a complete list of the soil types mapped
in the county and the series or family groups to which each type

16

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

belongs. Following this general discussion of the soils will be
found a full and detailed description of all of the types, to¬
gether with statements covering the present uses of the soils and
the methods through which each type can best be improved.

The Kennan series includes light colored upland soils in the
timbered regions where the soils have been derived through gla¬
cial action from granitic rocks. These soils are always acid, and
are frequently quite stony. The types mapped in Waupaca
County are the Kennan fine sandy loam, loam and silt loam.

The Antigo series also includes light colored upland soils in
the timbered region where the material has been derived from
glaciated granitic debris which has been deposited by water in
the form of level plains taking the form of outwash plains or
stream terraces. The lower subsoil of the types in this series is
usually sandy or gravelly. The types mapped are the fine sandy
loam, loam and silt loam.

The most characteristic feature of the Superior series is the
heavy red clay subsoil which was deposited in quiet waters and
later modified to varying degrees by glacial action. Typically
the surface is level or nearly so, and the natural drainage some¬
what deficient. \\ here the surface is sufficiently rolling to in¬
sure fair to good drainage the term “ rolling phase” is attached
to the various types. The types mapped here are the Superior
sandy loam, fine sandy loam, loam, silt loam and clay loam. All

of these types except the clay loam have a rolling phase which
is shown on the map.

The Coloma series includes light colored upland soils where
Ihe material has been derived chiefly from sandstone rocks
through glacial action. A arying amounts of granitic material
are mixed in with the sandstone particles. The types mapped
are Coloma sand and fine sand.

The Plainfield series is made up of the same material as the

( oloma except that it has been deposited by water in the form

of level plains, known as stream terraces or outwash plains.

The hypes mapped are the Plainfield fine sand, sand and sandy
loam.

The Whitman series includes dark brown to black soils which
occur m depressions or along stream channels where the ma¬
terial has been derived largely from granitic glacial drift. On
account of the low position and poor drainage there has been
an accumulation of organic matter which accounts for the dark
color. The only type mapped in Ibis area is Whitman silt loam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

17

The Povgan series includes the dark brown to black soils
which occupy depressions in the region of Superior soils. The
subsoil is the same heavy red clay found under the Superior
types. The natural drainage is poor and there has developed
a considerable amount of organic matter in the surface soil.
The types mapped are Povgan fine sandy loam, silt loam and
clay loam.

The Dunning scries includes dark colored, light textured soils
occupying low poorly drained areas, chiefly in the region where
the soils are largely of sandstone origin. The only type mapped
in the series in Waupaca County is Dunning fine sandy loam.

The Genesee series includes the brownish soils which occur as

first bottom land along the streams of the area. This land is

* /

subject to annual overflow and so can seldom be utilized for cul¬
tivated crops. The types mapped are the fine sandy loam and
silt loam.

In addition to the soils included in the nine series described
above, a large amount of peat has been mapped. This peat con¬
sists of accumulations of vegetable matter in varying stages of
decomposition and with which there has been incorporated a
small proportion of mineral matter.

In subsequent pages of this report the various soil types
mapped in Waupaca County are discussed in detail. The dis¬
tribution of the various soils is shown on the map accompany¬
ing this report.

2— w. o.

SOTL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

18

CHAPTER II.

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS
Kennan Silt Loam

Extent and Distribution. — This type is not extensive, it cov¬
ering a total area of less than 16 square miles. It is confined
almost entirely to the northwest quarter of the county. Tracts
seldom exceed two square miles in extent. Most of this soil is
found north of AVaupaca, between Waupaca and Scandinavia,
to the west of Scandinavia, and also to the west and south of
Iola.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to a depth of about
10 inches consists of a brown or grayish-brown, or in the upper
few inches of virgin areas dark brown, friable silt loam. The
subsoil consists of yellow or light yellowish brown silt loam,
which usually becomes somewhat heavier with depth to 16 to 21
inches, where the texture is lighter, — a fine sandy loam, sandy
loam, or sandy clay loam, usually containing varying amounts
of fine gravel. The line between the silty covering and the
coarser material is often quite sharp. The surface material is
usually free from gravel, while the deep subsoil may contain a
considerable amount of it. Boulders occur on the surface in
rather irregular distribution. In places they are sufficiently nu¬
merous to interfere with cultivation. Some have been removed,
but others are so large that moving them is difficult. Some
areas are practically stone free.

Topography and drainage. — The surface varies from gently
rolling to hilly, and because of the surface features the natural
drainage is good. There is not much danger from erosion, al¬
though this should be kept in mind, and the steeper slopes kept
covered with a growing crop as much of the time as possible.

Origin. — The material forming this soil has been derived
largely from crystalline rocks through glacial action. Nearly
all of the boulders present are of crystalline rocks also. There
is no calcareous material present and both soil and subsoil
acid.

are

Wis. Geol. and Natural Hist. Survey.

Plate I.

SHOWING GENTLY ROLLING SURFACE FEATURES CHARACTER¬
ISTIC OF A LARGE PROPORTION OF THE SOIL IN THE

KENNAN SERIES.

Many areas of this soil are stone free, or nearly so. The silt loam,
loam and fine sandy loam as found in this county are for the most
part, very good agricultural land.

SHOWING UTILIZATION OF STONY LAND.

Soils of the Kennan series are stony in some places and stone free
in other places. Where the stones interfere seriously with cultivation, the
land, such as shown here, supplies excellent grazing.

GROUP OF HARVEY SOILS.

19

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth on this soil
consisted of maple, birch, hemlock, with some basswood, oak and
elm. Some white and Norway pine were also mixed in with the
hardwood. All of the pine has been removed, and the best of
the hardwood has also been cut, but there are still limited tracts
where some merchantable timber remains.

Present agricultural development .* — A considerable propor¬
tion of this type is cleared, under cultivation, and in highly im¬
proved farms. It is good soil for general farming and dairy¬
ing — the chief lines to which it is devoted. The chief crops
grown are small grain, corn, and hay. Potatoes are also grown
on a commercial scale on some farms, and sugar beets do well,
though not grown to any extent at present. Peas are grown to
a limited extent. Com for ensilage is a certain crop, but corn
will not always mature in this latitude on account of frosts.
By growing early varieties and by selecting the fields which
warm up readily and permit early planting, the danger from
frosts can be materially reduced. Commercial fertilizers will
hasten growth and frequently reduce the time required for ma¬
turing the crop by one or two weeks.

Antigo Silt Loam

Extent and distribution. — This type is of limited extent and
is found chiefly in the west central part of the county in the
vicinity of Sheridan, about 2 miles north of Waupaca, south of
Scandinavia and between Scandinavia and Iola.

Description. — The surface soil of the silt loam to an average
depth of 8-10 inches consists of a grayish brown silt loam which
frequently approaches a loam in texture. The material is usu¬
ally rather compact in its natural condition but when placed
under cultivation, its structure permits the securing of good
tilth very readily. The upper subsoil consists of a light brown,
compact loam or silt loam which at about 14r-16 inches grades
into a buff colored or slightly yellowish brown silty clay loam.
Below 24 inches, the subsoil changes abruptly into a mixture of
sand and gravel containing very little clay. The depth to this
gravelly material is variable and in several instances was found
to vary from less than one foot to about three feet.

* For chemical composition and fertility see page 20.

20

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

In most cases this soil is free from large stones and bowlders;
although about the margins of areas some may be found, and
stones from 4-8. inches in diameter may also occur in small
numbers.

Topography and drainage. — The surface varies from level to
very slightly undulating and because of the underlying coarse
material, the natural drainage is good. There are only a few
small sags or potholes where the drainage is deficient.

Origin. — The type is of alluvial origin and consists largely of
crystalline glacial debris deposited as outwash material or val¬
ley fill. None of the soil-forming particles are of a calcareous
nature, and the type shows varying degrees of acidity.

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth consisted of
maple, birch, and hemlock with a small amount of pine.

Present agricultural development. — Antigo silt loan is an
excellent soil and most of it is cleared, placed under cultivation,
and in prosperous farms. Its freedom from stones makes it
more desirable than some of the upland types. The type is
well adapted to small grains, grasses, potatoes, root crops, etc.
Corn makes excellent silage and often matures, but cannot be
counted on to mature every season.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF ANTIGO SILT LOAM, AND

KENNAN SILT LOAM

The soils of the Antigo, and Kennan series have a good sup¬
ply of the mineral elements phosphorus and potassium.

Phosphorus. — The total amount of phosphorus in an acre to
a depth of 8 inches varies from 1,100 to 1,400 pounds. This
would be sufficient for 100 to 150 crops if all were available, but
it is never practicable to secure good growth from such soils af¬
ter the total phosphorous has been reduced to six or eight
hundred pounds and better results are always secured when the
total phosphorous content of this layer of soil is retained at
from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds per acre 8 inches. A farmer on this
land, therefore, should adopt plans which will maintain the
present supply ol this element rather than attempt to draw on
it even for a short number of years. The availabilitv of this
element requires a good supply of organic matter.

I ot as slum. The element potassium exists in very much larger
amounts in these soils than does the element phosphorus — in
fact they contain on the average approximately 30,000 pounds

GROUP OF HARVEY HOI EH.

21

of this element per acre to a depth of 8 inches. This is a suf¬
ficient supply to meet the demands of heavy crops for several
hundred years. The entire problem with reference to potas¬
sium therefore, is connected with its availability. When a good
supply of active organic matter is present it can be assumed
that there is sufficient potassium made available for practically
all crops grown on this land. In the case of a few special crops
requiring unusually large amounts of this element, such as cab¬
bage and tobacco, the use of potash fertilizers may in some cases
be profitable. The system of farming followed will also influ¬
ence the potassium supply. A large paid of this element goes
to the stalks and straw of the plant so that if the hay and rough
forage is fed the greater portion of this element is returned to
the land in the manure — differing radically from phosphorous
which goes to the grain and is, therefore, more likely to be sold.

Organic matter and nitrogen. — Compared with prairie soils
which have shown a lasting fertility, these soils are distinctly
low in organic matter and nitrogen. In fact, most upland soils
of wooded regions are low in organic matter. However, the vege¬
table matter which they do contain when first cleared and broken
is of an active character, but provision should be made for
maintaining and increasing this material. When stock raising
is practiced manure is available and is of course good as far as
it goes, but on comparatively few farms is there sufficient ma¬
nure produced to maintain the organic matter in soils of this
character and other means should be used to supplement the
barnyard manure. Green manuring crops should be used as far
as possible, turning under the second crop of clover whenever
this can be done rather than using it for pasture. Seeding
clover in corn at the last cultivation will secure good growth
when the season is favorable. Cultivated ground when used for
pasture should not be grazed closely.

Nitrogen is perhaps the most essential element of plant food
and large amounts are used by all crops. It exists only in the
organic or vegetable matter of the soil, there being none what¬
ever in the earthy material derived from the rocks. Soils
which are low in organic matter are therefore, also low in ni¬
trogen. By all means the cheapest source of this element is
through the growth of legumes such as clover, alfalfa, soy beans,
etc., which collect it from the atmosphere. When these crops
are turned under thev contain an abundance of this element.

22

SOIL SURVEY OE WAUPACA COUNTY.

When fed to stock a portion only is returned to the land. But
when land of the character of that under discussion is used for
mixed farming so that at least one-fourth produces a good crop
of clover or alfalfa each year the supply of nitrogen can be
maintained on a dairy or stock farm, but where any considei-
able portion of the land is in crops which are sold entirely one-
third or more would have to be in some legume crop to main¬
tain the nitrogen supply.

Acidity and liming.— Since all of these soils were formed
from rocks not containing lime carbonate they are essentially
all acid. The degree of acidity varies from one which would
require 1,000 to that which would require 5,000 pounds or more
lime to correct. This acidity is not in itself a direct detriment
to the growth of most farm crops but is an indication that there
is not enough lime present for crops which need a good deal of
that element. Clover will do well while this soil is new even
though acid, but after this land has been cropped a number of
years the acidity should be corrected to secure the best results
with medium red or mammoth clover. Alfalfa is very sensi¬
tive to acidity and lime in some form must be used to secure
good results with this crop even on new land. Other crops also
are benefited by lime.

Crops. — The Antigo and Kennan soils are adapted to a wide
range of crops including corn, potatoes, and root crops as well
as grasses and small grains. The soils of these types are well
adapted to the development of dairy farming on account of
their unusual fitness for the growing of hay and pasture.

SUPERIOR CLAY LOAM

Extent and distribution. — The Superior clay loam is confined
to the eastern half of the county chiefly to the south eastern
quarter within the valley of the Wolf River. The most impor¬
tant areas are found in the vicinity of Fremont and Weyau-
wega. A few small tracts are found near Clinton ville and
Northport also, and others are scattered about through the east¬
ern part of the area.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to an average
depth of 6 to 8 inches consists of a grayish-brown to light choc¬
olate brown clay loam or frequentlya silty clay loam. The sub¬
soil is a heavy, compact pinkish-red clay which extends to a
depth greater than three feet, though below 30 inches the ma-

GROUP OP HARVEY SOlLti.

23

terial frequently becomes somewhat lighter, both in color and
texture. Throughout the subsoil thin streaks of ashy gray fre¬
quently appear, and it is probable that these mark the location
of former cracks into which surface silty material has been
washed. Upon drying large cracks are formed in the surface
and these extend to a considerable depth into the subsoil. These
are of course most noticeable in uncultivated fields. Occasion¬
ally water worn gravel and a few small stones are found upon
the surface and mixed with the soil but these are always of very
limited number. In some places in the deep subsoil there is
found a substratum of medium to fine sand. This is seldom
more than a few inches thick when the red clay is again en¬
countered. This condition is found chiefly east of Fremont.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of the Superior clay
loam is level or nearly so, and because of the heavy character
of the subsoil the natural drainage is deficient. Many farmers
have laid out open ditches or have laid out the fields in narrow
lands so that the dead furrows would serve as surface drains.
Some of the most progressive farmers have installed tile drains
with very marked success and it is only a question of time un¬
til practically all of this type will be fully tile drained.

Origin. — The material forming this soil is largely of lacus¬
trine origin, but since its first deposition by quiet waters it has
been more or less influenced by the action of glacial ice. Typi¬
cally the Superior soils contain considerable carbonate of lime,
and varying amounts are found in this type, especially in the
subsoil. The surface is usually not acid, though in some cases
a slight acidity has developed.

Native Vegetation. — The original timber growth consisted of
hickory, oak, elm, birch, some maple, and poplar. By far the
greater part of the timber has been removed.

Present agricultural development * — A considerable propor¬
tion of the Superior clay loam is being utilized for farming pur¬
poses. The best drained portions are devoted to cultivated
crops, and the less well drained tracts are used for hay and pas¬
ture. When thoroughly drained this is an excellent soil, though

some what difficult to handle because of its heavv texture. Tt

«/

is devoted to general farm crops consisting of hay, small grains,
corn and potatoes, and where drained good yields are secured.

* For chemical composition and improvement of this soil see page 25.

I

24

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

Considerable fall plowing is done and in general up-to-date
methods of cultivation are being practiced.

SUPERIOR SILT LOAM

Extent and distribution . — This type is of limited extent and
is confined to a few areas in the eastern half of the county.
The more important tracts are found east of Clintonville, and
north and northwest from Manawa.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to a depth of from
6 to 8 inches consists of light brown friable silt loam which con¬
tains only a moderate amount of organic matter. In some of
the lower locations the surface contains more 'organic matter
than the average and here the color is somewhat darker than
usual. The subsoil consists of a light reddish to pinkish red
heavy compact clay loam which extend to a depth of over 3 feet.
On drying large cracks are formed in both soil and subsoil, es¬
pecially in uncultivated places, and a section of the soil shows
light colored streaks whicli were crevices into which some of the
surface silt was washed. This soil is quite uniform, and closely
resembles the clay loam type. The chief difference being the
surface soil is somewhat more silty in character.

Topography and drainage. — The surface is level to very gen¬
tly undulating, and because of the heavy nature of the subsoil
the natural drainage is deficient. Where the type borders the
rolling phase of Superior soils into which it grades very grad¬
ually it is frequently difficult to establish a boundary line, since
the only difference between is in topography.

Origin. — In origin this type is identical with the Superior
clay loam, having been deposited in quiet waters, probably dur¬
ing interglacial time and then having been modified to a limited
extent by glacial action.

A alive vegetation. — The original timber consisted of hickory,
elm, oak with some ash and willow in the wettest places.

Present agricultural development.*— Most of this soil is
cleared and being used for some agricultural purpose. Where
drained it is mostly cultivated and excellent crops are usually
secuied. Where not drained it is used chiefly for hay or pas¬
ture for which it is very well suited. When properly drained
this is an excellent soil and well adapted to general farming

- For chemical composition and improvement of tins soil see page 2">.

GROUP OF HARVEY SOILS.

25

and dairying. The chief crops grown are small grains, corn
and hay.

SUPERIOR SILT LOAM, ROLLING PHASE

This type is of limited extent and therefore of minor impor¬
tance. The largest tracts occur southeast and southwest from
Marion and north of Manawa.

The surface soil of this soil to a depth of about 8 inches con¬
sists of a brown or light brown silt loam which contains only
a moderate amount of organic matter. This is underlain by
a grayish silt loam or silty clay loam which at 14 to 16 inches
is underlain by the typical pinkish-red heavy clay which is
characteristic of the Superior soils. This extends to a depth
usually much greater than 3 feet, though frequently in the
lower portion of the 3 foot section there may be thin layers of
tine sand. A lighter color may also mark the heavy clay at
this depth. The soil as a whole is quite uniform. The amount
of stoniness is variable however. Some areas being entirelv
stone free, while some have quite a number of bowlders upon
the surface.

The surface of this soil is gently rolling to rolling and the sur¬
face drainage is usually good. Along some of the lower slopes
where the type adjoins lower lands there are small areas de¬
ficient in drainage.

The original timber was the same as on the loam and fine
sandy loam types of this series. Most of the merchantable tim¬
ber has been removed and the land placed under cultivation.
Most of the land is well improved, and it is an excellent soil.
It is easier to work than a clay loam but sufficiently heavy to
retain moisture well and also the fertilizing material which may
be applied to it. The same crops are grown as on the loam soil,
the same methods are followed, and the same line of improve¬
ment will apply.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF SUPERIOR CLAY LOAM,
SUPERIOR SILT LOAM AND SUPERIOR SILT LOAM, ROLLING PHASE

The chemical analyses of the Superior silt loam and clay loam
soils show that their phosphorous content is somewhat lower
than the average of other silt loams and clay loams in the State,
while the potassium content is considerably larger. Their con-

26

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

tent of organic matter is somewhat below the average of soils
of this texture. In regard to lime they vary within very wide
limits, in some sections being acid, while in others they contain
as high as 10 to 12 per cent of lime carbonate.

Phosphorus. — The comparatively small total amount of phos¬
phorus contained in these soils together with the relatively large
amount of iron oxide renders this element somewhat unavail¬
able to growing crops and makes it important that farmers oper¬
ating on this type of soil see to it that the available supplies of
this element are maintained or increased either through the use
of feeding stuffs high in this element or the purchase of suffi¬
cient phosphate fertilizers. Experiments on this soil at Ash¬
land showed a large increase through the use of phosphate fer¬
tilizers in addition to manure. The following table gives the
results of some of these experiments.

EHj Crop

10 tons manure only

10 tons manure and
1000 lbs. rock
phosphate

Per cent of increase

Potatoes .

87

bu. per A

128 lEbu.

47

Rutabagas .

108

bu. per A

137

bu.

27

Corn .

30.4

bu. per A

36.8

bu.

21

Clover hay .

2223

pounds

3177

pounds

43

Clover seed .

217.5

pounds

336.7

pounds

47

The importance of having sufficient supplies of this element
is made still greater by the relatively poor drainage which the
Superior clay loam has and its consequent tendency to be cold
so that crops are slow in maturing. The element phosphorus is
particularly helpful in hastening the maturity of crops and the
formation of seed.

Potassium. — These soils average over 50,000 pounds of this ele¬
ment per acre to a depth of 8 inches. This potassium, however,
in the form in which it exists in the soil is not available to crops
and becomes so only as a result of chemical changes which are
chiefly brought about through the action of organic matter.
\\ hen a good supply of active organic matter is maintained the
quantity of potassium is sufficient to supply growing crops al¬
most indefinitely and it is only in the case of fields low in or¬
ganic matter or where crops using unusually large amounts of

Wis. Geol. and Natural Hist. Survey.

Plate II.

AN IMPLEMENT FOR LIFTING AND REMOVING LARGE BOULDERS.

While these stones are undesirable, and interfere with the cultivation
of the land, it is usually true that where they occur the soil itself is of
good quality.

u xjjSHL

SHOWING SURFACE FEATURES TYPICAL OF THE SUPERIOR

SERIES OF SOILS.

This Superior soil has a high agricultural value.

GROUP OF HARVEY SOILS.

27

available potassium are grown that fertilizers containing this
element need be used.

Nitrogen and organic matter. — Nitrogen exists in the soil al¬
most entirely in combination with organic or vegetable matter.
In this soil the vegetable matter is relatively low and should be
increased. The accumulation of organic matter high in nitro¬
gen is most readily brought about through the growth of legumes
such as clover, alfalfa, or soy beans. These may either be
turned under as green manuring crops in which case all of the
nitrogen collected from the atmosphere is returned to the soil
and made available to succeeding crops, or they may be fed to
animals and the manure returned to the soil so that a portion at
least of the nitrogen gathered from the atmosphere is returned
to the land to add to the supply already there. Whatever sys¬
tem of farming is followed on this type of soil should involve a
rotation one member of which is a legume.

Lime and soil acidity. — This soil was originally laid down in
an extension of Lake Superior as a sediment and in this a con¬
siderable amount of lime carbonate was deposited. This water-
deposited soil was then worked over by the ice during the gla¬
cial period. Since this time the lime has been dissolved out of
portions of the soil to a considerable extent, but other parts, less
pervious to the water or containing large amounts of lime, still
retain considerable quantities of this material. As a result these
soils have become acid in patches, but as a whole are not acid
and the subsoil still generally contains considerable lime. This
is particularly favorable to the growth of clover and alfalfa,
but where sorrel or other plants show the development of acidity
lime should be used especially for alfalfa.

Drainage. — Where the surface of these soils is level, as is very
frequently the case the question of drainage is one of impor¬
tance. Over practically all level areas tile drains could be in¬
stalled to advantage. Thorough drainage will make these soils
warm up earlier in the spring, insure better tilth and increased
yields.

28

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

CHAPTER III.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS

KENNAN LOAM

Extent and distribution . — The Kennan loam is one of the ex¬
tensive and important soils in the area. It is confined chiefly
to the west half of the county, and the most extensive areas oc¬
cur in the northwestern quarter of the area. Throughout the
region north of Iola, Northland and Big Falls, and north to
the county line, the loam is the predominating soil.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to a depth of from
10 to 12 inches consists of a brown, or grayish-brown, or buff
colored loam or somewhat gritty silt loam. Tnis is underlain
by a brown compact gravelly sandy loam or sandy clay which
gradually changes at from 24 to 30 inches or below into ma¬
terial of a much more sandy and gravelly nature. The gravelly
material is frequently so plentiful in the subsoil that boring is
impossible in the lower depths. Typically there are a moderate
number of stones and bowlders on the surface and through the
soil, but these are not so numerous as to interfere seriously with
cultivation. There are marked exceptions to this rule, however,
and in some cases the number of stones and bowlders is so great
as to interfere seriously with cultural operations. In such cases
their presence has been indicated on the map by appropriate
symbols. From many fields the stones have been removed and
some stone fences are seen in various parts of the area. In
places there is a small amount of gravel on the surface and in
the upper subsoil, but such material is most abundant in the
lower subsoil. The texture of the Kennan loam is somewhat
variable and frequently approaches a fine sandy loam. In fact
some areas of fine sandy loam have been included where they
were of limited extent and where the change of one type to an¬
other was very gradual.

Topograph y and drainage. — The surface of the Kennan loam
varies from undulating to rolling and somewhat hilly. Al-

GROUP OF LOAM, S' AND FIND SANDY LOAMS.

29

though this type occurs on some of the largest and highest ele¬
vations there are comparatively few steep or abrupt slopes, and
by far the greater proportion of the type has such a topography
as to permit the use of modern farm machinery. Where ex¬
tremely steep slopes have been found, or where the surface was
of a very rough or broken character, a rough phase has been in¬
dicated on the soil map. These areas are frequently very stony
as well as rough. The soil within the rough phase is also sub¬
ject to greater variation than typical, ranging from a fine
sandy loam to a silt loam. Over the roughest areas some
portions have been quite badly eroded. Because of the uneven
surface features of the type as a whole, and the character of
the subsoil, the natural drainage is excellent. The type con¬
tains a sufficient amount of fine material so that it retains mois¬
ture well and does not suffer from drought except during ex¬
tended dry periods.

Origin. — -The material forming the Kennan loam has been de¬
rived through glacial action largely from crystalline rock forma¬
tions. This material in a number of cases has been carried by
an ice sheet over regions where Potsdam sandstone is the un¬
derlying rock, so that the resulting soil consists of a mixture of
materials from these two sources. However, the granitic rock
material predominates in this soil in practically all cases. There
is no limestone material present in the portion of the area where
this type occurs and both soil and subsoil show varying degrees
of acidity.

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth on this soil
consisted of maple, birch and oak, with varying amounts of hem¬
lock, white and Norway pine. A considerable part of the type
as found in the extreme northwestern part of the county is still
in timber. Where the original timber lias been removed there
is usually a second growth in which poplar, white birch and hazel
brush are plentiful.

Present agricultural development * — Probably from one-third
to one-half of this type has been cleared and placed under the
plow. Where not extremely stony, it is one of the most desir¬
able soils in the west part of the county, and one which has very
good agricultural value. It is devoted chiefly to dairying and
general farming, with potatoes as an important cash crop. The

* For chemical composition and improvement of this soil see page nr;.

30

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

type affords excellent grazing, and where the stones are most
plentiful the land can be used to best advantage for this pur¬
pose. Sheep are raised to some extent, although it would seem
that this industry could he materially extended. Corn is raised
principally for silage, but when it matures the yield usually
ranges from 40 to 60 bushels per acre. Oats yields range from
35 to 60 bushels per acre with some yields reported much higher
than this. Barley usually yields from 25 to 35 bushels, and rye
from 15 to 20 bushels. The hay, which consists chiefly of clover
and timothy, yields from V/2 to 3 tons per acre. Alfalfa is
grown to a limited extent, although special treatment of the soil
is usually necessary in getting this crop started. Potatoes yield
from 100 to 200 bushels per acre and are the most important
cash crop grown on the type. Wheat is grown only to a lim¬
ited extent but gives very satisfactory yields on this soil. Prob¬
ably the most common rotation followed by farmers on this soil
consists’ of small grain, seeded to clover and timothy, — hay be¬
ing cut for two years, after which the land is plowed for corn
or potatoes and then again followed by small grain. Stable ma¬
nure is the only fertilizer used to any extent though a small
amount of green manuring is practiced.

KENNAN FINE SANDY LOAM

Extent and distribution. — The Kennan fine sandy loam is an
important type though not fully improved. It is confined al¬
most entirely to the western half of the county, and chiefly to
the northwestern quarter of the area where it occurs in tracts
of from 10 or 20 acres to several square miles.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to an average
depth of 8 inches is brown or slightly grayish-brown, mellow,
fine sandy loam. This material becomes somewhat lighter in
color with depth and becomes a yellowish-brown at a depth of
from 10 to 18 inches. In texture the subsoil is usually a fine
sandy loam containing considerable clay which in places be¬
comes a sandy clay loam. The heaviest portion of the subsoil
usually occurs at a depth of from. 18 to 24 inches. This may
sometimes extend to a depth of 30 inches, but in the lower depths
the material usually becomes somewhat more sandy. In some
areas the subsoil through its entire section was found to be
somewhat sandy, but was not sufficiently light to be classed un¬
der another type name.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

31

A lighter phase of this soil was found to occur 4 or 5 miles
south of Big Falls where tho material approaches a loamy fine
sand in texture. The extent here, however, was too limited to
justify a separation. The type as a whole is somewhat stony,
though as typically developed these stones are not sufficiently
plentiful to interfere materially with agricultural development.
Where the stones are most plentiful, and where they do inter¬
fere with the cultural operations to any marked degree, their
presence has been indicatd on the soil map by appropriate sym¬
bols.

Topography omd drainage. — The surface of this soil is undu¬
lating to rolling with a few locations which could be classed as
hilly. Modern farm machinery can be used on practically all

of the type, and because of the surface features and the sandy

♦

nature of the soil the natural drainage is good. There is a suf¬
ficient amount of clay in the subsoil so that moisture is retained
in a very satisfactory manner, and the type does not suffer from
drought except during periods of extended dry weather.

Origin. — The material forming the Kennan fine sandy loam
has been derived through glacial action chiefly from crystalline
rocks though the underlying rock over a portion of the area
where this type occurs is Potsdam sandstone. Material from
both of these formations is found in this soil, but the crystalline
material appears to predominate. There is no limestone ma¬
terial in this region and both soil and subsoil are found to be
in an acid condition.

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth consisted
chiefly of hardwoods, including maple, oak, birch and some elm.
Varying amounts of hemlock, white and Norway pine were
found with the original timber growth. Where the land has
been cut-over and not put in farms the present growth consists
largely of poplar, white birch and hazel brush.

Present agricultural development* — This is one of the most
desirable soils of the area, although because of its irregular oc¬
currence but few farms are made up entirely of it. A consid¬
erable proportion of this soil is under cultivation and in im¬
proved farms. The yields which are secured and the methods
of farming followed are very similar to those of the Kennan
loam. In fact, the type as a whole is very closely related to

* See page 33 for chemical composition and improvement.

32 SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

this soil, and tlic boundary line separating them is frequently
an arbitrary one.

ANTIGO LOAM

This soil is of limited extent. It is found chiefly in the north¬
west quarter of the county northeast and west of Scandinavia,
north and northwest of Iola, and north of Northland.

The surface soil of this type to an average depth of 10-12
inches consists of a brown or grayish brown loam, or light silt
loam of a friable structure. This is underlain by a lighter col¬
ored compact loam or silt loam which below 14-16 inches be¬
comes quite gritty, and at about 24 inches grades abruptly into
gravel or sand, or a mixture of these materials. As in the silt
loam, the depth to the underlying coarse material is variable.
Frequently some gravel may occur upon the surface and through
the soil section. A few granitic bowlders, probably deposited
by floating ice, are also found in places, though they are not
numerous.

The surface of this type is level or very nearly so, and the
natural drainage is good. There are only a few small sags or
potholes where the drainage is deficient.

This soil has the same origin as the silt loam and consists
largely of alluvial materials deposited by glacial waters as out-
wash plains or as stream terraces. The parent material was
chieflv crystalline rocks. No calcareous material has entered
into the formation of the soil, and varying degrees of acidity
prevail.

The original timber growth consisted chiefly of maple, birch,
hemlock with some white and Norway pine.

Although of limited extent, this is very valuable farming
land, and is highly improved. It is used for general farming
purposes, and is well adapted to all general farm crops com¬
mon to the region.*

ANTIGO FINE SANDY LOAM

This soil is of limited extent. One tract of about one square
mile occurs 2-3 miles north of Waupaca. Another is found
northeast of Big Falls along the Shawano county line. A num¬
ber of other smaller patches are widely scattered throughout the
county.

