“i > S_ Pp > a > ed WHITNEY LIBRARY, MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. Ja OOF, ‘ Dy» a! DB Dp D> =e ie toe po >» > DD. ID DLE PD D2 geen GEE * —S . . me = 22 THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER REVIEW OF NATURAL HISTORY MICROSCOPIC RESEARCH AND RECREATIVE SCIENCE VOLUME X, ILLUSTRATED WITH PLATES IN COLOURS AND TINTS, AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD LONDON GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS PATERNOSTER ROW Sw MDCCCLXYVILI. CONTENTS. ~ eg pe tals PAGE ALGIERS AS A WinrER Resipence. By M. Beruam Epwarps. With a Oelleorea, LENG So noob oso RO RCO UE CONC OO HOD DOr Se boboeoponacsnoos 1 MopERN JEWELLERY AND ART. By Wituiam DuTwie..........--.---08 7 GAC ORDEAC IS SOU AR ERUE ORIG) .0!.0/5 aero, vieyeiela/eiese/cleie ol « elele ij eeametaieliabeiceie eepetey tc Le PHOTOGRAPHY AS A FINE ART .......... evalisda lobe kalpepeporoseselel vasa akolisrct eee Nays Maa Deceptive Figures; wiTH REMARKS oN SatuRN’s “ SQUARE-SHOULDERED” HSEPAG To) VPnyg iva Ae OP ROCROR, Ba Ats MRA is) | 3-5) ayn o/e a eps. « Sober aonb ol ea Ascent or Caprr Ipris. By D. Macxintosn, F.G.S. With a Coloured VETGINE Mera g OMAR MURALS Deets LONER NEE) Re aK ax tA Mn RERUN ARC? 7 Notss on Funet.—No, VI. By the Rev, M.J. Berxerzy, M.A. F.LS.. 82 THe Coming Merzor SHowrr.—Tur Spectra oF METEORS ............ 388 Dr. Curtis's Procuss or PuHoto-Micograpuy. By R. L. Mappox, M.D. 41 Animan Lire in Sourn Arrica. By (H. Curcuester, Esa. ...:....... 42 THE Puaner Saturn (Continued). By the Rev. T. W. Warns, A.M. F.R.AS, 49 assis MOUR- PENDS, CONDENSER (ols slew ajc yoo c/+ sede ets eee eee = oe Sean Oe LAER ON PER ASPECATT ON REE) DE AUD SHAY. 25.0). pause nyoschayplercum evatelaels cic!) (OB Resvtts or MzrzoroLtocican OBsERVATIONS MADE AT THE Krew OxzsEr- MATRON waive Cran IMO) NVCEDUE PI ena slaielai ae eis. ahe ecapie ao/ «Mies sonlenoi iui th Lavizy’ Siippers. By Suimuzry Hisserp. With Coloured Plate of Cypri- PE AUUDSVCLECHUGNU MIE 0k) Sena SS ua Sitve eleua lel avekae Sees cde eus ilel venient Gael HyrorumnicaL Continents. By H. M. Jenwins, F.G.8. ........00ssenee 88 TuE Persistence or Luminous Impressions. By the Assi LaporpE .. 98 SOSIDE JAIRO TSIECS MSM gene Lally CVA aveNNAT AC as AD aa Mea SIR Ble = ee beryenists cleo S) JL AUTR/SHE1 J BTR TIE Sef @ MEGS ANT TAO A I eNO On THE Genus Ficus. By Joun R. Jackson. With a Tinted Plate .... 112 IES SUPE Mae RL CL cue Dm Ns aiclwe siete os aly eoelelumealie AERO Ha Gir AND Minsmamss iby, VERVE. Gils vices dela eiee essen «oe ape Loe IECANS, VOR) liao Mann, MONI OING (icy: ceteigiel stains c c/s ojajeiciaieis sei» ereisi.siene's,sayape tees THE Praner Saturn (Continued). By the Rev. T. W. Wess, A.M., F.R.A.S. 142 Por LAcE-DWEULEES: OF OWITZERUANDI [305 .). ie sjeeeme em scenes. se aware se, MAO Prismatic Srecrra or THe Aucust Murzors, 1866. By A. 8. Herscuet. WE i COLOURED: EURO ie se egsin eons olen) Ncley ven ancy opens akelaiavelsce oie opie uuraseny THE HERSCHEL-BROWNING METEOR SPEOTROSCOPE. The Coning Meteor Shower.—TIhe Spectra of Meteors. 39 of the light rays through the prism. When a pencil of light enters the prism, it is refracted, and then continues its course until it meets one side of the prism, which it strikes at such an angle that it cannot get out. It is therefore reflected to another side, also at an angle which prevents its egress; and accordingly it undergoes a second reflection, after which it is permitted to emerge in a position opposite, and-parallel to, its line of entry. In employing an ordinary spectroscope, it is necessary to hmit the admission of ight by a slit. But if the source of hght took the shape of a fine line, no slit would be required, because the mass of light would not exceed the quantity with which the spectroscope could advantageously deal. With shooting stars and ordinary meteors this is the case, and hence the Meteor Spectroscope requires no slit. Observers furnished with the new instrument will direct it like an opera-glass to the part of the sky most favourable for the observation of the November shower, and as a shooting star makes a line of light in the sky, it will give one or more lines of light in the spec- troscope. If, for example, we had a sodium meteor, it would give a yellow line in the sky, and a yellow line, occupying the sodium line place, in the spectroscope. If silver were present together with sodium, the meteor train would have a greenish tinge, and three lines would appear in the spectroscope— yellow, green, and blue. Those who intend to take part in these highly curious in- quiries should provide themselves in time with Meteor Spec- troscopes, and should, with the help of an ordinary spectro- scope, study in advance the spectra of the metals and other substances most likely to be seen when the meteors are in the field. The study of meteors is already highly indebted to Mr. Alexander Herschel, whose labours are recognized as of the highest value by every physicist of eminence ; and we have no doubt that his ‘‘ Meteor Spectroscope” will contribute efli- ciently to the progress of our knowledge of shooting stars. To Mr. Browning belongs the credit of carrying Mr. Herschel’s plans most successfully into operation, by the construction of prisms with an accuracy of angle and surface extremely difficult to obtain. Mr. Alexander Herschel recently gave a lecture at the Royal Institution, “On the Shooting Stars of the year 1865—66, and on the Probability of the Cosmical Theory of their Origin.” He commenced by adverting to the probability established by Professor Newton, of Yale College, U.S., “that in the current year, 1866, a prodigious flight of meteors, the most imposing of its kind, and visible over a large area of the 40 The Coming Meteor Shower.—The Spectra of Meteors. earth’s surface, will make its appearance—perhaps for the last time in the present century—either on the morning of the 15th, or on the 14th November.” The meteors should be especially looked for between mid- night and sunrise, and may be expected in greatest abundance between three and four a.u. ‘‘ They proceed, with few excep- tions, from a common centre in some part of the Constellation Leo.” Mr. Herschel observes that ‘ between the 13th of October and the 12th of November, during the years from A.D. 903 to 1833, not less than thirteen great star showers have been recorded. ‘They are separated from each other by the third part of a century, or by some multiple of this period, and are periodical reappearances of one grand meteoric shower, viz., that seen by Humboldt in 1799, and by Olmsted in 1833, the star shower expected to return in the present year, and known by the name of the “great November shower.” Its contact with the earth takes place one day in the year at each of its principal returns. According to the exact calculations of Professor Newton, “the next passage of the earth through the centre of the meteoric group will take place two hours after sunrise at Greenwich on the morning of the 14th of No- vember, 1866.” A watch on the morning of the Idth is re- commended, ‘‘as the moment of greatest brightness may fall one day before the predicted time.” On the 13th of Novem- ber, 1865, first-class meteors were seen at Greenwich at the rate of 250 per hour, and the “maximum display of the No- vember meteors expected in 1866 is several hundred times greater than that observed at Greenwich on the 13th of No- vember, 1865. T'wo hundred and forty thousand meteors are computed by Arago to have been visible above the horizon of Boston on the morning of the 13th of November, 1833.” The average height of shooting stars at the middle of their apparent paths is not quite sixty miles above the earth. Mr. Herschel pomts out a singular difference in the be- haviour of shooting stars and aerolites, or meteoric stones. The meteoric stones most frequently fall after mid-day, between noon and nine p.m., while the shooting stars are most abundant after midnight; and only one stone has been known to fall on the 10th of August or the 13th of November, when shooting stars are most numerous. A point of importance to be ascertained by means of the ““ Meteor Spectroscope”’ is, whether shooting stars and their luminous trains are composed of porous matter, or of solid matter, perhaps in a finely divided state, as is presumed. The anticipated splendour of the November shower should not be permitted to divert attention from the smaller shower expected on the night of August 10. ; Photo-nucrography. Al DR. CURTIS’S PROCESS OF PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. BY R. L. MADDOX, M.D. Taz beautiful specimens of photo-micrography, tracings of which we were enabied, by the kindness of Dr. Maddox, to lay before our readers in our July number, have excited so much interest, that we are sure the following letter from Dr. M. explaining the process will be highly appreciated :— “‘Through the kindness of Dr. J. J. Woodward, who has charge of the Medical and Microscopical Department in the Army Medical Museum, U.S., J am enabled to offer for the pages of your valuable journal a brief description of the plan adopted in taking the photo-micrographs alluded to, and pub- lished in your July number, and which becomes of more in- terest, as Dr. Woodward shows by a further number of prints of various objects, taken both by sun and artificial light, the excellency of the method. “The difference in sharpness given to the 3th over the tth, and achromatic concave amplifier, is attributed by him to the chemical process employed in rendering the albumen negative intense. The smaller prints were from the original negatives, and in the enlargement from these the solar camera was not employed. “The diatom Pleurosigma angulatum was simply a dry mounted specimen, adhering to the cover of an ordinary slide, which was removed, turned, and then covered by the thin glass necessary for the =,th. The part alluded to as possibly a sun spot, was only due to a particle of adherent dust. “The following plan is adopted by Dr. Curtis at the labora- tory of the Museum—the lenses of the objectives in use being corrected for the violet ray, and the formula furnished by Mr. Lewis Rutherford, so well known for his astronomical photo- graphy; but in the =1,th, the difference between the visual and actinic foci is so small as not to be noticed in the correction :— “Outside the window is placed a Silbermann’s Heliostat, which reflects the rays from a plane mirror, duly centred, through a brass tube, at the orifice of which hangs a large cell, with parallel sides of plate glass, filled with a saturated solu- tion of the ammonio sulphate of copper, the other arrange- ments of the apparatus being properly disposed in adark room, instead of using a camera: thus practically violet monochro- matic light is employed. The sensitized albumenized plates being, in this case, placed about three feet from the object for the ;th, rather less for the 1th and amplifier, and seven minutes’ exposure allowed. The condenser used was a pair of plano-convex lenses of about one inch combined focal length, 42. Animal Life in South Africa. a large central stop being placed over the flat surface of the one nearest the object, thus illuminating it with only the oblique pencils. These lenses were not achromatic, as mono- chromatic light was employed. The value of these details will, I trust, prove a sufficient apology for again trespassing on your space ! ”’ ANIMAL LIFE IN SOUTH AFRICA. BYS He CHICHESTER, ESQ. ALTHOUGH narratives of travel and of sporting adventure m Africa have of late become so numerous, the amount of in- formation to be acquired through their medium respecting the peculiarities of the animal world in these regions, still beyond doubt the finest game countries of the older continent, is (with one or two exceptions) scanty indeed. We propose m the following pages to notice a few among the many points thus generally overlooked. Commencing with the hugest specimen of nature’s handi- work, the elephant, we have generally found two curious points overlooked or ignored by writers—one is the rapid and noise- less movements of this animal in the thickest cover ; the other, his capabilities of passing over ground for him apparently | utterly unfeasible. The elastic noiseless footfall of the elephant has been frequently referred to by writers on Indian subjects, and has been rightly asserted to be the most agreeable feature. in journeying on elephant-back. This peculiarity may be easily explained by an examination of the structure of the animal’s foot; but the silent stealthy way in which he will pass through the densest thicket, literally “ slipping away,” when his acute senses of smell or hearing warn him of danger, has been generally overlooked, and appears to us somewhat difficult of explanation. Let any one unskilled in the mysteries of “bush ranging,” attempt to move even a few paces in an ordinary fox-covert without noise, and he will form some idea of the difficulties presented to the passage of so huge an animal as the elephant through the dense tangled undergrowth of a South African “bush.” Yet that the animal, despite his enormous bulk, will “draw off,” when within a few yards of his pursuer, without the slightest noise, and with the greatest rapidity, even in the thickest cover, is undeniable. We may, however, remark that this faculty or by whatever other term it may be described, is not peculiar to the elephant alone, for it has been observed to a marked extent in the moose or cariboo of North America. Animal Life in South Africa. 43 Again, his powers of passing over difficult ground are often underrated even by hunters. When experiments were first made* in India in training elephants to draw the guns, it was observed with surprise that the animal’s powers of ascending steep and rugged ground were far greater than had been anti- cipated. The gun, a light six-pounder, with which the trial was first made, was drawn up a slope so. steep as to require the animal to crawl upon its four knees, without hesitation. On the other hand, hampered by the gun and harness, the elephant (a small female) showed unusual dread of soft and swampy ground. In Africa, marshes do not seem ‘to possess the same terror for these animals in their wild state, for if they offer tempting pools, however uncertain the footing may be, the elephants appear to find a track across them.+ In the river courses too, deepened as they are by the torrents of the rainy season many yards below the surface of the surrounding country, and having banks nearly perpen- dicular, small shady pools close sheltered from the sun’s rays, often remain in the hot season when the rest of the stream has disappeared, and to these, should no other way be open, may be found tracts of the animals, leaving no doubt they have reached the coveted water by slipping down on their posteriors. In what position the hinder legs are placed during this operation we cannot tell, but the “ spoor”’ leaves no doubt of its having been repeatedly adopted in places apparently inaccessible. The elephants generally remain in the thickest part of the forest during day, making for the water, to which they often go long distances, shortly before midnight, and returning to cover some hours before dawn. We may here remark, that although these animals, owing no doubt to their acute sense of hearing and of scent, have never been surprised in a recumbent position, there is ample proof that the bulls at any rate, usually rest lyme on their sides. The late Mr. Gordon Cumming was, we believe, the first to note this fact, which we can ourselves confirm. He remarked that the sides of the enormous ant heaps so common in this region, were appa- ‘rently preferred, and that the ground was often distinctly marked with the impression of the under tusk as well as of the animal’s body. The influence of the particular tract of country in which they are found upon these animals, and the influence which * About thirty years ago by a committee of Indian Artillery officers. Elephants, we may remark, had been previously used in assisting the gun teams by pushing with their heads, and aiding with their trunks, and not by drawing in harness. } Elephants, like the generality of wild animals, take the water readily and swim well. Even baboons, though unwilling to do so, will on emergencies, swim with strength and rapidity, although with a queer and somewhat ludicrous action. 4A, Animal Iafe in South Africa. they, in their turn, like all other living creatures, exercise on their habitat, should not escape a short notice. On the borders of the Cape Colony and Natal, we find the few elephants that remain large in size, but with comparatively small tusks of inferior ivory. As we approach the equator, although food is far more plentiful, we find the animals smaller in size, having far larger tusks, the latter too being of an ivory far superior in hardness and closeness of grain. Indeed, although naturalists have not recognized more than one species of the African elephant, the varieties of ivory exported from the north, west, sonth-west, south-east coast, and the Cape, have each marked differences of quality by which they are easily recognizable. ‘The animals in their turn, however, likewise affect the economy of the country they inhabit. The damage done even by a single elephant in a very short time to a patch of cultivated ground is truly frightful, and having been once seen, would lead one to imagine that when these animals are herded together in vast troops such as the one seen by Dr. Livingstone on the banks of the Zambesi, consisting of over eight hundred, covering an extent of two miles of country, their course would be marked by utter desolation. The havoc thus caused is not however perceptible, a fact which that observant traveller has attributed, no doubt rightly, to the care shown by the elephants in the selection of their food—a point, as he justly remarks, often overlooked in esti- mating the quantity of food required by the larger animals. Again, all these animals, rhinoceri and hippopotami in- cluded, are, as M. Krapf observed, the true pioneers, ‘the real pathmakers of the tropical forest, which without their tracks would be often utterly impenetrable to man.” Further, these paths leading as they most frequently do, to water, are often the only open channels for the surface-flow of the heavy rainfalls, and thus materially contribute to the continuance of the water supply of the district, to the very existence of which they owe their formation. While the elephant does not thus destroy vegetation which would ruin the shelter which appears indispensable to him, on the other hand he directly assists the production of new growths by his habit of searching for the many succulent bulbs to be found below the surface of the soil in every open space. Mr. Gordon Cumming, in whose time elephants were more plentiful in the neighbourhood of the colonial frontier, than they are at the present, described large patches of many acres each in extent, as being thus ploughed up to a depth of several inches by the tusks of the elephants in quest of roots and bulbs; thus doubtless bringing to the surface germs of a fresh vegetation which would otherwise lie dormant. It is Animal Life in South Africa. A5 curious to remark that Pliny was acquainted with this habit (generally overlooked by modern writers) and he describes the “Indians” (?) as sowing their corn in the furrows thus provided for them by the elephants. We have already alluded to the influence of locality on the size of the elephant, and the same remark appears to hold good with other animals. Many of the so-called varieties of antelope are asserted by Dr. Livingstone in a note to his last work to be but local variations of other species already known. The same remark applies to the carnivora; the varieties of lion, the yellow and black, as they are styled by the colonists, thus appear to be one and the same animal at different ages and under the influence of different localities; the darker colour coming with age, and the thickness of the coat and the shageiness of the mane being apparently nm a great measure dependent on the nature of the cover frequented by the animal. Mr. Frank Buckland, in his interesting Curiosities of Natural History, Second Series, relates two curious circum- stances showing the subtle occult influences of locality on animals when in confinement. Animals in travelling mena- geries, he informs us are, as a general rule, more healthy than those confined to one spot, as in the Regent’s Park collection. This, too, is shown especially during gestation and parturition. Again, of several pairs of lions (from different places and kept always apart) which were successively placed in one particular cage in the Zoological Society’s Collection, the lionesses in each case produced cubs with a singular malformation of the palate of the mouth, the cause being, it is needless to say, inex- plicable. We may here briefly refer to the effects instanced in the case of those two formidable foes of domestic animals the “fly,” or tsetse, and tne lung sickness or peripneumonia of South Africa, both of which appear so dependent on locality. The “ tsetse” is a small active bee-like insect found in certain regions only, which sucks, in mosquito fashion, the blood of every creature it comes across. Its bite is harmless to man (even to the smallest children), to the mule, ass, and goat, to calves while sucking, and to all wild animals; yet it is certain death to the horse, ox, and dog; the symptoms, which last for months, pointing apparently to a strong poison introduced into the system. The localities in which this formidable pest is found are very circumscribed. Dr. Livingstone relates that although the south bank of the river Souta was a noted “ fly ” district, he found on the north bank the plague was unknown, the river being scarcely fifty yards wide, and tsetse beimg frequently carried across on the bodies of dead game by th natives. A6 Animal Life in South Africa. Again, peripneumonia, known as “lung sickness” when it attacks the oxen, and “horse sickness” when it affects the horse, which is in fact the rinderpest of which we have of late had so much bitter experience, and which is equally fatal to domestic cattle and to the bovine antelopes and quaggas, appears unaccountably to be restricted to certain localities. In some parts of the Cape Colony there ‘are very limited tracts of mode- rate elevation which appear to procure for horses while kept there a. perfect immunity from the attacks of the disease from which they have acquired from the Dutch the name “ Paarden bergen,” or horse hills.