nial bel dind Dude led pare rrrseseede eI er Ooo eof ore arte Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. CR E BRAN TSViILL ae io | UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE LIBRARY BOOK NUMBER > 764 F (Te eles Insect Enemies of Eastern Forests By Fk. C. CRAIGHEAD Entomologist in Charge Division of Forest Insect Investigations Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Miscellaneous Publication No. 657 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1950 | For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. Washington 25, D. C. - - - - : Price $2.50 AUTHORSHIP This publication is the work of various specialists in their individual fields of entomological research. Their responsibilities were as fol- lows: F. C. Craighead, introductory and control sections, Coleoptera (in part), and general supervision of the entire publication; M. W. Blackman, Scolytidae and Platypodidae; J. V. Schaffner, Jr., Hymen- optera (in part) and Lepidoptera; P. B. Dowden and William Middle- ton, Hymenoptera; J. N. Knull, Buprestidae (in part); W. L. Baker, P.W. Oman, and T. J. Parr, sucking insects; R. A. St. George, Coleop- tera (in part); H. J. MacAloney, Coleoptera (in part) ; T. E. Snyder, termites; R. T. Webber, Diptera; N. D. Wygant, Orthoptera; L. E. Yeager, Lamellicornia; S. F. Potts, spray formulas; and R. C. Brown, beneficial insects. J. V. Schaffner, Jr., also rendered valuable assistance by his critical review of the entire compilation. II UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATION No. 657 Washington, D. C. December 1949 INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS’ Prepared under the supervision of F.C. CRAIGHEAD, entomologist in charge, Divi- sion of Forest Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Agricultural Research Administration CONTENTS Page Gaiters OCU tel OTN a roe a Settee era ere AG ea Pee een eo) A ee 2 Relation of insects to forest and ornamental TCC See ee ea 3) Prevalencerand- activity. Of forest imSectss = 225.2 8 2 ae + HMSeCCESeaml CECISCASES2 ee SS eee et a ee = 10 The control of forest insects______ ieee ia S fet ds Ne eto ee tea nia ese? 11 Natural control factors and influences Tel ap Mc et aris ite See alal Silvicultural control of forest insects Soh oP ORae Age Ag ak 18 Insects attacking shade and ornamental trees Erte ee) Ski elie rcs oe cca mse 20 SORES iin es liigvalila Pelee OG eee ee te ee oie BS i ee ee 24 Insects in nurseries and young plantations_ Gi Sa eae 27 Insects attacking forest products___________-_ ete e iter Rina cee 37 iBarkg beetlevcontrola === = a a A RL rea re ee eS 47 Insecticidal control of insects in the for est.» By “S: FE. Potts_ pat a a asa ae Pet 51 The use of beneficial insects in the control of for est tree pests. By R. C. J BRYON a eS af a er eg aA re de I ere ot The zoological position of insects and some of their common relatives____ 60 Crawfish and shrimps— Mere pet ee Pe Ene ce a One Tetley ee Re SY Se Ss 60 Millipedes and centipedes as = She ee Se EER Derstene st 61 SCOmpIOnN Gaae =e ee Ret pee Apa a eae, aie Bk at 62 SEU OS COL ON Saree ate es Ree ee ON Th a a ee 62 SONG Cy eee pees wets a eee ee ee ee ea ee 63 Farnvestmenss= = == ee eeiee: sete RON See ee 2 SO es 3 nas 63 Mites, ticks, and red spiders___ Pais Se Aare ee pape Es BOR Pet ek be eee 63 Mamie borers: by BoA. St. George. 22) agen ee 66 The forest insects_--__- 5, Et SCRE I a ge OL Se io Ab ep RR A 69 Practical keys to the orders, families, and eenera “of forest insects, based OnEebyNeStofaImMyury.—o= = _* 2 =. a Seber eee Ry Mad doen, wee AL 69 MPO ia PORGCESIOhINSCCUS=. 2 a ee ee ee eee eee ee 78 ALhestermitess2by... WH: Smyder_=_s- =. = 22a pa eee 85 Grasshoppers, Katydids, walkingsticks, and related forms. By N. D. Way Sarna eee at eee ie sh is Sere enn ea 94 Sucking insects. By W. 1: Baker, P. Ww. ‘Oman, and T. J. Parr_________ 105 The beetles. By F. C. Craighead, Lee E. Yeager, J. N. Knull, H. J. Machloney. el = é Date Pao E | ? Ee INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 65 cles attack birds, especially those that live on the ground, such as quail, and others attack domestic animals, causing considerable eco- nomic loss. Control and preventive measures for the common dog tick which transmits Rocky Mountain spotted fever were discussed by Bisho} pp (30). More recently DDT sprays have been used effectively. Dail removal of the ticks from dogs, which bring them into houses, is im- portant. Ticks can be prevented from attaching to dogs by dusting a little derris powder into the hair. When a person w: alks in the woods during tick season, suitable clothing should be worn to keep the ticks from reaching the skin, and one’s body should be carefully zal ted at least twiceaday. A preventive vaccine for the fever virus has been developed by the United States Public Health Service. THE RED SPIDERS Famity TETRANYCHIDAE Several species of red spiders are important pests of plants. They are minute (0.5 mm.), oval, eight-legged animals, covered with long hairs and having sucking mouth parts. They are scarcely visible to the naked eye except as they move about. Most species are of a red- dish color, tinged with green or yellow. They are more readily recog- nized by their injury, which for the more common forms consists of a mottled brownish or rusty discoloration of the leaves (fig. 5, A), the surfaces of which are usually covered with a very fine matting of silk threads, and spotted with tiny spherical eggs or broken eggshells (fig. 5,8.) They become abundant during hot weather and are par- ticularly damaging during periods of drought, as discussed by Gar- Figure 5.—The southern red mite (Paratetranychus ilicis McG.) : A, Damage to hemlock leaves by red spiders; B, eggs, greatly enlarged. 66 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE man (152). Severe infestations may build up after spraying with Db Tetranychus telarius Li. is a species of nearly world-wide distribu- tion, attacking many species of hardwoods and evergreens. It is our most common and injurious species. The European red mite (Paratetranychus pilosus C. & F-.), European species now established in this country, is injurious to shade trees, particularly basswood or linden, maple, elm, and willow, often causing the leaves to fall. Oligonychus americanus Ewing has been abundant on pine seedlings in the nurseries of the Middle West. Control of the red spiders is discussed on pages 37-88. THE HARVEST MITES AND CHIGGERS FAmMity TROMBIDIIDAE The harvest mites resemble the red spiders, but are much larger, particularly a bright red species commonly found moving slowly about on the moist leaf litter or on logs in woodlands. Red bugs or chiggers need no description, because the annoying itching sores produced by these minute animals after they attach themselves to the skin are well known to all foresters in the Central and Southern States, along the seaboard into New Jersey, and occa- sionally in Pennsylvania. “Heavy attack on man may cause fever, and secondary infections can be very serious. Red bugs are the first instars of a rather large mite. Normally they feed on such animals as snakes, lizards, birds, and rodents. Certain local areas, such as briar patches and sunny exposures, are more heavily infested than other sites and can, with experience, be avoided to some extent. Prevention of attack by chiggers is better than cure. Clothing that will prevent access of the larvae to the skin is recommended. High boots and closely woven cotton trousers are excellent protection, and flowers of sulfur dusted into the clothing is effective. ‘The mosquito repellents mentioned on page 527 are effective in repelling chiggers. Derris powder is also effective and less irritating than sulfur. A thorough hot bath with a soapy lather immediately ¢ after returning to ‘amp is simple and effective. The clothes that were removed should not be worn again until the following morning. Ammonia water, soda, cooling ointments, or colloidin help to allay itching. MARINE BORERS By R. A. St. GEORGE Serious damage to the submerged portions of marine piling, wharves, or other wooden members, fixed or floating in salt (and occasionally brackish) waters, 1s caused by certain molluses and crustaceans. Extensive damage occurs on the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts, chiefly in warm souther n waters, but also to some extent in New Eng- land, Nova Scotia, and even in Newfoundland, where the waters are cold during much of the yea Under certain conditions these ani- mals are capable of conipletsie destroying untreated timbers in less INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 67 than a year. Although no reliable estimates are available, it is be- heved that the annual damage caused by marine borers runs into sev- eral million dollars. Recent information indicates that attack is restricted to the breeding season, which lasts from 8 to 10 weeks. Infestation is dependent on such factors in the water as salinity, temperature, pollution, hydrogen-ion values, dissolved oxygen, and sulfureted hydrogen. Infestation is increased in warm waters, where marine life develops luxuriantly. It is retarded where streams are polluted, resulting in a lack of dissolved oxygen and a concentration of hydrogen sulfide. With the molluscs, activity ceases when the water temperatures drop to just above the freezing point, when the borers remain dormant, according to Clapp (93). This condition is not so evident with the crustaceans. The two groups of marine borers are distinct in structure and method of attack. The molluscs are relatives of the clams, whereas the crustaceans are related to the lobsters. The former embed them- selves in the wood and do greater damage than the latter, which are superficial borers. Their attacks are limited to areas near the wood surface, principally between the low-tide and mid-tide levels of piling, where they are aided by the eroding action of water and debris in hastening the destruction of timbers. It is reported that under favorable conditions, a 14-inch pile can be destroyed in a few months by the molluscan shipworms, whereas it requires at least a year for the crustacean borers to do this. THE SHIPWORMS The molluscan borers are represented by three important genera, the wormlike Zeredo and Bankia (commonly known as shipworms) and the clamlike Martesta (Hunt and Garratt, 249). The free- swimming young shipworms usually attack timbers near the mud line, using their rasplike shells to penetrate the outer wood at right angles to the grain, and later bore longitudinally throughout the submerged portion of the timber (fig. 6, A.). As they bore, the body elongates and the burrows are lined with a calcareous deposit. The small open- ing to the surface enables the shipworm to extrude two siphons, one to admit the water and much of the food, the other to expel it. It is believed that in addition to small aquatic organisms, wood itself is partly digested and serves as food for these worms. The opening to the exterior can be closed by means of a pair of plates to exclude un- favorable water or harmful organisms. In heavy attacks the burrows are often from 1% to 14 inch in diameter and a few inches long. Under favorable conditions they may attain a diameter up to 1 inch and a length of 1 to 4 feet. Because their entrance holes are usually located near the mud line and are only 1% inch or less in diameter, the exten- sive destruction within the piling often is not realized until the timber gives way under stress. The clamlike-appearing molluscs, the I/artesia, like the shipworms, have free-swimming young which attack the timbers, making entrance holes up to 1% inch in diameter. Once embedded in the wood, they excavate it sufficiently to accommodate their bodies, which are usually not over 21% inches long and 1 inch in diameter when mature. They are capable of causing considerable damage to untreated timbers. 68 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE FIGURE 6.