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EDITION IN COLORS

INSECT LIFE

AN INTRODUCTION
TO NATURE-STUDY

AND A GUIDE FOR TEACHERS,
STUDENTS, AND OTHERS INTER-
ESTED IN OUT-OF-DOOR LIFE

By JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK

PROFESSOR OF ENTOMOLOGY IN COR-
NELL UNIVERSITY AND IN LELAND
STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY : : :

WITH FULL-PAGE PLATES FROM LIFE
REPRODUCING INSECTS IN NATURAL
COLORS, AND WITH MANY ORIGINAL
ILLUSTRATIONS ENGRAVED BY ANNA
BOTSFORD COMSTOCK, MEMBER OF
THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN WOOD

ENGRAVERS ::::::::::::::

NEW YORK

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

1903

Copyright, 1897, 1901,
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.

CONTENTS.

PAC£

Introduction I

PART I.
LESSOAS IN INSECT LIFE.

CHAPTER

I. — The parts of an insect 9

II. — The beginning of a collection and a study of the

METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS 22

III. — The CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELA-
TIVES 51

IV. — Pond life 87

V. — Brook life 144

VI. — Orchard life 166

VII. — Forest life 186

VIII.— Roadside life 221

PART II.
THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

I. — The collection of specimens 284

II. — The preservation of specimens 294

III. — On labeling specimens and taking notes . . .315
IV. — The breeding of insects 326

V. — Miscellaneous lists 336

LIST OF PLATES

TO FACE

PLATE PAGE

I. — The Cecropia Moth .... Frontispiece

II. — The Tomato-worm Moth 40

III. — Some Sphinx Moths 80

IV.— Beetles 85

v.— A Pond 87

VI.— A Brook 144

VII. — Dandelions and a Locust 166

VIII. — Forest and Orchard Moths 174

IX. — A Forest Aisle 188

X. — Some Forest Moths 197

XI. — Under-wing Moths ....... 204

XII. — Long-horned Beetles 215

XIII.— Roadside Butterflies 221

XIV. — Tiger-moths 239

XV. — Swallow-tail Butterflies 243

XVI.— Butterflies 246

XVII.— Butterflies 252

XVIII.— Caterpillars 328

INSECT LIFE.

INTRODUCTION.

This book was written to meet the demand for
a work which will be an aid to teachers of Nature
study in the public schools, students in the higher
schools, and others interested in outdoor life.

Among all the classes of animals none is more
available for study than insects. Their abundance
make it easy to obtain specimens ; they may be
found wherever man can live, and at all seasons.
Not only are insects numerous as individuals, but
the number of species is far greater than that of all
other animals taken together.

The ease with which living insects can be kept in
confinement, and the smallness of the expense in-
volved in preserving specimens, add greatly to the
availability of insects as subjects for Nature study.
No enterprising teacher need hesitate to undertake
this study on account of lack of specimens or of
apparatus ; with a little encouragement the pupils
will furnish these, and the teacher need not trouble
the school board with requests for an appropriation.

Although at present most adults have been taught
to shun insects, most children are easily interested in
them. The wonderful transformations of insects, their
I

2 INSECT LIFE.

beauty, and the high development of their instinctive
powers render them attractive subjects of study.
Any one can find out something new regarding in-
sect architecture — the ways in which these creatures
build nests for themselves or for their young ; it is
easy to observe remarkable feats of engineering,
examples of foresight, wonderful industry, unremit-
ting care of young, tragedies, and even war and
slavery.

Insects are no longer thought to be unworthy of
serious consideration. We have learned that all life
is linked together in such a way that no part of the
chain is unimportant. Frequently upon the action
of some of these minute beings depends the material
success or failure of a large section of our country.

But insects are of interest to us for other reasons
than the influence they may have upon our material
welfare ; the study of them is a fruitful field for in-
tellectual growth. It is not a small matter to be able
to view intelligently the facts presented by the insect
world, to know something of what is going on around
us; and so rich is this field that no one gains more
than a mere smattering concerning it.

We know as yet comparatively little about the
minute structure of insects ; the transformations and
habits of the greater number of species have not
been studied ; and the blood relationship of the
various groups of insects is very imperfectly under-
stood. If, therefore, one would learn something of
the action of the laws that govern the life and de-
velopment of organized beings, and at the same time
experience the pleasure deiived from original inves-
tigation, he can not find a better field than is offered

INTRODUCTION. 3

by the study of insects. But it is not necessary that
one should have the tastes and leisure required for
careful scientific investigation in order to profit by
this study. It can be made a recreation, a source of
entertainment when we are tired, and a pleasant
occupation for our thoughts when we walk.

The desire to know more of the creatures about
us is growing rapidly ; Nature study is being intro-
duced generally in schools of all grades, and every-
where lovers of out-of-door life are learning to ex-
perience the pleasure of a more intimate acquaintance
with their surroundings. It is hoped that this will be
made easier by this book. Its chief object is to serve
as a guide for those who wish to acquire a knowledge
of insects from a study of the insects themselves ; it
is intended to lie open before the observer while the
subject of study is examined.

The needs of the beginner in the study of insects,
be he old or young, have been kept constantly in
mind. The teacher of children who is preparing a
lesson, the youth who is studying by himself, and
the adult who adds to the pleasure of his outing by
learning something new to him — all need to approach
Nature by the same path. For this reason an elemen-
tary, didactic form of treatm.ent has been adopted,
although the book is intended for adults as well as
for younger pupils.

It is not expected that the teacher will take a
class through the book from beginning to end ; for
Nature study to be most successful must be varied :
each locality and each season will afford different
subjects for study.

With young pupils it is best to begin with obser-

4 INSECT LIFE.

vations on living insects. When practicable, excur-
sions into the fields should be made for this purpose.
Suggestions as to what insects are most likely to be
found in different localities are given in the chapters
on Pond Life, Brook Life, Orchard Life, Forest Life,
and Roadside Life.

But in most cases it vi^ill be necessary to make the
observations in the schoolroom. For this a breed-
ing cage or an aquarium will be needed. Directions
for making these are given in Chapter IV, pages

326-335-

At first an aquarium will be found more useful
than a breeding cage, for the constant movement in
a well-stocked aquarium is sure to excite interest.
If the pupils are furnished with an insect net (see
page 285), they can keep the aquarium supplied with
living insects. In the chapters on Pond Life and on
Brook Life the more common aquatic insects are
described and directions are given for their study.

During the winter, cocoons of the giant silkworms
can be collected (see pages 188-197) and kept till the
adult moths emerge, affording good material for les-
sons on the transformations of insects. At the same
time, and in early spring, the eggs of the apple-tree
tent caterpillar can be found on apple trees and on
wild cherry, and later the growth and transforma-
tions of the insect observed (see pages 168-171).

At an early period in the course, a home-made
breeding cage (see page 327) should be provided ;
and during the summer months it will be easy to
keep it stocked with some of the insects described in
the chapters on Orchard Life, Forest Life, and Road-
side Life.

INTRODUCTION. 5

While the pupils are becoming familiar with the
life of insects, they can be taught something of their
structure and of their classification ; but with young
pupils these subjects should be subordinated to the
study of the activities of insects. In the first eight
lessons (pages 9-21) the parts of an insect that can be
seen without dissection are described. A locust or
grasshopper is used as an example, and serves as a
type ; in later chapters considerable attention is given
to the more obvious modifications of structure corre-
lated with the peculiar habits of the insects described.
So much of structure as is desirable for the pupils
to learn can be taught incidentally while they are
observing the habits of the insects.

After the school has been supplied with an aqua-
rium and one or more breeding cages, provision
should be made for preserving a collection of insects.
Nothing will more surely maintain an interest in Na-
ture study than a growing collection of insects made
by the pupils themselves. Do not buy a collection;
the specimens that a class can collect in a single sum-
mer day will be worth more as a stimulus to personal
observation than a purchased collection. In Chapter
II (pages 22-50) are given several lessons for begin-
ners on collecting and preserving specimens ; and
in Part II (pages 284-325) are suggestions for more
advanced work in this direction.

In a word, the Nature-study work should not be a
fixed, definite course ; the most available objects of
the locality and season should be selected for study,
and these observed from as many points of view as
possible. One day observe habits ; another, study
structure ; and later learn something of classification

6 INSECT LIFE.

by putting the specimens in their proper place in a
collection.

The Nature study can be made an aid to work in
language and in drawing ; many suggestions for this
are given throughout the book.

With an aquarium, a breeding cage, and a few
boxes for preserving specimens, all of which can be
procured with little expense, both teacher and pupils
will find the Nature-study period the most enjoyable
part of the day.

Everything possible should be done to make this
study a recreation which the pupils will enjoy outside
of school hours. If each has a collection, this will be
an easy matter. Do not discourage the pupils by re-
quiring them to memorize abstract statements con-
cerning insects. Let their knowledge of the subject
be based on personal observations. The statements
in the book are merely to aid the pupils in their study
of the specimens ; personal observation should be the
real source of their information. The development
of the habit of ascertaining facts for themselves is
one of the greatest benefits the pupils will derive
from this study.

In preparing the lessons an effort has been made
to combine the verification method and the interro-
gation method of laboratory work in such a way as
to obtain the desirable results of both systems and
to give variety to the work. When the former
method is used, the teacher will be able in most cases
to determine if the pupil has correctly verified the
statements made in the text by examining the draw-
ings he is required to make or the account he is asked
to write.

INTRODUCTION. y

It is obvious that, in order properly to direct
work of this kind, the teacher should be thoroughly
acquainted with the subjects studied by the pupils.
The difficulties that have been in the way of the
teachers who have tried to obtain a systematic knowl-
edge of insects is doubtless the chief reason that in-
sect life has not been studied more in the public
schools. An appreciation of these difficulties led the
author and the illustrator of this book to prepare
first, for the use of teachers, a comprehensive text-
book, by means of which the teacher can easily pre-
pare himself to direct the study of his pupils. This
is entitled "A Manual for the Study of Insects."*

In this study, perhaps more than in any other
taught in the secondary schools, the pleasure of con-
stantly learning something new can be shared by the
teacher with the pupils. The writer has had an un-
usually broad experience in teaching this subject, but
he has never yet taken a class into the field without
finding something new to him.

In this connection we wish to urge the importance
of perfect sincerity. The teacher should frankly say,
" I do not know," when asked a question that he can
not answer, and it will be well if he will add, " We
will try to find out." Teach the pupils early that
any one by intelligent endeavor can add to the sum
of knowledge.

While the chief end of this study is the training
of the powers of observation and the careful ascer-
taining of facts in a scientific manner, it seems to us to
be well to encourage somewhat an imaginative view

* Published by the Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y.

g INSECT LIFE.

of the subject. For this purpose we have included
some poetical references to insects. We believe that
the reading of these by the pupils will both stimulate
their love of a poetical form of expression and bring
them in closer sympathy with the world of life
around us.

PART I.

LESSONS IN INSECT LIFE.

CHAPTER I.

THE PARTS OF AN INSECT.

'OOK at an insect and you will find a creature

with parts which are very different from

those of the animals with which we are more

familiar. Although it can see, hear, eat,

and walk, its eyes, ears, mouth, and legs

are not like the corresponding organs of

the higher animals.

It is necessary, therefore, at the
beginning of our study of insect life,
to learn something of the structure of insects. We
will not attempt at first, however, to make a thor-
ough study of insect anatomy, but will merely select
one kind of insect, and study the principal divisions
of the body as seen from the outside.

Having done this, we will be able to see in our
later studies in what ways the parts of other kinds of
insects have been modified in form to fit them for
their modes of life. Thus, for example, we will find
that an insect which catches its prey by running has
legs of a different shape than those of an insect that

9

lO INSECT LIFE.

swims through the water ; and an insect that sucks
the blood from its victims has a different kind of
mouth than one that chews up the leaves of plants.

It is also important that we should know the
names of the principal parts of the body of an insect,
so that we may understand descriptions of insects,
and be able to write descriptions ourselves.

We have selected locusts, or grasshoppers as they
are more commonly called, for the subject of these
introductory lessons^ We have done this because
locusts are quite large, and are common in all parts
of our country ; and, too, the parts of the body in
these insects are comparatively simple.

In the course of these lessons the following things
will be needed : A supply of locusts,* blank paper
and pencils for making notes and drawings, one or
more cyanide bottles (see page 286) for killing the
specimens collected by the pupils, a lens, cardboard
and mucilage for mounting dissections, and scissors.
A compound microscope is very desirable, but not
absolutely necessary.

* It is best, when practicable, that the pupils should collect these for
themselves. But in the case of city schools, or when the work is begun
at a season of the year when these insects are not readily found, the
teacher should have on hand a supply of locusts preserved in alcohol.
These can be collected beforehand or obtained of some dealer in labora-
tory supplies. The best way to collect them is by sweeping (see page 291)
the grass in a dry meadow or pasture in late summer or early autumn.
In this way a pint or more of locusts can be collected in a short time.
These can be preserved in alcohol in an ordinary glass can, such as is
used for preserving fruit. There should be more than enough alcohol to
cover the insects, and after they have been in it for twenty-four hours it
should be poured off and fresh alcohol substituted. A list of dealers in
laboratory supplies is given at the close of this volume for the conven-
ience of those who wish to purchase specimens.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST.

LESSON I.
THE PARTS OF A LOCUST.

Fig. I.— a locust.

Collection of Specimens and a General View of the Body.

1. Collect several locusts or short-horned grass-
hoppers and bring them to the school. They can be
carried in a small box
or wide-mouthed bottle.
Fig. I represents one of
these insects.

2. If living locusts
are collected, kill them
by leaving them in a cyanide bottle for a half hour
or more.

Note. — If the pupils can not find living locusts at the time this
lesson is taken, preserved specimens will be furnished by the teacher.

3. Count the legs and the wings of the locusts,
and make a note of the number of each on a sheet of
paper headed Notes on the Parts of a Locust.

4. Study the body of the insect and observe that
it is composed of three portions: first, the head ; sec-

fp^j^^ ond, a stout portion to which the

legs and wings are attached, the

Fig. 2. — "VVasp, with head, tho-
rax, and abdomen separated.

Fig. 3. — Side view of locust with wings
removed.

thorax ; and, third, the hinder part of the body or
abdomen {ab-do' men).

In a locust the division between the thorax and

12 INSECT LIFE.

the abdomen is not well marked. Fig. 2 represents
a wasp with the three regions of the body separated,
and in Fig. 3 a locust is represented with its wings re-
moved so as to show the extent of each of these regions.
5. Make a copy on your sheet of notes of the
figure of a side view of a locust.

LESSON II.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUFD).

The Head, except the Mouth-parts.

The head is the first of the three regions of the
body. It contains the brain of the insect and other
important organs ; but in these lessons we will study
only the outside parts of it. The head bears the
antennae, the eyes, and the mouth-parts.

1. The antenna; {an-tcn'ncB) are the two long, slen-
der organs attached to the head in front of the large
eyes. Make a drawing of one of them. The singu-
far form of the word antennas is antenna (an-ten'na).

2. Study the large e)^es which are situated one on
each side of the head. Examine them with a lens,

also with a microscope if you have
the use of one. The surface of the
eye when much magnified resem-
bles honeycomb in appearance (Fig.
4). Each of the six-sided divisions
FIG. 4._Part of com- ^^ ^he large eye is a complete eye,
pound eye, greatly hcncc the large cves are compound

enlarged. , *= -^ ^

eyes.

3. In addition to the two large compound eyes a
locust has three simple eyes. There is one of these

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST.

13

just in front of the upper part of each compound eye,
and the third is in a hollow near the middle of the
face of the locust ; find each of these.

Note. — The simple eyes are usually called the ocelli (p-cel'li). This
term is also applied frequently to the little eyes, or ommatidia, of which
the compound eyes are composed ; but if nothing is said to indicate that
the parts of a compound eye are meant, the term ocelli always refers to
the simple eyes. In the same way the term eyes usually refers to the
compound eyes alone. The singular form of ocelli is ocellus {o-cel lus).

4. Make a drawing of the front side of the head
showing the position of the antennae, the eyes, and
the ocelli.

LESSON III.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED),

The Mouth-parts.

1. Attached to the lower edge of the front side of
the head of the locust is a movable flap ; this is the
upper lip or labmni {la'brmn). Carefull3^ remove it
with a knife and save it.

2. By removing the upper lip there is exposed a
pair of horny jaws ; these are the mandibles {maji'di-
bles). The mandibles open sidewise instead of up and
down like the jaws of higher animals. Carefully re-
move the mandibles. This can be done by separating
them with a pin, and turning each one sidewise till it
breaks from the head. Save the mandibles.

3. By the removal of the mandibles there is ex-
posed a second pair of jaws, which, like the mandi-
bles, open sidewise. These are the maxillcB {max-
il'hu). The singular form of maxillas is maxilla (max-
il'la). The maxillas, unlike the mandibles, are very
complicated organs, each maxilla consisting of sev-

14

INSECT LIFE.

eral parts. Leave the maxillae attached to the head
till later.

4. Remove the head of the locust and pin it with
the hinder side uppermost to a piece of cork or block
of w^ood.

5. With the head in this position the flaplike
lower lip or labium {la'bi-tini) can be easily seen.
Like the maxillae, the labium consists of several
parts.

6. Lift the free end of the labium with a pin and
observe the tonguelike organ which arises from the

inner side of it, and pro-
jects between the maxillae;
this is the hypopharynx {Jiy-
pophar' ynx).

7. Remove the labium
and the hypopharynx and
save them.

8. After the removal of
the labium it will be easier
to remove the maxillae than
before. Remove them and
save them.

9. Arrange the mouth-
parts on a card as shown
in Fig. 5 and gum them in
place.

10. The five-jointed appendages of the maxillae are
the maxillary palpi. The singular of palpi is palpus.

11. The three-jointed appendages of the lower lip
or labium are the labial palpi.

Rcviezv. — The mouth-parts of a locust consist of
an upper lip, the labriim ; an under lip, the labimn;

Fig.

The mouth-parts of a lo-
cust : 8, labrum ; 10, mandibles ;
II, maxilla?; 11 </, maxillary
palpi ; 12, labium ; 12 d, labial
palpi ; 13, hypopharynx.

THE TARTS OF A LOCUST. jr

two pairs of jaws, the mandibles and the maxillcB ; and
a tongiielike organ, the liypopharynx. The jaws open
sidewise instead of up and down, as do the jaws of
the higher animals. The upper pair of jaws are called
the mandibles ; the lower pair of jaws the maxilla.
Each maxilla bears a palpus ; these are the maxillary
palpi. The labium bears a pair of palpi ; these are
the labial palpi.

LESSON IV.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED).

The Appendages of the Thorax, the Legs.

The thorax is the middle one of the three regions
of the body (see Lesson I and Fig. 3). The append-
ages of the thorax are three pairs of legs and two
pairs of wings. In this lesson we will study the
legs.

1. Study carefully one of the fore legs of the
locust and observe that it is composed of several
parts or segments. Each of these segments of the
leg has a distinct name. As these names are often
used in descriptions of insects, it is necessary to learn
them.

2. The first segment of the legs, the one that is
joined to the body, is nearly globular in outline ; this
is the coxa {cox' a).

3. The second segment of the leg is much smaller
than the coxa ; this is the trochanter itro-chan'ter).

4. The third segment of the leg is the principal
one ; this is \\\q. femur {fe'mur). Its name is the same
as that of the principal bone in the human leg.

5. The fourth segment of the leg is nearly as long

l6 INSECT LIFE.

as the femur, but it is more slender; it is called the
tibia {tib'i-a). This name is the same as the name of
the principal bone between the knee and ankle of the
human leg.

6. All of the leg of the locust beyond the tibia is
the foot or tarsus itar'siis). This part consists of
three segments in the locust, but the number of seg-
ments in the tarsus differs in different kinds of in-
sects.

7. The last segment of the tarsus bears a pair of
claws. These are called the tarsal claivs.

8. Find each of the parts named above in each of
the legs of the locust.

9. Make a drawing of one of the fore legs and
name the parts.

10. The plurals of the terms are as follows : coxa,
coxas ; trochanter, trochanters ; femur, femora (fem'-
o-ra) ; tibia, tibiae ; tarsus, tarsi.

LESSON V.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED),

The Appendages of the Thorax, the Wings.

1. Remove the two wings of one side, spread
them out on a card, and gum them in place.

2. Study the wings and observe that each is com-
posed of a membrane strengthened by a framework
of thicker lines. These thickened lines composing
the framework are called the veins of the zvings. The
term vein used in this connection is not very appro-
priate, but as it is in general use it would not be well
to attempt to change it.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST.

17

3. Observe the strong, longitudinal veins, and the
numerous smaller cross-veins.

4. The portions of the membrane bounded by the
veins are called the cells.

5. Cut a piece about one fourth inch square from
one of the wings not removed from the body, mount
it on a card, and make a careful drawing of the veins
and cells. Label the drawing as follows : Fragnie^it
of the wing of a locust showing the veins and the cells.

6. Write a description of the wings of a locust ;
describe first the general features of the wings, and
then state how the two wings of one side differ from
each other.

LESSON VI.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED),

The Thorax.

1. In this lesson we are to study the parts of the
thorax, but before beginning this study the pupil
should examine the abdomen and observe that the
body wall of that region is composed of several ring-
like segments.

2. Like the abdomen, the entire body of an insect
is made up of a series of segments, but it is not so
easy to distinguish the separate segments in the head
and thorax as it is in the abdomen.

3. The segments of which the head is composed
are grown together so completely that the head ap-
pears to consist of a single segment.

4. The thorax consists of three segments, which
we will try to distinguish. Observe that the first
pair of legs are borne by a ringlike part which can

l8 . INSECT LIFE.

be separated from the remainder of the thorax. This
is the first of the segments of the thorax.

5. Separate the first segment of the thorax from
the remainder of this region. Observe that the belly
or ventral side is small, while the upper or dorsal side
is large, being composed of the large sunbonnet-
shaped piece which is just back of the head.

6. The first segment of the thorax is called the
prothorax {pro-tho'rax).

7. Make a drawing of a side view of the prothorax
representing the left side.

8. The portion of the thorax remaining consists
of two segments closely grown together. These are
the second and third thoracic segments. The second
thoracic segment bears the second pair of legs and the
first pair of wings ; the third thoracic segment bears
the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings.
Study the specimen and try to make out the limits
of these segments.

9. The second or middle thoracic segment is called
the mesothorax {mcs-o-tho'rax). The third or last tho-
racic segment is called the metathorax {met-a-tho'rax).

10. Remove the wings and make a drawing of
the left side of these two segments.

11. Observe that the greater part of each side of
these two segments consists of four large, oblique
pieces. The first two of these pieces belong to the
mesothorax, the last two to the metathorax.

Review. — The body of an insect consists of a series
of segments; of these the first three behind the head
form the thorax. The three segments of the thorax
are called the prothorax, the mesothorax^ and the meta-
thorax respectively.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST.

19

LESSON VII.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED).

The Abdomen.

The abdomen is that portion of the body which
is behind the thorax. In a locust the thorax and ab-
domen are so closely connected that it requires care-
ful study to determine where one ends and the other
begins.

1. Examine the ventral or belly side of the body
and determine which is the first abdominal segment.
The front edge of this segment is dovetailed into the
metathorax, so that at first sight it appears to be a
part of the thorax.

2. Examine the upper or dorsal part of the first
abdominal segment ; this is widely separated from
the ventral part by the cavities for the insertion of
the hind legs.

3. Observe the ears ; these are situated one on
each side of the first abdominal segment. Each is a
large opening in the body wall which is closed by a
very delicate membrane (see Fig, 3), Locusts differ
from other insects in having ears in this position.

4. Examine the seven abdominal segments follow-
ing the first ; each of these is ringlike in form.

5. Find the breathing holes or spiracles. There
is a row of them on each side of the body. The first
one on each side that is in the abdomen is just in
front of the ear. In the seven following abdominal
segments there is one on each side of each segment
near the lower front corner of the upper part of the
segment.

20 INSECT LIFE.

Note. — In addition to the abdominal spiracles, there are two pairs of
spiracles which belong to the thorax : one of these is situated in the
membrane between the prothorax and mesothorax ; the other just above
and a little back of the insertion of the middle pair of legs. The first
of these two pairs is covered by the free margin of the prothorax, which
can be cut away with scissors.

6. Examine several specimens of locusts and ob-
serve that in some the hind or caudal end of the
body tapers to the end and bears four pointed and
curved, horny pieces, and that in others this end of
the body is terminated by a single, large, hood-shaped
plate. Those in which the body ends in four pieces
are females ; the others are males.

7. The four pieces at the caudal end of the body
of the female are for making holes in the ground or
in soft wood in which the eggs are laid, and are called
the ovipositor.

8. In using the ovipositor the insect pushes it into
the ground and then spreads the pieces apart ; by re-
peating this operation many times a deep hole is
made in which the eggs are laid.

9. Make a drawing of the left side of the abdo-
men ; represent carefully the position of the ear and
of the spiracles. Use either a male or female, but
state under the drawing which sex it represents.

LESSON VIII.

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST (CONTINUED).

Review.

The following table illustrates the relations ot the
parts of a locust that have been studied in the pre-
ceding lessons. The pupils should learn this table

THE PARTS OF A LOCUST.

SO that they can write it
book:

ithout referring to the

Head.

Thorax.

Antenna;.
Compound eyes.
Simple eyes or ocelli.

r Labrum.

Mouth-parts. J il'^"^;^^"'^ ■„

"^ Maxilla; and maxillary palpi.

[ Labium and labial palpi.

Prothorax and first pair of legs.

Mesothorax and \ f"^'"^ P^'l "^ ^'^S^-
( tirst pair of wings.

third pair of legs.

second pair of wings.

f Coxa.

Metathorax and

Leg

Abdomen.

I Trochanter,
-j Femur.
I Tibia.
(^ Tarsus and claws.

iears (in locusts only),
spiracles,
ovipositor.

CHAPTER II.

THE BEGINNING OF A COLLECTION AND A STUDY OF THE
METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS.

HE mere reading of books
about natural objects will do
but little toward forming an
intimate acquaintance with
Nature. If one would really
know about the creatures that
are near us wherever we go,
he must stud}' them directly, and not depend on
what others have said about them.

It is for this reason that these first lessons in
Insect Life are based on the study of specimens that
the pupils have collected for themselves. It will be
far better for the pupils to learn a few things at first
hand than to memorize a great mass of information
from books.

In most places it is comparatively easy to find
insects. The pupils can collect them while going to
and from school or during recess ; or a class may be
excused for an hour or two occasionally to make
longer trips, under the direction of one of the older
pupils ; but, when possible, the teacher should accom-
pany the pupils in their excursions. More insects
will be found on warm days when the sun. i§ shining
than at other times.

22

THE BEGINNING OF A COLLECTION.

23

In the case of city schools that are remote from
parks or other good collecting fields, excursions into
country places can be made on Saturdays, and the
specimens collected on such an excursion can be kept
for study till the following Monday. Much more
progress in attaining real knoivlcdge will be made in
this way than by daily recitations based on a study
of a book about insects.

With a little effort living insects can be kept in
breeding cages or aquaria, so that the specimens col-
lected on a single excursion may serve for daily ob-
servations for a long time.

Each pupil should be encouraged to make a per-
manent collection for himself. With such a collec-
tion there is little danger of his losing his interest in
the subject ; and the facts that he has learned will be
remembered more easily. Moreover, the making of
additions to a collection and the frequent rearranging
of it will be a source of great pleasure and instruction.

If for any reason it is impracticable for the pupils
to make private collections, a collection should be
made for the school. If the specimens in such a col-
lection are labeled with the names of the collectors,
the pupils will be stimulated to make additions to it.
And if, as soon as the older pupils have learned to
handle specimens carefully, each is appointed curator
of some group of insects, a personal interest in the
collection will be stimulated, and each will acquire a
more thorough knowledge of the group collected
than he would otherwise.

The group assigned to a student may be some
order or family of insects, or an artificial group based
on habits. Some experience with the local con-

24 INSECT LIFE.

ditions in each school will be necessary for the
teacher to be able to select the more available groups.

Even when the pupils make private collections it
will be well to have each one, after he has become
familiar with the different orders, select some one of
them as his specialty, and study that one more thor-
oughly. In this way he will be forced to do more
careful collecting in order to add to his collection
constantly, and he will thus learn more about the
habits of the insects collected.

Before beginning the work the teacher should
decide what apparatus is to be used, and make pro-
vision for obtaining that part of it which the pupils
are not to make for themselves, so that the work
shall not be delayed by lack of material.

Although there are many things that are desira-
ble for carrying on this work, much can be accom-
plished with very little material and that which is
inexpensive. The following lists will aid the teacher
in deciding what to get: —

Necessary Supplies for Pupils.

Cyanide bottles. See page 286.
Pins. See page 295.
Empty cigar-boxes. See page 306.
Cork or pith. See page 309.

Additional Supplies desirable for Pupils.

Insect nets. See page 285.
Glass-topped cases. See page 306.
Coddington lenses. See below.
Vials.
Alcohol.

THE BEGINNING OV A COLLECTION. 25

Desirable Supplies for the School .

Cabinet for insect cases. See page 294.

Pliers or pinning forceps. See page 299.

Cases, pins, vials, and alcohol.

Microscope. See below.

Supplies for mounting microscopic objects. See
page 300.

At least the teacher should possess a lens. Of
the cheaper lenses the form known as the Codding,
ton lenses I have found to be the best. These are
commonly kept by stationers or jewelers. They can
also be procured of any dealer in optical instruments.
See list of dealers at the end of this volume.

If a microscope be procured for the school, care
should be taken to get one provided with what is
known as the society screw, so that objectives of any
of the more prominent makers can be used on it. If
the funds at the disposal of the school will only admit
of the purchase of a microscope with a single objec-
tive, a three-fourths-inch objective will be found as
useful as any for entomological work, and perhaps
later a one-fifth-inch objective or others can be added.
Price lists of microscopes will be furnished by deal-
ers in optical instruments. Most dealers make
discounts from their list prices when furnishing
schools.

In preparing the above suggestions we have tried
to keep in mind the needs and the ability of supply-
ing these needs of both teachers in the smaller
schools, where there may be no funds to spend for
apparatus, and of teachers in the larger schools, where
even costly apparatus can be purchased.

26 INSECT LIFE.

LESSON IX.

PREPARATION FOR A COLLECTING TRIP.

Having learned something about the structure of
a locust, which was taken as a typical insect, we are
ready to begin the study of other insects. In doing
this we will first learn how to collect and preserve
specimens ; after that we will study the classification
of insects and the life histories of some of them.

The forms of insects are numberless, and their
ways are as varied as are their forms. As we walk
over the fields they spring up before us or scurry
away through the grass. Some fly lazily here and
there ; others dart back and forth with the rapidity of
thought. We crush them under foot by a careless
step ; we find them on every shrub and tree ; and
the streams and ponds are peopled by them.

Let us approach their study with kindly feelings,
bent on learning what we can concerning them and
their ways, and putting aside the false notion that
many of us have been taught that these creatures are
to be despised. The great majority of them can be
regarded as our friends, for they are of service
to us ; others, while not actually beneficial, do us no
appreciable harm ; a few, and they are only a few
compared with the great number that make up the
insect world, interfere with our happiness. These
we are forced to fight ; but the combat is one of self-
defense and not a war against an enemy that harms
us maliciously.

In making a collection for study it will be neces-
sary for us to kill specimens; but we will do this as

PREFAUATION FOR A COLLECTING TRIP.

27

humanely as possible, and will not destroy more than
we need for our work.

The objects of this lesson are two : first, the
suggesting of a proper spirit in which to take up
this work ; and, second, the getting ready for our first
field trip, so that when the time comes to start there
w^ill be no delay.

The most important thing to carry with you into
the field is a good pair of eyes. Without these but
little will be accomplished.

Of the various kinds of collecting apparatus the
most important is a cyanide bottle. Each pupil, if
possible, should have one of these. On page 286 will
be found directions for making them.

In addition to a cyanide bottle it will be well if
each one has an insect net, although much can be
done without a net. See page 285 for a description
of an insect net.

No other apparatus is needed for the first field
trip, but it will be well if some provision be made at
once for preserving the insects that you are going to
collect. The following are the more important
things needed for this:

1. An insect case or empty cigar-boxes. Read
what is said on pages 306 to 310 regarding these, and
note especially what is said pn page 310 regarding
the use of corn pith for lining cigar-boxes.

2. A supply of insect pins or, if these can not be
obtained, a paper of ordinary pins. Read what is
said on this subject on pages 295 to 299.

28 INSECT LIFE.

LESSON X.

THE FIRST COLLECTING TRIP.

Material needed for the Excursion. — " A sharp pair
of eyes," a cyanide bottle, and an insect net if you
have one.

Where to look for Specimens. — On flowers and
leaves, on the surface of the ground, under stones
and pieces of wood lying on the ground, in rotten
stumps, and under the bark of decaying logs and
trees.

What to collect. — We plan to study all kinds of
insects and also some animals that are not true in-
sects, but are closely related to them. It will be best,
however, on this first excursion to collect only xvinged
insects. Other forms may be collected and studied
later in the course.

Suggestions. — Do not leave your cyanide bottle
open unnecessarily, for if you do it will lose its
strength in a short time. With proper care a cyanide
bottle will last several months.

Do not hold your face near the open cyanide
bottle so as to breathe the fumes that escape from it.
With ordinary care there is no danger in the use of
a cyanide bottle. ,

You can take bees and wasps from flowers with-
out danger of being stung by shutting them into the
bottle with the cork. Take the bottle in one hand
and the cork in the other, and bring the two together
quickly, one on each side of the insect.

The insects collected can be left in the cyanide
bottles or on damp sand in a jar or tight box till

TIIK FiRSr COLLECTING TKIT.

29

the followini^ day. If the excursion is made on
Saturday the insects can be kept soft in this way till
Monday.

-Poison ivy

(Note that the leaflets are in threes, and that each has
only a single midrib.)

If a cyanide bottle is wet inside it should be
wiped out and a piece of blotting paper placed in it.
But if the dampness is due to the dissolving- of the
cyanide it is better to put enough dry plaster of Paris

FiQ. 7. — Virginia creeper. (Note that the leaflets are in fives.)

into the bottle to absorb the liquid ; sprinkle the
plaster of Paris carefully on top of the layer of
cement in the bottom of the bottle, so that the whole
shall form one solid layer.

To the Teachcr.—\{ poison ivy or poison oak
abounds in the region where the pupils are to col-

30

INSECT LIFE.

lect, the plant should be
They should also be able

made known to them,
to distinguish between

Fig. 8.— Clematis. (Note that the leaflets are in threes, like the poison ivy.
but each leaflet has several midribs.)

poison ivy and the harmless Virginia creeper and
clematis. See Figs. 6, 7, and 8.*

LESSON XI.

ON MOUNTING SPECIMENS.

1. Take the specimens that were collected on the
first collecting trip, and which have been kept moist
either by being left in the cyanide bottle or in a
closed vessel upon damp sand, and spread them out
before you. If the directions were followed, they
are all winged.

2. Select one of the larger specimens and observe

* The writer, who is extremely susceptible to the poison of poison
oak and poison ivy, has experienced great relief when poisoned by bath-
ing the affected parts frequently with a lotion made of one part tincture
ofgrindelia and four parts water. Prompt and frequent application of
this lotion will prevent the appearance of the pustules characteristic of
this disease ; if the application be not made soon enough for this, the
injury can be kept from spreading by a tliorough 3.v\d. persistent use of the
lotion.

ON MOUNTING Sri'XIMENS.

31

that, as with the locust, the body consists of three
main parts — the head, the thorax, and the abdotticn.

3. In pinning insects most specimens should be
pinned through the middle of the thorax. Read the
section on pinning insects on page 297.

4. Pin four or five of the larger specimens in this
way, leaving about one fourth of the length of the
pin above the back of the insect. If insect pins
be used, avoid using the smaller sizes, as they are
easily bent. Insects that are too small to be pinned
with No. 3 Klager pins should be mounted on cards
as described later.

5. Ascertain if you have any beetles in your col-
lection. Beetles have a pair of wing-covers in the
place of the front wings.
These wing - covers are
thick and horny, and
meet in a straight line
down the back of the in-
sect, forming a hard case,
beneath which the hind
wings are folded. Fig.
9 represents a beetle.

6. Separate the beetles
in your collection from
the other specimens.

7. In pinning beetles ^ ^ , t, „

' r' to Pig. g. — A beetle.

the pin should be put

through the right wing-cover at a point about one
fourth the length of the wing-cover from its base
(see Fig. 10).

8. Pin all the beetles in your collection that are
large enough to be pinned.

INSECT LIFE.

9. Pin any other winged insects you have that
are large enough to be pinned, remembering that
except in case of beetles the insects
should be pinned through the
middle of the thorax.

ID. If there remain some in-
sects that are too small to be
pinned, they should be mounted
on cardboard points, as described
on page 298.

II. Count the les^s on each
specimen in your collection, (it
is supposed that you have only winged specimens.)
How many legs do winged insects have?

The shrilling locust slowly sheathes

His dagger voice, and creeps away
Beneath the brooding leaves where breathes

The zephyr of the dying day :
One naked star has waded through
The purple shallows of the night,
And faltering as falls the dew
It drips its misty light.
O'er garden blooms,
On tid s of musk,
The beetle booms adown the glooms
And bumps along the dusk.

The katydid is rasping at

The silence from the tangled broom :
On drunken wings the flitting bat

Goes staggering athwart the gloom :
The toadstool bulges through the weeds ;

And lavishly to left and right
The fireflies, like golden seeds,

Are sown about the night.

THE SECOND COLLECTIN(; TRIP,

33

O'er slunib'rous blooms,
On Hoods of musk,
The beetle booms adown the glooms
And bumps along the dusk.

James Whitcomb Riley*

LESSON XII.

THE SECOND COLLECTING TRIP,

1. Review carefully the directions on page 28.

2. On this excursion the pupils should collect any
true insects — that is, those having only six feet — that
they may find ; but the especial object of the excur-

FiG. II. — Nymph of .l/;?/(Z«(?//7/j,
first stage. (After Emerton.)

Fro. 12. — Nymph of Melanopltis,
second stage. (After Emerton.)

Fig. 13. — Nymph of Melanoplus^
third stage. (After Emerton.)

Fig. 14. — Nymph of Melanoplus,
fourth stage. (After Emerton.)

sion is to get a set of specimens illustrating the
growth of either crickets or locusts or bugs. Select
whichever of these is most common, and get as com-

From Old-fashioned Roses, by permission of the Bowen- Merrill Co,

34 INSECT LIFE.

plete a series as possible representing the changes
from the very young insect without any wings,
through the different stages of wing-growth up to
the adult insect.

The accompanying figures (Figs. 1 1-16) represent
the transformations of a common locust. Note that

j»fr

Fig. 15.— Nymph of Mclanoplus, FiG. i6. — Melanoplus, adult,

fifth stage. (After Emerton.)

the figures of the younger stages are enlarged. The
hair line represents in each case the length of the
insect.

LESSON XIII.

INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS.

Nearly all insects undergo great changes in form
while getting their growth. Thus, caterpillars in
time become butterflies or millers ; grubs when
fully developed are beetles; and maggots are the
young of two-winged flies.

In the case of butterflies, millers, beetles, and
two-winged flies, the fully developed insects bear
but little resemblance in form to the young. It
would be difficult to find two adult insects that differ
more in form than do a butterfly and the caterpillar
from which it was developed. But in the case of
certain other insects, the changes undergone during
the life of the insect are not nearly so great as with

INCOMPLETE METAMORrilOS'IS. 35

these. Thus the young locust resembles the adult
in form to a great extent, except that it lacks wings ;
and the same thing is true of crickets, bugs, and
many other insects.

Those insects which, like butterflies, millers, bee-
tles, and flies, undergo a complete change of form
while getting their growth are said to undergo a
complete meta))iorpliosis.

Insects which, like locusts, crickets, and bugs, do
not change greatly in form except by the gradual
growth of wings are said to undergo an incomplete
metamorphosis.

Let us study more carefully the changes of an
insect with an incomplete metamorphosis.

1. Pin the specimens that were collected on the
last excursion. If some are too small to pin, mount
them on cardboard points.

2. Select those that were collected to illustrate
the changes in form from the very young insect
without any wings through the different stages of
wing-growth up to the adult insect.

3. Determine how many stages of growth are
represented by these, and place together the speci-
mens illustrating each stage. The young of insects
that undergo an incomplete metamorphosis are
termed nymphs.

4. Make an outline drawing of the thorax and
wings, when they are present, of each stage. Draw
either the dorsal or a side view, whichever will show
best the development of the wings.

36

INSECT LIFE.

LESSON XIV.

MOLTING.

1. Take a locust that has been killed by being
placed in a cyanide bottle or in alcohol and cut the
abdomen in two, near the middle of it.

2. Observe that the hard parts of the body are on
the outside, and that there is no internal skeleton, as
in our own bodies.

This fact makes necessary a peculiar feature in
the growth of insects and of the other animals that
are closely related to them. The
body of an insect is inclosed in a
firm case, which, as it does not in-
crease in size, becomes too tight for
the insect as the insect grows. To
meet this difificulty the outer hard
layer of the skin is shed. The inner
soft layer of the skin then stretches
so as to accommodate the increased
size of the insect ; later this soft
skin, which is now on the outside,
becomes hard, so as to serve as a
protection to the insect. In time
this skin also becomes too tight, but
another soft skin has been formed
beneath it, and the hard skin can be
shed like the other.
This process of shedding the skin is termed
molting.

Insects differ greatly as to the number of times
that they molt ; some pass through only three or

Fig. 17. — The cast
skin of a nymph
of a dragon-fiy.

OBSERVATION OF INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS.

37

four molts, while others shed their skin twenty times
or more.

It is at the time of molting that changes in the
form of the body take place.

Fig. 17 represents the cast skin of a nymph of a
dragon-fly.

LESSON XV.

OBSERVATION OF INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS.

1 . Collect a considerable number — fifteen or twenty
or more — of nymphs of locusts or crickets, and place
them in a breeding cage. See page 327 for directions
for making inexpensive breeding cages.

2. Put a sod of growing grass in the cage for the
insects to feed upon, and replace it with a fresh one
when necessary.

3. Endeavor to rear the nymphs, and make notes
on their changes.

4. Examine the cage daily, and when cast skins
are found, study them and preserve specimens for
your collection.

5. Preserve a specimen of each of the nymph
stages, and label it with the date on which it was
taken.

6. Observe that, although the changes between
the different nymph stages are slight, the change be-
tween the last nymph stage and the adult is a marked
one, there being a great increase in the size of the
wingfs at this time.

38 INSECT LIFE.

THE GRASSHOPPER AND THE CRICKET.

Green little vaulter in the sunny grass,

Catching your heart up at the feel of June,
Sole voice that's heard amid the lazy noon,

When even the bees lag at the summoning brass ;

And you, warm little housekeeper, who class

With those who think the candles come too soon.
Loving the fire, and with your tricksome tune

Nick the glad silent moments as they pass ;

Oh, sweet and tiny cousins, that belong
One to the fields, the other to the hearth,

Both have your sunshine ; both, though small, are strong
At your clear hearts ; and both were sent on earth

To sing in thoughtful ears this natural song :
Indoors and out, summer and winter — Mirth.

Lcis^h Hunt.

LESSON XVI.

OBSERVATION OF COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS AND
DEFINITION OF TERMS.

And what's a butterfly ? At best,

He's but a catei-pillar, drest.— /ic/m Gay.

1. Collect some caterpillars, and, keeping them
alive, put them in a breeding cage to rear. See
pages 327 to 330 for directions for making breeding
cages.

2. Keep the caterpillars supplied with food, giv-
ing them the same kind of plant as that on which
they were found, and keep only one kind of cater-
pillar in a single breeding cage. Most of the com-
mon hairy caterpillars found running over the surface
of the ground will feed on grass and many other
plants, but other caterpillars will starve if not fed on
their proper food plant.

OBSERVATION OF COMPLETE ME rAMORl'IIOSIS. ^g

NoTK. — Among the more available kinds of caterpillars for use in
this lesson are the following : 'I'hc common green cabl)age-worms ; the
green worm, ringed with black and spotted with yellow, that eats the
leaves of caraway ; and the large yellow and black one found on milk-
weed. The transformations of each of these can be observed in a com-
paratively short time if the study begins early enough in the season.
The autumn broods of the first two pass the winter in the pupa state.

3. Begin a series of notes on each kind of cater-
pillar under observation, giving each a number and
numbering the notes to correspond. (See Part H,
Chapter III.) Begin each note with the date on
which it was made. Record everything that you
observe regarding the habits and transformations of

Fig. 18. — LarvcT, and pupa of a butterfly.

the insects. Try to observe the molting of the in-
sects and each of the transformations,

4. All caterpillars hatch from eggs. If you suc-
ceed in rearing adult insects and will keep some of
them caged for a time you may be able to get eggs.

40

INSECT LIFE.

But many insects will not lay in confinement. They
are more apt to lay in confinement if caged with a
growing- food plant of the larva.

5. Caterpillars and the corresponding stage of
other insects with a complete metamorphosis are called
larvce. The singular form of this word is larva.

6. When a larva is full grown it molts its skin
and appears in a very different form. This third
stage (the t,^^ being the first and the larva the sec-
ond) is called the pupa. The plural of pupa is piip(B.
In Fig. 18 there are represented two larvae on the
upper edge of a fragment of a leaf and a pupa sus-
pended from the lower edge. The pupse of butter-
flies are sometimes
called chrysalids.*

7. Some larvas
before changing to
the pupa state spin
about the body a
silken case within
which the pupa

Fig. 19.— a large cocoon within a rolled leaf. State is paSSCd. Such

a case is called a
cocoon. Sometimes a leaf is fastened about the cocoon
(Fig. 19); and some hairy caterpillars make their
cocoons largely of their own hair, fastening it to-
gether with a thin layer of silk.

8. Following the pupa state is the adult or imago
state.

* There are two forms of this word : first, chrysalid, with the plural
chrysalids ; and, second, chrysalis, with the plural chrysalides. The
singular form of the second and the plural form of the first are in more
common use.

*BP

.HTO]/ If

•<^ in n

Plate II.— THE TOMATO-WORM MOTH.

Phlegethontins celus.

FlO, tg.— A 1 d. Such

called a
<' cocoon

BEETLES OR COLKOPTERA.

41

LESSON XVII.

REVIEW OF TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING THE METAMOR-
PHOSES OF INSECTS.

Kinds of Metamorphosis. Names of Stages.

/. Development without metamorphosis. ^

This has not been described in these Egg.

lessons, and it occurs only in a single V Immature insect.

order of insects, the Thysanura (see Adult.

page 63). J

//. Inco77iplete metamorphosis.

I/I. . Complete metamorphosis.

r Egg.

\ Nym
[ Adui

Nymph (several stages).
' hilt or imago.

Egg-
Larva.
Pupa. (The pupa is

sometimes inclosed

in a cocoon^
Adult or imago.

LESSON XVIII.

BEETLES OR coLEOPTERA (Co-le-op'te-ra).

While the pupils are observing the development
of the insects in their breeding cages, which will
probably require a long time, the work of making a
collection can be continued.

r. Collect as many kinds of beetles as you can
and mount them as directed in Lesson XI. Beetles
can be found under stones and pieces of wood lying
on the ground, under the loose bark of dead trees,
logs, and stumps, and on the foliage of plants.

2. The beetles, of which there are many thousand
kinds, constitute what is termed by naturalists an
Order. There are several orders of insects ; the one
composed of beetles is named the Coleoptera. This

^2 INSECT LIFE.

name is from two Greek words : one, kolcos, meaning
a sheath, and the other, ptcra, meaning wings. It re-
fers to the fact that in this order in place of the front
wings there are two horny sheaths which cover the
hind wings.

3. Prepare a label like that given below.

e^e.

^^

../.

7e.

-i-ctj.

4. Pin this label into the upper left-hand corner
of your case, and arrange your beetles below* the
label in rows extending from left to right, putting
only one kind of beetle in a row.

5. As you collect more beetles place them with
these, putting each kind in its proper row.

6. Select one of the larger beetles in your collec-
tion and make a drawing representing the dorsal
view of it.

. LESSON XIX.

THE ORDER COLEOPTERA (CONTINUED).

1. Carry a small cyanide bottle in your pocket,
and, whenever you have an opportunity, collect any
beetles that you can find, and add them to your col-
lection.

2. Observe that in each kind of beetle the wings
are always of the same size. The wings of these in-
sects are not gradually developed as they are with
locusts, crickets, and bugs ; but the young of beetles

THE ORDER COLEOPTERA.

43

are grubs which undergo a complete metamorphosis
in the course of their development.

3. Select one of the larger beetles, and examine its
wing-covers, or elytra, as they are called. Remove
them, and note their structure. How do the elytra
of beetles differ from the front wings of locusts?

4. Study the hind wings. How does the folding
of the hind wings of a beetle differ from that of the
hind wings of a locust?

5. Mount the elytra and hind wings of the beetle
on a card.

6. Study the mouth-parts of the beetle, dissecting
them out, and mounting them on a card as was done
with the mouth -parts of a locust in Lesson III.
Label each of the mouth-parts.

7. Remove some of the upper rows of beetles in
your case so as to make room for the two cards just
prepared, and place the cards immediately below the
label for the order. Then rearrange the beetles be.
low the cards.

8. We have now observed the more important
characteristics of the order Coleoptera or beetles,
which are as follows :

Order Coleoptera. — TJie nicinbers of this order have a
pair of horny wing-covers, called elytra, ivhich meet in a
straight line down the back, and beneath which there is a
single pair of membranous wings. The moutJi-parts are
formed for biting. The metamorphosis is cojnplete.

44 INSECT LIFE.

LESSON XX.

TRANSFORMATIONS OF A BEETLE.

1. Find a potato field infested with the Colorado
potato-beetle. Fig. 20 represents the adult of this
insect.

2. If this species is not in your collection, collect
some of the adult beetles for it.

3. Search for the larva of this potato-
beetle. It is a thick, plump grub, strong-
ly arched above, and of a pale yellow
color, with two rows of black spots on
each side.

4. Search also for the eggs of this in-
sect. These are yellow in color and are laid in
clusters on the leaves of the potato.

5. Take the eggs and larva to the school alive and
put them in a breeding cage. Keep the larvas sup-
plied with fresh potato leaves and watch their de-
velopment, keeping notes on it. Put a few of the
eggs and larvae in alcohol and preserve them in your
collection.

6. When full grown, the larvae go into the ground
to transform ; there should on this account be a layer
of soil in the bottom of the cage.

7. After the larvae have gone into the ground to
transform, some of the cocoons should be dug up and
preserved in the collection.

8. When the beetles begin to emerge from the
ground, dig up some of the cocoons and remove
pupae from them for the collection.

9. Arrange the specimens of this species in your

A COLLECTINC; TRIP.

45

collection in the following- order, eggs, larvaj, co-
coons, pupaj, adults, and label each group.

LESSON XXI.

A COLLECTING TRIP,

1. Review carefully the directions and sugges-
tions given for the first collecting trip in Lesson X.

2. The special object of this trip is to learn to
collect insects by sweeping grass and beating the
foliage of herbs and shrubs with an insect net. See
page 290 for directions for the use of insect nets.

Great care should be taken to procure the speci-
mens in as good condition as possible. Empty your
net frequently, so that the specimens shall not be in-
jured by the sweeping or beating.

LESSON xxn.

MOUNTING OF SPECIMENS.

If the sweeping and beating of the last trip were
successful, there will be considerable work to be
done in mounting specimens. Before doing this read
pages 297 to 299, and then endeavor to mount your
specimens in as good condition as possible and pre-
serve them for future study.

LESSON xxin.

ON COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES.

Owing to the dustlike covering with which but-
terflies and moths, or millers, are clothed, and which

46

INSECT LIFE.

is easily injured, it is necessary to make a special
study of the methods of collecting these insects; for
if the specimens are not handled properly, they will
be of very little use for study. We will first study
the collecting of butterflies.