* They appear to possess no peculiarities of soil, vegetation, elevation, or climate to distinguish them from other spots around, and the cause of the immunity they enjoy remains as obscure as when it was noticed by the Dutch traveller Sparmann a century ago.t+ A remarkable instance of the influence of the animal on the vegetable world, occurs in the migrations of game which annually takes place, from the desert towards the Cape Colony and Natal. In some cases these may be due to the state of the herbage, which varies considerably at different elevations, but in the more marked cases as the migrations of the spring bok (Antilope euchore) this is not the case. These animals leave the desert at the time the grass is best, and track down towards the colony. The difficulty of estimating the numbers of a herd of animals in movement is always great; indeed, during the frontier struggles with the Kaffirs, | it was always remarked that the number of cattle driven off or recovered, was in every case overrated by the most experienced stock keepers, even where no object was to be gained by misrepresentation. With these antelopes the difficulty is greatly increased by a certain quivering motion of their horns which they maintain, and also by the gleams of white from the beautiful fan like manes which extend along their backs, and which they invariably erect when ~moving ; considering, however, the great numbers afterwards found in the colony when the main body has divided, it appears pro- bable that the estimate which places the numbers at between * There are certain localities in India which appear to be similarly endued in respect to cholera. These have long been known to the natives who suppose them to be under the protection of a “swamy,” or deity. The credit of first having called attention to these spots, we believe belongs to Colonel Haley, wee 108th Regiment, who has recently referred to them in the United Service Magazine, + This disease, which is endemic in a part of the Trans- Vaal territory, becomes annually epidemic throughout a considerable part of the Cape Colony and Natal. Horses which have once passed through the disease are termed “salted,” and are supposed to be safe from future attacks, a security which in the case of oxen is sought to be attained by inoculation with a portion of the diseased lung of a dead ox inserted in the fleshy part of the tail, near the root. Animal Life in South Africa. AT thirty thousand and forty thousand at starting,* does not exceed the truth. On certain seasons, generally recurring about once in ten years, there is a vast increase in numbers which causes the movement to take some of the features of an American “stampede.’? We have ourselves witnessed instances on these occasions, when the animals hurried along and seemingly bewildered by the numbers round them have allowed them- selves to be caught by the hand. It is to these larger occasional migrations that the Dutch Boers more especially apply the term “trek bokkens.” A scarcity of food in certain seasons inducing greater numbers thus to migrate, is the cause usually assigned to these movements, but there is another which we think may have at least an equal share in producing them. These animals are polygamous, consorting in the proportion of four or five females to one male. Now it has been asserted with apparent truth, in the case of animals in a state of domestication that the proportion of the sexes born in different years varies con- siderably, and it is we think likely that these “‘ trek bokkens” take place when the numbers have been increased by a large preponderance of females born a few seasons previously. Dr. Livingstone assigns another cause, viz., the wary habits of the animals which induce them to leave the high and rank grass and choose more open feeding grounds, an “instinct by the way, often displayed by domestic oxen. Wherever the herds of antelope are found, whether the numbers be large or small, they appear materially to influence the herbage of the district they frequent. Their close, cropping bite resembling that of sheep, opens out a place for the young shoots, while their droppings not only fertilize the ground, but return to it the seeds in the form most suitable for fecundation. Dr. Livingstone has related some instances where the game having been destroyed, the grass totally disappeared, being succeeded by a growth of mesembryanthemum-like plants, a change, which it is needless to say, would materially affect the water supply of a scantily watered country. * They have “ever been noticed returning to the desert. + The difference in the quality of the flesh of different closely allied varieties of antelope feeding on the same herbage is noteworthy ; while the flesh of some is tolerable venison (as the spring bok), that of others (as the rhei bok) is rank carrion. This reminds us that the Dutch colonists have a curious idea respecting the varieties of the common hare, which are very numerous. These animals, they maintain, feed on garbage, an idea certainly confirmed by the places they appear to frequent. To give an example of this habit in a herbivorous animal, the writer remembers many years ago in Lisbon, seeing the goats feeding in the vicinity of the city muzzled, which he was informed was done with a view to prevent their feeding, as they would, if possible, on the offal and impurities that fill the purlieus of that dirtiest of dirty cities. 48 Animal Life in South Africa. The migratory habits of these animals also prevent the herbage, and consequently the water supply, of any particular district being affected by over-cropping. In the Cape Colony, near Graaf-Reinet (and, we have been told, in some of the Merino districts in Spain), the reverse of this picture may be seen. In these cases, by over-feeding certain of the sheep- walks, the herbage has first become impoverished, and in the end, like the water supply, has nearly disappeared. The numbers of these animals are also kept m check by the large proportion of the carnivora. Lions, indeed, are getting scarce ; but the various species of leopard and tiger- cat, known to the colonists under the general name of tigers, aud of hyzenas (called wolves), is still very great. The bene- ficent purpose these animals fulfil in the great scheme of nature, has been so admirably pointed out in the “‘ Bridgewater Treatise’ of the late Dean Buckland, that although our limits forbid our transcribing it, we cannot help begging the reader to turn to it. Jt is, indeed, trite and superfluous to say that this intimate relation between every department of nature may be traced by the attentive observer upon every spot on the earth’s surface, but im South Africa it possesses an additional interest from the consideration that while on the one hand (if the surmises of recent geologists as to the antiquity of the present state of the South African continent be correct),* there is no region we can point to where those relations As THEY NOW EXIST, have - been longer in force; there is-on the other none where the retreat of animal life before the almost imperceptible encroach- ments of civilized man has been and is progressing in a more marked or obvious manner. * See Sir R. Murchison’s remarks on the South African continent. The Planet Saturn. 49 THE PLANET SATURN. (CONTINUED.) BY THE REV. T. W. WEBB, A.M., F.R.A.S. BzrorE we proceed to review the anomalies exhibited during the lateral presentation of the ring-system, we must take some notice of an idea to which Secchi was conducted by the singu- lar disagreement of the measures which he obtained of it in its more open position. This eminent observer was induced by = IL.’s suspicions as to the permanency of the ring, and the remarkable differences between the results of the first astronomers—Lassell, Hncke, and Galle having given upwards of 1”-5 more than Bessel to the outer diameter of the whole— to use the micrometer largely himself. He found his values on any given evening very accordant among themselves, their discrepancies ranging within 0”°3; on different ones perplex- ingly the reverse, much more so than in the case of double stars; for instance, as the extremes of sixteen nights, 1855, Dec. 15, 41-443; Dec. 27, 40’-412. A comparison of these variations, which he found in some respects corroborated by the observations of Lassell, Main, and De la Rue, led him to reflect whether the ring, as a whole, might be subject to periodical dilatation, or might be elliptical in form, with a ‘rotation sometimes presenting to us its longer, sometimes its shorter axis. Of these two suppositions he thought the latter the more probable, suggesting a period of about 14h-238; but on the whole considered that there might be not merely ellipticity and rotation, but some actual variation in diameter ; hence concluding that there is no reason to fear, with 3 II., a progressive alteration and final destruction of this “ beautiful accessory ” to the planet. These last expressions of Secchi refer to a singular and impressive speculation of > II., who, from a careful comparison of the ancient drawings and measurements, such as they were, of the ansee and the included space with more modern values, had been induced to believe that the ring-system, especially the inner edge of B, was in a state of such perceptible and rapid approximation to the planet that its ultimate disintegra- tion was now not only a mere question of time, but, as it would seem, of a comparatively short interval. More recently, however, the improbability of this curious hypothesis has been shown by the measurements of Main (then Senior Assistant at Greenwich, now Radcliffe Observer at Oxford) ; and the ideas of both 2 II. and Secchi, though too interesting to be passed unnoticed in a recital like the present, have been so strongly VOL, X.—NO. I. E 50 : The Planet Saturn. controverted by Professor Kaiser of Leyden that it may not be necessary to refer to them at greater length. We may, how- ever, make the passing remark, the justice of which will be evident on more than one occasion, that the almost unap- proachable mystery of the whole subject permits a latitude of speculation much more extensive than would be accorded in questions of a less obscure and perplexing character. The want of symmetry which has led to these remarks is, as might be anticipated, not less evident during the lateral presentation of the rings. From an early period we meet with observations of anomalous appearances at these epochs, com- prising not merely differences in the relative visibility of the two ans, but also other variations of aspect, all bearing similar testimony. As far back as Dec., 1671, the two Cassinis had seen Saturn attended by the blunted remainder of only a single ansa, and this not always on the same side.— 1714, Oct. 1, 8, 5, 7, 9, Maraldi found the H. ansa rather the broader and more visible, while each, evidently from want of optical power, seemed reduced to one-half its usual length ; 12, only W. was visible; 14, disappearance complete.—1715, March 22, a trace of W. only.—1743, Noy. 29, Heinsius found H. shorter than W.—17738, Sept. 24 to Oct. 4, Varelaz at Cadiz with three telescopes, one a 5-ft. reflector by Short, saw distinctly W. constantly brighter than H. ansa; he also remarked some more luminous points at the extremities; the ~ first notice, it is believed, of an appearance frequently recorded. im more modern times. Similar irregularities are stated to have been seen this year by Messier, who inferred much inequality of surface. Oct. 5, 6, W. only seen at Madrid.— 1774, His stated to have seen only one ansa for some time. Jan. 11, Messier observed H. longer than W. Previous to its disappearance W. was seen the longer and brighter for four weeks at Mannheim; at its reappearance, Wollaston thought he detected W. June 30; July 2, he was certain of the whole, but W. was the larger—1789, August 30, Ussher at Dublin found H. the more visible; Oct. 1, H. only. At Cork, H. only latterly to Oct. 5. Schroter perceived only a few luminous points till after Oct.; but 1790, Feb., in frequent observations incomparably more of them, in part at least not satellites. During twenty days he and another saw W. much brighter than H., which was far more irregular, and had on it the last two days a fixed poimt of light. Hence he concluded, as Messier and others had done fifteen and thirty years before, that the S$. was by far the more uneven surface. [We have already mentioned that the fixed poimts or knots of light, which will now repeatedly be mentioned, though supposed by Schr. to be mountains, one between 400 and 500 miles high, The Planet Saturn. ol are no doubt, as Olbers suggested, the perspective projection of the brightest portions of the ring enlarged by irradiation ; or if we are looking on the dark side, hght reaching us through its openings. But their frequent absence of symmetry is the point to which we are directing our attention.] 1803, Jan. (3?) 4, Harding found W. ansa reappear alone, with a large knot of light. 11, Schr., Harding, and another found W. more visible, and the knot unmoved. 14, ditto, Schr. detected two smaller knots on E.; they observed by turns for 82h., and found them unchanged; durimg the latter days the W. knot began to lengthen westward; it continued visible and unmoveable for 44 months. June 10, all H. had disappeared except two points, W. was extremely thin and interrupted, with its great point or mountain. 16, Schr. saw W. with much difficulty; EH. had for some time disappeared. It vanished at last, even in 27-ft. reflector, and reappeared on each side alternately as a fine interrupted line. Nov., ring knotty, E. white, W. fainter; the same three spots. Schr. considered that when we looked on the S. side, W. was the larger, and the reverse, and inferred that the rings did not lie in the same plane. I have found no record of its aspect at its next disappear- ance, but in 1832 and 1833 we have several notices, especially by Schwabe,* the great observer of the sun at Dessau. Dec. 1, he saw one minute point on H. side, fixed for 3h. so as to show that it could not be a satellite. 12, H. ansa had a bright spot (near outer edge of ring B), and did not close up to the ball; W. uniform, rather the shorter, broader, less defined, and fainter; but vanishing later behind clouds than H. The dissimilarity contmued through the spring of 1833, but the spot grew less obvious on the widening ring, and the H. ansa became continuous, though feebly so, to the globe. April 2, ans evidently unlike; H. famter than W.; both feeble. 7, 15, H. the longer; no brighter spots. 17, EH. obviously the longer, and somewhat the sharper defined; very faint or in- visible near ball, while W. closes up to it. 25, W. the more distinct; Hi. seems discontinuous. 27, ditto; sometimes, per- haps, a bright spot on H. May 1, ring gone. June 8, 13, sometimes very minute point H. 14, first.certainty, W. some- what the more distinct, and closing up to ball; H. does not close, but has a bright spot. 18, spot so bright as to make H. ansa, though the famter, the more conspicuous. 24, W. very obviously the shorter and fainter, but uniform; H. brighter towards extremity. 205, ditto; the spot seemed double. July 16, W. uniform; EH. distinctly longer, and very faint next * This name was erroneously printed Schuzbe in our last No. 52 The Planet Saturn. globe; spot more extended. These observations were con- firmed by others. Petersen at Altona found H. always con- siderably the brighter. April 22, 25, 26, a distinct bright point H.; another, not symmetrical, suspected W. At re- appearing, June 16, Bianchi saw bright points in anse. 19, a point. 22, 24, several, H. Santimi, 18, H. like a strmg of pearls, dissimilar to W. Midler also saw a brighter point H. than W., and W. took the lead in the apparent shortening of the ansz. ; During the decrease of the rmg in 1846, from Noy. 21, Schwabe found W. always rather fainter and less sharply defined than H.—1847, July 11 to Aug. 15, W. somewhat the more distinct, bright, and long, and its ‘‘lunule ” more obvious, though not larger: from middle of Sept. both ansze equal in all respects. At the ensuing edge-presentation in 1848, a greater degree of systematic attention was paid to these ap- pearances, and the experience of Schwabe, the keen eye of Schmidt with the 8-feet Bonn heliometer, the unsurpassed . vision of Dawes, and the extraordinary power of the achromatic at Harvard College, U.S., were all putin requisition. June 26, the dark side being turned towards us, the ring was visible in its whole length, but not continuous W.:* Bond II. Traces rather plainer H. as a multitude of the finest points: Schm.—June 30, 2 faint dots, H. the plainer, about the extremity of ring B: Dawes.—July 3, W. more distinct than E.: Bond IL—10, an interruption and two bright points on each side: Bond I1.— 11, three detached bright portions W., two H.: Bond I. Con- tinuous, but brightest in four places, like satellites strung on the ring, only fixed: B. Il.—14, 16, 17, breaks visible, B. II. —15, as before, Dawes.—18, composed of fragments, but more continuous, and broadest near ball W.: B. I.—21, 4 fixed points: B. I1—Aug. 29, W. the more easily seen; 2 spots on it; one only on H.: B. Il.—30, W. best, with a spot: B. II. :—31, unequally illuminated: B. I. IT.—Sept. 3, sun passed to 8. side: ring perhaps beaded: B. I. Il.; probably not equable, yet not dotted as June 26: Schm.—4, perhaps not quite equable, but prominences and interruptions not per- ceptible ; thinnest next ball: B. II. W. somewhat the plainer ; EK. interrupted: Schw. W. seen without any difficulty inter- rupted in 2 places; H. less certainly so: Schm. [personal or instrumental equation must come in here]. IH. decidedly longer than W.: Dawes.—5, ring a sharp line, thinning off from W. to H. end; W. most obvious, and joining globe; H. inter- rupted and not joining: 2 bright longish thickenings on W., one sharp point on H., all fixed: Schw. and Habicht. W.in * P. in original, as in many other places. The Planet Saturn. 53 3 portions ; H. in 2: Schm.—6, much the same: Schw. One break on each side at place of Ball’s division; H. somewhat the longer: Schm.—7, the same: Schw. and Hab. H. the longer; Schm. who saw one break H. 2 W., so Argelander, who did not think them quite dark.—8, W. and 2 spots plainer, H. and point weaker: Schw. and Hab. 11h. ldm., break in each ansa, near Ball’s. div.: 12h. 15m., W. the broader as before, H. the longer with 2 breaks; 14h. (very fine, power 600) W. in 3, H. in 2 parts, but all W. broader, brighter, and stronger,; H. perhaps longer and very pointed: Schm.— 9, W. very broad, points well divided; H. narrower, but of sharper light, showmg besides old point, 2 fainter ones nearer globe, from which to the nearest was an extremely faint line. It seemed as though both ansz were not in one plane, but H. was a little sloped towards S.: Schw. One break, probably more, on each side; proportions H. and W., as yesterday: Schm.—10, the same in all respects: Schw. and Hab.—lI, W. only one longish thickening; H. three points: Schw.— 10, 11, break on each side; H. the longer: Schm.—l11, no prominences: B. JI.—12, W. certain; H. nothing but 2 ex- tremely fine pomts: Schw.—13, Harth passed to dark side ; W. perhaps visible close to ball: B. IJ.—18, rmg extremely delicate; W. 2 fixed pomts: B. I.—Oct. 5, mterrupted, especially W.: B. I].—6, 7, rather broken, especially H.: B. II.—12, disconnected, and 2 points: B. II.—20, 23, inequali- ties as in July: B. I. I1.—28, the dark part across the ball uneven: B. I.—Noy. 3, symmetrically interrupted, but broader H.: B. L.—18, 29, dark part uneven: B. 1.—1849, Jan 6, brightest H.: B. I1.—19, after earth had passed to illuminated S. side, ring rough, broken and not joining ball and longer H.: B. I.; these differences not perceived: B. I1.—21, W. un- questionably the broader, but less defined and fainter, broadest at end, and with a knot of light; H. carried 2, possibly 3 points: Schw. A strong point at end of H; doubtful whether ansa touches either it or ball; fainter and less distant pomt on W. which touches ball: Schm.—27, W. uniform; points on H. doubtful. EH. seems longer than W., and not joined to globe: Schw.—29, ditto; greater length of H. obvious: Schw.—3l, no points, but ansee very unequal; W. evidently the shorter, less defined, and fainter; yellowish; H. orange; joined to ball by a feeble line: Schw. Giinther in Breslau, 1848, Sept. 5, found anse disjoined from ball, and H. distinctly brighter than W.—Sept. 7, Busch at Konigsberg saw a fixed point at the very end of H., one nearer ball on W. So Wichmann.—8, point on W. invisible; on EH. somewhat nearer ball.—9, 10, poimt at end of H.—11, W. brighter than EH. The observations at the last epoch of similar presentation, K 5A, The Planet Saturn. 1861-2, were, as far as I have seen them, of the same character. As the ring diminished, Secchi found, if the air was not good, HK. ansa sometimes the shorter. Nov. 8, both were short, but especially W.; H. the fainter. 15, ansz dotted; H. much the narrower. 19, H. “apparent” ansa (qy.: does not this mean the real W. in an inverted field?) certainly the shorter. [We must not forget that these differences in length which so re- peatedly come before us, may be as fairly ascribed to excen- tricity, as to deficiency in reflective power of the extremity of the line.| During the following observations by Schwabe, with 6ft. Frauenh. up to 360, the earth was on the sunny side of the ring.—Feb. 7—10, both uniformly smooth, HE. growmg brighter. 17, W. very blunt-ended; H. with 5 or 6 fixed knots, 2 strongest very near ball. 18,19, W. the shorter; H. dotted and very pointed. 27, H. still dotted. March 1, 8, W. a little the more distinct. 10, both alike bright, long, and smooth. The dark spaces begin to appear as 2 very fine black lines. [This seems inconsistent with any appreciable thickness of C.] 12, ditto. Rimg begins to be brighter than ball. 15, 16, 24, ansze unchanged. April 1—8, W. less defined and shorter than H., which had a granular ight. 10, H. obviously the longer. 