—Wood damaged by marine borers: A, Work of the miraflora shipworm Teredo miraflora, in cross section; B, work of a gribble, Sphaeroma sp. Their distribution is believed to be limited to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. THE WOOD LICE The crustacean borers are quite distinct from the molluscs in general structure, appearance, and method of attacking and destroying marine timbers. Both young and old burrow into the surface wood of timbers, but are never imprisoned for life within the wood, as are the molluscs. Their attacks are confined mostly between low- and half-tide levels, where the wood becomes eroded by water and debris coming against it, giving that portion of the piling an hourglass shape. The crustaceans are also represented by three genera, which are found along the Atlantic coast. They are Limnoria and Sphaeroma, often called eribbles, or “wood lice” (fig. 6, B), because they are related to and closely resemble the sowbugs, and ‘Che/ura, which belongs to the group containing the “sand fleas.” INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 69 The wood louse Limnoria has been considered the most destructive of the three forms mentioned above, but it has lately been reported that the associated form Chelura is assuming greater importance in some localities. Limnoria lignorum (Rathke), the most destructive species, is capable of reducing piling about 1 inch in diameter per year. It has seven pairs of legs, with sharp claws to hold onto wood and a pair of toothed mandibles with which to bore into the wood that serves as its food. Being poor swimmers, these animals spread slowly from a center of infestation, and are usually carried by infested driftwood. When mature, Lemnoria are from 1% to 14 inch long. They seldom penetrate more than 14 inch directly into the wood. Sometimes they make oblique galleries an inch or more long. | Sphaeroma, although slightly larger (up to 1% inch long) is less numerous and less destructive than Limnoria, although its burrow is relatively wider and penetrates to a depth of 3 to 4 inches. It isa southern species, and is sometimes found working in fresh water. CONTROL OF MARINE BORERS Although it is possible to control marine borers by the use of me- chanical barriers and paints, the standard pressure treatments of southern pine and Douglas-fir with coal-tar creosote, or creosote-coal- tar solution, have been found to be most practical. Such timbers, when thoroughly impregnated with dosages of at least 20 pounds per cubic foot, respectively, for Douglas-fir and southern yellow pine in ac- cordance with recommendations in Federal specifications (419) should give long service under average conditions, whereas untreated piling along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts may be destroyed within a year or less. THE FOREST INSECTS °” PRACTICAL KEYS TO THE ORDERS, FAMILIES, AND GENERA OF FOREST INSECTS, BASED ON TYPES OF INJURY The keys that follow are designed to aid those who are not familar enough with the orders of insects to recognize and place the insect 1m- mediately under the correct order, from which they may work down to a particular insect or specimen of injury.” In keys of this kind, it 1s ° An effort has been made to refer to each insect, wherever possible, by a common name in general use by forest workers or woodsmen. These common names are printed in bold-faced type. Many little-known insects or species not easily distinguished from similar forms, except by entomologists, are designated by the scientific names alone. An approved name, as given in a list of approved Common names of insects, published by the American Association of Economie Entomol- ogists, is placed before the scientific name and the latter is set off by parentheses. Other names not so established, but used locally or perhaps generally, are placed after the respective scientific names and set off by commas, in accordance with the style used in Department of Agriculture publications. It is suggested in the interest of a definite nomenclature that the approved names be used regularly in preference to the various local names of insects. Tor those who are able to recognize the order to which an insect belongs the simplest procedure is to turn to the key preceding that order in a later section of this publication and seek its specific determination in that place. 70 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE impractical to make a very fine distinction in the insects or in over- lapping types of injury, and some judgment and patience must be exer- cised in looking for the name of a specimen under a slightly different heading, if the first attempt does not seem to answer the problem. For example, to separate the leaf miners of the beetles, moths, and sawflies would require almost the entire replication of the respective keys under these orders; consequently, it seems more simple to refer to all three groups. The three main divisions used as a primary breakdown aim to group the insects according to well-marked fields in the forestry profession ; namely, nursery practice, the forest, and the lumbering industry. Ben- eficial forest insects, including predators and parasites, and insects serving as fish and game food or attacking wildlife are not considered in these keys, even though they are discussed to some extent in the text. These principal divisions are as follows: Insects injurious to seeds, seedlings, young plantations, and small TEPLOCUCUOMN A csc a ee eae ee eae oT Division A. Insects injurious to larger reproduction, forest trees, and shade trees Be See ae te on cameras BE DR NS eh Se Oe ei en Division B. Insects injurious ‘to forest. products2 22a Ee See ne ee Division C. These main divisions are again subdivided to other groups or sub- divisions as shown in the next outline of headings. PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF KEY A. Insects injurious to seeds, seedlings, young plantations, and small repro- duction To seeds, cones, and fruits A ee Aa fe er Soy PERS Ee ee See a Io al @ Tor seedhingseandasmallsre proc Gti @ rasa eee ee eee eee 7-11 B. Insects injurious to large reproduction, forest trees, and shade trees Acarina-y(red Spiders) <5 22 cee ee Ee. 2 Se ee 1 Defoliators eat ERS Set Cie eae 2-6 TL Wigsaid tip amas; sel Cir. eek Oe a ee 7-14 Borers ans wood, and barks] ss 2s See Se 15—=23 Gallsswellingss ete, 2222 = rae oe eS eee Se ea eee ey Sucking-7inSecis=22—= ae Se = Se ESS eS a ee a 32-35 C. Insects injurious to forest products Defects in green timber_______--_ ee etl oe fe 1-5 Insects in round logs__—_____ sagen ERS Se pe eo acer eg ee are eee oP 6 Insects in lumber____~— = = Sue ie ae Jats STE al) Insects in material in eround pen Bev Tea hee Be ae Be Ree ae 11 Defects in wood in salt and brackish water, marine borers________ 12 DIVISION A INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SEEDS, SEEDLINGS, YOUNG PLANTATIONS, AND SMALL REPRODUCTION This group includes the insects that attack the fruit and seeds of forest trees and the young plants in the nursery or forest. After the plants have become 4 or 5 years old, or more or less shrubby or woody, they are considered under Division B. This distinction between A and B is artificial but convenient. ™ The numbers given in this column refer to those to be found at the left margin in the respective keys that follow. 10. INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS INSECTS ATTACKING SEEDS, CONES, AND FRUITS Larvae without well-developed head capsule; relatively inactive; maggotlike: With a sclerotized structure like a breastbone near anterior end; in seeds of fir, cypress, birch, and also fruit of chokecherry Diptera, Cecidomyiidae Without breastbone; mouth parts well developed; in pomaceous fruits, cherry, apple, plum, hawthorn; also berries of dog- wood, holly, and others; and also walnut husks Diptera, Trypetidae lanvacuwiihedistinct head capsule: = s= 02 mss ee a5 ue eed Larvae rather active; body extended; abdominal prolegs present___ Larvae relatively inactive; no abdominal prolegs; body curved____ In the shucks of pecans, hickories, and walnuts and in acorns Lepidoptera, Blastobasidae, Olethreutidae In the Gones of conifers.___-..__._.--- Lepidoptera, Phycitidae In the fruits of wild cranberries and blueberries Lepidoptera, Phycitidae In acorns, waJnuts, chestnuts, hickory nuts, and filberts_______ om implesummous*seedsme= 9 282 5222 ee Coleoptera, Bruchidae nec Omes Ory COMMPENOUS UTCCS ix 0 eG) ao Beh ee eet 9 a ea First abdominal spiracle vestigial; body spindle-shaped Hymenoptera, Cynipidae First abdominal spiracle normal; body curved, like a closed finger Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Curculio Cones not developing normally and dropping prematurely Coleoptera, Scolytidae, Conopthorus Cones maturing; damage to seeds alone ha EVaer CP less mts: oe ee Hymenoptera, Chalcididae Larvae -withitrueslegs: 2.2... 28-455. Coleoptera, Anobiidae INSECTS ATTACKING SEEDLINGS AND SMALL REPRODUCTION Plants cut off near ground line or stems lacerated and shriveled ___- Plants wilting or fading, easily plucked from ground because of sevieredcstem or-roots below ground2.20- 4 222242. S25 28s 222 Callcitke:swellimes on ether stems. 22" 2 a2. = Past sl ee ee Bark gnawed in patches along the stem of conifers_____-______-__-- Foliage off color, yellowish or rusty, and often covered with very fine cobweblike threads or matting___________- Red spiders, Acarina Roots showing small cottony or globular objects at time of trans- JO lasadsin pate ee eee ee a Root aphids, Homoptera, Aphidae Leaves or cotyledons cut off and carried away; Southern States Ants, Hymenoptera, Formicidae Other, types of damage. See Division B. Small,-tender plants: Small, maggotlike larvae causing injury Seedcorn maggot, Diptera, Muscidae Large, smooth, dark-colored caterpillars present Cutworms, Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Larger plants, hardwoods, with woody part tunneled: summels longitudinal-__.2=_2 === — Coleoptera, Cerambycidae Tunnels across the grain, wood stained Coleoptera, Scolytidae, Corthylus Tunnels irregular, chiefly underground. Termites, Isoptera Curved, grublike larvae in the soil White grubs, Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae Elongate, cylindrical, hard-shelled larvae Wireworms, Coleoptera, Elateridae Small, molelike tunnels near the surface of the soil or deeper s=ca5--= Mole crickets, Orthoptera, Gryllotalpinae Bark swollen and gnarled at or just below ground line_____------- Lesser cornstalk borer, Lepidoptera, Phycitidae, Elasmopalpus Soubhernt*otates= 2 --__ =. Treehoppers, Homoptera, Fulgoridae Northern States___ Mount-building ant, Hymenoptera, Formicidae 71 H= CO bo 10 11 Ds MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE INSECTS ATTACKING SEEDLINGS AND SMALL REPRODUCTION—Continued Hale Northern and Lake States, Pales weevil, Coleoptera, Curculionidae More southern and western States and Lake States Grasshoppers, Orthoptera, Acrididae DIVISION B INSECTS INJURIOUS TO LARGER REPRODUCTION, FOREST TREES, AND SHADE TREES and shade trees other than those insects confined primarily to small plants (Divi- sion A), but not those primarily inhabiting dead trees or those attacking forest products (Division C). lf Foliage discolored, yellowish, rusty, or mottled and usually covered with very fine cobweblike threads or matting_ Red spiders, Acarina Injury consisting of defoliation, leaf rolling, leaf tying, or bag- worms, leaf or petiole miners, and bast or epidermis miners on This group includes the insects and mites which commonly attack living forest sTreen=barked. Stems: 2 | rise eo oe ee ie a ee eee 2 | Injury occurring on new growth, twigs, branches, or small trees, | parts mined, pruned, withered, or flagged____-__-._...-22 2-22 a Injury caused by larvae or beetles boring in the bark, under the | barksvor im sthe wi Ode ce tote: sigue ere ook 2 BONE 1 ane ane 165 | Injury consisting of a gall or swelling on the stem, branch, or | Ne ah Pe pe ati Nr aay ie ent Re PT cc 0 Teed ep A Ds Oe EO 24 Injury resulting from the feeding of sucking insects on leaves, twigs, or bark surfaces, usually the softer tissues of the plant___ hard-bodied, fixed scales; soft-bodied aphids; or actively moving tree hoppers or leafhoppers, ete__.______-----.-.---- 32 DEFOLIATION AND OTHER INJURY zZ. Injury “caused doy bectlesse< S22 Gaetan Be Se eee ee eee Injuryacausediby-larvaetra. ee eae BT eae: eee ane Injury caused by other forms or insect not present.