* For chemical composition and improvement of this soil see page 33.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS. 33

The surface of this soil to an average depth of 8 inches con¬
sists of a grayish brown fine sandy loam which becomes lighter
in color with depth. At 14-16 inches a yellowish-brown color
may obtain and a small percentage of clay is present. In places
there is a gravel deposit at about 30 inches and a moderate
amount of gravel may be distributed through the soil section.
The areas found in the eastern half of the county are usually
free from gravel but are underlain by fine sand instead.

The surface of this type is level, or only very slightly undu¬
lating and the natural drainage is good.

This soil consists of alluvial material deposited as outwash or
valley fill. The parent material was largely crystalline rocks,
but in the central and eastern parts of the county, the glacial
debris contains considerable sandstone material and some of this
has also entered into the formation of the Antigo fine sandy
loam. No calcareous rocks have contributed to this soil, how¬
ever, and both soil and subsoil are in an acid condition.

The original timber consisted of maple, birch, hemlock, and
some pine.

Most of the soil is cleared and is under cultivation, but be¬
cause of its being found only in small tracts, but few farms are
made up entirely of this class of land. It is mostly well im¬
proved and gives good yields of all the general farm crops com¬
mon to the region. It is excellent potato land and would also
make fine soil for truck crops, but its location regarding mar¬
kets is not such as to encourage the extensive development of
this line of farming.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY

LOAMS

These soils are only a little more open in texture than the silt
and clay loam types. They have a good water-holding capacity
and will support very good pasture, but the somewhat higher
percentage of fine sand which they contain reduces the water
content of the surface somewhat so that they warm up more
readily in the spring and have less tendency to bake and crack
than the heavier soils. These qualities make them better
adapted to such crops as corn and potatoes than are the heavier
soils.

The total amount of the plant food elements, phosphorus and
potassium, is nearly if not quite as large in the Kennan and

3— w. a

34

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

Antigo fine sandy loams as in the silt loam.# However, they
have rather less organic matter and this, together with the
somewhat coarser texture results in a slower rate of chemical
change by which the inert plant food of the soil becomes avail¬
able to crops. For this reason the increase in the supply of
fresh organic matter and the use of available plant food either
in the form of stable manure or of commercial fertilizers be¬
comes more important and especially when crops such as po¬
tatoes which are sold from the farm, and of which heavy yields
must be grown to be profitable, are produced.

The increase in the supply of organic -matter is of the utmost
importance. A high degree of fertility cannot be maintained
in these soils unless about twice as large an amount of organic
matter is developed in them as that which they originally have.
The plowing under of legumes, such as a second crop of clover
or a crop of soybeans, is the best method of securing this re¬
sult. The application of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers
can best be made for these crops, since it secures a much larger
growth of these crops themselves and becomes available through
their decomposition to the following crops of corn or potatoes.

The Kennan and Antigo soils were derived from rocks devoid
of lime carbonates and therefore have a marked tendency to be¬
come acid. The degree of acidity is usually only slight in the
new soil, but increases as the land is cropped from year to year. *
This acidity does not affect the growth of most crops directly,
but makes it more difficult to maintain a good degree of fertil¬
ity. This is true because it is in a condition unfavorable to
the continued growth of the best legumes — clover and alfalfa.
The slight degree of acidity does not interfere with the growth
of clover while the soil is comparatively new, but does reduce
the yields as the fertility is reduced by further cropping and
even in the virgin condition acidity interferes with the growth
of alfalfa. It is also a condition unfavorable to the mainte¬
nance of a good supply of readily available phosphorus in the
soil. These objections are probably not sufficient to make nec¬
essary the use of lime to correct the acidity on all of the land
under cultivation, for a number of years, but does make it de¬
sirable that farmers wishing to grow alfalfa should lime as well
as inoculate the soil for this crop and also to watch the growth
of clover carefully from year to year, so as to begin the use of

* See page 20.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FIXE SANDY LOAMS.

35

lime on the fields as they are sown to clover as soon as it becomes
difficult to secure a good stand.

These types of soils are well adapted to general farming and
some special crops such as potatoes can also be grown to good
advantage. These soils of intermediate texture are better
adapted to potato culture than are the heavier types on the one
hand or the light sandy soils on the other.

SUPERIOR LOAM

This soil is of limited extent and is confined to the eastern
half of the county. Some of the type is found in the vicinity
of Nicholson and other small tracts near Symco and New Lon¬
don.

The surface soil of this type to an average depth of 8 or 9
inches consists of a grayish-brown mellow loam which contains
an appreciable amount of fine and very fine sand. This is un¬
derlain by a compact pinkish-red clay or clay loam which con¬
tinues to a depth greater than 3 feet. Usually the color be¬
comes deeper red, and the structure somewhat more plastic with
depth. In places there is a small amount of gravel on the sur¬
face' and mixed with the soil, but as a whole the type is quite
uniform. The surface is level to undulating and the natural
drainage is in most cases fair to good. Only in the lowest
places is it deficient. It is better than on the clay loam and
silt loam types.

The loam has the same origin as the clay loam and silt loam
types, having been deposited in quiet waters and later modified
to a limited extent by glacial action.

The original timber growth consisted chiefly of oaks, hickory,
and some elm.

Most of this type is cleared, under cultivation, and in a high
stage of development. It is an excellent soil, well suited to the
general farm crops commonly grown in the region. Small
grains, corn and bay are the chief crops. Potatoes are also
grown, but usually only for home use. It is easier to cultivate
than the clay loam, and altogether is a somewhat more desir¬
able soil. Stable manure is practically the only fertilizer used
at present, though commercial fertilizers are being considered,
and experience has shown that properly used they are profi-

36

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

table. The soil responds especially well to a phosphate fertil¬
izer.*

SUPERIOR LOAM, ROLLING PHASE

Extent and distribution. — The Superior loam rolling phase is
generally associated with other soils of this series. It is con¬
fined to the eastern half of the county where it is an important
soil. It is most extensive in the southeastern quarter of the
county and there are also numerous areas southwest of Marion
and east of Symco.

Description. — The surface of this phase to an average depth
of 8 to 10 inches consists of a dark brown or grayish brown
loam which is usually somewhat gritty. This material usually
becomes somewhat lighter in color and more compact in the
lower surface section and remains quite loamy to a depth of 14
to 16 inches. While these depths represent the average, there
is some variation in this respect and the loamy material in
places extends to nearly two feet. The change to the subsoil
is usually quite abrupt and the heavy pinkish-red clay is gen¬
erally found at 14 to 16 inches below the surface. This heavy,
compact red clay extends to a depth of more than 3 feet, often
times many feet — though in the lower portion of the 3 foot sec¬
tion it sometimes becomes lighter in color, and may contain a
few thin layers of sandy material. In numerous places granitic
stones and bowlders were originally found upon the surface,
but in many fields these have been entirely removed. Places
were seen, however, where the bowlders were still present and
where they were sufficiently numerous to interfere with culti¬
vation. Gravel and some small rock fragments are frequently
present in the soil and subsoil. The gravel and stones are most
plentiful along the most westerly occurrences of the type, where
it borders the soils of the Kennan series. In many places ex¬
tensive areas are almost entirely stone free. As a whole the
material forming this soil is quite uniform, the chief variation
being in the stoniness. There is an exception to this, however,
in Sec. 13 and 14 Town of Caledonia where the subsoil is not
red, but of a yellowish-brown color. Here the material also
rests upon limestone rock which occurs within the three foot
section in places. This phase is really Miami loam, but be¬
cause of its limited extent it was included with the Superior.

* For chemical composition and improvement of this soil see page 43.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS. 3J

Topography and drainage. — The surface of the loam soil
ranges from gently rolling to rolling, with a few areas which
could be classed only as undulating. Because of the usual sur¬
face features the natural surface drainage is generally well estab¬
lished. In some of the lower places it sags, and the draws be¬
tween hills the drainage is sometimes deficient, but such areas
are usually of small extent. Where the type borders the level
phase of Superior soils or those of the Poygan or Whitman
series there is frequently a narrow strip which would be im¬
proved by tile drains. There is seldom danger of serious ero¬
sion but on unprotected fields the surface soil washes to some
extent during heavy rains.

Origin. — The subsoil of the Superior loam has the same origin
as the Superior clay, having been laid down as a lacustrine de¬
posit and later influenced by glacial action. The surface soil
may fie in part of the same origin, but a considerable propor¬
tion of the surface soil doubtless came from crystalline rock ma¬
terial. Some of it, and especially the more sandy phases, prob¬
ably came from sandstone rock. In a few places the surface
soil shows slight acidity, but the subsoil is not acid and usually
contains a considerable amount of lime carbonate.

Native vegetation. — The native timber growth on this soil
consisted chiefly of maple, oak, ash, hickory, walnut, and some
pine. While by far the greater proportion of the merchant¬
able timber has been removed there are still many farm wood
lots containing the original timber.

Present agricultural development* — A large proportion of
the type is cleared and under cultivation and it is one of the
best soils for general agriculture within the county. All of the
crops common to the region are grown successfully upon it but
the chief type of farming is general farming with dairying as
the chief branch. Small grains, corn and hay are grown most
extensively. While most of the hay is clover and timothy, al¬
falfa is coming to be an important crop and is being grown
with success on many farms. Potatoes are grown for home use
on all farms and on a number commercially. The most com¬
mon crop rotation consists of small grain, hay, corn, to which
may be added a year of pasture after one or two years of hay,
making a four or five year rotation. Stable manure is the chief

* For chemical composition and improvement of this soil see page 43.

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

38

fertilizer used though commercial fertilizers are now being tried
by some farmers with marked success.

SUPERIOR FINE SANDY LOAM

Extent and distribution. — This soil is found in scattered areas
in the eastern half of the county associated with other types of
the Superior series. Of the larger developments may be men¬
tioned the one north from Bear Creek, and those between Clin-
tonville and Embarrass. The total extent of the type is com¬
paratively small.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to a depth of 10
inches consists of a grayish brown fine to very fine sandy loam,
containing a moderate amount of organic matter. In low places
the surface is darker than typical owing to a greater accumula¬
tion of vegetable matter. The subsoil consists of a pinkish-red
clay loam which may extend without change to over 3 feet,
though frequently fine sand is encountered at about 30 inches.
In the lower depths the color is also lighter. The depth of the
surface soil over the clay is variable and may range from 6
inches to 16 or 18 inches.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of the Superior fine
sandy loam is level to undulating and except in the lowest
places the natural drainage is fair to good. In the depressions
or level tracts it is sometimes deficient.

Origin. — The subsoil of this type has the same origin as the
remainder of the Superior types, but the surface has doubtless
been influenced to a greater extent by glacial action than has
the heavy clay subsoil.

Native vegetation. — The original timber consisted chiefly of
maple, elm, oaks, birch and some poplar, with now and then a
white pine.

Present agricultural development .*■ — The greater part of this
type lias been brought under cultivation. The lowest and more
poorly drained portions are devoted chiefly to hay and pasture,
but on the remainder of the type good yields of the general
farm crops are secured. The soil is not difficult to cultivate
and a good mellow seed bed can be readily secured. Corn,
small grain, hay and potatoes are the most important crops.
This type is much better adapted to potato growing than the

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

39

heavier soils of this series. Alfalfa is grown in some localities
with good success.

SUPERIOR FINE SANDY LOAM, ROLLING PHASE

Extent and distribution. — This soil is confined almost entirely
to the eastern half of the county where it occurs in numerous
tracts of from less than one mile to 3 to 5 square miles in ex¬
tent. Its continuity is broken by other soils of this series and
also by tracts of peat and soils of the Antigo series.

Description. — The surface soil of this phase to a depth of
about 10 inches consists of a grayish-brown fine sandy loam.
In a few places the material approaches a fine sand in texture.
The lower portion of the soil section becomes somewhat lighter
in color, due to the smaller amount of organic matter present.
The subsoil usually begins quite abruptly and consists of a pink¬
ish-red compact clay or clay loam. This usually extends to a
depth much greater than 3 feet, though in the lower portion of
-the 3 foot section it is quite common to find thin layers of fine
sand. The color of the clay is often lighter at this depth. A
small amount of gravel sometimes occurs upon the surface and
small rock fragments may be found through the soil section.
Granitic bowlders are also quite plentiful upon the surface, and
in places are sufficiently numerous to interfere with cultural
operations. In many fields these have been removed and placed
in piles along the fence rows. Much of the type is practically
stone free. The depth to clay is variable but seldom exceeds
two feet.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this soil ranges
from gently sloping to gently rolling and in some cases rolling.
Because of the uneven surface features the natural drainage is
well established. In no place is the type too broken to permit
the growth of cultivated crops. Erosion is not a serious prob¬
lem, though on the. more rolling areas there is some danger of
washing when the fields are bare, especially during the heavy
rains of spring, when the ground is saturated with water.

Origin. — In origin the subsoil has the same source as other
Superior soils, having been first laid down as a lacustrine de¬
posit probably during interglacial times and later influenced to
a greater or less extent by glacial action. The surface sandy

* For chemical composition and improvement of this soil see page 43.

40

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

material probably comes largely from crystalline and sandstone
glacial debris. Most of the gravel, stones and bowlders associ¬
ated with this soil are largely of crystalline rock origin. The
surface soil is frequently slightly acid, but the red clay subsoil
is not acid and usually contains considerable carbonate of lime.

Native vegetation . — The original timber growth on the soil
consisted of maple, oak, elm, hickory, some walnut and varying
amounts of pine. Most of the merchantable timber has been
removed, though there are numerous farm wood lots in which
there is still valuable timber. No extensive tracts of native for¬
est, however, are found on this soil at present.

Present agricultural development.* — By far the greater pro¬
portion of this soil is cleared, under cultivation, and highly im¬
proved. It is devoted chiefly to general farming and dairying,
and practically all of the crops common to the region are grown
upon it. It is an excellent general farming soil, and some of
the most highly improved farms of the region are found upon
it. The surface soil is sufficiently sandy to make cultivation
easy, while the subsoil is heavy so that moisture, and fertility
is retained. The surface is uneven enough to insure good drain¬
age, but never too steep to permit the use of modern farm ma-
chinry. It occurs in good sized tracts so that many farms are
located entirely upon this one soil type. The crops grown are
corn, oats, barley, rye, wheat, clover, timothy, alfalfa, potatoes,
and other root crops. In addition some truck crops are also
grown, but the trucking industry has not been developed on a
commercial scale in any part of the county, although this soil is
well suited to the growing of trucking crops.

The general methods of farming followed are usually such as
tend to gradually improve the soil, but there is still consider¬
able room for improvement along these lines. The rotation
most commonly followed consists of corn, small grain, and hay.
The field usually being left in hay for two years, and possibly
pastured for a year in addition, making a four or five year ro¬
tation. Stable manure is the chief fertilizer used, though a
number of farmers have started the use of commercial fertili¬
zers with very good results. The supply of stable manure is
seldom sufficient to meet the needs of the soil, and the use of
commercial fertilizers to supplement this supply is advisable.

* See page 43 for chemical composition and improvement.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

41

SUPERIOR SANDY LOAM

This soil is of rather limited extent, covering a total area of
of about 4 square miles. It is confined chiefly to the southeast¬
ern portion of the area south and southeast from Fremont.
Some of this soil is also found north of Weyauwega, and a few
scattered areas occur farther north in the interior of the county.
The type is usually associated with areas of Superior clay loam.

The surface soil of this type to a depth of 10 to 12 inches con¬
sists of a brown or grayish brown loamy sand to light sandy
loam. Below this there is usually a few inches of light brown
or yellowish loamy sand which is underlain at about 18 inches
by a dense, compact pinkish red clay, which extends to 36 inches
or more. In some places there is a substratum of yellowish
sand, usually water saturated, at about 30 inches. The depth
of the sandy material over the clay subsoil is quite variable but
the heavy subsoil is always found at 2 feet or less.

The surface is level or gently undulating, and except for a
few sags the drainage is fair to good.

The original timber consisted of oaks, maple, birch, some elm
and in the wettest places a few willows. Some pine also grew
on this soil.

This is a valuable soil for general farming, and most of the
crops common to the region are successfully grown upon it.
Where drainage is thorough it is a first class potato soil. It is
easy to cultivate, and retains moisture well. Where shipping
facilities are convenient this soil could well be utilized for more
intensive farming operations, since its light surface texture
places it in the class of trucking soils.

SUPERIOR SANDY LOAM, ROLLING PHASE

Extent and distribution.-^ This soil is of limited extent and is
confined chiefly to the southern and southeastern portions of
the county where it is associated with other types of the Su¬
perior series. It is frequently found adjacent to Antigo soils.
Of the more important tracts may be mentioned that just south
of Weyauwega and that in the vicinity of Readfield. A few
smaller tracts are found in the interior of the county.

42

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

Description.—' The surface soil of this phase to an average
depth of 10 inches consists of a rather loose, brown sandy loam,
which in places becomes as light as a loamy sand. This is usu¬
ally underlain by a lighter colored sand or loamy sand for sev¬
eral inches and this in turn grades quite abruptly into the
heavy red or pinkish red clay characteristic of the Supeiioi
series. A small amount of gravel may be found on the surface
and in some localities granitic bowlders occur, though seldom in
sufficient numbers to interfere with farming operations. The
depth of sandy material over the clay is somewhat variable, but
is seldom over 2 feet deep. The amount of organic matter in
the surface soil is rather low, except in some of the lower places
where a more moist condition has favored the development of
more natural vegetation.

Topography and drainage. — The surface soil varies from gen¬
tly rolling to rolling, and in a few places it is rather hilly. Be¬
cause of the eneven surface the natural drainage is good.

Origin. — The subsoil of this type is lacustrine in origin and
since its finest deposition has been influenced by glacial action.
The surface material is doubtless largely of glacial origin in part
from sandstone rocks and in part from crystalline rocks. The
surface soil is usually slightly acid, but the subsoil is not acid
and usually contains considerable lime carbonate.

Native vegetation. — The original timber consisted chiefly of '
oaks, maple, hickory with some pine in places.

Present agricultural development* — Approximately half of
the type is being cultivated at present, the remainder being in
second growth timber or in pasture. This is a good soil and
while devoted chiefly to general farming it is doubtless better
adapted to trucking crops and a more intensive system of farm¬
ing. All crops common to the region are grown, and corn, for
example usually does better than on the heavier types because
it gets an earlier start in the spring. The soil is easy to culti¬
vate and responds readily to soil improvements. While stable
manure is about the only fertilizer now used, commercial fertil¬
izers can be used with profit, and farmers should look into the
merits of such fertilizers.

* See page 43 for chemical composition and improvement.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

43

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND IMPROVEMENT OF SUPERIOR LOAM,
FINE SANDY LOAM, AND SANDY LOAM

These soils are more open in texture than the group of heavy
soils. They have a water holding capacity which is sufficient
to insure good pasture, where the land is in grasses. Because
of the more rolling surface, and the higher content of fine sand
in the surface soil, the natural drainage is better than on the
heavy level lands and the soil thus warms uj) earlier in the spring
and does not have the tendency to hake and crack which is char¬
acteristic of some of the heavier soils. These qualities make
these types better adapted to such crops as corn and potatoes,
and also to the growing of fruit.

The total amount of the plant food elements phosphorus and
potassium is nearly but not quite as large in the loams and fine
sandy loams, as in the group of heavy soils previously described.
The amount of organic matter is somewhat smaller, as is also
the supply of nitrogen. Because of this and the coarser texture
the rate of chemical change may not always be as rapid as in
the heavier soils. For this reason the increase in the supply of
active or fresh organic matter and the use of available plant food
either in the form of stable manure or commercial fertilizer be¬
comes more important, especially when crops are grown which
are sold from the farm.

An increase of the supply of organic matter in these soils is
of great importance. It is desirable to have nearly twice as
much organic matter in the soil as these types now contain. The
plowing under of legumes, such as the second crop of clover, or
a crop of f>oy beans is a good way of securing this result. The
supply of stable maure is usually too limited to meet the needs
of the entire farm.

As in the group of heavy soils in this county, and as is quite
common in most of the state the phosphorus content of these soils
is below normal, and should be increased. Even the use of
stable manure will not itself supply the amount of phosphorus
needed, and it is a good plan to supplement the use of stable ma¬
nure with a phosphate fertilizer. Acid phosphate is the most
quickly available and under present • conditions is doubtless the
most profitable form to use. This may be applied with small
grain which is seeded to clover and about 250 to 300 pounds per
acre should be used. When used with corn it may be drilled in

44

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

the row with a fertilizer attachment to a corn planter or drilled
in with a regular lime and fertilizer sower just before the corn
is planted.

Where general farming is followed and it is desired to build
up the organic matter supply the following rotation is a good
one to use : — Corn or a cultivated crop one year, followed by
a small grain with which clover is seeded, the first crop the fol¬
lowing year cut for hay, and the second plowed down as a green
manuring crop to be again used for a cultivated crop. When
commercial fertilizer is used it may be applied with the small
grain or to the corn crop. Where a second crop of clover is
not turned down it should be fed and the manure returned to
the field in as liberal amounts as can be secured.

The growing of alfalfa should be greatly extended on these
soils and every farmer should consider the question of starting
a small acreage.

GROUP OF SANDY LOAMS AND FINE SANDS.

45

CHAPTER IV.

GROUP OP SANDY LOAMS AND PINE SANDS

PLAINFIELD FINE SAND

Tlie type is of limited extent and is confined chiefly to the
eastern half of the county where it is often associated with Co-
loma fine sand.

The surface soil of this type to a depth of 6 to 8 inches con¬
sists of a brown or yellowish brown fine sand underlain by a
yellow fine sand to a depth of over 3 feet. Quite a few gravel
stones are sometimes found. The type is usually free from
gravel as well as stones. Some deep well borings show red clay
and it is possible that most of the type may be underlain by
such material.

The surface is level or very gently undulating and where the
watertable is not close to the surface, the natural drainage is
excessive.

The Plainfield fine sand is of alluvial origin and has been de¬
posited as outwash plains or valley fill. A large proportion of it
came from glaciated sandstone material though there is some
crystalline material also mixed in.

The native timber growth consisted chiefly of oak and white
pine with some poplar.

A large proportion of this type is being cultivated, but be¬
cause of its limited extent and low agricultural value, it can be
classed with the soils of minor importance.

General farm crops are grown and cucumbers and buckwheat
are also raised to some extent. Dairying is the leading indus¬
try. • 1 ' !

As with the other Plainfield sandy types, the soil is deficient
in organic matter and mineral plant foods. These must be sup¬
plied if marked increased yields are to be secured.*

* See page 50 for chemical composition.

46

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

PLAINFIELD SANDY LOAM

The largest continuous area of this type of several square
miles is found west of Waupaca. Other smaller tracts occur in
various parts of the county, though chiefly in the western half
associated with the soils of the Kennan series. The small
patches which occur in the eastern part of the county contain
less gravel than the western areas.

The surface of this type to an average depth of 8 to 10 inches
consists of a brown or slightly dark brown sandy loam of me¬
dium texture. This is underlain by a yellowish brown sandy
loam or a yellowish loamy sand which at from 18 to 24 inches
contains a sufficient amount of clay to make the material some¬
what sticky when wet. Gravel stones are often sufficiently nu-
numerous in the subsoil to make boring difficult. Gravel is also
found in places on the surface, and bordering some of the areas
bowlders are quite plentiful.

The surface of this type is level or nearly so, and because of
the coarse material present, the natural drainage is frequently
excessive; .though the type is not as subject to drought as is the
plainfield sand. The small amount of clay in the subsoil greatly
assists in retaining moisture.

The Plainfield sandy loam has the same origin as the other
soils of the Plainfield series, consisting of alluvial material de¬
posited as outwash plains and valley fill by glacial waters. The
parent material was both crystalline rock and sandstone drift
and the soil is a mixture from these two sources. No calcareous
material is present and both soil and subsoil are acid.

The original timber was chiefly oaks and white pine. All
merchantable timber has been cut.

Probably about 75% of this soil has been improved. All the
general farm crops common to the region are grown in connec¬
tion with dairying farming. Rye does well on this soil, but
other small grains do not yield as well as on the heavier types.
Corn and potatoes yield better than on the sand, and clover can
be raised with less difficulty. Some alfalfa is being grown, but
liming is necessary to secure and maintain a good stand.*

* See page 50 for chemical composition and improvement.

GROUP OF SANDY LOAMS AND FINE SANDS.

47

COLOMA FINE SAND

Extent and distribution . — While by far the greater portion of
the material included in this type is fine in texture, there is a
marked variation to this in some of the areas to the east of Clin-
tonville. In these areas, the soil and subsoil both consist of
very fine sand. Because of its extreme fineness and the pres¬
ence of organic matter, these areas approach in value the fine
sandy loam. The chief areas of very fine sand are found in T.
25 N. R. 15 E. in Section Nos. 14, 15, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,*
34, 35, and 36.

The Coloma fine sand is confined to the eastern part of the
county. The areas east of White Lake, south of New London,
and those about 5 miles east of Clint onville are the most exten¬
sive.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to an average
depth of 6 inches consists of a brownish-yellow, loose, fine sand
which contains only a limited amount of organic matter. The
surface two or three inches has a somewhat darker color than
the material immediately below this depth. This is due to the
larger amount of organic matter near the surface.

The subsoil consists of a loose yellow fine sand which extends
to a depth of at least 36 inches, and usually to a much greater
depth. In a few instances, traces of red clay were found a lit¬
tle below three feet. This is the same material which makes up
the subsoil of the Superior soils.

Topography and drainage.- —The soil has a gently rolling sur¬
face which in a few places becomes nearly hilly. It usually oc¬
cupies the most elevated positions and is thus exposed to pre¬
vailing winds. Where the surface is not protected the material
is sometimes blown by the wind into dunes. In a few places
wind action has rendered this soil unfit for cultivation. Such
places, however, are of limited area.

Because of the loose open character of this soil and the sur¬
face features, the natural drainage is very, thorough and in
places somewhat excessive.

Origin. — This soil has been derived largely from glaciated
sandstone material. No limestone has entered into its forma¬
tion, and both soil and subsoil are in an acid condition.

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth consisted
chiefly of scrubby white and black oak, poplar, and pine.

48

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

Present agricultural development* *— Approximately 75% of
this soil is cleared and used for some agricultural purpose. The
range of crops grown is more limited than in the heavier soils.
Corn and potatoes are grown most extensively, but average
yields are low. Clover and grasses do not do well. Small
grains are grown, but yields are Ioav. Bye is the most impor¬
tant grain. Buckwheat is a crop of minor importance. Cucum¬
bers are grown in places and frequently produce very satisfac-
satisfactory yields.

VILAS SANDY LOAM

Extent and distribution. — The Vilas sandy loam is con¬
fined chiefly to the northwestern quarter of the county. It oc¬
curs mostly in irregular areas seldom greater than one or two
square miles in extent. Some of the more important tracts are
found in the vicinity of North Lake and in the stretch of coun¬
try between Ogdensburg and Big Falls.

D escription. — The surface soil of the Vilas sandy loam to an
average depth of about 12 inches consists of a brown or gray*
ish-brown sandy loam or a loamy sand of a rather loose and
open structure. This grades into a light brown or yellowish
loamy sand which at about 24 inches grades into a gritty sandy
clay or sometimes into a light clay loam. Quite frequently this
heavy material is in the form of a layer of from 6 to 10 inches
in thickness, below which sandy material is again found. In a
few instances this heavier layer was entirely absent or only a
few inches in thickness. A small amount of gravel is some¬
times found upon the surface and mixed with both soil and sub¬
soil. As is the case with the Vilas sand, the sandy loam fre¬
quently has upon the surface a number of stones and bowlders.
Wherever these are found, in sufficient numbers so as to inter¬
fere with farming operations to any marked extent they have
been indicated on the map by means of appropriate symbols.
Over most of the type they are not sufficiently numerous to de¬
tract from the value of the land.

There is some variation in the type and in a few cases it ap¬
proaches a fine sandy loam in texture.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of the Vilas sandy
loam ranges from gently rolling to rolling and hilly. The type

y

* For chemical composition and improvement see page 50.

GROUP OF SANDY LOAMS AND FINE SANDS. 49

quite frequently occurs as ridges, some of which are quite pro¬
nounced. In some instances the slopes are extremely steep,
quite frequently eroded and often stony. These extremely rough
areas have been indicated on the map separately and referred
to as a rough phase. The soil within the rough areas is usually
subject to more variation than the typical soil. The topography
of the typical soil is such that modern farm machinery can be
used on practically all of the areas. On the rough phase this
is difficult and it is often impossible to use modern farm ma¬
chinery.

On account of the irregular surface features and the rather
open character of the subsoil the natural drainage is well estab¬
lished and often excessive.

Origin. — This type of soil has practically the same origin as
the Vilas sand having been derived through glacial action from
crystalline rock material mixed with debris from sandstone
rocks. It is probable that the sandy loam however, contains a
somewhat larger proportion of material derived from the gran- *
itic rocks than is the case with the sand type. No limestone ma¬
terial has entered into the formation of this type, and both soil
and subsoil show varying degrees of acidity.

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth consisted
largely of oak with some white pine, poplar, birch and a small
amount of maple and elm in places. At the present time the cut¬
over sections which are not cultivated have a second growth of
poplar, scrubby oak, hazel brush, and some sweet fern.

Present agricultural development. — Probably somewhat over
half of this soil is under cultivation at present, and where im-
proed and where fair methods are followed, usually quite satis¬
factory returns are secured. Dairying and potato raising are
' the chief lines of farming. Somewhat better yields are secured
than on the sand type. Potatoes are better adapted to this soil
than to the Vilas sand, and the type is more readily improved.
The most common rotation followed consists of a small grain,
followed by clover, and then by corn or potatoes. Some diffi¬
culty is experienced in getting stands of clover — one reason be¬
ing that the soil is acid and needs lime. In a few cases this has
been supplied with good results, but on most of the farms no
lime has ever been used.

4— w. o.

50

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF FINE SANDS AND SANDY

LOAMS

These soils have intermediate texture and hence have moder¬
ate water-holding capacity. They are not fine enough to be es¬
pecially well adapted to grasses for pasture, though a fair qual¬
ity of pasturage can be secured on the heavier phases of these
soils. The more deeply rooted crops, such as clover, rye, corn
and potatoes, find sufficient moisture during average seasons and
suffer from drought only during periods of relatively low rain¬
fall.

In chemical composition these soils are also of an interme¬
diate character. The total ' phosphorus averages from 850 to
900 pounds in all types except the Vilas sandy loam which con¬
tains, on an average about 1,150 pounds in the surface 8 inches
per acre, or from 25 to 40 per cent more than the other types.
The total potassium of the surface 8 inches per acre is approxi-
* mately 25,000 pounds or but little over one-half of that found
in heavier soils such as the Kennan silt loam. The organic mat¬
ter of these soils is also comparatively low, averaging from 2.5
to 3.0 per cent in the surface 8 inches and from 1 to 2 per cent
in the second 8 inches. They have a correspondingly low nitro¬
gen content averaging from a thousand to 1,500 pounds in the
surface 8 inches and from 500 to 800 pounds in the second 8
inches. This organic matter is largely in the form of leaf -mold
and fine roots and is hence of an active character so that it de¬
composes quickly when the surface is first broken, furnishing a
sufficient supply of nitrogen for a good growth of crops for a
few years. It however, is exhausted with comparative readiness
and the most important point in the management of all of these
soils is to follow^ methods which will maintain and increase the
organic matter. In the virgin condition these soils are but
slightly acid as a rule, but with continued cropping the acidity
increases and for the best growth of clover and especially al¬
falfa liming is essential. This use of lime not only makes the
soil more suitable for the growth of alfalfa and clover but as¬
sists in preventing the leaching of phosphorus and maintaining
it in a form which is available for growing crops.