14, E. very pointed and somewhat knotty. 16, K. certainly the brighter. 22, EH. alone knotty. 24, H. so sharp that its termination is sometimes doubtful. 25, ditto; W. the more distinct. 29, H. end often vanishes. 30, 2 knots. on E., and its end fainter. May 1, EH. had 2 knots; it often vanished. 2, a third knot H. 3, EH. the feebler; no knots. 4, 5, W. the plainer. Throughout these observations, from Feb. 7 to May 2, the anse preserved invariably a wedge-shaped aspect, tapermg from W. to H., as Schroter had represented it in a “rough but very faithful ” desion ; whence Schwabe infers that, whatever explanation may be given of the dots of light, rotation is impossible-—1861. Wray 7 in.: Dec. 17, line irre- gularly broken (looking on dark side); 26, 16h. 30m. H, scarcely, W. readily visible, and broken m 2 places; 18h. 30m., both equally bright; 19h., H. the brighter. Jan. 4, W. much broken, brighter than EH. 5,13h. 30m., W. much fainter and shorter than E.; 16h. 40m. equal in length and light; 17h. 15m. to 18h. W. decidedly the brighter. 18, ansz equal. —1862. Huggins, May 2, 12, 13, two bright dots H. at inner and outer edges of ring. 16, ans steady; no dots.—Carpen- ter at Greenwich, May 5, H. =, the longer. 17, W. just visible ; only one spot H. 19, W. the more visible—Birt, May 13, with 2 achroms. by Slater, 3 beads W.-; 4 (Slater 5), E., which was the longer.— II. May 16, W. the longer as 5 to 4. 17, 18, 19, W. the more visible. June 8, perhaps the shorter. The unvaried bearing of all this testimony is in favour of The Planet Saturn. 55 the conclusion, already adopted by some of the very early observers, that, instead of the whole ring-system lying in an uniform plane, there must be a slight degree of mutual inchi- nation in the surface of its subdivisions, and such an inclina- tion as will occasion want of symmetry in its perspective projection.* This would not be the result of mere inclination, so long as the intersection of the planes, whatever might be their number, passed through the centre of the planet, because: one half of each plane would be as much elevated as the other- depressed on either side, like the ecliptic and equator in the- sky, and symmetry would not be interfered with. We must,. therefore, in order to explain the observed appearances, adopt: the idea of planes whose intersection does not pass through the axis of Saturn—perhaps not even through any part of the globe, or ring-system itself; and whose varying inclination—~ for under the action of so many disturbing forces, their incli- nations and nodes must vary—though symmetrical on either’ side of their own intersections, or lines of nodes, would not be- so on either side of the centre of the planet. Such an arrange- ment would not involve any theoretical impossibility. It is: not essential to the stable equilibrium of the whole system, that the centres of gravity of the several rings should coincide with that of the planet; so lone as this is the case with the common centre of all, they would individually balance each other on opposite sides of it. And even a want of coincidence between the common centre of gravity of the rings, and that of the planet, would not produce disintegration of the system, provided each of those points revolved round an intermediate one, the general centre of gravity of the whole. The mutual attractions, however, of the rings, and the external influence of the satellites, while not of necessity causing any permanent derangement or ultimate collapse, would yet introduce a com- plexity of balancing, the result of which would probably transcend all human analysis, but which may possibly—more cannot be said—produce the peculiar variations which the foregoing details record, and which certainly are supported by too great a mass of evidence to be treated as mere optical deceptions. Theoretical inquiries, however, unless of the most superficial and familiar character, le wide of our present object, which is simply to bring into one point of view the most accessible data, that the student may, as the result of a * Bessel found by strict mathematical investigation that the times of the disappearance and reappearance of the ring were incompatible with parallelism in its opposite surfaces. But this, though harmonizing with the wedge-shaped form recorded by Schwabe, is scarcely an adequate solution of many of the recorded phenomena, and at any rate merely treats the system as a whole. Cassini II. had anticipated this conclusion. 56 The Planet Saturn. careful comparison, ascertain for himself, what is pretty cer- tainly known, and what is still ambiguous, in this wonderful subject. To explain the variety of appearances, ib would seem necessary to assume that Ball’s is not the only actual division in the system, but that the minuter dark lmes which have been often noticed, indicate its separation into many narrow concentric annuli. This is in every respect probable, and it is not impossible that the difference so frequently recorded in the visibility of these divisions on opposite sides of the globe, may be due to some of the perturbing influences to which we have alluded, and which may really, in the inscrutable arrange- ments of an all-wise Creator, be the source of preservation instead of ruin. Such at least was the opinion of Pierce, who considered that, without the compensation introduced by the influence and position of the satellites, not even the irregu- larities of the ring, to which Laplace had referred its equi- librium, would suffice to guarantee it from collapse and destruction. The variation of inclination among the bright portions is obviously confined, as we must have remarked, within narrow limits, and disturbs the symmetry but in a small degree. But it may be questioned whether this may not be more the case with regard to the dark ring C, as well as whether it may not be of considerably greater thickness than its neighbours. — > II. thinks both of these probable, from the visibility of what Maraldi called the equatorial belt during the disappearance of the ring in 1715. This, however, does not seem conclusive, unless it can be shown that he was not then looking upon the unenlightened side of the bright rings. But at the first dis- covery of C in 1850, Dawes remarked that it was always more plainly seen behind than in front of the ball, and that its projection upon the ball was then considerably too narrow to accord with that at the major axis; and more conspicuously so at that time, than at the end of 1852. These appearances, he says, might be satisfied by the supposition of a wedge-like form in C, the thick edge outwards, and a similar but reversed form of B: he preferred, however, the hypothesis of De la Rue of a different inclination for C, which would thus be tilted up, as it were, from behind towards the eye. De la Rue, in fact, in his first beautiful engraving, Nov. 1852, represents C as encroaching on the outline of B behind the ball; and in his second continues to show it wider there than in front:* he * Lassell, on the contrary, at. Malta, with 24 inches, found, 1852, Dec. 15, C so broad, and B so narrow, in front of the ball, that he thought the darkest part of the latter must have been merged in the appearance of the former. The Planet Saturn. BY considered, too, that its apparent ellipticity was not the same with that of the bright rings. Mitchell also, with the 12-in. achrom. at Cincinnati, noticed the disproportionate breadth at the major axis; and | thought it evident with 5} im. m June, 1865. The very curious comparative indistinctness of the H. edge of rmg B, observed by Schumacher and Dawes (INTELLECTUAL OpsERVER, ix., 371), struck Mr. Barrow, the companion of the latter, 1855, Dec. 19, as an indication of an inclination in the plane of C.—1857, Jan. and Feb. Morton, observing with Lord Wrottesley’s achromatic of 72 inches, found the division of B and C never well marked, from the apparent overlapping of the latter, the opposite or inner edge of which was sharply seen. But still more curious are the observations of the eminent optician Wray and 2 II., in 1861-2, when the edge of the ring was presented to us. ‘The former, using a 7-inch object-glass, distinctly saw, Dec. 23, 26, Jan. 4, 5, 11, 18, a faint, nebulous, bluish-white light, very different from the planet in colour, attending each side of the narrow ring-line for about + of its length right and left of the ball. The latter, May 15, perceived luminous appendages like clouds of less — intense light, lying on the S. side of the line, which was much sharper defined N.—19, they extended 0°6 p, 0°3 f, of the diameter of the ball; their colour very unlike that of the ring, being “ not yellow, but more of a livid colour, brown and blue.” 20, extent 0°65 p, 0°5 f—21, 0°6 p, 0.4. f, on which side light much more feeble; breadth increasing towards limbs like sharp wedges.—22, 0°6 p, 0°5f,—June 3, very bad image, yet appen- dages still distinctly visible. Wuinnecke concurred in these observations. Nothing of the kind, however, was noticed at Greenwich, May 17, 19, 20, June 3. During & II.’s obser- vations the sun was nearly in the plane of the ring; more elevated during Wray’s, when the earth, on the contrary, was much lower. Our readers may have remarked that nothing has been said as to the period of the rotation of the ring, which, as is well known, was deduced by HW, in 1789, from the luminous points of which such repeated mention has been made. He fixed it-at 10h. 82m. 15°4s., and the dissentients from so high an authority have been very few. Schrdter, indeed, from the unmoved position of certain protuberances ; Schumacher, from the unvaried difference in sharpness of the iner edges of B; and Schwabe, from the unchanged direction of the wedge-like form of the lateral view, have not hesitated to express a doubt even as to the fact of rotation; but the generality of astro- nomers have acquiesced in Hl’s determination both of the faci and the period: and it would seem to involve no small degree 58 The Planet Saturn. of hardihood, not to say presumption, for any but a great leader in science to call it in question now. But truth ought to be paramount to such considerations. It is not authority but fact with which we have to deal. It is not so much a matter of opinion as of evidence, and a circumstantial examina- tion of the original observations seems to bring with it the inevitable impression that they are not adequate to bear out the conclusion which has been drawn from them. The lucid points which have been so often noticed, strung lke beads, to use H’s elegant illustration, upon the ring, may be referred. to more than one cause. If fixed, the reasoning of Olbers and the measurements of Bond concur to prove that they are merely perspective foreshortenings or transmitted glimpses of the brightest portions of the rmg, and their frequent want of symmetry offers, as we have seen, no insurmountable impedi- ment to this explanation, in default of which they would be irreconcilable with any rotation whatever. It is only among such as are moveable that the indications of rotation can be sought; of these the greater number are confessedly merely satellites projected upon the line of the ring, and it remains to be inquired whether there are any others which cannot be ac- - counted for in this way. Now, in 1789, after the discovery of the two innermost satellites, Hl found in the record of his observations that in 47 instances, extending through 20 nights, he had seen bright points not concurring with the position of any satellite at the time. The idea of their being mere results of perspec- tive, or openings in the dark side, had then never been sug- gested, and he does not seem to ‘have contemplated the possi- bility of their fixity: he therefore assumed the existence of 5 separate spots—which he preferred to consider as outbreaks of fire rather than as mountains—im different positions on the ring; and he proceeded to show that his observations might all be accounted for by a combined rotation of these hypotheti- cal spots in rather more than 103 hours. This, it may be safely asserted, is a mode of proof which is entitled to little confidence. But, it will be asked, did he not actually witness their motion? ‘'That,it is obvious, would be the only satisfac- tory test. A poimt on a ring revolving with such rapidity would be carried through its whole apparent length in 57 hours, or through a space equal to the radius of the planet m about lh. 10m., and, though considerable allowance must be made for the perspective foreshortening of the direction of motion, it is evident that among so many observations it ought to have been repeatedly perceived. But in two instances only i is anything of the kind distinctly specified. Oct. 30, 20h. 53m. distance + diam. of planet f (but this he is obliged to refer to a different hypothetical spot) :—23h. 55m. @ ditto Pp, Very near the end of the arm:—0Oh. 42m. a little nearer than before :— Ross’s Four-Tenths Condenser. 59 Oh. 47m. 2 again.—October 31, 21h. 18m. 2 p:—22h. 11m. drawn ‘nearer; “flying clouds prevent estimations of the distance.”— 23h. 13m. ‘‘no longer visible.” From such very. limited and incomplete data it does not seem too much to say, with all due respect to the illustrious observer, that no exact- ness of period could be deduced. And nothing has since been added to them. In an accompanying diagram the imaginary Spots are set nearer to or further from the edge of the ring, to make the calculations correspond with the appearances ;. but he expressly states that his period applied to the exterior ring A. Laplace had previously given about the same value, but for the interior ring. (To be continued.) A near appulse of the moon to Saturn during the evening of Aug. 16 will be an interesting spectacle, the distance, at Greenwich, being only 36’. ROSS’S FOUR-TENTHS CONDENSER. THE subject of achromatic condensers for the microscope is. not yet exhausted, and although several forms of considerable merit are now before the public, there is still room for experi- ment and invention, both in the glasses employed and in the nature of the stops. Mr. Ross has added to the number of condensers one that especially deserves notice and commenda- tion ; and, we think, after giving it a considerable trial, that it will be regarded with great favour by practical microscopists. Before describing the new condenser, we must say a few words on the different results which proceed from employing combinations of different sizes and different degrees in angle of aperture. Let the microscopist draw two lines converging and making an angle of 100°, and then draw, at various dis- 60-3. Ross’s Four-Tenths Condenser. tances from the angle, horizontal lines uniting the two lines that converge to form the angle. The figure will be hke the preceding diagram, in which A represents the focal pomt of a series of lenses, 1, 2, 38, 4, of different sizes and focal lengths. Hach lens, 1, 2, 3, or 4, can throw, through any transparent substance, appropriately situated, rays of ight which converge at an angle of 100°; but there will be a great difference in the total quantity of light which each lens can receive or refract, and also in the proportion which the marginal rays bear to the central ones. In 1, the marginal rays will be greatly m excess of the central rays ; while in 4, as the marginal rays are fewer, and the central rays the same, the latter will be relatively much more important. ‘This diagram distinctly expresses to the eye the fact that, when achromatic condensers are made with small lenses, the marginal rays do not exceed the central rays to anything like the same extent as when larger lenses are employed. Suppose the diagram to be on such a scale, that the lens, whose diameter is represented by 2, will. focus through the thickness of an ordinary glass slide, it is then plain that lenses of the same aperture, and so small as either 3, or 4, cannot possibly perform with their whole aperture, or anything like it, through the thickness in question. A lens of given aperture and of focal length greater than the thickness of a glass slide, may converge all its rays through any transparent object on the shde; and if the slide be much thinner than the length of its focus, all the difference is, that the thin glass will obstruct and refract the passage of the rays less than the thicker glass. If, however, we try to make a large-angled and small lens with a short focus work through a slide, the thickness of which exceeds the length of its focus, only the central rays, and those near them, can get through in the direction required. Thus, if a microscopist desires to have a large-angled condenser, for use with ordinary glass slides, as well as with thin glass, he must not take an optical combination of small lenses and very short focus, for if he does, a considerable portion of the slant- ing light he desires should reach his object will never get there at all. It appears to us that two things should be required of achromatic condensers intended for general use and for research. First, that the optical combination employed should be adapted to a considerable range of power—say from an inch or two-thirds upwards to the highest; and, secondly, that it should be capable of working with a large aperture through ordinary glass slides. When low powers are employed, a pleasantly lit field can be obtained, by using a condenser a little out of focus, so that the rays cross before reaching the object ; but a condenser for general use should be able to send Ross’s Four-Tenths Condenser. nO a sufficient quantity of its oblique rays, when in focus, through an object seen with very moderate magnification, and should be capable of giving a dark ground illumination with a half inch or two-thirds onject glass.* In Mr. Ross’s four-tenths condenser, the principal desiderata are excellently provided. The optical combination is exactly the same as in his large angled four-tenths objectives, and the front lens has a diameter of one-fifth of an inch. In the best con- densers the diaphragms are brought close to the lower lens, and this is the case with the instrument before us, which is pro- vided with two revolving wheels of diaphragms. The upper one is pierced with eight round holes, or “ circular apertures,” as those who prefer learned phraseology may call them. One of these is, in point of size, a copy of its next door neighbour, and may be filled up with a polarizing slice of tourmaline, or may be made with a little rim, so as to receive any experimental stops the microscopist may wish to try the effect of. Omitting this stop, we have seven other stops, marked respectively 109°, 95°, 82°, 70°, 59°, 49°, and 40°. These stops allow the lenses to work with the ‘angles of aperture named. In the wheel of diaphragms, below them, is another set of stops, which can be combined with the preceding. A, the first, is a large central stop adapted to 109° or 95° angles of aperture, B and C, smaller ditto; 3,2, and 1 are radial stops—that is to say, they are pierced orn ‘slots, three, two, and one respectively, cut so as to converge towards the centre of the circle, but not carried as far as the centre. The single slot stop keeps out the central rays, and allows a radial beam, including its proportion of marginal rays, to illuminate the object. This can be used with the larger of the open stops. The two-slot stop gives passages to two such pencils of light, one at right angles to the other, a plan very effective with certain diatoms and other objects. The three-slot stop allows the transmission of three pencils, equidistant from each other. This gives the three readings of the P. angulatwm beautifully. The arrangement for working the diaphragms in the condenser is very convenient, and the whole apparatus rotates with Mr. Ross’ substage. The lenses are capable of adjustment to suit different thicknesses of glass. Let us say a few words on the results. The proportion which, from the size of the front lens the marginal and central rays bear to each other is such, when the stop, allowing 40° of aperture is employed, that*the two sets of lines, on Plewro- sigma hippocampus, and P. angulatwm, are distinctly shown with a one-fifth objective and first eye-piece. A slight change in * With a two-thirds, we find it advisable to send the light through the four-tenths condenser with the concave mirror, when a dark ground illumination is required. 