Private Property ©t Z. P. METCALF Na- LIBRARY OF IQ85-IQ56 Private Property of Z P. METCALF m INSECT LIFE LIFE AND LOVE OF THE INSECT By J. H. FABRE. Translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos. Containing 26 Illustrations, 11 of them full-page from Photographs. Price 6s. net (by post 5s. 4d.). " Rarely have we come across a book on natural history written so attractively. He invests his subject with a fascination which should attract many readers who are now outside the ranks of students of natural history. The illustrations are excellent and most illuminating."— Cc'««0' GentUvtan. HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS By CONSTANCE INNES POCOCK. Containing 32 full- page Illustrations from Photographs and a Frontispiece in colour. Small square demy 8vo., cloth, price 6s. net. Extract from a Press Opinion.— " And so, with a profusion of ' domestic' touches such ai these, Mrs. Pocock carries us through the principal sections of the Gardens in her attempt to — as she des ribes it— 'carry the Zoological Gardens to those who are unable to go to them.' In that description there is something lacking of justice to herself, for undoubtedly those who can go to the Gardens will find the pleasure attached to their visit greatly enhanced by a previous perusal of these ^2.%^i."— Horse and Hound, THE ZOO By A. W. PETERS. In the " Artists' Sketch Book " Series. Large square demy 8vo., with Artistic Covers and Wrappers, bearing a design by the artist and containing 24 reproductions in facsimile from pencil drawings. Difficulties of reproduction have hitherto hindered the employ- ment, for illustrative purposes, of the pencil, which artists have always found the most sympathetic and responsive medium at their command for sketching purposes. In the ''Artists' Sketch Book" Series the publishers venture to think they have successfully over- come these difficulties. PUBLISHED BY A. AND C. BLACK, LTD., 4, 5 AND 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. I AMERICA .... THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 64 & 66 FIFTH AVBNUH, .N EW YORK AUBTBALASIA . . . OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS V)'^ FLINDERS Lane, MELBOURNE CAHADA THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA. LTD. ."^T. MARTtWs House, 70 Bond Strbbt, TORONTO MACMILLAN & COMPANY. LTD. MACMILLAN BUILDING, BOMBAY 300 Bow Bazaar Strbbt, CALCUTTA PLATE I 1 1 i Y I 1. Mylabris capensis o. Pinielia angiuata i8. Mordella penata 2. Pyrocliroa coccinea 10. Camaria sp. 19. Fterohela-iis sp. 3. Neloeproscarabseus 11. Zophobus sp. 20. Rhipiphorus sp. i. Calopiis serraticornis 12 .Mylabris trifasciata 21. Phrenapates bennetii 5. Gonitis qiiadripiinctata 13 Nictobates gigas 22. Tetraonyx sexguttatus 6. Hypaiilax ovalis 11. Mylabris transversalis 2J Odontopiis ciipreus 7. Psammodes spinolae 15. Ciiiroscelis passaloides 24. Cantliaris dives 8. Helaeus Hopei 10. Cantliaris quadrimaculata 25. Coelociiemis obesa 17. Anomalipes dentipes INSECT LIFE BY C. A. EALAND, M.A., WITH 74 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS 24 BEING FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR AND 50 IN COLOUR FROM NATURE PUBLISHED BY SOHO SQUARE A. & C. BLACK, Ltd. LONDON, W.I 1 92 1 INTRODUGTIOlN " Insect Life " breaks new ground. It is an attempt to provide a textbook of Entomology, useful alike to the serious student and to the reader who takes up the subject as a hobby. As far as possible technicalities have been avoided, but the probable utility of the book to teachers has not allowed of them being altogether eliminated. The more important species of a very large number of families have been dealt with ; it is clearly im- possible, however, in a book of but three hundred odd pages, to cover the vast field of present-day Entomology. To my publishers I am indebted for many kind- nesses in the production of the book. To Messrs. Jansen I express my appreciation for the loan of many specimens illustrated in " Insect Life." C. A. E. London, 1921. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAOE INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION, AND METAMORPHOSIS - - 1 CHAPTER II SOCIAL HABITS, COLOURING OF INSECTS, AND ECONOMIC QUESTIONS - - - - - - - 29 CHAPTER III COLLEMBOLA, THYSANURA, MALLOPHAGA, ANOPLURA, ODONATA, PLECOPTERA, EPHEMEROPTERA, ISOPTERA, AND ORTHOP- TERA ..-..- 59 CHAPTER IV EUPLEXOPTERA, EMBIOPTERA, PSOCOPTERA, THYSANOPTERA, RHYNCHOTA - - - - - - 98 CHAPTER V PLANIPENNIA, TRICHOPTERA, AND LEPIDOPTERA - - 127 CHAPTER VI COLEOPTERA AND STREPSIPTERA . - _ . 173 CHAPTER VII HYMENOPTERA ------- 223 CHAPTER VIII siphonaptera and diptera ----- 279 Appendix .-----. 316 24 66 81 84 LIST OF FULL-PAGE PLATES MOSTLY IN COLOUR Tliose viarlied with an asterisk (*) are in blade and white PLATE FACTNO PAGE I. MYLABRIS CAPENSIS, PYROCHROA COCCINEA AND TWENTY-THREE OTHER BEETLES - Frontispiece *II. LAPPET MOTH AT REST AMONG DEAD LEAVES] GIANT COCKROACH - - - -/ III. A GROUP OF DRAGON-FLIES - - - 66 *IV. STICK insect] MANTIS J *V. HEAD OF MANTIS 1 LONGICORN beetle/ *VI. HEAD OP STICK INSECT, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED - 88 *VII. LEAF INSECT - - - - - 91 *VIII. NEW ZEALAND CRICKET - - - - 94 *IX. GIANT WATER BUG - - - - 113 *X. CICADA - - - - - - 115 IX. A GROUP OF HOMOPTERA - - - - 116 *XII. HEAD OF CICADA, UNDER SIDE, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED 118 *XIII. LANTERN FLY - . - . . 120 *XIV. A MEMBRACID WHICH MIMICS A THORN - - 123 *XV. ALDER FLY -.---- 126 XVI. ORNITHOPTERA BROOKIANA, MALE AND FEMALE - 129 XVII. ORNITHOPTERA HEPH^STUS, MALE AND FEMALE - 132 |ix PLATE XVIII. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXX. XXXII. XXXIII. INSECT LIFE F.v.-isi; PAGE THAIS RUMINA, LASIOCAMPA TRIFOLII AND EIGHT OTHER BUTTERFLIES - - - - 136 EPICALIA NUMILIA, PAPILIO SARPEDON AND SEVEN OTHER BUTTERFLIES - - - - 138 VANESSA URTIC.^ (SMALL TORTOISESHELL) OVA, LARViE, PUP^ AND IMAGO - - - 140 VANESSA ATALANTA (rED ADMIRAL), VANESSA CARDUI (painted lady) AND THREE OTHER BUTTER- FLIES .-.--- 142 MELIT^A CINXIA (GLANVILLE FRITILLARY), MELITiEA ATHALIA (heath FRITILLARY) AND FIVE OTHER BUTTERFLIES - ... - 145 KALLIMA INACHIS (a LEAF BUTTERFLY) - 147 COLIAS EDUSA (CLOUDED YELLOW), GONEPTERYX RHAMNI (brimstone) AND SEVEN OTHER BUTTER- FLIES - - - - - - 148 MORPHO ACHILLES - ... - 150 MELANARGIA GALATHEA (MARBLED WHITE), EREBIA EPIPHRON (MOUNTAIN RINGLET) AND EIGHT OTHER BUTTERFLIES - - - - - 152 COENONYMPHA PAMPHILUS (SMALL HEATH), THECLA RUBI (GREEN HAIRSTREAK) AND TEN OTHER BUTTERFLIES - - - - - 155 DELIAS PYRAMUS, TERACOLUS JOBINA AND SEVEN OTHER BUTTERFLIES - - - - 156 PALILIO MACHAON (sWALLOW TAIL), APORIA CRATAGI (black veined white) AND SEVEN OTHER BUTTERFLIES - - - - 158 PAPILIO cenea (red variety), (male and female) AND THREE OTHER BUTTERFLIES - - 161 LYC^NA BELLARGUS (CLIPDEN BLUE), LYC^INA CORYDON (CHALK-HILL BLUE) AND ELEVEN OTHER BUTTERFLIES - - - - - 163 ACTIAS SELENE - - - - - 164 ATTACUS ATLAS ( ATLAS MOTH) - - - 166 LIST OP FULL-PAGE PLATES xi '^^'^'^^ FACING PA015 XXXIV. ACHERONTIA ATROPOS, SPHINX CONVOLVULI AND SEVEN OTHER MOTHS - - - -163 XXXV. CHiEROCAMPA ALECTA, DEILEPHILA VERPERTILLIO AND FIVE OTHER MOTHS - - _ I'Jl XXXVI. COSSUS LIGNIPERDA, ZEUZERA PYRINA AND FOUR- TEEN OTHER MOTHS - - - - 172 XXXVII. PLUSIA CHRYSITIS, HALIAS PRASINANA AND NINE OTHER MOTHS - - . . . I74. *XXXVIII. A STAG BEETLE (mALE) - - - - 176 XXXIX. DICRANURA VINULA, LOPHOPTERYX CAMELINA AND TWENTY-TWO OTHER MOTHS - . . ^79 XL. MACROGLOSSA STELLATARUM, MACROGLOSSA FUCI- FORMIS AND TWENTY-ONE OTHER MOTHS - - 180 XLI. UROPTERYX SAMBUCARIA, RUMIA LUTEOLATA AND THIRTY-ONE OTHER MOTHS - - - 182 *XLII. THE LONG-HANDED BEETLE *XLIII. HERCULES BEETLE - *XLIV. HEAD OF HERCULES BEETLE (MALE) *XLV. GOLIATH BEETLE *XLVI. GOLIATH BEETLE - - . *XLVII. GOLIATH BEETLE *XLVIII. GIANT TIGER BEETLE *XLIX. FIDDLE BEETLE - - -^ L. XYLOPHASIA MONOGLYPHA, DIPTERYGIA SCABRIUS- CULA AND TWENTY-FIVE OTHER MOTHS - - 187 LI. MELANTHIA BICOLORATA, HYPSIPETES SORDIDATA AND FORTY-FIVE OTHER MOTHS - - - 188 LII. MANIA MAURA, MANIA TYPICA AND TWENTY-THREE OTHER MOTHS - - - - . igQ LIII. SILPHA THORACICA, SILPHA RUGOSA AND TWENTY OTHER BEETLES ----- I93 LIV. GNORIMUS NOBILIS, MELOLONTHA VULGARIS AND EIGHTEEN OTHER BEETLES ... ^95 } Between 184-185 xii INSECT LIFE PLATE FACING PAGE LV. AMAURODES PASSEEINI, DICRANOCEPIIALUS WALLICHI AND FOURTEEN OTHER BEETLES - - 195 LVI. A GROUP OF TIGER BEETLES - - - 198 LVII. DICHIROTRICHUS PUBESCENS, HARPALUS .IINEUS AND EIGHTEEN OTHER BEETLES - - - 200 LVIII. PANAG^US 4-PUSTULATUS, CICINDELA CAMPESTRIS AND THIRTEEN OTHER BEETLES - - - 203 LIX. DYTISCUS PUNCTULATUS (FEMALE), ACILIUS SULCATUS (female) and twelve OTHER BEETLES - 204 LX. PHILONTHUS JENEUS, OCYPUS MO RIO AND SEVEN- TEEN OTHER BEETLES - - - - 206 LXI. A GROUP OF CLICK BEETLES - - - 209 LXII. CYPHOGASTRA JAVANICA, CONOGNATHA PRACTIOSSIS- SIMA AND FOURTEEN OTHER BEETLES - - 211 LXIII. DONACIA CRASSIPES, DONACIA SEMICUPREA AND TWENTY-ONE OTHER BEETLES - - - 212 LXIV. ZOPHOBAS SP., ERODIUS ORIENTALIS AND TWENTY - FOUR OTHER BEETLES - - - - 214 LXV. MOLURIS GIBBA, GONOPUS TIBIALIS AND NINETEEN OTHER BEETLES . . - . 216 LXVI. LAMPYRIS NOCTILUCA (MALE), TELEPHORUS RUSTICUS AND THIRTEEN OTHER BEETLES - - - 219 *LXVII. HEAD OF PALM WEEVIL, GREATLY ENLARGED - 220 LXVIII. ITHOCRITUS RUBER, SPHINGNOTUS MIRABILIS AND NINE OTHER BEETLES - . - . 222 *LXIX. COCOON OF PALM WEEVIL - - - - 224 LXX. A GROUP OF WEEVILS - . - . 228 LXXI. A GROUP OF BEES .... 236 *LXXII. NEST OF LEAF-CUTTER BEE - - . - 248 LXXIII. A GROUP OF DIPTERA . _ . . 299 LXXIV. BRITISH FLIES . - . _ . 302 INSECT LIFE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION, AND METAMORPHOSIS Introduction. The entomologist of to-day is a scientist; lie bears no manner of semblance to his predecessors, who, long- haired and bespectacled for choice, garbed in apparel of uncommon cut, roamed the countryside in search of — plunder. There is no other word for it; the old time " bug-hunter " was out to kill: he helped to make some of our uncommon insects wellnigh extinct. And the object of his depredations was merely the filling of some tawdry, pendant glass-topped case with specimens arranged in bizarre patterns. Nowadays these one-time sportsmen are as extinct as the Dodo; they do not exist outside musical comedy, and their musty hotchpotches of specimens have either gone the way of their sponsors or are accumulating dust in forgotten corners of antique shops. Entomology is slowly but surely coming to the fore; even our most conservative Universities have admitted the subject to their curricula, and, the world over, trained entomologists are gathering knowledge that will 1 2 INSECT LIFE enable their fellows to combat harmful and destructive insects. For a reason difficult to explain the sister sciences of botany and entomology are often looked upon as being somewhat effeminate. The idea is fostered in our public schools. The boy who takes up chemistry or physics is, in the eyes of his schoolfellows, except those super-youths who scan their small horizon through glasses of classic mould, merely foUomng a natural, healthy bent. The budding botanist or entomologist is usually a butt for crude sarcasm, or worse. Let the lover of plants and insects take heart; his hobby may carry him to realms of real utility. Putting aside systematic work for the moment, we are learning more and more each day the immense importance of economic entomology. The medical man knows that many of the most deadly human diseases are carried from patient to patient solely by insects. Despite this knowledge, it is a most astounding fact that there are an almost infinitesimal number of medical men who possess even a, so-called, nodding acquaintance with entomology. Many of the most brilliant discoveries in this branch of the science have been made by laymen. The fruit-grower knows, or should know, that only by a knowledge of the life-histories of the harmful insects that take toll of his crops is he able to deal with them effectually. The market-gardener and the farmer are in like case. The latter, if he be also a stock-keeper, has a double watch to keep, for there are many insects which bring disease and even death to his cattle. In the farm, the orchard, the poultry-yard, even in our homes, the ubiquitous insect is waging constant INTRODUCTION 3 warfare against man and his belongings. How, tlien, can a science whicli enlightens us concerning the means best fitted for combating the common enemy be other than important ? It is hardly necessary to labour the point that, the more we know of our enemies, the more effectually we are enabled to render futile their m&,china- tions. Numerically insects far exceed the combined total of all the other living creatures on this earth of ours. In size they vary from giant stick insects and Moths, measuring several inches in body-length and wing-span respectively, down to minute Beetles, invisible to the naked eye, and much smaller than Cheese-mites, which were once thought to be the smallest creatures. Their lives may be spent almost wholly in the air, in water, and on or in the soil. Many dwell during one period of their lives in one element and in another during the remainder of their existence. There are few substances, natural or man-made, which will not af!ord a home to some insect species. In taking up the study of entomology seriously, whether as a hobby or as a profession, one is at once confronted with the problem of selecting which branch of the science to pursue. Maybe systematic work will appeal most strongly, or medical entomology. The student who already possesses a knowledge of botany will probably be attracted to the study of insects destruc- tive to crops. This, however, is a point that need not be laboured beyond the reminder that we live in an age of specialists; and the all-round entomologist is as rare as the quondam " bug-hunter.'' Systematists may be called the foundation-stones 4 INSECT LIFE of tlie entomological edifice ; they are tlie indispensables of tlie science. It may appear stale and unprofitable to sit, day by day, within tbe four walls of a museum studying a single order of insects, or, perchance, merely a small group, picking out here and there minute but important details which may or may not be essential to the better ordering of their specimens. From the time of the great Swedish naturalist Linnseus to the present day, the systematists have laboured to the advantage of entomology in general. The medical entomologist must either know something of systematic work or turn, time and again, to the systematist for help; so, perforce, must the student of agricultural entomology and all others who would study the lives of insects ; for of what avail is it to know how some six-legged creature spends its days if one remains ignorant of its relationships or even of its identity ? In the pages which follow we have essayed a review of the more salient features of insect life. The text is arranged on strictly scientific lines and with the greatest attention to accuracy, for it is hoped that ** Insect Life '' may appeal to teachers and students of entomology. We are, however, mindful that many of our fellow- men will only take kindly to a new subject when they feel assured that no attempt is being made to ofEer them a surfeit of dry-as-dust facts. On that account every endeavour has been made to keep paramount the innate interest of insect life. No single volume could ever deal with every form of insect life; our pages, perforce, only treat of a relatively small number of types. A knowledge of the structure, relationships, and habits of these typical insects will, CLASSIFICATION 5 it is hoped, lead to a closer study of entomology in general, a consummation whicli will render the writing of " Insect Life '" worth while. Classification. Very many years ago, in the middle of the eighteenth century to be exact, Linnaeus laid the foundations of modern zoological classification. Seeing that more than a quarter of a million different kinds of insects are known to entomologists, it is evident that their orderly and methodical arrangement is a matter of necessity. It is unfortunate, however, that entomologists are not agreed and apparently cannot agree upon a definite scheme of classification. As in the case of all animals, insects are arranged in orders, suborders, families, subfamilies, genera, and species. They are placed in these categories according to their apparent relationships with one another, as judged, mainly, by their anatomical structure. Even at the present day there is considerable difference of opinion as to the characters which are of sufficient importance to warrant placing certain insects in the same category. Some authorities recognize but eight orders, others more than a score, and between the two there is ample choice. Before proceeding to a consideration of the reasons for this diversity of opinion, it is as well to be clear concerning the fundamentals of classification. The placing of insects in various groups is not a mere arrangement for the sake of convenience. Such is our knowledge at the present day that, even with our imperfect and ever-changing schemes of classification, 6 INSECT LIFE they are arranged, or should be arranged, according to their descent. Mere external appearance is no sure guide in making a classification. Various modifications for particular modes of life will often so change the outward aspect of an insect that, judging by externals alone, the most distantly related forms would be grouped together. A study of development and internal ana- tomy is absolutely essential, and will alone reveal true relationships. In any group , then, whether the members outwardly resemble one another or not, if they are correctly placed, they are all blood relations. Being relations, it is highly probable that they will, for the most part, be somewhat similar to one another, but there are aberrant forms in many groups. The first step in classification consists in dividing the animal kingdom into branches, and insects are placed in the branch Arthropoda because their bodies are more or less distinctly segmented and their appendages (legs, etc.) are jointed. The branch Arthropoda com- prises five classes: I. Crustacea (Lobsters, Crabs, Shrimps, etc.). II. Onychophora (Slime Slugs). III. Myriapoda (Centipedes, etc.). IV. Insecta (Insects). V. Arachnida (Scorpions, Spiders, Ticks, etc.). Of these, Insecta only need be considered. In certain books the class is known as Hexapoda, for the reason that adult insects are always provided with six legs — ■ in fact, the number of legs and the division of the body (not always apparent) into head, thorax, and abdomen, distinguishes insects from all other creatures. CLASSIFICATION 7 The class Insecta is divided into three subclasses : A. Apterygota (the members of this subclass never develop wings). B. Exofterygota (the members of this subclass have wing-rudiments visible throughout growth). C. Endopterygota (the members of this subclass have hidden wing-rudiments) . The Apterygota are wingless throughout life. There are other so-called wingless insects which do not belong to the subclass, but they possess the rudiments of wings, as careful examination, either external or internal, will show. The Exopterygota always have their wings, or at least rudiments of wings, visible during their periods of growth. The common Cockroach belongs to this subclass, and the young Cockroach, in common with all other insects similarly classified, emerges from the egg provided with the rudiments of wings. The Endopterygota includes all those insects which pass through a caterpillar stage. During this stage growth takes place, but no amount of investigation will give any hint of the wings with which the insect is to be provided at a later stage of its development. The three subclasses are divided into orders, and at this point there is considerable diversity of opinion as to the degree of subdivision which should take place. Linnaeus recognized but seven orders; the American practice is to make use of nineteen orders. Carpenter, a noted authority, divides his insects into twenty orders. For convenience sake the orders dealt with in " Insect Life " are tabulated, and a brief description of each 8 INSECT LIFE order follows tlie table. Three of the orders, Protura, Zoraptera, and Zeugloptera, are merely of academic interest, and are only included to make the scheme of classification complete. Orders I. Protura. II. CoUembola III. Zoraptera. IV. Thysanura . . CLASS INSECTA OR HEXAPODA Subclass After ygota Families. (i.) Aphoruridse, (ii.) Poduridse, (iii.) Entomobryidse, (iv.) Papiriidse, (v.) Smynthuridae. (i.) Campodeidse, (ii.) Japygidse, (iii.) Lepismatidse, (iv.) Machilidse. Subclass Exopterygota. Orders. V. Mallophaga VI. Anoplura . VII. Odonata .. VIII. Plecoptera . . IX. Ephemeroptera X. Isoptera XI. Orthoptera . . XII. Euplexoptera XIII. Embioptera XIV. Psocoptera . . XV. Thysanoptera XVI. Rbynchota. Families. (i.) Trichodectidse, (ii.) Philopteridee, (iii.) Gyropidse, (iv.) Liotlieidae (i.) Pediculidae. (i.) Calopterygidse, (ii.) Agrionidae, (iii.) Gompbidse, (iv.) Cordu- ligasteridse, (v.) -ffisclinidse, (vi.). Cordulidee, (vii.) Libellulidse. Perlidse. Ephemeridae. Termitidse. (i.) Blattidae, (ii.)Mantidse, (iii.) Phas- midee, (iv.) Gryllidse, (v.) Locus- tidse, (vi.) Acridiidse. Forficulidee. Embiidse. (i.) Psocidae, (ii.) Atropidee. Thripidae. CLASSIFICATION Suborder Heteroptera. Orders. Families. (i.) Pentatomidse, (ii.) Coreidae, (iii.) Lygseidse, (iv.) Pyrrhocoridse, (v.) Tingidae, (vi.) Aradidse, (vii.) Hydrometridse, (viii.) Heni- cocephalidse, (ix.) Reduviidae, (x.) Cimicida), (xi.) Capsidee, (xii.) Nepidse, (xiii.) Belosto- midse, (xiv.) Notonectidse, (xv.) Corixidae. Suborder Homoptera. Orders. Families. (i.) Cicadidae, (ii) Fulgoridae, (iii.) ^^ Membracidae, (iv.) tJercopidae, O (v.) Jassidae, (vi.) Psyllidao, (vii.) Aphidae, (viii.) Aleurodidae, (ix.) Coccidae. Subclass Endopterygota. Orders. Families. XVII. Planipennia . . (i.) Sialidae, (ii.) Ehaphidiidae, (iii.) Mantispidae, (iv.) Conioptery- gidae, (v.) Myrmelionidae, (vi.) Hemerobiidae, (vii.) ChrysopidsB. XVIII. Trichoptera . . (i.) Phryganeidae, (ii.) Limnophilidae, (iii.) Rhyacophilidae, (iv.) Hy- droptilidae, (v.) Sericostomatidae, (vi.) Leptoceridae, (vii.) Hy- dropsychidae. XIX. Zeugloptera. XX. Lepidoptera. 10 ' INSECT LIFE Suborder Rhopalocera. Orders. Families. (i.) Nymplialidse, (ii.) Erycinidae, (iii.) Danaidse, (iv.) Satyridse, (v.) Morphidse, (vi.) Brassolidse, (vii.) Heliconiidse, (viii.) Lycsenidae (ix.) Pieridse, (x) Papilionidse, (xi.) Hesperiidse. Suborder Heterocera. Orders. Families. (i.) Castniidse, (ii.) Saturniidse, (iii.) Bombycidse, (iv.) Eupteroptidse, (v.) SpMngidee, (vi.) Notodon- tidae, (vii.) Cymatophoridae, (viii. ) Sesiidse, (ix.) Zygsenidae, (x.) PsycMdae, (xi.) Cossidae, (xii.) Hepialidas, (xiii.) Drepanidae, (xiv.) Limacodidae, (xv.) Lasio- campidae, (xvi.) Endromidae, (xvii.) Lymantriidae, (xviii.) Hyp- sidae, (xix.) Arctiidae, (xx.) Geo- metridae, (xxi.) Noctuidae, (xxii.) Pyralidae, (xxiii.) Pterophoridae, (xxiv.) Tortricidae, (xxv.) Tin- eidae. Suborder Lamellicornia. Orders. Families. XXI. Coleoptera. (i.) Passalidae, (ii.) Lucanidae, (iii.) Copridae, (iv.) Melolonthidae, (v.) Rutelidae, (vi.) Dynastidae, (vii.) Cetoniidae. Suborder Adephaga. Orders. Families. (i.) Cicindelidae, (ii.) Carabidae, (iii.) Pelobiidae, (iv.) Dytiscidae. CLASSIFICATION 11 Suborder Polymorpha. Orders. Families. (i.) Paussidse, (ii.) Gyrinidse, (iii.) Hydrophilidse, (iv.) Platypsyl- lidse, (v.) Leptinidse, (vi.) Sil- phidse, (vii.) Pselaphidse, (viii.) Staphylinidae, (ix.) Histeridse, • (x.) Nitidulidse, (xi.) Trogositidse (xii.) Cryptophagidse, (xiii.) My- cetophagidse, (xiv.) Coccinellidse, (xv.) Dermestidae, (xvi.) Byr- rhid8e,(xvii.) Bostrychidse, (xviii.) Ptinidse, (xix.) Malacodermidae, (xx.) Cleridse, (xxi.) Dascillidae, (xxii.) Elateridse, (xxiii.) Bu- prestidse. Suborder Heteromera. Orders. Families. (i.) Tenebrionidse, (ii.) Cistelidse, (iii.) Meloidee. Suborder Phytophaga. Orders. Families. (i.) Bruchid39, (ii.) Donacidse, (iii.) Sagridse. (iv.) Crioceridae, (v.) Clythridse, (vi.) Cryptoceplia- lidae, (vii.) Eumolpidae, (viii.) Chrysomelidse, (ix.) Halticidse, (x.) Galerucidse, (xi.) Hispidae, (xii.) Cassididae, (xiii.) Prionidae, (xiv.) Cerambycidae, (xv.) Lami- idae. Suborder Khynchophora. Orders. Families. (i.) Anthribidae, (ii.) Curculionidas, (iii.) Scolytidae, (iv.) Brenthidae. XXII. Strepsiptera .. Stylopidae. XXIII. Hymenoptera. 32 INSECT LIFE SUBORDEE SeSSILIVENTRES. Orders. Families. (i.) Tentliredinidse, (ii.) Siricidse, (iii.) Cephidse. Suborder Pbtiolata. Orders. Families. Series 1. Parasitica: (i.) Ichneumo- nidse, (ii.) Brachonidse, (iii.) Evaniidse, (iv.) Chalcididse, (v.) Proctotrypidse, (vi.) Cynipidse. Series 2. Tubulifera: Chrysididse. Series 3. Aculeata — Division Antho- phila: Apidse. Division Diploptera: (i.) Eumenidse, (ii.) Vespidso. Division Fossores: (i.) Mutillidee, (ii.) Thynnidse, (iii.) Scoliidse, (iv.) Sapygidse, (v.) Psammo- cliaridae, (vi.) Splirgidse. Division Heterogyna: Formicidse. Orders. Families. XXIV. Siphonaptera Pulicidse. XXV. Diptera .. .. Series OrtliorrhaphaNeurocera:(i.)Ce- cidomyiidae, (ii.) MycetopMidse, (iii.) Culicidse, (iv.) Chironomidse, (v.) Psychodidse, (vi.) Dixidse, (vii.) Tipulidse, (viii.) Bibionidae, (ix.) Simulidae. Series Orthorrhapha Brachycera: (i.) Stratiomyidse, (ii.) Leptidse, (iii.) Tabanidse, (iv.) Scenopinidse, (v.) Bombyliidse, (vi.) Asilidse, (vii.) EmpidsB. CLASSIFICATION 13 Orders. Families. Series Cyclorrliapha Aschiza: (i.) Pipunculidse, (ii.) Conopidse, (iii.) Syrpliidse. Series Cyclorrhapha Scliizophora — Group Calypteratre : (i.) CEs- \ tiidse, (ii.) Tacliinidse, (iii.) Sarco- phagidae, (iv.) Muscidse, (v.) An- thomyiidee. Group Acalypteratse : (i.) Scatopha- gidse, (ii.) Sepsidse, (iii.) Ortalidse, (iv.) Trypetidse, (v.) Diopsidse, (vi.) Oscinida3, (vii.) Drosophi- lidse, (viii.) Agromyzidae. Series Pupiparia: (i.) Hippoboscidae, (ii.) Braulidse, (iii.) Nycteri- biidee. Formidable as this list may appear, it is by no means complete as far as tlie families are concerned. To deal, however concisely, with even a few members of all the recognized families would require a volume of enormous dimensions. The members of the various families are again divided into genera and species, and further division may occur into subgenera, subspecies, or varieties, but we have travelled far enough along the badly metalled road of classification. One or two examples may make matters more clear. The common House-fly is known to entomologists the world over as Musca domestica, L. To assign a high-sounding title to so common an insect may appear to savour of pedantry. A moment's con- sideration, however, will show that popular names are likely to lead to misunderstanding. The House-fly occurs in practically every part of the world where man 14 INSECT LIFE has taken up his abode, and the insect has a different popular name in every language. How is the Britisher to know that the Typhoid-fly of America and the House- fly of his own country are one and the same insect ? Popular names often differ in neighbouring counties, yet Musca domestica is the one title which denotes the common House-fly everywhere. This Fly, then, belongs to the genus Musca and the species domestica. The letter L. which follows its name shows that it was first described by Linnaeus. The name of the author responsible for an insect's title is often omitted, but such omission may cause con- fusion. For instance, there is a common yellow Humble-bee called Bomhus mmcorum ; there is another, equally common, yellow and black Humble-bee of the same name. The former was described by Kirby and the latter by Smith. Were the author's names appended, the expert entomologist would know to which Humble-bee reference was made. In any case, it is confusing to have two closely related insects bearing similar names. In the examples we have quoted this source of confusion is removed by the fact that the B. muscorum of Kirby had been previously described as B. venustus by Smith, and the B. muscorum of Smith had been named B. agrorum by Fabricius, and the name of the prior author always stands. This is a strict and necessary rule in classification, for, with many workers in the field, it is no uncommon occurrence for a scientist to describe some form which has already been described. No animal can have more than one generic and one specific name, so its first published name is the one by which it is known. METAMOEPHOSIS 15 To return to the House-fly ; its place in our classifica- tion is made clear by the following brief table : Branch: Arthrofoda. Class: Insecta. Subclass: Endo'pterygota. Order: Diptera. Suborder: Cyclorrha'pha schizophora. Genus: Musca. Species: Domestica. Metamorphosis and Growth. The reader who scans our pages cannot fail to be struck with one outstanding feature^ — all insects pass through some sort of a change in the course of their complete lives. In a few, a very few, cases the change is very slight; the newly born insect is practically a replica in miniature of its parent, and by increase of size alone it attains the adult stage. In many cases, and they are more familiar, the insect only completes its development by a series of abrupt stages, totally dissimilar to one another. There are also several intermediate forms between the two, and a few excep- tional phenomena which do not rightly fit into any class. These changes, of whatever their nature, are known as metamorphosis, and a few typical examples may make the following pages more comprehensible. Taking the case of the Common Cabbage White Butterfly, Pieris brassicce, we have an insect whose life-cycle — ^the complete round from perfect insect to perfect insect — may be observed without difficulty. After pairing, the female deposits her eggs upon some 16 INSECT LIFE plant whicli will form the food of the next stage in the life-cycle. The egg is the first stage in the metamorphosis of this insect. In due course the eggs will hatch and caterpillars will emerge. Caterpillars are technically known as larvae, and they form the second stage. They feed ravenously, for the larval stage is a growing stage. By degrees they grow to such an extent that their skins are in danger of becoming too small. They cease feeding for a short period, their outer skins are shed, and below they are clad in a new and larger skin. Once more feeding commences, and continues till this skin also is too small, and the operation is repeated. The operation of skin-casting is known as moulting, and the number of moults are constant in each species, but variable in different species. Some larvae moult but twice, others as many as twenty times. Here we may fittingly attempt to remove a very popular misconception: that adult insects — that is, insects in their last stage — grow. We often hear the remark, " Oh, there is a young House-fly!'' as a small Fly is indicated. As a matter of fact, the individual usually described as a small House-fly invariably proves to be another species altogether, the Lesser House-fly, Fannia canicularis. Someone may here remark that in a collection of insects it is possible to find several individuals, which expert entomologists describe as being all of the same species and sex, of varying size. This is true, but is easily accounted for; the amount and quality of food in the larval stage has a very great bearing upon the ultimate size of the perfect insect, but we shall return to this subject on another page. After this digression, let us return to oux larva, which METAMORPHOSIS 17 we will presume is fully fed — that is to say, it has com- pleted its growth and passed through its last moult. The larva becomes restless, seeks a place where it may undergo its next transformation, makes itself secure by means of silken threads, and passes into the resting pupal stage. The pupa is usually inert; it possesses but feeble powers of movement, and in our example never moves from its original position. At any rate this, the third stage, is outwardly a dormant stage. Within the pupal case wonderful changes are taking place, but it is not within our province to deal with them here. When these changes are complete the pupal skin splits and the perfect insect or imago emerges, having completed its life-cycle and possessed of full sexual characters. A life-cycle of the nature described above, therefore, consists of four stages— (1) The dormant egg, (2) the active growing larva, (3) the dormant pupa, and (4) the active, non-growing imago. Such a metamorphosis is said to be complete and is the rule among Hyme^ioptera, Lepidopera, Dipera, Si'phonaptera, Coleoptera, Trichop- tera, and Planipennia. The life-cycle of the Cockroach, Blatta orientaUs, is quite different. The female deposits her eggs. The eggs give rise to active larvae, which grow and moult, as do those of the White Butterfly; but whereas the latter larvae bore no kind of likeness to their parents, the Cockroach larvae are very similar to the adults, except that they are smaller. By a series of moults they attain nearly the adult stage; at the final moult they are so similar to their parents that it requires an expert to say whether they are adults or nymphs, as 3 18 INSECT LIFE they are called at this stage. The final moult produces the sexually mature imago. The metamorphosis of the Cockroach is incomplete; it includes no resting pupal stage. There are many other forms of incomplete meta- morphosis; the transformations of the Dragon-fly may be cited. The egg gives rise to the active larva, quite unlike the parent insect. The larva transforms into the active nymph, which bears considerable resemblance to the imago into which it will develop. Again there is no resting pupal stage. Incomplete metamorphosis is the rule among Orthop- tera, Rhynchota, Odonata, Mallophaga, Euplexoptera , Plecopterttj Isoptera, and Ephemeroptera. There are some insects, species belonging to the Collembola and Thysanura, which might correctly be described as exhibiting incomplete metamorphosis. As a matter of fact, their transformations are so slight that they hardly deserve the appellation, for the larvse simply grow to the adult stage by a series of moults. The time taken for an insect to pass through its life- cycle depends on its species, and, in the same species, depends upon external conditions, such as climate and food-supply. The Seventeen Year Old Locust (p. 119) requires seven- teen years to pass through its life-cycle; many Aphidce complete their cycle in a week. Again, certain species which in this country have two broods a year — i.e., pass through a complete life-cycle twice in twelve months — perform the same operation three times in a similar period in a warmer climate. The Ant Lion may undergo its metamorphosis rapidly when food is plentiful; METAMORPHOSIS 19 should tlie larva be starved, however, the larval stage, and hence the life-cycle, is much protracted. There are many species of insects which contrive to shorten the period of their transformations, or, more correctly, their transformations are habitually shortened. The Sheep Bot-fly, CEstrus ovis, deposits young living larvae, thus missing the egg-stage; the same phenomenon is common amongst the Sarcophaga, or Flesh-flies. Still more time is saved by the Tsetse-flies, Glossina, whose larvae at birth are almost fully grown and ready to pupate. The Pupiparia were so named because they were supposed to give birth to pupae; as a matter of fact, their larvae at birth are in such an advanced stage of development that they pupate immediately. All insects producing living young are said to be viviparous. The common Aphides afford striking and easily observed examples of viviparous insects; in them also may be studied the phenomenon of parthenogenesis — ^.e., reproduction without pairing. This phenomenon, rare amongst the Animal Kingdom in general, is fairly common amongst insects. Paired female Aphides lay hard, black, winter eggs on shrubs, etc., likely to provide food for their young. In the spring the eggs hatch, and after a series of moults the young grow into wingless females. These wingless females, unaided by males — indeed, there are none early in the year — ^produce brood after brood of living wingless females similar to themselves. Later in the year winged females are born, and they migrate to other plants, and so spread the race far and wide. Towards autumn both winged males and females arrive on the scene ; they pair and as a result the winter eggs are pro- 20 INSECT LIFE duced. It is evident tliat this parthenogenetic mode of reproduction is a great time-saver. A stiU more remarkable variant of the normal life- cycle occurs amongst certain Cecidomyiidce of the genera Miastor and OUgarces. The females lay one or two exceptionally large eggs, from which, in due course? a larva emerges. This larva, however, is no ordinary individual, for within its body other larvae develop — other larvse of the same species. The phenomenon must not be confused with any kind of parasitism, where larvse of another species or genus or order may develop from the body of some luckless larva. These larvse devour the interior of the parent larva, pierce its empty skin, and come into the world as ordinary larvse. In exceptional cases these larvse too may give birth to other individuals, and so on for several generations. The final generation of larvse behaves in the ordinary manner, pupates, and gives rise to the adult Fly. A phenomenon of this nature is known to scientists as psedogenesis. Of all these time-saving devices designed by Nature, evidently with the object of bringing a large insect population into the world rapidly, nothing is more extraordinary than the story of the TermitoxeniidcB. These wingless insects are allied to the Pupiparia; they dwell in Termites' nests, and they are hermaphrodite — that is to say, there are no separate males and females, but each individual possesses the characters of both sexes. These strange creatures lay large eggs, whence arise, in nearly every case, fully developed adults. There are a considerable number of insect life-cycles which cannot be completed without the assistance of HYPERMETAMORPHOSIS 21 some other, probably non-related insect. Under this heading, of course, must be included all cases of para- sitism; many of these are referred to in the following pages. One of the most curious of these histories is that of certain Blister Beetles, Meloidw, and to the phenomenon the name of hypermetamorphosis has been given. To Fabre we are indebted for the life-story of Sitaris humeralis, a Blister Beetle which in its immature stages is dependent upon Bees of the genus Anthophora. The Beetle deposits its eggs, to the number of about two thousand, near the Bee's nest; this occurs in the summer. Towards autumn small black larvse, called triungulins, because they have three claws on their tarsi, emerge from the eggs. These larvae hibernate where they are hatched, and do not feed at all. In the spring they awake to activity, and their one object is to become attached to the hairy body of the Bee, at the door of whose nest they are waiting. Now, these larvae have no powers of discriminating between the hairy body of the Bee and any similar object; as a consequence many of them are carried away on other objects, maybe the body of a mouse, and never reach the haven where they would be. It is fortunate that the mother Beetle is so prolific, for many of its larvae never attain maturity. It is a general rule in the Animal Kingdom that in the species whose progeny normally undergo many risks, great fecundity is shown. Let us follow the fortunes of a successful triungulin. It becomes attached to the body of a female Anthophora , who, if the larva be fortunate, has stored her honey in her brood-cell and is about to lay her single egg therein. As the Bee lays her egg, so the larva releases its hold of 22 INSECT LIFE her hair, and floats upon the egg as upon a raft. The Bee closes the cell, and the triungulin is left in sole possession of the egg and a store of honey. The larva makes its first meal of the egg, and occupies about a week in the devouring of it; all this time it remains floating on the shell, for immersion in the honey would be fatal. On the remnants of the egg-sheU the larva moults, and appears as a totally different creature, able to float on the honey. For about six weeks it lives in the honey, which it consumes the while; at the end of this time, having devoured all the stores which the cell contained, the insect changes into a pupa within the larval skin, and either emerges as a perfect insect in about a month or delays the advent for a longer period. Hyper metamorphosis is common amongst the Meloidce; our common Oil Beetle, Meloe proscarahceus , has a very similar life-story to the one just described. It also depends upon Anthofhora for the upbringing of its larvae, but it does not deposit its eggs near that insect's nest. The risk of misadventure, therefore, is far greater than in Sitaris; as a consequence the female Melee is still more prolific, ten thousand eggs being no unusual number for a single female to lay. An American Blister Beetle, Epicauta vittata, has a very similar life-story; the unwilling foster-parents, if we may use such a term, of its larvae are Locusts of the genus Caloptenus. In one important particular Epi- cauta differs from both Sitaris and Melee; its triungulins are active. Their early Hfe is spent in the egg-cases of the Locust, and the young triungulins hunt hither and thither for the object that is to form their home. Nothing is left to chance ; if a Caloptenus has oviposited INSECTS AND PLANTS 23 near the Beetle larvae, they will discover the eggs. As the risk of failure is diminished, so we find that Epicauta is not so prolific as the other Blister Beetles. It must strike the entomologist as strange that female insects, who have no opportunity of learning by experi- ence, always lay their eggs either on the food-plant of their larvae or near it. This habit led to some interesting experiments quite recently to determine, if possible, by what means the mother insect was guided in her choice. Extracts were made from various plants, and pieces of fabric were soaked with the substances extracted. It was found that insects in the habit of ovipositing on, say, Cruciferous plants would oviposit on fabric soaked with the extract of those plants. The experi- ments were interesting because they showed, at least, how insects are guided to certain plants for purposes of egg-laying. They did not show, however — and the phenomenon still remains to be demonstrated — how the insects know which plants will form suitable food material for their larvae. The larvae of many species, it is true, are not always confined to one species of plant for their food. Some larvae are fairly catholic in their tastes, but there are species whose needs are satisfied by one kind of plant alone. Of these latter insects none are more remarkable than the Yucca Moths, Pronuba yuccasella. These Tineid Moths can only obtain their food from the yucca- flower, their larvae can only live on the yucca-plant, and the plant can only become fertilized with the assistance of this one species of Moth. The female is provided with a peculiar sickle-shaped process on her maxillary palps, whose use we shall see in a moment. 24 INSECT LIFE After pairing, the Moth flies to a yucca-flower, collects pollen from its anthers by means of her sickle-shaped process, and rolls it into a ball. Next she visits another flower, and by the aid of her long, pointed ovipositor she lays an egg amongst the ovules within; at the same time she places the ball of pollen in a hollow at the apex of the stigma. The pollen fertilizes the ovules, and the seeds, to the number of about two hundred, begin to develop. When the larva emerges, it feeds upon the ripening seeds; its larval period, however, is of short dura- tion, and after devouring about twenty seeds pupation takes place, and the rest of the seeds develop for the benefit of the yucca-plant. " The whole proceeding is of great interest . . . giving us an example of two species absolutely dependent upon each other for their continued existence. If the Moth had not the structure to form the pollen-ball and the instinct to put it on the stigma, the ovules would not be fertilized and her offspring would have no food; and if the plant was not prepared to sacrifice some ten per cent, of its brood, the rest would never develop at all." Such a larva as that of the Yucca Moth could not exist in any other situation but in the ovary of the yucca-plant. Startling as its life-story may appear, a moment's consideration will show that all larvae are beautifully adapted for their particular mode of life. Dozens of examples are to be found in our pages, thousands more can be studied in the world around us, with little effort. The Eat-tailed Maggot, whose appetite must be appeased with decaying vegetable matter from the bottom of some pond, yet whose PLATE II LAPPET MOTH AT REST AMONG DEAD LEAVES An example of proteciive colouring GIANT COCKROACH Faoc 83 ALTEENATION OF GENERATIONS 25 respiratory apparatus needs air, is marvellously con- trived to perambulate his muddy home the while he breathes pure air. The Caddis-fly larva, so delicate that he would be an easy prey for predatory creatures which frequent his stream, must perforce build for him- self the coat of armour which Nature has omitted to supply. The Vapourer Moth larva, whose mother, being wingless, has little chance of distributing her progeny over a wide area, has such nomadic habits that he, in part at least, makes up for his parent's deficiency. But there is no need to quote more; a moment's thought will show that insect larvae are given every chance to succeed in the world; some do so better than others, and they are the species that are best adapted for their particular mode of life. In addition to what may be termed the normal life- cycles, and to the exceptions mentioned on the foregoing pages, there is another form which is worthy of mention. This form of life-cycle, termed " alternation of genera- tions," is particularly prevalent among the Gall-flies, CynifidcB. Let us take the common spangle gall of the oak as our example. On the under-sides of oak-leaves, towards autumn, we can very often find little reddish plates, thicker in the centre than at the edges; these are the spangle galls of the Gall-fly Neuroterus lenticularis. With the leaf fall the spangle galls come to the ground, and as the leaves decay they become separated. In spring female Flies emerge from the galls; they are able to reproduce their kind parthenogenetically, and they do so by depositing their eggs in the young leaves and leaf-buds of the oak. The result of their efforts is the formation of the so-called currant galls, also well known, 4 26 INSECT LIFE whicli closely simulate red currants. From these galls emerge males and females of the Gall-fly Sfathogaster baccarum. After pairing, the females lay their eggs in the young oak-leaves, and another colony of spangle galls arises. The familiar oak-apple is another gall formed by a Cynipid with alternating generations; its winter form makes root galls on the same tree, and the insects in their subterranean home are efficiently protected against inclement weather. This question of hibernation is interesting, and the reader who studies the life-histories given in our pages will soon realize that the winter may be passed in almost any stage. Even with such delicate, or apparently delicate, insects as the Butterflies and Moths, it is easy to select species which winter respectively in the egg, larval, pupal, and imago stage. Whatever the stage, it is always well adapted to withstand severe weather. Either the eggs have tough, hard shells; or the larvae live underground or in burrows in trees, etc.; or the pupae are well protected by tough pupal-cases or warm silken cocoons; or, should the imago itself hiber- nate, it is either an insect little affected by a fall in temperature, or it so contrives to hide itself that it is well protected from the elements. The weather, however, has a marked influence upon insect life. The least observant among us cannot fail to have noticed that the pulse of the insect world quickens during the warm summer months. Insect life is con- siderably influenced by its surroundings. Entomologists have shown that certain Lepidoptera, not long since considered to be different species, are in reality wet and dry season forms of the same species, the appearance SEASONAL DIMOEPHISM 27 of the adults having been " modified by the cHmatic environment of the pupa/' Even our native Lepidoptera show this seasonal dimorphism, as it is called, to a lesser degree, the spring brood differing ** slightly but constantly from their summer offspring." Take the case of any of our Garden Whites. The wings of the females especially are marked with black spots. In the spring these spots are grey or are much reduced, but in the later summer brood the spots are much darker-coloured and the wings are yellowish instead of pure white. Again, Pieris rapce is really the summer form of Pieris napi, the Green- veined White; in the spring the greenish veins from which the Butterfly derives its name are broader and more distinct than in the summer form. ** The two forms of this insect were discussed by A. Weismann in his classical work on * The Seasonal Dimor- phism of Butterflies.' He tried the effect of artificially induced cold conditions on the summer pupse of P. napi^ and by keeping a batch for three months at the tempera ture of freezing water he succeeded in completely changing every individual of the summer generation into the winter form. The reverse of this experiment also was attempted by Weismann. He took a female of bryonies, an Alpine and Arctic variety of P. napi, showing in an intensive degree the characters of the spring brood. The female laid eggs, the caterpillars from which fed and pupated. The pupse, although kept through the summer in a hothouse, all produced typical bryonicB, and none of these, with one exception, appeared until the next year; for in the Alpine and Arctic regions this species is only single-brooded " 28 INSECT LIFE Similar experiments were performed with Araschnia levana, whose summer, more brightly coloured, form is known as A. prorsa. After refrigerating the summer pupse, most of the insects appeared as the winter form, but the converse experiment of warming the winter pupse failed to convert levana into prorsa. " Weismann argued from these experiments that the winter form of these seasonably dimorphic species is in all cases the older, and that the Butterflies developing within the summer pupae can be made to revert to the ancestral condition by repeating the low-temperature stimulus which always prevailed during the geologically recent Ice Age/* SOCIAL HABITS 29 CHAPTEK II SOCIAL HABITS, COLOURING OF INSECTS, AND ECONOMIC QUESTIONS Social Habits and Guests. The majority of insects are solitary in their habits; each individual, or at most a pair of individuals, lives its life irrespective of the activities of others of its kind. Some few are gregarious, the larvse of Processionary Moths and of many Sawflies, Aphis, and Psocid adults. The number of social insects can be counted on the fingers of one hand: they are Bees, Wasps, Termites, and Ants; and of these, none have carried the social habit to so high a state as the Ants. These insects are practically ubiquitous ; from pole to pole, from the summits of the highest mountains to sea-level, they may be found. Compared with other social insects, their colonies are both more populous and more stable; worker Ants have been known to live for seven years, and queens more than twice as long. Of the other social insects, Bee and Wasp colonies "are merely annual growths," whilst Termites are practically confined to the tropics. " Ants have either never acquired, or have completely abandoned, certain habits which must seriously handicap the Termites, Social Wasps, and Bees in their struggle for existence. The Ants neither restrict their diet, like 30 INSECT LIFE the Termites, to comparatively innutritions substances such as cellulose, nor, like the Bees, to a very few sub- stances like the honey and pollen of evanescent flowers, nor do they build elaborate combs of expensive materials such as wax. Even paper as a building material has been very generally outgrown and abandoned by the Ants. Waxen and paper cells are not easily altered or repaired, and insects that are wedded to this kind of architecture not only have to expend much time and energy in collecting and working up their building materials, but they are unable to move themselves or their brood to other localities when the nest is disturbed, when the moisture or temperature become unfavourable, or when the food- supply fails." Ants, again, have few enemies; true, they are the hosts of various guests, of which more anon, but of deadly foes they have few. Forel, the great authority on these insects, said: "The Ant's most dangerous enemies are other Ants, just as man's most dangerous enemies are other men." Before considering the social habits of Ants, it will be well to devote some space to one of the most striking peculiarities of these insects — their polymorphism. Strictly speaking, polymorphism means many shapes, and, equally strictly speaking, all animals exhibit poly- morphism, for no two organisms are precisely alike in every particular. As used here, however, the term is " merely a synonym of variation," and in its restricted sense is only to be observed amongst social animals, " where its existence is commonly attributed to a physiological division of labour." Wheeler enumerates no less than twenty-seven polymorphic forms of Ants; ANT COLONIES 31 needless to say, these forms never all occur in one colony, nor are they to be found in any one species. It is quite common, however, to find five polymorphic forms, more usually called "castes," in one Ant community; they are winged males and winged females, major and minor workers, females so named on account of their size, and soldiers — workers specially adapted to undertake any fighting that may be necessary. Another interesting *' caste," only found in a limited number of species, is known as " nasuti." The function of the nasuti, or nosed ones, is to build the nests and repair them when In describing the typical Ant colony, it must always be borne in mind that the habits of Ants vary tremen- dously— in fact, no two species have precisely similar habits . Our description , therefore , is one of generalities , and appUes only to the ground-nesting species. In colonies where there are winged males and females pairing, with rare exceptions, takes place in the air during a nuptial flight. This is always a period of the greatest excitement; even the wingless workers come to the surface along with the winged males and females. *' The winged forms move about in tremulous indecision, but finally venture forth, run about on the stones or climb about on the grass-blades till they have filled their trachese with a plentiful supply of oxygen. Then they spread their wings, and are soon lost to view high in the air." Although the performance is comparable to the swarming of Bees, there are several important differences. In a Bee-swarm there is only a single female, here there are many; the female Ant rarely returns to the colony 32 INSECT LIFE in which she was born; in both cases, however, tlie males die down after pairing. Wrhen the earth is reached once more, the fertihzed queen detaches her vnngs by rubbing them against grass- blades or stones, by pulHng them ofi with her legs, or even biting them off. Having divested herself of wings, which henceforth would be useless to her, she makes a short burrow which terminates in a chamber; then she closes the mouth of the burrow. " The labour of excavating often wears away all her mandibular teeth, rubs the hairs from her body, and mars her burnished or sculptured armour, thus producing a number of mutila- tions, which though occurring generation after generation in species that nest in hard, stony soil, are, of course, never inherited." In the chamber she has made, the queen awaits the maturation of the eggs, which takes place at the expense of her fat body and degenerating wang- muscles. She may have to wait months before they are ready to be laid, but eventually she oviposits, her eggs being fertilized by spermatozoa stored in her spermatheca since the nuptial flight. The eggs are tended by the queen till they hatch as minute larvae; then she feeds them with a secretion of her salivary glands, derived from the same source as the eggs themselves — from her fat body and wing- muscles. These larvae dif!er from those hatched later, they grow very slowly, pupate before their time, and give rise to very small workers. " In some species it takes fully ten months to bring such a brood of minim workers to maturity, and during all this time the queen takes no nourishment, but merely draws on her reserve tissues.*' ANT COLONIES 33 These small workers do not belie their name : they soon " get busy "; they break down the entrance to the nest; they build other chambers and galleries ; they sally forth to hunt for food for themselves and the exhausted queen. She in her turn changes her nature from this point; she no longer takes any interest in her progeny, but leaves them to the care of the workers, and limits " herself to the laying of eggs and imbibing liquid food from the tongues of her attendants. . . . With this circumscribed activity she lives on, sometimes to an age of fifteen years, as a mere egg-laying machine." The later broods of larvae, as we have said, are tended by the early workers, but when the colony is in going order each worker has her appointed duties to perform. Some act as nurses; they feed and clean the young; they also transport them from one part of the nest to another according to the varying humidity and tempera- ture of the different galleries. Also, in the event of the nest being broken open or of an attack by some other species, the workers remove the eggs, larvae, and pupae to a place of safety. " This freedom in dealing with the brood is certainly one of the most striking manifestations of the plasticity of Ants."" It is very unusual for the immature Ants to be brought into the light; apart from other considerations, workers always remove the brood to the dark recesses of the nest when an accident befalls it. Wheeler , however , says that in the dry deserts of Western Texas, he has seen Ishno- myrmex cocJcerelli bring its larvse and pupae out on to the large crater of the nest about 9 p.m., and carry them leisurely to and fro much as human nurses wheel their charges about the city parks in the cool of the evening. 5 34 INSECT LIFE The workers carry out their duties solely by their highly developed tactile and olfactory senses. The brood, eggs, larvae, and pupae are arranged in groups according to their age and condition. During the warmer hours of the day the brood is brought nearer to the surface of the soil; at night it is removed to the deeper recesses of the nest. As Ants' eggs are very minute, it is hardly surprising to learn that they are not carried about separately; the workers constantly lick the eggs, and this causes them to adhere together in little packets; their saliva may have a further use in preventing the growth of moulds. The larvae are very soft and white, almost transparent — in fact, in shape they resemble a " crook-necked " gourd, the curved end terminating in the head; of eyes and legs they have none, but they are usually hairy. The hairs probably serve a number of ends; they prevent the delicate skin of the larva from coming in contact with the moist soil ; they are a protection against assault by other larvae, and they hold their owners together in packets and thus assist transport by the workers. The feeding of the larvae is carried out by the workers, and according to many authorities " the quantity or quality of the food, or both, determines whether the larva hatching from a fertilized egg shall become a worker or a female." The food supplied to the larvae varies according to the species; many species feed their larvae solely upon regurgitated food; some feed them upon solid food, portions of insects, or in the case of the Harvesting Ants, portions of seeds and the Fungus- growing Ants on fungus hjrphae; some species, again, feed their larvae on both solid and regurgitated food . ANT COLONIES 85 Many Ant larvse pupate without spinning any cocoon; other species, however, spin silken cocoons, but they are unable to do so without assistance from the workers. The larvse can only perform the operation if they are buried in the earth or covered by soil, that there may be a solid foundation to which they can attach their silk. The workers, therefore, bury their charges, await the spinning of the cocoons , and unearth them again. These cocoons, by the way, are the commodity usually sold as ants' eggs for the purpose of feeding fish, cage birds, etc. When the time arrives for the adult to emerge, the workers once more lend their aid; they cut open part of the lower surface of the cocoon, draw out the contained insect, and strip the inner skin from its body, antennae, and legs. At first the adult Ant is pale in colour, and is known as a " Callow.'