1. For collecting butterflies an insect net and a
collecting box are necessary. The pupils doubtless
have insect nets before this lesson is reached ; the
collecting boxes can be made of empty cigar boxes,
as described on page 287.

2. In addition to the net and collecting box a
bottle of chloroform with a brush fitted into the cork
(Fig. 21) is very desirable, although not absolutely
necessary.

3. It is seldom best to attempt to run down a
butterfly and catch it on the wing. Fol-
low the insect quietly until it alights, and
catch it while at rest.

4. The removal of the insect from the
net should be done with very great care,
for here lies the greatest danger of injury
to the specimen.
Pip"~. ^f the butterfly is a small one, it can

be taken from the net by placing the mouth
of an open cyanide bottle over it ; in this way touch-
ing the specimen with the fingers is avoided.

If the specimen is too large for this, the net
should be held in such a way that the insect can not
flutter and thus injure its wings. Try to have it
come to rest with its wings folded over its back, for
the lower side of the wings are not so easily injured as
is the upper side. Then take the fold of the net con-
taining the butterfly between the thumb and finger

ON SPREADING BUTTERFLIES.

47

of one hand and pinch the thorax of the insect. This
can be done in such a way as to kill the insect at
once without crushing the specimen. It can then be
removed from the net and pinned and placed into
the collecting box.

If the collector has a bottle of chloroform and
brush, as soon as the insect is at rest in a fold of the
net it can be killed by wetting its thorax with chloro-
form. This is done by putting the wet brush on the
net where it rests against the thorax of the insect.
The butterfly can then be removed and pinned into
the collecting box.

5. Read paragraph on folded papers for butter-
flies, page 287.

6. Go into the field and collect some butterflies.
Try to secure them in perfect condition rather than
to try to get a large number.

7. If you have time to spread the butterflies when
you return from the field, pass at once to the next
lesson; but if not, put the specimens on damp sand
in a tightly closed jar or box and leave them till the
following day. See paragraph on relaxing insects,
page 305.

LESSON XXIV.

ON SPREADING BUTTERFLIES.

Read the directions for making spreading boards
and for spreading insects on pages 303 to 305, and
then spread the butterflies that you have collected.

48

INSECT LIFE.

LESSON XXV.

THE STRUCTURE OF BUTTERFLIES.

1. Take a butterfly that has just been killed or
one that has been relaxed in a damping jar, and pin
it so that it can be handled without rubbing the
colors from the wings.

2. Examine the compound eyes with a lens or
microscope, and make a drawing illustrating the
structure of the surface ; only a small portion of one
eye need be represented, but show this greatly en-
larged.

3. Observe on the lower side of the head two
forward-projecting organs. These are the feelers of
the lower lip or labial palpi.

4. Observe an organ that is coiled up between
the labial palpi. If the butterfly has been recently
killed or is thoroughly relaxed, this organ can be
straightened out by using a pin. It is the sucking
tube by means of which the insect extracts nectar
from flowers. It is composed of two parallel parts
closely united, but with a channel between them
through which the nectar is sucked. These two
parts are the maxillae, which have become greatly
developed and modified to fit them for sucking.
The other mouth-parts, except the labial palpi, are
poorly developed.

5. Remove the head and gum it with the maxillae
uncoiled to a card which is large enough to receive
the two wings of one side also.

6. Remove the two wings of one side and gum
them to the card with the head.

THE STRUCTURE OF BUTTERFLIES.

49

.?)4a;

7. Study the clothing of the wings. It is neces-
sary to use at least a lens for this ; if there is a micro-
scope in the school it should be used for this study.
It will be found that the dust covering the wings and
body is composed of scales, which are of regular
form ; and that in butter-
flies these scales are ar-
ranged in regular order
upon the wings. Fig. 22
represents part of a wing
of a butterfly greatly
magnified. In the upper
part of the figure the
membrane of the wing is
represented with the
scales removed.

8. The butterflies, to-
gether with the moths, or
millers, and the skippers, which are insects that re-
semble butterflies, constitute an order which is
named the Lepidoptera. This name is from two
Greek words : lepis, a scale, and ptcron, a wing.
It refers to the scaly covering of the wings and
body.

9. Make a copy of the following label, and fasten
it in your collection above the specimens of Lepi-
doptera :

—Part of \Mng: of butterfly,
greatly magnified

50

INSECT LIFE.

lo. Place the card bearing the head and wings
of a butterfly immediately below this label.

LESSON XXVI.

ON COLLECTING MOTHS.

1. The fact that moths, or millers as they are
often called, do not fold their wings above the body
like butterflies makes it impracticable to kill speci-
mens by pinching the thorax. Very large specimens
can be killed by chloroform, as described in Lesson
XXIII ; but most specimens should be taken from
the net by placing the mouth of an open cyanide
bottle over them. Never touch a specimen with the
fingers if it can be avoided.

2. Do not carry moths in a cyanide bottle with
other insects. It is best to have a separate bottle for
Lepidoptera, for they are liable to be injured by rub-
bing against other insects ; and the specimens of
other insects will be soiled by the scales from the
butterflies or moths.

3. Many moths can be collected in the fields by
day, but much larger numbers can be taken at night
at lights or at sweetened baits. Read the sections
on sugaring and on collecting at lights on pages 292
to 293.

4. Collect as many kinds of moths as possible,
taking especial pains to get the specimens in good
condition.

5. Carefully spread one or more specimens of each
kind ; other specimens may be simply pinned and left
till winter, when they can be relaxed and spread.

CHAPTER III.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR
RELATIVES.

N the course of the lessons in the preced-
ing chapter, a beginning was made in
the classification of insects. The sub-
ject can now be taken up in a more
systematic manner. It is not, how-
ever, the purpose of this book to car-
ry the classification of insects further
than to the orders, although in the
chapters following this a few easily
recognized families will be studied. It is believed
that it is better for the pupils that are beginning this
study to devote the greater part of their time to
the study of the structure and habits of insects ;
later, the classification can be carried farther with
the aid of more advanced manuals written for that
purpose.

The collector of insects is sure to meet many
small animals that, although not true insects, are
closely allied to them. It is important, therefore,
that the characteristics of these near relatives of in-
sects should be pointed out, which we will briefly do,
before discussing the orders of insects.
51

52

INSECT LIFE.

The Classes of the Branch A rthropoda.

In the study of the parts of a locust (see Lesson
VI) it was learned that the body of an insect is com-
posed of a series of more or less similar rings or seg-
ments joined together. This fact is also true of the
bodies of certain other animals that are not insects ;
thus, if the body of a scorpion, a centipede, or a lob-
ster be examined, it will be found to resemble that of
an insect in this respect. There is another charac-
teristic in which these animals resemble insects —
namely, some of the segments of the body bear
jointed legs.

All the animals possessing these two character-
istics are classed together as the branch ArtJiropoda
(Ar-throp'o-da) of the animal kingdom, the term
branch being applied to each of the principal divi-
sions of the animal kingdom.

A similar segmented form of the body is char-
acteristic of worms, but these are distinguished from
the Arthropoda by the absence of legs. It should be
remembered that many animals commonly called
worms, as the tomato-worm, apple-worm, etc., are
not true worms, but are the larvae of insects. The
angle worm is the most familiar example of a true
worm.

The principal divisions of a branch of the animal
kingdom are called classes. The more common rep-
resentatives of the branch Arthropoda are distributed
among four classes. These are the Crustacea, the
Arachnida, the Myriapoda, and the Hexapoda. The
last of these comprises the insects, the first three the
near relatives of insects.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

53

The following table will enable the student to dis-
tinguish the classes of the Arthropoda.*

TABLE OF CLASSES OK THE ARTHROPODA.

A. With two pairs of antennce and at least five pairs of legs. Aquatic

animals breatliing by gills. Page 53 Crustacea.

AA. With one pair of antenna; or with none. Air-breathing animals.
The number of legs varies from si.x to many.

B. Without antenna' and with four pairs of legs, although the maxillary
palpi are often leglike in form, making the animal appear to have five

pairs of legs. Page 55 Arachnida.

BB. With antenna;.
C. With more than three pairs of legs ; and without wings. Page

57 Myriapoda.

CC. With only three pairs of legs, and usually with wings in the
adult state. Page 58 Hexapoda.

Class Crustacea (Crus-ta'ce-a),
The Crustaceans [Crus-ta'ce-ans).

The most familiar illustrations of the Crustacea
are the crayfishes, the lobsters, the shrimps, and the

* The following is the method of using the analytical tables given in
this book : Read carefully the statement of characteristics given opposite
A and AA respectively, and by examining the animal to be classified de-
termine which is true of this animal. This will indicate in which division
of the table the name of the group to which the animal belongs is to be
looked for. If this division of the table is subdivided, pass to B and BB
(also to BBB if it occurs) in this division and determine in a like manner
under which the animal belongs. Continue in this way, passing to the
letters C, D, E, etc., in regular order till the name of the group is
reached. Then turn to the page indicated and read the description ol
the group given there, comparing the specimens with the description.
It should be borne in mind that an analytical table is merely an aid to
the determination of groups. As the groups that we recognize are not
always sharply limited in nature, we can not expect to be able in every
case to find characters that will serve to dislinctly separate them in a table.
Therefore when a student has determined by the aid of a key to what

54

INSECT LIFE.

crabs. Crayfishes (Fig. 23) abound in our brooks,
and are often improperly called crabs. The lob-
sters, the shrimps, and
the true crabs live in-
salt water.

The Crustacea are
distinguished from
all other Arthro-
pods by having two
pairs of antennas
and by their mode
of respiration, being
the only ones that
breathe by true
gills. Many insects
live in water and are
furnished with gill-
like organs, but these
are tracheal gills.
True gills are for the purification of blood, while
tracheal gills are for the purification of the air con-
tained in the air ves-
sels or tracheae of an
insect. The former
contains a large num-
ber of blood vessels,
the latter a large fig. 25.
number of air vessels. ^°^' "^'
There are minute Crustacea common in ponds
and streams. Three of the more abundant of these

Fig. 23. — A crayfish.

Fig. 24. — Crustacea : a, Cypris
b, Cyclops ; c, Daphnia.

group a species seems to belong, he should verify this determination
by a study of the characters of that group given in the detailed discussion
of it.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

55

arc shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 24 ; they fre-
quently occur in aquaria in which aquatic plants are
growing. The sow-bugs (Fig. 25) are also Crustacea.
They live about water-soaked wood ; with these only
one pair of antenna} are well developed.

Class Arachnida (A-rach'ni-da).
The Arachnids {A-rach' nids).

To this class belong the spiders, scorpions, har-
vestmen, mites, and certain other less common forms.
These animals differ from the other classes of the
branch Arthropoda in having no antennae. They
have four pairs of legs fitted for walking, and many
of them have very large maxillary palpi, which re-
semble legs. The head and thorax are closely
united, forming a region which is called the cepJi-
alothorax {ceph-a-lo-tho' rax). These characteristics are
easily seen in
spiders (Fig.
26).

The most
common rep-
resentatives of
the class Arach-
nida are the
spiders. These
are extremely
interesting ani-
mals on ac-
count of the high development of their instinc-
tive powers. An account of the habits of some of
the common species is given in the chapter on Road-
side Life.

Fig. 26. — A spider.

56

INSECT LIFE.

The harvestmen (Fig. 27) are also abundant in
most parts of our country. These feed on small in.

FlG. 27. — Aharvestman.

sects, especially aphids, and are perfectly harmless.

They are sometimes called "grandfather graybeards."
Scorpions (Fig. 28) are common in the southern
portions of the United States,
but are not found in the North.
They feed upon spiders and
large insects, which they seize
with the large pincers of their
palpi, and sting to death with
a poison sting, which is at the
hind end of the body.

The mites are mostly very
small. They differ from other

Fig. 29. — An itch mite : a, from below ; b,
Fig. 28. — A scorpion. from above.

Arachnids in having the abdomen fused with the
cephalothorax (Fig. 29). Certain velvety red species

CLASSIFICATION OK INSECTS.

5/

often attract attention on account of their red color
and other species are often found para-
sitic on insects. The annoying- para-
sites that are known as ticks (Fig. 30),
and which are common in the warmer
parts of our country, are mites. The
sheep-tick, however, is a wingless fly.

Fig. 30. — The
cattle-tick, female.

Fig. 31. — A centipede.

Class Mykiatoda (Myr-i-ap'o-da).
The Myriapods {Myr'i-a-pods).

This class includes the centipedes and the milli-
pedes, both of which are commonly called thousand-
legged worms. The members of this class have a
distinct head which bears a single pair of antennas.

The body is long, and
consists of similar seg-
ments, which are not
grouped into regions,
and each segment of
the body bears one or
two pairs of legs.
The centipedes (Fig. 31) have only a single pair
of legs to each segment. Representatives of many
species of these are
open through the
claws of the first
pair of legs, which
are bent forward
so as to act with the mouth-parts
feed on insects.

The millipedes (Fig. 32) differ from the centipedes
in having two pairs of legs on each of the body seg-
ments except the first three. The millipedes, as a

The poison glands

Fig. 32. — A millipede.

The centipedes

58

INSECT LIFE.

rule, live in damp places, and feed on decaying vege-
table matter. They are harmless, except that occa-
sionally they feed upon growing plants.

Class Hexapoda (Hex-ap'o-da).
The Insects.

Insects differ from the other classes of the Arthrop-
oda in having only three pairs of legs, and usually
in having wings in the adult state. They have a sin-
gle pair of antennse and the segments of the body
are grouped into three regions : head, thorax, and
abdomen.

The name Hexapoda is from two Greek words :
hex, six, and pons, foot. Numerous examples of in-
sects are figured in the following portions of this
chapter.

THE ORDERS OF THE CLASS HEXAPODA.

The class Hexapoda, or insects, is divided into
nineteen orders. In our Manual for the Study of In.
sects these orders and the families of which they are
composed are discussed in detail, but in these first
lessons we can only briefly refer to each order. The
following table is taken from the Manual. This
table of orders is merely intended to aid the pupil in
determining to which of the orders a specimen that
he is examining belongs. No effort has been made to
indicate in the table the relation of the orders to each
other.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

59

TAI5LE FOR nK'l'KR MI NI NG THE ORDERS OF HEXAPOOA.

[T/iis tabic includes only adult insects.)

A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings.

B. Mandibles and maxillae retracted within the cavity of the head so

that only their apices are visible. Page 63 Thysani'R.\.

BB. Mandibles and maxillae more or less prominent and fitted for
biting. (See BBB also.)
C. Head with long, trunklike beak. {Boreus.) Page 78.

Mecoptera.
CC. Head not prolonged into a trunk.

D. Louselike insects of small size ; body less than one sixth inch
in length.
E. Antennce with not more than five segments. (Bird-lice.)

Page 69 M ALLOPHAGA.

EE. Antennas with many segments. (Book-lice.) Page 68.

CORRODENTIA.

DD. Insects of various forms, but not louselike, and, except in
the case of some ants, with the body more than one sixth inch
in length.

E. Abdomen with short, conical, compressed, many-jointed
caudal appendages. {Cockroaches.) Page 70. . .Orthoptera.
EE. Abdomen without jointed caudal appendages.

F. Legs fitted for jumping. ( Wingless locusts, grasshoppers,

and crickets.) Page 70 Orthoptera.

FF. Legs fitted for running.

G. Abdomen broadly joined to the thorax.
H. Body linear. ( IValkitig-sticks.) Page 70.

Orthoptera.
HH. Body white and somewhat antlike in form. {Ter-

mes.) Page 67 Isoptera.

HHH. Body neither linear nor antlike in form. ( JVing-

less firefly et al.) Page 85 Coleoptera.

GG. Base of abdomen strongly constricted. {Ants et at.).

Page 85 Hymenoptera.

BBB. Mouth-parts formed for sucking.

C. Small abnormal insects in which the body is either scalelike or
gall-like in form, or grublike and clothed with wax. The waxy

* See note at bottom of page 53.
5

6o INSECT LIFE.

covering may be in the form of powder, of large tufts or plates, of
a continuous layer or of a thin scale, beneath which the insect

lives. {Coccida.) Page 75 Hemiptera.

CC. Body more or less covered with minute scales, or with thick
long hairs. Prothorax not free (i. e., closely united with the meso-
thorax). Mouth-parts usually consisting of a long " tongue "

rolled beneath the head. Page 80 Lepidoptera.

CCC. Body naked, or with isolated or bristlelike hairs.

D. Prothorax not well developed, inconspicuous or invisible from
above. Tarsi five-jointed. Mouth-parts developed into an

unjointed trunk ; palpi present. Page 83 Diptera.

DD. Prothorax well developed.

E. Body strongly compressed ; tarsi five-jointed. i^Fleas) Page

84 SlPHONAPTERA.

EE. Body not compressed ; tarsi one-, two-, or three-jointed.
F. Last joint of tarsi bladderlike or hooflike at the tip ; mouth
parts forming a triangular, unjointed beak ; palpi present.

Page 74 Physopoda.

FF. Last joint of tarsi not bladderlike, and furnished with
one or two claws ; mouth parts forming a slender, usually
jointed beak ; palpi apparently wanting. Page 75.

Hemiptera.
AA. Winged. (The wing-covers, elytra, of beetles and of earwigs are
counted as wings in this table.)
B. With two wings.

C. Wrings horny, leathery, or parchmentlike.

D. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Wings leathery, shortened,

or membranous at the tip. Page 75 Hemiptera.

DD. Mouth-parts formed for biting. Jaws distinct.

E. Wings horny, without veins. Hind legs not fitted for

jumping. Page S5 Coleoptera.

EE. Wings parchmentlike, with a network of veins. Hind legs

fitted for jumping. Page 70 Orthoptera.

CC. Wings membranous.

D. Abdomen with caudal filaments. Mouth-parts rudimentary.

E. Halteres wanting. Page 64 Ephemerida.

EE, Halteres present (males of Coccidce). Page 75.

Hemiptera.
DD. Abdomen without caudal filaments. Halteres in place of
second wings. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Page S3.

Diptera.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 6l

BB. With four wings.

C. The two pairs of wings unlike in structure.

D. Front wings leathery at base, and membranous at tip, often
overlapping. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Page 75.

Hemiptera.
DD. FVont wings of same texture throughout.

E. Front wings horny or leathery, being veinless wing covers.
{Elytra.)

F. Abdomen with caudal appendages in form of movable for-
ceps. Page 69 EUPLEXOPTERA.

FF. Abdomen without forceplike appendages. Page 85.

COLEOPTERA.

EE. Front wings leathery or parchmentlike, with a network of
veins.

¥. Under wings not folded. Mouth-parts formed for suck-
ing. Page 75 Hemiptera.

FF. Under wings folded lengthwise. Mouth-parts formed

for biting. Page 70 Orthoptera.

CC. The two pairs of wings similar, membranous.

D. Last joint of tarsi bladderlike or hooflike at the tip. Page 74.

Physopoda.
DD. Last joint of tarsi not bladderlike.

E. Wings entirely or for the greater part clothed with scales.

Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Page 80 Lepiuoptera.

EE. Wings naked, transparent, or thinly clothed with hairs.
F. Mouth-parts arising from the hinder part of the lower
surface of the head, and consisting of bristlelike organs in-
closed in a jointed sheath. {Homoptera.) Page 75.

Hemiptera.
FF. Mouth-parts in normal position. Mandibles not bristle-
like.

G. Wings net-veined, with many veins and cross-veins.
H. Tarsi consisting of less than five segments.

I. Antennae inconspicuous, awl-shaped, short, and slen-
der.

J. First and second pairs of wings nearly the same
length ; tarsi three-jointed. Page 65. . .Odonata.

JJ. Second pair of wings either small or wanting ;
tarsi four-jointed. Page 64 Ephemekida.

II. Antennce usually conspicuous, setiform, filiform
clavate, capitate, or pectinate.

62 INSECT LIFK.

J. Tarsi two- or three-jointed.

K. Second pair of wings the smaller. Page 6S.

CORRODENTIA.

KK. Second pair of wings broader, or at least of
the same size as the first pair. Page 66.

Plecoptera.
JJ. Tarsi four-jointed ; wings equal. Page 67.

ISOPTERA

HH. Tarsi consisting of five segments.

I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila-
ments. {Certain May-flies^ Page 64. .Ephemerida.

II. Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments.

J. Head prolonged into a trunklike beak. Page 78.

MeCOI'TERA.

JJ. Head not prolonged into a beak. Page 77.

Neuroptera.
GG. Wings with branching veins and comparatively few
cross veins, or veinless.
H. Tarsi two- or three-jointed.

I. Posterior wings smaller than the anterior. Page 68.

Corrodentia.

II. Posterior wings as large as or larger than the ante-
rior ones. (Certain stone-Jlies.) Page 66.

Plecoptera.
HH. Tarsi four- or five-jointed.

I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila-
ments. {Certain May-Jlies.) Page 64.

Ephemerida.

II. Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments.

J. Prothorax horny. First wings larger than the
second, naked or imperceptibly hairy. Second
wings without, or with few, usually simple, veins.
Jaws (mandibles) well developed. Palpi small.
Page 85 Hymenoptera.

JJ. Prothorax membranous or, at the most, parch-
mentlike. Second wings as large as or larger than
the first, folded lengthwise, with many branching
veins. First wings naked or thinly clothed with
hair. Jaws (mandibles) inconspicuous. Palpi
long. Mothlike insects. Page 79.

Trichoptera.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

63

List of Orders of the Hexapoda.

Thysanura.
Ephemerida.
Odonata.

PLECOI'TERA.

isoptera.

corrodentia.

Mallophacja.

euplexoptera.

Orthoptera

Hemiptera.

Neuroptera.

Mecoptera.

Trichoptera.

Lepidoptera.

Diptera.

Siphonaptera.

Coleoptera.

Hymenoptera.

Physopoda.

Order Thysanura (Thys-a-nu'ra).
Bristletaiis, Springtails, Fish-moths, and others.

The members of this order are wingless insects zvliich
undergo no metamorphosis, the larval form being retained
hy the adult. The mandibles and max-
illcs are retracted zvithin the cavity of
the head, so that only their tips are
visible ; they have, however, some free-
dom of motion, and can be used for
biting and cheiving soft substances.
True compound eyes are rarely prescjit ;
but in some genera there is a group of
simple eyes on each side of the head.
The abdomen is sometimes furnished
with rudimoitary legs.

A familiar example of this order
is the fish-moth (Fig. 33), which
often does damage to starched cloth-
ing, bookbindings, and sometimes
loosens wall paper by eating out
the paste. The hair line at the
left of the figure indicates the length of the insect.

The fish-moth is one of the bristletaiis, which are

64

INSECT LIFE.

SO called on account of the bristles at the hind end of

the body. Fig. 34 represents one of the springtails.

In these insects there is a

^^^T^¥ taillike organ, which is bent

^^^ ^|^^tt|^ under the insect when it is

J^^m^^^^^lk. ^^ ^^^^' ^^^ ^y vv^hich it can

jHBH^^^^^E leap several feet. Spring-

y^V^^^^^HHBg- tails are abundant in damp

^ places, among decaying veg-

FiG. 34. A springtail. • , , ^ & &

etation ; but they are com-
monly overlooked on account of their minute size.

The name Thysanura is from two Greek words :
thysanos, a tassel, and oura, the tail.

Order Ephemerida (Eph-e-mer'i-da).
The May-flies.

The members of this order have delicate membranous
wings zvith a fine network of
veins ; the fore wings are large
and the hind wings are much
smaller, or wanting. The mouth-
parts are riidimentary. The
met morphosis is incomplete.

The name of this order is
from the Greek word epheme-
ros, lasting but a day. It was
given to these insects on ac-
count of the shortness of their
lives after reaching the adult
state. Fig. 35 represents a
common species. Work on
May-flies is outlined in the
chapter on Pond Life. fig. 35.— a May-fly.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

65

Order Odonata (Od-o-na'ta).
The Dragon-flics and Da>nsel-flies.

The members of this order have four membranous
wings which are finely netted with veins ; the hind wiyigs

Fig. 36. — A dragon-fly.

are as large or larger than the fore ivings, and each
wing has near the middle of its
front margin a jointlike structure
— the nodus. The mouth-parts are
formed for biting. The metamor-
phosis is incomplete.

The name of this order is
evidently from the Greek word
odons, a tooth ; but the reason
for applying it to these insects
is obscure. It may refer to the
tusklike form of the abdomen.

Fig. 36 represents a dragon-
fly, and Fig. 37 a damsel-fly
Work on these insects is out-
lined in the chapter on Pond
Life.

Fig. 37.— a damsel-fly.

66

INSECT LIFE.

Order Plecoptera (Ple-cop'te-ra).
The Stone-flies.

The members of this order have four membranous
wings, with comparatively fezu or luith many cross-veins ;
the hind zvings are much larger than the fore zuings, and
are folded in plaits and lie upon the abdomen wlien at
rest. The mouth-parts are of the biting type of structure^
but are frequently poorly developed. The metamorphosis
is ijicomplete.

The name of this order is from two Greek words:
plecos, plaited, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the
way in which the hind wings are

Fig. 38. — A stone-fly

Fig. 39. — A nymph of a
stone-fly.

folded when at rest. Fig. 38 represents one of the
larger members of this order with the wings of one
side spread, and Fig. 39 represents a nymph. Work
on these insects is outlined in the chapter on Brook
Life.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

^7

Order Isoptera (I-sop'te-ra).
T/ie Termites or White-ants.

The 111 embers of this order are social insects. Each
species consists of several distinct castes, of which only the
'' kings'' and the ''queens'' are ivinged. These have
four long, narrow wings, wJiicJi are somewJiat leathery in
structure, and which are furnished with nuincrous but
more or less indistinct veins. The tivo pairs
of ivings arc similar in form and structure,
and are laid flat upon the back when not in
use. The mouth-parts are formed for bit-
ing. The metamorphosis is incomplete.

The termites are commonly called
white-ants on account of their light color
and the fact that they live in large com-
munities like ants. They are, however,
not at all closely related to the true ants.
They can be distinguished from ants at
a glance by the absence of a slender waist
between the thorax and ab-
domen (Fig. 40).

The termites that occur
in the United States are
usually found in old logs
and stumps, or in the
ground under stones. Dur-
ing the greater part of the
year only the workers (Fig.

40) and the soldiers (Fig.

41) are found in the nest.
But during early summer the winged
forms, the newly developed kings and

68

INSECT LIFE.

queens, also occur. A mature, egg-laying queen is
presumably present in each nest ; but this form of
our common species has not yet been found. Fig. 42
represents an egg-laying queen of an African species.
The name of this order is from two Greek words:
isos, equal, and ptcron, a wingf. It refers to the fact
that the two
structure.

pairs of wings are similar in form and

Order Corrodentia (Cor-ro-den'ti-a).
jyic Psocids i^Psoc'ids) and the Book-lice.

The ivingcd members of this order have four mem-
branous tvings, with the veins prominent, but tvith com-
paratively fezu cross-veins ; the fore ivings are larger
than the hind wings ; and both pairs zvhen not in use are
placed rooflike over the body, being almost vertical, and
not folded in plaits. The mouth-parts are formed for
biting. The nietamorpJiosis is incomplete.

The winged members of this order feed upon
lichens and are found on the trunks of trees and on

fences ; they

often occur in

swarms. Fig.

43 represents a

common form

with its wings

spread.

The most

familiar repre-
sentative of the wingless forms is the book-louse
(Fig. 44). This is a minute insect which occurs be-
tween the leaves of old books and on papered walls
of houses.

Fig. 43.— a psocid.

Fig. 44. — A book-
louse.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 69

The name of this order is from the Latin word
corrodere, to gnaw, and refers to the gnawing habits
of these insects.

Order Mallophaga (Mal-loph'a-ga).
The Bird-lice.

The members of this order are ivingless parasitic in-
sects, tvith biting mouth-parts. The metamorphosis is
incomplete.

The bird-lice are common on poultry and other
birds. They differ from the true lice in having bit-
ing mouth-parts, and in feeding upon either
feathers, hair, or the skin, while the true
lice have sucking mouth-parts and feed
upon blood. Fig. 45 represents a species
which infests poultry.

The name of the order is from two
Greek words : mallos, wool, and phagein,
to eat. Although some species infest sheep
and goats, feeding upon their wool, by far
the greater number live among the feathers of birds.

Order Euplexoptera (Eu-plex-op'te-ra).
The Earwigs.

The members of this order have apparently four
tuings ; the first pair of wJiich are leathery, very stnall,
without veins, and ivJien at rest meet in a straight line on
the back ; the second pair are large, ivith radiating veins,
andzvJien at rest are folded both lengtJiwise and cross-wise.
The mouth-parts are formed for biting. The caudal end
of the body is furnished with a pair of appendages zvhich
resemble forceps. The metaniorpJiosis is incomplete.

These are long and narrovy insects, resembling

^O INSECT LIFE.

rove beetles in the form of the body and in the short-
ness of the wing covers, but easily distinguished by
having a pair of forceps at the end
of the body (Fig. 46). The common
name, earwig, has reference to a
widely spread fancy that these in-
sects creep into the ears of sleeping
persons.

The earwigs are rare in the north-

fl "^Bl eastern United States, but are more

jJfmB\\ often found in the South and on the

' ^^^ Pacific coast. In Europe they are

common, and are often troublesome

pests, feeding upon the corollas of

flowers, fruits, and other vegetable

substances.

Fig. 46.— An earwig. r ^u j • r

1 he name of the order is from
three Greek words : eu, wgW, p/eko, to fold, and J>teron,
wing. It refers to the unusual folding of the hind
wings.

Order Orthoptera (Or-thop'te-ra).
Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshoppers, and Others.

The mejubers of this order have four wings : the first
pair are thickened, and overlap zvhen at rest ; the second
pair are thinner, and are folded in plaits like a fan.
The mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamor-
phosis is inco7nplete.

The name of the order is from two Greek words :
orthos, straight, and ptcron, a wing. It refers to the
longitudinal folding of the hind wings.

This order includes only six families, and as they
are among our most common insects we will briefly
refer to each of them.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

7»

Family BlattiD/F (Blat'ti-das).— The body is oval
when seen from above, and is very flat ; the three
pairs of legs are similar in form ;
the insects run rapidly. They
are commonly known as cock-
roaches. Some are winged (Fig.
47), others are wingless (Fig. 48).
Family Mantid,e (Man'ti-dse).
— The prothorax is very long and
slender ; the first pair of legs are
very different from the others
and are fitted for grasping. These
insects feed on other insects,
which they seize with their fore legs. The suppliant
attitude which they assume while lying in wait for

Flo. 49. — A praying-mantis.

their prey (Fig. 49) has given them the name of pray-
ing mantes, the name of the typical genus being
Mantis.

Family Phasmid^ (Phas'mi-das). — The body is
very long and slender ; the three pairs of legs are

INSECT LIFE.

similar in form, and are also very long and slender;

the insects walk slowly. This family includes the

well-known walking sticks (Fig. 50).

Family AcridiD/E (A-crid'-
i-dae). — There are three fami-
lies of this order in which
the hind legs are very much

F'IG. 51.^ A locust.

stouter or very much longer,
or both stouter and longer,
than the other pairs, being
fitted for jumping. This is
the first ot these three fami-
lies. In this family the an-
tennae are shorter than the

Fig. 52. — A locust.

body. The ovipositor is
short and composed of four
separate plates. The tarsi
are three-jointed. The mem-
bers of the family are known
as locusts or short-horned grasshoppers (Figs. 51 and

52).

Family Locustid/E (Lo-cus'ti-das). — This is the
second of the three families of jumping Orthoptera.

Fig. 50. — A walking-stick.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

n

In this family the antennas are very slender and
longer than the body, (This is also true of crickets.)
The ovipositor is sword-
shaped. The tarsi are four-
jointed. The family as a
whole are called the true
grasshoppers or the long-
horned grasshoppers. Some
of the smaller species (Fig. 53) are known as meadow-
grasshoppers, and a few of the larger species are
called katydids (Fig. 54). It should be observed
that, owing to an unfortunate application of names,

Fig. 53. — A meadow-grasshopper.

Fig. 54. — The angular-winged katydid and its eggs.

74

INSECT LIFE.

the locusts do not belong to the Locustidas, but to
the Acrididse.

Family Grvllid.e (Gryl'li-das). — This is the last
of the three families of jumping Orthoptera. With
these insects the antennas,
like those of the long-horned
grasshoppers, are very slen-
der and longer than the
body, except in the mole-

FiG. 55. — A cricket. Fig. 56. — A cricket

crickets. The ovipositor is spear-shaped when ex-
erted. The tarsi are three-jointed. The members
of this family are known as crickets (Figs. 55 and 56).

Order Physopoda (Phy-sop'o-da).
Thrips.

The members of this order have four zvings ; these
are similar in form, long, narrow, membranous, not
folded, with but few or no veins, and only rarely with
cross-veins ; they are fringed with long hairs, and are
laid Jwrizontally along the back zvheti at rest. The meta-
morphosis is incomplete. The mouth-parts are probably
used chiefly for sucking ; they are intermediate in form
betivce7i those of the sucking and those of the biting in-
sects. The tarsi are one- or tivo-jointed and bladderlike
at tip.

The name Physopoda is from two Greek

CLASSIFICATION OV INSECTS. 75

words : physao, to blow up, and pons, a foot. It re-
fers to the curious bladderlike feet of these insects.

The species of thrips are very
minute insects. Fig. 57 represents
one of them greatly enlarged, with
the wings of one side spread. They
can be easily found by pulling to
pieces the blossoms of clover or
daisies. Some species are black,
others are light brown. The wing-
less nymphs of our common black
species are bright red. Fig. 57.-A thrips.

Order Hemiptera (He-mip'te-ra).
Bugs, Lice, Aphids, and others.

The winged members of this order have four wings ;
in one suborder the first pair of wings are thickened
at the base, with thinner extremities zvhich overlap
on the back ; in anotJicr sjibordcr the first pair of
wings are of the same thickness throughout, and usu-
ally slope at the sides of the body. The inouthparts
are formed for sucking. The metamorphosis is incom-
plete.

The name Hemiptera is from two Greek words:
hemi, half, and pteron, a wing. It was suggested by
the form of the first pair of wings in the true bugs.
Here the basal half of these organs is thickened
somewhat like the wing covers of beetles, only the
terminal half being winglike. The second pair of
wings are membranous, and when at rest are folded
beneath the first pair.

Within this order are grouped insects that differ
greatly in form and appearance. These are dis«
6

76 INSECT LIFE.

tributed among three suborders, which can be sep-
arated by the following table :

A. Wingless Hemiptera, parasitic upon man and other mammals, with a

fleshy unjointed beak II. Parasitica.

AA. Hemiptera with or without wings, but with a jointed beak.
B. First pair of wings thickened at the base, with thinner extremities,
which overlap on the back ; beak arising from the front part of

the head (Fig. 58) I. Heteroptera.

BB. Wings of the same thickness throughout, and usually sloping at
the sides of the body ; beak arising from the hinder part of the
lower side of the head (Fig. 59) III. Homoptera,

Suborder Heteroptera (Het-e-rop'te-ra). This
suborder includes the true bugs, of which the squash-
bug (Fig. 60) and the common
stink-bugs (Fig. 6ij are well-

FiG. 59.— Head Fig. 60— The Fig. 61.— A
Fig. 58. — Head of an hete- of an homopte- squash-bug. stink-bug.
ropterous insect. rous insect.

known examples. Several families of this suborder
are discussed in the chapters on Pond Life and on
Brook Life.

Suborder Parasita (Par-a-si'ta). — This suborder
is represented in the United States by only
one family, the Pediculidse (Ped-i-cu'li-dse).
This family comprises the true lice (Fig. 62),
which differ from the bird lice of the order
Mallophaga in having sucking mouth parts.
The true lice live on the skin of mammals

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. -jj

and suck their blood. There are several species that

infest man. iv\.-.c- ^ii^*-

Suborder Homoptera (Ho-mop'te-ra).— The Ho- '^^'^
moptera includes insects of widely diversified form,
but which agree, however, in
having the wings when present
of the same thickness through-
out, and usuall}^ sloping roof-like
at the sides of the body when at
rest, and in having the beak arise
from the hinder part of the lower
side of the head (Fig. 59).

Among the more common
representatives of this suborder
are the cicadas (Fig. 63) and the
spittle-insects and the tree-hop-
pers, described in the chapter on

Rj • ] T -r T'l Fig. 63.— A cicada,

oadside Life. 1 he common

plant-lice, or aphids, and the scale-bugs are also

members of this suborder.

Order Neuroptera (Neu-rop'te-ra).
The Dobsoii, Aphis-lions, Ant-lions, and Others.

The iiiciiibers of this order have four ivings ; these
are membranous ami furnished loitJi numerous veins, and
usually with many cross-veins. The head is not pro-
longed into a beak. The mouth-parts are formed for
biting. The metamorpJiosis is complete.

The name of this order is from two Greek words:
neuron, a nerve, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the
nimierous nerves, or veins as they are more com-
monly called, with which the wings are furnished.

When the name Neuroptera was first used it was

-g INSECT LIKE.

applied to a much larger group of insects than now,
a group which has since been divided into many
orders. So that now, while the name expresses a
character which is true of the order, it is also true of
many others.*

One of the more conspicuous members of the
order is Polystccchotes punctatus {Pol-ys-tcech'o-tes punc-
ta'Uis), which is repre-
sented by Fig. 64. To this
order also belong Corydalis
(see page 153) and the

Y\G. b^.-Polystcechotes punctatus. Aphis-/io?lS {seC page I/S).

Order Mf.coptera (Me-cop'te-ra).
The Scorpion-flies and Others.

The members of this order have four wings ; these
are membranous and furnished with numerous veins.
The head is prolonged into a beak, at the end of ivJiich
biting mouth-parts are situated. The metamorphosis is
complete.

This is a small order composed of very remark-
able insects. The most striking character common
to all is the shape of the head, which is
prolonged into a beak with jaws at the
end (Fig. 65). The name Mccoptera is
from two Greek words : mecos, length,
and ptcron, a wing.

The members of the genus Panorpa
{Pa-nor'pd) (Fig. 66) are called scorpion-

* The Neuroptera of the older entomologists included the following
orders : Thysanura, Ephemerida, Odonata, Plecoptera, Isoptera, Corro-
dentia, Mallophaga, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, and Trichoptera.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

79

flies on account of the peculiar form of the caudal
part of the abdomen of the male (Fig. 6j). This at
first sight suggests the corresponding part
of a scorpion, but in reality the two are
very different.

Very closely allied to the scorpion-flies
are the insects of the genus Bittacus {Bit'-
ta-cus). These insects have long narrow
wings, long legs, and a slender
abdomen. They resemble crane-
flies very closely when on the wing. In
this genus the caudal appendages of the
male are not enlarged as in Panorpa.

The species of the genus Boreas {Bo're-
ns) are remarkable for occurring on snow in
the winter in our Northern States. In this
genus the females are wingless, while the
males have rudimentary wings.

Order Trichoptera (Tri-chop'te-ra).
The Caddice-flies or Caddice-wonns.

The members of this order have four ivings ; these
are membranous, furnished ivitJi numerous longitudinal
veins, but with only few cross-veins, and are more or less
densely clothed with hairs. The mouth-parts are rudi-
mentary. The metamorphosis is complete.

(j.^. -A Ldddice-fly.

Fig. 69. — A caddice-worm.

This order is composed of the caddice-flies and
caddice-worms (Figs. 68 and 69), which are discussed

80 INSECT LIFE.

in the chapter on Brook Life. The name of the
order is from two Greek words : thrix, a hair, pteron,
a. wing. It refers to the fact that the wings are
clothed with hair.

Order Lepidoptera (Lep-i-dop'te-ra).
T/ie Moths, or Millers, the Skippers, and the Butterflies.

The ineinbers of this order have four wings ; these
are membranous a^id covered with overlapping scales.
The mouth-parts are formed for sucking. The meta-
morphosis is complete.

The name of this order is from two Greek words :
lepis, a scale, and pteron, a wing. It refers to the
fact that the wings of these insects are covered
with scales. Every lad
that lives in the country
knows that the wings of
moths and butterflies are
covered with dust, which
comes off upon one's fin-
gers when these insects
are handled. This dust
when examined with a
microscope is found to be
composed of very minute

Fig. 70.— Part of a win!^ of a butter- ^^^i^^ ^r ».^„,,i^^ ir^.^,^

fly, greatly magnified. The scales SCalCS OI regular lorm,

were removed from a portion of ^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^- jg looked
the specimen figured. o

at in the same way the
scales are seen arranged with more or less regularitv
upon it (Fig. 70). The body, the legs, and other ap-
pendages are also covered with scales.

This order has been discussed in Lessons XXIII
to XXV, and several representatives of it are de-

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Order 1.
The Moths, or J

The members ,

Plate III— SOME SPHINX MOTHS.

FIGURE

1. The Abbot Sphinx, Thyreus ahboti. The larva feeds on grape.

2. The White-lined Sphinx, Deilephila liticata. The larva feeds

on apples, grapes, and many other plants.

3. The Dark-veined Deilephila, Deilephila gallii. The larva

feeds on grape.

4. The Bumblebee Hawk-moth, Hemaris diffinis. The larva

feeds on the bush honeysuckle and the snowberry.

5. The Nessus Sphinx, Amphion nessus. The larva feeds on

grape and rubiacea.

- ^is

i his dust

v'd with a

iound to be

.., .cry minute

regular form.

I wing is ' '

same w

Plate III.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 8 1

scribed in the chapters following this one. The
principal divisions of the Lepidoptera that are ap-
propriately discussed here are three : The moths,
the skippers, and the butterflies.

The Moths. — These are the insects commonly
called millers. Most of the species fly by night and
are frequently attracted to lights. When at rest the

A moth with threadlike antennas.

wings are either wrapped around the body, or are
spread horizontally, or are folded rooflike on the
abdomen ; they are not held in a vertical position
above the body. The antennae of moths are of vari-

FiG. 72.— A moth with featherlike antennas.

ous forms ; they are usually threadlike or featherlike ;
only in rare cases are they enlarged toward the tip
(Figs. 71, 72).

The Skippers. — The skippers are so called on ac-

82

INSECT LIFE.

count of their peculiar mode of flight. They fly in
the daytime and dart suddenly from place to place.
When at rest they usually hold the wings erect in a
vertical position like butterflies; often the fore wings
are thus held while the hind wings are extended
horizontally. The antennse are threadlike, and en-
larged toward the tip ; but in most cases the extreme
tip is pointed and recurved, forming a hook. The

Fig. 73. — A skipper.

Fig. 74.— a skipper

abdomen is usually stout, resembling that of a moth
rather than that of a butterfly (Figs. 73, 74).

Fig. 75.— The goat-weed butterfly.

The Butterflies. — The butterflies fly by day, and
when at rest they fold the wings together above the
back in a vertical position. The antennae are thread-

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. S3

like with a club at the tip, which is never recurved so
as to form a hook. The abdomen is slender (Figs.
75, 76).

Fig. 76. — The banded-purple butterfly.

Order Diptera (Dip'te-ra).
The Flics.

The mcjubcrs of this order have only two wings ;
these are borne by the inesothorax. The vietathorax is
furnished ivitJi a pair of knobbed threads — the halteres.
The mouth-parts are formed for sucking. The meta-
morphosis is complete.

To the order Diptera belong all insects that are
properly termed flies, and only these. The word
" fly " forms a part of many compound names of in-
sects of other orders, as butterfly, stone-fly, May-fly,
and Chalcis-fly ; but when used alone, it is correctly
applied only to dipterous insects. To some flies
other common names have been applied, as mosquito,
gnat, and midge.

The name Diptera is from two Greek words : dis,
two, and pteron, a wing. It was suggested by the
fact that the flies are distinguished by the possession

84

INSECT LIFE.

of a single pair of wings ; for no fiy has more than
two wings, and only a few are wingless.

The common house-fly is the best-known repre-
sentative of this or-
der. Fig. TJ repre-
sents a crane-fly, so
called on account of
its long legs. In this
figure the halteres,
which represent the
hind w'ings in this or-
der, are well shown.
Several families of
flies are referred to
in the following chap-

FiG. 77.— A crane-fly. tcr.

Order Siphonaptera (Siph-o-nap'te-ra).
The Fleas.

The members of this order are practically wingless,
the zvings being represented only by minute scaly plates.
The moiithparts are formed for sucking. The meta-
viorphosis is complete.

The name of the order is
from two Greek words : si-
phon, a tube, and pteros,
wingless. It refers to the
form of the mouth and to the
wingless condition of the in-
sects. Fig. 78 represents the

1 a ' J -^ 1 Fig. 78.— The dog-flea and its

dog-flea and its larva. larva.

PlatL- TV

Plate IV.— BEETLES.

■IGURE

1. The Six-spotted Tiger-beetle, Cicindela sexguttata. See page

270.

2. The Searcher, Calosoma scrutator. A predaceous beetle.

3. Calopteron retictdatum, a diurnal member of the firefly family.

4. Chlcenius sericetis, a ground-beetle.

5. Brachynus fumans, a bombardier beetle.

6. The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer, Sapcrda Candida.

7. The Poplar Borer, Saperda calcarata.

8. The Cloaked Knotty-horn, Desmocerus palliatus. The larva

bores in the pith of elder,
g. Buprestis fasciata, one of the metallic wood-borers.

10. The Spotted Pelidnota, Pelidtiota punctata. It feeds on the

leaves of grape.

11. Dicerca divaricata, one of the metallic wood-borers ; the larva

bores in peach, cherry, beech, and maple.

12. A burying beetle, A^ecrophorns.

13. Fhancens carnifex, male ; one of the tumble-bugs.

14. Phanaus carnifex, female.

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CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 85

Order Coleoptera (Co-le-op'te-ra).
The Beetles.

The members of this order have a pair of horny wing-
covers, called elytra, which meet in a straight line down
the back, and beneath which there is a single pair of mem-
branous wings. The mouth-parts are formed for biting.
The met amor pilosis is complete.

Beetles can be readily distinguished from all other
insects except earwigs by the
possession of horny, veinless
wing-covers, which meet in a
straight line down the back
(Fig. 79) ; and they differ from
earwigs in lacking the pincer-
like appendages at the tail end
of the body characteristic of
those insects (see page 70). fig. 79.-A beetle.

Beetles also differ from ear-
wigs in having a complete metamorphosis.

The name of the order Coleoptera is from two
Greek words : colcos, a sheath, and pteron, a wing.
It refers to the sheathlike structure of the elytra
(el'y-tra) or wing-covers, which were formerly be-
lieved to be modified wings.

This order has been studied in Lessons XVIII to
XX, and several families are described in the follow-
ing chapters.

Order Hymenoptera (Hy-me-nop'te-ra).
Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Others.

The members of this order have four zvings ; tnese
are membranous, and furnished ivith comparatively feiv or

86

INSECT LIFE.

ivith no transverse veins. The hind zvings are smaller
than the fore wings. The mouth-parts are formed for
biting and sucking. The abdomen in the female is
usually furnished zvith a sting, piercer, or saiu. The
metamorphosis is complete.

The bees, wasps, and ants are among the better-
known insects, and will serve to give an idea of the
characteristic appearance of
the members of this order.
They are chiefly insects of
small or moderate size, and
many of them abound wher-
ever flowers bloom. From the
earliest times they have been
favorites with students of the
habits of animals, for among them we find the most
wonderful developments of instinctive powers. Many
volumes have been written regarding their ways,
and much remains to be discovered, even concerning
our most common species.

The name of the order is from two Greek words :
hymen, membrane, ?indpteron, a wing. It refers to the
fact that the wings are of a delicate membranous tex-

FiG. 80. — An ichneu

Fig. 81.— An ensign-fly. Fig. 82.— A digger-wasp.

ture ; but this characteristic is not distinctive, for it
is possessed by the wings of many other insects.
Figs. 80, 81, and 82 represent members of this order.

CHAPTER IV.

POND LIFE.

F all delightful fields for Nature study
none can surpass in interest a well-
stocked pond, for there is a pecul-
iar fascination in the study of pond
life. Even to one who knows lit-
tle about Nature, a pretty pond,
partly shaded by trees and fringed
with water-plants, is a source of de-
light. What pleasure when one is
tired to lie on a grassy bank and watch
the ripples chase each other over the
water, or to thread one's way through a rank growth
of sedges and rushes to where the cat-tail iiags rear
their tall spikes, and the sweet-scented water-lilies
lift themselves above their shield-shaped leaves, or to
float in a boat and watch the clouds above and their
doubles in the mirror below !

Such experiences bring rest and a feeling of har-
mony with Nature. But a keener enjoyment comes
with a more intimate acquaintance with the forms of
life that abound in these places, when one can look
upon each kind of water-plant as an old friend, and
know something of the ways of the creatures that
glide over the surface or swim beneath.
87

88 INSECT LIFE.

There is a pond that we love to visit when we arc
tired with work at our desks. It is a long, narrow
one that winds beneath overhanging trees, and is
margined with a dense growth of water-plants.
Over this pond dragon-flies hawk at midges; on a
dead tree near the bank a kingfisher has his perch,
from which on our approach he swoops down twirl-
ing his watchman's rattle ; sometimes in the swamp
near by we frighten up a bittern ; and in the shal-
lows near the shore the great blue heron loves to
fish, standing knee-deep in the water watching pa-
tiently for his victims.

Here, too, occur large colonies of whirligig-bee-
tles, which chase each other round and round as if
at play ; water-striders skim over the surface ; the
marsh-treader glides on its stiltlike legs among the
rushes and floating leaves ; and, beneath the surface,
water- boatmen, back -swimmers, water - scorpions,
diving -beetles, and many other strange creatures
abound.

We go to this pond and watch these creatures in
their homes and then we bring some of them to our
study, where we put them in aquaria, and try to
learn more about their ways.

Similar ponds can be found in most country
places, and the following pages of this chapter are
written to aid others in making similar studies.

In the studies of life histories the pupil should be
ver}^ careful in his observations ; it is easy to make
mistakes. Do not be satisfied with seeing a thing
once, but observe it over and over again. Make sure
you are right and then look again. This is the only
way in which good scientific work can be done, and

i'OND LIFE.

89

every pupil can be a scientific observer if he has eyes
and will use them properly.

INSECTS THAT FLY OVER PONDS.

The Dragon-flies, or Darning-needles, and
THE Damsel-flies {Field Work).—\\. is a field day,
and we find ourselves near our favorite pond, drawn
here by a charm we do not care to resist. We are
seated on a convenient log on the bank. Below us
lies the water without a ripple on its surface, and
whether we look up or look down we see the same
beautiful foliage of the graceful trees that line the
shores. Fringing the bank beyond is a bed of lilies,
whose shields float on the surface, and at our feet
great arrowlike leaves point upward. Not a breath
stirs a branch, and so still is it that it seems as if no
living thing were here except the invisible, silent
stream of life within twig and leaf. Suddenly there
shoots over the pond that swiftest of winged crea-
tures, a dragon-fly. So rapid is its flight that we
can hardly follow it with our sight. Back and forth
it goes, when, discovering strangers, it darts in front
of us and suddenly stops in midair. Here it hangs
for a moment motionless, except for its rapidly
vibrating wings, and then as suddenly darts away.

What a pity that children should be taught to
fear this beautiful, harmless creature by the silly
legend that it will sew up their eyes and ears !

The habits of dragon-flies are such that they can
be studied only in the field ; the roomiest of breed-
ing cages would offer slight scope for the powers of
these insects. We must therefore watch them while
free if we would learn what they do.

90

INSECT LIFE.

Yonder flies a tiny insect, a midge or a mosquito;
as we watch it, a dragon-fly darts at it and it is gone.
Now that we have learned what to watch for, we see
insect after insect destroyed by the rapacious crea-
ture ; no wonder that it is called a dragofi.

Other dragon-flies have come to our pond. Some
of them are behaving quite differently from the one
that is hawking mosquitoes. They soar over the
pond, and at frequent intervals swoop down and
touch the water with the tip of the abdomen. Why
do they do this? Are they at play splashing the
water like a child? No, these are females laying
their eggs. The young of dragon-flies lead a very
different life from that of the adult. The}^ live be-
neath the water upon the bottom of the pond or
stream as the case may be ; and the adult places
her eggs in such a position that when the young
hatch they will be in their proper element.