62 Lartet on the Asphalt of the Dead Sea the position of the flat mirror makes this stop work excellently with the podura scale. Thus this arrangement enables an experimenter viewing a new object to see surface markings, and to obtain penetration with one and the same stop, an important gain in original investigation. Hor lined objects, other combinations will do better, but it is remarkable how well distance lines can be shown with only 40° aperture of the condenser, and no central stop at all. The slot stops have been found very useful in investigating unknown objects, as well as in displaying those that are known ; and with the whole aperture and the two-slot stop many diatoms with double sets of lines are brought out very powerfully. The microscopist will find that from 40° to 59° angle of aperture will, im many cases, give the best results, when a one-fourth or a one-fifth objective is employed, though a larger aperture would be desirable to display the same objects if another condenser made of smaller glasses should be used. LARTET ON THE ASPHALT OF THE DHAD SHA. Tue following paper of M. Louis Lartet will be found in Comptes Rendus, No. 26, 1866 :— “The ancient traditions concerning the appearance of bitumen on the surface of the Dead Sea bear testimony to the evident connection of this phenomenon with the persistent activity of the internal forces of the globe in this region, and which have given rise to profound dislocations of cretaceous and nummulitic rocks, to the flow of volcanic matter, and to thermal springs. In our own times, some travellers who, like the American missionary, Smith, had the advantage of know- ing the Arabic language, have been able to obtain, from tribes actually stationed in this region, tolerably consistent accounts of the more recent appearances of bitumen in the waters of the Dead Sea. It seems that the appearance of this substance is always preceded by subterranean commotions. Thus, after the earthquake of 1834, a considerable mass of bitumen made its appearance at the southern end of the sea, and the Arabs detached about 220 quintals, out of which they made a good rofit. me In 1820, when another earthquake destroyed a great part of the city of Tiberias, and occasioned the death of more than 6000 inhabitants of the district, very violent shocks occurred in the direction of the great axis of dislocation of the basin ; new hot springs uprose in the Tiberiad; and a few days after- Lartet on the Asphalt of the Dead Sea. 63 wards the Arabs saw a mass of bitumen floating on the Dead Sea, which they took possession of and sold in the bazaar in Jerusalem for 16,000 francs, being at the rate of 100 frances for a quintal. “Tt is only along the western shore of the Red Sea that important deposits of bitumen occur. We know that-Strabo mentions the existence, in the neighbourhood of Masada, of rocks distilling pitch. We think we have discovered the de- posits to which the Greek geographer alluded, first in the ravine to the south of the hill of Sebbeh, whose summit is crowned with the ruins of the ancient Masada. We meet there with dolomitic rocks, the numerous cavities of which are partly filled with asphalt which must have been introduced in a fluid state, and gradually solidified, giving the rock the character of an asphaltic breccia. More to the south, and nearer the diggings of sal gemmi and gypsum of Djebel- Usdom, if we ascend Wady-Mahawat to the height of about 300 metres, we find the same cretaceous formations strongly impregnated with bitumen, which runs from their fissures, and sometimes forms stalactites of asphalt. At certain points the bitumen has cemented together the ancient alluvium resting upon the calcareous rocks, and has formed bituminous pudding-stones, fragments of which are carried by torrents towards the Dead Sea. *No the north of Masada we find traces of bituminous emanations at Ras Mersed; and lastly at Nebi-Musa, at the north-western extremity of the sea, the most considerable de- posits of bituminous limestone are found, and where cretaceous fossils (moceramus, echinus, etc.) are associated with the re- mains of fossil fish. This hmestone contains as much as 25 per cent. of bitumen; ands the cretaceous beds which have been impregnated with it contain also in the same vicinity salt, veins of gypsum, and traces of magnesia. It burns easily, and the Arabs call it Hajar Musa, or Stone of Moses, and make use of it to light their encampments. The Christians of Bethkehem make religious symbols out of it, which they sell, under the name of Dead Sea Stones, to the numerous pilgrims who flock every year to Jerusalem for the solemnities of the Holy Week. “In the valley of the Jordan there exists, at the same level, other deposits of bituminous limestone. Such, without doubt, are those of Tiberias, from whence, according to He- bard, arise the Hot Springs of Hammon, the situation of which we could not verify. *« At Hasbeya, near the sources of the river, bitumen shows itself, as at Nebi-Musa, in fossil fish limestones, but it is less abundant, although it was the only deposit regularly worked at 64 Lartet on the Asphalt of the Dead Sea. the time of the Egyptian conquest, when shallow pits were sunk and a tolerably rich deposit arrived at, the debris of which we found on the margin of the pits. “Besides this series of bitumen deposits of which are ranged in échelon on the long axis of the basin of dislocation, as well on the western bank of the Dead Sea. As on reascend- ing the course of the Jordan, we found considerable traces of it, at the same geological level, in the inoceramous limestones of Khalwet, im the Anti-Libanus, between Hasbeya and Rascheya, and even in the approaches to Damascus; but the alionments of these last deposits departed considerably from the direction of the axis of the basin of the Dead Sea to arrange itself along the chain of the Anti-Libanus, and to direct itself towards analogous deposits of Mesopotamia and Persia—as if they would serve to unite these last with the long series of bituminous emanations passing by the Dead Sea, the point of Sinai, and the mountain a L’Huile, in Egypt. ‘Much attention has been given to the origin of the frag- ments of asphalt which the Dead Sea throws up on its banks, and from its analogy with that of Hasbeya, it has been thought that it was brought down by the waters of the Jordan, forgetting that although bitumen is lighter than the water of the Dead Sea, it is much heavier than that of the Jordan, and that this river must have deposited it on its own banks in the course of so long a journey. It has also been supposed that. vast sheets of bitumen, accumulated at the bottom of the Dead. Sea, after hardening, have become detached and floated to the surface. This hypothesis is not justified by the numerous soundings made by the American expedition, nor by those of the Duke de Luines’ expedition i which we had the honour to take part. “ Lastly, Dr. Anderson had a notion that under the bitu- minous deposit of Nebi-Musa there existed considerable layers of asphalt, mtercalated with calcareous rocks, and the pro- longed outlines of which stretched under the Dead Sea, and yielded to the erosive action of its waters the specimens which travellers noticed on its shores. This opinion does not appear to us more admissible than its predecessors. We do not see why the fragments of bitumen dispersed on the banks, and of which no trace is found in the ancient alluvium or the ancient deposits of the Dead Sea, should not come in part from the débris of these floating islands of asphalt, as well as, perhaps, from the disintegration of the bituminous rocks which the waters of the Wady-Mahawat and those of Wady-Sebbeh bring down at certain seasons. “As for the occurrence of bituminous emanations in the Lartet on the Asphalt of the Dead Sea. 65 bottom of the Dead Sea or on its shores, or along the Valley of the Jordan, we believe that they are connected with a system of ther mal, saline, and bituminous springs which extend along the major axis of the dislocation of the basin. This conviction rests first on the alignment of bituminous deposits along the same axis on which we find the rare. representatives of springs which seem to have been connected with extinct volcanic phenomena: secondly, on the presence, verified by M. Hebard, of bitumen in the lmestones, from whence emerge the thermal and saline springs of the Tiberiad, in which Dr. Anderson found bromine associated with organic matter; thirdly, on the analyses of the water of the Dead Sea, which, according to M. Terreil, contains an organic matter having the characteristic odour of bitumen, and which is particularly abundant in the neighbourhood of Ras Mersed, whose odours of sulphuretted hydrogen are noticed by all travellers, and which is the ae signalized for its bitumen by Strabo. “ Asat Ras Mersed the bitumen has penetrated the fissures of the calcareous rocks on the banks, and is found in the saline deposits in a little grotto very near this point, everything leads to the supposition that there still exists one of those submarine springs which in former times emitted considerable masses of bitumen, and which now confine their operation to exceptionally enriching the water in bitumen, chlorides, and bromides, and so disengaging sulphuretted hydrogen gas. “Tn thus unfolding the reasons which lead to the belief that the bitumen has been brought by the hot and saline springs, and that it has impregnated the limestones after their deposit, we do not intend to decide the question whether this bitumen has been brought up direct from the depths, or whether the hot springs met with carbonaceous matter in their course, and reacted upon it. It is known that there exists in the Lebanon, in the system of sandstones below the cretaceous rocks which are impregnated with bitumen, con- siderable masses of lignite, of which the analogues may have existed in the Anti-Libanus and in the Dead Sea. In this hypothesis, which supports the observation of traces of vegetation found by Dr. Anderson in Dead Sea asphalt, the heated waters may have been able to extract from the lenites their hydro-carbon products, such as M. Daubrée has been able to show in his beautiful experiments illustrative of meta- morphism. “However this may be, we see in the preceding facts a fresh confirmation of the laws of association, connecting deposits of bitumen with salt, gypsum, hot springs, and vol- canic phenomena. VOL. X.—NO. I. F A 66 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY. LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” W., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w BY G. M. WHIPPLE. 1866, Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air, At 9°30 a.m, 2°30 P.M., and 5P.M., peep kt RAE EDR A respectively. Calculated. oO sp 3 # . - Se 2 b Eictise ile BSH eI es SR EE fle = Rain— Day Ho" a cI Bu Himes S.;| = Fisk read 4 of Sies oy) 43 g S eg. Sst hoe og 16 Merits lope lf eee he Rea Nh micah lie bauer By Direction of Wind. Aum. ffie)a|/2 |3 [ga |88) 8] £8 ei oy .) | 59 go 3 6° fo | | BlS |2 |aeela | 4 2 eee Ape | eo bate 2 a a me cle ea ie a inches.| ° inch ° e a 0—10 inches. April 1 ae Soouitaree oon | wee | 49°5 | 36:6] 12°9 a eae aaa 0°08 >», 2 |29°485|88°2 36:4) -94|-248| 47°4 |35°8]11-6/10, 8, 7| N by E, N by EH, Nby EB. | -0064 >» 8 | 29°637|39°7, 35°8, °88)°261) 49°3 | 38-5) 10°8 9, yee NNW, N by HE, NE. “000° » 4 |29°672)/37°5 35°8, -94/-242) 46-8 | 35-2) 11-6/10, 9,10| SSH, E by 8, NE by E, ‘031 > » | 29 881) 42-4) 38-6) -88/-287) 51°5 | 34°8!16°7 1G, 7, 3| EH by 8, E by 8, Eby N. “067 » 6 (30014) 45:1) 40°7) .86)°315| 53:2 | 42-0) 11°2) 9, 2, 3 E by N, hi, NE by EH. "025. > 7 |29°910| 40°8) 40°7| *99|-271] 47:8 | 40-6) 7:2 10,10, 9} NE, NNE, NE by N. 008 | ooten tts: ve pee aithuects wee | eee | 524 | 41°5] 10°9 nee ahs ‘010 » 9 | 29°903] 88-9 39-2) 1-00|-254) 44°8 | 42-4) 2-410, 10, 10 NE by E, NE, N. 005 » 10 | 29°844 43-5! 40-4) -90/-298] 51:4 | 42-0] 9-4/10, 10, 10/ WSW, SW by W, SW. ‘191 ay 11 | 29°528) 46-1) 44-4} -94)-326] 54-8 | 41°6)13-2/10,10,10/ ESE, ESE, S by E. "000 | » 12 | 29°778| 47°5| 42°5) -84/-343/ 58°8 | 45°3113°5| 7, 9,10} WSW, SW by S, SW. ‘215 | », 18 | 29°884) 48°5 46-7) -94)-354| 58°5 | 49-8} 8-7/10,20,10| SW, SW, SSW. 020 | >, 14 | 80°009| 46:8) 39°5| “78] 334] 58:4 | 40-1/18:3] 5, 8,—} | WSW, W, W byN. 021 | oa A eee Noe elee eet BSS. NEO MLESIGL «rie Ex ie aes ‘178 5» 16 | 29:924, 46:8) 45-1] -94) -334) 54-9 |39°5/ 154/10, 10, 2 SSW, SW, SSW. “104 » 17 | 29°948| 507,376] -64)-382| 58-0 | 45-7] 12°31 9, 6, 3 W, WSW, W. "033 | » 18 | 29'976| 52:2) 39°4| -64}-402] 61°8 | 38:1) 23-7] 0, 4, 3) SW, W by N, WNW. “000 | ») 19 | 29°808) 52°8| 44°7] °76)-410} 62:5 | 40°1/22-4/10, 5, 7| 8, S by W, SW by W. 0 » 20 | 29°886| 47-4) 38°9| -74)-341) 57°8 | 43:1] 14-7] 6, 9, 4 W, W by S, W. »» 21 | 30°136| 51:1) 403] -69| 387) 60-6 | 43-9|16-7| 6, 6, 4| NW by W, NB, W byS. BAND | Picdan Wh, atlieser Meenas Aaa Bs RAT AAG) Ce aa Ae 95 23 | 30°342) 44-9] 31-5) -62] 313) 52°8 | 39-5] 13-3] 0, 0, 0| Eby N, HE, BH byN. 9 24 |30°165) 48°4/ 34-2) -61/-353] 55:8 |38°9/169] 0, 0, 0 E, E, EB, 9 25 | 30°068) 55°3/ 35°6| °51)-447| 63-4 | 44-3] 19°1] 0, 0, O E, E, E » 26 | 29°944/ 61-4) 46°6) -61)-547| 71-7 | 41-7/30°0| 0, 5, 4 ENE, SE, SE. 55 27 | 29-742) 644) 50-6) -63| 605) 74°6 | 50-4) 24-2} 0, 6,10 E, SSW, 8. » 28 | 29°469| 52:0 51°7| -98)-399) 66°8 | 53-0/ 13'8/10, 10, 10} SW by W, WNW, NE. 020 | PONE ee eh ee ae, Naas SO yates “717 | “0 » | 348}... woe | 145 a 1§ »» 30 | 29°738| 39-1) 24°7 i 256) 46°3 |35°3|11-0| 7, 9, 6| Eby S,E byN, BNE. HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES), AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON'S ANEMOMETER,—-Aprin, 1866. 67 1 s\o6{718 19 {10/111 12|13/14/ 15/16/17! 18] 19! 20] 21 | 22] 28 | 24) 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 80 eee a Hour. 8 Ma s| 4) gs! 2] 4] 10] 18] 6 6| 4} 20] 15 6] 8/18] 19] 4] 5] 8] 7] 1) 13] 18) 10; 9} 6 38] 18] 17] 93 = . 6 2| lol 2] 5] 101 19! 7/297; 4| 4) 18] 15] 5| 8] 19) 17; 5) 2) 7.10) J 13/ 13] 10] $| 6) *1) 15] 18] 9-0 o 2 3} 3] 9] 1) 3] 13] 20] 8 3| 4) 22! 14) 6] 8] 18] 18] 5| 2| 6] 10] 1] 13] 12) 6] 6] 5] 2 14] 16] 96 S ; 4, 5] lo] 1) 4} 13) 18} 11 4| 5| 19| 14] 6| 8] 18} 19] 5] 1] 9/10) 1) 11) 14) 8] 4) 5] 2] 11] 19] geo 3} si si 1) 7/| 16] 20| 12 4| 8\°17| 16] 3] 6] 19] 18] 4} 1) 8] 8} 2 18] 11/ 9] 5] 6] 38] Jo; 171 of = 4) 6 3} 8| 6] 2] 9] 17| 18| 10 2| 7| 16] 16| 2/ 10) 19] 19] 5] 2 8] 6] 3] 18] 12] 11) 5] 5] 38] 12) 17] 92 he 4} + 3| 7| 9| 1] 11) 16) 18) 8 0} 10] 12] 14] 3] 11, 21] 20) 6] 2! 12) 7| 8] 20] 15] 11) 5] 5] 5] 10] 16) 94 5| 7| 12} 2) lol 17/ 14) 8 1} 8! 17/ 16] 11) 12) 21) 23]. 6| 2] 13) 8] 8] 28] 20) 12) 6] 47 5) 15] 20) 11-5 = 8 4| 10} 13) 4) 12| 19] 17] 7 2| 11| 17] 21| 15] 14) 21] 24] 8) 6] 16] 11] 11] 32] 22] 14) 9] 5] 9] 16] 19] q39-4 = *; Al 11) 10] 3] 14] 19] 17] 8 4| 18| 20] 18] 13] 14) 22| 22} 4] 8] 18] 10) 12) 27] 27] 16] 9] 8] 9] 18] 22) qy47 iS lu “| 131 131 6] 16] 25] 17| 11 22) 7| 17/ 17) 28] 14) 17| 22] 20) 8] 15) 17] 12] 16) 27| 27| 21] 18] 7 7 20) 28) 16-0 % 6) 12| 9] 5! 17| 28! 16 9] 20] 6! 16] 17| 21] 16) 18] 24] 20) 9] 15] 20) 8] 18) 27] 31) 21) 14) 10] 11} 17) 22) 164 s 12 8} 15 11; 8| 17| 28] 141 10) 19] 6] 20] 18] 22] 15] 18] 24] 21) 8] 20] 16) 8] 18) 34] 80} 29) 11] 12] 10} 19| 25) 447-47 S fl 5| 15] 11] 11] 19] 29] 12 16| 8] 19! 21) 15] 22) 20) 22] 14| 9] 18] 20) 7] 20) 30) 30} 26] 14) 12) 13] 17] 25) 17-2 S 3 11) 13] 10/ 8] 17) 28] 12 16| 9] 23] 22] 17] 13) 24) 19) 23] 9) 17) 16) 7| 18! 30] 29] 23] 17] 10] 13] 20] 25] 17-9 SS 4, | 20) 12] 13) 10) 18) 32; 7 15} 8| 21] 18] 16| 13| 26) 25) 21/ 10) 16) 12/ 5] 21) 29! 29] 20] 14] 11) 10) 18} 24] 16-7 Bo 5 5} 11] 7| 14| 20] 33] 10 14] 13] 20] 14) 15! 13/ 23) 28] 18] 10] 18] 15| 8] 20, 32) 27] 23/ 13] 11] 17] 21) 25) 170 =) A141 ¢ 4) 9] 6] 9] 18] 20/ 9 11| 9| 16) 15] 13! 13) 20] 27] 15! 10] 18) 10| 8| 17] 27| 20] 22] 10] 6] 16) 20] 32] 44-7 eS 4 7 1] 10) 4| 9] 20] 28] 10 10| 6] 16| 13] 14! 12] 14) 28] 12) 4] 10] 10) 7| 15) 26) 20] 13) 12] 5] 17] 19| 22) 13-3 s 5 5] 10| 4] 10) 16) 26] 7 10! 5) 9) 12] 111 9] 16) 21) 10) 5] 10) 9! 1) 13) 28) 15] 14/ 12) 4] 15] 147| 20) 11-8 ‘= ; 1] 11} 4) 7| 16) 22| 9 11} '7| 16) 13} 10) 11] 15) 22] 7| 8) 11; 6 1) 13| 22] 14) 15] 12/ 2| 13) 17) 20) 11-6 = 10 1] 12) 3] 8] 15] 19] 5 9| 6] 22) 13] 11/ 9] 12) 19] 8} 7] 9) 5}. 1) 15) 17] 11) 13] 11} 38) 11) 17| 24) 109 S Gh 3] 14] 4) 38] 12) 19] 5 8] 6] 22) 12) 10] 10) 15) 24) 7] 5] 10] 10) 2) 19) 21) 10] 10) 12} 4) 18] 18] 25) 11-7 8 12 1| 10) 4) 5] 16] 16) 8 6| 4/15! 15/ 8] 8|18] 18] 5] 5] 10) 8| 2] 14] 25) 9] 7 10) 2) 17) 16) 22) 1071 = ci Total ral 111/232/198 132/319/503/315| 599 ce 398/365|248/355/5191400/162 218 278|164'280 548/461'364/24.2'157/280/395/615| 12°9 68 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY. LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w. eS Ee 1866. Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air. At 9°30 a.m., 2.30 P.w., and 5 P.m., Sees ae ee respectively. Calculated. om Fs 0) a Ce ee ero (ee he ie tae ae Cia) a ce fy ete ee hed ee ales ewe — Month. | GE /2/E/8/%5) 28 [88/2 | 2 Direction of Wind. aa Bi) ev MED a) Wi eleetos na ere ee = ele OU MAPA ey al tedi eatin ied A = e818 1/8 /)8 14) aabig zB s a B 2 Se Aa inches.| " inch : A 2 0—10 inches May 1 | 29-470] 36°0| 34°2) +94) -229| 41:8 | 38-8) 30/10, 10,10 NE by N, NE,NNE. 0-000 © » 2 |29°573| 39°9|82'3| -76,-263| 48-2 |365/11-7110, 3, 1] NW, WSW, WNW. | “140 ” 3 | 29°614| 41-7|87°8| -87|-280| 528 |36:9/15°9| 6, 7, 4) —, WSW, WNW. 136 ” 4. |29°843) 46-1) 29-1) +55! -326| 54-8 | 31-4) 23-4) 1, 3, 38] NNW, W by N, Wby N. | 024” » | 80°093) 48:0) 40°5) +77) 348) 57-7 |33°6| 241) 7, 9, 7 SW, SW, SW. ‘021 MMMGIANG sed ised | see. Vee” | cau) MD BIOx| AFBI GAT edie tl es Gis 036 — *, 7 |80-219| 549) 42-2) -64|-441| 62-7 | 45-7/17-0| 2, 3, 6) S, W by 8, SW by W. | ‘000° ;, § | 30-005) 53°5| 40°9) -65|-420) 62:6 | 41-1) 215) 2, 7, 9| SW by W, W, WSW. | -000 » 9 | 29°770| 526) 42-7) -71)-408) 62:7 | 47°8) 149/10, 6, 3 W, WNW, W. 042 3» 10 | 29973] 51-0, 38:3) -64) 386] 58:7 | 45-2) 13:5) 8, 8, 8 W, W, W. ‘000 3» LL | 29°624| 50°4| 45:3] -84) -378| 62:7 | 49-7) 13-0110, 9, 6 “SW, W, W. ‘360 », 12 |29°661| 46-1|41'8| -86|-326) 57-1 |42-4|14°7| 9, 8, 7| WNW, W by N, WSW. | °025 hee RU ie aor Race eran favo ea Ie a UZ ne ta 020 4) 14 |80°151| 45:9] 32°1) -62)-324| 53-7 | 38:3) 15°4| 7, 7, 9| —, E by N, ENE. ‘000 », 15 |30°344| 44-0) 30°8| -63]-303| 50-4 |35°9|14°5| 7, 8, 9) NNW, NH, NE by N. | 000 » 16 |80°363| 47°3 35°8) -67|-340) 56-2 |381|181)10, 6,10 ENE, ESE, ESE. “000 5 17 |80°256| 54°5| 40°2| -61)-435| 62°5 | 36'1| 264) 4, 6, 2) SW by 8,SHbyS,—. | 000 , 18 |30°162| 56:5] 42:5) -62|-465| 65:5 |345/31°0| 4, 4, 0| SE by E,E,E by N. | 000 » 19 |30°159| 59°4|40°5} -52)-512) 67-0 | 41-0] 260) 1, 2, 0 E by N, E, ESE. ‘000 E20 Eee ah Iie cos Decree Reet ie ses pene 0/4 ie 5k 2 sik “000 » 21 |80°358| 51°4) 39°4) -66-391) 58:8 | 46-7/121| 0, 0, O E, E, E ‘000 5, 22 | 80-263) 50°3/ 31:9) -52|-377| 57-7 |42°2,15°5| 0, 0, O| Eby N, E by N, ENE. | -000 » 28 |30:064) 55:8, 39°7) °57|-454| G41 | 41-1) 23°0) 0, 2, O| NE by N, NE, NE by N. | -000 5, 24 |29°892| 45-6) 341) -67|-321| 54-7 |42°1/ 12-610, 7, 5\/NE by BE, E by N,'NB by B,| -000 5, 25 |29:74'7/ 49-0] 30°8| °53/-361| 56-7 |42°3)14°4) 4, 3, 2 E, ENE, E by N. ‘000 » 26 | 29-612) 53°5| 44-9} *74)-420] 64-2 |42°7| 21-5! 7, 9, 9| NE, NE by EB, ENE. | 000 Bm SEC Ne ae le ad ol Re rl i OL el ae | 515. 5 28 |29°806| 60:0) 43°7| -57| +523) 68:4 | 43°7| 24°7/ 0, 4, 4| SE by 8S, SW by S, SW. { -000 » 29 | 29°811|55-0| 40-1) -60}-442| 64:0 | 41°7| 22-3) 0, 6, 8| NE by N, Nby W,N. | 000 3, 80 | 29°882| 52-4/ 38°7| -62|-405] 61-7 |39-1| 22-6] 3,10, 9 E by 8, NE, E “000 »» 8 | 29°690| 54:7| 45°8) -74| 438) 63-6 | 49-4) 14-2/10, 10,10} SE by S, E by S. ESE. | -000° wey }] 29-941| 50-2| 38-4] -67| -382 we {179 1319 * To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be increased by ‘037 inch. 2 HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES), AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON'S ANEMOMETER.—May, 1866. Hourly Day. |1/2)3/4 | 5| 6] 7 | 8) 9} 10/11] 12)18) 14) 15) 16/17) 18) 19) 20] 21] 22) 28 | 24.) 25 | 26| 27) 28| 29] 80181 \Meanc. = Hour. S 12 | 26/18] 3) 5) 5] 7 2) 5] 11) 9) 4% 17) 7 2 ai al a) 2] 6] alii 9] 11) Gi q4) 168i 6| Fi 4i yidel eo = 1 | 27| 12; 10; 2) 5) 5! 2} 5) 14] 11] 9] 16) 7 2) 5! 2} 2 2) 5) 2] 19) 11) 11) 4) 13; 17] 9) 4] 1! 21 a9! go > 2 | 25) 9) 4] 2) 5] 8) 2] 5] 12] 1Ool 13) 15] 4] 1| 6| 1) 3] 2] 4| 3/11/10] 8] 9] 1g] 14/ 19] 2] 2] al ig| 74 S 3 | 25),10; 4) O| 3] 3] 1] 4) 13] 10] 13] 14) 5] 1) 6] 2| 1) 1] 2 2] 9] 11) 8] 14) 12/ 11] 5) 4) 2] 92! 201 Zo S 4 | 24) 10; 3] 1) 2] 3] 1| 3) 14) 8] 19| 15] 6| 3] 5] 2) 3] 4) 38! 5] 11] 10) 47 12] 10] 13/ 10/ 3| 2] 2 ayl yea =) gj | 5 | 19) 8] 4] 1) 4} 3 a] 5] 12] 10] 20) 15] 7 4) 7 2] 3] 2] 5] 5] 12] 9] 4) 11] 15] 14 2] 3| sl el 45] 49 3 .y 6 | 22/ 9) 6] 2) 8] 38] 3] 4] 12] 16) 24] 15/12] o| 9] 2] 3] 2] 4) 8] 16] 15! 7 15/ 21] 16] 2! 1) 2] 1/15] 89 he ~ | 7 | 931 11) 11) 3] 14) 4) 4| 65] 11) 15] 22] 14] 15] 1/14! 4} 6| 3] el dal a4] 23] 8 19] 28 15] 5| 3] 2l ol isl i7 rs 8 | 25] 9) 6] 4] 16] 4] 43) 9] 8] 18/ 21] 17) 15] 3/ 12) 9| 6] 5] 47| 19] 16] 27| 10] 20) 28 14, 6| 3] 6] 3i 13| Ii4 = 9 | 23; 12) 7 3) 16] 4! 5] 13) 9] 17] 17/ 17] 20| 3] 12] 8| 7| 4] 10] 18) 28] 28] 12 16] 29 15| 4| 4] 8] 3/191 1o-4, = 10 | 20; 11) 6] 6) 18] 7 6] 15] 8| 17] 17| 17) 17| 5] 12] | 6| 7! 12] 20! 28] 25] 19] 18] a8) 18! 4| 7 8) 3! 11/1 19°8 3 (11 | 20} 8) 7 7 17| 6] 4 15| 7! 16] 20] 16] 14) 7) 11| 5| 6! 5| Jol 20] 27| 27] 191 20] 28/ 19! 6 si ¥| 4) 12 127 g 12 | 20) 9] 11} 8] 17/ 6] 6| 13) 13] 16] 25| 14) 18| 11/ 10/ 8| 7] 6| 11) 23] 35] 28! 13| 23] 380i 16| 5] 91 10) 6| 191 13-0 5 ( 1 | 90} 10] 13] 10) 20) 4} 6] 15; 15] 14] 20] 13] 15] lol 111 8| 5) 8] 141 19/ 301 321 15] 26l 261 20| 6! 10| 131 9! 161 14:6 = | 2 | 18} 9/13] 8| 20) 4) 7] 12] 15] 13] 21/ 13] 13] 6] 10] 10] 6| 6! 15| 22| 30] 31/ 15| 25| 25/ 181 6| 9] 14) sl 15! 140 5 3 | 17| 8| 13{ 8) 13) 7 7| 14] 18] 14) 25] 19] 11) 11] 19] Jo} 5] 11] 16] 24/ 39] 29] 15] 25] 27) 15) 8] 10] 15! 9] 111 148 5 | 4 | 17) 8) 12] 10| 13] 4] 7 12] 20] 10) 23] 18] 13| 7 98] 10] 85] 15| 15] 29| 31] 31] 15) 25] 27] 17| 7| 111 13] 15] 10] 148 =“ re 5 | 16] 5] 9/13] 12| 3] 7 15| 19| 9] 18| 12/ 7| 6] 12] 10| 2 17) 14] 30] 27] aol 14) 25! 21/ 14] 5] 11/ 11] 16! 10! 13-5 S -4 6 | 16) 4} 3) 5] 11] 1} 8) 15] 18] 10) 21) 11) 8/12] 7 6| 7| 18) 121 22) 25) 25] 13] 291 291 13) 5) 10l 11| 17] 14! 19-6 — cies 16; 2) 2] 6) 11) 1] 8/ 14] 16] 13| 19] 9| 4) 9] 7| 10) 8] 16) 11] 23) 23/ 23) 7! 22] 20] 15| lol 6] 8! si si 118 8 S | 14} 3/ 2| 4) 8] oO} 7 11] 10] 10/18] 7 2] 7 si 8] 5] 13/ 9/17] 181 211 sl azlazl 7] 9] 4] siiyl ol on S 9 | 13; 3] 8] 5| 6] o| 6] 11) 11) 5/16 8] 21 7 5] 9] 4] 10] 7 15) 13] 15| 3] del q7| 6] 6| 5! 8| isi 12] 95 Ss }20 | 14) 2) 2) 5) 6} 1) 6] 12] 13) 9] 19) 11} 2] 9] 6] lo] 2] 10) 6] 15) 12! 15) 5) 15/13] 4) 6] 38| 7) 20/11; 87 5 11 | 13] 2) 4} 5/ 5] 2] 4) 10/ 8| 6/16) 7 1) 5] 4| 5] 3] 6] 5] 14| 16] 12] 5] 15| 18] 4| 15| 4! 6) 15] 9] 79 8 12 Ss Pens eect (tie OD RM | LPO IE [Eee (ee | eee feat = |e || ee eee no ee eB ef. el Re ee Sees | Total ny 473|187|158 123/255] 85|114/242/307|286|443|330)220|129|202/152/106|173|209|36 4/499 497/233/4201501/327/159|140|171/201'324| 10:8 Ove- 70 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY. LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w. 1866. Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air. At 9°30 a.m, 2°30 P.u., and 5 p.m. eo respectively. 3 Z Calculated. 3 eo 2, oF, 4 : . | EZ = A = fale) |£) 2/28 |.) 81 = Day o . ) 43 = a, | se He | 8 et of 23 q a | « ® lies Org : Monk | So} 8 | Se |e | eee Bol | as Direction of Wind, Be 8, Lele le) Wines aban ee ee ae Vee ees tee ae ee S g S| a | gael 2 FQ a & 8 a Ay inches. fa ° inch é a Me 0—10 June 1 | 29°657{ 54°8, 51-4) *88 ‘439! 66.0 50°6| 15°4; 6,10, 8 SE, E by 8, ENE. » 2 |29°854| 61-7] 46°8} °60)°553) 71-5 | 51-4) 201) 3, 5, 1 SSW, E by N, ESE. 3 oe Be hi Nec den alt Pi cails at Ne lgdbere Are Wik ey saieae ce is eae » 4 | 29-838] 57:8) 55°5) -92) 485) 68°7 | 55-4/ 13°3) 6, 10, 10) SW, WSwW, SW. : it » 5 | 29-874) 52-2) 49-4) -91) 402) 62°5 | 51°7| 108/10, 9, 9 8 by E,8, 8. t » 6130-045) 53:4) 48°6) *85) "419, 63'1 | 514/111-7110, 9, 6 SSW, SW, S by W. . 