The management of these soils to maintain the fertility will
depend to a considerable extent on the crops grown and on
whether or not stock is maintained to which the produce of the

GROUP OF SANDY LOAMS AND FINE SANDS.

51

farm is fed. When dairying or other live stock farming is prac¬
ticed it will be less difficult to maintain the supply of the essen¬
tial elements of plant food — phosphorus, potassium, and nitro¬
gen. But even when stock is maintained it is very probable that
the moderate use of some form of phosphorus fertilizers will be
found profitable, and some means for increasing the organic
matter in addition to the use of stable manure should be made
use of as far as practicable. The growth of a crop of soybeans
or clover, occasionally, all of which is to be plowed under as a
green manuring crop, will be found very profitable in its effect
on the succeeding crop of corn or grain.

When these soils are used for the growing of potatoes or other
special crops to a considerable extent the use of commercial fer¬
tilizers containing phosphorus and potassium will be found nec¬
essary to maintain the soil fertility. Clover or some other
legume must be grown regularly in the rotation to maintain the
nitrogen and organic matter, and part or all of this should be
plowed under. It is often desirable to use the commercial fer¬
tilizers containing phosphorus and potassium in order to secure
a good growth of this clover and there is little loss in so doing,
since essentially all of the phosphorus and potassium applied to
the soil for the clover becomes available to the succeeding crop
through the decomposition of the organic matter.

The use of lime in some form and also the inoculation of •the
soil is of the utmost importance when alfalfa is to be grown
and will be found helpful on the older fields even for the growth
of medium red or mammoth clover.

While the use of commercial fertilizers containing phosphorus
and potassium is desirable in the management of these soils it
must not be considered that this is an indication that they have
less value, than heavier soils which are relatievly higher in these
elements, for the growth of potatoes and other special crops.
The fact that these soils become dry and warm early in the sea¬
son makes them less subject to local frosts and the finer tilth
which these fine sands and sandy loams develop fit them espe¬
cially well for the growth of potatoes and some other root crops,
since they are practically free from checking and cracking.
The cost of these fertilizers is a comparatively small part of the
total cost of growing these crops.

From the above it will be seen that by the use of lime, by in¬
creasing the organic matter in the soil, and by the careful use

52

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

of commercial fertilizers containing phosphorus, these sandy
soils may be improved and made to produce profitable crops.

For further suggestions on the management of these soils and
for information regarding source and use of fertilizers consult
Bulletin 204 and 230 of the Experiment Station.

GROUP OF SAND SOILS.

53

CHAPTER V.

GROUP OP SAND SOILS

PLAINFIELD SAND

Extent and distribution. — The Plainfield sand is quite an ex¬
tensive soil. The principal development of the type is found in
the southwestern part of the county in the Town of Dayton. It
is found in other smaller areas in various other parts of the
county, hut mostly in the western half. In the northeastern por¬
tion this soil is found in the vicinity of Embarrass and along the
Pigeon River between Clintonville and Marion.

Description. — The surface of Plainfield sand to an aver¬
age depth of 8 to 12 inches consists of a loose, rather open
sand of medium texture. It has a grayish-brown or yellowish-
brown color at the surface, indicating a low content of organic
matter. The upper subsoil is often a rusty brown grading into
a yellow or light yellow sand which frequently contain a small
amount of fine gravel. Gravel and a few small stones are some¬
times found in and on the surface soil.

The chief variation in this soil is found in the areas in the
eastern and northeastern parts of the county where the material
contains less gravel and is frequently entirely free from both
gravel and stones.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of Plainfield sand is
level to very slightly undulating. In a few places there are pot
holes or sags, but these are always of limited area. The slight
surface relief is due chiefly to wind action. A few hummocks
occur which are quite pronounced sand dunes.

Because of the loose open character of the material the nat¬
ural drainage is excessive except where the water table comes
close to the surface.

Origin . — The soil is of alluvial origin and has been deposited
as outwash plains and stream terraces. The material has been
derived both from crystalline and from sandstone glacial drift.
In the western and north central portions of the county the
dark colored crystalline grains are quite numerous ; while in the

54

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

eastern part there is a larger proportion of quartz grains.
There is no calcareous material present and both soil and sub¬
soil show varying degrees of acidity.

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth consisted of
scrub oak, jack pine, and white pine with hazel brush and sweet
fern quite abundant. Most of the type has been cleared and
placed under cultivation, but because of its low productiveness
and droughty condition, some farms have been abandoned. It
is not uncommon for fields to remain idle for several years at a
time.

Present agricultural development* — Probably 75% of this
type is under cultivation more or less regularly and while there
are some highly improved prosperous farms located upon it,
there are more farms that are in a depleted state. The chief
crops grown are potatoes, rye, corn and hay. Clover does not
do well unless special attention is given to it. Rye does better
than other small grains but average yields are low.

Potatoes are the chief cash crop, and a considerable acreage is
grown on nearly every farm each year. Some dairying is car¬
ried on, and this is a good system for building up the soil, but
the difficulty of securing good yields of forage crops gives this
soil a handicap in the dairy industry.

VILAS SAND

Extent and distribution. — The Vilas sand is found most ex¬
tensively in the southwest quarter of Waupaca County. The
most extensive areas are found in Dayton Township and in the
southern part of Farrington Township. Smaller areas occur in
the northwestern portion of the county, chiefly in the vicinity
south of Big Falls. Smaller and less Important areas are found
throughout the western half of the county.

Description. — The surface soil of the Vilas sand to an average
depth of about 8 inches consists of a brown or grayish-brown
sand or slightly loamy sand of medium texture. In structure
the material is usually loose and open. In some small areas the
texture approaches a fine sand, while in others the soil is some¬
what loamy, but these variations are not of sufficient extent to
be mapped separately. In jilaces the virgin soil is slightly
darker than usual in the surface 1 or 2 inches because of the ac-

* See page 56 for chemical composition and improvement.

Wis. Geol. and Natural Hist. Survey.

Plate III.

SHOWING ROLLING SURFACE OF VILAS SAND.

While erosion is usually not a serious problem on sandy soils, these
fields, being- somewhat steeper than the average, have washed badly.
This is due chiefly to furrows which ran up and down the slope along
the edge of the fields. The surface water, during heavy rains col¬
lected in these furrows and soon cut deep channels. With a little
care this could have been prevented. Furrows should be run with the
contour of the hills.

SHOWING TYPICAL LEVEL SURFACE OF PLAINFIELD SAND.

This soil is loose and open in structure, somewhat droughty and de¬
ficient in both nitrogen and the mineral plant foods. With proper
methods of fertilization and cultivation, however, it can be made to
produce fair crops as indicated in this view.

GROUP OF SAND SOILS.

00

cumulation of a small amount of organic matter. After a few
years of cultivation, howeevr, this usually disappears. The sub¬
soil consists of a yellow or yellowish-brown sand of about me¬
dium texture. This very frequently becomes lighter in color
and coarser in texture with increase in depth. In some in¬
stances gravel may occur sparingly on the surface, but it is usu¬
ally more abundant in the subsoil below a depth of 24 inches.

Stones and bowlders of glacial origin are quite commonly
found scattered over the surface of this soil, but typically these
are not sufficiently numerous to interfere materially with culti¬
vation. In some localities, however, they do interfere with ag¬
ricultural operations to a marked extent. Such areas are indi¬
cated on the soil map by means of appropriate symbols. Where
the soil is stony there is frequently more variation in texture
than over typical areas of this soil.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of the Vilas sand
varies from gently rolling to somewhat hilly. Most of the slopes
are rather gentle and the hills fairly well rounded. Many areas'
have but a gently rolling topography. In the southwestern part
of the county many of the areas of Vilas sand stand out in
rather sharp contrast to the surrounding level country where
the soils belong to the Plainfield series. Because of the surface
features and the loose, open character of the soil and subsoil, the
natural drainage is very good and often somewhat excessive.

Origin. — Vilas sand has been derived from glacial action
largely from crystalline rock formations, although the underly¬
ing rock where much of the type occurs now consists of sand¬
stone. The ice sheet in its movement carried the material from
the region of the granitic rocks out over the standstone area so
that the resulting soil consists of a mixture of the materials
from these two sources. Crystalline rock material, however, ap¬
peal’s to predominate. No limestone material has entered into
the formation of this soil and it is all in an acid condition.

Native vegetation— The original timber growth on this land
consisted of scrubby oak, and some white pine. In the areas to¬
ward the northern part of the county some Norway pine was
found, and in a few instances hickory has been found growing
on this soil. The chief growth at present consists of scrubby
oak, hazel and sweet fern.

Present agricultural development* — Probably less than half

* For chemical composition and improvement of this soil see page 56.

56

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

of the Vilas sand is under cultivation at the present time.
Where cleared and under cultivation general farming, dairying
and potato raising are the usual lines followed. Potatoes are
the most important cash crop and yield from 75 to about 125
bushels to the acre with occasional yields -which are somewhat
higher wdiere special and improved methods have been followed.
Corn yields from 15 to 35 bushels, oats from 15 to 30 bushels,
rye from 10 to 15 bushels, and hay from % to % tons per acre.
It is somewhat difficult to get a good stand of clover on this soil
and timothy does not succeed very well. The yields on this soil
depend to a considerable extent upon the amount and distribu-

0

tion of rainfall and the manure or organic matter applied to
the soil. The type is quite easily exhausted by continuous or
improper cropping, and the methods followed are usually not
those best suited to building up the productiveness of the land.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF SAND SOILS

In some respects sandy soils have advantages over heavier
soils. They become drier and therefore warmer and can be
worked earlier in the spring and more quickly after rains than
heavier soils. These advantages are particularly important in
regions of short growing periods. But when the soil is too
sandy it does not hold sufficient water from one rainfall to an¬
other to satisfy the needs of the growing crops and they there¬
fore suffer from drought. Moreover, sandy soils are lower in
their supply of the chemical elements demanded by crops than
heavier soils. When these two factors become too low they limit
the profitable farming of these soils. In the mapping of the
Soil Survey those soils which are classed as fine sands or sandy
loams have fairly good water-holding capacity, and when their
fertility is properly maintained their good qualities in regard
to warmth and earliness can be taken advantage of and they
can be farmed with profit. But soils which are classified as
sands, such as the Coloma and Plainfield sands, are so coarse
as a rule that they do not have sufficient water-holding capacity
and their use for the growth of staple crops is ordinarily un-
piofitable, unless unusual skill is used in their management. It
must be kept distinctly in mind, however, that all types as
mapped show some variation in texture or fineness of grain.

The chief factor limiting their agricultural use is that of wa¬
ter-holding capacity. This depends chiefly on the texture or

GROUP OF SAND SOILS.

57

fineness of grain and cannot be affected by any treatment it is
practicable to give them. The water-holding capacity can be
somewhat increased by increasing the amount of organic matter,
but this is a comparatively slow process and the amount of or¬
ganic matter it is practicable to develop and maintain in these
soils will increase their water-holding capacity only to a limited
extent.

The total content of the essential elements of plant food in
these soils is moderate. The total phosphorus in the surface 8
inches per acre averages between 750 and< 900 pounds and in
the second 8 inches between 600 and 700 pounds. The total po¬
tassium in the surface 8 inches per acre is about 25,000 pounds
in comparison with 50,000 or 55,000 pounds in the silt loam soils
of that region. The total nitrogen content is between 1,200 and
1,400 pounds in the surface 8 inches per acre.

When a sufficient supply of active organic matter is devel¬
oped in these soils a considerable portion of the phosphorus and
potassium will undoubtedly be made available, but the use of
fertilizers containing these elements in a more readily available
form is desirable whenever these soils are farmed.

The starting point in the improvement of these soils is the
development of active organic matter through the growth of
legumes which are able to secure their nitrogen supply from the
atmosphere. But before legumes can be grown with the great¬
est success the liming of the soil is necessary. The growth of
a good crop of mammoth clover or soybeans through the use of
lime and mineral fertilizers containing phosphorus and potas¬
sium is the best means of supplying this nitrogen and organic
matter. In most cases this legume should be plowed under as a
green manuring crop.

Probably the best way to get clover started is to seed with a
small grain. By using a light seeding of rye, disked or har¬
rowed in and seeded to clover in the spring, a good stand can
usually be secured. The seed should be put in a little deeper
than on heavy soils, and the drill should be followed by a cor¬
rugated roller, oil if this implement is not at hand, an ordin¬
ary roller, followed by a light harrow should be used. When
clover is seeded with a small grain in this way the growing
grain helps to hold the soil in place and prevent blowing of the
loose soil by the wind.

As the result of careful experiments on extremely sandy soils
it appears that the best crop rotation for this class of land con-

58

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

sists of rye, clover, and corn. If the fertility is extremely low.
it will be advisable to plow under the entire clover crop. If
the fertility is fair the first crop may be cut for hay and the
second plowed under. While potatoes are quite extensively
grown on these extremely sandy soils this crop is not as well
adapted to the sand soils as to sandy loam types: It has been
shown by actual field tests that the yields of corn, for example,
can be more readily increased on the sand soil than can the yield
of potatoes. The potato when grown on sand soil does not re¬
spond to methods of soil improvement as readily as when grown
on soils which contain somewhat more silt and clay. The sandy
loams and fine sands and fine sandy loams are much better
adapted to potato culture than are the sand soils. It is there¬
fore advisable to reduce, where possible, the acreage of potatoes
on sand soils.

With an increased acreage of corn it will be possible to put
up enough silage so silage may be used for summer feeding.
With this practice less pasture will be required, and this again
will be desirable since the sand soils do not supply good graz¬
ing, and are not well adapted to any of the grasses. This sys¬
tem would make possible keeping more stock, and with the in¬
creased supply of manure the fertility of the land could be more
readily maintained.

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

59

CHAPTER VI.

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS

GENESEE FINE SANDY LOAM

Most of this soil is limited to the valley of the Wolf River
where it is found at and below New London. A few other
patches occur along the Little Wolf river near Manawa.

The surface soil of this type consists of a brown or dark brown
fine sandy loam about 8 to 10 inches deep. Some of the surface
soil is more nearly a very fine sandy loam. The subsoil is a
lighter brown fine sand, somewhat loamy with frequent thin lay¬
ers of red clay. In the Lower depths there is usually found fine
sand. The type is somewhat variable in texture, ranging from
a fine sand to a loam, but these separations could not be made
because of the limited extend of the phases.

The surface of the type is level, and it is all within the present
flood plain of the streams along which it occurs. The natural
drainage is therefore very deficient.

The material forming the soil is all of alluvial origin and has
come in part from sandstone and in part from crystalline rock
material,

The native timber growth consists of elm, ash, willows, coarse
marsh grasses and other water loving vegetation.

Since the type is all subject to overflow only a very small part
of it has been brought under cultivation. Near New London
this soil is being farmed to some extent to truck crops, and good
returns are secured when floods do not interfere. Most of the
soil is used for pasture and for hay, to which in its present con¬
dition it is doubtless best adapted.

The danger from flooding makes farming on this land uncer¬
tain, so that the development of this type of soil is not encourag¬
ing. To prevent flooding dikes would in most cases be neces¬
sary, and such great expense would not be justified under pres¬
ent conditions.

60

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

GENESEE SILT LOAM

Most of this soil is associated with the fine sandy loam along
the Wolf River. Often a strip of fine sandy loam lies between
the silt loam and the river. The sandy soil being slightly higher
than the silt loam.

The surface soil of this type to a depth of 10 inches consists
of a brown or frequently dark brown rather compact silt loam.
The underlying material is of a lighter brown color, in places
it has a suggestion of red in it. The subsoil is usually a silt
loam or silty clay loam in which lenses of fine sand sometimes
occur. The deep subsoil is frequently found to be a fine sandy
loam or very fine sand. The type as a whole is subject to con¬
siderable variation.

The surface of this soil is level, and as it is low and within
the flood plain of streams the natural drainage is very poor.
It is subject to annual flooding and in places new material is
being added to it each high water.

The timber growth consists of ash, elm, willow, soft maple,
coarse grasses and other water loving vegetation. In a few
places attempts have been made to cultivate it but the danger
of flooding prevent any extensive developments. The soil itself
is very fertile and productive, and if the drainage could be per¬
fected it would be a valuable soil. Under present conditions it
would not be practicable to attempt to drain it. The use of
dikes, and possibly pumping plants would be necessary which
would not be justifiable under prevailing conditions.

WHITMAN SILT LOAM

Extent and distribution. — This type occurs in two distinct
forms. One is as depressions, or sags in the upland, and the
other is as low land bordering streams. The latter is by far
the most extensive, and the largest tract of this type is found
along the Wolf River just north of Fremont, in the southeastern
part of the county. Smaller tracts occur along the same stream
in the northeastern part of the county and also along the Em¬
barrass River. A few scattered areas of the other phase occur
throughout the remainder of the county, but these are of lim¬
ited extent.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to a depth of 10
to 18 inches consists of a dark brown or black loam to silt loam

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

61

which contains a large amount of organic matter. In numerous
places there is a thin layer of peat or muck over the surface of
the earthy matter. This organic matter layer, however, is not
sufficient to justify classing the type as peat or Muck. The sub¬
soil consists of a black or darkf brown heavy loam or silty clay
loam which at from 18 to 24 inches usually becomes gray or
bluish in color, with numerous yellow and rusty mottlings. In
the lower portion of the 3 foot section the texture frequently
becomes lighter and is often a fine or very fine sandy loam.
The type is subject to considerable variation in texture, depth
of the black soil over the bluish subsoil, and also in the sand
layer in the deep subsoil. It is uniform however in being all
rather heavy, dark colored, high in organic matter and all
poorly drained, giving it all a uniformity in its present agri¬
cultural value.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this type is level,
or having only a very gentle slope toward the stream along
which it occurs. The small depressed tracts frequently have a
saucer shape. Because of its low position, and its situation
adjacent to streams its natural drainage is very deficient. Prac¬
tically all of that along streams is subject to overflow, and much
of it is under water for some portion of each year.

Origin. — The portion of the type adjacent to streams is
largely of alluvial origin with a large accumulation of organic
matter in surface. The parent material came largely from the
crystalline rock region, although within the area much of the
soil lies directly over sandstone formations. The part of the
type which is not adjacent to streams is largely of glacial origin
and occurs chiefly in shallow potholes or slight depressions where
drainage is deficient, and where there has been an accumulation
of organic matter. In most cases there is no lime carbonate in
the material forming this soil and the material shows varying
degrees of acidity.

Native vegetation. — -The native vegetation on this soil consists
of willows, elm, ash, soft maple, and some poplar. There are
quite extensive tracts which are treeless, and where there is now
only a dense growth of coarse marsh grass.

Present agricultural development. — The chief use made of this
soil is for pasture and hay, but a considerable part of it is too
wet even for such use.

Chemical composition and fertility. — The Whitman silt loam
is quite similar to the Clyde silt loam of southeastern Wisconsin,

02 SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

\

differing chiefly by being acid, while the Clyde soils are not acid.
From the standpoint of plant food elements which they contain
these two types represent the best balanced soils in Wisconsin.

Whitman silt loam contains from 3—5 times as much nitrogen
and organic matter as does the average light colored heavy soil
of the same region. It contains from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds pei
acre of phosphorus in the surface 8 inches, and from 40,000 to
50,000 pounds of potassium.

In the improvement of this type the first step is to supply
adequate drainage. Open ditches will not be sufficient by them¬
selves, and should be supplemented by the use of tile drains.
When well drained this will be one of the strongest and natur¬
ally most productive soils of the county. Because of the ex¬
tremely low position the reclaiming of some of this land would
require diking, which under present conditions would not be
justified.

dunning fine sandy loam

Extent and distribution. — This soil is found rather widely dis¬
tributed throughout the county, usually in small bodies and
narrow strips along water courses. In but few instances does
a single area exceed one square mile in extent. The soil is
found most extensively in the eastern half of the county--
mostly in the southeastern quarter, where it is associated with
other low-lying soils along the valley of the Wolf River.
Smaller tracts occur along the Embarrass River and also along
smaller streams of the county.

Description. — The surface soil of this type consists of a dark
brown to black fine sandy loam extending to a depth of from
8 to 12 inches. In places the texture approaches a sandy loam,
while in other places it is nearly a very fine sandy loam. In all
cases it contains a large amount of organic matter and there is
frequently a thin covering of peaty or mucky material over the
surface of the type. This is not deep enough, however, to be
classed as shallow peat. The subsoil consists of a grayish, or
grayish brown fine sandy loam or gritty sandy clay loam con¬
taining considerable silt in places. The deep subsoil is often
mottled, especially where there is the most clay present. The
texture of the type is quite variable but is always somewhat
sandy, high in organic matter and low-lying.

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

63

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this type is level,
it is all low lying and the natural drainage is very deficient.
Much of the type is subject to overflow and portions of it are
under water for a time each year.

Origin. — That portion of the type adjacent to streams is
largely alluvial in origin, while that more distant from streams
is largely glacial, occurring in old lake or pond beds. The par¬
ent material came in part from crystalline rock regions, and in
part from sandstone formations. In most cases the material is
acid.

Native vegetation. — The native vegetation consisted of elm,
willows, ash, soft maple, some poplar, and coarse marsh grasses.
Many areas are treeless and support only coarse grasses.

Present agricultural development. — The chief use made of
this soil is for hay and pasture but much of it is too wet most
of the year even for such use. In a few instances better
drained parts of the type have been placed under cultivation,
and during seasons of limited rainfall good crops are produced.

Chemical composition and fertility. — This soil is well supplied
with nitrogen and organic matter, but is usually deficient in
the mineral plant foods phosphorus and potassium. The great¬
est deficiency, however, is in drainage, and before cultivated
crops can be grown successfully a thorough system of drains
must be provided. Open ditches as now installed are not suffi¬
cient in themselves, and must be supplemented either by open
laterals, or tile drains, or both. When drainage has been pro¬
vided it will be found that the most economical and profitable
crop production can be secured by the use of mineral fertilizers
containing phosphorus and potassium. Such crops as alsike
clover and timothy, buckwheat, and corn may be expected to
give best results on this kind of land under good management.

POYGAN CLAY LOAM

The surface soil to a depth of 8 to 10 inches consists of a dark
brown to black silty clay loam to silty clay. This is underlain
by a light brown, drab, or bluish silty clay often mottled with
brown and yellow. At from 14 to 20 inches the material
changes to a plastic clay streaked or spotted with pinkish-red
and bluish-gray. With increasing depth the reddish color be¬
comes more pronounced until at from 20-24 inches the mate¬
rial becomes a dense, pinkish red clay similar to the subsoil of
the Superior soils.

64

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

This type is of limited extent and occurs in many small widely
scattered areas throughout the eastern half of the county. It
is found mostly in small pockets or sage of less than 100 acres
in extent. The largest area mapped lies north of Bear Creek.

The surface is flat or saucer shaped, and the natural drainage
is poor. Water frequently stands on the surface in the spring
and after heavy rains. Before it can be used for cultivated
crops drainage is necessary. The material forming this soil is
largely of lacustrine origin though it has doubtless been modi¬
fied to some extent by glacial action. There has been accumu¬
lated at the surface a large amount of organic matter which
accounts for its dark color. This soil is seldom acid, and the
subsoil frequently contains considerable lime carbonate.

The native timber growth consisted of elm, ash, willow with
considerable coarse grass and other water loving vegetation.

This is naturally a strong productive soil when drained, but
only a very small proportion of it has been placed under cul¬
tivation. Where cleared, it is being utilized chiefly for grazing
and for hay.*

POYGAN SILT LOAM

The Poygan silt loam is not an extensive type but it is found
in numerous small tracts throughout the northeastern portion
of the county. There is also some in the southeastern part of
the area. It frequently borders marshes, and is also associated
with soils of the Superior series.

The surface soil of this type to an average depth of about 12
inches consists of a dark brown or black silt loam which contains
a very high proportion of organic matter. While much of the
surface is a silt loam the type is somewhat variable, and many
of the areas approach a loam in texture and there is also some
fine sandy loam included with the type.

The subsoil consists of a gray or bluish silt loam which con¬
tinues to from 24 to 30 inches where the typical red color of
the Superior clay loam is found. At or near three feet, beds of
sand or fine sand are frequently found. The upper portion of
the subsoil is subject to some variation. It may be no heavier
than a loam with which there is mixed more or less gritty mate¬
rial. Entire absence of the red clay was noted in places.

* For chemical composition and improvement of this soil see page 66.

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

65

The surface of this type is low, level and naturally very
poorly drained. Most of it is so situated, however, so that
it can be drained by the use of tile.

The material forming this type is largely lacustrine but since
its deposition there has been added to it large accumulations
of organic matter through the growth and decay of a rank vege¬
tation. Before this organic matter accumulated the material
had doubtless been influenced to some extent by glacial action.
The material, especially in the subsoil, is of a calcareous nature,
and the type is very seldom found to be in an acid condition.

The original timber on this land consisted chiefly of elm,
soft maple, ash, willows, alder, coarse grasses and other water
loving vegetation.

Because of the naturally poor drainage, only a small part of
this type has been placed under cultivation. It is a rich pro¬
ductive soil, and when thoroughly drained makes excellent
farming land. Most of it is now utilized chiefly for hay and
pasture. #

POYGAN FINE SANDY LOAM

The surface soil of this type consists of a black, or very dark
brown fine sandy loam or loam which contains a large amount
of organic matter. This usually extends to a depth of about 12
inches where the material becomes lighter in color, and usually
heavier in texture. At about 18 inches a drab, gray or bluish
silt loam or loam somewhat gritty is found and this continues
to from 2 to 3 feet where the red clay typical of the Superior
series is usually but not always found. The lower subsoil is
quite variable and may be a sticky sandy loam or loam of a
bluish color. In a few places it was a fine sand. It is probable
however that the heavv red clav occurs beneath all of this soil,
although not always within reach of the soil auger used.

This soil is of limited extent. It is found chieflv in the north-

«/

eastern quarter of the county. Several small tracts occur east
and west of Embarrass, three miles north of Bear Creek, and
about three miles northwest of Clintonville.

The surface is level, low lying and the natural drainage very
poor. It is found associated ivith other Poygan soils, and with
types of the Superior series. It frequently occurs bordering
marshes.

* Sea page 66 for chemical composition and improvement of this soil.

5— W. O.

66

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

Tlie red subsoil has the same origin as the Superior soils, but
it is probable that the sandy portion of the material may have
been washed in from the higher lying lands adjoining. The
dark color is of course due to the growth and decay under moist
conditions of a rank vegetation.

The native timber vegetation consisted of elm, ash, willows,
alder, coarse grasses and other moisture loving vegetation.

But little of this soil is cleared and cultivated because of the
poor drainage condition. Most of it is devoted to pasture or to
hay, although some is still in timber and is not utilized at all.
When thoroughly drained this will be an excellent soil for farm¬
ing crops and also for numerous trucking crops, where other
conditions are favorable for the developmet of intensive farm¬
ing operations.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF POYGAN CLAY LOAM,
SILT LOAM, AND FINE SANDY LOAM

These types of soil are characterized by having relatively large
amounts of organic matter, accumulated as a result of poor
drainage. The supply of phosphorus in these soils is usually
fairly high, but in many cases it is not readily available. Its
availability will depend largely upon the rate of decomposition
of the organic matter. The total amount of potassium in these
soils is fair in all and large in some, but the chief question here
also is in regard to its availability.

While soils well supplied with vegetable matter as these usu¬
ally are, do not need special treatment with reference to po¬
tassium and phosphorus immediately after reclamation, they
very generally do show a need of care in this regard within a
few years, and patches of these types frequently fail to produce
satisfactory crops even immediately after drainage and breaking
unless barnyard manure or special mineral fertilizer is used.

In the improvement of these types the first step of course is
drainage. Both open ditches and tile drains can be installed
to advantage in the reclamation of these lands. Plowing fields
in narrow strips with dead furrows from 2 to 4 rods apart, and
having these lead into shallow open ditches along the side of the
field will greatly assist in carrying off the surface water. In
order to make the internal drainage of the soil complete, how¬
ever, tile drains should be used to supplement the surface
ditches.

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

67

With thorough drainage these soils will be adapted to a wide
range of general farm crops. Special crops such as cabbage and
sugar beets are well suited to these lands when drained.

PEAT

The material mapped as Peat consists of decaying vegetable
matter in varying stages of decomposition with which there has
been incorporated a small amount of mineral matter. Where
raw and fibrous, and only slightly decomposed, the Peat has a
brown color, but where more completely decayed it becomes
darker and is sometimes black. It is light in weight as com¬
pared with other soils, and is loose and rather spongy. The
surface material is often of a lighter brown color than that
found at a depth of 2 feet or more. This is usually true of the
timbered marshes. In some instances the more thoroughly de¬
composed material occurs at the surface and the raw fibrous
peat is found at lower depths. This appears to be the case most
frequently where marshes were originally treeless.

The material mapped as Peat ranges in depth from 18 inches
to over 3 feet. Where less than 18 inches it has been classed
as shallow peat and mapped separately. In some instances the
peat is known to be over 10 feet deep. The material found be¬
neath the peat is variable. Where the marshes are surrounded
by sandy soils the peat is usually underlain by sand, and where
the upland bordering the marsh is heavy the material under the
marsh is usually also' heavy.

Peat is an extensive soil in Waupaca county and is found in
practically all parts of the county. The tracts vary in size
from a few acres to several square miles. Of the most extensive
areas may be mentioned one found 5 to 6 miles southwest from
Clintonville, one 7 to 8 miles east of Manawa and another im¬
mediately northeast from White Lake. East of Embarrass
there are also several smaller tracts. Many less important areas
are scattered throughout the county. The line between the Ken-
nan and Superior soils is frequently marked by areas of Peat.

The surface of all peat areas is low, level, water soaked, and
naturally very poorly drained. Before farming operations can
be carried on the Peat must be reclaimed by some system of
drainage. A small proportion of the marsh land inWaupaca
County has been drained more or less thoroughly by open
ditches, which in some cases have been supplemented by tile
drains.

68

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

Probably the most important factor in determining the value
of marsh land will be the crops which can be grown upon it.
This depends upon two factors, first the degree of drainage, and
second the danger from frosts. When only the main outlet and
lateral ditches have been installed, in the great majority of
cases, hay crops are the only ones which can be safely grown,
and the character of the hay will also depend a good deal on
the character of the drainage. In the case of peat land under¬
lain by sand, the drainage by well constructed and sufficiently
deep ditches 40 to 80 rods apart will, in some cases give ade¬
quate drainage for hay. When the peat is underlain by silt
or clay, however, ditches not more than 20 rods apart will be
necessary ,and these must lower the water in the ditch to a
point 4 or 5 feet below the surface during part of the grow¬
ing season. When tilled crops are grown, such as corn, cab¬
bage, or potatoes, or small grains are to be grown the drainage
must be more certain, and over the larger proportion of the
marsh land this will mean the installation of drainage systems
in the form of either open lateral ditches or of tile not more
than 10 and often not more than 5 rods apart on the average.
Tile drainage is the more satisfactory. The cost of tile drain¬
age will vary from $40 — $80 per acre after the main outlets
have been put in.