Not all dragon-flies lay their eggs as these are
doing. On one occasion the writer, in company with
his class, saw a dragon-fly poising herself in the air a
short distance above the point where a water-plant
emerged from the water. At frequent intervals the
insect descended with a swift curved movement,
pushing the end of her abdomen into the water. On
examination a large cluster of eggs was found at-
tached to the plant just below the surface. And
Prof. Uhler has observed a dragon-fly alight upon a
reed, and, pushing the end of her body below the
surface of the water, glue a bunch of eggs to the
submerged stem.

The dragon-flies that we have been observing
hold their wings spread out stiffly when at rest (Fig.

POND LIFE.

91

83). But there are certain insects, abundant about a
ditcli near this pond, which resemble these dragon-

FlG. 83.

flies very closely in structure, but differ in that they
fold their wings parallel with the body when resting
(Fig. 84). They have not the great powers of flight
possessed by the dragon-flies that do not fold their
wings, but flit airily from plant
to plant. The more gentle hab-
its of these insects have led the
French to call them demoiselles
or damsels.

English writers heretofore
have classed both of these kinds
of insects under the name dra-
gon-flies, but in the following
pages we will restrict the name
dragon-flies to those that hold
their wings spread out and term
those that fold their wings dam-
sel-flies.

There is a great variety of
damsel-flies. Some have nearly fig. 84.

Q2 INSEC'l" LIFE,

colorless wings and comparatively dull-colored bod-
ies, while others have shiny-black wings and brilliant,
metallic-green or blue bodies.

The damsel-flies lay their eggs in a remarkable
manner. These insects have well-developed oviposi-
tors with which they can make incisions in the stems
or leaves of plants ; and some of the species at least,
when they wish to lay their eggs, crawl down the
stems of aquatic plants and lay their eggs in them be-
neath the water.

Can it be that the habit of folding their wings
when they are not in use is correlated with the pecul-
iar egg-laying habits of these insects? Certainly it
would be difficult for them to creep beneath the water
were their wings expanded like those of dragon-flies.

Let those who have accompanied us on this field
trip try to learn something new about dragon-flies
and damsel-flies. This they can do by patiently
watching. They can learn upon what kinds of in-
sects these creatures feed ; they can observe differ-
ences in their modes of flight, and in the regions
which each prefers to haunt; and they can ascertain
more than we now know regarding the various ways
in which they lay their eggs. As soon as an observa-
tion is made, it should be recorded in a notebook or
on slips of paper carried for this purpose.

After observations have been made on one of
these insects, that particular one should be captured
if possible, so that the record of the observation may
be completed by determining the particular species
observed.

Other specimens should be taken for study at
school and for preservation in vour collection.

POND LIFE.

93

It is exceedingly difficult to catch dragon-flies
while they are on the wing. Watch them till one
alights, and then approach it quietly till within reach
of it and capture it with a very quick sweep of the
net. Damsel-flies, however, are easily captured.

The Habits of Dragon-flies and Damsel-
flies {School Work). — Write an account of an excur-
sion that you have made yourself to a pond or
stream, and include in it the observations that you
made on dragon-flies and damsel-flies. State also in
this account whether you believe these insects to be
injurious or beneficial to man, and the reasons for this
belief.

Copy the following label and place it above the
dragon-flies and damsel-flies in your collection : *
Order Odonata (Od-o-na'ta).
The Dragon-flies and Damsel-flies.

Blue dragon-flies knitting
To and fro in the sun,
With sidelong jerk flitting
Sink down on the rushes,
And, motionless sitting.

With level wings swinging

On green tasseled rushes.

To dream in the sww.—LoiueU.

The Structure of Dragon-flies {School Work\
— Select for study one of the large dragon-flies col-
lected on the last field day, one of those that hold
the wings spread out when at rest. If you failed to

* In writing these labels, underscore the word in capitals with two
lines, and the words in italics with a single line. See example, page 42.

g. INSECT LIFE.

get any, borrow one of some more successful collec-
tor. Do not touch the specimen itself, lest you break
it, but handle it by means of the pin with which it is
pinned.

1. Observe the general appearance of the insect,
noting the large head, the slender neck, the stout
thorax, the broadly expanded wings, and the long,
slender abdomen.

2. Study the head, noting its shape, the puffed out
front portion, the concave hinder side, and the large
compound eyes.

3. Examine the compound eyes with a lens or
microscope, and make a drawing illustrating the struc-
ture of the surface ; only a small portion of one eye
need be represented, but show this greatly enlarged.
State the proportion of the surface of the head occu-
pied by the compound eyes.

4. Find the simple eyes, using a lens for this pur-
pose ; they are situated in the triangular space be-
tween the compound eyes and the puffed out front
portion of the head. How many of them are there?

5. Observe the antennce ; these are very small,
and are situated in the same triangular space as the
simple eyes. Each antenna consists of a stouter
basal part and a slender, bristlelike part composed of
several segments. Make a drawing of one antenna
greatly enlarged.

6. Make a drawing of the head seen from above,
representing each of the parts already mentioned.
Make the drawing large enough so that the simple
eyes and antennae can be well shown.

7. Study the lower side of the head and make a
drawing of the mouth-parts that can be seen without

POND LIFE.

95

dissection. These are the upper lip or labrum, the
tips of the mandibles, and the lower lip or labium.
The maxilla3 are usually concealed when the mouth
is closed. The labium is very large and ends in
three broad flaps, one below the mouth and one on
each side ; the one below the mouth is sometimes
more or less split on the middle line, and each of the
side flaps bears a slender appendage ; sometimes,
however, these appendages are very minute.

8. Study the parts of the head already examined
with a view to seeing how they ai e fitted to their
use. The most conspicuous parts are the very large
eyes ; evidently the sense of sight is exceedingly im-
portant to these insects; note also that the shape of
the eyes is such that the insect can see in all direc-
tions without making any movement of the head or
body. Regarding the simple eyes, we can only say
that three well-developed ones are present ; no one
has yet discovered the peculiar use of these eyes as
distinguished from that of the compound' eyes, but
it seems as if they must have a function different
from that of the compound eyes, else why should an
insect with such highly developed compound eyes
possess simple eyes also. In many insects the sense
of smell is believed to have its seat in the antennae ;
if that is so in dragon-flies, it is evident that com-
paratively little use is made of this sense by these in-
sects, for the antennas are so slightly developed as to
be little more than rudimentary organs; but it is not
strange that insects so well provided with organs of
sight should have little use for organs of smell in
hawking their prey or in seeking their mates. The
mouth -parts are admirably fitted for seizing and

o6 INSECT LIFE.

holding the small insects upon which the dragon-flies
feed. It is also probable that the freedom of move-
ment of the head resulting from the slenderness of the
neck is of great use to these insects in seizing their
prey.

9. Study the peculiar features of the thorax, not-
ing the following points : Its large size — this is neces-
sary to give room for the large and powerful mus-
cles that move the wings. The position of the legs —
these are situated much farther forward than is
usual with insects, all of the legs being nearer the
head than the wings. The legs are used but little for
walking, their chief use being for clinging to some
support and, perhaps, for seizing prey. With most
insects the middle and hind pairs of legs are attached
to the thorax farther back than are the correspond-
ing wings, and consequently the side pieces of the
thorax between the wings, and these legs slope back-
ward and downward
from the wings. This
is shown in Fig. 85,
which represents a
side view of a locust
with its wings re-
moved. In a dragon-fly these side pieces of the tho-
rax slope forzvard and downward. Make a drawing
of a side view of a dragon-fly, illustrating this point ;
the wings need not be represented, and only the
bases of the legs need be shown, as is done in the
figure of a locust.

10. Examine the legs of the dragon-fly, noting
the spines borne by the femur and tibia. Consider
the possible use of these spines in catching and hold-

FiG. 85.

rOND LIFE. 97

ing prey. Make a drawing of one of these legs and
label the following parts: coxa, trochanter, femur,
tibia, tarsus, and claws.

11. Study the wings. ■ These wings are of espe-
cial interest, for, judging by the powers of flight of
these insects, they must be extremely well fitted for
their use. Although large they are very light ; yet
notwithstanding their lightness they are strong, be-
ing strengthened by a large number of veins and
veinlets, and the margin of the wing is strengthened
throughout by an ambient vein. Near the middle of
the length of the frontal (costal) margin of each
wing there is a jointlike structure : this is called the
nodus ; this structure is characteristic of the wings of
dragon-flies and damsel-fiies, but its use is not known.
The front part of each wing, which is the part where
the greatest strength is required, is folded in plaits
somewhat like a fan. This adds greatly to the
strength of the wing. Take a flat piece of writing
paper and observe how easily it can be bent. Now,
fold this piece of paper like a fan and see how much
stiffer it is. Study the cross-veins extending back
from vein I (i. e., the front margin of the wing) and
note that some of them extend straight across the
furrow to vein III (the second vein from the margin),
and are in the form of triangular braces that tend to
preserve the form of the furrow.

12. The abdomen is long, and usually quite slen-
der. The necessity for the great length of the abdo-
men is not quite clear; it may be that the abdomen
serves to steady the flight like the shaft of an arrow ;
and, too, there may exist a relation between the form
of the wings and that of the abdomen. With most

q8 insect life.

swiftly flying insects, as the bees, wasps, hawk-moths,
and others, the hind wings are reduced in size, and
thus there is a concentration of the powers of flight
to a region near the front end of the body, which
adds to its efficiency, for the opposite arrangement
would result like an effort to shoot an arrow with the
wrong end forward ; with dragon-flies the hind wings
are as large as or larger than the fore wings, but
the great length of the abdomen results in the flight
organs as a whole being comparatively near the front
end of the body. It should also be observed that
the form of the abdomen is well fitted for the pecul-
iar method of laying the eggs. In the males of
dragon-flies there is a slit in the lower side of the
second abdominal segment, which contains an organ
furnished with hooks. Dragon-flies and damsel-flies
differ from all other insects in the position of this
organ of the males. Determine the sex of each of
your specimens and label them male or female as the
case may be.

13. Make a sketch of the dragon-fly seen from
above.

The Structure of Damsel-flies {School Work),
— Compare the structure of a damsel-fly with that of
the dragon-fly already studied. Note especially the
form of the head with the eye^ projecting like the
oarlocks of an outrigged skiff, the shape of the wings,
the position of the wings when at rest, and the form
of the ovipositor of the females. Make a sketch of
the head seen from above. Make a sketch showing
the outline of each of the wings of one side. Deter-
mine the sex of each of your specimens and label
them.

POND LIFE.

99

The May-flies {Incld Work). — Let us continue
our study of the insects that fly over ponds. In
many places, at certain periods of the year, the most
abundant of these are the May-fiies. These are very
fragile insects with large, del-
icate fore wings, with the hind
wings much smaller or want-
ing, and with the abdomen
furnished at its caudal end
with either two or three many-
jointed, threadlike appendages
(Fig. 86).

Although a few May-flies
can be found at almost any
time during the warmer parts
of the 3'ear, in each locality
there are certain periods dur-
ing which they are much more
abundant than at other times ;
then they are apt to appear in
great swarms. This period is

as likely to be in June or July as in May, despite the
common name of these insects. It is at such times
that a study should be made of their habits. If you
find that May-flies are abundant at any time and you
have not already made a study of them, it will be
worth while to postpone the study of any other in-
sects and devote your attention to these, for no other
insects described in these lessons have so short a pe-
riod of flight as the May-flies. While in the field
take notes on the following points : —

I. The flight of these insects — contrast it with
that of drag-on-flies.

joo INSECT LIFE.

2. The food of May-flies — can you find any that
are catching other insects or that are feeding on
plants?

3. The young of May-flies live in the water. Try
to observe the emergence of the insects from the
vvate'-.

4. If you succeed in observing the emergence of
the winged insect from the water, collect the empty
nymph skin and, if possible, the winged individual
that emerged from it. These should be preserved
together in your collection ; they will serve to con-
nect the adult with its early stages.

5. May-flies differ from all other insects in that
they shed the skin once after they are able to fly.
The winged May -fly when it emerges from the
water is not a fully developed adult, but is what is
termed a subiinago. The subimago state is of short
duration ; sometimes it lasts only a few minutes, but
in other species it lasts twenty-four hours or more.

Watch the May-flies that are resting on plants or
other objects near the shore and try to observe the
molting of the subimago. If you succeed, collect
the adult or imago and the empty subimago skin,
and preserve them together in your collection. Even
if you fail to observe the molting, you ought to be
able to collect subimago skins if the May-flies are at
all abundant.

6. Endeavor to observe the laying of the eggs.
Some May-flies lay their eggs in masses ; specimens
are often found in which there project from the cau-
dal end of the body two parallel, subcylindrical
masses of eggs, for in these insects the two oviducts
open separately.

POND LIFE. lOi

7. In the evening, examine the street lamps or
other lights, and note the extent to which the May-
flies are attracted to them.

The Habits of May-flies {School Work). — Write
an account of what you have learned regarding May-
flies. Copy the following label and place it above
the May-flies in your collection (see footnote, page

93):—

Order Ephemerida (Eph-e-mer'i-da).

The May-flics.

The Structure of May-flies {School Work).—
It is quite difficult to preserve specimens of May-
flies in good condition for study, as they shrivel
greatly on drying. We will call attention, therefore,
to only a few of the more important points in the
structure of these insects.

1. Study the head and observe the following:
The very large compound eyes — in dried specimens
these are apt to be more or less shriveled, and in
some kinds of May-flies each compound eye is di-
vided into two distinct parts; the simple eyes or
ocelli — in some of our more common species these are
much larger than is usual with insects ; the mouth-
parts — these are absent or represented by minute
rudiments. May-flies take no food during their very
short existence in the adult state. Make a sketch of
the head seen from above.

2. Study the wings and make a sketch showing
the outline of each of the two wings of one side.

3. Write out a statement of the points of resem-
blance and the points of difTerence between the wings
of May -flies and those of dragon-flies.

102

INSECT LIFE.

Fig. 87,

4. Make a sketch of a May-fly seen from above.
The Stone-flies {Field Work). — Among the in-
sects that are common flying about ponds and streams

are the stone-flies.
Fig. 87 represents
one of our larger
species with the
wings of one side
spread out. When
at rest these in-
sects fold their
wings upon the
back, as shown on
the left side of the
figure. Most of
our species are
much smaller than
the one represented here, but they can be recognized
as stone-flies by their resemblance in form to this one.
The body is flattened, elongate, and with the sides
nearly parallel ; the prothorax is large ; the antennae
are long, tapering, and many jointed ; in most species
the caudal end of the abdomen is furnished with two
slender appendages. Stone-flies are so called because
they pass their early stages beneath stones in streams
and ponds.

1. Collect as many kinds of stone-flies as you can,
saving several specimens of each kind.

2. Make notes on their powers of flight.

3. Make notes on the localities in which they
occur.

4. Try to discover the method in which they lay
their eggs.

POND LIFE.

103

The Structure and Habits of Stone-flies
{School Work). — Write an account of what you have
learned regarding stone-flies. Describe first the ap-
pearance of these insects ; illustrate this by two
sketches, one showing the appearance of the insect as
seen from above with the wings closed, the other an
enlarged view of the head and prothorax as seen from
above, and compare the eyes and antennae with those
of dragon-flies and May-flies. In the second part of
the account state what you have learned regarding
the habitat and habits of stone-flies.

Copy the following label and place it above the
stone-flies in your collection (see footnote, page 3) :

Order Plecoptera (Ple-cop'te-ra).
The Stone flies.

Other Insects that fly Over Ponds {Field
Work). — During the field days, when you are studying
pond life collect any insects that you find flying over
ponds or resting near them. These should be care-
fully pinned, labeled, and preserved in your collec-
tion for future study.

INSECTS THAT LIVE ON THE SURFACE OF WATER.

In the excursions that have been made for the
purpose of studying pond life, the pupils have proba-
bly observed certain insects running over the sur-
face of the water as if it were a firm pavement.
We purpose to study carefully some of these insects,
but before doing so it will be well to endeavor to
understand how it is that these creatures can per-
form the apparent miracle of walking upon water.

I04

INSECT LIFE.

The Surface-film uv Water {ScJlooI Work). —
One of the astonishing facts to be learned by the
study of pond life is that many insects are able to
walk upon water, and equally strange is the fact that
certain other insects that live within water can hang
from its upper surface without any effort to keep
themselves there, although their bodies are heavier
than water.

These things seem to contradict the well-known
law of Nature that an object can not float in a liquid
unless it is lighter than that liquid. And in truth
it is a fact that under certain conditions objects that
are much heavier than the liquid upon which they
are placed will float.

This phenomenon is due to the presence of what
has been termed the surface-film of liquids. It has
been shown by man}' experiments, some of which
are given below, that on the surface of water, and
other liquids also, there is a film of the liquid which
tends to contract as if it were a membrane stretched
equally in all directions. The explanation of the for-
mation of this film is a difficult matter, which can not
be undertaken here. It is discussed in the more ad-
vanced works on physics and in some of the larger
cyclopaedias under the head of capillary attraction.
The action of the surface-film can be seen by the
following experiments :

Experiment i. — Take a fine needle and carefully
lay it on the surface of a glass of water. To do this
hold the needle in a horizontal position and bring it
as near the water as you can without touching the
water and then drop the needle. If the experiment
be performed with sufficient care, the needle will

POND LIFE.

105

float. Steel is seven times heavier than water ; never-
theless, in this experiment we see a piece of steel
floating on the surface of water.

Experiment 2. — Take a needle that you have caused
to float on the water and wet it thoroughly. Now
you will be unable to make it float so long as it is
wet. This experiment indicates that one of the con-
ditions of floating of a heavy object is that it shall
not be wet by the liquid.

Experiment J. — Take needles of different sizes or
short pieces of different sizes of wire, and, having
them perfectly dry, try to make them float. In this
experiment it is well to lay the piece of wire across
the tines of a fork and lower it gently into the water.
It will be found that only the smaller needles or
pieces of wire will float. This experiment indicates
that a second condition of the floating of a heavy
object is that it shall be comparatively small.

Experiment ^. — Take a glass of water and place it
on a stand so that you can look thiough the side of
the glass at the surface of the water both from above
and below. Place a needle upon the water, the
larger the needle the better, provided it will float.
By studying the floating object carefully it will be
seen that it rests in a little hollow with sloping sides,
the surface of the water being indented as if it were
covered with a membrane stretched across it.

There are many other interesting phenomena that
are explained by a knowledge of the action of the
surface-film of liquids, but their study belongs to the
subject of physics ; only so much has been introduced
here as is necessary to understand what we will see
in our study of pond life.

,o6 INSECT I, iff:.

The VVatek-striders {Field Work). — Now that we
have studied the surface-fihn of water, let us visit
some pond or stream and observe those insects that
live upon it. Chief among these are the water-
striders, the long-legged creatures that skate over
the surface as if they had no weight.

There are a good many species of water-striders,
and several quite distinct types, differing in size, in

the form of the body,
and in the relative
length of the legs. One
of the more common
forms is represented by
Fig. 88. Try to find
some of these, for ow-
^ „o . ._, ing to their larger size

Fig. 88.— a water strider. » ^

it will be easier to ob-
serve them than other kinds ; but if you are unable
to find these, study any water-striders that you can
find and make notes for an account of them.

1. Water-striders live upon both ponds and
streams ; if you are observing them upon a stream,
note what portions of the stream they prefer.

2. Do they occur singly or in colonies?

3. Are they shy or otherwise?

4. Are they disturbed by fish ? To determine
this watch them where there are fish, and throw
grasshoppers or other insects into the water and note
if the fish are more apt to jump at these than at the
water-striders.

5. Throw some insect into the water where there
are no fish, but near some water-striders, and note
the actions of the latter. What is likely to happen

rOND LIFE. 107

to an insect that falls into the water where there are
water-striders ?

6. Watch the water-striders and learn if they will
jump from the water to catch insects that fly near it.

7. Remain quiet at the shore of the pond or
stream till the water-striders approach near enough
to be observed closely and determine what portions
of the body rest upon the water.

8. Observe the dimples in the water where the
feet rest on the surface.

9. When the sun is shining brightly, find some
water-striders where the water is shallow and ob-
serve on the bottom of the pool the shadows of the
dimples in the water made by the feet of the insects.
Note that each shadow is surrounded by a golden
ring of light. The more advanced pupils should be
able to explain the cause of this ring of light. Note
that there is no ring of light about the shadow cast
by the body ; why is this so ?

10. Make a sketch showing the outline of the
body and the position of each of the legs and the an-
tennce when the insect is at rest.

11. Discover which pair of legs are the chief
organs of locomotion in the striding of these insects.

12. Collect as many kinds of water-striders as
possible, saving several specimens of each species.
Kill them in your cyanide bottle and then pin them
on your return home.

Water-striders are dimorphic — that is, there are
two distinct forms of fully developed individuals in
each species. One form is winged, the other wing-
less. Try to procure both the winged and the wing-
less form of each species collected. The presence

I08 INSECT LIFE.

of winged forms probably enables these insects to
spread overland from one pond or stream to another,
but the conditions under which winged forms occur
are not well understood. Sometimes a third form
occurs in which the adult has short wings. It should
be remembered that the nymphs of the winged forms
have short wing-pads, but these differ in appearance
from perfect wings.

The Families of Water-striders {School Work).
— There are two closely related families of bugs the
members of either of which could well be called
water-striders on account of their mode of life. In one
family the legs are much longer than in the other, and
better fitted for the gliding motion characteristic of
water-striders ; the members of this family are termed
"the water-striders." In the other family the legs
are shorter and fitted for running rather than rowing ;
as the body is broadest across the prothorax in
these insects, they are termed " the broad-shoul-
dered water-striders."

Separate from the others those specimens of water-
striders in your collection in which the second and
third pairs of legs are extremely long and slender,
and in which the body is widest back of the pro-
thorax. If this family is well represented in your
locality, you should have some species in which the
body is long and slender, as in Fig. 88, and also some
smaller species in which the body is oval in outline.

Copy the following label and fasten it above the
place where the water-striders are to be put in your
collection : —

Order Hemiptera (He-mip'te-ra).
The Bugs.

POND LIFE. 109

Place immediately below this label the following
one, and then arrange the water-striders just selected
beneath this second label ; put each species of water-
strider in a row by itself : —

Family Hydrobatid.k (Hyd-ro-bat'i-dae),
The Water-striders.

Fig. 89 represents a member of the second family
of water-striders, somewhat enlarged. These insects
can be distinguished from the true
water-striders by their comparatively
short legs and broad prothorax. If
you have any specimens of this fami-
ly arrange them just after the true
water-striders and below the follow- fig. 89. — a broad-

1 , 1 shouldered water-

mg label :— strider.

Family Veliid^ (Ve-li'i-dae).
The Broad-shouldered Water-striders.

The Habits of Water-striders {School Work).
— Write an account of what you have learned regard-
ing water-striders.

The Structure of Water-striders {School
Work). — Select one of the true water-striders, prefer-
ably a large one like that represented by Fig 88, and
study the following parts.

I. The body is covered with microscopic hairs,
those on the lower side are longer and usually silvery
white in color. These doubtless form a waterproof
coating, and add much to the beauty of the insects,
causing them to appear like white-bottomed boats
when on the water,

, lo INSPXT LIFE.

2. The head is inserted in the prothorax up to
the base of the eyes. The eyes, though small com-
pared with those of the dragon-fly, are really quite
large and prominent ; their shape and position are
such that the insect can readily see in all directions.
The antennas are long and consist of four segments.
The beak arises from the forward end of the head ;
when not in use it usually extends backward between
the fore legs. It consists of four segments; the sec-
ond segment, however, is quite short and liable to
be overlooked. A bristlelike piercing organ can
usually be seen protruding from the tip of the beak.
Make a drawing of a side view of the head, show-
ing the form of the head, eyes, antennae, and
beak.

3. Study the position and form of the legs. The
fore legs are placed well forward, and are stouter
than the others ; they are used for seizing and hold-
ing the prey. The middle and hind legs are placed
far back, and are the chief organs of locomotion, the
middle legs being used as oars and the hind legs as
rudders. A striking peculiarity of the legs in the two
families of water-striders is that the last segment of
the tarsus is split at the end and the claws are in-
serted in this cleft ; this is most easily seen in the
stouter fore legs than in the threadlike middle and
hind legs of the true water-striders. In the broad-
shouldered water-striders it is easily seen on any of
the legs. Make a drawing of the tarsus of one of the
legs, showing this peculiarity.

4. Make a drawing of the lower side of the abdo-
men, noting carefully the form of the segments near
the caudal end.

4

POND LIFE. Ill

5. Study all the specimens you have of water-
striders and see if you can separate the sexes.

The Whirligig-beetles {Fic/d War/:).— No lad
who has loitered much by ponds or wandered along
the margins of brooks with open eyes can have
failed to see the whirligig-beetles, those social fel-
lows that gather in large numbers and chase each
other round and round in graceful curves with
wonderful rapidity. These beetles are oval or ellip-
tical in form, more or less flattened, and usually of
a very brilliant, bluish-black color above, with a
metallic luster ; one of our common forms is
represented by Fig. 90, but some of the smal-
ler species are proportionally longer and more
convex.

Seek for specimens of whirligig-beetles on
the surface of the ponds and streams in your
locality and, when found, watch them carefully, note-
book in hand, and record all that you can see of their
ways.

Take with you on this field trip some empty bot-
tles, in which to bring home living specimens, and an
insect net ; you will need the latter in catching these
wary creatures.

Note the peculiar odor emitted by the insects
when caught ; this is caused by the milky fluid which
the insects emit from various joints of the body, and
is probably a means of defense.

As these insects can be easily kept alive in aquaria,
we will make a more careful study of their habits in
confinement.

Compai-atively few whirligig-beetles can be found
in the spring; these are individuals that have sur-

J 12 INSECT LIFE.

vived the winter. A new generation begins to
appear early in the summer, and they are most
abundant late in August or early in September.
As cold weather comes on they disappear, bury-
ing themselves in mud at the roots of water plants
for their winter sleep. But they can be kept
active in aquaria in warm rooms long after all
have disappeared from the surface of ponds and
streams.

On your return from the field trip prepare an
aquarium with sand or gravel in the bottom and a
few water plants anchored in this soil. Put the living
whirligig-beetles into this aquarium, and cover it so
that the insects can not escape.

Put in a killing bottle some specimens to be used
for a study of the structure of these insects.

The Structure of Whirligig-beetles {School
Work). — I. Pin the specimens in your killing bottle,
so that they may be easily handled without injury to
them, putting the pin through the right wing-cover
a short distance from its base.

2. Study the appearance of one of these insects
when seen from above. Note that the hinder part
of the body is covered by a pair of horny wing-cov-
ers or elytra, which meet in a straight line along
the middle of the back. This type of wing-covers
is the mark by which beetles are most easily recog-
nized.

3. Study the head as seen from above and make a
drawing of this view, showing the following parts:
The upper lip — a horny flap projecting from the ex-
treme front end of the head ; the clypeus — a narrow
piece extending crosswise between the upper lip and

POND LIFE.

11^^

the chief part of the head ; the antennas — these are
unusually short and thick (Fig-. 91 represents one of
the antennas of a whirligig-beetle greatly
enlarged) ; the compound eyes — these are
quite prominent, and are situated a consider-
able distance from the margin of the head. " ^^'

4. Study the head as seen from below. Here
a very remarkable thing will be seen — namely, a
pair of large compound eyes in addition to the pair
already observed on the upper side of the head. It
should be said, however, that these insects really
have only two compound eyes, like other insects ; but
each eye is divided within the head, one part extend-
ing to the upper surface of the head and the other to
the lower surface. What peculiarity in the mode of
life of the whirligig-beetles renders this arrangement
of eyes desirable?

5. Study the mouth-parts and observe that in-
stead of a beak for sucking, as with the water-strid-
ers, these insects have jaws fitted for biting.

6. Make a drawing of one of the front legs, and
label the following parts : coxa, trochanter, femur,
tibia, tarsus, claws.

7. The sexes of whirligig-beetles can be distin-
guished by the fact that in the males the segments of
the tarsus of the fore legs are flattened and furnished
with a spongy cushion of hairs beneath, while in
the females the segments are more nearly cylindrical
and do not bear cushions. Separate the sexes of
these insects in your collection.

8. Study the middle and hind legs and observe
their strangely modified form. While the fore legs
are oarlike in form, these are modified into short and

14

INSECT LIFE.

very bi-oad paddles. Fig. 92 represents the form of
one of these.

9. Remove with a pin one of the wing-covers and
observe the large membranous wing
compactly folded beneath it. Although
these insects are commonly seen only on

Fig 92. '*' water, they have good powers of flight,
and migrate from pond to pond by
means of their wings. I have taken them at electric
lights far from any water.

10. The various kinds of beetles taken together
constitute the order Coleoptera, and the whirligig-
beetles form the family Gyrinidse of this order.
Write the two following labels and place them above
the whirligig-beetles in your collection : —

Order Coleoptera (Co-le-op'te-ra).
The Beetles.

Family Gyrinid.* (Gy-rin'i-dae).

The Habits of Whirligig -beetles {School
Work). — Watch the living specimens that you have
in an aquarium and learn all you can of their habits.
The following are some of the points to be observed :
Compare their attitude when at rest with that of a
water-strider. Describe their method of locomotion.
Describe their actions when frightened. Can you
see any indications of their method of breathing
when under water? How do they remain beneath
the water? How do they rise to the surface? In
what way do the beetles endeavor to escape from
the water? Try to discover what they will eat —

POND LIFE.

115

there is some difference of ()j)inion among scientilic
writers on this point.

After observing these insects at intervals for sev-
eral days write an account of what you have learned
regarding them.

INSKCTS THAT KKSI' AT llll'. SI' R F ACK lUJT SWIM liKNKATH.

In our studies of })ontl life up to this time we
have observed some of the insects that fly over
ponds and some that live upon the surface of water,
but a far greater number of insects live within
the water. Some of these are fitted for a purely
aquatic life, but many find it necessary to come to
the surface from time to time to get a supply of air.
This latter class of insects, as a rule, rest at the sur-
face in such a position that they have access to the
air above the water, and only swim beneath when
alarmed or when in search of food. It is this class of
insects, those that rest at the surface but swim be-
neath, that we are to study now.

A Collecting Trip.— Provide yourselves with
insect nets and a supply of empty bottles for bring-
ing back living insects. Go to some pond or stream,
and, resting quietly on the shore, try to observe some
of the insects that live within the water but rest at
the surface. If there is no convenient pond and you
go to a stream for this purpose, choose the more
quiet portions of the stream, and preferably the
deeper pools and those in which plants are growing.
Approach the water very quietly so as not to frighten
the insects. Often when nothing is to be seen at
first the observer will be rewarded by a sight of
the desired objects if he will sit very still for a time.

Il6 INSECT I.TFE.

After learning what you can by watching, sweep
the vegetation beneath the surface of the water with
your net, and in this way collect as many kinds of
insects as possible. Put the insects into clean bot-
tles so that they may be kept alive.

On your return prepare several aquaria with sand
or gravel on the bottom and aquatic plants anchored
in the sand ; if practicable prepare as many aquaria
as you have kinds of insects, so that one kind shall
not destroy another. But in order to observe pre-
daceous insects capture their prey it is necessary to
put other insects with them when you are ready to
make the observation. After the insects have been
placed in the aquaria you will soon be able to learn
which ones belong to the class that rest at the surface
but swim beneath.

The Predaceous Diving-beetles {School Work).
— If a collecting trip like that outlined above is a
successful one, there are almost sure to be several
kinds of beetles among the insects collected. These
can be recognized by the horny wing-covers, which
meet in a straight line along the middle of the back.
If we omit certain small beetles which are not likely
to be studied by the beginner, the beetles collected
in this way will represent only two families ; one of
these families is the Dytiscidas, or predaceous diving-
beetles. The members of this family can be recog-
nized by the fact that when at rest they hang head
downward with the tip of the abdomen at the sur-
face of the water. Figs. 93 and 94 represent two of
the larger members of this family. There are, how-
ever, many small species, measuring less than one
fourth of an inch in length, which can be found in

rONI) LIFE. I 17

almost any pond. If you can obtain specimens of the
larger ones, they will be best for the purposes of study.

Some specimens should
be kept alive in aquaria for
a study of their habits, and
some should be killed and
pinned for a study of their
structure.

Place the pinned speci-
mens when not in use in ^

... , Fig. 93. Fig. 94.

your collection under a

copy of the following label and immediately after the

whirligig-beetles : — *

Family DvTisciu.ii (Dy-tis'ci-dae).
The Predaceous Diving-beetles.

Whenever convenient to do so, watch the diving-
beetles and learn all you can regarding their habits.
Make a memorandum of whatever you learn ; the
hints given on page 1 14 for the study of the whirligig-
beetles will be useful here. As these diving-beetles
are predaceous, they may be fed with other insects
or bits of raw meat. If properly cared for, they can
be kept alive in aquaria for a long time, even several
years.

The Structure of the Predaceous Diving-
beetles {School Work). — Select for study specimens
of the largest species of predaceous diving-beetles in
your collection and observe the form of the following
parts : —

* No effort is made in these outlines to indicate a natural sequence
of the families studied. It will be sufficient for the purposes of begin-
ners to place each family under the order to which it belongs, placing
first those studied first.

Ilg INSECT LirK.

1. The bodv as a whole. Observe ils evenly
rounded outlines, and consider how well htted it is
for gliding- through the water.

2. The antenna?. These are inserted immediately

in front of the eyes, and are threadlike in
form, each consisting of twelve similar seg-
ments (Fig. 95). The form of the antennae is
an important characteristic of these insects,
for by it they can be distinguished from the
water-scavenger beetles, which they closely
resemble in general appearance.

3. The hind legs. These arc fitted especially for
swimming, being long and more or less oarlike; the
tarsus is flattened and fringed with hairs, and the
segments of it taper evenly from its base to the
claws. Make a drawing of one of these legs.

4. The middle legs. These do not differ greatly
from the usual form of the legs of insects, except
that in the males of certain species the first three
segments of the tarsus are much wider than the
others and furnished with cushions beneath.

5. The fore legs. In the females these legs are
also of the usual form. But in the males of our com-
mon larger species the first three segments of the
tarsus are dilated and form a circular disk, upon the
under side of which are little cuplike suckers. These
suckers differ in size and arrangement in different
genera ; Fig. 96 represents a tarsus of Dytiscus {Dy-
tis'ctis).

6. Examine the fore legs of all of your pinned
specimens of the larger diving-beetles and separate
the sexes of each species.

7. If your collection is sufficiently full, you will

POND IJFE.

119

be able tt) observe that in some species there are two
kinds of females, one having smooth \ving--covers,
and another in which the wing-cov-
ers are furnished with a number of
deep furrows (Fig. 94).

8. Study the eyes and compare
them with those of the whirligig-
beetles.

„ . , Fig. 96.

9. Remove one wmg-cover and

observe the large wing folded beneath it. These
beetles can fly well, and thus migrate from pond to
pond.

■ 10. Remove the wing and observe the spiracles
or breathing holes on the back near the side of the
body.

II. How do these insects breathe when under
water ?

The Habits and Structure of the Preda-
CEOUS Diving-beetles {School JF^r/-).— Write an ac-
count of what you have learned regarding these in-
sects.

The Water-tigers {Field and School Work).—
These rapacious creatures are the larv^ of the pre-
daceous diving-beetles, and are found in the ponds
frequented by these beetles. In sweeping submerged
plants for the pond insects already described one is
quite apt to obtain water -tigers also. They are
elongated, spindle-form grubs, with large sickle-
shaped mandibles. Fig. 97 represents one of our
larger species. Put the specimens that you collect
into an aquarium in which plants are growing, so
that the larvae can crawl to and from the surface
easily.

INSECT LIFE.

Learn what you can regarding the habits and
structure of these larvse. Observe their favorite

Fig. 97. — A water-tig:er.

attitude when at rest. Learn how they obtain air.
Place other aquatic insects with them, and observe
their predaceous habits and their method of sucking
the blood of their victims. Note their methods of
locomotion.

In studying their structure, observe the peculiar
form of their mandibles ; these are large, sickle-
shaped, and hollow, with a slitlike opening near the
tip. They are admirably fitted for holding the prey
and at the same time sucking the blood from its
body, as the hollow of the mandibles communicates
with the mouth. Observe the spiracles .along the
sides of the abdomen ; these are used but little if at
all during the larval stage. The last pair of spiracles
are just beneath the tip of the last abdominal seg-
ment ; it is through these that the larva obtains its
supply of air.

Preserve one or more specimens in alcohol and
put them with the predaceous diving-beetles in your
collection.

The Water-scavenger Beetles {School Work). —
The water-scavenger beetles are common in quiet
pools, where they may be found swimming through
the water or crawling among the plants growing on
the bottom. If the collecting trip outlined on page

POND LIFE.

Fig. gS. — A water scaven-
ger beetle.

115, was a successful one, there are probably speci-
mens of these beetles in your aquaria ; but if you do
not already have specimens, go
into the field again and sweep
plants growing beneath water
with an insect net until you get
specimens.

Fig. 98 represents the largest
of our water-scavenger beetles ;
but we have in this country man}'
smaller species, and the majority
of them measure less than one
half inch in length.

The members of this family
differ in habits from other com-
mon aquatic beetles by the fact
that when they rest at the surface of the water they
keep the head end of the body uppermost. The
most easily observed difference in structure is in the
form of the antennse. These are club-shaped (Fig.
^^ 99) ; they are inserted immediately

^jO^^^^^^ in front of the eyes, and are usually
Q^ concealed beneath the eyes and pro-

N> thorax. Care must be taken not to

■ ^' mistake the very long maxillary palpi

for the antennae; these palpi arise from the side of
the mouth, and are only three- or four-jointed.

Select one of the larger species of water-scavenger
beetles and make a study of living specimens in an
aquarium, and of the structure of pinned specimens.

Study especially the method in which they obtain
air, and the manner in which they carry it when be-
neath the water.

Q

122 INSECT LIFE.

Observe their food habits. These beetles are sup-
posed to live chiefly upon decaying vegetation in the
water, but some of them have been known to feed
upon other insects and upon snails.

Arrange your pinned specimens under a copy of
the following label and immediately after the Dyti-
scidae : —

Family Hydrophilid.^ (Hyd-ro-phil'i-dae).
The Water-scavenger Beetles.

The members of this family form cases in which
the eggs are laid. Fig. lOO represents one of these
cases attached to a leaf. If you find
similar cases preserve them in your col-
lection with the beetles of this family, or
place them in an aquarium and try to
rear the young.

The Larvae of Water-scavenger
Beetles {Field and School Work). — The
larvas of the water -scavenger beetles
live beneath the surface in ponds inhabi-
ted by the adults, and may be captured by a sweep-
ing net in the same wa}^ as the adults. As they thrive
well in aquaria, their habits can be easily observed.
They bear some resemblance to water-tigers (Fig.
97), but they can be distinguished from them by
the following characters: the body is more plump;
the mandibles are not so slender, are not tubular, and
are usually furnished with one or more teeth ; and
the abdomen, in all the species that I have studied, is
furnished with backward-projecting spines or with
filaments, or with both.

Study the habits of these larvas. Observe the

-fT

POM) LIFE. 123

method of respiration, the ways of locomotion, and
the nature of their food. Offer them both living and
dead insects, snails, and meat. Preserve one or more
larvas in alcohol, and put them with the adults in your
collection.

The Back-swimmers {ScJiool Work). — When the
different kinds of insects that you have collected by
sweeping submerged plants have been placed in
aquaria, you will be able to recognize the back-swim-
mers by the fact that they swim up-
side down. One of these insects is
represented back uppermost by Fig.

lOI.

The back-swimmers love to float ^^°' ^°^'

at the surface of the water. Here they hang motion-
less, back downward in a slanting position, with the
tip of the abdomen at the surface, and the head con-
siderably submerged. When in this position the
fore and middle legs are slightly bent, so that the
claws are at the surface, as if the insect were clinging
to the ceiling of its room ; while the longer, oar-like
hind legs are nearly straight, and project down into
the water somewhat ; here they are held in the posi-
tion of the beginning of a stroke, as if the creature
were waiting for the word go ; and they can go quick-
ly and rapidly like an expert sculler. Often they
will swim to the bottom of the pond, where, clinging
to a stone or plant, they will rest quietly, apparently
as much at home as when at the surface.

In their journeys from one part of the aquarium
to another, they are forced to keep their oars in con-
stant motion. For these topsy-turvy creatures carry
a load which is so light that the moment they stop

J 24 INSECT LIFE.

rowing they fall upward. This load is a film of
air, which can be seen shining through their wings
like burnished silver. Knowing this, we can under-
stand how the back-swimmers can remain so long
at the bottom of the aquarium without strangling.
Occasionally these insects will float on the surface of
the water with the back uppermost; when in this
position they can leap into the air from the water
and take flight. It is necessary, therefore, to keep
aquaria containing them covered, in order to prevent
their escape.

Let us study these creatures more closely :

1. Kill two or three specimens by putting them
into a cyanide bottle. In handling back-swimmers
care must be taken or they will inflict painful stings
with their sharp and powerful beaks.

2. When those in the killing bottle are dead,, pin
them so that they can be handled conveniently. Put
the pin through the three-cornered piece on the mid-
dle of the back (the scutellum), so as not to fasten
the wings down.

3. Hold the insect back downward and note the
boat-shaped form of the body, the middle of the back
representing the keel.

4. Study the head and observe the following
parts : The eyes — these are very large, and each has
two large scallops in the outer (lateral) side. The
antennae — these are often so concealed that it is diffi-
cult to see them ; each is situated just behind that
scallop of the eye of the same side which is nearest
the mouth. The beak — this projects backw^ard be-
tween the legs. What insects already studied have
similar mouth-parts ? To what order do they belong ?

POND LIFE. 125

5. Study the legs and observe that the fore and
middle legs are furnished with claws, and are fitted
for clinging to plants and stones and for seizing prey,
while the hind legs are destitute of claws and are
fitted for swimming. Make a drawing of one of the
hind legs, also one of a fore or middle leg.

6. Study the wings. These are closely folded
over the back of the abdomen. The fore wings are
thick and heavy at the base, wiiile the tips are thinner
and overlap. This type of wing is found only in the
order Hemiptera or bugs. Carefully spread the fore
wings apart with a pin and observe the hind wings,
which are beneath them ; these are very thin and
transparent ; they are stiffened by a few stout veins,
and are folded lengthwise on the back of the abdo-
men ; in a recently killed specimen they can be
spread with a pin. Like most other pond insects
that we have studied, the back-swimmers can leave
the water and fly to some other pond if they do not
like their surroundings. They do not have this free-
dom, however, until they are grown up. Early in
the summer back-swimmers are found that have no
wings ; these are the young ones, the nymphs, on
which the wings have not yet grown. If you have
wingless specimens in your collection, label them
NyinpJis.

7. Study the belly side of the abdomen. Along
the middle line there is a prominent ridge which is
thickly clothed with hairs, and, on each side between
this ridge and the edge of the body there is a deep
furrow. Along the upper edge of the outside of this
furrow, and a short distance from the side of the
body, there is a fringe of long hairs. Wet a pin and

,26 INSECT LIFE.

with it carefully brush these hairs toward the side of
the body so as to uncover the furrow. When this is
done there can be seen on the sloping outer side of
the furrow a small hole in each of the segments of the
abdomen ; these are the spiracles or breathing holes.
Note that the ridge on the middle of the belly ends
behind in a sharp, projecting point ; and that on each
side the edge of the body bearing the fringe of hairs
also ends behind in a similar point, between which
and the tip of the abdomen there is quite a space.
This space serves as an opening to an air-chamber
between the wings and the abdomen.

8. Take from the aquarium two or three living
specimens and put them into a tumbler which is
nearly filled with water. Be careful not to be stung
while doing this.

9. While a specimen is resting quietly at the sur-
face of the water, study it with a lens. Make a draw-
ing showing the arrangement of the hairs on the
abdomen of the living specimen while in the water;
this arrangement is very different from that seen on
the pinned specimens already studied.

10. Observe, on the living specimen in the water,
the hole near the tip of the body through which the
air passes into the chambers beneath the fringes of
hairs and into the air-chamber between the wings and
the abdomen.

11. Study the pinned specimens again, and make
sure that you understand how the air can pass to
the chambers referred to in the preceding para-
graph.

12. On the pinned specimens study the first ab-
dominal segment on the belly side, and observe the

rOND LIFE.

127

little furrow on each side ; these are air-passages
extending between the chambers on the belly side
of the abdomen to that beneath the wings. (In
addition to the spiracles in the abdomen there are
spiracles in the thorax ; but as these are exceed-
ingly difificult to find, they will not be described
here.)

13. Observe living specimens in water and note
that they carry air among the hairs on the lower side
of the thorax, and in the spaces between the head
and prothorax and between the prothorax and the
mesothorax. In fact, a large part of the body is en-
veloped with air. But the most capacious air-cham-
bers are those inclosed by the fringes of hairs on the
belly side of the abdomen. It is to the buoyant ac-
tion of the air in these that the insect owes its pecul-
iar position in the water.

14. If you will watch with a lens living specimens
in a glass of water you will be able to see them force
the air out of the chambers beneath the fringes of hair,
using their hind legs for this purpose, and sometimes
an entire fringe will be lifted like a lid.

15. Watch living specimens as they rise to the
surface from the depths of the aquarium, and see
how they bump against the surface film.

16. Throw living flies into the water where the
back -swimmers are and see what the back -swim-
mers will do. If flies are abundant in the room,
observe the fate of those that come to drink from the
water.

17. Kill and pin several specimens of each species
of back-swimmers that you have collected, and ar-
range them in your collection under a copy of the

128 INSECT LIFE.

following label, and immediately after the water-
striders, for these insects also belong to the order
Hemiptera: —

Family Notonectid^ (No-to-nec'ti-dce).
The JSack-swiinmers.

An Essay on Back-swimmers {School IVork).-^
Write an account of what you have learned regard-
ing back-swimmers.

The Water-scorpions {Field a?id School Work). — ■'
Among the strange insects that live in ponds, but
come to the surface to obtain air, are the water-scor-
pions. These are not so com-
mon as the back- swimmers,
but as they are found in simi-
lar situations, there may be
specimens among those insects
in your aquaria collected by
sweeping the stems of sub-
merged plants. If not, search
for them in the
^^ 1^^ places whereback-
^^>wJHl/""^ swimmers are

^^■T found.
^^^■N| There are two

I ^^B I quite different
^r ^ kinds of water-
j scorpions in this

' country. In one

of these, called
Ncpa {Nc'pa), the bodv is flat and broad (Fig. 102) ; in
the other, called Raiiatra {Ran'a-tra), the body is long
and very slender (Fig. 103). In both, the hind end

POND LIFE.

129

of the body is furnished with a pair of long, slender,
horny appendages. Each of these is grooved on the
inner side, so that when they are held together they
form a tube through which air can be drawn. They
are represented in this position in the figure of Ncpa
and separate in that of Ratiatra.

Another interesting feature in the structure of
water-scorpions is the form of the fore legs. These
are fitted for grasping, and are of such form that
each is a complete organ by itself. The coxa is long
(in the case of Ranatra it is very long, so that it ap-
pears like a femur), and the femur is furnished with
a groove into which the tibia and tarsus fit like the
blade of a pocket-knife into the handle.

The resemblance in form to a scorpion is quite
striking in the case of Nepa (Fig. 102), but it is much
less so with Ranatra.

If you succeed in obtaining water-scorpions, keep
them in an aquarium and observe their habits. Study
their method of obtaining air, the way in which they
seize their prey, their modes of locomotion, and any
other features of their life history that you can observe.

The body of Ncpa is very flat, enabling the insect
to hide beneath stones and rubbish on the bottom of
ponds. With Ranatra the slender form of the body
and the dirt with which it is usually covered causes
the insect to resemble a dirty stick. This resem-
blance doubtless aids the insect greatly in the cap-
ture of its prey.

Adult water-scorpions have well-developed wings
which reach nearly to the end of the abdomen ; if
you find wingless individuals, or some with short
wing-pads, label them as nymphs.

ISO

INSECT LIFE.

The water-scorpions belong to the order Hemip-
tera. Place your pinned specimens under a copy of
the following label and immediately after the back-
swimmers : —

Family Nepid^e (Nep'i-dae).
T/ie Water-SCO fpions.

The Giant Water-bugs {Field and School Work).
— These are common insects in quiet ponds. Fig.
104 represents one of the
larger species, and Fig 105
a smaller one. All of them
can fly well in the adult
state, and some are frequent-
ly attracted to lights in great
numbers. These are known
in some parts
of the country
as " electric-
light bugs."

The mem-
bers of this
family are pre-
daceous. Their
fore legs are fig. 105.— Giant

fitted for Seiz- -^ter-bug.Z./M..

ing prey and resemble somewhat those of the water-
scorpions.

These insects can be easily kept in aquaria and
are good subjects for study. The outlines already
given for the study of other pond insects will afford
suggestions for work on these. A striking feature
in the life history of many of the giant water-bugs is

Fig. 104. — Giant water-bug,
Belostoma.

POND LIFE.

131

that the female fastens her eggs on
the top of her own back with a thin
layer of waterproof glue, which she
secretes for this purpose. Fig. 106
represents a species found in the far
West.

The pinned specimens in your
collection should be placed after the
water-scorpions under a copy of the
following label : —

Family Belostomid.k (Bel-os tom'i-dae).
TJie Giant Water-bugs.

Fig. 106.— Female,
with egjjs, Serphus.

ill

The Wrigglers {Field fF^r/^).— The wrigglers, or
wigglers," as they are more commonly called, are so

well known that
it is hardly neces-
sary to describe
their form that
they may be rec-
ognized. They
abound through-
out the warmer
part of the year in
ponds, in ditches
choked with fall-
en leaves, and in
pools in swampy
places. But usu-
ally they are most

Fig. 107. — A glass of water containing eggs, larva?, easily foimd \X\ eX-

and pupa, of mosquitoes. posed receptaclcs

of rain-water, in watering-troughs, and in other sim-

132 INSECT LIFE.

ilar places. There are two forms of them : one are
the larvae of mosquitoes, the other the pupae of the
same insects ; both are represented in Fig. 107.

Collect some wrigglers and put them in a glass
of water where you can observe them. This aquarium
should be kept covered when you are not studying
the insects in it.

The Larv/e of Mosquitoes {School Work). — In
the study of wrigglers begin with
the larvae ; these are of the form
shown at a in Fig. 108.

I. Note that when a larva is

at rest it hangs from the surface

with its head down ; several are

shown in this position in Fig. 107.

Fig. 108.— Mosquitoes. 2. Notc that when a larva is

«, larva; ^, pupa. disturbed it swims away with a

wriggling motion or quietly sinks toward the bottom.

3. Note that a larva can sink without any appar-
ent effort, while in order to regain the surface it is
forced to exert itself violently. Evidently the body
of the insect is heavier than water.

4. Let us see if we can discover the means by
which the larva keeps itself at the surface without
any effort, although the body is heavier than water.

Note that the triie hind end of the body, the
last abdominal segment, is not at the surface, but is
turned to one side, and that what really reaches the
surface is the end of a tube borne by the next-to-the-
last segment. This is the breathing-tube of the
larva. If the pupil has the use of a microscope, a
larva should be mounted on a glass slip and the
structure of this breathing-tube examined. It will

POND LIFE.

133

be found to bear at its hinder-end a rosette of five

platelike lobes ; this is shown at a in Fig. 109. This

rosette can be seen imperfectly with

a good lens. When a larva reaches

the surface it spreads out the rosette

upon the surface film, which buoys it

up in the same way that we have seen

a needle supported by this film (see

experiment i, page 104). The body fig. 109.— a, end of

, , , '1 ,7 , , , . breathing- tube of

of the larva is onl}' slightly heavier larva; *, breath-
than the water, and the buoyant effect *"^"'" ^"^ ^"^^'
of the surface film on the rosette is sufficient to over-
come this difference.