5 » 7 | 30-125) 5971) 54°7| #86) -507| 71°8 | 53°2)18-610, 8, 8 SSE, SW, SW. ; » 8 | 30:217| 66°2| 55°6) °7U) 642) 75°2 | 49°9) 25°83) 5. 7, 3|SW by 8, W by N, S by W. i » 9 | 86°187! 68:8; 56:0} -65| 699) 80°3 | 49°4/30°9) 4, 4, 9 SSE, SSW, SW by 8. » 10 | AS AM ies ie ale eae eters toed toes Sa rae ee se » 11 | 30:022) 56:5) 48°0| *75) 465) 66°8 | 48:3) 18°5) 7, 8, 9 NW by W, SSW, SSW. 3, 12 | 29-631) 52-2|50°7| *95| 402) 62°5 | 536) 8910, 10, 10 SW by 8S, SW, S. 4 »» 18 | 29-771) 51°3|49°1| -93) -390, 60°1 | 49°8|10°310, 10,10; W by 8, WNW, —. 19m 3, 14 | 29-969] 56-7/ 50°3| °81)-468) 65°7 | 46°7|19-:010, 9, 7 Ww, W, W. ; ” 15 | 29-9101 56-3 540) -92! -462| 66°8 | 47-2/19°6 10, 10,10| SW, SW, SW by W. ” 46 | 29:687| 54:01 401| -62/ -427) 645 |51:3/13-2) 7 7 3| SW, WNW, WbyN. | -ooo} » 18 | 29-54'7| 49°7| 50-4) 1-00 -369 62°8 | 45-1) 17-7|10, 10, 9 W, 8, SW » 19 | 29°681|55-5| 47-4) °76\-450. 648 |51-0/13'8 9, 8, 7| W, SW, W by N. » 20 | 30-038| 55-9| 52-0| -85/-455| 713 | 43°6]27°7/10, 10, 10 S. SSE, 8. SW, SW by 8, 8. >» 21 | 29-863] 66-2| 55°8| *71) 642, 76-1 | 540/121) 7, 7, 8 ss 22 | 29-933] 61-7|.49°1| -66|-553| 71-6 | 568/148} 3, 3, 2| W by N, W, WNW. »> 23 | 307118] 64-0/53°8} *71/-597| 74°8 |49°7\25°1110, 3, 3| SW, E by N, ENE. Sg te Re in ee: cs a ae ca a ns a »» 25 | 30-081] 61:9] 57-4) °86) 557) 72:2 | 50°5|21-7\10, 9, 5| NE by N, NE, NE by N. » 26 | 30-018] 68-4! 54:3) -62/ -690| 76°8 | 56°6| 20-2] 0, 1, 0| E by N, E by N, Eby N. » 27 | 29:882| 65:0) 61:0} ‘88 -617} 79-5 | 58-0) 21-5] 3, 5, 5 NE by N, W, —. 3 28 | 29-948! 68°6/56:1| -66| -694) 80-8 | 58°9/22°9| 1, 4, 8 —— — 3» 29 | 29-960] 62:8/57°4| °83/-574| 74°3 |58:8|15°5/10, 7, 7 NNW, NE, N. ‘000 | > 80 | 29°777| 64:4/ 58'2| °81) 605) 788 | 56°8| 22-0] 3, 9, 6|SW by S, N by W, NNW. Means, {| 29°909 59'4) 52-4} “76-521... |... [183 * To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be increased by ‘037 inch. 71 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES), AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON’S ANEMOMETER.—Jonz, 1866, ao NH OC MIAME wp Nt a = me bo © CO NT > Or & Co bo 10 6 204!200|268 pany RMOOMAnNoORSEWOADENEBENWYW eS eo | | 161|367|336 ee) 218 Nr OOO DONTOADOOADONHHYNHNWNFHEH 98 256 ae NHEwWKWONNOK rt eo © 12 Bie owe OW oc 242|/323/218 14 NQOMOONE WWE we ts 149/271/321 15 | 16/17 STINT OURS © OTD OF. 18] 19) 20] 21 8 7 3 6 5| 3 6 5} 2 6)187) 3) 5 7 4) 6 10 1} 6 12 2) 8 11 6] 12 11 8) 14 18 10) 14 21) 21) 8| 20 25] 28) 13) 18 27| 25) 14) 16 25| 25) 17) 17 24) 22) 18) 17 22) 21) 15) 15 23) 33} 13) 12 Zi) 25) 9-8 24) 22) 9) 6 22) 16] 8] 3 20| 11) 6| 6 17; 8} 6.6 NGS alee ere 4) 4) 4 aed 832 198/228 23 ie AONOWAOWWEBRHENwWrNy wD 153 24) 25 | 26 be Ss EO NT OU OO ST @ Oo Oc ore w bo 288/210251 2/7 | 28 | 29 He WHA MORBBDOHPNIBDNRGOMAABORWONMNE NENWWWOAERNE ESO ewww oo Od ora © 153)127 30 pa AOMODECOUIANWNHENPOAW Hourly Means BOI ee Dow a DODIAA MIA SARDWHOM® 169/161] 9:4 72 Archeologia. ARCH AIOLOGIA. ANOTHER example of the primitive caNnoE has lately been found im WaertatL Moss, about three miles from Ellesmere, in Shropshire, in the course of some extensive excavations for agricultural drainage on the estate of Earl Brownlow. As the men were employed in cutting a main drain, they came upon this canoe, at about six feet below the surface. A large birch tree was growing overit. The canoe was found in tolerably perfect condition. It is eleven feet long by two feet five inches wide, and one foot four inches deep. A considerable number of similar canoes, usually about the same dimensions, have now been found in different parts of Britain, but never in such immediate connection with relics of known date as to enable us to fix the period or periods to which they belong. Our own opinion is that, for the most part, they are by no means necessarily of so remote a date as has sometimes been ascribed to them. A rather interesting sample of a Roman TEssELATED PAVEMENT has been found in the churchyard of Carrueon, the site of the Isca Stilurum of the Romans. It was carefully taken up, and removed into the museum of the Caerleon Antiquarian Society, where it will be preserved. It offers a good specimen of the labyrinthine, or maze, pattern, of which other examples might be pointed out. This is not the only instance in Britain of a fine tesselated pavement being found under a churchyard, a position no doubt arising from the circumstance that at the time the church was first built, the builders selected a spot which had been occupied by a previous building of some extent, such as a Roman villa, the ruims of which furnished them with plenty of building materials ready at hand ; and the ground covering the pavements of some of the larger rooms offered a clear space which would serve conveniently for the churchyard. This was the case with the principal apartment of the extensive villa at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire, the pave- ment of which lies under the modern church and churchyard, in consequence of which the mosaic work has been cut through and broken up in all parts by the sinking of graves. Some Ancio-Saxon ANtTIQuitiEs, found in excavations in Leicester and the neighbourhood, have recently been laid before the Leicester- shire Architectural and Archeological Society. The more remark- able of these relics were discovered in the parish of Glen Parva, some four miles from Leicester, in a grave containing a skeleton which is assumed, from the objects found with it, to be that of a Saxon lady. There were two bronze pendants, perhaps part of a sort of chatelaine which is often found in such graves, and appears to have been suspended to the lady’s waist; three bronze fibule ; part of an article made of bone, supposed to be an amulet; two flat pieces of bone, with corresponding rivet-holes, and one bone rivet remaining, apparently belonging to the handle of a knife; a drink- ing vessel of thin glass, which was broken to pieces in taking it out: of the earth; two large finger rings; several beads, of glass and fal Progress of Invention. 73 other material; and a crystal ornament, cut in facets like a diamond, and drilled through, which measures in its horizontal diameter nearly two inches, and in its transverse diameter not quite an inch and a half. There was also found im this grave the claw of .an animal, pierced through, evidently for suspension on the person. DWE The Rey. W. Kilbride, vicar of Aran, and G. H. Kinahan, F.R.G.S.1., of the Geological Survey of Ireland, have recently discovered the sites of two ancient settlements on the Islands of Aran, County Galway. The settlement on Inish More, the largest of the islands, consists of eight Cloghauns, or dry stone cells with “‘ beehive roots ;”’ fifteen Cnocans, or dry stone beehive cells covered with clay; four Fosleac, or cells built of and roofed with flags; four Ointigh, or dry stone cells that had not beehive roofs; two Doons, and one Cashel. The settlement on Inish-Maan, the centre island, consists of thirteen Cnocans and Cloghauns and one smali Doon. PROGRESS OF INVENTION. New. Recunator or VeLociry.—Motion is rarely obtained con- tinuously from any source in such a state of uniformity, as the purpose for which it is destined requires. Hence ingenuity has devised a number of contrivances which, if they, in no case render the motion perfectly uniform, in most they regulate it with sufficient precision for the attainment of the intended object. The regulators used with chronometrical instruments give riseto periodica | alter- nations of rest and motion; which though objectionable from the necessity of alternately destroying motion and overcoming inertia, is found to comply sufficiently with the conditions which are to be fulfilled. Such regulators, it is obvious, would be inapplicable where interruption of motion is inadmissible; and hence regulators, founded on ditferent principles, are then indispensable. It might be supposed that friction would answer the purpose of absorbing the excess of motion which would produce augmented velocity; but such is not the case, as the circumstances which give rise to friction are so various, and so little under control; and hence it is never used as a means of regulation, when great exactness is required. The resistance of the air affords a more suitable mode of regulation. As the resistance offered by the air to any surface moving in it, is proportionable to the square of the velocity, it is clear that the re- sistance increases much more rapidly than the velocity ; and that the velocity of any body having a large surface will be but little affected by slight variations in the power. It will, however, be affected; and hence absolutely uniform motion is unattainable when the regulator consists of revolving vanes. The happy idea occurred to M. Leon Foucault, of combining with the principle of revolving vanes that of the centrifugal governor used with the steam engine, efc.: and the result is a regulator of great simplicity, which affords a motion (4 Progress of Invention. that may be considered absolutely uniform. In this apparatus, the rods and balls of the centrifugal governor are replaced by oblong triangular thin plates of metal, constituting vanes, which are hinged by their vertices to the revolving upright spindle, and-move in the same vertical plane. ‘They are prevented from flying out to their full extent by slight increments in the velocity of rotation, by spiral springs which, being fixed to their centres of gravity, are the causes of no disturbing influence. When the velocity is that which is required, the resistance offered by these vanes, as they hang down along the revolving spindle suffices to absorb the excess of motion, so as to prevent the velocity from becoming accelerated ; but the slightest increase of velocity causes them to fly asunder by means of centrifugal force, and to an extent which depends on the imcrease of velocity. As the distance of the vanes, and especially of their broader portions, from the axis of motion is increased, the resistance they experience from air, which has also been augmented by the increased velocity, is increased; and hence equilibrium is soon established between the disturbing and controlling agents. The velocity which this apparatus will permit is entirely under control ; since it depends on the size of the vanes, the quantity of matter they contain, and the relative power of the springs. When one velocity is to be changed into a very different one from that pre- viously required, it is necessary to change the springs; but when the desired alteration is inconsiderable, movable metallic masses, are merely slipped up and down along the vanes by means of screws, so as to alter their distance from the axis of motion, when the vanes fly apart. This affords an easy mode of regulation to any velocity desired. So accurate is the adjustment of velocity obtained by this contrivance that power may be taken for any required purpose from a clock regulated by it, without, disturbing the accuracy of the rate of going. A New AND EXTREMELY PowerFrut Hxecrricaa Apparatus.—The production of electrical currents by means of magnetism, or electro- magnetism, is used by Mr. Wild of Manchester for the obtaining of enormous quantities of electricity, by means of a contrivance which, considering its vast power, is neither complicated nor expensive. He was led to the invention of this apparatus, by discovering a mode of utilizing the important fact ascer- tained a considerable time since by M. Seguin, that a very large quantity of electricity may be developed in an electro-magnet by @ permanent magnet of very small power. As an electro-magnet possesses all the properties of a permanent magnet, the effect thus obtained can, of course, be multiplied to any extent, by successive elements added to the apparatus; but it was found that the principle repeated three times, that is by the use of three elements ; afforded quantities of electricity quite as large as could be desired. Hach element of this apparatus consists of one or more, either permanent or electro-horse-shoe magnets, and a kind of cylinder within which revolves an armature. The cylinder, or rather the eylindroid, which has four flattened sides, constituting a kind of quadrangular prism, having rounded corners parallel to its length, Progress of Invention. 7o consists of two plates of cast iron, placed opposite to each other, and united by two plates of brass. In the ends, which are of some non-magnetic substance, are small circular apertures, that allow an armature to revolve in the axis of the cylindroid. This armature is a cylinder of iron, down the two sides and across the ends of which are deep grooves, within which is wound a helix, formed of copper wire 0.03 of an inch in diameter, and about 160 feet in length. When the cylindroid is placed between the poles of a magnet, so that the latter are in good contact with the cast-iron _ plates, and the armature is made to revolve, it is evident that two opposite electric currents are formed in its helix during each revolution of the armature. All the currents may, by means of a commutator, be made to pass in one direction, and when the rotation is very rapid, the amount of electricity produced by even a single, permanent magnet, is very great; but every additional magnet placed on the cylindroid causes the addition of an equal effect. Ifthe electric current thus obtained is made to excite one or more electro-magnets, the poles of which are in contact with a eylindroid similar to the first, and the two armatures are made to revolve rapidly, the effect becomes very considerable. Andif the second current is transmitted through the helices of other electro- magnets, the poles of which are in contact with a third cylindroid, the third secondary current thus obtained is of great power. ‘With four permanent magnets, each only one pound in weight on the first cylindroid, the armatures in the first two cylindroids being two inches and half in diameter, and that in the third cylindroid ten inches, a current was obtained which, with carbon electrodes, and a parabolic reflector, produced so intense a light on the top of a lofty building at night, that shadows were projected by the flames of street-lamps a quarter of a mile distant. The calorific power of the apparatus sufficed to melt an iron rod a quarter of an inch in diameter, and copper wire 0.125 of an inch in diameter ; and to keep twenty-one feet of iron wire 0.065 of an inch in diameter at a red heat. This instrument seems applicable to lighthouses and numerous other practical purposes; since it is neither very large nor very costly, and the only expense its working entails is the rotation of the armatures, which should each make about 3000 revolutions per minute. Its effects at first sight would appear at variance with the ordinary laws of the conservation of force; but all difficulty will vanish if we remember that the machine is merely an apparatus for changing rotary motions into electricity. In many cases, the motion required may conveniently be obtained from a steam engine. Psroxipe or Hyprogen.—This curious compound, which is every day being applied to new uses, and is likely to become a very valuable agent in the hands both of the philosopher and the manu- facturer, may, as Schonbein has discovered, be prepared with great facility, by agitating in a large receiver, into which the air has free access, amalgamated zinc in powder and distilled water. The oxygen of the air combines both with the zine and water, oxide of zime and peroxide of hydrogen being formed. The peroxide of 76 Progress of Invention. hydrogen does not contain a trace of either zinc or mercury ; and being quite free from acid, it remains for a long time without decomposing. Improvep Enzctrotype Procrss.—Christofle and Bouillet, of Paris, have introduced three great improvements into the electro- type process. They add to the silver bath sulphuret of carbon, or an alkaline sulphuret, which produces a small quantity of sulphuret of silver; and this, for some reason not yet explained, causes the silver deposit to be, not dim and lustreless, but as brilliant as if it had been carefully burnished. They add to the sulphate of copper bath a moderate quantity of gelatine, which, for some reason, also as yet unexplained, causes the copper deposit to be as compact and dense as the very best rolled sheet copper. And lastly, they secure very great economy, by attaching plates of lead to the platinum wire, which forms the interior skeleton of the mould used for the production of articles in relief. The results produced by this modification of M. Lenoir’s process affords products yet more per- fect than those obtained by casting and chasing. Repropuction oF Designs on Guass.—The decoration of por- celain with designs embracing every grade of excellence, and at a very trifling cost, compared with the beauty of the products, has long been practised in this and other countries. But, hitherto, glass appeared to be incapable of receiving any kind of orna- mentation except by methods tedious, difficult, and expensive. It is likely, however, that such is now no longer the case, as a process has been invented in France, by means of which engravings are transferred to glass with nearly the same facility as they have hitberto been transferred to ceramic products. In the case of porcelain, fine lined copper plate engravings on tissue paper are applied to the surface of the article, the engraved side inwards; and the paper having been washed away, the lines of the engraving which still adhere to the porcelain are permanently attached by firmg and glazing. In the case of glass, this process requires to be modified ; a fine lined engraving would not answer, and hence, one having lines of sufficient depth is used. Also, stearates and oleates are added to the silicates and borosilicates, which are intended to support, or to fuse the coloured or colouring oxides, for the purpose of giving to the enamels the thickness which glass requires them to have ; and a solution of resin in ether or beuzine is added. The engravings on paper are produced by means of engraved rollers; and, after having been treated very much in the same way as with porcelain, the glass is placed im the furnace, and thus the most beautiful results are obtained with certainty, ease, and economy. Oxycen In A Dirrerent Srate in Dirrernnr Peroxipes.—Our knowledge regarding the different conditions in which oxygen may exist is receiving constantly new accessions. Not the least impor- tant of these is the fact recently discovered, that the oxygen in the peroxide of manganese is in a very different state from that in the peroxide of barium : a circumstance which is strongly confirmative of the theory of Schénbein, that oxygen may exist in two opposite states, which he has termed ozone and antozone, oxygen in its ordi- Progress of Invention. 77 nary state being a combination of both. It has been proved by recent researches that the oxygen in peroxide of barium is in the form of ozone, and that in the peroxide of manganese in the form of antozone. The consequences which follow from these discoveries are of a most interesting description: since if the two kinds of oxygen enter into combination, it is probable that the elements with which they combine exist in two allotropic states; and the inference may indeed be extended indefinitely, so as to lead to a belief that also all the elements, and perhaps all their compounds, are capable of existing in two opposite allotropic states. The facts which demonstrate that the oxygen elements in the peroxides of barium and manganese are in very different states, are very remark- able, and are such as admit of no doubt. Thus the oxygen in the peroxide of barium has a less affinity for hydrogen than chlorine, since, when it is acted on by the latter, hydrochloric acid will be formed, oxygen being given off; while on the contrary, hydrochloric acid is decomposed by peroxide of manganese, chlorine being evolved. It is worthy of remark that the oxygen given off by the peroxide of barium is in the form of ozone. Again, if peroxide of barium is treated with hydrochloric acid, peroxide of hydrogen will be formed; but if peroxide of manganese is treated with the same acid, ordinarily, water will be formed, and chlorine evolved. Sulpho- vinic acid, if heated in presence of peroxide of barium, affords ether, bicarburet of hydrogen, and sulphurous acid ; but if in presence of peroxide of manganese, aldehyde. Peroxide of hydrogen may be formed by means ‘of either peroxide of barium or peroxide of manga- nese ; but the two peroxides of hydrogen thus obtained are very different, since each will be decomposed by the peroxide employed in forming the other; and, what is still more remarkable, they will decompose each other. MiscenLangous.—Damping Apparatus for Copying.—tIn copying letters, the most troublesome portion of the process consists in damping the paper: this is greatly facilitated by means of a simple apparatus recently invented in Germany. It consists of a hollow perforated roller covered with linen, and rotating on a tube con- nected with the handle, which serves as a reservoir for water. When the roller is in use, the water flows from the handle into the tube, thence into the perforated roller, and thus the linen is kept wet while being rolled over the paper. When the instrument is not required, it is left in such a position as causes the water to flow back into the handle. Purification of Water.—There is good reason to believe, from certain experiments recently made, that any kind of water may be freed, not only from the impurities it contains in suspension, but also those it holds in solution, and may thus be made fit for drinking, by adding to it a very small amount of a solution of permanganate of potash, and then filtering it through a layer of magnetic oxide of iron and carbon, a few inches thick. The required mixture may be obtained by heating in a close vessel red oligist ore and a small quantity of sawdust.——Petrolewm as Fuel.