__...__-___-- 3. Adults and larvae associated on the leaves Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae Adultsconlvs presents 4 ooo See ee ee a ee eee 4 4, Rather hard-shelled beetles, usually feeding at night Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae HD Ore Small bright-colored, jumping beetles Flea beetles, Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae Dull black, purplish, or gray, soft-bodied beetles Blister beetles, Coleoptera, Meloidae Small=snowtbeetlesss a= ae oe ee Coleoptera, Curculionidae 5. Prolegs Usually e250 5a ans eee nes ee ee eee Lepidoptera Prolegs, usually 6 or more pairs or none Sawflies, Hymenoptera, Tenthredinidae Prolegs, inconspicuous; leaf- or bast-mining forms_—________-___- 2 (12) 6. Circular holes cut in the leaves__ Bees, Hymenoptera, Megachilidae Leaves rolled into a small compact bundle Leaf rollers, Coleoptera, Attelabidae Grasshoppers associated with injury____Orthoptera, Acrididae Walkingsticks associated with injury___Orthoptera, Phasmatidae 12'There seems to be no simple and practical method of separating the leaf miners of the four orders that have species with this habit. Those found in conifers are probably either Lepidoptera or Hymenoptera; and those on hard- woods may be Lepidoptera or Hymenoptera, or of the families Curculionidae, Chrysomelidae, or Buprestidae of the Coleoptera; or they may be Diptera of the families Agromyzidae or Cecidomyiidae. 10. Ze 13. 14. 15. INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS TWIG PRUNING AND OTHER INJURY Injured portion hollowed or mined; injury caused by larvae or bark beetlesawhichvaresusually, present: 2225 2.5 2 See Injury caused by external feeding or ovipositing, which removes a portion of the bark or causes a definite mechanical injury or a RES iMMl TA Ge Ges Cals 22 ys Ree oe ee ns eg eg ee a Cottony masses on tips of twigs concealing the insects; conifers Coccidae Chermidae Injury on two or more whorls of the terminal of conifers; inactive, curved larvae under bark or in pupal cells in wood Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Pissodes Twigs or branches of hardwoods or conifers containing bark beetles or powder-post beetles or a cylindrical shotlike hole, usually darkly stained, directly entering injured portion Coleoptera, Scolytidae, Bostrichidae Homoptera} HGran Ita VOU CR WASCarre eects 5 tans ls SS ae ee eee ene ARwigs:nocaimined below, fading Portion. 22222522 ke ee Twigs mined far below fading portion, tunnel often extending to the FATHOM AV [spent gene go = Ay yp We a Coleoptera, Cerambycidae ( COTTE a ae Sn cage Pe ne epee OE PERC eR yr ett t Larvae with prolegs; often pitch masses at point of injury Tip moths, Lepidoptera, Olethreutidae, Petrova Larvae without conspicuous prolegs; usually a spine on last seg- RNC Ui pamekn se eae Peer er 2 Sawflies, Hymenoptera, Tenthredinidae Larvae with well-developed prolegs; usually colored; usually in more tender parts of twigs Lepidoptera, Olethreutidae, Nepticulidae, Aegeriidae, Cossidae Larvae otherwise; in woody portions of twigs____--_.-_.__---_---- Elongate, flat larvae; mines filled Coleoptera, Buprestidae, Agrilus Cylindrical larvae; mines open________- Coleoptera, Cerambycidae Obvious sear and pitching of wood at base of injury or along twigs; conifers: Scale bodies present on twig Homoptera, Coccidae, Matsucoccus Scale bodies absent Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Monochamus Numerous phloem scars on twigs; spittle masses may or may not be present_-_____ Spittle bugs, Homoptera, Cercopidae (Hail injury is similar except that the scars are always on top side of branch) Twigs slit with a lacerated wound at base of injury or at point of lpnemkam owes = 25s soe e sts Cicada, tree hoppers, tree crickets Cicadidae Homoptera Membracidae Orthoptera, Gryllidae BORERS IN WOOD AND BARK Borers in the phloem and outer corky bark of living trees rarely BeAr eet CR WOO meme oe ae Moe se ee ee eee Borers in callous tissue around wounds On various hardwoods Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Conotrachelus On maples ; Maple callous borer, Lepidoptera, Aegeridae, Conopia On conifers an Clear-wing moths, Lepidoptera, Aegeridae, P. pint Phycitidae, D. zemmermant Borers in the dead wood beneath fire scars, turpentined faces, blazes, cavities, and such wounds_--..--__------------------- Borers (larvae) under the bark or in the wood (other than beneath scans orcatiaces) of living trees__-.2--=--—--__--= -=-=_-—__-= Bark beetles associated with their larvae under the bark ; Coleoptera, Scolytidae Rootsoorers or mining at base of tree.-_..--.=--2_---=-=-4_=-—- 73 14 ct 12 13 16 74 16. 17. 18. 119: 20. 21. 22. bo wo 24. MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE BORERS IN WOOD AND BARK—Continued White, unpigmented larvae______-__--__ Coleoptera, Cerambycidae Highly pigmented larvae__________-_ Hymenoptera Tenthredinidae Serpentine mines just under the epidermis of chestnut and oak Lepidoptera, Nepiculidae Ambrosia beetles (pinhole borers); wood stained around holes Coleoptera, Scolytidae, Platypodidae White fleshy cylindrical larvae in hardwoods Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Brentidae White fleshy flat-headed larvae in turpentined faces in fire scars Onuconiters: aoe meee ee ene Coleoptera, Buprestidae, Buprestis Larvae with heavy chitinous armature on last segment; chestnut, Oaks, maple ewes aye Coleoptera, Melittomma, Strongylium Larval mines extended under the bark and also deep into the wood in Jater stages! sas. 5 Syrah Na ee ee ee eee Larval mines entirely under the bark or only in wood of current Pa aNy bey lng oy eee enn et ai le ee Nee ae a Pitch exuding from larval mines; larvae w vith prolegs present; COMMRET SL. esrein ase ae Aare cea eae Pitch moths, Lepidoptera No pitch, but often water-andjirass exuding — 9s 30 as 2a ae Head oflarvae globular protubberantoe ee =e yes ee eee Head of larvae somewhat flattened and embedded in prothorax Coleoptera, Cerambycidae Prolegs absent; last segment often heavily armed Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae Prolegs absent; larvae curved, grublike; in willow, poplar, and | OL MUO GST EHO Vea Am eum eet ey Ane cceahi ny Coys ae reba LS Coleoptera, Curculionidae Prolegs present; last segment not heavily armed Lepidoptera, Hepialidae, Aegeriidae Larvae depressed, flat-headed or pestle-shaped Coleoptera, Buprestidae Larvae curved. grublike: 22222222 Sel - Coleoptera, Curculionidae Larvae slender; thoracic segments not noticeably enlarged; causing pitch flecks in wood, birch ete..252- 225. Diptera, Agromyzidae Larvae with prolegs; poplar, willow, alder, ash, persimmon Lepidoptera, Hepialidae, Aegeriidae Larvae without prolegs faa rdiwoo digas set cr cece ee Coleoptera, Cerambycidae In conifers; associated with pitch mass Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytidae (D. valens) GALLS #8 Galis of more or less open, exposed, simple structure, or when en- closed the insects maintain permanent openings or the gall is dehiscent to permit the escape of the numerous insects inhabiting GREW «025i es Sk REE a oe began meee eeepc Te a eee an Gall usually completely enclosing the inhabitant; one or rarely sev- eral insects to a cavity; occasionally a permanent opening is main- tained by*the- feeding Marvels 5 a Ta ape ee een Mites present having 2 pairs of legs; galls of various shapes but always provided with an opening to the exterior and lined on the inside with hainy7on Lug ya ChOwU lS ee oe ene eee __Acarina Gallscotherwise 2222 2e al aie eee ee oe aye ee Ibaysexoufsiuarornn auger lstoyeahovedyoyive a ee ee ee Insects with hind legs developed for jumping Homoptera, Psyllidae Leaf galls on hardwoods, chiefly elm, poplar, hickory, ash, sumac, and iwatchinaizel= 2, some ae = 2 ie neler eee Homoptera, Aphidae Conelike galls on tips of spruce twigs_..___._... Homoptera, Adelges Pitlike Salle on twigs of hard pines_____-_-_ Homoptera, Matsucoccus Pitlike galls on twigs of white oak____-_ Homoptera, Asterolecanium 26 13 Tt seems impossible to devise a key that will separate all the varied types of galls into family or order groups. On the other hand many groups are fairly true to type, and if considered with the larvae or other stages of the insect inhabiting them, it is possible to make a fairly workable distinction. 28. 29. 30 dl. 32. 30. 34. 14 The sucking insects occurs in other parts of the key as they appear as gall m This seems advisable as these insects are easily recognized as a group Larvae legless or with only minute legs Legs well developed, also prolegs present . Woody galls containing plain evidences of mining activity of the INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS GALLS Continued Galls inhabited by larvae with a well-developed head capsule____ Larvae without well-developed head capsule, maggotlike; white to yellowish or reddish in color: ; Larvae with a distinct structure like a breastbone near PMOICSTIONME Maye rie cea eee ae oe ee ee Diptera, Cecidomyiidae Larvae without breastbone; mouth parts well developed Diptera, Agromyzidae larvae; larvae with a well-developed head capsule and mandibles Coleoptera, Buprestidae, Cerambycidae, Curculionidae Larval mines not obvious; white larvae, curved or grublike in form, legless, and with distinct head capsule, each contained in a specialized cellae- 345-2 > Hymenoptera, Cynipidae, Chalcidae ©) ratawalllll Oe oe a ee uae Hymenoptera, Tenthredinidae On Jocust; poplar, maple. — 222... 2. 4— Lepidoptera, Olethreutidae SUCKING INSECTS nrc oOrmimsectszpresent on leaves +6220 .0-2 2.54 ao eo soe ae Injunysprmarily comtimed to twigs.-2222%.2....22 2 2245.28. Injury primarily confined to branches and main stem____-------- Leaves off color, yellowish or spotted from feeding punctures of active, jumping insects: Leafhoppers, Homoptera, Cicadellidae Lacewing bugs, Hemiptera, Tingitidae Leaves bearing galls or abnormal spots: On hackberry, infested with jumping lice Homoptera, Psyllidae On elm, poplar, willow, witchhazel, hickory, oak, chestnut, etc., infested with plant lice Homoptera, Aphidae; Homoptera, Phylloxeridae On conifers infested with adelgids Homoptera, Phylloxeridae Exposed insects on the leaves: Sealelike, gall-like, or soft grublike insects covered with wax in the form of powder or tufts Scale insects, Homoptera, Coccidae Fringed scalelike immature forms associated on the leaves with white 4-winged flies Whiteflies, Homoptera, Aleyrodidae Injury consisting of gall-like or gouty swellings on limbs and twigs Otetimaes eer oe aS Fir bark louse, Homoptera, Phylloxeridae Tips of hard pines flagged (needles yellowing); scales embedded in pitstimebark.—~._..____-._._. Homoptera, Coccidae, Matsucoccus Branches and twigs infested with scalelike, gall-like, or soft-bodied insects covered with waxy powder or tufts; twigs often dying Homoptera, Coccidae Tips of branches swollen forming pineapplelike galls; conifers omoptera, Phylloxeridae, Adelges Tips of new growth withering, infested with numerous soft-bodied insects with prominent antennae Aphids, Homoptera, Aphidae 29 30 ol are treated here as a group and some repetition of habits akers, twig killers, ete. by their mouth structure, and it is therefore convenient to turn immediately to this section of the key. 76 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE SUCKING INSECTS—Continued 30. Fir trees unhealthy and dying; trunks infested with masses of soft- bodied insects appearing as a whitish wool Fir bark louse, p. 137 Beech trees unhealthy and slowly dying, with dead areas of bark on stems covered with whitish masses of soft-bodied insects Beech scale, p. 140 Trees infested with scalelike, gall-like, or soft grublike insects, and covered with wax in the form of powder or tufts Homoptera, Coccidae DIVISION C INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FOREST PRODUCTS This division or group includes insects causing the type of injury met with in the handling of forest products, 1. e., logs and lumber, poles, posts, piling, and manufactured mater lals, as eae eun stocks, stored wood, and “wood in buildings. Certain types of damage found in green logs or freshly sawed lumber are the result of insects bori ing in the phloem or wood of the living tree. These are treated here for convenience. They are usually distinguishable by the more or less stained condition of the surrounding wood, pitch infiltration, or the presence of scar (callous) tissue. These injurious insects may be clas- sified as follows: Defects occurring in the wood of green logs or lumber, which are revealed as the logs are sawed; usually as darkly stained, pitch-infiltrated wood, or seare(Gallous) tissues se oe See he ee a Be Pe ee ee eee 1 Injury occurring to material having the bark present (lumber excepted), such as round logs after the trees are felled and left either in the woods or atthe amrll Sor utilized itormustic worknetCe = se a= = eee eee eee 6 Injury to freshly sawed lumber, seasoned lumber, stored and manufactured TAFETIALS OTs wi O Care cky Url Chin Oise a ete = Ege ee Injury to material in contact with the ground, such as cross ties, posts, poles, foundation materials, piling above water, etc2_2 222 92 = ee a eae 1 Injury occurring to the submerged portions of piling or woodwork in brackish or salt Water =- =.