5. Consider the adaptations in structure to the
mode of life of this insect : The form of the respira-
tory tube enables it to rest at the surface of the water,
where it can get a supply of air, while the greater
weight of the fore end of the body causes it to hang
down into the water in a position suited to collect-
ing the minute particles of decaying vegetation scat-
tered through the water and upon which the insect
feeds. This position is also one that enables the in-
sect to start quickly on its wriggling journey when
alarmed.

6. If the student has the use of a microscope, it
will be well for him to make at this point a larger
and more detailed figure of a larva than that given
above, which was introduced merely to show the
general form of these insects in this stage.

The Pup/E of Mosquitoes {School Work).— The
larvae of mosquitoes develop rapidly, and after a few
molts change into club-shaped pupas, the head and
thorax being greatly enlarged in this stage. The

J 34 INSECT LIFE.

general form of the pupae is shown at b in Fig. io8.
Usually larvoe and pupas are found at the same
time, but if you have only larvae you can obtain
pup2e by keeping the larvas in water till they trans-
form.

1. Note and describe the differences between the
larvae and the pupae in the following respects : The
form of the body. The position of the insect when
at rest. The number and position of the breathing-
tubes. (The structure of a breathing-tube of a pupa,
as seen through a microscope, is shown at b in Fig.
109.)

2. Note that the pupae of mosquitoes are active,
swimming with a wriggling motion similar to that
of the larvae. It is a very unusual thing for insects
that have a complete metamorphosis (see page 35) to
be active in the pupa state.

3. Observe the wing-pads on the sides of the
thorax, also the leaflike appendages at the tail end of
the body, with which the insect swims.

4. If you have an opportunity to do so, study the
pupa with a microscope and make a large, detailed
drawing of it.

5. How does the pupa make use of the surface
film of water ?

The Emergence of Mosquitoes.— The pupa
state of mosquitoes lasts only a few days, then the
skin splits down the back, and the winged mosquito
carefully works itself out and cautiously balances
itself on the cast skin, using it as a raft, until its
wings are hardened so that it can fly away.

Collect many wrigglers, and, keeping them in
water, try to observe the emergence of the adult.

fOND LIFE. 13^

Adult Mosquitoes.— The form of mosquitoes is
very well known, but there are certain mosquitolike
insects that are liable to be mistaken for members of
this family. Mosquitoes differ from these, however,
in having a fringe of scalelike hairs on the margin of
the wing and also on each of the wing-veins. Fig.

Fig 1 10. — Wing of mosquito.

1 10 represents the wing of a mosquito as seen through
a microscope.

The sexes of mosquitoes can be distinguished by
the form of the antennas ; at m in Fig. in is repre-
sented the antenna of a male, and/
the antenna of a female.

It is only the females that sing
and bite ; the males are mute and
live on the juices of plants.

The eggs are laid side by side in
a boat-shaped mass on the surface of "* ^

. /-» r 1 • Fig. III. — Antennae

the water. One 01 these is repre- of mosquitoes. /«,
sented floating in Fig. 107. By col- '""'"•^' ^''""^"•
lecting a mass of this kind and putting it in a vessel
of water, the complete life history of these insects
can be observed.

Mosquitoes belong to the order of two-winged
insects or flies. Collect some adults and, if you have
very slender pins, pin them ; if not, mount them on

^^6 INSECT LIFE.

cardboard points. Copy the following labels, and
arrange your specimens under them : —

Order Diptera (Dip'te-ra).

The Flies.

Family Culicid/e (Cu-lic'i-dce).

The Mosquitoes.

Write up the life history of a mosquito, and place
specimens of the eggs, larvte, and pup^e in alcohol in
your collection with the adults.

INSECTS THAT REST AT THE BOTTOM.

As a rule, it is rather difficult to watch in the
field the habits of insects that live at the bottom of
ponds; but in most cases these insects can be kept
in aquaria, and there studied without difficulty.
By searching ponds or the quiet portions of streams,
some of these insects may be seen crawling over
the bottom, and can then be taken with the hand.
But a more rapid way of collecting them is by
sweeping the bottom of the pond and submerged
plants with an insect net. If the work outlined in
the preceding pages has been carried out, it is more
than probable that some of these insects are al-
ready in your aquaria. If not, seek for them in the
field.

The Habits of Water-boatmen {School Work). —
These are oval, gray and black, mottled bugs, usually
less than half an inch in length ; they occur in the
streams, ponds, and lakes of the whole United States.
The characteristic form and markings of these in-
sects are shown in Fig. 112. Very little difficulty
will be had in finding these insects in almost any lo-

POND LIUl.

137

cality where there are ponds of water, and they ai-e
very easily kept in aquaria.

1. Remove a few specimens from the aquarium,
and place them in a glass of water in the bottom of
which there is a layer of gravel

or small pebbles. If several
specimens are placed in the
glass, some of them may come to
rest near enough the side of the
glass so that they may be studied
with a lens.

2. Note that the favorite at-
titude of a water-boatman is

clinging to a pebble at the bottom of the aquarium
by the tips of the middle legs, with the fore legs
bent up under the head and the hind legs stretched
out sidewise like oars. This is a very different at-
titude from that assumed by their near relatives,
the back-swimmers.

3. Note that there is a thick layer of air covering
the entire belly or ventral side of the body. Some-
times this layer of air extends down the legs nearly
or quite to the ends of the coxae, and often there is a
strip of air on the outside of the outer edge of each
upper wing. The spaces between the head and pro-
thorax, the prothorax and mesothorax, and between
the wings and abdomen are also filled with air. These
masses of air can be seen when the insect bends its
body.

4. By watching these insects carefully, you will
be able to see that sometimes one will lift its wings
slightly, thus drawing the air from the ventral side
of the body up under the wings ; and, on the other

138

INSECT LIFE.

hand, they frequently rub their hind legs down their
backs, thus forcing the air from under the wings to
the ventral surface of the body.

5. Note that while a water-boatman is resting
near the bottom of the aquarium, it frequently moves
its oarlike hind legs backward with a quick sweeping
motion, causing a current of water to flow over the
layer of air on the ventral side of the body.

Although the water-boatmen breathe air, which
they carry with them in a way very similar to that
of the back-swimmers, they are able to remain under
water without going to the surface to renew the sup-
ply of air for a very long period. This, I think, is
explained by the fact that the air on the lower side
of the body and along the outer edge of the wing-
covers is in direct contact with the water, so that it
can be purified by the air that is mixed with the
water. And probably it is to insure this purification
of the layer of air that the insect causes a current of
water to flow over it by the sweeping motion of its
hind legs. This also explains the reason for forcing
the air out from under the wings and drawing it
back again.

Sometimes, however, the insects dart to the sur-
face and return to the bottom as if going after a fresh
supply of air ; but the movement is so rapid and the
stay at the surface is so short that I have been unable
to determine the manner of taking the air.

6. Observe the mode of life of these insects as
completely as possible, and write an account of them.

The Structure of Water-boatmen {School
Work). — Kill and pin some specimens, and study
their structure.

POND LIFE. 139

1. Note that the head overlaps the prothorax in-
stead of being inserted in it, as is usually the case
with insects.

2. Observe the very large, three-cornered eyes.
The antennae are very small, and are concealed under
the backward-projecting edge of the side of the head.

3. Observe the lower part of the front of the
head ; it tapers to a blunt point, but it is not pro-
longed into a slender beak, as is usual with bugs ;
near the tip of the head there is a small opening,
through which the sucking mouth-parts are pushed
when in use.

4. The prothorax is conspicuous above, and is
marked by transverse stripes ; on the sides it is very
short, and below it is almost completely covered by
the head; this brings the fore legs very near to the
mouth.

5. Make a drawing of one of the fore legs : note
that the tarsus consists of a single segment, is scoop-
like in form, and bears a comblike fringe of bristles.

6. Make a drawing of a middle leg, and note the
very long, slender tarsal claws. What is the use of
these claws?

7. Make a drawing of a hind leg. What are these
legs fitted for?

8. Study the lower side of the abdomen of sev-
eral specimens. In the females the segments are of
the usual form, but in the males some of them, and
especially the last four, are very unsymmetrical,
being, upon one side, broken into irregular-shaped
fragments. The cause of this is not known.

9. Indicate by labels the sexes of your pinned
specimens.

I40

INSECT LIFE.

lo. Place the pinned specimens in your collection

with the Hemiptera under a copy of the following

label :—

Family CoRisin.E (Co-ris'i-dte).

The Water-boatmen.

The Nymphs of Damsel-flies {Field Work).—
The nymphs of damsel-flies are truly aquatic, having
gill-like organs which enable them to live in water
without coming to the surface from
time to time for a supply of air.
They may be found in those ponds
or streams about which the adults
fly, and are most abundant among
the stems of submerged plants. Fig.
113 will enable you to recognize
these insects when found.

Collect specimens of these nymphs
and place them in aquaria for study.
The Habits and Structure
of the Nymphs of Damsel-flies
{School Work). — The nymphs of dam-
sel-flies are easily reared in aquaria
in which the water is kept pure by
growing plants. Frequently tiny
ones will appear in such aquaria from eggs that were
in the stems of the plants when they were collected.
In such cases it is easy to watch the entire life
history of the insect after it leaves the t^g.

We will not outline such a study, for the pupil
who has made the observations on pond life already
indicated will be able to direct his own studies ; and
independent original observations are much more

Fig. 113.— Nymph of
damsel-fly.

POND LIFE.

141

enjoyable than prescribed work. We will, however,
explain two striking- peculiarities in the structure of
these insects :

1. Remove the nymph from the water and exam-
ine its mouth-parts. The lower side of the head will
be seen to be covered by a broad flap ; this is the
greatly developed lower lip or labium, and is termed
in these insects the mask. With a pin lift the end of
the mask away from the head, and observe that it is
very long and is hinged in such a way that it can be
pushed out a considerable distance in front of the
head. Note also that it is furnished with hooks at
the end. This is the organ by which the nymph
seizes its prey. Try to observe the nymphs in your
aquarium catch other insects.

A similar organ is possessed by the nymphs of
dragon-flies, and is represented in Fig. 115.

2. Observe the leaflike organs at the hind end
of the body. These are the tracheal gills,
the organs by means of which the insect
breathes during its life in the water. Fig.
1 14 represents a tracheal gill of a damsel-fly
greatly enlarged. These organs are called
tracheal gills because the tracheae or air-
vessels extend into them, and the air con-
tained in the tracheae is purified by the water
(or rather by the air in the water) that bathes
the gills. While with true gills, as those of
fishes and lobsters, etc., the gill contains vessels car-
rying blood to be purffied.

3. Preserve specimens of nymphs of damsel-flies
in alcohol and put them in your collection with the
adults.

1^2 INSECT LIFE.

4. Write an account of what you have learned
about these insects.

The Habits and Structukk of the Nvmphs
OF Dragon-flies {Field and School ]Vork). — The
nymphs of dragon-fiies are found in the same situa-
tions as those of damsel-flies ; they are also found
crawling over the bottoms of ponds and streams
where there are no plants growing. They vary
greatly in form, some being slender while others are
very broad. They resemble the nymphs of damsel-
flies in having a mask and in their use of this organ ;
but they differ in lacking the external tracheal gills.
Fig. 115 represents one of these nymphs.

Collect specimens of these nymphs and place
them in aquaria for study. Also preserve some in

alcohol in your collec-
tion with the adult
dragon -flies. When
collecting these, search
for cast skins along
the shores of the pond or stream. Preserve speci-
mens of the cast skins in your collection.

We will call attention to only one feature in the
structure and habits of these creatures, leaving the
pupil to discover other things for himself :

The nymphs of dragon-flies possess tracheal gills
of very unusual form. These are situated within the
body, and consist of a large number of tracheae rami-
fying in the walls of the hind part of the intestine
— the rectum. The nymph draws water into this
part of the intestine through the opening at the
hind end of the body ; and this water, bathing the
walls of the rectum, purifies the air in the tracheae

POND LIFE. 143

in the same way that the air in the tracheae of an
ordinary tracheal gill is purified. By watching a
living specimen it can be seen to alternately draw in
the water and force it out again.

This arrangement serves as an organ of locomo-
tion as well as an organ of respiration. For the
insect, by suddenly forcing out the water from the
rectum, can cause itself to shoot forward. The jet
of water forced out from the rectum when the insect
jumps forward is most easily seen when the insect is
on the bottom of the aquarium ; in such a case the
fine dirt will be disturbed by it for a considerable
distance back of the insect.

If you can find a large number of nymphs of
dragon-fiies, do so, and, keeping them in aquaria, try
to observe the emergence of the adult. Of this
Tennyson wrote :

To-day I saw the dragon-fly
Come from the wells where he did lie,
An inner impulse rent the veil
Of his old husk ; from head to tail
Came out clear plates of sapphire mail.
He dried his wings : like gauze they grew,
Through crofts and pastures wet with dew
A living flash of light he flew.

CHAPTER V.

BROOK LIFE.

N a deep ravine, where a hill stream
tumbles down a stairway of rocks, is
one of our favorite resorts on Satur-
days. A dense forest growth covers
the sides of the ravine, and shuts out
all the world besides ; but at midday,
when the sun shines brightly, the light
streams down through the narrow
opening above the creek. This is the
time to watch the ways of the crea-
tures clinging to the rocks in the
rapids, or living in the quiet pools below. Many a
holiday have we waded up this stream, bottles and
lens in hand, coaxing Nature to yield up some of her
secrets.

Here we have watched the caddice-worms drag
their log houses over the bottoms of the pools ; here
the brinks of the falls bear great patches of a living
carpet of wriggling black-f^y larvas ; and here we
discovered how the net-winged midges leave the
water, unfold their wings, and take flight. It is a
rich collecting field ; the cool, pure water of the
brook and the rush of the torrents affording a home
144

BROOK LIFE. I45

for many creatures that can not live in the warmer
and more quiet streams of the valley below.

In the following- pages are mentioned some of
the insects that may be found in similar streams —
that is, in streams flowing rapidly over stones. Most
of these insects occur rarely or not at all in quiet,
sluggish streams, flowing over sandy bottoms, through
level stretches of country. In such streams are found
the insects described in the chapter on Pond Life.

In our hill stream, too, there occur many of the
pond insects, for during its course there are quiet
bays and broad, still waters, which seem perfectly
suited to their needs.

Little brook, sing to me :

Sing about a bumblebee
That tumbled from a lily-bell, and grumbled mumblingly

Because he wet the film

Of his wings, and had to swim.
While the water-bugs raced round and laughed at him !

Little brook, sing a song

Of a leaf that sailed along
Down the golden-braided center of your current swift and strong,

And a dragon-fly that lit

On the tilting rim of it,
And rode away and wasn't scared a bit.

James Whitconib Riley.*

INSECTS THAT LIVE BENEATH STONES IN RAPIDS.

There is no collecting field that is more certain to
yield returns than the bed of a rapidly flowing
stream of pure water. Lift the stones from such a

* From Old-fashioned Roses, by permission of the Bowen-Merrill Co.

1^6 INSECT LIFE.

stream at any season of the year and you will find
nymphs and larvas of various kinds clinging to their
lower surface. If before lifting the stones you will
place a net in the stream just below them, other in-
sects that live beneath the stones will be swept into
it by the current.

A great variety of insects live in such places, the
kinds differing in different localities. But there are
certain families that are almost sure to be represented
in any rapidly flowing stream ; they are the stone-
flies, the May-flies, and the caddice-worms. These
and a few others are described below.

Most of these insects are not easily kept in aquaria
without running water. But if you can place an aqua-
rium under a faucet, and keep the water from over-
flowing by the use of a constant-level siphon (see
page 331), you may be able to preserve living speci-
mens for study.

If you are unable to do this, study the insects as
well as you can in the field, and bring back speci-
mens for your collection and for a study of their
structure.

The Nymphs of Stoxe-flies {Field and School
]]Wk). — In most localities the insects that occur in
greatest numbers on the lower side of stones in the
beds of streams are the nymphs of stone-flies, and it
was probably this fact that suggested their common
name. Usually the first stone lifted from a riff will
be found to bear several of these insects clinging to
it, or scurrying over its surface in their efforts to
escape. When at rest the very flat body is closely
applied to the stone, while the legs, antermas, and
caudal seta; radiate from it on the surface of the

HROOK LIFE.

147

Stone. In our common forms there is a tuft of hair-
like tracheal gills just behind the base of each leg,
and the more mature individuals have conspicuous
wing-pads (Fig. 116). These general characteristics
will enable the pupil to recognize
these insects. Specimens should
be collected and taken to school
for a more careful study of their
structure. Look also for empty
nymph skins ; these will be found
clinging to stones and other ob-
jects on the shores of the stream,
where they were left when the
adults emerged.

Pin the empty nymph skins
and preserve the nymphs in al-
cohol. Put both in your collec-
tion with the adult stone-flies (see
page 103).

In the study of the structure
of these insects note the follow-
ing : The nymphs resemble the adults to a consid-
erable degree, except that they lack wings. The
order Plccoptcra, or stone-flies, is a good example
of those orders, the members of which undergo an
incomplete metamorphosis. The body is greatly
flattened ; in this way the insect is well fitted for
creeping under stones. The legs are flattened and
fringed with hairs, fitting the insect for swimming as
well as for creeping. The tarsi are each furnished
with tzvo claws. The organs of special sense are well
developed, there being large compound eyes, three
simple eyes, and long antennas. The moutli is fur-

FiG. 116. — Nymph of
stone-fly.

148

INSECT LIP^E.

nished with strong, toothed mandibles (it is some-
times necessary to cut away the upper lip in order
to see them well), and the caudal end of the body is
furnished with two large setae. The number and
position of the tufts of tracheal gills differ in different
species.

The nymphs of stone-ffies are carnivorous.
The Nymphs of May-flies {Field and School
Work). — These are also found beneath stones in the
beds of rapidly flowing streams, but they also oc-
cur in many other situations. Some live in the
banks of streams, where they excavate burrows for
shelter ; others live in slowly moving waters and
conceal themselves by covering the body with mud ;
and still others swim among water plants. But in
regions where there are rapidly flowing streams,
those that live under stones will be most easily
found.

As a rule, the body is not flattened to so great an
extent as with the nymphs of stone-flies ; the tracheal
gills are usually more or less platelike in form, al-
though sometimes they are threadlike and
tufted ; and the tarsi end in a single claw.
Fig. 117 represents one of our most com-
mon species.

Study the structure of a nymph, and
compare it with that of the nymph of a
stone-fly.

Preserve specimens in alcohol, and put
^y^P^^ them in your collection with the adult May-
flies (see page loi).
The Caddice-WORMS {Field and School Work). —
When the writer was a lad, before he had heard of

BROOK LIFE. 14^

Nature study — before the study of insects except as
a part of zoology was taught in any school in this
country — he began his study of caddice-worms. It
was not a thorough study — in fact, he would have
been surprised to have heard it called study at all.
To him it was fun, after a long tussle with a hard
Latin lesson, to run over the long bridge across the
river and on to the swamp near the lake where the
Azaleas blossomed, and to lie face down on the bank
of a stream and watch the curious worms that had
tiny log houses about their bodies.

It was his first introduction to a field of study
that has since happily occupied the greater part of
his time for several decades. Probably for this rea-
son he always expe-
riences a thrill of
pleasure when he is

permitted to intro- ^'*^" "^"

duce these little architects to other Nature-loving
youngsters.

This was a sluggish stream, and the caddice-
worms found there built cases of fragments of partly
decayed wood, like that shown in Fig. 118. Later,
in another quiet stream where grass was growing in
the water, there were found other cad-
dice-worms, which built cases having a
still greater resemblance to log houses.
These cases were composed of tiny lengths
of grass laid crosswise (Fig. 119). TheyQ *^
no. 119. ^^^ rough-appearing structures, but withinQ;: ^*
they are smooth and lined with silk — an excellent^ **•
protection to the soft-bodied larvae that occupy them. ^^
Caddice-worms, like either of these described

■u

I50

INSECT LIFE.

above, can be kept in aquaria, and are excellent sub-
jects for study.

In swiftly flowing- streams, and especially in those
in which the water is cool, there may be found many
other kinds. Several of these build cases of small
stones or grains of sand. Some of the cases are very
regular in form ; others consist of a central tube with
large stones fastened on two sides of it (Fig. 120);

It •

Fig. 120. Fig. 121. Fig. 122.

and one kind, built of fine sand, is coiled so as to
resemble the shell of a snail (Fig. 121).

In all of these the material of which the case is
made is fastened together by silk, w^hich the larvas
spin from the mouth in the same manner as caterpil-
lars. In some species the case is composed entirely
of silk. Fig. 122 represents the form of such a case
made by a larva that lives among eel-grass in a lake.

Before transforming to pupas, the caddicc-worms
partly close their cases so as to keep out intruders,
but openings are left for the inflow of water for
breathing.

The adults are known as caddice-flies ; they are
mothlike insects, which are often attracted to lights
at night. Fig. 68, page 79, represents one of them.

Collect as many kinds of caddice-worms as possi-
ble. Keep alive some of those that will live in
aquaria, and study their habits.

Remove some from their cases, and study their

BROOK LIFE.

51

structure. Note especially the following : The great
length of the legs, which enables the larva to pull
itself along without exposing much of its body ; the
firmer covering of the fore part of the body which
is exposed while the insect is walking ; the softer
texture and paler color of the protected parts of the
body ; the number, form, and position of the tracheal
gills ; and the hooks at the hind end of the body by
which the larva holds itself within its case.

Preserve larvas with their cases in alcohol, and
mount empty cases on cards. Try to rear pup^e and
adults from larvae kept in aquaria.

Place specimens of larvae, cases, pupa3, and adults
in your collection under a copy of the following

label :—

Order Trichoptera (Tri-chop'te-ra).

The Caddice-flies or Caddice-worms.

Write an account of your observations on these
insects, and illustrate it with sketches of their cases.

The Net-building Caddice-worms {Field and
School Work). — In lifting stones from a stream where
the current flows swiftly, the collector often finds
attached to the lower side of the stones little masses
of pebbles which are fastened to each other and to
the larger stone by threads of silk. These are the
homes of the net-building caddice-worms.

Pull these rude habitations apart and the owners
will be found in more or less perfect tubes of silk.
Very little respect for the architectural skill of these
builders is commanded by their dwellings. But if
one looks a little farther something will be found
that is sure to excite admiration. The dweller with-

152

INSECT LIFE.

123. — Net of a net-building
caddice-worm,

in this rude retreat is a fisherman, and stretched be-
tween two stones near-by can be seen his net.

This is made of silk. It is usually funnel-shaped,
opening up-stream, and in the center of it there is a
portion composed of threads of silk extending in two
directions at right angles to each other, so as to form
meshes of surprising regu-
larity. It is as if a spider
had stretched a small web
in the water where the cur-
rent is swiftest (Fig. 123).

These nets occur in rap-
ids between stones, but in
many places they are to be
found in greater numbers
along the brinks of falls.
Here they are built upon the surface of the rock,
in the form of semi-elliptical cups, which are kept
distended by the current. Much of the coating of
dirt with which these rocks are clothed in summer
is due to its being caught in these nets.

It is usually difficult to procure specimens of these
nets for preservation ; sometimes, however, one can
be found attached to the surface of a single small
stone or to a piece of wood in such a way that it can
be removed from the water without injury to it.

Find some net-building caddice-worms and learn
all you can regarding their wavs ; collect specimens
for your collection and for study ; compare their
structure with that of other caddice-worms ; pre-
serve specimens of larvae in alcohol ; and dry, if pos-
sible, some of their nests and nets.
Write an account of these insects.

IJROOR LIFE.

53

Fig. 124. — A wa
ter-penny.

TiiK VVatkr-I'ENNIKS {I'ii/d /Fr;/-/-).- -These are
strange larvae, which are rarely recognized as insects
by the young collector. They are very flat, circular
in outline, and about iive sixteenths of
an inch in diameter. They are found
clinging to the lower surface of stones
in rapid streams. Fig. 124 represents
one greatly enlarged. They are larvae
of beetles of the genus PscpJicnus {Pse-
pJie'niis), and are
merely mentioned
here so that the stu-
dent of brook life may know what
they are.

The Dobson or Horned Co-
RYDALIS {Field Work). — If a net or
a wire screen be held with one
edge close to the bottom below
some stones lifted with a hoe or
garden rake, many of the insects
living under the stones will be
swept into the net or upon the
screen, and can thus be captured.
One of the insects that is often
caught in this way is the dobson,
the ugly creature represented by
Fig. 125.

This larva is well known in
many parts of the United States,
as it is used extensively by anglers
for bait, especially for bass, and in spite of its dis-
agreeable appearance it is in some respects very in-
teresting to students of Nature study.

Fig. 125. — The dobson.

154

INSECT LIFE.

It will not thrive in an ordinary aquarium, but it
can be kept alive in one through which there is a
current of well-aerated water flowing. If such an
aquarium is lacking, specimens can be kept alive on
damp sand or in a box with freshly cut grass, for
this is a truly amphibious species.

As this insect lives nearly three years in the
larval state, larvae can be found at any season of the
year. In the latter part of
May or early in June the
full-grown larvas leave the
water, and each makes a
cell under a stone or some
other object on or near
the bank of the stream.
Here the}^ soon change to
pupas. These are white
and have prominent wing-
pads. In about a month
after the larva leaves the
water the adult insect ap-
pears. Fig. 1 26 represents
the male, which has re-
markably long mandibles.
The female resembles the
male, except that the man-
dibles are comparatively
short. Soon after the
adults appear the eggs are
laid. These are attached to
stones or other objects overhanging the water ; they
are laid in blotchlike masses w'hich are chalk3'-white
in color, and measure from half an inch to nearly an

Fig. 126.— The adult dobson or
horned Corydalis, male.

BROOK LIFE.

155

inch in diameter. A single mass contains from two
thousand to three thousand eggs. When the larvas
hatch they at once find their way into the water,
where they remain until full grown.

The best time to study this insect is late in the
spring and early in the summer, for at this season all
stages of it can be found. Try to get larvas, pupae,
adults, and eggs, and preserve them in your collec-
tion under a copy of the following label : —
Order Neuroptera (Neu-rop'te-ra).
Family Sialid.b (Si-al'i-dae).

The adult dobson is known as the horned Cory-
dalis, its scientific name being Corydalis cornuta.

The Structure of the Dobson {School Work).—
Put a larva in a cyanide bottle one or two hours be-
fore it is needed for study, as it requires considerable
time to kill these insects.

1. Lay the specimen on its back and make a draw-
ing of the ventral surface.

2. Name the parts and appendages of the body
shown in this view. The long, tapering appendages
on the sides of the abdomen may be termed the
lateral filaments ; the tufts of hairlike appendages
near the bases of the lateral filaments are tracheal
gills, and at the hind end of the body there is a pair
oi prolegs. Each proleg is furnished with a pair of
claws.

Note that in addition to the tracheal gills this
larva has well-developed spiracles. Make a drawing
of a spiracle as seen through a lens. Note especially
the lid by which the opening of the spiracle is closed.
State the number of spiracles and the position of

156 INSECT LIFE.

each pair. Consider how well fitted this insect is
both for life in the water and on the land.

A more detailed account of the structure of this
larva is given in The Elements of Insect Anatomy,
by Comstock and Kellogg.

The Near Relatives of the Dobson or Cory-
DALis {Field Work). — In searching for the dobson the
pupil is apt to find certain other members of the
same family which live in similar situations. Some
of these resemble Corydalis very closely, except that
they are smaller when full grown and do not have
tufts of tracheal gills ; these belong to the genus
CJiaiiliodes {Chau-li' o-dcs). A still smaller larva which
is similar in form and also lacks tracheal gills is Sialis
{Si'a-lis) ; this differs from both of the preceding in
having at the hind end of the body a long, tapering
appendage instead of a pair of prolegs. Place any
specimens that you may get of either of these in your
collection under the family SialidcE (see page 155).

INSECTS THAT LIVE EXPOSED IN TORRENTS.

There are many insects that find in rapids places
best fitted for their existence, but most of these are
more or less protected from the rush of the water by
the fact that they live beneath stones. Some insects,
however, scorn any protection, but live exposed
where the water flows the swiftest ; two of these are
mentioned below.

The Black-flies {Field Work). — The larvae of the
black-flies should be sought in streams flowing down
steep descents. If present, they are easily found, for
they occur clustered together in large numbers, form-
ing a black coating over the rocks. They prefer the

RROOK lAVK.

IS7

Fig. 127.— Cocoon and
larva of a black-fly.

brinks of falls and places where the slanting bed-rock
is washed clean by a swift flow of water, but some-
times they cling to pieces of wood or small stones
that arc firmly fixed in the rapids.

When the larvas are fully grown they spin boot-
shaped cocoons within which the pupa state is passed ;
these are firmly fastened to the
rock upon which the larva} lived.
In Fig. 127 there are represented
a larva and a cocoon.

1. Find a cluster of larva: and
take notes on the following: The
way in which they keep their place
in the swift current. (It is the tail
end by which they are usually
fastened to rock.) Their method
of locomotion, and the action of the fan-shaped or-
gans attached to the head.

2. Collect larvse and cocoons and try to keep them
alive in water. These insects can not be reared in
aquaria unless they are placed under a jet of water,
but they can be kept alive several hours, thus giving
some opportunity for watching their habits in con-
finement.

3. Look for the eggs of the black-flies. These
are yellowish or brownish and occur in patches in
situations similar to those inhabited by the larvse.

4. Look also for adults. These occur in swarms,
hovering over the; brinks of falls and dashing back
and forth through the spray. Sometimes they may
be seen darting into the water and out again ; at such
times they are laying their eggs.

Fig. 128 represents one of these fiies somewhat

158

INSECT LIFE.

enlarged, and Fig. 129 represents an antenna much
more enlarged. The peculiar venation of the wings
is sufficient to distinguish black-
flies from all others.

The Black - flies {School
Work). — Prepare for your collec-
tion as complete a series as pos-

FlG. 128. ... r I ,Tf r

sible of the different stages of

, . . . , ^. , . Fig. 129.

these msects, pmnmg the Hies and preserving
the eggs, larvae, and cocoons with pupas in alcohol.
Place them with other Diptera under a copy of the
following label : —

Family Simuliid^ (Sim-u-H'i-das).
The Black-flies.

Watch living larvas in a glass of water and ob-
serve the following : The disklike sucker, fringed
with hooks at the caudal end of the body. The
fleshy proleg situated just back of the head ; this ends
in a sucker fringed with hooks. The thread of silk
spun from the mouth. The fan-shaped organs borne
by the head. And the three delicate, much-branched
tracheal gills, which are pushed out from between
the last two abdominal segments.

Write an account of what you have learned re-
garding black-flies, including a description of the
methods of locomotion of the larvae and the prob-
able method by which the larvae obtain their food.
It has been found by examining the stomachs of
these larvae that the}- feed on microscopic aquatic
plants and bits of tissue of larger plants.

The Net-winged Midges {Field and School Work).
— These insects occur in situations similar to those

BROOK LIFE.

159

inhabited by the black-flies, but as they are compara-
tively rare insects they are merely mentioned here.

In Fig. 130 a represents
a larva seen from above, b
a larva seen from below,
and c a side view of the
pupa.

As these are the strang-
est of all insect larvae they
should be carefully studied
if found. A full account of

... , Fig. 130. — Net-winged midges ; a,

their habits and transfor- larva, dorsal view ; i^, larva, ven-

, . • • . tral view ; c, puparium.

mations is given in our

Manual for the Study of Insects. They belong to

the order Diptera and to the family Blepharocerid^

(Bleph-a-ro-cer'i-dse).

INSECTS OF BROOKSIDES.

In the study of brook life the pupil will hardly
fail to observe many insects about the shores of the
streams. The presence of the greater part of them
in such situations is not due to the proximity of
water, but is largely a matter of chance. Any forest,
orchard, or roadside insect may be found near a
brook if its proper food occurs there. Some of these

insects are described in subsequent chapters.

Here mention is made of a few of those that

prefer the vicinity of water and are rarely

found elsewhere.

131. ^^^^ Shore-bugs {Field and School Work).

— These abound in the vicinity of streams and lakes

and upon damp soils. They are small bugs, of dark

colors with white or yellow markings, and with long

,5o INSECT LIFE.

antennae. Fig. 131 will aid in recognizing them. The
shore-bugs take flight quickly when disturbed, but
alight after flying a short distance ; some species dig
burrows and live for a part of the time beneath the
ground. Collect specimens and put them in your
collection under a copy of the following label:—
Family Saldid^ (Sal'di-dse).
The SJwre-bugs.

The ToAD-siiAPEi) B\m:.?> {Field and School Work).
— There is sometimes found on the margins of streams
or in marshes where the soil is moist a cu-
rious bug, which, on account of its short and
broad body and projecting eyes, reminds
one of a toad (Fig. 132). If you find speci-
mens of these, observe the color of the soil
' '^^ upon which they are found and compare it
with that of the insects, for this species exhibits con-
siderable variation in coloring, and its colors are usu-
ally protective.

The toad- shaped bugs belong to the order Hemip-
tera. Label your specimens as follows : —
Family Galgulid^e (Gal-gu'li-dae).
T/ic Toad-shaped Bugs.

The Pine-cone Willow-gall {Field and School
Work). — The wanderer by the brookside often sees
a crop of cones borne by willows, and if he is care-
less he is apt to pass them by, thinking that they, like
the cones of pines and spruces, contain the seeds of
the plant. But the observant student knows that the
seeds of willows are borne in catkins, which differ
greatly in shape from these conelike growths.

BROOK LIFE.

l6l

These cone-shaped objects belong to that class of
vegetable growths termed galls. There are very
many kinds of these ; and upon some plants, as oaks,
for example, they are very abundant.

Galls are produced by insects in this way. The
female gall-producing insect stings the plant and lays
an Ggg in the wound. It is believed that in some
cases there is deposited with the egg a drop of poison,
which causes the growth of the gall. But in other
cases the gall does not begin to develop until the
larva hatches from the egg and begins to feed upon
the tissue of the plant. Evidently if there is a poison
in such cases it must be secreted by the larva. The
explanation of why galls grow is not yet clear ; but
we know this much, that each species of gall-making
insect makes a par-
ticular kind of gall.
Hence one versed
in this subject can
tell by the form
and structure of a
gall what species
of insect produced
it. The gall serves
as a home and food
for the larva de-
veloped within it.
Let us return to
the pine-cone wil-
low-gall (Fig. 133).

This differs in Fig. i33.-The pme-cone w.llow-gall.

shape and in the manner of its growth from most
galls. (Other types of galls will be described in later

l62 INSECT LIFE.

chapters.) It is produced by a small gall-gnat, which
lays an egg in the tip of a branch of willow. A mag-
got hatches from this egg and lives in the heaut of
the bud, which ceases to grow in length ; but, strange-
ly enough, leaves continue to be developed, and they,
crowded together, form the cone-shaped gall.

Collect specimens of the pine-cone willow-gall
and, splitting them open in the middle, find the larvae
that produced them.

In early spring the adult gall-gnats can be reared
by keeping the galls in breeding cages.

There is a guest gall-gnat that laj's its eggs be-
tween the scales of the pine-cone willow-gall, and the
larvae hatched from these develop in this place.
Seek for specimens of these larvas, and in early spring
try to breed the adults. Both of these gall-gnats
pass the winter in the larval state within the galls.
The larvae can be found within the galls at any time
during the summer, fall, or winter; but in order to
breed the adults, it is best to leave the galls on the
plants till early spring.

There are several kinds of insects, among them
certain long-horned grasshoppers, that deposit their
eggs between the leaves of the pine-cone willow-gall ;
the young, however, leave the ^alls as soon as they
are hatched.

Gall-making species are found in several of the
orders of insects. The two gall-gnats mentioned
here belong to the order Diptera. Place specimens
in your collection with other Diptera under a copy
of the following label : —

Family Cecidomviid.i: (Cec-i-do-my-i'i-doe).
T/ie Gall-gnats.

BROOK LIFE. 1 63

The Alder-blight {Field aud School Work). — One
often finds on the trunks and branches of alders
growing on the margins of streams large patches of
snowy-white matter. These patches are composed of
many insects crowded together and covered with a
downy excretion. Such insects are known as woolly-
aphids. There are several kinds of common woolly-
aphids. That which lives on the alder is known as
the alder-blight, another kind living on beech trees is
called the beech-tree blight, and a third kind, infesting
apple trees, is the woolly-aphis-of-the-apple. All of
these secrete large quantities of honey-dew.

Each aphid has its beak inserted into the bark of
the infested tree. By cutting off a section of an in-
fested branch and putting it in a cyanide bottle, the
insects can be killed, and most of them will remain
clinging to the branch. It can then be pinned into
the collection. The aphids belong to the order
Hemiptera ; place specimens under the following

label :—

Family Aphidid.^ (A-phid'i-dce).

The PI ant-lice or Aphids {Aph'ids).

The Wanderer {Field and School Work). — The
name wanderer has been applied
to a butterfly (Fig. 134) that is
found only in limited localities, al-
though it occurs from Maine to
Florida and westward to Kansas.
It prefers the borders of streams
and marshy places where alder
grows; and now that its life history is known, this
fact is explained. The caterpillars of nearly all but-

FiG. 134.— The wanderer.

164 INSECT LIFE.

terflies feed on plants, but the larva of this species
is truly carnivorous, feeding on the woollj-aphids
known as the alder-blight.

If the alder-blight is common in your locality,
search colonies of it for the larvas of this butterfly.
They will be found burrowing through the downy
mass, and their paths will be marked by the remains
of their victims. They resemble grubs more than
ordinary caterpillars, and are more or less covered
with the white excretion of the plant-lice. Their
legs and prolegs are short and small, allowing the
body to be closely pressed to the bark of the branch.
By collecting these caterpillars and feeding them with
the alder-blight, the transformations of the butterfly
can be easily observed. If you do this, save speci-
mens of larvce, pupge, pupa skins, and adults for your
collection. This species should be labeled as fol-
lows : —

Order Lepidoptera (Lep-i-dop'te-ra).

The Moths, the Skippers, and the Butterflies.

Family Lyc^nid^ (Ly-can'i-dae).

The Gossamer-winged Butterflies.

The Grouse-locusts [Field ami School Work). —
There is a group of small locusts the members of
which are remarkable for the shape of
the pronotum. This projects back-
ward like a little roof over the wings,
Fig. I.V5. and often extends beyond ihe end of

A grouse-locust. -^

the abdomen (Fig. 135). With these
insects the fore wings are in the shape of small, rough
scales, the hind wings being protected by the pro-
notum.

BROOK I.IKE. 165

The grouse-locusts arc commonly found in low,
wet places and on the borders of streams. They
prefer the broad gravelly stretches where there is
little or no vegetation, the low banks that are swept
by the water when the streams are high. They vary
greatly in color, their color being usually similar to
that of the soil on which they live. They are very
active, and hence difificult to catch without the use
of a net. In studying these insects in the field note
especially the protective nature of their colors. Pre-
pare one or more specimens for your collection by
spreading the wings so as to show the relative size
of the fore and hind wings.
Label them as follows : —

Order Orthoptera (Or-thop'te-ra).

Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshoppers, am! Others.

Family Acridid.e (A-crid'i-d;i2).

The Locusts, or Short-horned Grasshoppers.

A\ orchard is an excellent place for
Nature study. Here live many kinds
of tinv creatures, each kind with its
own peculiar mode of life. Some have
comparatively simple life histories,
merely eating and growing and final-
ly laying eggs for another generation ;
but others undergo wonderful transfor-
mations, and still others exhibit an in-
stinct that seems much like reason. And
even those that appear to live the most
humdrum existence are well worthy of
careful study, for their lives are never as
simple as they seem at first sight.

By a study of orchard life there may
be learned also much that is of immediate
practical importance; some of the most
dreaded insect pests infest fruit trees. A
thorough knowledge of the ways of these
depredators enables us to plan successful-
ly methods of destro3'ing them, and thus
to prevent their ravages.
Knot^as?and To Carry on this study it is not neces-

the knot^ass g^j-y |-q q-q to a large orchard. Except in

beetle, (rastro- J tr^ tr> r

idea poiygoni. a city, almost every dwelling-house has

i66

Plate III. DANDELIONS AND A LOCUST.

ORCHARD LIFE. ^61

some fruit trees about it, and these are sure to be in-
fested by some of the insects described in this chap-
ter. And the boys and girls that live in cities can
find fruit trees with a little effort.

This chapter is restricted to insects infesting
fruit trees. Many other kinds of insects may be
found on grass and other herbage about orchards ;
some of these are described in the chapter on Road-
side Life.

Under the high-top sweeting,
Many a playmate came to share

The sports of our merry meeting:
Zigzag butterflies, many a pair.
Doubled and danced in the sunny air ;
The yellow wasp was a visitor there ;
The cricket chirped from his grassy lair;
Even the squirrel would sometimes dare
Look down upon us, with curious stare ;
The bees plied fearless their honeyed care
Almost beside us, nor seemed aware
Of human presence ; and when the glare
Of day was done, and the eve was fair.
The fireflies glimmered everywhere.
Like diamond-sparkles in beauty's hair,

In the boughs of the high-top sweeting.
The humming-bird, with his gem-bright eye.

Paused there to sip the clover.
Or whizzed like a rifle-bullet by ;
The katydid, with its rasping dry.
Made forever the same reply,
Which laughing voices would still deny;
And the beautiful four-winged dragon-fly
Darted among us, now low, now high,
And we sprang aside with a startled cry,
Fearing the fancied savagery

Of the harmless and playful rover.

l68 INSECT LIFE.

The flying grasshopper clacked his wings,

Like castanets gayly beating ;
The toad hopped by us, with jolting springs ;
The yellow spider that spins and swings
Swayed on its ladder of silken strings ;
The shy cicada, whose noon-voice rings
So piercing shrill that it almost stings
The sense of hearing, and all the things
Which the fervid northern summer brings —
The world that buzzes and crawls and sings —

Were friends of the high-top sweeting.

Elizabeth Akers:

INSECTS INFESTING FOLIAGE.

The Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar {Field and
School Work). — In early spring, as soon as the leaves
begin to expand, conspicuous webs may be found on
the branches of apple and other trees. The begin-
ning of such a web is represented in the upper part
of Fig. 137. These webs are the "tents" of the
apple-tree tent-caterpillar — an insect that is social
while in the caterpillar state. Each colony consists
of the larvse that have hatched from a cluster of eggs
deposited by a moth on a twig near the place where
the web is afterward built. Such a cluster of eggs is
represented above the web in the figure. Usually,
however, the tent is built much farther from the egg-
cluster than is shown here.

1. Search for egg-clusters on the twigs of apple
before the leaves appear ; they can be found at any
time during the winter or early spring.

2. If egg-clusters are found, examine them from

* From The High-top Sweeting, by permission of Messrs. Charles
Scribner's Sons.

ORCHARD LIFE.

169

day to day and ascertain the date of hatching of the
larvas.

3. If the larvas hatch before the leaf-buds open,
ascertain upon what the larvas feed at this time.

37. — The apple-tree tent-caterpillar, eggs, tent, larva, cocoons, and adult.

Upon what kinds of trees other than apple can these
be found ?

5. If possible, find a specimen in a convenient
place to study — where it can be examined daily. If
none is found near the school or the home of the
pupil, or near some street between the two, cut off a

[70

INSECT LIFE.

branch bearing a tent, and tie it to a branch of another
tree of the same kind in a convenient place.

6. Describe the position, form, and structure of
one of these tents. Of what is it made ? Where
does the substance of which it is made come from ?
How is the tent held in place? How is it increased
in size? Make a picture of a tent.

7. Describe one of the caterpillars that lives in
this tent (see page 325).

8. Upon what do the caterpillars feed ? At what
time of the day do they feed ? How far do they go
for their food ?

9. Are the paths over which the caterpillars go to
and from their food marked in any way ? If so, how ?

10. The way in which this pest is usually fought
is by destroying the caterpillars in their tents. Can
this be done better at one time of day than another?
If so, when ?

11. Search for the remains of the cluster of eggs
from which a colony of tent-caterpillars have hatched.
Carefully describe this cluster. Make a picture of it.
Preserve the specimen for your collection.

12. Put a branch of the kind of tree upon which
the caterpillars are feeding in water in a breeding
cage. Select a branch which bears many leaves.
Place fifteen or twenty caterpillars on this branch, in
order to keep them confined, and thus be able to
observe their transformations. Put fresh branches
in the cage when necessary to keep the larvae sup-
plied with food.

13. What do the caterpillars do when full grown?
Observe their actions in your breeding cage and in
the field.

ORCHARD LIFE.

71

14. Preserve some caterpillars in alcohol, and
put them in your collection near the cluster of
eggs.

15. Observe and describe the making of cocoons.
Note the date when the cocoons are made.

16. After you are familiar with the appearance of
the cocoons, look for them out of doors, and find out
where they are made.

17. Open a cocoon a few days after it is made,
and describe the pupa.

18. Preserve a pupa in alcohol, and put it next to
the larvae in your collection.

19. Watch for the appearance of the adult moths,
and thus determine the duration of the pupa state.

20. Preserve specimens of the cocoons and moths.
First kill the moths by putting them in the killing
bottle, then pin and spread them. When dry, take
them from the spreading board, and put them in the
collection with the other specimens illustrating the
transformations of the species. Try to get both sexes
of the moth; the females are larger than the males,
and have narrower antenna.

21. Make a picture of the moth.

22. Write an account of the life history of this
insect,

23. Arrange the specimens of the apple-tree tent-
caterpillar in your collection under a copy of the
following labels : —

Order Lepidoptera (Lep-i-dop'te-ra).

The Moths, the Skippers, and the Butterflies.

Family Lasiocampid/E (Las-i-o-cam'pi-dag).

The Lasiocampids [Las-i-o-cam'pids).

1^2 INSECT LIFE.

Note. — There are several species of tent-caterpillars in the United
States. The most common one east of the Rocky Mountains is the one
figured above — the apple-tree tent-caterpillar, Clisiocampa americana
(Clis-i-o-cam pa a-tiier-i-cd no). Another species that occurs in this region
is the tent-caterpillar-of-the-forest, Clisiocampa disstria (C dis stri-a).
The larva of this species differs in having a row of spots along the middle
of the back instead of a continuous, narrow line. This species will an-
swer just as well for the work outlined above as the apple-tree tent-
caterpillar.

The more common tent-caterpillars of the Pacific coast are Clisio-
campa calif or >nca (C. cal-i-for tii-ca), whose webs may be found on oaks
in March and April, and Clisiocampa constricta (C. con-stiic to), which in-
fests fruit trees later in the season. The caterpillars of the last-named
species do not make tents, although they live in colonies.

Other Leaf-eating Caterpillars {Field and
School Work). — There are many kinds of caterpillars
that feed on the foliage of other fruit trees, any one
of which will serve as a good subject for study. It
would take too much space to describe many of these
and to outline the method of study of them, as has
been done above for the tent-caterpillars. The fol-
lowing brief outline will be all that is necessary for
the pupils that have carefully studied several of the
insects already described : —

1. Collect larvcC found feeding on the foliage of
fruit trees. Try to get several specimens of each
kind, and note carefully upon what they were feed-
ing.

2. Put each kind of larva into a separate breeding
cage (see pages 327 to 330 for descriptions of breeding
cages), and feed each with leaves from the kind of
tree on which it was found. Keep the food fresh by
placing the stems in water, and renew it daily.

3. Make careful notes on the habits of the insects,
and describe each stage in their development.

ORCHARD LIFE.

173

4. Save specimens for your collection of anything
illustrating the habits of the species and specimens
of each of the stages in the development of the species.
Arrange these specimens in your collection, labeled
as fully as you can.

5. Write an account of what you have learned.
The following are some of the more common of

the orchard insects that feed on foliage : —

The yellow-necked apple-tree-worm, Datana minis-
tra {Da-ta'jia mi-nis'trd). — This caterpillar has the

^i- ^ .c^<:

Fig. 138. — The yellow-necked apple-tree-worm.

curious habit of assuming the attitude shown in Fig.
138. It feeds on forest trees as well as fruit trees.

It remains throughout the
winter in the pupa state.
Fig. 139 represents the
adult. There are sev-
eral closely allied species
which feed on forest trees.
The red -humped ap-
ple-worm, CEdeDiasia con-

^.

:r^

9

'^^^m^'

Fig. 139.

74

INSECT LIFE.

cinna {(Ed-e-ma'si-a con-cm'na). — The larva of the spe-
cies has a coral-red head, and there is a hump of
the same color on the back of the first abdominal

Fig. 140.— The red-humped apple-worm

seo-ment (Fig. 140). This species passes the winter
in the pupa state, and the adults appear in June and

July.

The measuring-worms.— There are many kinds of
these. Fig. 141 represents
one of them. They are
called measuring-worms on
account of the curious way
in which they walk. The
most important species that
infest fruit trees are known
as canker- worms. There
are two species of canker-worms, which are very
similar in appearance and habits. In both
the adult female is wingless (Fig. 142),
while the male (Fig. 143) has well-devel-
oped wings.

The white-marked tussock-moth, No-
tolophus leucostigma {No-tol' o-phus leti-co-
stig' md).—T\)\% caterpillar (Fig. 144) is

Fig. 141. — A measuring-worm.

Fig. 142.— Fe-
male canker-
worm.

1*^

■a MA

!I7

y]

li if

,1 ,

i:qLi4 ;j-|.-n3 r ^,

BVMil Mfir ^^>\v, :>. ,. ■ ■ • ■ ■ ilT

abo/l j.v jaisW'wrA .riqrrr/n-booW hiia'I jriT

.fiidioriquM ]•> >-i/j,-.' )i: /lo

.73q39iD fiinigiiV bns aqcis ^o so-/r>:i'. >i

arij no eb33V fflp^I ariT .nunw ^aviW v ..ij,I/i -iriT

■^ .8 .yil JIIVX 'jjsFH ualii ; |.-i a^cq o-iP.

592 .BVsM\<»"ft t^..^'. ' ^ ' ,ri(omwi)oa;;uT b3>!Tfirn-lb7/ -sriT
•iiil aril lol ,; .yr-1 lUVZ o)i.n

III

■ J \{jui-i->na yi-a con-cin'nd). — 1 i.v. ..w >« ... .
lies has a coral-red head, and there is a hu!
the same color on the back of the first abdomu

Plate VIII.— FOREST AND ORCHARD MOTHS.

4

segnjeni
in the ps.
July. 6

Sattuina cxitiosa. Fig. I,
cocoon with empty pupa

FIGURE

I, 2, and 3. The Peach-tree Borer,

male ; Fig. 2, female ; Fig. 3,

skin projecting from it.
The Eight-spotted Forester, Alypia octomaculata. The larva

feeds on grape and Virginia creeper.
The Morning Forester, Alypia niatuta.
The Pearl Wood-nymph, Euthisanotia uuio. The larva feeds

on the leaves of Euphorbia.
The Grape-vine Epimenis, Psychomorpha epinienis. The larva

feeds on the leaves of grape and Virginia creeper.
The Maia-moth, Hemilciua main. The larva feeds on the

leaves of oak.
The White-marked Tussock-moth, Notolophus Uucostignia.

See page 174 ; also Plate XVIII, Fig. 8.
10. The Well-marked Tussock-moth, AV^/^/Zn^j- definita. See

Plate XVIII, Fig. 7, for the larv^'.'"' ^l»^Cl<'S ^nai

t rees are known
„ .. ^j, (jaiil^er - worms. There
irs of cnr've'- worms, which are very
In both
iFig. 142),
IS well-devel-

tussock-moth, No-
-I'o-phus Icu-co- ^^°-
(Fig. 144) is ^^

Plate VIII.

ORCHARD LIFE.

175

common on both fruit and forest trees ; it is an ex-
ceedingly beautiful larva, being ornamented with
bright colors. The adult fe-
male is wingless, and lays her
eggs in a frothy mass on her
cocoon. The male (Fig. 145)
has well-developed wings.

The Plant - lice or
Aphids {Field and School
Work). — The plant-lice or
aphids are minute insects
which live by sucking the sap from the more tender
portions of plants. They usually occur clustered

Fig. 143. — Male canker-worm.