—In the ordinary modes of using petroleum as fuel, there is very frequently produced a very large quantity of black smoke, 78 Notes and Memoranda. which not only is very offensive, but a source of great waste. This is entirely prevented by mixing superheated steam with the petro- leum vapour, as has been done for some time past in America, and more lately at Woolwich Dockyard; which causes the smoke in- stantly to disappear, and the whole fire-place and tubes to be filled with a bright white flame. Weneed not remark that the decom- posed water causes no addition to the total amount of heat, since water absorbs the same quantity of heat durmg decomposition as its elements afterwards give out during combination. The economy arises from the waste of a large part of the fuel, as smoke, being prevented.——New mode of fixing Photographic Prints ——Chloride of sodium (common salt) was one of the very first fixing agents employed; it was used by Daguerreotypists before Sir John Her- schel’s discovery that hyposulphite of soda is better suited for the purpose was generally known. A slight modification in the use of it renders it, however, all that can be desired as a fixing agent. The prints, when taken out of the frame, are to be placed for some time in a solution containing five per cent. chloride of it, and the solution is then to be raised to the boiling point, and left at it for about ten minutes. The prints may then be removed and washed, and the pictures will be found completely fixed—-—New Mode of Utilizing Combustible Fluids as Fuel—For this purpose a lamp is used in which the turpentine, or other combustible fluid, is reduced to a fine dust by an apparatus, which the inventer, a Russian professor, terms a ‘“‘pulveriser.” The flame produced by means of this is of great size and power, and of a whitish-yellow colour. The heat it emits is so intense as to melt steel. The contrivance is certainly not so economical as the ordinary furnace; but it is expected that, for many purposes, this will be far more than counterbalanced by its convenience and power. NOTES AND MEMORANDA. Tue DuvrMsatta Merroric Stone.—A paper in Proceedings of Royal Society, by Professor Haughton, states that on the 14th July, 1860, at 2.15 p.ar., @ remarkable meteoric stone fell at Dhurmsalla, and that the cold of the frag- ments that fell was so intense as to benumb the hands of the coolies who picked them up, A fragment they sent to the museum of Trinity College, Dublin, was analyzed by Professor Haughton, who found 100 parts to contain nickel iron 8°42, protosulphuret of iron 5°61, chrome iron 4°16, chrysolith (peridot or olivine) 47°67, and minerals insoluble in muriatic acid 34°14. The proportion of chrome is unusually large. New Marine Worm (Phenacia pulchella)—Mr. Edward Parfitt describes, in Annals of Natural History, No. 103, a new species of marine worm thrown up by the sea at Exmouth on 6th January during a heavy gale. It inhabits a thin, flexuous, horny tube, three inches long. The worm itself is two inches long, the body composed of forty annulations, the anterior of which were armed with two fascicles of yellow bristles of about three or four each, placed opposite to each other, The rest of the rings have about two each, but the numbers vary. Colour pale orange, red mouth with a purple cast. Buccal cirri twenty, white, beautifally Notes and Memoranda. 719 maculated with oblong spots of orange, red down the centre. Dorsal cirri re- flexed purple, with faint reddish tinge. Topinz Dissotves Goip.—M. Nickles states, in Comptes Rendus, that if iodine, water, and gold leaf, are heated in a tube to 50° C. (122° F.) the gold is dissolved. Ether may be substituted for water, and the action will take place on exposure to strong sunshine. The filtered solution deposits a film of gold on evaporation, if the heat at the end of the operation is sufficient to decompose the iodide of gold which is deposited. Sesqui-iodides and bromides of iron likewise dissolve gold. Size anp Lire oF A Mammotu TREE (Sequoia gigantia).—M. A. De Can- dolle, giving an account to the French Academy of the recent Botanical Congress: in London, stated that an exact measurement of one of the mammoth trees of California, the “old maid,” which was blown down in a storm a few years since, had been made by Mr. Edmond De la Rue. It was found to be twenty-six feet five inches and nine lines, six feet above the ground. Mr. De la Rue traced the annual layers on a sheet of paper which M. de Candolle exhibited, and it was found that the layers amounted to 1234. Votcanic EMANATIONS AND Disrase.— M. de Corogna states to the French Academy that in districts towards which the winds blow the gaseous matter given off by the eruption at Santorin, inflammations of the eye, bronchitis, and digestive derangements have been frequent, while other districts have not suffered in the same way. Asphodels, and generally, plants of the lily tribe have been injured. He ascribes the human maladies of indigestion, etc., chiefly to sulphuretted hydro- gen, and the vegetable disorders to hydrochloric acid vapours. The ophthalmia is traceable to volcanic dust. THe ZopracaL Ligut.—M. Liandier has a note in Comptes Rendus stating that for several years he has watched the zodiacal light during the evenings of February and March. This year, for the first time, he saw it on the 19th of January, and watched it till the 5th of May. He considers it to have the shape of a perfect cone, varying in luminosity and colour from dull grey to silvery white, the changing aspect probably being occasioned by the condition of our atmo- sphere. In February the summit of the cone reached the Pleiades, and the Twins in May. Between January and May he found it to follow the zodiacal movements of the sun. He believes the luminous cone to be a fragment of an immense atmosphere enveloping the sun on allsides. If so, he says it may be expected to exercise an enormous pressure on the sun, with great development of heat ; and if local variations occur, he thinks they may explain the occurrence of spots through the reduction of temperature that would follow diminished pressure. EFFECTS OF IncREASE oF Sun’s Mass.—On the 1st September, 1859, Mr. Carrington and Mr. Hodgson witnesssed a sudden blazing up in the sun, which is supposed to have indicated the fall of an extraneous body into our luminary, and @ consequent accession to his mass. In Monthly Notices, vol. xxvi., No. 8, recently issued, will be found a mathematical paper computing the effects of the fall into the sun of such a body as our earth, which some persons suppose would produce such a blaze as to scorch up all the planets. Myr. Waterston finds that if the blaze so occasioned were persistent, the general rise of temperature would not exceed 10° or 15°, but he observes that as soon as the falling body had plunged below the atmosphere into the fluid incandescent body of the sun, the blaze would terminate, though the temperature of that part of the sun would be sensibly increased. If the whole potential radiating power of the sun were increased 1000°, he says, “even this is Gnly one twelve-thousandth part of the potential temperature that sends heat to us sufficient to maintain a general average temperature over the surface of the earth of about 500° above the absolute zero of space. Now this proportion of 500° is only one twenty-fourth of a degree, and this is the extreme maximum effect that can be reasonably expected from such a planet fall.” But increase of the sun’s mass would shorten the year, and the addition of matter equal to our globe would effect this to the extent of 130”, causing a difference in the longitude of the sun at the end of the first year equal to 5'"3. 80 Notes and Memoranda. PRISMS AND SILVERED Frats For TELEscopEes.—A paper by Mr. Browning will be found in Monthly Notices, comparing the action of a prism and a silyerea flat when used with the glass reflecting telescopes. The prism he finds to reflect more light, as might have been expected, and he found that when a prism and a flat, placed side by side, threw down two pencils of the light from a, paraffin lamp, that the circle of light from the prism looked white, while the other was strongly tinctzred with a-reddish chocolate colour. We have made experiments with prisms and flats fully according with Mr. Browning’s results. The prisms, if accurate in form, are far superior to the silvered flats in light and colour, and quite equal to them in point of definition. Mr. Browning exhibited to the Astronomical Society a fine prism made for Mr. De la Rue. Founaus in aA Trree—The Archives des Sciences has an account of a paper by Signor Gasparini, in which he states that a fine Acacia dealbata from New Holland, when in full flower in a garden at Naples, was broken through its stem by aslight blast of wind. It was found that the heart wood was black and rotten, and microscopic examination revealed the mycelium threads of a fungus. The medullary rays, pith, and spiral vessels were not attacked, but the dotted vessels (vaisseaux ponctués) were so. Signor Gasparini considered that the spores of the fungus had introduced themselves through the rootlets. He states that when the spangioles have been broken in plants of the lily tribe, spores have found entrance, and occasioned damage. Strange Errect or Licgutrnine.—Cosmos states, on the authority of M. Saillant, that on May 15 an oak was struck by lightning in the forest of Vibraye (Sarthe) at about two-thirds of its height, at the origin of the large branches. The upper third, comprehending the crown and its branches, was not touched, but the remainder of the tree was split to shivers, and dispersed in all directions. No vestige was found of the bark, the root was partly torn up, and a heavy fragment hurled more than fifty paces. ‘The most curious thing is that the top of the tree was stuck in the ground, just where the original trunk was, so that the trunk and roots must have been swept away the time the tree-top took in falling.” ACHROMATIC HYE-PIECES FOR TELESCOPES.—For ordinary use the Huyghenian eyepiece will probably remain the favourite for achromatic telescopes, though for extent of field Horne and Thornthwaite’s aplanatics are preferable. For reflecting telescopes, now coming into more general use since the success attained by Mr. With and Mr. Browning in making and mounting the silvered glass mirrors, the Huy- ghenian eye-piece scarcely works as well as it does with the achromatic. In the latter case the Huyghenian eye-piece corrects errors which do not exist in reflectors. Mr. Browning has constructed a series of achromatic eye-pieces to work with the silvered glass reflectors, and, after giving them many trials, they appear to us decidedly advantageous where smallness of field is not objectionable. If a good Huyghenian eye-piece is employed on Saturn or Jupiter, and then an achromatic of the same power, a noticeable improvement in definition is obtained. Thus the divisions in Saturn’s ring can be seen with the achromatic eye-piece when the Huyghenian will scarcely indicate them. We recommend those who possess reflectors to try Mr. Browning’s achromatic eye-pieces. s Ss: STA AES je} = : Ga FAY Cate a) THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER. SEPTEMBER, 1866. LADIES’ SLIPPERS. BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD. (With Coloured Plate of Cypripedium Veitchienum.) Tue ladies’ slippers are at once the least interesting of all known orchids with those who cultivate solely with a view to their decorative uses, and the securing of special variations from types; but the most imteresting to those who give attention to organic structure, and physiology, and botanical distinctions. While both parties rejoice in their exquisite beauty, the first is oftentimes wearied with their stubborn adherence to settled forms and colours, and the apparent impossibility of altering their forms by hybridization, the philosophic observer finds in them solutions of problems in phytology, and exceptions to the prevailing details of orchid structure that render them per- petually entertaining and attractive. In common with the majority of orchids now in cultivation, they have not long enjoyed the favour of cultivators, for the simple reason that until lately very few were known. One of them, the common ladies’ shpper, C. calceolus, is a native of Britam, though very rarely to be found growing wild at the present day ; and of all the rest it may be said that we have so recently become acquainted with them that very much pertaining to their history has the charm of novelty added to peculiarity of structure. In the Hortus Kewensis, of 1810, only six species of Cypripedium are entered as being then cultivated in the Royal Gardens, and they are all (with the exception of C. calceolus) hardy North American species, named respectively parviflorum, pubescens, spectabile, humile, and arietinum. In Sweet’s Hortus Britannicus, 1830, eleven species are entered, and these again are all hardy English and American kinds, except two—namely, C. venustum and C. imsigne, natives of India, and originally obtaimed from Nepaul—the first in 1816, the second in 1819. In Don’s Hortus Cantabrigiensis, 1845, VOL. X.—NO. Il. G 82 Ladies’ Shippers. there are thirteen entered, including C. purpuratum, intro- duced from the Malays in 1837, and the beautiful C. barbatum, from Mount Ophir, in 1841. Since that date the number has steadily increased, and within ten years past some very notable additions have been made by the introduction of such noble species as Veitchianum, levigatum, caudatwm, concolor, and others. It must not be supposed, however, that all the species and varieties recorded in the books are valued, or even known to cultivators. With the exception of C. calceolus, which is known by a few—very few—collectors of scarce and curious plants, the hardy species have no place in our gardens, success in cultivating and keeping them having proved so rare as to discourage the most ardent lovers of herbaceous plants. Now and then some spirited trader secures an importa- tion of these plants, but it invariably ends, not in his finding customers for them, nor yet in growing them for his own amusement; he simply loses them, and there ends the specula- tion. But the majority of the tropical species are easily grown and multiplied; and as they are very various in character, some of them extremely curious, and all of them beautiful, so we meet with some of them wherever exotic orchids are cultivated, even if only on a small scale. The favourites at present are C. insignis, which will thrive in any warm greenhouse; C. barbatus, and its varieties; C. villosum, C. Veitchianum, C. Stonei, and C. caudatum. ‘The distinctive character of the Cypripedium must become immediately evident to the most casual observer who has an opportunity of seeing any of the species grouped with examples of other familes of orchids. They are terrestrial plants; they neither produce pseudo-bulbs above the soil, nor send out snake- hke aerial roots for prehensile or nutritive purposes. Instead of the great branching spike bearing hundreds of flowers, as in some of the Oncidiums; or the compact panicle towering high above our heads, as in some Vandas; or the whip-like, arching stem, bearimg many great butterfly-shaped flowers, as in Phaleenopsis; or the forest of flowers, making clouds of gold, and amber, and rose, as when the sun sets in glory, which the Dendrobes surprise us with; we have here flowers that are generally rather sober in colourmg, and that are in many cases produced singly ; or when more than one oceurs on a stem, the spike is few-flowered. But as every genus has what may be called its accidental characters, by means of which it is identified without the aid of a botanical analysis, we may allow all this to pass in order to take note of the structural pecuharities of these plants. Comparing them with other orchids, it will be observed that the lip is neither like a frill, nor a banner, nor a tongue, nor a hood; but it is folded so as Ladies’ Slippers. 83 to form a pouch, and m some of the species the pouch so nearly resembles a shoe as to justify the popular likening of it toa “lady’s slipper.”’? This pouch-like labellum is an essential part of the organic construction, and is directly related to the fer- tilization of the ovary, as Mr. Darwin* has very clearly shown by his original and painstaking researches. In other words, were the pouch modified or removed, the whole plan of the flower, as. respects the disposition of the reproductive organs, would need to be modified also, the mechanical relationships of the several parts beme matters of necessity, and every minute detail fitting properly into a complicated scheme. But let us glance at the construction in order to obtain some distinct idea of the nature of the demarcation which lends so pecuhar an interest to the study of the ladies’ shppers. ‘The plan of an orchid is ternary, and it consists in all of fifteen elementary parts. That we cannot very easily trace these out in any orchid is owing to the fact that some of the parts are commonly confluent, or peculiarly modified, or extravagantly developed, or nearly suppressed. There are three sepals, and these are usually determinable, because usually nearly equal; three petals, one of which usually gives the flower its most interesting feature, being modified into what is termed the labellum, or lip. There are three stamens, only one of which is commonly developed, and this is confluent with the pistil forming the column. In Cypripedium alone do we find three stamens, and by the aid of this genus, therefore, we obtain a key to one of the life mysteries of this mysterious order. Yet here again ordinary eyesight is baffled, for only two stamens can be found in Cypripedium, and these are placed right and left of the column; the third is in the customary place between them, but being sterile is not recognised until we have made a careful study of the flower. There are three pistils, but these again are so modified as to require to be discovered in the mind ere they can be traced in the flower. They are, in the first place, united, and confluent with the stamen; the upper stigma is modified intc the extraordinary organ called the rostellum, which ordinarily presents no likeness to a stigma at all; and the two lower stigmas are confluent, and appear as one, and this one occupies a central position below the anther, and is the stigma to which reference is made in descriptions, and to which special interest attaches in respect of the process of fertilization. Lastly, the ovary consists of three perfect carpels, stationed alternately with the stamens opposite the petals, and bearing the placentee in their axes, and of three other pieces, destitute of placentz, and eventually * The Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Ferti- lized by Insects. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.8., ete. Murray, 1862. 84 Ladies’ Slippers. separating from them when the fruit is ripe. The frequency of composite organs, and the peculiar individualities of develop- ment of certam parts, especially of the petals and the lip, result in that endless variety of form which render the orchids so strangely attractive and fascinating to botanists, florists, and . sight-seers, all of whom are not the less charmed by their beautiful colouring and their exquisite odours. In Cypripedium there are several exceptions to, the pre- vailing type of structure, as will be seen on reference to the plate of C. Veitchianum. The topmost piece, which may be likened to a banner, and the striated colouring of which is beautiful beyond all description, that piece is a sepal; where are the other two? ‘They are conjoined, and form one, cor- responding in position to the one already likened to a banner. Right and left of the centre are placed two petals, like a pair of wings, and in the centre is the third petal in the form of a pouch or slipper. The elder Darwin saw in this arrangement of parts, and especially in the swollen pouch and eye-like anthers of C. calceolus, a resemblance to a spider, and in the fioure of the plant in the ‘‘ Botanic Garden” a very spider-like aspect is given to it—in fact, a leetle exaggeration, perhaps, to justify the fancy embodied in the passage in which the flower is celebrated :— * So where the humming-bird in Chili’s bowers, On murmuring pinions robs the pendant flowers ; Seeks where fine pores their dulcet balm distil, And sucks the treasure with proboscis bill; Fair CypRIPEDIA, with successful guile, Knits her smooth brow, extinguishes her smile ; A spider’s bloated paunch and jointed arms Hide her fine form, and mask her blushing charms ; In ambush sly the mimic warrior lies. And on quick wing the panting plunderer flies.” Canto IV, 501—510. That stress should be laid upon the exceptional character of the orchids under consideration will not surprise any who have read the masterly treatise of the living Darwin. He says, ‘« Lindley’s last and seventh tribe, including only one genus, Cypripedium, differs from all other orchids far more than any other two do from each other. An enormous amount of ex- tinction must have swept away a multitude of intermediate forms, and left this single genus, now widely disseminated, as a record of a former and more simple state of the great orchidean order.” Cypripedium is destitute of a rostellum, all three stigmas being fully developed, but confluent. The anther, which is present and fertile in other orchids, is here rudimentary, sterile, and appears as a shield-like project- ing body deeply notched on its lower margin. The two fer- Ladies’ Slippers. 