= Marine borers (Shipworms and wood lice) 12 DEFECTS IN GREEN TIMBER 1 dny hardwoodse2' se] ys ae ee Eg ee IMEC ONTRET Seen = eee ene Baya ee eee LS SS UN See ete oh alee 2. Holes small, ‘‘pinholes,’’ 4 inch or less in cross section; circular, open. 1) et never filledjwith boring dust2. 3.2 -_ = = a eee Holes larger, ‘‘grub holes,’’ up to %4 inch in diameter, usually oval in cross section, usually open, not filled with boring dust________ Pith flecks in wood, birch, maple, etc. Diptera, Agromyzidae, Agromyza 3. Pinholes, about % inch in size, of uniform diameter throughout, wood stained in streaks, in oaks and yellow poplar Coleoptera, Scolytidae, Corthylus Holes tapering, several sizes grouped together and originating in a wound: Holes up to % inch in diameter, in chestnut and chinquapin Coleoptera, Melittomma Holes up to % inch in diameter, in oak and other woods Coleoptera, Arrhenodes Bm © Ob 7 INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS DEFECTS IN GREEN TIMBER—Continued Variable-sized holes grouped and radiating from wounds or cavities Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Parandra; Tenebrionidae, Strongylium; Brentidae, Arrhenodes Still larger grub holes, up to 1 inch in diameter, usually appearing singly and not associated with wounds. ; In hickory Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Goes; Lepidoptera, Cossidae, Cossula In poplar and cottonwood Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Saperda, Plectrodera; Lepidoptera, Cossidae, Prionorystus; Lepidoptera, Aegeriidae, Aegeria In maple Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Glyccbius; Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae, Strongylium; Lepidoptera, Cossidae, Zeuzera, Prionoxystus; Aegeriidae, Conopia ia es) gies es ea ee or Lepidoptera, Aegeriidae, Podosesia Imepersimmon )s..2 = 255 Lepidoptera, Aegeriidae, Sannina [ Proonoxystus Imslocus tame ee Lepidoptera, Cossidae: Zeuzera Cossula Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Cyllene Pitch pockets: in the wood______ Pitch moths, Lepidoptera, Aegeriidae, Parharmonia; Phycitidae, Dioryctria; Coleoptera, Scolytidae, Dendroctonus Holes filled with boring dust, associated with turpentine faces or fire scars In the South, pines____ Coleoptera, Buprestidae, Buprestis In the North, pines or other conifers Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Buprestidae INSECTS IN ROUND LOGS Sawdust excuding from small round ‘pinholes’? (%o inch or less in diameter) on the surface of the bark; wood usually stained around the holes_______ Ambrosia beetles, Coleoptera, Scolytidae Sawdust exuding from larger holes; larvae present under the bark or in wood Coleoptera, Cerambycidae Cyllene, Chion, Callidium, Mon- ochamus, Elaphidion Sawdust not exuded; the only evidence of work is the presence of larvae or galleries under bark or in the wood Larvae elongate, eylindrical______ Coleoptera, Cerambycidae larvae tlatsheaded_ 22222 2 et Coleoptera, Buprestidae Larvae curved, legless; only one larva to a burrow Coleoptera, Curculionidae Larvae curved, legless; several larvae in a burrow, each usually separated by a pith or clay partition across the gallery.__ Hymenoptera, Sphecidaz, Vespidae, Xylocopidae Larvae and bark beetles associated.__Coleoptera, Scolytidae INSECTS IN LUMBER Fine sawdust exuding from small “pinholes” (less than '%o inch in diameter) in green lumber; holes usually darkly stained Ambrosia beetles, Coleoptera, Scolytidae Sawdust, if exuding, coming from larger holes in drier lumber, ChiteAaplN OMUNAO nA OLet se eeeicene. Sel Salle fs ee RE Rey Damage to lumber with the bark present: ; arvae-eclongate2 22-202 2 SS Coleoptera, Cerambycidae ILMIATG Chincha ee eee Coleoptera, Bostrichidae Damage not associated with presence of bark on material______-__- 78 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE INSECTS IN LUMBER—Continued 9. Fine sawdust exuding from circular or oval holes: Small curved larvae________._._______Coleoptera, Lyctidae Hlongatelarvaes==202 ose = Coleoptera, Cerambycidae Large black ants associated with damage; sawdust accumulating in large piles from damp wood Carpenter ants, Hymenoptera, Formicidae Damage concealed and sawdust usually not falling from holes____- 10 10. Larval tunnels packed with sawdust: Larvae elongate, cylindrical______ Coleoptera, Cerambycidae Larvae elongate, flatheaded_____-_- Coleoptera, Buprestidae Tunnels open: Irregular cavities following the grain of the wood loosely filled with fine impressed pellets Dry-wood termites, Isoptera Round holes 1% inch or less in diameter, often w ‘ith cross partitions or cells Carpenter bee, p., 635, Hymenoptera, Xylocopidae, Vespidae, Sphecidae INSECTS IN MATERIALS IN GROUND et Large, elongate larvae associated with damage consisting of grub holes extending through the wood Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Parandra, Orthosoma, Prionus Oedemeridae, Nacerdes Large irregular cavities eaten in the wood, representing spring wood; usually extending with the grain of the wood; sides of cavi- ties plastered with claylike excrement “White ants,’ Isoptera, p. 85 Large irregular cavities eaten into wood, usually cutting across the grain, surfaces smooth, no excrement, large piles of sawdust accumulating outside; large black ants associated with injury in moist or damp wood Carpenter ants, Hymenoptera, Formicidae, p. 622 DEFECTS IN WOOD IN SALT OR BRACKISH WATER 12. Submerged portions of piling or woodwork channeled by burrows of varying diameters and often lined with a caleareous deposit Marine borers (shipworms and wood lice, or gribble), p. 66. IMPORTANT ORDERS OF INSECTS The listing and brief treatment of the more important, injurious forest insects, is the primary purpose of this publication. There are, however, several orders of insects that are abundant in forests or streams, but not destructive to forest growth. As some of these are frequently brought to the attention of the forester, particularly now that wildlife and game in the forest have bec ome recognized as an important resource, it is proper to discuss them briefly before turning to the major forest pests. Several of the orders of insects, such as the fish flies (Neuroptera), the mayflies (Ephemeroptera), the dragonflies (Odonata), the stone flies (Plecopter a), and certain true bugs (Hemiptera) are primarily aquatic and furnish the most of the food of some fishes. Often they are the determining factor between abundance and scarcity of the game fishes, Other orders, such as the fleas (Siphonaptera), the bird lice (Mallophaga), and true lice (Anoplura) have representatives that are et of warm-blooded animals living in the forests. INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 79 Again, as pointed out by Metcalf (296) and Metcalf and Flint (298), insects or their relatives annoying to man are the subject of frequent inquiries in recent years, because of the great increase in visitors to the forests as their recreational values are becoming aup- preciated. Among these insects are the mosquitoes, blackflies, and punkies (Diptera), and ticks and mites (Acarina). For further information on insects the readies should consult general references, such as Comstock (103) ; Essig (145); Metcalf and Flint 298); Herrick (223); Graham (194) ; : game: et al. (133) ; Packard (323) ; and Imms (251 Ne THE TRUE LICE ORDER ANOPLURA The true lice are wingless insects with sucking mouth parts, and are parasitic on mammals. The head louse, the body louse, and the crab louse are common representatives of this order that infest man. Other species attack domesticated and wild animals. The eggs are glued to the hairs of the host. DDT (10 percent) powder is elective in control,” THE BIRD LICE OrpER MALLOPHAGA The bird lice resemble the true lice in being parasitic on warm- blooded animals, but they have chewing mouth parts instead of the sucking type. They chiefly infest birds and are often troublesome on domestic stock, but some forms are found on mammals. The eggs are attached to the feathers or hairs. Derris powders, sodium fluoride, and DDT are effective in control. THE FLEAS ORDER SIPHONAPTERA The fleas are small, hard-bodied, compressed, wingless insects, hav- ing piercing and sucking mouth parts and undergoing a complete metamorphosis. ‘The larvae he in the litter in cracks in the floors of houses, under porches, about the kennels or stables of animals, or In the nests of animals or birds in hollow logs and trees, and are seldom seen. The adults suck the blood of mammals and some birds and are often annoying to man, especially in the home and in camps. One species, the human flea (Pulex irritans L.), naturally lives on man but also infests other animals. The fleas transmit several dis- eases, including bubonic plague, which is now endemic in rodents in our Western States. The fleas leave the body of their host almost immediately after it 1s killed. Hunters are often severely bitten by fleas that leave the bodies of the game carried in their coats. A simple precaution is to wait a few minutes until the animal has cooled before placing it in one’s coat, or to carry it by a string until the fleas have jumped off. The * Hddy, G. W., and BUSHLAND, R. C. CONTROL OF HUMAN Lice. U.S. Bur. Ent. and Plant Quar. E-675, 5 pp.. 1946. [Processed. ] 792440°—49—_6 SO MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE rat fleas and those on some ground-inhabiting rodents are especially to be avoided because of the danger of their transmitting bubonic plague. Buishopp (37) discussed these insects and methods of control. Fleas are easily controlled about premises by preventing their breed- ing. This is done by treating the floors and bedding, or - other places frequented by animals, with DDT dust. Inside the house, liberal ap- plications of DDT or pyrethrum sprays or dusts are effective. Do- mestic animals should be kept free of adult fleas by weekly or bi- weekly applications of derris powder: DDT powder is also effective and can be safely used on dogs but not on eats. THE BRISTLETAILS OrpER THYSANURA and THE SPRINGTAILS ORDER COLLEMBOLA Certain small and often very active insects are frequently found in great numbers congregated under stones or bark of dead trees and stumps or in old damp buildings around lumber camps. They are bristletails and springtails. They are very primitive insects without wings and with chewing mouth parts. In the springtails the third and fourth abdominal segments are provided with a springing ap- paratus. On warm days during the winter some species often appear in enormous numbers on the surface of the snow. Although often abundant, these two orders do not cause any damage, but they are of economic importance to the forester in that they play an important role in the reduction of leaf litter on the forest floor and aid in the formation of humus. More detailed information on these insects may be found in Jacot (253) and in Back (8). THE THRIPS OrpeER THYSANOPTERA The thrips are minute insects, often of active movements, either wingless or with four slender wings fringed with hairs. They have mouth parts fitted for sucking, and legs ending in a bladderlike tip. These tiny insects are extremely abundant at times on all kinds of flowers, and some species do considerable damage to cultivated plants. causing characteristic malformation or unhealthy appearance of the parts affected, and at times transmitting certain virus diseases ot plants. They are rarely injurious in the forest. although Liothrips Sey ae ‘Hood caused extensive curling of chestnut oak leaves In northern New Jersey in 1937, and some occasionally are injurious in the nursery. Some forms are abundant on the pollen-bearing flowers and attract the attention of those collecting pollens. Gnophothrips piniphilus Cwtd. occasionally causes much injury to pine seedlings in nurseries. Other forms are so abundant in midsummer that they become a nuisance by crawling over the skin and occasionally biting man. For control measures see page 53, formula 4. INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS Sl THE PSOCIDS AND BOOKLICE ORDER CORRODENTIA To the order Corrodentia belong several species of small insects with chewing mouth parts and four membranous wings, which when present, are held rooflike over the body. = The psocids (fig. 7) are often seen in great numbers on the trunks of trees where they feed on lichens and the surface of the bark. or among the leaf litter on the ground. = 2 Figure 189.