* Briefly, this is the history of a typical Ant colony. Wheeler, in his work on Anta, whence much of our information is derived, gives an excellent account of the doings of these interesting insects, with details of the peculiarities of different species which depart from the normal. Symbiosis among insects is nowhere better illustrated than by certain social species, and the Ants have raised the practice of living with other species — for that is what symbiosis means — to a very high standard. For pur- poses of convenience, at any rate, the symbiosis of Ants may be considered from two points of view. First there are those cases in which Ants, of their own accord, gather together a varied assortment of insects, Green-fly, Scale-insects, Plant-lice, and the hke — insects upon which the Ants are almost parasitic. Then there are 36 INSECT LIFE insects which, without encouragement from their hosts, settle themselves to life within an Ants* nest. Insects of the first category all excrete honey-dew, a sweet liquid which is eagerly devoured by Ants; in return, the Ants perform certain services for their captives, so that this is more nearly true symbiosis than is the case with the insects in the second category, who, in many cases, do not benefit or may even harm their captors. On a later page we have mentioned briefly the relation- ship of Ants to A f hides. A few more details may fittingly be included here. It perhaps occasions some surprise that any Ants should trouble with insects so small as Af hides, whose yield of honey-dew, one would thinl?:, could not be excessive; but recent investigations show that a Maple Aphis will secrete forty-eight drops of the liquid in twenty-four hours. " A drove of Aphids, especially when it is stationed on young and succulent leaves or twigs, may produce enough honey- dew to feed a whole colony of Ants for a considerable period. Huber has observed the method by which the Ants procure their honey-dew from the Aphids; we have not space to quote his words, but the usual proceeding is for the Ant to stroke the abdomen of the Aphis with its antennae, and the latter voids the sugary liquid. When the Ants neglect their charges, the latter void their excretion on to the plant without any assist- ance; should the Ants, however, become too pressing in their attentions, the Aphids become exhausted and can yield no more nutriment ; but the Aphids are by no means parsimonious, and if they have anything to give, never fail to respond to the Ants' solicitations. With regard to the excretion of honey-dew very many ANTS AND APHIDS 37 erroneous statements have been made, and some of them have found their way into scientific literature. On the sides of the sixth abdominal segment of many Aphids there is a pair of protuberances, called " siphons/' Linnaeus stated, and others have copied his statement, that the Ants derive their honey-dew from the siphons ; the liquid, however, is the excrement of the insects, and does not come from the siphons. Biisgen, in describing the attack of a Lacewing larva on an Aphis, pointed out the use of the siphons to their owners. " When the attack," he says, " happens to be rather awkward, the Aphid has time to smear the secretion, which is at once discharged from the siphons, over the face and forceps of the larva, which is thus, at least temporarily, disconcerted and frightened. . . . The secretion hardens on the larva immediately, and thus forms a most uncomfortable coating, causing the creature to desist from the chase while it cleanses its forceps and forehead. This consumes time, and can only be accomplished by the Aphis-lions seizing some slender object, like the tooth of a leaf, for the purpose of rubbing off the secretion." Another authority has shown that the siphons are more highly developed amongst those Aphids that live singly and not in droves, and are not attended by Ants; in such circumstances there is more risk of attack. The relations of Ants to Coccidce are very similar to their relations to Afhidw. The Psyllidce, which void both soHd and liquid honey-dew, are closely attended by Ants, and in some cases are protected under sheds built by these insects. Wheeler sums up the relationship with Ants and Aphids very concisely. On the part of 38 INSECT LIFE the Aphids, he says that they do not attempt to escape from or defend themselves against the Ants; they yield their honey-dew gradually, and some species, habitually dwelling with Ants, have developed a circlet of hairs to support the sweet drops till they can be imbibed by the Ants. Aphids attended by Ants extract more plant- juices than unattended individuals, and the reduction of the protective siphons is usually more marked in those species which are visited by Ants. Ants, on their part, never kill Aphids as they do other defenceless insects ; they stroke their charges in a particular manner to make them yield their liquid store ; they protect their charges, and even carry them to a place of safety when danger threatens; also, not only the adults, but even their progeny, eggs, and larvae, are cared for by the Ants. More remarkable than any of the cases just described is the fact that Ants are known to attend the larvae of no less than sixty-five species of LyccenidcB, or " Blues,"" representing twenty-nine genera. Twenty-three of these species belong to Lyccena. These larvae, as all Lepidop- terists know, are rounded at their head and tail ends, somewhat depressed, and clothed with fine hairs. In the case of Lyccena hcetica, there is a median dorsal gland on the eleventh segment, and a pair of protrusile tentacles on the twelfth. The median gland can be protruded through a transverse slit, and the tips of the tentacles are fringed with stiff hairs. The Ants caress the flattened posterior of the larva and a drop of colourless liquid is given off by the median gland; this is evidently relished by the larva's attendants. The tentacles probably give off an odour which is attractive to the Ants, but this has never been shown of a certainty. ANT GUESTS 39 There are a few other insects to which Ants pay more or less assiduous attention; but we have briefly outlined the more important. In every case the insects upon which so much care is lavished are those which have the power of yielding some sugary liquid, in return for the attention bestowed upon them. It has been truly said that " Ants have such a plastic organization that they are not only able to assume an active role towards the Aphids and a passive role towards the Myrmecophiles, or Ant guests, but they may even enter into manifold active and passive symbiotic relations to other species of Ants.'' Their relations with Aphids have been considered; those with other insects may here have some attention. That the subject can only be dealt with cursorily here is evident from the fact that there are known to be at least fifteen hundred species of Myrmecophilous insects, one thousand of them being Beetles. The Coleoptera mainly belong to the StaphylinidcB, Pselaphidw, Pamsidce, and Histeridw. Wheeler supposed that this extraordinary number of Ant guests arises from the fact that their hosts' nests are usually permanent abodes, at a higher temperature than the surrounding soil ; that there is plenty of refuse food and fresh fare in the shape of larvae and pupse ; that the Ants protect their guests in protecting themselves; and that they are always ready to lavish their affections upon any insects that resemble their larvae. Many of the guests closely resemble their hosts; by so doing they probably avoid the fate that should justly befall them. The Black Kove Beetle, Myrmedonia funesta, is of the same colour as its host Lasius fuli- ginosus ; the black and red M. humeralis simulates 40 INSECT LIFE Formica rufa, with which it dwells. These Beetles live on dead or dying Ants, and luik near the entrance to the nest to destroy solitary individuals coming in or going out. Five or six Beetles will fall upon a single Ant, " tear her limb from limb, and then quarrel with one another over the fragments, like a pack of hungry hounds. The Ants detest these jackals, and rush at them with open jaws; but the latter merely turn up their flexible tails and emit a disagreeable secretion.'" Certain Ant guest Beetles of the genus Clythra only dwell with their hosts in the larval stage, but they are cunning individuals. They build cases in which to dwell, and then, when they are hungry, withdraw their heads within the case. The worker Ants, ever watchful for convenient hiding-places in which to store their egg- packets, deposit them within an apparently empty case. The Clythra larva wastes no time in devouring the meal so obligingly placed before it. Few Ant guests are more crafty than a little Lepismid Atelura formicaria. This creature is very similar to its near ally the Silver Fish; it does not seem to be a welcome guest, for the Ants often make attacks upon it, but, being exceedingly agile, it rarely comes to any harm. In our chapter on Ants we have mentioned the common practice of one Ant feeding another by passing regurgi- tated food from mouth to mouth. This is Atelura' s opportunity for appeasing its hunger ; when two Ants are face to face and about to pass the sugary Hquid, their guest glides up with astonishing rapidity, steals the drop as it passes, and makes off. Certain wingless Crickets of the genus Myrmecofhila live on the oily secretions from the bodies of their hosts. ANT GUESTS 41 The Cricket nibbles the legs of the Ant and seems to delight in so doing. ** At first the Ant disregards this nibbling, which probably resembles the attentions of the toilet habitually received from sister Ants; but the Cricket's scraping mandibles soon grow to be annoying, and the Ant either moves away or turns her head, opens her mandibles, and makes a lunge at the Myrme- copJiila, like a large dog annoyed by a puppy. . . . For obvious reasons, the Cricket avoids nibbling at or even approaching the Ant's head. It is always alert, as if perpetually aware of danger, and ready to dodge at the slightest movement of the Ant." The Crickets may also be observed nibbling at the walls of the nests ; probably they derive therefrom some greasy matter rubbed from the bodies of passing Ants. Certain minute Cockroaches, of the genus Attaphila, dwell in the nests of fungus-growing Ants, and, in habit, closely resemble Myrmecophila . They, however, live on friendly terms with their hosts and climb upon their heads and backs in search of nutriment, an event rendered the more strange because they are the only insects known to live on intimate terms with these Ants. Of the true Ant guests, as distinguished from the tolerated or persecuted guests already mentioned, we have Uttle space with which to deal. They are Beetles for the most part; in colour they are usually red, and they frequently bear tufts of yellow or red hairs, which are licked by the Ants with evident dehght. Wasmann believes that the Ants are so fond of the secretion from these hairs ** that it must affect them very much as a good cigar affects a smoker.'* Many of the guests are moved from place to place in 6 42 INSECT LIFE the nest by their hosts, usually by pulling at their legs or antennsB, fed with regurgitated food, licked and fondled as though they were blood relations of the members of the colony. The Staphyhnids of the genus Atemeles and Lomechusa are especially favoured, for not only are the adults carefully tended, but their larvse are treated in every respect with the same attention as their hosts' larvae. Concerning the true parasites, whose energies are devoted to thinning the ranks of the Ant colonies, we have no space to deal with them; nor can we describe in these pages any of the many Ant species which dwell together in perfect harmony and to their mutual advan- tage. Perhaps it is natural, but we are conscious of the fact that these insects have already absorbed more than their duly allotted space in our pages. The Colours of Insects and Mimicry. It is not necessary to have studied entomology very deeply to be aware of the fact that the colours of insects, in the majority of cases, harmonize so nicely with their owner's usual surroundings as to render him more or less inconspicuous, or, on the contrary, are so brilliant that he forces himself upon one's attention. Both descriptions of colouring have their uses in the insect economy; let us consider them in their order. Colours which harmonize mth an insect's environment are usually designed for purposes of concealment; they render their owner inconspicuous, and on this account they are called " protective." In many cases protective resemblance is a better term than protective colouring, PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE 43 for often tliere is a similarity of form as well as colour between the insect and its surroundings. No better examples of protective resemblance can be found in the insect world than is exhibited by the Leaf Butterflies of the genus Kallima; when at rest, these insects are almost indistinguishable from the surrounding leaves. Certain of our native Lepidoptem exhibit pro- tective resemblance in a minor degree. The Green Hair streak, Thecla ruhi, is dingy brown on its upper surface, but when it settles on green herbage, with its wings folded, its emerald lower surface efficiently matches the verdure. To the tropics, however, we must turn once more for really striking examples. The female Leaf Insect, PhylUum crurifoUum, is almost as perfect in its protective resemblance as the Leaf Butterfly, but whereas the latter simulates a dead leaf, the former has the colour and form of a green leaf. These insects (described on p. 90) have been known to bite pieces from the tegmina of their sisters; can they themselves be deceived ? It is remarkable, at any rate, that their attacks upon one another are always confined to the leaf-like portions of their bodies. Of the Stick insects and the Geometrid larvse, which resemble twigs, we have spoken elsewhere. Bastin, in his book "Insects," describes an interest- ing case of protective resemblance observed by Pro- fessor Gregory in the Great Rift Valley. He says: ** The insect in question is a species of Flata—a genus comprised in the family Fulgoridce. It is found in British East Africa, and is dimorphic, a certain number of individuals being bright pink in colour, while others are bright green. The insects frequent the stems of 44 INSECT LIFE plants, from which they suck the sap; and the order of their grouping is very remarkable. The pink ones sit upon the lower part of the stem, while the green ones take up positions above, towards the extremity. More- over, the developing larvae — which secrete long waxy filaments, and are quaint, fluffy objects quite unlike their parents — sit beneath the pink individuals at the lowest part of the stem. In this way the exact appear- ance of a spiked inflorescence, such as that of the fox- glove, is produced. The fluffy larvae look like seeds; the pink individuals resemble drooping flowers; while the green ones, higher up the stem, play the part of so many unopened buds. Professor Gregory was completely deceived by the first cluster he saw, and attempted to gather it, when the mock flowers and buds jumped off in all directions.'" Other examples of protective resemblance are easily discovered. There are Beetles that resemble tufts of lichen and those that resemble larval excrement, to mention but two from one order. Protective colouring, as distinct from resemblance, is far more common, and there are examples on every side. The green larva feeding on a green leaf is so coloured, but there are more subtle forms than this. Amongst the Lefidoftera we have the larvae of the Pine Beauty Moth, Panolis pini'perda. Away from their food-plant, the pine, they are striking-looking green insects with two dorsi-lateral white lines; when feeding on the pine needles, they harmonize so admirably with their sur- roundings that they are difficult for bird or man to discover. Another green-striped white larva, that of the Privet Hawk Moth, S'phinx ligustri, is even more PROTECTIVE COLOURING 45 conspicuous when viewed in the hand, but, large though it is when fully fed, it harmonizes well with its food-plant, the privet. Not only the colouring, but the light and shade upon an insect assist in rendering it inconspicuous. In this connection we may well quote Professor Poulton upon the pupa of the Purple Emperor, Apatum iris: "The most extraordinary thing about this resemblance is the impression of leaf -like flatness conveyed by a chrysalis, which is in reality very far from flat. In its thickest part the pupa is 8-5 millimetres across, and it is in all parts very many times thicker than a leaf. The dorsal side of the pupa forms a very thin, sharp ridge for part of its length, but the slope is much more pronounced in other parts and along the whole ventral side. But exactly in these places, where the obvious thickness would destroy the resemblance to a leaf, the whole effect of the roundness is neutralized by increased lightness, so disposed as just to compensate for the shadow by which alone we judge of the roundness of small objects. The degree of whiteness is produced by the relative abundance of white dots and a fine white marbling of the surface which is everywhere present mingled with the green. The effect is, in fact, produced by a process exactly analogous to stippling. The degree of lightness produced in this way exactly corresponds to the angle of the slope, which, of course, determines the depth of the shadow. By this beautiful and simple method the pupa appears to be as flat as a leaf which is only a small fraction of 1 millimetre in thickness." The protective colouring of certain Lepidopterous larvae varies with their surroundings; thus, the larvae of 46 INSECT LIFE the Peppered Moth, Amphydasis hetularia — ^larvae of one brood, when fed upon green leaves, become green in colour; others of the same brood and fed in a similar manner, when compelled to live upon brown twigs, in nearly every case became dark brown. There are insects, too, which, apparently instinctively, seek to hide themselves where they are least likely to be observed . The Cotton Boll Weevil , Anthonomus grandis , is a case in point. Of a dull earthen brown, this Weevil is by no means difficult to detect as it climbs over the cotton plants. In the presence of danger it at once drops to the earth, a common Weevil habit, by the way, and so closely resembles its surroundings that it is easily overlooked. This is but one example of hundreds. Many Lepidoptera , when at rest, so arrange their wings that their colouring may afford them the maximum of protection. Species with brightly coloured hind- wings but sombre fore-wings will invariably be found resting on some lichen-covered post or tree or a rock, with their wings so folded that the bright colours are hidden from view. Species whose under-sides harmonize with their surroundings rest with the upper surfaces of their wings in contact, so that only the lower surfaces can be seen. Other species, if their upper surfaces afford the best protection, sleep with their wings horizontal, and there is a case on record in which one species of Butterfly rests in one district with its wings vertical and in another district with them horizontal, for the evident reason that the positions it has chosen afford the best protective colouring for the respective districts. Many larvae spinning silken cocoons have the power of making the colour of the silk approximate closely to MIMICRY 47 that of their surroundings. With all their wonderful protective colouring, however, no adult insects have the power of varying their colours at will to suit their environ- ment, after the manner of chameleons. The brightly coloured, conspicuous insects mentioned at the beginning of the chapter are to be found every- where. What is the object of their brilliant colouring ? A few words will suffice to explain. Their ornate hues are designated warning colours for the reason that in almost every case the brightly coloured insect is un- palatable . Animals of various kinds , insectivorous birds , reptiles, and the like, all avoid the brightly coloured insect as an article of diet. Many of these insects emit noxious acid or alkaline substances when touched, and the young predator, whatever be his kind, soon learns by experience to avoid such bedecked individuals Bright colours are not an absolute protection to every individual, for animals only learn by experience, and many insects are sacrificed that the majority may enjoy immunity. Mimicry is another form of colouring worthy of consideration. Critics will decry the remark that mimicry is a form of colouring, but that is all it amounts to in many cases . Usually , however , in cases of mimicry form and colour go together. The object of mimicry appears to be either protective or aggressive : protective if the weaker, harmless insect mimics some more power- ful species; aggressive if a predatory species mimics the insects upon which it preys. Examples of protective mimicry are not hard to find. The Wasp Beetles mimic Wasps very closely in colour, and to some extent in form; we have a common British 48 INSECT LIFE species, Clytus arietis. There is, however, an exotic species which carries its mimicry much further, for, in addition to its black and yellow colouring, its two membranous wings are so deeply indented that they closely resemble the four wings of a Wasp. Our Hornet Clearwing Moth, Trochilium crahroniformis, ca.n hardly be excelled as an example of protective mimicry, for its resemblance to the Hornet Vespa crabro could hardly be more perfect in an unrelated insect. Many other examples are mentioned in our pages; in every case the mimic is benefited by its resemblance to a more aggres- sive species or to a distasteful species. Experience has taught the animal world in general that such species are best left alone; the mimic therefore shares in the comparative immunity enjoyed by the species it simu- lates. On looking for the first time at any extensive collection of insects of various orders, the observant entomologist will notice that over and over again the same colour- schemes are repeated in widely separated families or even orders. The resemblances of one group to another cannot be designated mimicry, and the matter has been summarized by Professor Meldola as follows: " From groups of species within the same order, such as Butterflies and Moths, groups of different genera of Wasps or Beetles, and so forth, we can gather a more widely abstract idea of types of warning colours common to whole tribes of insects, irrespective of the orders to which they belong. In other words, we can discern over and above the actual mimetic resemblance, which may be more or less exact, a kind of general similarity in design which suggests that certain types of patterns MIMICEY 49 have been fixed by the action of natural selection as outward and visible signs of distastefulness. Thus, the yellow and black banded pattern so frequently observed in Wasps, Flies, Beetles, etc., is a very good example of a common warning type of pattern ... it is only neces- sary to add that from the insects inhabiting one district it is often possible to detect similar arrangements of colour and marking among Beetles of various families. Flies, Wasps and Bees, Bugs and Moths — a most hetero- geneous assemblage of orders, none of the species being exact mimics of each other, and yet all presenting a general uniformity of colouring and pattern.'* Aggressive mimicry is perhaps not quite so frequently met with as protective; still, it is common enough to be observed without much difficulty. Amongst the Eobber-flies, ^s^7^£?CB, some of the most striking examples occur. Deromyia annulata bears a striking resemblance to the solitary Wasp, PoUstes metricus; Bumble Bees are simulated by Robber-flies of the genera Mallofhora and Dasylis — in fact, to such lengths is the mimicry carried in the former genus, that the hind-legs of the FHes resemble the pollen-bearing legs of the Bees. Many other examples could be quoted from the Robber-flies. The little Sphegid, Oxyhelus uniglumis (see p. 268) closely resembles, in appearance and habits, the Flies upon which she preys. In every case of aggressive mimicry the resemblance of predator to prey is of service to the former ; it enables him to go amongst his prey without arousing suspicion, and to capture them without undue effort. It is only fltting to remark that there are those who will have none of the theory of aggressive mimicry. They argue that insects so well 7 50 INSECT LIFE endowed for tte capture of their prey as are most of these insects require no adventitious aid, but that their mimicry serves to protect them from still more powerful predators. We would remark, however, that the African native who, when hunting, covers himself with a skin, does so in order that he may approach nearer to his quarry, not that he may be protected from some unknown enemy, or, as Howard remarks, " We should not fear grizzly bear if they looked like peaceable human beings/' Not all of the aggressive mimics are active insects like the Eobber-flies and Oxyhelus; certain flower-like Mantids are also mimics of this type. Nearly all species of Mantis closely resemble their usual surroundings in colour; thus, the brown Mantids frequent brown vegeta- tion, the green ones lurk on green leaves; but there are much more subtle mimics in the family than this. Hymenofus bicornis, a pink-and- white Mantid with flattened legs, is sufficiently flower-like to deceive nectar- seeking insects; Dolium diaholicnm, with four green legs and purple-and- white fore-legs and prothorax, is equally deceptive to insects. The Indian Mantid, Gongylus gongyloides, however, carries its mimicry further, and has been thus described from living specimens : ** On looking at the insects from above they did not exhibit any very striking features beyond the leaf-like appen- dages of the limbs, both of which, like the upper surface of the insect, are coloured green; but on turning to the under-surface the aspect is entirely different. The leaf-like expansion of the prothorax, instead of being green, is a clear, pale lavender-violet, with a faint pink bloom along the edges of the leaf, so that this position HAKMFUL INSECTS 51 of the insect has the exact appearance of the corolla of a plant, a floral simulation which is perfected by the presence of a dark, blackish -brown spot in the centre, over the prothorax, which mimics the opening to the tube of a corolla. A favourite position of this insect is to hang head downwards among a mass of green foliage, and, when it does so, it generally remains almost motion- less, but at intervals evinces a swaying movement as of a flower touched by a gentle breeze ; while in this attitude, with its fore-limbs banded violet and black, and drawn up in front of the centre of the corolla, the simulation of a papilionaceous flower is complete. The object of the bright colouring of the under-surface of the pro- thoracic expansion is evident, its purpose being to act as a decoy to insects, which, mistaking it for a corolla, fly directly into the expectant, serrated, sabre-like raptorial arms of the simulator." Economic Questions. Frequently we read of plagues of Caterpillars, which devour every green thing as they advance like a destroy- ing host; more frequently tidings reach us of some infantile epidemic which carries off young lives by hundreds. Do we ever give the matter a second thought unless it is brought home to us by personal loss ? What matters it that Antler Moth larvae are destroying the herbage on the Cumberland fells ? Cumberland is far away. As for infantile diseases, how are they connected with entomology, anyway ? The ordinary man, the well-educated man, has much to learn of insects, if he would play his part in making our land more habitable. What is true of Britain is doubly true of the tropics. 52 INSECT LIFE Here the insect menace is bad enough; in tropical countries, where insect life attains its zenith, the matter is far more urgent. From an economic point of view insects may be divided into two groups. There are insects which damage crops, either by using them as food or by destroying them for nesting purposes and the like. There are also insects which carry disease, from man to man, from animals to man, and from animal to animal. Examples of these destructive insects are mentioned here and there in our pages, but now we propose to review some of the more noxious, and to learn a little of their machinations. The crop pests are countless. Every herbivorous insect might be described as noxious; the very fact that it eats vegetation is proof that it does harm, unless it be such an exceptional creature that it confines its attentions to noxious plants. The entomologist, how- ever, is fair in his judgment; no insect is considered injurious unless by weight of numbers it does serious damage. The larvae of the SwaUow-tail Butterfly, Papilio machaon, feed upon the leaves of carrot, parsley, celery, fennel, and the like, but they are not common enough in this country to be classed as injurious insects. For the same reason, no one could consider the larvae of the Death 's-Head Hawk Moth, Acherontia atropos, to be injurious, though they feed upon potato- leaves. Crop pests are mainly confined to the Lepidoptera, Orthoptem, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Thysanop- tera, and Rhynchota, a formidable array, to be sure, to which we may add the Isoptera, for we use the word HARMFUL INSECTS 53 "crop'* in its widest sense, to mean any vegetation grown by man for his benefit. The Lepidoptera may be considered as the most generally injurious. The adult insects are incapable of doing any damage; none of them have mouth-parts designed for biting, so they could do no harm if they would. Moths are the chief offenders, though our common " Whites," Pieris spp., are injurious to a limited extent. Amongst the Noctuidw there are many noxious species. The larvae of nmny of these Moths, known in America as Cut- worms, hide beneath the soil by day and sally forth at night to feed; hence they are very difficult to deal with, and may be present in considerable numbers before the husbandman is aware of their presence. Other damage done by Lepidopterous larvae consists in defoliating trees and shrubs. Notorious species with this habit are mainly members of the GeometridcB , but it is by no means confined to this family, for several of the LymantridcB are voracious leaf-eaters. The CossidcB are noted wood-borers in their larval stages, and their immature existence is so prolonged that they are more harmful than insects of similar habit with a less extended life-cycle. Wood-boring larvae also occur among the Sesiidce, and many of them are capable of doing considerable harm. Another description of injury, very common amongst certain Lepidoptera, is caused by the larval habit of leaf-mining; the TineidcB are the chief offenders. Lastly there are the destructive leaf -rollers of the Tortricidw, and the obnoxious " tent-makers," also mainly Tineidce. There are certain Lepidoptera which cannot accurately 54 INSECT LIFE be described as pests of crops, yet must be mentioned here, for they can still less be classified with the disease- carriers. Eeference is made to such species as the Clothes Moths of the Tineidce, Moths with grain-eating larvae of the PyralidcB, and the Bee Moths. Orthoptera are unsurpassed as crop pests when they descend upon their feeding-grounds in thousands, a habit common to several species of Acridiidce. Certain of the Phasmidce are destructive to coconut-trees, and for the rest many Gryllidce are minor pests, and all BlattidcB are obnoxious soilers of food. The injurious Coleoptera are nearly as numerous as the Lepidopiera. Wood-borers there are in plenty amongst the Scolytidce, BostrychidcB, Lucanidce, Ceram- bycidcB, and Lamiidm, to mention a few families. The leaf-eaters are almost as numerous; ChrysomelidcB, HaliicidcB, and Galerucidce are the worst offenders, not forgetting a large number of the CurculionidcB. Then there are many species whose larvae live for long periods underground, and levy toll upon the roots of growing plants; MelolontJddcB, RutelidcB, Dynastidce, Cetoniidce^ and ElateridcB are the offenders here. There are ravagers of stored grain amongst the Curculionidce, the TenebrionidcB, and other families. There are twig- girdlers amongst the Bwprestidw , creatures of evil habit who kill the twigs of trees by eating away circular strips of bark. There are Lamiidce of almost similar habit who prune the twigs instead of ringing them. The evil ways of many Coleoptera are too diverse to be recounted in detail. Amongst the Diptera there are TipulidcB with sub- terranean root-feeding larvae. There are root and stem HAKMFUL INSECTS 55 feeding larvae and leaf-miners too, but it is mainly on the medical — or shall we say disease-bearing — side that Diftera make their presence felt. The Hymenoftera are notorious as crop pests, almost solely on account of the damage done by Tenthredinidce larvae. To a lesser degree, the Siricidce, with wood- boring larvae; the Cephidae, with larvae which tunnel in smaller stems; and the gall-forming CynipidOy, are noxious. The Thysanoftera are almost all of them injurious to growing crops, whilst the Rhynchota include some of the most harmful of all insects. With a few — a very few — exceptions, all the CoccidcB are noxious; there is probably no family containing so many injurious species: the AphidcB are a good second. The Cotton-stainers of the genus Dysdercus are dreaded in every cotton- growing district. The Aleurodidce and PsylUdcB con- tain more harmful than harmless species. The TingidcB and JassidcB are harmful in a minor degree, a remark which applies to some of the Capsidw. From their egg-laying habits the Cicadidw cause indirect injury, and the leaf-eating species of Pentatomidm are not above suspicion. Before passing to the medical aspect of economic entomology, let us see whether there is not a ray of hope amongst the wreckage. It is cheering to be reminded that nearly all these evil-doers have enemies amongst their own kind, often very closely related enemies. They belong, for the most part, to the Hymenoptera , Diptera, Coleoptera, Odonata, Planipennia, and Rhyn- chota. Many Hymenoptera live at the expense of other 56 INSECT LIFE insects. The IchneumonidcB, Brachonidce, and Chalci- didw, and in a lesser degree the Evaniidce and Procto- trypidcB, do immense service to mankind in keeping the numbers of noxious insects within reasonable bounds. In addition, there are many predators, such as the Fossorial Wasps, the Social Wasps, and the Ants, who levy no small toll on the insect world. Several Di-ptera are parasitic, notably the TachmidcB, and of predators none are more energetic or voracious than the AsilidcB. The friendly Coleoptera form a limited band. Pride of place must be awarded to the CoccinellidcB, who in their varied species wage continual warfare upon AfhidcB, Coccidce, and the like. Then there are pre- datory species of Carabidw — a few species are plant- feeders — and the still more useful CicindelidcB. The Odonata, as an order, are useful; they all devour insect fare, and most of them are indefatigable in their search for food. The Planipennia include the Chrysopidce, those in- veterate enemies of Afliidce; and amongst the Rhynchota there are some carnivorous species, mostly Reduviidce^ which do some duty towards maintaining the balance of Nature. The disease-bearing insects are confined to four orders — Diptera , Siphonapera , Anoplura, and Rhynchota; nevertheless, they are all too numerous. Amongst the Diptera we find the largest number of blood-sucking insects which affect man and his belong- ings . The CuUcidce , in the main , are harmful , and all are annoying. Malaria and yellow fever are transmitted by these insects. The Muscidm are equally objection- HAKMFUL INSECTS 57 able ; the House-fly is responsible for tlie spread of several diseases. The Tsetse-flies transmit sleeping sickness and an allied disease to animals. The SimulidcB are more than suspected of conveying pellagra, and certain Psychodidce of performing the same office for the un- known germs of three-day fever. The TabanidcB, too, are under suspicion in connection with the transmission of disease. The (Estridw are all of them noxious to animals, though not disease-carriers. Other parasitic Diftera occur in the Hiffohoscidce and alhed famihea in the Muscidw and Sarcophagidce, species of some of these two families being parasitic on man. Certain species of the Sifhonaftera are notorious as vectors of the plague bacillus ; other species are internal parasites of men and animals; most species are annoying partial parasites. The Anoflura include disgusting, disease-bearing human parasites, and the Rhynchota are notorious because they include the Cimicidce, of which family the common Bed-bug, suspected of transmitting recurrent fever, and a disgusting creature at best, is a member. These insects, in common with their crop-devouring relations, have their enemies, both parasitic and pre- datory; were it not so, there would be no place for man upon this earth. There are a certain number of insects from which we derive direct benefit; they can almost be counted upon the fingers of one hand. True, the enemies of our enemies — insect allies they may be termed — ^are beneficial to us but indirectly. The Silkworm and the Honey Bee, semi-domesticated insects both, are the chief insects from which we derive 8 58 INSECT LIFE benefits in kind. Then there are a few lesser-known species. Curiously enough, from the highly injurious family of CoccidcB these insects are mostly derived. The Lac insect, an Asiatic species, provides us with shellac; the Cochineal insect was once the medium of a thriving industry in the Canary Islands, till the discovery of aniline dyes sounded its death-knell; the Chinese pela wax insect provides a high-grade wax — and these three insects are all Coccidae ! Certain CynipidcB which make galls, used in the production of ink, and a limited number of species of various orders which provide food for people of depraved taste, complete the list of directly beneficial insects. SPKINGTAILS 59 CHAPTER III COLLEMBOLA, THYSANURA, MALLOPHAGA, ANOPLURA, ODONATA, PLECOPTERA, EPHEME- ROPTERA, ISOPTERA, AND ORTHOPTERA Order Collembola, or Springtails. Wingless, minute insects; antennae with few joints; six segments to the abdomen; biting mouths; metamor- phosis slight. The springtails form a much neglected order, and there is a considerable divergence of opinion as to their classification. APHORURiDiE. — Distinguished from all the other Collembola by the absence of any ventral spring on the abdomen. They are soft-bodied, slow-moving insects. PoDURH)^. — Ventral spring on the fourth abdominal segment. Very common insects, but overlooked on account of their small size; some of them measure only a thirtieth of an inch in length. Achorutes duhius is a common British species, found on damp soil or even upon the surface of water. A. nivicola^ an American species, occurs on snow. EntomobryiDuE. — ^Ventral spring on fifth abdominal segment; abdomen cylindrical, much longer than broad. Species of this family frequent greenhouses, bark of trees, damp soil, etc. The American Lepidocyrtus americanus is found in houses. 60 INSECT LIFE Papiriid^. — Ventral spring on fifth abdominal seg- ment; abdomen very little longer than broad; last segment of antennse short. These insects frequent moss. Smynthurid^. — ^Ventral spring on fifth abdominal segment; abdomen very little longer than broad; last segment of antennae long. Many species are brightly coloured; they frequent fungi, decaying wood, and similar situations. Lubbock described the behaviour of the common yellow Smyn- thurus luteus as follows : " It is very amusing to see these little creatures coquetting together. The male, which is much smaller than the female, runs round her, and they butt one another, standing face to face, and moving backwards and forwards like two playful lambs. Then the female pretends to run away, and the male runs after her, with a queer appearance of anger; gets in front and stands facing her again; then she turns coyly round, but he, quicker and more active, scuttles round her, and seems to whip her with his antennae; then for a bit they stand face to face, play with their antennae, and seem to be all in all to one another.'* Order Thysanura. Wingless, minute insects with many -jointed antennae; ten abdominal segments; slight metamorphosis; biting mouth-parts. Campodeid^. — Body hairy and terminated by two long appendages. Minute insects, frequenting damp earth. Japygid^. — Body hairy and terminated by a pair of forceps. BIRD LICE 61 These insects resemble miniature Earwigs; they frequent moss, but nothing is known concerning their habits or Hfe-histories. Lepismatid^. — Body covered with scales and ter- minated by three filamentous processes. These are the well-known " Silver Fish." Lepisma saccharina is a common sight wherever starchy or sugary material is stored. It avoids the light and is difficult to catch, for its scales are easily shed and it slips from the grasp. Lepisma domestica, the "Fire Brat," haunts bakehouses and other warm situations. Machiled^. — Machilis maritima is frequently met with on the sea-shore. Very little is known about the mode of life of these insects. SUBCLASS EXOPTERYGOTA. Order Malloplaga. Wingless, parasitic insects with biting mouths; bodies hard and flattened; large flat heads; antennae three to five jointed; eyes simple; legs strong, the fore-legs not used for walking; metamorphosis incomplete. These insects are known as Bird Lice in contradis tinction to the Anoplura, or true Lice. The majority are parasitic upon birds, but several have mammals as their hosts. Unlike the true Lice, they are not blood- suckers, but find their sustenance on scurf, scales of feathers, etc. The order comprises four easily recognized families. The species of two families have clubbed, four- jointed antennae, and of these the species with one tarsal claw belong to the Gyropidw and are parasitic on mammals; those with two tarsal claws belong to the Liotheidce 62 INSECT LIFE and are parasitic on birds. The members of the family Trichodectidce, parasitic on mammals, all have three jointed, filiform antennae and a single tarsal claw; whilst those of the remaining family, Philo'pteridcB , also have fihform antennae, but with five joints; and their tarsi are armed with two claws; they are parasitic on birds. From these remarks it is clear that the two-clawed Mallofhaga are bird parasites, and the one-clawed species have mammalian hosts. The typical life-history of a Mallofhaga may be taken as representative of the whole order. The female deposits her elongate, oval eggs singly upon a feather or hair, according to her host. The immature Lice break off a lid from the free end of the egg, and come into the world not very dissimilar in appearance to their parents. Naturally, they are smaller, their heads are larger in proportion, and their body-markings are not distinct. By a series of moults they attain the adult stage. Bird Lice never wander from the body of the living host; it is true they will pass from host to host when they are in actual contact with one another, and then only. It is remarkable, therefore, that the same species of MallopJiaga may be found on totally dissimilar hosts in both the Old World and the New. Aquatic birds have their biting Lice, not specially modified for life in the water, but protected, probably, by the close-growing feathers of their hosts. One species feeds upon the epidermal scales inside the pouch of the pelican, but the student of biting Lice would be well advised to begin with the domestic hen, which may harbour five species of three genera, amongst them the typical Menopon pallidum. TRUE LICE 63 Order Anoplura, or Lice. Minute insects with large abdomens; antennae five- jointed; wingless; mouth suctorial; tarsi with one claw. The order is composed of the single family PedicuUdce^ or True Lice; there are four genera and a Hmited num- ber of species. All the Pediculidm are parasitic upon mammals, and three of them are the particular adjuncts of man. Till comparatively recently but little has been known of these insects, but with the attention that is now being paid to medical entomology, and the un- doubted connection between Lice and the spread of disease, more and more of their history is unfolded. Concerning the exact systematic position of these insects there is still some doubt. Certain authorities look upon them as degraded Hemiptera — degraded through a long period of parasitic existence. Others, again, consider them to form a distinct order, to which the names Si'phunculata and Ano'plura have been applied. There are three species of human Lice, belonging to two genera, or, according to Meinart and some others, two species of difaent genera. The Head Louse, Pediculus capitis, as its name indicates, makes its home on the heads of human beings. Its eggs, which are laid singly on the tips of the hair, are the all too famihar ** nits." It is a curious fact that the Head Lice affecting men of various races vary in colour according to the hue of their host's skin. This has given rise to the yet unproven theory that there may be a number of species of P. capitis. The Body Louse, P. vestimenti, is very similar to the Head Louse, so similar that doubts have 64 INSECT LIFE arisen as to its being a distinct species. In habits, at any rate, it differs markedly from capitis ; it does not dwell in the human head, but in clothes, from which it sallies forth to take its toll of human blood. It is one of the most prolific of insects. The Crab Louse Phthirius inguinalis, frequents the coarser hairs of the human body, and in serious cases may even extend to the beard and eyebrows; but it never infects the head, for the good reason that its claws are unfitted for grasping fine hair. It is a shorter, broader insect than either of the species of Pediculus, and not unlike a small crab. It is a peculiarity of true Lice that they do not attack mammals promiscuously; each Louse species is con- fined to a special species of mammal or to closely allied species. The Lice of domestic animals belong, for the most part, to the genus Hcematopinus ; dogs, hogs, horses, cattle, and sheep, all have their particular Lice. Monkeys, though never attacked by Fleas in a state of nature, are infested by a Louse of the genus Pedicinus^ which is peculiar in having only three joints to its antennae. It is a curious, though unimportant, coin- cidence that the Elephant Louse, Hcematomyzus ele- phantis, is, like its owner, possessed of a long proboscis. The Horse Louse, Hcematopinus asini, is not unlike the Crab Louse, but larger and armed with much more formidable claws. Even aquatic mammals are not free from the attentions of these degraded insects. Seals have a genus of their own — Echinophthirius , and none of the individuals suffer the slightest inconvenience from the lengthy submersion to which they are sub- jected by their hosts. DEAGON-FLIES 65 Order Odonata, or DRAGON-rLiES. AVings devoid of scales and never folded, elongate, of nearly equal size, and much veined; eyes large; antennae small and short; legs not adapted for walking; jaws well developed; larvae and pupae aquatic. The Dragon-flies are among the most beautiful of our native insects; many are so swift of flight that it is often difficult to observe all their beautiful metallic and iridescent colouring, as they dart hither and thither in search of their prey. Although perfectly harmless to man and his belongings, some of the larger species are of fearsome aspect, and this has given rise to many ill-founded stories. In some parts of England these insects are known as " horse-stingers ,"" despite the fact that they could not sting had they the desire to do so. They are also called " Devil's darning-needles," because they are reported to sew up the ears of bad boys; " snake-feeders "" they are called too : they are supposed to supply food to water-snakes. In Scotland they are often referred to as " flying adders.'' In truth they are very beautiful, harmless insects. A few details concerning the general structure and habits of the Odonata may not be out of place, especially as these insects difier from all others in certain essentials. Although all Dragon-flies bear a certain family like- ness to one another, there are, as in all orders, great differences in size and build. They vary in size from Mecistogaster lucretia, a South American species, which measures six inches in length and five inches from tip to tip of its wings, down to minute S3nnpetrums; in stoutness, even among our own species, from the portly 9 66 INSECT LIFE Libellula depressa to slender Agrionids. In all species their heads are remarkable for their large size and the inordinate amount of rotation of which they are capable. Structurally, the most interesting feature of the adult males is the separation of the ejaculatory ducts from the intromittent organs. The former are situated on the penultimate abdominal segment; the latter on the ventral side of the second abdominal segment. When copulation is about to take place, the male curves his abdomen so that its penultimate (ninth) segment is in contact with the second, and pours the semen on to the intromittent organ. During copulation the male grasps the female round the neck with the claspers at the end of his abdomen, and she curls the tip of her abdomen round, in contact with the second abdominal segment of the male. Frequently the male retains a hold of his mate even during egg-laying, and should she be one of the species given to laying her eggs under water, he will follow her into that element rather than relax his hold. The means by which Dragon-flies capture their prey is uncertain. That it is always captured on the wing is well known, but the flight of these insects is so rapid, they change their direction so suddenly, that the actual capture is a matter of conjecture. The small insects, of which Dragon-flies consume a quantity, are apparently seized in the jaws; the larger ones are probably seized by the legs and devoured during flight. At least, their legs are well placed for such a happening; they are all placed well towards the front of the thorax, and are curved forward in flight. PLATE 11 ^ ^ A GROUP OF IJRAGOX FLIES DRAGON-FLIES 67 " Flies seem to be their commonest food, but large dragon-flies will eat small ones. Leaf-hoppers and even small butterflies and moths are captured by them. Some forms will occasionally pick up a moth from a weed or a grass stem on which it is resting, and even one of the large swallow -tailed butterflies has been seen captured by a dragon-fly, while Williamson states that he once saw one holding a large wasp in its jaws. The voracity of a large dragon-fly may easily be tested by capturing one and holding it by its wings folded together over its back, and then feeding it with live house-flies. I should hesitate to say how many it will accept and devour, as I never tried one to the limit of its capacity. Beutenmiiller found that one of the large ones would eat forty house-flies inside of two hours, while a smaller one ate twenty -five in the same time. It ia an odd fact that a dragon-fly will eat its own body when proflered to him. Even when insufficiently chloro- formed and pinned, if one revives, it will cease all efforts to escape if fed with house-flies, the satisfying of its appetite making it apparently oblivious to the discomfort or possible pain of a big pin through its thorax." The life-histories of the various species of Odonata differ from one another in minor details, but in general they are very similar. The female deposits her eggs in water, either by dropping them on its surface, by attaching them, enclosed in a mucilaginous envelope, to some water-plant, or by inserting them in the stems of aquatic vegetation. The species which have the last-named habit are provided with pointed or roughened sides to the vulva. The females, enclosed in a film of 68 INSECT LIFE air, descend the stem of the plant they have selected to a point well below the water-level, cut or file a slit in their plant tissues, and deposit their eggs therein. The larva appears in about a month, and at once takes to a predatory life, walking slowly on the bed Fig. 1. — Head of Laeva of Blue Deagon-Fly (viewed feom Below). (Much Magnified.) I, With mask folded up ; //, with the same unfolded. A , eyes ; F, antennre ; 01, labram; Ok, mandibles; Uk, maxillae; Ul, labium, having the form of a mask; 1 and 2, its two elongated portions; 3, the pincer-shaped portion. of the pond as it stalks its prey. Its colour renders it inconspicuous on the mud, and its mouth-parts are well adapted for its mode of life. The lower lip, which is hinged below the mouth, is elongate, and when at DRAGON-FLIES 69 rest extends below the head; at its distal end there is hinged another long segment with two sharply curved teeth (forceps) at its free end. This second segment, at rest, lies below the first; the whole covers the lower face like a mask — in fact, it is usually so called. " When it is folded, the head of a dragon-fly larva, seen from the front, looks like that of a bull-dog. It is more innocent-looking than that of a bull-dog simply because we know what a bull-dog can do; but the moment that the larva approaches near enough to its prey, the innocent-looking mask is unfolded and darted out, and the probably unsuspecting aquatic insect or small fish is seized by the teeth at the ex- tremity and drawn back into the mouth." The respiration of the larva varies according to the species. In some there are external gills on the tail and sides of the abdomen; in others there are so-called ** rectal gills,'' and for their aeration water is sucked into the rectum. Frequently the larva ejects this water so violently that it propels itself for a considerable distance. Many moults are passed through by the Dragon-fly larva, and after the third or fourth the wing rudi- ments, in the form of two minute lobes, appear on a pair of horny plates which were visible in the earlier stages. The larva has now become a nymph. Many more moults are accomplished before the nymph is ready to change into the active, aerial Dragon-fly; during this time the nymph breathes by means of thoracic spiracles. When at length the change is about to take place, the nymph, deserting its aquatic home, climbs up the stem of a water-plant and clings firmly 70 INSECT LIFE thereto. After a space, the nymphal skin splits down the back, and the wings, head, and thorax are freed, but the tip of the abdomen still remains within the skin. The next part of the process is the backward bending of the Dragon-fly, and in this apparently uncomfortable Fio. 2. A, The anterior portion of the body of a dragon-fly freed from the nymphal Bkin; B, The tail being extricated. From "Zoology of the Invertebrata," by A. E. Shipley. position it will remain for several minutes, waiting for its legs and wings to harden; then, bending forwards once more, the old skin is seized by the insect's legs, its abdomen arched, and its tip carefuUy withdrawn from the nymphal skin. Now completely free, the adult Dragon-fly crawls away from its abandoned DRAGON-FLIES 71 covering, but its wings and abdomen are still in an imperfect stage. For some hours the newly awakened Fig. 3. C, The whole body extricated; D, the perfect insect Mschna cyanea, the wiiigs having acquired their full dimensions, resting to dry itself, preparatory to the wings being horizontally extended. From " Zoology of the Invertebrata," by A. E. Shipley. insect clings to its support, the while its wings expand, its abdomen assumes its normal proportions, and the full splendour of its brilliant colouring comes to it. 72 INSECT LIFE In general, Dragon-flies are beneficial insects. Their larvae may do some damage to fish-fry, but the adults are highly destructive to insects, many of which would prove injurious if allowed to increase to a great extent. Unfortunately, the Dragon-fly is an insect likely to become, more and more scarce as drainage becomes more common. From the nature of its life-history water is an essential to its existence. Sometimes, when ponds dry up, these insects migrate in enormous num- bers. Mandt, describing one of these migrations, says: ** The air for miles around seemed literally alive with these dragon-flies {Msclina heros) from a foot above ground to as far as the eye could reach, all flying in the same direction, a south-easterly course, and the few that would occasionally cross the track of the- majority could all the more easily be noticed from the very regular and s-wift course they generally pursued; but even these few stray ones would soon fall in with the rest again. Very few were seen alighting, and all carefuUy avoided any movable obstacles.'^ The order is divided into seven subfamilies, which are easily distinguished by the characters given below. Calopterygid^. — ^Fore and hind wings similar, held vertically in repose; eyes constricted at the base; at least five cross-veins between the first and second longitudinal veins, running from the node (the apparent break on the front margin of the fore-wing) to the base. The species of this family are noted for their beautiful colouring. We have two in Britain, known as " Demoiselles " or " Kingfishers." Calopteryx virgo has beautiful metallic blue wings in the male and brownish, often tinged with green, wings in the female. The DRAGON-FLIES 73 females of C. sflendens have greyish wings, but the males have their transparent wings broadly banded at their centres with deep blue. One of the most beauti- ful species, however, is the common East Indian, C. chinensis, whose males have transparent fore- wings and brilliant green hind- wings. The American genus Hetcerina may be recognized by the blood-red patch at the base of the transparent, somewhat narrow wings of the males. Our British species may often be seen flying low over streams ; the larvse of all members of the family breathe by means of tracheal gills. AGRiONiDiE. — Similar to CalopterygidcB, but with only two cross-veins between the first and second longi- tudinal veins running from the node to the base. This is a large family of slender, graceful insects. Most of them are small, though some of the South American forms equal any of the Odonata in size. In an order of active Flies they can only be described as poor on the wing. Our two commonest native genera are Agrion and Lestes, and they are easily distinguished, though both have transparent wings. At, or near, the tip of the fore-wing of all Dragon-flies there is an opaque spot, known as a stigma. The size, shape, and often the colour of the stigma vary in different species. Species of Agrion have small lozenge-shaped stigmas; in those of Lestes they are large and oblong. The bodies of all the species of this family are highly ornate, metallic blues and greens being the predominat- ing colours; the larvse breathe by means of tracheal gills. 10 74 INSECT LIFE GoMPHiD^. — ^Front wings dissimilar from hind- wings, held horizontally in repose; eyes not constricted, but wide apart. These insects are sometimes referred to as the true Dragon-flies; by many authorities they are considered to form a subfamily of the JEschnidce. Most of the species are large, and many possess abdomens of peculiar swollen form ; this is well seen in Gomfhus vastus. They are not good performers on the wing, and the females only take to flight at infrequent intervals. The eggs are deposited on the surface of the water, and not upon aquatic plants. CoKDULEGASTERiDiE. — Similar to GomphidcB, but their eyes touch at a single point at the top of the head. These Dragon-flies are moderately large insects, and they have been given their family name because of their club-shaped abdomens, which are narrower in the middle than at either extremity. They also are often considered as a subfamily of the Mschnidce. All of them are strong fliers; their wings are usually clear or nearly so, and they lack the beautiful metallic colouring which renders the species of other genera so attractive. Their bodies are usually banded with brown or yellow. Our common Cordulegaster annulatus is a large, powerful insect, measuring upwards of four inches in wing-span. It is black in colour, and has its abdomen banded with yellow and its thorax striped with the same colour. jEscHNiDiE. — Similar to Gom^hidce, but their eyes meet on the top of the head for some distance, and the three ocelli are arranged in a straight line on the front of the head. These are among the largest and most powerful DRAGON-FLIES 75 of all Dragon-flies ; all the species are exceedingly strong on the wing, so much so that they may often be observed flying far from the neighbourhood of water. Mschna cyanea is one of the most beautiful of our native insects. In general colour it is reddish-brown; on either side of the thorax there is a large green spot, and there are pairs of similar coloured spots along the abdomen of the male; the female is distinguished by yellow spots. The hind- wings are larger than the front wings, and both are transparent. The equally common A. grandis is as large as its relative, but reddish-brown in colour with smoky yellow wings. The genus Anax also contains some striking species. CoRDULiD^. — May be distinguished by the presence of a single tubercle on the hind-border of each eye. Very closely allied to the LibellulidcB, and frequently considered as a subfamily. Many large species exist, and the wings of most of them are banded with brown, marked at the base with the same colour or clear. LiBELLULiD^. — Similar to Gom'phidcB, but the three ocelli are arranged in a triangle. Many of these Dragon-flies have broad bodies, which give them a somewhat clumsy appearance; this is specially the case with the common Lihellula depressa, of which species the males are blue and the females brown. L. quadrimaculata is equally common, but more elegant; it is yellowish-brown and has a dark spot at each node and on each wing- tip — hence its name. The genus Syni'petrum includes species of more slender build, and the black S. scoticum is not uncommon. Orthetrum is another genus with British species. 