85 tile anthers producing pollen grains, which are not united into waxy masses, nor tied together by elastic threads, nor furnished with a caudicle as in other orchids, but are immersed in, and coated by, viscid fluid, which is so glutinous that it can be drawn out into threads. ‘‘ As the two anthers stand behind and above the lower convex surface of the stigma, it is impossible that the glutinous pollen can get to this, the fertile surface, without mechanical aid. An insect could reach the extremity of the labellum, or the toe of the slipper, through the longitu- dinal dorsal slit ; but according to all analogy, the basal por- tion in front of the stigma would be the most attractive part. Now, as the flower is closed at one end, owing to the toe of the labellum being upturned, and as the dorsal surface of the stigma, together with the large shield-like rudimentary anther, almost close the basal part of the medial slit, two convenient passages alone are left for an insect to reach with its proboscis the lower part of the labellum—namely, directly over and close outside the two lateral anthers. If an insect were thus to act, and it could hardly act in any other way, it would infallibly get its proboscis smeared with the glutinous pollen, as I found occur with a bristle thusinserted. .... Thus an insect would place either the flower’s own pollen on to the stigma, or, flying away, would carry the pollen to another flower. .... We thus see how important, or rather how necessary, for the fertilization of the plant is the curious slipper-like shape of the labellum in ‘leading insects to insert their probosces by the lateral passages close to the anthers.” Glutinous pollen grains, so peculiar to the Cypripediums that they alone possess them, are equally essential to this scheme of fertilization, and thus Mr. Darwin winds up by remarking, that ‘there is no superfluity in the means employed.” The cultivation of Cypripediums is, generally speaking, a most easy matter. Indeed C. insigne is the best of all plants for beginners in orchid culture, as it at once furnishes a key to many of the peculiarities of orchids, and adapts itself to various degrees of good and bad treatment. A shady position in a warm greenhouse, the soil to be a mixture of peat, loam, and silver-sand, and plenty of water in the season of its growth, are the conditions most conducive to its well-being. The stove kinds require only the ordinary treatment of what are called Indian orchids—that is, a temperature varying from a day maxi- mum of 65° in winter to a day maximum of 90° in summer, and a night mimimum of 60° in winter to a night minimum of 70° in summer, to be kept moist at all seasons, and when in active growth to have abundance of water. ‘The hardy species are so difficult to grow that even in botanic gardens, and in places where all the resources of art and fortune are at com- 86 Ladies’ Slippers. mand for the purpose, it is but seldom any of them are seen at all, or if seen are far from presenting such an appearance of health, and vigour, and beauty, as they are described as pre- senting when found growing wild. I wish to speak with all possible modesty on this subject; but having something to communicate, I shall endeavour to combine the results of experience with the results of thought in offermg a code for the management of these rare plants. The first new light that dawned upon me in connection with this subject came from a collection of hardy orchids, that had been obtained with great care, and were planted out in a border consisting of a mixture of peat, leaf-mould, loam, and nodules of chalk. They had the usual care, and made the usual return, some doing well, but the majority making but a sorry figure. Still the collection was kept up by supplying with new plants the places of those that perished ; and in due time I was laid by through a long and. severe attack of tic, andas the collection of hardy orchids was. looked upon with contempt by all in the place except myself, the bed became a mass of weeds; and though it was scarcely possible to find the places of any of them by their leaves, which were mixed with much rough herbage, their flowers sur- passed in strength, and abundance, and beauty, everything of the kind I had ever seen before. I began to reflect upon this, and soon came to the conclusion that as they invariably grow amongst grasses, sedges, patches of Narthecium, etc., ete., in their native wilds, so, when brought into the garden, they ~ should be similarly accompanied. No doubt our customary mode of keeping the beds clean exposes these plants to an undue amount of evaporation, which is exhaustive to them, and deprives them of a share in that condensation of dew which goes on all night long where innumerable living vegetable Sprays are associated together, éach spray distilling its nutrient drop from the generous atmosphere. I thenceforth sought for suitable plants to “ surface”? the beds where the orchids were planted, and I never found any to surpass Festuca ovina, which rejoices in the same soil as an orchid bed should consist of, and is both elegant, appropriate, and marvellously active in the con- densation of dew and its conveyance to the earth by means of its wiry leaves ; equally useful for small growing kinds, such as Gymnadenia, Ophrys, Habenaria, etc., etc., is the neat mossy herbage of Spergula saginoides, or of Sawifraga hypnoides ; and to make an end of this part of the disquisition, it may be said that hardy orchids should always be grown in the midst of herbage of some sort, and the best way to accomplish it is to select plants that are suitable in habit, and at the same time worthy to be associated with such beautiful subjects. Shade, moisture, and protection in winter, are points of some impor- Ladies’ Slippers. 87 tance, but given the herbage, nearly all the difficulties of orchid-growing come to an end. Among the hardy species the first, without doubt, is C. spectabile, with its huge, finely-formed, rosy-purple lip. Next to this we may place C. calceolus, which is still to be met with im certain spots in the county of Durham known to a few, and who happily have sufficient caution to abstain from publication of the names of the localities. C. acaule, with the lip split into two equal lobes, is both interesting and pretty. Among the species requiring to be cultivated in the stove, C. Schlimw is at once rare and exquisitely beautiful. It produces spikes of five to eight flowers each, the sepals and petals are white and green, the lip mottled and striped with rosé on a white ground; C. barbatvm, and its varieties; C. Veitchianum, so superbly striped ; C. caudatwm, C. levigatum and C. Stonet, are the finest of the “tailed” series; in these the petals are prolonged, so as to present, with the help of a little fancy, a resemblance to mustachios set on each side of a gaping mouth and extravagant chin—a burlesque altogether of humanity. C. insigne 18 beautiful, and as it does not need stove heat, is useful to persons who grow orchids in cool houses. C. villoswm, pur- puratum, Farrieanum, and hirsutissimum are essential in a. collection. The last is mdeed a remarkable species, producing flowers of great size. C. concolor is notable for the beauty of its variegated foliage; the flowers are yellow, with chocolate spots. If we halt here, it is not because the subject is exhausted, but because we cannot afford more space, even for any more of such elementary and superficial particulars as have been hazarded already. 88 Hypothetical Continents. HYPOTHETICAL CONTINENTS. BY H. M. JENKINS, F.G.S. © Tur present surface of the globe has admitted of division into several marine and terrestrial regions, each characterized by its inhabitants possessing, as a whole, more or less distinctive features; just as, on the principle of nationalities, we might divide Hurope, Asia, and Africa into several natural kingdoms. This division has involved no theoretical considerations of any importance, and it is only when an attempt is made to explain the origin of the inhabitants of any particular area that the naturalist ventures to step beyond the region of unyielding facts, and addresses himself to the more pliant province of hypothesis. The paleontologist, also, frequently seeks to trace the origin of ancient faunas and floras, and finds assist- ance in comparing the population* of bygone periods with that now peopling the earth’s surface in the same, or neighbouring, or distant areas. And as, in searching for the origin of things, we must necessarily go back to some previous period, his palzontological knowledge specially fits him for the task, on account of his being acquainted with those facts, the ignorance of which not unfrequently forces the student of recent nature into the wilderness of pure hypothesis, or even imagination. Two theories are prevalent respecting the origin of organic beings im particular areas. The first of these is that the fauna and flora of each great area possess, as a whole, certain distin- guishing characteristics which belong to that district alone, and have never been disseminated through other regions; and that the species composing the population of that area have been created from time to time, probably as representative species died out. ‘The opposing theory is that of the derivative origin of every group of organisms, whether species, genus, etc.; in other words, that each species is the modified descendant of some other species of the same genus, until the successive modifications cause so wide a divergence from the type, that a modified form transgresses the conventional circle which we draw round the generic type, and thus causes us to refer it to another genus. It is quite obvious that if the first theory be true, any attempt to trace the origin of the present and past faunas and floras must necessarily be completely futile; for have we not their origin sufficiently elucidated in the dogma that ‘they * The use of the terms “population,” “peopling,” etc., is in this paper restricted to the animal and vegetable “ population,” and is not meant to include man. Hypothetical Continents. 89 were created on the spot”? How utterly aimless, then, is palzontology, reduced in this way to a leviathan catalogue of fossils ! It will, therefore, be necessary for me to assume as a postulate the truth of the doctrine of the derivative origin of species ; but it is not my intention here to adduce any facts or: arguments in its favour, or respecting the causes which have conspired to produce the necessary modification ; it is enough for my purpose to mention that compulsory wandering, or “migration,” as it is termed, is one of them, and the one > that most concerns the subject of this article. Granting the postulate I have mentioned, the palzeontologist can frequently infer—with greater or less probability of its truth, according to the state of our knowledge on the subject— whence came the progenitors of any particular assemblage of animals and plants. In the case of marine organisms he can also indicate, by reference to the position of geological for- mations of the period, the route by which the ancient ancestors travelled from their own habitation to that of their more recent descendants; in fact, it is chiefly where terrestrial life is concerned that he meets with any serious difficulty, and then generally as to the route. During the tertiary period, and probably through all geological time, organic life was subject to similar laws of distribution as at present, and as climatal, hydrographic, and. other physical conditions changed, a corresponding alteration was produced in the faunas and floras of the regions affected. We may therefore consider that migration and emigration of animals and plants were as constantly taking place as elevations and depressions of the land. During their wanderings the specific features of or vanisms became more or less changed; weak and tender species dying off or becoming modified, new forms thus coming in, and varieties of old ones being formed, and the representatives of the various faunas becoming entombed at their death in the localities where they had severally existed. Now the palzon- tologist has to contemplate the results of these changes and migrations; he has to ‘‘ try back,” and decipher step by step the order of proceeding, and to write a history of the life of each period—not a mere catalogue of names and list of pecu-. harities, ike the foreign consular passports, but an intelligent record of the wanderings and fortunes, ancestors and descend- ants, of the different faunas, and even species, with which he has to deal. As a few out of many known examples of the evidence of changes which paleontology has revealed to us, I may cite the correspondence in facies between the recent American flora & 90 Hypothetical Continents. and the plants of American eocene deposits and of Huropean (notably Swiss) miocene ; between the shells of the Faluns and those which are now found in eastern seas; between the eocene mammals of Hurope and the existing tapirs of South America; and, finally, between the eocene plants of Hurope and the existing flora of Australia. Many other examples might be given, but we have selected these as specially bearig on the subject of this article. There are also imstances of “isolated faunas,” such as those of Australia and Madagascar, which present some very curious differences from the animal population of the nearest continents. Now “hypothetical continents,” the term I have chosen as the title of this article, have been invoked to account for both classes of phenomena, and in the following pages I shall endeavour to investigate the probability of their furnishing the true explanation of the facts in each case. Of these “ hypothetical continents,” the most celebrated is the Atlantis, partly on account of its havmg been the first proposed to explain a natural history difficulty, and partly on account of its name and position giving it an appearance of truth, by resolving an ancient legend into a scientific fact. This. great continent, or “sunken island,” was used by Professor Unger to account for the similarity of the miocene flora of Kurope to the recent flora of America; it has formed the subject of several essays by distinguished botanists and geolo- gists, and has been popularly illustrated on more than one occasion ;* its prominent features are therefore tolerably well- known. A less known theory of Professor Unger’s is that of a com- plete land-connection between Hurope and Australia durine the eocene period, an idea suggested by the affinity of the majority of Huropean eocene plants to those now living m Australia, the remainder belonging to genera now exclusively Asiatic.+ A third theory is Dr. Sclater’s hypothetical continent, ‘ Le- muria,” stretching from Hindostan through Madagascar to the West Indies.{ Dr. Sclater believes that this continent must have existed on account of the affinity of some of the curious mammals of Madagascar to some now living in India, and to others existing in the West Indies; and on account of the entire distinctness of the Madagascarian from the South-African mammalian fauna. Now these theories depend upon the principle that the * See especially Journal of Botany, No. 25, January, 1865, p.12; Lyell’s Elements, sixth edition, p. 265; and Natural History y Review, 1862, p. 149. + Neu Holland in Europa, and Journal of Botany, No. 26, February, 1865. t Quarterly Journal of Science, vol, i. No. 2, p. 213, 1864. Hypothetical Continents. 91 affinity of certain animals, or of certain plants, implies their common origin, and in the case of terrestrial organisms, an almost if not a quite continuous land-connection between the habitats of the allied organisms. This principle is perfectly sound, according to wynotions, and of infinite value in paleeonto- logical reasoning; but the, upheaval of these various hypo- thetical continents is by no means the only way of explaining known phenomena in accordance with it. It therefore seems reasonable to expect some physical evidence in confirmation of their former existence, and unless this evidence is forthcoming I should much prefer another explanation if supported im that way. tT shall now endeavour to make clear an explanation of the phenomena which have hitherto required the aid of an Atlantis and a Lemuria, treating them as belonging to one category. This hypothesis will also explain certain facts requiring elucidation by any theory framed to account for the peculiarities of the Swiss miocene flora, and will, I hope to be able to show, accord with others which have, apparently, no necessary connection with the subject. I have stated that the Atlantis theory was founded on the similarity of the miocene flora of Hurope to the recent flora of America. According to Dr. Oswald Heer, 186 species of miocene Swiss plants have their nearest allies living in the United States, 40 in tropical America, 6 in Chile, 58 in Central Hurope, 79 in the Mediterranean region, 108 in Asia, 25 in the Atlantic Islands, 26 in the rest of Africa, and 24 in Australia. This analysis, by a strenuous and able advocate of the Atlantis theory, shows that there are other facts to be explained besides. the preponderance of American types. Dr. Asa Gray, there- fore suggested that the plants had travelled by way of Japan, Northern Asia, and Asia Minor to Europe, instead of across the Ailantic over a great island-continent, and this theory has been received with great favour by geologists like Sir Charles Lyell, and botanists like Professor Oliver. The latter gentleman, indeed, has ably seconded Professor Asa Gray in attempting to show that the plants travelled by the longer rather than the shorter route, and in comparatively high latitudes.* It will be unnecessary for me to do more than mention some of the chief features of his analysis of the three recent floras, namely, of Hurope, Japan, and the Southern United States, in so far as. they are allied to the Swiss miocene flora. Of the miocene plants of Switzerland there are 76 genera common to the recent flora of Europe, 88 to that of the Southern United States, 77 to that of Japan, and 123 which occur in the united floras of Europe and Asia. The 77 genera * Nat. Hist. Review, 1862, p. 149. 92 Hypothetical Continents. common to Japan include 26 not recent in Hurope, and several of these are eminently characteristic tertiary types. Taking the orders of the Swiss miocene plants, 73 are common to the Southern United States, and 71 to Japan; but while 6 of the largest Japanese orders are represented in the Swiss miocene, there are only 4 of the largest American. The inference therefore appears natural and legitimate that the larger the group which is taken as the basis of the comparison, the smaller is the preponderance of American types; and considering the nature of many so-called species of fossil plants this fact has a remarkable significance. Professor Oliver also uses as a basis of comparison the proportion of ligneous species in each flora, and he finds that while about 40 per cent. of the Japanese flowering plants are ligneous, only about 22 per cent. of the American come into that category. The proportion of ligneous Species in the Swiss miocene flora is even larger than in the Japanese, amounting to 60 per cent., and the former therefore corresponds more closely in this respect with the latter than with the flora of the Southern United States. The foregoing facts seem to render reasonable the expecta- tion that. the true explanation of the affinity of the Swiss miocene plants to those of the Southern United States should, at the same time, account for its correspondence with that of Japan, and for the occurrence of allies of other species in different parts of the world. The Atlantis hypothesis does not answer this expectation; but a modification of the theory of an Asiatic route does. On natural history grounds, therefore, we should prefer the latter. Another consideration to which I must direct attention, is the direction in which the migration took place. Hitherto it has been taken for granted, that the migration was from America fo Europe during the miocene period, that is to say, the American flora being stationary, it spread during the miocene period as far as Hurope. The Hx-President of the Geological Society, Mr. W. J. Hamilton, is, I believe, the only geologist who has ventured to dispute this assumption, and he has characterized the idea of a recent flora migrating to an ancient as a physical impossibility.* _ Lhave just stated the assumption rather differently, and, put in that way, it does not seem impossible; still, 1 venture to support Mr. Hamilton’s view, that the Swiss miocene plants emigrated towards America, and that during the emigration, many became dispersed to other regions; but, at the same time, I believe, on paleontological grounds, that they came from that continent at an earlier period. In any area undergoing great physical changes, such as: }* Quarterly Journal of the Geological Socicty, yol. xxi. p. 94, Hypothetical Continents. 93 Europe underwent during the tertiary period, there must also be great changes taking place in its fauna and flora. Conse- quently we find that the eocene flora of Hurope is largely Australian in its character,* that the miocene flora is largely American and Japanese, and that the miocene shells are largely Hast Indian. Respecting this last character, I have shown that the only legitimate inference to be drawn from it, is that the mollusca emigrated from Hurope in a south-easterly direc- tion; and this conclusion is borne out by the fact, that some still exist in the Mediterranean and Red Seas, having been left behind by the less hardy species, for the emigration was no doubt chiefly the result of the climate having become colder, in consequence of physical changes. This cooling of the climate of Europe began towards the close of the eocene period, for while the eocene fauna and flora were purely tropical, the miocene were scarcely more than subtropical, and the pliocene hardly more than temperate in some regions and much colder in others. It is worth remarking, that the emigration of animals and plants from Hurope seems to have taken place more constantly towards the east than in an opposite direction; witness, for instance, the affinity of the Australian mammals to those of our oolitic rocks, the affinity of the eocene Huropean plants to the Australian recent, and the likeness of the Huropean miocene flora to the recent American and Japanese. ‘The tertiary cha- racter of the American cretaceous plants is notorious, as is the miocene (Huropean) and recent (American) character of the eocene flora of that continent; I believe, therefore, that our miocene plants came from America during the eocene period, and that their progenitors were the plants of the eocene and cretaceous periods in America, from which have also descended the recent flora of that continent. If these views be admitted, the large number of Swiss miocene species represented in America is naturally explained, for the American plants had a double chance of preserving their likeness to their descendants. Again, if the present flora of America (or that from which it has descended), has existed on that continent ever since the cretaceous period, we ought to find the remains of it imbedded in leaf-bearing strata of all succeeding periods in America, if such deposits exist. At present, this crucial test is not available for periods later than the eocene ; but the evidence at our command bears out, as we have seen, the views I am advocating. * Ettingshausea— Ueber die Entdeckung des Neuhollandischen Charakters der Locenflora Europds, 1862. Unger—New Holland in Europa, and Journal of Botany, No. 26. T See Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xx. p. 63. 