Fig. 144. — The white-marked tussock-moth, larva.

together in large numbers, and may be either winged
or wingless (Fig. 146). Many kinds of aphids can be
found in any orchard ; among the more common

Fig. 145.

Fig. 146.— a group of aphids.

1^6 INSECT LIFE.

species are the green ones that are very abundant
some years on the tips of branches of apple, and the
dark-colored ones that cause the leaves of peach and
cherry to curl, thus forming tubes within which they
live.

Find a colony of aphids in a convenient place
where they can be observed from day to day, take
notes on their habits and structure, and finally write
an account of what you have learned. The following
suggestions will aid you in this study : —

1. Observe the form of the body. Usually there
are two forms of individuals in a colon}- — one wing-
less, the other winged. Usually the greater num-
ber of individuals are wingless, and these never
develop wings. But as aphids increase in numbers
very rapidly, there is danger of the destruction of
the food-plant and a consequent destruction of the
colony. To avoid this danger, from time to time
individuals are born that develop wings. These fly
away, and start new colonies in fresh localities. The
nymphs of the winged form can be recognized by
their wing-pads.

2. Observe the reproduction of aphids. Both
the wingless and the winged forms referred to
in the preceding paragraph give birth to living
young. In some species the young aphid pro-
duced in this way is inclosed in a soft shell, but
usually not. The birth of the young aphids can be
easily seen with a hand lens at any time during
the warmer part of the year in almost any colony of
aphids.

3. The two forms of aphids that are being consid-
ered now consist each of a single sex, all of the indi-

ORCHARD LIFE. 1 77

viduals being females. As these females reproduce
without pairing, they are termed agamic {a-gavt'ic).
(The word agamic is from two Greek words, mean-
ing without marriage.) The two forms are designated
as the tvvigless agamic form and the winged agamic
form respectively ; the latter is often called the mi-
grating form.

4. Collect specimens of the following forms of the
species that you are studying, and preserve them in
alcohol: — Full-grown wingless agamic females,
nymphs of the wingless agamic form, winged agamic
females, and nymphs of the winged agamic form.

5. Generally on the setting in of cold weather, or
in some cases on the failure of nourishment, the
weather being still warm, there is produced a gen-
eration including individuals of both sexes. These
are known as the sexual forms. The males may be
either winged or wingless, but these true females
are always wingless. The sexual forms pair, and
the female produces one or more eggs. It is in
the ^g^ state that the species usually pass the win-
ter.

6. In the autumn watch for the appearance of the
sexual forms and for eggs.

7. Study the agamic forms, and note if there is a
pair of tubes on the back of the sixth abdominal seg-
ment. Sometimes these are represented by tubercles
and sometimes they are wanting.

8. It has been generally believed that through
these tubes or tubercles the sweet, transparent fluid,
which is known as honey-dew, is excreted. But it
has been recently discovered that the honey-dew
comes from the hind opening of the alimentary

78

INSECT LIFE.

canal.* Try to observe the excretion of honey-
dew.

9. Find a colony of aphids that is attended by
ants, and determine why the ants are there.

INSECTS THAT PREY UPON APHIDS.

The Aphis-lions {Field and School Work).— Look
among colonies of aphids for aphis-lions. These are
spindle-shaped larvae, with very long, slender, curved
jaws ; one of these larvas is represented on the lower
left leaf in Fig. 147. The aphis-lions are most easily

Fig. 147.— Eggs, larva, cocoon, and adult of Chrysopa.

found in those colonies of aphids that live within
curled leaves.

I. Remove a small, branch bearing a colony of

* M. Biirgen. Der Honigtau. Jenaische Zeitschrift, Bd. xxv (rSgi),
s. 387-428.

OkCIIARD LIFE. l^O

aphids and place it in water or wet sand in a breed-
ing cage. Tie a wad of cotton about the branch so
that aphis-lions can not easily escape from it.

2. Collect several aphis-lions and place them
among the aphids, and observe their habits. If the
aphids are destroyed before the aphis-lions get their
growth and spin cocoons, transfer the aphis-lions to
a new colony of aphids.

3. When the aphis-lions have made cocoons,
transfer the cocoons to a wide-mouthed bottle cov-
ered with netting, and leave them there till the
adults emerge. The adult aphis-lion is called a lace-
winged-fly.

4. Search for eggs of lace-winged-flies. They
can be found on the leaves of trees and bushes,
attached by long, slender stalks, as shown in the
figure.

5. Prepare a set of specimens illustrating the
transformations of lace-winged-flies or aphis-lions,
and label them as follows : —

Order Neuroptera (Neu-rop'te-ra).

Family Chrysopid^ (Chry-sop'i-dae).

The Lace-winged-flics or Aphis-lions.

The Lady-bugs {Field and School Work).—'Y\\Q
insects that are commonly called lady-bugs are small
beetles which are more or less nearly hemi-
spherical in form, and generally red or yellow iaj.
with black spots, or black, with white, red, I^Pt"
or yellow spots. Fig. 148 represents a com-
mon species. Lady-bugs, both in the adult '°' ^^ '
and larval states, feed on aphids, other small in^
sects, and the eggs of insects. The object of this

l3o INSECT LIFE.

lesson is to have the pupils observe the transforma-
tions of some common species of lady-bug.

1. Collect larvse of lady-bugs and place them in a

breeding cage with a colony of aphids, put-

fting only one kind in a cage. These larvae
can be found in the same situations as the
aphis-lions (see preceding lesson), and resem-
ble them somewhat in form. They are not
Fig. 149. gQ slender as the aphis-lions, and their jaws
are shorter. Fig. 149 represents a common species.
The breeding cage should be arranged and cared for
the same as for aphis-lions.

2. Ascertain the method in which lady-bugs pass
the pupa state; it is an unusual one. Fig. 150 rep-
resents a pupa.

§3. Prepare a set of specimens illustrating
the transformations of a species of lady-bug,
and place it with your Coleoptera, labeled as
Fig. 150. follows : —

Family Coccinellid/K (Coc-ci-nel'li-dcx).
The LaJy-hiigs.

INSECTS INFESTING FRUIT.

The CodliN-MOTH {Field and School IVorh). — The
most important pest of the apple is the " worm " that
is frequently found feeding within the
fruit near its core. This " worm " of
wormy apples is the larva of a tiny
moth, which is known as the codlin-
moth (Fig. 151). ^'^-'si.

I. Carefully examine a number of wormy apples
by cutting them to pieces, and write an account of

ORCHARD LIFE. l8l

the injury to them. Where does the larva enter the
fruit? Where is the injury chiefly done? Where
does the larva emerge from the fruit?

2. In what place is it probable that the eggs of
this insect are laid, judging by the observations that
you have made on the habits of the larvse?

3. Collect a large number of the larvas by remov-
ing them from wormy apples, and place them in a
tightly closed jelly-glass or other small cage. Put
some pieces of apple in the cage to serve as food.
Put also some small pieces of bark in the cage so
that the larvae may hide under them.

4. Describe the larva, and preserve some speci-
mens in alcohol.

5. Observe the larvae daily until they make their
cocoons, and then describe the cocoons. Note date
when the cocoons are made, so as to determine the
length of time spent by the insect in its cocoon.

6. Try to find similar cocoons under loose bark
on apple trees.

7. Empty cocoons of this insect are often found
under loose bark that has been pierced by a wood-
pecker in order to feed on the insects. Preserve
specimens of such pieces of bark and cocoons.

8. Scrape the loose bark from the trunk of an
apple tree, and then take a piece of wrapping paper
long enough to reach around the trunk and fold it so
as to make a band about three inches wide, and fasten
this band about the trunk. The band can be fastened
in place with a tack or with a cord. Look beneath
this band once a week, and collect the larvae and
pupae that you find there, keeping a record of the
number found each week.

13

Ig2 INSECT LIFE.

Note. — At one time fruit-growers fouglit the codlin-moth by collect-
ing the larvre and pupce in this way and destroying them. It has been
found, however, that a better way is to spray the apple trees just after
the blossoms fall with Paris-green-water. By this means the larvae are
poisoned before they cat their way into the young fruit.

9. Examine the cage containing cocoons daily in
order to determine the date of emergence of the
moths.

10. There is more than one generation of this in-
sect each year. Determine by breeding the number
of generations in your locality, and the method of
passing the winter.

11. Write an account of the life history of this
insect.

12. Prepare a set of specimens illustrating the
transformations of this species, place them with the
Lepidoptera in your collection, and label them as fol-
lows : —

Superfainily Tortricina (Tor-tri-ci'na).

The Tortricids {Tor'fri-cids).

Carpocapsa poinoiiella ( Car-po-cap'sa poni-o-iid'la).

T/ie Codlin-niotJi.

The Plum-CURCULIO {Field and School Work). —
The plum-curculio is the insect that stings immature
plums, laying eggs in them, from which hatch grubs,
that cause the fruit to fall prematurely.

This insect also infests the peach, nectarine, apri-
cot, and cherry. In the case of the cherry the in-
fested fruit does not fall, but ripens with the larvae
in it, the larvae being the well-known " worm " of
" wormy cherries."

The study of this insect should begin early in the
season, for the eggs are laid in the young fruit.

ORClIAKt) LIFE. 183

I. Search for the eggs in any of the fruits named
above. Their presence can be easily determined by
a peculiar mark made by the female when laying her
eggs. A hole is made through the skin of the fruit,
and into this hole the egg is put. The insect then
makes a crescent-shaped incision partly surrounding
the one containing the egg.

2. If the dot and crescent mark is found on the
fruit, search should be made for the adult insects.
These are most easily found early in the season, and
can be readily obtained by spreading a cloth under
an infested tree and jarring the tree. The adults
will drop to the ground feigning death. Specimens
should be pinned for your collection.

The adult is a beetle. It is about one fifth of an
inch in length, and is dark brown spotted with black,
yellow, and white. The wing-covers are rough, and
the head is prolonged into a snout, which is bent
back under the prothorax when at rest.

3. Preserve in alcohol specimens of fruit showing
the dot and crescent mark. Cherries will be most
available for this on account of their small size. Pre-
serve also specimens of the larvae.

4. Describe the way in which the larvae injure the
fruit.

5. Place infested fruit in a breeding cage on a
layer of earth ; determine method of passing the
pupa state ; preserve specimens of pupas ; and breed
the adult insect, so as to determine whether the in-
sects that you collected by jarring are really the
adult of this species.

6. Write an account of the habits and appearance
of this insect.

1 84

INSECT LIFE.

7. Label your specimens properly. The species
belongs to the order Coleoptera ; the family CuRCU-
LIONID/E (Cur-cu-li-on'i-das), The Ciirculios {Cur-cu' li-os)
or Weevils ; and the specific name of this curculio is
Conotrachehis nenuphar {Con-o-tra-che' lus nen'u-phor).

The Pomace-flies {Fielei and School Work). —
There are several species of small flies, the larvse of
which live in decaying fruit; and as these insects
are often abundant about pomace in cider-mills and
wineries, they have been termed pomace-flies.

Usually the larvas of these flies can be found in
decaying fruit in any orchard during the autumn.
And as they develop very rapidly, they are excellent
subjects for study. In the case of one species which
1 studied, the complete life cycle occupied only from
eleven to seventeen days.

1. Place in a breeding cage some decaying apples
or other fruit in which there are maggots. There
should be a layer of earth in the breeding cage, as
some species of pomace-flies pass the pupa state in
the ground.

2. Study the larva carefully and write a description
of it. Note especially the form of the first pair of
spiracles, which project near the head of the body,
as these present the most obvious specific distinctions
of the larvce of the different species. The form of
the caudal end of the body should be carefully studied
also. The skin of these larvas is so transparent that
the larger trachese, or breathing tubes, can be easily
seen through it with a low power of the microscope.
Make a drawing representing an entire larva, and
more detailed drawings representing each end of the
body.

ORCHARD LIFE.

185

3. When the larvae are full grown, determine
where the pupa state is passed, and make a drawing
of the puparium. The pupa state of most flies, in-
cluding the pomace-flies, is passed within the dried
skin of the larva. This dried skin, which serves the
purposes of a cocoon, is termed a puparium {pu-pa'-
ri-uni).

4. Put some puparia in a vial in order to deter-
mine the duration of the pupa state.

■5. When the adult flies emerge in your breeding
cage, save some specimens for your collection, and
put some living ones in a cage with decaying fruit
which is not infested. If you have more than one
species of pomace-flies, put the difTerent species in
different cages. Try to discover the eggs when they
are laid, and to determine the duration of each stage
of the insect.

6. Write an account of the pomace-flies that you
have studied.

7. Prepare a set of specimens for your collection.
The pomace-flies belong to the order Diptera, the
family Muscid.k (Mus'ci-dae), and to the genus Dro-
sophila {Dro-soph'i-hi).

CHAPTER VII.

FOREST LIFE,

DELIGHTFUL place for the study of in-
sect life, especially on a hot summer day,
is the margin of a forest. Here abound
innumerable species, exhibiting- the great-
est variety of habits. And the charm of
a holiday spent in the shade can be increased mani-
fold by watching and collecting them.

The best places for the study of forest insects are
the edges of woods, groves, isolated forest trees
growing in open fields or by roadsides, and fringes
of trees along the banks of streams. The depths of
dense forests are inhabited by a much smaller number
of kinds of insects than the places just named.

In the chapters on Pond Life, Brook Life, and
Orchard Life detailed directions have been given for
the study of the insects mentioned. But by the time
the student has reached this chapter he should have
become sufficiently familiar with the methods of
study to be able to plan his own investigations ;
hence the chief object of this chapter is to point out
subjects for study.

'Tis a woodland enchanted !
The great August noonlight,
1 86

FOREST LIFE. 1 8?

Throur^h myriad rifts slanted,

Leaf and bole thickly sprinkles

With flickering gold ;

There, in warm August gloaming.

With quick, silent brightenings,

From meadow-lands roaming.

The firefly twinkles

His fitful heat-lightnings. — Lowell.

THE LARGER LEAF-EATING CATERPILLARS.

The Giant Silkworfns.

The largest of the leaf-eating insects found on our
forest trees are the giant silkworms. There are
several species of these, and some of them can be
found in almost any of the inhabited portions of our
country.

These larvae frequently attract' attention on ac-
count of their large size, and the adults are favorites
with young collectors, being the most showy of
moths.

It is easy to rear these insects, beginning with
either eggs, larvae, or pup^e. The following general
directions for breeding will apply to any of the
species : —

E^^^ <^f ^^^^ Giant Silkzvornis. — The eggs of the
giant silkworm moths, being of large size, are fre-
quently found attached to leaves of the trees upon
which the larvae feed, but they are more often ob-
tained from moths kept in confinement. When a
female moth is captured it is usually only necessary
to place her in a breeding cage, and keep her alive
for a few days, in order to obtain fertile eggs. The
females of this family of moths can be recognized by

1 88 INSECT LIFE.

the fact that the antennas are not so large as are the
antennae of the males. In case a female moth is bred
from a cocoon, it is necessary that she should be al-
lowed to mate with a male in order that her eggs be
fertilized. It there be no males in the cage with her,
males can usually be obtained by leaving the cage
near an open window for a day or two. Frequently
under such conditions males will come to the cage
in large numbers. Having obtained eggs, it is neces-
sary to ascertain the food plant of the larva ; the
more common food plants of each of the species is
given below.

LarvcB of the Giant Silkivorjns.—T\\e^e larvae can
be found throughout the summer months, but they
are more frequently observed in the latter part of the
season, when they are nearly or quite full grown.
The collection of them is greatly facilitated by
searching beneath the trees on which they live for
the pellets of excrement which drop to the ground
from where they are feeding. In collecting them,
note carefully their food plant.

Cocoons of the Giant Silkworms. — The pupa state
of the giant silk-worms is passed within dense silken
cocoons, which have suggested their popular name.
All of our species pass the winter in this state, and
several of them fasten their cocoons to the branches
of trees; consequently it is during the winter months,
while the trees are bare, that the cocoons are most
often collected. Cocoons which are collected during
the winter should be stored in a cool place till spring,
so that the adults shall not emerge before it is possi-
ble to find food for the larvas that will hatch from
their eggs. Even when it is not desired to breed a

A KOREST AISLE.

FOREST LIFE. 1 89

second generation, it is undesirable to keep the
cocoons during the winter months in a warm, dry
room, for there is apt to be insufficient moisture in
the air of such a room for the perfect development
of the insects.

Classification of the Giant Silkivornis. — The giant
silkworms, being the larvae of moths, belong to the
order Lepidoptera. These moths constitute the family
Saturniid.e (Sat-ur-ni'i-da3). The scientific name of
each of the species mentioned below is given after
the popular name. The following are the more
common North American species : —

The Io-MOTH, Automeris io {Au-toui'c-ris i'o). —
This is the most common of the smaller species of
the family. The female is represented by Fig. 152.
In this sex the ground color of the fore wings is

The io-moth.

purplish red. The male differs greatly in appear-
ance, being somewhat smaller and of a deep yellow
color, but it can be easily recognized by its general
resemblance to the female in other respects.

IQO

INSECT LIFE.

The larva (Fig. 153) is one that the student should
learn to recognize in order that he may avoid han-
dling it, for it is armed with spines the prick of

which is venom-
ous. It is green,
with a broad
brown or reddish
- - -— I I III , stripe, edged be-

FiG. .53.-Larva of the io-moth. 1°^^ ^^'^^h whitC On

each side of the
abdomen ; the spines are tipped with black. It feeds
on the leaves of apple, cherry, willow, elm, currant,
and many other plants. The cocoon is thin ; it is
usually surrounded by leaves, and made near the
ground. The adults sometimes emerge in the au-
tumn, but usually not till spring.

The Polyphemus-moth, Telea polypJievms {Tc'le-a
pol-y-phe' mus). — This is a yellowish or brownish moth,
with a windowlike spot in each wing. There is a
gray band on the front margin of the fore wings, and
near the outer margin of both pairs of wings there is
a dusky band, edged without with pink; the fore
wings are crossed by a broken dusty or reddish line
near the base, edged within with white or pink. The
transparent spot on each wing is divided by a vein
and encircled by yellow and black rings. The wings
expand from five to six inches.

The larva (Fig. 154) feeds on oak, basswood, but-
ternut, elm, maple, apple, plum, and other trees.
When full grown, it measures three inches or more
in length. It is of a light green color, with an oblique
yellow line on each side of each abdominal segment
except the first and last ; the last segment is bordered

FOREST LIFE.

191

by a purplish brown V-shapcd mark. The tubercles
on the body arc small, of an orange color, with me-

Larva of the Polyphemus-moth.

tallic reflections. The cocoon (Fig-. 155) is dense and
usually inclosed in
a leaf. Sometimes
it is fastened to a
twig, but ordinari-
ly it falls to the
ground with the
leaves in the au-
tumn. Observe and

^csr^Tg

Fig. 155. — Cocoon of the Polyphemus-moth.

192

INSECT LIFE.

describe the method of exit of the adult from the
cocoon.

The Luna-moth, Tropcea hum {Tro-pce'a In' no). —
This is the most beautiful of the giant silkworm
moths. Its wings are of a delicate light green color,
with a purple-brown band on the front edge of the

Fig. 156. -The luna-moth.

fore wings, it can be easily recognized by Fig. 156.
The larva feeds on the leaves of walnut, hickory,

FORKST LIFE.

193

and other forest trees. It measures when full grown
about three inches in length. It is pale bluish
green, with a pearl-colored head. It has a pale yel-
low stripe along each side of the body, and a trans-
verse yellow line on the back between each two
abdominal segments. The cocoon resembles that of
the preceding species in form, but is very thin, con-
taining but little silk. It is found on the surface of
the ground beneath the trees on which the larvae
feed.

The Promethea-MOTH, Callosamia promcthea {Cal-
lo-sa'vii-a pro-me'tJie-d). — The female moth of this spe-
cies can be recognized by Fig. 157. The male differs

The Promethea-moth, female.

so greatly from the female that it is liable to be mis-
taken for a distinct species. It is blackish, with the
transverse lines very faint, and with the spot near
the center of each wing wanting or very faintly indi-

194

INSECT LIKE.

cated. The fore wings also differ markedly in shape
from those of the female, the apex of each being
much more distinctly sickle-shaped. We have ob-
tained forty males of this
>BftK. species in a single after-

^^j^P'' /,- , ^ noon by placing a cage

containing living females
near an open window.
They fly most in the lat-
ter part of the afternoon.
The larva when full-grown measures
two inches or more in length. It is of
a clear and pale bluish green color ;
the legs and oval shield are yellowish,
and the body is armed with longitudi-
nal rows of tubercles. The tubercles
are black, polished, wartlike elevations,
excepting two each on the second and
V \ third thoracic segments, which are
larger and rich coral-red, and one sim-
ilar in size to these, but of a yellow
color, on the eighth abdominal seg-
ment. This larva feeds on the leaves
of a large proportion of our common
fruit and forest trees, but we have
found it most frequently on wild cher-
ry and ash and on lilac. The cocoons
can be easily collected during the win-
ter from these trees. The cocoon is
Fig. i58.-Cocoon greatly elongated, and is inclosed in a

fastened to the branch by a band of
silk extending from the cocoon (Fig. 158). At the

FOREST LIFE.

195

upper end of the cocoon there is a conical, valve-
like arrangement, which allows the adult to emerge
without the necessity of making a hole through
the cocoon. Cut one of your cocoons in two cross-
wise so as to see this valve.

The Cecropia-MOTH, Samia cecropia {Sa'vii-a ce-
cro'pi-d). — This is the largest of our giant silkworm

tt^^

^mmmii

Fig. 159. — The Cecropia-moth.

moths, the wings expanding from five to six inches
and a half. It can be recognized by Fig. 159. The
larva is known to feed on at least fifty species of

196

INSECT LIFE.

plants, including apple, plum, and the more common
forest trees. When full grown it measures from
three to four inches in length, and is dull bluish green
in color. The body is armed with six rows of tuber-
cles, extending nearly its entire length, and there is
an additional short row on each side of the ventral
aspect of the first five segments following the head.
The tubercles on the second and third thoracic seg-
ments are larger than the others, and are coral red.
The other dorsal tubercles are yellow, excepting
those of the first thoracic and last abdominal seg-
ments, which, with the lateral tubercles, are blue ; all
are armed with black bristles. The cocoon (Fig.

Fig. 160. — Cocoon of the Cecropia-moth.

160) is securely fastened to a branch of the food
plant, where it is easily found during the winter
months.

The Ceanothus Silkworm, Saviia califomica. —
The Cecropia-moth is not found on the Pacific coast,
but its place is taken by a closely allied species simi-
lar in size and markings, but differing in having the
ground color of the wings reddish or dusky brown.
The larva feeds on CcanotJms ; the cocoon resembles

^.

Plate X.

Plate X.— SOME FOREST MOTHS.

The Imperial-moth, Basi/oiw iittpcrialis. The larva feeds on

hickory, butternut, and other forest trees. See page igy.
The lo-moth, Aittoiueris io. Male. See page 189 for figure

of the female.
The Rosy Dryocampa, Dryocampa rtthiciDiJa. The larva is

the green-striped maple-worm.
The Crinkled Flannel-moth, IMcgalopyge crispata. The larva

feeds on oak, elm, apple, and raspberry.

Til!

impe-ri

no abaot .^yifif sriTi, .^'«^^>VvJ<^w\ \uia\,\,'A r! iun-Ifiiiaqml oriT .i

.oiiim3l 3ri) lo
ei £vir,l 3f[l loviQ '{ao^ ariT .f;

in-.i.r//. -aaaig 3rij

£7iJ3l 3riT /,\vvAf. .riJor .IdnhD 9riT .;-

• '■ ■■' ■' no ebaal

FOREST LIFE.

197

that of the Cecropia-moth, except that the ends are
usually free from the branch to which the cocoon is
attached.

THE ROYAL-MOTHS.

The royal-moths constitute a family, the ClTHE-
RONIID.E (Cith-e-ro-ni'i-das), which is closely allied to
the giant silkworms. The species are of medium or
large size, and some of them are among the more
common forest insects. The larvae are armed with
horns or spines, of which those on the second thorac-
ic segment, and sometimes also those on the third,
are long and curved. These caterpillars eat the
leaves of forest trees, and go into the ground to
transform, which they do without making cocoons.
The rings of the pupa bear little notched ridges, the
teeth of which, together with some strong prickles at
the hind end of the body, assist it in forcing its way
upward out of the earth. The following are the
more common species : —

Larva of the imperial-moth.

The Imperiae-motii, Basiloua impcrialis {Bas-i-lo' na
im-pc-ri-a' lis). — The full-grown larva of this species

198

INSECT LIFE.

FOREST LIFE.

199

(Fig. 161) measures from three to four inches in
length. It feeds on hickory, butternut, and other
forest trees. The moth expands from four to five
inches and a half. It is sulphur-yellow, banded and
speckled with purplish brown.

The Regal-moth, atheroma rcgalis {Cith-c-ro' ni-a
re-ga'lis). — This is the largest and most magnificent of
the royal-moths (Fig. 162). The fore wings are olive-
colored, spotted with yellow, and with a more or less
distinctly marked band outside the middle olive.
The wings expand from four to six inches.

The larva, when full grown, measures from four
to five inches in length, and can be recognized by the
very long, spiny horns with which it is armed.
Those of the mesothorax and metathorax are much
longer than the others ; of these, there are four on
each segment ; the intermediate ones measure about
three fifths of an inch in length. The larva feeds on
hickory, walnut, and various other trees.

The Anisota Oak-worms.— There are several
smaller royal-moths belonging to the genus Anisota
{An-i'So'ta), the larvse
of which feed on oak.

Fig. \bi.^Anisota, male. FiG. 16^.— Anisota, female.

These larvae are more or less striped and armed with
spines. In the adult state the sexes differ greatly in

200 INSECT LIFE.

appearance. The male and female of a common spe-
cies are represented by Figs. 163 and 164.

THE LARGER NEST-BUILDING CATERPILLARS.

Many species of caterpillars make nests within
which they live. The greater number of these be-
long to the group described below as leaf-rollers — a
group composed chiefly of very small species. A
few of the larger caterpillars also make nests. The
more common species of these are the following : —

The Tent-caterpillars. — See page 172 for a
reference to these.

The Fall Web-WOR.M, Hyphantria cunea {Hy^
phan'tri-a cu'nc-a). — A very common sight in autumn
in all parts of our country is large, ugly webs inclos-
ing branches of fruit or forest trees. These webs are
especially common on apple and on ash. Each web
is the residence of a colony of larvas which have
hatched from a cluster of eggs laid on a leaf by a
snow-white moth. There is a variety of this moth in
which the fore wings are thickly studded with dark
brown specks. Every gradation exists between this
form and those that are spotless. The species win-
ters in the pupa state, and the moths emerge during
May or June. The webs made by this insect should
not be confounded with those made by the apple-tree
tent-caterpillar. The webs of the fall web-worm
are made in the autumn, and are much lighter in
texture, being extended over all of the leaves fed
upon by the colony.

The Scallop-shell Moth, Calocalpa nndulata
{Cal-o-cal'pa 7in-du-la'ta). — This is a pretty moth, with
its yellow wings crossed by so many fine, zigzag,

FOREST LIFE.

20 1

dark brown lines that it is hard to tell which of the
two is the ground color (Fig. 165). It lays its eggs
in a cluster on a leaf near the tip of a twig of cher-
ry, usually wild cherry.
The larvae make a snug
nest by fastening together
the leaves at the end of
the twig, and within this
nest (Fig. 166) they live,
adding new leaves to the
outside as more food is
needed. The leaves die
and become brown, and
thus render the nest con-
spicuous. The larvae are
black above, with four
white stripes, and flesh-
colored below. When full
grown they descend to
the ground to transform,
and pass the winter in the
pupa state.

Fig. 165.— The scallop-
shell moth.

Fig. 166. — Nest of larvse of the scallop-
shell moth, and eggs of moth enlarged.

The Mocha-stone Moths, Ichthyura {IcJi-tJiy-
u'ra). — There often occur on poplar and willow nests
of the form shown in Fig. 167. Each of these nests

202 INSECT LIFE.

contains a colony of larvae — the young of a moth of
the genus Ichthyura, of which there are several spe-

FiG. 167. — Eggs, larva, and nest of a mocha-stone moth.

cies in this country. The moths are brownish gray,
with the fore wings crossed by irregular whitish
lines (Fig. 168). It was these peculiar markings, re-
sembling somewhat those of a moss-agate, that sug-
gested the popular name given above. In the case
of our most common species, the
I^^^^^^^^^^B nests are found in midsummer
^^HH|H|n^V or later. The larvas, when
fl^H^^^^V young, feed within the nest, but
■ when they become large they

A leave the nest at night to feed on

Fig. 168. — A mocha-stone ,, , t^,

moth. Other leaves. 1 he cocoons are

made under leaves or other rub-
bish on the ground, and the adults do not emerge
until the following summer. These insects can be
easily bred by placing a nest in a breeding cage and
putting fresh branches of the food plant next to the
nest as often as necessar3^

The Silver-spotted Skipper, Epargyrms tityrus
{Ep-ar-gy' re-US tit'y-rns). — If one will lie on his back in

FOREST LIFE.

203

late July or in September under the low hanging
branches of some locust tree, and look so that the
leaves are clearly outlined against the sky, he may
see that the fernlike regularity of some of the com-
pound leaves is interrupted, several of the leaflets
being fastened together with silk so as to make a little
tube, which serves as a home for the builder. These
tubes are made in various ways ; sometimes the tips
of several pairs of opposite leaflets are brought to-
gether below the leaf-stalk and fastened with silk,
and the overlapping edges of the leaflets on each side
fastened in the same way ; thus is formed a roomy
chamber, within which the architect lives.

The remains of such a nest is represented in Fig.
169, When this specimen was collected late one

Fig. 169. — Nest of a larva of the silver-spotted skipper.

afternoon, the leaflets were all present on the stem ;
but when I went to photograph it the next morning
I found that the caterpillar during the night, having
nothing else to feed upon, had eaten the leaflets at
both ends of the nest.

These nests are made by the larva of the silver-
spotted skipper, a butterflylike insect which flies from

204

INSECT LIFE.

Fig. 170. — Larva of the silver-spotted skipper-

flower to flower with a skipping motion (see page 81
for the characteristics of the skippers). This skipper
is dark chocolate-brown, with a row of yellow spots
extending across the fore wing, and with a large,

silvery white spot
on the lower side of
the hind wing. The
larva is a curious
creature, with a
large head, a slen-
der neck, and a spindle-shaped body (Fig. 170), and
will serve as a type of the family Hesperiid^ (Hes-
pe-ri'i-das), which includes our common skippers;
for the larvae of this family can be recognized by
this peculiar form, and most of them live concealed
in a folded leaf or in a nest made of several leaves
fastened together.

The Bag-worms, family Psychid.e (Psy'chi-das).
— The bag-worms are those caterpillars
that have the curious habit of building
each for itself a silken sac covered with
little twigs within which it lives (Figs.
171 and 172). When the caterpillar
wishes to move from one place to an-
other, it pushes forth the front end of
its body and creeps along, carrying its
house with it. It is said that the spe-
cies that inhabit Ceylon are believed by
the natives to be composed of individ-
uals who, in a previous incarnation, p^^, ^^^
were human beings and stole kindling-
wood, and who now atone for the theft by repeating
the act as an insect.

• I^^^^^^B"

1

f"

J8'jT

'■';^s^^ "^h ^s^^y^--

.) .S

4/'

ISi -

r i

L.L I l.ll-

H(J\Vt. I

for the

is <;'.

ill! a skipping iiiuiiuii i
tics of the skippers). 1
te-brown, with a row of yello\

"OSS the fore wing, and with a
silvery whitt
\ ^ on the lower ^

the hind wing. 1 fi

larva is a curious

creature, with ;

., r,. 1,,...,] -, J,,,,

FlO. i'^— Lanra of th* nXvrT-mDcMed skiooer.

Plate XI.— UNDER-WING MOTHS.

The under-vving moths are found resting on the trunks of forest
trees ; when at rest, the bright-colored hind wings are covered by
the fore wings, and the insects are well-protected by their resem-
blance in color to the bark of the trees.

Catocala cone it /ii liens.
Catocala gracilis.
Catocala arnica.
Catocala ultronia.
Catocala relicta.

incr its

ndivid-
nation,
idling-

Fig. 171.

e theft by repeating

Plate XL

FOREST LIFE.

205

When a bag-worm is fully grown, it fastens its
sac to a twig and changes to a pupa within it. And
here the females remain until death, leaving their
eggs within their sacs. These females are grublike
creatures without wings. But the male pupa works
his way out from the lower end of his sac, and
changes to a winged moth. Fig. 172 represents the

^Ijj^

sac of a male with the empty pupa skin projecting
from the lower end, and Fig. 173 the fully developed
male. These figures are of one of our smaller species.
Fig. 174 represents the male of one of the larger
species.

OTHER LARGER LEAF-EATING CATERPILLARS.

In addition to the species mentioned above, there
are very many of the larger caterpillars that infest
the foliage of forest trees. Any one of these may be
taken as a subject for study, and the work carried on
in the manner outlined for the study of similar orchard
insects. See page 172.

THE SMALLER LEAF-EATING CATERPILLARS.

There is an immense number of small caterpillars
that infest the foliage of forest trees. Of this number,
the majority of those that would attract the attention

206

INSECT LIFE.

of the young student represent two groups — the leaf-
rollers and the leaf-miners.

THE LEAF-ROLLERS.

If the pupil will examine the leaves of almost any
forest tree during the summer or autumn
he will find that some of them are rolled
in such a way as to form a nest, within
which one or more larvae live or have
lived. These nests vary greatly in form ;
sometimes a single leaf, or even only a
part of a leaf, is rolled ; in other cases
the nest is formed by fastening together
several leaves. In most cases the build-
ing of the nest is the work of a single
larva, but in very many instances several
larvse work together to build a common
nest. It should be said, however, that
each of the leaf-rolling species builds a
nest of a particular form, and each of
these species infests a certain kind or
kinds of trees. Hence, when a student
has carefully studied the life history of a
leaf-roller, he will be able, as a rule, to
recognize the work of this species by a
study of the nest alone.

In making its nest the leaf-roller fast-
ens the folds of its nest in the desired
position by means of little bands of silk.
Several of these bands are shown in Fig.
175, and in Fig. 176 are represented sev-
eral types of nests made of rolled leaves.

The breeding: of leaf-rollers is somewhat more

Fig. 175.

FOREST LIFE.

207

difficult than the breeding of those leaf-eating species
that do not make nests; the changing of the latter
from a wilted branch to a fresh one is accomplished
without difficulty, but a similar process in the case of
a leaf-roller implies the
building of a new nest
by the insect. For this
reason it is best to leave
the nests on the trees
till the larvcE are nearly
full-grown, and then to
cut the branch bearing
the nest and place it in
water or damp sand in
a breeding cage. This
implies the keeping of a
close watch of the in-
sects while on the trees,
lest they mature and es-
cape. It is well, when
comparatively few spec-
imens are found, to in-
close the nest while it
is left on the tree in a

bag of Swiss muslin. Some leaf-miners pass the pupa
state within their nest ; but as others leave the nests
and enter the ground to transform, it is best to have
a layer of earth in the breeding cage.

The greater number of the leaf-rolling caterpillars
belong to the superfamily Tortricina (Tor-tri-ci'na),
or Tortricids {Tor' tri-cids) \ but there are members of
several other families of moths that have similar
habits.

2o8 INSECT LIFE.

THE LEAF-MINERS.

There are many leaf-eating caterpillars that are so
minute that they can live within the substance of a
leaf, the space between the two skins of the leaf being
sufficiently large to afford them room for a dwelling
and pasture. The larvae that live in this way are
called leaf-miners.

During the late summer and autumn there can be
found on almost any shrub or tree leaves that are
more or less discolored by white or grayish blotches
or by long twisted lines that reveal the abiding-places
of leaf-miners. Surely Mr. Lowell must have had
these in mind when he wrote: —

And there's never a blade nor a leaf too mean
To be some happy creature's palace.

Not only are very many kinds of plants infested
by these larvae, but the mines in the leaves differ
greatly in form and in their position in the leaf.
These differences in food plant and in the shape and
position of the mines do not indicate that these larva?
are inconstant in their habits. In fact, the opposite
is the case. Each species of leaf-miner infests a par-
ticular species of plant, or, at the most, several closely
allied plants. And each species makes a mine of
definite shape, although some species exhibit different
habits in the different stages of their growth. So
constant are these creatures in their habits that in
most cases an expert can determine the species of
leaf-miner that made a mine by merely examining
the infested leaf.

The various kinds of mines can be classed under a

FOREST LIFE.

209

few distinct types. The long-, narrow, and more or
less winding mines are described as linear mines.
Some of these are very narrow at their beginning
and gradually enlarge, resembling in outline a ser-
pent ; frequently the larger end is terminated by a
blotchlike enlargement, suggesting a head. Such
mines are termed serpentine mines. The leaves of the
wild columbine are often marked by serpentine mines
(Fig. 177). Other mines that start from a narrow be-
ginning enlarge more
rapidly and extend in
a more or less regu-
lar curve ; these are
trumpet mines.

The breeding of
leaf - miners is at-
tended by the same
difficulties as the
breeding of leaf-roll-
ers mentioned above.
But with a little care
mines can be selected
in which the larvas
are so nearly full grown that they will complete their
transformations if the branch bearing the mined
leaves be placed in water or damp sand in a breeding
cage. When the adult insects are reared, great care
will be necessary in mounting them on account of
their minute size. See page 298 for directions for
mounting small insects.

A very instructive collection can be made by
pressing mined leaves, and mounting them as botan-
ical specimens are mounted. Each specimen should

Fig. 177. — Leaf with serpentine mines.

210

INSECT LIFE.

be carefully labeled with the name of the plant and
the date of collecting the specimen.

There are certain flies and beetles the larva: of
which are leaf-miners, but the great majority of the
insects that live in this way are larvce of minute
moths, which belong to the superfamily TiNElNA
(Tin-e-i'na) ; these are commonly called Tineids {Tin'-
e-ids).

GALLS AND GALL-INSECTS.

There occur on the leaves, stems, or roots of very
many species of plants abnormal growths caused by
insects; these are termed galls. Among the more
familiar examples of galls are the various kinds of

Fig. 178. — An oak leaf bearing oak-apples. The larger one is represented
cut open.

oak-apples, of which a common one is illustrated by
Fig. 178.

FOREST LIFE. 211

In the center of an oak apple there is a little cell,
within which a larva lives till it gets its growth.
This larva is hatched from an egg laid in the tissue
of the leaf by a small, four-winged insect, called a
gall-fly. When the young larva began to feed on
the leaf, the leaf began to grow around it in a won-
derful way ; so that very soon the larva was sur-
rounded by a large ball of plant growth, which
served as a home and furnished food for the larva.

Why the plant grew in this way no one knows. As
a rule, when a leaf-eating larva feeds on the tissue of
a leaf there is no extra growth ; but when the larva
of a gall-fly begins to feed, an abnormal growth of
the plant commences. More than this, this growth
is of a definite form which is different for the differ-
ent species of gall-flies. Hence, when an entomolo-
gist who has studied these insects sees a familiar gall,
he knows at once what species of insect produced it.
It is natural to suppose that the larva excretes a
poison, which acts on the plant in such a way as to
produce this remarkable result. There are certain
other gall-producing insects which belong to a differ-
ent order than those that produce the oak-apples,
the galls of which begin to grow before the larvas
hatch. In these cases it is supposed that a drop of
poison is deposited with the egg by the parent insect.

Many species of gall-flies undergo their transfor-
mations within their galls, while in other species the
full-grown larva leaves the gall and enters the ground
to transform.

The gall represented by Fig. 178 is produced by
a single larva. But certain species of gall-flies lay
many eggs together, and there results the growth of
15

212 INSECT LIFE.

a compound gall containing many cells, in each of
which a larva gets its growth. The mossy-rose-gall,
which occurs on the stem of the sweetbrier (Fig.
179), is a familiar example of a many-celled gall.

Fig. 179. — The mossy-rose-gall.

In the two kinds of galls figured here the larva
lives in a closed cell which has no opening until one
is made by the full-grown larva for his escape. Most
galls of this kind are made by insects of the family
Cynipid^ (Cy-nip'i-dae) of the order Hymenoptera.
To this family the name gall-flies is restricted, al-
though many other insects produce galls. Fig. 180
represents an adult gall-fly greatly enlarged.

The largest galls that occur on forest trees are
produced by gall-flies, but there are other kinds of

FOREST LIFE.

213

80.— A gall-fly.

galls which are much more abundant than those of the

gall-flies ; these are the galls made by plant-lice and

by mites. The galls

produced by plant-lice,

and also those produced

by mites, differ from the

galls of the gall-flies in

that each gall has an

open mouth.

The conical galls
wiiich are so common
on the leaves of witch-
hazel (Fig. 181) are good
illustrations of this type

of gall. These galls project from the upper side of
the leaf, but each has an opening on the lower side of
the leaf. The plant-louse that produces this gall is
an agamic female (see page 177); when this female
is mature, she gives birth to numerous young, which

escape from the mouth
of the gall, scatter over
the leaf, and each in
turn produces a gall.

In most localities
there are so many kinds
of galls that it would be
unwise for a student to
attempt to study them
all. A better plan is to
select some one species
or genus of trees and to study the galls made on
these trees by one family of insects. Thus, if oaks
occur in the locality, a good subject is the oak galls

214 INSECT LIFE.

made by gall-flies (family Cynipidce). The student
should learn the different species of oaks that grow
in the locality, and should always label the galls col-
lected with the name of the particular species of oak
on which they were found. The particular time of
the year in which the galls are developed should be
determined, and an effort should be made to breed
the adult gall-flies. Many species of gall-flies under-
go their transformations within their galls, while in
other species the full-grown larva leaves the gall and
enters the earth to transform. In the former case
the adults are most surely obtained by leaving the
galls on the trees and inclosing each in a little bag of
Swiss muslin. And in the latter case care must be
taken not to collect the galls before they are mature,
else they will wither and the contained larvas perish.
In breeding species that pass the winter in their galls,
the galls should be left out of doors till spring to pre-
vent the galls becoming too dry and hard.*

In the study of galls made by plant-lice, select
some common species of gall, so that specimens can
be cut open and examined at frequent intervals.
Note carefully by this method what goes on within
the galls, and observe the spreading of the young
from the galls and the formation of new galls.

* For a thorough study of this subject, see the following : — Alternating
Generations : A Biological Study of Oak Galls and Gall-flies. By Her-
mann Adler. Translated and edited by Charles R. Straton. Published
by Macmillan & Co. Price, $3.25.

1

T

4 5

Plate V. LONG-HORNED BEETLES.

FOREST LIFE.

215

INSECTS INFESTING THE TRUNKS AND BRANCHES OF
TREES.

The insects that live within the trunks and
branches of trees are called borers. There are very
many species of these, and representatives of several
of the orders of insects, as well as of many different
families, are found among them.

In the study of these insects larvae should be col-
lected from the infested trees from time to time and
preserved in alcohol ; when the insects have trans-
formed to pupce, these can be transferred to breeding
cages and the adults reared.

If the infested wood is dead, a piece of it contain-
ing the borers can be placed in a breeding cage at
once, as soon as the larvse are found, and the insects
bred in this way.

Among the more common borers are the larvae of
the long-horned beetles, which constitute the
family Cerambycid^ (Cer-am-byc'i-dse). The
larvae are footless grubs of the form shown
in Fig. 182. The pupa state in some species
is passed within the burrows made by the
larvae ; in other species the larva makes a
little ring of chips around itself between the
bark and the wood, and changes to a pupa
within this rude cocoon. Several examples of
beetles of this family are represented on Plate XII.*

* Explanation to Plate XII. — i. The ribbed pine-borer, Rha-
gium lineatum ; 2. The two-spotted Oberea, Oberea bimactdata, a borer
in blackberry and raspberry ; 3. The sawyer, Monohatmts coiifiisor,
2l borer in pine and fir ; 4. The broad-necked Prioniis, Prionus lati-
collis, a borer in the roots of grape, apple, poplar, and other trees ;
5. The beautiful maple-borer, Plaginoius spcciostts.

2l6

INSECT LIFE.

If the bark be pulled from dead branches or trunks
of trees, the inner layer and the sap-wood will be
found to be ornamented in many cases with burrows
of more or less regular form. These smoothly cut
figures are the mines of the engraver-beetles. Many
kinds of these engravings can be found, each charac-

FlG. 183.

teristic of a particular kind of engraver-beetle. A
common pattern is shown in Fig. 183. The beetles
that do this work are mostly of cylindrical form and

of small size ; many spe-
cies are almost micro-
scopic, and the larger
ones rarely exceed a
quarter of an inch in
length. They are usu-
ally brown, sometimes
black, and with many
the hind end of the body
is very blunt, as if cut
Fig. 184.-A horn-tau. ^g j^^^^ beetles be-

long to the family ScOLYTlD.^ (Sco-lyt'i dee).

The insects known as horn-tails are often found

FOREST LIFE.

217

on the trunks of forest trees, in the wood of which the
larvae bore. Fig. 184 represents an adult horn-tail.
In this family the female has a long ovipositor, with
which she makes slender holes in the trunks of trees
for the reception of her eggs. The horn-tails belong
to the family SiRiciD/E (Si-ric'i-dae) of the order Hy-
menoptera.

Among the more striking in appearance of the
insects found on forest trees are certain ichneumon-
flies that are parasitic on the larvas of the horn-tails.
These ichneumon-
flies bore holes into
the trees infested
by the horn-tails,
and lay their eggs
into the burrows
of the latter. The
larvae of the ichneu-
mon-flies fasten
themselves to the
horn-tail larvae, and
destroy them by
sucking their blood.
Fig. 185 represents
one of these ichneu-
mon-flies in the Fig. 185.— The hom-tail parasite laying an egg.

act of laying an egg. These insects belong to the
family Ichneumonid^e (Ich-neu-mon'i-das) of the or-
der Hymenoptera.

2i:

INSECT LIFE.

ftjJJL- N^a, . '^ I

i'\

MISCELLANEOUS FOREST INSECTS.

TAe Cicadas.

The shrill Cicadas, people of the pine

Making their summer lives one ceaseless song. — Byron.

Our more common species of cicadas are large
insects, but as the nymphs live in the ground, and
the adults spend most of their time high up among
the branches of trees, they would attract compara-
tively little attention were it not for their songs. The
student of forest insects, how-
ever, is soon made aware of the
presence of cicadas if he collects
at midday during the period of
flight of these insects. Their song
is a high, sharp trill, that far ex-
ceeds in volume the song of any
other insect that sings in the day-
time.

One of our most common spe-
cies is the dog-day-harvest-fly.
Cicada tibiccn {Ci-ca'da ti-bi'cen).
This insect (Fig. i86) is black and
green in color and more or less
powdered beneath. It is found
every year in the localities in which it occurs, al-
though it requires two years for an individual to at-
tain its development.

The species of cicada Jhat attracts most attention
is the periodical cicada, Cicada scptendecim (C. sep-
ten' de-civi). This species is often called the seventeen-
year locust ; but as it is not a locust, this name should

FOREST LIFE.

2ig

not be used. This species is not quite so large as
the dog-day-harvest-fly, and is black and brick-red in
color. It is remarkable on account of the slowness
of its growth, the nymphs requiring seventeen years
for their development in the North and thirteen years
in the South. As all of the members of one genera-
tion reach the adult state at about the same time, the
species appears in immense swarms which attract
general attention. In many localities several broods
coexist ; this explains the fact that in such places
these insects appear several times during a single
period of seventeen or thirteen years. The adult
female lays her egg in slits which she makes in the
twigs of trees. The eggs hatch in about six weeks.
The young nymphs drop to the ground and bury
themselves in the earth, where they live by sucking
the juices from the roots of trees. When full-grown,
seventeen or thirteen years later, they crawl up to
the surface of the ground and undergo their last
molt on the trunks of trees. The last nymph skin is
left clinging to the bark where the transformation
occurred, and soon afterward the songs of the insects
are heard.

The student should collect nymph skins, adults,
and twigs in which the eggs h^ye been laid.

The cicadas constitute the family Cicadid^ (Ci-
cad'i-d^e) of the order Hemiptera.

THE TREE-HOPPERS, OR BROWNIE-BUGS.

The tree-hoppers are so called because they live
upon trees, bushes, and vines, and can jump with
great agility. Many of them are grotesque in ap-
pearance, having great humps on their backs; and in

INSECT LIFE.

f

Fig. 187.

all the prothorax is prolonged backward like a roof
over the body (Fig. 187). A common species bears a
pair of hornlike projections, which have giv-
en it the name of the buffalo
tree-hopper (Fig. 188); and an-
other common species (Fig.
189) excretes honey-dew, and
is attended by ants. If the
young entomologist wishes to laugh, let him look at
the faces of tree-hoppers through a lens. A front
view of several of these insect-Brownies is
^^g given in Fig. 190. Their eyes have a keen,
^ ^^Shr^ droll look, and the line that separates the
'°' ^ ^' head from the prothorax gives them the
appearance of wearing glasses. In some cases the
prothorax is elevated above the head, so that it looks

m

like a peaked nightcap ; in others it is shaped like a
Tam-o'-shanter ; while others have prominent horns.
The tree-hoppers feed upon plants, but they sel-
dom appear in sufficient numbers to do much damage.
They constitute the famil3'''MEMBRAClD/E (Mem-brac'-
i-dae) of the order Hemiptera.

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ROADSIDE BUTTERFLIES.

CHAPTER VIII.

ROADSIDF. T.TFE.

n)R the careful collector of insects, a
country roadside is always a fruitful
field. Here live all the insects de-
scribed in the preceding- chapters, for
there are roadside ponds, brooks, or-
chards, and forests, as well as meadows.
But this chapter is devoted to a few
of the more prominent insects that live in grassy
places, or on common roadside weeds and shrubs, or
that lurk under stones, or that mine in roadside
paths and cliflfs.

As in the preceding chapter, the principal object
here is to point out subjects for study. The students
that have carefully carried out the work indicated in

221

222 INSECT LIFE.

earlier chapters will not need, in most cases, detailed
directions for the study of these subjects ; in a few
cases special directions are given.

Balloons from the thistles

Tell summer's disasters.

The butterflies yellow,

As caught in an eddy

Of air's silent ocean,

Sink, waver, and steady

O'er goat's-beard and asters,

Like souls of dead flowers.

With aimless emotion

Still lingering unready

To leave their old bowers. — Lowell.

SPIDERS.

Any one that loves the study of insect life is sure
to be interested in the habits of spiders, although
these creatures are not true
insects ; and there is no bet-
ter place for observing them
than by roadsides. There
are very many kinds of spiders, repre-
senting many different families, but only
a few of the more prominent ones can
be mentioned here.

THE FUNNEL-WEB WEAVERS.

Even the most careful observers
seldom realize what an immense num-
ber of spider-webs are spun upon the
Fig. 191. -Folded g^ass by roadsides. But occasionally

leaf of grass fhcse webs are made visible in the ear-
wit n eg;g;-sac

of spider. jy morning by the dew which has con-

ROADSIDE LIFE.

223

densed upon them. At such times we may see the
grass covered by an almost continuous carpet of silk.
The greater number of the webs seen at such
times are of the form which we term funnel-webs.
They consist of a concave sheet of silk, with a fun-
nel-shaped tube at one side, and numerous lines ex-
tending in all directions to the supporting spears of
grass (Fig. 192). The tube serves as a hiding place

Web of the ^rass spider

for the owner of the web ; from this retreat the
spider runs out on the upper surface of the web to
seize any insect that alights upon it. The tube
opens below, near the roots of the grass, so that the

224

INSECT LIFE.

spider can escape from it if a too formidable insect
comes upon the web.

The most common species of funnel-web weaver
is the grass-spider, Agalena ncevia {Ag-a-le'na nce'vi-d) ;
this abounds in all parts of the United States.

THE ORB-WKAVERS.

Those spiders that build nets which consist of a
framework of radiating lines upon which is fastened

a thread in a spiral
manner (Fig. 193)
are called the orb-
weavers. There are
many species of
these, each differing
somewhat in habits,
but the more gen-
eral features of
their webs are quite
similar.