76 INSECT LIFE Order Plecoptera, or Stone-flies. Perlid^. — Four membranous wings; the hind- wings much larger, though not longer, than the front wings — folded when at rest; antennae long and thread-like; body long, soft, and often broad, bearing a pair of short, moderately broad filaments at the apex. The order consists of but a single family whose species bear a superficial resemblance to the Caddis-flies. The common British species is Perla bicaudata. It is a very sluggish pale brown insect, and may often be seen basking on stones near water in the summer. It rarely takes to flight, and is a poor performer. Anatomically these insects are interesting on account of the well- marked divisions between the three segments of the thorax — in fact, the head and thorax of the common Stone-fly equal half the length of the whole insect. The minute eggs are contained in a membranous capsule, and are carried for a while by the female before she deposits them in the water. Each female may deposit upwards of six thousand eggs, a necessary proceeding, for the larvae are favoured food of fishes, so that their mortality is great. The larvae are very similar to the adults, except that they lack wings; they possess anal filaments and long antennae. Although capable of swimming, most of their time is spent beneath stones in swift-running streams, a position which their flattened bodies enable them to take up with ease The mortality among the larvae is increased by the fact that their larval life is protracted and, as so often happens in such cases, the adults live but a few hours. MAY-FLIES 77 The food of the " creepers/' as Perla larvse are called, consists of minute aquatic animals, and hicaudata breathes by means of paired tracheal gills. In some species there are neither gills nor spiracles, so that respiration takes place through the skin. This mode of breathing is uncommon among insects, and is only found elsewhere in the larvse of Chironomidw and of some parasitic Hymenoftera. The nymphs leave the water before changing to adults ; they climb on to some near-by stone, their skin splits, and the Stone-fly emerges. Although the prevailing colour of Stone-flies closely approximates that of the stones on which they bask, there is an Australian genus, Chloroferla, whose species are green. Order Ephemeroptera, or May-flies. Ephemerid^. — Hind- wings much smaller than front wings, and not folded when at rest; abdomen bearing two or three long, slender filaments; antennae short. These insects are usually known as May-flies, some- times as Day-flies, and by fishermen they are called Green or Brown Drakes. Their larvse and nymphs are aquatic There is but one family in the order, and our common May-fly, Efhemera vulgata, is a typical species. The females, after pairing, an act which takes place in the air, deposit their disc-shaped eggs on the surface of the water, and they sink to the bottom. The larvse, as soon as they hatch, bury themselves in the mud and start on their long larval life, which extends as long as three years; during this time they undergo at least twenty moults. Their food consists mostly of vegetable matter, and respiration is carried out by tracheal gills 78 INSECT LIFE assisted by three filamentous outgrowths from the tip of the abdomen. Then, when the larvae have changed into nymphs and the latter are ready to take to the air, there happens an event which is not paralleled among any other insects. The nymphs rise to the surface of the water, there is a brief pause, their nymphal skins split, and they fly into the air, not as perfect insects, but as sub- imagos. The young subimagos seek some near-by resting-place, and another skin is shed and the grey adult May-flies appear. The adults of vulgata have three tail filaments and very short antennae; their fore-legs, which are useless for walking, are carried in front of the head, and at a distance might be mistaken for antennae. They have incompletely formed mouth-parts, and are incapable of taking in food; could they do so, their intestines are not capable of digesting any nutriment. The lives of the adults are short, though not so short as is popularly supposed and as their family name — derived from the Ephemerides of Greek mythology, who lived but a day. A case is on record of an adult Ephemerid which lived for three weeks, but it must have been a particularly robust individual. Kirby relates that the European OUgoneuria rhenana^ a white species, " appears in such vast numbers on the Rhine after sunset as to resemble snowflakes."' Order Isoptera, or Equal Wings. TERMiTiDiE. — All four wiugs of equal size; males and queens winged, workers wingless; biting mouths well developed; body oblong and depressed; social insects. TERMITES 79 The order is composed of the single family TermitidcB, and its members are known popularly as Termites; a more common, but incorrect, name is White Ants — the Termites are neither Ants nor are they white. They are more nearly related to the Perlidce and Ephe- meridcB than to the Formicidce ; probably the fact that they are social and dwell in colonies has given rise to their popular name. None of the species occur in Britain; a few are found in Southern Europe, but the order attains its highest development in the tropics. They are amongst the most injurious of all insects, and there are few timbers proof against their attacks. To be Termite-proof is one of the greatest recommendations that can be claimed for a wood destined for tropical use; there are a few such timbers, but not many. Speaking of these insects, Gates in his " Matabele- land '* says: " The White Ants kept tumbhng over me all night, and knocking down leaves from the roof. These White Ants are the curse of all African travellers and settlers, devouring everything except iron and tin, whilst in time even houses succumb to their ravages. They form, however, an article of food in many places amongst the natives, by whom they are much esteemed on account of their slightly acid flavour. The enormous structures they erect are frequently carried up the trunk of a high tree, or may sometimes be seen standing alone at a height of eighteen feet. " The Dutch Boers and others make use of these Ant-hills for cooking purposes, hollowing out the loose portion of the heap, and filling the hollow thus formed with wood, which is lighted, and, when consumed. 80 INSECT LIFE renders the receptacle an admirable oven, retaining its heat for a great length of time." In tropical Australia, Asia, and America, there are enormous colonies of Termites, and often their nests are structures as large as houses. There is a great deal to be learned of the habits of these tropical Termites ; so far as they have been studied the economy of one colony appears to be very similar to that in any other. Termes flavifes is one of the commonest European species; T. lucifugus is by no means rare in the Mediterreanean region; T. tuhi- formanff, a Texan species, has the curious habit of con- structing tubular shelters of cow-dung round the stems of plants. Another Texan species makes nests of the same material on tree-trunks. Of this species Buckley wrote : " They marched in dense columns along path- ways leading to a hole near the base of a stump, into which they entered. . . . They dwell in the ground, where they have rooms, seldom more than one to two inches long, connected by tunnels. . . . After rains — which are of rare occurrence in that climate — they make semi-cylindrical tubes, which lie on the ground, with a length of from three to six inches. These arched ways sometimes intercept each other, being connected with chambers; but they rarely work by day above the surface, and never in bright sunshine." The formation of a new Termite colony commences with the nuptial flight, in which winged males and females issue from the old nests in enormous numbers and come to the surface to pair. After pairing, the wings of both sexes break off, and the females either start new colonies of their own or, falling in with wing- STICK INSfXl Pnge TERMITES 81 less workers from another colony, start their new home with their assistance. Enormous numbers of Termites perish during these flights; as with the Seventeen- Year Locust (p. 119), the advent of innumerable individuals is the signal for all manner of enemies to gather to the feast so freely provided. That some fertilized females escape every danger is shown by the survival of the race. Having reached a place of safety, after pairing, the female, who is now a queen and is probably assisted by workers, seeks a hiding-place where her new colony may be formed. For the rest of her life she becomes little more than an egg-laying machine ; by the workers she is enclosed in a special royal cell in whose walls there are numerous holes, through which the workers may pass when carrying the eggs provided by the queen to other parts of the nest. In some of the tropical species the appearance of a fertile queen is extraordinary Her abdomen, distended with eggs, swells to the size of a small potato, thirty thousand times as large as that of a worker Termite. Her head and thorax form a mere spot at the end of this in- ordinately large organ. Her egg-producing capacity is prodigious, and is estimated at sixty a minute, or eighty thousand a day. The larvse are not nearly so helpless as those of the social Hymeno'ptera, and they are very soon able to fend for themselves. Their food varies, and may either consist of wood-fibre, their own cast skins, their own excrement, or regurgitated food. " When a Callotermes wishes for food," according to Grassi, " it strokes the posterior part of the body of another individual with 11 82 INSECT LIFE its antennae, and by some sort of a reflex action the contents of the alimentary canal of the individual stroked issue from the anus, and are devoured by the stroker." In each colony there are always a queen, workers of at least two castes, and winged males. The workers are wingless females; they look after the queen and her eggs, and carry out other domestic duties in the nest; some of them become supplementary queens, capable of carrying on the duty of stocking the colony should any accident befall the true queen. The second caste consists of soldiers; they are individuals with enor- mously developed jaws; they are often five times the size of the ordinary workers, and, being unable to partake of ordinary food on account of their huge jaws, have cannibalistic tendencies, frequently making a meal off their fellows. In certain species there is yet a third caste, whose heads are modified into snout-like processes. These individuals are known as nasuti, or " nosed " ones, and their sole duties consist of mending the walls of the nest when they are broken, a feat which is accomplished by the aid of a fluid which exudes from the hollow snout. A striking feature about every Termite nest is its extreme cleanliness; the insects even eat their own excrement again and again till all the nourishment is removed. Another feature, which the reader will probably have surmised already, is the presence of guests — ^they frequent the nests of all social insects. Order Orthoptera, or Straight Wings. Insects with biting mouths; front wings (tegmina) much narrower than the hind-wings and of a leathery texture; hind-legs of many species designed for leaping; COCKEOACHES 83 metamorphosis incomplete; eggs often enclosed in a case. This large order contains some of the most interesting insects; in habits they differ considerably from one another: some, the Mantids, are predaceous; others, the Locusts, are herbivorous; yet others, the Cock- roaches, are practically omnivorous. In all the families — there are six in the order — metamorphosis is incom- plete; the larvse, except that they are wingless, are in all essentials miniatures of the adults. Although the Orthoptera receive their name from the straight margins of the tegmina which cover the membranous hind- wings, there are some species with functionless wings and some that are wingless. We have remarked that many of the Orthoptera are of great interest; to this order belong the curious Stick and Leaf insects, the wary Mantids, and a large number of musical insects. There is, in fact, no order con- taining a larger number of species exhibiting either protective or aggressive mimicry or singing powers. Despite their innate interest, many species are exceed- ingly harmful. Crickets are not the insects that the ordinary man would welcome in his house, Cockroaches are noxious creatures, and Locusts have been notorious since bibhcal times. The six families of Orthoftera are easily distin- guished; the earlier systematists separated the families with leaping powers {Saltatoria) from those whose members run over the ground (Cursoria). The same characters are still used in the classification of these insects. Blattid^.— Hind-femora similar to the others; head 84 INSECT LIFE nearly horizontal ; body flattened and oval (occasionally round); ovipositor concealed. The Cockroaches, commonly but erroneously called Black Beetles, are all too familiar. The common Cockroach, by the way, is neither black nor is it a Beetle; how it came by its name is a mystery. Maybe the genius who founded the family is in part responsible, for the term Blatta means a Beetle. In Britain we have at least two Cockroaches, the common species, Blatta orientalis, and the American Cockroach, Periplaneta americana. Neither of them is a native species, but of the various Blattidce that are introduced from time to time, they alone seem to have become established. P. americana is a chestnut-brown insect, considerably larger than its more common relative. The common Cockroach is a dark brown insect, beautifully adapted for its peculiar mode of life. Both sexes are clad in a leathery armour, so smooth that they can only be held captive with difficulty. Their bodies are considerably flattened; in consequence they have no difficulty in crawling through narrow chinks in floors, etc. Their antennse are long and thread-like, their long legs well armed with spines. The wingless females are longer and, in consequence, apparently narrower than the winged males. A more detailed study of this insect will well repay the time spent upon it. The position of the head, typical of the Blattidce ; the long antennae, continuously vibrating, unless their owner is cleaning them by running them through his jaws; the bristles on the legs, used as body-combs (the Cockroach is clean in PLATE V HEAD OF MANTIS LONG I CO UN DEETLE COCKKOACHES 85 person, though his habits be repulsive); the padded feet, enabHng their owner to walk up moderately smooth surfaces — these and a hundred other details may be learned from little more than a superficial examination of this famihar insect. All Cockroaches appear to like warmth, and most of them shun the light; our common species is no excep- tion. Breeding with orientalis takes place in the summer months. Each female lays sixteen eggs, and, as usually happens amongst the OrtJioptera, they are enclosed in an egg-case. The Blattid egg-case is very similar to a purse with a snap opening; it is a small oblong sac, closed at the bottom and sides and capable of opening at the top, though held together by the tension of the edges. The egg-case is formed within the body of the mother Cockroach, where also the sixteen eggs are arranged in two rows, with the ends from which the larvae will emerge pointing towards the top of the case. The female runs about, often for some considerable time, with the egg-case partly projecting from her abdomen, and not till she finds a suitable shelter will she deposit it. The larvae, when they emerge, push their way through the opening of the case; they closely resemble the adults, but, of course, they are very small and have no wings; also they are pale in colour. They pass through a number of moults, and with each one they become more and more like their parents, darker and darker in colour, and at the final moult they attain their full sexual characters. Cockroaches have many enemies, predaceous and parasitic; of the latter, the curious Evaniidce are the best known. 86 INSECT LIFE f Although the prevailiDg colour scheme of the order is some shade of brown, grey, or black, there is an American genus, Panchlora, with pale green species. Certain exotic species are brightly coloured; the Indian Corydia 'petiveriana. is black spotted with yellow, and it is exceptional also in being round instead of oblong in outline. The giants of the family belong to the American genus Blaherus, and B. giganteus far exceeds all other Cockroaches in bulk. Mantid^. — Hind-femora not swollen; front legs designed for grasping; head oblique, generally tri- angular; prothorax long and slender. The Mantis is an insect around whose supposedly pious habits a considerable amount of romance has been woven. Mantis religiosa, a common, green South European species, is so devout in its attitude that it has been named religiosa by scientists and " praying Mantis " by laymen. In truth, all the species of MantidcB are predaceous, and not only so, they are cannibalistic; the females never hesitate to seize and devour their mates if the latter are too pressing in their attentions. They are all exceedingly voracious, and Slingerland relates how *' One Sunday a Green Mantis ate three Grasshoppers, each seven-eighths of an inch long, a daddy-long-legs, and then tackled another Mantis, and I was obliged to interfere with them." The Praying Mantis has earned its name from its habit of remaining motionless for long periods with its front legs raised in the air, as though in the act of supplication. Its attitude, however, is not one of devotion, but of anticipation; in this position the Mantis awaits its prey, and should an unwary insect MANTIDS 87 come witliin reacli of the cruel, spiny, grasping fore- legs, they are shot forward with lightning rapidity, the insect is seized, conveyed to the mouth, and eaten. All the Mantids capture their prey by stealth; they creep towards their victims at times so slowly and cautiously that their movements are imperceptible, but ever the grasping fore-legs await the moment to seize their prey. Certain beautiful tropical species very closely resemble brilliant orchid flowers in colour and in form. These species bask on the orchid-plants, hopeful that insects bent on floral visitations will mistake them for blossoms. Though the majority of Mantids are sombre in their colouring — green is a favourite hue — some species are quite ornate. The genus Harpax contains some striking forms, H. ocellaria, a West African species, having dark green tegmina, with a bright yellow eye-spot in the centre of each one. As with all the Orthoftera, the metamorphosis of Mantids is incomplete. There is nothing very striking in their life-histories except the pecuHar form of the egg-masses. These vary in form and minor details according to the species, but in every species the eggs are laid in parallel rows in hard and horny cases. The egg-masses, usually oval in shape, are attached to a tree-branch or other support, and the eggs are arranged on end down the centre. At first it was puzzling to know how the females could deposit their eggs so neatly within so hard a substance as that composing the body of the egg-mass. Further investigation showed that the horny substance is deposited by the female at the same time as her eggs, and that, when first formed, it 88 INSECT LIFE is semi-liquid and|frot]iy, only becoming hard in con- tact with the air. Despite the apparently impenetrable covering of the Mantis eggs, they are not without their Hymenopterous parasites. Phasmid^. — Femora of hind-legs not thickened, front legs similar to the other legs; head nearly horizontal, generally quadrangular. These are the great mimics of the insect world; the Stick and Leaf insects belong to this family. In point of size they are exceedingly variable; some of them are quite minute, while some of the tropical species measure as much as a foot in length. All the Stick insects are sluggish in their habits ; all are vegetable feeders, and many are highly destructive to crops; Lopafhus cocofhages^ a brown insect, is a notori- ous pest of coconut-palms, and when alarmed it has the objectionable habit of squirting an irritant fluid for some distance. In this connection, Kirby states that *' one of the South African species is able to eject an offensive fluid a distance of five feet." The Stick insects are remarkable anatomically for the great variation in the development of their tegmina and wings. Some species have short tegmina and well- developed wings; again, there are species whose wings and tegmina are both short; and there are other species, and they are many, which are completely wingless. The life-history of a Phasmid is particularly interest- ing and very easy of observation. Hibernation takes place in the egg, and the young Stick insects hatch in the spring. They immediately make their way from the ground where they hatch to the twigs of some near-by tree or shrub, and then they remain motionless PLATE VI STICK INSECTS 89 for days or weeks on end, their fore-legs stretched out in front of their heads to increase their resemblance to a twig, their green colour harmonizing with their sur- roundings. They moult but twice, and growt.h is rapid. At the last moult all the females and some of the males abandon their green colouring and become brown— at least, this is the case with many non-tropical species. The change is not without interest, for the plants upon which the Stick insects live are by this time losing their leaves, and will soon be little more than masses of bare, brown twigs, on which green Stick insects would be conspicuous. That all the males do not change their colour simply means that they are " following the rule, which holds more or less through- out nature, that the male sex is not so well protected as the female, since upon the latter depends the all- important function of reproduction.'' The eggs of Phasmidce are not enclosed in cases, nor are they attached to leaves, twigs, or other supports. Contrary to the usual Orthopteron rule, the eggs are laid singly and merely dropped on the ground. The eggs of all species bear a striking resemblance to seeds; some are of extraordinary form, and all have little lids which the larvae raise when they are about to emerge Once, in New York, the Thick-Thighed Stick insect, Diapheromera femorata, increased to such an alarming extent " that in autumn the dropping of the eggs on the leaf-covered earth sounded like a heavy shower of rain.'' Among the winged Phasmids, the Brazilian Cypho- crania semirubra is the most striking; it has yellowish- green tegmina and large pink wings. Curiously like a 12 90 INSECT LIFE bamboo-stem is the green, wingless Phihalocera pytho- nius, and rivalling the Stick insects in bizarre form are the Asiatic Leaf insects of the genus Phyllium. In habit and life-history the Leaf insects are very- similar to the Stick insects. They are strikingly leaf- like, with their flattened, expanded, green tegmina, and the resemblance is heightened in some species by the possession of leaf-like appendages on the legs. Some species have the outline of their leaf-like expansions so that they appear to have been eaten by larvae round their edges; others are so marked that holes appear to have been bitten out of the inner portions. Gryllid^. — Hind-femora stouter than the others; tarsi three-jointed; antennae long and slender; wings laid flat over the back. This is the family of the Crickets, of which we have five species in Britain; three of them, the House Cricket, Gryllus domesticus, the Field Cricket, G. campestris^ and the Mole Cricket, Gryllotalfa vulgaris, are quite common. The family is by no means large, and a study of the species wiU show that they fall naturally into three groups of types . There is the true Cricket type , as exemplified by G. domesticus ; the burrowing type, with feeble or no wings, and front legs modified for turning up the earth : of these Gryllotalfa vidgaris is an example; the nocturnal Tree Crickets, which spend all their lives in trees: of these we have no native species. Among the exotic Gryllidce there are some formidable and repulsive-looking species . The Indian Schizodactylus monstrosus, a brown species, about an inch and a half long, is a hideous insect. Its wings and tegmina, which are longer than its body, are coiled in spirals at their PLATE VII / LEAF INSECT CEICKETS 91 tips; its tarsi bear curious leaf-like expansions which make the creature appear almost web-footed. The Australian Anostostoma australasice is but little more inviting-looking; the largest species of all, however, belong to the genus Deinacrida, and dwell in trees in New Zealand. " They are sometimes four or five inches in length, and their legs are very large and set with rows of very formidable spines, resembling those of a brier. The natives are afraid to climb the trees on account of these insects, which are able to inflict a very severe bite." From the same country comes Macro- pathus filipes, one of the most remarkable species of the family. The body of the insect is of reasonable proportions, not exceeding about an inch in length, but its antennae often exceed the body-length by six or seven inches. Among the wingless Crickets there are some curious forms, mainly belonging to the genera Callimenus and Brachyporus. They are quite unlike all other Crickets in appearance, and might be mistaken for enormous Wood Lice. Of the Tree Crickets, many species are exceedingly destructive to vines, raspberries, and other plants, for they all have the noxious habit of laying their eggs in the stems of these plants. LocusTiDiE. — Somewhat similar to GrylUdce, but tarsi four- jointed and almost identical in structure on all legs; ovipositor resembles a much compressed, sword-shaped blade; wings and tegmina roof-like. The name of this family is likely to lead to confusion, for the members of the family are not true Locusts, as might be expected, but Long-Horned Grasshoppers. The true Locusts belong to the Acridiidce^ and, apart 92 INSECT LIFE from any other feature, may be distinguished from the members of this family by their short antennae. To avoid confusion this family is often known as the PhasgonuridcB ; but, for reasons which do not call for explanation here, Locustidce is the better term. Nearly all the Locustidce have leaf -green tegmina, frequently veined with yellow or white, so that they have a very leaf-like appearance. There is a South American species, Pterochroza ocellata, which rivals the Leaf insect in its mimicry of foliaceous structures; its tegmina not only closely resemble leaves, but are so marked that they appear like leaves damaged by insects and upon which fungoid growths have settled. Another species, Myrmeco'phana fallax, mimics Ants in its colouring. The largest British Locustid — our largest Orthopteron, in fact — is the Great Green Grasshopper, Locusta viridissima. It measures fully four inches in wing- span, but, despite its large size, it is rarely seen — not because it is uncommon, but because it is nocturnal in its habits. In America certain species of Long-Horned Grass- hopper are known as " Katydids," from the supposed resemblance of the male song to that word. To call the note of these insects a song is somewhat of an exaggeration, despite the fact that many species, notably Chloroscelus tanana, from South America, are kept in cages on account of their musical powers. Not long ago certain Japanese Locustidce were on sale in London, and probably elsewhere; in their little wicker cages they were a novelty and caught the public fancy. Their " singing^" powers were feeble and monotonous, GRASSHOPPERS 93 although the stock of one enterprising dealer bore the legend, " Sing like Canaries ''—but there are canaries ttTid canaries. The note of Locustidce and Gryllidce is made by rubbing file-like patches on the under-surface of the tegmina against a ridge on the upper surface of the wing. The males alone ''sing/' and their song is always a love song. In both families auditory organs, in the form of oval membranous depressions, are found on the front tibiae. Many Locustids have tegmina curiously and regularly marked with black dots. The green Australian, E'phip- ■pitytta triginguitata, for instance, has a double row of these dots upon its tegmina. Several curious forms occur in this family; some species of Stenofelmatus are of evil mien, and the genus Cyrtofhyllum has one or two species, notably C. crepitans, which are not remarkable for their beauty. The life-history of Microcentrum retinervis, so called from its reticulate tegmina, has been described by Howard. In America the insect is known as the Angular-Winged Katydid. Winter is passed in the egg stage, and the most curious fact about this insect is its curious method of oviposition. The flattened, oval, slaty-brown eggs are often deposited in the strangest situations: on the edge of a fence, for instance, and some '' have been found on the edge of a freshly laundried collar which had been laid for some time in a bureau drawer. Riley records oviposition on the edge of a piano cover and on a long piece of cord." They are usually deposited, however, in double rows on twigs, and each egg slightly overlaps its neighbour, like 94 INSECT LIFE slates on a roof. In the warmer States they are laid on the edges of leaves, " in which case one row will be found on one side of the leaf and the other row on the other side." Whatever the situation selected, the surface of the material on which the eggs are to be placed is first roughened in the jaws before the batch of from two to thirty eggs is laid. From one hundred to one hundred and fifty eggs are deposited by each female. The young Katydids, very pale in colour, emerge in the spring from the upper edges of the eggs. Acrid iiD^. — Antennae much shorter than the body; hind-legs with enlarged femora formed for leaping; ovipositor, a double pair of short plates divergent at the tip. The family of the Locusts contains some of the largest as well as the most destructive insects. The South American Acridotheres dux is probably the largest insect known. Many individuals measure fully a foot in wing-span, with a body-length of four inches, but they are not nearly so destructive as their smaller, more active relatives. In Britain we have several representatives of the family. The common Rhammatocerus biguttatus is a brownish or frequently greenish insect, with yellowish- green legs. An interesting account of its habits ap- peared several years ago in the transactions of the Devonshire Association. The eye-witness of the pro- ceedings said: " I have frequently observed our most abundant Grasshopper, 22. biguttatus, sounding his music in the presence of and hopping round a female. Some years ago I was greatly amused as well as instructed by observing several insects of the same species, both PLATE VIII NEW ZEALAND CRICKE1 LOCUSTS 95 males and females. I was drawn to the spot by the extraordinary noise made by these creatures. It was a very hot day, and on a bare portion of a hedge-banl? between Exeter and Budleigh Salterton. I cautiously crept up to the place from whence the sound proceeded, and there, to my delight, I first saw how these insects produced the sound which I had heard. In the centre of this group were several females, apparently listening to the concert; the males were, some hopping, some walking, and others gesticulating in the most ridiculous fashion around these ladies, and each playing to the Fig. 4. — Hind-Leo of Field Locust. (After Landois.) r. Row of chitinous teeth on the inner side of the femur. Opposite: some of the teeth strongly magnified. best of his abilities on his peculiar musical instrument, no doubt to their great amusement and dcHght." The sound-producing apparatus of the true Locusts and Grasshoppers is totally distinct from that of the Locustidce and Gryllidce. On the inner side of the hind- femora in the males there is a file-like ridge; this is rubbed against a ridge on the outer edge of the tegmina. The auditory organs are, as in the species of the other families, membranous depressions, but they are situated on the first abdominal segment. So far as we know, only the smaller species of the family are capable of producing sound; there are, however, auditory organs 96 INSECT LIFE on many species whose note has never been detected by the human ear. Some of the Acridiidce are of extreme beauty, and some of curious form. The large South American Titenacris albipes is one of the most beautiful members of the family. Its tegmina are duU green; the front margins of its wings are of the same shade, graduating into pale blue and then into a brilliant purple, the last- named being the prevailing wing colour. Here we may remark that, apart from their colouring, the wings of these insects are of great beauty. They are large and fan-shaped, veined with a number of veins radiating from the base, and with many smaller cross-veins. When not expanded, they are folded fanwise beneath the tegmina. Of the curious forms, the species of the genus Truxalis are remarkable by reason of their elongate bodies and snout-like heads. The species of Cefhalocoema are very similar in form, but their heads are more sharply pointed than those of Truxalis. In Tettix we find curious attenuated forms, whose general dorsal outline may be said to resemble two triangles placed base to base, the equilateral triangle forming the anterior part of the insect and the isosceles triangle forming its posterior part. Concerning the harmful species volumes have been written. They are migratory in habit, and their migrations are undertaken in search of food. Adults and immature forms of these migratory Locusts will travel in countless thousands from district to district. While on the wing they darken the sky ; on the ground nothing but the seething masses of their bodies can be LOCUSTS 97 seen; when they have passed, vegetation is destroyed over the whole area, not a green blade remains; no human army retreating before its foes could lay bare the land more completely. ** Voet-gangers," or '* foot- goers,'' as the immature Locusts are called in South Africa, are equally destructive. True, they have no wings, therefore they cannot fly, but they often migrate on foot, despite their disability. South Africa, North Africa, and the Mediterranean region, are the districts most affected by Locust migrations. Formerly the vegetation of the Mississippi Valley was destroyed by migrations of the Eocky Mountain Locust, Melanoflus spretus, whose breeding-grounds were situated on the elevated plains of the Rocky Mountains. All the migratory species are provided with large wings, by means of which they can make a peculiar crackling sound at will. The non- migratory species can always be distinguished by their attenuated wings — ^the North American Dictyophorus reticulaius, an ungainly, small- winged creature, is an example; on the other hand, by no means all of the larger-winged species are in the habit of making migrations. The life-histories of all the AcridiidcB are very similar. The females lay their eggs in masses, below the surface of the ground, and each egg-mass is covered with a sticky semi-fluid excretion, which soon hardens and forms a capsule protecting the eggs. The larvae emerge in the spring, and, by a series of moults, pass through the nymph to the adult stage. 13 INSECT LIFE CHAPTEK IV EUPLEXOPTEEA, EMBIOPTEKA, PSOCOPTERA, THYSANOPTERA, RHYNCHOTA Order Euplexoptera, or Earwigs. The order includes a single family — FoRFicuLiD^. — Tegmina short; wings, when present, large and ingeniously folded when at rest; abdomen terminated by a pair of forceps. Everyone knows the Earwig, but, despite the fact that it is so common, there are some startling discrepancies and differences of opinion concerning its habits. This is by no means an uncommon happening; very little was known of the ubiquitous House-fly till rather less than ten years ago, when attention was drawn to its insanitary habits. The common British Earwig, Forficida auricularia, is widely distributed over the world. How it came by its popular name no one seems to know. It is commonly sup- posed that Earwigs are in the habit of entering the ears of human beings, with dire results. That such a happen- ing has never taken place it would be foolish to deny; to state that it is the usual practice of Earwigs would be equally absurd. These insects are in the habit of entering any dark cavity they can find, for they are nocturnal in their habits. In their search for shelter EARWIGS 99 they might enter the human ear, but their doing so would be purely accidental. Other authorities state that the wing of this creature, wl:en unfolded, is much hke an ear, and that is the reason for its name. The fact remains that all over Europe and in America the insect has popular names relating to an ear. On the subject of its food, opinions are also divided; one party holds that the Earwig is a destructive insect, doing much harm to vegetation; by the other party it is said to be a carnivorous insect, feeding upon harmful creatures. This much is known of its life-history : Its eggs are laid in batches, and the mother insect takes the greatest care of them, moving them from one place to another wherever she deems best for them, and brooding over them between whiles. The appearance of the larvae, which are similar to their parents, though smaller and paler coloured, is the signal for the female Earwig to leave her progeny to their own devices. Another British species. Labia minor, is also quite common, and, unlike auricularia, it flies by day. Many of the exotic Forficulidce are large insects — large, that is, compared with our native species; the peculiar forceps with which their bodies terminate is the most striking and constant character of these insects. The forceps of the different species differ considerably in form: some are stout and nearly straight, others very slender and much curved, and there is every intermediate stage. Their precise use is open to some doubt; they are often opened in a threatening manner in the presence of danger, but in most species the forceps are useless for defence. Some species un- doubtedly use these organs to assist in folding their 100 INSECT LIFE wings. The latter are large, and when not in use are packed into a small space by fanwise folds followed by a couple of transverse folds. Several species of Earwig, however, are wingless; why, then, do these insects, having no wings, possess a pair of forceps ? The question is one which must be left unanswered for the moment. The wingless forms follow the rule usual in the family, that the forceps of the females are smaller and more simple than those of the males. Order Embioptera. EMBiiDiE. — Head large; antennae slender; its joints varying in number from eleven to thirty; tarsi three- jointed; all four wings of equal size; metamorphosis incomplete. These insects are closely allied to the Termitidce^ and have the appearance of being small individuals of that family. Little is known of them, though they appear to be fairly widely distributed. The brick-red Egyptian species, Embia savignyi, is one of the best known of the Embiids. Order Psocoptera. PsociDiE. — Head very large; long, slender, thread- like antennae; tarsi with two to three joints; hind- wings smaller than fore- wings; metamorphosis incomplete. Some species of this order frequent old books and papers, probably feeding upon the starchy materials in the bindings — these insects are popularly known as Book Lice; other species dwell out of doors, on old lichen-covered trees or on leaves, living together in colonies. BOOK LICE 101 The Psocids are tlie non-house-frequenting members of the order. Some of them are so minute that they would be difficult to observe were they not in the habit of collecting together in clusters. The two- spotted Psocus, P. bifunctatus , is a common British species, dull yellow in colour and of about a quarter of an inch in wing-span; it frequents the stems of old apple-trees. Howard gives an interesting account of P. venosus, a common American species: " It is small and smoky- brown in colour, and is seen upon the trunks of trees in flocks numbering from a dozen to forty or fifty individuals. They feed in companies and browse upon the lichens, which they cleanly remove from the bark, leaving a clear space behind them. The colonies consist of one or more families, and include individuals of all ages, the wingless young herding with the adult insects. The adults, though winged, do not readily take to flight. When alarmed, the whole troop huddles together, apparently for mutual protection, like sheep, but when seized with a sudden panic they scatter in every direc- tion and run rapidly over the bark, their colour har- monizing so closely with that of the bark that they are not easily distinguished. Soon after they reassemble and begin to eat the lichens. *' The eggs are oval, glistening white, and are laid upon the bark in batches of fifteen to thirty, deposited on end in several rows and each cluster is protected by an oval, convex shield of gna wed-up wood which adheres closely to the eggs. The females brood over the eggs, see that they are not disturbed, and, when they hatch, lead the young ones forth to pasture.'' 102 INSECT LIFE Psocus citricola, living on orange-leaves, has very similar habits. Atropid^. — Similar to Psocidce, but mngless. All the Book Lice are small, almost colourless insects. Our common Atwpos 'pulsatoria is only a twentieth of an inch in length, and must be known to most of our readers, though it may not have been recognized, as it runs rapidly over the leaves of old books or about old furniture. There is little reliable information concerning these insects, but they are certainly injurious in libraries, museums, etc. Order Thysanoptera, Fringe- Winged Insects. Very minute insects with mouth-parts intermediate between a biting and a sucking mouth; four wings, when present, fringed with hairs, but may be much reduced or absent; two- jointed tarsi terminated by a bladder-like vesicle. These minute insects, which are generally termed Thrips, average about one-thirtieth of an inch in length. The largest species is the PiM^tis^Mo^nldoloiJirifssfectrum^ and it only attains a length of one-third of an inch. Thiips have received scant attention from ento- mologists; rather more than one hundred and fifty species are known, but it is surmised that there are probably a vast number of species as yet undescribed. Although neglected as an order, these minute insects are by no means devoid of interest. Their mouth-parts are peculiar in that they cannot be described as true sucking mouths, nor yet as true biting mouths. They are still more unusual on account of the fact that they THRIPS 103 are not tlie same on either side. This bilateral asym- metry is very unusual in insects. The wings of these tiny creatures are very character- istic; the fore and hind wings are always placed wide apart, and both pairs are always fringed with hairs. They are very fragile, and often the fore and hind wings are of different colours and texture. The very curious feet resemble little bladders, membranous and pro- trusible structures which probably give their owners a better hold on smooth leaf-surfaces than would claws Metamorphosis is striking, and is intermediate between complete and incomplete. The larvse resemble the adults fairly closely and precisely as regards their mouth-parts. The nymphs are not active, as is usual with nymphs, but are enclosed in a skin and take no food. The majority of these insects appear to feed upon the pollen of flowers; some of them, however, are notorious pests. The Pea Thrips, Kahothrifs robustus, lays its eggs in pea and bean flowers, upon the stamens or young pods. Both larvae and adults are injurious, and in bad seasons no pods are formed. The Orange Thrips, Eutlirifs citri, causes a considerable amount of trouble in California by causing white marks on the fruit, which, while not actually injurious to the oranges, lowers their market value. In the same State the Pear Tlnips, Euthrifs pyri, is a very serious pest. It is particularly partial to pears, prunes, and cherries, and injures them by passing to the tenderest parts of the buds and killing them. Some species of Thrips, like certain species of Aphis, spend part of their time on one food-plant and part on another. Such an insect is the Flax Thrips, Thrips 104 INSECT LIFE lini, whicli, after taking up its abode on the roots of flax for a period, migrates later to other food-plants. In many respects these insects have much in common with Aphids; for instance, there are winged and wing- less females, and also parthenogenesis is of common occurrence. Order Khynchota, or Bugs. The RhyncJwta are all provided with hard, horny, jointed sucking beaks, usually with two pairs of wings, and their metamorphosis is incomplete. The young resemble the adults, more or less, at birth, and with each successive moult the similarity becomes greater. The order is divided into two suborders — (1) Heteroftera^ possessing fore-wings thickened at the base and mem- branous at the tips, also with beaks inserted at the front part of the head; (2) Homoptera, possessing uniformly thickened fore-wings and beaks inserted at the hinder part of the head. The number of species in the order is very great, more than twenty thousand being known to science. In point of age they were amongst the earliest insects to appear on this earth, their fossil remains being found in Palaeozoic rocks. Popularly known as " Bugs," though in America many insects of other orders are so named, the Rhynchota are of the greatest economic importance. A large number of them, such as the Aphids or Green-flies, the Coccids or Scale insects, the Aleurodids or White-flies, and the Psyllids or Jumping Plant Lice, are exceedingly destructive to vegetation. There is, in fact, no single family of insects containing a greater number of injurious species than the Coccidce. BUGS 105 Some " Bugs " are carnivorous and prey upon other insects; of these ilesh-eaters, the Reduviids are the best known. In the main, however, the order is com- prised of enemies of the human race, so much so that one eminent entomologist has stated that " if anything were to exterminate the enemies of Hemi'ptera, we our- selves should probably be starved in the course of a few months/' There is one pecuHarity of the Heter opera, or true " Bugs," which soon makes itself apparent to the student of these insects. Many of them are possessed of a peculiar and characteristic odour. The Bed Bug has a decidedly disagreeable perfume. " Others smell like very ripe or overripe fruit, especially pears, while in some Coccidce the odour is aromatic and in others it is spicy like cinnamon." In every case the odour arises from a volatile oil which is exuded from orifices known as "stink-glands;" its object is probably pro- tective, for few enemies would relish an evil-smeUing Bug. Suborder Heteroptera. The members of this suborder dwell either upon land, upon water, or under water. The suborder contains two series — (a) Gymnocerata, with conspicuous antennae; and (b) Cryptocerata, with hidden, inconspicuous an- tennae. Curiously enough, the purely aquatic forms all belong to the latter series, and the dwellers on land and water to the former. Series Gymnocerata. Pentatomid^ may be recognized by the fact that the bases of their five- jointed antennae are not visible 14 106 INSECT LIFE from above, the scutellum is large — at least half as long as the abdomen, often larger — the beak is four- jointed, and two ocelli are always present. The family is the largest of the Heteroptera, and the species are as varied in form and size as in colouring. Many are as brilliantly attired as the most gaudy tropical Beetles; some are sombre in the extreme; others, again, are so delicately tinted that their appearance soon changes after death. For the most part, they are plant-feeders, but some appear to eat vegetable and animal fare impartially. Although the family is a large one, very little is known concerning the habits and life-histories of the species of which it is comprised. There are nearly forty species of PentatcnnidcB in Britain, and one, Acanthosoma griseum, is interesting in that it is one of the few insects known to mother its young. In the United States, the Harlequin Cabbage Bug, Murgantia histrionica, Hahn, is a serious pest of cruci- ferous crops. The insect goes by the curious popular name of the " Abe Lincoln Bug " in Georgia, and the " Third Party Bug " in Texas. The green Pentatomids of the genus Nezara, common in many parts of the world, are known to feed upon either plants or insects as opportunity offers. CoREH)^. — Scutellum less than half the length of the abdomen; beak and antennae four-jointed, the latter inserted on the sides of the head; the membranous portion of the wing-cases with a number of forked, longitudinal veins. This is another large family of which only about two dozen species occur in Britain. In the main, the BUGS 107 Coreidce are of sombre hue, though many species atone for their lack of brilHant colouring by their eccentricity of form. In some species the antennae bear flattened dilatations, and in many the femora or tibiae of the hind-legs are either much swollen, armed with formid- able spines, or are ornamented with flattened, disc-like structures, brightly coloured and of unknown use. The South American Diactor hilineatus has leaf-like hind tibiae. In Leftoglossus phyllopus we see the same abnormality, less highly developed. Metapodius femor- atus has thickened spiny femora, but of all the Coreidce none is more curious than the South European Phyllo- morfha laciniata. The back of this creature forms a hollow, by reason of the upturned edges of its body In the hollow of its back the male carries his mate's eggs, held in place by numerous spines. None of the British species exhibit any pecuHarities of structure. The Coreidce are all plant-feeders, and many of them are exceedingly destructive to crops. The American ** Squash Bug,'' Anasa tristis, De Geer, is a noted pest of Cucurhitacece. Lyg^id^. — The characters of this family are very similar to those of the Coreidce. The Lygseids, however, may be distinguished by the fact that the antennae are inserted " well down on the sides of the head," whilst the veins, on the membranous portion of the wing-cases, are unbranched and four or five in number. This is another large family with more than fifty British species, though most of our native forms are small and drab. The Lygaeids are not so ornate as the Penta- tomids, or of such peculiar structure as many of the Coreids. The prevailing colour of the family is black 108 INSECT LIFE relieved with yellow or red. Like the Coreids, all the species are plant-feeders; some of them are among the most notorious of crop pests. The Chinch Bug, Blissus leucoftenis , Say., of Northern America and the West Indies, is exceedingly injurious to cereals, especially to maize. The insects collect in thousands on the stems of their food-plants, and, by sucking their juices, cause them to wilt. Having destroyed one crop, they migrate to another, not by flying, though they possess the power of flight, but by walking. In certain favourable seasons the Chinch Bugs are kept in check by a fungoid disease which kills them off in large numbers. Pyrrhocorid^ are very similar to LygcBidce, but whereas the latter have ocelli and unbranched wing- veins, the members of this family lack ocelli, and the membranous portions of their wings show more than six forked, longitudinal veins. The family is much smaller than any of the three we have already mentioned, and there is but one British species, Pyrrhocorus apterus, and it is by no means common. For the most i^snt, PyrrJiocoridce are tropical or subtropical. These insects are plant-feeders, and many of them are of economic importance, especially the Cotton-Stainers, Dysdercus spp., and the Lessei Cotton-Stainers, Oxycarenus spp. Of the former we may take Dysdercus suturellus, H. Schf., as our type. The insect is common in the Southern States of America and in the West Indies. It is doubly injurious, for not only does it feed upon the juices of oranges, causing the fruit to decay where its beak pierces the rind, but it feeds upon cotton bolls. The Cotton-Stainer has earned its title from its habit of dyeing the cotton in BUGS 109 tte bolls witli its yellow excretions. " Experiments have been made with this insect looking toward its use as a dye, and the whole substance of the insect can be converted into a rich orange-yellow dye, which can readily be fixed on woollens or silk by the alum mordant liquor/' The Lesser Cotton-Stainers, Oxycaremis spp., are natives of Africa and India. They, apparently, only attack cotton bolls which have already been damaged by other insects. When they do enter the bolls, how- ever, they destroy large numbers of unripe seeds. Un- like the true Cotton-Stainers, these insects do not damage the cotton with their excrement, but become crushed during ginning, thereby staining the fibres. This contretemps may be avoided by spreading the cotton in the sun before ginning, when the insects will take to flight. TiNGiD^. — Like the Pyrrhocoridce , they have no ocelli, their fore- wings are longer than the abdomen, the penultimate antennal joint is much elongated and the last joint is knobbed. The tarsi are two- jointed. The Tingids are known in America as " Lace Bugs," and for once the title is apt. For the most part delicately formed insects, many of them are so beautifully sculp- tured and so bizarre in appearance that they form interesting objects when magnified. They are well represented in Britain, for of a small family no less than a score are native to this country. Our commonest species is Tingis pyri, destructive to pear-trees. All are plant-feeders; some dwell in malformations of flowers; others assemble in such numbers on the leaves of certain trees and suck the plant juices so vigorously 110 INSECT LIFE as to cause a general wilting to take place. Their eggs are usually laid on the leaves of their food-plants ; little barrel-shaped structures they are, and so firmly affixed to the leaf that it is impossible to remove them without lamage to their support. Aradid^. — Flat, broad insects, without ocelli; their /dng-cases are shorter and narrower than the abdomen. Often deeply sculptured, and always of a brown or reddish-brown colour. These Bark Bugs cannot readily be mistaken for any other insects; they are so abnormally flat that one noted entomologist has said that they look as though they had been stepped upon. There is good reason for their flatness and their drab colour, for they live beneath bark and feed upon the fungi which they find there. Being flat, they can easily crawl into the narrowest chinks, and their brown colour renders them less easily observed. Only five species occur in Britain. Hydrometrid^. — Antennae four-jointed; tarsi two- jointed; wings often absent or possessing no mem- branous part; legs often greatly elongated; body often pubescent. The HydrometridcB are of interest on account of their habit of living on the surface of water. In form they are exceedingly diverse. A common British member of the family, Hydrometra stagnorum, popularly known as the Water-Measurer or, erroneously, as the Water Gnat — it is not related to the gnats — is a creature worthy of study. Its body is narrow and stick-like, its head much elongated, and its wings are never developed. Though by the aid of its long, slender legs it is enabled to walk on the surface of the water, BUGS 111 holding its body aloft, should misfortune occur and the creature become wet, it will drown more readily than many purely terrestrial insects. Another British insect, Velia currens, the Water Cricket — it is not alhed to the Crickets — is also perfectly at home on the surface of the water, and the two longi- tudinal orange stripes which ornament its back render it somewhat conspicuous. Members of the genus Gerris, common on our ponds, differ in habit from the two preceding forms, in that they do not spend all their time on the surface of the water, but often dive. The pubescence with which their bodies are clothed prevents them from getting wet. Halohates spp. are ocean-dwellers, many of them having been found on the surface of the ocean, far from land. The family contains many aberrant forms, and all of them, so far as is known, feed upon animal matter, though probably few hunt and capture living prey. Henicocephalid^ are distinguished by a globular swelling of the head behind the eyes, very short beak, and much- veined, wholly membranous fore-wings. There is no British representative of this order; in fact, only about a dozen, though widely distributed species are known. " A Tasmanian species dances in the air after the fashion of Midges or May-flies, and dispenses an agreeable musk-like odour." Reduviid^ very closely resemble HenicocephalidcB, but there is no globular swelling behind the eyes; beak short and forming a loop below the head when at rest; tarsi three-jointed. The Reduviids are as variable in form as the Hydro' 112 INSECT LIFE metridcB, and far more variable in colour. All of them are predaceous, even to the extent of attacking man; on this account they have been named " Assassin," " Pirate/' and " Cannibal " Bugs. The family is a large, important, and mdely distributed one. The " Blood-Sucking Cone Nose," Conorhinus san- guisuga, sometimes called the Giant Bed Bug — though the Bed Bug is not a Keduviid — normally lives in the nests of field mice. In the South- Western States of America it enters human dwellings and sucks the blood of the inmates, causing painful, festering sores. Another species, Reduvius 'personatus, which occurs in Britain, may be called a friend of mankind, for it preys upon Bed Bugs and Cockroaches. The miniature forms of this insect, and of closely allied species, have the curious habit of covering their backs with any portable matter that may be at hand. The house-dwellers use dust, and some of the outdoor species make use of lichen. All the members of the subfamily EmesidcB are deli- cate, elongated, long-legged insects, resembling minia- ture Stick insects. Their movements are slow, and they have the common habit of raising and lowering their bodies as they progress. " Their front legs are peculiarly formed for capturing and holding their prey, and have long coxae, like Mantis, so that these insects are commonly mistaken for small or young Mantises, from which their sucking proboscis at once distinguishes them." Certain Eeduviids exhibit remarkable mimicry of other insects. " According to Seitz, there is found on the Corcovado in Brazil a Keduviid that exactly re- PLATE IX I ^ .^^ ^^^Hk 9 |HH ■ 1 [ GIANT WATKK DUG (BALOSTOJ/A SP.) Parens BUGS 113 sembles one of the dark stinging-wasps of the genua Pefsis, and the bug makes the same movements as the wasp does, though these are of a kind quite different to those of ordinary bugs/' One of our native species, Nabis lativentris, in its immature stages, closely mimics an Ant. Like many other Ant-mimiking Bugs, Nahis lives amongst the insects it so closely resembles, thereby in all probability preying upon them the more easily. It is a remarkable fact that the adult Nahis in no wise resembles an Ant. CiMiciD^ have no ocelli on their short, broad heads; wing-cases rudimentary; three-jointed tarsi; and a beak which fits into a groove under the head. The family comprises a dozen species, of which the cosmopolitan Bed Bug, Cimex lectularius, L., is the best known. The Bed Bug is a flat-bodied, wingless creature, parasitic upon man. In Elizabethan times it was common in every house in the country; now the abolishment of the four-poster bed, a favourite haunt of the insect, and greater attention to cleanliness have combined to oust this pest from our dwellings. Like all parasite insects. Bed Bugs can exist for extra- ordinarily lengthy periods without their normal food- blood. When they pierce the human skin they do not secrete any poison, but their bite is painful. They are suspected of carrying recurrent fever and leprosy. Man is not the only enemy of this loathsome insect; Reduvius 'personatus is its inveterate foe; several species of Ants and, in addition. Cockroaches prey upon it. Capsid^ have relatively large wings and wing-cases, the latter with only two cells (sometimes only one) in the membranous portion. The four- jointed antennae have 15 114 INSECT LIFE very long second joints, and the two basal joints are plainly stouter than the two end joints. Tarsi three-jointed. This family is probably the largest of all the Rhyn- chota, and there are nearly two hundred species in Britain. Most of them are plant-feeders, though some few attack and feed upon other insects, notably Campo- hrochis grandis, which preys upon the Elm-Leaf Beetle, Galerucella luteola, an American forestry pest. Poecilocafsus lineatus, F., the Four-Lined Leaf Bug, is a common American pest of garden plants, such as currants and gooseberries. It is interesting on account of its method of oviposition, a method which is common to many Capsids. Longitudinal slits are made by the female in the stem of some food-plant. Each slit, which may be an eighth of an inch in length, is so deep that it passes half way to the pith. From two to fourteen eggs are deposited, side by side, in every slit. Capsids of the genus Helopeltis are very destructive to tea-plants in India. Series Cryptocerata. Nepid^. — The end of the abdomen is provided with two grooved filaments, forming a respiratory tube; the long, raptorial front legs are affixed to the forward end of the prothorax. There are only two, widely distributed, genera in the family, and both are represented in Britain. The genus Nepa comprises flat, oval forms, whilst all the members of the genus Ranatra are elongate. The filamentous appendages of the abdomen, so characteristic of the family, are important and interesting. Each filament is grooved in such a manner that when brought into PLATE X WATER BUGS 115 contact with its neighbour the two form a hollow tube, along which air passes to the respiratory apparatus within the insect's abdomen. Nefa cinerea, L., the Water Scorpion, is a common inmate of our stagnant ponds. It is not easy to detect; in appearance it resembles a small dead leaf as it floats on the surface of the water. On the muddy bed of its home where it seeks its prey it is still more difficult to observe. A sluggish creature, it rarely flies, though provided with wings. Prey, in the form of small water- frequenting creatures, is seized and held by the fore- legs, which are admirably adapted for the purpose. Along the inner side of each of the femora on the fore- legs there runs a deep groove; into this the tibiae fit much after the manner of the blade of a pocket-knife in its handle. The inner edges of the tibiae are sharp, and there is little chance of any creature escaping when once firmly in the grasp of the " Water Scorpion." The eggs of Nepa are peculiar. They are inserted into the stems of water-plants, much in the same manner as are those of the Capsids. The body of the egg remains buried in the plant tissues, but from its apex there project seven thread-like protuberances, which are possibly connected with the aeration of the egg. Ranatra linearis is not nearly so common in Britain as its relative Nepa. It is popularly known as the Water Stick insect, and is a much more active creature than the Water Scorpion, being frequently observed on the wing. In other respects the habits of the two insects are very similar, but the eggs of Ranatra only possess two thread-like protuberances, instead of the seven invariably found in Nepa. 116 INSECT LIFE Belostomid^. — Hind-legs adapted for swimming; no ocelli or respiratory filaments. This is a small family of aquatic Bugs, and no species occur in this country. Some of the South American species are among the largest of insects, measuring nearly five inches in length. They are predatory, and the larger species prey upon fishes, which they catch in their powerful, grasping fore-legs. They are strong fliers, and readily take to wing. All of them are mud- coloured, unattractive-looking creatures. The genus Zaitha comprises some active, free-swim- ming species. It is the habit of these creatures to carry their eggs from place to place, firmly cemented to their backs with some insoluble substance. For a long time it was thought that the females were thus solicitous of their progeny, but later researches have shown that it is the male who obligingly performs the duties of nurse. At times his burden becomes irksome to him, and then he does not hesitate to attempt to relieve himself of his load; his efforts, however, are usually unavaihng. These eggs, by the way, are looked upon as a delicacy by gourmets in some parts of South America. NoTONECTm^. — ^Fore-tarsi with two claws; head inserted into prothorax. These predaceous aquatic Bugs are commonly known as " Water Boatmen."' They all swim upon their backs, propelling themselves by means of their long hind-legs, which they use as oars. Notonecta glauca, a dem'zen of nearly every stagnant pond, is an active swimmer, strong on the wing, and exceedingly rapacious. When these Water Boatmen dive beneath the surface of the water, they carry with them a film of air which renders PLATE XI A GROUP OF HO.MOFTERA Nos. 1, 2, i and 5 are Cicadas, tlie last being- the only British species; the other figures represent [•"nlgorida', No. 3 being the so-called Candle fly ; Nos. 7, 8 and i) are Flatidse. WATER BUGS 117 them buoyant, so much so that they are compelled to anchor themselves to some water-plant, lest they should rise, willy-nilly, to the surface. Plea minutissima , another British member of the family, is a minute, inactive creature which dwells in the muddy beds of some ponds. CoRixiD^. — Closely allied to Notonectidw, but the fore-tarsi have no claws, being adapted for swimming, and the head overlaps the prothorax. These insects resemble the Water Boatmen in habits, with the important difference that they swim in the normal manner and not upside down; moreover, they are not so buoyant in the water as the Boatmen. The commonest of the many British species is Corixa geoffroyi a brown, yellow-spotted creature, which retires to the mud, in which it buries itself, on cold days. Sigara minutissima is the sole representative of another British genus. " The eggs of two Mexican species (Corixa mercenaria and C. femorata) are laid in enormous numbers in lakes near the city of Mexico, and are made into cakes with meal and are eaten by the Indians and half-breeds. They are said to have an agreeable acid flavour. ' I ate some once, but it was a stale museum specimen and had anything but a pleasant taste. These Mexican species are imported into England by the ton as food for game and song birds, poultry, and fish. Kirkaldy has computed that one ton contains 25,000,000 of these insects." . ^ -, , , Suborder Homoptera. 