It is well known that frosts frequently occur on marsh land
when there is no frost at all on the higher land adjoining.
This is partly because the cold air which forms on the surface
of all the ground at night tends to flow down and collect jn
low places, but it is also the result of the fact that the loose,
spongy soil of peat marshes does not conduct the heat received
from the sun during the day downward to so great an extent
as do upland earthy soils. In consequence of this, the lower
layers of soil do not become warmed in peat marshes as they do
in other earthy soils and the little heat left in the surface inch
or two is rapidly lost at night by radiation, so that he freezing
point is frequently reached on such soil when it would not be
on more earthy soils such as sandy loam or clay loams which
would conduct the heat downward better during the day, and
so keep warm farther into the night.

I his difficulty with peat marshes can be overcome to a cer¬
tain extent by heavy rolling which, by compacting the soil, per¬
mits the heat to be conducted downward more readily. It will
also to a certain extent become less in time as the peat decom- ]

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

69

poses and takes on more of the character of muck. Neverthe¬
less, it must always he expected that marsh land will be more
subject to the late spring frosts and the early fall frosts than
high land. It may be stated as a general guide that the oc¬
currence of killing frosts is as liable on marsh land at any given
point as it is on upland soil having good air drainage about
150 miles farther north. In other words the marshes of Dane
County are as liable to have a frost which will kill corn as
early as are the upland regions of Shawano, Marathon and
Clark Counties. The marsh land regions of Waupaca County
are as liable to have frost two weeks or more earlier than the
hilltops of the same latitude. This means that corn and po¬
tatoes, while safe crops for the upland region, are not safe for
the marsh land, and should not be depended on as the chief
marsh land crops.

The native vegetation on the Peat marshes consisted chiefly
of coarse marsh grasses, sedges, and sphagnum moss on the open
marshes, with willow, alder, some poplar, and tamrack on the
timbered tracts.

By far the greater portion of the Peat is still in its wild
state. Some tracts have been cleared and are being utilized
for hay and pasture. The hay is made from the coarse marsh
grasses which have a considerable lower feeding value than the
tame grasses. Wire grass from some marches is marketed for
making rugs and matting. In a few instances small tracts have
been reclaimed and are being used for cultivated crops. Part
of the tract north from Waupaca is used for growing potatoes,
cabbage, celery, onions and other garden truck. It is well
suited to these crops. There is no reason why a larger propor¬
tion of the Peat lands of this county should not be reclaimed
and utilized for these and other cultivated crops, as well as for
hay and pasture.

Peat. Shallow Phase. — The shallow peat is not nearly so ex¬
tensive as the deep peat, although it is fairly well distributed
throughout the area. It often forms the border between the
highland and areas of deep peat, but some tracts are made up
entirely of the shallow peat.

The only difference between the two phases is that the shal¬
low peat has a depth of 18 inches or less, while the deep peat
has a greater depth — usually over three feet. Both are made
up of the same material and have the same origin. As with the
deep peat the subsoil is variable, and conforms quite closely

70

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

with the character of the adjoining upland. Where heavy soils
border the marsh the underlying material is usually heavy, but
where the upland is sandy the subsoil of the marsh is usually
sandy also. There is probably somewhat more mineral matter
mixed with the shallow peat, than with the deep peat, but none
of the material could be classed as muck. But very little of the
shallow peat is under cultivation. It is utilized to some extent
for hay and pasture, but only a few small areas have been re¬
claimed for cultivation.

Chemical composition and fertility. — In the improvement of
peat lands in Waupaca County the first step, of course, is drain¬
age. With the exception of some of the marshes immediately
along the Wolf River it is thought that much of the peat could
be readily drained and successfully cultivated. Along the Wolf
River the surface of the peat is so low that much of it would
require diking, or a lowering of the bed of the river, which
would Be very expensive, and hardly justifiable under present
conditions.

The chief difference between peat soils and upland soils con¬
sisting largely of earthy matter, is that they have relatively
small amounts of the mineral elements phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, and magnesium, and have extremely high amounts of
nitrogen in the organic matter. The average per cent of phos¬
phorus in the peats of this region so far analyzed is 0.135 per
cent. This means that in an acre of soil to a depth of a foot
there is approximately only 675 pounds, or in two feet 1,350
pounds in comparison with upland soils which have approxi¬
mately twice these amounts. Moreover, the acid condition of
these soils renders the phosphorus less available than in non¬
acid soil.

The deficiency of potassium in these soils is greater than that
of phosphorus. They contain on the average 0.3 per cent of
this element, while good upland clay loam soils average two per
cent, or over six times as much expressed in percentage. When
the greater weight of the upland soils is taken into account it
will be found that they contain in the upper two feet 120,000
pounds per acre, while the peat soils contain but 3,000 pounds.

A large amount of organic matter in these soils gives them an
extraordinary amount of nitrogen. They average 2.5 per cent
of this element, while the upland silt loam soils of this region
contain but about 0.12 per cent and this only in the surface
eight inches the amount in deeper layers being much less.

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

71

As a result of this difference in the chemical composition the
peat soils are very unbalanced. Their rational treatment re¬
quires the use of fertilizers containing especially the elements
phosphorus and potassium. These elements are contained in
relatively small amounts in barnyard manure and good appli¬
cations of manure will secure good yields of crops on peat soils,
but manure contains large amounts of nitrogen not needed by
the peat, so that when a farm includes upland soils as well as
peat, the manure should be used on the upland soils and com¬
mercial fertilizers containing phosphorus and potassium used on
the peat land.

On the deeper peats which are in a very raw and acid condi¬
tion the use of lime in some form in addition to the commercial
fertilizers will probably be found profitable. Occasionally a
marsh is found on which on account of coldness and high acid¬
ity at first nitrification or the chemical change by which the
nitrogen in the organic matter becomes available to crops does
not take place readily and the use of a light application of com¬
posted stable manure to inoculate the soil with the proper or¬
ganisms is very helpful.

Crops and system of farming on marsh lands. — Since the
growth of corn and potatoes to which these marsh lands would
otherwise be adapted, is limited in this section on account of
the danger from frost, the best staple crops for this land are
grasses for hay and pasture, hardy root crops, and rye, and to a
less extent oats. Wheli properly fertilized and limed, clover,
alfalfa, and other legumes can also be grown. On fairly well
drained marsh land not too raw good pasture can also be devel¬
oped. The compacting of the soil resulting from the use of this
land as pasture is also a great benefit to it. When peat land is
placed under cultivation a heavy roller should be classed along
with implements necessary to its successful management.

On account of the crops to which this land is adapted and its
use as a pasture, marsh lands can be used for dairying or stock
raising to good advantage.

Certain special crops, such as cabbage, onions, buckwheat, and
rape, are well adapted to such lands when well drained and fer¬
tilized.*

* For more complete discussion of the management of marsh soils see
bulletin on this subject by the Agricultural Experiment Station.

72

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF WAUPACA COUNTY

The development of agriculture in this region was preceded
by the growth of the logging and lumbering industries. The
earliest settlements were made chiefly in the sandy portions of
the county as the forest growth here was largely pine, which was
the only timber handled by the early lumberman.

The first farming operations were started in Waupaca County
in 1849 on a bit of sandy prairie in the town of Lind. The first
farms, opened after the advance of the lumbermen, were small.
While farming ventures were first started largely on the sandy
soils following the cutting of the pine, the highest agricultural
development has been reached in those sections where the soils
are heavier. The earlier and more primitive types of farming
have gradually developed into the present conditions of agri¬
culture. Farming lias extended into practically all parts of the
county with the exception of some areas in the northwestern part
which are still in a cut-over stage. Even through this section
a number of farms are already in operation. By far the greater
proportion of the county is well improved agriculturally.

While practically all the general farm crops now grown were
produced in the early history of the county, the relative impor¬
tance of a number of the crops has changed to a considerable de¬
gree. In 1879, wheat occupied 21,731 acres, which was more
than twice the area devoted to oats, and nearly twice as much
as was devoted to corn. In 1909 the total area devoted to wheat
was only 1150 acres, while there were 38,860 acres devoted to
oats and 19,948 to corn. The acreage devoted to hay, corn and
potatoes has steadily increased since the early history of the
county. The acreage devoted to rye and barley has changed
less than that devoted to the other general farm crops. The
development of the potato growing industry has been marked.
In 1879, there was a total production of 250,307 bushels, while
in 1909 the yield amounted to 2,392,213 bushels. In 1919 the
yield was 1,907,046 bu. an average of 106 bu. per acre.

* Figures given for 1919 are from reports of asses -ors.

73

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

m

The type of farming which is followed most extensively in
Waupaca County is based upon the dairy industry. In the
southwestern and western parts of the county, potato raising is
the leading industry in connection with dairying. In the east¬
ern part, in the region of Superior soils, much less attention is
paid to potato growing, and dairying is the leading industry.
In the region of these heavier soils there are a number of farms
upon which not enough potatoes are grown to supply the home
table. On these heavier soils grain raising receives more at¬
tention than elsewhere.

Practically all of the crops grown at present may be consid¬
ered in part as cash crops, for hay, corn, oats, rye and barley
are sold to some extent directly from the farm. Potatoes are
grown mainly for sale, although they are one of the most impor¬
tant subsistence crops. The greater part of the hay, corn, oats
and barley is used in feeding life-stock, and a large proportion
of it finally reaches the market in the form of dairy products,
beef and pork.

Hay is grown more extensively than any other crop. In 1909
the census reports 58,286 acres in all hay crops with a produc¬
tion of slightly over 98,000 tons. Of the hay crops grown, by
far the greater proportion consists of timothy and clover mixed.
A small amount of timothy is grown alone and also a small
amount of clover. There are approximately 9,500 acres from
which marsh hay is cut, and the balance of the hay crop is made
up of alfalfa, millet, glam which is cut for hay, and coarse for¬
age crops. The best hay crops are produced on the heavier type
of the Superior, Kennan and Antigo series. As many of the
soils in the western part of the county are somewhat acid, alsike
clover is sometimes grown in place of red clover. Red clover
does well on land whose productiveness has been kept up, and
succeeds on new land in spite of the acidity; but on run down
fields which are acid, it is frequently difficult to get a good
stand of clover. In 1919 there were 1248 acres of alfalfa in
the county.

In 1909, the acreage devoted to oats was 38,860 acres which
produced a total yield of 1,153,059 bushels. This crop does best
on the fine sandy loams, loams and silt loam soils. Where it is
raised on the extremely sandy soils in the southwestern part of
the county, results are usually unsatisfactory. In 1919 the aver¬
age was 40,781.

74

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

In 1909, corn was grown on 19,948 acres, and the total yield
was 602,144 bushels. This crop is not grown as extensively as
in counties to the south as the climate does not always permit
the crop to mature. In 1919 there were 32413 acres in corn,
about 67 percent was used for silage and the remainder was
harvested for grain.

The potato crop is one of the most important, especially in
the southwestern quarter of the county where sandy soils pre¬
dominate. In 1909, the acreage amounted to 19,810 acres and
the total yield 2,392,213 bushels. While the greater proportion
of the crop is grown in the extremely sandy sections, the best
yields are obtained where there is a sufficient amount of clay
in the soil to make it somewhat loamy. In 1919 the acreage was
1,907,046.

A large part of the potatoes if not immediately sold from
the field are stored in dealer’s warehouses or in cooperative
warehouses until finally put on the market. Dealers usually
charge 3c a bushel for storage, including insurance, between
October 1 and January 1, and lc a month or fraction per bushel
for each succeeding month. Many farmers have storage cellars
for potatoes, but do not always use them on account of the diffi¬
culty in handling the potatoes during extremely cold weather.
The variety most extensively grown is the Rural New Yorker.
Among other varieties grown are Cobbler, Triumph and He¬
bron. There is a gradually increasing number of potato grow¬
ers who are co-operating with the State Experiment Station in
the production of standard varieties. Many of these farmers
are treating their seed according to instructions given by the
College, are having their fields inspected by representatives of
the Experiment Station, and are producing high grade, certified
seed. The question of co-operating in storing and marketing
the potato is also receiving considerable attention.

Rye was grown on 8,204 acres in 1909, and the total yield for
that year amounted to 109,381 bushels. This crop is grown
most extensively on sandy soils, and gives better results on the
extremely sandy types than any of the other small grain crops.
In 1919 there were 13,462 acres in rye and the average yield
was 15 bir.

During 1909, barley was raised on 5,734 acres, and produced
a total yield of 145,890 bushels. In 1919 there were 4,597 acres

in barley. Its production is fairly well distributed over the
county.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF WAUPACA COUNTY. 75

There was a gradual reduction in the growing of wheat from
1880 until 1910 when only 1,150 acres were devoted to this crop.
Average yields during this year amount to about 20 bushels per
acre. Owing to the great demand for wheat at the present time,
there has been an increased acreage devoted to wheat production,
though it is still very small as compared with the acreage of 30
years ago. In 1919 there were 1225 acres of winter wheat and
2315 acres of spring wheat in the county. The heavy types
of Superior, Ivennan, and Antigo series are well adapted to
the growing of this crop.

The following table shows the acreage and production of the
principal crops in the last four census years :

Crop

1879

1889

1899

1909

Acres

Bushels

Acres

Bushels

Acres

Bushels

Acres

Bushels-

Hay .

26,995

26,898T

37,867

44, 368 T

43,212

66, 299T

58,286

98, 771T

Oats .

9.897

272,947

22,963

846,531

34,634

1,186,360

38,860

1,153,059

Corn .

1 1 , 055

300,122

12,709

435,031

16,075

491,559

19.948

602.144

Patatoes

250,307

11,127

1,261,920

17,498

1,572,554

19,810

2,392,213

Rye .

5,904

69,933

7,330

112,069

11.343

167,280

8,204

109,381

Barley . .

1,724

32,128

1,056

30,731

2,414

62,330

5,734

145,890

Wheat. . .

21,731

252.925

12,564

212.889

12,160

240,400

1,150

21,955

It will be noted from the foregoing that the most recent sta¬
tistical data quoted is from the U. S. Census taken in 1909. In
order that the progress since that time may be studied there is
given below more recent figures collected by the Cooperative
Crop Reporting Service for Wisconsin.

The following table has been compiled by the Cooperative
Crop Reporting Service For Wisconsin, and appears in Bulletin
No. 28 of the State Department of Agriculture:

76

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

ANNUAL REPORT ON CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION FOR WAUPACA

COUNTY, WISCONSIN

No. of farms . .

Acreage in 22 cultivated crops including- tame hay.

Value 16 principal crops .

Corn, all acreage .

Production— bushels .

Corn for grain, acreage .

Production— bushels .

Corn for silage, acreage .

Production— tons .

Silos, number . . .

Oats— acreage .

Production— bushels .

Winter wheat, acreage .

Production— busnels .

Spring wheat, acreage .

Production— bushels .

Barley— acreage .

Production— bushels .

Buckwheat, acreage .

Production— bushels.. . . . .

Rye, acreage .

Production— bushels .

Dry beans, acreage .

Production— bushels .

Dry peas, acreage .

Production .

Clover and timothy, acreage .

P reduction— tons .

Alfalfa, acreage . .

Production— tons . .

Other tame hay, acreage .

Production— tons .

Wild hay, acreage .

Production— tons . .

Potatoes, acreage . .

Production— bushels . .

Cabbage, acreage .

Production— tons .

Sugar beets, acreage .

Peas for canning, acreage .

Other root crops, acreage .

Flax, acreage .

1919

1918

1909

3,613

3,417

158, 700

156,593

139,078

$7,407,488

$6. 077, 189

32.740

31,812

19,948

1,440,560

1,145,232

10,477

10.498

481,942

388,426

21,936

20,996

216,586

188,964

2,398

2,039

39,781

40,108

38,860

1,074,087

1.604,320

1,225

686

844

20,825

14,406

2,315

2,487

306

23.150

54,714

4,497

5,066

5,734

94,437

172,210

481

620

373

7,215

8,680

13,462

11.586

8,204

201,930

208,548

97

249

115

970

3,237

119

136

191

1,547

1,768

47,777

44,549

44,017

71.643

44,549

520

201

78

1,248

482

357

482

387

536

578

8,360

9,085

9,566

9.196

10,902

17,991

18,145

1,907,046

2, 104,820

94

45

30

705

360

88

187

102

23

45

97

11

10

6

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

t i

January,

1920

J mu ary,
1919

April,

1910

Horses and mules, number .

12,379

12,301

11,482

Milk cows, number . .

33,578

32,995

31,152

Other cattle, number .

26,762

26, 005

20,384

Sheep, number .

5,656

5. ICO

7,246

Swine, number .

27,045

28,658

23,672

Milk produced, cwt . . .

1.665,462

Of tlie special crops cucumbers are grown to some extent
mostly on the sanely soils. Salting stations are located at sev¬
eral of the towns within the county. In a few localities in the
eastern part of the area sugar beets are grown. Most of these
are shipped to the beet sugar factory at Menomonie. Cabbage
is another crop of some importance, though it is not raised as
extensively in this county as in Outagamie County to the east.
Minor crops used in supplementary feeding are mangels, rape,
peas, turnips and so forth. To supply the home needs there is
grown the usual line of garden produce. Strawberries are
raised to a limited extent, as are also raspberries, currants and
other bush berries. The trucking industry, however, is not de¬
veloped on a commercial scale in this region. Fruit growing
receives but little attention in Waupaca County. Apples are
grown more extensively than any other fruit, and most of the
farms have a small home orchard, but apples are not raised on
a commercial basis. The census of 1910 indicates that there are
something over 60,000 apple trees in the county. Apples do
best in those sections of the county where the surface is more
or less rolling. The heavy level areas of soil, for example, are
not well adapted to fruit, owing to the poor drainage condi¬
tions prevailing.

The raising of live stock is an important industry. In 1909
there were 51,536 cattle in the county, of which 31,152 were
milch cows. During the same year the census reports indicate
there were 23,672 hogs and 10,457 sheep. During that year
there were 18,107 calves sold or slaughtered, and over 26,000
head of hogs were sold from the farms in the area. Hogs are
raised chiefly in conjunction with dairying and general farming,
though hog raising is not as well developed in this county as in
sections where corn is more certain to mature.

78

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

Sheep are raised on a few farms and are confined most largely
to the rougher portions of the area, though some are found in
nearly all parts of the county.

The dairying industry is one of the most important in the
county. The dairy products sold during 1909 amounted to
.$1,202,611, exclusive of home use. Of the dairy stock, cattle
of Holstein breeding are most numerous with Guernseys second
in importance. There are a few herds of Jerseys and also a
few Short Horns. There are quite a number of pure bred herds
of registered stock in the county, though the greater propor¬
tion of the herds are being built up from grade stock. There
are several cow testing associations within the area, and as a
result of the work being done along this line the cows of poor
production are being gradually weeded out. The milk is manu¬
factured into butter and cheese and a considerable amount is
taken to the condenseries located at Manawa and New London.
The total amount of milk is fairly evenly distributed through
these three channels. Creameries are located in most of the
princpal towns, and at some neighborhood centers. One of the
most modern and up-to-date creameries is located at Iola.
Cheese factories are most common in the southeastern and north¬
western parts of the county. Most of the milk in the eastern
and east-central part is disposed of to the condenseries. A large
proportion of the cheese factories and creameries are run on
the co-operative basis. On Jan. 1, 1920 there were 33,578 cows
on the farms in Waupaca County. During 1919 the amount of
milk produced was 1,665,462 cwt. and this has a value of $4,-
879,804. In 1918 there were 53 cheese factories and 31 cream¬
eries in the county.

€/

Farmers generally recognize the importance of the adapta¬
tion of crops to certain soils. It is generally recognized, for
example, that rye will do better on the sandier type of soil than
will any of the other small grain crops. It is generally consid¬
ered also that potatoes can be grown more profitably upon
soils of a sandy nature than on heavy types. ' In this region,
where the season is somewhat short, corn is more certain to ma¬
ture on the light sandy soils than on the heavy clay areas, be¬
cause the sandy soils warm up more quickly in the spring.
The sandy types, however, are not so well adapted to hay crops,
and to oats and barley, as are the heavier soils. The general
methods of farming followed are about the same as those prac¬
ticed throughout the general farming and dairying districts of

GENERAL AGRICULTURE OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

79

A\ isconsin. The silo is in quite common use on dairy farms and
a considerable part of the corn crop is handled as ensilage.
Usually sufficient means are taken to prepare the 'land for all
crops. Plowing is usually to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, and on
the heavier soils much of the plowing is done in the Fall. Disk
harrows are frequently used for pulverizing the soil. On some
of the sandier types rye is often sown without the land being
plowed. In such cases the seed is harrowed or drilled in fol¬
lowing the removal of the previous crop, and in the case of corn
it is frequently sown before the shocks are removed. Where
potatoes are grown, modern machinery is in common use, and
where the acreage justifies their purchase most farms are sup¬
plied with horse-drawn planters, diggers and spraying outfits.
In all lines of farming modern machinery is in common use on
most of the farms.

Throughout most of the area the farms are equipped with
substantial, well-built and attractive buildings. This is especi¬
ally noticeable in the eastern half of the county. Practically
every dairy farm has a silo. Many of these are made of
wooden staves, but recently a large number have been con¬
structed by the use of concrete. A number of the dairy farms
are now equipped with power milking machines. Improved im¬
plements, such as manure spreaders, seeding and harvesting ma¬
chinery, are in common use. Farm tractors are being intro¬
duced in a few places in an experimental way.

A rotation quite commonly followed on the sandy soils con-

•

sists of small grain, followed by clover, and this by potatoes.
The second crop of clover in some instances is plowed under
as a green manuring crop, though this practice is not general.
On the extremely sandy types it is desirable to arrange a system
so that the ground maj^ be covered as much of the time as pos¬
sible to prevent drifting, which sometimes causes damage to
growing crops. On the heavier soils the usual rotation is some¬
what different from those on the sandy types. Here corn more
frequently takes the place of potatoes, and the land is usually
left in grass for hay for two years, and frequently is pastured
for one year before again being plowed. On neither the sandy
or heavy types has the question of crop rotation been given the
careful consideration which it deserves.

Stable manure is the most common fertilizer used, a second
crop of clover is frequently plowed under as a green manuring
crop, and sometimes rye is plowed under. The practice of green

80

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

manuring, however, is not at all common. Commercial fertiliz¬
ers are being used in a few cases, chiefly in an experimental way
and mostly oil the potato crop. It is certain that the use of com¬
mercial fertilizers will gradually increase since the results ob¬
tained on the potato crop in this and other counties are very
gratifying. In the vicinity of Weyauwega on a sandy loam soil,
unfertilized, the yield of potatoes was 85 bushels to the acre.
On the same soil where 14 spreader loads of manure were used,
supplemented with 500 pounds of a complete commercial fertil¬
izer, the yield amounted to 350 bushels to the acre. Experi¬
ments which have thus far been conducted indicate that the best
results with the commercial fertilizers are secured on soils which
are in a fairly* good state of fertility.

The question of securing competent farm labor is often some¬
what difficult. In many cases, however, especially where the
farms are small, the members of the family are able to do prac¬
tically all of the farm work — extra Ikbor being needed only at
the time of haying and harvesting.

Farms usually range in size from 40 to 160 acres, although
there are a number of holdings of 200 acres or more. On many
of the larger farms there is a considerable amount of unim¬
proved land. The average size of all farms in the county, ac¬
cording to the 1010 census, was 110 acres. In 1910 there were
3,794 farms in the county and in 1920 there were 3,770 farms.

The last census reports that 90.1% of all farms in the county
were operated by the owner. Most of the rented land is in the
poorer sandy sections. Rent is usually on the share basis, the
tenant furnishing equipment and half of the stock and seed and
receiving one-half of the farm produce. While the share sys¬
tem is most common, there are a number of variations in this
system.

The value of lands has been steadily increasing in this county.
The better improved farms sell from $100 to $150 per acre where
ell located. Cut-over lands, mostly in the northwestern part
of the county, have a selling value from $15 to $35 per acre.

1 lie farms in the sandy region where the fertility of the soil
is sometimes low and the improvements rather inferior have a
value of around $40 per acre, though this of course is extremely
variable depending upon a number of factors.

CLIMATE.

81

CLIMATE

The climatic conditions in Waupaca County are fairy repre¬
sentative of a considerable area in the central part of Wiscon¬
sin. While the topographic features of the county are not uni¬
form for all sections, there is probably not a great variation in
liability to frost in various parts of the county except over the
marsh areas. As none of the large marshy tracts have been
reclaimed, the question of liability of frosts on these marshes
at times when the frost would not affect the upland is not of
great importance at the present time. As the marsh areas are
reclaimed here, it will doubtless be found to be true in this
region, as in other sections of the state, that frost in the marsh
land will occur about the same time as frost in the upland will
occur at a point one hundred miles farther north.

The table given below contains climatic data gathered by the
Weather Bureau Station located at Waupaca. This station has
an elevation of about 870 feet above sea level.

The following table shows the normal monthly and annual
temperature and precipitation at Waupaca:

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION

Mean

tempera¬

ture

Highest

tempera¬

ture

Lowest

tempera¬

ture

Mean

precipi¬

tation

January .

16.2

51

—32

1.01

February .

15.5

53

-38

0,93

M are.h .

29.0

72

—16

2.08

April .

44.1

86

7

2.66

M a,yr .

56.4

91

20

4.14

June .

65.3

102

30

4.42

July .

70.7

100

42

3.48

A lismst, .

68.1

96

36

3.41

September .

60.9

95

18

3.25

Oetnber, , . .

48.2

85

11

2.29

November, , , .

33.6

68

-13

1.71

December .

19.5

50

-24

1.28

Annual .

44.0*

102

-38

30.66

6— W. O.

82

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

From the above table it will be noted that the average rain¬
fall for the year amounts to nearly 31 inches. A large propor¬
tion of this occurs during the growing months when most
needed, but occasionally, especially in July and August, crops
may suffer somewhat from the lack of moisture. Storms of a
destructive nature are very rare. The climate of the region is
healthful and well suited to a high development of agriculture.
While the winters are long and rather severe, the temperatures
are much more uniform than farther south. The average snow¬
fall amounts to about 40 inches. The summers are very pleasant
and farm crops make rapid growth.

The average date of the last killing frost in the spring, as
recorded at Waupaca, is May 22, and the average date of the
first killing frost in the fall is September 28. This gives an
average growing season of 137 days free from killing frosts.
The average season is therefore sufficiently long to permit the
maturing of corn. However, early fall frosts frequently occur
which damage the crop, as was the case in 1917, when but little
corn matured in Wisconsin. Corn will always mature suffi¬
ciently, however, for silage, and a large proportion of the crop
is disposed of in this way.

Excellent water for household purposes and for stock can be
readily secured in all parts of the county. There are many flow¬
ing wells in the eastern half of the county. In the southwestern
part of the area there are a number of lakes known as the Wau¬
paca chain of lakes which attract many tourists during the sum¬
mer season.

SUMMARY.

83

SUMMARY

Portage County is situated a little to the east of the center
of the state. It comprises an area of 759 square miles or 485,-
760 acres. The surface features vary from level to rolling to
hilly, with the major part of the county gently rolling. Eleva¬
tions along railroads range from 767 to 930 feet aobve sea level.
All of the county lies within the drainage basin of the Wolf
River. The Embarrass, Waupaca, and Little Wolf are tribu¬
taries of the Wolf River which traverse portions of the area
surveyed.

The first settler came to Waupaca County in 1843, and settled
at the present site of Fremont. The county was organized in
1851. In 1910 the population of the county was 32,782 of which
83.7% was classed as rural. This is a well established region,
and population is fairly well distributed throughout the county.
The largest tracts of unimproved land are in the northwestern
part of the county.

This country is traversed by the main line of the Green Bay
& Western Railroad, the Soo Line, and the eastern side of the
area is skirted by the Chicago & Northwestern Railway.

The mean annual rainfall is approximately 31 inches, and the
mean annual temperature 43.9 degrees. The winters are long
severe with a snow fall of about 40 inches, but the summers are
warm and all crops make rapid growth. There is an average
growing season of 127 free from killing frosts.

The agriculture of the county shows all stages of development.
The southwestern portion of the area has considerable sandy soil
some of which has a low value for farming purposes. There are
also some sandy spots in other parts of the county but not of
such great extent. There are many highly improved farms
within the area, and this is one of the leading potato growing
districts of the state.

The principal crops grown are hay, oats, potatoes, corn, rye,
barley, some wheat and buckwheat. General farming is the pre¬
vailing type of agriculture, with dairying and potato growing
as the most important interests. The average size of farms is
110 acres and approximately 90% of the farms are operated by
their owner.

84

SOIL SURVEY OF WAUPACA COUNTY.

The soils of this county are variable and range in texture
from sand to clay. There are numerous areas of marshland but
little of which has been reclaimed to date. The material form¬
ing the soils has been derived largely through glacial action
from crystalline and sandstone rocks. The underlying rock in
the western half of the county is largely crystalline, while the
eastern half is chiefly sandstone. There is also considerable
lacustrine material in the county, but since its deposition by
water it has been influenced by glacial action. In the low, un¬
drained places there are large accumulations of organic matter
making up the peat marshes.

In the classification of the soils of this county these various
materials have been separated into 10 soil series and 24 types,
not including peat. In several instances phases of types have
also been recognized. Each soil has peculiar characteristics by
which it can be recognized, and the full understanding of these
characteristics are necessary in the selection of crops and sys¬
tems of farming best suited to each soil.

KEEP THE MAP

(

The Experiment Station will publish bulletins from time to
time dealing with the management of the different types mapped,
so that some way should be found by each person receiving a
copy of this report to keep the map permanently. If the map
is folded in such a way as to have the part you are interested
in of a convenient size, and then have a simple frame with glass
made to hold it, it can be kept indefinitely. Since some of the
colors fade after being exposed to strong light for a long time,
it would be a good plan to have a protecting flap of dark cloth
over the map when not in use.

WISCONSIN GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY

W. O. Hotchkiss, Director and State Geologist.

A. R. Whitson, in Charge, Division of Soils.

SOIL SURVEY IN COOPERATION WITH THE COLLEGE OF

AGRICULTURE
H. L. Russell, Dean.

BULLETIN NO. 5ID

SOIL SERIES NO. 26

SOIL SURVEY

OF

OUTAGAMIE COUNTY

WISCONSIN

BY

A. R. WHITSON, W. J. GEIB, MARTIN O. TOSTERUD, MARION C.

FORD AND E. J. GRAUL

OP THE

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey

AND

HORACE V. GEIB

OF THE

United States Department of Agriculture

SURVI

Madison, Wisconsin
Published by the State
1921

Geological and Natural History Survey

BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS

John J. Blaine,

Governor of the State.

Edward A. Birge, President.

President of the University of Wisconsin.

President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
and Letters.

John Callahan, Vice-President.

State Superintendent of Public Instruction.

STAFF OF THE SURVEY

ADMINISTRATION :

William O. Hotchkiss, State Geologist, Director and Superintendent.

In immediate charge of Geology Division.

Ernest F. Bean, Assistant State Geologist.

Lillian M. Veerhusen, Chief Clerk.

Frances Walker, Clerk and Stenographer.

Angeline Doll, Clerk.

GEOLOGY DIVISION:

William O. Hotchkiss, In charge.

Ernest F. Bean, Geologist, Mineral Land Classification.

Thomas C. Chamberlin, Consulting Geologist, Pleistocene Geology.
Edward 0. Ulrich, Consulting Geologist, Stratigraphy, by coopera¬
tion of the U. S. G. S.

Henry R. Aldrich, Geologist.

Ray Hughes Whitbeck, Geographer.

Edward Steidtmann, Geologist, Limestones.

Fredrik T. Thwaites, Well Records, Educational Rock Collection.