—Chrysocharis laricinellae. About X 5. Pacific coast, however, so two shipments were sent to California for liberation in 1934. Later collections the same year indicated that it had passed through one generation in the field. The adult is about 1 mm. long, black with a slight, metallic, greenish tinge, all coxae and the hind femora are mostly black, with the rest of the legs testaceous. Berry (28) gave an account of the species in 1938. It spends the win- ter as a full-grown larva within the host pupal skin. Adults emerge about July 1, or when host pupae first become available in the field. Females oviposit freely in pupae or prepupae and may begin to oviposit within a few minutes after emerging, whether or not mating has taken place. From 1 to 8 eggs are deposited at each insertion of the oviposi- tor, but the same pupa is often attacked more than once, and an average of 12 larvae develop per parasitized pupa. Females are produced in parthenogenesis. From 3 to 4 generations develop annually, but there are a considerable number of holdover larvae in each generation. In the vicinity of Boston, Mass., parasitization as high as 50 to 80 percent is common during the latter part of the season. 61S MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Famity APHELINIDAE Most members of the family Aphelinidae are minute insects that parasitize the diaspine coccids. or aphids, although occasionally other orders are attacked. Many species are very important from an eco- nomic standpoint. Aphytis mytilaspidis (LeB.) is the most common parasite of the oystershell scale (Lepzdosaphes ulmz) in the United States and other parts of the world, and it also attacks many other diaspine coccids. Griswold (205) studied this parasite at Ithaca, N. Y., where high percentages of parasitization were obtained. The adult is a minute insect less than 1 mm. long and is bright lemon yellow, with black- ish eyes. The winter is spent as a full-grown larva beneath the scale of the host, and aduits emerge during the first 2 weeks in June, or at the proper time to oviposit on second-stage host larvae. The female pierces the scale and usually deposits one egg on the surface of the host. The larval stage, during which the parasite feeds externally, lasts about a month. The pupal stage is passed in the same position. Second-generation adults emerge during August and deposit eggs on the surface of sexually mature hosts or ‘lay their eggs among those of the scale insect. The resulting larvae complete “feeding and over- winter. Male parasites are very rare. Famity TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE The Trichogrammatidae are a small family of extremely minute insects, all of which are egg parasites. Trichogramma minutum Riley is such a well-known egg parasite of many species of Lepidoptera, and has been so extensively. propagated for biological-control work in this country, that only very brief notes will be made regarding it. The adults are extremely minute insects, measuring a litttle less than 0.5 mm. long. ‘Two strains or var ieties are commonly recognized, a yellow strain. (pretiosa) occurring in the colder regions, and a dark one (minutum) in the warmer parts of the country. This parasite spends the winter as a partly developed larva in the host egg. The number of individuals that may develop in 1 egg de- pends upon the size of the egg. Patterson (346) recorded a maximum of 37 and an average of 29.5 adults emerging from eggs of the pandora moth (Coloradia pandora). Eggs are inserted directly into the host egos, and normal development of the host embryo ceases immediately. The parasite larva hatches within a few hours, and lives free within the liquid contents of the egg. Temperature is an important factor in determining the life cycle. During warm weather from 9 to 16 days is usually sufficient for development from egg to adult. Approxi- mately 13 generations occur per season in New Jersey. Early in the summer the parasite is usually scarce, whereas late in the summer it may be abundant. Famiry MYMARIDAE The species of the family Mymaridae are all exceedingly minute, and, as in the Trichogrammatidae, all are egg parasites. The Hem- ie ‘a-Homoptera, Corrodentia, and Rhyncophora are commonly at- tacked, whereas Orthoptera, Odonata, and other orders are also para- sitized. The species are mostly black or yellowish and devoid of metallic colors. INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 619 Polynema straticorne Gir. is a parasite of the buffalo tree hopper (Ceresa bubalus). This host is known best as a pest of apple, but conspicuous damage is also done to willow, cottonwood, maple, and elm. Balduf (78) published on the host and the parasite in Hlinois and Ohio. The adult is from 1 to 1.6 mm. long, reddish black to brown, with an elongate slender body. Females oviposit directly in host eggs. Development is completed as an internal parasite, and the adults emerge by cutting out a small hole in the chorion. Three generations develop during a year. The winter is spent as a larva, and the first adults appear in May. About 31 percent of the eggs of C. bubalus examined by Balduf were parasitized by P. straticorne. PHYTOPHAGOUS CHALCID-FLIES Many families of chalcid-flies contain species that are phytophagous. The family Agaonidae is composed of remarkable insects that live within figs and fertilize them, but it is represented by only a few species in the United States. Gahan (179) listed the phytophagous chalcidoids, except the fig insects. The principal phytophagous forms in the United States are found in the family Callimomidae, which contains a number of seed-infesting species, and the family Eurytomi- dae, which contains some seed-infesting species, but many more that infest grains and grasses, often forming galls or swellings on the stems. Although chalcidoid gall makers are sometimes injurious to trees in other parts of the world, the phytophagous forms that cause serious damage to the forest trees in this country are the seed-infesting species. Most of them belong to the genus J/egastigmus, and most of them attack the seeds of coniferous trees. These seed chaleids are of economic importance. In certain local- ities a considerable proportion of the seed crop of a tree species may be destroyed in some seasons. This destruction not only seriously affects natural reproduction but is also an important factor in seed collecting, since a high percentage of cleaned commercial seed is often found to have been ruined by these insects. The life history of all the seed chalcids, so far as known, is essen- tially the same. The egg is laid in the seed late in the spring or early inthesummer. The larva completes feeding and hibernates. Trans- formation to adult takes place early in the spring, and the adults emerge by cutting a smooth round hole in the seed coat. Some larvae hold over and emerge the second or third year, and frequently as many as 50 percent of the brood may fail to emerge the first summer. Undoubtedly this is an important adaptation in the hfe cycle. The intermittent character of seed production of conifers is well known, and is apt to be common in other species. The seed chalcids attack- ing conifers emerge early enough to oviposit when the young cones have soft scales and the seed coats are unhardened (fig. 790). At this time the interior of the seed is occupied by a milky or Jellylike substance. The adult seed chalcids are almost always black with yellowish markings, are from about 14 to 14 inch long, and possess strongly exserted ovipositors, usually about as long as their bodies. Our more important species occur on the western coast and were listed by Keen eae Seed chalcids are reported to have killed 50 percent of the ouglas-fir seed crop at Ashland, Oreg., in 1913, although in most 620 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE years no more than 2 to 10 percent of the annual crop is destroyed. In some years 40 percent of the white fir seed crop in Oregon and California have been destroyed. Control of seed chalcids appears to be impractical in the growing seed crop. Fumigation of stored seed will not prevent the damage that has already developed during the growing period, but it has been recommended as a measure to prevent carrying the infestation into localities where the seeds are to be planted. 1: /) | y, o= Ly) fit / AAC If / . Ley, / / i set if y f i fips / RB AY / Y, os : wi) oS + Ficure 190.—WVegastigmus albifrons: A and B, Adult ovipositing through small green cones into seeds. (After Edmonston.) SuperFAMILY SHRPHOIDEA Most of the members of this superfamily are small insects, black or brown without metallic luster. The pronotum extends back to the tegulae, the trochanters are two-jointed (except in the Pelecin- idae), and the ovipositor issues from the apex of the abdomen. The wings exhibit great diversity of venation, many forms are almost veinless, and apterous species are common. Ashmead (4) gave a gen- eral classification of the group in 1893. Nine or ten families are INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 621 usually recognized in our fauna. Some of the species are of consid- erable economic importance because they are valuable parasites, some are hyperparasites, and a small number are inquilines. Compara- tively few species, however, are known to parasitize forest insects, and therefore only the two largest families and one small family are treated in the following discussion. Famity SCELIONIDAE This is a very large and widely distributed family. Its species are egg parasites, infesting the eggs of all orders of insects, those of forest insects being commonly attacked. — Many species of 7'elenomus have been reared from the eggs of forest insects, but comparatively little information exists regarding their life history. Eggs of Lambdina fiscellaria luqubrosa, the western hemlock looper, collected in the spring of 1930 in British Columbia by Hopping (237) and referred to as Hllopia somniaria, proved to be 25 percent parasitized by a 7elenomus sp. Second-generation egg masses of the catalpa sphinx (Ceratomia catalpae), reared by Baerg (72) in Arkansas during 1928 and 1930, were heavily para- sitized by 7’elenomus catalpae Mues. 7’. clistocampae Ashm. is a para- site of the eggs of the eastern tent caterpillar (J/alacosoma amer- tcana) and the forest tent caterpillar (J/. disstria). The adults are tiny insects a little less than 1 mm. long, and dull black, except their legs, which are brownish. A small percentage of the eggs of the forest tent caterpillar in New England and the Great Lakes States are at- tacked by this species. The winter is spent as a larva within the host ego, and adult emergence is delayed until several weeks after hatching of the unparasitized eggs takes place. Adults, therefore, appear shortly before fresh egg masses are available. There is probably time for the development of two annual generations on this one host, but it is possible that there is only one generation. Famity PLATYGASTERIDAE This is the largest family of Serphoidea. Its species are principally parasites of Cecidomyiidae. Their eggs are usually laid within those of the host, but the development of the latter is not affected, because the parasites do not develop until the cecidomyiid larvae have hatched. A number of species have been reared from cecidomyiid galls found on various forest trees in this country, but apparently none of these species have been studied in any detail. Famity PELECINIDAE The Pelecinidae is an exceptional family in many ways. It is dis- tinct from the other families of the Serphoidea, and is represented in our fauna by only a single species, Pelecinus polyturator Drury and its subspecies P. brunneipes Patton. The female is a common North American insect, parasitic on May beetles of the genus Phyllophaga, but the male is extremely rare. The female is a large black insect often 2 or 21% inches long, with a long slender abdomen, which is about five times as long as the head and thorax. 