3 u^n CiCADiD^. — Between the compound eyes there are •• ' three ocelli arranged in a triangle; antennae, except for 118 INSECT LIFE the basal joint, are minute and bristle-like: front femora thickened and toothed. Most of the Cicadas are large, showy insects, with membranous, prominently veined wings. Some of them are brilliantly coloured, vieing with the tropical Butter- flies. Nearly all are inhabitants of the warmer parts of the earth; there is one British species. The two outstanding features of this family are the well-developed vocal powers of the males of practically every species, and the extraordinarily protracted life- cycle of one species. There are no insects capable of making more noise — song some would call it — ^than the Cicadas. ** A curious difference of opinion prevails as to whether their song is agreeable or not; in some countries they are kept in cages, while in others they are considered a nuisance. The Greeks are said to have decided in favour of their performances, the Latins against them.'' An American entomologist, describing the " song " of a native Cicada, says: *' The general noise, on approaching the infested woods, is a combination of that of a distant threshing- machine and a distant frog-pond. That which they make when disturbed mimics a nest of young snakes or young birds under similar circumstances — a sort of scream. They can also produce a chirp somewhat like that of a cricket, and a very loud, shrill screech, pro- longed for fifteen or twenty seconds, and gradually increasing in force then decreasing.'' The song is produced by the rapid vibration of certain complex vocal organs, which are situated on either side of the base of the male abdomen. The females either have no vocal organs or structures of so PLATE XII HEAD OF CICADA, UNDP:R-SIDE, HIGHLY MAGNIFIKD CICADAS 119 rudimentary a nature that they are incapable of emitting a sound. This latter fact led the Greek poet Xenarchus — evidently a married man — to write, " Happy the Cicadas' lives, for they all have voiceless wives/' It is probable that the vocal efforts of the males are intended to attract the females. One of the most romantic of life -histories in all the insect world belongs to the Periodical Cicada, Vicada septendecim, L., sometimes wrongly named the Seven- teen Year Old Locust. The females are armed with powerful ovipositors, and by their aid the eggs, in enormous quantities, are deposited in the twigs and young stems of trees, caus- ing, needless to say, considerable damage. When the larvae emerge from the eggs, they at once fall to the ground and burrow beneath its surface, constructing for themselves little subterranean chambers. For seven- teen long years the larvae live below ground without seeing the light of day. They move but little and slowly, and the nature of their food is uncertain. Four moults are passed through before the nymph stage is reached, then a general migration to the surface of the soil takes place. Sometimes the nymph at once ascends the neighbouring trees; sometimes they build little earthen chimneys on the surface of the soil, in which they await a favourable opportunity to show them- selves. In any event, they reach the near-by trees sooner or later, the nymphal skin splits, the adults emerge in their hundreds of thousands, and the air resounds with the cries of the males. The arrival of the adult Cicadas is the signal for the advent of hosts of enemies; even the English sparrow, a typical grain- 120 INSECT LIFE eater, cannot resist a meal of a plump Cicada. Their periodical visitations, their innumerable enemies, and the fact that the whole aspect of the earth's surface may have changed, during the seventeen years of larval life, all combine to render the extinction of this interest- ing insect merely a question of time. The females which survive their short stay upon earth lose no time in mating and depositing their eggs; in a few weeks the larvae have travelled to their subterranean dwellings, and the district knows the periodical Cicada no more till the passage of seventeen years. There is a race, however, which only spends thirteen years below ground. The American Bureau of Entomology has mapped out the sites of all the broods in the continent. " The largest of the North-Eastern broods made its last appearance in 1902, and is due again in 1919." ^ ^^ FuLGORm^. — ^Very variable. The antennae and ocelli (usually two) placed beneath the eyes; the former usually two-jointed, terminated by a filament. A large family of very varied forms, both in size and general structure. Some of these insects of the sub- family FlatidcB are remarkably like Lepidoptera at a casual glance; others have the front of the head pro- duced into an enormous snout or a large bulbous growth, which early travellers wrongly asserted to be luminous. Members of the tropical American gemis Phenax, and notably P. auricoma, are remarkable on account of the relatively enormous masses of waxy threads which they secrete. In auricoma these threads are sometimes six inches long and harbour Lepidopterous larvae which devour the wax, being transported from place to place PLATE XIII 1^ -V^' FEOG-HOPPEES 121 tlie while by the accommodating Bug. Of what use this wax may be to the Fulgorids is unknown, but in China the secretion from a native Bug is made into candles. About seventy species of Fulgoridce are known in Britain; all, British and exotic, are plant-feeders. ^ Membracid^. — Prothorax prolonged backwards into a horn or shield over the abdomen; two ocelli between the eyes, and the antennae inserted in front of these organs. Of all insects, the Membracids are the most bizarre in form. " Nature must have been in a joking mood when tree-hoppers {MemhracidcB) were developed.*' They are mainly tropical, only two species being known in Britain, and they are all relatively small in size and of sombre coloration. It is probable that the quaint forms of the majority of Membracids serve for their protection; many of them very closely resemble the structures of various parts of the plants, such as seeds, thorns, etc., on which they live. All of them deposit their eggs in slits made in some favoured plant by the ovipositor of the female. This habit causes them to be looked upon as pests by gardeners and farmers. 0 Cercopid^. — Two ocelli, placed on the vertex; antennae inserted in front of and between the eyes; prothorax not prolonged above the abdomen; hind- tibise with one or two stout teeth below. This is the family of " Frog-Hoppers '' or " Cuckoo- Spit '' insects. They are so called because, in the first place, they all have the power of leaping to consider- able distances, and, in the second place, the larvae have a habit of surrounding themselves with a frothy secretion. 16 122 INSECT LIFE Our native Cuckoo-Spit insect, Philcenus sfumarius, is well known to everybody. The female deposits her eggs on plant-stems in autumn, and the young hatch in the spring. They at once proceed to dig their beaks deep into the tissues of the food-plant, and from the end of the abdomen a clear liquid exudes. By dint of violent agitation of the abdomen this liquid is beaten into a froth, which completely hides the larva. Although hidden, the position of the young insect is thus rendered more conspicuous, and certain Hymen- opera do not hesitate to drag him from his hiding-place to serve as food. " The phenomena known as weeping- trees are often due to Cercopidce ; some of the species make such copious exudations of this kind that the drops have been compared to a shower of rain. In Madagascar it is said that Ptyelus gondoti exudes so much fluid that five or six dozen larvae would about fill a quart vessel in^an hour and a half. ... In Ceylon the larva of Machcerota guttigera constructs tubes fixed to the twigs of the tulip-tree, and from the tubes water is exuded drop by drop." ^' Jassed^. — Closely allied to' Cercopidce, from which they may be distinguished by the fact that their hind tibise are armed with numerous spines. A large family of minute, fragile insects; all are vegetable-feeders, and it has been computed that fre- quently on an acre of pasturage there are about a million Jassids which consume as much, if not more, grass than a cow. ^ Proconia undata, an American species, owing to its habit of ejecting a spray of liquid when disturbed, is also responsible for " weeping-tree '* stories One of PLATE XIV A MKMBRACID WHICH MIMICS A THO:. Satyrus semele (Grayling) 7. Epinephele janira (Meadow Brown") 8. Epinephele tithonus Small Meadow Browi 9. Epinephele hyperanthus (Ringlet) 10. Ccenonympha typhon (Marsh Ringlet) See pages 144 ami loo. MOTHS 153 of the larva from enemies. The cocoons of the Puss Moth are hard and formed of wood chips and saliva. When the time arrives for the Moth to emerge, it softens its prison wall with an alkaline fluid and pushes its head, which is protected by a portion of the pupa-case, through the softened part. More peculiar still is the larva of the rare Lobster Moth, Stauropus fagi, which the lucky entomologist may find on young beech-leaves. The Dragon of old Sepp, Hyhocampa milhauseri, has larvae equally bizarre. Commoner British species are the Coxcomb Prominent, Lophopteryx camelina, with curious larvae which feed on birch. On the same tree may be found the red and yellow larvae of the Iron Prominent, Notodonta dromedarius, whilst those of the Swallow and Pebble Prominents, N. dictcea and N. ziczac^ feed upon poplar and willows. The Buff Tip, Phalera biicephah, is our commonest Notodont, and a fairly destructive forestry pest of oaks. The Chocolate Tip, P. curtula, is less common and much smaller; its larvae devour poplar and sallow. Cymatophorid^. — Closely related to the Noctuidce, though bearing many resemblances to the Notodontidce, this small family is represented in Britain by three species. The Buff Arches, Thyatira derasa, is a quaintly marked little Moth whose larvae feed upon Euhus spp.; on the same plants may be found the larvae of the Peach Blossom, T. hatis. The Yellow Horned Moth, Asphalia flavicornis, may often be overlooked, for, evidently recognizing that its colouring is protective, it rests on tree-trunks and old wood. Its larvae feed on birch and oak. 20 154 INSECT LIFE Sesiid^. — Clearwings. The majority of species in this family have wings without scales, and many have the tip of the abdomen tufted. The commonest British species is the Currant Clear- wing, S. tifuliformis ; less common is the Hornet Clearwing, Trocliilium crahroniformis . The larvae of these species are white, and they burrow into the stems of their food-plant immediately after they are hatched. Hidden within this shelter they spend the whole of their larval and pupal lives. Zyg^nid^. — Burnet Moths. The commonest British species of this family of beautiful Moths is the Six- Spotted Burnet, Zygcena fili'pendnlcB. All the members of the family have somewhat similar brilliant metallic colouring, crimson and greens or blues predominating. The Six-Spotted Burnet is a seaside species. Less common is the scarce Forester, I no glohularice, a little gem, resplendent in bronze or blue-green. Its larvae feed upon the greater knapweed. All the Burnet Moths construct peculiar cocoons, which they fasten securely to some support such as a grass stem; they are remarkable for their great powers of movement. The pupa forces itself partly from the cocoon at the time of the emergence of the Moth. PsYCHiD^. — Bagworm Moths. For the most part small Moths, they are of the greatest interest. The females are wingless, and in some species they are devoid of legs as well, so that they appear like the larvse of Diptera. The males are usually provided with bipectinate antennae. The females live all their lives within " bags "'; there also they lay their numerous eggs, and the larvae, when PLATE XXVI HWp 9 w w 1. Cfenonymplia pampliilus (Small Heath) 2. Thecia riibi (Green Hairstreak) 3 Thecia quercus (Purple Hairstreak) 4 Thecia w-albiim (White-letter Hairstreak) 5. Thecia pruni (Black Hairstreak! 6. Thecia betulae (Brown Hairstreak) 7. PBlyommatus dispar (Large Copper) 8. Polyommatus phteas (Small Copper) 9. I. ycaena gaetica (Long-tailed Blue) 10. Lycaena/Egon (Silver-studded Blue) IL Lycaena astrarche (Brown Argus) 12. Lycaena icarus (Common Blue) . MOTHS 155 they emerge, start life by devouring the body of their mother. Having done so, they feed no more till they have constructed the " bags " in which they are to live. These " bags '' vary in form and texture accord- ing to the species constructing them. Sometimes they are made of silk; more frequently of sticks or other vegetable material or earth. They are always in- genious. In one species the " bags " resemble shells, but the usual form is a variant of a helix. The sticks of which some of the bags are made are all of the same length, sometimes arranged longitudinally, more often transversely, but always with a regularity and neatness which no human fingers could excel. When the larva has made its " bag " it crawls inside, and there spends the rest of its days, if it be destined to develop into a female. The males are active and short-lived. CossiD^. — The Goat Moths have no proboscis, are covered with a dense vestment of scales, and are all either moderate or large-sized insects. These Moths are of interest on account of the wood- boring habits of the larvae and their protracted existence in this state. The Goat Moth, Cossus ligniferda, deposits her eggs upon the trunks of willow, poplar, ash, or elm, for choice, and the young larvae, directly they are hatched, bore into the stems and dwell therein for three years. When fully fed, they are of consider- able size, nearly the colour of a boiled prawn, with a broad mahogany stripe down the back. They exude an odour strongly reminiscent of that of the goat, and for this reason they have earned their popular name. It is reputed that in former days these evil-looking larvae were considered a table delicacy, though it is 156 INSECT LIFE hard to believe the truth of the statement. When fully fed, the larvae leave their burrows and seek a spot for pupation. They make a hard cocoon of chipped wood and saliva. It is easy to imagine that larvse so large and long-lived are capable of doing considerable injury to timber trees. Hardly less injurious are the larvae of the Wood Leopard Moth, Zeuzem fyrina. They are long-lived and have the same wood-boring habits as Cossus. Fruit-trees are much favoured by them. Fortunately, they are not very common. Hepialid^. — Ghost and Swift Moths. The species of this family vary tremendously in size ; some might aptly be described as minute; others span as much as seven inches from tip to tip of their wings. In colour they are usually sombre, but some of the exotic species, on the contrary, are gorgeous. The South African Leto venus has wings studded with metallic spots; species of the Australian genus Charagia are also brightly coloured. Of our British species, the Northern Swift, Hepialus velleda, is by no means uncommon; it should be sought among the bracken, on which the larvae feed. Here it may be mentioned that all the Hepialids are difficult to capture; their flight is low and rapid. More difficult still is it to obtain perfect specimens. The Gold Swift, H. hectus, is a much smaller insect, also found near bracken. The Ghost, H. pumuU, is the commonest of all. The larvae feed upon roots of grasses, dock, and ragwort. A glance at our figures will show that the males differ markedly from the females in colour. That this colouring serves a useful purpose is shown by Sharp, whom we quote: " The male is an insect of exceptional PLATE XXVI 1 1 '-'■'0m- i_ rt d P. cuu< MOTHS 157 colour, being white above, in consequence of a dense formation of imperfect scales ; the female is of tbe brown- ish tints usual in Swift Moths. In the month of June the male selects a spot where he is conspicuous, and hovers persistently there for a period of about twenty minutes in the twilight; his colour has a silvery- white, glistening appearance, so that the insect is really con- spicuous notwithstanding the advanced hour. Females may be detected hovering in a somewhat similar manner, but are not conspicuous like the male, their colour being obscure; while so hovering they are ovipositing, drop- ping the eggs amongst the grass. Females that have not been fertilized move very differently, and dash about in an erratic manner till they see a male; they apparently have no better means of informing the hovering male of their presence than by buzzing near, or colUding with him. . . . There can be little doubt that the colour of the male attracts the female." The male of H. hectus, according to the same authority, gives off from his swollen hind-legs an odour of pine- apple, which attracts the females. There is very little authentic information concerning the life-histories of species belonging to this family. The larvse mostly live underground or in wood; the pupae, which are very elongate, are active. Drepanid^. — Hook Tips. Nearly all the species of this family have outwardly directed, acute-angled tips to their fore- wings. They are all moderate-sized insects. In Britain we have half a dozen species, of which the common Hook Tip, Drepana lacertinaria, is the most frequently met with. Its larvae feed on birch and heather, and are remarkable in possessing a long tubular 158 INSECT LIFE process in place of the usual hind-claspers. The Pebble Hook Tip, D. falcataria, is but little less common; its larvae dwell within shelters which they construct of birch and alder leaves. Cilix glaiicata, when at rest, closely resembles bird excrement. LiMACODiD^. — Small, stoutly built Moths, nearly always of an apple-green colour, often edged with brown. There are only two British species, of which Afoda testudo is the commonest. As may be gathered from the scientific name of this insect, the larva is a footless, slug-like creature. Owing to their structure, they glide rather than walk over the leaf-surface on which they feed. This peculiar larval structure, combined with the exceedingly ornate appearance of many species, makes the family of great interest. The cocoons of Limacodids, too, are interesting; they are provided with lids through which the Moths may escape without difficulty. Lasiocampid^. — The species of this family are all large insects, and are densely covered with scales; antennse of males pectinate. These Moths are easily recognized; they are, for the most part, heavy insects and clumsy in flight. The commonest British species is the Drinker, Odonestis potatoria, so named on account of the curious dipping flight of the adults, which, when their course is over water, makes them appear to be swooping down for a drink. The females are consider- ably bigger than the males and a lighter colour. Differ- ences in size between the sexes in this family are common, the females of some species being more than three times the size of the males. The large, brown, hairy Drinker larvfe may be found feeding upon grass in autumn and spring. PLATE XXIX 1. Papilio machaon (Swallow Tail) 2. Aporia crateegi (Black-veined White) 3 Pieris brassies LarRe Garden White) 4. Pieris raps 'Small Garden White) 5. Pieris napi (Green-veined White) 6. Pieris daplidice (Bath White) 7. Eiichloe cardamines Orange Tip) 8. Leucophasia sinapis (Wood White 9. Colias liyale (Pale Clouded Yellow) See patie 14S. MOTHS 159 Almost as common is the Lacl^ey, Bomhyx neustria. Its eggs and larvae, at any rate, are only too well known to most fruit-growers. The former are deposited in neat rings round the smaller twigs of some favoured tree, probably an apple, and the larvae, which hatch in the spring, are very destructive to the foliage. There is another closely allied Moth, known as the Ground Lackey, B. castrensis ; it is a somewhat local insect and is not injurious, for its larvae feed on seaside plants. The Oak Eggar, B. quercus, is one of our handsomest Moths. The females, as is usual, are larger than the males and paler in colour. There is, however, con- siderable colour variation in this species; the oak- fed larvae produce paler-coloured adults than those fed upon heather. This Moth is supposed to take its peculiar popular name from its close-spun cocoon, which is not unlike egg-shell in appearance. The larval hairs of this species are easily shed, and are particularly irritating to the skin. The Fox, B. ruhi, is so called on account of the colouring of the male; the females are grey. As its name implies, it is a lover of bramble in the larval state. The Lappet, Lasiocamfa querci- folia : this handsome Moth is not common except in the South. It is somewhat inert, but escapes attention as it rests on some branch, because it very closely resembles a dead leaf. Its larvae feed upon bramble plum, sloe, amongst other plants. Of the December Moth, Poecilocampa fofuli^ it is said that it sometimes remains in the pupal state for several years. Endromid^. — The British Moth popularly known as the Kentish Glory, Endromis versicolor, is the sole species of the family. It is by no means common, but 160 INSECT LIFE may be taken by day in birch woods. The larvae are almost destitute of hairs; they feed on birch, and super- ficially resemble Sawfly larvae. LYMANTRimiE. — This is a most interesting family of sombre-coloured Moths, many of which have highly injurious larvae. The Moths are mostly white, grey, or brown, the first-named colour being the most frequently met with. The larvae are hairy and often beautifully coloured; the hairs of most species are irritating to the skin. It is said of the larvae of the Nun, Psilura monacha, and of the Gipsy Moth, Ocneria dispar, that when newly hatched they have hairs provided with air-bladders. These air-bladders are supposed to so lighten their owners that, by launching themselves into the air from a height, they are distributed for a con- siderable distance by air-currents. Hair forms a con- siderable portion of many Lymantriid cocoons, and, more unusual still, the pupae of some species are hairy. We have about a dozen species in Britain, and of these the Vapourer, Orgyia antiqua, is very common even in London. Although common, the Vapourer is well worth a little attention. As our figure shows, there is a striking difference between the sexes. The male is strong on the wing and an active insect; the un-moth-like female is a small, hairy, heavy-bodied creature, with wings so minute as to be useless for flight. She rarely strays far from her cocoon, and on it she often lays her eggs. The larvae are among the most beautiful of our native species, of a peculiar bluish-grey colour with a paler strip down the back, on which there are rows of red dots; they bear a couple of tufts on their heads and four yellow tufts on their PLATE XXX 5 = S \ PROPERTY OF p, METCALF OTHS 161 backs, in addition to numerous smaller tufts. They are catholic in their tastes, and there is little vegetation that they will not devour. Occasionally, even in London squares, the trees are completely defoliated by these voracious larvse, and were it not for the activi- ties of an Ichneumon parasite they would speedily increase to an alarming extent. The Gold Tail, Porthesia similis, is equally common, though not a town-frequenting species. A glance at our figure will show how appropriately this insect is named. The larvae may be found on hawthorn and various fruit-trees in the summer; they are prettily marked with black and red. The Black Arches, Psilura monacha, is also known as the Nun. It is not common in Britain, but on the Continent, and in Germany especially, it is a serious forestry pest, for the young larvae feed upon the leaves of many trees, but especially upon those of the Coniferce. The Pale Tussock, Dasychira pudibunda, also known as the Hop Dog, because it does a considerable amount of damage to hops, is a noted forestry pest in France. The most notorious Lymantriid, however, is the Gipsy Moth, Ocneria dispar. Exactly fifty years ago an American enthusiast who was studying various Lepidoptera, with a view to making use of their silk, accidentally released some imported Gipsy Moths. For many years the insects merely held their own; then they seemed to awaken to a new life; they increased enormously, though they did not spread quickly. Every effort was made, and is being made, to keep them in check; a million dollars a year are spent on 21 162 INSECT LIFE their control. Parasites and enemies have been im- ported from Europe, but still the Gipsy Moth holds its own as America's greatest forestry pest. Nearly as injurious is the Brown-Tail Moth, Ewproctis chrysorrhcBa^ also imported from Europe. The adult is not very dissimilar to the Gold Tail, but brown takes the place of gold on the tip of the abdomen. A near relative of the Pale Tussock, known as Dasychira rossii, is note- worthy because it inhabits the Arctic regions. Hypsid^. — A small family of tropical and sub- tropical Moths, which do not resemble any European species. Most of them are straw-coloured, with white dots or lines. Arctiid^. — This is a large family, and many of the species are highly ornate. Everyone knows the " woolly bears," those long-haired active larvae which may be met with on all manner of vegetation in the early summer, or may be seen walking rapidly over garden - paths or even roads. They are the larvae of the Garden Tiger, Arctia caia. The long hairs of these larvae are not without their uses; they serve as a protection for their owners against many enemies, and they are used to form the cocoon, for which purpose the owner bites them from its body before pupating. The Cream-Spot Tiger, A. villica, is a very similar insect to the Garden Tiger in appearance, though easily distinguished. Much more similar, however, are the larvae; those of the former species may be known by their red heads, those of the latter species are black. Both will eat almost any vegetation. The Ruby Tiger, S'pilosoma Juliginosa, is quite a different-looking insect — in fact, this genus bears some PLATE XXXI wl^ %./^ w fo 3 WW 1. Lyceena bellargiis (Clifden Blue) 2. Lyesena corydon (Chalk-hill Blue) 3. Lycaena minima (Little Blue) 4. l.ycaena argiolus (Azure Blue) 5. Lyccena arion (Large Blue) 6. Nemeobius lucina (Duke of Bur- gundy Fritillary) 7. Nisoniades syrichthus malvae (Grizzled Skipper) 8. Nisoniades tagos (Dingy Skipper) 9. Hesperia thaumas (Small Skipper) 10. Hesperia actjeon (Lulworth Skipper) 11. Hesperia sylvanus (Large Skipper) 12. Hesperia comma (Pearl Skipper) Cseterocephalus palzemon (Checkered .Skipper) MOTHS 163 resemblance to certain species of Hypsidce. It is usually met with on high ground, and heather is a favourite food-plant of the larvae. The Buff and White Ermines, S. lubricipeda and S. menthastri, are common every- where. The Buff Tiger, Nemeo'phila russula, is a daintily marked insect, a dweller on moorland. We figure the male. Its larvae feed on heather and heath, and hibernate through the winter. The Scarlet Tiger, Callimorpha dominula, though a member of a different subfamily, bears considerable resemblance to the Garden Tiger. The Cinnabar Moth, Euchelia jacohwcB, has a livery which, in colour, is strangely reminiscent of the Burnet Moths, though there the similarity ends. Its larvsD, black with conspicuous yellow bands, are common on ragwort, and literally cover their food-plants, for they are gregarious. The little Muslin Moth, Nudaria mundana, is a frail creature with feeble powers of flight. Its larvge feed upon lichen, a favomite food of the species of this sub- family. The "Footmen," of which we figure three species, are all light-bodied, somewhat narrow- winged Moths. They fly by day, and their livery is usually some shade of yellow marked with black. The Common Footman, Calligenia lurideola, is not easy to find in its larval state, for the insects closely resemble their food-plants in colour. Less common is the Eosy Footman, Calligenia miniata, and quite local the Four- Spotted Footman, Gnophria quadra, which, by the way, is not spotted in the male; our figure is of a female. The larvae of both species feed on lichens. Geometrid^. — This is an immense family, and, curiously enough, the larvae are usually better known 164 INSECT LIFE than the adults. The former are known as Loopers or Geometers on account of their curious looping gait, necessitated by their anatomical structure. They possess thoracic legs, a pair of claspers, and but one other pair of abdominal legs, on the ninth segment. When walking, they clasp their support with the thoracic legs and draw up their abdominal legs so that their bodies are looped; then, after making firm with their hind-legs, they advance the fore-part of the body and repeat the operation. When at rest these larvae assume curious attitudes. Being thin and hairless and, some of them, coloured like a dry twig, they frequently clasp their support with their hind-legs and rest at an angle of about 75 degrees thereto. When in this position there is always a life-line of silk from the larva to some near-by twig. This silken thread serves a double purpose: it lends additional support to the larva, and when danger threatens the insect can drop from the tree and remain suspended by its thread till the danger be past. After an interval the larva returns to its original support by means of the thread. Many Loopers, when at rest, bear a remarkably close resem- blance to twigs, green or dry, according to their colour. The adults are all night fliers; they are somewhat delicate insects, but nearly all of them are provided with relatively large wings, with the exception of the females of certain species, which are wingless or nearly so. The family includes the numerous Moths known to entomologists as " Pugs,'* " Carpets,'' and " Waves," etc. Many species are decidedly injurious to crops and forest trees. Lack of space forbids even a cursory view of the PLATE XXXII ACTIAS SELENE MOTHS 165 fifty-seven species we figure in colour, and these are but a fifth of the British species. The Early Thorn, PericalUa bilunaria, is interesting because it belongs to a genus whose larvae, when resting, resemble thorns or small branches. They should be sought on hawthorn and oak in the summer. The Pale Brindle Beauty, Phigalia pedaria, is a species with wingless females. The females of this order are much more active than are those of the Vapourer Moth. Many of them ascend the highest trees, and it has even been asserted that the males carry them thence. Oak and beech are the favourite trees of the female and their larvae. The Magpie Moth, Abraxas grossulariata , is often a serious pest of gooseberries and currants, and on that account is sometimes called the Gooseberry and Currant Moth. The most notorious pests of the family are the Mottled Umber, Hyhernia defoUaria, and the Winter Moth, Cheimatohia hrumata. Both of them are well named; defoUaria speaks eloquently of the Mottled Umber's defoliating propensities, and the Winter Moths are on the wing in November and December. The females of the former species are wingless; those of the latter have wings only slightly developed. This lack of wings does not appear to affect the geographical distribution of the Winter Moth, for it is found almost everywhere in Europe and in North America. NocTuiD^.— Another unwieldy family of Moths, con- taining a large number of species which are very similar to one another. Often, in such cases, the larvae are quite distinct, a statement which may be verified by 166 INSECT LIFE an examination of the larvae and pupse of Acronyda fsi and A. tridens. The larvae of some of the Dart Moths (Agrotis spp.), on the other hand, are so much alike that it is impossible to identify them with certainty, though the Moths themselves are quite distinct. As may be surmised from the name of the family, nearly all these Moths are night-fliers; the larvas, too, of many species remain hidden by day and come out at night to feed. We figure no less than sixty-five Noctuids, but a tithe of which we can mention here. The Antler Moth, Charceas graminis, is an exception to the usual Noctuid rule, in that it often flies by day. It is exceedingly common and very prolific, and, seeing that its larvae feed upon grasses, it is not surprising to learn that in certain seasons it becomes a serious pest. Very frequently we read of plagues of Caterpillars which devour all the herbage of our pastures; usually the culprits are the larvae of the Antler Moth. The Cabbage Moth, Mamestra brassicce^ is another serious pest, though, fortunately, it is not so prolific as the last-named species. Its larvae refuse little that is green, but appear especially partial to cruciferous plants, cultivated for choice. The genus Agrotis is noted for its evil-doers, and every husbandman knows the Turnip Moth, A. segetum, and the quaintly named Heart and Dart, A. exclamationis. The larval attacks of these species are exceedingly insidious, for they are subterranean feeders upon roots of grasses, cruciferous plants, and the like. Very frequently the total failure of the crop is the first indica- tion to the farmer that anything is amiss, for the larvae PLATE XXXIII MOTHS 167 rarely show themselves. A near relative, the Australian Bugong Moth, A. S'pina, was formerly used as an article of food by the natives. Very interesting are the Plusias ; they are frequently devoid of the usual complement of larval legs, and on that account they progress in a manner very remin- iscent of the Geometers. This trait has earned them the name of Semi-Loopers. Many of the Moths have wings, beautifully marked with metallic gold or silver spots and blotches. The Gold Spot, Plusia festucce, affords but a hint of the lovely ornamentation to be found in some exotic species. The Orange Under wing, Brofhos parthe^iias, is a diurnal Moth, and is on the wing in early spring. Its near relative, B. notha, has the peculiar habit for a Noctuid of spinning two or three leaves of its food- plant (aspen) together and living within the shelter. When fully fed, it seeks some soft wood, into which it bores, there to pupate. Before doing so, however, it takes the precaution to close the hole by which it has entered with a double door of silk. In a family containing so many injurious species, it is pleasant to mention one which is useful. The South European Noctuid, Erastria scitula, as a larva preys upon the Peach Scale, Lecanium olece. The larvae are small, the scales are large. The former eagerly devour the latter, and eventually add to the scale by means of silk, so that it forms a shelter beneath which they can pupate. The story of the Noctuids could be unfolded to con- siderable length; from the giant American Erebides, which may span as much as eight inches from tip to 168 INSECT LIFE tip of their wings, to the most minute forms, all are interesting and many of extreme beauty. We must, however, leave the family with the remark that the larvae of the Marbled Beauty, Bryofhila perla, share with certain of the Arctiids the very uncommon habit of feeding upon lichens, and, as is usual in such cases, their colouring closely resembles that of their food- plants. Pykalid^. — An enormous family of small or medium- sized, long-legged, somewhat fragile Moths. In Britain about a hundred and fifty species are known; many of them are injurious, and some are among the most interesting of all the Lepidoptera. The Scoparias, of which we figure the Hoary Grey, Scoparia dubitalis, are, like the species we mentioned above, lichen-feeders. The Ephestias, and notably the Flour Moth, E'phestia Kuhniella, are many of them serious pests of stored grain, which they not only eat, but damage by matting together with their silken webs. A species of E'phestia also attacks dried figs, and its larvae are by no means strangers to our dinner-tables. The Meal Moth, Pyralis farinalis, is very similar in habit to the Flour Moth. The Grass Moths of the genus Cramhus are very common. They may be seen in thousands during a walk through meadowland in summer — little pale- coloured Moths, which only seem capable of flying a short distance without resting. Their pointed heads, owing to the shape of their palpi, and their method of resting with wings tightly folded over their backs, render them unmistakable. Of the British Pyralids, the most remarkable are the PLATE XXXIV 1 Ai-herontia airopu 2 Splimxconvolvul^ 3 Sphinx liBii>.tri 4 Ueilephila eiiphorbiie .') Deilepliila galii (J CliEErocampa porcellus See i/at/e 151 7. Chaerocampa elpenor 3. Smeriiithus ocellatus 9. Smerinthus populi MOTHS 169 China Marks Moth— we figure one species, Hydrocam'pa stagnata. Their larvae are aquatic, and not only so their life-histories are of absorbing interest. For a very full and interesting account of the life-history of the Brown China Marks Moth, H. nympheata, the reader is referred to Miall's ** Natural History of Aquatic Insects/' In brief, the Moths deposit their eggs upon the leaves of some aquatic plant. When the larvae emerge they tunnel into the leaves and appear oblivious of the water which surrounds them. After a moult the larvae forsake their burrows and make dwellings by cutting out pieces of leaf and fastening them to the under-sides of other leaves. These shelters are not waterproof, but the water causes the larvae little incon- venience. More moults occur, and hibernation takes place below water. In the spring the larvae each take a couple of pieces of leaf and fasten them together in the shape of a double convex lens. At this stage the water seems to trouble them for the first time, and they contrive to make their lens-shaped shelters watertight. In them they complete their development. Despite their aquatic environment, these larvae are not provided with gills or any organs for respiration below water; they apparently breathe through their skins. In certain closely related, though not British species the larvae are provided with branchial gills.* The larvae of the Small China Marks Moth, Cataclysta lemnata, live in little cases which they form by binding together the leaves of duckweed with silk. Of all the Pyralids, the most extraordinary is the genus Acentropus. " This insect is apparently the most completely aquatic of all the Lepidoptera, and was for 22 170 INSECT LIFE long associated with tlie Trichoftera in consequence of its habits and of the scaling of the wings being of a very- inferior kind. The males may sometimes be found in large numbers fluttering over the surface of shallow, but large, bodies of water; the females are rarely seen, and in some cases have no wings, or have these organs so small as to be useless. The female, it would appear, comes quite to the surface for coupling, and then takes the male beneath the water. The larvae have the usual number of Lepidopterous feet, and apparently feed on the leaves of plants below water, just as Lepi- dopterous larvae ordinarily do in the air. They have no trace of gills, and their mode of respiration is un- known."' Species of the genus Galleria — there are three in Britain — are much dreaded by bee-keepers. These Moths enter the hives at night and deposit their eggs near the combs. The larvae greedily devour the wax, and at the same time spin tough silken webs wherever they go. Pterophorid^. — The Plume Moths are easily dis- tinguished on account of their deeply divided wings, the hind-wings especially — the fore-wings are some- times nearly entire, and in one genus, Agdistes, the wings are quite undivided. These are delicate little Moths, many of them white, and their chief interest lies in their coloured, soft, and hairy pupae. There are thirty species of these little Moths in Britain. ToRTRiciD^. — Minute Moths whose larvae all live inside their food, which may consist of either fruits, seeds, roots, or leaves. When leaves are the food, the larvae roll them most ingeniously and fasten them with PLATE XXX\- 1. Chserocampa alecta 5. Deilephila lineata 2. Deilephila vespertillio 3. Smerinthiis tilli 4. Chserocampa nerii 6. Deilephila dahlii 7. Sphinx pinastri MOTHS 171 silk in such a manner that they will remain in a per- manently rolled state. As the larvae are all very small and the leaves are often large, the exact methods by which they accomphsh their object have been the cause of considerable conjecture. Of the " leaf-rollers/' the commonest, in Britain, are the Green Tortrix, T. viri- dana, a not inconsiderable pest of oak, and T. ribeana. The most serious pest of the family is the Codling Moth, Carpocafsa fomonella. The female lays her eggs on young leaves of apple, about May, and the larvae, when they hatch, bore into the young fruit at the calyx end and penetrate to the core. Here they live and feed and collect a nauseating mass of frass which ruins the fruit. When fully fed, the larvae tunnel their way out of the fruit and pupate beneath the loose bark of the apple-tree. The closely related C. splendam infests acorns, and 0. Juliana Spanish chestnuts. The most curious of these Tortricidce are those whose larvae live in the seeds of Euphorbias and give rise to the so-called " jumping beans." Carfocapsa saltitans^ for instance, lives in the seeds of Croton coUiguaja. It hollows out most of the interior, from one end to the other, and by various movements, which have not yet been observed, it causes the centre of gravity to shift from time to time and the seed to move. TiNEiD^. — A very large family — there are seven hundred British species— of minute Moths. Their hind- wings, which are small, are usually fringed. Perhaps the most remarkable fact about the majority of species of this family is the nature of their food. The larva of the Clothes Moth, Tinea tapetzella, feeds upon clothes and builds cases of its food-material in 172 INSECT LIFE which to dwell. The larvae of the Woollen Moth, T. pellionella, have similar habits, whilst those of T. hiselliella appreciate the same food, but do not make cases. Of the exotic species, T. vastella feeds on the horns of living antelopes, and another species ** has been found in abundance in the hair of a live Sloth, Brady pus cuculliger, under circumstances that render it possible that the larva feeds on the creature's hair, though it may feed on minute vegetable matter found in the hair.'' Many of the Tineids are " leaf- miners.'' The larvae, quite early in life, burrow between the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf of their food-plant. There they feed on the leaf- tissues, secure from most enemies, and there also they pupate. The common Oak-Miner, Nepticula ruficapitella, is frequently seen, or rather the workings of its larvae. The Small Ermine, Hyponomeuta padella, a beautiful little white Moth with black markings on the fore- wings, is better known by the activities of its larvae than by the appearance of the adults. Its gregarious larvae are known as " tent-caterpillars " from their habit of spinning dense silken webs on the branches of their food-plants — apple and hawthorn. Within these tents they dwell when young, and to their shelter they retire when alarmed in later life. PLATE XXXVI 1. Cossus ligniperda 2. Zeuzera pyrina 3. Bombyx riibi 4. Bombyx quercus 5. Odonestispotatoria 6. Porthesia similis 7. Ocneria dispar 8. Psihira monacha 9 Dasychira pudibunda 10. Orgyia antiqua 11. Orgyia antiqua (female) See page 152. 12. Bombyx castrensis 13. Bombyx neustria 14. Lasiocampa querifolia 15. Endromis versicolor 16. Saturnia pavonia (male) BEETLES 173 CHAPTER VI COLEOPTERA AND STREPSIPTERA Okder Coleoptera, or Beetles. Beetles are four-winged insects; their fore-wings (elytra) are usually hard and horny, and serve as shields for the membranous hind- wings. In almost every case the hind edges of the fore-wings are placed together when not expanded, so as to form a suture down the insect's back. Mouth-parts designed for biting; meta- morphosis complete. Although there can be few readers of these pages who do not possess a general idea of Beetle anatomy, as far as externals are concerned, at the same time, mainly on account of their mode of life. Beetles are not nearly such famihar creatures as FHes or Moths. For the most part, they are ground dwellers, and the Coleopterist must needs know something of their habits to be able to come upon them. They form, in fact, by far the largest order of insects; about seventy thousand species are known, and of these more than four thousand are native to this country. Coleoptera may be found of every conceivable form; some of the most bizarre insects belong to this order. In colour they vie with the Butterflies and Moths, some of the Lamiidce being brilliantly attired; certain of the Weevils are of exquisite metallic hue, veritable gems 174 INSECT LIFE of the insect world; the Eose Beetles, the Ladybirds, the Leaf Beetles, and many others, cannot fail to arouse our admiration in the adornment of their armour. On the other hand, the species of several families are nearly all black, or at any rate of sombre shades; the Tene- hrionidce and the Bostrychidce are of this nature. Some Beetles have elytra so smooth that they have the appear- ance of being polished daily; others have pits, more or Fig. 7 External Anatomy of a Beetle. (Upper Side.) 1, Head stretched forward; 2, prothorax; 3, mesothorax, scutellum; 4, metathorax; 5, abdomen; 6, anterior wing (elytron) of right side, turned forward; 7, posterior wing of right side, expanded; 8, maxillary palps; 9, femur of third right leg; 10, tibia of third right leg; 11, tarsus of third right leg. From " Zoology of the Invertehrata" by A. E. Shipley. less deep all over their surface or arranged in longi- tudinal rows, or in some other definite pattern. Other species have furrowed or crinkled or hairy elytra; indeed, it is hard to set a limit on the various forms which this vast order exhibits. In size there is every stage between the tiny SfhceridcB, of which S. acaroides occurs in Norfolk, no longer than one-fiftieth of an inch, or Nanosella fungi, but half that size, up to the giant PLATE XXXVII .> . / S W ^^ 1. Plusia chrysilis 3. Zygsena exulans 6. Eurraiithis plumistaria 9. Hylophila bichlorana ■i. Bombyx qiiercus (Female) 7. Odonestis potatoria {Female) 10. Ocneria dispar 'Female) 2. Halias prasinana 5. Zygffina lavandulae 8. Callimorpha Hera 11. Utethesia pulchella BEETLES 175 Goliath Beetles or the South American Prionids, Titanus giganteus, which may measure between two and three g ab p inches in length. The habits of Beetles are as varied as their forms. There are species which are per- fectly adapted to an aquatic life in the adult Fig. 8 —External Anatomy of a Beetle. (Under Side.) A, Ligula; B, paraglossus; C, labial palp; D, maxillus, or lower jaw; E, labrum, or upper lip; G, mandible, or jaw; H, antennae; I, mentum, or chin; K, buccal fissure; L, gula; M, prosternum; N, prosternal episternum; O, prosternal epimeron; P, coxae; Q, mesosternum; R, mesosternal episternum; S, mesosternal epimeron; T, metasternal episternum; U, metasternum; V, metasternal epi- meron; W, trochanters; XI to XG, seg- ments of abdomen; Y, femur; Z, tibia. From "Common British Beetles,'' by C. A. Hall. Fig. 9. — Head and Mouth Parts of a Beetle. A, Mandibles; B, labial paljii; C, maxillary palpi; D, antennae; E, labrum. 1, Lacinia; 2, galea, or palpiform lobe; 3, palpi; 4, stipes. From " Common British BeeUes," by C. A. Hall. stage; others dwell in decaying animal or vegetable matter; others are purely leaf-eaters; others, again, are carnivorous. The mode of life of the larvss has not 176 INSECT LIFE been so thorouglily studied in this order as in, say, the Lefidoftem ; sufficient is known, however, to render it quite impossible to sketch one larval history which will apply to all. The most curious larvae, in point of view of their behaviour, are those of the Oil or Blister Beetles {Meloidce) ; but as they are fuUy described elsewhere (p. 21), the point need not be laboured here. It is natural that so immense an order as the Coleoftera should be con- siderably subdivided; it is unfortunate that there should exist so much differ- ence of opinion concern- ing its correct subdivision. We have elected to follow Sharp, who recognizes six series. Series 1. Lamelli- CORNIA. — The terminal joints of the antennae are leaf-like, or at least broader than the rest, and when at rest and not expanded appear as a club. Tarsi five-jointed. Series 2. Adephaga. — Antennae with their terminal joints never leaf-like. Well-developed mouth-parts. Six or more ventral abdominal segments visible. Tarsi five-jointed, with the fourth joint quite distinct. Series 3. Polymorph a. — Antennae with the terminal Fig. 10. — Types of ANXENNiB. 1, Moniliform (beaded); 2, filiform (threaded); 3, serrate (saw-like); 4, pectinate (comb-like); 5, capi- tate (with ahead); 6 and 7, clavate (clubbed); 8, perfoliate clavate; 9, lamellate (plated); 10, geniculate (elbowed). From " Common British Beetles,^'' by C. A. Hall. PLATE XXXVIII A STAG BEETLE {CLADOGNATH US GIRAFFA), MALE BEETLES 177 joints clubbed or, from the third joint, saw-like, on the inner face. Other characters very variable. Series 4. Heteromera.— Hind tarsi four-jointed, other tarsi five-jointed. Series 5. Phytophaga. — Fifth tarsal joint usually so small that the members of this series appear to have four- jointed tarsi. Lower surface of the feet may be pubescent, bristly, or naked. Series 6. Khynchophora. — Head prolonged into a beak. Tarsi five-jointed, but, owing to the small size of the fifth joint, apparently four-jointed. By some authorities the series Polymorflia is not recognized, and, instead, there is a series Glavicornia, with clubbed antennae, and a series Serricornia, with serrate antennae. In the six series of the Coleoptera there are recognized more than eighty families. To deal with such an unwieldy horde in these pages is an impossibility. We have elected to survey sixty of the families, either because they are well represented in Britain or because they contain remarkable exotic species. Series 1. Lamellicornia. It is a remarkable fact that, so far as is known, the larvae of all the seven families comprising this series are very similar in habit. They are all six-legged creatures with their bodies curved into the shape of the letter C, and swollen at the hinder end. They live underground or in rotten wood, feeding upon their surroundings, or upon living roots, or upon excrement. Passalid^. — Large dark brown or black Beetles, with parallel-sided elytra, for the most part deeply furrowed. 23 178 INSECT LIFE These Beetles are mainly tropical and aU live in decayed wood; none are Britisli. They are only men- tioned here because of the remarkable fact that, though the adults are incapable of producing a sound, the hind pair of legs in the larvse are in the form of modified hands, the fingers of which scrape on an adjacent file- like surface and produce a distinctly audible note. Exactly why the larvae should possess these sound- producing organs it is hard to say. LucANiDiE. — ^Mandibles of the males highly developed and often of enormous size. Ten- jointed antennae, usually elbowed and terminated by a comb-like club. The elytra entirely cover the upper surface of the abdomen. The Stag Beetles are noteworthy on account of the remarkable development of the mandibles in the males ; in some species the mandibles equal the body of the insect in length. It has been stated that this mandi- bular growth is of little or no use to the insects; be that as it may, a couple of male Stag Beetles, when in the mood, will use every effort to damage one another with these weapons, and their manoemTes on such occasions are highly entertaining. There are three common species of Stag Beetle in Britain: the Small Stag Beetle, Dorcus 'parallelopipedus , a dull black insect without the excessive mandibular development of the Stag Beetle Lucanus cervus. Its larvae live in decaying elm and beech, whilst those of the Stag Beetle are partial to decaying oak. The larvae of the latter Beetle — our largest British insect, by the way — are very similar to those of the common Cockchafer. They do not become fully fed till the PLATE XXXrX -v^^ fc-^ f' 1. Dicranura vimila 2. I.ophopteryx camelinj 3. Thyatira derasa 4. Drepana falcataria 5. Drepana lacertinaria 6. Asphalia flavicornis 7. Thyatira batis 8. Notodonta dictsea 9. Acronycta riimicis 10. ISIoma Orion 11. Notodonta dromedarius 12. Leucania conigera 13. Acronycta psi \i. Notodonta ziczac 15. Hydraecia nictitans 16. Diloba ceeruleocepliala See page 133. 17. Phalera bncephala 18. Hydraecia micacea I'J. Leucania impura 20. Phalera curtula 21. Tapinostola fulva 22. Bryophila perla 23. Gortyna ochracea 24. Xylophasia rurea BEETLES 179 fourth year, and even then, after pupation, the adults often remain in hiding for some months. Like the larvae of Passalidce, those of the Stag Beetle are capable of producing sound. The smallest native Stag Beetle, Sinodendron cylindricum, should not be placed in the family according to some authorities; in place of the usual over-developed mandibles, the males of this species possess a single horn on the head. CoPRiD^. — Terminal joints of the antennae capable of wide separation and well coadapted. Pygidium usually exposed; six (usually) visible ventral abdominal segments. Abdominal segments placed in a line, and entirely covered by the elytra. The Dung Beetles comprise an enormous family. Unfortunately, we do not possess in this country any of the Scarab Beetles, sacred to the ancient Egyptians and immortalized by Fabre. The French entomologist's description of the life and habits of the sacred Beetle, ScarahcBus sacer, is so admirably conceived and so charmingly narrated that it should be read by every insect lover. In Britain the commonest Dung Beetles are the little Onthofhagus fracticornis, a dull yellow Beetle, whose head and thorax are of a greenish metallic sheen; the small Dung Beetle, Aphodius fimetarius , with red elytra and a shining black thorax; the much larger, shining black Aphodius fossor ; the black red-legged Aphodius niflpes ; and Copris lunaris, a near relative of the Scarab. Of all the species in this family, the most familiar is the "Dor," " Dumble-door," or "Clock'' Beetle, Geotrupes stercoranus . This is one of the few Beetles that habitually takes to flight; its heavy, noisy efforts 180 INSECT LIFE in aviation are a familiar sight on calm summer even- ings; its defunct, mite-ridden carcass is by no means rarely observed. The closely related Geotrupes spiniger possesses an unpunctured ventral plate, which is absent from the " Dor "' Beetle, whilst the equally common Geotrwpes sylvaticus has much less deeply gi'ooved and more metallic blue-coloured elyta. Beetles of the genus Geotrwpes can emit sounds by rubbing a rough surface on the hind-coxae against a ridge on the under-surface of the abdomen, whilst those of the genus Trox do so by rubbing a pair of ridges, situate on the upper surface of the last abdominal segment but one, against a pair of somewhat similar structures which occur on the inner face of the elytra. Melolonthid^. — Characters similar to those of the CopridcB, but the abdominal spiracles are not all in one line and the terminal spiracle is not usually covered by the elytra. By far the most frequently encountered of the Cock- chafers, not only in Britain, but on the Continent, is the so-called Common Cockchafer, Melohntha vulgaris. It is injurious both in the adult and larval stages, and in certain districts of France and Germany the adults appear, in some years, in such enormous numbers as to defoliate all the trees on a wide area. The chestnut- coloured Cockchafer is so distinct from all our other native Beetles that it may be identified by means of our illustration. The female deposits her eggs below the surface of the ground, and the larval life extends over from three to five years, according to the climate. During this period feeding takes place without inter- ruption, except when hard frost drives the insects deep PLATE XL ^%# 1. Macroglossa stellatariini 2. Macroglossa fuciformis 3. Trochiliiim crabroniformis 4. ZyRcena filipenduljE 5. Sesia tipuliformis 6. Inoglobularia 7 Xiidaria mundana 8. Calligenia miniata 9. Calligenia lurideola 10. Gnophria quadra 11. Kuclielia jacolxea 12. Callimorpha dominula Vi. Arctia villica li Spilo>oma tuliginosa 15. Nemeophila riissula 16. Nemeophila plantaginis See pai/e 102. 17. Arctia caia IH. Spilo^oma lubricipeda I'J. Spilosoma menthabtri 20 Hepialiis hiimuli 21. Hepialus luimuli (female) 22. Hepialus velleda 23. Hepialus hectus BEETLES 181 into the soil. Eoots of herbage and trees form the staple food of the Cockchafer larvae. Rhizotrogus solsiitialis is more local, but equally common in some districts. Serica hrunnea is a much more uncommon Beetle than its near relative, whilst our single repre- sentative of the genus HopUa, H. fhilanthus^ is rare in most localities. EuTELiD^. — As MelolonthidcB, but the abdominal spiracles are in two lines. Tarsal claws unequal. Little is known concerning the life-histories of the Rutelidce. The British June Bug, Phyllopertha horticola, is very similar in habit to the Common Cockchafer, and like that insect is an annoying garden and farm pest. Anomala friscJm is rather less common. The members of this family are remarkable for their wide colour variations, and afford a striking lesson to the budding systematist that but little reliance can be placed on colour as a characteristic. Dynastid^. — As Rutelidw, but tarsal claws equal and front coxae transverse and hardly prominent; head and thorax nearly always more or less horned, especially in the males. This, the smallest, family of the Lamellicorns contains some of the largest individuals — in fact, there are no Beetles of greater bulk than some of the typical Dynas- tids. There are no British representatives of the family. The most remarkable feature of these Beetles is the curious and often unwieldy outgrowths which occur on their heads and prothoraces, especially those of the males. All the Dynastid larvae feed upon wood, after the manner of Longicorn and Lucanid larvae 182 INSECT LIFE The Rhinoceros Beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros, is a for- midable and striking-looking insect, black in colour and about two inches in length. From his head grows a long upwardly curved horn, and from the front of his thorax a double-pronged projection. The smaller brown South European 0. nasecornis has very similar head adornments. The giant of the family is Dynastes hercules, a West Indian species with enormous head and thoracic appendages. The length of a well-grown male often exceeds six inches. Cetoniid^. — As Bynastidce, but the front coxae are more prominent and shorter transversely; head broad and flattened; ten- jointed antennae with a compact three- jointed club. The most beautiful Lamellicorns are to be found in this family. Even the Common British Rose Chafer, Cetonia aurata, rivals many tropical Beetles in the brilliance of its elytra. It is very destructive to roses. Gnorimus nohilis is a less common native species, and still less frequently met with is the black, white-spotted Oorythyrea stictica. The Rose Chafers are sun-lovers; in sunshine they readily take to flight by raising the tips of their elytra and so allowing the wings to be spread; they never separate their elytra in the usual manner. In the genus Trichius this peculiarity is not exhibited. These are pubescent Beetles, and one native species T.fasciatus, a black insect with orange markings on its elytra, frequents thistles. One of the most beautiful Cetoniids, if comparison can be made among such resplendent insects, is the very common West African Cetonia marginata, a velvety- black creature margined with orange. From the same PLATE XLl 1¥ ■ ^^ 9 ^J^ 7 30 31 ^ 32 33 Uropteryx sambucaria Rumia luteolata AnHCroiia prunaria Pericallia bilmiana Metrot-ampa marRaritaria Crocallis elinguaria 7. Pliigalia pedaria 7a Phigalia pedaria (female) 8. Larentia cjesiata 9 Kmmelesia albiilata 10 Larentia didj-mata 11 Zanosoma punctaria 12. Amphidasi'S betularia Amphidasys strataria Acidalia bisetata Cheimatobia brumata Cheimatobia brumata (female) Abraxas grossulariata Geometra papilionaria Cabera piisaria Acidalia ornata Cleora lichenaria Halia vauaria Larentia viridaria Teplirosia biundularia See ixiiie ItiS. Bupalus piniaria Hybernia margrinaria Hybernia marginaria (female) Eupithecia venosata Oparobia dilutata Ematurga atomaria Eupithecia oblongata Hybernia defoliaria Eupithecia satyrata Acidalia aversata Boarmia gemmaria BEETLES 183 country hail the GoHath Beetles, which often measure as much as four inches in length. Their heads are armed with horns. Series 2. Adephaga. The families comprising this series form a very natural group. The species are all carnivorous; on that account the series is sometimes known as Carnivora, a title which is obviously misleading. CiciNDELiD^. — Eleven- jointed, filiform antennae aris- ing above the base of the mandibles; tarsi five-jointed; legs long and usually very slender ; eyes prominent. The Tiger Beetles are among the most active of the Coleoptera ; some of them are powerful fliers, all are swift of foot. Bates, describing a South American species, said: " Their powers of running exceed anything I have ever observed in this style of insect locomotion; they run in a serpentine course over the smooth sand, and when closely pursued by the hand they are apt to turn suddenly back and thus baffle the most practised hand and eye.'' All the species are predaceous both in the larval and adult stages. Most of the Tiger Beetles are resplendent in mail of metallic sheen, greens and blues predominating. Four species occur in Britain, and our green Tiger Beetle, Cicindela camfestris can hold its own mth its tropical relatives as far as colour is concerned. The Wood Tiger Beetle Cicindela sylvatica is of more sombre hue. So far as is known, the larval habits of all the species in this family are similar. The female Beetles deposit their eggs in the ground. The larvae, when they emerge, excavate deep vertical burrows and station themselves 184 INSECT LIFE so that their hard, horny heads cover the mouth of their subterranean home. In this position they remain motionless till some passing insect comes within reach of their powerful jaws; then the victim is seized and devoured. All the known larvae are well adapted for this mode of life. Their eyes are keen-sighted; their relatively enormous heads serve as excellent stoppers to their burrows; their slender, distorted bodies are armed with a pair of formidable hooks on the back of the fifth segment; by the aid of these hooks and the hind end of their bodies they can easily remain at the mouth of the burrow awaiting passing prey. Tiger Beetles are certainly useful in keeping down the numbers of harmful insects. Carabid^. — Antennae filiform, terminal joints pubes- cent, arising from behind the base of the mandibles; tarsi five-jointed; legs long and slender. The Ground Beetles form one of the largest families of Coleoptera, about thirteen thousand species having been described. They rival the Tiger Beetles in activity and voraciousness, though the majority of British species do not take to flight readily. Nearly all species are carnivorous both in the larval and adult stages; but, unlike the Tiger Beetles, the larvae are active and fleet of foot. Amongst the Ground Beetles with vegetarian tastes there are several species in Britain. Ldbrus gibhus is a grain-eater, and its larvae devour roots. Amarafulva and^. aulica are common. Most species of the genus Har'palus are not wholly carnivorous, and H. ruficornis^ H. ceneus, and H. latus may be met with in most gardens, probably near the strawberry-beds, for they are partial PLATE XLII THE LONG-HANDED BEETLE (EUCHIRUS LONG/MANUS), MALE PLA.TE XLIII HERCULES BEETLE {DVIVASTF.S NERCULES), MALE PLATE XLIV PLATE XLV OOLIATH BEETLE {GOLIATHUS DRURVl), MALE PLATE XLVI GOLIATH BEETLE {GOLIATHUS GIGANTEUS), MALE PLATE XLVII GOLIATH BEETLE {GOLIATH US CACICUS), MALE PLATE XLVIII GIANT TIGER BEETLE {MANTICHORA HERCULEANA) PLATE XLIX FIDDLE BEETLE (MORMOLYCE PHVLLODES) BEETLES 185 to the ripe fruit, as also are many species of the genus Pterostichus, of which we figure P, cwpreus, P. madidus^ P. picimanus^ and the wingless P. striola. A volume of considerable dimensions could be filled with descrip- tions of the wonderful forms and varied habits of Ground Beetles. The most ciu'ious members of the family are, perhaps, the British species of A'^pus, A. marinus and A. rohinii, dwellers by the sea, which spend part, at least, of each day below water, yet they are not aquatic Beetles. The European and American cave-dwelling species of Anophthalmus are remarkable in that they are blind. One would imagine this a handicap to a free-roving predaceous Beetle, but so well are these insects furnished with tactile bristles that the loss of sight causes them little inconvenience. Maybe, like the Ants, they possess a sense of which we are not conscious. Other Carabids haunt the nests of Termites, and one species, Glyptus sculftilis^ according to Horn, very closely mimics the queen of Termes hellicosus. One of the most beautiful Carabids is the golden-green Calosoma sycophanta. It is very rare in Britain, but common on the Continent. It haunts oak- trees and feeds upon the larvse of the Processionary Moth. It was introduced into America to control the Gipsy Moth. The most striking British species undoubtedly belong to the genus Carahus ; the Violet Ground Beetle, Carabus violaceus, is a beautiful insect and one of our largest Beetles. Other species are the copper-coloured C. arvensis, the purple C. nemoralis^ and the nearly black C. catenulatus. A Ground Beetle which always claims attention is the 24 186 INSECT LIFE curious little Bombardier Beetle, BracJiinus crepitans Witli many Carabids it is a common habit to eject a caustic liquid as a protection against enemies. The Bombardier Beetle performs this feat so rapidly when alarmed, and the ejected fluid is so volatile, that a slight explosion ensues; hence the popular name of the Beetle. The ejection of an evil-smelling acid or alkaline fluid is a well-known protective device in the Animal Kingdom, from the notorious skunk downwards. There is no more puzzhng family for the entomological student than the Carabidce. We have figured a large number of British species, but, however well executed, no figures will serve to identify the Ground Beetles. With accurate descriptions and even authentic named specimens before one, it is by no means easy to be sure of one's ground when attempting to identify some species of Ground Beetles. PELOBiiDiE. — Antennae not pubescent; hind-legs slender, adapted for swimming; tarsi longer than tibiae. This small and unimportant family consists of but one genus and foiu* species, of which one, Pelohius tardus, is British. Its chief claim to our notice lies in the peculiar adaptation of the larvae to a purely aquatic hfe, and the remarkably loud note which the adults are able to sound. Dytiscid^. — Antennae fihform and quite naked; legs adapted for swimming and useless for walking. These true Water Beetles are beautifully adapted for an aquatic life. Their legs could not be more perfectly contrived for propulsion through the water; their method of breathing, while below water, is ingenious in the extreme, yet many authorities, including Sharp, PLATE L Xylophasia monoglypha Dipterygia scabriuscula Neuronia popularis Charaeas trraminis IMamestra brassicK Apamea basilinea Apamea didyma Miana fascinuncula StUbia anomala 10, Caradriiia quadripunctata Jl. Agrotis suffu^a 12 Agrotis segetum VS. Agrotis exclamatioiiis 14. Agrotis tritici 15. Agrotis strigula 16. Agrotis praecox 17. Noctiia plecta 18. Noctua augur See pai/e 165. 