NATURAL HISTORY DIVISION:

Edward A. Birge, In charge.

Chancey Juday, Lake Survey.

DIVISION OF SOILS:

Andrew R. Whitson, In charge.

♦Warren J. Geib, Inspector and Editor.

Theodore J. Dunnewald, Field Assistant and Analyst.

Francis J. O’Connell, Field Assistant.

William H. Pierre, Field Assistant.

Julius E. Rubier, Field Assistant.

*Scientist in Soil Survey, in charge of field operation in Wisconsin for
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Table of Contents . 3

Illustrations . 5

Introduction . 7

CHAPTER I

General Description of the Area . 11

Soils . 13

CHAPTER II

Group of Heavy Soils . 18

Superior silt loam . . 18

Superior silt loam, rolling phase . 19

Superior clay loam . 20

Superior clay loam, rolling phase . 21

Chemical composition and improvement of heavy soils 22

CHAPTER III

Group of Loam and Fine Sandy Loams . 27

Superior loam . 27

Superior loam, rolling phase . 28

Superior fine sandy loam . 29

Superior fine sandy loam, rolling phase . 30

Miami loam . 31

Miami fine sandy loam . 31

Antigo fine sandy loam . 33

Antigo loam . 34

Chemical composition and fertility of loams and fine

sandy loams . 35

CHAPTER IV

Group of Fine Sandy Soils . 38

Coloma fine sand . 38

Coloma fine sandy loam . 39

Plainfield fine sand . 40

Chemical composition and fertility of fine sands . 41

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Y

Page

Group of Poorly Drained Soils . 44

Poygan clay loam . 44

Poygan silt loam . 44

Poygan fine sandy loam . 45

Chemical composition and fertility of Poygan soils. . . 46

Clyde silt loam . 49

Clyde fine sandy loam . 50

Whitman loam . 46

Dunning fine sandy loam . 48

Genesee silt loam . 50

Genesee fine sandy loam . 51

Peat . 52

Peat, shallow phase . 54

Chemical composition and fertility of Peat . 54

CHAPTER VI

General Agriculture and Climate . 57

History . 57

Present status of agriculture . 58

Adaptation of crops to soils . 62

Rotation of crops . 64

Farm equipment . 67

Farm tenure and labor . 68

Methods . 68

Liming . 69

Distribution of lime, commercial fertilizer and manure 70

Drainage . 72

Climate . 73

Summary . 75

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES AND FIGURES

Page

Plate I. View showing surface features of the Superior

Soils . 20

View taken on Superior clay loam, rolling
phase . 20

Plate II. Surface features typical of Superior fine sandy

loam, rolling phase . 30

Showing sand areas which have been influenced

by wind action, forming low dunes . 30

FIGURES

Figure 1. Sketch map showing areas in state covered by

the soil survey . 11

Figure 2. Sketch map of Outagamie County showing the

geological formations . 13

Soil Map of Outagamie County

Attached to back cover

«

INTRODUCTION

Before the greatest success in agriculture can be reached it is
necessary that the farmer should have a thorough knowledge of
the soil upon his own farm. A soil may be well adapted to one
crop, and poorly adapted to another crop. Clover will produce
a vigorous growth and profitable yields on the average loam soil
which contains lime and is in a sweet condition; but on a sandy
soil which is sour, or in an acid condition, clover will not make
a satisfactory growth. We may say, therefore, that failure is
certain to be invited when such important facts are disregarded,
or overlooked. The degree of success which it is possible to win
on any farm is in direct proportion to the practical knowledge
possessed by the farmer concerning the soil and its adaptation
to crops. A thorough knowledge of the soil is as essential to the
farmer as a knowledge of merchandise and business methods is
to the merchant.

The State of Wisconsin, working in cooperation with the
United States Department of Agriculture, is making a careful
study of soils and agricultural conditions throughout Wisconsin,
and is preparing soil maps and soil reports of all counties in
the State. A soil map shows the location and extent of the differ¬
ent kinds of soil. Tracts of 10 acres and over are mapped, but
often areas of even smaller extent are shown. The soil map is
prepared by trained men, who go over a county thoroughly,
and examine the soil by making a sufficient number of borings
to a depth of 36 inches to keep account of all variations. A re¬
port is also made, to accompany and explain the map, and this
is based upon a careful study of the soils within the region sur¬
veyed, and upon such other features as have a direct bearing
upon the agriculture of the area.

It is the object of this survey to make an inventory of the
soils of the State, and to be of practical help to farmers by
locating and describing the different soils, b}^ determining their
physical character and chemical composition, and by offering

8

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

suggestions for their management, based upon the work of the
Soil Survey within the area covered in the report, and upon
the results of field tests made by the Experiment Station.

Soil fertility depends upon two factors : first, upon the physi¬
cal characteristics of the sod, such as water-holding capacity,
workability, etc., and second, upon the chemical composition of
the material composing the soil. The chemical composition de¬
pends upon the mode of origin of the soil, and the source of
material from which the soil is derived.

Water holding capacity and other physical properties of soil
all depend chiefly upon texture , which refers to the size of the
individual soil grains, or particles. A coarse sandy soil, for ex¬
ample, will not retain moisture as long as a loam soil, or clay
loam, because the finer the soil grains, the greater will be the
total soil-grain surface area to which moisture may adhere.

Texture is determined in the field by rubbing the soil between
the thumb and fingers, and with experience one soon becomes
expert at judging the size of soil grains. This field judgment
is verified in the laboratory by a mechanical analysis, which is
made by a simple method of separating soil grains into different
groups, of which there are seven. These are known as clay, silt,
very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, and fine
gravel.

A chemical analysis is also made of the soil to determine the
amounts) of various essential plant-food elements which are
present. A chemical analysis shows whether the soil contains a
large store of plant food, or only a small quantity, and it indi¬
cates which kinds of plant food will probably be needed first.
The amount of organic matter in the soil is also determined, and
tests are made to show conditions relative to soil acidity.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION.

Soils are grouped according to texture into soil classes, a soil
class being made up of soils having the same texture, though
differing in other respects. A fine sand, for example, may be
light colored and of alluvial origin, while another fine sand may
be dark in color and of residual origin, while a third fine sand
may have been blown into sand dunes by the wind, yet all of
these soils would belong to the same class, because the greater

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

9

proportion of the soil grains have the same size or texture. Thus
we may have different kinds of clays, loams, sands, etc., and the
class to which any soil will belong depends upon the size of the
individual soil grains of which it is composed, and not upon its
color, origin, topographic position, or agricultural value.

SOIL CLASSES

Soils Containing Less Than 20% Silt and Clay

Coarse sand. — Over 25% fine gravel and coarse sand, and less than
50% of any other grade of sand.

Sand. — Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand, and less than
50% fine sand.

Fine sand. — Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel, coarse
and medium sand.

Very fine sand. — Over 50% very fine sand.

Soils Containing Between 20-50% of Silt and Clay

Sandy loam. — Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand.

Fine sandy loam. — Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel,
coarse and medium sand.

Sandy clay. — Bess than 20% silt.

Soils Containing over 50% of Silt and Clay

Loam. — Less than 20% clay, and less than 50% silt.

Silt loam. — Less than 20% clay, and over 50% silt.

Clay loam. — Between 20 and 30% clay, and over 50% silt.

Silty clay loam. — Between 20 and 30% clay, and over 50% silt.

Clay. — Over 30% clay.

Soils may be grouped in another way. Where soils are closely
related through similar sources of the material from which de¬
rived, mode of origin, topographic position, etc., so that the dif¬
ferent soils constitute merely a gradation in texture of other¬
wise uniform material, such a group is called a soil series. It
corresponds to the family which is made up of different indi¬
viduals having the same parentage. The Miami series, for ex¬
ample, includes light colored, glacial material where the soils
have been derived largely from the underlying limestone, and
the soils in the series range in texture from a clay loam to sand
and gravel. The Plainfield series includes light colored soils in
regions where no limestone is present, where the parent rock
was largely sandstone, and where the material occurs as outwash
plains or stream terraces. As the soils of this series have been

10

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

derived largely from sandstone, the types are mostly of a
sandy nature. The name used for a soil series usually in¬
dicates the locality where that particular series was first recog¬
nized and mapped by the Soil Survey. By uniting the soil class
with the soil series we get the soil type which is the basis or
unit of classifying and mapping soils. A soil type thus, is a
soil which is uniform throughout its entire extent in texture,
color, topographic position, and other physical properties, and
having a distinct agricultural unity, that is, being adapted to
the same crops, and requiring the same treatment. It is also uni¬
form in the source of material from which it is derived, and the
mode of origin which, taken together, determine the chemical
composition. Since the soil type is the unit in classifying and
mapping soils, and the basis upon which experimental work
should be conducted, every farmer should be familiar with the
soil types on his farm, and their leading characteristics.

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE
COUNTY, WISCONSIN

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

Outagamie County is located in the east-central part of Wis¬
consin, and covers an area of 646 square miles, or 413,440 acres.

Viewed from an agricultural standpoint, Outagamie County
ranks with the foremost of the state. Over 80 per cent of the
total area is in farms, and more than two-thirds of this is im¬
proved land. Several rather large areas of marsh occur in the
north-western part of the county. Lying between the Em¬
barrass, Wolf and Shioc Rivers is a broad, flat stretch of fan ly
fertile soil, which was principally laid down by these streams
during seasons of high water. This aiea coveis most of the
townships of Deer Creek, Maple Creek, Liberty and the west

part of Cicero.

12

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY .

In the townships of Liberty and Hortonia, and between Hor-
tonville and Stephensville, numerous hills and ridges of fine
sand occur. Similar hills are also found in the northern part
of the town of Maine.

South and east of the low fiat plains mentioned above is the
most important farming section of the county. It consists of
the rolling, fertile Superior soils. The highly improved condi¬
tion of the farms, the excellent farm buildings and the modern
school houses and churches all point to these soils as being
among the most productive of the region. The remainder of
the county to the southeast is principally occupied by the level,
heavy, Superior soils. In fertility and productiveness, they
rank close to the rolling Superior, but on account of their low
flat character they are usually deficient in drainage.

The northern and western portions of Outagamie County are
drained through the Wolf River and its tributaries into Lake
Michigan.

The Wolf, the Embarrass and the Sliioc Rivers draining the
north-western part of the area are all slow, meandering, slug¬
gish streams within this area, and a great deal of the low, flat
surrounding territory is subject to overflow in the spring of
the year. The streams in the eastern and southern parts of the
county have a larger amount of fall. The Fox River in a dis¬
tance of thirty-five miles, has a difference in elevation of 170
feet. The excellent water power facilities offered by this stream
have been highly developed and have made this region famous
as a paper and pulp producing center.

The first white man to settle in the county was probably Dom¬
inique Ducharme, who established himself in 1790 near the
present site of Kaukauna. In 1851, Outagamie County was
formed from Brown County.

Over Outagamie County the population is quite evenly dis¬
tributed. The township of Maine is most thinly settled, and
the region directly bordering the Fox River is the most thickly
settled. The census of 1920 reports the population of the county
as 55,113. This gives an average of 85.3 persons per square
mile.

Outagamie County is well supplied with railroad facilities.
The wagon roads through the county are generally in fair con¬
dition. A system of concrete roads is now under construction,
which when completed will connect all of the principal towns
in the county.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF THE AREA. 13

The towns within the area afford a market for much of the
farm produce, but the greater part is shipped to outside points.
Of the agricultural output, dairy products are most important.
Butter and cheese are shipped to all parts of the country. Sev¬
eral milk condenseries are located within the county. Livestock
of all kinds are shipped from towns in the area. Excellent
markets are within easy access of all farms.

ONEIDA INDIAN RESERVATION.

The Oneida Indian Reservation is located in the north-east
corner of Outagamie County. The entire reservation consists
of over 60,000 acres of land, but nearly half of this is in Brown
County.

In 1824 about eighty Oneida Indians coming from the state
of New 1 ork purchased land of the Menominee Indians along
Duck Creek within the present boundaries of the reservation.
More of the same nation continued to come, and by 1838 the
colony numbered about 650. In this year the United States
Government made its first treaty with them, setting aside one
hundred acres of land for each individual. The Indians, as a
rule, have done little to improve the land within the reserva¬
tion, although a few have cleared farms and built homes.

/? is £

Ft Jt, £

LEGEND

'T*~enCSr-< and r »
Galena Limestone

553

5t Peter-
SOndstorie.

m

Lower niagn*. jion
lime st one

Fbtodam .sar>d.storv.e

Figure 2. — Sketch map of Outagamie County, showing the underlying
rock formations, from which the soil has in part been derived.

14

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

During the past few years most of the Indians have been
given a clear title to their lands, with the privilege to sell or
dispose of the same, and, due to this fact, white settlers and
land companies are rapidly getting control of a larger part of
the area, and are clearing and improving much of the excellent
land which has heretofore lain idle.

Near Oneida Station, within the reservation, the Government
maintains a free school with a farm where the Indian children
may be sent for nine months of the year with no expense what¬
ever to the parents. District schools are also maintained
throughout the area, and several churches have been erected.
The bulk of the population is in the southern part of the reser¬
vation, the thickest settlements being along the banks of Duck
Creek. The northern part is very thinly settled.

SOILS.*

Outagamie County, in common with the greater part of east¬
ern and northern Wisconsin, owes the general character of its
surface material to several distinct methods of accumulation.
These materials may be of glacial, alluvial or lacustrine (de¬
posited in lakes) origin. In addition to these agencies may be
added the accumulation of organic matter in low places which
has resulted in the formation of large areas of peat soils. In a

*In comparing this issue of the soil survey report of Outagamie
County with the edition published by the United States Bureau of Soils
it will be noted there is some difference in the naming of some of the
soil types. In the State report the types have been correlated with
the soils as previously mapped within the State while in the report
issued by the United States Bureau of Soils the types have been cor¬
related with the soils as they occur in adjoining States. The follow¬
ing table gives the various soils to which different names have been
applied in the two reports.

Soil Type Names as used by
U. S. Bureau of Soils

Clyde fine sandy loam — till phase

Clyde silt loam — till phase .

Coloma very fine sand . -

Genesee very fine sandy loam .

Kewaunee fine sandy loam .

Kewaunee loam .

Kewaunee silt loam...— .

Kewaunee clay loam .

Merrimac very fine sandy loam....

Merrimac loam . f.

Plainfield very fine sand . .

Soil Type Names as used in
the report issued by the State
of Wisconsin.

Clyde fine sandy loam
Clyde silt loam
Coloma fine sand
Genesee fine sandy loam
Superior fine sandy loam —
rolling phase

Superior loam, rolling phase
Superior silt loam, rolling phase
Superior clay loam, rolling phase
Antigo fine sandy loam
Antigo loam
Plainfield fine sand

GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF THE AREA. 15

geological classification which takes into consideration the under¬
lying rock formations the county naturally falls into several
divisions.

The bed rock underlying the soils of Outagamie County con¬
sists of two radically different formations, sandstone and lime¬
stone. There are two ages of sandstone and two ages of lime¬
stone. The accompanying sketch map shows the approximate
location and extent of the four rock formations which make
up the surface rock of this region. These are the Potsdam
sandstone, lower magnesian limestone, St. Peter’s sandstone and
Trenton and Galena limestone.

All of these formations have contributed to some extent to
the soils of the region. In addition the glacier carried quan¬
tities of the granitic material over onto the other rock forma¬
tions. The granitic boulders frequently seen are an evidence
of this action.

Another formation within the county is represented by the
heavy red clay. This red material was deposited in quiet waters
when the Great Lakes stood at a much higher level than at
present. After being deposited, this material was acted upon
by the ice sheet and was mixed to some extent with other ma¬
terials. The surface in places wTas left level, as along the Fox
River, and rolling as in the Town of Dale and elsewhere.

As a result of the various geological agencies which have in¬
fluenced this region, the surface of the county falls into three
rather distinct divisions.

The northwestern quarter of the county consists of an ex¬
tensive alluvial plain in which the soils have been deposited
by flood waters from the Wolf, Sliioc and Embarrass Rivers.
These streams traverse regions of both sandstone and crystalline
rocks and the alluvial soils are therefore a mixture of materials
from both these sources. Within this region there are extensive
marsh areas, consisting for the most part of peat.

In the southeastern part of the county there is a considerable
area along the Fox River where the soil is a heavy red clay,
and where the surface is level, it having been influenced to only
a limited extent by glacial action since its deposition.

Between this region and the one described as covering the
northwestern quarter of the county, there is another region
much larger than either of the other two, in which is found

16

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

the best agricultural laud within the area. It is a rolling country
in which the subsoils are largely made up of red clay which
has been mixed by glacial action with glacial material from
both sandstone and limestone formations.

In the survey of Outagamie County, these various materials
have been classified into ten soil series and nineteen soil types.
The soil series (which correspond to the family group) are de¬
scribed here only very briefly. The individual soil types are
fully described and are shown on the map, each being indicated
by a distinct color. It is the sbil types in which we are espe¬
cially interested since the type is the unit in mapping and
classifying soils. Following is a complete list of the soil types
mapped in the county, and the series or family group to which
each type belongs.

The Superior series is characterized by the heavy red clay
which forms the subsoil of all the types within this series.
Typically the surface is level or nearly so, and the natural sur¬
face drainage is somewhat deficient. Where this same material
occurs and the surface is sufficiently rolling to insure fair to
good surface drainage, the term rolling phase is used to de¬
scribe it. In this county the rolling phase of the various types
is more extensive than the typical soil. The types mapped are
the Superior clay loam, silt loam, loam, and fine sandy loam.
With each of these types a rolling phase was also mapped.

The Poygan series includes dark colored, low-lying, poorly
drained soils underlain by heavy red clays. The types mapped
in this area are Poygan clay loam, silt loam, and fine sandy
loam.

The Coloma series includes light-colored upland soils which
have been derived chiefly from glaciated sandstone. The types
mapped are Coloma fine sandy loam and fine sand.

The Antigo series includes light-colored soils which occur as
level tracts known as outwash plains or stream terraces. These
soils have been derived chiefly from glaciated granitic material
and to a lesser extent from sandstone material, all of which has
been re-deposited by running waters. The types mapped here
are Antigo loam and fine sandy loam.

The plainfield series is similar to the Antigo except that the
material forming it has been derived largely from sandstone
instead of from granite rocks. The Plainfield fine sand is the
only type of the series mapped in this county.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF THE AREA. 17

The Miami series consists of light-colored upland soils which
were originally timbered and which consist of glacial material
derived in part from limestone. The types mapped in this
county are the Miami loam and fine sandy loam.

The Whitman series consists of low-lying, poorly drained,
dark-colored soils which occur within stream valleys as plains
or depressions in the upland where the material has come
largely from glaciated granitic regions and where the soils are
in an acid condition. The types mapped are the Whitman
loam and the AYhitman fine sandy loam.

The Clyde series consists of low-lying, poorly drained, dark-
colored soils occupying stream valleys, old lake beds or ponded
valleys where the soil material has come largely from lime¬
stone. It is very similar to the Whitman series except that it
contains a considerable amount of lime carbonate and is very
seldom in an acid condition. The types mapped were Clyde
silt loam and fine sandy loam.

The Dunning series includes dark-colored, light-textured„
poorly drained soils, where the parent material for the most
part is sandstone. The soils of this series are acid. The types
mapped are Dunning loam and fine sandy loam.

The Genesee series consists of brown or light brown soils
which occur as first bottom land. In this area they are of very
limited extent and of minor importance. Two types, silt loam
and fine sandy loam, were mapped.

In addition to these various soils, there are extensive areas
mapped as peat. This consists of decaying organic matter,
with which there has been incorporated a very small amount of
fine earth.

In the subsequent pages of this report, the various soil types
mapped in Outagamie County are discussed in detail.

The distribution of the various soils is shown on the map,
and the actual and relative extent of each is shown in the fol¬
lowing table.

18

SOIL SUBVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

AREA OF DIFFERENT SOILS.

Soil

Superior loam _

Superior loam rolling phase _

Peat _

Shallow phase _

Superior fine sandy loam _

Superior fine sandy loam rolling phase

Superior clay loam _ _ _

Superior clay loam rolling phase _

Superior silt loam _

Superior silt loam rolling phase _

Poygan silt loam -

Antigo fine sandy loam -

Coloma fine sand _

Antigo loam _

Genesee silt loam _

Whitman fine sandy loam. - -

Whitman loam -

Miami fine sandy loam _

Poygan clay loam _ _ _

Plainfield fine sand _ _

Genesee fine sandy loam _

Clyde silt loam _

Coloma fine sandy loam - - -

Poygan fine sandy loam -

Clyde fine sandy loam -

Miami loam - -

Acres Per Cent

23.488

62,656 20.9

51,264

8,704 14.5

7,808

49,984 14.0

28,032

22,528 12.3

22,528

26,368 11.

17,216 4.

16,512 4.

15.488 3.

12,928 3.

12,672 3.

9,792 2.

5,888 1.

5,184 1.

4,352 1.

2,560
2,176
1,728
1,152
960
832
576

413,440 |

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

19

CHAPTER II.

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

SUPERIOR SILT LOAM.

Extent and distribution. — This soil occupies a total area of
about one township. Irregular tracts ranging in size from a
few acres to five or six square miles extend across the eastern
part of the county in a northeasternly and southwesternly di¬
rection. It occurs more extensively in T 24 N, R 19 E in the
towns of Osborn, Freedom, Grand Chute, and Center. There
are only a very few small patches in the west half of the county.

Description— The surface soil of this type to a depth of
about eight inches consists of a brown silt loam containing a
considerable amount of organic matter. The surface soil is
free from gravel and stones. The subsoil consists of a heavy
compact pinkish red clay, which extends to a depth of over
three feet.

There are some variations in this soil, the chief one being the
depth of the silty material over the heavy red clay subsoil. This
may vary from four to five inches up to ten or twelve inches.
There is also some variation in the amount of organic matter,
the largest amount being found in areas which are slightly de¬
pressed. Aside from these variations, which are all of minor
importance, the type is very uniform.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of the Superior silt
loam is level, or only very gently undulating, and because of
the heavy character of the subsoil, natural drainage is some¬
what deficient. During spring, when heavy rains are common,
the soil becomes saturated, hence it warms up more slowly than
soils having a more rolling surface. Over a considerable part
of this type tile drains could be installed to good advantage.

Origin. — The material forming this soil has been derived
largely from lacustrine (lake laid) material which was de¬
posited in quiet waters at a time when the Great Lakes stood

20

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

at a much higher level than at the present time. After this
first deposition it was modified to some extent by glacial action.

Native vegetation. — The original timber growth consisted
chiefly of maple, birch, elm, some beech, and pine. Practically
all of the merchantable timber has been removed. Most of this
soil has been cleared, and is now in highly improved farms.
About the only exception to this is in the extreme northeast
corner of the county in T 24 N, R 19 E where the land was until
very recently a part of the Indian Reservation.

Present agricultural development* — The chief crops grown
consist of hay, small grains, corn, and root crops. It is natur¬
ally a strong productive soil; when drainage is provided, very
good yields are secured. On practically all of the farms made
up of this soil, there is some land which is too wet for the grow¬
ing of cultivated crops without supplying some form of drain¬
age. When thoroughly drained, this soil will rank along with
the best in the county. It is somewhat more difficult to culti¬
vate than soils of lighter texture, but if plowed when moisture
conditions are favorable, a good seed bed can be secured with
but little difficulty.

SUPERIOR SILT LOAM.

ROLLING PHASE.

Extent and distribution. — This soil covers a total area of ap¬
proximately one township, and is the predominating type in the
town of Greenville. It is also quite extensive in the town of
Grand Chute, and there are numerous small tracts in the south¬
east part of the county.

Description. — The surface soil to a depth of about eight
inches consists of a brown to dark brown rather compact silt
loam containing a moderate amount of organic matter. It is
practically free from gravel and stones are seldom found upon
it. The subsoil into which the surface material grades quite
abruptly consists of the heavy red clay which is characteristic
of this series.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this soil varies
from undulating to gently rolling, and in some instances it could
be classed as rolling. On account of the surface features the

•For chemical composition and improvement of this soil, see page 23.

Plate 1

VIEW SHOWING TYPICAL LEVEL TO GENTLY UNDULATING SUR¬
FACE FEATURES OF THE SUPERIOR SOILS.

Where the soils of this series are heavy the natural drainage is some¬
what Deficient.

VIEW OF SUPERIOR CLAY LOAM, ROLLING PHASE.

The term “rolling- phase’’ is used where the surface is sufficiently rolling
to insure fair to good natural drainage.

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS .

21

natural surface drainage is usually good, although the heavy
compact subsoil does not permit the water to move freely through
it. On some of the more gently sloping portions of the type, and
in depressions between hills lines of tile could be installed to
good advantage.

Origin. — This soil has been derived largely from lacustrine
material which has been influenced to a considerable extent since
its first deposition by the action of ice.

While the surface soil is sometimes found to be slightly acid,
the subsoil usually contains a considerable amount of lime
carbonate.

Native vegetation. — The original forest growth consisted
chiefly of maple, birch, basswood, hickory, with some beech,
elm, hemlock, and pine.

Present agricultural development * — This is one of the desir¬
able soils of the county, and one upon which agriculture is very
highly developed. It is a strong productive soil, and well
adapted to the general farm crops common to this region. Small
grains and grasses do especially well, and the dairy industry is
the most important line of farming followed.

The rotation most commonly followed consists of small grain,
followed by clover, or clover and timothy, followed by corn.

This soil is not so difficult to cultivate as is the clay loam, but
nevertheless, it requires heavy working stock and tools.

SUPERIOR CLAY LOAM.

Extent and distribution . — Superior clay loam is found chiefly
in the towns of Kaukauna, the southeastern part of Freedom,
Vandenbroek, and Grand Chute. The total area is approxi¬
mately one township.

Description. — The surface of the clay loam to an average
depth of six inches consists of a light grayish-brown clay loam
which grades quite abruptly into the heavy compact red clay
which extends to an undetermined depth. The light-colored
material over the red clay varies somewhat in depth from one
or two inches to seven or eight inches. In the heavy clay sub¬
soil, especially, in the lower depth, it is not uncommon to find
thin seams of fine and very fine sand. It is also common to
find in the soil section a small amount of very fine rock frag¬
ments largely of limestone.

*For chemical composition and improvement of this soil, see page 23.

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY .

99

Lmd

The texture of both the soil and subsoil of this type is very
uniform.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this soil is level
or only very gently undulating, and the natural drainage is de¬
ficient. During the early spring, portions of the type are fre¬
quently covered with an inch or so of water. Because of the
heavy subsoil and the slowness with which water moves through
it, the type remains wet and cold for some time during the early
part of each growing season, and the planting of crops is fre¬
quently delayed on this account. Practically all of this soil
could be improved by tile drainage although up to the present
time but very few have been installed.

Present agricultural development — Practically all of the
crops common to the region are grown with success upon this
soil, but it is better adapted to small grains and grasses than to
corn. Where drainage has been supplied, corn can be grown
successfully, and all the other crops are much more certain of
giving satisfactory yields. Tile drainage permits the soil to
warm up much earlier in the spring which gives the crops a
better start.

SUPERIOR CLAY LOAM, ROLLING PHASE.

Extent and distribution. — This soil is chiefly found in the
southeast portion of the county, and is the predominating type
in the towns of Vandenbroek and Buchanan. Small patches
are found in the towns of Grand Chute, Greenville, Center, and
Black Creek.

Description. — The surface of this soil to a depth of three to
four inches is a compact silt loam, or silty clay loam, of a brown
or slightly reddish-brown color. This material grades abruptly
into a heavy compact pinkish red clay subsoil. This heavy
material extends to a great depth and some of the road cuts and
stream channels show it to extend to a depth of forty to fifty
feet. The surface of the type is practically free from stones
and only a very small amount of gravel is ever found upon
it. In the soil section, a very few small limestone fragments
or concretions are sometimes found.

T opography and drainage. — The surface varies from undulat¬
ing to rolling. In a few instances in Buchanan township the

♦For chemical composition and improvement of this soil, see page 22.

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

23

surface is quite broken. Because of the uneven character of
most of this soil the surface drainage is good. The compact
subsoil, however, does not permit the water to move freely
within the soil. The only difference between this soil and the
typical Superior clay loam is the difference in topography.

Present agricultural development .*■ — Practically all of the
merchantable timber has been removed, and very nearly all of
the type is now cultivated. This is an excellent soil, well adapted
to general farming and dairying, and all of the farm crops
common to the region are successfully grown upon it. A rot-
tiOn quite commonly practiced consists of small grain one or
two years, followed by clover or a mixture of clover and timothy
for one or two years, and then followed by corn.

About the only fertilizer used is stable manure, but since the
soil is very heavy and somewhat deficient in organic matter, a
practice which is good, but not common, is to supplement the
stable manure by plowing under a green manuring crop about
once in four or five years, and for this purpose legumes are best.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND IMPROVEMENT OF SUPERIOR SILT

LOAM AND SUPERIOR CLAY LOAM.

These soils are similar in the texture and structure of the
subsoil section. They differ chiefly in topography and texture
of the surface soil, as indicated by the type names. The types
are so closely related that methods for the improvement of one
will apply to the others.

The four elements with which the farmer is most concerned
in his farming operations, and the ones which are the most apt
to be deficient, are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and lime
or calcium. He should know the part which each plays in the
development of the plant, and what are the best methods of
maintaining an adequate supply in the soil.

The soil has been leaching for a large number of years, and
has lost some of the lime carbonate which it contained. Vary¬
ing degrees of acidity have developed over the region. The loss
of lime (calcium carbonate) from the soil is caused by two
distinct factors, both of which are important. Crops require
lime in their growth. A five-ton crop of alfalfa requires 185

24

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

pounds of lime and two tons of red clover requires 61.6 pounds.
A much larger amount is removed by leaching each year and
these losses must be made up by the application of lime in order
to maintain the fertility of this soil.

Tests show that the subsoil is usually well supplied with lime
and that the deficiency is confined largely to the surface soils.

While it will be seen from tests that part of this land shows
some degrees of acidity it does not mean that all of this land
is in immediate need of lime. Where such crops as alfalfa,
sugar beets, tobacco, peas, cabbage and other garden crops are
grown and where the acidity is medium two tons per acre of
ground limestone may be used with profit. Where a liberal sup¬
ply of manure is available the need for lime will not be so great.

Where such crops as corn, clover and oats are grown with
manure applied once during each rotation a smaller amount of
lime will be needed. On parts of the farm where manure cannot
be applied the lime can be used with profit on such soils and
may be actually necessary for economic production. The greater
need will usually be on the higher places, rather than on the
lower slopes.

It has been quite definitely established that the need for lime
in acid soils runs practically parallel with the need of phos¬
phorus. The use of lime alone will not make enough phos¬
phorus available, and the use of a phosphate fertilizer will not
supply the lime requirements of the soil. Either lime alone
or acid phosphate alone will give increased yields, but neither
alone will give as great an increase nor as profitable an increase
as when both are supplied. In the improvement of acid soils,
therefore, provisions for the use of both lime and a phosphate
fertilizer should be made.

Phosphorus exists in all soils in Wisconsin in small amounts.
Many of the best types in the state contain only 1,200 pounds
to the acre eight inches deep, and this is in a form which be¬
comes available to crops very slowly. Phosphorus is constantly
being lost from the farm in crops, milk and in the bones of ani¬
mals sold. It is well understood that when grain, hay, potatoes
or other cash crops are sold, this element is removed from the
farm. This element cannot be supplied from the air and in

GROUP OF HEAVY SOILS.