No more inter-
esting subject for
study can be found
than the methods of
work of these spi-
ders ; and we will
not deprive the stu-
dent of the pleasure of finding out for himself how
they build their webs by describing the process in
detail. We will, however, help him a little by call-
ing attention to a few points.

Find a completed web, and examine carefully the
silk of which it is composed. With a small stick

-Partially completed web of an orb-
weaver.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

touch one of the turns of the spiral line, and observe
the result when you attempt to take the stick away.
In a similar manner touch one of the radiatini^: lines,
and also some of the
lines that form the irreg-
ular outer framework of
the web. You will dis-
cover that there are two
kinds of silk in the web
of an orb-weaver, which
differ in two important
characteristics ; note what
these are, and determine
to what extent each kind
is used. What advanta-
ges are gained by the use
of each of these kinds of
silk?

If you have the use of
a microscope, press a
glass slip against a web
so that a section of it shall
adhere to it, and examine
this section with a micro-
scope. Make a sketch
showing the difference in
appearance of the two
kinds of silk.

Find a partially com-
pleted web and observe
that a temporary, spiral
stay-line (Fig. 193, a, a) is
used in the construction of the web before the appli-

FiG. 194. — A dewy morning.

226 INSECT LIFE.

cation of the permanent spiral line (Fig. 193, b, b).
How do these two lines differ? What becomes of
the first line?

Throw an insect into a completed web and make
notes on the way in which the spider captures and
destroys its prey. If the web be that of one of the
larger orb-weavers, a large insect, as a locust or
grasshopper, can be used.

Study different species of orb-weavers, and note
differences in the structure of their webs and in the
position of the spiders while waiting for their prey.

Write an account of the habits of an orb-weaver.

On dewy mornings the webs of the orb-weavers
are often heavily loaded with dew, so that adjacent
turns of the spiral thread adhere together. Fig. 194
represents such a web — one that the writer saw from
his window while at work on this book.

BALLOONING SPIDERS.

There are certain spiders that make long journeys
through the air like an aeronaut. These ballooning
spiders are frequently very abundant, especially in
warm autumn days. At such times innumerable
threads can be seen streaming from fences, from
bushes, and the tips of stalks of grass, or floating
through the air. The ballooning spider climbs to
some elevated point, which may be merely the tip of
a stalk of grass, and then, standing on the tips of its
feet, lifts its body as high as it can, and spins out a
thread of silk. This thread is carried up and away
by a current of air. When the thread is long
enough, the force of the air current on it is sufficient
to buoy the spider up. It then lets go its hold with

ROADSIDE LIFE. 227

its feet and sails away. That these spiders travel
long distances in this manner has been shown by the
fact that they have been seen floating through the air
at sea far from land.

A NOISELESS, PATIENT SPIDER.

A noiseless, patient spider,

I mark'd where, on a little promontory, it stood isolated ;
Mark'd how, to explore the vacant, vast surrounding.
It launch'd forth filament, filament, filament out of itself;
Ever unreeling them— ever tirelessly speeding them.

And you, O my soul, where you stand,

Surrounded, surrounded, in measureless oceans of space.

Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing — seeking the spheres, to

connect them ;
Till the bridge you will need be form'd— till the ductile anchor

hold;
Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul.

Walt Whitmati.

THE COBWEB-WEAVERS.

Many are the kinds of webs spun by different
spiders. Some of them, as the orb-webs and the
funnel-webs, delight us with their wonderful regular-
ity of form, while others appear to be a mere shape-
less maze of threads. Such are the structures whose
presence in the corners of our rooms torment thrifty
housewives, and which are disrespectfully termed
cobwebs.

Although the house spiders are the most familiar
members of this family, the greater number of spe-
cies spin their webs in the fields on bushes. These
webs usually consist of a flat or curved sheet, under
which the spider hangs back downward. This sheet

228 INSECT LIFE.

is supported by threads running in all directions to
the neighboring objects. Frequently there is a large
number of these supporting threads above the web,
which serve the additional purpose of impeding the
flight of insects and causing them to fall.

Some of these spiders do not remain in their webs,
but have a nest in a neighboring crack
or corner, from which they rush to seize
their prey. And sometimes there is a ^^^^
funnel-shaped tube leading to this nest. ^^^S\ [
But these spiders differ from the true
funnel - web weavers in running back
downward on the lower side of their web. '^' '^^*

The cobweb-weavers are small spiders with unu-
sually slim legs. Fig. 195 represents a common spe-
cies.

IN A GARRET.

Here, in the summer, at a broken pane,

The yellow wasps come in, and buzz and build

Among the rafters ; wind and snow and rain
All enter, as the seasons are fulfilled.

Here where the gray incessant spiders spin,
Shrouding from view the sunny world outside,

A golden bumblebee has blundered in
And lost the way to liberty, and died.

Elizabeth Akers*

THE RUNNING SPIDERS.

There are certain large, dark-colored, hairy
spiders that are common by roadsides, running over
the ground or lurking under stones and fences.
These spiders frequently attract attention by drag-

* By permission of Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons.

ROADSIDE UFE.

22g

ging after them a large gray ball (Fig. 196); this is
the egg-sac which the female carries about with her

Fig. 196. — Lycosa and egg-sac.

attached to her spinnerets. These spiders run swift-
ly, and as they depend on the use of their legs for the
capture of their prey they are called running spiders.
The larger members of our common species be-
long to the genus Lycosa {Ly-co'sa). These drag after
them their egg-sacs, as described above ; and when
the young hatch they climb on their mother's back
and are carried about for a time. The females of the
genus Dolovtcdes {Dol-o-jne'dcs), which also belongs to
the family of running spiders, carry their .egg-sac in
their mandibles until the young are ready to hatch.
At this time the mother fastens the egg-sac in a bush
and spins a web of irregular threads about
it, among which the young spiders re-
main for a time.

THE JUMPING SPIDERS.

The jumping spiders are of medium
size, with a short body, and short, stout " \
legs (Fig. 197). They are common on fig. 197.
plants, logs, fences, and the sides of build-
ings. They are very apt to attract attention by their
peculiar appearance, their short, stout legs, bright
colors, conspicuous eyes, and quick, jumping move-

230

INSECT LIFE.

ments being very different from those of ordinary
spiders. These self-possessed spiders are able to
stare an ordinary observer out of countenance. They
move sidevvise or backward with great ease, and can
jump a long distance. They stalk their prey, and
make no webs except nests, in which they hide in
winter or when molting or laying eggs.

THE CRAB-SPIDEKS.

There are certain spiders which are called crab-
spiders, on account of the short and broad form of
the body, and the curious fact that they can walk
more readily sidewise or backward than forward.

These spiders spin no webs, but lie in wait for
their prey. They live chiefly on plants and fences,
and in the winter hide in cracks and under stones
and bark. Most of the species are marked with gray
and brown, like the bark upon which they live. Some
species conceal themselves in flowers, where they lie
in wait for their prey. These are brightly colored,
like the flowers which they inhabit, so
that insects visiting flowers may alight
within reach of a spider before seeing it.
One of the best-known members of
Fig. 198. this family is the female of Misnmcna
vatia {Mi-sii-jue'jia va'ti-ci). This is milk-
white, with sometimes a light crimson mark on each
side of the abdomen, and is found within flowers
(Fig. 198).

THE TARANTULAS AND THE TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS.

Those who live in the warmer parts of our coun-
try know well the large spiders commonly called ta-

ROADSIDE LIFE.

231

rantulas. These are the giants among spiders, some
of them being the largest known ; but some species
of this family are not very large. They arc dark-col-
ored, hairy spiders, and can be distinguished from
the other families mentioned here by the fact that the
claw of the mandibles works up and down instead of
sidewise.

The members of this family do not construct true
webs, but they dig long tubes in the earth which
they line with silk, or line their hiding places in clefts
in trees or elsewhere with a layer of silk. They live
only in warm countries.

One of the best known of the tarantulas is Enryp-
elvia Jientzii {Eii-ryp' cl-via Jicntz'i-i). This species oc-
curs in the South and in the Middle W'est, and is the
largest of our spiders (Fig. 199). Several closely
allied species are found in California.

But the members of this family that have at-
tracted most admiration on account of their habits

Fig. 199. — A tarantula, Eiirypelma hentzii.

are the trap-door spiders. These dig a tube in the
ground, as do many other members of this family ;

232

INSECT LIFE.

but this tube is lined with a denser layer of silk, and
is provided with a hinged lid, which fits the opening
of the tube with wonderful accuracy (Fig. 200).
There are two small holes in the edge of the lid
farthest from the hinge ; when the spider enters its
nest it runs over the door, and, catching the claws of
its hind legs into these holes, pulls the door shut after
it. The spider hides in this nest when not seeking

Fig. 200. —Entrance to nest of a trap-door spider.

its prey. Some species take the precaution to build
a branch to their nest, and to provide this branch
with a door. As this door forms a part of one side
of the main tube, it is not likely to be observed by
any creature which may find its way past the first
door of the nest.

Several species of trap-door spiders occur in the
Southern and Southwestern States.

THE HARVESTMEN OR GRANDFATHER-GR AVBEARDS.

Among the more common frequenters of road-
sides are the harvestmen, which are near relatives of
spiders. They differ from spiders, however, in hav-
ing the abdomen segmented. Most harvestmen can
be recognized by their very long and slender legs

ROADSIDE LIFE.

^?>}>

(Fig. 201), although some species have comparatively
short ones. They feed on small insects, especially
aphids, and are perfectly harmless.

Fig. 201

It is a common practice with children to catch
these creatures and say to them, " Grandfather-gray-
beard, tell me where the cows are or I'll kill you ! "
As the poor frightened animal points its legs in all
directions in its frantic efforts to escape, it usually
earns its freedom, but too often it is not without the
loss of one or more legs.

THE LOCUSTS, GRASSHOPPERS, AND CRICKETS.

The locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets are the
most universally common and conspicuous of the
roadside insects ; for at any time, from early spring
to late autumn, some of them can be found by any
grassy roadside.

These three groups of insects constitute three
closely related families of the order Orthoptera,
which are characterized on pages 72-74. They all
agree in having the hind legs fitted for jumping, but
differ in the form of the antennae and of the oviposi-
tor, and in the number of segments in the tarsi.

The crickets are generally known as such, but
confusion exists in the common names of the other

234 INSECT LIFE.

two families, for most people that have not made a
special study of insects do not make any distinction
between the locusts and the true grasshoppers, but
call the members of both families grasshoppers. On
this account the locusts are sometimes called the
short-horned grasshoppers, and the true grasshoppers
are distinguished as the long-horned grasshoppers.

The pupil should collect specimens of each of the
three families, and, after studying the descriptions
on pages 72-74, label these
specimens properly and place
them in his collection.

Which of the two insects
represented in Fig. 202 is a
Fig. 202.-A locust and I true grasshopper?

grasshopper. jf ^\^q pupil has not already

done so, a series of specimens of either locusts, grass-
hoppers, or crickets which illustrates incomplete
metamorphosis should be collected. See Lessons
XII and XIII.

Frequently small red parasites are found clinging
to locusts ; these are mites. See page 56.

Many locusts and grasshoppers exhibit what is
known as protective coloring — that is, their colors
are such as to protect them from birds when at rest
in their usual haunts. Thus the true grasshoppers,
which live among the blades of grass or the foliage
of shrubs and trees, are usually green, while many
locusts that rest on the ground are of the same color
as the soil.

Collect specimens illustrating this.
Certain species of locusts are very liable to be
destroyed by a fungous disease. The victims before

ROADSIDE LIFE.

235

dying climb up some weed, to which they cling so
firmly in their death grip that their bodies remain
clinging to the plant long after death. Find speci-
mens of locusts that have been killed in this way and
preserve them with the part of the plant to which
they are clinging.

THE GRASSHOPPER AND THE CRICKET.

The poetry of earth is never dead :

When all the birds are faint with the hot sun,

And hide in cooling trees, a voice will run

From hedge to hedge about the new-mown mead :

That is the grasshopper's — he takes the lead

In summer luxury — he has never done

With his delights ; for, when tired out with fun,

He rests at ease beneath some pleasant weed.

The poetry of earth is ceasing never :

On a lone winter evening, when the frost

Has wrought a silence, from the stove there shrills

The cricket's song, in warmth increasing ever.

And seems to one in drowsiness half lost.

The grasshopper's among some grassy hills.

Jolin Keats.

THE SONGS OF INSECTS.

Comparatively little is known regarding the songs
of insects, if under this head we include all the
sounds produced by these creatures. In a few in-
stances the way in which the sounds are produced
and the apparent object are understood ; but in the
great majority of cases this is not so.

Flies buzz when on the wing, but why? It may
be that the sound is merely incident to the rapid mo-
tion of their wings, and means no more than the hum
of rapidly moving machinery. But this can hardly

236 INSECT LIFE.

be true of the sounds produced by bees. The care-
ful student of the honey-bee soon learns a language
which is as intelligible to him as spoken words. The
contented hum of the worker gathering pollen and
nectar is very different from the savage buzz of the
same individual when threatening an intruder who is
disturbing the hive. So also is the sound produced
by a queenless colony very different from that pro-
duced by one that has not this misfortune. The
sound produced by bees emerging from any number
of hives when merel)' the ordinary labor is going on
would not be mistaken for the tumult caused by a
single swarm leaving its hive for a new home.

Still, perhaps the only meaning of these various
sounds is that the bees move in a different way when
influenced by different emotions, and that the produc-
tion of a peculiar sound is merely incidental and is
not the object of the peculiar motion.

There are insects, however, in which distinct
musical organs are developed, and that make move-
ments that have for their sole object the production
of sound. It is to these singers that we will turn our
attention.

Chief among them are the cicadas, locusts, grass-
hoppers, and crickets. In all of these it is only the
males that sing, these insects resembling the song-
birds in this respect. We will study here only the
musical organs of Orthoptera.

Locusts produce sounds in two ways : — First, cer-
tain species rub the inner surface of the hind femora,
upon which there is a row of minute spines, against
the outer surface of the fore wings. In this case each
fore wing serves as a fiddle and each hind leg as a fid-

ROADSIDE LIFE.

237

dle-bow. Second, other species rub together the up-
per surface of the front edge of the hind wings and
the under surface of the fore wings. This is done
while the locust is flying, and the result is a crack-
ling sound. Third, the males of the difTerent kinds
of true grasshoppers, including the katydids, are pro-
vided with an elaborate musical apparatus, by means
of which they call their mates. This consists of a pe-
culiar arrangement of the veins and cells of a portion
of each fore wing near its base. This arrangement
differs in the different spe-
cies, but in each it is such
that by rubbing the fore
wings together they are
made to vibrate, and thus
produce the sound. Fig.
203 represents a fore wing
of the male of a common
meadow grasshopper, and
Fig. 204 that of a female of
the same species.

Of all the insect musi-
cians the crickets are most
easily observed ; we will
therefore select them for our special study : —

1. Collect some crickets with fully developed
wings and bring them alive to school.

2. Note that some of the crickets have a long,
spear-shaped organ at the hind end of the body :
these are the females and this organ is the oviposi-
tor. The males differ from the females, not only in
lacking the ovipositor, but also in the form of the
front wings.

Fig. 203. — Wing-
cover of male
meadow grass-
hopper.

Fig. 204. — Wing-
cover of female
meadow grass-
hopper.

238

INSECT LIFE.

3. Prepare a breeding cage by placing a sod of
growing grass in it, put several living male crick-
ets in it, and set the cage where the insects can be
watched. After the insects have become used to the
cage they will chirp, and the pupils can determine
how it is done.

4. Kill a pair of crickets by placing them in a
cyanide bottle and then study their wings. How do

the front wings of

the male differ from

those of the female?

drawings

the differ-

you have
the use of a micro-
scope observe that
the principal vein
which extends diag-
onally across the
base of the fore
wing of the male
(Fig. 205, a) is furnished on the lower side of the wing
with ridges like those of a file (Fig. 205, /;) ; and that
on the inner margin of this wing, a short distance
toward the base from the end of the principal vein,
there is a hardened portion, which may be called the
scraper (Fig. 205, c).

6. Watch a cricket while chirping and determine
how the files and scrapers of the two fore wings are
used.

7. Write an account of the way in which crickets
chirp.

Fig. 205. — Musical organs of a male cricket.

fg^V

»4s^»

f

,4^:

r

iV/

-^

V

• T -

Plate XIV

-IDE LIFE

KATYDn-

lo hear thin:-

Wherever •

Thou testy 1-

Th.v,

•yi„,n

3
"^ 4

hail 5
the 6
choi^l-
pasture

Plate XIV.— TIGER-MOTHS.

(See page 239.) .rnillars that

The Bella-moth, Utetheisa bella. mon and

The Trigonal Tiger-moth, Zatrephes trigona. '( certain
The Great Leopard Moth, Ecpantheria ocularia.
The Arge Tiger-moth, Eyprfpia urge.
The Nais Tiger-moth, Eyprepia nais.
The Hickory Tiger-moth, Halisidota carycr.
The Clymene Tiger-moth, Haploa clymene.

When full grown i

'posed of the hair 01 iric larviu jasimtu
.1 thin wnri) of silk. The adults are

oth'

In .

iing observe in

the case

IS restricted to

■~ "" " '■' ■"' ' • '^

^" the former
with that

Kin

, oui in rne lanci

- ^

will

furnish the larva

>v.,-.^

i.^^

v^Poyfe,

^

■.;;i.

^ , 3JIUOI1

.-"

O.V.A

'rn-fiUja 9riT .i

.n«<)^V<'

■IJo

c.-i^jii J IfiOiPshT 3riT

2

.Xin»\M-i<, V

fIjoM LisqoaJ j£3i0 3riT

I

■,Vvi> ^

^\'-'^^Ji

ri}(irn-73^iT a^^iA sriT

t^

.lum

.S\.Aft«tt'

.riJom-iayiT aisH ariT

e

.^H;<\n

S>\«s\lV

.^,,^\

,^1,

--■!•'• 'no;J:)iH sriT

^ i

~-.., .■j«MW5\-i b'v.

r^'

• % "

'-r

1

>v .^i

v

ROADSIDE LIFE. 239

KATYDID.

I love to hear thine earnest voice,

Wherever thou art hid,
Thou testy little dogmatist,

Thou pretty katydid !
Thou mindest me of gentle folks —

Old gentle folks are they^
Thou say'st an undisputed thing

In such a solemn way.

Oliver Wmdcl! Holmes.

CATERPILLARS, MOTHS, AND BUTTERFLIES.

The Tiger-moths.

Among the ver}^ many kinds of caterpillars that
may be found by roadsides, the most common and
most widely distributed are the larvas of certain
tiger-moths. These larvae are densely clothed with
hair, and are often found running over the surface of
the ground ; for many species seem to have but little
choice of food plant, but roam free like cattle in a
pasture. When full grown these larvse spin cocoons,
which are composed of the hair of the larvas fastened
together with a thin warp of silk. The adults are
called tiger-moths because many of the species are
conspicuously spotted.

The tiger-moths constitute the family Arctiid.^
(Arc-ti'i-dse). There is not space here to describe
other moths that occur by roadsides.

In collecting these larvae for breeding observe in
the case of each species whether it is restricted to
some particular kind of plant or not. In the former
case the breeding cage should be supplied with that
kind of plant, but in the latter case a sod of grass
will probably furnish the larvas satisfactory food.
17

24C5

INSECT LIFE.

The most commonly observed species of these insects
are the following : —

The Isabella tiger-moth, Pyrrharctia isabella {Pyr-
rharc'ti-a is-a-bel' la). — The larva of this species is the
evenly clipped, furry caterpillar, reddish brown in

the middle and black
at each end, which is
seen so commonly in
the autumn and early
no. .06. ^ spring (Fig. 206). The

adult is of a dull gray-
ish tawny yellow, with a few black dots on the wings.
The yellow-bear Spilosonia virginica {Spil-o-so'ma
vir-gin'i-cd). — The larva of this species is one of the
most common hairy cat-
erpillars found feeding
on herbaceous plants. It
is clothed with yellow
hairs, which are very un-
even in length, and which
vary greatly in color in
different individuals. The moth (Fig. 207) is snowy
white, with the wings marked by a few black dots ;
these vary in number, but there are rarely more
than three on each wingf.

Fig. 207. — Spilosoma virginica.

The salt-marsh caterpi

Fig. 2o3. — Estigmene act

ar, Estigmene acres a {Es-tig-
inc'jie a-cree'a). — This
species is not re-
stricted to salt-
marshes, as its name
might indicate, but
is widely distributed
throughout the Uni-

ROADSIDE LIFE.

241

Fig. 209. — Eyprepia virgo.

ted States. The moth (Fig. 208) is white, marked
with yellow and black. The sexes differ greatly in
the ground col-
or of the wings ;
in the female
this is white
throughout ; in
the male only
the upper sur-
face of the fore
wings is white,
the lower sur-
face of the fore wings and the hind wings above and
below being yellow.

The most striking in appearance of our common
tiger-moths belong to the genus Eyprepia {Ey-pre'pi-a).
Of these there
are many spe-,
cies. Fig. 209
represents one
of the larger
ones. In these
insects the fore
wings are vel-
vety black,
marked with

yellowish or pink bands ; in some species
the lighter color predominates, so that the
fore wings appear to be yellow or pink
spotted with black.

The harlequin milkweed-caterpillar, Cycnia egle
{Cyc'ni-a eg'le). — This larva is the most common cater-
pillar found on milkweed. It is clothed with tufts

Fig. 210. — The harlequin milkweed-
caterpillar.

242

INSECT LIFE.

of orange, black, and white (Fig. 210). The adult
has mouse-gray, unspotted wings.

Ghosts of departed winged things,

What memories are those
That tempt you with your damask wings

Here where my candle glows ?

Vainly you hover, circling oft

The tongue of yellow flame :
A tiger by caresses soft

You vainly seek to tame.

Here is no hope for you : nay, here

Death lurks within the light,
To leap upon you flying near

And sweep you from the night.

Moon-butterflies, back to your blooms

Born of the dew and stars !
Hence, ghosts, and find again your glooms

Hidden by shadow-bars.

Quick — speed across the dusky blue,

Lest, in a sudden breath,
This tawny tiger wake, and you

Endure a second death !

Frank Dempster Sherman.

THE SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLIES.

These magnificent butterflies are easily recog-
nized by their large size and the tail-like prolonga-
tions of the hind wings. The ground color of the
wings is black, which is usually marked with yellow,

* From Lyrics for a Lute, by permission of Messrs. Houghton,
Mifflin & Co.

an. '-"lie

the '■ more

color. The swal

•-^^ ^ ^..^.cs will

^^^^ serve as illustra-

Plate XV.— SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLIES.

FIGl'RE

1. The Black Swallow-tail, Papilio polyxenes. See page 243.

2. The Tiger Swallow-tail, yaj'owiaa^ifi'^^/aMrwj'. See page 243.

irti 1:.;.;
•llow. th

glatui.

This

Co:

als-

ROADSIDE LIFE.

243

and often with metallic blue or green ; sometimes
the yellow markings are more conspicuous than the

black ground
color. The swal-
low-tails belong
to the family Pa-
PILIONID/E (Pa-
pil-i-on'i-dse). The
following well-

known species will
serve as illustra-
tions : —

The black swal-
low-tail, Papilio polyxcnes {Pa-pW
i-o po-lyx'e-nes). — In the adult the
wings are black, crossed with
two rows of yellow spots, and
with marginal lunules of the
same color. The two rows of
spots are much more distinct in
the male than in the female.
The larva (Fig. 21 1) is the green
caterpillar, ringed with black
and spotted with yellow, that
eats the leaves of caraway.

The tiger swallow-tail, Jas-
oniadcs glanciis i^Jas-o-ni'a-dcs
glaucus). — This is the very com-
mon large swallow-tail with yel-
low wings. On the fore wings
there are four black bars extending back from the
costa ; the inner one of these crosses the hind wings
also. In the South there are two forms of the fe-

FlG. 211. — Larva of the
black swallow-tail.

244

INSECT LIFE.

male ; in the second form the disk of the wings is
entirely black, but the black bands of the other form
are faintly indicated by a darker
shade. The larva of this species is
represented by Fig. 212. It has
the curious habit of weaving upon
a leaf a carpet of silk, upon which

Fig. 212. — Larva of the
tiger swallow-tail on
its bed.

Fig. 213. — The zebra-swallow-tail.

it rests when not feeding ; when nearly full grown,
instead of spinning a simple carpet as before, it
stretches a web across the hollow of a leaf, and thus
makes a spring bed upon which it sleeps.

The zebra swallow-tail, Iphiclidcs ajax {Iph-i-cli' dcs
a'Jax). — This butterfly (Fig. 213) has the wings
crossed by several bands of greenish white. Three
distinct forms of this species occur ; these differ in
size, in the length of the tails of the hind wings, and
in the time of appearance. The one figured here is
the early-spring form.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

245

THE WHITES AND THE YELLOWS,

These are the most abundant of all our butterflies,
being- common everywhere in fields and roads.
They are usually of
medium size, but
some of them are
small. They belong
to the family Pier-
id^ (Pi-er'i-dse).

The Whites. —
The more common
representatives of
this group are the „ . ,

^ ' 1-10.214. — A cabbage-butterfly.

well-known cabbage-
butterflies. The most widely distributed species is
Pier is rap(E {Pi'c-ris ra'pie). Fig, 214 represents the

Fig. 215.— Larvje and pupa
of a cabbage-butterfly

male ; in the female there are two spots on the outer
part of the fore wing, besides the black tip. In Fig,

246

INSECT LIFE.

Fig. 216.— a yellow.

215 two larvae and a chrysalis arc represented on a
cabbage leaf.

The Yellows. — The yellows are easily recog-
nized by their bright yellow colors, although in some

species whitish forms
occur. They abound
almost everywhere in
open fields, and are com-
mon in wet places in
roads. Fig. 216 repre-
sents the male of a com-
mon species ; in the fe-
male the border on the
fore wings is broader,
and contains a submarginal row of yellow spots.
This species is dimorphic. The second form is rep-
resented only by the female sex, and differs in having
the ground color of the wings white instead of yel-
low. The larva feeds on clover and allied plants.

THE GOSSAMER-WINGED BUTTERFLIES.

There are certain butterflies, many of which are
common by roadsides, that are of small size and deli-
cate structure. These constitute the family Lyc^n-
ID^ (Ly-caen'i-das), or gossamer-winged butterflies.
They resemble in size the smaller skippers (see page
81), but can be distinguished at a glance from the
skippers by their delicate wings and more slender
bodies. Our common species are grouped under
three heads — the coppers, the blues, and the hair-
streaks.

The Coppers. — The coppers are easily distin-
guished from other gossamer-winged butterflies by

-^ ^

^ttL/, '^jg^^

ua— .ivx

^^. :'^^ ^^M

represent

< whitibli
i , They

! everywhere in

elds, and are cora-

11 wet places in

T'j. 216 repre-

Plate XVI.— butterflies.'* ^^"^'

^'^e fe-

1. The Baltimore, Ettphydryas phaeton. On the

2. An Orange-tip, Anthocharis stella. '

3. The Green-clouded Swallow-tail, Euphaades t7-oilus. The

larva feeds on spice bush.

4. The Dog's-head, Zercne ccvsonia. The larva feeds on clover.

)f which are
..... size and deli-
e family LyC/EN-
d butterflies.
rs (see page
I glance from the
md more slender
c grouped under
:es, and the hair-
are easily distin-
,ed butterflies \<w

Plate XVI.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

247

their orange-red and brown colors, each with a cop-
pery tinge, and conspicuous black
markings. Fig. 217 represents a
common species.

The Blues. — The blues are so
called on account of the blue color
of the upper surface of the wings, fig. 21 7. -a copper.
The extent of this color, how-
ever, difTers greatly in different
species, and also in tKe two
sexes of the same species. Fig.
218 represents the size and
form of a common species.

The Hair-streaks.— These
are usually dark brown, with
delicate striped markings on

Fig. 218.— a blue.

the lower surface of the wings,
which suggested the common
name given above ; but some spe-
cies are brilliantly marked with
metallic blue or green. The
hind wings are also commonly
furnished with delicate tail-like
prolongations (Fig. 219). The
fore wings of the male often bear
a small dull oval spot near the fig. 219.-
middle of the costal part of the wing — the discal stig-
ma— which is filled with the peculiar scent-scales
known as andriconia.

-A hair-streak.

TFIE FOUR-FOOTED BUTTERFLIES.

The family Nymphalid.*; (Nym-phal'i-dse), which
includes a large proportion of our butterflies, differ

248

INSECT LIFE.

from all others in our fauna in having the fore legs
very greatly reduced in size in both sexes. So great
is the reduction that these legs can not be used for
v^^alking, but are folded on the breast like a tippet.
A slight reduction in the size of the fore legs oc-
curs in the Lycaenidas, but there it occurs only in
the males and to a much less degree than in this
family.

This is the largest of the families of butterflies.
It not only surpasses the other families in number of
species, but it contains a greater number and variety of
striking forms and also a larger proportion of the spe-
cies of butterflies familiar to every observer of insects.
There may be in any locality one or two species of

Fig. 220. — The monarch.

yellows or of whites more abundant, but the larger
number of species commonly observed are four-
footed butterflies. The following are some of the
more common forms: —

ROADSIDE LIFE.

249

The Monarch. — The monarch, Anosia plcxippns
{A-tto'si-a plcx-ip'pus), can be recognized by Fig. 220.
The larva feeds upon different species of milk-
weed. When full grown it is yellow, broadly
banded with black, and bears a pair of long, fleshy
filaments on the second thoracic segment and a
similar pair on the seventh abdominal segment.
The chrysalis is bright green, dotted with golden
spots.

The Viceroy. — The viceroy, Basilarchia arcJiip-
pns {Bas-i-lar' clii-a ar-chip'pus), resembles the monarch
in color and markings, but can be distinguished by
its smaller size and by the presence of a transverse
black band on the hind wings (Fig. 221).

Fig. 221. — The viceroy.

Notwithstanding the close resemblance in ap-
pearance of these two insects, they belong to dif-
ferent subfamilies of butterflies, the viceroy exhib-
iting to a wonderful degree what is known as mim-
icry.

The Crescent-spots.— These are small butter-

250

INSECT LIFE.

flies, of which many species occur in this country.
They are of a fulvous color, heavily marked with
black. Each species varies considerably in mark-
ings, and different species re-
semble each other quite close-
ly, making this a difficult
group for the beginning stu-
dent. Fig. 222 represents a
common species.

The Fritillaries. — The
fritillaries (frit'il-la-ries) is a
group of butterflies including species varying from
a little below to somewhat above medium size. The
color of the wings is fulvous, bordered and check-
ered with black ; the lower surface of the hind wings
is often marked with curving rows of silvery spots.
The larvce feed upon the leaves of violets. Fig. 223
represents a common species.

Fig. 222. — A crescent-spot.

Fig. 223. — A fritillary.

The Angle-wings. — To this group belong many
of our best-known butterflies. With these the outer

ROADSIDE LIFE.

251

margin of the fore wings is usually decidedly angular
or notched, as if a part had been cut away. A large
proportion of the species hibernate in the adult state,
and some of them are the first butterflies to appear
in the spring. The following are some of our more
common species: —

The red admiral, Va)irssa at a/ant a {l^a-nes'sa at-a-
lan'ta). — The larva of this species feeds chiefly on
nettle and on
hop. The adult
is represented
by Fig. 224.

The painted
beauty, Va7icssa
hnntcra ( V. Jiuii'-
tc-ra). — The up-
per surface of
this butterfly is
represented by
Fig. 225 ; on the lower surface there are two eye-
like spots on each hind wing. The larva feeds on

everlasting {Gna-
phalhim) and allied
plants.

The cosmopoli
tan butterfly, Va
ncssa cardni {y. car-
dii-i). — This butter-
fly resembles the
preceding very

closely in color and
markings, but can be distinguished by the fact that
on the lower surface of each hind wing- there is a

Fig. 224.— The red admiral.

Fig. 225. — The painted beauty.

252

INSECT LIFE.

submarginal row of four or five eyelike spots. The

larva feeds on thistles and allied plants. This but-
terfly is distributed
over the greater part
of the world.

The American
tortoise-shell, Aglais
Diilbcrti {Ag'lais mil-
ber'ti). — The larvae of
this species feed up-
on nettle, and are

gregarious in their early stages. The adult can be

recognized by Fig. 226.

The mourning-cloak, Euvancssa antiopa {Eu-va-

nes'sa an-ti'o-pd). — This butterfly (Fig. 227) is one of

Fig. 226. — The American tortoise-shell.

Fig. 227. — The mourning-cloak.

the first to be seen in the spring, as it hibernates in
the adult state. The larvae live on willow, elm, pop-
lar, and redbud ; they are gregarious, and often
strip large branches of their leaves.

aril lo

no ab33l

.8aiJ'?>i:iTTua— .ir/x axAj^

*j«<i\Yvv) (gnilxiiiO b9X9-9j)l9 sriT

INSlM

submarginal row of four

larva feeds on thistles and allied plants.

terfly is di
over the gn
of the worhi
The A
tortoise-shell, - ^
;;/ ilberti {Ag 'lais y
ber'ti). — The larva? oi
this species feed up-

Plate XVII.— BUTTERFLIES"^ ^/"^

' en be

FIGURE

1. The Blue-eyed Grayling, Cercyonis alope. This is one of the
Meadow-browns. See page 253.

2. The Violet-tip, Polygonia interrogationis. The larva feeds on
hop, elm, and nettle.

3. The Spring Azure, Cyaniris pseudargiolus.

4. The Tailed Blue, Everes coinyntas.

5. The American Copper, Hfodes hypophUeas.

6. The Gray Hair-streak, Uranotes melinus.

as it hibernate"^ nj
! willow, elm, }. .>-
trious, and olu ri

Plate XVII.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

253

Fig. 228. — The compton-tuitoise.

The compton-tortoise, Eugonia j-album {En-go' ni-a
j-al'biini). — The upper surface of this species is repre-
sented by Fig.
228 ; on the
lower surface
of the hind
wings there is
a small L-
shaped silvery
bar.

There are
several com-
mon angle-
wing butter-
flies that resemble the preceding species in having a
metallic spot on the lower surface of the hind wings,
but differ in having the inner margin of the fore
wings roundly notched
beyond the middle.
These belong to the ge-
nus Polygonia {Pol-y-gd-
ni-d).

The Meadow.
BROWNS. — There are sev-
eral common butterflies
that are brown in color
and whose markings con-
sist almost entirely of eyelike spots. As these are
usually confined to grassy places, they are called the
meadow-browns. One of them is represented by
Fig. 229.

Fig. 229. — A meadow-brown.

254

INSECT LIFE.

THE BUTTERFLY.*

Leafless, stemless, floating flower,

From a rainbow's scattered bower.

Like a bubble of the air

Blown by fairies, tell me where

Seed or scion I may find

Bearing blossoms of thy kind. — Johtt B. Tabb.

THE r.EES, WASPS, AND DIGGER-WASPS.

Throughout the summer and autumn the bees,
wasps, and digger-wasps abound on the blossoms of
roadside weeds. It requires some study and obser-
vation to distinguish these three groups of insects,
but the pupils should learn to do so. Specimens of
several species of each of these groups should be col-
lected, properly labeled, and placed in the collection.
All of these belong to the order Hymenoptera.

THE BEES.

The bees can be distinguished from all other Hy-
menoptera by the form of the basal segment of the

hind tarsi (Fig. 230, c).
This segment is more or
less dilated, flattened,
usually hairy, and bears
an apparatus for collect-
ing and carrying pollen.
In some bees, however
— those that do not make

Fig. 230.— Lefrs of insects: a, wasp; b, nestS for thcmSclveS, but
ichneumon-flv ; c, bee ; /, trochan- i , . . ,

ter; ;«, metatarsus. lay their CggS m the

* From Poems by John B. Tabb, by permission of Messrs. Copeland
and Day.

ROADSIDE LIFE. 255

nests of other bees— this segment is narrower, and
is not furnished with organs for collecting and car-
rying pollen.

Some bees are solitary — that is, each female makes
a nest for her own young. Several kinds of these
will be described later. Here mention will be made
only of the social bees — those kinds in which a large
number of individuals work together to make a
common nest. Of these there exist in this country
the honey-bee and various species of bumblebees.
These belong to the family Apid^ (A'pi-dse).

The Honey-bee. — The honey-bees are constant
visitors of roadside blossoms ; here they are intently
busy probing rapidly flower after flower as if they
had not a moment to lose. Some amass great loads
of yellow pollen on their hind legs, while others
think only of gathering nectar. Some of them are
plebeian black bees, while others bear the yellow
bands at the base of the abdomen, characteristic of
the more aristocratic Italian blood. The bees never
seem satisfied with the yield of nectar ; they drain a
few florets on a spray of blossoms, and then, as if
hoping to find a larger crop, they fly to another, only
to repeat the operation a moment later.

As there are many special books on the honey-
bee, we will not take the space to describe here the
habits of this wonderful species. The best wa}^ to
study it is to spend some time in an apiary with a
practical beekeeper, and then continue the study by
means of an observation hive, which can be obtained
of most dealers in beekeepers' supplies. Such a
hive can be placed in a schoolroom with its entrance
at a window, and so arranged that the bees can not
18

256 INSECT LIFE.

enter the room, but admitting of free examination of
the operations of the bees through the glass sides ot
the hive.

Bees don't care about the snow ;
I can tell you why that's so :

Once I caught a little bee

Who was much too warm for me !

Frank Dempster Sherman.

The Bumblebees. — The clumsy, blundering
bumblebees are one of the most characteristic fea-
tures of roadside life. There are many kinds of them ;
more than fifty species have been described from
North America alone.

With the bumblebees as with the honey-bee and
with other social Hymenoptera, there are three
forms of individuals in each species — the males or
drones, the females or queens, and the workers. In
the spring and early summer only queens are found ;
these are larger than the other two forms. A little
later in the season the workers appear. There is a
great variation in size of the workers of some species,
but usually they can be easily distinguished from the
queens by their smaller size. The males or drones
are developed in the latter part of the summer.
They resemble the workers in size, but differ in that
the pollen baskets of the tibiae of the hind legs are
imperfectly developed. The fringe of hairs is not so
long as in the workers, and there are scattered hairs
over the surface of the tibia within the fringes.

* From Little-Folk Lyrics, by permission of Messrs. Houghton,
Mifflin & Co.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

257

In the latter part of the summer the pupils should
collect the three forms of some of the more common
species of bumblebees.

The nests of bumblebees are made in deserted
mouse-nests. In early spring a queen finds a nest in
which a mouse has passed the winter, and places
within it a ball of pollen, upon which she lays some
eggs. As soon as the larvae hatch they eat into the
pollen mass in all directions and, when full-grown,
make for themselves silken cocoons and change to
pupae. These cocoons the old bees strengthen with
wax, and after the young bees vacate them they are
used as storing cells for honey. This explains the
irregularity of the bumblebee-comb. The first
broods of the season are workers, and relieve the
queen of all duties except laying the eggs. Later in
the summer males and young queens appear. In the
autumn the colony breaks up, and all of the bees ex-
cept the young queens perish. These crawl away in-
to some protected place and pass the winter. In the
spring each queen that has survived the winter founds
a new colony, performing, until a brood of workers
has been developed, both the duties of queen and of
worker.

THE HOLLYHOCK.*

Seraglio of the Sultan Bee !

I listen at the waxen door,
And hear the zithern's melody

And sound of dancing on the floor.

Frafik Dempster Skerfnan.

* From Lyrics for a Lute, by permission of Messrs. Houghton
Mifflin & Co.

258

INSECT LIFE.

THE WASPS.

Many kinds of wasps and wasplike insects can be
found on roadside flowers. The true wasps can be
distinguished from the wasplike insects by the fact
that when at rest they fold their wings lengthwise
like a fan. Collect specimens of true wasps.

As with the bees, some of the true wasps are soli-
tary, while other species are social.

The Solitary Wasps. — The different species of
solitary wasps vary greatly in habits. Some are min-
ers, digging tunnels in the earth ; some are carpenters,
cutting tubular nests in wood, and showing a mason's
skill by partitioning their tunnels off into cells with
mud ; while others are masons pure and simple, build-
ing oval or globular mud-nests, which they fasten to
twigs of trees, the sides of buildings, or to other ob-
jects.

Fig. 231. — Eumenes /ratertins and its nest.

The solitary wasps constitute the family Eumeni-
D.^ (Eu-men'i-dae). In this family the tibiae of the mid-
dle legs bear a single terminal spur, and the tarsal
claws are armed with a tooth. A common represen-

ROADS IDE LIFE.

259

tative of the family is Eunicncs fratcr7nis {Eihnc-ncs fra-
tcr'nus), which makes a neat little nest, appearing like
a miniature water-jug, attached to a twig (Fig. 231).

The Social Wasps. — The social wasps are the
builders of the well-known paper nests. There are
two types of these
nests. In one the
nest consists of a
single comb, sus-
pended by a pe-
duncle, and is not
inclosed by an en-
velope (Fig. 232).
The wasps that build nests of this form belong to the
genus Polistes {Po-lis' tes). In this genus the abdomen
is long and spindle-shaped (Fig. 233). The species
are black, ring-ed with

yellow, or are bioun-
ish.

In the other t} pe
of nest there are sev-
eral combs when the

Fig. 232.— Nest of Polistes.

Fig. -zJiJ,.— Polistes.

Fig. 234.— Nest of Vespa.

nest is completed, and all are inclosed by a spherical
paper envelope (Fig. 234). These nests are made by

26o INSECT LIFE.

wasps of the genus Vcspa, which are commonly known
as yellow-jackets, and as hornets. With these insects
the body is comparatively short and stout (Fig. 235),
and is black, spotted and banded with yellowish white.
Some species of Vcspa attach their nests to build-
ings or to the branches of shrubs and trees. Such
nests are made of a gray paper com-
posed of fibers of weather-worn wood,
which the wasps obtain from fences and
the sides of unpainted buildings.

Other species build their nests in

holes in the ground. These are usually

,, , composed of brownish paper which is

¥lG. ■22,3-— ^espa. ^ ., , • . r

quite fragile, being composed of more
or less decayed wood. Owing to the fragile nature
of this paper, the outer envelope of such nests con-
sists of many small, shell-like parts fastened together,
instead of large sheets.

The social wasps resemble the bumblebees in
that a colony exists only one season ; the males and
workers die in the autumn, the young queens hiber-
nate, and each starts a new colony in the spring, the
queen at first performing the duties of both queen
and worker. The social wasps belong to the family
Vespid.'E (Ves'pi-dae).

THE DIGGER-WASPS.

There are several families of wasplike insects
which have been classed together as the digger-
wasps, because most of the species make nests for
their young by digging burrows in the ground or in
wood. These insects differ from the true wasps in
that their wings lie flat above the body when at rest,

ROADSIDE LIFE. 261

and they differ from the bees in not having the hind
legs fitted for carrying pollen.

Although the digger-wasps do not provision their
nests with pollen or nectar, they feed on these sub-
stances themselves, and hence are often found on
flowers. Many of them are also frequently found in
damp places collecting mud for their nests, for some
species make their nests entirely of mud, and others
that make burrows in wood divide these burrows
into cells by partitions of mud.

Of those that build their nests of mud, the most
common are the thread-waisted wasps, so called on
account of the form of the first ab-
dominal segment (Fig. 236). They
make nests of mud attached to the O^ ^
lower surface of flat stones or to fig. 236.— a thread-
the ceilings of buildings. These -aistedwasp.

nests usually have the form of several tubes an inch
or so long placed side by side, and are provisioned
with spiders. The spiders are not killed, but stung
until paralyzed. The prey thus treated remains alive
a long time, but is helpless. An ^^% is laid in each
cell with this provision, and then the opening of the
tube is sealed up securely. When the larva hatches
it finds nicely preserved food right at hand sufficient
to nourish it during its growth. Nests of other dig-
ger-wasps are described below.

INSECTS OF SUMACH AND OTHER PITHY PLANTS.

Many bees, wasps, and digger-wasps build their
nests in dead branches of sumach and other pithy
plants. Where sumach grows it affords the best op-
portunity for the study of the nests of these insects.

262

INSECT LIFE.

If the reader will go to the nearest clump of sumachs
and break off a dozen dead branches, and then split
them carefully, he is almost certain to
find one or more such nests. Fig. 237
represents a common type of nest found
in sumach.

These nests are made by solitary in-
sects— that is, a single female working
alone builds a nest in which to lay her
eggs. Representatives of several fam-
ilies utilize dead branches of pithy plants
for this purpose. In such places can be
found nests of solitary bees, of solitary
wasps, and of digger-wasps.

The parent insect finds an entrance
through a knothole at the side or at
the end of the branch when the tip has
been broken off. She excavates the pith
for a considerable distance ; then she
collects a quantity of food and places it
in the lower part of this tunnel, after
which she lays an egg upon it, and
builds a partition across the tunnel just
above the egg and the supply of food.
She repeats this process until the tunnel
is divided into several cells, each con-
taining an egg and a quantity of food.

When the larvae hatch from these

eggs each finds in its cell sufificient food

oi fry'poxyion to uourish it till it is full-grown. When

rtgt urn. ^j^.^ stage is reached the larvae of some

species spin cocoons about their bodies, within which

the pupa state is passed ; in other species the larvae

Fig. 237. — Nest

ROADSIDE LIFE. 263

change to pupas without making cocoons. After a
time the pupse change to adult insects, which dig their
way out from the nest, and in turn build similar nests
for their young. In leaving the nest the newly devel-
oped adults pass out through the opening at the up-
per end. It follows from this that the youngest of
the brood — the one in the cell last made — is able to
emerge first, each adult being obliged to wait till
those above it are out of the way before it can escape.

The nests of solitary bees can be recognized by
the fact that they are provisioned with a paste made
of pollen and nectar ; and, so far as I have observed,
the partitions in the nests of solitary bees are always
made of vegetable matter. Sometimes the partitions
are made of pith, sometimes of chewed-up leaves,
and in the case of certain large carpenter-bees the
partitions are built of small chips fastened together
in a spiral.

The nests of the solitary true wasps and those of
the digger-wasps are provisioned with animal matter,
each species using a particular kind of food. Some
use only spiders for this purpose, some plant-lice,
some caterpillars, and so on through the list. In
each case the creatures stored in the nest are not
killed, but are stung in such a way as to be paralyzed.
Here they lie helpless till needed as food by the
larva that hatches from the egg laid with them.

The solitary wasps and the digger-wasps that
build their nests in pithy plants also agree in usually
making the partitions in their nests of mud. In fact,
I know of no way of distinguishing between the nests
of these two groups of insects except by breeding the
adults. This, however, can be done easily.

264

INSECT LIFE.

When a nest of any of these in-
sects is found containing either larvas
or pupge, the adults can be bred
by carefully closing the nest and
placing it in a breeding cage, or, if it
is too long, in a bag of Swiss muslin.
There are certain minute digger-
wasps that do not need to remove all
the pith from the section of the
branch in which they make their
nest. These make winding burrows
in the pith. Fig. 238 rep-
resents one of these nests.
Such nests are usually
provisioned with plant-
lice.

Some of the wood-bur-
rowing bees and wasps
are not so saving of their
labor as those that bur-
row in pith, but make
their tunnels in solid
wood. Fig. 239 repre-
sents the nest of a solitary
wasp which was made in a
board in the side of a
barn. The contents of
the cells had been re-
moved by the collector
before the nest came into our posses-
sion, hence they are not shown in
the figure. The partitions in this
nest are made of mud. The archi-

FiG. 238.

V

mi

ROADSIDE LIFE. 265

tect of it is pictured in Fig. 240. Its name is Monobui
quadridcns {Mo-no' bia quad'ri-dens).

Tliere are large carpenter-bees that make nests
similar to that of Monobia, except that the partitions
are formed of bits of wood
fastened together. These
bees resemble bumblebees
in size and appearance, but
differ in having a dense
brush on the hind legs in-
stead of a pollen basket.

T^i , r ^1 Fig. 240. — Monobia quadridens.

1 he bees of the genus
Megachile {Meg-a-chi'lc) have the curious habit of mak-
ing cells for their young out of neatly cut pieces of
leaves, and on this account they are called leaf-cutter
bees. The cells of the leaf-cutter bees are packed
away in such secure places that one does not often
find them, but it is a very easy thing to find frag-
ments of leaves from which the pieces have been cut
by bees. The leaves of various plants are used for
this purpose, but rose-leaves are used more frequent-
ly than any other kind. In Fig. 241 there are repre-
sented one of these bees, its nest, and a spray of rose-
leaves from which pieces have been cut by the bee.

The species represented here, Megachile acuta {M.
a-cn'fa), is a carpenter as well as a leaf-cutter. It
first makes a tunnel in wood, often selecting that
which is partially decayed ; then it proceeds to build
a thimble-shaped tube at the bottom of this tunnel.
For this purpose it cuts from the leaves oblong
pieces, each of which forms a part of a side and the
bottom of the thimble-shaped tube. Two such
pieces had been cut from the lower leaf on the left

266

INSECT LIFE.

side of the spray figured here. When the thimble-
shaped tube is completed, the bee partially fills it
with a paste of pollen and nectar, and then places an
egg upon the supply of food. She then cuts several
circular pieces of leaves, the diameter of which is a

A leaf-cutter bee, nest, and rose-leaves cut by the bee.

little greater than the diameter of the tube, and forces
them into the open end of it, thus making a tightly
fitting plug ; three of these circular pieces had been
cut from the spray figured. Usually several cells of
this kind are placed end to end in a burrow, and
sometimes many bees will build their nests near to-
gether in the same piece of wood.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

l^J

The leaf-cutter bees do not always bore tunnels in
which to place their cells. We have found these
cells in a crack between shingles on a roof, in the
cavity of a large branch of sumach, beneath stones
lying on the ground, and, in Florida, in the tubular
leaves of the pitcher-plant.

Some species of bees make nests similar to those
of the leaf-cutter bees, except that the cells are
formed of pieces of petals of flowers. The petals of
Pelargonium are often used for this purpose.

THE CLIFF-DWELLERS.

There are many bees, wasps, and digger-wasps
that build their nests in the sides of cliffs, reminding
one of the habitations built
by certain communities of
Indians in the far West.
The insect cliff - dwellers
prefer sandy cliffs, and it
often happens that a sand-
bank becomes so thickly
studded with the burrows
of these insects that it looks
as if it had been used as a
target for practice with a
shotgun.

The most abundant of
these cliff-dwellers are the
minute bees belonging to the genus Halictus {Ha-lic'-
tus). These are the smallest of all our bees, measur-
ing only from one tenth to three tenths of an inch in
length. Great numbers of them can be seen during
the warmer parts of the day, flying back and forth,

«:i&£&y

268 INSECT LIFE.

close to the face of the cliffs inhabited b}' them.
The openings to their burrows are just large enough
for a bee to enter, but a short distance from the open-
ing the burrow is enlarged so that a bee can turn
about in it easily. This feature and the small size of
the opening distinguish the burrows of Halictus from
those of other common cliff-dwellers. In the sides of
this comparatively large burrow there are many
small openings leading into cells, in each of which is
placed a supply of food and an ^^%. The walls of
these cells are glazed like the surface of pottery. It
is said that several females unite in making the larger
burrow, after which each female makes passages ex-
tending sidewise from, this main burrow or public
corridor to her own cells. If this is true a cliff in-
habited by Halictus may be compared to a city com-
posed of apartment houses.

Certain cliff-dwelling bees, which are much largei
than Halictus, resembling the honey-bee in size, con.
ceal the entrance to their burrows by building over
each a tube which is bent downward.

Some solitary wasps and many species of digger-
wasps are cliff-dwellers. The nests of these can be
recognized by the fact that they are provisioned with
insects or spiders.

THE MINERS OF THE PLAINS.