19. Noctua C. nigrum 20. Noctua f estiva 21. Noctua zantliographa 22. Triphsena ianthina 23. Triphsna fimbria 24. Triphffiiia comes 25. Panolis piniperda 26. Triphsena pronuba 27. Tseniocampa gothica BEETLES 187 consider them to be but modified terrestrial insects, for the reason that (1) in general, they are very similar to the CarahidcB in their organization, and they drown more quickly than the majority of land Beetles; (2) the adults can exist perfectly well on land, and are capable of taking long flights; (3) so far as is known, the pupse are always terrestrial. In some species the males and females differ from one another considerably; in Acilius sulcatus, for instance, the male has smooth elytra, whilst those of the female are deeply ridged. Of the hundred or so British species, the commonest are Agahus nehulosus and A. bipustulatus , Ilyhius fuliginosus, I, ater^ the interesting Dytiscus functulatus and D. marginalis. The last named, the Margined Water Beetle, is well worthy of some study by every nature-lover. Its method of carrying a supply of air beneath its well- fitting elytra; the suckers on the fore-legs of the male by which he is enabled to hold the female during the breeding season ; the oviposition of the female ; and the curious, predaceous larvae, somewhat reminiscent of those of the Dragon-flies, will supply material in abund- ance for the enlightenment of the field naturalist. Other common pond frequenters of the family are Colymhetes fuscus, the sole British representative of the genus, and the minute, rust-red Hyphydrus ovatus. Series 3. Polymorpha. Paussid^. — Antennae usually two but sometimes six or ten jointed and of extraordinary form; tarsi five- jointed; pygidium exposed. These are amongst the most extraordinary of all 188 INSECT LIFE Beetles. Much remains to be learned of their life- histories, but, as far as our knowledge extends at present, all of them dwell in Ants' nests. As a family, they are easily recognized by their remarkable antennae, which assume various bizarre forms. Some of them eject volatile liquids, after the manner of the Bombardier Beetle (p. 186). The exact relations of the Paussidce to Ants are difficult to determine. " When observed in the nests they frequently appear as if asleep, and the Ants do not take much notice of them. On other occasions the Ants endeavour to drag them into the interior of the nest, as if desirous of retaining their company; the Paussus then makes no resistance to its hosts; if, how- ever, it is touched even very slightly by an observer, it immediately bombards. The Ants, as may be imagined, do not approve of this, and run away." It is thought that the Ants derive some nutriment from the Beetle's secretions; it is certain that the latter devour the Ants' eggs and larvse. Gyrinid^. — Antennae very short; eyes four; mid and hind legs adapted for swimming. The Whirligig Beetles are as common in our ponds as are the Bytiscidce. Their evolutions on the surface of the water are always attractive, and they are the best adapted of all insects for their peculiar mode of life. There are many aquatic insects, a host of terrestrial ones, and but few that dwell normally on the surface of the water. Our common species is Gyrinus natator, sometimes called the " Shiner." When alarmed, its surface capers cease and it dives beneath the water, where it clings to some water- weed. Soon it rises again PLATE LI k^^f ^^■ r^v?"..»* 8 43 ^^ - 42 ' 46 47 1 Melanthia bicolorat: 2 Hypsipetes sordida 3 Thera obeliseata 4 Melanippe hastati 5 Melanippe tiuctuata 6 Anticlea liadiata 7 Melanthia ocellata 8 Melanippe montana 9 Eucosmia undulata 10 Cidaria siderata 11 Eupithecia nanata 12 Coremia designata 25 Chesias sparti; Cida L.ffim Anaitis plagiata ' Eubolia liniitata Cidaria populate Cidaria fulvata lirephns parthenias Eurrhypara urticata 28 Py. 29 My I, .phi tyla 30 Platyptiliagon. 31 Scoparia diibitalis 32 Piunea forficalis 33 Cranibus pratelliis 34 Pyrausta purpuralis 33 Hydrocampa stagnata 36 Carpocapsa pomonella 37 Torlrix viridana 38 Aciptilia galactodactyla 39 Hnnychia octomaculata 40 Scopula lutealis 41 Tortrix ribeana 42 Mixodia Schiilziana 43 Argyresthia brochella 44 Dictyoptcryx liergmanniana 45 Gracillaria alcheiiiiella 46 Elachista argentella 47 Dasycera sulphurella BEETLES 189 to the surface, for the Whirligig Beetle cannot remain submerged for long; lack of air forces it to ascend. The larvae are purely aquatic, breathing by means of gills, which serve the double purpose of acting as breathing organs and as a means of locomotion. They are provided with formidable jaws, and are carnivorous. There is one British species of the genus Orectockilus , but this is a less familiar creature than Gyrinus, for the reason that it only performs its aquatic evolutions at night. The giants of the family occur in the tropics, in Asia and Brazil. Hydrophilid^.— Antennae short, consisting of one or two elongate joints at the base, two or more small intermediate joints, and a terminal part of broader, pubescent joints; tarsi five-jointed; abdomen with five visible segments. This moderately large family of unattractive Beetles has been but little studied by entomologists. Some of the genera are aquatic, some are terrestrial. Of the ninety odd British species, by far the most interesting and the best known is the Silver Water Beetle, Hydro- fhilus ficeus—with. the exception of the Stag Beetle, the largest of the British Coleoptera. " This insect breathes in a most peculiar manner; the spiracles are placed near bands of delicate pubescence, forming tracts that extend the whole length of the body, and in this particular species cover most of the under- surface of the body; these velvety tracts retain a coating of air even when the insect is submerged and moves quickly through the water. (This gives the Beetle a silvery appearance, from which it has earned its popular name.) It would appear rather difficult to 190 INSECT LIFE invent a mechanism to supply these tracts with fresh air without the insect leaving the water; but, never- theless, such a mechanism is provided by the antennae of the Beetle, the terminal joints of which form a pubescent scoop, made by some longer hairs into a funnel sufficiently large to convey a bubble of air. The insect therefore rises to the surface, and by means of the antennae, which it exposes to the air, obtains a supply with which it surrounds a large part of its body; for, according to Miall, it carries a supply on its back, under the elytra, as well as on its ventral surface/' The female constructs a curious egg-cocOon, shaped like a chemist's retort. In this she deposits about fifty eggs, attaching them in rows to the side which will float uppermost. Then she sets the cocoon free to float on the water, with the portion which represents the neck of the retort projecting into the air. The larvae are aquatic and feed upon animal food; from time to time they are compelled to rise to the sm-face for pur- poses of respiration. Platypsylled^. — Curious parasitic Beetles of which little is known. They live amongst the fur of European and American beavers. Leptinid^. — Another very small and little under- stood family of parasitic Beetles. The British Leftinus testaceus occurs in the nests of mice and of Bumble Bees. The mice probably carry the Beetles from one Bee's nest to another. SiLPHiDiE. — Antennae usually eleven- jointed (some- times with nine or ten joints); elytra may or may not cover the body ; usually five abdominal segments visible tarsi usually five-jointed, sometimes four-jointed. PLATE LII 25 1. Mania maura 2. Mania typica 3. Taeniorampa incerta 4. Tsniocampa stabilis 5. Zantiiia fulvago G. Zanthia flavago 7. Calymnia trapezina 8. Diantliaecia nana 9. Dianthtecia capsincola 10. Polia chi 11. Miselia oxyacanthce 12. Agriopis aprilina 13. Phlogopliora meticulosa 1-t. Hadena oleracca 15. Calocampa vetiista 16. CiicuUia verbasci 17. Gonoptera libatrix See page 105. 18. Habrostola tripartita 19. Plusiachrysitis 20. Plusia gamma 21. Plusia testuca; 22. Anarta myrtiUi 23. F.uclidiagiyphioa 24. Hypena proboscidalis 25. Catocala nupta BEETLES 191 This family contains the " Burying" or Sexton Beetles {Necrophorus) and the Roving Carrion Beetles {SilfJia); about a hundred species are known in Britain. Of the Burying Beetles the best known are Necro- phorus ruspator, N. vespillo, N. mortuorum, and, com- monest of all, N. humator, the Black Burying Beetle. All of them, as a glance at the figures will show, are brightly clad, except for the funereal-looking humator. They live upon carrion, and a dead bird or mouse attracts them from afar, just as larger carrion attracts vultures. Having found their prize, they assiduously remove the earth from below it, so that in an incredibly short time the carcass falls into the Beetle-made grave. Once buried, the carcass forms the home of the Beetle eggs, and, later, home and food for the larvse. Necrodes littoralis is another native member of the family. Silpha atrata and S. Iwvigata are sworn enemies of Snails, though not averse to carrion when other food is lacking. S. thoracica seems partial to dead nestlings, and is frequently found in birds' nests. S. sinuata and, commonest of all British species, S. rugosa feed on carrion. The four-spotted Carrion Beetle, S. quadri- punctata, is badly named, for instead of carrion it feeds upon insect larvae. Most curious of all, however, is S. opaca, which so far forgets its obHgations as a Roving Carrion Beetle as to feed entirely upon beet and similar crops, to which it is a very serious pest. The family contains several foreign species which dwell in Ants' nests, and some cave-dwelling species which are bhnd, but little is known of their life- histories. PsELAPHiD^. — Minute Beetles with short elytra; 192 INSECT LIFE segments of the abdomen scarcely mobile; tarsi three jointed. Claviger testaceus appears to be a welcome visitor to Ants' nests. It is fed by the owners as they feed their own larvae, and transported by them from place to place. Staphylinid^. — Easily recognized by their short elytra and their elongated, exposed and mobile abdo- mens. Tarsi variable, sometimes five- jointed, some- times only three, and not always the same on all feet. The Eove Beetles are an enormous family, and in Britain alone there are more than eight hundred species. They vary greatly in size ; some of them are exceedingly minute, and our *' Devil's Coach Horse," Ocypus olens, ranks with the largest. The most interesting point in the life-histories of certain species of Eove Beetles consists in their habit of living in the nests of other insects. Atmeles and Lomechusa are obviously on good terms with the Ants among which they dwell. Some species of Myrmedonia are looked upon as unwelcome guests by Ants; there are species, again, which dwell in Termites' nests, and one species, Velleius dilatatus, whose only residence is the nests of Wasps and Hornets. From the host of our British species we figure no less than nineteen; but the entomologist bent on identification should supplement the figures with descriptions, if he would not be led astray. HisTERiDiE. — Neat, jet-black, shining Beetles; an- tennae short, bent, and clubbed; elytra hard and trun- cated, leaving two dorsal abdominal segments exposed; five ventral segments are visible. PLATE LIII 1 Silpha thoracica 2 Silpha r.igosa 3. Silpha atrata i Hister unicolor 5. Hister cadaverinus 0 Anatis ocellata (F.yed Lady-bird I 7. Coccinella 7-pimctata <,7-spot Lady-bird; Ips quadriguttata Tenebrioides mauritanicii Mycetophajjiis 4-pustiilatii Dermestes lardarius ( Bacon Beetle) Byrrhiis pilula (Pill Beetle Lucanus cervus (Stag B-etle) Dorcus paralielopipedu'; (Small Stag Beetle: See iKiiic ISO In Sinodendron cylindricum 16 Onthophagus fracticornis 17. Aphodius fossor IS Aphodius fimetarius 19 Aphodius riifipes 2(1. deotrupes spiniger 21. deotrupes stercorarius 22. Geotrupes sylvaticus BEETLES 193 The members of this family have been named Mimic Beetles, but the term is not a happy one, although derived from their scientific name — histrio meaning an actor or mimic. The origin of the name probably arises from their habit of feigning death, with heads retracted and all appendages drawn closely to their bodies. Of the forty British species, we figure Hister unicolor and H. cadaverinus, both predaceous on the larvae of Diftera and common in excrement. Another com- mon species, H. bimaculatus, has a brilhant red spot near the tip of each elytron. Some of these Beetles, of the genus Hololepta, live under bark, and they have curious flattened forms, well adapted to their mode of life. There are species, too, which dwell in Ants' nests, and some which live with Termites. NrriDULiDiE. — Small Beetles with eleven- jointed antennae, the last three forming a club; tarsi five- jointed, the fourth joint being smaller than the rest; elytra may or may not cover the body. These Beetles are of varied habit; nearly a hundred species are known in Britain; some live in flowers, some on carrion, and others on the sap of trees. Many of them have some resemblance to Rove Beetles, but they can be distinguished at once by the structure of their antennae. Meligethes ceneus, the Turnip Blossom Beetle, is common on the flowers of Crucifers, which it often damages to such an extent as to prevent the formation of seed. Pria dulcamercB lives in the flowers of Solanum dulcamem. Nitidula bipustulata, a small dull-black insect with a red spot on each elytron, is common on carrion. Ips quadriguttata is one of the sap-frequenting 25 194 INSECT LIFE species, and in common with others of the genus is remark- able in possessing sound organs on the front of its head. Trogositid^. — Closely related to the Nitidulidce, from which they differ by having tarsi of apparently four joints; in reahty they are five-jointed, with the first joint very minute. Of the three British species of this family, none are so well known as the imported Saw-Toothed Grain Beetle, Tenebrioides mauritanicus , which is now common everywhere. Whether it does more harm than good is a moot point; it certainly devours the larvse of a number of grain-eating insects, but it also devours a consider- able quantity of grain. Cryptophagid^. — Minute Beetles with the terminal joints of the antennae swollen; five-jointed tarsi; five ventral abdominal segments visible, of which the first is much longer than any of the others. A small and little understood family, whose chief interest lies in the fact that the larvse of some species dwell in Bees' nests, and that the adults, although good fliers, are transported thereto by attaching themselves to the Bees when they visit flowers. Other genera are dwellers in Wasps' nests. Mycetophagid^. — Five ventral abdominal segments visible; tarsi four-jointed, except in the front legs of the male, when there are only three. These Fungus Beetles are of little interest, except for the unusual anatomical character of the male described above. They mostly live either in fungi or below the bark of trees. There are about a dozen British species, of which Litargus bifasciatus and Mycetophagus quadri- fustulatus are amongst the commonest. PLATE LIV I I I I '^ '^ 16 17 18 19 ^' ,4 ^^ 20 Gnorimiis nobilis Melolontlia vuli^aris Cetonia aiirata Hopl'ia pliilanthus Anomala frischii Agrilus aiigiistaUis Serica brunnea Phyllopertlia horticola Athous licemorrhoidalis Corymbites tesselatus Lacon muriiuis Corymbites pectinicornis Corymbites Kiieus Melanotus riifipes See poj/e ISO. \frriotes obscurus 0. Athous niger 7. Dascillus cervinus 8. Elater sanguinolentus 9. Corymbites liolosericeus 20. Campylus linearis PLATE LV I 1. Amaurodes passerini 4 Eccoptocnemis reliicens 7. Neptunides polychrous 2. Dicranocephalus wallich 5. Cheirolasia histrio 8. Coelorrliina polyphemus 12. Ranzania petersiana 15. F.udicella gralli See pane 1H3. 3. Ceratorrhina oberthuri 6. Coryphocera dohrni 9. Smaragrdesthes certzeni 10. Tlieodosia telifer 13. Lomaptera jamesi 16. Megalorrhina pereerrina BEETLES 195 CocciNELLiD^.— Antennae eleven- jointed with ill- developed clubs; head almost covered by the thorax; tarsi four-jointed, the third and fourth joints being very minute; nearly hemispherical in outHne. Ladybirds are familiar everywhere and to everyone. We have more than forty species in Britain, and the family is well represented the world over. In the main Ladybirds are useful insects, for most species are predaceous upon Aphides and other soft-bodied insects, both in the adult and in the larval states Ladybirds of the genus Efilachia are vegetarians, and are there- fore harmful when they appear in numbers, as these Beetles are liable to do. Amongst the commonest British species are the Seven-Spotted Ladybird, Coccinella 7 -punctata ; the Two-Spotted Ladybird, Coccinella hi-punctata ; the Ten- Spotted Ladybird, Coccinella 10-punctata, and the Thirteen-Spotted Ladybird, Hippodamia IS-punctata. There is always a difficulty in identifying these Beetles, by reason of the fact that the number of the spots on the specimen does not always correspond to the number one might expect to find. The reason is that the spots are very often fused, sometimes to such an extent that the insect is almost black. Anatis ocellata, which we figure, is a rare Ladybird in Britain. The female Ladybirds, of the species named above at any rate, deposit their eggs upon the leaves of rose- bushes and the like, which are attacked by Aphides. The larvae, unlike those of tlie majority of Beetles, are very active and crawl about rapidly, devouring an enormous quantity of prey during tneir rambles. Pupa- tion is quite unlike that of other Beetles, and more akin 196 INSECT LIFE to tlie same phenomenon in Lefidoftera. Tlie fully fed larva attaches itself to a support by its tail; its skin splits, and is pushed back to the tail end; the pupa remains suspended, after the manner of a Butterfly larva. One Ladybird has been of real service to mankind, the little Australian, Novius cardinalis. Some years ago the orange and lemon groves of California were threatened with destruction by the Cottony Cushion Scale, Icerya 'purchasi. Means were taken to find out whence this noxious Scale originated, and it was traced to Australia. In its native country it was not a serious pest, for the reason that it was kept in check by a little red Ladybird. The Beetles were shipped to America and released amongst the Scale insects in the Cali- fornian orange groves, with the happiest results, and the Cottony Cushion Scale is no longer a serious pest in America. Large breeding establishments have been formed where the Beetles are raised in quantity, and whenever an outbreak of the Scale threatens, the insects are sent to the scene, in order that they may carry out their good work. Dermestid^. — Antennae short, with well-developed clubs; tarsi five-jointed; five visible, movable, ventral abdominal segments. These are moderate-sized or small sombre-hued Beetles, many of them pubescent or bearing bands or patches of hair. Owing to the fact that nearly all of them find their sustenance on hides, furs, museum specimens, skins, cheese, bacon, and the like, they are known as " Leather '* or sometimes as " Bacon '* Beetles. There are fourteen species in Britain, and the BEETLES 197 Bacon Beetle, Dermestes lardarius, is perhaps the com- monest species. As our figure shows, there is a broad whitish or yellowish pubescent band across both elytra, and six black spots, three on each elytron, make the Beetle easy to identify. Aitagenus fellio is destructive to furs; poor food for a Beetle, one would think, but some of these insects have been raised upon such uninteresting fare as horsehair, and all of them can survive for long periods without any food at all. Bykrhid^. — ^Round or oval Beetles; convex; tarsi five-jointed. The Pill Beetles are of little interest, and hardly anything is known of their life-histories. They are slow-moving insects, and, when alarmed, they draw their legs close to their bodies, retracting their heads at the same time. This habit has earned them their popular name. Our common Pill Beetle, Byrrhus pilula, is figured. BosTRYCHiD^. — Tarsi five-jointed, the first being very small; five visible, ventral abdominal segments; sides of elytra parallel. These Beetles are, with one exception, black or brown in colour, and their elytra are beautifully and charac- teristically sculptured. The ends of the elytra also are frequently peculiarly shaped, so that they have a curious truncated appearance. On these apical portions there are frequently spines. In size the Bostrychids vary from the large Californian species, which attain a length of fully two inches, down to microscopic specimens. All of them are wood- borers, and some are capable of doing a considerable 198 INSECT LIFE amount of damage. For the most part, they are tropical or subtropical insects. Ptinidje. — Tarsi five-jointed, the first joint often longer than the second; antennae serrate; five visible, ventral abdominal segments. These Beetles are almost all of them harmful, either because they devour food or because they damage wood. The family is divided into two subfamilies, the Ptinidce and the Anobiidce. Of the former the best- known species is Ptinus fur, an inveterate enemy of museum specimens and all dried animal matter. The Anobiidce, as represented by Anohium paniceum, are little better. This common Beetle is very catholic in its tastes; opium, cinnamon, ginger, biscuits, and even cayenne pepper, do not come amiss. It is often called the Biscuit Weevil, though, needless to say, it is not a Weevil. Anohium striatum, Xestohium domesticum, and X. tessellatum, are only too well known in many of our houses, and are the origin of so-called " worm-eaten " wood. The latter is the insect which has wrought so much havoc in the beams of Westminster Abbey. The wood-boring Ptinids are known as " Death Watches,"' and are associated with much superstition. By beating their heads upon the walls of their tunnels, these insects are enabled to make a loud and inter- mittent ticking noise, which is said to presage death. As a matter of fact, the ticks are merely sex signals from one Beetle to another. The Beetle gives a definite number of taps, followed by a pause, and then repeats the performance. A captive " Death Watch " makes PLATE LVI f f * t J f ¥ I * I * 1. Oxychila florida 5. Tricondyla aptera 9. Cicindela sp. 13. Cicindela sp. A GROUP OF TIGER BEETLES 2. Oxychila g-loriola 3. Pseudoxychila tarsalis 4. Tetracha Carolina 6. Therates labiatus 7. Cicindela sp. 8. Cicindela chinensis 10. Cicindela sp. 11. Cicindela sp. 12. Therates whitehead! 14. Tetracha australasicE 15. CoUyris sp. IG. Cicindela sp. See paffe 1S3. BEETLES 199 an interesting specimen. By tapping with a pencil or other object outside the box in which the Beetle is confined the insect will answer the taps, but only when the same number of taps is given as is usual with the Beetle. For instance, some of these Beetles give five taps and a pause; a signal to the Beetle con- sisting of ten taps would not be answered; a five-tap signal would receive an immediate reply. Malacojdermid^. — Tarsi five- jointed; always seven, and sometimes eight, visible, ventral abdominal seg- ments; leathery elytra. As the scientific name of this family indicates, these Beetles are covered with soft skins; the horny elytra of almost all the other families are wanting in the Malacodermidce. The most interesting species of the family belong to the Lampyrides, for the reason that they are luminous. In some species the males are the more luminous, in other cases the reverse is the case. With our common Glow- Worm, Lampyris noctiluca, every stage from egg to adult is luminous, and the females are more so than the males. Our figure shows clearly the striking difference between the sexes. The female is so unlike the commonly accepted notion of a Beetle that to her has been given the name of Worm. So far as is known, the adults do not feed; the larvae are carnivorous, and feed upon living or dead Mollusca. Other species of this family, belonging to the genus TelepJiorus, are very common upon wayside flowers in the summer-time. Frequently they appear in con- siderable numbers; the larvse of all these species are carnivorous and feed upon Earth- Worms, Snails, Slugs, 200 INSECT LIFE etc. Our common species are T. 'pellucidus, T. Uvidus, and T. rusticus, all of wliicli we figure. Species of tlie genus Lyciis, wliicli hail largely from Africa, are curious yellow and black insects with almost leaf -like elytra. Though the genus cannot be mistaken for any other, the species are frequently so much alike that they are very difficult to separate. Clerid^. — Tarsi five-jointed, joints two to four, furnished with membranous pads; antennse arise from before the eyes; five or six visible, mobile, ventral abdominal segments. These Beetles are nearly all conspicuously marked; all are predaceous, and their larvae are exceedingly active. Among the commoner British species are Necrohia rufipes and N. ruficollis ; the former has been carried from one part of the world to another in hides, skins, etc., so that now it is practically cosmopolitan, whilst the larvae of the latter have acquired the curious habit of pupating within the puparia of Biftera. Thanasimus formicarius , a Clerid bearing more or less of a likeness to an Ant, as our figure shows, preys upon Beetle larvse, mainly those with wood-boring tendencies, Clerids of the genus Trichodes are predaceous on Bee larvse: T. apiarius on those of Honey Bees, and T. alvearius on those of Mason Bees. Other species are enemies of Locusts, and one of the most useful British members of the family is the beautiful metallic blue Corynetes coendeus, an inveterate enemy of the wood- boring *' Death Watches." Dascillld^. — Eleven- jointed antennae, rising from the front of the eyes; tarsi five-jointed; five visible, ventral abdominal segments; elytra somewhat delicate. PLATE LVII ♦ I -* t « * I 1 1 13 ^ ^"^ 15 V f t I « t 19 20 1. Dichirotrichus pubescens 8. Pterostichiis striola IJ. Zabrus gibbus 2 Harpalus ceneiis 9. Pteropticluis madidiis 16. Ap-ibiis nebulosiis 3. Harpaliis nificornis 10. Amara aulica 17. Ilybius fuliginosiis 4. Harpahis latiis 11. Bracliinus crepitans IS. Aiiclumienus angu>ticollis 5. Anisodactylus binotatus 12. Calathus ci.iteloides 19. Ilybiiis ater 6. Amara fiilva 13. Pristonycluis terricola 20. Agabus bipustiilatus 7. Pterostichus picimanus li. Pterostichus rupreus See page 184. BEETLES 201 These little Beetles are not favourites with ento- mologists, and as a consequence but little is known of their habits and life-histories. Some of the larvae are aquatic, some live on fungi, and those of our common species, Dascillus cervinus, live underground and feed on roots. Of another British species, Eydrocyphon deflexicollis, it is said that the adults live upon shrubs overhanging streams, and that, when alarmed, they dive below the water. Elaterid^. — Antennae eleven-jointed, usually serrate on the inner margin, sometimes pectinate, and rarely filiform; tarsi five-jointed; the hind-angles of the thorax usually prolonged backwards; five visible, ventral abdominal segments. The members of this family are commonly known as Click Beetles, on account of the very curious habit, possessed by most of them, of jumping into the air with a click. These jumping Beetles bend themselves back- wards, so that the forward part of their heads and the hindermost part of their bodies alone touch the ground ; then, suddenly straightening themselves, they spring upwards. The leaping powers of these Beetles vary with the species; the common British Lacon murinus does not jump. Of our other native species we figure the Black and the Keddish Skipjacks, Athoiis niger and A. hcemor- rhoidalis respectively; the black pubescent Melanotus rufifes ; the beautiful, though rare, Elater sanguino- lentus ; and, most notorious of all, the Common Chck Beetle, Agriotes obscurus, whose larvae are known as ** Wireworms/' These larvae are most injurious to the roots of growing crops. They are elongated, pale- 26 202 INSECT LIFE yellow, six-legged creatures, and they spend all their time beneath the surface of the soil. There is a remarkable genus of Elaters which hails from tropical America. All the species of the genus Pyrofliorus so far described are luminous, but P. noctilucus is the best-known species. This insect, commonly known as the Firefly, bears a luminous patch on either side of the thorax, and another on the ventral surface of the abdomen. " The light given off mi.///. 7. 2. a -fe Fia. 11. — An Elater (Skipjack). At 1, lying on its back; at 2 and 3, in the act of skipping, and thereb}', as shown in 4, landing upon its legs, segment (prothorax). D, Spine of the first thoracic by these insects is extremely pleasing, and is used by the natives on nocturnal excursions and by the women for ornaments. . . . The light is said to be the most economical, all the energy that is used being converted into light, without any waste by the function of heat or chemical rays." BuPRESTrD.ffi. — Antennae short, serrate, and eleven- jointed; tarsi five-jointed, the first five joints with membranous pads; abdomen with five visible, ventral segments; eyes oval. PLATE LVIII 1 Fanagaeus -t-pustulatus 2. Cicindela campestris ;i. Cicindela sylvatica i. Leistus spinibarbis 5. Carabus catenulatus U Carabus iiemoraiis 7. Carabus vioiaceus 8. Clivinia fossor 9. Carabus arvensis 10. Notiopbilus big-\ittatus Sfe jiage l.s'o. C y( hrus rostratus Nebria brevicoilis 3. Mlaphrus riparius ■1 Broscus cephalotes 5. Badister bipustulatus BEETLES 203 These Beetles are remarkable for their brilliant colouring, metallic blues and greens predominating, though the species of the genus Capnodis are dull black. Sternocera is a genus containing some remarkably ornate species, including S. castanea, with black head and thorax, the latter studded with red, and rich brown elytra. The largest Buprestids are the Catoxanthas. C. hicolor is bright metaUic green, with a red spot on each elytron; C. opulenta, a very similar insect, with white instead of red spots. Julodis contains the most curious species, all of them ornamented with brightly coloured hirsute tufts on their thoraces and elytra. J. cirrosa is black with yellow tufts of hair. All of the ten British species are small and uncommon; Agrilus migustulus reflects little of the glory of his exotic relatives. In America the Red-Necked Cane- Borer, Agrilus ruficollis, is a considerable pest of black- berries and raspberries, whilst Agrilus politus attacks oak-trees, killing off the smaller branches. Series i. Heteromera. TenebrioniDuE. — Antennae eleven- jointed as a rule; front coxae short; tarsal claws smooth. These Beetles are nearly all black in colour; they form an enormous family, one of the largest of the Coleoptera, but few species are native to Britain. In form the Tenebrionidce are very variable; many of them are wingless, and most of them appear to feed upon vegetable matter. One of our commonest native species is Tenehrio molitor, whose larvae, known as " Mealworms," bear a 204 INSECT LIFE striking resemblance to " Wire worms " — in fact, the similarity in general structure between the larvse of this family and those of the ElateridcB is remarkable. *' Mealworms " are of considerable economic importance. They are bred in millions as food for insectivorous birds, and sold to zoological gardens and private avi- culturists. As with several more important commodi- ties we in this country had relied altogether on foreign supplies, so that shortly after August, 1914, our stock ran out. Efforts were made to breed Mealworms in Britain, but we apparently did not know the secret of breeding the insects in large quantities, and the attempts were unsuccessful. Frequently in our cellars we meet with a black, funereal-looking Beetle, whose form is well shown in our figure. This insect is the well-known Churchyard Beetle, Blafs mucronata. If we are lucky we shall come across its much rarer relative, the Cellar Beetle, B. mortisuga. Many of these insects are very fleet of foot, and may be found running rapidly over the ground in dry, sandy places. One of the commonest of our sand-loving Tenebrionids is Heliofathes gibbus, but the species of this habit reach their greatest pitch of de- velopment in Africa, Central America, and the Western States of North America. The genus Strongylium contains some brilliantly coloured species. CiSTELiD^. — Claws comb-like, other characters as TenebrionidcB. This family is only mentioned because it is very closely allied to the last one, and by their claws alone is it possible to separate individuals of the two families. Their larvae also are very similar. PLATE LIX ♦ Iff 10 1, ' 12 \ 13 14 1. Dytiscns punctulatus (female! 2. Aciliiis sulcatiis .female) 3. Dytiscus marginalis (male) 4. Aleochara fuscipes 5. Tacliinus liumeralis 6. CTeo,philu> maxillosiis 7. Hydrophilus piceus 8. Staphylinus pubescens 9. Gyrinus natator See paije ISd. 10. Leistotroplms miiriniis 11. Leistotrophus iiclmlosus 12. Colymbetes fufciis 1.'}. Staphylinus erythropterus 14. Staphylinus Ci-psareus BEETLES 205 MELOiDiE. — Heads relatively broad, with abrupt necks; elytra short and soft; tarsal claws with closely applied appendages. The family is divided into two subfamilies, the wingless Oil Beetles (Meloides), and the winged Blister Beetles (Cantharides). They are easily recognized by the characters given above, and they yield to no other family in point of interest, mainly on account of the extraordinary metamorphosis of many species. The early life of one of these parasitic Beetles is fully described elsewhere (p. 21). Some larvfe, however, notably those of the genus Epicauta, do not trust to such happy-go-lucky methods as are usual with the Oil Beetles, but hunt their hosts, and thus make sure of attaining their ends. Many species of Blister Beetles are brilliantly coloured, yellows or reds and blacks predominating in the colour scheme ; others are of metalHc green or blue shades ; yet others are black with neat white stripes. All of them are amply protected, though conspicuous, by reason of the fact that they emit a powerful vesicant when disturbed. The common British Oil Beetles, Meloe proscara- bcBus, and the Violet Oil Beetle, M. violaceus, are famihar objects in the spring. The females especially are easily recognized, with their much-distended bodies, heavily laden with eggs. Each mother Beetle lays approximately ten thousand eggs in a season. Immense as this figure may appear, it is by no means inordinate when the numerous risks which must be overcome before the adult stage is reached are taken into con- sideration. 206 INSECT LIFE Series 5. Phytophaga. The members of this series are easily recognized if it be borne in mind that " the tarsi have never the Heteromerous formula, the head is not constructed like that of Rhynchofhora^nov the mouth and feet like those of Adepkaga ; the antennae are different from those of the Lamellicorus." Practically all of them are vegetable- feeders; hence the name of the series. Bruchid^. — Presternum very short, perpendicular in front; hind-femora more or less thickened. AH the members of this family are seed-eaters; accordingly, many of them are looked upon as pests by farmers. Another result of this seed-eating habit is that many species have become so distributed over the world as to be practically cosmopolitan. Bruchus chinensis is a case in point. Hailing originally from Eastern Asia, this chestnut-brown Beetle is now found the world over, and in quantities too. The Pea Weevil, Bruchus pisi, deposits its eggs on pea-pods; the larvae tunnel in the pods till they reach the ripening peas. In the seeds they take up their residence, one in each seed; there they complete their larval growth and pupate. Bruchus oUectus is a com- mon bean pest which continues to breed amongst and feed on stored beans. Bruchus lentis, another pest of pulse, cannot complete its development in one seed, but requires two for the purpose. The largest members of this family belong to the South American genus Caryohorus. The family, though one of the most important economically, has been little studied by entomologists. But little reliable literature exists on PLATE LX 1. Philoiitluis aeneus 2. Ocypus morio 3. Ocypus olens 4. Ocypus cupreus 5. Quedius lateralis 6. Xantholinus jrlabratus I.athrobium elongatun Oxyporus rufiis I.atlirobium horeale Quedius picipes Olophrum piceuni \'ecrodes littoralis Necrophorus humator See pa ye lUl. 14. Necrophorus niortuorui 15. Siipha Itevifrator 16. Necrophorus vespillo 17. Siipha quadripunctata 18. Necrophorus ruspator 19. Siipha simiata BEETLES 207 the BnichidcB, and their study is by no means easy. Owing to the fact that nearly all of these Beetles are clothed with a very transient pubescence, their identifi- cation, in the absence of well-marked characters, is rendered still more difficult. DoNACiD^. — Antennae slender; head narrowed behind the eyes; square thorax, much narrower than the elytra. These Beetles are interesting on account of the fact that they are aquatic in the larval stage. None of them are common in Britain, but the most likely species to be met with are Donacia cr assises and D. semicuprea. Still more curious are the members of the genus Hwmonia, which are aquatic in all stages; H. curtisi is a very rare British species. The extraordinary feature of Donacia larvae is not that they dwell below the surface of the water, feeding upon the roots of aquatic plants, but that they derive the air necessary for their well-being from the plants on which they feed. The roots and stems of all aquatic plants are well provided with air-channels, a fact of which the larvae are evidently well aware, for they puncture the plant tissues in order to tap the air- supply. When fully fed, they construct cocoons, which they affix to their food-plants. These cocoons are filled with air, for the larvae before pupating take the precaution of cutting a channel in the supporting plant in such a manner that an air-channel and the interior of the watertight cocoon are in communication. Sagrid^.— An unimportant but highly ornamental family. These Beetles are dazzHng in their splendour, competing even with the Bufrestidce in the brilliance 208 INSECT LIFE of their metallic colouring. The only species of any- economic importance is Sagria splendida , which damages the stems of sweet potatoes. S. serapkica is a dazzhng violet-blue West African species, and the Javan S. huqueti, the largest species of the family, is emerald- green with a red suture to its elytra. Criocerid^. — Closely allied to the two preceding species; mandibles bifid at the tip. The larvae of many species of this family are remark- able in that the anus is dorsal instead of ventral or terminal. As a result the voided excrement is forced on to the creature's back, where it is retained by a viscid substance, to act as a protection. This curious method of self-preservation may be well studied in the larvae of Crioceris merdigera, a common pest of lilies. The most notorious member of the family is the Asparagus Beetle, Crioceris asparagi. The adults are conspicuously marked red and black insects, with four whitish dots on the elytra, so arranged that they form a cross. The females lay curious black, barrel-shaped eggs, in rows, on the asparagus heads. These eggs, projecting at right angles to the surface of the stem, are all too familiar objects. The larvae, which have not the habits of self -protection mentioned above, feed voraciously on the asparagus and ruin it for market purposes. Clythrid^. — Antennae serrated; eyes large; thorax short and, at the base, as broad as the elytra. Broad, oblong, parallel-sided Beetles. The species of this family are nearly all yellow and black in colour. There is only one British species, Clythra quadripunctata . PLATE LXI If 9 M IT 1 1 ' I I ^ " \ I 9 10 M I A GROUP OF CLICK BEETLES le plate is designed to sliow the remarkable variety of form and colour in the far No. 9 is the so-called Fire-fly. See pape 201. BEETLES 209 The most remarkable fact about these Beetles is that the females, when depositing an egg, hold it with their hind-legs till they have covered it with an en- velope of excrement. This envelope becomes leathery, and forms a case for the larva, in which it dwells, enlarging it from time to time, during the whole of its life. Cryptocephalid^. — Long thread-like antennae; ely- tra usually covering the abdomen. These are small Beetles which frequent flowers. Many of them are brilliantly coloured, and blacks, greens, blues, violets, reds, yellows, and metallic copper shades predominate. A by no means uncommon British species, Cryftocefhalus sericeus, is yellowish- green in colour. EuMOLPiD^. — Oval bodies; thorax only slightly nar- rower than the bases of the elytra; antennsG long, with terminal joints larger than those at the base. Another family whose species are resplendent in brilliant metallic armour. There are few European species; one of them, however, Adoxus vitis, a black insect with reddish tibiae and antennae, is a serious vine pest. The South American Eumolpus fulgidus is a beautiful Beetle ; its colours vary from brilliant metalHc blue to green, and in some lights it reflects a warm copper-red hue. Chrysomelid^. — Terminal joints of antennae barely longer than the others; head separated from thorax; elytra convex, oval, and entirely covering the body. The Chrysomelidce are a numerous family and contain some injurious species. They are often referred to as Leaf Beetles, and sometimes as Golden Apple Beetles. 27 210 INSECT LIFE Of the British species we figure Chrysomela nmrgiimlis and C. stafhylea. A more beautiful, but very rare, native Leaf Beetle is C. cerealis. It is brilliant golden- green, with a purple lustre; its thorax and each elytron are decorated with three deep blue bands, and its suture is of the same colour. It is one of the most ornate of a gaudy family. As an example of the varied hues of the Chrysomelas, Kirby says: " C hanJcsii is bronzy green; C. Umhata is black with a red border; C. rufa is pale brownish-red. C. goettingensis is dark violet, and C. scJiach is blue- black."' The tropical American genus Doryophora in- cludes some beautiful species. D. punctatissima , a large species, has a black head and thorax, and its pale yellow elytra are studded with small black spots. The most sombre species belong to the genus Timarcha, of which we figure the curious Bloody-Nosed Beetle, T. tenehricosa , so named on account of its similarity to some of the Tenebrionids. It is the largest European Chrysomelid, sluggish and wingless, and when touched it emits a blood-red fluid; hence its popular name. The North African T. turbida is a very similar insect. By far the most notorious of all the family is the dreaded Colorado Beetle, Leftinotarsa decemlineata. Originally finding its nourishment on wild SolenacecB in the Rocky Mountains, it later took to evil ways and became a very serious pest of potatoes. Though introduced into this country from time to time, it has always been eradicated before it could do serious damage. IlALTiciDiE. — Long cylindrical antennae inserted close together between the eyes; hind-legs longer than the others and with thickened femora. PLATE LXII 1. Cyphogastra javanica 6. Sternocera orissa 12. CatONantha bicolnr 2. CoiioKnatha practiossissinia 7. Sternocera pulclira j:i l l;ryi^ocl.rl)a buqueti 3. Euchroma goliatli S. Chrysochroa fulmiiians 11, Julocis cirrosa 4. Belionota snmptuosa !). (latoxantha opulenta l-^ I'liiloctcanus niaitlamli 5. Sternocera eschscholzi 10. Jnlodis sp. l(i Dupre^tis gigantca 11. Chrysochroa vittata See iinne 20'3. BEETLES 211 Minute Beetles, usually of bronzy blue or black colour. They are agile jumpers, and on that account are usually known as Flea Beetles, Turnip Fleas, or even as Turnip Flies. There is no need to labour the point that the term " Fly " is a misnomer. The species of the two common genera, Haltica and Phjllotreia, are nearly all injurious to Cruciferous plants. Galerucid^. — Antennae long, slender, and cylindri- cal, ijiserted close together between the eyes; legs long and slender; femora never thickened; body long, usually somewhat depressed. These Beetles often resemble the Grioceridm in general form and colouring, but may easily be distinguished by their antennae. We figure Galeruca tenaceti, a species frequently met with on tansy flowers. Many species are injurious, notably the Elm Leaf Beetle, Galerucella liiteola. Hispid^. — Antennae inserted close together on the front part of the head, which latter organ is bent downwards. This is a small family of tropical Beetles. The members of the genus Hispa are peculiar in that their elytra and thoraces are covered with long and sharp spines. The pupae of many species are also spinous; the larvae, so far as is known, live between the upper and lower epidermis of some favoured leaf till nearly fully fed; then they invariably forsake their temporary home and tunnel into the midrib of a second adjacent leaf to pupate. CASsrDiD^. — Agree in most characters with the HispidcB, but the margins of thorax and elytra are so expanded that they have earned the name of " Shield " or " Tortoise " Beetles. 212 INSECT LIFE Many Tortoise Beetles are beautifully coloured during life. Several, including tlie British species Cassida viridis and C. equestris, are green; others are black and orange or black and red, but most beautiful of all are certain iridescent species. Unfortunately, the colours in most cases fade soon after death; our figures are made from faded specimens. The larvae of these Beetles have the peculiar habit of covering themselves with excrement — not owing to their anatomical structure, as in the case of certain of the Crioceridw, but of set purpose, and by the aid of a forked appendage on the hinder portion of their bodies. Sharp records a most extraordinary costume which is assumed by the larvae of a South American Tortoise Beetle, of the genus Porfhyraspis. "P. tristis is apparently a common insect at Bahia, where it lives on a cocoa-palm. The larva is short and broad, and completely covers itself with a very dense coat of fibres, each many times the length of the body and elaborately curved, so as to form a round nest under which the larva lives. On examination it is found that these long threads are all attached to the anal extremity of the insect, and there seems no alternative to believing that each thread is formed by small pieces of fibre that have passed through the alimentary canal, and are subse- quently stuck together, end to end. The process of forming these long fibres, each one from scores of pieces of excrement, and giving them the appropriate curve is truly remarkable. The fibres nearest to the body of the larva are abruptly curled so as to fit exactly and make an even surface; but the outside fibres stand PLATE LXIIt ~^ '^ 01 23 19 21 20 18 > 22 '7 'S 1. Uonacia crassipes ]l). Biaps mucronata 16. Otiorrhynchiis tenebri- 2. Donacia semicuprea t'liurchyard Beetle") cosus 3. Clythra quadripmictata 11. Heliopatlii-s gibbus 17. I.iophlcBus nubilis 4. Trinarcha tenebricosa 12. Tenebrio molitor 18. Barynotiis obscunis 5. Chrysorrn-'la iiiarBiiialis (Meal-worm Beetle) 19. Fhyllobius calcaratus 6. Chrysomela stapliylea 13. Meloe proscarabceus 20. Hypera punctata 7. Adimonia tanactti (Common Oil Beetle) 21. Cleonis sulcirostns 8. Cassida equestris U. Meloe violaceus 22. Hylobins abietis 9. Cassida viridis 15. Attelabus cnrculionoides 23. Balanimis g-landinm Sfie paffe 203. BEETLES 213 out in a somewhat busliy fashion. The construction is much like that of a tiny bird's nest." The American genus Himatidium has longer and more slender antennae than the species of other genera, and its thorax does not conceal its head. H. latreillei is a beautiful bronzy-green colour, with an orange-brown thorax. The most remarkable Cassids are the tropical American species of Galas f idea. From Guiana hails C. grossa, with red elytra on which are depressed black dots and reticulations. Prionid^. — Front coxae large and transverse ; thorax with distinct side-margins; head not flattened in front; eyes kidney-shaped; antennae long; mandibles very large, especially in the males. These Beetles are somewhat reminiscent of the Stag Beetles (LucanidcB), but they may always be distin- guished by their antennae. Many of them are of large size and of a curiously flattened form, and chestnut- brown is the prevailing colour. The sole British species, Prionus coriarius, is by no means common; it is a dwarf compared to some of the tropical species, seeing that it measures little more than an inch in length. The largest species is the South American Titanus giganteus. Well-grown specimens measure as much as seven inches in length and two inches across the folded elytra. This Beetle has short but powerful mandibles and a formidable spine on either side of its thorax. From South America also hail some genera which depart from the sombre colouring usual to the family, and also the pale brown Macrodontias — insects with enormous toothed mandibles. All the larvae are wood- borers. 214 INSECT LIFE CERAMBYcrD.s:. — Front coxae not greatly extended transversely; thorax not margined; head produced in front, but never vertical; eyes always concave and more or less surrounding the base of the antennsB. The largest British Cerambycid is the Musk Beetle, Aromia moschata, a metallic-green insect with a spine on either side of its thorax. It is a sluggish insect, and may often be found sunning itself on the decaying wood of willows, on which its larvae feed. When handled it emits a musk-like aroma; hence its name. The genus Clytus, of which there are several European species, is notable on account of its remarkable mimicry of Wasps. Nearly all the species are black with yellow markings; all are active on the wing. CalUchroma is a genus noted for the brilliant metallic blues and greens of most of the species. Some species of the South American genus Cosmosoma are peculiar in that their antennae bear dense tufts of hair about midway along their length. Coremia Mrtipes, another Cerambycid from the same country, has similar though denser tufts on the hind-tibiae. It flies slowly over dead timber in new clearings, and when on the wing resembles a large Culex. Lamiid^.. — Front coxae usually round and deeply embedded ; front tibiae with a slanting groove on the inner side; head vertical, flattened in front; wings sometimes absent. These Beetles may always be distinguished from those of the last family by the position of the head. The family is a large one, and contains some exceedingly ornate species. Our largest British Lamiid is Sa'perda carcharias, a PLATE LXIV 1. Zopliobas sp. 2. Erodius( 3. Adesmia miLrocephala 4. Tenthyria rotimdata 5. Epitragiis fiiscus 6. Zophenis mexicanus 7. Eurychlora major 8. Akis elongata 9. Scotobius clathratus I). Blaps prodiicta 1. Eleodes dentipes 2. Aiachala biiqueti if. Asida bilplioides i. Gyriosomusluczoti 5. Nyctaclia Itevis G. Prionotlieca coronata 7. Epipedonota ebeiiina 8. Trachynotus sp. 19. Opatium sub;:iilcatiim £0. Scpidiiim wagiitri 21. Praocls submetallicus 2:^. Platynotiis excavatus 23. Saiagriis IcevicoUis 21 HcBcinonia filibiiiter 20. Hcmicyclus grr.ndis 2G. Uolichodcriis KIiiru BEETLES 215 black insect densely clothed with yellowish down; its elytra terminate in a short spine, and it frequents willows and poplars. The largest species is the beautiful Brazilian Macropus longimanus. It is black marbled with red and grey, and its fore-legs are enormously developed in length; hence its name. Batocera is a common East Indian genus of large size, and most of the species are brown spotted with white. Nearly as large as any of the Batoceras is the African Petrognatha gigaSj a grey species with a large black patch on the outer edge of each elytron. Monohammus is one of the largest genera of the order; it is of almost world-wide distribution, and most of the species are of sombre hue. Any description is inadequate to portray the beauty of form and the brilliant colouring of these elegant Beetles ; a good representative collection alone can convey an idea of the wonders of the Lamiidce. Series 6. Rhynchofhora. Anthribid^. — Antennas with a short first joint, not elbowed and often long; third tarsal joint small and partially concealed by the second joint; pygidium exposed. Nearly all the species of this family are tropical, and one or two are agricultural pests of some notoriety. They are frequently confused with the Weevils, though the two families are quite distinct, as a comparison of our British Platyrrhinus latirostris with any Weevil will show. The species vary considerably in size; our native Choragus sheffardi is one of the smallest, and certain exotic species, with their antennse included in their measurements, attain considerable dimensions 216 INSECT LIFE Certain of these " long-horned '* species bear consider- able superficial resemblance to Longicorns. All the AnthrihidoB are dull brown or grey coloured insects; frequently they are mottled, barred, spotted, or otherwise decorated with lighter shades. CuRCULiONiD^. — Antennse usually elbowed, first joint long; head prolonged into a beak of variable shape and dimensions; larvae legless and usually curved. The Weevils are undoubtedly the most harmful family of the Coleoptera. Larvae and adults are vege- tarians, and there is no part of a plant which is immune from the attacks of some species of Weevil; roots, stems, back, leaves, flowers, fruit, and seeds may any or all of them be attacked by Weevils. We can rarely eat our dessert without encountering the obnoxious larva of the Nut Weevil, Balaninus nucum. A near relative, the Acorn Weevil, B. glandium, does not force its attentions upon us to the same degree, because it feeds upon a fruit which is unfitted for human consumption. The Pine Weevil, Hylobius ahietis, has the character of being our worst forestry pest. It is peculiar for the reason that all the damage is caused by the adult Beetles, w^hich eat the bark of Coniferous trees, so that it has the appearance of having been attacked by some rodent. The larvae feed upon dead wood. Weevils of the genus Anthonomus damage flower- buds; Anthonomus grandis is the notorious Cotton Boll Weevil of America, a pest which had done more harm than any single species, and is only checked from further destruction by climatic reasons; it cannot with- stand the cHmate of the more northern cotton fields. A. signatus lays its eggs in the buds of strawberry- PLATE LXV f f i V I 3 6 ^ 8 I f 'If I II 12 I T Y I 1. Moluris gibba M rarUiutlnirax walckenffin 1 2. Cionopiis tibialis i) SiiMiiSi Imni bicolor 1 3. Spheniscus erotyloides h> St.oiitrylium sp. 17 l'\ tli. i dcinx-s: us 4. Micrantereiis anomalus II Ne- (i;rcna pp. is. .