25

the long run the loss must be made up through additions of
phosphorus fertilizer in some form.

The chemical analyses of the Superior silt loam and clay loam
soils show that their phosphorus content is somewhat lower
than the average of other silt loams and clay loams in the State,
while the potassium content is larger. Their content of or¬
ganic matter is somewhat below the average of soils of this
texture. In regard to lime they vary within very wide limits,
in some sections the soil being acid, while in others they con¬
tain as high as ten to twelve per cent of lime carbonate. It
should be borne in mind that where soils are acid the amount
of phosphorus which they do contain is not so readily available
to plants as in soils which are not acid.

On good uplaid soil where dairying or general farming is
practiced the use of 300 pounds of 16% acid phosphate or 100
pounds of 44% superphosphate to the acre every four years
will maintain the phosphorus supply. If much grain, potatoes
or other crops are sold, about double these amounts should be
used.

On soils relatively low in fertility somewhat more phosphate
should be used at first. This is especially true of the soils which
have grown corn or small grain a long time without the use
of manure or other fertilizer.

If considerable amounts of bran or cottonseed meal are fed,
which are relatively high in phosphorus, the supply of this ele¬
ment may be maintained. It would usually be necessary to feed
at least one-half ton of bran or cottonseed meal to each cow
on a dairy farm per year to maintain the phosphorus supply of
the soil. Since comparatively few farmers follow this practice,
some phosphate fertilizer should be used.

Potassium exists in these soils in large amounts. They often
contain over 50,000 pounds of this element per acre to a depth
of eight inches, while they contain only 1-20 as much phosphorus.
This potassium, however, in the form in which it exists in the
soil is not readily available to crops and becomes so only as a
result of chemical changes which are chiefly brought about
through the action of organic matter. When a good supply of
active organic matter is maintained the quantity of potassium
is sufficient to supply growing crops almost indefinitely and it
is only in the case of fields low in organic matter or where

26

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

crops using unusually large amounts of available potassium are
grown that fertilizers containing this element need be used.

Nitrogen is chiefly responsible for the dark green, healthy
color and rapid growth of corn or other crops on well manured
land. It is important to have sufficient amounts in the soil, but
when in excess it is detrimental to some crops. The quality
of the grain may be injured by too much nitrogen. When the
grain lodges the kernels do not fully mature.

Virgin soils contain large amounts of nitrogen but if they
are cropped continuously to such crops as corn, oats and tim¬
othy without the addition of fertilizer material containing nitro¬
gen the nitrogen supply is gradually exhausted and the yields
are reduced.

Nitrogen exists in the soil almost entirely in combination with
organic or vegetable matter. In the light colored soils the vege¬
table matter is relatively low and should be increased. The
accumulation of organic matter high in nitrogen is most readily
brought about through the growth of legumes such as clover,
alfalfa or soy beans. These may either be turned under as green
manuring crops in which case all of the nitrogen collected from
the atmosphere is returned to the soil and made available to
succeeding crops, or they may be fed to animals and the manure
returned to the soil so that a portion at least of the nitrogen
gathered from the atmosphere is returned to the land to add
to the supply already there. Whatever system of farming i r
followed on these soils should include a rotation one member of
which is a legume.

Certain crops such as potatoes and vegetables are frequently
grown by farmers who do not keep much livestock and who do
not rotate these crops with legumes. In such cases fertilizers
containing nitrogen and potash, as well as phosphorus may be
used. Mixed fertilizers are, therefore, manufactured and offered
for sale. The composition of these fertilizers is indicated by a
formula. A 2-10-4 fertilizer, for instance, is one containing 2%
of ammonia, or nearly 2 % of nitrogen, 10% of phosphoric acid
and 4% of potash.

When nitrogen and potash are needed as well as phosphoric
acid, there is some advantage in using these mixed fertilizers.
But when the farmer needs to use only a phosphate fertilizer,
purchasing a mixed fertilizer means that he is buying not only

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS .

27

nitrogen and potash which he does not need, but he is com¬
pelled to pay a considerably higher price for the phosphate he
gets than is the case when he buys a fertilizer containing phos¬
phate only. Experiments on this soil at Ashland showed a large
increase through the use of phosphate fertilizer, in addition to
manure. The following table gives the results of some of these
experiments. ^ g

Crop

Ten tons manure only

Ten tons manure and
1,000 lbs. rock
phosphate

Percent of increase

Potatoes _

87 bu. per A.

128 bu.

47

Rutabagas -

108 bu. per A.

137 bu.

27

Com _

30.4 bu. per A.

36.8 bu.

21

Clover hay _

2,223 pounds

3»177 pounds

43

Clover seed _

217.5 pounds

336.7 pounds

47

The importance of having sufficient supplies of this element
is made still greater by the relatively poor drainage which the
Superior clay loam has and its consequent tendency to be cold
so that crops are slow in maturing. The element phosphorus is
particularly helpful in hastening the maturity of crops and
the formation of seed.

Phosphorus may also be supplied as acid phosphate in which
form it is immediately available to plants. In the form of rock
phosphate the phosphorus becomes available slowly.

Where the surface of the heavy soil is level, as is frequently
the case, the question of drainage is one of importance. Over
practically all such level areas tile drains could be installed to
advantage. Thorough drainage will make these soils warm up
earlier in the spring, insure better tilth and increase yields.

28

SOIL SUBVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

CHAPTER III.

GROUP OP LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

SUPERIOR LOAM.

Extent and distribution. — The Superior loam occupies a total
area of approximately one township. It is found most exten¬
sively in the northern half of T 24 N, R 19 E in the towns of
Seymour, Osborn, Freedom.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to a depth of about
ten inches consists of a dark brown friable loam which contains
a moderate amount of organic matter. This type is also free
from stones and contains but very little gravel. The subsoil
below ten inches grades abruptly into the heavy compact red
clay which is characteristic of this series. This bed of clay
extends to an undetermined depth, probably forty to fifty feet
at least.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this type, as is
characteristic of this series, is level or only very gently undulat¬
ing, and because of the level surface and heavy subsoil the nat¬
ural drainage is somewhat deficient. These are associated with
this soil a large number of areas of soils belonging to the Poygan
series which occupy poorly drained depressions.

A large part of the Superior loam would be benefited by tile
drainage, although up to the present time, but few tile drains
have been installed.

Present agricultural development * — Most of this soil has been
cleared and placed under cultivation, and is now in highly im¬
proved farms. About the only exception to this of any note is
in the northern part of T 24 N, R 19 E where a portion of this
soil was included in the Indian Reservation. Practically all of
the general farm crops common to this region are grown upon
this type. It is a good general farming soil, especially adapted
to small grains and grasses. The dairy industry has been de¬
veloped to a considerable extent upon it.

♦For chemical composition and improvement of this soil, see page 36.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

29

SUPERIOR LOAM, ROLLING PHASE.

Extent and distribution. — This is one of the most important
and extensive types of soil in Outagamie County. It is confined
chiefly to the eastern half of the county, and is the predominat¬
ing type in the towns of Seymour, Osborn, Freedom, and Center.
Small tracts of this soil are found in every town of the county
with the exception of Maine and Deer Creek.

Description. — The surface soil to an average depth of about
ten inches consists of a brown mellow loam. It contains only a
moderate amount of organic matter. The subsoil which extends
to an undetermined depth consists of the heavy compact red clay
which is so common in this region. There are very few stones
on this soil — in fact, it may be said to be stone-free, and it is very
seldom that gravel is found either on the soil or in the soil
section. In a few instances, small knolls are found upon the
surface of which there is a small amount of gravel.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this soil ranges
from undulating to gently rolling and the natural surface drain¬
age is, for the most part, good. Where the phase borders typical
Superior soils and the slope is only moderate, the drainage is
sometimes slightly deficient. This is also true of some depres¬
sions and some of the land along streams. In such places, a
line of tile could frequently be installed to good advantage.

Present agricultural development* — This is one of the most
important and highly improved soils of Outagamie County, and
many of the finest farms in the region are located upon it. Al¬
most every acre is tillable. All of the farm crops common to
the region are successfully grown, and the yields are somewhat
higher than on the clay loam soils. This is partly due to the
fact that the soil can be worked under a somewhat wider range
of moisture conditions, and can be placed in better tilth at a
somewhat earlier date in the season. General farming or dairy¬
ing are the chief types of farming found.

The rotation most commonly practiced consists of small grain,
followed by clover, or clover and timothy, followed by corn. The
only fertilizer used on this soil to any extent is stable manure.
In addition to this, the plowing under of a green manuring
crop is now receiving some attention. Commercial fertilizers

♦For chemical composition and improvement of this soil, see page 36.

30

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

are not used to any extent, but tests made elsewhere indicate
that this soil will respond with profit to the use of phosphate
fertilizers.

SUPERIOR FINE SANDY LOAM.

The surface soil of this type to a depth of from eight to ten
inches consists of a loose friable loam, or fine sandy loam of a
dark brown color. It usually becomes somewhat lighter in color
and coarser in texture to a depth of from twelve to twenty
inches where the heavy red clay characteristic to this series is
found. This heavy subsoil frequently contains thin seams of
fine and very fine sand, and in places it is also common to find
a very small amount of limestone fragments through it. The
depth of the heavy subsoil is somewhat variable ranging from
eight to twenty-four inches.

This soil is of limited extent, and most of the areas, all of
which are small, are scattered through the towns of Center,
Freedom, Kaukauna, Greenville and Grand Chute.

The surface of this soil is level, with only a very few undula¬
tions. The natural drainage is somewhat deficient because of
the heavy subsoil, but is somewhat better than the drainage of
the heavier types of this series. Tile drains could be profitably
installed over a considerable proportion of this type, however.
The original timber growth consisted largely of maple birch,
with a small amount of elm, some hemlock, and pine.

The greater part of this soil has been cleared, and placed
under cultivation, and the farm crops common to the region
are being grown successfully upon it. Because of its limited
extent, there are but few, if any, farms located entirely upon
this soil.

In the improvement of Superior fine sandy loam, drainage is
a factor which must be considered in many cases, but in some
instances tile drains are not necessary.

The supplying of additional organic matter should be con¬
sidered, however, and the plowing under of a legume crop wil
greatly assist in this direction.*

•For chemical composition and improvement of this soil, see page 36.

Plate II

S I f O W I NG SURF A 0 E
This is excellent soi

F

1,

MATURES OF SUPERIOR FINE SANDY ROAM,
ROLLING PHASE.

and one cf the extensive types in the county.

SHOWING SAND BLOWN INTO LOW DUNES BY THE WIND.

This condition is not extensive in Outagamie Ciunty. This poor sandy
soil shows a very marked contrast to the highly improved land imme¬
diately adjacent to it.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

31

SUPERIOR FINE SANDY LOAM.

ROLLING PHASE.

Extent and distribution. — This soil is the most widely dis¬
tributed type, being found in every town in the county. It is
most extensively found in the southwestern quarter of the

"uty, and predominates in the towns of Dale, the western part
of Hortonia, and Maple Creek.

Description. — The surface soil to an average depth of eight
inches is a brown to a rather dark brown mellow fine sandy
loam. Immediately below this depth the color becomes some¬
what lighter, frequently being a pale yellow. At about eighteen
inches, heavy compact red clay is encountered. This continues
to a depth which is undetermined, but which is always much
more than three feet. The chief variation in this soil is in the
depth of the sandy material over the red clay. This may range
from eight to about twenty-four inches. There is also some
variation in the texture of the surface material, there being a
few places which could be classed as sandy loam, and again
where it approaches a loam in texture. Such variations are too
limited to be indicated, however.

While stones are not common on this soil, a few limestone
bowlders were found. Wherever they occur in sufficient num¬
bers to interfere to any extent with farming operations, appro¬
priate symbols have been placed upon the soil map. In the
soil section and chiefly in the second and third foot below the
surface, fragments of partially decomposed limestone may some¬
times be found.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this soil ranges
from undulating to rolling, and the natural drainage is good.
The drainage is much better on this soil than on the silt and
clay loam types.

Present agricultural development. — While there are still a few
wood lots on this soil, by far the greater part of it has been
cleared, placed under cultivation, and is now in highly improved
farms. In fact, where this soil predominates, is found to be
some of the most highly improved and prosperous farming com¬
munities in the county. All of the general crops common to the
region are grown successfully. Potatoes are also grown more
commonly on this soil than on the heavier types of the region.
Alfalfa is also a crop which does well, and which is being grown

32

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

to a larger extent every year. This soil is adapted to a some¬
what wider range of crops than the heavier soils, and is more
desirable because it can be worked under a wider range of mois¬
ture conditions. Its sandy surface permits it to drain out and
warm up earlier in the season ; so crops on this soil will fre¬
quently have a week or ten days and sometimes even more ad¬
vantage over crops grown on the heavy, and especially, heavy
and level soils.*

MIAMI LOAM.

The surface soil of this type consists of a brown or dark brown
friable mellow loam extending to a depth of about eight inches.
The subsoil usually consists of a fine sandy loam carrying a small
amount of fine gravel. The underlying rock is frequently found
at a depth of from fifteen to thirty inches, and frequently im¬
mediately above the rock there is a layer of heavy somewhat
reddish material which is probably residual from limestone. This
soil is quite variable, ranging from a silt loam to a fine sandy
loam which is inclined in places to be somewhat gravelly. The
subsoil is also variable, ranging from a sandy loam to a loam or
even a clay loam. This type is of very limited extent and of
minor importance. It occupies considerably less than one square
mile, and probably the most important area is found near the
center of the town of Freedom. Only a few other scattered
areas occur in the county.

The surface is gently rolling, and the natural drainage is
good. The soil is of glacial origin, and the native timber growth
is practically the same as on the Superior soils.

This is an excellent agricultural soil, but because of its lim¬
ited extent, but few if any farms are located entirely upon it.

In its crop producing power and general agricultural value,
it compares very favorably with the best soils of the Superior
series.*

MIAMI FINE SANDY LOAM.

Extent and distribution. — The largest area of this soil is
found near the center of the county from three to seven miles

♦F’or data on chemical composition and fertility, see page 36.

GROUP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

33

southwest of Black Creek in the towns of Black Creek, Bovina,
and Ellington. The total area is approximately ten square
miles. Aside from this rather extensive tract there are numer¬
ous other scattered areas of very limited extent.

Description. — The surface soil of this type to a depth of about
ten inches consists of a brown to grayish-brown mellow fine sandy
loam. The subsoil becomes somewhat lighter in color, and
usually a little coarser in texture with depth. At twenty to
twenty-four inches it is usually a yellowish fine sand or fine
sandy loam which may contain considerable fine gravel and lime¬
stone particles.

The surface soil is inclined to be somewhat variable, but in
most instances it can be classed as a fine sandy loam. In a num¬
ber of places there is considerable gravel on the surface and
where this is the case, symbols have been used to show this con¬
dition. Wherever bowlders occur on the surface in sufficient
numbers to interfere with farm operations, these have also been
shown by symbols.

There is also some variation in the subsoil. A material of e
loam of clay loam texture is sometimes found in the lower depths.

Topography and drainage. — The surface of this soil ranges
from undulating to gently rolling, and in a few cases it is some¬
what irregular or bumpy. In a few instances, the underlying
rock occurs rather close to the surface, as for example, directly
north of Stevensville where there is quite an elevation, the core
of the hill being made up of limestone. Because of the uneven
surface features and the rather open subsoil, the natural drain¬
age of this soil is good.

Present agricultural development. — ^Practically all of the
timber has been removed, and most of the type is now in well
improved farms. This is a soil which is easily cultivated, and
one which has a fair to good agricultural value. All of the
general farm crops common to this region are successfully grown
upon it, and the yields secured compare favorably with those
obtained upon the Superior fine sandy loam, rolling phase. The
general farm processes followed, the rotations, methods of agri¬
culture, fertilizers, etc., and the lines along which this soil could
be best improved are practically the same as for the Superior
fine sandy loam, rolling phase.

*For data on chemical composition and fertility of this soil, see page
3fi.

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

34

ANTI GO FINE SANDY LOAM.

Extent and distribution. — This type is closely associated with
the Antigo loam, but is a little greater in extent. It is confined
to the northwestern part of the county where it is found in the
broad flat plains bordering the Embarrass, Wolf, and Shioc
Rivers. A large area occurs in Deer Creek Township, northeast
of Bear Creek, and another in Bovina Township north of Sliioc-
ton. The former is a little lighter in texture than the typical.

Because of its very limited extent, there has been included
with the Antigo fine sandy loam a few small areas of Fox fine
sandy loam. The most important tract is found in section 7 in
the town of Dale. It differs from the Antigo type chiefly in
being somewhat coarser in texture, and also in having a some¬
what different origin, it having been derived from glaciated lime¬
stone material. It may have a slightly higher agricultural value
than the Antigo since it is seldom acid, while most of the Antigo
soils are acid.

Description.. — The surface soil of the Antigo fine sandy loam
to a depth of from six to eight inches is a brown to dark brown,
loose, friable very fine sandy loam free from stones and gravel
and carrying a fair amount of organic matter.

The subsoil grades very rapidly into a yellowish brown to
pale yellow very fine sand of undetermined depth.

Topography and drainage. — The topography of the Antigo
fine sandy loam is flat to very gently undulating. The surface
is only a few feet above the usual high water mark of the neigh¬
boring streams; so after unusually heavy rains some of this type
is subject to overflow. Owing to the loose character of the soil
and the sandy subsoil, the drainage is fairly good. However,
when the water in the streams is high, the water table of the soil
is close to the surface.

Present agricultural development. — *It is a good agricultural
soil. Over ninety per cent of this type is under cultivation.
General farming and dairying are the prevailing forms of agri¬
culture, although in the vicinity of Shiocton truck farming has
come into prominence. Of the general farm crops, hay, oats,
corn, barley, and rye are the most common. Hay does not yield
quite as well as on the Antigo loam although yields of from iy2

♦For data on chemical composition and fertility of this soil, see page
3 6.

GEO VP OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

35

to 3 tons per acre per year are not unusual where good prac¬
tices are followed. Oats yield a little less than on the Antigo
loam, average yields being from thirty to fifty bushels per acre.
A rotation similar to that used on the Antigo loam is practiced
by the farmers on the type. Potatoes are grown to some extent,
and yield from 100 to 150 bushels per acre.

Of the special crops grown, cabbage, sugar beets, and onions
are by far the most important. Of these cabbage ranks first.
Where good farm practices are followed, average yields of from
e ght to twelve tons per acre are obtained. Sugar beets yield
from six to twelve tons per acre, and onions from 150 to 350
bushels per acre.

The Antigo fine sandy loam is very easy to cultivate, and ex¬
cept under very unfavorable moisture conditions no difficulty is
experienced in the preparation of a good seed bed.

ANTIGO LOAM.

Extent and distribution. — The Antigo loam is closely associ¬
ated with the Antigo fine sandy loam, although it is of smaller
extent. It is confined to the northwestern part of the county,
where it is found in the broad flat plains bordering the Em¬
barrass, Wolf, and Shioc Rivers. The largest areas occur in
Deer Creek and Maple Creek Townships.

Description. — The surface soil of the Antigo loam for about
eight to ten inches is a dark brown friable loam free from stones
and gravel, and carrying a large percentage of very fine sand
with considerable organic matter. The subsoil grades rapidly
into a yellowish-brown very fine sand which becomes a pale yel¬
low at about twenty-four inches. This continues to below four
feet.

In places the soil becomes nearly a silt loam, and where this
is the case, the sandy subsoil is not encountered until about
twenty-four inches. A small area of the heavier phase is lo¬
cated just southwest of Helena, and another southeast of Bear
Creek in Deer Creek Township.

Topography and drainage. — In topography the Antigo loam is
fiat, to very gently undulating. The surface is only a few feet
above the usual high water mark of the neighboring streams ; so
after unusually heavy rains, portions of this type are inundated.

Owing to the sandy character of the subsoil the drainage is

36

SOIL SUEVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

usually fairly good, except when the rivers are high. At these
times the water table is close to the surface.

Present agricultural development. — Practically all of this type
is under cultivation. General farming and dairying are the pre¬
vailing forms of agriculture. The soil is well adapted to hay
and oats, while all of the general farm crops common to the
region do fairly well. It is not as well adapted to potatoes r
is the Antigo fine sandy loam. Corn does not do well after
wet spring as the ground remains cold until late in the season,
and the high water table retards the development of the root
system.

Of the special crops, .cabbage and sugar beets are yielding the
growers satisfactory returns. Cabbage yields from eight to fif¬
teen tons and sugar beets six to twelve tons an acre.

Where good methods of farming are being followed the pro¬
ductivity of the soil is gradually being increased, but where
careless methods are practiced, the yields are gradually declin¬
ing. Spring wheat was formerly grown with good success, but
the yields became poorer and poorer until the crop was finally
abandoned over most of the area. Good farmers practice a ro¬
tation consisting of corn, followed by a small grain, such as
oats, or barley, and then seeding with clover and timothy. Hay
is cut for one or two years, and is usually pastured a year, after
which it is manured and then plowed for corn.

The Antigo loam is comparatively easy to cultivate and when
worked under favorable moisture conditions, no difficulty is ex¬
perienced in securing a good seed bed. It is usually best to fall
plow, for if the spring is wet, some difficulty may be experienced
in getting the crop sown on time.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY

LOAMS.

These soils are only a little more open in texture than the silt
and clay loam types. They have a good water-holding capacity
and will support very good pasture, but the somewhat higher
percentage of fine sand which they contain reduces the water
content of the surface somewhat so that they warm up more
readily in the spring and have less tendency to bake and crack
than the heavier soils. These qualities make them better adapted
to such crops as corn and potatoes than are the heavier soils.

GEOUF OF LOAMS AND FINE SANDY LOAMS.

37

ihe total amount of the plant food elements, phosphorus and
potassium, is nearly if not quite as large in the fine sandy loams
as in the silt loams. However, they have rather less organic
matter, and this, together with the somewhat coarser texture,
results in a slower rate of chemical change by which the inert
plant food of the soil becomes available to crops. For this rea¬
son the increase in the supply of active or fresh organic matter
and the use of available plant food either in the form of stable
manure or of commercial fertilizers becomes more important and
especially when crops such as potatoes which are sold from the
farm, and of which heavy yields must be grown to be profitable,
are produced.

The increase in the supply of active organic matter is of the
utmost importance. A high degree of fertility cannot be main¬
tained in these soils unless about twice as large an amount of
organic matter is developed in them as that which they originally
have. The plowing under of legumes, such as a second crop of
clover or a crop of soybeans, is the best method of producing
this result. The application of phosphorus and potassium fer¬
tilizers can best be made for these crops, since it secures a much
larger growth of these crops themselves and becomes available
through their decomposition to the following crops of corn or
potatoes.

The degree of acidity in the Antigo soils is seldom more than
‘‘slight’7 in the new soil, but increases as the land is cropped
from year to year. This acidity does not affect the growth of
all crops directly, but makes it more difficult to maintain a good
degree of fertility. This is true because it is a condition un¬
favorable to the continued growth of the best legumes — clover
and alfalfa. The slight degree of acidity does not interfere with
the growth of clover while the soil is comparatively new, but
does reduce the yields as the fertility is reduced by further crop¬
ping and even in the virgin condition acidity interferes with the
growth of alfalfa. It is also a condition unfavorable to the
maintenance of a good supply of readily available phosphorus
in the soil. These objections are probably not sufficient to make
necessary the use of lime to correct the acidity on all of the
land under cultivation for a number of years, but does make
it desirable that farmers wishing to grow alfalfa should lime
as well as inoculate the soil for this crop, and also to watch the
growth of clover carefully from year to year, so as to begin the

38

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

use of lime on the fields as they are sown to clover as soon as it
becomes difficult to secure a good stand.

The Superior and Miami soils of this group have been derived
from materials which contain varying amounts of lime carbon¬
ate. The subsoils are usually well supplied with lime, but the
surface soils frequently show varying degrees of acidity, due
partly to the long period of leaching to which they have been
subjected. The degree of acidity is seldom as great as on the
Antigo soils, however.

These types of soils are well adapted to general farming and
some special crops such as potatoes can also be grown to good
advantage. These soils which are of intermediate texture are
better adapted to potato culture than are the heavier types on
the one hand or the light sandy soils on. the other. It is neces¬
sary to give these soils somewhat more attention to maintain
their fertility than the heavier types partly because they are
lower in fertility, but more because of the fact that these special
crops require a higher degree of fertility to produce satisfactory
yields. When these soils are used for special crops the fertility
can best be maintained by rather heav}r applications of stable
manure, or through the use of a rotation in which a legume is
grown as the means of securing the organic matter and nitrogen,
while the other elements chiefly phosphorus and potassium, are
supplied in the form of commercial fertilizers. When the latter
system is used one-third or one-fourth of the land should be
sown to a legume and a part of the commercial fertilizer used
on this crop. The fertility used in this way would become
available to succeeding crops through the decomposition of the
legume when plowed under. The remainder of the fertilizer
would be applied at the time of fitting the soil for the succeeding
crops.

GROUP OF FIXE SANDY SOILS.

39

CHAPTER TV.

GROUP OP PINE SANDY SOILS.

COLOMA FINE SAND.

Extent and distribution. — This type is comparatively small in
extent, and of minor importance from an agricultural stand¬
point. It is mainly confined to the northwestern part of the
county, the chief areas occurring in the vicinity of Hortonville
and Stephensville. Other small isolated areas are found scat¬
tered throughout the county, usually occurring as small hilltops
or ridges.

Description. — The surface soil of the Coloma fine sand to a
depth of from eight to twelve inches is a grayish brown loose,
open fine sand, containing but little organic matter. The sub¬
soil is a loose fine sand continuing to over three feet, and grading
from a light brown to a yellowish brown or pale yellow in the
lower depths. Gravel beds covered by a thin mantle of surface
soil are often found throughout the type.

The organic matter content varies over different sections of
the type, being higher in the depressions where the moisture conT
ditions have favored an accumulation of humus-forming mate¬
rial. Dunes formed by wind blown sand are occasionally found.

There are several variations which have been included with
this soil, but which, had they been of any important extent,
would have been mapped as separate types. In the northwest¬
ern part of the county, chiefly in the town of Maine, there are
numerous small tracts of light-colored soil which has a very fine
sandy texture. It is loose and open in structure, and usually
entirely free from stones and gravel. The subsoil is a yellowish
brown or vellow verv fine sand which extends to an undetermined
depth. This material differs from the typical Coloma fine sand
only in being finer in texture. Because of this finer texture, it
probably has a somewhat higher agricultural value, although
this is not apparent from the crop yields which are now being
secured.

40

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY .

Another variation occurs in the town of Liberty in sections 13
and 14, and also in a number of other localities, but always in
small patches. This soil is the same as the Coloma fine sand to
a depth of 24 to 36 inches where it is underlain by the red clay
typical of the Superior series. Because of this underlying clay,
this phase is a better soil than the typical, and would have been
mapped as the Superior fine sand or fine sandy loam, rolling
phase, had it been of sufficient extent.

Topography and drainage. — The topography of this type
ranges from undulating to hilly. On account of its loose, open
structure, the natural drainage is somewhat excessive, and the
type is very liable to sutler from drought except during seasons
of excessive rainfall.

Present agricultural development. — *Over seventy-five per
cent of the Coloma fine sand is under cultivation to the general
farm crops common to this region. Corn gives an average yield
of about twenty bushels, oats fifteen to twenty bushels, rye
twelve bushels, timothy and clover three-fourths to one ton, and
potatoes from fifty to one hundred bushels an acre. By careful
cultivation, rotation, and fertilization, these yields have been
more than doubled by some farmers.

Over most of this type but little attention is given to the se¬
lection of a rotation particularly adapted to this soil. The
methods of cultivation are similar to those followed on other
sandj" types of the county. The soil is loose and open, and is
very easity cultivated.

It may be said of this type as a whole that the methods now
followed upon it are not such as tend to increase its productiv¬
ity, although there are exceptions where more up-to-date meth¬
ods are being practiced.

COLOMA FINE SANDY LOAM.

The surface soil of this type to an average depth of eight to
ten inches consists of a light brown to grayish brown fine sandy
loam, which rests upon a subsoil of about the same texture, but
having a somewhat lighter color. In the lower depths, the ma¬
terial is usually a fine yellow sand, with which varying amounts
of fine gravel may be found. The material is quite uniform in
texture, and is stone free.

♦For chemical composition and fertility of this soil see page 42.

GROUP OF FINE SANDY SOILS.

41

The type is of limited extent and of minor importance. It
occurs in small scattered tracts, the most important of which are
found in Grand Chute and Maine Townships.

The surface is undulating to gently rolling and because of the
sandy nature of the material the natural drainage is good and
frequently excessive.

The original timber growth was mixed pine and hardwood,
with hardwoods predominating. Practically all of the original
timber has been removed.

This is a soil of only medium to fair agricultural value. It is
deficient in organic matter and mineral plant foods, but its tex¬
ture is such that by growing green manuring crops, following
good crop rotations, and using proper fertilizers it can be built
up into a profitably producing soil. Small grain, clover, and
potatoes are a good rotation for this kind of land, with the second
crop of clover plowed down. Liming will help in getting clover
started and commercial fertilizers can also be used with profit.
A 2-10-4 will give good results. From 150 to 200 pounds per
acre should be applied to corn or small grain crops. Potatoes
should have larger applications.

This soil has been included with the group of fine sands be¬
cause in its agricultural value it more nearly approaches these
soils than the group of loams and fine sandy loams, which usually
have heavy subsoils.

PLAINFIELD FINE SAND.

The surface soil of this type to an average depth of eight
inches consists of a loose, grayish-brown, very fine sand which
contains but little organic matter. It is entirely free from
gravel and stones. Below eight inches the material becomes
lighter in color, usually being a pale yellow or yellowish-brown.
The texture continues a very fine sand to undetermined depth.

This, soil is of very limited extent, but is found in a number of
small tracts in several regions, chiefly in Maine, Deer Creek, and
Bovina Townships.

The surface is level or only gently undulating with some minor
irregularities caused by wind action. In many places the water-
table is not far below the surface, so that during part of the
year the drainage is none too good. When the streams are low,
the loose, open character of the material permits the free move¬
ment of water through the soil, and the type often suffers from
lack of moisture during the dry portion of the summer.

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

42

This soil is of minor importance because of its limited extent
and also because of its rather low value from the standpoint of
crop production. While part of it is under cultivation, the yields
are low. It is low in organic matter, and the mineral plant food
elements.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF FINE SANDS

These soils have intermediate texture and hence have moderate
water-holding capacity. They are not fine enough to be especial¬
ly well adapted to grasses for pasture, though a fair quality of
pasturage can be secured on the heavier phases of these soils.
The more deeply rooted crops, such as clover, rye, corn, and
potatoes, find sufficient moisture during average seasons and
suffer from drought only during periods of relatively low rain¬
fall.

In chemical composition these soils are also of an intermediate
character. The total phosphorus averages from 850 to 900
pounds. The total potassium of the surface eight inches per
acre is approximately 25,000 pounds or but little over one-half
of that found in heavier soils such as the Superior silt loam.
The organic matter of these soils is also comparatively low, aver¬
aging from 2.5 to 3.0 per cent in the surface eight inches and
from one to two per cent in the second eight inches. They have
a correspondingly low nitrogen content averaging from 1,000 to
1,500 pounds in the surface eight inches. This organic matter
is largely in the form of leaf-mold and fine roots, and it decom¬
poses quickly when the surface is first broken, furnishing a lim¬
ited supply of nitrogen for a growth of crops. However, it is
exhausted with comparative readiness and the most important
point in the management of all of these soils is to follow methods
which will maintain and increase the organic matter. In the
virgin condition these soils are but slightly acid as a rule, but
with continued cropping the acidity increases, and for the best
growth of clover and especially alfalfa liming is essential. This
use of lime not only makes the soil more suitable for the growth
of alfalfa and clover, but assists in preventing the leaching of
phosphorus and maintaining it in a form which is available for
growing crops.