Although the sides of sandy cliffs afford the min-
ing insects the best of conditions for building their
nests, both as regards the economy of labor and in
protection from drenching rains, there are many spe-
cies that prefer to mine in level ground. The fol-
lowing are among the more common pf these : —

ROADSIDE LIFE. 269

The Mining-bees. — The bees of the genus An-
drena {An-drc'na) probably attract attention more
frequently than any other mining-bees. Some of the
species nearly or quite equal in size the workers of
the honey-bee. They build their nests in grassy
fields, sinking a perpendicular shaft with branches
leading sidewise to the cells. The main shaft some-
times extends to a depth of more than one foot.
These bees, though strictly solitary — each female
building her own nest — frequently build their nests
near together, forming large villages. Sometimes a
village, or we might say a city, of this kind, covering
only one square rod of ground, will include several
thousand nests.

The Mining Digger-wasps. — Various digger-
wasps build their nests in level ground, especially in
sandy places. One family of these are known as the
spider-wasps, because they provision
their nests with spiders. The spider-
wasps belong to the family Pompilid^
(Pom-pil'i-dce) ; they are slender in
form, with long legs (Fig. 242), and are
usually black with dusky reddish or '°" ^'^^^

black wings ; sometimes they are variegated with red
or orange. They are common everywhere through-
out our country, and are often seen on bright, hot
days running about with a jerky step and constantly
twinkling wings ; even when at rest the wings are
frequently twitched. It is a common thing also to
see these digger-wasps running backward, dragging
their prey after them. A very large species which
occurs in the Southwest is known as the tarantula-
hawk, because.it stores its burrows with tarantulas.

70

INSECT LIFE.

Another very large digger-wasp which frequently
attracts attention is represented by Fig. 243. This

is the cicada-
killer, Spheci-
us spcciosus
^^- ' {Sphe'ci'USSpc-
ci-dsus). It is
black, some-
times of a
rusty color,
and has the
abdomen

T^o.^^2..-Sphec^usspec^osus. banded with

yellow. It digs burrows in the earth two feet or
more in depth, and provisions each with a cicada.

The Tiger-beetles. — The tiger-beetles are long-
legged, agile beetles, which abound on bright, hot
days in dusty roads, in beaten paths, and on the
shores of streams. Fig. 244 represents a common
species. Their popular name was suggested by their
predaceous habits and the stripes with which many
species are marked. They can run swiftly and fly
well. When approached by a passer-by,
they remain quiet but alert till nearly
reached ; then like a flash they fly up and
away, but alight after going a few rods.
Before alighting they always turn so as to
face the approaching person and be able
to watch his movements.

These beetles dig sloping burrows in
the earth into which they retreat in stormy or cold
weather.

The larvas of the tisrer-beetles live in vertical bur-

FiG. 244.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

271

rows, which can be easily recognized after one has
learned their characteristic appearance. These bur-
rows abound in sandy places, in beaten paths, and
in plowed fields that have become dry and hard.
The larger ones, those occupied by full-grown larvae,
measure about one sixth inch in diameter, and often
extend a foot or more in depth. The sides are
smooth ; the entrance to each is very regular in out-
line, and without any loose dirt on the surface of the
ground near it, as is usually the case with
somewhat similar burrows made by ants.

Fig. 245 represents a larva of a tiger-
beetle. When watching for its prey, the
larva rests perfectly still at the mouth of
its burrow. Its dirt-colored head is bent
at right angles to its lighter-colored body
and makes a neat plug to the opening of ^^' *'*^*
the hole. Its rapacious jaws extend upward, wide
open, ready to seize the first unwary insect that
walks over this living trap. On the fifth segment of
the abdomen there is a hump, and on this hump are
two hooks curved forward. This is an arrangement
by which the little rascal can hold back and keep
from being jerked out of its hole when it gets some
large insect by the leg, and by which it can drag its
struggling prey down into its lair, where it may eat
it at leisure.

The holes of the tiger-beetle larvae are always
open when found, the larvae being frightened away
by the approach of the observer. But sit down near
them, and watch quietly, and soon they will be
plugged by dirt-colored heads. Each passer-by will

cause the cautious larvae to retreat ; but they will re-

19

2/2

INSECT LIFE.

turn in a few minutes to their position of patient
watchfulness, and here they wait like a still fisher-
man on a log.

The habits of these larvae can be observed in a
schoolroom in the following manner : —

1. Take a box about eight inches deep, and half
fill it with sand or fine earth, and pour some water
on the soil so that it shall become packed firmly.

2. Collect several tiger-beetle larvse. In doing
this put a stalk down the burrow so that it shall not
become filled with dirt, and thus lost while you are
digging the larva out. Put each larva collected in a
single vial, so that they can not injure each other.

3. With a slender stick or a slate pencil make
holes in the soil in your box, one or two inches deep

and about as wide as burrows of tiger-
beetle larvae, and put a larva in each.

4. Observe the way in which the lar-
vae deepen these holes, and fit them for
their use.

5. When the larvae have become well
established in their new burrows, scatter
sugar on the surface of the soil so as to
attract flies.

6. Make notes on the habits of tiger-
beetle larvae, and write an account of
them.

INSECTS OF GOLDENROD.

In late summer and in the autumn the

Goidenrod, ycllow blossoms of the goldcnrod attract

Soiidago. swarms of insects of various kinds ; at

this season there is no better field for the collector than

the clumps of this plant growing in the fence corners.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

273

The Soldier-beetles. — The most abundant of
the goldenrod visitors are the soldier-beetles ; so-
called on account of the bright colors of
their yellow and black uniforms (Fig. 247).
Sometimes these beetles occur in such

as to bend the plant down by their
weight. Here they are in constant mo-
tion, crawling over the plant and over

' C> ^ i-IG. 247.

each other. But they can fly readily, and
do so often, passing from cluster to cluster. These
beetles belong to the genus Cha2iliognat]ms {Chmd-i-
og'na-thns), of the firefly family, LampyridtE (Lam-
pyr'i-dae).

The Locust -borer. — Associated
with the soldier beetles we often find
one with his back covered with yellow
stripes like the chevron on the sleeves of
a sergeant (Fig. 248). This is the locust-
borer, Cyllcnc-robinicE {Cyl-le'ne ro-biii'i-cB).
It belongs to the family of long-horned
beetles.

The Blister-beetles. — Blister-beetles are also
frequently found on the flowers of goldenrod. With
these the body is comparatively soft ; the
head is broad, and abruptly narrowed into
a neck, and the prothorax is narrower than
the wing -covers (Fig. 249). There are
many kinds of blister-beetles ; they consti-
tute the family Meloid^ (Me-lo'i-das). They
are called blister-beetles because the dried
bodies of certain species are used for making blister
plasters.

Fig. 249.

274

INSECT LIFE.

The Amrush-bug. — There is a greenish bug, with
very strong fore legs and a broadly expanded abdo-
men (Fig. 250), which conceals itself in the flowers
of goldenrod and in other flowers. This is the am-
bush-bug ; it rests quietly among the flowers
^Jk^ until some nectar-loving insect comes with-
-j&j^ in its reach, when the visitor is seized and
destroyed. The ambush-bug can overcome

Fig. 250. . -^ , , , . ,r T

msects much larger than itself. Its name is

Phymata wolffii {Phy-via'ta wolffi-i), and it belongs

to the family Phvmatid.e (Phy-mat'i-dse).

The Goldenrod Galls. — One of the most
familiar of abnormal growths on plants is a ball-like
enlargement of the stem of goldenrod (Fig. 251).
This is caused by a maggot which lives within it,
and which develops into a pretty fly with banded
wings. The name of the fly is
Trypeta solidaginis ( Try-pe'ta sol-
i-dag'i-nis), and its gall is desig-
nated as the round goldenrod
gall.

There is another gall on the
stem of goldenrod which is fig. zsT.— The round" gold-
more elongate and is hollow. enrodgau.
This is known as the elliptical goldenrod gall ; it is
represented in the lower part of Fig. 246. This gall
is made by the larva of a Tineid moth, Gelechia gallcz-
solidaginis {Ge-le'-chi-a gal-lce-sol-i-dag' i-nis).

Collect specimens of these galls, and, placing
them in breeding-cages, rear the adult insects.

ROADSIDE LIFE. 275

The most abundant of all roadside insects are the
ants. Of these there are many kinds, each differing
more or less from the others in appearance and in
habits, but the following generalizations can be
made : —

All ants are social, many individuals working
together to make a common nest. As with the
social bees and with the social wasps, each colony of
ants consists of three classes of individuals: males,
females or queens, and workers. The males and fe-
males are winged ; the workers are wingless. The
worker class is the one most often observed, this class
constituting the greater number of individuals found
in any nest. In fact, it is only during a part of the
year that winged forms can be found in the nests,
although wingless queens are constantly present.

Often in warm summer afternoons the air will
seem to be filled with countless thousands of flying
ants. Their moving wings divide the sun's rays into
rainbow flashes as they rise or fall, a silent, onward-
moving host. This is the wedding journey of the
male and female ants, which have come from many
communities and have taken flight together. But
soon the journey is over and they drop to earth,
where the males soon die ; but the females tear off
their own wings, having no further use for them, and
set about to find places to lay their eggs. Some-
times a female starts a new colony ; in other cases
she is found by some workers of her own species and
adopted as their queen.

The term queen, as applied to the individual at

276 INSECT LIFE.

the head of a colony of ants, is a misnomer, for among
social insects the queens do not rule ; they are
merely the mothers of their colonies. The queen
ant is not jealous, like the queen bee, but may live in
peace in the same dwelling with several other queens.
She is always an object of extreme devotion to her
attendants, who feed her and care for her eggs as
soon as she lays them.

The larvae of ants are white and legless; most
species spin cocoons when ready to pupate, but some
do not. The oblong, egg-shaped bodies which may
be seen in any ant's nest, and which are often mis-
taken by the careless observer for eggs, are these
cocoons. The eggs are so small that they escape
observation unless careful search is made for them.
The larvae are efficiently cared for by the workers,
who carry them about and put them in the warmer
parts of the nest and feed them. When the adults
issue from their cocoons their nurses help them out
carefully ; and they unfold the legs and smooth out
the wings of new-fledged royalty with tenderest solici-
tude. The workers are by far the most interesting
portion of the ant colony, as they do all the work —
feed the colony, build and defend the nests, care for
the young and for the stock, and carry on the wars.
The workers are undeveloped females, which very
rarely lay eggs, and as the eggs of workers always
develop into males, the presence of a queen is neces-
sary for the perpetuation of the life of a colony. For
this reason, as the queens grow old the workers find
young queens at the swarming season, bring them
into their nests, and adopt them as successors to the
old queens.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

277

There are many forms of ants' nests, but each
species builds the same sort. Sometimes the nest is
a simple tunnel in the earth, sometimes a large mound
with tunnels and galleries extending many feet under
ground, and some species live in decayed trees. In
the tropics a greater variety of these structures occur
than in our country. Some colonies own several
mounds. One colony of one species has been known
to have two hundred mounds, covering several hun-
dred square yards. Ants are also very good road-
makers, sometimes making clean, beaten paths, and
sometimes working out covered ways under rubbish.

As to their food, ants are general feeders, eating
animal food and also sweet substances, like the juice
of fruit and sugar ; and they are also very fond of
the honey-dew given off by aphids, and the ants re-
gard these aphids as their milch-cows. An ant will
walk up to an aphid and stroke its back with its
antennas, and immediately the pleased aphid gives
forth a drop of sweet fluid, which the ant at once
drinks up. The ants take very good care of their
cattle, and will carry them to new pastures if the old
ones dry up. They also carry the aphid-eggs into
their nests, and keep them sheltered during the win-
ter, and then carry the young plant-lice out and put
them on plants in the spring. When ants are seen
going up and down the trunks of trees it is safe to
suppose they are attending aphids. They also care
similarly for some other honey-giving insects, as cer-
tain bark-lice {CoccidcE) and tree-hoppers {Menibracid(E).

The Habits of Ants {Field Work). — Make a col-
lection of ants representing as many species as practi-
cable. Give each species a number, and make notes

278 INSECT LIFE.

on the kind of nest made by each. The smaller
specimens should be mounted on cardboard points.

Look for ant-nests under stones lying on the sur-
face of the ground, and when one is found containing
eggs, larvse, pupae, and adults, collect a set of speci-
mens illustrating the transformations of the species.

Find a shrub or tree upon the trunk of which ants
are passing up and down. Watch some of the ants
that are going up and determine the object of their
journey. Follow some of the ants that are passing
down till they reach their nest. It sometimes hap-
pens that ants have covered ways several rods in
length leading from their nest to the trees that they
frequent. If such a road be found, uncover it care-
fully till the nest is reached.

Write an account of what you have learned in the
field regarding the habits of ants.

The Habits of Ants {School Work). — The habits
of ants can be studied in a schoolroom by establish-
ing a colony in an artificial nest. Such a nest is
.. _„__^ --n_,^_,^ represented in Fig.

/ g mmBmm0^,^mm..>^m^ One dcvised by Sir

Fig. 252. — An artificial ant-nest. The Drincioal

materials needed for the construction of a nest of
this kind are two panes of window-glass ten inches
square, a sheet of tin eleven inches square, and a
piece of plank one and one fourth inches thick,
twenty inches long, and at least sixteen inches wide.
To make the nest, proceed as follows : Cut a tri-
angular piece about one inch long on its two short
sides from one corner of one of the panes of glass.

ROADSIDE LIFE.

279

From the sheet of tin make a tray three eighths of
an inch in depth. This tray will be a little wider
than the panes of glass and will contain them easily.
On the upper side of the plank a short distance from
the edge, cut a deep furrow. This plank is to form
the base of the nest, and the furrow is to serve as a
moat, which is to be kept filled with water, in order
to prevent the escape of the ants. It is necessary to
paint the base with several coats of paint to protect it
from water and thus prevent its warping.

To prepare the nest for use, place the tin tray on
the base, put in the tray the square pane of glass, lay
on the edges of the glass four strips of wood about
one half inch wide and a little thicker than the height
of the ants which are to be kept in the nest, cover
the glass with a layer of fine earth of the same thick-
ness as the strips of wood, place upon this layer of
earth and the strips of wood the pane of glass from
which one corner has been cut, and cover the whole
with a cover of the same size and shape as the upper
pane of glass. In the nest figured the cover is made
of blackened tin, and one half of it is covered by a
board. This gives a variation in temperature in dif-
ferent parts of the nest when it stands in the sun-
light.

The ants when established in the nest are to mine
in the earth between the two plates of glass. The
removal of one corner from the upper pane provides
an opening to the nest. The thickness of the strips
of wood between the edges of the two panes of glass
determines the depth of the layer of earth in which
the ants live. This should not be much thicker than
the ants are hie;'h ; for if it is the ants will be able

28o INSECT LIFE.

to conceal themselves so that they can not be ob-
served.

The nest being prepared, the next step is to trans-
fer a colony of ants to it. The things needed with
which to do this are a two-quart glass fruit-can or
some similar vessel that can be closed tightly, a
clean vial, and a garden trowel. With these in
hand, find a small colony of ants, such as are com-
mon under stones in most parts of the country.
Collect as many of the ants and of the eggs, larvae,
and pupae as possible, and put them in the fruit-can
together with the dirt that is scooped up in collect-
ing them with the trowel. Search carefully for the
queen ; sometimes she is found immediately beneath
the stone covering the nest, but often it is necessary
to dig a considerable distance in order to find her.
She can be recognized by her large size. If the
queen is not found, empty the contents of the can
back into the nest, and take up another colony ;
without a queen the experiment will be a failure.
When the queen is found place her in the vial so that
she shall not be injured while being carried to the
schoolroom.

Having obtained a queen and a large part of her
family old and young, return to the schoolroom and
empty the contents of the fruit-can on to the board
covering the upper pane of glass, and place the queen
there with her family. If much dirt and rubbish has
been collected with the ants, remove some of it so
that not more than a half pint of it remains. When
this is done leave the ants undisturbed for a day or
two. Of course the moat should be filled with water
so that they can not escape.

ROADSIDE LIFE. 28l

Usually within twenty-four hours the ants will
find the opening leading into the space between the
two panes of glass and will make a mine into the
layer of earth which is there, and will remove their
queen and young to this place. This process can be
hastened by gradually removing the dirt placed on
the cover of the nest with the ants.

After the ants have made a nest between the
panes of glass, they can be observed, when desired,
by merely lifting the board forming the cover of the
nest.

With proper care a colony can be kept in a nest
of this kind as long as the queen lives, which may
be several years. The food for the ants can be
placed on the base of the nest anywhere within the
moat, and may consist of sugar, minute bits of meat,
fruits, etc. With a little care the kinds of food
preferred by the colony can be easily determined.
The pupae of ants, which can be collected from
nests in the field during the summer months, will
be greedily devoured. The soil in the nest should
be kept from becoming too dry by putting a little
water into one side of the tin tray from time to
time.

Many suggestions as to the kinds of experiments
that can be tried with a colony of ants can be ob-
tained by reading the well-known work of Sir John
Lubbock entitled Ants, Bees, and Wasps.

O the South Wind and the Sun !
How each loved the other one —
Full of fancy — full of folly —
Full of jollity and fun !

282 INSECT LIFE.

How they romped and ran about.
Like two boys when school is out.
With glowing face, and lisping lip.
Low laugh, and lifted shout !

Over meadow-lands they tripped.
Where the dandelions dipped

In crimson foam of clover-bloom,

And dripped and dripped and dripped :
And they clinched the bumble-stings.
Gauming honey on their wings.

And bundling them in lily-bells.
With maudlin murmurings.

And the humming-bird, that hung

Like a jewel up among
The tilted honeysuckle-horns.

They mesmerized, and swung

In the palpitating air,

Drowsed with odors strange and rare,
And, with whispered laughter, slipped away

And left him hanging there.

And the golden-banded bees.
Droning o'er the flowery leas,

They bridled, reined, and rode away
Across the fragrant breeze,
Till in hollow oak and elm
They had groomed and stabled them

In waxen stalls that oozed with dews
Of rose and lily-stem.

Where the dusty highway leads.
High above the wayside weeds

They sowed the air with butterflies
Like blooming flower-seeds,
Till the dull grasshopper sprung
Half a man's height up. and hung

Tranced in the heat, with whirring wings.
And sung and sung and sung !

ROADSIDE LIFE.

283

And they loitered, hand in hand,

Where the snipe along the sand
Of the river ran to meet them

As the ripple meets the land.

Till the dragon-fly, in light

Gauzy armor, burnished bright,
Came tilting down the waters

In a wild, bewildered flight.

yaines Whitcomb Riley.*

From Afterwhiles, by permission of the Bowen-Merrill Co.

PART II.

THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION
OF SPECIiMENS.

CHAPTER I.

THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS.

In order to study insects thoroughly it is
necessary to collect specimens. Very
much can be learned by merely watching
insects in the field, but if we are to study
their structure and their classification, we
must make a collection.

In doing this we should be humane.
It is not probable that insects are as sen-
sitive to pain as we are, but there is no
iG. 253. (JQyi3|- i-jja^t they suffer when injured. We
should, therefore, handle our specimens carefully, kill
them without inflicting needless pain, and destroy no
more than is necessary for study. It is not merely
the insects that are to be considered in this matter,
for no one can be cruel to animals without its having
a bad effect on his character.

I. COLLECTING APPARATUS.

The first step in the collecting of insects is the
preparation of collecting apparatus. Many things

284

THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS.

285

have been devised for this purpose, and are in use
by professional entomologists, but the beginner
needs only a few of them. Usually a collecting out-
fit will consist of merely a net, a killing bottle, and a
few vials or pill-boxes for bringing home living
specimens. If one desires to collect butterflies it is
well to add to this list a cork-lined collecting box
and perhaps a vial of chloroform with a small brush
fitted in the cork.

Insect Nets. — Many insects can be easily and
safely caught by hand, but it is desirable that some
members of the class, and the more the better, should
have insect-nets. The usual form of an insect net is
shown in Fig. 253. Such a net is made as follows: —

The ring is of No. 3 galvanized iron wire, and is
one foot in diameter. It is securely fitted into a light
wooden handle, which is three feet and six inches in
length. The ring is covered with a piece of strong
cloth — ordinary sheeting — to which a bag of cheese-
cloth is sewed. The strong cloth over the ring is
necessary to prevent the net from wearing out
quickly. The bag of the net should be longer than
its diameter, so that when an insect is caught while
flying it can be imprisoned in the bottom of the bag
by simply rolling the handle of the net. The bottom
of the bag should be rounded, without corners or
points in which insects can lodge.

Killing Bottles. — The specimens collected
should be killed in some way that shall not mutilate
them. This can be done by putting a few drops of
chloroform, sulphuric ether, or benzene on cotton
and inclosing it with the insects to be killed in a
bottle or small box. But the most convenient way,

286

INSECT LIFE.

and the one that is commonly employed, is by the
use of a cyanide bottle. Each pupil, except very
young ones, should have such a bottle. The bottles
can be prepared, either by the teacher or by a drug-
gist, in the following manner : —

Take a wide-mouthed bottle holding four or six
ounces. Put in this bottle a piece of cyanide of potas-
sium, about three fourths of an inch square, and
water enough to cover the cyanide ; and then im-
mediately, before there is time for the cyanide to
dissolve, put enough plaster of Paris in the bottle to
entirely soak up the water. In this way the cyanide
will be firmly cemented in place in the
bottom of the bottle. The bottle
should then be left open in a shady
place for an hour to dry, and then se-
curely corked with a long cork and
labeled Poison, after which it is ready
for use (Fig. 254).

In using a cyanide bottle care should
be taken not to leave it open unneces-
sarily, lest it lose its strength. With
proper care a bottle will retain its
strength for several months.
Specimens placed in the bottle to be killed should
be left there for at least a half hour. They may be left
in the bottle several hours, even over night, without
injury. Thus a collecting trip may be made one day
and the specimens left in the bottle till the following
day before they are pinned. If it is necessary to re-
turn an insect to the cyanide bottle on account of its
revival after it is pinned, the pin should be removed,
for the gas in the bottle will corrode it.

Fig. 254.

THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS.

287

Fig. 255.

A small cyanide bottle, about one fourth the size
of that described above, is very convenient for car-
rying in one's pocket constantly during the
collecting season. A very convenient pock-
et-bottle is represented half size by Fig.
255.

Collecting Boxes. — Collectors of but-
terflies usually have a shallow tin box, lined
with pith or cork, into which specimens
can be pinned, and fitted with a strap by
means of which it can be slung over the
shoulder (Fig. 256). A cheap substitute for such a
box can be made by using a shallow cigar-box, lined
with cork and fitted with a strong cord. Make a
small hole in each end of the box, and through each

hole put an end
of the cord and
tie a knot in it ;
tack a piece of
sheet-cork to the
bottom of the box on the inside, and the box is ready
for use. If sheet-cork can not be obtained, the box
can be lined with the pith of corn-stalks, or slices
can be cut from cork stopples and tacked to the bot-
tom of the box.

Folded Papers for Butterflies. — There is an-
other method of caring temporarily for specimens of
butterflies, which is used when it is not convenient to
pin them. The specimen is killed while it is yet in
the net by pinching the thorax, care being taken that
the wings are folded together above the back, so that
they shall not be rubbed. Then the specimen is
dropped into a triangular envelope made by folding

Fig. 256. — A collecting box.

288 INSECT LIFE.

a piece of paper, as shown in Fig. 257, and a memo-
randum of the locality and date of capture is written

Fig. 257. — Folded paper for butterflies.

on the envelope. If one expects to use this method,
it is well to have a shallow, flat tin box in which the
envelopes can be carried without danger of breaking
the specimens. When it is desired to pin and spread
specimens that have been stored in this way they are
relaxed by putting them on damp sand, as described
in the next chapter.

Vials and Pill-boxes.— A supply of vials and
pill-boxes is desirable for almost every collecting trip ;
many delicate insects can be carried with safety in
these that would be rubbed in a killing bottle ; and,
too, it is often desirable to carry home living speci-
mens, especially of larvae and pupae. For collecting
spiders and soft-bodied insects one or more small
bottles or vials partly filled with alcohol are useful.

II. WHEN AND WHERE TO COLLECT INSECTS.

Although insects can be collected at all seasons of
the year and at all times of the day and night, there
are certain periods during which a very much greater
variety can be obtained than at others.

Obviously the best season of the year is during
the summer months; the best periods of the day are

TIIK COLLECTION OF STECIMLNS.

289

between 8 A. M. and 2 r. i\L, and in the evening twilight.
These are the times during which searching for insects
in the fields will yield the largest returns. If, how-
ever, the collecting be restricted to these periods
many species will escape notice. Many insects can
also be collected after dark by enticing them to lights
or sweetened baits.

While the careful collector will search for speci-
mens in all manner of places, there are certain locali-
ties in which insects occur much more abundantly
than in others. First in importance is upon herbage
and shrubbery, where many species of plants are
growing together, and especially upon the borders
of woods. Open fields, which are covered chiefly by
a single species of plant, and deep, dense forests fur-
nish many interesting forms, but a much more limited
variety. The banks and beds of ponds and streams
are also excellent collecting places. A great variety
of forms can be obtained from the lower surface of
stones taken from the beds of streams. Many species
may be found in the moss on the trunks of trees, be-
neath bark, and in rotten stumps and logs. Other
forms are obtained from flowers, from dead animals,
from fungi, in decaying fruits, in seeds and nuts, and
under stones, chips, and other rubbish. Frequently
many cocoons and chrysalids can be found attached
to fences and to the sides of buildings, and many in-
teresting nests occur attached beneath eaves and to
the lower surface of the roofs of barns and other
buildings.

III. HOW TO COLLECT INSECTS.

There are ways, to be described later, by which
large numbers of specimens are easily obtained. But

2go INSECT LIFE.

in these wholesale modes of collecting comparatively
little is learned regarding the species collected. On
this account careful searching for specimens should
be placed first among the methods of collecting. The
eye should be trained to detect insects in their natu-
ral haunts without disturbing them ; then something
can be learned of the habits of the species before
taking specimens.

By carefully peering into herbage or among the
foliage of shrubs and trees many insects can be ob-
served and many lessons learned ; other localities in
which insects abound are indicated in the preceding
section of this chapter.

This looking among herbage, in trees and shrubs,
and under stones in the beds of streams, is the simpler
part of searching. The more difficult part is to train
the eyes to be quick in recognizing the indications of
the presence of concealed insects. A dead or dying
twig will suggest a search for a borer ; the premature
turning yellow of the foliage of a branch will suggest
a similar cause ; the sudden wilting or drooping of
isolated plants is generally caused by insects either at
the root or in the stalk. A rolled or spotted leaf
should be examined and the cause ascertained. In
a word, the eyes should be trained to be quick in
observing anything abnormal in the appearance of
plants ; and the mind, to be quick to seek the cause.

The Use of Nets. — Much of the success of the
collector will depend upon his skill in the use of his
net. The deliberate way in which one often sees a
net swung would indicate that the collector believes
that the insects are waiting to be caught. The small
returns, however, which result from this mode of

THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS.

291

collecting serve to dispel such belief. The net should
be swung so quickly that the insects have not time
to escape. In collecting butterflies, dragon-flies, and
other swiftly flying insects, it is usually better to wait
till the insect alights before attempting to catch it.

For general collecting the most important mode
of using the net is that commonly known as sweep-
ing. Larger returns, both as regards the number of
species and of specimens, can be obtained in this way
than in any other. In order to sweep, the collector
grasps his net handle eighteen or twenty inches
above the ring, and with a quick motion back and
forth in front of him as he walks through the grass
or other herbage, sweeps the insects from it into his
net. Of course, the net must be turned at the end of
each stroke, and must be kept in rapid motion, so
that the insects can not escape from it. After sweep-
ing a greater or less distance, depending upon the
abundance of specimens, the net is examined, the de-
sirable specimens secured, and the others allowed to
escape.

Another method of using a net is to beat from
beneath the foliage of shrubs and trees ; in this way
many specimens can be jarred into the net.

In using a net in water it should be moved back
and forth as rapidly as possible, care being taken to
beat or sweep any plants growing on the bottom of
the pond or stream. Sometimes many specimens can
be obtained by sweeping into the net leaves and other
rubbish from the bottom of a pond, and bringing them
to the shore and looking them over carefully.

In swiftly flowing streams an excellent way to
collect is to stand where the water flows swiftest.

292

INSECT LIFE,

holding the net in a vertical position between the
feet, and overturning the stones in the bed of the
stream in front of the net with a hoe or garden rake.
If the current is swift enough man}^ of the insects
that live beneath such stones will be swept into the
net.

Sugaring. — The method of collecting insects
known among entomologists as sugaring is one of
the most important to the collector of night-flying
moths. Other insects can be taken in this way, but
not in so great numbers as moths. A paste is made
of sugar and water. Unrefined sugar is the best for
this purpose, as it has a stronger odor than white
sugar. The paste should be thin enough to be used
with a brush, but not so thin that it will flow from
the objects to which it is applied. This paste is ap-
plied immediately after sunset to the trunks of trees,
to fences, and to other suitable objects. In each case
a patch about two inches wide and several inches
long is made. After dark these baits are visited by
the collector, who carries a lantern and several cyanide
bottles. One bottle is needed for storing the speci-
mens after they have become quiet, and several bot'
ties for collecting. Some collectors use a dark lan-
tern, but an ordinary lantern will serve the purpose.
This should be hung on the left arm, leaving both
hands free to manipulate the collecting bottle.

If a patch of sugar be approached cautiously,
usually the light can be directed upon it without dis-
turbing the moths that are there feeding. If a speci-
men is seen that is desired, the cork can be removed
from the collecting bottle with the left hand and the
bottle placed over the specimen. The insect will

THE COLLECTION OF SPECLMENS. 293

usually fly into the bottom part of the bottle ; if it
does not, a slight lateral movement of the bottle will
cause it to do so. The bottle should then be brought
into a vertical position with the mouth directed up-
ward, and quickly carried to the cork which is held
in the left hand.

The specimens collected should be left in a cyanide
bottle until the following morning. Then there will
be no danger of the resuscitation of any of them.
Warm dark nights when there is but little or no wind
are the best for sugaring.

Collecting at Lights. — Very many insects are
attracted to lights, and at such times are easily caught.
When electric street lamps can be reached they afford
the most prolific fields for the collector. A study
lamp placed at an open window on a summer even-
ing, although less prolific than the more conspicuous
street lamps, often yields good returns.

CHAPTER II.

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

Fig. 258.

There are two ways of pre-
serving entomological speci-
mens : they may be either pinned
and dried, or they may be placed
in a preservative fluid. The
method chosen will depend upon
the nature of the specimen and
the use to which it is to be put. As a rule, any
specimen that will preserve its form when dried is
pinned. Thus entomologists usually pin the adults
of nearly all insects, specimens of nests, infested
twigs, mined or rolled leaves, and other similar ob-
jects. On the other hand, the immature forms of all
insects, and such adults as have soft bodies that will
shrivel upon drying, are usually placed in alcohol.
Millipedes, centipedes, mites, spiders, and other
forms allied to these are also preserved in alcohol.
Some insects, on account of their minute size, are
mounted as microscopic objects in Canada balsam
upon glass slips, as described later.

In case specimens are desired for anatomical
study, they are preserved in alcohol or some other
fluid, whether the body be soft or not ; and certain
294

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

295

hard-bodied insects, as beetles, are often stored in
alcohol and pinned later. But many insects, as flies
and other hairy forms, are greatly injured by being
placed in a fluid, the hairs being matted so that when
the insect is pinned it presents an unnatural appear-
ance.

Insect Pins. — For pinning insects a special kind
of pin is ordinarily used — one made of slender wire —
so that the specimens are mutilated as little as possi-
ble. These can be procured of any dealer in ento-
mological supplies ; a list of such dealers is given on
page 340.

There are several styles of insect pins, but all
of those in general use can be classed under two
heads — the English and the German. The English
pins are short, so that an insect when pinned is close
to the bottom of the cabinet, while the German pins
are long, so that the pinned insect is held free from
the bottom of the cabinet. By the use of the latter
the danger of breaking off the legs from specimens,
when they are changed from one place in the cabinet
to another, is greatly lessened. Without entering
into any further discussion as to the relative merits
of the two kinds of pins, it can be said that it would
be unwise for an American collector to use any but
the German pins, for, as nearly all American ento-
mologists use this style, it would be difficult for a
collector using short pins to make exchanges in this
country.

Insect pins are made of different sizes of wire and
numbered accordingly, but the numbers used by the
different makers do not correspond with each other.
Below is given the names of the three kinds of Ger-

296

INSECT LIFE.

1 3 i
Fig. 259.

man pins now advertised for sale in this country,
with a list of the sizes of each. Fig. 259 represents

Kliiger pins : —

Klager : 00, o, /, 2, [ j], 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.

Length, if inch.

(Karlsbad) Carlesbader : o, i, 2, 3, 4, [5],

6, 7, (?, 9, 10. Length, i^ inch.

SchlUter: 00, o, i, 2, [j], 4, 5, <5, 7, 8, 9.

Length, i-| inch.

The numbers printed in italics indicate

in each case the sizes that will be found

most generally useful. If only a single

size is purchased, select that in brackets.
A convenient way of storing insect pins
is in a block of the form shown in Fig. 260. The
holes in the block are about three fourths as deep as
the pins are long, so that the heads of the pins pro-
ject from them. Several holes are made in the block
in order that each size of pin can be kept separate.

If for any reason it is impracticable for the pupil
to procure insect pins, ordinary pins, or the smaller
sizes of the black pins, commonly called mourning
pins, can be used. As a rule,
the mourning pins have bet-
ter points than the common
brass pins, and are to be pre-
ferred on this account, espe-
cially when cork or pith is
not used in the insect cases.
If possible, however, insect
Ordinary pins are made of too large wire for pinning
insects, and specimens pinned with such pins are
rarely suitable for a permanent collection, although

f'

Fig. 260. — Block for pins.

pins should be used.

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

297

they may serve very well the purposes of a tempora-
ry study.

The Pinning of Specimens. — The appearance of
a collection of insects depends greatly upon the care
taken in pinning the specimens. Nearly all insects

should be pinned

through the mid-
j^^^^ die of the thorax.
^^^^^^^ff^^% Many bugs (He-
^^^ miptera) are best

pinned through the

scutellum (Fig-

261), and beetles

are pinned through

the right wing-cov-
er at about one fourth its length from the base (Fig.
262). About one fourth of the length of the pin
should be allowed to project above the specimen ;
uniformity in this respect will add greatly to the
neatness of the appearance of the collection.

A convenient device for securing uniformity is
what may be termed a pinning block. This is made
from strips of wood which are
one fourth as thick as the pins
are long, and which are fas-
tened together as shown in
Fig. 263. A hole just large
enough to allow the passage
of the head of an insect pin is bored through the
center of each of the steps of the block. In pinning
an insect the pin is pushed through the insect so that
less than one fourth of its length projects above it,
and then the insect is pushed back into place by in-

FiG. 263. — A pinning block.

298 INSECT LIFE.

serting the head of the pin in the hole in the lower
step of the block. This step and the second are used
in spacing labels, and the third is used in fixing the
height of insects mounted on cardboard points.

Insects that are too small to be pinned, but not so
small that they need to be mounted as microscopic
objects, are gummed to the points of narrow
and pointed pieces of cardboard, which are
mounted on pins (Fig. 264). Another way
is to impale the insect on the point of a fine
pin, inserting the pin into the lower side of
f^rJo^j the thorax, and then, after cutting away the
[jS*%Bi head and the larger part of the pin, to
I mount what is left in a narrow strip of firm
Fig. 264. blotting paper, which in turn is mounted
on a large pin (Fig. 265). If suitable card-
board can be obtained for this purpose it is better
than blotting paper, but ordinary cardboard is split
by the pins. Still another wa)'^ of mounting small
insects is to impale them on the
point of a bent pin which is fastened
to another pin, as shown in Fig. 266.
In preparing these pins the fine one
is wound about the coarser one a
short distance from the point of the
latter, where it is somewhat tapered,
the two being held together with
pliers ; then the head is cut off from
Fig. 265. ^j^g small pin, and it is shoved up
toward the head of the coarse one. If care has been
taken to wind the fine pin closely about the larger
one, it will fit the latter tightly when pushed into
the proper position.

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

299

In pinning leaves a small piece of cardboard
should be placed on each side of the leaf and the pin
pushed through these. This will hold the specimen
firmly in place.

Pinning Forceps. — In handling pinned specimens
pinning forceps are desirable, as by their use there is

Fig. 267. — Pinning; forceps.

much less danger of bending the pins when pushing
them into cork. Several styles of pinning forceps are
for sale by dealers ; that used by the writer is shown
in Fig. 267. As these forceps are quite expensive,
comparatively few pupils will care to buy them. A
good substitute for them are the " flat-nosed " pliers,
which can be obtained at any hardware store. By
means of these a
delicate pin can be
grasped firmly near
the point and pushed
into soft wood with-
out bending it. Fig. 268.-Pliers.

These pliers are somewhat more convenient to use if
one corner be ground off, as shown in Fig. 268.

In transferring specimens that are pinned with
slender pins take hold of the head of the pin with
the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and then
seize the pin near the point with the pliers. Do
all the pushing or pulling with the pliers, but keep
the pin from tipping sidewise with the left hand.

300

INSECT LIFE.

In this way there is but little danger of bending
the pin.

Preservative Fluids. — The most important of
the preservative fluids is alcohol, and, except for
special purposes, no other is needed. The alcohol
should be of the full strength of ordinary commercial
alcohol — i. e., ninety-five per cent. It should be
noted, however, that many soft-bodied insects, espe-
cially larvas, shrivel if put directly into strong alcohol ;
with these it is necessary to remove the water from
the body gradually. This can be done by placing
the specimens in alcohol of different strengths suc-
cessively, using at first fifty per cent alcohol. This
can be easily prepared by half filling the bottle with
strong alcohol, then nearly filling it with water, and
shaking it a few times. The specimens should not
be left more than five or six hours in this ; they
should then be transferred to seventy-five per cent
alcohol, prepared in a similar way. They may be
left in this for one day, and then transferred to
strong alcohol for permanent preservation.

Certain colorless or white grubs and maggots are
apt to turn black when preserved in alcohol. This
can be prevented by first dipping them in boiling
water for a few seconds, after which they should be
placed in alcohol as described above.

Mounting Microscopic Objects.— Insects that
are too minute to be pinned or satisfactorily mounted
on cardboard points are usually mounted in Canada
balsam on a glass slide, and covered with a very thin
sheet of glass. The slides, balsam, and cover-glasses
can be obtained of any dealer in optical apparatus.

In most cases it is necessary to remove the water

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

301

from the body of the insect before mounting it; this
is done by placing the specimen in alcohoL If the
insect is hard so that there is no danger of shriveling,
it may be placed in strong alcohol at once, and then
mounted after a few hours. Insects with soft bodies
should be hardened gradually by being placed suc-
cessively in fifty per cent, seventy-five per cent, and
ninety-five per cent alcohol, as described in the pre-
ceding section.

When the specimen is hardened by the alcohol,
place it in a watch glass containing a small quantity
of oil of cloves, and leave it for a few minutes ; this
is to remove the alcohol and render the object more
clear. Then put the object on the slide, cover it
with balsam, and place a cover-glass over the im-
bedded object. In the course of a few days the
balsam will, become hard, so that there will be lit-
tle danger of injury to the specimen by handling the
slide.

Inflating Larvae. — The fact that the appearance
of many larvae is greatly altered by preserving, them
in alcohol leads many entomologists to remove the
viscera from such larvae, especially caterpillars, and
inflate and dry the skins. The process is somewhat
difficult and disagreeable to perform, but if it is well
done very beautiful specimens are obtained, which
preserve the form and color of the larvas much better
than those prepared in any other way.

The method of preparation is as follows : — Kill
the larva by leaving it for a time in a cyanide bottle.
Insert the point of a pin into the posterior end of the
alimentary canal, and, by moving it about, break off
the hind end of the intestine from its attachment

INSECT LIFE.

to the end of the body. Lay the specimen on a sheet
of blotting paper, and, placing a lead pencil across it
just back of its head, press out the viscera by rolling
the pencil toward the hind end of the larva. Dur-
ing this operation move the specimen about on the
blotting paper so that the skin will be kept dry.
When the contents of the body has been pressed out,
insert a straw or a glass tube drawn to a point at the
tip in the opening at the hind end, and inflate the
skin. If a straw is used, the skin can be fastened to
it by thrusting a fine insect pin through it and the
straw near the hind end of the specimen. When a
glass tube is used, first insert the tube, then remove
it carefully so as to leave the opening expanded ;
heat the point of the tube in the flame of a lamp, and
insert it in the opening again. If this is done prop-
erly the seared edges of the opening will adhere
firmly to the point of the tube. If the opening is not
perfectly closed it can be sealed with a drop of glue.
Inflate the skin, and hold it
while inflated in a hot place to
dry. The skin can be dried by
holding it near to the side of
the chimney of a lighted lamp.
A more convenient way is to
dry it in a little oven, made by
laying a large lamp chimney
across a tray of sand over a
lamp (Fig. 269). If the glass
tube be cut in two, and a sec-
tion of rubber tubing inserted
between the two pieces, it will
be much more convenient to use. In drying the

Fig, 269. — An oven.

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

303

skin great care should be taken not to heat it too
much so as to destroy the colors.

When the skin is dry, remove it from the tube
and mount it on a piece of covered copper wire,
which has been bent about a small
piece of cork through which an in-
sect pin is pushed, as shown in Fig.
270. The two ends of the wire are
inserted in the opening from which
the glass tube has been removed, a
drop of glue having been previously ^'o'lintin'g-sIiSk^^^^
put on each of the ends (Fig. 271).

Spreading Insects. — With many insects it is de-
sirable to spread the wings at right angles to the
length of the body. Not only do the specimens ap-
pear better when prepared this way, but such prepa-
ration is necessary in order to see the markings and
structure of the wings. This is especially true in the
case of butterflies and moths, which are usually

spread before being
placed in a permanent
collection.

For spreading in-
sects a device known as
a spreading board is
used. This consists of

Fig. 271. — A mounted inflated skin. ,

two strips of wood fas-
tened a short distance apart, so as to leave a groove
for the body of the insect, and upon which the wings
are fastened in position and left until the insect is
dry (Fig. 272). A narrow strip of cork is tacked to
the lower side of the two strips of wood ; this closes
the groove below, and serves as a support for the

304

INSECT LIFE.

pin upon which the insect is pinned. Another strip
of wood is fastened to the lower side of the cleats to
which the two strips are nailed.
This serves as a bottom, and
protects the points of the pins
which project through the piece
of cork.

In spreading a specimen a
narrow piece of paper is used
on each side to hold the wings
in place till they are properly
arranged (Fig. 272, a). The
wings are moved into position
by slipping them forward or
backward under the slips of
paper, using for this purpose a
fine pin, which is inserted near
a strong vein of the wing.
When the wings are properly
arranged their entire surface is
covered with wider strips of
paper (Fig. 272, b). The speci-
mens are left on the boards till
they are dry. This usually
requires two or three days,
moths should be left on the

A spreading board.

Large, stout-bodied
boards longer.

For pinning the sheets of paper over the wings
the sharp-pointed "mourning pins" are much better
than the ordinary brass pins, and thin sheets of mica
are often used instead of sheets of paper.

A device which may be known as a spreading
pin is more convenient than the narrow strip of paper

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

305

for holding the wings down while they are being ar-
ranged. This is made of a large, sharp-pointed pin
(usually a black pin) and a piece of wire
(Fig. 273). Fig. 272, c, illustrates the way
in which these spreading pins are used.
Only two of these are needed, as they are
removed after the broad strips of paper or
mica are pinned over the wings.

No rule as to the position in which the

wings should be placed can be made that fig. 273.-A
will apply to all specimens. But usually ^^^^^ '"^ ^*"'
in spreading moths the fore wings are brought so far
forward that the hind edges (the inner margins) of
the two wings form a straight line across the insect
at right angles to the direction of the body, and the
hind wings are brought forward so that their front
edges (the costal margins) are nearly covered by the
fore wings. Great care should be taken to have the
wings of the two sides in similar positions.

Relaxing Insects.— It is often desirable to
spread insects which have become dry ; this is espe-
cially the case where butterflies are put into envelopes
when collected, or where more moths are collected
and pinned than can be spread at once. Such speci-
mens can be spread at any time later by first relaxing
them. To do this partly fill a vessel with sand and
saturate the sand with water; lay the specimens to
be relaxed upon a piece of paper spread over this
sand, and tightly close the vessel. If a damp towel
be spread over the top of the vessel before the cover
is put on, the air in the vessel will be more surely
kept moist. After the specimens are left for a time —
from one to three days — in this moist atmosphere,

2o6 INSECT LIFE.

they can be spread as easily as when fresh. Care
must be taken not to leave the specimens in the relax-
ing jar too long lest they become moldy. A few
drops of carbolic acid poured upon the sand will
tend to prevent the growth of mold.

Insect Cases. — Cases or boxes are needed in
which to store specimens when pinned. For tempo-
rary use, and especially when it is desirable to avoid
all unnecessary expense, empty cigar-boxes can be
procured for this purpose. The shallow boxes—
those made to hold fifty cigars— are best.

Unfortunately it is impracticable to keep collec-
tions of insects permanently in cigar-boxes, for there
is a small beetle — the museum pest — which is sure to
destroy the specimens if they are not kept in cases
with tightly fitting covers. Cigar-boxes will serve
the needs of a class while they are carrying on the
work; but if the teacher or any of the pupils desire
to make a permanent collection, insect cases should
be procured. There are many styles of these in use ;
that described below will be found serviceable and
inexpensive, and can be made by any skillful carpen-
ter. It is made as follows : —

The lumber should be basswood or some other
nonresinous wood that will not split too easily. Pine
is not suitable for this purpose on account of the
resin that will exude and injure the specimens. Cut
from a board, half an inch in thickness, two strips.
One of these should be an inch and a quarter, the
other an inch and three quarters wide. Match these
together with a tongue and groove three sixteenths
of an inch deep, making the groove in the narrower
piece. On one side of the narrower piece near the

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

307

^.

edge farthest from this groove make another groove
fitted to receive a piece of glass, which is to form the
top of the case ; and on the same side of the wider
piece at the edge farthest from the tongue cut a rab-
bet three eighths of an inch deep ; this is to receive
;. . the board that is to form the bot-

tom of the case. Fig. 274 repre-
sents a cross section of the strips of
wood thus prepared, and will serve
as a working drawing for the car-
.i^vj^ penter or cabinet maker.

From these strips the sides of

the case are to be made. The

tongue and groove should fit snug-

-j^ -77- ly, so that pests can not enter the

i

1

Fig. 274.

Fig. 275.

Fig. 276.

case when it is closed, and the corners of the case
should be very carefully mitered (Fig. 275).

The corners should be both glued and nailed. As
soon as the case is put together, and before the glue
hardens, the top and bottom should be slightly sepa-

3o8

INSECT LIFE.

rated so that they shall not be glued together (Fig.

276). If a number is put near one corner on both the

cover and the lower
part of the box (Fig.
277) it will be easy to
determine how the case

Fig. 277. — An insect case. , ij 1 ^ i. tu

" should be put together

after being opened, and thus insure a fit of the two
parts. This will also obviate the danger of putting
the wrong cover on a case when several of them
have been opened at once.

The bottom should be made of well-seasoned, soft,
nonresinous wood. If the wood is not well seasoned
it will shrink and make a crack through which pests
will enter. It should be soft so that pins can be eas-
ily inserted in it if it is not lined with cork, and non-
resinous, as resinous wood will injuriously affect the
specimens, and is liable to become unsightly from the
exudation of resin. For this reason pine is unsuit-
able, but basswood is excellent.

It is important that the cases be made of uniform
size, so that they may be stored as drawers in a cabi-
net, or between two upright boards upon which
cleats have been nailed three inches apart (Fig. 278)-
A convenient size is twelve inches and a half by fif-
teen inches and a half. This admits of the use of glass
which measures twelve inches by fifteen inches, a
common size of window glass. This is a smaller size
than is ordinarily used by those having large collec-
tions of insects. But cases of this size will be more
convenient for young pupils to handle than larger
ones. A larger case is described below as the college
insect case.

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

309

Hooks are usually put on insect cases, as shown
in Fig. 277, but they are hardly necessary on small
cases if they are made so that the covers fit tightly.

Insect cases are usually left the natural color of
the wood on the outside and painted white on the in-
side. Ordinary oil paint is not suitable for this, as it
will turn yellow when kept in the dark. The best
paint for this purpose is made of zinc-white and glue.
Care should be taken to get the best quality of zinc-
white — that which is free from lumps — otherwise a
smooth paint can not be made.

In making this paint use an ordinary glue-pot.
Dissolve one part by weight of glue in five parts of
water. Then stir in zinc-white until the mixture is
of the consistency of ordinary paint ; about five parts
by weight of zinc-white will be required. The mix-
ture is heated while being prepared, and is used
warm. If any of the mixture is left unused it forms
a solid cake ; but this can be liquefied by heat and
used when desired. This paint dries in a few min-
utes after being applied, and will remain permanently
a beautiful, clear white.

It is very desirable, if practicable, to have the
cases lined with cork. Sheet-cork is kept by the
dealers in entomological supplies for this purpose,
and recently compressed cork, which, when well
made, is better than sheet-cork, has come into use.
Compressed cork is ground cork mixed with a small
amount of glue, compressed into sheets, and covered
with paper. As a single sheet of compressed cork
will cover the bottom of the case, it presents a
neater appearance than sheet-cork. Thick linoleum,
a substance made of cork and used for coverins:

3IO

INSECT LIFE.

floors, is also a good substitute for sheet-cork. The
use of cork largely obviates the danger of injuring
the points of delicate pins.

In certain parts of our country, especially in the
warmer parts of California, an excellent substitute for
cork can be obtained by cutting into thin slices dead
flowering stalks of the century plant. The inner
part of such stalks is a very soft pith called pita-wood
(pronounced pe'tah-wood).

The pith of large cornstalks is even softer than
pita-wood, but it is not as convenient to use on ac-
count of its smaller size. But the pupils that are
unable to procure cases lined with cork or pita-wood
should provide themselves with at least one cigar-
box, into the bottom of which they have neatly glued
a layer of corn pith. The cork, pita-wood, or corn
pith can be covered with a sheet of white paper, giv-
ing the case a neat appearance.

If only a single box is thus lined with pith, it
should be reserved for the specimens that are being
studied — that is, those that are taken out frequently.

The College Insect Case. — There is a great lack of uni-
formity in the size and details of form of the insect cases used in
the larger museums. The style used in the great museums at Ber-
lin, Germany, and at Cambridge in this country differs from the one
described above in size, the outside dimensions being sixteen inches
by nineteen inches by three inches, and in construction, the corners
being both dovetailed and mitered, otherwise the two cases are the
same. The case used by the writer differs from that used at Berlin
and Cambridge only in having the bottom made of glass as well as
the top.

The most essential feature of an insect case is that it shall be
tight so that museum pests can not enter. In the more common
insect cases the bottoms are of wood ; but it is extremely difficult

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 311

to keep such bottoms from swelling and shrinking with variations
in the moisture of the atmosphere. The result is that cases with
wooden bottoms are very liable to have cracks in them which will
give the museum pests a chance to enter. With the ordinary
method of lining insect cases with cork the wooden bottoms admit
of the cork being easily fastened in place with tacks ; but with the
method of arranging insects upon blocks described below there is
no occasion for fastening anything to the bottom of the case.
Hence glass can be used as well as wood, and with glass for both
top and bottom a case can be easily made which shall remain as
tight as when new.

The Block System of arranging Collections. — The
ordinary way of arranging entomological collections is to pin the
specimens into cork fastened to the bottoms of the cases, and this
method will probably be found most practicable for the greater num-
ber of teachers that use this book ; but where a large and rapidly
growing collection is to be cared for, the block system of arranging
collections, devised by the writer, will be found much more convenient.

Under the old system, a very large proportion of the time of a
curator of a rapidly growing collection is devoted to the rearrange-
ment of his collection, to simply removing pinned specimens from
one place in a cork-lined case and putting them into another. This
not only consumes much time, but results in the breaking of many
specimens. Where the block system is used this loss of time and
breakage of specimens is reduced to a minimum.