622 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Superramitry FORMICOIDEA Famiry FORMICIDAE THE ANTS The ants are generally considered to constitute a single very large family, the Formicidae. They are among the most common and widely distributed of insects, occurring under “almost all conditions, and in number of individuals they probably outnumber all other terrestrial animals. They are easily recognized by the form of the abdominal petiole which bears one or two scales or nodes which are known, respectively, as the petiole and postpetiole. All ants are social, and, except for a few slave-making and inquilinous forms, have a well- differentiated worker caste of modified females, males, and females or queens. Their nests, or formicaries, present extreme variation in architecture. The number of ants in a fully developed colony may range from only a few dozen individuals in some species to hundreds of thousands in others. Their feeding habits differ greatly. The adults of some are strictly carnivorous, feeding on insects and other small animals; others are largely vegetarian, feeding on plants and seeds; whereas others feed on honeydew, fungi, fruit, and other substances. Although most species of ants nest in the soil, there are many that build their nests in wood, in timbers, in the trunks of decaying trees, or under the bark. Considering their abundance , they are not especially destructive to our forests. A few species cause considerable damage, but some are dis- tinctly beneficial predators on harmful insects. Large black ants belonging to the genus Camponotus are called car- penter ants, because of their habit of tunneling into wood. They attack cut timber, decayed or partially decayed trees, and even some living trees. The most common American species, the black carpen- ter ant (Camponotus herculeanus pennsylvanicus (DeG.)) (fig. 191) was well treated by Graham (794). ‘These are large black ants, some- times 14 inch or more in length. They build their nests in a great variety of places. They may attack the dead heartwood of living trees, logs, house timbers, or almost any wood materials. They do their oreatest damage in house timbers, poles, and standing trees with soft wood (fig. 192). In northern white cedar, Thuja occidentalis, Injury is very common, and in certain locations at least 20 percent of the trees that are cut show ant injury. On infested trees grown on swampy ground there is a loss of about 3 feet from the butt, and the loss on trees on higher ground may be 6 feet. Balsam fir, Abies balsamea, i the northeast is also ser iously damaged. The ants do not use the excavated wood for food, but they make galleries to form a home for the colony. They are rather ‘general “feeders, acting as predators on certain cater pillars and also obtaining honeydew from aphids. Their life history is similar to that of most ants. Mating takes place early in the summer, during what is termed “the nuptial flight.” The impregnated female may be taken into an old nest to replace an old queen or she may seek out a new place to form a colony. Once the new homie site is selected, she divests herself INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS | 623 Figure 191.—Camponotus herculeanus pennsylvanicus: A, Adult winged female; B, major worker; C, minor worker. All about X 5. (Courtesy Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta.) pi 792440°—49—40 624 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE FIGURE 192.—Colony of carpenter ants in a 2-foot section of a telephone pole in winter. The arrow indicates ground level. (Courtesy Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta.) of her wings, and exca- vates a small chamber within which she seals herself. She remains en- closed during the time her first progeny are de- veloping into adult work- ers. These she feeds from secretions of her salivary glands. As soon as the workers appear they take over the work of the nest, cutting approxi- mately parallel, concen- tric galleries running through the wood. Open- ings, sometimes called windows, are cut to the outside through which food is brought into the nest. The young workers feed the queen and care for her eggs and the young larvae. After the first brood has been reared by the queen, the workers feed the young with secretions from their mouths, and they carry both larvae and pupae from place to place in the nest in an effort to rear them under the most favorable con- ditions. As the colony grows, more galleries are cut, to enlarge the nest. Early in the summer col- onmles about 3 years old or older produce winged males and females, which leave the nest to mate and establish new colonies. Either sex may predomi- nate in a colony, and the flights from all the colo- nies occur simultaneously in the same neighborhood. Means is thus afforded for intercrossing with individuals from different colonies. These insects may be contolled in several ways (see pages 43 and 44). ‘The simplest method is to inject sodium fluoride, arsenical dusts, carbon disulfide, kerosene, or orthodichlorobenzene into the nests. ‘The sodium fluoride is probably the most satisfactory, for the INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 625 ants will track through it and carry it to all parts of the nests, whereas the spread of liquids and gases is often blocked in the tortuous, partly frass-filled galleries. Friend and Carlson (170) recommended con- trolling colonies in telephone poles by injecting into the nests coal-tar creosote diluted with an equal volume of gasoline. This is accom- plished by boring a hole through the upper part of the nest and in- jecting the material with a grease gun. Not less than 1 pint should be injected into a cavity 4 feet or less in length and not less than 2 pints into cavities 4 to 7 feet long. Downes (140) reported excellent results in controlling carpenter ants with derris powder (4 percent rotenone). No matter where the nest is located or how extensive the infestation, if the powder can be placed where the ants must walk through it and thus get some of it on their bodies, the colony may be exterminated rapidly. A valuable aid in obtaining a good distribu- tion of the dust is the use of an applicator consisting of a bulb (8- ounce capacity) having a cone-shaped metal nozzle. Such an appli- cator makes it possible to shoot the dust into small crevices. The dust is effective as long as it is dry. Where nests are inaccessible and difficult to find, poisoned-meat bait may be used as an effective means of control. If buildings are set upon stone or concrete foundations, the timbers will usually be kept so dry that they will not provide favorable nesting places. In the forest the ants gain entrance to the trees only through injuries. Fire scars, axe marks, and other surface injuries should be prevented as far as possible, to avoid the entrance of ants and also of wood rots. The Texas leaf-cutting ant (Atta texana Buckley) has long been known as a defoliator of plants in Texas and Louisiana. Walter, Seaton, and Mathewson (424) gave an account of its life history and control. These ants have the habit of cutting leaves from a great variety of plants and carrying them to their nests. Each leaf is finely divided and made into small pellets within the nest. The small masses are placed upon a so-called fungus garden, where they supply a medium for the growth of a fungus, which furnishes the colony with food. As the supply of fungus is consumed the ants add leaf pellets to the old mass. Evidently the ants exercise great care in preventing the contamination of the fungus garden by any other species of fungus. In many cases the attack is concentrated on one tree, which may be entirely defoliated in a single night. The nest consists of under- ground chambers with many openings or craters. The surplus open- ings seem to be provided for the purpose of ventilating the under- ground passages. The ants seem to prefer to construct their nests in sandy soil, but. nests are by no means restricted to this type. Many of them are constructed near the base of a tree, so that roots help sup- port the soil over the galleries. In 1934 these ants were recognized as serious pests of young pines on the Kisatchie National Forest, in Louisiana. Smith * gave an account of the control work conducted there. The ants attack young planted pine late in the fall and early in the spring, when there is a 3% SmitH, M. R. THE TEXAS LEAF-CUTTING ANT (ATTA TEXANA BUCKLEY) AND ITS CONTROL IN THE KISATCHIE NATIONAL FOREST OF LOUISIANA. So. Forest Expt. Sta., Occasional Paper 84,11 pp. [Processed.] 626 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE dearth of other green foliage. In longleaf pine the needles are cut off close to the bud of the seedling, and in slash pine both the needles and bud are cut off and the living bark is girdled. The injured long- leaf pines are weakened, but the damage resulting from defoliation is not severe unless drought or other factors affect ‘the tree. In slash pine the injury kills the trees. After trees have become 2 or 3 feet high, they seem to have grown beyond the stage of fatal injury. Another type of injury is that to longleaf seedlings i in the cotyledon stage under natural reproduction, where total loss has been caused in areas immediately adjacent to the ant colonies. Colonies can be controlled and, if treated thoroughly at the proper time of year, can usually be eradicated with carbon disulfide. The best kill is obtained from late in February until early in April, when the ground is warm enough for rapid evaporation of the chemical and the ants are concentrated in the nest. In nests treated during the summer the number of ants is reduced appreciably, but only a small percentage of the colonies are eradicated. Success of the treatment with carbon disulfide depends on keeping the chemical in, and the fresh air out of, the passages into the nest. Approximately 2 ounces of carbon disulfide should be poured into one or two holes within each 10-foot square of the nest area, and all passages, both treated and un- treated, should be stamped shut. The easiest way to pour the chemi- cal into the holes is by means of a 5-foot section of 14-inch rubber tubing attached to a small funnel. Insert the tube deep down into the passages (by a twisting push) before the chemical is poured in. (See caution on p. 23.) In ‘the Kisatchie National Forest 178 colonies were located and treated during the winter of 1936-37 in fenced areas that aggregated 18,799 acres. The colonies averaged 300 holes each— an average of 74 of which were treated. To treat adequately an average colony required 7.2 pints of the chemical. Johnston (259) showed that methyl bromide was effective and prac- tical for control of the Texas leaf-cutting ant and that its use has many advantages over the use of carbon disulfide. In the winter or early in the spring 1 pound of methyl bromide should be released through a piece of rubber tubing attached to the applicator about 2 feet down in the tunnels in the central part of the colony. This treatment will eradicate or greatly reduce a colony of average size. It is unnecessary to