The management of these soils to maintain the fertility will
depend to a considerable extent on the crops grown, and on
whether or not stock is maintained to which the produce of the
farm is fed. When dairying or other live stock farming is prac-

GROUP OF FINE SANDY SOILS.

43

ticed it will be less difficult to maintain the supply of the essen¬
tial elements of plant food — phosphorus, potassium, and nitro¬
gen. But even when stock is maintained it is very probable
that the moderate use of some form of phosphorus fertilizers
will be found profitable, and some means for increasing the or¬
ganic matter in addition to the use of stable manure should be
made use of as far as practicable. The growth of a crop of
soybeans or clover, occasionally, all of which is to be plowed
under as a green manuring crop, will be found very profitable
in its effect on the succeeding crop of corn or grain.

When these soils are used for the growing of potatoes or other
special crops to a considerable extent the use of commercial fer¬
tilizers containing phosphorus and potassium will be found nec¬
essary to maintain the soil productivity. Clover or some other
legume must be grown regularly in the rotation to maintain the
nitrogen and organic matter, and part or all of this should be
plowed under. It is often desirable to use the commercial fertil¬
izers containing phosphorus and potassium in order to secure a
good growth of this clover, and there is little loss in so doing,
since essentially all of the phosphorus and potassium applied
to the soil for the clover becomes available to the succeeding
crop through the decomposition of the organic matter.

The use of lime in some form and also the inoculation of the
soil is of the utmost importance when alfalfa is to be grown, and
will be found helpful on the older fields even for the growth of
medium red or mammoth clover.

While the use of commercial fertilizers containing phosphorus
and potassium is desirable in the management of these soils, it
must not be considered that this is an indication that they have
less value than heavier soils which are relatively higher in these
elements, for the growth of potatoes and other special crops.
The fact that these soils become dry and warm early in the sea¬
son makes them less subject to local frosts and the finer tilth
which these fine sands develop fit them especially well for the
growth of potatoes and some other root crops, since they are
practically free from checking and cracking. The cost of these
fertilizers is a comparatively small part of the total cost of
^rowing these crops. For further suggestions on the manage-
ment of these soils and for information regarding source and
use of fertilizers consult Bulletins 204, 230 and 341 of the Ex¬
periment Station.

44

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

CHAPTER Y.

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

POYGAN CLAY LOAM.

This type is of very small extent. Small areas are found near
the center and southeastern parts of the county, the largest of
these occurring north of Stephensville in Ellington Township.
It is closely associated with the Superior clay loam and silt
loam, and occupies depressions and low, gently sloping areas
bordering streams.

The surface soil of the Poygan clay loam to a depth of from
eight to fifteen inches is a dark brown to black, sticky compact
clay loam, rich in organic matter. The subsoil becomes lighter
in color for a few inches before grading into pinkish-red clay at
from fifteen to twenty inches. This clay is very compact and
tenacious and extends to an undetermined depth.

In topography the Poygan clay loam is flat to gently sloping.
The surface is low which coupled with the impervious character
of the subsoil makes the natural drainage very poor.

Less than half of this type is under cultivation. The greater
part of it is badly in need of drainage, and in its present con¬
dition is valuable only as pasture and for the marsh hay which
may be cut. Where the type has been properly drained, it has
a high agricultural value. It is especially adapted to hay and
small grains, while corn and other crops common to the region
do well. It is rather heavy for potatoes, but cabbage and sugar
beets are grown with fair success.

POYGAN SILT LOAM.

No areas of Poygan silt loam of any great extent are found,
although small patches of the type occur scattered throughout
practically every township in the county. It is closely associ-

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

45

ated with the soils of the Superior series, and occupies depres¬
sions and flat areas bordering streams and marshes.

The surface soil of the Poygan silt loam to a depth of from
eight to ten inches is a dark brown to black sticky, compact silt
loam, rich in organic matter. The subsoil becomes lighter in
color for a few inches before grading into the heavy tenacious
red clay subsoil at from twelve to fifteen inches.

In places the red color of the subsoil may entirely disappear,
but the texture and other characteristics remain the same. The
blue clay subsoil areas are too small to be mapped out separately.

In topography the type is flat to gently sloping. The surface
is low, and the subsoil is quite impervious to water which makes
the natural drainage very poor.

The original forest growth consisted principally of black ash,
elm, maple, with some oak, hickory, poplar, birch, alders, etc.
In most places the valuable timber has been removed.

Very little of this type is under cultivation. The greater part
of it is badly in need of drainage ; so in its present condition, it
is valuable chiefly as pasture land. Where the type has been
properly drained, it has a high agricultural value. It is not
well adapted to potatoes, but other crops common to the region
and small grains, grasses, cabbage, sugar beets, etc., do well.*

POYGAN FINE SANDY LOAM.

This type is of very small extent. It is usually associated
with the Poygan silt loam, or the Superior fine sandy loam.
Small isolated areas are found scattered throughout the county
where it occupies depressions and gentle slopes bordering
streams or marshes.

The surface soil of the Poygan fine sandy loam to a depth of
about seven inches is a dark brown to black, friable mellow, fine
sandy loam, carrying a relatively high per cent of organic mat¬
ter. The subsoil for three or four inches usually is a fine sand,
to very light fine sandy loam, which then grades into a pinkish-
red clay loam to clay.

The topography of the type is flat to gently sloping. The
surface is low and the natural drainage is poor.

♦ For data on chemical composition and improvement of this soil, see
page 4 6.

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

46

The timber growth consisted of ash, elm, maple, with some
oak, hickory, birch, willow, poplar, alders, etc. The best timber
has been removed. But very little of this type is under culti¬
vation. When well drained, it yields fair results when the crops
common to the region are grown. It is an easier soil to handle
than the Poygan silt loam and clay loam, but the yields, especial¬
ly of grains and hay, are not as large.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF POYGAN CLAY LOAM, SILT

LOAM, AND FINE SANDY LOAM.

These soils have relatively large amounts of organic matter
accumulated as a result of poor drainage. The supply of phos¬
phorus is usually fairly high, but in some cases it is not readily
available. Its availability will depend largely upon the rate of
decomposition of the organic matter. The total amount of po¬
tassium is fair in the fine sandy loam, and large in the silt loam
and clay loam, but the chief question here also is regarding its
availability.

While soils well supplied with vegetable matter as these are
do not need special treatment with reference to potassium and
phosphorus immediately after reclamation, they very generally
do show a need of care in this regard within a few years, and
patches of these types frequently fail to produce satisfactory
crops even immediately after drainage and breaking unless stable
manure or special mineral fertilizers are used.

In the improvement of these types the first step is, of course,
drainage. Both open ditches and tile drains can be installed to
advantage. Plowing fields in narrow lands with dead furrows
two to four rods apart, and having these lead into shallow open
ditches along the side of the field, will greatly assist in carrying
off surface water. In order to make the internal drainage of
the soil complete, however, tile drains should be used to supple¬
ment the surface ditches.

With thorough drainage these soils will be adapted to a wide
range of general crops. Special crops such as cabbage and sugar
beets are well suited to these lands when drained.

WHITMAN LOAM.

Extent and distribution. — This type is of small extent, occu¬
pying less than ten square miles in the county. The two largest

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

47

areas occur in Bovina township, one west and the other north¬
east of Shiocton. Other small, isolated areas are found scat¬
tered about in the northwestern part of the county.

Description. — The surface soil of the Whitman loam to a depth
of about seven inches is a dark brown to black, mellow, friable
loam rich in organic matter. It carries considerable silt, and
sometimes considerable very fine sand. It is free from stones
and gravel. The subsoil rapidly becomes lighter in color and
coarser in texture, until at about fifteen inches it is a yellowish
brown to pale yellow very fine sand. This continues to well
over three feet.

In places the subsoil will carry a little sandy clay which is a
mottled drab, yellow and brown color, but such areas are very

small.

Topography and drainage. — The topography is level, which

»

with the low position of the type, makes the. natural drainage
poor. The water table is usually within a few feet of the surface
and during the spring the soil is almost completely saturated.
At times, portions of the type are several inches under water.
In places open ditches have been constructed.

Present agricultural development. — Where properly drained,
the general farm crops common to the region are grown and ex¬
cellent yields obtained. About half of the type is under culti¬
vation. Of the special crops, cabbage, beets, and onions do well,
and some celery has been successfully grown. The chief require¬
ment of the land is good drainage. The undeveloped portion of
the type is valuable only for the pasture it affords, and the
marsh hay which may be cut.

Chemical composition and fertility. — The Whitman loam is
quite similar to the Clyde loam of southeastern Wisconsin, dif¬
fering chiefly by being acid, while the Clyde soils are not acid.
It also carries a larger proportion of very fine sand than does
the Clyde loam. From the standpoint of the plant food ele¬
ments which it contains, this may be considered a well-balanced
soil.

The Whitman loam contains from three to five times as much
nitrogen and organic matter as does the average light-colored
upland soil of this region. It contains from 1,500 to 2,000
pounds of phosphorus in the surface eight inches an acre, and
from 40,000 to 45,000 pounds of potassium.

48

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

In the improvement of this type the first step is to supply
adequate drainage. Open ditches will not be sufficient by them¬
selves, and should be supplemented by the use of tile drains.
When well drained, this will become one of the strongest and
most productive soils in Outagamie County. Because of the low
position of some of this type, its improvement would at present
require diking, which, under present conditions, would not be
justified.

DUNNING FINE SANDY LOAM. .

The surface soil of the Dunning fine sandy loam to a depth
of from four to seven inches is a dark brown to black, loose,
friable, very fine sandy loam, free from stones and gravel, and
carrying a high percentage of organic matter. The subsoil
grades abruptly into a pale yellow very fine sand, which con¬
tinues to well over three feet.

This type is of small extent and of minor importance. It oc¬
curs only in small isolated areas scattered throughout the north¬
western part of the county. The main areas occur in the eastern
half of Maine Township.

The topography is level, which with the low position of the
type makes the natural drainage poor. The water table lies
close to the surface, and for portions of the year parts of the
type may be covered with a few inches of water.

The timber growth consists mainly of alders, quaking aspen,
birch, and some maple, elm, and black ash. Practically all of
the good timber has been removed, but a dense second growth
covers most of the area. Very little of this type is under culti¬
vation. The principal crops are oats, timothy hay, and marsh
grass. On small areas which have been properly drained, cab¬
bage and onions are being grown successfully.

Chemical composition and fertility. — The Dunning fine sandy
loam is well supplied with nitrogen and organic matter in the
surface soil, but it is usually deficient in the mineral plant foods,
phosphorus and potassium. The greatest deficiency is drainage,
however, and before cultivated crops can be grown successfully,
a thorough system of drains must be provided. Open ditches as
now installed in some places are not sufficient in themselves, and
must be supplemented either by open laterals or tile drains.
When drainage has been provided, it will be found that the

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

49

most economical and profitable crop production can be secured
by the use of mineral fertilizers containing phosphorus and
potash. Such crops as alsike clover and timothy, buckwheat,
and corn may be expected to give good results on this kind of
land under good management. Corn may not always mature
because of the danger from frosts on the low land, but one is
reasonably certain of always securing good silage.

CLYDE SILT LOAM.

The surface soil of this type to a depth of about eight inches
consists of a black friable silt loam which contains a very large
amount of organic matter. The subsoil begins as a dark-colored
silt loam to about twelve or fourteen inches, when it becomes
somewhat lighter in color, frequently being of a grayish or blue
tinge and also being lighter in texture. The subsoil is quite
variable, but is most often sandy loam below eighteen inches.
In a few instances it was found to be a very fine sand which
was mottled in color.

There are some variations, but the most important one is where
the surface is really a clay loam, and the subsoil a heavy bluish
silty clay loam with lenses of sand in the lower subsoil. This
phase could justly be classed as Clyde clay loam, except that its
very limited extent makes it of little importance. This type is
of limited extent and of minor importance. It is confined to
the eastern and southern parts of the county, and occurs in a
number of widely separated areas. One of these, and perhaps
the largest, occurs in Section 15 in the town of Osborn. Other
areas are found in Sections 22, 23, and 24, in the town of Elling¬
ton, and in Section 6 in the town of Center. Several other small
tracts occur in the town of Dale. The surface of this soil is level
or having only a very gentle slope. Because of its low position
and level surface, the natural drainage is very poor, and before
it can be used for cultivated crops drainage is necessary.

But very little of this land has been cleared and placed under
cultivation, owing to the fact that its drainage is very deficient.
The best timber has been removed, and some of this land is now
being used as pasture land. Where it is possible to drain this
soil, it can be made very excellent land.

In the improvement of this soil, drainage is the first consider¬
ation. From the standpoint of the amount of plant food which

50

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

it contains, it is a well-balanced soil, and when drained will be
adapted to a wide range of crop production. Sugar beets and
cabbage are special crops which do well on this soil.

CLYDE FINE SANDY LOAM.

The surface of this soil consists of a dark brown or nearly
black fine sandy loam to a depth of about eight inches. The
subsoil is a hue sand, or fine sandy loam, extending to a depth
of over two feet. In color the subsoil is a little lighter than the
surface and may consist of a gray or yellowish, or sometimes
mottle material.

This type is of limited extent, occupying less than two square
miles. It is found in small scattered areas chiefly in the towns
of Bovina, Osborn, and Ellington. The surface is low and level,
and the natural drainage is very poor. This soil has the same
origin as the Clyde silt loam, and supported practically the
same original timber growth.

There is but very little of this soil improved at present be¬
cause of its poor drainage, and before it can be used for culti¬
vated crops drainage is necessary.

GENESEE SILT LOAM.

The surface soil of the Genesee silt loam consists of about eight
inches of brown, friable, silt loam, which at times carries a con¬
siderable quantity of very fine sand, and is usually comparatively
high in organic matter.

The subsoil is a light brown loam to silt loam, which usually
becomes lighter in color with increase in depth until at twenty-
four inches it is a pale yellow to yellowish brown.

The type is subject to considerable variation in texture and
depth. The subsoil is sometimes sticky, although it often car¬
ries large quantities of fine sand, and may grade entirely into
fine sand at from two to three feet. Small areas of shallow peat
and fine sand are encountered, although none of these variations
are large enough to be indicated on the soil map.

This type is confined chiefly to the valleys of the Embarrass,
Wolf, and Sliioc Rivers, although it is found to some extent
along practically all of the streams in the northern and western
parts of the county.

GROUP OF POORLY BRAINED SOILS.

51

The topography is level except where old stream channels cut
across the type in numerous places. The surface is low, sub¬
ject to annual overflow, and is usually wet during the spring
and early summer months. During dry spells when the streams
are low, the soil is fairly well drained.

The material forming this soil is of alluvial origin, derived
from sandstone and granitic rock debris.

The forest growth consisted chiefly of swamp oak, elm, bass¬
wood, maple, and ash with some willow. The best of the timber
has been removed, although there is still a good stand of trees
over most of the area, and in places a dense undergrowth includ¬
ing alders is encountered.

All of this type is subject to overflow. For this reason, little
attempt at improvement has been made. Aside from the marsh
hay which can be cut from a portion of the type and the pas¬
ture which it affords, it has but little present agricultural value.

If protected from overflow, this type would have a high agri¬
cultural value. A proposed canal, designed to carry the excess
water from the Wolf River, across the northern part of the
county into Duck Creek, if brought into successful operation
would solve to a large degree, the difficulty which has been en¬
countered in the improvement of this type.

GENESEE FINE SANDY LOAM.

The surface soil of the Genesee fine sandy loam consists of
about eight inches of brown, friable, very fine sandy loam. The
subsoil is a little darker in color, but the texture usually remains
the same to below three feet. In places very fine sand is encoun¬
tered at from eighteen to twenty-four inches.

Small areas of fine sand and shallow peat are encountered,
although none of these variations are large enough to be indi-
cated on the soil map.

This type is confined chiefly to the valley of the Wolf River,
where it occupies low flats bordering the stream. The surface
is low, subject to annual overflow, and is usually wet during the
spring and early summer months. During dry spells when the
stream is low, the soil is well drained.

The best of the timber has been removed, but there still re¬
mains a good stand of trees, and in many places dense under¬
growths are encountered. As all of this type is subject to over-

52

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

flow, little attempt at improvement has been made. Aside from
the marsh hay which may be cut from a portion of the type, and
the pasture which it affords, it has a very low agricultural value.
In all respects it is very similar to the Genesee silt loam, except
that the latter is higher in organic matter, and has a finer texture.

The drainage of this type under present conditions would be
very difficult in most cases, and it is probable that it will not
be improved for a long time, except for a few patches of the type
which are more favorably located than the average. With good
drainage, it will make a productive soil, adapted to a wide range
in crop production.

PEAT.

The material mapped as Peat consists of vegetable matter in
various stages of decomposition. Much of the material is still
in a very raw fibrous condition, showing quite plainly the struc¬
ture of the vegetable growth from which it is derived. In a
fibrous condition the material is brown, but with decomposition
its color becomes darker, and where thoroughly decayed it is
black or very dark brown. Mineral matter may be incorporated
with the organic matter, but seldom in sufficient quantities to
appreciably offset the texture. In the more extensive areas of
Peat there is little or no mineral matter except about the mar¬
gins, where the proportion is frequently sufficient to form muck.
The mucky areas are too small to be satisfactorily separated,
however, and are included with the Peat.

The depth of Peat is variable. The areas in which it is less
than eighteen inches are separated as a shallow phase. In some
places the organic deposits are more than ten feet deep and in
practically all the swamps with an area of one square mile or
more, the depth is more than three feet. It is generally deepest
in the center of the areas, and shallowest about the margins.

In large swamps and marshes where the material is still raw,
there is very little difference in character between the surface
material and the material several feet below the surface. Where
conditions have favored rapid decomposition the material at the
surface is frequently darker than that at lower depths, but where
the accumulation of vegetable matter on the surface has been
rapid, the lower depths are more decomposed and darker in
color. A profile section may consist of eight to sixteen inches

GROUP OF POORLY BRAINED SOILS.

53

of slightly decomposed to well decomposed brown to dark brown
vegetable matter, underlain by similar material which may be
more decomposed, or may be in a very raw condition.

The material underlying the peaty matter is variable, and
ranges from sand to silt loam or clay loam. In general, its tex¬
ture is determined largely by that of the surrounding upland
soil. In the regions of silt loam soils the underlying material
is usually heavy and of a grayish to dark brown color. Through¬
out the sandy sections in most cases the peaty material is under¬
lain by grayish to nearly white sand to very fine sand.

In places small islands of Muck, sand, or other soils have been
included with the Peat. Such areas were too small and unim¬
portant to be separated.

Areas of Peat are distributed through all parts of the county,
but are most extensive in the northwestern part. The largest
areas occur in the townships of Black Creek, Bovina, Liberty,
and Hortonia.

Practically all the Peat areas are level, or have only a very
gentle slope. The slope is nowhere sufficient to drain the ma¬
terial without the use of open ditches. Most of the areas cf
Peat are wet the greater part of the year, and theic are often a
few inches of water over the surface in the spring when heavy
rains occur.

Most of the marshes in which Peat occurs have sufficient slope
to be successfully drained. In a few instances drainage districts
have been organized, and rather extensive drainage projects arc
being developed. However, at present very little of the Peat is
under cultivation, and its agricultural value in its present state
is low.

The native trees of the Peat consisted chiefly of tamarack and
cedar. Some of the marshes do not support any trees or have
only scattered growths of tamarack, cedar, ash, etc. In most of
these places the original timber has been destroyed by fire, though
a few marshes apparently have always been treeless. On some
of the open marshes there is a coarse grass which is cut for hay,
but in most cases the vegetation consists of moss, blueberry
bushes, and other moisture-loving plants.

54

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

PEAT, SHALLOW PHASE. %

Peat, shallow phase, is differentiated from the typical peat,
solely on the basis of the thickness of the peaty deposit, the
maximum in the phase being eighteen inches. The underlying
material is very variable, and usually corresponds quite closely
to the surrounding uplands. In regions where the surrounding
soils are heavy, the subsoil is usually a silt loam or clay loam,
often mottled in color. Where the uplands are sandy, the ma¬
terial composing the subsoil is usually light, consisting of tine
sandy loam to very fine sand. The depth of the peaty material
is also variable, and ranges from six to eighteen inches.

In places small islands of muck, sand, or other soils have been
included with the peat. These areas were too small and unim¬
portant to be mapped separately.

The shallow phase of Peat is not very extensive and occurs
only in small areas scattered throughout the county.

The timber growth of this phase is practically the same as
for the typical Peat, with the exception of tamarack. This tree
is found only in a few places on shallow Peat.

The production of marsh hay is about the only use made of
this soil at present. It is used to a small extent for grazing.
In its present condition it. has a low agricultural value. When
drained it will be adapted to the same crops and types of farm¬
ing as the typical Peat.

In most cases it is easier to improve the shallow phase as it
will be more easily drained, and will require less compacting to
make a good seed bed.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FERTILITY OF PEAT SOILS.

In the improvement of the peat lands of Outagamie County,
the first step is drainage. With the exception of some of the
marsh land immediately adjoining some of the larger streams,
it is thought that most of the marshes could be readily drained
and successfully cultivated. Along some of the larger streams,
the surface of the Peat is so low that much of it would require
diking, or the lowering of the bed of the stream, which would
be very expensive and hardly justifyable under present con¬
ditions.

The crops adapted to this land depend to a considerable ex¬
tent on the degree of drainage secured, and on the thorough-

GROUP OF POORLY DRAINED SOILS.

ness with which the ground is prepared. A much less expen¬
sive and complete drainage system would be necessary to fit
this land for tame hay such as timothy and alsike clover than
would be needed to fit it for corn, sugar beets and other culti¬
vated crops. For its highest development agriculturally, a tile
drainage system in which the laterals are not more than eight
to ten rods apart would be essential.

The chief difference between peat soils and upland soils con¬
sisting largely of earthly matter, is that they have relatively
small amounts of the mineral elements phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, and magnesium, and have extremely high amounts of
nitrogen in the organic matter. The average percentage of
phosphorus in the peats of this region so far analyzed is 0.135
per cent. This means that in an acre of soil to a depth of a
foot there is approximately only 675 pounds, or in two feet
1,350 pounds, in comparison with upland soils which have ap¬
proximately twice these amounts. Moreover, the acid condition
of these soils renders the phosphorus less available than in non-
acid soil.

The deficiency of potassium in these soils is greater than
that of phosphorus. They contain on the average of 0.3 per
cent of this element, while good upland clay loam soils average
2 per cent, or over six times as much expressed in percentage.
When the greater weight of the upland soils is taken into ac¬
count it will be found that they contain in the upper two feet
120,000 pounds per acre, while the peat soils contain but 3,000
pounds.

A large amount of organic matter in these soils gives them
an extraordinary amount of nitrogen. They average 2.5 per
cent of this element, while the upland silt loam soils of this
region contain but about 0.12 per cent and this only in the
surface eight inches— the amount in deeper layers being much

less.

As a result of this difference in the chemical composition the
peat soils are very unbalanced. Their rational treatment re¬
quires the use of fertilizers containing especially the elements
phosphorus and potash. These elements are contained in rela¬
tively small amounts in barnyard manure and good applica¬
tions of manure will secure good yields of crops on peat soils,
but manure contains large amounts of nitrogen not needed
bv the peat, so that when a farm includes upland soils as well

56

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

as peat, the manure should be used on the upland soils and
commercial fertilizers containing phosphorus and potash used
on the peat land.

On the deeper peats which are in a very raw and acid condi¬
tion the use of lime in some form in addition to the commercial
fertilizers will be found profitable. Occasionally a marsh is
found on which on account of coldness and high acidity at first
nitrification or the chemical change by which the nitrogen in
the organic matter becomes available to crops does not take
place readily and the use of a light application of composted
stable manure to inoculate the soil with the proper organisms
is very helpful.

Crops and system of farming on marsh lands. — Since the
growth of corn and potatoes to which these marsh lands would
otherwise be well adapted, is limited in this section on account
of the danger from frost, the best staple crops for this land are
grasses for hay and pasture, hardy root crops, and rye and, to a
less extent, oats. When properly fertilized and limed, clover,
alfalfa, and other legumes can also be grown. On fairly well
drained marsh land not too raw good pasture can also be de¬
veloped. The compacting of the soil resulting from the use of
this land as pasture is also a great benefit to it. When peat
land is placed under cultivation a heavy roller should be classed
along with implements necessary to its successful management.

On account of the crops to which this land is adapted and its
use as a pasture, marsh lands can be used for dairying or stock
raising to good advantage.

Certain special crops, such as cabbage, onions, buckwheat, and
rape, are well adapted to such lands when well drained and fer¬
tilized.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE.

57

CHAPTER VI.

\

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE.

HISTORY.

As was the case in a large number of Wisconsin comities,
the development of Agriculture in Outagamie County was pre¬
ceded by the logging and lumbering industries.

The first settlement in what is now Outagamie County was
made about 1843 by Father Van Der Broeck who had been mis¬
sionary to the Indians of the region for a number of years. He
was instrumental in bringing a colony of Dutch immigrants
who located at Little Chute. During this same year, the first
buildings were erected in Appleton. The first farms opened
after the advance of the lumbermen were small tracts, and often
large areas of land remained in the cut-over stage for a con¬
siderable time before being parceled out in small farms.

As the timber was first removed from the region adjoining
the Fox River, agricultural development had its beginning also
in this region.

The crops which were grown by the early settlers were chiefly
those which were used for home, or, at least, local consumption,
and consisted largely of wheat, corn, potatoes, hay, root crops,
etc. The methods which were at first followed were crude and
no attempts were made, to follow any definite system of rota¬
tion or cultivation. Throughout the Fox River Valley the soils
are of a heavy nature, and cultivation is more difficult than on
the lighter soils. Cultural operations were not thorough. At
times the ground was scratched only a little before grain was
planted.

While nearly all of the merchantable timber has been re¬
moved from this county and a large proportion of the land
placed under cultivation, there are still some sections which
have considerable undeveloped land. The section least de\ el¬
oped is confined to the northeastern part of the county which

58

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

was originally included in the Oneida Indian Reservation. In
the northwestern portion of the county in Maine, Deer Creek,
Bovina, and Maple Creek townships there are considerable areas
which are also unimproved due to the fact that in this region
there is a large amount of poorly drained land and also some
that is of a sandy nature. The greater proportion of the county,
however, is highly improved agriculturally.

While practically all of the general farm crops now grown
were produced in the early history of the region, the relative
importance of a number of crops has changed to a considerable
degree. From the various census reports we gather very inter¬
esting information along this line. In 1880 there were 40,906
acres devoted to wheat which was nearly three times the acreage
devoted to oats, and more than twice the acreage devoted to
corn. In 1890 there were only 22,000 acres in wheat, but the
acreage of oats had increased to over 31,000. In 1910 the acre¬
age of wheat had dropped to 549 while the acreage of corn
was 28,000 and oats 53,000. In 1920 there were 6,748 acres in
wheat. In 1880 there were only about 3,000 acres in barley ; in
1910 there were over 17,000 acres, and in 1920, 9,600 acres.
The following table shows the relative importance of the lead¬
ing crops over a period of years.

TABLE SHOWING ACREAGE OP LEADING CROPS OVER A PERIOD OF YEARS.

Crop

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

Wheat - _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _

40,906

17,569

15,209

2,964

1,269

22,009

11,908

31,478

3,097

4,191

15,113

20,344

54,680

10,229

2,961

549

28,038

53,004

17,403

2,744

48,502

7,301

21,177

46,116

9,600

2,923

59,181

Oom_ ... _ _ _ _ _

O ’ts _ _ _ _

Barley _ _ _ _ _

Rye _ _ _ _ _

Hay -

PRESENT STATUS OF AGRICULTURE.

The Agriculture of Outagamie County at present consists
chiefly of general or mixed farming with dairying as the most
important branch. The chief crops grown according to acre¬
age (taken from the 1920 census) are hay, oats, corn, barley,
wheat, potatoes, and rye, with buckwheat, peas, sugar beats,
and beans as crops of less importance. During the past few
years the acreage of wheat has increased over ten fold. This
increase was undoubtedly due to the greater demand for wheat
owing to the war situation.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE.

59

Practically all of the crops grown in this region may be con¬
sidered in part as cash crops, for hay, corn, oats, rye, and barley
are sold to some extent directly from the farms. Potatoes are
grown mainly for sale although they are one of the most im¬
portant subsistence crops. By far the greater proportion of the
hay, corn, and oats produced is used in feeding livestock, and
thus much of it finally reaches the market in the form of dairy
products, beef, and pork. A considerable quantity of grain and
hay is used as feed for work stock.

Oats is grown more extensively than any other crop except
hay. Its production is distributed throughout the county, and
while it is grown on nearly all of the soils, best returns are
secured from the fine sandy loams, loams, and clay loams rather
than from the soils of lighter texture.

Hay is the crop which is first in importance from the stand¬
point of acreage. This includes timothy and clover, together
or separately, alfalfa, and also such crops as oats, or oats and
peas which may be cut green for hay. Only a small proportion
of the total hay crop consists of this latter variety, however.
Hay- makes its best growth on the soils of medium to heavy
texture rather than on the light sandy types.

Corn is the crop of third importance from the standpoint of
acreage. While corn will usually mature in this section a large
proportion of it is used as ensilage since nearly every farmer
has a silo. The soils of this county which are best adapted to
corn raising are the fine sandy loams which have a rather heavy
subsoil, since the sandy surface permits the ground to warm
up quite early; so the crop can get a start more readily than
on the heavier soils where the drainage is rather deficient, and
the ground rather cold in the spring.

Barley is a crop of considerable importance and is grown on
a variety of soils.

Rve is confined more extensively to the sandy portions of the
county because these soils will produce rye better than any other
grain crop.

The growing of potatoes while of some importance has not
reached the magnitude which this industry has in either Wau¬
paca or Portage Counties to the west. This fact is due chiefly
to the soil in Outagamie County some of which is heavy and not
so well suited to the commercial growing of potatoes as are the
lighter soils of the other two counties mentioned. In 1920 the

60

SOIL SUUVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

total area was 4,138 acres. Commercially potatoes are confined
more extensively to the sandy soils of the northwestern portion
of the county. They are .also grown to a considerable extent
on such soils as the Superior fine sandy loam, rolling phase,
which is very well suited to this crop.

There are a number of special crops which are grown to
some extent in this county. The most important of these crops
is cabbage, grown most extensively in the vicinity of Shiocton.
In this region cabbage is grown chiefly on the alluvial soils. The
-total acreage amounted to 2,550 acres, according to the county
report of 1917, with an average yield of 9.8 tons per acre, or a
total production of nearly 25,000 tons.

Onions and sugar beets are also grown to a limited extent.

Some trucking is carried on in the vicinity of nearly all the
towns, especially in the vicinity of Appleton and Kaukauna, al¬
though the soils in that portion of the county are not particu¬
larly well suited to this industry. These truck crops consist of
cabbage, lettuce, radishes, onions, strawberries, and other vege¬
tables and small fruits.

The following table shows the acreage and production of the
important farm crops in Outagamie County.