\ i Ik, I.mmUis 5. AmaryRrnus sp. 12 ,\ll"ciila sp. 111. I'lilo (itr\ .i rufipes 6. Helops vulcanus 13. Omoplilus fp. 2ll. l.ajri la liirta 7. Adelium sp. 14. Omoplilus betnlae 21. Statira sp. BEETLES 217 flowers, with the result that no fruit is formed; sub- stituting apple for strawberry, similar remarks apply- to the Apple Blossom Weevil, A, fomorum. The Plum Weevil, Conotrachelus nenuphar, awaits in hiding till the fruit of plums, cherries, or peaches is formed. At this period the females make numerous holes in the fruit, and in each hole they deposit an egg. Needless to say, the larvae feed upon and ruin the ripening fruit. Other Weevils which prefer the fruit to the flowers from which the fruit should arise, are the Grain Weevil, Calandra granaria, and the Rice Weevil, C. oryzce. These little pests, like some of the Bruchids, have been carried all over the world in the grain upon which they feed and in which they breed. Some Weevils construct ingenious leafy nests for their larvse. Of these, the work of the Birch Weevil, Rhynchites hetulce, is a marvel of engineering skill. The ingeniously rolled leaves, cut and made into funnels by these insects, may often be seen upon young birch-trees during the summer months. Attelahus curculionoides is another, though less skilled, nest-builder. While searching for the Birch Weevil, there is every likehhood of finding a beautiful little emerald-green Weevil, Phyllobius calcaratus, which sometimes literally swarms upon our hedges. This little Beetle is one of our most beautiful native insects. Compared, however, with some of the exotic Weevils, exquisite insects of delicate blue and green hue, it is dingy. Of the more sombre-coloured native Weevils we figure Otiorrhynchus tenebricosus ; another hedge -fre- quenter in the shape of Liofhlceus nuhilis; Barynotus ohscurus, with a penchant for hiding beneath stones; 28 218 INSECT LIFE Cleonus sulcirostris, a harmless species confining itself to thistles; and Hypera punctata, which is often taken at considerable distances from any food-plant. Weevils are, for the most part, small or medium-sized Beetles. One or two species attain considerable dimen- sions, notably the Palm Weevil, Rhynchophorus pal- marum, of the West Indies, whose fat grubs find some favour as human food. A short acquaintance with these insects in the field reveals a curious trait, common to nearly all species. When alarmed, instead of run- ning away or taking to flight, they fall to the ground, curl up their legs, remain motionless and sham dead. This trait is especially common amongst the dull- coloured species, which, on account of their colour, are exceedingly hard to detect when they reach the ground. ScoLYTiD^. — Antennse short and clubbed. These Beetles are closely allied to certain of the Weevils. Nearly all of them are wood-borers, and many are exceedingly destructive. To any but entomologists the Beetles are little known; to nearly everyone their w^ork is familiar. There can be few people so little observant that they have never seen some tree with bark so loose that it easily peels away. Where stem and bark come in contact, the Beetles have made their tunnels in all directions, so that both parts of the tree are marked. The tunnels or burrows are very characteristic of the species which make them, and an expert can tell at a glance, from the nature and direction of the burrows, what species of Scolytid had carried out the work. Some Scolytids, known as Ambrosia Beetles, fill their tunnels with a certain fungus, which thrives on the PLATE LXVI ♦ I * I f ^ / 5 6 I ■« 1 l.ampyris noctiluca (ma 2. Telepliorus riisticiis '■i. Telepliorus lividiis 4. Telepliorus pellucidus 5. Lampyris noctiluca fen G. Tlianasimiis formicai 7. Xecrobia rulipes 8. Asemum striatum I). Prionus corinarius 10. Strangalia armata 1. Callidium viulacsum 2. Aromia moscliata :i Rhagium bifasciatum -1. Saperda carcharias o. RhaRium inquisitor BEETLES 219 exudations of tlie tree. The fungus serves as food for the Beetle larvae; it renders the work of the insects more obnoxious to the forester, for the growth hastens the decay commenced by the excavations of the insects ; it sometimes increases so rapidly as to choke up the tunnels and kill the inmates. Among the common British Scolytidce, the Elm Bark Beetle, Scolytus destructor, is a serious pest, causing the bark of its food-plant to peel of! in sheets. One species of tree may harbour several species of these Beetles. The Scots fir, for example, may have its uppermost shoots attacked by Pityogenes hidentatus, its young branches by Hylastes palliatus, its stem by Hylurgus piniperda, and its roots by Hylastes ater. Of the deep-boring Scolytids, Beetles which do not confine themselves to the bark and subjacent parts, species of the genus Trypodendron are the worst offenders, and in Britain we have T. domesticum, partial to oak, beech, and birch, and T. Uneatum, a pest of Conifers. Oaks are also frequently riddled by the all too common Xyleborus dispar. All these Beetles, as may be inferred from their habits, are of small size ; in colour they can show nothing beyond blacks and shades of brown. Though the injury caused by a single Beetle may be small, when, as is usual, the Scolytids appear in force their damage is widespread, and in America they have spread over areas so great as fifty thousand square miles and destroyed millions of feet of lumber. Brenthid^. — Antennae not elbowed; rostrum straight. These most bizarre of all the Coleopiera are practically 220 INSECT LIFE all confined to the tropics. It would be difficult to imagine more curious insects than certain of these Beetles . In some species the snouts are prolonged to an extra- ordinary extent. There are species in which the males have no snouts, but formidable mandibles instead* The females use their snouts to bore holes in wood for egg-laying purposes, and in this connection Sharp says that, in one species, the snout of the female is apt to become fixed during the operation. " The male then extricates her by pressing his heavy presternum against the tip of her abdomen; the stout fore-legs of the female serve as a fulcrum and her long body as a lever, so that the effort of the male, exerted at one extremity of the body of the female, produces the required result at the other end of her body." Certain species are exceedingly thin, elongated, and delicate. It is believed that all these attenuated species are carnivorous, and that their forms are specially adapted to enter the burrows of wood-boring insects for the purpose of preying upon the larvse. The apices of the elytra in many species have curious prolongations whose utility is not known. The antennae of all species are freely mobile on a ball-and-socket joint; they remain mobile even in the dried state. Order Streps ipter a. Stylopid^. — Males small; fore- wings much reduced; hind- wings very large vnih radiating veins. Females minute sacs, the smaller end forming the head. These curious parasitic insects are placed with the Coleoptera by many entomologists, including Sharp; here, however, they are considered as a distinct order, PLATE LXVII STYLOPS 221 according to Nassonoff and Von Siebold. They are most aberrant creatures; all of them are parasitic on either Hymenoftera or Rhynchota. Of the latter forms practically nothing is known; of the former much remains to be learned. Bees of the genus Ealictus and Andrena and Wasps of the genus Polistes are specially liable to become " stylopized "—i,e., attacked by the parasite. Unlike many parasites, Stylops does not kill its host. The females may be seen projecting from between the abdominal segments of the Bee or Wasp, and so slight is our knowledge of these anomalous insects that it is uncertain whether the head or the tail end projects. Undoubtedly the most extraordinary effect of " stylo- pization '' is that the secondary sexual characters of the host are affected. For instance, there are many species of Hymenoptera in which the males are of a totally different colour to the females. In the " stylo- pized ** individuals of such species the males or females may not only fail to develop their characteristic colour- ing, but may even assume the livery of the opposite sex. Exactly how the Strepsiptera reach their hosts has never been fully explained. In the genus Stylops, all the members of which are Hymenopterous parasites, the larvae attack their host larvae, penetrate below their skin, and both parasite and host develop concurrently. When the time arises for the host to pupate, the male parasite makes its change from the larval state in the manner common to other insects. The female parasite, on the other hand, remains within her host and at the right moment pushes her way between the latter 's abdominal segments. The female Stylops never moves 222 INSECT LIFE from the position she takes up at this juncture. The active males are short-lived; those of the genus Xenos exist for but a quarter of an hour; they lose no time in accompHshing their one object, the fertilizing of the immobile females. Enormous numbers of larvae are produced by each female. They crawl about over the body of their host in such numbers as to give it a powdered appearance. In the case of social Bees and Wasps, it is an easy matter for the parasite larvae to reach the host larvae; in the case of the solitary Hymenoftera the young parasites must needs await some means of transport to the nest of a new host, for the '* stylopized "' females never build nests. Thousands must perish without ever finding a host; the fact that they are produced in thousands points to very considerable wastage. At any rate, the Stylops larvae somehow contrive to attach themselves to the hair of a healthy insect, and she unwittingly conveys them to her nest. PLATE LXVIII a tj o >, ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS 223 CHAPTER VII HYMENOPTEKA Insects with four sparsely veined wings, often clothed with short bristles; mouth furnished with mandibles and proboscis; females with large ovipositors, often modified into a sting; metamorphosis complete. This order includes the well-known Bees, Wasps, and Ants; its members, without exception , are of the greatest interest to the entomologist. Bees, Wasps, and Ants of many species have the social habit highly developed — in fact, these insects and the Termites are the only species which dwell in colonies. The solitary species of the order are no less interesting. The nests of certain solitary Bees are ingenious in the extreme; the methods by which some of the Sand Wasps store their nests with living, though benumbed, food would be beyond belief had not reliable mtnesses testified to the veracity of the earlier observers. The story of Ants' guests, of Bee *' cuckoos,'' and other invited and un- invited hangers-on, would fill a bulky volume in itself. Most of the parasitic insects belong to this order. The life-histories of the Gall-flies, some species having a single generation of both sexes, some a single genera- tion of females only, and others two generations, one 224 INSECT LIFE of females only, the other of both sexes; the study of their curious galls — these and a thousand other details combine to make the Hymenoptera a most attractive order to the student of insect life. The species comprising the order fall naturally into two suborders : I. Sessiliventr.es. — Hymenoptera with the basal segments of the abdomen not constricted to form a " waist " or petiole, and ovipositors designed for boring or cutting, never for stinging. II. Petiolata. — Hymenoptera with the basal seg- ments of the abdomen constricted to form a " waist '' or petiole; ovipositor usually a sting. The Sessiliventres form a small division of but three families. Apart from the structural characters of the adults, the larvae of the majority of these insects closely resemble those of Lepidoptera^ except for their greater number of legs. The Petiolata are divided into three series : Series 1. Parasitica. — Ovipositors exserted or con- cealed, frequently of very great length; larvae parasitic upon other insects. Series 2. Tubulifera. — Terminal segments of the abdomen forming a retractile tube, in which a small, imperfect sting is situated; larvae usually live in the nests of other Hymenoptera. Series 3. Aculeata. — Very frequently the ovipositor is modified into a sting. The Aculeata may be said to contain all the Hymen- optera which cannot be included in either the Parasitica or the Tubulifera. PLATE LXIX COCOON OF PALM WKEVIL SAWFLIES 225 SUBORDER SESSILIVENTRES. This division is much smaller than Petiolata ; to the latter division all the better -known families of the order belong. Here there are but three families of insects ^ for the most part inconspicuous, but also, with few exceptions, highly injurious. TENTHREDrNiD^. — Antcnuse not elbowed, short; wings large and considerably veined; ovipositor saw- like; larvae resemble those of Lepidoptera in form, but possess six to eight, in place of five, pairs of legs. The Sawflies are so called on account of the structure of the ovipositor. Each of these organs consists of a pair of saws side by side, and their owner can move them up and down with a saw-like motion when she wishes to cut a slit in some plant tissue for the purpose of depositing her eggs therein. The majority of these insects are injurious pests among crops and in gardens. Amongst the British species, of which there are many, the commonest and most destructive are the Currant Sawfly, Nematus rihesii, and the Gooseberry Sawfly, N. ventricosus, whose larvae, being gregarious, rapidly defoliate currant and gooseberry bushes re- spectively. Two other common species of the same genus, N. galUcola and N. salicis-cinerecB, form galls on willow-leaves, for the reason that the larvae remain within the leaf-tissues instead of emerging to the surface. Lophyrus pini is a common pest of Conifers; Hylatoma rosce, in its larval state, defoliates rose-bushes; its green Caterpillars are remarkably similar to those of Lepi- doptera. There is no member of the family, however, 29 226 INSECT LIFE more interesting tlian tlie Pear Slug, Eriocampoides limacina. The adult Sawfly is a shiny black insect, about a fifth of an inch in length. The female slits the under-side of a pear-leaf and deposits an egg in the pocket-like cavity thus formed. The egg hatches in a short time, having previously increased in size, probably owing to the assimilation of some of the juices of the leaf. The larva escapes from its pocket by making a semicircular cut in the upper surface; at first it is very pale yellow, almost white in colour. Very rapidly, however, the larva darkens in colour, for the reason that it covers itself with a dark olive-green, shiny secretion. At the same time it alters consider- ably in shape; its anterior end becomes swollen and its head retracted into the enlarged portion. Feeding takes place on the upper surface of tbe leaf, and con- sists not only of the leaf-tissue, but of the larval skin after each moult. When the last moult takes place the larva makes no meal of its skin, but leaves it upon the leaf. In colour it has changed to orange, and its body is no longer covered with slime. Crawling down the stem to the ground, the larva builds a little earthen cell for itself just below the surface; in this cell pupation takes place. In addition to pear-trees, apple, cherry, and plum are also attacked by limacina. " Frequently the larvae appear in such numbers as to do serious damage. Some- times, when the slugs are very abundant, the sound of the eating of myriads of mouths resembles the falling of fine rain upon the leaves." Parental care is so rare, except among the social insects, that the case of Perga lewisii, an Austrahan WOOD WASPS 227 Sawfly, is worth quoting. The female deposits her eggs in sHts near the midrib of a eucalyptus-leaf. " On this leaf the mother sits till the exclusion of the larvae; and as soon as these are hatched the parent follows them, sitting with outstretched legs over her brood protecting them from the attacks of parasites and other enemies with admirable perseverance." SiRiciD^. — Large insects with cylindrical, awl-like, exserted ovipositors; abdomens not constricted into a petiole at the base. The Wood Wasps are conspicuous-looking insects, which, owing to their formidable-looking ovipositors, often strike terror into the person beholding them for the first time. In reality they are quite harmless to human beings, for they possess no sting. The two species most frequently met with in Britain are the Giant Wood Wasp, Sirex gigas^ and the Blue Wood Wasp, S. noctilio. In form the two species are very similar; in colour, gigas is black banded with yellow on the abdomen, whilst noctilio is of a dark metallic blue colour. The females deposit their eggs in wood; they prefer Conifers, and usually only oviposit in felled timber. The larval life is considerably protracted, and all the while considerable tunnelhng takes place, to the ulti- mate ruin of the timber. In America the Pigeon Tremex, Tremex columba, has similar habits, but prefers living trees, especially maple. Cephid^.— Antennae long; wings large; ovipositor needle-like and exserted. Larvae live in stems of plants. The most notorious species of this family is Cephus 228 INSECT LIFE fygmcBus. In some countries, on tlie Continent and in America, for instance, it does considerable damage. The female bores into wheat-stems with her o\dpositor, lays her eggs therein, and the larvae complete the work of destruction. Pygmwus is not common in this country. The American Phyllaceus integer has a more interest- ing life-story. The female punctures a willow-twig just below the growing point with her ovipositor; she then directs that organ obUquely into the pith and deposits her eggs. Wisely, lest the growth of the willow should injure her eggs, she girdles the twigs just below the puncture she has made; this causes the death of the shoot, and its ruin for basket-making. SUBORDEK PETIOLATA. Series 1. Parasitica. IcHNEUMONiD^. — Antennae with more than sixteen joints; abdomen constricted at the base into an elon- gated petiole, or not constricted; ovipositor often long and protruded. The Ichneumon Flies as these insects are often wrongly termed, for they are not Flies, are all parasitic insects. The family is a large one, and is divided into a number of subfamilies. The order is by no means an easy one for the entomological student, and those who wish to attempt systematic work should not essay the effort unless they have access to a representative collection. The methods of oviposition differ with the species; some deposit their eggs on the bodies of their hosts. f X I ^ PLATE LXX I 3 A GROUP OF WFKVll.S The fiprures give a tiood idea of tlie striking colouring wliicli occurs in many species of tliis family. No. 7 is the Palm Weevil, the largest of the Curculionidae. See pane SlU. ICHNEUMONS 229 some within them. In the majority of cases the larvsB of Lepidoftera are the hosts of these insects; a few species, however, prefer Beetles and others, Hymenoftera. Certain species of Pimpla, notably P. rufata and P. fairmairii, are known to be parasitic upon Spiders. The long ovipositors of many of the IchneumonidcB appear to be somewhat of a hindrance to their owners; there are species in which these organs measure as much as four inches. The true ovipositor is always protected by a sheath of four stylets equally as long as itself. Possibly all the species with inordinately developed ovipositors prey upon insects whose larvaB burrow in wood or some other medium. Certainly this is the case with the common British Rhyssa 'persuasoria , whose hosts are the larvae of the Wood Wasp. Now, the Wood Wasp deposits its eggs in timber, and its larvae make extensive and deep-seated tunnels in the same material. So deeply do they bore that it is impossible for Rhyssa itself to reach them; it accom- plishes its object, however, by the aid of its long ovi- positor, which it plunges far into the recesses of the Wood Wasp's larval tunnels, and deposits its egg in its victim. Braconid^. — Very similar to IchneumonidcB ; an- tennae generally with more than sixteen joints, the first and third being longer than the second; second and third abdominal segments fused. This family has been neglected by entomologists, and from a systematic point of view is in a chaotic state. The species are frequently so similar to the Ichneumons that only the expert can separate the two families. Many exotic Braconidce are exceedingly ornate insects, 230 INSECT LIFE black and yellow or red and yellow being the prevailing colours of the family, though there are a number of self-coloured, red species. The genus Aphidius includes several species parasitic upon Aphides ; in consequence, they are insects to be protected. The commonest British species, at any rate the species whose activities are most easily observed, is Apanteles glomeratus, a parasite of the Cabbage White larvse. This Braconid lays a number of eggs inside the body of its host, and its larvse feed upon the fatty matter with which they are surrounded. When fully fed, the parasitic larvse leave their host to spin small silken cocoons, in which they pupate. A. formosus makes curious stalked cocoons. EvANiiD.^. — Antennae thirteen or fourteen jointed; abdomen attached to the upper part of the metathorax; ovipositor straight. Species of the genus Evania can always be distin- guished by their short, compressed abdomens attached by a slender petiole to the upper part of the thorax. In outline the female abdomen is triangular, that of the male oval. The colour of the Evaniids is invariably jet black. These insects are widely distributed, probably because they are parasitic upon the eggs of Cockroaches. Evania appendigader is the most widespread species. It is black; its fore- wings barely span an inch, and its hind- legs are quite twice the length of its body. The larvae of this parasite live within and feed upon the yolk of the Common Cockroach's eggs. The genus Foenus is remarkable for the long, slender abdomens of its species, in striking contrast to those PARASITIC WASPS 231 of Evania. Fcenus jaculator, a by no means uncommon insect, frequents the nests of Crahro and oviposits in its larvae. CHALCmiDiE. — Antennae elbowed, usually six to thir- teen jointed; wings but little veined. This is the largest and most interesting family of the parasitic Hymenoftem. Nearly all the species are parasitic; a few, belonging to the genus Megastigmus, live in seeds, and some, of the genus Isosoma, are gall- makers. Till quite recently this fam^ily had been much neglected by British entomologists, for what reason it is difficult to say, unless the minute proportions of the majority of the species acted as a deterrent; it could not have been because the Chalcididce lacked interest. Howard, who has studied the family in America, says: " Nowhere in nature is there a more marked example of the correlation betv/een structure and habits than occurs in this family. This correlation descends to the relation between the parasites and their hosts, so that it is possible for an experienced person, on seeing a new species of Chalcis Fly, to tell precisely what kind of an insect it will be found to be parasitic upon."" The habits of these Hymenoftem are so varied that it is impossible to take one as a type of all the family. Some species are parasitic upon Lepidopterous larvae, some on Diptera, some on Bees — in fact, they are the most assiduous of all parasites, and the most cathoHc in their tastes. Many of them are of beautiful metallic sheen, and many also are interesting structurally. Species of Chalcis, for example, have their hind-femora so much thickened that they may equal the abdomen in size. Leucospis, a non-British genus, has species 232 INSECT LIFE with ovipositors recurved over the back of the abdomen . The utility of ChalcididcB is not confined to their parasitic activities . In fig-growing countries the services of a species of Blastophaga are utilized to bring about the fertihzation of the fig-flowers. The inflorescence of the fig is pecuHar; the flowers grow within a hollow receptacle quite out of reach of the majority of insects. Blastophaga , however, enters the inflorescence, brings about fertilization, and thus causes the fruit to ripen. This semi-artificial fertilization of figs is known as " caprification." The life-cycle of many Chalcids is completed very rapidly. Howard has carefully noted the time taken by Ewplectrus comstockii to pass through its transforma- tions. The egg stage lasted two days, the larval stage three, the pupal stage the same length of time, a com- plete generation in eight days. " It is altogether the shortest development of any Hymenopterous parasite that has been studied." Podagrion fachymerus has the very interesting habit of sheltering below the wing of a female Mantis as she is forming her egg-mass. From this advantageous position the Chalcid can lay her eggs amongst those of the Mantis. Peoctotrypid^. — Antennae elbowed, ten to sixteen jointed; bodies long and slender; wings with very few veins. These insects are even less known than the ClialcididcB ; as a family they are the smallest of all insects. Some idea of their size may be gleaned when we learn that sometimes as many as six larvae may live within a single Lepidopterous egg, feeding upon the yolk and GALL FLIES 233 undergoing all their transformations therein. Another genus, Trichacis, possesses species that " develop in the nervous system of one of the little gall midges, while the larvae of another genus, Polygnotus, develop in the digestive tract of the same insect." Spiders' eggs, also those of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, are parasitized by Proctotrypids ; they also live in the larvae of Diptera, Coleoptera, and small Hymenoptera. Marchal described a curious life-history of a species of Encyrtus. The insect lays its egg within that of a Tineid Moth, and, instead of a single Encyrtus larva appearing, as might be expected, a number hatch from the single egg, owing to this egg becoming divided into a number of embryos. Cynipid.^. — Antennae straight, thirteen to fifteen jointed; wings with few veins; ovipositor concealed. The Gall Flies, so called, are not by any means the only gall-makers in the insect world, nor, indeed, are all the CynipidcB gall-makers, for some species are parasitic upon Aphids and larvae of Diftera. For a long time it was thought that no male Gall Flies existed; to this day the males of some species have never been discovered, but it is highly probable that in these species time and research will show them to have a spring brood of females and an autumn brood of both sexes, a common happening with Gall Flies. The alternation of generations, so common amongst Cynipidce, has led to further confusion, and many of the spring broods have been described as different species to the autumn broods. The preponderance of females is of advantage to the insects, for they are much attacked by parasites, mainly Chalcididce ; this, again, is yet 30 234 INSECT LIFE another factor making the study of Gall Flies difficult, for frequently parasites instead of the rightful owners appear from the galls. " One of the most peculiar facts connected with the Gall Flies is that a particular part of the plant is always af!ected by the same species, and that each species of the same generation always produces a deformation or gall of exactly the same character, so that the gall alone identifies the species of insect, and, in fact, for a long time generic and specific names were given to the galls before the insects were named." Many theories have been suggested to account for the formation of galls by these insects. No gall begins to develop till the larva hatches from the egg, and it is probable that the larva excretes some substance which causes the rapid growth of the plant cells in its immediate vicinity. The oak is the tree most favoured by Gall Flies; there are twenty-four quite common oak galls, and many more less frequently met with. One of the most curious of our native galls is the Bedeguar Gall, or " Robin's Pin Cushion," formed by RJiodites rosw, which deposits its eggs in a leaf-bud, with the result that, instead of the formation of normal leaves, the well-known, characteristic green or red hairy galls are formed. Series 2. Tubulifera. Chrysidid^. — Cuckoo Flies or Ruby Wasps. Insects with hard, often deeply sculptured, metaUic green or blue dorsal integuments; antennae thirteen- jointed and elbowed. Terminal abdominal segments in the form of a tube, which can be retracted or extruded; hence the name of the series. RUBY WASPS 235 Before going further, it is well to remark that these insects are not Fhes, as their popular name suggests. Many insects, Dragon-flies, May -flies, and Green Flies, amongst others, are not Flies, but still they bear titles to which they have no right. The Ruby Wasps are easily recognized; their brilliant colouring of metallic sheen, often with ruby-tipped abdomens, and their ceaseless activity, render them conspicuous. All the score of British species are small, and no members of the family attain large size. They are widely distributed over the world, and all of them deposit their eggs in the nests of other Hymenoptera ; hence their name of Cuckoo Flies. The majority of Chrysids are parasitic upon the Mud Wasps, Odynerus. These little solitary Wasps leave their nests exposed while they hunt for provender with which to stock their larders, so the evil work of the Cuckoo Flies is easily accomplished. Our native Chrysis ignita deposits its eggs in the nests of the Mud Wasp, Odynerus parietum ; G. hidentata favours the home of 0. spinifes. The former Cuckoo Fly has been observed to deposit a single egg in the nest of its host ; the latter lays as many as ten in each nest, but invariably all except one are infertile. In both cases — in fact, in every observed case of parasitism by these insects — their larvae feed upon the larvae of their hosts. It is remarkable also that, except by colour, it is almost impossible to tell the white parasite larva from the yellow host larva. An American species, G. ccerulans, is parasitic upon the Potter W^asp, Eumenes fraterna. Sometimes, as Howard remarks, there is confusion in the host nest. 236 INSECT LIFE Odynerus goes in search of food, and leaves its cell unguarded; along comes a Trypoxylon — a Sphegid with Cuckoo habits — and stores the host cell with its own provisions, closing the entrance against the return of the owner. On the arrival of the Odynerus her first care is to open the cell once more; having done so, further food must be found, and while she is away Chrysis comes on the scene, deposits an egg in the newly opened cell, from which a larva emerges that is destined to survive the progeny of host and primary parasite. To the genus Cleptes belong the only species of the family capable of stinging Not only so, but in general form they more closely resemble the aculeate Hymen- oftera than do the other Cuckoo FHes. They are parasitic upon Saw^ies. Series 3. Aculeata. This series is somewhat artificial, since it does not include all the Hymenoftera capable of stinging. Various other suggestions have been made for the better classi- fication, and many of them are worthy of every con- sideration. The arrangement adopted here, however, is generally accepted, so that at least it has the merit of popular approval. The Aculeates are subdivided into four divisions : 1. Anthophila, or Bees.— Body clothed, in part with plumose hairs; mouth-parts elongated and usually tubular, flexible at the tip. Adults all winged. Often dwell in societies. 2. DiPLOPTERA, OR Wasps .—Anterior wings folded longitudinally when at rest; no scales or nodes on the PLATE LXXI # ^■ I ■f » •#4!^|p^^ ^■^^ 6 a 1. Hombiis lepidariiis 4. Bombus venii>tus 7. Halictiis rubicundii 9. Megachile sp. 12 Bombus lucoriim A GROUP OF BEES 2. Bombus hortorum 5. Xylocopa sp. 10. Bombus terrestris \A Xylocopa sp. 3. Bombus muscorum (i. .Xnthopliora sp. N. Megacliile sp. 1 1 . Cu?lioxys sp. 14. Apathus vestalls BEES 237 basal segments of the hind-body; hind-tarsi designed for walking. Either dwelling in societies or solitary. 3. FossoRES, OR Digger Wasps. — No plumose hairs on body; no longitudinally folded wings; no scales or nodes on basal segments of the hind-body. 4.'FoRMicn)^, OR Ants. — The segment or two seg- ments behind the posterior part of the thorax either small or irregular and very mobile; trochanters not divided. Live in colonies. Division 1. Anthophila, or Bees. Bees are nearly always hairy insects; they have peculiarly modified mouth-parts, which serve their owners and entomologists a good purpose in collecting nectar and in forming a guide to classification respec- tively; their hind-legs are modified — greatly so in some species. The pecuHar plumose hairs with which many Bees are clothed presumably assist in the collection of pollen, and the presumption is strengthened by the fact that many parasitic Bees, which gather no pollen, are destitute of these hairs. Some parasitic Bees, however, possess these hairs, and opponents of the pollen-collect- ing theory have not been slow to point to these species as confirmation of their own assumption that feathery hairs are not designed for gathering food. That pollen does adhere to these modified hairs is by the way. As already remarked, the tongues of Bees are used for taking up nectar. They are complex organs, and these pages are not the place to enter into minute anatomical details. There are three types of Bee tongue — (a) short and forked, (6) short and pointed, (c) long and pointed. With these organs the insects 238 INSECT LIFE take up nectar and swallow it; it passes to ttie honey- sac, where it remains till the Bee returns to her nest, where it is regurgitated as honey. During the period in the honey-sac part of the water is removed, and various secretions, including formic acid, which acts Fig. 12 -Left Hind-Leg of a Working Female Honby-Bee (Strongly Magnified). On the left, viewed from the outer side; on the right, viewed from the inner side. S, Femur; Sch, tibia; F, foot; E, two pointed claws with balls between them; Kb, pollen-basket; B, brush. as a preservative, are added from glands of the bee. The regurgitated honey requires further treatment before it is fit for consumption. The legs of Bees are beautifully modified to suit the work of their owners. The hind-legs show the greatest variation from the normal, especially in the females, for on these organs the pollen is mainly carried. Those Bees which carry dry pollen have densely haired hind- BEES 239 legs; those which carry the paste-like " Bee bread/' a mixture of pollen and nectar, have hollowed tibias edged with stiff bristles — " pollen-baskets'" — in which to carry their burdens. Males and parasitic Bees do not possess pollen-carrying modifications, and where drones exist they also are destitute of these appendages. The young larvae of all Bees, whether Solitary or Social, are reared in nests or cells constructed either by the parent Bee or by workers, or, in the case of parasitic Bees, by some other insect. They are never exposed and left to their own devices, as, for instance, are Lepidopterous larvse. The Social Bees feed their larvae upon honey and pollen, after the manner of birds) Solitary Bees store sufficient food for the needs of their young, deposit an egg on the stored food, and seal up the cell, leaving the larva to fend for itself. Parasitic Bees usually lay their eggs in the cell of some Sohtary Bee; their larvae always either hatch first or grow quicker than those of their hosts, so they are well provided for by their host's food store and, if necessary, its egg or larva. With the exception of these parasitic Bees, which sometimes eat their host's progeny, all larval Bees are fed upon vegetable matter or material of vegetable origin. The classification of Bees is in a most unsatisfactory state. To avoid confusion as far as possible, we treat of these insects in two sections — (1) the Solitary and (2) the Social Bees. 1. Solitary Bees. Short Forked-Tongued Bees. — ArcJiiapidce of Friese. We have sixteen species of these Bees in Britain, all belonging either to the genus Colletes or to Prosopis. 240 INSECT LIFE Of the latter genus there are ten British species; they have earned their generic name from the white faces of the males. They are all small, almost non- hairy creatures, and their hind-legs are not modified for carrying pollen. In general colour they are in- variably black, and most of them emit a pleasant odour. They usually construct their cells in the pith of bramble stems, and cut or broken ends of these stems are in much request by the little Bees. Each cell is lined with a thin membrane, and is stored with a mixture of honey and pollen. The latter is swallowed by the female along with the nectar, being swept to her mouth by her hairy front legs. Frequently a Chrysid larva usurps the Prosopid cell; they may often be found living on the stores of our commonest species, Prosopis signata. The genus CoUetes is smaller, so far as this country is concerned, for we can only boast of half a dozen species. In general appearance these moderate-sized Bees closely resemble the genus Andrena. With a single exception they are all well clothed with brown hair; the middle and hind legs of the females bear pollen-carrying hairs. Their nesting habits are peculiar. They burrow in the ground, making unbranched tunnels, which they line with a membranous substance, which, by the way, is of glue-like consistency when first formed; hence the name of the genus. The burrows are then divided into separate cells, six to eight in number, by the same material, and each one is filled with semi-liquid food in which an egg is deposited. CoUetes, of which our commonest species is C. suc- cincta, is subject to the attentions of a *' cuckoo," just as is Prosopis, but in this case it is not a Euby Wasp, SOLITARY BEES 241 but a long-tongued Bee of the genus Epeolus, which shares, or rather usurps, its home. Sometimes host and parasite frequent the same flowers. Tansy is the favourite of Colletes daviesanus and its '* cuckoo," Efeolus variegatus. Andrenid^.— Short pointed-tongued Bees. This is the largest section of British Bees, no fewer than a hundred and twenty species belonging thereto. The largest native genus is Andrena, containing about fifty species. In appearance these Bees closely resemble Honey Bees, but they are smaller. They are among the first insects on the wing in the spring. Their nests are always made in the ground, frequently in gravel paths, and, though true Solitary Bees, they frequently nest in close proximity to one another. One of the earhest Andrenas to appear is the little red Andrena fulva, an attractive little creature, whose burrowing habits may easily be observed. These early arrivals have hibernated below ground through the winter. As soon as they arouse themselves they set to work to make nests for their own families. Tunnels, often a foot in length, are made in the earth, and from the main shaft numerous side-galleries are run; in each one, before it is closed, there is deposited an egg and a store of pollen and honey. By summer the eggs are hatched and the larvae are fully fed; in early autumn the perfect insects have emerged from the pupse, but they remain in their subterranean homes till the first warm days of spring summon them to activity. A. vicina passes through its life-cycle more rapidly, and the adults are on the wing in the summer. A. argentata, resplendent in its silvery hirsute clothing, is 31 242 INSECT LIFE another late Andrena, for it may be seen assiduously collecting nectar from heather-flowers late in August. The Andrenas are preyed upon by " cuckoos " of the genus Nomada. These Bees, which are invariably of a yellow and black or red and black colour, appear to live on the most friendly terms — at any rate, the attentions of the " cuckoos " are never resented. The Nomada have few hairs, and their legs are not adapted for carrying pollen. All the species are parasitic, and their hosts are always Andrenas. Friese relates that he has frequently seen Nomada latlihuriana and Andrena ovina flying about together. Reference has been made to the friendly relations of host and parasite, and the fact may seem strange. Further consideration shows that, after all, the pheno- menon is not so peculiar as it appears at first. The parasites do not interfere with their hosts, and the latter do not feed their larvae from time to time, as do the social insects. " The Wild Bee that seals up its cell when it has laid an egg therein, and then leaves it for ever, has no conception of the form of its progeny; never in the history of the race of the Andrena has a larva seen a perfect insect and survived thereafter; never has a perfect insect seen a larva.'' The genus Halictus includes our smallest British Bees, and they are interesting also from another point, for in them we see the beginnings of a social life. A common burrow serves for several females; each side- gallery is the preserve of one individual, but the single front-door is the thin end of the wedge. " A sentinel is often stationed at the entrance, and there is close behind the doorway a small recess into which the sentinel can SOLITAEY BEES 243 step whenever she wishes to allow a member of the establishment to pass in or out." This semi-social condition is specially developed in Halictus lineolatus and H. sexcinctus. These Bees are but slightly clothed with hair, and some of them, especially the exotic species, are of dark metallic hue. Some species appear to have more than one generation a year, but our commonest species, //. morio^ is only one-brooded. A striking peculiarity of these Bees, which cannot fail to strike the collector, is that females only are taken in the spring, and that later in the year males preponderate. The nests of H. quadricinctus and of H. maculatus have been minutely described by Verhoeff, and it is to be regretted that lack of space forbids our quoting him. Just as Andrena had its " cuckoos," so has Halictus ; in this case they are Bees of the genus Sphecodes. These Bees appear to be on the border-line between criminal and decent living habits. Some authorities deny their parasitic propensities; they are ill-fitted for ordinary Bee labour, having very slightly developed pollen- collecting apparatus. It is doubtful, however, whether Sphecodes is, generally, degenerating into an evil-doer or is struggling to lead a better life as a law-abiding Bee. It is against them that S. ruhicundus has been taken from the nest of //. quadricinctus, and ;S. suh- quadratus has been observed fighting with H. malachurus^ prior to taking possession of the latter 's nest. Evidently the relations between Halictus and Sphecodes are not so friendly as between Andrena and Nomada. All the species of this genus are small, brilliant, polished insects with red and black or red abdomens; 244 INSECT LIFE one of our commonest species, S. gihhus^ is very typical of the genus. The genus Dasypoda contains one of the most striking of our native Bees, D. hirtipes. A large Andrena-like insect, its body is heavily clothed with tawny hair, its black abdomen is banded witli white hair, and the hind-legs of the female bear exceedingly long, bright golden tufts of branched hairs, which give the insect its striking appearance. Dasypoda tunnels in the earth to the depth of two feet or so. At the end of her burrow she constructs half a dozen chambers, in each of which she places food and an egg. The pollen which forms the larval food is carried to the nest on the hairy legs of the mother Bee ; frequently her load weighs half as much as herself. In the nest she moistens her burden with honey, kneads it to a pasty mass, and rolls it into a ball. This opera- tion is repeated with load after load, each subsequent load being added to the first, as a schoolboy builds up a big snowball, till a large-sized pollen-ball is formed. Three feet are made of the same material, to raise the ball from the floor, and an egg is laid on the top. The larva hatches from the egg in a few days, and finds itself upon a food-mass nearly a hundred and fifty times bigger than its own body. It devours the food layer by layer, so that the mass may retain its shape, and it voids no excrement till the whole is eaten. Apid^. — ^Long pointed-tongued Bees. This section, so far as our native Bees are concerned, is rich in genera, but poor in species, there being less than fifty, including the social species. Anthophom is a large and widely distributed genus. SOLITARY BEES 245 Our native A. 'pili'pes, a very early spring arrival, bears a remarkable resemblance to a small Bumble Bee. The black, hairy females have orange legs, and may easily be distinguished from the chestnut-brown males, whose middle legs bear long grey and black hairs. Their nests consist of short burrows in sand or clay banks, and the few cells they contain are lined with clay by the mother Bee. One species, A. fersonata^ is said to require two years to complete its life- cycle. This genus has its " cuckoos '' of the genus Melecta , and A. 'pilipes is favoured by the attentions of the closely related though dissimilar M. armata, a slightly hairy, somewhat elongated insect, whose black abdomen is marked laterally with white spots. In this case the relations between host and parasite appear friendly, but another species of Anthophora has been observed to resent the attentions of M. luctuosa. The Carpenter Bees, Xylocopa, are the largest mem- bers of the family, some of the tropical species measur- ing nearly two inches in length. They have broad, somewhat flattened bodies, sparsely clothed with hair on their abdomens, except on the edges, and in colour they are mostly black or blue-black. There are few European species, of which the most widely distributed is Xylocopa violacea ; none of them occur in Britain. Their popular name is derived from their habit of making tunnels in dead wood for nesting purposes. These Bees display an extraordinary amount of patience in making their cylindrical burrows and their galleries • All the work is accomplished by their powerful mandibles, and the cells of the galleries, each containing 246 INSECT LIFE an egg and food, are all separated by partitions formed of saliva and wood shavings. Euglossa is a tropical American genus, noted for and named from the inordinate length of the proboscis, often exceeding the length of the insect's body. Flat- tened, plate-like tibise, highly polished on their outer surfaces and fringed with bristles, are also character- istic of the genus. The colouring of many of these Bees is beautiful in the extreme, metalHc greens, purple, violet, and gold, being mingled in perfect harmony. Chalcicodoma is another interesting genus not repre- sented in this country. The members of this genus are known as Mason Bees, a name, by the way, which is also applied to species of the genus Osmia. The nesting habits of Chalcicodoma muraria may be taken as typical of the genus. The nest is built upon some solid foundation, a stone for preference. At first a single cell is built of earth mixed with saliva and incorporated with carefully selected small stones. After the edifice has reached the height of an inch or so, food in the shape of honey and pollen — ^the latter carried on the ventral abdominal hairs — is placed within to the height of about half an inch, an egg is deposited on the food, and the cell is closed. Nearly a dozen of these cells are made, and the whole group is then covered with a dome-shaped cement shelter " about the size of half an orange.'* In spite of their protection, the larvae of these Bees are parasitized by the Chalcids Leiwosfis gigas and Monodontomerus nitidus, which perforate the shelters and cell caps; by the Bee Stelis nasula^ which does likewise; and by another Bee, SOLITARY BEES 247 Dioxys cincta, which lays its eggs in Chalcicodomas stored food before the cells are completed. In fact, sixteen or more insects are known to prey upon G. muraria. Of the Carder Bees we have but a single species, the Wool Carder, Antliidium manicatum, in Britain. It is a sturdily built black Bee, with yellow abdominal markings which give it somewhat of a Wasp-like appear- ance. It uses the burrows of other insects, or seeks out some naturally formed hole which will serve its purpose, and lines its nest with " wool " derived from hairy plants. The nest-cavity is doubly lined, first with rough wool, then comes an inner, finer layer of the same material, which is cemented to retain the honey stored within. A. diadema lines hollow stems with vegetable wool, and divides the cavity thus lined into several chambers. A. sepemdentatum and A. hellicosum nest in discarded Snail-shells, and instead of using wool they close their nests with resin. These Bees all possess pollen-carrying hairs on their ventral abdominal segments. The genus Osmia is noted for the remarkably varied nesting habits of its species. They are all short, stoutly built insects with very long tongues, and their ventral segments are densely clothed with pollen-carrying hairs, which are frequently brightly coloured. Osmia hicolor frequently nests in Snail-shells, after the manner of some of the Anthidiums. 0. rufa, recognized by its orange coat and horn-like protuber- ance on its face, either selects a similar site or some cavity in a wall or bmTows in the ground. 0. leuco- melana usually and 0, tridentata invariably nest in 248 INSECT LIFE bramble-stems after having hollowed out the pith. The cells of these nests are placed in line along the pith and always the farthest cell from the mouth is the first to be completed. This being so, it is not surprising that the Bee in the end cell is the first to be ready to emerge. It bites through the partition which separates it from the neighbouring cell, and if its neighbour be ready to depart also, all is well. If it encounters a pupa it will patiently await its development and departure. Should the vigil be long-continued, by biting away the sur- rounding pith it will attempt to make a larger hole and room to pass. Should failure ensue, further waiting is cheerfully accepted ; one individual will never damage another in its attempts to escape. This trait led Fabre to make the very interesting discovery that, though the Osmias are not averse to bringing harm to other insects, they will never injure their own species. The " cuckoos " of Osmia belong to the genus Stelis. We have already mentioned S. nasiita, which deposits several eggs in each cell of the Mason Bee, after breaking down the latter 's masonry. S. minuta deposits a single egg in the cell of 0. leucomelana. The larvae of host and parasite live for a time upon the stored food of the host mother; the Stelis larva grows quicker than its companion, and with the consumption of the last remnants of food host and parasite meet; a short struggle ensues, in which the latter is always victorious; he devours his victim. Stelis signata is parasitic upon Anthidium strigatum, which it closely resembles — so closely that this Stelis was for long considered to be an Anthidium. The Leaf-Cutter Bees, Megachile^ are the most PLATE LXXII NEST OF LEAF-CUTTER BEE The plate shows three series of ctlls arranged in borings in wood SOLITAKY BEES 249 interesting of all tlie Solitary Bees. We have eight species in this country, and they resemble stout Honey Bees; they have wide heads, and their pollen-bearing hairs are situated on their ventral abdominal segments. As with Osmias, these Bees rarely make burrows of their own, but search for suitable natural resting-places or appropriate the discarded burrow of some other creature. MegacJdle alhocincta nests in old Earth-Worm burrows ; M. circumcincta bores a tunnel in rotten wood. All of the species, however, line their nests most ingeniously with portions of leaves or petals. The nests are com- posed of thimble-shaped cells formed of leaves and placed end to end along the burrow. The circular pieces of leaf are cut by the Bees with mathematical exactness; pieces of varying size are used for the end, the sides, and the top of each cell, and the leaf-edges are glued together by a waxy substance derived from the body of the mother Bee. Each cell contains a store of pollen and honey and an egg. The " cuckoos " of Megachile belong to the genus Cwlioxys, C. quadridentaia being the special ** cuckoo " of M. circumcincta. These Bees are quite distinct, usually of a black or dark blue ground colour prettily marked with pale blue; non- or very slightly hairy, and with rather acutely pointed bodies. Eucera longicorms^ the Long-Horned Bee, is a large insect of a chestnut-brown colour, and is rendered conspicuous by the enormous development of the antennae in the males. The females have these organs of ordinary proportions. It nests in the earth in an enlarged chamber at the end of a short burrow. Sawpoda bimaculata, another of our Solitary Bees, is, 250 INSECT LIFE curiously enough, most easily recognized by the dis- tinctive high pitch of its buzz. It is an active insect which nests in the ground, and is possessed of lovely greenish-blue eyes. Social Bees. These insects differ from all the preceding species in the important fact that they dwell together in com- munities, in which there are at least a fertile female or " queen,'' small sterile females or " workers,'' and medium-sized males or partially sterile females called ** drones." They differ also in that their larvae, instead of being sealed up in a cell along with a store of food, are subject to unremitting care and attention. The best known of all these social insects are un- doubtedly the semi-domesticated Honey Bees, Apis mellifica. They are considered to be the most highly developed of the Anthofhila. In point of interest no insects surpass and few equal them. Publishers, how- ever, even the most lenient, set a limit on an author's verbosity, and the Honey Bee does not lack its literary champions of every degree; its merits have been sung in verse and lauded in prose. A fair-sized library could be filled with works dealing with this industrious insect; on that account we perforce omit it from our pages. Bombus, the genus of Bumble or Humble Bees, has more than a dozen British representatives. The nest- ing habits of the species fall naturally into two classes; for some are subterranean nest-builders, others nest on the ground. They all differ from Social Bees of the genus Apis in that their workers are merely imperfect females, whereas those of the latter genus are struc- SOCIAL BEES 251 turally different from either males or females. Again, each colony ends with the year; a few hibernating females begin new colonies in the spring. Of the subterranean nesting Bumble Bees, our com- monest species are the Earth Bumble Bee, Bombus terrestris, and the Stone Bumble Bee, B. lapidarius. The former is hairy, with a yellowish-grey tip to its abdomen and a yellow band across its thorax and fore-part of its abdomen; the latter is a big black hairy insect with a red-tipped abdomen; the males are dis- tinguished by a yellow band just behind the head. The nesting habits of the two species are practically identical. In early spring a hibernating female becomes active, and seeks a nesting-place. Usually a deserted mouse-hole or some hollow in the ground is selected. Moss is then gathered and stored in the hole, and under this moss a cell is placed, formed of wax externally and honey-saturated pollen internally; several eggs are deposited in the cell before it is closed. Other cells containing more eggs are added at intervals. Then the larvae in the first-formed cell hatch; the mother punctures the cap of the cell, and feeds them with regurgitated food. Later the larvae spin silken cocoons within their cells, and emerge at irregular intervals. The first of the new colony to appear are always smal] females, known as " workers."" The " queen '" now becomes little more than an egg-laying machine; she rarely leaves her nest, and often loses the power of flight. The workers build more and more cells, which the *' queen "' supplies with eggs; there is no food-store in these later cells, the larvae being fed solely by the workers. Stores of pollen and honey are laid up, 252 INSECT LIFE however, in the discarded cells which the earlier members of the community have vacated. Some of the later females are fertile and capable of laying eggs, whilst towards the end of the summer the " drones '' or males appear, and mate with the females destined to hibernate through the winter and become the future queens. Some of these underground nests contain as many as four hundred individuals, poor architects all, but very industrious workers, being on the wing at three o'clock or so in the morning. It is stated, and the statement has frequently been confirmed, that each nest harbours a trumpeter whose duty it is to arouse the inmates when the hour arrives for their day's work to commence. Of the ground-nesters there are also two very common species, the Moss-Carding Bee, B. agrorum, and its near relative B. venustus, also a Carder. The former may be recognized by its tawny thorax and black abdomen, and the latter is wholly tawny. The cells are placed in a hollow in the ground, and after they are constructed the mother Bee drags moss to the site, shreds it with her mandibles, and scatters it over her cells, till they are covered, with her hind-legs. Bombi have their " cuckoos " like many other Bees; they belong to the genus Psithyrus, and, except for their larger size, very closely resemble their hosts. They collect no pollen or honey — in fact, they are not adapted for so doing. They are, however, not quite such arrant rogues as some of the " cuckoos," for they actually construct their own cells alongside those of their hosts, but they leave the duty of rearing their young to the worker Bombi. Towards the end of the season these WASPS 253 " cuckoos " remain within tlie host nest and assiduously devour the stored honey. However similar host and " cuckoos " may be in all other respects, there is one infallible method of determining which is which. All species of Bomhiis have clear, unclouded wings; all Psithyrus species have smoky wings— the latter, more- over, have no pollen-collecting apparatus. The nests of these surface Bees have far fewer inmates than the subterranean species. From a hundred to a hundred and fifty is a fair average— in fact, the latter figure is above the average. Division 2. diploptera, or Wasps. The Diploptera are so named from the habit of its members of folding their front wings longitudinally when at rest. The division is split up into two families, the Eumenidce and the Vespidce ; the former are Solitary, the latter Social. EuMENiD^ .—Tarsal claws toothed; outer face of mandibles longitudinally furrowed. In Britain there are sixteen species of this family, one belonging to the genus Eumenes and fifteen to the genus Odynerus. Eumenes coarctata is a long-waisted, yellow and black insect. It builds its globular mud nests on the twigs of some shrub, usually heather, and stores them with small Lepidopterous larvae. In each nest it lays a single egg. Internally the mud nest is divided unequally into two parts; in the larger division the Eumenes larva lives and grows, in the smaller it deposits its excrement and wasted food material. Fabre has described the very interesting nesting 254 INSECT LIFE liabits of E. fomiformis, which, by the way, except for the design of the nest, are very similar to those of Odynerus reniformis. The nest is vase-Hke and made of earth; in its walls small stones are embedded. The interior consists of a single chamber, which the mother Wasp stores with fifteen or sixteen partially paralyzed Caterpillars. Now, the Eumenes egg and larva are dehcate, and the wriggling Caterpillars would speedily bring about their destruction. The Wasp is equal to the occasion, for it suspends its single egg by a fine silken thread to the roof of its nest; here egg and larva are out of harm's way. WTien the larva emerges it can just reach its living food from its suspended position. As it grows older, by a marvellous provision of Nature, the egg-shell unfolds as a kind of ribbon, so that the larva clinging to it can reach food farther away. By the time the larva can no longer reach more food from above, it has grown big and strong enough to descend amongst the remaining Caterpillars without suffering any harm. Odynerus is a genus of insects very similar in appear- ance, but with very varied nesting habits. For the most part they seek out holes and crevices already made. 0. eallosus nests in clay banks; 0. sfinifes has similar habits, but builds a curved, dow^nwardly pro- jecting spout at the entrance. Other species favour door-locks, cotton-reels, disused screw-holes, and the like, and some nest in plant-stems, lining the interior with fine sand. Chrysidice are the " cuckoos '' of Odynerus. The Australian genus Ahisfa constructs immense nests with funnel-shaped entrances. WASPS 255 Species of the genus RhyncMum, for the most part, nest in the pithy stems of plants. Some species, how- ever, build mud nests after the manner of Eumems, and R. hrunneum is said to " obliterate hieroglyphic inscriptions in Egypt by its babit of building mud nests amongst them/' VESPiDiE.— Claws not toothed, mandibles not fur- rowed. There are eight British species of Vespidw, and they build three distinct types of nests, or, to be more correct, they frequent three different situations. Vespa vulgaris, V. rufa, and V. germanica, nest underground; V. arborea, V. sylvestris, and 7. norvegica, build suspended aerial nests, and V. crahro seeks an intermediate site such as a hollow tree or beneath a thatched roof. Our eighth species, F. austriaca, is rare. All the Social Wasps build elaborate though short- lived nests, and the early building is always carried out by a single queen. The material for the comb is all of vegetable origin, which is gathered in the man- dibles of the nest-builders, made into pulp, and cemented with a secretion of the Wasps. " Nearly any oak fence in the open country bears upon it during the summer- time hundreds of marks as if it had been lightly scraped wath the finger-nail; these marks are made by the jaws of wasps.'* The early " queen "-made cells are of finer material than those formed later by the workers. The queen cements a single egg to the upper angle of each of the early cells, and in about a week the larvae emerge. As the Wasp cells are open and inverted, the legless grub keeps some of its hinder segments within the remains of the egg-shell, so that it may not 256 INSECT LIFE fall out. In common with all other Wasps, as opposed to Bees, the larvae are fed upon animal matter in the shape of Green Flies, etc. As growth takes place the cells are added to by the queen. When fully fed the larvae spin a silken cocoon within their shell, and later the perfect Wasp appears. Her first act is to clean herself, and then to visit a well-grown larva, from whose mouth she obtains a drop of liquid food. Her early duties consist in helping the queen to feed the other larvae, but in a day or two she becomes a worker, and sallies forth to hunt for food for the inmates of the nest, or helps to build more cells and thereby enlarge her home. Often there are many thousands of inmates in a Wasp's nest; as many as twelve thousand have been counted at one time, and during a single summer one nest may harbour sixty thousand individuals — • " workers,'' " drones," and " queen." In the nests of our common Wasps there are several guests. The little Fly, Pegomyia inanis, which lays its eggs on the comb, is a useful member of the com- munity. Its larvae devour the Wasp excrement which always collects below the comb. The larvae of another Fly, Volucella sp., visit each cell in turn and feed upon the excrement of the Wasp larvae. The Beetle RMpi- fhorus 'paradoxus is a parasite. " The larva of this beetle is believed to leap upon the bodies of worker wasps when they are gathering woodfibre off the surface of timber. It is thus carried by the returning insects into their nest. It now eats its way into a wasp grub and devours the less important tissues of its host ; when it becomes of such a size as to threaten the life of its unfortunate victim, it passes out through the skin of DIGGER WASPS 257 the wasp grub, plugging the wound with the skin which it itself moults as it issues, and now becomes an ex- ternal parasite upon the same host. It refrains from killing the wasp grub till the latter has spun its cocoon. Eventually the beetle larva completely devours the wasp grub, and accomplishes its own metamorphosis within the cocoon provided for it by its prey/' The genus PoUstes is mainly remarkable for the wonderful colour variations exhibited even by different individuals from the same nest. Polyhia species build neat little pear or apple-shaped nests, and suspend them from the branches of trees or shrubs; each nest is enveloped in Wasp paper, and has one or two more holes for the going and coming of the inmates. Some of these nests are ornamented externally. Chartergus chartarius makes its Wasp paper so solid and compact that it has the appearance of stone. Apoica pallida covers its nest with a specially fine paper skin. Division 3. Fossores, or Digger Wasps. All the Fossorial Wasps are carnivorous, all are solitary, and most of them display such remarkable instinct in their hunting, their nesting, and their provi- sion for the future, that, by their actions, they have drawn to themselves a host of observers and enthusiasts who have made of them a lifelong study. Lest the budding entomologist, on that account, should decide to direct his studies in another channel, we can assure him that much remains to be learned, and no class of insects will better repay the time that is given to their study. 