close the entrance tunnels to the colony at the time of application. The Allegheny mound ant (Formica exsectoides Forel) 1s common throughout the East, and its large mounds, or nests, often 3 feet high and 6 feet in diameter, are frequently seen in wooded areas. The ants in these mounds may destroy almost all the vegetation around the nests for a distance of 20 feet or more, although large trees are rarely affected. The chief damage is done to young trees in planta- tions or clearings. White pine from 2 to 15 years old, red pine, Scotch pine, red cedar, spruce, and many other species are killed. The ants, however, are not vegetarians. They feed on a wide variety of insects, both living and dead, but their principal food is the honeydew given forth by insects that suck sap from trees. Peirson (349) showed that the trees are killed by an injection of formic acid into the tissues of the main stem a short distance above the ground. The acid coagulates the cell contents, thus preventing the downward flow of sap. The INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 627 Jesion appears superficially like a fungus canker. He believes the trees are killed to prevent shade from falling on the mound, and this often seems to be the case. Andrews (2) and others, however, believe that the ants use less discrimination, often killing trees that do not and probably wouid not shade the nest. To destroy these ants in plantations, MacAloney and Hosley (287) recommend either carbon disulfide or ethylene dichloride as a fumi- gant. A dosage of 1 pound (approximately 1 pint) is sufficient for a small mound less than 18 inches in diameter. For a medium-sized mound less than 21% feet in diameter 2 pounds should be used, and a larger mound may need 2 or more applications of 2 pounds each. Fumigation should be done late in the fall, after seasonal activity has ceased, or early in the spring. Several inches of the top material should be removed from the mound and a deep hole should be punched in the center and several holes on the periphery. The lquid should then be poured in the holes, and the top material should be replaced and tamped down firmly. (See Caution, p. 23.) The Argentine ant (/77domyrmex humilis (Mayr) ) became estab- lished in this country in Louisiana sometime prior to 1891 and has spread over a large part of the Southern States, as well as over a con- siderable area in California. It has proved to be probably the most annoying of the economic ants and a pest of considerable importance. Although especially obnoxious to housekeepers, it also causes serious losses to orchardists, planters, beekeepers, and others. Out of doors the ants feed on the honeydew produced by scale insects, mealybugs, and aphids, and do direct damage to vegetation by fostering these insects. ‘They also steal seeds from seedbeds and feed on the sap or fruit juices from certain trees and plants, particularly citrus. — It is possible to eradicate Argentine ants by timely and thorough campaigns repeated for several consecutive years. The infested area is first delimited by careful survey, and the fact that the Argentine ant destroys all native ants within the infested area is helpful in this part of the campaign. Poisoned sirup containing sodium arsenite, now known as “Standard Government-formula Argentine ant poison,” is put out in paperoid cups 20 to 25 feet apart throughout the area. (See Caution, p. 23.) The best time to conduct a campaign is in the fall or winter since little honeydew is produced at this time of year, and the ants will eat the poisoned sirup greedily. Considerable lit- erature is available regarding this species. Its life history was pub- lished by Newell and Barber (320), and suggestions for control and eradication were given by Smith (585). Superrammry VESPOIDEA The superfamily Vespoidea includes the true social and solitary wasps, as well as a number of families showing great diversity of habit. Some are true parasites, some are inquilines, while the true wasps are essentially predaceous and insectivorous. The pronotum extends back to the tegulae, trochanters are almost always single-jointed, and the petiole of the abdomen is without a scale or node. As a whole, the Vespoidea are relatively unimportant from the standpoint of economic damage done to the forests, so only the larger families will be discussed very briefly. 628 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Famities SCOLIIDAE AND TIPHIIDAE The Scoliidae and Tiphiidae families contain closely related wasps, many of which are parasitic on the larvae of white grubs (Scara- beidae). They are medium- to large-sized, hairy insects, prevailingly black, often spotted or banded with yellow or red, and their wings are frequently fuscous. Tiphia inornata Say is one of the commonest and most important parasites of the grubs of the genus Phyllophaga in the United States. Wolcott (435) studied the life history of this species in Illinois, and reported that under favorable circumstances 7iphia greatly reduced the numbers of grubs and in some cases practically exterminated Phyllophaga from limited areas. Since white grubs often cause seri- ous losses in nurseries, and the adults feed heavily on many forest trees, the parasite is of considerable economic importance to our forests. The adult is from 14 to % inch long, shiny black, with grayish hairs on head, thorax, and abdomen. The wings are short and fuscous. The female seeks out grub larvae in the soil and has little difficulty in working her way through black, heavy clay soil in good tilth and seems to be successful in finding grubs, even where they are not abundant. The wasp stings the grub until it ceases to resist her attempts to deposit an egg on it, but the effect of the sting is only temporary. In fact, the egg or the young maggot is often brushed off by the grub as it burrows through the soil. The ventral surface of the thorax appears to be the preferred and safest position for egg deposition. Incubation of the egg and growth of the maggot, which feeds externally, requires several weeks. At first the grub does not seem to be affected, but when the parasite becomes about one-third grown its movements are restricted and it prepares a sort of cell in which the parasite larva spins a tough silken cocoon beneath a loose outer network of silk. The winter is spent within the cocoon, and the adult emerges about the middle of May. A number of factors limit the abundance of 7iphia. The females are not strong fliers, and they tend to remain in the field where the imma- ture stages were passed. | White grubs are usually abundant in fields where there are trees on which the adult beetles feed, but in some localities only a single generation of the dominant species of Phyllophaga may be present, and most species of Phyllophaga require 3 years for the completion of their life cycle. In the year that full-grown grubs are abundant there is an ample supply of hosts, but the next year only beetles, eggs, and very small grubs are present. Therefore, in certain years 7iphia finds no suitable host material and must disperse to new territory, unless large numbers are to perish without depositing eggs. Other factors affecting 77phia abundance are parasites, fungi, and unsuitable soil conditions, but when soil conditions are unsuitable for 77phia, another parasite, the scoliid wasp Myzine quinquecincta (F.) is fre- quently abundant. Famity BETHYLIDAE The Bethylidae are a large family of parasitic wasps widely dis- tributed throughout the world. Our species are of small or moderate size. ‘Those of known habits prey upon either coleopterous or lepi- INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 629 dopterous larvae, and before pupating most of them spin cocoons. The females are often apterous and different in appearance from the males, therefore the sexes are not easily correlated. Apparently few species are parasites of forest insects, but Cushman (725) recorded in 1927 rearing small numbers of Goniozus longiceps Kieffer from pine tip moth larvae from Louisiana. He considered the species probably gregarious on full-grown or nearly full-grown larvae. Famity CHRYSIDIDAE Members of the family Chrysididae are beautiful insects, usually a brilliant metallic green. They are known as cuckoo wasps, for most species lay their eggs in the cells of solitary bees and wasps, and the chrysidid larvae either feed on the rightful occupants of the nests or occasionally eat the food provided for the host larva. One species, Chrysis shanghaiensis Smith, is a parasite of the oriental moth (Cnz- docampa flavescens) in Japan. It has been liberated against this pest in the vicinity of Boston, Mass., but has not become established in this country. Parker (326), writing on the biology of C. shanghaiensis in 1936, stated that the female parasite chewed a hole in the oriental moth cocoon, laid an external egg on the host larva, and then sealed up the hole. The parasite larva fed externally, and, when feeding was completed, spun a cocoon within which it hibernated. One gen- eration was completed during the year. Species of the genus Cleptes are exceptional in that they parasitize Tenthredinidae. Famity VESPIDAE SuBFAMILY EUMENINAE The members of the subfamily Eumeninae differ from the Vespinae in being true solitary wasps. ‘They exhibit many variations in their nest-building habits. Certain species dig tunnels in the ground, oth- ers construct oval or globular vaselike nests of mud or clay fastened to twigs or other objects, while others construct tubular nests In wood or stems, partitioning the tunnels into cells divided by mud walls. The species are predaceous on small lepidopterous larvae or, more rarely, on larvae of the family Tenthredinidae, and for this reason are of economic importance. They paralyze their prey and store it in the cells of the nest to provide food for their offspring. SUBFAMILY VESPINAE The subfamily Vespinae includes those wasps commonly known as hornets and yellow jackets. They live in communities and build two different types of nests. The nest built by hornets is roughly spherical or urn-shaped, and is formed of grayish paper made from fibers of weather-worn but not decayed wood. These nests are familiar ob- jects attached to bushes, trees, or the eaves of buildings. They inclose a series of horizontal combs, suspended one below the other, in which the brood is developed. Large nests may contain as many as 5,000 individuals toward the end of the summer. The other type of nest is built by yellow jackets (fig. 193) in a hole in the ground, in a stump, or under some object, and is enlarged by the wasps as they need more room. The paper forming the nest is made of partly decayed wood, 630 MISC. PUBLICATION 657, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE and is therefore very fragile. It is brownish and the enveloping lay- ers are made up of small ‘overlapping shell-lke portions. Wasps are largely predaceous in habit, and their larvae feed on other insects. Adult’ wasps are very partial to nectar, ripe fruits, and honeydew, and feed this diet to young larvae for a short time. At times they injure fruits, and may often be a considerable nuisance, but on the whole they are beneficial, because they are scavengers and help reduce the numbers of injurious insects. A number of species of Vespula are difficult to distinguish from one another. They are the small, black and yellow wasps, commonly FIGuRE 193.