TABLE SHOWING ACREAGE OF FARM CROPS IN OUTAGAMIE COUNTY,

WISCONSIN.

Crop

1909

1919

Corn _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Oats _ _ _

28,038 A.
53,004

246

287

37,840 A.
46,116

Winter wheat _ _ _

Spring wheat... __ _ _ _ _ „ .

Wheat _ , _ _

7,301

9,600

2,923

399

277

49,181

47,713

321

24,990 T.

Barley-- _ _

17,403

2,744

334

649

48,502

Rye.— _ _ _ _ _

Buckwheat _ _

Dried peas _ _ _ _

Tame hay_._ — _ _

Clover and timothy _ _

Alfalfa _ _ _ _

Cabbage _ _

Beans . . _

138

3,422

4,276

403 A.

Wild hay _ _ _

Potatoes _ -. _

4,138 A.

508

1,698

Sugar beets _ _

Silos _ _ _ _ _

The growing of fruit is given comparatively little attention
in Outagamie County. The fruit which is produced is grown
chiefly for home use. On many of the farms there is a small
orchard, which usually supplies apples for home use. Apples

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE.

61

do best over that portion of the county where the surface is
somewhat rolling, on such as the rolling phase of Superior fine
sandy loam and Miami types. The census of 1920 reported that
there were at that time about 51,538 apple trees in the county

of bearing age. There were also 7,390 cherry trees of bear¬
ing age.

There were approximately 600 grape vines in bearing at that
time, and about 72 acres devoted to strawberries.

In this connection the fact may also be mentioned that in
1920 there were about 3,865 maple trees which were being used
for the production of maple syrup and sugar.

The raising of live stock is an important industry in this re¬
gion. Dairying is the most important branch of the live stock
industry, but some beef cattle and a large number of hogs are
also raised.

Poultry may be mentioned along with the general live stock
industry.

Dairying is by far the most important branch of agriculture
which is followed in Outagamie County at present. The census
of 1919 reported that there were slightly over 56,000 dairy cows
in the county. During that year approximately 17,550,000 gal¬
lons of milk were produced. The dairy products find their
way to market chiefly in the form of cheese, butter, and con¬
densed milk. There is also an appreciable amount of milk
which is delivered as whole milk in the towns and cities of the
area, and also some whole milk which is shipped to Green Bay.

There is one condensery in New London, just over the line
in Waupaca County, which receives a considerable amount of
milk from Outagamie County. In 1917, there were twentj^-one
butter factories and eighty-six cheese factories in the county.
Of the dairy cows, those of the Holstein breed are most nu¬
merous, and there are a number of pure breds throughout the
county although the grades still predominate. The following
table shows the number of butter and cheese factories in this
county, and also the amounts of cheese which have been pro¬
duced and marketed.

(3 2

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

TABLE FROM WISCONSIN DAIRY AND FOOD COMMISSIONER.

Butter

Factories

Cheese

Factories

1910 . - _ _

20

19

24

21

Pounds
of cheese
produced

79

79

81

86

Amount
received
for cheese

1916 .. .. _

1918 - _ — - _

1915 _ __ _ _ _

9,190,978

9,535,888

$1,246,872.25

2,081,424.32

1917 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ —

ADAPTATION OF CROPS TO SOILS.

There is wide variation in the texture of the soils as they
are found in Outagamie County, and also a wide range in the
drainage conditions. It is generally recognized by farmers that
some crops are better adapted than others to various soil types,
but not so much attention has been given to the selection of
crops and their adaptation to soils in this region as should be.
As a result of experiments conducted at the various experiment
stations, valuable information has been secured in this connec¬
tion. In selecting crops to be grown, the question of climate
should be considered as well as soil, since in this region the
growing season is somewhat shorter than in southern Wisconsin,
and with such a crop as corn which is susceptible to frosts,
this is a very important matter.

In the growing of corn, the texture of the soil in this region
is very important. On the heavy soils, the season is often
rather backward ; and since the season is rather short, the soils
of a somewhat sandy nature are preferred. Probably the Su¬
perior fine sandy loam, rolling phase, is one of the best corn
soils of this region. At the Spooner Station, the variety of corn
known as Wisconsin No. 25 has been found to ripen within one
hundred days. This variety is often ripe enough to permit
seed selection by August 23d, may be fully ripe August 30th,
and yet produced eight to fifteen tons of silage per acre. For
seven years No. 25 averaged 57.4 bushels of corn an acre.

In the matter of raising oats, this crop is better adapted to
the soils of heavy texture, fine sandy loam or heavier, rather

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE.

63

than to the lighter soils. On the Ashland Experiment Farm,
Pedigree No. 4 (Early Gothland) has been found to be a very
satisfactory variety of oats to grow. In 1920 this variety out-
yielded all other varieties, and in spite of a favorable season to
favor rank growth, showed very little lodging. So far, early
Gothland seems especially well adapted to upper Wisconsin, al¬
though one other new strain, No. 1214, has outyielded Pedigree
No. 4 by eight bushels an acre on a six-year average. The Ash¬
land Station is on heavy, red clay soil, which is practically the
same as the soil in the Fox River Valley.

Wheat is grown to some extent in this region, and could be
grown much more extensively with profit. At the Ashland Ex¬
periment Station on the red clay land the variety of wheat
known as Baska, No. 408, has yielded as high as 51 bushels an
acre, or an average of 31 bushels for a seven-year period. The
variety No. 11837 yielded 34.2 bushels an acre for seven-year
period, and variety No. 11825 yielded 32.4 bushels an acre for
the same period. These are all winter wheats, and it has been
demonstrated that winter wheats give larger yields and are
more profitable to raise than spring wheats. Of the spring grain
which have been tried, Marquis seems to give the best results.
The well drained red clay lands seem to be better adapted to
wheat growing in northern Wisconsin than the other type of
soils. In considering these results it should be kept in mind of
course that the climatic conditions at Ashland are somewhat
different than in Outamagie county, although similar soils
are to be found in both regions.

Peas are grown to a greater or less extent in this region,
and their production could be materially extended with profit.
The varieties which have given the best results at the Ashland
Experiment Station on the red clay are the Scotch, which has
yielded 22.9 bushels an acre over a period of ten years, and the
Green which yielded 22.6 bushels an acre over the same period.
Peas pay better and give a larger profit per acre than any of
the small grains.

The growing of rye can be made profitable, and this crop is
especially well adapted to soils of a somewhat sandy nature;
in fact, it does better on the sandy soils than any of the other
small grains. Wisconsin Rye, Pedigree No. 2, has given very
good satisfaction as grown at the Spooner Experiment Station,
as well as in other sections of the state. Winter rye should be

64

SOIL SUEYEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

grown instead of spring rye, since the yields are materially
higher, the average for several years at the Madison Station
giving 44.1 bushels (winter rye), and 23.9 bushels spring rye.
The weight per bushel of the winter rye is also somewhat higher
than the spring rye. Rye can be grown with profit on heavy
soils as well as light soils, but as indicated, it gives better re¬
sults on the sandy land than the other small grains.

Potatoes where grown on a commercial scale usually give
more satisfactory results on soils which are somewhat sandy.
Potato growing in Outagamie County is not so highly developed
as in Portage or Waushara County, but there are soils here
which are very well adapted to this crop. The Superior fine
sandy loam, rolling phase, should be especially well suited to
potato growing. Very good yields have been secured on the
heavy clay lands similar to those in Outagamie County, but the
difficulties of growing and harvesting are much greater than
on lighter soils.

In regard to root crops, carrots and rutabagas do better than
mangles or beets on the light soils. Excellent yields of mangles
and beets have been secured on the Superior clay loam. Mon¬
arch rutabagas have yielded on an average of 24.57 tons an
acre, and the Bangholm rutabagas yielded 21 tons an acre. The
Mammoth long red mangle yielded 17.49 tons an acre, and sugar
beets yielded 17.87 tons an acre.

The various types of farming are also influenced by soil con¬
ditions, and the dairy industry is most highly developed in the
region of heavy soils. Agriculture is less developed in the por¬
tions of the county where the soils are of a sandy nature.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

• '

In discussing rotations, farm crops may be divided into three
classes :

1. Grain crops — generally shallow feeders, add little humus
or organic matter, and tend to weediness.

2. Ilay crops — legumes, timothy, etc. Legumes have exten¬
sive root systems, tap roots, add organic matter or humus and
also plant food (nitrogen). They also improve the physical
condition of the soil.

3. Cultivated crops — corn, potatoes, etc., conserve moisture,
favor decomposition of organic matter, and destroy weeds.
Some are deep feeders, as corn, while root crops are shallow
feeders.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE.

65

A good rotation should necessarily include crops belonging
to each of these three classes. The value of such practice is
apparent in its effect on the physical condition of the soil, on
weediness, on organic matter supply, on plant diseases, and
on nitrogen supply of the soil. Better yields are, therefore,
obtained when crops are rotated than when a single cropping
system is followed.

Again, crop rotation permits raising livestock and means di¬
versified farming. No one will deny the benefits of this type
of farming in stabilizing farm business and making best use
of labor and equipment the year around.

It should not be understood, however, that crop rotation
means maintaining the supply of plant food better than where
a single cropping system is practiced. It is often said that
certain crops are “hard” on the soil in the sense that they
remove more plant food than other crops. In part that is true,
but a more important difference is that some plants remove
more of certain elements than others. Again, a crop like corn,
because of its root development and length of growing season,
may utilize plant food that is less soluble.

Potatoes require relatively more potassium ; corn draws
heavily on nitrogen ; while legumes are heavy feeders of lime
(calcium) and also require large amounts of phosphorus, po¬
tassium, and nitrogen (some of which may be extracted from
the air in the soil). Again, grain crops and roots require
plant food that is readily available, while corn is less par¬
ticular in this respect.

By properly rotating crops, therefore, the soil is subjected
to these different “feeding characteristics”. One crop com¬
pensates for the other, and there is maintained more nearly
a balanced condition than with the single crop system.

It is of great importance that in selecting crops to grow,
careful consideration be given to the question of climate. This
is about the only factor which the farmer cannot control. A
poor soil may be improved, better markets may be found, and
better labor secured; but the farmer is powerless to change
climatic conditions. He must, therefore, select such crops
as are suited to his climate.

The soil is also a factor of great importance. As a general
rule, small grain crops do better on heavy than on light soils,
and the same is true of grasses grown for hay. On the other

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

fib

hand, the same variety of corn requires a shorter season for
maturity on light than on heavy soil. Rather light soils and
those of intermediate texture are better adapted to potato
growing.

Shipping and marketing facilities must also be considered
in planning a rotation. The farmer located on a sandy loam
farm close to a railroad station or home market will often
find it profitable to include potatoes in his rotation. If he is
located six or seven miles from a station, the profits from grow¬
ing potatoes will be much lessened. It will then pay him bet¬
ter to raise more corn for stock feeding, and to convert his
crops into dairy products which are less bulky, and which for
the same bulk have a greater value.

There is no one best system of rotation.* The rotation de-
pends on the system of farming, and this depends largely on
the personal choice of the farmer, for some prefer one system
and some another. It is highly desirable to rotate crops, but
a serious mistake to think that rotation takes the place of
other equally sound practices, such as liming and fertilizing.

Following are a few suggestions regarding .the selection of
rotations for Outagamie County.

1. Rye.

2. Barley, oats, or spring wheat seeded to clover.

3. Clover.

4. Cultivated crop.

5. Peas.

This rotation has been worked out at the Experiment Station
Farm at Madison. The following rotation has been worked out
at the Experiment Station on sandy soils :

1. Rye, sown as soy beans.

2. Clover.

3. Corn or potatoes.

4. Soy beans.

Other rotations suited to heavier soils consists of

1. Corn.

2. Oats or barley.

3. Clover. #

4. Winter wheat seeded to clover.

5. Clover.

1. Clover.

♦See Bulletins 222. 347 Wis. Exp. Station.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE.

(>7

2. A cultivated crop.

3. Peas.

4. Winter wheat seeded to clover.

A three-year rotation which is quite commonly used is a culti¬
vated crop, followed by a small grain, followed by clover. This
may be changed to a four-year rotation by planting timothy and
clover, and cutting hay for two years. This may be changed
to a five-year rotation by following mixed hay with peas, and
then following peas with a cultivated crop. Potatoes fit in well
with a rotation, and in the sandy sections may be grown in rota¬
tion with small grain and clover ; the second crop of clover is
plowed down to supply organic matter.

On the marsh lands as they are reclaimed the question of
crop rotation should also be considered. There are three types
of farming to which marsh soils are adapted, and these are stock
raising or dairy farming, trucking or a combination of the two
in which neither type predominates. Grain farming cannot as
yet be recommended on marsh soils. Where a farmer has thirty
or forty acres of peat he can divide the field into four parts and
raise cabbage on one, sugar beets on one, grain on one, and hay
on the other. Thus a four-year rotation of hay, sugar beets,
cabbage and grain would be practiced on the peat. On a dairy
farm, two or three crops of corn may be grown in succession but
in this region one should take into account the danger from
frost. The corn may be followed by grain, and this by clover
and timothy. The hay may be cut the first year and pastured
the second. Potatoes may also be grown on peat land but here
again the danger from frost must be considered. In some local¬
ities outside of this area in this and other states, a one-crop sys¬
tem is being followed where celery, peppermint, or some other
crop is the entire source of income. While a rotation of crops
on such land is not absolutely essential, a change of crops is de¬
sirable to aid in the control of weeds and insect pests.

FARM EQUIPMENT.

Agriculture in Outagamie County is highly developed, and the
farm buildings over most of the area reflect the prosperous
condition of the farm population. Large, well-painted barns
equipped with modern appliances for the handling of dairy
cattle, are common throughout the Fox River Valley, and the
region covered by the Superior soils. The houses are well con-

68

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

strueted and painted ; many of them are supplied with electric
lights, telephone, and rural mail service. In 1920 there were
2,043 silos arid 343 tractors in Outagamie County. In the more
sandy and less developed sections of the county represented by
the districts in the central and north central part, the farm
buildings are not so well constructed, neither are they kept in
as good repair, as in the Fox River Valley. Even in this re¬
gion, however, the condition may be considered, fair ; and it may
be said that the fertility of the soil is reflected in the character
of the buildings and equipment on each farm.

FARM TENURE AND LABOR.

In 1920 there were 3,746 farms in Outagamie County, the

average size of which was 92.9 acres. Of this number of farms

only 688 are operated by foreign born farmers ; 84.1 per cent

of the land in the countv is in farms, and of the land in farms

*/

68 per cent is improved. There are on each farm an average
of 63.2 acres of improved land.

Of all the farms, 90.81 per cent, or 3,400 farms, are operated
bj7 the owners, 42 by managers, and 304 are operated by tenants.
Of the farms which are rented, somewhat more than 50 per
cent are on a cash rental basis, and the remainder on a share
basis.

The census of 1920 reported 2,271 farms in the county upon
which there was a mortgage debt. The same report indicated
that 1,039 farms were free from mortgaged debt. There was
no report on a number of farms.

The supply of farm labor is fairly good. In many cases women
and children assist in farm work. When men are hired by
the year or month, the wage ranges from $40.00 to $70.00 a
month, depending on the experience of the man. Married men
are usually given a house in which to live as well as fuel and a
garden. During harvest and haying times when extra labor is
often needed, the wages are somewhat higher than this, when
engaged by the day.

METHODS.

In general, the methods of farming which are followed are
practically the same as those practiced throughout the general
farming and dairying sections in Wisconsin. The silo is in
common use, and about 60 per cent of the corn crop is handled

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE. - 69

as ensilage. The hay crop is usually stored in the barn or
stacked, and used mainly as feed for stock. In the production
of crops, modern machinery is in use, and the tractor is quite
common in most parts of the county. It is considered desirable
to plow heavy land in the fall if it is possible to do so, but on
light, sandy soils spring plowing is preferable. On almost all
farms a rotation of crops is practiced, although not always the
one which is best suited to conditions prevailing on the farm.

The heavy soils of the Superior series require careful tillage
and must be plowed when the moisture conditions are most
favorable in order to prevent the formation of clods. Heavy
tools and work stock are needed on this land, but when culti¬
vated under proper conditions but little difficulty is experienced '
in securing a good seed bed.

In the cultivation of marsh soils which are beginning to be
improved, the use of a roller for compacting the peat is very
important. The roller is also an implement which can be used
to advantage on the sandy soils, and the corrugated roller is
especially desirable.

LIMING.*

Outagamie County lies in part within the glaciated limestone
region of Wisconsin, and a considerable proportion of the soils
have been derived in part from limestone material. The sub¬
soil of most of the types is well supplied with lime, and the
surface of the soil in many places is neutral or only very
slightly acid; in fact, many tests for acidity have been made
where the soil does not show any reaction whatever. The types
which are most apt to show an acid reaction are soils of the
Antigo series, Whitman series, Coloma series, and the peat, soils.
Where the peat is surrounded by soils of the Superior series,

the least acidity in marshes is found.

The degree of acidity is somewhat variable, and each farmer
may find a variation in acidity on his farm. It is essential,
therefore, that every farm should have his various fields tested
before making an expenditure for lime. The county agent can
do this, or samples may be sent to the Soils Department of the
University where free tests will be made. Failure of clover
and alfalfa or a growth of sorrel may be an indication of acidity.

■►See Bulletin No. 312 Wisconsin Experiment Station.

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

70

About two tons of ground limestone per acre is the usual ap¬
plication where soils show slight to medium acidity. The amount
to be used, however, may vary with the degree of acidity, the
character of the soil, and the crop to be grown. Such crops
as alfalfa, sweet clover, peas, cabbage, onions, and lettuce have
a high lime requirement. Clover, garden beans, barley, hemp,
turnips, and radishes have a medium lime requirement, while
vetch, white clover, oats, rye, blue grass, potatoes, sorghum, and
others have a low requirement for lime.

Ground limestone is doubtless the most economical fortn of
lime which can be extensively utilized in Outagamie County.
Lime should be applied previous to planting the crop which
is to be benefited. It should be applied to plowed land and
thoroughly worked in by harrowing. Either fall, winter, or
spring applications may be made on heavy soils, but on light
soils spring application is preferable.

The best way to apply lime is with a regular spreader made
for this purpose, and there are a number on the market. A
manure spreader may also be used by first putting in a thin layer
of manure and spreading the limestone evenly on top of the
manure. Where several farmers are so situated that they can
work together, a lime spreader may be secured jointly for this
purpose.

After making a first application of two tons per acre, it is
not likely that another application will be needed for four to
six years, and the need should again be determined by soil
acidity tests, as well as by the story which the crops them¬
selves tell.

It should be remembered that most acid soils are also deficient
in available phosphorus, but applying lime will not add to the
total amount of phosphorus in the soil. The need of phos¬
phorus may be so great that but little result will be secured from
liming until phosphorus is also added. Frequently the appli¬
cation of phosphorus alone to an acid soil will result in larger
increases than the use of lime alone, and for this reason, it is
important that both deficiencies should be corrected to secure
the most economical production.

GEXEHAL AC* HI Cl' LTV RE AND CLIMATE.

71

DISTRIBUTION OF LIME, COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER AND MANURE.’

Phosphate or other fertilizers or lime should be uniformly

distributed. Ground limestone is applied at the rate of from

2.000 to 4.000 pounds or more an acre, while with phosphates

and other fertilizers the amount applied for staple crops is

usually from 75 to 400 pounds. It is difficult to construct a

machine which will satisfactorily distribute both fertilizer and

»/

limestone, although excellent machines are on the market for
distributing each separately. The fertilizer distributor may
be a part of a grain drill or a separate machine. The ma¬
chine for distributing ground limestone should be provided
with a double agitator so as to secure continuous feeding.

End gate seeders which will distribute proper amounts of
either fertilizer or ground limestone fairly well are available.

When a fertilizer distributor is not available the acid phos¬
phate or other fertilizer may be spread evenly over the manure
in the manure spreader, and so receive a very fair distribution.
This method will give very good results until such time as a
grain drill with fertilizer attachment can be purchased. The
amount to be applied on each spreader load must be calculated
so the right amount per acre will be applied. An old drill or
seeder may also be used to distribute the fertilizer going ahead
of the grain drill.

The care and use of the manure produced is an important
factor in the management of dairy and stock farms. The chief
advantage of these types of farming is that the proper use of
the manure or other waste products makes it possible to main¬
tain profitable yields with comparatively little purchased fer¬
tilizer. But it is only when intelligent care is taken that this
result is possible. Much of the available plant food in manure
is readily soluble in water, so that if the manure is exposed
to the rain in fiat or shallow piles, a considerable part of its
value is lost. This affects nitrogen and potash especially. It is
important also to recognize that a large portion of this element
is in the liquid part of the manure and that it is necessary,
therefore, to use bedding or absorbents freely to prevent a con¬
siderable loss. This is particularly true of potash, about 60 per
cent of which is contained in the liquid manure.

♦For detailed information on the use of commercial fertilizers see
bulletins of the Wisconsin Experiment Station.

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

72

Ordinarily the best practice is to haul the manure directly
to the field. When this is not practicable the pile should be
kept compact, well trodden and moist, as it can be through the
use of slightly saucer-shaped manure pit, from the outer sides
of which the ground slopes away so as to prevent water wash¬
ing into the pit itself. In this climate the use of shelter is of
doubtful importance, though where more rains occur, particu¬
larly in the winter, a shed roof is very helpful.

The rate and frequency with which manure is applied de¬
pends in part on the character of the soil on the farm. On
lighter soils more frequent applications of small amounts are
desirable than on heavier soils. Five or six loads per acre every
third year is desirable on the sandy loams, while eight to twelve
or more every fourth or even fifth year mav be used to ad-
vantage on heavier soils.

DRAINAGE.*

t .

Outagamie County has approximately 115,000 acres of land
which the soil survey has classed as poorly drained, and which
must be provided with some form of drainage before cultivated
crops can be grown safely from year to year. Of this poorly
drained land, approximately 50 per cent consists of peat, nearly
15,000 acres consists of overflow land classed as Genesee, and
the remainder consists of low, poorly drained mineral soils, be¬
longing to the Povgan, Whitman, and Clyde Series. This esti¬
mate does not include the Superior clay loam which is a level,
heavy soil, needing drainage in places.

The largest areas of undrained land occur in the northwest¬
ern quarter and the west central parts adjoining the Wolf,
Embarrass, and Shioc Rivers.

At the present time, there are approximately eighteen thou¬
sand acres of poorly drained land in operating drainage enter
prises. Of this, 5,468 acres are classed as improved, but only
2 to 3 per cent of this improved land is actually in farms.
There are 68.4 miles of open ditches with six additional miles
under construction. The amount of capital invested in enter¬
prises which have been completed or which are under construc-
t on amounts to $167,540.

*Tho^e who are interested in drainage should apply to the Wisconsin
Experiment Station for more specific information concerning their indi¬
vidual problems. Several drainage bulletins are available.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE. 7

1 he type of low land which offers the greatest opportunity for
drainage is included in the Poygan, Whitman, and Clyde Series.
These types of land when thoroughly drained will all make
excellent farm land, and conditions are such that most of this
land can be reclaimed at a cost which will make the development
profitable. The peat soils, on the other hand, require much
more careful cultivation and fertilization after drainage, and
much of this land also lies tributary to large streams which are
sluggish in their movement, and the lowering of which is fre¬
quently necessary before the adjoining peat land can be thor¬
oughly drained.

The drainage of some of the peat, therefore, offers obstacles
greater than the drainage of the heavier soils. There are consid¬
erable areas of peat land, however, which can be readily drained,
and on which drainage enterprises are now under way. The
completion of these various drainage enterprises will add a lanre
acreage to the tillable land within the county.

Most of the marsh land within the county is still unimproved,
and the chief use which is being made of it is for pasture and
to some extent for marsh hay.

Where areas of low land include several farms, the owners
can readily form a drainage district, and sell bonds to pay for
the improvement. This is the method which has been used, and
a number of drainage districts have already been established
in the county. I11 this way, the cost of the drainage can be
spread over a number of years, and can actually be paid for
from the products of the improved acres. Assistance in the
development of such projects can, and in fact must, be secured
from the state authorities, who pass upon the possibility of the
project before the state permits the organization of a drainage
district. Where the areas of marsh land are small and confined
to one farm, and where there is sufficient outlet, the farmer can
install his own tile system without the co-operation of adjoining
land owners. This has been done on a number of occasions, yet
there are thousands of acres in small tracts which have not been
improved.

For a more detailed discussion of drainage, see bulletins 284
and 309, Wisconsin Experiment Station.

74

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

CLIMATE.

The climate of Outagamie County is typical of that of east-
central Wisconsin. It is healthful, though subject to extreme
changes in temperature. The winters are long and severe. The
thermometer frequently falls as low as — 20° F. The ground
freezes to a depth of 1 to 3 feet. Snow usually remains on the
ground from December to March or later and protects such win¬
ter crops as clover, alfalfa, and wheat. The summers are com¬
paratively short, but pleasant. The thermometer sometimes
reaches 100° F. or more. The highest temperature recorded at
New London is 104° F., but such extremes are rare. The hot¬
test periods during the summer months seldom continue for more
than a few days, and it is unusual for the temperature to re¬
main below zero for more than a week at a time during the
winter.

The average rainfall of 32.68 inches is distributed throughout
the year, although the precipitation is heaviest during the grow¬
ing season and lightest in the winter. The average for the sum¬
mer months of June, July and August is 11.63 inches.

The average date of the last killing frost in the spring, as re¬
corded at New London, is May 10, and that of the first in the
fall, September 25. This gives an average growing season of
138 days. The length, however, varies somewhat in different
parts of the county, and in the southeastern part of the county,
in the region of the Fox River, the season may be 5 to 10 days
longer. Killing frost has been recorded at New London as late
in the spring as June 12 and as early in the fall as August 30.

In the following table are given the more important climatic
data as recorded by the Weather Bureau station at New London :

c/

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND ULULATE.

/ .)

NORMAL MONTHLY, SEASONAL, AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPI¬
TATION AT NEW LONDON.

Month .

December _

.January _

February _

Winter

March _

April _

May _

Spring

./ one _

July _

August -

Summer

September _

October _

November _

Fall _

Year _

Temperature.

Precipitation.

\

1

Total

Total

amount

amount

Absolute

Absolute

for the

for the

Mean.

Maxi-

mini-

Mean.

driest

wettest

mum.

mum.

year

year

(1910) .

(1916).

°F.

° F.

Inches.

Inches.

20.5

53

-25

1.39

0.82

0.73

15.4

52

—31

1.10

1.16

2.89

16.1

50

—37

1.28

.84

1.23

17.3

53

-37

3.77

2.82

4.85

•29.6

82

—IS

2.04

.12

1.79

41.5

87

8

2.69

5.89

2.27

56.1

91

20'

1.41

1.63

5.35

43.4

91

-18 |

9.14

7.64

9.41

65.8

104

32

3.94

1.16

6.81

70.4

102

41 !

4.35

.78

1.70

67.9

97

33

3.34

2.78

3.78

68.0

104

32

11.63

4.72

12.29

60.5

97

19 ,

3.67

4.83

6.40

48.8

85

14

2.50

1.30

4.75

33.6

71

—14

1.97

2.34

2.70

47.6

97

—14

8.14

8.47

13.86

44.1

104

-37

32.68

23.65

40.40

76

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

SUMMARY.

Outagamie County is situated in the east central part of Wis¬
consin, between Lake Winnebago and Green Bay. It has an
area of 646 square miles, or 413,440 acres.

All of the countv drains directly or indirectly into Green Bay.
The southeastern corner is traversed by the Fox River, which
flows directly into Green Bay. The western part of the county
is crossed by the Embarrass, Shioc and Wolf Rivers, the waters
of which find their way into Lake Winnebago, and then through
the Fox River into Green Bay. The first-named streams are
rather sluggish, but the Fox River in a distance of 35 miles has
a fall of 170 feet. Many large manufacturing establishments
use power developed from this stream.

Farm operations in this county followed closely upon the re¬
moval of the timber. All parts of the county are well improved.
The northwestern part, which contains considerable areas of
Peat marshes and some tracts of sandy soil, is least developed.

All parts of the county are well supplied with railroads, and
the wagon roads throughout the county are generally in good
condition. Under a State Highway improvement law many
gravel and crushed-rock roads are now being constructed. A
system of concrete roads, which will ultimately connect the
county seat with practically all towns in the county, is one of
the most important road projects.

The soils of Outagamie County have been derived from glacial,
lacustrine, and alluvial material. In addition, there are large
deposits of Peat, consisting of partly decayed organic matter.
The soils are classified into 10 series and 24 types, exclusive of
Peat.

The Superior series -include light-brown soils with heavy, red
clay subsoils, occupying areas where the surface is level to roll¬
ing. The fine sandy loam, loam, silt loam, and clay loam are
mapped in this survey.

The Poygan series consists of dark-colored, low lying, poorly
drained soils having heavy, red clay subsoils. In this county the
fine sandy loam, silt loam and clay loam are mapped.

The Coloma series includes the light-colored, light textured
soils which have been derived through glacial action largely from
sandstone. The Coloma fine sand and fine sandy loam are
mapped in this countv.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE.

77

The Antigo series consists of light-colored soils which occupy
out wash plains or stream terraces where the material has come
mainly from crystalline rocks. The types mapped in this sur¬
vey are the fine sandy loam and loam.

The Plainfield fine sand is similar to the Antigo soils except
that it has been derived largely from sandstone material.

The Miami fine sandy loam and loam are light-colored upland
soils derived chiefly from glaciated limestone material.

The Whitman series is similar to the Antigo except that the
soils are dark colored and contain much larger amounts of or¬
ganic matter. They are often acid. The types mapped are the
fine sandy loam and loam.

The Clyde series consists of low-lying, dark-colored soils occu¬
pying old lake beds or stream valleys where the soil material has
come largely from glaciated limestone. They are similar to the
Whitman soils except that they contain considerable lime car¬
bonate and are very seldom acid. The members of the Clyde
series mapped are the fine sandy loam, till phase, and the silt
loam, till phase.

The Genesee series consists of brown soils which occupy first
bottoms along streams in the glaciated region. They are sub¬
ject to overflow. The fine sandy loam and silt loam are mapped
in this county.

In addition to the above soils, extensive areas of Peat are
mapped in Outagamie County. Peat consists of decaying vege¬
table matter with which there has been incorporated a very small
amount of fine mineral particles.

Agriculture in this county consists chiefly of general farming,
with dairying as the most important branch. The chief crops
grown are hay, oats, corn, barley and rye. Smaller acreages
are devoted to such crops as potatoes, cabbage, sugar beets and
buckwheat.

Dairy products find their way to market chiefly in the form of
butter and cheese. In 1917 there were produced in this county
over 9y2 million pounds of cheese. There are 21 butter factories
and 86 cheese factories in the county.

Holstein cows are most numerous in the dairy herds and all
the dairy stock is gradually being improved.

In 1920 there were a total of 3,746 farms in the county, of an
average size of 92.9 acres. About 91 per cent of the farms were
operated by the owners.

78

SOIL SURVEY OF OUTAGAMIE COUNTY.

Well-located and highly improved farms have a selling price

at present of $150 to $250 an acre. Rather sandy soils of low

agricultural value have a selling price of $20 to $50 an acre,
depending upon the location, improvements, soil condition and
other factors.

The climate of Outagamie County is representative of a large
section of eastern Wisconsin. The mean annual rainfall is 32.7
inches. The average length of the growing season as recorded

at New London is 138 days.

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