33 258 INSECT LIFE The Fossores are sun-lovers, more so even tlian Butterflies; dry, sandy districts are the favoured haunts of most species, but, naturally, their habits vary — in fact. Sharp places them, according to their habits, in four groups: Parasitic or semi-parasitic species which usurp the nests of other insects; the potters — builders of earthen cells; ground burrowers; and wood-tun- nellers. All the work of tunnelling, building, or bur- rowing is carried out by the females; their mates take but little part in domestic affairs. MuTiLLiDJS. — Females wingless and without ocelli; males winged, ocelli present; tibiae spined; anteuDse thread-like. These insects are often called Cow or Solitary Ants. As is so often the case, both names are inappropriate, for the Mutillids are not Ants. All of them are clothed with a vestment of hair, and there is a standard colour scheme of deep red and black, relieved by white spots which is common to the females of the majority of species. The males are always totally unlike the females; they are winged, active creatures, whereas the females are apterous and sluggish — an uncommon event amongst the Fossores, whose females are usually exceedingly active. But little is known of the habits of these insects. The commonest European species, Mutilla europcea, appears to frequent the nests of Bumble Bees, especially those of Bombus agrorum and B. variabilis. It is probable that the Mutillid larvse are parasitic on the Bee larvae, and that the females feed upon the store of honey. The winged males leave the Bombus nests DIGGER WASPS 259 immediately they emerge. There are three rare British species. Thynnid^. — Females wingless, stout, and thorax divided into three unequal parts; males winged, slender; legs spinous. By some authorities these insects are not separated from the MutillidcB. Most of them are black in colour with some yellow markings. Little is known of their habits, but they are believed to be parasitic on Lepi- dopterous larvsB. The males are so totally unhke the females that in many cases they have been described as different species. The sole British representative of the family, Methoca ichneumonides , is exceedingly rare. ScoLiiD^. — Antennae stout and short; legs stout with compressed and swollen femora and heavily spined tibiae; apical area of wings devoid of nervures. Many of the Scohas are large, powerful insects; most of them are hairy and of a black colour relieved with yellow or red spots and bands. For the most part, males and females are strong on the wing, but there is a curious Central Asian species, Komarovia vidoriosa^ in which the female has minute wings, useless for flight. With few exceptions, these insects are parasitic upon the larvae of Lamellicorn Beetles. Fabre has investi- gated the habits of Scolia bzfasciata, which oviposits on Cetoniid larvae, and of S. interrwpta, a parasite of Melolonthid larvae. These larvae dwell below ground, and it is necessary for the mother Scolia to burrow in order to find her prey. Having done so, she paralyzes it by stinging a particular nerve ganglion on the ventral surface of the larva. This ganglion controls the body movements of the victim, and the Scolia never stings 260 INSECT LIFE till she is able to reach exactly the right spot. Having rendered her victim inert, she deposits a single egg just behind the fore-legs. When the parasite larva hatches, it at once buries its head in the skin of its host and feeds on the non- vital parts. Host and parasite never part company till there is nothing left of the former but an empty skin. EUs 4:-notata is said to depart from the usual Scoliid custom by preying upon Spiders, and still more curious is the story of S. atrata as related by Kirby. This West Indian insect is black, and its reddish wings are tipped with violet. " It is in the habit of provisioning its nest with a large grasshopper. It first digs its nest, and then goes in search of a grasshopper. Having partially disabled it with its sting, it mounts on its back and rides it up to its own grave, where it buries it. If the grave proves to be too small the wasp drives the grasshopper away while it enlarges it as much as is required, and then brings it back to the hole.'' There are but two British Scoliids belonging to the genus Tiphia — small black insects with red-brown legs, Saphygid^. — Closely allied to the ScoUidce ; antennae as long as the head and thorax and slender; legs slender, not spined; males and females winged. A family of which little is known, and that little is open to doubt. We have two British species, Sapyga b-functata, with black males marked with five transverse white spots on the abdomen; the markings of the females are similar, but their abdomens are red. S. clavicornis, our second native species, is black with yellow markings. The former species is said by Fabre to live in the nests of DIGGER WASPS 261 Osmia and to feed upon the stored honey, whilst Smith states that it preys upon Caterpillars. PsAMMOCHARiD^ (till recently known as Pompilidw). — Pronotum reaches the tegulse laterally ; hind-legs long ; eyes elliptic; abdomen oval, attached to the thorax by a short petiole. The Pompilids include some of the largest, most active of the aculeate Hymenoptera. Their long hind- legs indicate the fact that they are probably fleet of foot, and this is the case. They may often be observed running hither and thither over the ground in search of prey. Many species of aculeate Hymencptera, although possessed of stings, are either incapable of piercing the human skin, or at worst they cause a wound which is of temporary duration. The larger Pompilids, some of them three inches in length, are creatures to be dreaded, and a sting from one of them may have really serious consequences. As a family these insects are remarkably uniform in colouring. Rich black with red legs, and sometimes anteimse and wings of beautiful iridescent blue and green sheen, is a general description which applies to many species, especially of the genus Pepsis. In Britain we have thirty species, half of which belong to the genus Pompilus. As a rule, these insects are diggers, using their large approximated coxae to shovel the earth from their burrows, a fact which they accom- plish by coming from their excavations backwards. Having brought the earth to the surface, it is scattered far and wide by their long hind-feet. Certain species, amongst them the British Agenia carbonaria, depart 262 INSECT LIFE from the usual custom and construct vase-shaped mud cells, which they store with insect food for their larvae. An Australian species, Priocnemis hicolor, appears to be a vegetable-feeder — in part, at any rate. This insect seeks a Cicada in the act of sucking sap from a hole which it has punctured in a tree. " The Priocnemis has not the art of making the puncture necessary to procure sap, so the wasp seizes the Cicada and shakes it till it leaves its hold and flies away, when the Priocjiemis takes its place and sips the sap. The wasp never hurts the Cicada." With few exceptions, all the PsammocJiaridce prey upon Spiders, and each species appears to have a special species of Spider prey. Now, Spiders are by no means defenceless creatures, and the Wasps often display considerable ingenuity in their efforts to get the better of their victims. Certain species of Pepsis prey upon the enormous Tarantulas, and the battles between Wasp and Spider do not always terminate in favour of the former. According to Latter, these Wasps are in the habit of training for their encounters. " Frequently two females — note this is no love-dance, for both are females — may be seen to settle down face to face on a patch of sand, to move round and round as though searching for an opportunity to lean over first on one and then on the other side, and from time to time to lash round with their wonderfully flexible abdomens, as though delivering a stab from the venomous sting. In their actual encounters with spiders it behoves them ever to face the enemy, for the poison fangs of the spider are situ- ated at the head end, and it is thus from that quarter DIGGER WASPS 263 that danger tlireatens." The females to which reference is made are of Pompilus viaticus, one of our largest native species, which, with P. rufipes, is common on inland sandy ground. By the coast one may find and observe the habits of another common species, P. plumheus, whose special prey is the Spider Lycosa picta. All the PsammocharidcB are characterized by a wonderful solicitude for progeny they w411 never see and " an acute memory for localities/' Their actions " seem to point to an intelligence higher than mere instinct; tlie insects adapt their conduct to meet various contingencies; they appear to have a definite purpose in view, and that purpose they achieve in a fashion which makes it difficult to deny them at least some glimmering of the reasoning faculty/' Fabre has written of these insects, and every entomologist should read his works. The bearing away by the Wasps of Spiders heavier than themselves, the battles with their prey and their overcoming by stealth, the hiding of their burrows that others may not plunder their stores are all related as only Fabre can tell them. Sphegid^. — Prothorax narrow in front and not produced backwards to the base of the wings; first and sometimes part of the second abdominal segments forming a petiole ; wings short. This is by far the largest family of Fossores, and is usually divided into ten subfamilies. In Britain we have at least ninety species. As with the preceding family, many of the Sphegids and their doings are charmingly described by Fabre, and, risking repetition, we would say again. Read him. Sphegides.— The Sphegides are, for the most part, 264 INSECT LIFE parasitic upon Locustidw ; a few of tliem prey upon Spiders and some upon Caterpillars. The common habit of the genus Spkex is to construct a horizontal burrow about three inches in length; this is continued into a vertical burrow of about the same length, terminated by an oval chamber. The horizontal tunnel forms a shelter and resting-place for the insect; the oval chamber is a nursery for its larva. As soon as the terminal chamber is completed, an Orthopteron is caught, paralyzed, and brought therein and an egg deposited thereon. The chamber is then closed, and a second, third, and even a fourth, are made and similarly stocked. Then the insect starts a new burrow, till it has completed ten such structures; and as its period of activity extends but a month, it is obvious that the female Sfhex labours with unceasing energy. The larvae feed upon the stored Orihoptera and pupate within the subterranean cell. Their cocoons are in- teresting in that they consist of three layers, the inner one being waterproof, to prevent damage to the pupa from the damp earth. There are four species of Ammophila, or sand-lovers, in Britain. They are easily recognized by their elongate red and black bodies. They are burrowers, but they do not use their coxae for removing the earth from their excavations, after the manner of the Pompilids. All their tunneUing is carried out by their powerful man- dibles; the soil is loosened by these organs, and in them carried to the surface. Our largest species is Ammophila sahulosa ; its larvae are nourished upon Caterpillars, two evidently being the normal supply for one larva. After collecting her DIGGER WASPS 265 small store and laying an egg upon one individual, this species covers the mouth of its burrow and leaves its progeny to its fate. The equally common A. campestris, however, does not provide all the larval food at one time, but returns now and again with fresh suppHes of Caterpillars for its growing family. The genus Sceliphron, not unlike the Ammophilas in form, but distinctively banded with yellow and black, possess the curious habit of selecting human habitations for their nesting sites. They build mud cells and store them with Spiders. A South European species, S. spirifex, selects a spot in an open fireplace; the Austra- lian S. Icetus attaches its cells to some article of furniture and decorates them with acacia bark. The Indian S. madraspatanus , which, by the way, feeds its larvse on Caterpillars and not on Spiders, decorates its nest in a peculiar manner with rays of mud, " exactly imitating a lump of mud thrown with some force." Ampulicides.— Closely allied to Sphegides, but all the species have elongated heads and necks, and the petiole is articulated with the thorax ventrally. This is a small but widely distributed subfamily. Many of the species are of gorgeous metallic green or blue colour. They have been studied but little; so far as is known, they prey upon BlattidcB. Bembecides. — ^Very Wasp-like insects, being for the most part black banded with yellow; their bands are always broken in the middle line, and this alone, apart from other more technical characters, at once distin- guishes them from the Wasps. Most species — there are none in Britain — ^prey upon Diftera. They build their nests in loose soil, and they 34 266 INSECT LIFE feed their larvae upon Flies wliich they bring to their nests from time to time. A North American species, Sphecius speciosus, provisions its nest with a paralyzed Cicada. As the Cicada is twice the size of its captor, the latter climbs with its prey to some high elevation before returning to its nest. With this advantage it is able to plane downwards to its destination without undue effort. Philanthides. — Head wider than thorax; inter- mediate tibiae apically armed with one spur; anterior tarsi ciliated. Wasp-like insects, usually of a black and yellow colour. The genus Cerceris preys upon Beetles, and is remarkable for the fact that each Cerceris species preys only upon a certain family of Beetles. Even though the victims be of varied form and colour, these Wasps are never misled as to their prey. Our common British Cerceris arenaria preys upon Weevils; another of our native species, 0. lahiata^ appears to select the " Flea " Beetle Haltica tabida ; whilst C. bupresticida, as may be guessed from its name, confines its attention to the Buprestidce. Certain species prey upon Bees of the genus Halictiis, and Philanthus triangulum is an enemy of the Honey Bee. After having killed its victim, the Wasp so kneads the Bee as to force the honey from its honey sac, and the sweet liquid is greedily imbibed. The Bee is then carried off to the Philanthus nest, a long, deep tunnel in the ground, and an egg is deposited upon its dead body. Mimes IDES. — ^Minute insects with petiolate abdomens; middle tibiae armed with a single spur. DIGGER WASPS 267 These are minute insects which make their nests in hollow stems or in disused galls. Psen concolor preys upon PsylUdce. Our British Peni'phredon lugnhris bores into the decayed wood of beech-trees and stores its nest with Aphidce. Cemonus unicolor takes possession of an old Cynips gall for its home, or the late dwelling of the gall-forming Fly Lifara lucens on the stem of the common reed. Crabronides. — Large, squarehead; prothorax short; antennae often thickened at the apex; hind-tibiae frequently thickened; clypeus hairy. This is by far the largest subfamily of Sphegidw as far as Britain is concerned; there are at least thirty native species. We have mentioned that the hind-tibiae of these Wasps are frequently thickened; even in the British Crabros there are many species with curiously formed legs. Crabro tibialis exhibits swollen tibiae to a re- markable degree; G. gonager has swollen front tibiae; and for the rest, the legs of C. cribrarius^ C. peltarius, G. scutellatiiSj G. clypeatus^ G. inierruptus, G. cetratus, and G. palmamis, will all repay investigation. The uses of these extraordinary modifications have never been explained; but, as they occur only in the males, they are probably secondary sexual characters. The Grabros prey upon Flies. G. leucostomus preys upon the metallic green Ghrysomyia poliia ; G. podagricus upon Gnats; G. dimidiatus upon Bluebottles. Their nesting habits vary. G. quadrimaculatus bores a nest in decayed wood; G. wesmaeli and G. cribrarius burrow in sandy soil. The adult Wasps imbibe the nectar from various flowers, a habit which is shared by species 268 INSECT LIFE of the genus Oxyhelus. This genus also preys upon Diftera, and one species at least, 0. uniglumis, forms an excellent example of " aggressive mimicry/' for it closely resembles its prey. Dark grey with a white- spotted abdomen, this Wasp as it basks in the sun might easily be mistaken for a House-fly. The female makes a short burrow in the soil and stocks it with nearly a score of Fhes, which she catches on the wing after the manner of a hawk, and amongst which she deposits a single egg. Division 4. Formicid^, or Ants. The most distinctive feature of all Ants is the mobile articulation between the thorax and the main portion of the abdomen. Another feature which cannot fail to strike the student is the extraordinary degree of poly- morphism which occurs among these insects, but of this we have spoken elsewhere (p. 30). Some forms are blind: this is never the case with winged forms; others have well-developed eyes and ocelli. Their heads are of variable proportions: in the forms of certain species they can justly be described as minute; other forms have heads apparently out of all proportion to their bodies. From a bionomical point of view no insects surpass the Ants in interest. Many of them are long-lived, so at least they may learn by experience; as a class they have brought the art of living together in a perfect social community to a very high state. They possess one qualification which is not equalled in any human community: each individual works for the good of its colony, never for the benefit of self. ** There can, ANTS 269 indeed, be little doubt that Ants are really not only the ' highest ' structurally or mechanically of all insects, but also the most efficient/' To deal but cursorily with these remarkably interesting insects would require a volume larger than " Insect Life." Professor Wheeler has written an absorbingly interesting book on Ants; it should be read by those who would learn more of Ants than we can tell. Camponotides. — Constriction of the abdomen with a single protuberance (node); no true sting; cloacal opening circular. This is a large subfamily, and contains some of the most interesting species. None of them can sting, but they are able to eject a highly acid fluid to a consider- able distance, a habit which renders them formidable propositions for other animals to attack. By far the largest genus is Cam'ponotus, but it does not contain any exceptionally interesting species and no British representatives. C. ligni'perdus is the largest European species, and the allied American Carpenter Ant, G. pennsylvanicus , whose nests are built in tree- stumps, has been so minutely described by McCook, in his " Notes on the Architecture and Habits of the Pennsylvania Carpenter Ant," that readers who are interested will naturally turn to this account for fuller information. Even a superficial study of Formicidce will reveal wonder upon wonder to the student, and amongst such extraordinary insects as Ants it is difficult to know where to award the palm for ingenuity. Assuredly the Indian Tree Ant, CEco-phylla smaragdina, ranks with the most ingenious, and its doings were for years doubted 270 INSECT LIFE by sober, or shall we say sane, scientists, till eye-wit- nesses of undoubted integrity testified to the truth of the earlier reports. In appearance the insect is remark- able, for it is green — ^the usual Ant colour is brown, black, or red. As (Ecofhylla lives in trees and nests amongst the leaves, its green colour is protective. It is, however, in its nesting habits that this insect is so extraordinary. Selecting several leaves growing in proximity to one another, their edges are brought together and fastened with silk, so that the whole forms a commodious abode for the Ant colony. These nests, which were discovered long before anyone had seen them in the process of construction, gave rise to much wonderment, for no Ant possessed spinnerets or had the power of forming silk. At length the mystery was solved, though the earlier reports were not believed. Nest-making was carried out by a band of Ants working together; having found a group of leaves suited to their purpose, hundreds of workers seized the edges and dragged them together — a feat beyond the powers of a single Ant, or even of a dozen individuals, was accom- plished, after much labour, by hundreds. Next came the most astounding part of the whole performance. When the leaf -edges were drawn together, a second host of Ants appeared, each bearing a larva in its mandibles. These Ants used the larvae as shuttles, applying them, now to one leaf-edge, now to another, and squeezing them gently the while, so that they might give forth the silk which, in normal cii'cumstances would have gone to the making of their cocoons. By this marvellous means the leaf-edges w^ere bound together and the new nest completed. HONEY ANTS 271 Equally interesting are the American Honey Ants, Myrmecocystiis melliger and M. hortideorum. These creatures are provident, and they lay up stores for the inevitable rainy day. Other Ants do likewise, it is true, but none in such a curious manner as the Honey Ants. They live underground, and their nests are always constructed in the neighbourhood of the she- oak, a shrub which bears honey-secreting galls. In the nests a large chamber is constructed, and on its domed roof many individuals hang, suspended upside down, all their lives. By night the workers sally forth to steal the sweet fluid from the she-oak; on their return to the nest they feed the hungry individuals who have remained behind, and the surplus is regurgitated and fed to the individuals suspended from the roof of the larder. The operation is repeated time and again, till the honey-storing individuals become distended out of all proportion — their honey-crops attain the size of a small cherry. When the outside food-supply fails, these living honey-pots yield up their stores to their fellow- Ants, and thus enable the colony to survive periods of stress. Similar habits have been observed in a South African Ant of the genus Plagiolepis and in the Australian MelopJiorus inftatus. The genus Polyrachis contains species of remarkable form and habits. In form they are conspicuous in possessing a number of formidable-looking spines on various parts of their bodies; in habit they are peculiar in that they only form small colonies, sometimes as few as a queen and a dozen workers. The nests of many species are constructed on or within leaves. P. argentea, a beautiful Ant covered 272 INSECT LIFE with silvery pubescence , builds a small nest of vegetable material on some broad tropical leaf; P. rastella bides its nest between two leaves; P. nmyri and P. nidificans construct minute paper-like nests on leaf-surfaces. Of the British Campanotides , the most interesting are Formica rufa and F. sanguinea. The former, variously known as the Wood Ant, Hill Ant, and Red Ant, lives for the most part in pine-woods. It forms a striking contrast to the genus Polyrachis, for its communities are formed of innumerable individuals. Its nest con- sists of a mound of vegetable matter, and frequently of large proportions. The mound is tunnelled by numerous galleries, leading to further galleries in the soil. The Wood Ant is one of the many species partial to Aphides, who supply it with sweet honey-dew. The most remarkable fact, however, concerning this insect is the enormous variety of guests which find a home in its nest. It has been estimated that any one of no fewer than fifty distinct kinds of guests may be met with in the Wood Ant's spacious nest. F. sanguinea, the Blood-Red Slave-making Ant, has been described as the most sagacious and the most courageous of all Ants. Whether it deserves these encomiums is another matter. Although a slave- maker, it is by no means dependent upon slaves, and can well exist without them. Its nests are made in banks, and harbour vast communities. From time to time the warriors sally forth and plunder the nests of F.fusca, F. cunicularia, and Lasius flavus, bearing off the pupse to its own abode. When the pupae hatch, the aliens faithfully serve their owners and carry out most of the duties of the community, for satiguinea is ANTS 273 by nature lazy and has little stomach for anything but fighting and robbing his neighbours. The most notorious slave-maker, however, is the Amazon Ant, Polyergus rufescens, a European but non- British species. This Ant is made for fighting; its mandibles are designed for gripping its enemies to their undoing, and so unfitted are they for any other purpose that their owners cannot even feed themselves. To their slaves these Ants must look for every particle of food. F.fusca and its allied race, F.fusca auncularia, are mainly the individuals whose lot it is to be slaves of the Amazon Ant. The most numerous British genus of the Campanotides is Lasius, and the commonest species are L. flavus, the Yellow Meadow Ant; L. niger, the Black Garden Ant; and L.fuliginosus, the Jet Black Ant. The Yellow Meadow Ant and the Black Garden Ant are subterranean dwellers. They both form under- ground tunnels and galleries of a complex nature; in them they have nurseries, larders, and all the other chambers usual in an Ant community. The Garden Ant is one of the most assiduous guardians of Aphides, from which it obtains a sugary fluid known as honey- dew. Not only does this species frequent the haunts of Aphides, but it tends the subterranean forms as carefully as any farmer tends his cows. ''Many Aphidce exhibit the phenomenon known as alternation of generations — ^that is, there is a winged sexual brood and a wingless asexual brood ; and sometimes the former lives in the open air and the latter at the roots of plants. When, therefore, these ants meet with a winged Aphis about to lay eggs which will produce a 35 274 INSECT LIFE subterranean brood, they first clip ber wings to prevent ber escape, and tben open a way for ber, and guide ber down to tbe roots of tbe grass. But wben winged AphidcB are born in tbeir nests, tbey do not cbp tbeir wings, but open a way for tbem into tbe air, tbat tbey may fly to tbe plants on wbicb tbeir young are to feed, and tbus insure tbe perpetuation of tbe species/' Tbis statement brings us up against an important point in Ant economy. Tbougb few species of Ants can be termed barmful to agriculture in tbemselves, many species, by tbeir pernicious and wonderfully successful babits of cultivating Aphides, Coccidce, and otber noxious insects, are indirectly responsible for consider- able damage. In no case is tbis better exemplified tban in tbe Argentine Ant, Iridomyrmex humilis, wbicb actually constructs sbelters for barmful Scale insects, to protect tbem from tbe elements, and transports tbem from plant to plant as tbe needs of tbeir appetites dictate. DoLiCHODERiDES. — Similar to Campanotides, but all species possess a rudimentary sting. Tbis is a small and little-known subfamily witb but a single Britisb representative, Tapinoma erraticum. Tbis insect is carnivorous in its tastes, and, according to Forel, earns its living by stealtb. It attends tbe combats of otber Ants, and, after tbe encounter, seizes tbe corpse of tbe vanquished for a meal. Sbould tbe need arise for Tapinoma to defend itself it does so by touching its opponent witb tbe tip of its mobile abdomen and simultaneously ejecting a noxious fluid. A European species, Liometopum microcephalum, is more courageous tban its Britisb relative A minute ANTS 275 insect, it lives in huge colonies in the disused burrows of wood-loving Beetles, and attacks other Ant colonies with hosts so countless as to bring about their dis- comfiture. Myrmicides. — Constriction of abdomen with two protuberances (nodes); sting present in most species. Belonging to this subfamily are various species of the greatest biological interest: dwellers in the homes of other Ants, and whose males or females are either aberrant or unknown. Space forbids the description of these Ants. We may mention, however, the British Formicoxenus nitidnlus, which occurs in the nests of Formica rufa ; and Anergates atratulus, a guest of Tetramorium ccespitum. For details of these species the reader is referred to Wheeler's " Ants."' Our commonest British species of the Myrmicides are the native Myrmica rubra and the introduced Mono- morium pharaonis Neither of them is of particular interest, but the latter is a household insect which sometimes swarms in hordes upon human food, especially sugary food. Among the most interesting of the subfamily are the Harvesting Ants, Aflicenogaster structor and A. barbarus, of Southern Europe; A. arenarius of Northern Africa, and Pogonomyrmex barbatus of North America. These Ants possess the uncommon habit of storing their nests with seeds of various kinds, and the last-named species removes the husks from the seeds and stores them on a special heap outside the nest, a proceeding that has given rise to the erroneous report that these Ants plant gardens outside their nests. Some seeds are probably dropped by the Ants, some are carried out with the 276 INSECT LIFE husks, but tliat there is any attempt to sow the seeds has never been shown — in fact, all the efforts of these Ants are designed to prevent the sprouting of the seed taken into their nests; this they do by biting ofi the young roots as soon as they appear. Cremastogaster is a curious genus in that the insects can invert their abdomens over their heads, and thus assume an attitude more fearsome than dangerous, for they possess feeble stings. The genus Atta contains the most injurious and some of the most remarkable species of a remarkable family. They are known as Leaf -Cutting or as I'ungus Ants. For the most part they are tropical insects, of large size, dwelling in enormous colonies. They build sub- terranean nests, and sally forth to do damage to the neighbouring vegetation. This they do so effectively that in some parts of the world all idea of cultivation has been abandoned. Climbing the trees in their thousands, the workers cut pieces of leaf about the size of a threepenny-piece and return with them to their nests. After a raid of this description, many trees in the neighbourhood of an Atta colony are defoliated. The leaves, when removed to the nests, are cut up, rolled into balls, and form the medium on which a fungus, Rozites gongylo'phora , grows. This fungus is most carefully tended, and forms the food of the colony; the spores from which the growth arises are brought to the nest, in the first place, by the queen-mother. The story of the Fungus-Growing Ants forms one of the romances of entomology. Psevdomyrma hicolor^ a South American Ant of attenuated form, has a curious habitat. It dwells in ANTS 277 the thorns of the buirs-horn acacia, which it enters by boring a neat round hole near the base. Its food is supphed by the plant in the form of honey secreted by glands on the leaves. In return for its food and lodging this Ant, which is armed with a formidable sting, drives away Attas and other insects with designs on the leaves of the acacia. PoNERiDES. — Constriction of abdomen with one pro- tuberance (node); abdomen elongated; well-developed sting. This is a large subfamily of which we possess but little reliable information. It includes the Australian Bull-Dog Ants, Myrmecia, armed with well-developed, powerful mandibles, and with stings capable of in- flicting serious wounds. The two British species, Ponera contracta and P. punctatissima , are of but little interest. DoRYLiDES. — Constriction of the abdomen imperfect; abdomen elongate and cylindrical ; antennae inserted near the front margin of the head. These Ants are remarkable for the great differences in form between the females and the workers, and for the non- Ant-like appearance of the males. Another striking feature of the Dorylides is that they are nomadic ; they build no permanent nests, but wander from place to place, a habit the more extraordinary when we learn that the females and workers are blind. Of these Ants, the genus Echiton is confined to the New World, the genus Dorylus to the Old. There is, needless to say, considerable confusion with regard to the systematic position of many members of the Dorylides. As Sharp remarks, fifty or sixty years of 278 INSECT LIFE research has only produced as many females as may be counted on the fingers of one hand. So far as is known, the Driver Ants all have similar habits, wandering from place to place in search of food, and finding temporary shelter in hollow trees or the nests of other Ants. According to Belt, ** They make their temporary habitations in hollow trees and some- times underneath large fallen trunks that offer suitable hollows. A nest that I came across in the latter situa- tion was open at one side. The ants were clustered together in a dense mass, like a great swarm of bees, hanging from the roof, but reaching to the ground below. Their innumerable long legs looked like brown threads binding together the mass, which must have been at least a cubic yard in bulk, and contained hundreds of thousands of individuals, although many columns were outside, some bringing in the pupse of ants, others the legs and dissected bodies of various insects. I was sur- prised to see in this living nest tubular passages leading down to the centre of the mass, kept open, just as if it had been formed of inorganic materials. Down these holes the ants who were bringing in booty passed with their prey. I thrust a long stick down to the centre of the cluster, and brought out clinging to it many ants holding larvse and pupae."' FLEAS 279 CHAPTER VIII SIPHONAPTERA AND DIPTERA ORDER SIPHONAPTERA, OR FLEAS. PuLiciD^. — Wingless insects, laterally compressed. The separation of head from body not conspicuous. An- tennae short and thick in depressions behind and above the eyes; metamorphosis complete. By some authorities these too familiar, blood-sucking insects are placed in three famihes : (i.) SarcopsyllidcB — the Chigoes, (ii.) PulicidcB — true Fleas, (iii.) Ceratopsyllidce — Bat Fleas. The general structure of the common Flea is too well known to need any description. Its hard chitinous covering is proof against all but the most severe squeeze; its powers of leaping are proverbial. " If man had the leaping powers of some fleas, they would bound with ease backwards and forwards over the cross on the top of St. Paul's Cathedral.'' What is not so well known is the fact that nearly fifty different species of Flea are known in Britain. The Flea peculiar to man is Pulex irritans, but other Fleas, notably the Cat Flea, Ctenocephalus felis , Bouche, and the Dog Flea, C. canis, Curt., are by no means averse to a meal of human blood. 280 INSECT LIFE The human Flea lays her eggs, a few at a time, in the dusty corners of houses, and in a few days the larvae emerge. They are white and thread-like, and are furnished on their heads with a thin, knife-edged plate, which serves as an egg-opener. By rubbing the cutting edge against the egg-shell, the larvae split the walls of their temporary prison. The legless larvae moult several times during their short existence, feeding the while on decayed organic matter. When fully fed they spin cocoons, and after the lapse of a few more days the adult emerges. Certain Fleas appear to confine themselves to definite species of hosts, others are more catholic in their tastes. A study of the distribution of these parasites on their varied hosts is highly instructive: certain very closely related animals harbour different Flea species; other unrelated animals are hosts for the same species of parasite. The anatomical structure of Fleas affords most interesting study. They are beautifully adapted for crawHng through the furry coats of their hosts. The combs, toothed structures which occur on the heads of these insects, are used as additional aids in holding the host fur, and analogous structures are found on certain parasitic FHes and Beetles. All the Bat Fleas are blind, so also is the common Mouse Flea, Leftofsylla muscuU, Duges. In these blind Fleas a spine often takes the place of the eye. The antennae of Fleas are also well adapted to their mode of life. They fit into grooves at the side of the insect's head, so that when the Flea is crawling through FLEAS 281 closely growing hair its antennse do not impede its progress. More truly parasitic tlian our common Flea is the Chigoe, Dermatophilus penetrans of South America. The female of this species burrows into the flesh of her host, a human being or some other mammal, and, being pregnant, swells to the size of a small pea, causing considerable pain and inflammation. The hinder parts of the insect project from the burrow she has made in her host's flesh, so that her eggs are laid outside the wound. After oviposition the Chigoe dies and shrivels up. The "Plague'' Flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, Eothsch., a subtropical species, but not unknown in Britain, and the common Eat Flea Ceratophyllus fasciatus, Bosc, are notorious as the carriers of the bacilli of plague from rats to man. The common human Flea, Pulex irritans, is also capable of transmitting the malady, but under natural conditions it is unlikely that it ever does so. The Bat Fleas all breed in the haunts of their hosts, and the larvae live upon their excrement. All of these Fleas are well provided with combs, not only upon their heads, but upon their abdomens. They are thus well provided with miniature grapphng irons to enable them to retain their hold on the active Bats. None of them are common, and their want of eyes is not surprising, seeing that their hosts are nocturnal. 36 282 INSECT LIFE OEDER DIPTERA, OR FLIES. The Diftera have two membranous, transparent, non- scaly wings (except some of the Mosquitoes, whose wings bear scales). Behind the wings are a pair of knobbed structures, resembling pins, called poisers, balancers, or halteres. The halteres are hidden by membranous shields, called " squamae ,"" and Flies possessing these structures are said to be calypterate. Mouth-parts adapted for sucking; metamorphosis com- plete. This large order, the largest of all, is very well defined; there are few other insects, except Diptera or true FHes, which are two- winged. A celebrated entomolo- gist has estimated that there are probably three hundred and fifty thousand species. In addition, Flies are undoubtedly the most highly organized of all the Insecta. In colouring the true Flies cannot, as a whole, vie with the Moths and Butterflies, Beetles, or even Bugs; nevertheless, some of them are of brilliant metallic sheen and many are pleasing to the eye. In the main they are inimical to man; it is true that many are excellent scavengers, some keep harmful insects in check, but others transmit some of our deadliest diseases. Malaria, yellow fever, and sleeping sickness are all Fly-transmitted diseases. Others, again, are pests of the farm— the Crane Fly, Frit Fly, Onion Fly, and the Celery Fly, to wit. With anatomical structures we are not concerned, but there are some points which can hardly be lightly passed over. Practically the whole of the head in these FLIES 283 insects is occupied by tlie large compound eyes. In some species it will be found tbat the eyes of certain individuals are well separated, in the middle line above the head; in other individuals the eyes almost touch one another — the former are the females, the latter the males. There are, of course, many species in which the compound eyes show no difference in separation in the sexes. Fio. 13.— House Fly. L, Head and anterior part of thorax (X about fifteen times); At, A, Spiracle on thorax; F, antennae; Kt, maxillary palpi; R, proboscis; A, compound eye. The antennae are important, and much of the classi- fication of Diftera is founded upon the structure of these organs. In some families, the CeciiomyiidcB^ or Gall Gnats, for example, the antennae are relatively long and filamentous; in other families of the same group the antennae of the males only are heavily feathered; this afEords a ready means of distinguishing the sexes. The mouth-parts of Diftera show considerable variety, and, with the antennae, are important from a systematic 284 INSECT LIFE point of view. Whetlier designed for piercing, as in tlie Mosquitoes, or soft and fleshy, as in tlie House Fly, they are all adapted for sucking liquid food. The Bot Flies provide the inevitable exception, for the majority of them have mouths so atrophied as to be useless for imbibing nourishment. The wings are, probably, more used by systematists than any other organs in classifying Diptera. The arrangement of the veins and nervures is very characteristic in the majority of families, and forms an infallible guide to the correct position of the owner. The larvae of Flies are all legless. Many of them possess spines or protuberances, which enable them to move from place to place to a limited extent. Com- pared with the larvae of many Moths, or even of some Beetles, those of Flies are relatively stationary. Some Dipterous larvae are aquatic, and in such cases they possess remarkable adaptations for their especial mode of life. None are more remarkable in this respect than the so-called " rat-tailed maggots " of the common Drone Fly, Eristalis tenax, a common denizen of stagnant water in this country. Pupae of Diftera are of two kinds — the one very closely akin to the pupa of Lepidoptera, the other simply formed of the hardened, shrunken larval skin. The former is typical of the OrthorrhapJia^ though it also occurs elsewhere; the latter is confined to the Cyclor- rhafha. FLIES 285 Series 1. Orthorrhapha Nemocera. Flies witli pupse akin to those of Lepidoptera and filamentous antennse. CEcrooMYiro^.— Small, delicate Flies. Long an- tennae with hirsute whorls; wings usually three-veined, the hinder vein being forked; no apical spurs on the tibiae. The members of this family are known as Gall Flies, or Gnats, because many of them deposit their eggs in various organs of living plants, and the larvae which hatch out of the eggs cause the plant tissues to swell and become malformed. The most notorious of these minute insects is the Hessian Fly, Mayetiola destructor, a very serious pest of wheat, which, in America, destroys as much as fifty per cent, of the crop in bad years. This unwelcome ahen received its popular name because it was thought to have been introduced into America in the bedding of Hessian troops during the war of the Kevolution. The actual damage caused by this pest arises from the fact that the eggs are placed at the junction of leaf and stem. The larvae, when they come into the world, eat the wheat, causing a weak spot, with the result that the upper part of the stem breaks. Although the family is large, there is very little authentic information on the subject of its members. The most striking fact about these FHes, apart from their gall-making propensities, is that certain of the larvae exhibit the remarkable phenomenon of paedo- genesis (see p. 20). Another peculiarity is the posses- sion of a so-called '' breast-bone " by the larvae of some 286 INSECT LIFE species. The use of this structure is not quite clear; it is probably connected witb locomotion. Mycetophilid^. — Larger tban the Gall Flies; wings more veined; no hirsute whorls on antennae; ocelli pres- ent; and a pair of apical spurs on the apex of each tibia. From their habit of breeding in decaying fungi — though some species select other putrid vegetable or animal matter — these Flies are called Fungus Gnats. More than a hundred species are known in Britain, and the little maggots so frequently encountered in mush- rooms are members of the family. The larvae of Fungus Gnats are more elongated than is usual with Dipterous grubs. Many of them have particularly interesting habits. The larvae of Sciara militaris migrate from time to time in enormous numbers in search of food. " Millions of the larvae accumulate and form themselves, by the aid of their viscous mucus, into great strings or ribbons, and then glide along like serpents; these aggregates are said to be sometimes forty to a hundred feet long, five or six inches wide, and an inch in depth." The New Zealand Glow- Worm is the larva of a Fungus Gnat, Boletophila luminosa. Not only is the larva luminous, but the Fly exhibits this peculiarity. CuLiciD^. — Wings long and slender, veins bear flattened scales; larvae aquatic. The Gnats or Mosquitoes are among the most im- portant of all insects. Most of them are annoying to man, many are harmful. There are about a dozen species in Britain. In the popular mind the Mosquito is a creature more to be feared than the Gnat — in reality they are one and the same thing. MOSQUITOES 287 One of tlie most remarkable facts concerning the Mosquitoes is revealed by a study of their geographical distribution. While some species are confined to limited areas, there are many species of very wide distribution. The common British Mosquito, Culex pipiens, L., is equally common in many parts of Asia. Of the disease-carrying Mosquitoes, the most notorious are the Yellow Fever Mosquito, Stegomyia fasciata ; the Spotted Winged Mosquito, Anopheles maculipennis ; and other members of the genus; and Culex fatigans. The Yellow Fever Mosquito, sometimes called the Tiger Mosquito, on account of its characteristic markings, is, as its name implies, the carrier of yellow fever. Mos- quitoes of the genus Anopheles^ recognized from Culex and Stegomyia by their spotted wings, convey malaria ; Culex fatigans ^ and probably other species, carry filaria (minute Worms) which cause elephantiasis. It is a peculiarity of Mosquitoes that they are most active towards evening; this is exceptional amongst the Diptera, for most of them are lovers of sunshine. The habit is not without its advantages, because it has been proved that it is possible to work and live in a malaria-stricken area and yet remain perfectly healthy, provided one retires within Mosquito-proof shelters at sundown, remaining there till morning. The trans- mission of disease is carried out by the females only, for they alone suck blood. In many cases the mouth- parts of the males are too feeble to puncture the skin. We have mentioned that the larvae and pupae of Mosquitoes are aquatic; as a consequence the females lay their eggs in water, and the various species exhibit a wide choice of breeding-places. Stegomyia, for in- 288 INSECT LIFE stance, might almost be termed a domestic insect The females deposit their eggs in various receptacles near dwelling-houses; in collections of water at the bottom of disused cans, in the hollow bottoms of up- turned bottles — anywhere, in fact, where there is a little water. There are Mosquitoes which breed in puddles by the roadside; their eggs are liable to come to a bad end in dry countries, owing to the evaporation of the water. Some provision, however, is made against such an untoward event by the life-cycles of these species being completed very rapidly. Most of these insects breed in ponds or fairly extensive sheets of water, but they usually select some sheltered part where their eggs are not likely to be disturbed. The eggs of the various genera exhibit remarkable differences. Some species lay their eggs singly, and they float so on the surface of the water; the eggs of other species sink to the bottom of the water. All the members of the genus Culex lay eggs in large numbers, and seal them together with their blunt ends, from which the larvae emerge, downwards. These egg- masses are known as " rafts." The eggs of Anofheles are laid singly, but they usually accumulate in clusters. Each egg is characterized by a pair of lateral floats containing air. The larvae are peculiar, almost pin-shaped creatures, which wriggle actively in the water, and either remain near the surface or come up constantly to obtain air. Although aquatic, these larvse cannot obtain the air they require from the gases dissolved in the water, after the manner of fish. This fact has been utilized in their control, and by covering the surface of Mosquito- MOSQUITOES 289 frequented ponds with paraffin, millions of the larvae are killed. Respiration is carried out by means of a tube situated on the last abdominal segment, and the larvae constantly thrust the tip of this tube above the surface of the water to obtain the air they require. The pupae are comma-shaped creatures bearing a pair of trumpet-shaped breathing-tubes on the thorax. When the Mosquitoes are about to emerge, the pupal skin splits down the back, setting free the perfect insect, which usually rests awhile on the floating skin it has just vacated before taking to flight. CHiKONOMm^.— Small, fragile, Mosquito-like FHes, without the projecting mouth-parts so characteristic of the last family. The Midges are a larger, though less economically important, family than the Mosquitoes. The females are persistent blood-suckers, but, so far as is known, they do not transmit any disease, unless future researches show certain species of Ceratopogon to be the vectors of pellagra in the Nile Delta. The larvae of this family are not all aquatic; those of Ceratopogon bipunctatus, for example, live under moist bark. The larvae of Chironomus, the Harlequin Fly, of which genus there are more than two hundred species in Britain, are water-dwellers, but they differ markedly from Mosquito larvae. Owing to their intense red colour, due to haemoglobin, they are known as *' blood-worms. "" Haemoglobin possesses the property of absorbing the free oxygen in water and passing it on to the living individual as required. On this account the Blood- Worms are able to spend their time in the mud at the bottom of ponds without the necessity of 37 290 INSECT LIFE coming to tlie surface to breathe, after the manner of Mosquito larvae. The pupae of the aquatic species are comma-shaped, though not so markedly so as are those of Mosquitoes. The pupa of the " Splay-Footed '' Midge, Tanypus, might easily be mistaken for a Culicid; the Harlequin Fly pupa is easily recognized by possessing a pair of tufts of white, respiratory filaments, in place of the trumpet- shaped breathing- tubes common to Mosquitoes. The Horned Midge, Ceratopogon bicolor, so called because of the single protuberance which occurs on the hinder part of the thorax in the perfect insect, has a long, eel-like larva, measuring about half an inch. Its pupa is not curled into a comma shape, though it possesses the usual pair of trumpet- shaped breathing- tubes. This is a common British Midge. PsYCHODiD^. — Small, fragile Flies, resembling minia ture Moths . Bodies , wings , and antennae thickly clothed with hair. These insects are known as Sand Flies or Moth Flies, on account of their hairy covering; there are about fifty species in Britain. Most of the larvae are peculiar in that they are adapted for life either in water or on land; they have tracheal gills and spiracles. The larvae of the purely land- dwellers live in various substances such as dry cow- dung, rotten potatoes, and the like. The aquatic larvae either frequent pools or running streams, and the latter forms are possessed of sucker-like organs by which they anchor themselves to some support that they may not be carried away by the current. There is a South European species, Phlebotomus CKANE FLIES 291 fappataci, wliicli of late has earned considerable notoriety by reason of its carrying to man tbe un- known germs of a very infectious disease, variously known as " three-day/' " sand-fly/' or " pblebotomus " fever. D1XID.E. — Flies with three forked veins in the outer half of each wing, and two cross- veins. Larger than any of the preceding species. These Flies are not of any great interest, but they are mentioned here because they form a natural link in the chain of families between the species already mentioned and those to be mentioned. They occur in damp, well- wooded spots; the larvae and pupae are aquatic, and the perfect insects do not bite. The immature species might easily be mistaken for those of an Anopheles Mosquito. There are four British species of the single genus Dixa which comprises the family. TiPULiD^. — The middle of the upper side of the thorax marked with a distinct V-shaped groove; wing venation complex. The largest Flies of the Nemocera are all possessed of exceedingly long legs. The Crane FKes, or Daddy-long-legs, are well known to everyone. They claim our attention for several reasons. The family contains the most primitive forms of living Diptera ; many species, notably the Chinese Tifula hrohdignagia, are of considerable size. There are a great number of forms which, superficially, bear little resemblance to the typical Crane Fly. Some, in fact, are wingless. Their habits are as varied as their forms; one species dwells in deep mines, and many species can only flourish at low temperatures. The common Daddy-long-legs, Tipula oleracea, is so 292 INSECT LIFE well known that a description of it is unnecessary. One scientist has aptly termed it a silly insect, and certainly these clumsy creatures appear to fly about our rooms and gardens without any apparent object. When handled, they lose their legs as readily as certain of the long-legged, so-called Harvest Spiders; further- more, the loss of these limbs seems to cause them but little inconvenience. The female lays from two to three hundred eggs, as she flies vertically over the ground. The larvae bury themselves in the soil, and feed upon the roots of grasses, etc., doing a considerable amount of damage. When fully fed they are repulsive, earth-coloured creatures about an inch long, and with such tough skins that they have earned the name ** leather jackets." The pupae might easily be mistaken for those of some Moth? were it not for the pair of breathing- tubes which project from the head like a pair of horns. When the FHes are about to emerge, the pupae wriggle to the surface of the soil by means of the backwardly projecting spines with which they are armed. When their heads are well free of the soil they stop their efforts to travel fiu-ther, the pupal case sphts, and the Daddy-long-legs is free. Though many larval TipuUdce are earth- dwellers, some are aquatic, and possess remarkable elongated breathing filaments. An American Bittacomor'pha has these tailed larvae and pupae, and a British Ptycho'ptera has equally peculiar pupae. BiBiONiD^. — Antennae short, thick, and straight; ocelli present. Front tibiae often swollen or furnished with a long spine or a circlet of spines. Colours of the sexes frequently vary. BUFFALO GNATS 293 The March Flies (they usually appear in the spring) are uninteresting, sluggish, hairy creatures. None of them are good fliers. Their greatest claim to notice lies in their Caterpillar- like larvae, with distinct horny heads — ^unusual among the Diptera ; the fact that males and females of the same species are frequently of different colours — these colour differences occur all over the world; and in the peculiar structure of the compound eyes of the males, consisting of a large, hairy upper portion and a much smaller, differently faceted lower portion. SiMULiiD^. — Small, thick- set, hump-backed Flies. Wings broad; antennse short and of the same width throughout their length, not hairy. From their peculiar hump-backed appearance, these Flies are known as Buffalo Gnats, owing to a supposed resemblance to the buffalo; they are also called Black Flies and Sand Flies — an unfortunate name, because it is also applied to the Moth Flies. There is only one genus (Simulium) in the family, and the females of all the species are persistent blood-suckers. In seasons favourable to the Flies they appear in enormous num- bers, and attack domestic animals and even man. Unlike Mosquitoes, they bite by day; unlike these insects, also, they live, during their immature stages, in swiftly running, well-aerated water. The life-history of a typical Simulium is one of the most romantic among the Diptera. The females appear in the spring and haunt swift-running streams in search of suitable places for egg-laying. Hovering for a moment above some slightly submerged rock, over which the water is flowing, the mother Fly will suddenly 294 INSECT LIFE dart downwards and deposit lier eggs upon tlie rock. Owing to their jelly-like covering, the eggs adhere to the spot where they are deposited. The larvae are curious, somewhat elongated creatures with a sucker foot at the hinder end, by which they support them- selves in a vertical position on the rock. On the first segment there is another sucker-lilce protuberance; on the head there are a pair of fan- shaped, plumose struc- tures whose function appears to be to waft food material towards the mouth. For long periods the larvae do not move from their original positions; when, however, they desire to do so, they progress by a looping movement similar to that of a Looper Caterpillar, by attaching themselves to the rock with their forward and hind suckers alternately. In case of failure to obtain a firm hold of their support, they would be carried away on the stream, were not provision made against such an event. From their mouth -^ they spin a thin but strong life-line, and attach the free end to the rock; forced, by accident or alarm, to release their hold of their support, they remain suspended on the life-line till the danger be passed, when they haul themselves back again to their resting-place. When pupation is about to take place, the larva spins a slipper or pouch-shaped nest, either on the rock or on the submerged leaf of some water-plant. Within the pouch, its head alone projecting, the pupa dwells till such time as the Fly is ready to emerge. From the head of each pupa there project a pair of filamentous, branched gill filaments, which serve for respiration. As the time for the emergence of the Fly draws near, a tiny bubble of air collects within the pupal pouch. BUFFALO GRATS 295 In this bubble the Simulium leaves its pupal skin, shakes the bubble free, and, within it, rises to the surface of the water without wetting its wings. The SimuUdcB are widely distributed, being practically cosmopolitan. The commonest British species are Simulium elegans and S. sericeum. In this country they never appear in such enormous numbers as in warmer climates. Obnoxious as the Buffalo Gnats are to cattle, they are also more than suspected of trans- mitting pellagra from man to man. This disease, common in Italy and spreading in America, is not by any means unknown in Britain. Series 2. Orthorrhapha Brachycera. Flies with pupse akin to those of Lepidoptera, and antennae usually composed of one, two, or three seg- ments, with a terminal appendage. Stratiomyid^. — Antennae three-jointed, often with an arista ; tarsi with small terminal appendages ; scutel- lum frequently spined. The members of this family are so variable that it is difficult to find a simple, non- technical description which will apply to all. The name Stratiomys means '* Armed Fly," so called on account of the pair of spines on the scutellum. All the species, however, do not possess these spines. In America they are called Soldier Flies, because of the bright colouring of some species. The most extraordinary species are those whose larvae live in the hot springs of Wyoming. So hot is the water in these springs that the discoverer of the 296 INSECT LIFE larvae was unable to keep his hands immersed. Tlie larvae of many species are truly aquatic, but those of other species frequent the soil, moss, decaying wood, and Ants' nests; all of them appear to prefer damp places. Of the thousand odd species in the world, more than fifty occur in Britain; of these, the commonest is the Chameleon Fly, Stratiomys chameleon. The Chameleon Fly is a Bee-like creature, black with yellow markings. The female lays her eggs in clusters on the under- sides of water-plantain leaves, at a point above the water-level. As soon as the larvae emerge, they make their way into the water. They are elon- gated creatures, and their tails terminate in a circlet of hairs; in the centre of the circlet the spiracles are situated. The larvae float head downwards in the water, with their tails supported on the surface by the hairs. When alarmed, they wriggle downwards, retain- ing a bubble of air in their caudal appendages. Pupa- tion takes place either in or out of the water. In the former case the pupa floats on the surface, encased in the last larval skin. LEPTiDiE. — Antennae three-jointed and terminated by a bristle; squamae small or rudimentary; at least one pair of tibiae furnished with distinct spurs at the apex of the inner side. Known as Snipe Flies, the Leptidce bear a close resemblance to the Robber Flies. They are of sluggish habit when adult, and the predaceous larvae live in water, earth, or decaying wood, according to the species. About a score of species are known in Britain, the most frequently encountered being Leptis scolopacea. The larvae of Vermileo degeeri, a common European GAD FLIES 297 species, construct pitfalls after the manner of Ant- Lion larvae (see p. 130). Another British species of curious habit is Atherix ibis. A female will deposit her eggs on the tip of some branch overhanging a pond, and, having done so, will cling to the egg- mass and die. Other females of the species do likewise, till, in time, a bunch of considerable dimensions is formed of dead Flies and their eggs. Eventually the mass falls into the water, the eggs hatch, and the larvae are set free. Tabanid^. — Antennae four-jointed, the second very small, the third annulated; squamae very large; tibiae with terminal spurs on at least one pair. With the exception of the Muscidce and GulicidcB, the Horse Flies, Gad Flies, Breeze Fhes, Cleggs, and Deer Flies, as the Tahanidw are variously termed, are by far the most important family of Diptera. They are powerful fliers, and the females are so bloodthirsty and so well armed for the purpose that, in the larger species at any rate, they are capable of inflicting serious wounds. The larvae of all the species are predaceous, feeding upon soft-bodied insects and worms. They are charac- terized by their cylindrical shape, pointed at either end, and surrounded with prominent rings. Some are aquatic, but the land-dwelling species appear to favour damp places. The adult Flies also frequent the neigh- bourhood of water, not only for breeding purposes, but because they are great water-drinkers. Our largest British species, Tabanus hovinus, is a formidable-looking nearly black Fly, with the ventral surface of its abdomen of a reddish hue; well-grown specimens are fully an inch in length. 38 298 INSECT LIFE The genus Hcematopota contains several British species, all of them bloodthirsty creatures which do not hesitate to bite man. All the species of Chrysops are beautifully marked, usually yellow and black Flies, about the size of the common House Fly. Their beauty is enhanced by the brilliancy of their eyes while they are alive. They are no less bloodthirsty than other members of the family. The Tahanidce are well represented in Britain, seeing that we have five genera and nearly a score of species. The most remarkable genus is Pangonia, widely distributed, though not known in Britain. The males live upon nectar, but the females of several species have long, needle-like proboscides, about four times the length of the insect's body, and capable of piercing clothing. These and other Tahanidce are the prey of Bembex. ScENOPiNiD^. — Small, non-hairy Flies. Antennae three-jointed, without any terminal appendage; the third joint longer than the others. The Window Flies form one of the smallest famihes of Di'ptera, and little appears to be known about them. Our common Window Fly, Scenopinus fenestralis , L., is a metallic-black insect, frequently found on windows, as its specific name indicates. Its larvae are predaceous and live under carpets and in dusty places; they are supposed to prey upon the larvae of Carpet Moths, though proof of this assertion is still wanting. BoMBYLiiD^. — Bodies fringed with or clothed with hair; wings usually mottled or banded; antennae three- jointed. The Bee Flies cannot very well be mistaken for any other Diptera on account of their characteristic hirsute PLATE LXXIir ^f A GROUP OF DIPTF.RA Xos. 2. fi, 8 and U are Robber flics ; No. -1, Pai>!