The fundamental idea of the block system is to fasten upon a
small block each series of specimens illustrating a single species.
A standard size of block is adopted for what may be termed the
unit block ; other blocks which are multiples or fractions of this
size are also used. When it is necessary to rearrange the collection
the relative positions of the blocks can be easily and rapidly changed
without danger of breaking the specimens.

The blocks are made of soft nonresinous wood and are painted
on the upper side with the zinc-white and glue mixture described
above. The pins are inserted and removed with pinning forceps or
pliers. It is desirable to have a few blocks made of compressed
cork or of wood with sheet-cork or linoleum tacked to them for the
specimens that are being studied or are not yet classified. When

312

INSECT LIFE.

specimens are ready to be put in a permanent place they are trans-
ferred to the wooden blocks ; after this it is seldom necessary to
remove the pins from the wood.

Where the block system is used it is very important that the in-
sect cases be of uniform size, so that the blocks shall fit well. This
can be assured by having an iron frame over which each case is
fitted when made. The corners should be cut from this frame so

□ as to make room for the glue that is pressed
out from the corners of the case by the clamps
that are used in making the case (Fig. 278).
The blocks also should be of uniform sizes.
This is most easily attained where they are
cut by machinery, and, too, they are much
cheaper when made in this way. Those used
by the writer are made by a manufacturer
of bee-keepers' supplies, and cost unpainted
three dollars per thousand.
The blocks are all one third inch in thick-
ness and 4|^ inches in length. This admits
of there being four columns of blocks in each
case.* The variation in size is attained by having the blocks of
differing widths. There is given below a list of the widths ot blocks
used in the entomological collections under the charge of the writer.

Fig. 278.— Iron frame
for mold for cases.

BLOCKS FOR MOUNTING INSECTS.

Name of

size.

Dimensions in

inches.

Remarks.

Double

4H

X 7i

1

4

:: )
:: 1

Used for series
the transformati
its of a species.

Used for large
Lepidoptera anc
thoptera.

For small insects.

For generic and far

For filling out colu
a few of these ai

Ilustrating
Dns or hab-

One and one
Unit

half. . .

One half

large Or-

nily labels,
mns ; only
e needed

One twelfth - -

* The outside dimensions of the case are sixteen inches by nineteen
inches. As the wooden sides are half an inch thick, the case measures

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 313

The blocks should be made so that the grain of the wood ex-
tends along the longer dimension of the block, i. e., from top to
bottom in the first two sizes, and from left to right in all others.

Bent-necked Vials. — It is necessary to preserve many speci-
mens in alcohol, and it is very desirable that such specimens should
be mounted on blocks so as to be placed with other specimens illus-
trating the same species. The use of the ordinary vials or glass
tubes for this is attended with serious difficulties. It is almost im-
possible to prevent the leakage of the alcohol and the consequent
destruction of the specimens. In addition
to this the curved surface of a vial will make
the contained specimen appear very different
from what it is. A long slender larva will
appear much thicker than it is, while its
length will not be magnified. ^'°nedfedv^al!^°^'

To meet these difficulties the v/riter has
had vials made of the form represented in Fig. 279. The bend in
the neck prevents the rapid leakage of alcohol, and the plain sides
the magnification of one diameter of the contained specimens. Two
sizes of these vials are manufactured — one containing one half
ounce, the other two ounces. They can be obtained of Messrs.
Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York.

To fix one of these vials to a block a white card is fastened to
its lower side with liquid glue (the acetic acid and alcohol solution).

Fig. 2S0.— Clips for slides on a block. Fig. 281.

The card is then trimmed close to the sides of the vial, but is al-
lowed to project a short distance beyond each end ; then the card is
fastened at each end to the block with ribbon pins.

on the inside fifteen inches by eighteen inches. This would admit of
four columns of blocks, each block being four inches and a half long ;
but in order that the blocks may be easily removed from the case they
are made a little shorter than this.

314

INSECT LIFE.

Clips for Slides. — The glass slides upon which microscopic
objects are mounted are fastened to blocks by means of clips which
are made from wire (Figs. 280 and 281).

Destruction of Museum Pests. — Even when specimens
are kept in tight cases, it often happens that the museum pest finds
its way into a case and attacks the specimens. The presence of
this tormentor is indicated by a fine dust that falls to the bottom
of the case from the infested specimen. All of the cases in a col-
lection should be searched once a month for this indication of the
presence of pests. If a case is found to be infested, the pests can
be destroyed by pouring a tablespoonful of carbon bisulphide in one
corner of the case and tightly closing the case. This substance
evaporates rapidly and will destroy the pests without injuring the
specimens. It can be obtained of any druggist.

If it is necessary to store away a collection for more than one
month, a naphtha cone should be put in each case and strips of
paper pasted over the crack between the top and bottom. Naphtha
cones can be obtained of dealers in entomological supplies.

Mold. — In certain regions where the climate is moist speci-
mens are very liable to become covered with mold. The best
method of preventing this is to keep a small quantity of carbolic
acid in the cases.

CHAPTER III.

ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES.

In making- a collection of insects, the specimens
should be carefully lab'eled so that it will be possible
at any time to tell when and where each one was col-
lected ; and if observations are made regarding the
insects, these should be recorded in such a way that
there can be no doubt regarding the specimens to
which they refer. The collector, therefore, should
adopt at the outset a definite system of labeling speci-
mens and of taking notes.

It is very important that the system adopted
should be a simple one, one that can be easily carried
out ; for if too much labor is involved there will be
great danger that it will not be done.

I. ON LABELING SPECIMENS.

Unnumbered Specimens. — The number of speci-
mens which a collector of insects must handle is so
great that it is impracticable to give each specimen a
number referring to a catalogue or a note-book, as is
customary in collecting larger animals. Entomolo-
gists, therefore, when they wish merely to record the
locality and date of capture make use of small labels
which are placed on the pins below the specimens.
315

3l6 INSECT LIFE.

These labels may be either printed or written or
partly printed, and with blank spaces to be filled out

Ithaca. N. Y. Ithaca. N. V. Ithaca. N. Y. ^^^^ 3. pen. Fig. 282 is

Aug. '96. Aug. '96. Aug. '96. a copy of a sheet of la-

Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. . 1 r xL 1 i- ,

Aug. '96. Aug. '96- Aug. '96. Deis 01 the latter kind.
"'^Aug'^^^a; '"'''tu^.-'i. '''^i\'''9^6: With a label of this kind
'"^Aug'!-'9''6: '"^Xug''>9^: '''''Xug'''96: '^ }^ 0"lv necessary to

Ithaca, N. Y. Ithaca. N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Write 3. figUrC indicatinPf

Aug. '96. Aug. '96. Aug. '96. ^, J f , , °

Ithaca, N.Y. Ithaca. N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. thC day OI the mOnth On

Aug. '96. Aug. '96. Aug. '96. 1 • 1 . 1

which the specimen was

Fig. 282. — Locality and date labels. 1, ^1 j^ ^ ^ ^

collected. It costs but
little to have labels like these printed ; and they save
much labor, and add greatly to the neatness of the
collection.

In getting labels of this kind, tell the printer not
to space the labels, but to set them solid, so that it
will not be necessary to trim them after they are
cut apart. The smaller the labels are the better they
appear.

In writing labels it is best to use India ink, as the
ordinary writing inks fade in the course of a few
years if exposed to light. In writing dates use the
ordinary abbreviations for the months instead of
numerals, as is sometimes done. For when numerals
are used there is danger of ambiguity ; 6, 9, '96 may
mean either 6 Sept., '96, or June 9, '96.

In the case of bottles of alcoholic specimens pin
a label to the stopper, for convenience of reading, and
put a duplicate within the bottle to prevent the oc-
currence of mistakes from an exchange of stoppers.

Sometimes in addition to the label indicating the
locality and date of capture, it is desirable to add one
indicating the conditions of capture, as at sugar, at

ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES. 317

electric light, or in the twilight. We have sheets of
labels printed for this purpose (Fig. 283).

When more than one label is used g^^^^ Light. Twilight.
they are spaced on the pin so that |;;|- g{;[; Twi}i|ht.
each can be read. I^IH: }^, ?:|l|g[:

Numbered Species. — In the sugar. Light, xwiiight.

,,.,,. . . . r^ Fig. 283. — Labels in-

study of life histories it is often nee- dicating conditions
essary to record more information of capture,
than can be placed upon labels. In such cases the
specimens and notes should be given corresponding
numbers. Even in this case it is not best to give
each specimen a distinct number; a much simpler
way is to give all specimens of each species the same
number.

Suppose, for example, that the first species studied
is the apple-tree tent-caterpillar. In this case all the
specimens of this species should be labeled No. i,
and all notes on this species should have the same
number. The next species studied should be num-
bered No. 2, and so on.

The locality and date labels, already described,
can be used in connection with the numbered labels;
there is no objection to putting two or three labels
on a specimen if each records additional informa-
tion.

Sometimes it is desirable to make notes regarding
a particular specimen, which shows some individual
peculiarity or was collected under peculiar conditions.
In such a case use is made of a subnumber, which is
written on the label below the number referring to
the species.

Fig. 284 represents a sheet of labels such as we
use for our numbered species. Cornell U. is printed

3i8

INSECT LIFE.

CorneU U. Cornell U. Cornell U.

No. No. No.

Sub. Sub. Sub.

Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U.

No. No. No.

Sub. Sub. Sub.

Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U.

No. No. No.

Sub. Sub. Sub.

Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U.

No. No. No.

Sub. Sub. Sub.

Fig

284. — Labels for
bered species.

num-

on each label to avoid the danger of mistakes occur-
ring in case exchanges are made with collectors
using a similar system. Each of our students using
this system has his name printed
in the corresponding place on
his labels. The blank space
after the abbreviation Sub. is
used only when it is necessary
to give a subnumber, as indi-
cated above. A narrow blank
space is left below the place
for the subnumber in which a
date may be written.

Numbered Lots of Specimens.— The method of labeling
specimens described above will be sufficient for the needs of those
whose collections are small. The following suggestion is for those
having charge of large and rapidly growing collections : —

It often happens that a large number of specimens, not all of the
same species, are to be labeled, respecting each of which precisely
the same record is to be made. It is my practice to give each lot
of specimens of this kind a number, and to place on each specimen
a label indicating the lot to which it belongs. In a note-book, kept
especially for this purpose, and known
as the Lot Book, a full account of each
lot is written. By doing this the record
is as complete as it would be were each
specimen given a number, and a note
written for each. Fig. 285 represents
a sheet of the labels used for this pur-
pose. The following extracts from the
Lot Book of Cornell University will illus-
trate the application of this system : —
Lot 30. — Lepidoptera from Colorado.

These were collected and presented to the university by Mr.

H. W. Nash. See Letter File I, page 43.
Lot 31. — Coleoptera from Arizona. These were collected by Mr.

Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U.

Lot Lot Lot

Sub. Sub. Sub.

Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U.

Lot Lot Lot

Sub. Sub. Sub.

Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U.

Lot Lot Lot

Sub. Sub. Sub.

Cornell U. Cornell U. Cornell U.

Lot Lot Lot

Sub. Sub. Sub.

Fig. 285. — Labels for num-
bered lots of specimens.

ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES.

3'9

H. K. Morrison. They were purchased in February, 1883.
See letters.
Lot 45. — A collection of Hemiptera determined by Professor P. R.
Uhler during the year 1883. See correspondence in Letter
Book I and Letter File I. The subnumbers refer to a list fur-
nished by Professor Uhler, which is in Letter File I, pp. 166-
172.
The last extract illustrates a very important use made of lot
numbers. In this way it is easy to label each specimen so that its
name and the authority for the determination can be easily ascer-
tained. And as the label is a small one placed upon the pin, there is
no danger of the specimen and
its label becoming separated.
These labels are used in addition
to the larger labels placed at the
head of each series of specimens
in a systematic collection.

Cohoptera.

Crcinde/idat

Omus .

Omui

Tetr

Blank Forms for
Labels. — In arranging-
specimens in a systematic
order in a collection, there
should be placed at the
head of each group of in-
sects a label bearing the
name of the group. These
labels are used in addition
to those already described,
which are always left on
the pins or in the bottles
as the case may be. The
group labels are of larger size than the preceding,
and are usually written on blank forms like those
shown in Fig. 286, except that it is customary to have
the forms printed in red ink ; and the forms are twice
as long- and twice as wide as shown here.

Tetraeha

Fig. 286.— Labels.

320 INSECT LIFE.

The four sizes are used for the names of orders,
families, genera, and species respectively. The
method of arrangement of these labels is also shown
in Fig. 286, the x's representing the position of the
specimens thus labeled.

These figures represent the style of labels ordi-
narily used in collections. In the case of collections
made by young pupils who are beginning the study
of insects more extensive labels may be desirable.
These should be neatly written on plain paper and a
line drawn about each with a pen. See examples in
Lessons XVIII and XXV.

II. ON TAKING NOTES.

Note-books and Slips. — There are two distinct
systems of keeping notes : By one, the notes are writ-
ten in a blank book ; by the other, they are written
on slips of paper, which are afterward arranged ac-
cording to subjects.

An objection to the use of a note-book arises from
the fact that when one begins a series of observations
it is impossible to determine how much space is going
to be required for the notes on it; and, consequently,
it is impracticable to keep together all notes on each
subject. By the slip system this is easily done ; for
this reason, most naturalists write their notes on slips
or sheets of paper, and keep them classified in envel-
opes or covers.

A combination of these two systems meets most
perfectly the needs of an entomologist. It is my
practice to write notes on general subjects on sheets
of paper, which are kept classified in folded sheets of
Manilla paper. But ior the notes on species of in-

ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES. 32 1

sects both a note-book and loose sheets of paper are
used.

The species on which observations are made are
numbered, as described on page 317. The note-book
is a paged blank book, which is made of ruled quarto
.paper. There is a single red line about one inch
from the left margin of each page. An entire page
is devoted to each number ; this greatly facilitates the
finding of notes, for the number of the notes and that
of the page are the same. The space at the left of
the red line is reserved for dates and subnumbers.
The first line of the notes consist only of the name of
the species ; if this is not known at the time the notes
are begun, the line is left blank and a descriptive title
for temporary use is written on the second line.

As already stated, one page of the note-book is
reserved for notes on each species. In many cases
this page is sufficient ; when it is found insufificient,
the expression "See notes" is written at the end of
the note in the book, and all further notes are written
on loose sheets. These are kept in folded sheets of
Manilla paper, which are stored in boxes in their
numerical sequence.

The use of a note-book in this system is a sure
protection against the danger of using the same
number twice; and it is the most convenient method
of keeping the notes on the large number of species
respecting which extended observations are not made ;
while the supplementary sheets afford all the advan-
tages of the slip system when extended observations
are made.

Indication of Sex. — In many insects there are
marked external sexual differences, either of size,

322

INSECT LIFE.

form, color, or of shape of appendages. In others it
is difficult to determine the sex without dissection.
When the sex of a specimen is known it should be
indicated on the label. This is commonly done by
using the astronomical sign 5 or ? , the former indi-
cating the male sex, the latter the female. It will aid
the student in distinguishing these signs to remember
that $ represents the shield and spear of Mars, and
$ the hand-glass or mirror of Venus. In the case of
social insects, as ants, bees, and wasps, the workers
are indicated by ^ .

On taking Notes.— After many years' experi-
ence I am sure that nothing more important can be
said to the young student regarding the taking of
notes than to urge him to take them at the time
the observation is made. If you make an observa-
tion in the field do not wait till you return to your
study to record it, but write an account of what you
have seen immediately, and do this, if possible, while
observing the fact. Almost invariably the writing
of an account of an observation will suggest queries,
many of which can be answered at the time the ob-
servation is made, but not after the observer has
returned to his study.

Even in those cases where it is intended to make
a long and serious study of a subject, every phenom-
enon observed should be noted as soon as seen.
Make your record while the occurrence is fresh in
your mind, before it loses the charm of novelty and
becomes a commonplace. Many an account is very
incomplete simply because the writer has become so
familiar with certain details that it does not seem to
him worth while to record them. The reader will

ON LABELING SPECIMENS AND TAKING NOTES.

323

please bear in mind that I have reference merely to
the taking of notes for the observer's personal use ;
the publication of conclusions based upon hasty, first
impressions is not advised. Fill your note-book with
descriptions, but digest them carefully, sifting out
for publication only those that exhaustive study and
repeated observations prove to be valuable. In
making observations be sure you are right and then look
again.

Write your notes in as good style as you can
command. It does not pay to be slovenly here, giv-
ing no attention to literary form. Remember, how-
ever, that the more simple and direct an account is,
the better its style.

Descriptions of Insects. — One of the best
methods of training the powers of observation is by
writing descriptions of natural objects ; for the prep-
aration of a careful description will lead the describer
to see many features that otherwise would not be
observed.

The nature of the description will depend greatly
on the amount of experience the writer of it has had.
The young beginner of Nature study will be expected
to mention only the more general features of the
object described, while the more advanced student
should be able to point out its distinctive character-
istics. Thus in describing a butterfly the beginner
should note, among other things, that it has six legs,
four wings, a pair of horns (antennse), two large eyes,
a coiled tube for sucking, and that the wings are
clothed with a dustlike substance. But the more ad-
vanced student should not be expected to state any
of these facts, except by implication in the statement

324

INSECT LIFE-

that the insect described is a butterfly, for the includ-
ing of characteristics that are true of all butterflies
would be unnecessary, and tend to obscure the im-
portance of the more distinctive features of the species
described. He should not attempt to say everything
possible about the insect, but should try to discover
and state in what respects the butterfly described
differs from other butterflies ; so that the reader of
his description can recognize with as little effort as
possible the particular species described.

No detailed rules for describing insects can be
easily given ; the peculiar characteristics will be
found in different organs in different cases. The
following are some of the features that should be
studied in search for distinguishing characteristics
when describing adult insects : —

1. The body as a whole. — The size of the insect; the general
color ; the color of the more prominent markings ; the relative pro-
portions of the head, thorax, and abdomen ; the clothing of the
body, as scales, hairs, and spines ; and any striking peculiarity of
the appendages of the body.

2. The head.— The relative size of the head ; the details of the
color markings of the head ; the size and shape of the compound
eyes ; variations in size of the ocelli in different parts of the com-
pound eyes ; the presence or absence of hairs either in or fringing
the compound eyes ; the number and position of the simple eyes ;
the insertion of the antennae ; the general form of the antennae ; the
clothing of the antennae ; the relative length of the different seg-
ments of the antennae ; the form of the labrum ; the shape of the
mandibles ; the structure of the maxilla; and maxillary palpi ; and
the structure of the labium and labial palpi.

3. The thorax.— Peculiarities in the size and form of the thorax ;
the details of the markings of the thorax ; the structure and color-
ing of the wings ; the structure, clothing, and armature of the legs ;
and the position of the thoracic spiracles.

4- The abdomen. — The size and general form of the abdomen ;
the number of visible abdominal segments ; the details of the mark-
ings of the abdomen ; the number and structure of the caudal ap-
pendages ; and the number and position of the abdominal spiracles.

In preparing a description of a larva the follow-
ing features should be observed : —

The size and general form of the body ; the presence or absence
of legs and of prolegs ; the number and position of the prolegs when
present ; in footless larvce, the presence or absence of a distinct
head ; the general color of the skin, and the color and pattern of its
markings; the nature of the clothing or armature of the body; the
colors of the clothing or armature ; in " naked " larvae, the arrange-
ment of the tubercles bearing minute hairs or more conspicuous
spines ; in hairy larvs, the arrangement of the hairs, whether scat-
tered evenly over the body or gathered in tufts ; if the hairs are
tufted, the arrangement of the tufts ; the number and position of
long pencils of hairs if present ; the number and position of the
spiracles.

In addition to the above, there are many features
characteristic of limited groups of insects which will
be learned by the student as he advances in the study
of such groups.

CHAPTER IV.

THE BREEDING OF INSECTS.

Fig. 287.— a home-made breeding
cage.

In the study of the life
histories of insects many
facts can be most easily and
surely determined by the
study of specimens in con-
finement. It is rarely prac-
ticable to watch the devel-
opment of an individual in-
sect in the field, but with
the aid of a breeding cage
this is easily done. The use
of breeding cages also ena-
bles the lover of Nature study to keep constantly at
hand where they can be seen daily, or even hourly,
examples of the life of the fields and ponds.

In collecting insects for study in confinement it
is necessary to note carefully the conditions under
which they naturally live, and then to imitate these
conditions as closely as possible. If the insects are
feeding on a plant, the kind of plant and the part in-
fested should be observed, so that the specimens
when confined may be given the proper food. If
they live in water, determine whether they will re-
326

THE BREEDING OF INSECTS.

327

quire running water or can be kept in an ordinary
aquarium. And if they are predaceous, the nature
of their food should be ascertained, if possible, al-
though many predaceous insects can be fed on raw
meat.

Great care should be taken not to injure the
specimens when collecting them. Plant-eating spe-
cies can be carried in tight boxes, in which should be
placed a quantity of their food. Air holes in the
boxes are not necessary. It is more important that
the food be kept from wilting than that there should
be fresh air. If aquatic insects are to be collected,
large bottles with wide mouths or glass fruit-cans
will be convenient for transporting them. If the
bottles or cans be only partly filled with water they
may be closed tightly for the time occupied by an
ordinary field trip.

Breeding Cages. — Several styles of elaborate
and expensive breeding cages are in use by profes-
sional entomologists, but it seems hardly worth while
to describe them here, for equally good results can
be obtained with simple and inexpensive cages, which
can be made by any handy boy.

A good home-made cage can be built by fitting a
pane of glass into one side of an empty soap-box. A
board, three or four inches wide, should be fastened
below the glass so as to admit of a layer of soil being
placed in the lower part of the cage, and the glass
can be made to slide, so as to serve as a door (Fig.
287). The glass should fit closely when shut, to pre-
vent the escape of insects.

In rearing caterpillars and other leaf-eating larvae
branches of the food plant should be stuck into bot-

328 INSECT LIFE,

ties or cans which are filled with sand saturated with
water. By keeping the sand wet the plants can be
kept fresh longer than in water alone, and the dan-
ger of the larvae being drowned is avoided by the
use of sand.

Many larvas when full-grown enter the ground to
pass the pupa state ; on this account a layer of loose
soil should be kept in the bottom of a breeding cage.
This soil should not be allowed to become dr}-,
neither should it be soaked with water. If the soil
is too dry the pupas will not mature, or if they do so
the wings will not expand fully ; if the soil is too
damp the pupae are liable to be drowned or to be
killed by mold.

It is often necessary to keep pupae over winter,
for a large proportion of insects pass the winter in
the pupa state. Hibernating pupae may be left in
the breeding cages or removed and packed in moss
in small boxes. Great care should be taken to keep
moist the soil in the breeding cages, or the moss if
that be used. The cages or boxes containing the
pupae should be stored in a cool cellar, or in an un-
heated room, or in a large box placed out of doors
where the sun can not strike it. Low temperature
is not so much to be feared as great and frequent
changes of temperature.

Hibernating pupae can be kept in a warm room it
care be taken to keep them moist, but under such
treatment the mature insects are apt to emerge in
midwinter.

An excellent breeding cage is represented by Fig.
288. It is made by combining a flower-pot and a
lantern-globe. When practicable, the food plant of

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sand wet the plants can '<)':
KCi'i i!(- in in water alone, and the can-

cer of th' ing drowned is avoided by the

'rv3p when full-grown enter the ground to
on this account a layer of lo"-
' th^ bn^tniT! of a brr^'-'in'^- c:<.j' .

soil Sho:

, ^],,„,i, Plate XVIIL— CATERPILLARS,.^ £,_,il

FIGURE 'I Al. J

^-^ ^'' I. A cutworm, AW«« c-/a>n^estina. " they dO SO

2. The Two-lined Prominent, Seriodonta biUneata j^\\ feed's on
the leaves of oak, elm, and basswood.
^, ,,, , 3. The same as Fig. 2. A green variety.

, 4. The Zebra (^aterpillar, Mamestra picta ; it feeds on cabbage
and other garden vegetables.
tor : 5. The Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar, Clisiocauipa americana. See
th''' page 168.

6. The Tent-caterpillar-of-the-forest, Clisiocampa disstria. See

page 172.

7. The Well-marked Tussock-moth, A'otoIopJius dejinita. See

Plate VIII, Fig. 10, for the adult.

8. The White-marked Tussock-moth, A^otolophus.. Uucostigma.

See page 174; also Plate VIII, Fig. 9. q^ in an un-

i .. I.- ^ i.v.. 1-.. I. ..J out of doors
can not strike it. Low temperature
h to be feared as great and frequent
tperature.

kept in a warm room it

moist, but under such

I sects are apt to emerge in

c is represented by Fig.
ing a flower-pot and a
cible, the food plant of

Plate XVIII.

Fig. 288.

THE BREEDING OF INSECTS.

the insects to be bred
is planted in the flow-
er-pot ; in other cases
a bottle or tin can
filled with wet sand is
sunk into the soil in
the flower - pot, and
the stems of the plant
are stuck into this wet
sand. The top of the
lantern-globe is cov-
ered with Swiss mus-
lin. These breeding
cages are inexpensive, and especially so when the
pots and globes are bought in considerable quanti-
ties. Fig. 290 represents a _,^ -
modification of this style of
breeding cage that is used
by the writer. It differs
only in that large glass cyl-
inders take the place of the
lantern-globes. These cylin-
ders were made especially
for us by a manufacturer of
glass, and cost from six dol-
lars to eight dollars per doz-
en, according to size, when
made in lots of fifty.

When the transforma-
tions of small insects or of a
small number of larger ones
are to be studied, a conven-
ient cage can be made bv pj^

330

INSECT LIFE.

combining a large lamp-chimney with a small flower-
pot (Fig. 289).

Aquaria. — For the breeding of aquatic insects
aquaria are needed. As the ordinary rectangular
aquaria are expensive and are liable to leak, we use
glass vessels instead.

Small aquaria can be made of jelly-tumblers, glass
finger-bowls, and glass fruit-cans, and larger aquaria,
of the form shown in Fig.
291, can be obtained of some
dealers. A good substitute
for these is what is known
as a battery-jar. There are
several sizes of these, which
can be obtained of most deal-
ers in scientific apparatus.

To prepare an aquarium,
place in the jar a layer of
sand ; plant some water
plants in this sand, cover the
sand with a layer of gravel
or small stones, and then add
the required amount of wa-
ter carefully so as not to dis-
turb the plants or to roil the water unduly. The
growing plants will keep the water in good condi-
tion for aquatic animal life, and render changing of
the water unnecessary, if the animals in it live natu-
rally in quiet water. Among the more available
plants for use in aquaria are the following : —
Waterwxed, Elodea canadensis.
Bladderwort, Utriailaria (several species).
Water-starwort, Callitriche (several species).

Fig. 291.

TIIK 15REED1NG OF INSECTS.

331

Fig. 292.— Duckweed.

Watercress, Nastiirtiiun officinale.
Stonevvorts, Chara and Nitella (several species of
each).

Frog-spittle or water-silk, Spirogira.
A small quantity of duckweed, Lemna (Fig. 292),
placed on the surface of
the water adds to the
beauty of an aquarium.
When it is necessary
to add water to an aqua-
rium on account of loss
by evaporation, rain wa-
ter should be used to
prevent an undue ac-
cumulation of the mineral matter held in solution in
other water.

The Constant-level Siphon. — Certain insects
that live in rapidly flowing streams require a con-
stant change of water. Some of these are extremely
difficult to breed in confinement, but others can be
kept alive easily if placed in an aquarium
which is prepared as described above,
and through which there is a stream of
water constantly flowing.

The water can be admitted to the
aquarium from a faucet, and the surplus
water removed by a device which may
be called a constant-level siphon. This

Fig. 293.— Con- . , . . . ^.

stant -level IS represented in operation in rig. 291,

^'^ °"' and separate in Fig. 293.

The siphon can be made of small lead pipe. It
differs from an ordinary siphon in being bent up at
the outer end (the last bend shown in the figure is

332

INSECT LIFE.

not essential ; it is the one preceding that which is
referred to here) and in having the inner arm (the

Fig. 294. — Section of a root cage.

one within the aquarium) longer than the outer arm.
These two peculiarities prevent the emptying of the

THE BREEDING OF INSECTS.

333

siphon, as air can not enter at either end. If the
bore of the siphon is considerably larger than the
stream of water flowing into the aquarium, the water
in the aquarium will be kept at a constant level,
which will be that of the outer end of the siphon.

To prevent the escape of the insects through the
siphon, a cylinder of fine wire gauze, closed at each
end with a disk of cork, is fitted over the inner end
of the siphon (Fig. 293).

The Root Cage.— For the study of insects that
infest the roots of plants, the writer has devised a
special form of breeding cage known as the root
cage. In its simplest form this cage consists of a

Fig. 295. — A root cage.

frame holding two plates of glass in a vertical posi-
tion and only a short distance apart. The space be-
tween the plates of glass is filled with soil in which

334

INSECl" LIFE.

seeds are planted or small plants set. The width of
the space between the plates of glass depends on the
width of two strips of wood placed between them,
one at each end, and should
be only wide enough to allow
the insects under observation
to move freely through the
soil. If it is too wide the in-
sects will be able to conceal
themselves. Immediately

outside of each glass there is
a piece of blackened zinc,
which slips into grooves in
the ends of the cage, and
which can be easily removed
when it is desired to observe
the insects in the soil. Fig.
294 represents a small section
of such a cage with the zinc
removed.

In a more expensive form
of the cage, which is used in
the Insectary of Cornell Uni-
versity (Fig. 295), there is
only one plate of glass next
to the soil, the place of the
other plate of glass being oc-
cupied by a porous tile, be-
tween which and an outer
plate of glass is packed a lay-
er of moss. By wetting the moss sufficient moisture
passes through the porous tile to keep the soil in
good condition for the growth of the plants in the

Fig. 296. —A sectional view of a
root cage.

THE HREEDINC. OF INSECTS.

335

soil without unduly wetting the soil. A cross sec-
tion of this cage is represented by Fig. 296 ; the parts
are as follows : — a, plate of glass forming the back
of the cage ; b, space filled with moss ; c, porous tile ;
d, thin space filled with soil in which seed is sown
and the insects to be watched are placed ; e, plate of
glass forming the front of the cage ; /, a sheet of
zinc for darkening the cage — this is removed when
observations are to be made ; g g, sections of the
wooden frame of the cage.

FIREFLIES.*

As o'er the face of Evening fair

A shade of twilight came,
Lost sunbeams, tangled in her hair.

Fell into drops of flame.

Charles Henry Liiders.

* From The Dead Nymph and other Poems, by permission of Charles
Scribner's Sons.

CHAPTER V.

MISCELLANEOUS LISTS.

I. BOOKS ON INSECTS.

The literature of entomology is very extensive.
Hundreds of books on insects have been printed, and
more than twenty-five journals devoted exclusively
to this subject are now published. In addition to
this, most of the zoological journals contain articles
on insects.

Nevertheless there is still a lack of the kind of
books usually sought for by beginners in this study.
There are a few good general text-books on the sub-
ject, and a larger number of excellent popular works
on the habits of insects, but there does not exist to-
day a fairly complete treatise on the American spe-
cies of any order of insects. The fact is, the science
of entomology is still in its infancy, and a great field
is open for the earnest worker.

In the following list there are enumerated those
works that are most useful to beginning students.
More advanced students should consult The Zoolog-
ical Record in order to ascertain the titles and places
of publication of more special treatises. *

* The Zoological Record is published annually by the Zoological
Society of London. Each volume gives a complete list of the works and
336

MISCELLANEOUS LISTS.

337

(IKNKKAI, TKXT-r.OdKS.

COMSTOCK, J. H. and A. B. — A Manual for the
Study of Insects. Comstock Publishing- Company,
Ithaca, N. Y., 1895. Price, $3.75 net; postage, 34
cents.

This work contains a series of analytical tables by means of
which the family to which any North American insect belongs can
be determined. Under the head of each family the characteristics
of the family, both as regards structure and habits, are given, and
the more common species are described. It is profusely illustrated,

Hyatt, Alpheus, and Arms, J. M. — Gtiides for
Science Teaching. No. III. Insecta. D. C. Heath
& Co., Boston, 1890. Price, $1.25.

A very useful work for teachers.

Packard, A. S. — Guide to the Study of Insects.
Henry Holt & Co., New York. Price, $5. (First
edition, Salem, 1869.)

Packard, A. S. — Entomology for Beginners.
Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1888. Price, $1.40.

The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. V. —
Peripatus, by A. Sedgwick ; Myriapods, by F. G.
Sinclair; Insects, Part I, by David Sharp. Mac-
millan & Co., London and New York, 1895. Price,
$4.

This, in many respects, is the best text-book on entomology yet
published. The beginning student who wishes to study North
American insects will find Comstock's Manual better suited to his
needs, but this volume of The Cambridge Natural History should

publications relating to zoology in all its branches that have appeared
during the year preceding the date of the volume. The first volume was
for the year 1864.

33^

INSKCT LIFE.

be in the library of every advanced student of entomology. Part II
of this work, which will treat of the Heniiptera, Lepidoptera, Dip-
tera, and Coleoptera, has not yet (1896) appeared. It is to consti-
tute Vol. VI of the series.

The Standard Natural History.— The title
of this work has been changed to The Riverside
Natural History.

The Riverside Natural History.— Edited by
John Sterling Kingsley. Six volumes, royal 8vo.
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York.
Price, $30, $36, or $42, depending on the binding.

Vol. II of this work treats of the Crustacea and insects. Unfor-
tunately, it can not be purchased separately, and the entire work is
too expensive for most students. It is, however, an excellent work
of reference for a school library.

Harris, T. VV. — Insects Injurious to Vegetation.
(Flint edition.) Orange Judd Company, New York.
Price, plain plates, $4; colored plates, $6.50.

Although this is an old work and consequently somewhat out of
date as regards classification, it is one of the best books on insects
ever written ; it doubtless has done more to stimulate an interest in
the study of insects than any other American work. It is magnifi-
cently illustrated.

Smith, John B.— Economic Entomology. J. B.
Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1896. Price, $2.50.

This is a very useful text-book intended especially for students
in agricultural colleges.

Saunders, William. — Insects Injurious to Fruits.
J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1883. Price, $2.

This is a very useful work. The insects discussed are classified
according to the plants they infest.

MISCELLANEOUS LISTS.

339

Weed, Clarence M.— Insects and Insectides.
Orange Judd Company, New York. Revised edi-
tion, 1895. Price, $1.50.

Riley, C. V. — Directions for Collecting and Pre-
serving Insects. Smithsonian Institution, Washing-
ton, D. C, 1892. Price, 25 cents.

This is a very complete treatise on the subject named. It also
contains a much larger list of writings on insects than that given
here.

MORE SPECIAL WORKS.

ScuDDER, S. H. — Brief Guide to the Commoner
Butterflies of the Northern United States and Can-
ada. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1893. Price,
$1.25.

French, G. H. — The Butterflies of the Eastern
United States. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia,
1886. Price, $2.

Le Conte and Horn. — Classification of the Cole-
optera of North America. Secretary of the Ameri-
can Entomological Society, Philadelphia. Price, $2.50.

WiLLlSTON, S. W. — Manual of North American
Diptera. Second edition, 1896. James T. Hatha-
way, New Haven, Conn. Price, $2.25.

Cresson, E. T. — Synopsis of the Families and
Genera of the Hymenoptera of America North of
Mexico. Secretary of the American Entomological
Society, Philadelphia. Price, $3.

Murry, Andrew. — Economic Entomology : Ap-
tera. Chapman & Hall, 193 Piccadilly, London. Out
of print. To be obtained of dealers in second-hand
books.

This work is especially valuable for its discussion of mites.

340 INSECT LIFE.

MlALL, L. C. — The Natural History of Aquatic
Insects. Macmillan & Co., London and New York,
1895. Price, $1.75.

Banks, Nathan. — A Synopsis, Catalogue, and
Bibliography of the Neuropteroid Insects of Tem-
perate North America. (From the Transactions of
the American Entomological Society, Vol. XIX.)
Secretary of the American Entomological Society,
Philadelphia. Price, 50 cents.

Calvert, Philip P.— Catalogue of the Odonata
(Dragon-flies) of the Vicinity of Philadelphia, with
an introduction to the study of this group of insects.
(From the Transactions of the American Entomolog-
ical Society, Vol. XX.) Secretary of the American
Entomological Society, Philadelphia. Price, $1.

ON THE HABITS OF INSECTS.

KiRBY and Spence. — An Introduction to Ento-
mology. Seventh edition. One volume, which is a
reprint of Vols. I and II of earlier editions. London,

1856.

This work is out of print, and can be obtained only of dealers in
second-hand books. But it is to be found in most of the larger
public libraries.

There are many other excellent works on the
habits of insects, but they can not be enumerated here
for lack of space.

II. DEALERS IN ENTOMOLOGICAL SUPPLIES.

Charles C. Riedy, 432 Montgomery Street, San Fran-
cisco, Cal.

DEALERS IN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 341

A. Smith cSl Sons, 269 Pearl Street, New York, N. Y.
John Akhurst, 78 x^shland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y.
M. Abbott Frazar, 93 Sudbury Street, Boston, Mass.
Entomc^logical Society of Ontario, Victoria Hall,

London, Ontario.
Queen & Co., loio Chestnut Street, Philadelphia,

Pa.
The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, 515-543 N.

St. Paul Street, Rochester, N. Y.

III. DEALERS IN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, New York

city and Rochester, N. Y.
Eimer & Amend, 205-211 Third Avenue, New York

city.
The Franklin Educational Company, Harcourt

Street, Boston, Mass.
J. Grunow, 70 W. Thirty-ninth Street, New York.
The Gundlach Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.
William Krafft, 411 W. Fifty-ninth Street, New

York.
The Mcintosh Battery and Optical Company, 521-531

Wabash Avenue, Chicago, III.
Queen & Co., lOio Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
Richards & Co., 30 E. Eighteenth Street, New York,

108 Lake Street, Chicago, 111.
Edward Pennock, 3609 Woodland Avenue, Philadel-
phia, Pa.
Spencer Lens Company, 546 Main Street, Buffalo,

N. Y.
Walmsley, Fuller & Co., 134-136 Wabash Avenue,

Chicago, 111.

342

INSECT LIFE.

Williams, Brown & Earle, Tenth and Chestnut
Streets, Philadelphia, Pa.

G. S. Woolman, ii6 Fulton Street, New York.

J. Zentmayer, 209 S. Eleventh Street, Philadelphia,
Pa.

Charles C. Riedy, 432 Montgomery Street, San Fran-
cisco, Cal.

INDEX.

Abdomen, 19.

Acrididae, 72.

Adult, 40.

Agalena njevia, 224.

Agamic, 177.

Aglais milberti, 252.

Alder-blight, 163.

Ambush-bug, 274.

American tortoise-shell, 252.

Andrena, 269.

Andriconia, 247.

Angle-wings, 250.

Anisota oak-worms, 199.

Anosia plexippus, 249.

Antennse, 12.

Ant-lions, 77.

Ant-nest, 278.

Ants, 85, 178, 275.

Aphididse, 163.

Aphids, 75, 163, 175.

Aphis-lions, 77, 78, 178, 179.

Apple-tree tent-caterpillar, 168.

Aquaria, 330.

Arachnida, 53, 55.

Arctiidce, 239.

Arthropoda, 52.

Automeris io, 1S9.

Back-swimmers, 123, 128.
Bag-worm, 204.
Ballooning spiders, 226.
Basilarchia archippus, 249.
Basilona imperialis, 197.
Bees, 85, 254.
Beetles, 41, 85.
Belostoma, 130.
Bent-necked vials, 313.
Bird-lice, 69.
Bittacus, 79.
Black-flies, 156.
Black swallow-tail, 243.
Blank forms for labels, 319.
Blattidae, 71.
Blepharoceridas, 159.
Blister-beetles, 273.
Block system of arranging collec-
tions, 311.
Blues, 247.
Book-lice, 68.
Books on insects, 336.
Boreus, 79.
Breathing holes, 19.
Breeding cages, 327.
Breeding of insects, 326,
Bristletails, 63.
343

344

[NSECT LIFE.

Broad-shouldered water-striders,

109.
Brownie-bugs, 219.
Bugs, 75.
Bumblebees, 256.
Butterflies, So, 82, 239.

Caddice-flies, 79, 151.
Caddice-worms, 79, 148, 151.
Callosamia promethea, 193.
Calocalpa undulata, 200.
Cases, 306.
Caterpillars, 239.
Cattle-tick, 57.
Ceanothus silkworm, 196.
Cecidomyiidas, 162.
Cecropia-moth, 195.
Cells of the wings, 17.
Centipede, 57.
Cephalothorax, 55.
CerambycidK, 215.
Chauliodes, 156.
Chauliognathus, 273.
Chrysopidre, 179.
Cicada-killer, 270.
Cicadas, 218.
Cicada septendecim, 218.
Cicada tibicen, 218.
Cigar-boxes, 306.
Citheroniidae, 197.
Citheronia regalis, 199.
Clematis, 30.
Cliff-dwellers, 267.
Clips for slides, 314.
Clisiocampa americana, 172.
Clisiocampa californica, 172.
Clisiocampa constricta, 172.
Clisiocampa disstria, 172.
Cobweb-weavers, 227.
Coccidse, 277.
Coccinellidse, 180.

Cockroaches, 70, 71.
Cocoon, 40.
Codlin-moth, 180.
Coleoptera, 41, 43, 85.
Collecting apparatus, 284.
Collecting boxes, 287.
Collecting butterflies, 45.
Collecting moths, 50.
College insect case, 310.
Colorado potato-beetle, 44.
Complete metamorphosis, 35, 38.
Compound eyes, 12.
Compton-tortoise, 253.
Conotrachelus nenuphar, 184.
Coppers, 246.
Corisidge, 140.
Corrodentia, 68.
Corydalis, 78.
Corydalis cornuta, 155.
Cosmopolitan butterfly, 251.
Coxa, 15.
Crabs, 54.
Crab-spiders, 230.
Crayfishes, 53.
Crescent-spots, 249.
Crickets, 70, 74, 233, 237.
Crustacea, 53.
Culicidse, 136.
Curculionidre, 184.
Curculios, 184.
Cyanide bottle, 286.
Cyclops, 54.
Cycnia egle, 241.
Cyllene robiniae, 273.
Cynipidoe, 212, 214.
Cypris, 54.

Damsel-flies, 65, 89, 93, 98, 140.
Daphnia, 54.
Darning-needles, 89.
Datana ministra, 173.

INDEX.

345

Dealers in entomological supplies,

340.
Dealers in optical instruments, 341.
Descriptions of insects, 323.
Digger-wasp, 86, 260.
Diptera, 83.
Dobson, 77, 153.
Dog-day-harvest-fly, 218.
Dog-fleas, 84.
Dolomedes, 229.
Dragon-flies, 65, 89, 93.
Drosophila, 185.
Dytiscidae, 116.

Ears, ig.
Earwigs, 69.
Elytra, 43.

Engraver-beetles, 216.
Ensign-fly, 86.
Epargyreus tityrus, 202.
Ephemerida, 64.
Estigmene acrcea, 240.
Eugenia j-album, 253.
Eumenes fraternus, 259.
Eumenidce, 258.
Euplexoptera, 69.
Eurypelma hentzii, 231.
Euvanessa antiopa, 252.
Eyes, 12.
Eyprepia, 241.

Fall web-worm, 200.

Femur, 15.

Fireflies, 335.

Fish-moths, 63.

Fleas, 84.

Flies. 83.

Folded papers for butterflies, 2S7.

Forceps, 299.

Forest life, 186.

Four-footed butterflies, 247.

Fritillaries, 250.
Funnel-web weavers, 222.

Galgulidse, 160.

Gall-gnats, 162.

Gall-insects, 210.

Galls, 210.

(jelechia gallsesolidaginis, 274.

Giant silkworm, 187.

Giant water-bugs, 130.

Gills, 54.

Goldenrod, 272.

Goldenrod-galls, 274.

Gossamer-winged butterflies, 164,

246.
Grandfather graybeards, 56, 232.
Grasshoppers, 70, 233.
Grass-spider, 224.
Grouse-locusts, 164.
Gryllidse, 74.
Gyrinidae, 114.

Hair-streaks, 247.

Halictus, 267.

Harlequin milkweed-caterpillar,

241.
Harvestmen, 56, 232.
Head, 12.
Hemiptera, 75.
Heteroptera, 76.
Hexapoda, 53, 58.
Hollyhock, 257,
Homoptera, 77.
Honey-bee, 255.
Honey-dew, 177.
Horned corydalis, 153.
Hydrobatidffi, 109.
HymenopterE, 85.
Hyphantria cunea, 200.
Hypopharynx, 14.

346

INSECT LIFE.

Ichneumon-fly, 86.

Ichneumonidae, 217.

Ichthyura, 201.

Imago, 40.

Imperial-moth, 197.

Incomplete metamorphosis, 35, 37.

Inflating larvae, 301.

Insects, 58.

lo-moth, 189.

Iphiclides ajax, 244.

Iron frame for mold for cases, 312.

Isabella tiger-moth, 240.

Isoptera, 67.

Jasoniades glaucus, 243.
Jumping spiders, 229.

Katydids, 73, 239.
Killing bottles, 285.

Labeling specimens, 315.
Labial palpi, 14.
Labium, 14.
Labrum, 13.
Lace-winged flies, 179.
Lady-bugs, 179, 180.
Lampyridae, 273.
Larva, 40.
Lasiocampidse, 171.
Leaf-eating caterpillars, 172, 187.
Leaf-cutter bees, 265.
Leaf-miners, 208.
Leaf-rollers, 206.
Lepidoptera, 80.
Lice, 75, 76.
Lights, 293.
Lobsters, 53.
Locust-borer, 273.
Locustidse, 72.
Locusts, 72, 233, 236.
Long-horned beetles, 215.

Long-horned grasshoppers, 73.
Luna-moth, 192.
Lycaenidae, 164, 246.
Lycosa, 229.

Mallophaga, 69.
Mandibles, 13.
Mantidae, 71.
Maxillae, 13.
Maxillary palpi, 14.
May-flies, 64, 99, 101, 148.
Meadow-browns, 253.
Meadow grasshoppers, 73.
Measuring- worms, 174.
Mecoptera, 78.
Megachile, 265.
Megachile acuta, 265.
Meloidae, 273.
Membracidae, 220, 277.
Mesothorax, 18.
Metathorax, 18.
Microscopic objects, 300.
Millers, 80.
Millipede, 57.
Miners of the plains, 268.
Mining-bees, 269.
Mining digger-wasps, 269.
Misumena vatia, 230,
Mites, 56.

Mocha-stone moth, 201.
Mold, 314.
Molting, 36.
Monarch, 249.
Monobia quadridens, 265.
Monohamus confusor, 215.
Mossy-rose-gall, 212.
Mosquitoes, 132.
Moths, 80, 81, 239, 242.
Mourning-cloak, 252.
Mouth-parts, 13.
Muscidae, 185.

INDEX.

347

Museum pests, 314.
Myriapoda, 53, 57.

Nepa, 128.

Nest-building caterpillars, 200.

Net-building caddice-worms, 151

Net-winged midges, 158.

Nets, 285.

Neuroptera, 77.

Nodus, 97.

Note-books, 320.

Notolophus leucostigma, 174.

Notonectidse, 128.

Nymphalidre, 247.

Nymphs, 35.

Oak-apples, 210.
Oberea bimaculata, 215.
Ocelli, 13.
Odonata, 65.

CEdemasia concinna, 173.
Orb-weavers, 224.
Orchard life, 166.
Orthoptera, 70.
Oven, 302.
Ovipositor, 20.

Painted beauty, 251.
Palpus, 14.
Panorpa, 78.
Papilio polyxenes, 243.
Parasita, 76.
Periodical cicada, 218.
Phasmidce, 71.
Phymata wolffii, 274.
Phymatidse, 274.
Physopoda, 74.
Pieridse. 245.
Pieris rapse, 245.
Pine-cone willow-gall, 160.
Pinning forceps, 299.

Pins, 295.
Pita-wood, 310.
Plaginotus speciosus, 215.
Plant-lice, 163, 175.
Plecoplera, 66, 147.
Pliers, 299.
Plum-curculio, 182.
Poison ivy, 29.
Polistes, 259.
Polyphemus-moth, 190.
Polystoechotes punctatus, 78.
Pomace-flies, 184.
Praying mantes, 71.
Predaceous diving-beetles, 116.
Preservation of specimens, 294.
Preservative fluids, 300.
Prionus laticollis, 215.
Promethea-moth, 193.
Prothorax, 18.
Psephenus, 153.
Psocids, 68.
Psychidae, 204.
Pupa, 40.
Puparium, 185.
Pyrrharctia isabella, 240.

Ranatra, 128.
Red admiral, 251.
Red-humped apple-worm, 173.
Regal-moth, 199.
Relaxing insects, 305.
Rhagium lineatum, 215.
Roadside life, 221.
Root cage, 333.
Royal-moths, 197.
Running spiders, 228.

Saldidse, 160.

Salt-marsh caterpillar, 240.
Samia californica, 196.
Samia cecropia, 195.

348

INSECT LIKE.

Saturniid.x, 189.

Scales, 49.

Scallop-shell moth, 200.

Scolytida?, 216.

Scorpion-flies, 78.

Scorpions, 56.

Sex, indication of, 321.

Sheep-tick, 57.

Shore -bugs, 159.

Short-horned grasshoppers, 72.

Shrimps, 53.

Sialidae, 155.

Sialis, 156.

Silver-spotted skipper, 202.

Simple eyes, 12.

Simuliidae, 158.

Siphon, constant-level, 331.

Siphonaptera, 84.

SiricidcE, 217.

Skippers, 80, 81.

Smaller leaf - eating caterpillars,

205.

Social wasps, 259.

Soldier-beetles, 273.

Solidago, 272.

Solitary wasps, 258.

Songs of insects, 235.

Sow-bug, 54.

Spiders, 222.

Spiracles, 19.

Spreading board, 304.

Spreading insects, 303.

Spreading pin, 304.

Springtails, 63.

Stone-flies, 66, 102, 103, 146.

Stink-bugs, 76.

Subimago, 100.

Sugaring, 292.

Sumach, 261.

Supplies for pupils, 24.

Supplies for the school, 25.

Surface fdm of water, 104.
Swallow-tail butterflies, 242.

Tarantulas, 230.
Tarsal claws, 16.
Tarsus, 16.

Telea polyphemus, 190.
Termites, 67.
Thorax, 17.

Thread-waisted wasps, 261.
Thrips, 74.
Thysanura, 63.
Tibia, 16.
Tiger-beetles, 270.
Tiger-moths, 239.
Tiger swallow-tail, 243.
Toad-shaped bugs, 160.
Tortricids, 182, 207.
Tortricina, 182, 207.
Tracheal gills, 54, 141.
Trap-door spiders, 230.
Tree-hoppers, 219.
Trichoptera, 79, 151.
Trochanter, 15.
Troposa luna, 192.
True grasshoppers, 73.
Trypeta solidaginis, 274.
Trypoxylon frigidum, 262.

Vanessa atalanta, 251.
Vanessa cardui, 251.
Vanessa huntera, 251.
Veins of the wings, 16.
Veliidae, 109.
Vespa, 260.
Vespidae, 260.
Viceroy, 249.
Virginia creeper, 2g.

Wanderer, 163.
Walking sticks, 72.

INDEX.

349

Wasps, 85, 258.
Water-boatmen, 136.
Water-pennies, 153.
Water-scavenger beetles, 120.
Water-scorpions, 128.
Water-striders, 106, 109.
Water-tigers, 119.
Weevils, 184.
White-ants, 67.

White-marked tussock-moth, 174.
Whites, 245.

Whirligig-beetles, iii.
" Wigglers," 131.
Wrigglers, 131.

Yellow-bear, 240.

Yellow -necked apple- tree -worm,

173-
Yellows, 245, 246.

Zaitha, 130.

Zebra swallow-tail, 244.

(2)

PROPERTY OF

Z- p. METCALF