—Nest of the common yellow jacket (Vespula diabolica (Sauss.) ): A, Side view; B, same with section of shell removed to show interior. (Cour- tesy Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta.) known as yellow jackets or hornets, which nest in or above the ground. The bald-faced hornet (V. maculata (1.)) is the common white- faced hornet, which usually attaches its nest to trees or bushes. The giant hornet (Vespa crabro L.) 1s our largest species, about an inch long. It builds its nest in hollow trees, or suspends it from the roof within buildings. It is found in the East, particularly in New York and Connecticut, and occasionally attracts notice by the removal of bark from the stems of lilac, ornamental box, birch, and other shrubs. The hornets appear to feed on the sap flowing from the wounds, and they use the bark tissues in the construction of “their nests. They tear the bark away down to the camoium, and the injury fre- quently results in nearly girdling the stems. On account of the in- sectivorous habits of wasps, they should not be destroyed unless they are in places where they are likely to be disturbed, or unless they are injuring trees and shrubs. The following control measures are recommended : * When it is necessary to deal with large nests of hornets it is desirable to destroy the entire colony. In the case of nests in buildings or trees, this can be done by carefully observing the nest in the daytime, then at night plugging the entrance holes with cotton soaked in chloroform or benzol. A box or garbage can con- taining an additional wad of cotton soaked in the anesthetic is next put up so as to enclose the nest, which is then cut down with a long-bladed knife. A tight cover should be applied to the container immediately after the nest has dropped into it, so as to destroy the entire colony. 7 THE DESTRUCTION OF WASPS AND YELLOW JACKETS OR HORNETS. U.S. Bur. Ent. and Plant Quar. E-338, 2 pp. 1935. [Processed. ] INSECT ENEMIES OF EASTERN FORESTS 631 Where wasps nests are built in inaccessible places, as in walls, the various entrances of the wasps should be noted. At night the openings are plugged, with the exception of the main one. Through this opening benzol or carbon tetra- chloride is sprayed, and it is then tightly plugged. Yellow-jacket nests in the ground may be destroyed by pouring about a tea- cupful of carbon tetrachloride or carbon disulfide in the hole and covering it with earth or wet sacks. This should be done at night when the wasps are all in the nest. Open lights, lighted cigarettes, etc., should not be brought around if carbon disulfide is used, because the vapor of this chemical is explosive. Fly sprays, if applied with a compressed-air or bucket sprayer sometimes can be used to advantage in cleaning out wasp nests. If the nest is kept well enveloped in a droplet spray, the wasps have little chance to escape or to sting the operator. Downes (140) reported that excellent control could be obtained with derris powder (4 percent rotenone). In treating wasp nests built in the wall of a building, throw a handful of derris in the crack through which the wasps emerge, and if it can be made to lodge where the wasps will get it on their bodies, as they pass through, the insects will usually be exterminated in 24 hours. It may sometimes be necesssary to block all entrances except one. Hornets and yellow jackets may also be killed within the nest by throwing in derris powder. Hip apeeitte tp bir nple m toupee rw aay ww Whe tne mem ryan ee HE) m Fo Sty bnew 1 ¥ nina ye Bo Apne | bag ghee sate) gt WR, ing Wi payne 6 Samy Had yah nny ot Tine dicho meee eaeiete ue By a at ie eh AL ln Adaya 4 F- Pare ORG # wert) © CRW ha nw em Aer tet OR OTe See abot 99 eee: army nee %yaam eee AU a me perese ss riers eee TESS a ht sete A ye Mihaly 0 aya Mente ey Nee ones bitte aati er ee OSes 5 : ) nn we La Oe Ee Om Re ee ev reor lie : ; on T r m id ae ee re = ~ a Pee eS ee enya yoesaey= nme ge chamber me eaten Sim bing Rad) tyndehinse Maye Oey Samy “reese Saad age NN Soy re ¥ tae Py So Oy pty terte tem Are, payee, a) @ = mfnwe pac Stole, =o waybpaaye = Senn ont pry Me seyty dg Hy 8 (A See dy Bedi ndal Bye! ane) hepee lia 6 Ae ate ym wee et Phe: se titer ay WH ye ety teen oy o ~ gt ee —~ a pe = Aytety >) = ag eo ® ay* ee ee et eee es mje fend, one pnp AGG My Ay me, eh DE 00. ty mee 0H of pte gw whic ae oa 7 “ a Paw hae Reis an it * — as - eee § he een 4 ore * a asd af? eae =o Pg SY fe ey ot A peer tet we my Bo dete 1S rhs £08 pon c teh « ? Aan i ® cesteh © Cah hn enen EPS sh heh & NA Ary hem poearinr? = eee, = eet ie qpepioe ah 2 oe, Ot eee a 4 ney 9 aoe own} ey ae Oy nee oe ~~ ~~~“ ss “No REN et + eae yO +O & H Ope 4: les a oS Se eye Ny yl, ve rea) ee & Reyes tN eryt 6 ee digas ee . 8 Ee ne ee as “ es “- 2. Se are 28 wes e a = is carnganiy UTE apes. rou pyr Gres miter ~ - ~~ fw, Ty Te Ee de o ~~ . » “4 ny ~—- by tene don by 0 Te ected eae wer ryt or : ee hp Ara Len Semi, Ale yh “ga ape aplale mam ve aoe 4 rien Or yO ee “\* “ my cap Ba gy ay Nt yey yin ty «yee, fee ape, 2 ee ater ps ) yA ares TET SPO Tey Sa Se Spite nep hye gr ites 9 = em “ a! bo Vn blel: eh see a oi*y 7 " ~ jee Aye ea a, ea, i tpt ~- ae 4 ~ —_ 2 Hey ' mpg Pedy AP indy ty RY Sime . W4 eeorn <= Yo mmplpketd Goepep heen ot oni taco eeletnenpenie nlpteere hy ietraney adap my yn ity See 6 9h ae See a ey tyr Sy iet ye dye nym wk hy 0, aytytyty Mate es > ep ety, pe, YY Bey ey = Hy 4M, Skyy bbe . ae erp & 4) 0 tebe * 7 roan om = he” £44, 2, ey eo -ge ®& ) Sp tney a ewe oe ey ny in Rae f | ye ve Je lh Ae ts Rn ee \ _ re rane inocopeam esa} whe he ee seneone ther ores bap Py Tene PELE ewe at yor wees oy Onan nan ee) Su eewn ey eer dere Tel T at eally ate ale are GAY ree tho ees "* PR, Fee eS ee eee we a 0 Oar vers nee Raed We EE ek boy 26 ah te Oy Oh es RD amp | tc) aeererr eee te AGE Neate ay mel Aan, 4 Repay tye ltl My ey ay Ay Ny ep, aot My Ry by ey oy eee an ean ee wl ~ ¥ river Pr iis hae Pn 0 ce whe Coen tabs bap Jes by yt OY rare 9 8 Py aN AN ay Op Awds chalbig a nae ah aah au balerte-Wibp alin, panes tetman motte os ag ec hay eo eae a i ‘ ry vr ee | Aw ot 8 Or anys oa < 74 men my tall ty yet em mre Scones Ee Sapa, amvathe Sap q+ Bary on . 5 cy Op ae verb ehh sem 54 Lee aol a ee Oe ee a ee ee ee ee) eat rapt oe rebel vnre 8 » sie ay ered { a uy \ , me estan Narre! eye ye) ale Sere hs tech bee PHL as nck een em aimn a h boeriodlg meinieiameiote me etartra ines es akan Grandhah seen Ona ees Spare “ rv ery ts ope , * on me Leh ah a Ragga ag! al? yey Aid Fa yt hy By nny oA ut Alyy tases MB ye A ay ad O Ram ay tty Nin pe rai RAY Qe See qe ney te tomy yee nny EER | » : 7 0" ary Penn ayy fe VA a ci os by eh ee ede mm aey) WAL Aa) Rip teg Ppt gen g epree eg 8 ob Ne ee Aen Ay te way My a mene peg A yy Sy telly Sos. Se yO gute yy Sey ety 7 SRE SEENON A * Q : pon tas Sergiy 8 Apes Co Sy HHA : 4 Pe me yh We eadiy ar CS re en he ee en ee ee ee eo Dg eye PP ey REE SMG A Oy eae | joabakae re bj phy eget preys 9 agg MR Pop ly miriam] ym nl yy f Sipcan Uallalintae us. epion nies} mir tg mls 9 yy yng nel mapper, ey rr ety SY em ay Sy ye a tes on eneeae tana f Pm ‘ vil Younha We jucacel At othe vaipp nce xtf prin om ih ty carey temas paneer woe eco / ye daha Day sf ap Di ag Ap ted pean, by Megalo iam, me my mn ae by onan WO wm ona 8 Ree ie ky eked eertybekeh apni =yAmeays eee a ee ee en em ht When Sree tr ere? FEA) P-TRaRIRD 29-18 Ate lta EL OS UM) der Pel yt bee pang haya tngee May My By By Aacmnorh Pag poet hg tg ayy my y pty > ad epg meres Oh Na A, ey apm te Ser ey dyna ey tek mE NY Ip, vty pase ty Seah A eo ce Payday 9 IN ha InN ny sg ® i Redeye) ym nah ple Ay Sinan mle Sieny MP apy ya ping yoyo | Arka ae May a yk cay ag te ym pe i eReey es et a wah ashen Sys or ttt Mimi ating a4 of gor y ” Pere nn UNE my hathy prep nyt iy Ht a at pte yim agama VON ghia re eB Masten by v tegeryee ee Lp iS yy Rey eed ray ial ay ayy moni gammy Sy Rg 9 ly “rR ymey rel Oye wy hayny Sy vmyra eo) tia dat Oey (Ay mony ete Aye SS 5 by Wiy Lek lie mI) | AP Rg) ae By rind x CO tH Gos inh WelP wren Sey er eee ‘as Wiener teaes Beene bs dy iby hehe ae naP erty Grind AH Ae Rey Uy gysty a IR tg me Nr org ene mo tee hy ere egy AR OE ay ee ee fy As OE MAS Ad Alo ned mma ¢ A ee may a * ary | yeh ae re yhie “4 yas 4 ig aol gthyy dpi oy Aa Ae) Sy Re hagas PCLAW slg nt 8 gay mee Sy Satie apy kale pape ty Syhgmyhy ae i ag AP vm i ” Tra ha ane ae rn a7 > Fy op abo 1 Ae PR lity as oh M4 Ay ti Sioyhg gods so A em ag ac Nh Sty Rly OF tn naam rh 206 Nagy Ay IR) ay Kap mane payer) mee © epee te Grace tetog " eka hd ph h hint etl ey < my z eR yok do vey Ay S19 anmpady Sep are Airhayayn yyy raphy ty ie Aytamynste whyay 7 russ rye SSrtvapiy aya hynetverts tot gti y t aerepg ty Re Syn Ses - soning an | stil Bh pol os tat pl ard My P aaRe a hy yO Rai Mey 4a) spon ie ou a Sopot Py Pipi yt Seding mye ty ropes avrg mage My terre gang ab Saye 5 mi ny Rye ert) ey a any gr, aang ap ay Seyayetaine hynny Si BY) Ny ny Soe 1 ns mei een ’ Aaonaptayrng Bary yaya Pape ag tania hy ay ig hl 4-2) Marg Ae A a ngs yy pling tcnagng Mayrmetopsey ing Ry Ag iy ates eA “ey a thee yng any tty sent y+. OW Pe ot Fee hie semgepe ae, pes . Ieas-ey-s nly ace PN edi Comet AY Map be Or he pate ee aye Ne + © eye pepe = ae ae ee ee ty enor ae Pe eA ey Ayame wn He. eeavtoks r oe Paya (Paghee®) Oya “ ¢ eer Oe tN pty ~” seamh yeh ees ag Ol Oe ty By ee Seer my yee Me a stim ’ MA dy gent att ey Lats atein aha Pay es PEP rar ee ae) \s yay netapwegenyecnynsseNeny Sy A Saget. ‘ apap Ree gt nip ey te Sythe Aye ey ete aye = Snes — ety Ms A tpbiq ata tren reser e case prtteo hs ; opm im Xhehalabemhane rR 4) woe Da Wain yas Oh | Tecry ora yaneys Sarde is Weber oe ana geo yng he ney te Ne New wh nety ae ACS PR & eta ey Orie ee ber abe eens ae at bhee yew ey Pie eS payed 900s) Piehay Wy Sy duty hpi ry are PE Wate % Py iry R Syed By Seles Ni i Mp re Sa Py gang ny! = Rio Hated ita as Se hd Ly best Poteet ay oe A egy A ey, < peteare hy erect ae ee nfayeipdy tyagt Anes bs hy og BN Oy Reg ty Byam tay bger pm By Bay ind er thgaoy Abe FPN A rent ON NY dag a ego hase ty hy Y boas, me et mee 3 Ay mst Ay reaeen a toes tr ee ee eaenh oly d at OO aes epee, nee 4 ne! Ap AOR DRY Mg Oe oh 2yep a Boman be. wi ty a Ry OHO we ny eats BO heen tee Remy et DPE Meet, Oy im, eying yp! 0) Shy > e eye py, her ® myer te & 4 : - . 7 | om : te ASM ened met A CNY om AEROS CY ED HF TH AFT IH Ut dae geared bj tyre ny tae oe ey yds? ta pada, mene n'y pee in re an soya ; goa Senta amy eptnaliy”y ‘ ’ u ote ah ed ie RR Ay ag RAGS eT OP ee epee Dan pnt N= 2 9-7 anee ev eee me Amy HS he a wanigheng os Ser he Oe Se gen Hem © Oo OAE OG Ne ee eee eet tts nenarareranee eine nei 6 deylergtey ee sash Padre ag 5 Hal) Mabey, . 4 vs td r are trans Ory Hh a [t, Pe kine Bh Pada bn ete oe RD Re Ge ae pepe rne tenner eT notated ~o i) BAY My GPO Mpa E ION A, Bian iy) at eg Oy A Od my Ody © + AAW Rl af HY 0G RS UMMC tay wil nhoy edd sm 9 OF tte Wen booked mee Srey ng Sk mr eee ated by ery ay ghat AP Onr) ay wea. ayR or adnet a4aew ~r +% Or eed por or vote Feet-ty ony toy Pel yb pred Jahan ay AP CAP Meee Whe gases phamyeyer Bt aya) Ce basnon eat Jigen ys nngnt ay of 8 | perevsvery ian) Leakbprye, \Fwophonbegses iey age 4 hy detent van wan rs weve ts rt mover my oF mers legesesieyeyny ‘s - " Nap Ad 04 08 eyeign Hay AD! t a; mg Re) Beh den he hip auch), Sy J mpey hy 07 aoe Sy eye 8 . ' Seale ne er eee ers teeta epee mh ay ow . + aan Sean 4 osc ey) UNGAR Rae A Okeke Cea , rw = pane * . Bun bd ho vba mar a! f ” a, Parent rs Boutin : ; ~ : i Saaaed reo mim. le Hr ‘ o + f : a ware mh a4 ery nay 0G yar ynliag eoeery pane peony “ ©) Bgty ty Demy) a H rig schuntan heat eoahes We 2 Sporoed nied ty i seo dy rene snap! , ~~", wae n “4 oye Lae thy SARA Bi Bere PE SD Ee Lie re ne ee ee Ae eveqertnere 4 r ~ ‘ es aoe tes Ay Sapo nn * aiox noo mone’ rn whe Vena tee | a n ry Lak . jo eaten ety wTeajemrsgngaytimasjuingeyeeieyades ios sepeas ite sttatetstaeatsttieh tate dston ttt ts ce osetia sees EE ert Shhh hue A adage, Mery abby erty aT ; - aah boombe, wee : seams eb nietearast hee acke te fe: heute F eee Ee eee beahbabibabonbeansmanannla wae poy eney nesta anys LT eat h aol Nite ee om mnreary #1 12 EEO RN DAD OT oh baba tsed tet phateonvarayentgn isydy oye Tenby rune? [saying es beaga rey sia chara huere| Ah Perea. uy ype a tara Riaubacuayedien,2 - t ppeadlana ten ptenenasaiede pata le whe vari 4d hhh ab A ahakiedhadnae seamed eed peaheangeie beans cage amy soe yy trimer mbes Nepean y beans shar “4 >the 7 Layer habbbabAtads hb babad LAsadasadnebesiaubishsondabnaeen Ore LEE THY ae ay thas pry Me bar AOL AD ETD at Yn Be 9H CO ere aa “ tre PRM OY Mera eine ba Se ie te oth ee ee re eo 2 wala Pat eee e Peer reer ee ee a ee eee Setitatatet Potenesletalsts etetenetete ea hed Pickbate esichy som wed MARPLE Vand oc} oh racuenh esta ra fhube he parame cagnrar dc cyars Mm MochA Mah! onan abn wae ye AN petetew hhh s Oye tori ah Ort Mere tete tran en tea eomary Hele ae amaty tent ey ane 4 AS ay oy pape NE TH a ..... |®|.,}ij- a vs staan Pe. Pd dP veein th gh een teat aay ey a PIN, 8 OT