/ni,ia ^p. ; No. 5, the larpe British Gadfly ; No. 7, Male Stalk-eyed fly ; No 1(1, Femrde of the same species ; Xos. 9 an J U', IJritisli Bee flies. BEE FLIES 299 covering. Though the family is large, but few species are found in Britain, Bombylius major being the most remarkable in appearance and in habit. Though possessed of formidable-looking mouth-parts, none of the species are blood-suckers. In the main, the Bee Flies are beneficial. Several species are known to devour the eggs of Locusts, some species are parasitic upon Bees. Fabre described the relationship between the Bombylid Argyromoeba tri- fasciata and the Mason Bee Chalicodoma muraria. The female Fly deposits an egg on the structure built up by the Mason Bee as a home for its family. From the Dipterous egg a minute, worm-like larva emerges. For more than a fortnight this larva remains quite motion- less, then begins the hunt to find a crack in the masonry through which to gain admittance to the interior. At length a way is found, usually at the time when the Bee grub is almost ready to pupate. When once inside the Bee's home, the Fly larva casts its skin and appears in a new form, well fitted for the object it has in view — ■ namely, to feed upon the Bee pupa without killing it. The mouth of trifasciata is merely a sucker, which is applied to the soft skin of the Hymenopterous pupa. At the end of a fortnight the pupa is sucked dry and the larva is fully fed. To be replete yet incapable of escape from confinement is hardly an enviable position, yet the larva is in such case. Patience is second nature with the larva. It displayed marvellous patience in its attempts to penetrate the Bee-made masonry; it dis- plays equal patience in this second emergency, waiting in a quiescent larval state till the following spring, when it again moults and appears as a pupa well fitted 300 INSECT LIFE for its task. Its large head is armed with six formidable spines, its tail is provided with horns, and its body is clothed with backwardly directed bristles. The horns and bristles prevent the creature slipping backwards during its efforts to escape. Curving itself into a C-shape, it suddenly unbends and strikes its head against its prison walls. Eventually the wall is broken down, the pupa wriggles about till it fills the cavity which has been formed by its own exertions, the pupal skin bursts, and the Fly escapes. AsiLiDuE. — ^Flies with large, hard beaks tipped with stiff bristles. Feet and claws large; squamae absent; strongly built and hairy; antennae three-jointed, with a terminal appendage. This is one of the largest Dipterous families, containing more than three thousand species. Though the species assume varied forms, from short, stumpy, very hairy Flies to long, delicate, almost Midge-like individuals, there is a family likeness which cannot be mistaken. The AsilidcB are known, and rightly so, as Kobber Flies. An American entomologist says: *' These flies are inhuman murderers. They are savages of the insect world, putting their captives to death with merciless cruelty. Their large eyes, divided into such a multitude of facets, probably give them the most acute and accurate vision for espying and seizing their prey; and their long, stout legs, their bearded and bristly head, their whole aspect, indicates them to be of a predatory and ferocious character. Like the hawk, they swoop upon their prey, and grasping it securely between their fore-feet, they violently bear it away." The Robber FHes are all exceedingly voracious; their KOBBER FLIES 301 prey is captured on tlie wing, and immediately tlie lancet-like mouth-parts are plunged into the body of the victim and held in place by the stiff bristles which clothe the tip of the beak. Their prey consists of Flies, including those of their own species. Bees, Wasps, Beetles, Moths, Butterflies, Grasshoppers, and even powerful Dragon-flies. A striking peculiarity about many of these Flies is that they frequently closely mimic the insects upon which they prey. One Bee-hunting species even goes so far as to have its hind-tibise so modified that they Besemble the pollen-carrying hind-legs of Bees. This aggressive mimicry, as it is sometimes called, is of great service to the Robber Flies; it enables them to fly amongst their victims without arousing suspicion, and their prey is thus the more easily captured. Although the adult Asilidce are totally unlike the adult Tahanidce, and the two families are but distantly related, their larvae are so similar that it is almost impossible to say definitely to which family they belong. Empid^. — Flies with small globular heads; antennse three-jointed, the third joint being long and pointed; legs long and often hairy. A large family of unimportant, uninteresting creatures, called Dance Flies, on account of their curious jerky flight. There are at least two hundred species in Britain, and they usually frequent well-wooded districts. The males of certain species possess the curious habit of carrying webs of some sticky substance during their dancing flights; the precise use to which these webs are put has never been ascertained. It has been suggested that they act as parachutes or aid in the capture of 302 INSECT LIFE prey. One observer stated that the females, when selecting a mate, always decided upon the male with the largest web. Series 3. Cyclorrhapha Aschiza. Flies with pupa-cases formed of the hardened larval skin and no arched suture over the antennae of the adults. PiPUNCULiD^. — Small Flies with globular heads, covered almost entirely by the two large compound eyes. Antennae very short, bearing a long, non- terminal bristle. For want of a better name, these insects have been called Big-Eyed Flies. The family is a small one, and it has not received very much attention from entomolo- gists. About a dozen species are known in Britain. The larvae of some species are parasitic on the Homoptera, that of Pipunculus fuscipes attacking certain Jassidce. CoNOPiDuE. — Flies with large heads and three- jointed antennae, placed close together on a slight protuberance. The family consists of two divisions — (a) Conopince, with long antennae terminated by a small bristle; (6) MyopincB, with shorter antennae, the third joint possessing a non-terminal hair. The life-histories of the " Thick-Headed " FHes have not been fully elucidated. It is certain that many of the ConopincB, and probably also of the Myopince, are parasitic on Hymenoptera. Exactly how they attack their hosts does not seem clear. Some observers state that the Flies deposit their eggs in the bodies of the larval or pupal Hymenoptera ; others aver that the eggs are deposited upon the bodies of the adult hosts. One PLATE LXXIV •' ^'^ifc^'^^ ^^Jf^ f ^ -i^- BRITISH FLIES Nos. 1, 2 and 4, Bee flies; Nos. 3 and 10. Blow flies ; No. 5, Robber fly ; No. 7, Drone fly ; No. 8, Cheilo!>i(i Jpucorum; No. 9, Flesh fly ; Nos. 11 and 15, Horn flies; No. 12, Housefly; No. 13, Golden-eyed Gadfly; No 11, Green-bottle; No. 16, FJiinma xp. ; No 17, Horn flv. HOVER FLIES 303 fact is clear: the parasitic Flies always make their appearance from the bodies of adult Hymenoptera. Syrphid^. — Moderately large, usually flat-bodied Flies. Many of them mimic Bees and Wasps. Short, three-jointed antennae, with a non-terminal bristle; squamae never entirely covering the halteres. The HoVer Flies comprise one of the largest families of Diptera, and certainly the most important of the Cyclorrhapha Aschiza. They are as well known as the common House Fly; it is impossible to go into any garden or sunny glade on a bright summer day without observing numbers of these insects hoverio^ hawk-like above some favoured blossom. There is no more interesting family of Flies than the Syrphidw. Some species afford excellent examples of protective mimicry; at a casual glance these Flies may resemble Social or Solitary Wasps, Honey-Bees, Bumble Bees, and the like. One species, closely resembhng the Honey Bee, is wont to deposit its eggs in decaying animal matter. Seeing that no Honey Bee has ever been known to select such a site for its nest, there is good reason to suppose that this mimicking Hover Fly is the insect referred to in the Old Testament story of Samson. While most of the Syrphids are flat- bodied, yellow-banded Flies, some have elongated bodies, and some are of a metallic -green colour. The adult Hover Flies all feed upon pollen; their larvae are of most diverse habits. Some are aquatic — for example, Eristalis tenax and Myiatropa florea, both common in Britain; some live in Bees' and Wasps' nests — of these, Volucella inanis is well known in this country; some, and they are the useful members of the family, 304 INSECT LIFE are predaceous upon Green Fly. Nearly every garden will show these individuals busy among the Aphids; Syrphus seleniticus is a species frequently met with. On the other hand, there are injurious species in the genus Merodon, the Narcissus Fly, M. equestris, being responsible for considerable damage to bulbs. Most anomalous of all, however, are the larvae of the genus Microdon, which live in Ants' nests, and are so unlike insect larvae that their appearance has deceived scientists, and they have been described as molluscs. The larva of the Drone Fly, E. tenax, is known as the " rat-tailed " maggot. The Fly, a creature of the sun and a lover of sweet-scented flowers, lays her eggs on the surface of liquid manure or of some evil-smelling, stagnant water. The larvae, when they emerge, crawl about on the bottom of the liquid, feeding upon the decaying matter, and keeping in touch with the air by means of their curious, telescopic tails. The full-grown larva measures about two-thirds of an inch long ; its tail can be extended to as much as five inches. At the tip of the tail is a circlet of bristles, and within the circlet are the spiracles, in communication with the maggot's respiratory apparatus. As the creature passes from one part to another of its liquid home, it contrives to keep this circlet of hairs always floating on the surface ; this it does, within limits, by extending its tail as the liquid becomes deeper, and contracting it when a shallower place is reached . Pupation usually takes place in the soil . The Hover Flies of the genus Volucella mimic Bees and Wasps. It was once thought that their larvae preyed upon Hymenoptera, but observation showed that the Flies were by no means unwelcome visitors. V inanis BOT FLIES 305 mimics tlie common Wasp; its eggs are laid in Wasps* nests, and its larvae act as scavengers in their strange home, passing from cell to cell and devouring the excrement of the immature Wasps. V. homhylans^ another common British Hover Fly, mimics the Bumble Bee, and its larvae also act as scavengers. Of what use, if any, the larvae of Microdon are to Ants has not been ascertained. Observers have stated that the Ants try to prevent the Flies from laying their eggs in their nests. It is probable, therefore, that at least the Ants derive no benefit from the presence of their dipterous visitors. Series 4. Cyclorrhapha Schizophora. Flies with pupa-cases formed of the hardened larval skin, and having an arched suture over the antennae of the adults. By most authorities the series Cyclorrhapha Schizo- phora is divided into two groups: (a) CalypteratcB, with the lower squama distinct and usually projecting beyond the upper. (6) AcalypteratcB, with the lower squama minute or wanting and the eyes widely separated in both sexes. Group CalypteratcB. (EsTRiD^. — Large, robust flies; antennae very short and partially hidden in cavities; front of head prominent; mouth-parts often atrophied. The Bot Flies, though a small family, are of the greatest economic importance by reason of the fact that many of their larvae are parasitic on mammals. 39 306 INSECT LIFE Much remains to be learned concerning the life- histories of these extraordinary Flies. One thing only is certain: the larvae alone are harmful. The adults are not blood-suckers — ^in fact, few of them are able to feed at all, their short lives being devoted to the con- tinuation of their kind. The larvae feed upon the pus which is secreted by their hosts, in consequence of the irritation set up by the spiny larval skins. Pupation always takes place outside the body of the host. Of the ten British species of Bot Flies, the best known are the Horse Bot Fly, Gastrofhilus equi, the larvae of which, in common with others of the genus, live in the alimentary canal of their hosts; the Ox Warble Fly, Hypoderma bovis and H. lineata, living in the larval stage, as the generic name implies, beneath the skin of their host; and the Sheep Nasal Fly, CEstrus ovis ; the larvae of this genus live in the respiratory passages. Other interesting, though non-British members of the family are the Emasculating Bot Fly, an American species which attacks the scrotum of squirrels, rendering them sterile; and the members of the genus Dermatohia, which are parasitic on man. The Bot FUes are not easily observed; they spend much of their time resting; but when bent on egg- laying they display much activity. The Horse Bot Fly, for example, with much buzzing, will dart rapidly at the fore-legs of its chosen host, deposit a single egg upon a single hair, and fly away. This operation is repeated till a good complement of eggs has been laid. Each elongated egg is provided with a little lid at its free end. The presence of the eggs causes irritation to the horse, with the natural result that it resorts to BOT FLIES 307 licking for relief. The friction of its tongue, aided by- its saliva, causes the egg-lids to open, and the larvae are set free. Once within the mouth of their host, they are well on the way to their appointed resting-place. They travel to the stomach, develop anchoring hooks, with which they attach themselves securely to the walls of that organ. Food they obtain in abundance, food intended for the nourishment of their host. When the time arrives for pupation, they release their hold on the stomach wall, pass to the outside world along with the horse's excrement, and pupate in the soil. The Sheep Nasal Fly is even more shy than the preceding species. It settles but a moment on the nostrils of some sheep and deposits its eggs, which hatch almost immediately. So short is the egg-stage that some authorities are of opinion that this Fly is viviparous and gives birth to living larvae. Be that as it may, the young larvae, by the aid of their spiny coats, travel upwards to the frontal sinus of their host, where they feed on copious secretions of pus. No amount of sneezing on the part of the sheep (sneezing is a common indication of the presence of these parasites) will dis- lodge them till they are ready to pupate, then they pass to the earth. The Ox Warble Flies deposit their eggs upon the hair of oxen, in such places as they are easily licked. The larvae, when in their host's mouth, do not pass into the stomach after the manner of the Horse Bots, but travel subcutaneously through the tissues till they reach a spot just below the hide on either side of the backbone. These larvae are the cause of the well-known warbles, which are not only harmful to the living oxen, but 308 INSECT LIFE render the parts around tlie warble unfit for food and ruin the hide for leather. In North America certain tribes of Eed Indians are in the habit of squeezing the larv8B of Bot FHes from the backs of deer and using them as food. TACHmrD^. — Squamae large, covering the halteres; antennal arista bare or, at most, pubescent; upper surface of the body clothed with bristles. These Flies do not appear to have any popular name. By the uninitiated they might easily be mistaken for House Flies. Their chief claim to notice lies in the fact that nearly all of them are parasitic upon other insects — ^lepidopterous Caterpillars for the most part. In the case of the majority of parasites there is a definite relationship between the parasite and host species; among the Tachinidce, however, the same species of parasite has been observed to parasitize not only ** insects of several different families, but of two or even three different orders.'' The usual procedure is for the female Fly to deposit an egg, or eggs, upon the back of some unfortunate Caterpillar. Most parasites will not trouble with a host which has already been attacked by some other parasite; these Flies, however, are not so particular. From the portion of the egg in contact with the host skin the larva emerges, and at once bores its way into its body, where it lives upon the fat and lymph, carefully avoiding the vital organs till the time of pupation arrives, when it leaves the host to pupate in the ground. Frequently the host Caterpillar sheds its skin before the parasitic larva has hatched; in this event the work of the mother Tachina is brought to naught, and the Caterpillar, unless again attacked, FLESH FLIES 309 suffers no harm. Some of these Flies deposit their eggs upon the living insect food collected by Solitary Wasps for their larvae. A Japanese species, Ugimyia sericaricBy does considerable damage among the Silkworms of that country by attacking the larvae. Contrary to the usual Tachinid habit, this species deposits its eggs upon the leaves which serve as food for the Silkworms. The larvae probably hatch on the leaves and then attack their hosts, though some observers state that the eggs are swallowed by the Silkworms. In the main, the Tachinidce are beneficial to man, certainly the two hundred odd British species may be so classed. Entomologists will, perhaps, not agree with this assertion, knowing only too well how annoying it is when an attempt is being made to rear some treasured larvae to maturity only to be rewarded by the appear- ance of drab Tachinid Flies. Sarcophagid^. — Closely allied to the Tachinidce and the Muscidce, from which they may be distinguished by the fact that the arista is feathery at the base and hair-like at the apex. Flesh Flies — the name, though generally accepted, is hardly a good one, for many larvae live upon decaying vegetable matter and some are parasitic upon other insects. The most noxious Flesh Fly is the viviparous Sarcofhila magnifica, a European, though not British, species which deposits its young on the nostrils of mammals, including man. The commonest British species are S. carnaria, a heavy -bodied grey Fly, rather larger than a Blowfly, and the similar-sized, bright metallic blue Cynomyia mortuorum, " Many of these insects, when food is scarce, eat their 310 INSECT LIFE own species with eagerness, and it seems probable that this habit is beneficial to the species. The parent fly- in such cases usually deposits more eggs than there is food for, thus ensuring that every portion of the food will be rapidly consumed, after which the partially grown larvse complete their development by the aid of cannibalism. It is thus ensured that the food will raise up as many individuals as possible." MusciD^. — Closely resemble Tachinidce and Sarco- phagidoB, but the arista is feathered. This family contains many of our conmionest and most familiar Flies; amongst them may be mentioned the House Fly, Musca domestica ; the Bluebottles or Blowflies, CalUphora erythrocephala and C. vomitoria ; the Greenbottles, Lucilia ccesar ; the Horn Fly, Hcema- tobia serrata ; and the Stable Fly, Stomoxys calcitrans. Amongst the important foreign Muscids mention must be made of the Tse-tse Flies, Glossina spp., and the Screw- Worm Fly, Chrysomyia macellaria ; the former genus belongs to Africa, the latter to North America. Many members of this family are harmful to man and his belongings. The Glossince transmit the blood parasites of sleeping sickness to human beings, and of Nagana to domestic animals. The Stable Fly is the probable carrier of surra, a disease which attacks camels, elephants, buffaloes, and dogs; it is probably not altogether innocent of transmitting human disease. No fewer than half a dozen maladies are known to be carried from patient to patient by the House Fly. The Screw-Worm Fly and the Horn Fly are both serious cattle pests in America, and the former has been known to attack man with fatal consequences. The Blue- TSE-TSE FLIES 311 bottles cannot, at best, be considered in any other light than as nuisances. After this indictment it is only fair to add that, in general, the Muscidce are useful scavengers, owing to the fact that their larvae live upon decaying animal and vegetable matter. As it is our purpose to take a general survey, however brief, of all the more important members of the insect world, we cannot afEord the space to deal with the various Muscid species as we would wish. Dr. C. G. Hewitt's excellent little work on House Flies should be read by all who are interested in this family. It makes no mention, however, of the most important of all Muscids, the Tse-tse Flies, for they are not House Flies. These insects of the genus Glossina have earned their popular name from the African natives who think that Tse-tse most nearly approximates to the buzzing of the Flies. Sleeping sickness is caused by a blood parasite, known as Trypanosoma gambiense, and it is introduced into the human blood by the bites of either Glossina fdlfolis or G . morsitans. The latter species also transmits the blood parasite of Nagana, T. hrucei, to domestic animals. The GlossincB are mud-coloured creatures which carry their wings scissor- wise when at rest. They possess the curious habit, for Muscids, of producing living larvae in such an advanced stage that they at once change into pupae. Anthomyiidje.— Very similar to House Flies, but with a different wing venation, the fourth longitudinal vein running straight to the margin, not upturned, as in MuscidcB ; arista either feathered or bare. These Flies, which have no popular name, are, for the 312 INSECT LIFE most part, unattractive. Their habits are so varied that experience will probably cause the family to be split up. Certain British species are harmful. Hyle- myia cefetorum^ the Onion Fly, lays its eggs on the necks of onions or on the soil near-by, and the larvae at once pass down into the stems and irretrievably damage the plants just above the swelling bulbs. The Cabbage Boot Fly, Aniliomyia brassicw, lays its eggs in close proximity to Cruciferous plants, and the young larvsB feed upon the roots, causing the plants to become dis- coloured, to wilt and die. Another species of Hylemyia, H. strigosa, is viviparous, whilst two species of AntJio- myia, A. cana and A. angustifrons, are enemies of Locusts. Growp Acalypteratce. ScATOPHAGiD^.— Slender Flies, yellowish or black in colour; smooth or hairy. The Dung Flies are of little general interest. The Common Yellow Dung Fly of this country is a familiar object on the excrement of cattle, on which it breeds. Sepsid^. — Small, slender, shining black Flies. The best-known species of the family is the Cheese Skipper, Piophila casei, L. The female lays her slender white eggs preferably on the best-quality cheeses. In a day and a half the larvae emerge. In a week they are fully fed; their most striking characteristic is that by bending themselves so that head and tail meet and then suddenly straightening themselves out, they are able to leap to a very considerable height. Ortalid^. — Wings brown, spotted or banded; bodies with metallic coloration. FRUIT FLIES 313 Many of these beautiful little Flies, during the larval stage, live in fruit or vegetables, but they probably only do so after damage has been caused by other insects. Trypetid^e. — Beautifully spotted bodies in many species, and spotted or banded wings. The Fruit Flies are considerable pests in some parts of the world, and one species, the Mediterranean Fruit Fly, Ceratitis capitata, is one of the worst enemies of the fruit-grower, so much so that stringent regulations are enforced to prevent its entry into the United States. DiOPSiD^. — Very broad heads, eyes at the extremi- ties of stalks. The Stalk-eyed Flies are amongst the most curious of all Diptera in appearance, and there their interest ends. In many species the eyes are set upon very long stalks, a fact which gives their owners the appearance of possessing antlers. OsciNiD^. — Small, stoutly built Flies, often yellowish in colour. The most notorious member of this family is the Frit Fly, Oscinis frit, a serious grain pest, and only too common in this country. "Various members of the genus Chlorops damage crops by causing the plants to form galls. Drosophilid^. — ^Mmute and unimportant insects, known as Lesser Fruit Flies. The adults both feed upon and oviposit in decaying fruit, and the larvae of some species, white, eel-like creatures, are frequently found in vinegar and badly tinned fruit. AGROMYZID.E. — Minute dull-coloured Flies. Of little importance. The larvae of some species damage foliage leaves by tunnelling between the upper and lower epider- mis. The larvae of other species prey upon Scale insects. 40 314 INSECT LIFE Series 6. Pwpiparia. Flies with heads and bodies depressed, the former projecting forward and downward; wings present, rudimentary, or absent; claws large. HiPPOBOSCiD^. — ^Parasitic Flies upon animals and birds; they are peculiar in that they produce neither eggs nor larvae, but pupse, only a single pupa being produced at a time. Hifpobosca equina, the British Horse Fly or Forest Fly, is common on the ponies in the New Forest, though it is not confined to that district. It is a chestnut- brown, winged insect, and bears little resemblance to the commonly accepted typical Fly. Still less Fly-like is the Wingless Sheep Tick, MelopJiagus ovinus. This creature, by the way, is not a tick, for ticks are not even insects. It is truly parasitic and beautifully adapted for life amongst the wool of its host. The family has been neglected by scientists, and many species are probably as yet undiscovered. Braulh)^. — Only one species is known in this family, the minute Braula coeca, parasitic upon Bees. Nycteribiid^. — Eare and curious, Spider-like Bat Flies. The legs of these wingless Flies are long, their bodies are small, and their eyes are wanting. " They are rarely more than one-sixth of an inch in length, but the long legs, which are frequently banded with jet black and silvery white, render them quite conspicuous/* Of one species Sharp says: ** The form is very peculiar^ the insects looking as if the upper were the under surface." CONCLUSION 315 Here our review of the insects of tlie world is ended. None of tlie important orders have been omitted and few of the famiUes; some, we fear, have been dealt with superficially, but we have tried to be just and devote the greater space to insects of major importance. A work of more than twenty volumes has been devoted to Lepidoptera alone; therefore, to compress all that one would say into 320 pages is not so easy as it may appear. For our shortcomings and omissions we crave pardon; our one hope is that readers who have borne with us thus far may feel a desire to go into the fields, to gain access to some representative collections, and learn, by the only satisfactory means, by personal observation and study, more of Insect Life. 316 INSECT LIFE APPENDIX SOME BOOKS WHICH MAY BE BEAD WITH ADVANTAGE It is usual, when one wishes to draw attention to certain books, to enumerate a formidable list of works, in alphabetical or chronological order, under the heading " BibHography,'' and leave one's readers to pick for themselves. To the experienced entomologist such a list may appeal; he knows what he is looking for, and uses the list merely for reference. It is our object to be helpful and to point the way; at a later stage our readers will then be able to use a Bibliography to the best advantage. General Works. The student who wishes to gain a thorough insight into general entomology cannot do better than read the fifth and sixth volumes of the " Cambridge Natural History." Its information is, of necessity, more com- plete, but it is also far more technical than the subject- matter of " Insect Life." It is a standard work, but a new edition would be welcomed by every entomologist. Carpenter's " Life-Story of Insects " is brief, but excellent. " Insects," by Harold Bastin, is another book which BOOKS TO EEAD 317 may be read with advantage by the most inexperienced student. It is accurate though popular, and well illustrated. The works of M. Fabre, most of which have been translated into English, are so delightful, so pregnant with romance, that even those whose interest in insects is superficial have read them and will read them. The " Insect Book,'' by Howard, is a splendid work as far as it goes. It deals with American types, how- ever, while Coleoptera and Lepidoftera are missing from its pages. Odonata. " British Dragon-flies," by Lucas, is the best work for the beginner. Practically all our British species are figured in colour. Orthoptera. So far as we know, there is no work dealing solely with this order and suitable for any but advanced students. All the general works we have mentioned deal with the order. Rhynchota. The remarks under the previous heading apply also to this order. Lepidoptera. " British Butterflies," by A. M. Stewart, and " British Moths," by the same author, will be found especially useful to readers of " Insect Life," for they contain 318 INSECT LIFE concise and accurate descriptions of all tlie British species figured in '* Insect Life/' They are excellent little works. The volumes with similar titles to the above, by South, are also worthy of perusal. The " Butterfly Book " and the " Moth Book," both by Holland, are useful additions to any entomologist's library, but they mainly deal with American Lepidoptera. Works without number have been written on the subject of the Lefidoftera inhabiting practically every country in the world. Most of them, however, are profusely illustrated, and, in consequence, expensive. COLEOPTERA. The remarks we made concerning the two books on Lefidoftera by Stewart apply with equal force to " Common British Beetles," by Hall. He describes every British Beetle figured in our pages. Fowler's " Coleoptera of the British Islands " is an excellent though expensive work. The order has received almost as much attention as the Le'pidoptera, and there are innumerable works on the Coleoptera of various countries, in addition to books dealing with different famiHes. Water-frequenting species are described in Miall's " Aquatic Insects." Hymenoptera. Wheeler's " Ants " is a splendid work, which every- one interested in Formicidce should read and re-read. " British Hymenoptera Aculeata," by Saunders, gives excellent descriptions of the " stinging " Hymenoptera of these Islands, BOOKS TO READ 319 *' Humble Bees," by Sladen, may be studied with advantage. " Bees and Wasps/' by Latter, is a sound little book, dealing with some of the commoner British species. SlPHONAPTERA. " The Flea," by Russell, is, so far as we know, the only popular account of these interesting insects. DiPTERA. Hewitt's " House Flies " is a splendid little book deahng with the various species likely to be met with in British households. Howard's " House Fly " is another good book on the same subject. Verrall's " British Flies " is a standard but expensive work. It cannot be excelled as a work of reference. " The Harlequin Fly," by Miall and Hammond, con- tains a wealth of information, though Hmited in subject. Diptera, with aquatic larvae, are all described in Miall's " Aquatic Insects." " Tse-Tse Flies," by Austen, is excellent and very well illustrated. Economic Insects. A library could be filled with works on harmful insects. Doane's " Insects and Disease " is American and good. Allcock's " Entomology for Medical Men " is a useful work. 320 INSECT^LIFE " Insects and Man," by the author of the present volume, describes the relationship of insect to man over a wide field. Theobald's " Insect Pests of Fruit " gives a concise account, with photographs, of all our important fruit pests. Gillander's " Forest Entomology *' treats in a similar way of forest pests. INDEX The principal references are shown in black numerals. Ahispa sp., 254 Ahraxaa grossvlaria'.a, 1G5 Acalypterataj, 13, 305, 312 Acanthosoma grisemn, 106 Acentropus sp., 169 Acherontia atropos, 52, 151 Achoruies dubius, 59 nivicola, 59 Acilius sulcatus, 187 Acridiidse, 8, 91, 94 song of, 95 Acridotheres dux, 94 Acronycta psi, 166 tridens, 166 Aculeata, 12, 224, 236 Adder, flying, 65 Adephaga, 10, 176, 183, 206 Adoxus vitis, 209 JEpus marinus, 185 robinii, 185 Mschna cyanea, 75 grandis, 75 her OS, 72 .^chnidse, 8, 74 Agabus bipustulatus, 187 nebulosus, 187 Agdistes sp., 170 Agenia carbonaria, 261 Ageronia sp., 141 Aggressive mimicry, 47, 49, 268 Agrilus angustulv.s, 203 politus, 203 ruficollis, 203 Agrion sp., 66, 73 Agrionidas, 8, 73 Agriotes obscurus, 201 Agromyzidse, 13, 313 Agrotis exclamationis, 166 segetum, 166 spina, 167 Alder fly, 127 Aleurodcs brassicoc, 125 cjV/-i, 125 Aleurodidie, 19, 55, 104, 125 Alligator, 128 Alternation of generation?, 25, 273 Amara aiUica, 184 fulva, 184 Amby, 128 Ammophila campestris, 265 sabulosa, 264 Amphydasis betularia, 46 Ampulicides, 265 Anasa tristis, 107 Anatis ocellata, 195 .4/iaa; sp., 75 Andrena argentata, 241 Cuckoos of, 242 /Wt;a, 241 ovina, 241, 242 sp., 221, 240 vicina, 241 Andrenidse, 241 Anergates atraiulus, 275 Anobiidse, 198 Anobium jtaniceum, 198 striatum, 198 Anomala frischii, 181 Anopheles maculipennis, 287 sp., 291 Anophthalvms sp., 185 Anoplura, 8, 56, 57, 61, 63 .4nost« erippiis, 144 Anostostoma cmstraliasice, 91 Ant, 29, 56, 113, 123, 185, 188, 191, 193, 200, 223, 237, 288, 2^6 Amazon, 273 and Aphis Lion, 37 and Coccidse, 35, 37 and Green fly, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 272, 273 and Lacewing, 37 321 41 322 INSECT LIFE Ant, and Lycsenidfe, 38 and Microdon, 304, 305 and Plant lice, 35, 37 and Paussidae, 39, 187 Argentine, 274 Black, 273 Garden, 273 Bulldog, 277 Callow, 35 Carpenter, 269 Pennsylvania, 269 castes of, 31 colonies of, 31 Cow, 258 Driver, 278 eggs of, 34 food of, 34 Fungus, 34, 276 Garden, 273 guests, 39 reason far, 39 tolerated, 41 Harvesting, 34, 275 Hill, 272 Honey, 271 Leaf-cutting, 276 Lion, 18, 130, 297 pits of, 131 Meadow, 273 minim workers of, 32 nuptial flight of, 31 nurses, 33 parasites of, 42 plasticity of, 33, 39 polymorphism of, 30, 268 pupation of, 35 Queen, 32 Red, 272 senses of, 34 Slave-making, 272, 273 Blood-red, 272 solitary, 258 Tree, 269 why, successful, 29 Wood, 272 worker of, 32, 33 Anthidium hdlicosum, 247 diadema, 247 maniculatum, 247 septendenfatum, 247 strigatum, 248 Anthomyia anguadfrons, 312 brassicoe, 312 Anthomyia cana, 312 Anthomyidffi, 13, 311 Anthonomus grandis, 46, 216 pomorum, 217 signatus, 216 Anthophila, 12, 236, 237 Anthophora, Cuckoos of, 245 personaia, 245 piiipes, 245 sp., 21, 22, 244 Anthribidse, 11, 215 Apantdes fonnosus, 230 glomeralus, 230 Apatura iris, 45, 141, 143 Aphcenogaster arenarius, 275 barbarus, 275 structor, 275 Aphidffi, 9, 18, 19, 29, 36, 37, 38, 39, 55, 56, 104, 123, 130, 133, 195. 230. 233, 267, 272, 273. 274, 304 enemies of, 124, 133, 233 fecundity of, 19, 123 Aphis Lion, 132 and Ants, 37 Maple, 36 Woolly Apple, 124 Aphidius sp., 230 Aphodius fimetarius, 179 fossor, 179 rufipes, 179 Aphoruridffi, 8, 59 Apidffi, 12, 244 Apis mdlifica, 250 Apoda (estudo, 158 Apoica pallida, 257 Aporia cratcegi, 148 Apterygota, 7, 8 Aradidffi, 9, 110 Araschnia levana, 28 prorsa, 28 Archiapid!B, 239 Arctia caia, 162 villica, 162 Arctiida;, 10, 162, 168 Argynnis adippe, 143 agalaia, 143 euphrosyne, 143 lathonia, 143 paphia, 143 sdene, 143 Argyromceba trifasciata, 299 Aromia moschata, 214 Asilidte, 12, 49. 56, 300 INDEX 323 Asphalia flavicornis, 153 Aspidiotus pcrniciosus, 126 Atdura formicaria, 40 Atemeles, 42, 192 Atherix ibis, 297 egg-laying of, 297 Athous hcemorrhoidalis, 201 niger, 201 Atropid.-B, 8, 102 Airopos pulsatoria, 102 Atta sp., 276 AUagenus pelleus, 197 Attaphila sp., 41 Atteldbus curculionoides, 2 17 Balaninus glandiurn, 216 nucum, 216 Banjnotus obscurus, 217 Batocera sp., 215 Bee, 21, 29, 30, 123, 194, 221, 223, 236, 237 and Bee-fly, 299 Bumble, 14, 49, 190, 250 Earth, 251 Stone, 251 Carder, 247, 252 Carpenter, 245 Drone of, 250 fly and Bees, 299 and Locusts, 299 head, 239 Honey, 57, 200, 241, 240, 250 Humble. See Bumble Bee Leaf-cutter, 248 legs of, 238 Long-horned, 249 Mason, 200, 248, 299 mimicry of, by Robber fly, 4?, 301 Moss Carder, 252 Pointed-tongued, 244 pollen gathering of, 238 prey of Robber flies, 301 Queen, 250, 251 Short Fork-tongued, 239 Short Pjinted-tongued, 241 Social, 222, 239, 250 Solitary, 239 swarming of, 31 tongue of, 237 Wool Carder, 247 workers of, 250, 251 Beetle, Ambrosia, 218 and Ants, 39 Beetle, Asparagus, 208 Bacon, 196 Black. See Cockroach Blister, 21, 22, 23, 176, 205 Bloody-nosed, 210 Bombardier, 186, 188 Burying, 191 Black, 191 Cane-borer, Red-necked, 203 Carrion, 191 Roving, 191 Cellar, 204 Churchyard, 204 Clock, i79 Click, 201 leaping of, 201 Colorado, 210 Dor, 179 Dumble, 179 Dung, 179 Elm-bark, 218 leaf, 114, 211 Flea, 211, 266 Fungus, 194 growing, 218 Golden Apple, 209 Goliath, 175 Ground, 184, 185 violet, 185 June Bug, 181 Leaf, 174,209,211 Leather, 196 Luminous, 199, 202 ]\Iimic, 193 Musk, 214 Oil, 22, 170, 205 fecundity of, 205 violet, 205 Pill, 197 Prionid, 213 Rhinoceros, 182 Rose Chafer, 174, 182 Rove, 192 Black, 39 Sacred, 179 Saw-toothed Grain, 194 Scarab, 179 Ssxtou, 191 Shield. 211 Stag, 178, 189, 213 Small, 178 Tiger, 1S3, 184 183 324 INSECT LIFE Beetle, Tiger, Wood, 183 Tortoise, 211, 212 Turnip Blossom, 193 Flea, 211 Wasp, 47, 214 Water, 186 Margined, 187 Silver, 189 breathing of, 190 egg cocoon of, 190 Weevil. See Weevils Whirligig, 188 BclostomidcG, 9, 116 Bemhex sp., 298 Bembicides, 265 Beneficial insects, 57 Bibionida;, 12, 292 Bittacomor'plia sp., 292 Blahcrus gigantetis, 86 Black Beetle. See Cockroach Blaps mortisvga, 204 mucronata, 204 Blastopharja sp., 232 Blaita orientalis, 17, 84 Blattidse, 8, 83, 265 Blissus leticoj'tervs, 108 Bloodworm, 289 Bluebottle, 267 Blue Tit, 124 Bogart, 128 Boletophila luminosa, 286 Bombus agrorum, 14, 252, 258 Cuckoos of, 252 lapidariufi, 251 muscorum, 14 terrestris, 251 variabilis, 258 venustus, 14, 252 Bombycida>, 10, 151 Bombyliida;, 12, 298 Bombylius major, 298 Bombyx castrensis, 159 neu&tria, 159 qncrcvs, 159 rubi, 159 Bostrychida?, 11, 54, 174, 197 Brachinvs crepitans, 186 Brachonidai, 12, 50, 229 Brachyporvs sp., 91 Brassolidffi, 10, 145 Bra-tla cceca, 314 Braulida}, 13, 314 Brenthid.-e, 11, 219 Brenthidse, egg-laying of, 220 Brophos notha, 167 parthenias, 167 Brown Drakes, 77 Bruchidje, 11, 206 Bruchus chinensis, 206 lentis, 206 obteclvs, 260 pisi, 206 Bryophila pcrla, 168 Bug, Abe Lincoln, 106 Ants mimicking, 113 Assassin, 112 Bark, 110 Bed, 57, 105, 112, 113 Giant, 112 stink glands of, 105 Blood-sucking Cone Nose, 112 Cannibal, 112 Chinch, 108 Connoption, 128 Harlequin Cabbage, 106 Lace, 109 Four-lined Leaf, 114 Mealy, 125, 126 Pirate, 112 Squash, 107 Third Party, 106 Buprestidas 11, 54, 202, 207, 266 Butterfly, 26, 138 Admiral Red, 141, 142 White, 141, 143 Bhie, 146 Azure, 146 Chalkhill, 140 Clifden, 146 Common, 146 Large, 146 Little, 146 Long-tailed, 146 Mazarine, 146 Silver-studded, 146 Brimstone, 148 Brown Argus, 147 Camberwell Beauty, 143 Clouded Yellow, 148 Pale, 143 Comma, 142 Copper, Large, 146 Small, 146 Emperor, Purple, 45, 141, 143 Fritillary, Dark Green, 143 Duke of Burgundy, 144 INDEX 325 Butterfly, rritillaiy, Glanville, 143 Greasy, 143 Heath, 143 High Brown, 143 Pearl-bordered, 143 Small, 143 Silver-washed, 143 Grayling, 143 Hairstreak Black, 147 Brown, 147 Green, 43, 147 Purple, 147 White Lottcr, 147 Lsaf, 43, 141, 143 Marsh Ringlet, 145 Milkweed, 144 Monarch, 144 Orange Tip, 147 Painted Lady, 142 Peacock, 141, 142 prey of Robber fly, 3}1 Queen of Spain, 143 Skipper, 149, 150 Checkered, 149 Dingy, 149 Grizzled, 150 Large, 149 Lulworth, 149 New Small, 149 Pearl, 149 Small, 149 Swallow-tail, 52, 143 Tortoiseshcll, 141 Large, 142 Small, 141 White Bath, 148 White, Black-veined, 148 Cabbage, 15, 17, 27, 230 Green-veined, 27, 148 Large, 143 small, 148 Wood, 148 Byrrhidaj, 11, 197 Byrrhus piluia, 197 Caddis fly, 25, 76, 134 carnivorous, 137 Ccenonympha typlion, 145 Ccelerocephalus palcemon, 149 Calandra granaria, 217 oryzae, 217 OcUigo eurylochus, 145 OalUcliroma sp., 214 Calligenia lurideola, 163 miniata, 163 Callimenus sp., 91 Gallimorpha dominala, 163 Galliphora erythrocephala, 310 vomitoria, 310 Gallotermes sp., 81 Callows, 35 Caloptenus sp., 22 Galopterygidse, 8, 72, 73 Calopteryx chinensis, 73 splendens, 73 virgo, 72 Cahsoma sycophanta, 185 Calypterataj, 13, 305 Campodeidse, 8, 60 Camponotides, 269 Camponotus ligniperdus, 269 pennsylvanicus, 269 Camptobrochis grandis, 114 Cantharides, 205 Capnodis sp., 203 Caprification, 232 Capsidse, 9, 55, 113 Carabidse, 10, 56, 184, 187 Carabus arvensis, 185 catenulatus, 185 nemoralis, 185 violaceus, 185 Carnivora, 183 Carpets, 164 Carpocapsa Juliana, 171 pomonella, 171 saliitans, 171 splendana, 171 Oarteria lacca, 126 Caryoborus sp., 206 Cassida equestris, 212 viridis, 212 Cassididse, 11, 211 Castniidae, 10, 150 Gatadystalemnata, 169 Gatoxantha bicolor, 203 opulenta, 203 Cecidomyiida;, 12, 20, 282, 285 Gdaspidia grossa, 213 Gemonus unicolor, 267 Gephaloccema sp., 96 Cephida?, 12, 55, 227 Gephus pygmceus, 227 Cerambycidce, 11, 54, 214 Geratitis capitata, 313 GerafophijUus fasciatus, 281 326 INSECT LIFE Ceratopogon bicolor, 290 bipunc/aius, 289 Ceratopsillidse, 279 Cerceria arenaria, 266 bnpresticiia, 266 labiata, 266 Cercopidse, 9, 121, 122 Ceroplastes ceriferus, 126 Ceto7iia aurata, 182 marginata, 182 Cetoniidae, 10, 54, 182, 259 ChcBrocampa elpencr, 152 porcdlus, 152 Chalcicodoma muraria, 246, 299 ChalcididcR, 12, 56, 231, 232, 233 Charceas graminis, 166 Charagia sp., 156 Chartergus chartarius, 257 Cheimatobia brumata, 165 Chermes abietis, 124 Chigoe, 279, 281 Chironomidse, 12, 77, 289 CMoroperla sp., 77 Chlorops sp., 313 Chloroscdus tenana, 92 Choragus slicpphardi, 215 Chrysididse, 12, 234, 240 Chrysis ccerulans, 235 bidentala, 235 ignita, 235 Chrysomela banksii, 210 cerealis, 210 gattingansis, 210 limbata, 210 marginalis, 210 rw/a, 210 schach, 210 staphylea, 210 Chrysomelidte, 11, 54, 209 Chrysomyia macdlaria, 310 po^fto, 267 Chrijsopa vulgaris, 133 eggs of, 133 Chrysopidse, 9, 56, 133 Chrysops sp., 298 Cicada, 117, 123, 262, 266 periodical, 119 septendecim, 119 song of, lis vocal organs of, 115 CicadidsD, 9, 55, 117 Cicindda campestris, 1S3 sylvattca, 183 Cicinddidce, 10, 56, 183 Ct/ta; glaucata, 158 Cimex lectularins, 113 Cimicidse, 9, 57, 113 Cistelidse, 11,204 Classification, 5 Clavicornia, 177 Claviger testaceus, 192 Clearwings. See Moths Clegg, 297 Cleonus sulcirostris, 218 C/ep^es sp., 236 Cleridse, 11,200 Climacia sp., 132 Clipper, 128 Clythra sp., 40 quadrifunctata, 208 Clythridse, 11, 208 Clytus arietis, 48 sp., 214 Cnethocarnpa processionea, 151 Coccidse, 9, 55, 56, 58, 104, 105, 125, 273 and ants, 37 Coccindlabi-puvctala, 105 1 -punctata, 195 10-pM«ctofo, 195 Coccinellidffi, 11, 56, 195 Coccus cacti, 126 mannifera, 126 Cochineal, 58, 126 Cockchafer, 180, 181 Cockroach, 17, 18, 83, 112, 113, 230 American, 84 Caelioxys quadri-derttata, 249 Coleoptera, 10, 17, 39, 52, 55, 56, 139, 173, 220, 233 Colias edusa, 148 hyah, 148 Collembola, 8, 18, 59 Cdletes daviesanns, 241 succincta, 240 Colouring, 42 Colours, protective, 42, 44 warning, 47 Colymbctes fuscus, 187 Coniopterygida;, 9, 130 Conopidao^ 12, 302 Conopinse, 302 Conorhimis sartgiiisitga, 112 Oonotrachelns nenuphar, 217 Coprida), 10, 179, ISO Copris lunaris, 179 INDEX 327 Gordulegasier annitlatiis, 74 Cordulegasteridae, 8, 74 Cordulidae, 8, 75 Coreidae, 9, 106 Coremia hirtipes, 214 Corixa femorata, 117 eggs of, 117 geoffroyi, 117 mercenaria, 117 Corixidse, 9, 117 Corydalis cornuta, 128 Corydia petiverana, 86 Coryneies ccer ulcus, 200 Cose inoc era hercules, 150 Oosmosoina, sp., 214 Cossidse, 10, 53, 156 Cossus ligniperda, 155 Cotton stainers, 55, 108 lesser, 108, 109 Courtship of Swift Moth, 157 Crahro cetratus, 267 dypeatus, 267 cribrarius, 267 dimidiatus, 267 gonager, 267 interruptus, 267 leucostomus, 267 palmarius, 267 pdtarius, 267 podagricus, 267 quadrimaculatus, 267 scutdlatus, 267 sp., 231 weitmoeli, 267 Crabronides, 267 Crambus sp., 163 Crawlers, 128 Creepers, 77 Gremastogaster sp., 276 Cricket, 40, 41, 83, 90, 111 Field, 90 House, 90 Mole, 90 singing of, 93 Tree, 90, 91 Crioceridce, 11,208,211,212 Crioceris asperagi, 208 merdigera, 208 Crock, 128 Cryptocephalidse, 11, 209 Cryptocephalus sericen.t, 209 Cryptocerata, 105, 114 Cryptophagidse, 11, 194 Ctenocephalus canis, 279 fdis, 279 Cuckoo fly, 234 Cuckoo of Andrena, 242 of Anthophora, 245 of Bombus, 252 of Halictus, 243 of Megachile, 249 of Osmia, 248 Spit insect, 121, 122 CuUx sp., 214 fatigana, 287 pipiens, 287 Culicidse, 12,56,286 Curculionidae, 11, 54, 216 Cursoria, 83 Cutworms, 53 Cyclorrhapha Aschiza, 13, 302 sohizophora, 13, 305 Cymatophorida), 10 Cynipidae, 12, 25, 55, 58, 233 Cynips sp., 207 Cynomyia mortuor^im, 309 Cyphocrania semirubra, 89 Cyrtophyllum crepitans, 93 Daddy-long-legs, 291 Danaidae, 10, 144 Dascillidae, 11, 200 Dascillua servinus, 201 Dasychira pxidibunda, 161 rossi, 162 Dasylis sp., 49 Dasypoda hirtipes, 244 Day fly, 77 Death watch, 198, 200 Deilephila euphorUce, 151 gain, 151 Deinacrida sp., 91 Demoiselle, 72 Dermatobia sp., 306 Dermatophilus penetrans, 281 Dermestes lardarius, 197 Dermestidffi, 11, 196 Deromyia annulata, 49 Devil's Coach-horse, 192 Darning-needle, 65 Diactor bilineatus, 107 Diapherotnera femorata. 89 Dicranura vinula, 162 Dictyophorus reticulatus, 97 Dimorphism, 43, 140 seasonal, 26, 140 328 INSECT LIFE Diopsida;, 13, 313 Dioxys cincta, 247 Diploptera, 12, 236, 253 Diptera, 12, 17, 52, 54, 55, 56, 130, 193, 231, 233, 265, 282 Disease and flies, 55 Division of labour, 30 Dixa sp., 291 Dixidfe, 12, 291 Dobson, 127, 128 American, 128 Dolichoderides, 274 Dolium diabolicnm, 50 Donacea crassipes, 207 semicwprea, 207 Donacidae, 11, 207 Dorcus parallelopipedus, 178 Dorylides, 277 Dorylus sp., 277 Doryophora pwictatissuna, 210 Dragon, 128 Dragon fly, 18, 65, 253 capture of prey, 66 emergence from pupa, 69 pairing of, 66 migration of, 72 prey of Robber flies, 301 Drepana falcatoria, 158 lacertinaria, 157 Drepanidffi, 10, 157 Drosophilidae, 13, 313 Dry season forms, 26 Dynastea hercules, 182 Dynastidffl, 10, 54, 181, 182 Dysdercus sp., 55, 108 sulurdlus, 108 Dytiscidffi, 10, 186, 188 Dytiscus marginalis, 187 punctulatus, 187 Earwig, 61, 98 Echinophthirius, sp., 64 E chiton sp., 277 Economic entomology, 51 Egg-laying of Brenthidc-e, 220 Elateridaj, 11, 54, 201 Elater-sanguinclentvs, 201 Elephantiasis, 287 Elis 4:-notata, 260 Embia savignyi, 100 Embiid«, 8, 100 Embioptera, 8, 100 Emesidse, 112 Empidffi, 12 Encyrlus sp., 233 Endopterygota, 7, 0, 127 EndromidiB, 10, 159 Endromis versicolor, 159 Entomobryidae, 8, 59 Epeolus variegatus, 241 Ephemera vxilgata, 77 Ephenicridae, 8, 77, 79 Ephemeroptera, 8, 18, 77 Ephestia kuhnidla, 168 Epicauta sp., 203 viltata, 22, 23 Ephippiitya trigingnttaia, 93 Epilachna sp., 195 Equal wings, 78 Erastria scitula, 167 Ericerus pela, 126 Eriocampoides limacina, 226 Eristalis tenax, 284, 303, 304 Erycinidcr, 10, 144 Eucera longicornis, 249 Euchelia Jacob CBCB, 163 Euchloe cardamines, 147 Euglossa sp., 246 Eumenes coarctata, 253 fraterna, 235 pojtiiformis, 254 Eumenidse, 12, 253 Eumolpidffi, 11,209 Eiimdpus Jidgidus, 209 Euplecirus comstocHi, 232 Euplexoptera, 8, 18, 98 Euproctis chrysorrhcea, 162 Eupterotidae, 10, 151 Euthrips citri, 103 pyri, 103 Evania appendig aster, 230 Evaniidffi, 12, 56, 85, 230 Exopterygota, 7, 8, 61 Foenus jaculator, 231 Fannia, canicvlaris, 16 Fever, Phlebotomus, 291 Recurrent, 57, 113 Sandfly, 291 Three-day, 57, 291 Yellow, 56, 282, 287 Filaria, 287 Fire Brat., 61 Firefly, 202 Fishfiy, 127 Flata sp., 43 INDEX 329 Flatidae, 120 Flea, 279 Bat, 279, 280, 281 Cat, 279 ChigcE, 279, 281 Dog, 279 Human, 279, 280, 281 leaping powers of, 279 280 Plague, 281 Rat, 281 structure of, 280 Turnip, 211 Flipflap, 128 Fly and disease, 282 Armed, 293 Bat, 314 Bee, 298 and Bees, 299 and Locusts, 299 Big-eyed, 302 Black, 293 Blow, 309, 310 Bluebottle, 310 Bot., 284, 305 Emasculating, 30G Horse, 30G Sheep, 305, 307 Breeze, 297 Cabbage root, 312 Celery, 282 Chameleon, 296 Cheese, 312 Crane, 282, 291 Dance, 301 webs of, 301 Deer, 297 Dragon. See Dragonfly Drone, 284, 304 Dung, 312 Flesh, 19, 309 Forest, 314 Frit, 282, 313 Fruit, 313 Lesser, 313 Mediterranean, 313 Gad, 297 Gall, 283, 285 Green. See Greenfly Greenbottle, 310 Harlequin, 289 Hessian, 285 Horn, 310 Fly, Horse, 297, 314 House, 13, 14, 15, 16, 57, 284, 298, 303, 308, 310, 311 Lesser, 16 Hover, 303 March, 293 May. See Mayfly Moth, 290, 293 Narcissus, 304 Onion, 282, 312 Ox Warble, 306, 307 Pangonia, 298 Robber, 49, 296, 300 mimicking Bees, 49, 301 prey of, 301 sand, 290, 293 Screwworm, 310 sexes of, 283 Sheep Bot., 19 Sheep Nasal. See Sheep bot. fly tick, 314 Snipe, 296 Soldier, 295 Stable, 310 Stalk-eyed, 313 Syrphid, 124 Thick-headed, 302 Tse-tse, 19, 57, 310 name of, 311 Typhoid, 14 Window, 298 Flying adder, 65 Forester, 154 Forficula auricularia, 98 Forficulidse, 8, 98 Formica canicularia, 272 fusca, 272, 273 auricularia, 273 rufa, 40, 272, 275 sanguinea, 272 Formicidai, 12, 79, 237, 268 Formicoxemis nitidula, 275 Fossores, 12, 237, 257 Fringe wings, 102 Fritillary. See Butterfly Frog hoppers, 121 Fulgoridse, 9, 43, 120 Fungus gnats, 286 Galeruca tenaceti, 211 Galerucdla luteola, 114, 211 Galerucidee, 11,54,211 42 330 INSECT LIFE Gall, 5« Bedeguar, 234 Currant, 25 fly, 25, 223, 233 formation of, 234 Gnat. See Gall fly Oak-apple, 26 Root, 26 Spangle, 25 Galleria sp., 170 Gastrophilus equi, 306 Geometers, 43, 164 Geometridse, 10, 53, 163 Geotrupes spiniger, 180 stercorarius, 179 sylvaticus, ISO G err is sp.. Ill Glossina sp., 19, 310 morsitans, 311 palpalis, 311 Glow-worm, 199 New Zealand, 286 Glyptus, mimic of Termites, 185 sculptUis, 185 Gnat, 110,267,288 Buffalo, 293 Fungus, 286 Gall. See Gall fly Water, 110 Gnophria quadra, 163 Gnorirrms ndbUis, 182 Goggle goy, 128 Golden eye, 133 Gomphida;, 8, 74, 75 Gomphus vastus, 74 Gonepteryx rJiamni, 148 Gongylus gongyloides, 50 Grasshopper, 92 Great Green, 92 Long-horned, 91, 92 prey of Robber flies, 103 Short-horned, 94 Grayling, 145 Greenbottle, 310 Green Drake, 77 fly, 35, 104, 123, 235, 304 and Ants, 35, 36 and Ladybirds, 124, 195 enemies of, 124 fecundity of, 19, 123 siphons of, 37 Growth, 15 Gryllidffi, 8, 90, 95 Gryllotalpa viilgaris, 90 Gryllus campestris, 90 domesiictts, 90 Gymnocerata, 105 Gyrinidse, 11,188 Gyrinus natator, 188 Gyropidse, 8, 81 Ha,matobia serrata, 310 Hainatomyza dephantis, 64 Ho.matopinus asini, 64 Hmmatopota sp., 298 HcEinonia curtisi, 207 Hairstreak. See Butterfly Halictus, Cuckoos of, 243 lineolatus, 243 maculatus, 243 malachurus, 243 morio, 243 quadricinctus, 243 sexcinctus, 243 sp. 221, 266 Halohates, sp., Ill Haltica sp., 211 tabida, 266 Halticidffi, 11,54, 210 Harpalus oeneas, 184 latus, 184 ruficornis, 184 Harpax ocdlaria, 87 Heliconiidse, 10, 145 Hdiconius erato, 145 Hdiopathes gibbus, 204 Hell devil, 128 diver, 128 Hellgrammite, 127 Hdopdtis, sp., 114 Hemerobiidffi, 9, 132, 133 Hemiptera, 63, 105 Henicocephalida9, 9, 111 Hepialidse, 10, 156 Hepialus humuli, 156 Jiectus, 156 vdleida, 156 Hesperia acicRon, 149 comma, 149 lineola, 149 sylvanus, 149 thaumas, 149 Hesperiidse, 10, 149 Hetserina, 73 Heterocera, 10, 139, 149, 150 Heterogyna, 12 INDEX 331 Heteromcra, 11, 177, n03 Heteroi^tera, 9, iDi, 105 Hibernation, 26 IHmatidium latreilli, 213 Ilipfobosca equina, 314 Hippoboscidae, 13, 57, 314 Hippodamia 13-2miictata, 195 HispidcG, 11, 211 Hister himacnlatus, 193 cadaver iims, 193 unicolor, 193 Histeridai, 11, 39, 192 and ants, 39 Ho Jack, 128 Hololepta sp., 193 Homoptera, 9, 104, 117, 302 Honey dew, 36, 37, 38 how obtained by ants, 38 Iloplia philanthus, 181 Hornet, 48, 192 Horse stinger, 65 Ilybernia defoliaria, 165 Hybocampa milha^iscri, 153 Ilydrocampa nympJieaia, 169 stagnata, 169 Ilydrocyphon deflexicollis, 201 Ilydrometra stagnorum, 110 Hydrometrid®, 9, 110, 111 Hydrophilidae, 11, 189 Hydrophilus piceus, 189 Hydropsychidaj, 9, 137 Hydroptilidse, 9, 137 Hylastes ater, 219 palliatus, 219 Hylatoma rosce, 225 Hylemyia cepetorum, 312 strigosa, 312 Hylohius abietis, 216 Hylurgus piniperda, 219 Hymenoptera, 11, 17, 52, 55, 77, 81, 88, 122, 124, 126, 139, 221, 222, 223, 302, 303 Hymenopus bicornis, 50 Hypcra punctata, 218 Hypermetamorphosis, 21, 22 Ilypliydrus ovatus, 187 Ilypodenna bovis, 306 lineata, 306 Ilyponomeuta padella, 172 Hypsidsc, 10, 162 I eery a purcJiasi, 126, 196 Ichneumon flies, 228 Ichncumonida;, 12, 56, 228 Idclothrips spectrum, 102 Ilybius ater, 187 fuliginosus, 187 Ino globularius, 154 Insects and disease, 51, 56 definition of, 6 Ip-i quadriguttata, 193 Iridomyrmex humilis, 274 Ischnomyrmex cockerelli, 33 Isoptera, 8, 18, 52, 78 Isosoma, sp,, 231 Japygidae, 8, 60 Jassidae, 9, 55, 122, 302 Julodis cirrosa, 203 Jumping beans, 171 June bug, 181 Kakothrips rohustus, 103 Kallima sp., 43, 141, 143 Katydid, 92 Angular- winged, 93 Kingfisher, 72 Koniarovia vktoriosa, 259 Labia minor, 99 Labrus gibbus. 184 Lac insect, 58, 126 Lacewing, 124, 133 and Ants, 37, 124 Lacon murinus, 201 Ladybird, 124, 126, 174, 195 and Greenfly, 124, 195 and scale insects, 126, 196 2-spotted, 195 7-spotted, 195 10-spotted, 195 13-spotted, 195 Lamellicornia, 10, 176, 177, 181, 259 parasites of, 259 Lamiidfc, 11, 54, 173, 214 Lampyrides, 199 Lampyris noctiluca, 199 Lasiocampa quercifolia, 159 Lasiocampidse, 10, 158 Lasius flavus, 272, 273 fuliginosus, 39, 273 niger, 273 Leaf insect, 43, 83, 83 miner, 53, 55, 172 roller, 53, 171 Leaping of Click Beetle, 201 of flea, 279 332 INSECT LIFE Lecanium olece, 167 Lepidocyrlus americanus, 59 Lepidoptera, 9, 17, 26, 27, 43, 44, 46, 52, 53, 54, 120, 138, 176, 196, 224, 225, 229, 231, 284, 285, 295, 315 Lepisma domestica, 61 saccharinum, 61 Lepismatidae, 8, 61 Leprosy, 113 Leptidae, 12, 296 Leptinidse, 11, 190 Leptinotarsa decemlineala, 210 Leptinus testaceus, 190 Leptis scolopacea, 296 Leptoceridae, 9, 137 Leptoglossus phyllopus, 107 Leptopsylla musculi, 280 Lestes sp., 73 Leto venus, 156 Leucophasia sinapis, 148 Leucospis gigas, 246 sp., 231 Libellula depressa, 66, 75 quadrimaculata, 75 Libollulid^, 8, 75 Limacodidse, 10, 158 Limnetis sibylla, 143 Limnophilidae, 9, 136 Limnophilus flavicornis, 136 rhomb icus, 136 Liometopum microcephalum, 274 LiopMmus nubilis, 217 Liotheidse, 8, 61 Lipara lucena, 267 Lithargus bijasciatus, 194 Locust, 22, 83, 91, 200 and Bee flies, 299 life history of, 93, 97 migration of, 96 parasites of, 22, 260 Rocky Mountain, 97 seventeen year, 18, 81 song of, 92 Lociista viridissima, 92 Locustida;, 8, 91, 95, 264 Lomechusa, 42, 192 Looper, 164 Lopaphus cocophages, 88 Lophopteryx camelina, 153 Lopliyrus pini, 225 Louse, Bird, 61 Body, 63 Book, 100 Louse, Crab, 64 Elephant, 64 Head, 63 Horse, 64 Human, 63 Jumping Plant, 104 Seal, 64 True, 61, 63 Lucanida, 10, 54, 178, 181, 213 Lucanus cervus, 178 Lucilia ccesar, 310 Lyccena agon, 146 argiolus, 146 arion, 146 astrarche, 147 bdlargus, 146 bcetica, 146 corydon, 146 tear us, 146 minima, 14 semiargus, 146 Lyoaonidffi, 10, 38, 145 and ants, 58 Lycus sp., 200 Lygseidse, 9, 107 Lymantriidfe, 10, 53, 160 3Iach(Brota guUigera, 123 Machilidse, 8, 61 Machilia maritima, 61 Macrodontia sp., 213 Macroglossa, fuciformis, 152 stdlarum, 152 Macropathus fUipes, 91 Macropus longimanus, 215 Maggot, Rat-tailed, 24, 284, 204 Malacodermidse, 11, 199 Malaria, 56, 282, 287 Mallophaga, 8, 18, 61 Mallophora sp., 49 Mamcstra brassicw, 166 Manna, 126 Mantidae, 8, 50, 86, 112, 129 Mantis, habits of, 86 parasite of, 88 praj'ing, 86 rdigiosa, 86 Mantispidse, 9, 129 Mayetiola destructor, 285 Mayfly, 77, 111,235 Mealworm, 203, 204 Miastogaster lucretia, 65 Megachile albocincta, 249 INDEX 333 Megachile, circumcincla, 249 Cuckoos of, 249 Megastigmus sp., 231 Melano'plus spretvs, 97 Mdanotua rufipes, 201 Mdecta armata, 245 luctuoad, 245 Meligethes ceneus, 193 Meliicea athalia, 143 auricoma, 143 cinxia, 143 if e^cE Proscar abcev 3, 22, 205 vidaceus, 205 Meloidffi, 11, 21, 22, 176, 205 Meldontha vulgaris, 180 Melolonthidas 10, 54, 180, 181, 259 Melophagus ovinus, 314 Mdophorus inflatus, 271 Membracidse, 9, 121 Menopon pallidum, 62 Merodon equesiris, 304 Metamorphosis, 15 Metapodi^is femoratus, 107 Methoca ichneumonides, 259 Miastor sp., 20 Microcentrum retinervis, 93 Microdon and ants, 304, 305 Midge, 111, 223 Horned, 290 Splay-footed, 290 Migration of Dragon flies, 72 of Locusts, 96 of Nymphalidte, 142 of Sciara militaris, 286 Mimesides, 266 Mimic battles of Pompilids, 262 Mimicry, 47, 141 aggressive, 47, 49, 268 of flowers, 44, 50, 87 in Reduviida3, 112 protective, 47 Minim workers of ants, 32 Monodontomerus nitidus, 246 Monohammua sp., 215 Monomorium pharaonis, 275 Morphidse, 10, 145 Morpho sp., 145 Mosquito, 282, 284, 286, 290 and disease, 287 eggs of, 287 common, 287 pupae of, 289 spotted winged, 287 Mosquito, Tiger, 287 yellow fever, 287 Moth, 26, 138, 150 Antler, 51, 166 Atlas, 150 Bagworm, 154 life history of, 154 Bee, 53, 170 Black Arches, 161 Brindled Beauty, pale, 165 brown-tail, 162 Buff Arches, 153 Buff Tip, 153 Bugong, 1G7 Burnet, 154, 163 6-spotted, 154 Cabbage, 166 Carpet, 298 China Marks, 169 brown, 169 small, 169 Chocolate Tip, 153 Cinnabar, 163 Clearwing, currant, 154 Hornet, 48, 154 Clothes, 53, 171 Codling, 171 Currant, 165 Dart, 166 December, 159 Dragon of Old Sepp., 153 Drinker, 158 Early Thorn, 165 Emperor, 150 Ermine, Buff, 163 small, 172 white, 163 Flour, 168 Footman, 163 4-8potted, 163 Rosy, 163 Forester, 154 Fox, 159 Ghost, 156 Gipsy, 160, 161, 185 Goat, 155 Gold Spot, 167 tail, 161, 162 Gooseberry, 165 Grass, 168 Hawk, 151 Bedstraw, 151 Bee, 152 334 INSECT LIFE Moth, Hawk, Convolvulus, IGl Death's-head, 52, 151 Elephant, 152 Eyed, 152 Humming bird, 152 Poplar, 152 Privet, 44, 151 Spurge, 151 Hart and Dart, 166 Hoary Grey, 168 Hook Tip, 157 Pebble, 15S Hop dog, 161 Kentish Glory, 159 Lackey, 159 Ground, 159 Lappet, 159 Lobster, 153 Magpie, 165 Marbled Beauty, 163 Meal, 168 Mottled Umber, 165 Muslin, 163 Nun. 160, 161 Oak Eggar, 159 Miner, 172 Peach blossom, 153 Peppered, 46 Pine Beauty, 44 Plume, 170 prey of Robber flics, 301 Processionary, 29, 151 185 Prominent, Coxcomb, 153 Iron, 153 Pebble, 153 Swallow, 153 Puss, 152 Swift, 156 courtship of, 157 gold, 156 Northern, 157 Tiger, buff, 163 cream spot, 162 Garden, 162 ruby, 162 scarlet, 163 Tineid, 23 Tortrix, green, 171 Turnip, 166 Tussock, pale, 161, 162 Underwing, orange, 167 used as food, 167 Vapourer, 25, 160 Moth, Vapourer, life history of, 160 Winter, 165 Wood Leopard, 156 Woollen, 172 Yellow-horned, 153 Yucca, 23, 24 Moulting, 18 Murgantia histrionica, 106 Musca domestica, 13, 14, 310 Muscidcc, 13, 56, 57, 309, 310, 311 Mutilla europcea, 258 Mutillidse, 12, 258, 259 Mycetophagidce, 11, 194 Mycetophagua qnadripustulatus, 194 Mycetophilidce, 12, 286 Myiatropa florea, 303 Myopinee, 302 Myrmecocyrtus hortideorum, 271 mdliger, 271 Myrinecia sp., 277 Myrmecophana fallax, 92 Myrmecophila sp., 40, 41 Mynnedonia funesta, 39, 192 humeralis, 39, 194 Myrmelionidfi', 9, ISO, 132 Myrmica rubra, 275 Myrmicides, 275 Nobis lativentris, 113 Nagana, 310 Names, popular, 14 priority of, 14 N anosdla fuivji, 174 Nasuti, 82 Necrobia ruftcollis, 200 rufipes, 200 Necrodes littoralis, 191 Necrophorus humator, 191 mortuorum, 191 ruspator, 191 vespillo, 191 Nematus gallkola, 225 rihesii, 225 salicis, ci eregas, 227 noclilio, 227 Siricidje, 12, 55, 227 Sisyra sp., 132 Silaris hmneralis, 21, 22 Sliipjacks, 201 Sleeping sickness, 57, 282, 310, 311 Smerinthiis ocellatus, 152 popvli, 152 Smynthuridae, 8, 60 Smynthurus luteus, 60 courtship of. Snake doctor, 128 feeder, 65 fly, 120 Social habits, 29 Song of Cricket, 92 of Locust, 92 of Passalida;, 178 Spathogaster haccarum, 26 Sphmra acaroides, 174 Sphaeridse, 174 Sphecius speciostis, 266 iSphecodes gihhus, 244 ruhicundus, 243 suhquadratus, 243 Sphegida;, 12, 263 Sphegides, 263, 265 Sphex, nest of, 2G4 SphingidiB, 10, 151 Sphinx co7ivclvuli, 151 ligiistri, 44, 151 Spilosoma fvliginom, 162 luhricipeda, 163 menihastri, 163 Springtails, 50 Stauropus fagi, 153 Staphylinidse, 11, 39, 192 and Ants, 39 Stegomyia fascia/a, 287 Stelis ininvta, 248 nasuta, 240, 243 signata, 248 Stenopelmatus sp., 93 Stenophylax sp., 137 Sternccera casianea, 203 Stick Insects, 43, 83, 88, 112 thick-thighed, 89 Stink fly, 133 Stink glands of Bugs, 105 Stomoxys calcitrans, 310 Stone Hy, 76 Straight wings, 82 Stratomyidse, 12, 295 Siratomys chameleon, 296 sp., 295 Strepsiptera, 11,220 Strongylium sp., 204 Stylopidae, 11, 220 Stylojjization, effects of, 221 Surra, 310 Symbiosis, 35 of Phenax auricoma, 120 Sympetrnm scoticum, 75 sp., 65 Syrphida), 12, 303 Syrphus seleniticus, 304 Tahanidm, 12, 57, 237, 301 larvae of, 297 Tahanus hovinus, 297 Tachinidffi, 13, 56, 308, 309, 310 T any pus sp., 290 Tapinoma erraticum, 274 Telophorus lividus, 200 pellucidus, 200 ruslicus, 200 Tenehrio molitor, 203 Tenchrioides mauritanicus, 194 Tenebrionidse, 11, 54, 174, 203, 204 : Tent caterpillar, 172 maker, 53 I Tcnthrcdinida3, 12, 55, 225 I Termes hellicosus, 185 flavipes, 80 I lucifugus, 80 I tuhiformans, 80 I Termite, 20, 29, 30, 78, 185, 192, 223 I castes, 82 INDEX 339 Termite, cleanliness of, 82 colony, SO Nasuti, 82 nuptial flight, 80 Queen, 81 soldiers, 82 workers, 82 Termitidcc, 8, 78, 100 Termitoxeniidse, 20 Tetramorium ccespiium, 275 Tetlix sp., 96 Thanasimus forinicarius, 200 2'heda betulce, 147 pruni, 147 quercus, 147 rubi, 43, 147 tc-album, 147 Thripidte, 8, 102 Thrips, 102 structure of, 102 Flax, 103 Orange, 103 Pea, 103 Pear, 103 Thyatira hatis, 153 derasa, 153 Thynnidse, 12, 259 Thysanoptera, 8, 52, 55, 102 Thysanura, 8, 18, 60 Tick, Sheep, 314 Timarcha tenebricosa, 210 turbida, 210 Tinea bisdliella, 172 pelliondla, 172 tapetzella, 171 vastdla, 172 Tineid^, 10, 53, 54, 171, 233 Tingidje, 9, 55, 109 Ti)igis pyri, 109 Tiphia sp., 260 Tipula brdbdignagia, 291 oleracea, 291 Tipulidffi, 12, 54, 291 Titanus giganteus, 175, 213 TUenacris albipes, 96 Tortricidaj, 10, 53, 171 Tortrix ribeana, 171 viridana, 171 Tree weeping, 122 Tremex columba, 227 Pigeon, 227 Trichacis sp., 233 Trichins fasciafiis, 1S2 Trichodectida;, 8, 62 TricJiodcs alvearius, 200 ajnarius, 200 Trichoptcra, 9, 17, 134, 170 Trichroism, 145 Triungulin, 21, 22 Trochilium crahronijormis, 48, 154 Trogositidse, 11, 194 Trox sp., 180 Truxalis sp., 96 Trypanosoma brucei, 311 gambiense, 311 Trypetidse, 13, 313 Trypodendron domcsdcum, 279 lineatum, 219 Trypoxylon sp., 236 Tubulifera, 12, 224, 234 Turnip flea, 211 fly, 211 Tussore silk, 150 Types of patterns, 48 Ugimyia serricaria, 309 Vanessa antiqua, 143 atalanta, 142 c-album, 142 cardui, 142 io, 142 polycMoros, 142 urticoe, 141 Variation, 30 Vdleius dUatatus, 192 Velia currens, 111 Vermileo degeeri, 296 Vespa arborea, 255 austriaca, 255 crabro, 48, 255 germanica, 255 norvegica, 255 rw/a, 255 sylvestris, 255 vulgaris, 255 VespidiB, 12, 253, 255 Viviparous insects, 19 Volucdla bombylans, 305 Mianis, 303, 304 sp., 256 Wasp, 29, 123, 130, 192, 194, 221, 223, 236, 253 Digger, 56, 237, 257 340 INSECT LIFE Wasp, food of larva;, 256 fossorial, 56, 237, 257 Mud, 235, 253 parasites of, 256 Potter, 235, 258 prey of Robber flies, 301 Ruby, 234, 240 Sand, 264 Social, 56, 222, 255 nests of, 255 Solitary, 253 Wood, 227, 229 Blue, 227 Giant, 227 Water Boatman, 116 Cricket, HI Gnat, 110 Grampus, 128 Measurer, 110 Scorpion, 115 eggs of, 115 Stick insect, 115 " Waves," 164 Webs of Dance fly, 301 Weeping trees, 122 Weevil, 173, 215 Acorn, 216 Apple blossom, 217 Birch, 217 Biscuit, 198 Weevil, Cotton Boll, 46, 216 Grain, 217 Nut, 216 Palm, 218 Pea, 206 Pine, 216 Plum, 217 Rice, 217 Wet season forms, 26 White Ant, 79 as food, 79 White fly, 104, 125 " Whites," 148 Wintering of insects, 26 Wireworms, 201, 204 Worm-eaten wood, 198 XenoTpsylla cheopis, 28 1 Xe7ios sp., 222 Xestobium domesticum, 198 tessdlaium, 198 Xyleborus dispar, 219 Xylocopa violacea, 245 Zaitha sp., 116 Zeugloptera, 8, 9 Zeuzera pyrina, 156 Zoraptera, 8 Zygmna filipendula, 154 ZygvenidcB, 10, 154 PRINTED IN GKEAT BKITAIN BV BILLING AND SONS, LTD., GUILDIOKD AND ESHER §- -■