94 Hypothetical Continents. At present, the miocene Atlantis theory has received no confirmation from students of physical geology; we have no evidence of such vast changes in the physical features of the Atlantic havmg taken place since so recent a date as the miocene.* On the other hand, the modifications of it which I have just enunciated are well sustamed by known geological, as well as paleontological data. In studying the distribution of the cretaceous and num- mulitic strata of the Old World, one cannot avoid remarking their persistent east and west extension, in temperate and northern sub-tropical regions. We thus find them occurrimg © in southern Europe from Portugal to the Black Sea; and, m Asia, from Asia Minor as far east as geological researches have been made. These and other facts, especially the east and west direction of the lines of volcanic disturbance of the same periods, induced Mr. Searles Wood, jun., to promulgate, in 1862,+ his view of a land-connection between America and the then existing Huropeo-Asiatic continents at the close of the cretaceous period and the dawn of the tertiary. We have seen that this hypothesis accords remarkably well with one section of the paleontological facts which it is our endeavour to explain ; it now remains for me to show that other phenomena can likewise be explained by the same theory. I have already stated, in general terms, the grounds on which Dr. Sclater was led to promulgate his theory of the ancient continent Lemuria. As instances of the peculiarities in the fauna of Madagascar, sought to be accounted for by this “hypothetical continent,” I may mention, quoting Dr. Sclater,t that the Insectivora of that island are most nearly allied to the American genus Solenodon; that the frugivorous bats of- Madagascar. belong to the Indian section of the group, and not to the African; and that certain’ American forms of serpents and of insects are also found in Madagascar, while the charac- teristic members of the African fauna are entirely absent from the island. Dr. Sclater also states that the lemurs of Africa are abnormal when compared with those of Madagascar ; but that those of India appear to form in some respects an inter- mediate group. ‘The theory he has proposed, does therefore account for the facts he wished to explain; but the question to be solved is its admissibility on other grounds. In the proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1863, Mr. H. W. Bates gave an analysis of the affinities of eleven families of the coleoptera and lepidoptera of Madagascar, and referred also to Dr. Hartlaub’s analysis of the birds. The general * See Lyell’s Elements, 6th Edition, p. 267. + Phil. Mag., 4th Ser., vol. xxiii. p: a7, tL Quarterly Journal of Science, No. 2, pp. 213, et seq. Hypothetical Continents. 95 result is the same as that arrived at from a consideration of other classes. of animals, namely, that there exists a large number of genera and species peculiar to the island, certain others common to it and to Africa, some allied to Asiatic types, and a few having tropical American affinities. The proportions differ, of course, in the different classes, owing to a difference in the powers of locomotion and other causes. Dr. Hartlaub had previously hinted at the connection of Madagascar with South-Hastern Asia, rather than with Africa ; but Mr. Bates rightly observed that if the Asiatic element justifies such a conclusion, the American ought also to be taken into account. This suggestion, as we have seen, has since received its complete development at the hands of Dr. Sclater. Mr. Bates’s own ideais ‘‘ that the island (whether previously stocked with anti-African forms or not) was at one time much more closely connected with Africa than it now is, and that the time of connection was anterior to the date when the continent became peopled by Simuidce, and the bull of its present mammalia; but posterior to the introduction of lemurs.” With this opinion I entirely agree. Paleontology is not yet in a position to furnish us with any complete evidence on the question ; but some few facts are known which seem to bear on it. The mammalia which existed in eocene and miocene times include forms, such as Didelphis, that are now restricted almost entirely to America, with others now South African and Asiatic in their affinities ; but these types, geographically distant at the present day, have a very striking stratigraphical distribution in the tertiary deposits of Hurope. As examples I may quote the followme: In the eocene strata we have the genus Cheeropotamus most nearly allied to the peccari of America; a species Didelphis, the opossums being now confined to that contiment ; and such genera as Coryphodon, Pliolophus, Hyracotherium, Palco- therium, Lophiodon, Anoplotheriwm, etc., all tapiroid pachy- derms more or less allied to the tapirs of South America. Miocene deposits have also furnished the remains of some interesting mammalia. I may especially quote two genera of old-world monkeys from Hppelsheim, named respectively Plio- pithecus and Dryopithecus, so that here we get the first indica- tion of true eastern types. The Macrotherium, a gigantic sloth allied to the old-world genus Manis was also obtained from the same deposit. The genus Dinotheriwm, a miocene ally of the tapirs, has hitherto been recognized only in strata of that period ; but great interest is attached to it from its having been obtained from a locality so far east as the Gulf of Cambay. The genus Mastodon, which appeared first in miocene times, has 96 Hypothetical Continents. a still greater geographical range, several species of it having been obtained from both hemispheres. Unfortunately no species of lemur has yet been discovered in the fossil state, although it is in accordance with all analogy to infer that they existed during the tertiary period.* New- world monkeys of pliocene age have been found in South America, but not elsewhere ; and old-world monkeys have been found in Hurope, as we have seen, and in Asia in miocene and more recent deposits. So far as we know, therefore, new- world monkeys never have existed in the old world, nor old- world monkeys in the new; and we have no certain record of any quadrumana during the miocene period. Had the Atlantis existed during the miocene period, it would be strange to find the distinctive features in the distribution of the monkeys of the two hemispheres still preserved; but if the Atlantis was of eocene date—before monkeys lived on the existing continents— then the differences in the distribution and structure of the Catarrhini and Platyrhini cease to be marvellous. These facts show that it is possible to account for the American affinities of certain of the vertebrates of Madagascar by supposing their ancestors to have come to Hurope from America by the eocene Atlantis, and to have travelled thence to India, Africa, and Madagascar at a later period. The affinities of the European tertiary insects are in favour of this view, which is also curiously confirmed by the fact that the lemurs, which are not known in the fossil state, are confined in the living state to the old world ; and if they are ever discovered fossil, it probably will be in the eastern hemisphere; while most, if not all, of the Madagascarian animals having allies in the new world are known to have been represented, more or less closely, in eocene and miocene times. There is no physical evidence in support of the hypothetical continent Lemuria, while, as we have seen, the eocene Atlantic continent was suggested by Mr. Searles Wood, junior, almost entirely on physical grounds. ‘That India may have been connected at some not very remote period with the Mascarene Islands, Madagascar, and Africa, is, however, extremely probable. Such a connection no doubt existed when the Glossopteris flourished in South Africa, Central India, and Australia, and it may have continued to a comparatively recent period, or have been reproduced in tertiary times, or the connection may have been similar to what exists at present. Our knowledge of the geology and paleontology of Mada- * Prof. Riitimeyer has announced the discovery of the remains of an eocene monkey allied to the lemurs; but although this fact would add considerably to the strength of my argument, caution forbids me to quote it until its truth has been placed beyond doubt. Hypothetical Continents. Oe gascar is so extremely scanty and indefinite that we cannot quote a single fact derived therefrom in support of either view; but doubtless future discoveries will prove the proba- bility or the impossibility of the hypothesis I have here advocated. I will just venture to anticipate one element of uncertainty in future inquiries into this subject, namely, the probability of a great Pacific continent having formerly united the old and new worlds on that side, for we know that that great region is even now an area of depression. It seems probable, however, that this consideration would more nearly affect the relation which formerly existed between Australia and South America, than the regions which now concern us. In the foregoing pages I have endeavoured to establish the following conclusions :— 1. That hypothetical continents belong to two categories ; namely, first, those supported by physical evidence, and, second, those unsupported in that respect. 2. That while the miocene Atlantis and Lemuria come into the second category, the eocene Atlantis and the possible Pacific continent come into the first. 3. That the theory of a miocene Atlantis and that of Lemuria each explains only one portion of the paleeontological facts that call for elucidation; while the theory of an eocene Atlantis explains the whole of the facts of both cases. 4, That for these reasons it is probable that the miocene fauna and flora of Hurope came from America during the eocene period by way of the eocene Atlantis; and that since the miocene period they spread over Asia and Africa and the eastern seas, and that a part of the flora returned to America by way of Northern and Central Asia and Japan. d. That the fact of American cretaceous and eocene plants uniformly occurring in older deposits than a Huropean paleon- tologist would, d priori, consider possible,* is of itself a most remarkable confirmation of two theories; namely (1), that organisms have migrated from west to east (e. g., from America to Hurope in eocene times); and (2) that deposits in the old and new worlds should be treated as homotaxeous,} and not as contemporaneous. * See Dana’s Manual of Geology, p. 510. + Quarterly Journal, Geological Society, Vol. xviii., p.52; and Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol. ii., No. 8, p. 622. yOL. X.—NO. II. H 98 The Persistence of Luminous Impressions. THE PERSISTENCE OF LUMINOUS IMPRESSIONS. BY THE ABBE LABORDE. Tse following paper is translated from Comptes Rendus, 16th July, 1866 :— “When a luminous point strikes the eye and suddenly disappears, the sensation which it produces does not become immediately extinct, and according to the researches of some physicists, it remains for about one-third of a second, from whence arises all the phenomena known and explaied under the title of persistent luminous impressions. “Tt occurred to me to inquire whether in white light all the component colours had the same degree of persistence, and to study this question I submitted the sensation of leht to an experiment which revealed to me a very curious fact, which seems to demonstrate that i white leht the most refrangible colours are more persistent than the others, and that they act in advance of the others, so that the organ of vision decomposes white light by dispersing its colours im different times, just as the prism decomposes it by dispersing in different places. ““T make this experiment: the hght of the sun is received upon a mirror which throws it horizontally on to a slit made in the shutter of a dark chamber. This shit should be three millimetres* wide and six long. Close to this slit, side the chamber, a disk of metal is placed, on the margin of which, similar slits are made, with wide interspaces between them. A. clockwork movement turns the disk, and a clamp, which the observer can operate upon at a distance, allows the revolution to take place with greater or less velocity. In the line of the light rays, at a distance of about a metre, a screen of ground glass is placed, behind which the modifications of the hght can be observed when the disk is im motion. At first the light is made to appear or disappear slowly, and is found uniformly white; but when the successive appearances are made to take place more rapidly, the margins begin to be tinted, and by progressively increasing the velocity, the surface of the image becomes successively affected by blue, green, rose, white, green, blue. After this last blue, increasing velocities restore the whiteness of the light. “The whole of the phenomena depend, as will be seen, on the varying periods occupied by the revolutions of the disk.” * In Darling’s Metric Tables we find 3 mm = 0'118 of an inch. iti Gossip about Fish. 99 M. Laborde does not give us any information on the rates of velocity which produce the different effects; but we apprehend those of our readers who wish to repeat his experiments will have little trouble in preparing the necessary apparatus, as the velocities required in the movement cannot.be great. GOSSIP ABOUT FISH.* Mr. Coucu’s great work on British Fishes has arrived punc- tually at its termination in the fourth and concluding volume, which contains no less than seventy-three beautifully executed coloured plates. The entire work is enriched by two hundred and fifty-two coloured plates and numerous woodcuts. The illustrations thus afforded by Mr. Couch are the more valuable from being, with very few exceptions, drawn by his own hand from freshly caught specimens, and thus they are characterized by a degree of fidelity rarely attamed in natural history works. Another highly important and valuable peculiarity of Couch’s British Fishes is the large amount of information which it affords concerning the habits of the creatures described. Some of the older naturalists, with considerable talent for observation, were not sufficiently careful in description, and hence it is often difficult, and sometimes impossible, to identify the objects of their research. Since their days a new school has grown up, very careful in descriptive accuracy, and, we might add, very careless as to modes of life, and relations of habit to structure, which really constitute the essence of natural history, properly so called. Those who write as Museum naturalists may add very valuably to the means of identifying species; but unless their labours are supplemented by the observation of the field naturalist, they eventuate in nothing better than a long catalogue of names. Inaccuracy of description destroys the worth of field labours, because it leaves in doubt to what particular creature they were directed ; but accurate description is of little value until some observer of habit, or some deep-thinking tracer of structural relations, has built up the raw material thus afforded into something that may be fairly dignified with the name of science. The different dispositions and capacities of men naturally cause them to view external objects, and especially living ones, from two distinct points of view. According to one, and the * A History of the Fishes of the British Islands, by Jonathan Couch, F.L.S. A vols. Groombridge and Sons, 1862—1866. Vol.i., fifty-seven coloured plates ; Vol. ii., sixty-three, ditto ; Vol. iii., fifty-nine ditto ; Vol. iv., seventy-three ditto, from drawings by the Author. i 100 Gossip about Fish. most popular, because the apparently simplest, method of observation and philosophizing, every animal, for example, is supposed to be gifted with a special structure, im order that it may live under particular conditions and perform particular acts. According to another method of reasoning, the structure is the result of general laws operating under special con- ditions, and each animal belongs to a group, the whole of which must be studied before the individuals composing it can be understood ; while the entire group has definite relations to other groups, and so on throughout the whole round of nature, which forms one great unity, in which Creative will and in- telligence are displayed in conformity with an all-comprehending plan. Which ever mode of reasoning the tendencies of par- ticular minds may lead them to adopt, the relation of habit to structure, or of structure to habit, is equally important; the difference bein e that the more philosophical and wider of the two systems give a proportionately ampler signification to every fact that 1s ascertamed. The fish, the reptile, and the bird, at first sight so different In appearance, and so apparently separated by a great gulf in structure as well as in habit, are found to grow nearer to each other the better they are understood. Professor Huxley divides the vertebrate animals into three ascending groups; (J.) the Jchthyoids, comprising fishes and amphibia, defined by the presence of branchiz or gills at ‘some period of existence, nucleated blood corpuscles, and certain other peculiarities; (I1.) the Sauroids, which have no branchie or gills at any period of their existence, nucleated blood corpuscles, certain peculiarities in the skull, and other structures, and which comprise reptiles and birds; and (III.) the mammalia.* Itis by tracing points of resemblance of too technically anatomical a character to be referred to in detail in this place, ‘that Professor Huxley expresses the decision of comparative anatomists, when he speaks of the class of birds as “an ex- * The passage stands as follows:—“The vertebrata are capable of being grouped into three provinces: (I.) The ichthyoids (comprising fishes and emphibia) defined by the presence of branchise at some period of existence, the absence of an amnion, the absence or rudimentary development of an allantois, nucleated blood corpuscles, and a parasphenoid in the skull. (II.) The sauroids defined by the absence of branchis at all periods of existence, the presence of a well-developed amnion and allantois, a single occipital condylé, a complex mandibular ramus articulated to the skull by a quadrate bone, nucleated blood corpuscles, and no parasphenoid, comprising reptiles and birds ; and (III.) the mammals devoid of branchie, and with an amnion and an allantois; but with two occipital condyles and no parasphenoid; a simple mandibular ramus articulated with the squamosal and not with the quadratum with mammary glands, and with red non-nucleated blood corpuscles,’’—Zlements of Comp. Anat., p. 74. Gossip about Fish. 101 tremely modified and aberrant reptile type ;”? and if the general reader will take for granted the connection between reptiles and birds, he will have no difficulty, from a sheht knowledge of frogs in their tadpole and gill-breathing state, in carrying the argument further, and connecting reptiles, through the amphibia, with fish. These considerations will serve to show that the fish are not so distinct and essentially different from other creatures as might have been supposed. The peculiarity of their abode _ marks them out with a certain conspicuous breadth of diver- gence; but several fishes can live for a time on dry land, and do so occasionally, by choice, while the whales represent mammalian life in the water, and the amphibia show how, at different stages of existence, the same animal may comport itself as a land reptile or as a fish. From a survey of Mr. Couch’s work, it becomes evident that the British coasts supply the naturalist with a great variety of species of fish, some occurring constantly in vast multitudes, and others, if not permanent inhabitants, visitng us sufficiently often to reward the attention of those who live near the sea. The first volume of Mr. Couch’s work discourses of the sharks and rays which belong to us or visit us, and concludes with delineations of sturgeons, sticklebacks, perches, basses, etc. The second volume contains, among other fishes, the gurnards, to which additional interest has been excited by recent researches into their capacity for producing vocal sounds. Mr. Couch gives sketches of several of their air-bladders, which are concerned in their vocal utterances. In the case of the piper (Trigla lyra), he says, ‘Several of the fishes of this genus are known to utter obscure grunting sounds when newly taken out of the water, and they continue them at in- tervals as long as they are alive.”? And, when speaking of the common gurnard (Cuculus griseus), he mentions its social habits, and tells us that “‘sometimes, in the fine weather of summer, they will assemble together in large numbers, and mount to the surface, over deep water, with no other apparent object than the enjoyment of the season; and, when thus aloft, they move along at a slow pace, and rising and sinking in the water for short distances, and uttermg a short grunt as if im self-cratification.”” In fact, they have a sort of musical water- party; and, possibly, if they heard some of the bipeds singing, they might not speak of the performance more re- spectfully than Mr. Couch does of theirs when he calls it “a short grunt.” These assemblies of gurnards, and other gatherings of certain fishes that might be adduced, certainly indicate the presence of a social instinct much more distinctly 102 Gossip about Fish. than the progress of many fish in shoals, which may result from a community of impulse, quite distinct from companion- able qualities. i In Mr. Couch’s third volume, comprehending mullets, wrasses, rocklings, flounders, soles, etc., we find many illustra- tions of greater mental powers than fish are usually imagined to possess. Thus, the grey mullet is singularly watchful against restraint, and tries to leap over obstacles in preference to pass- ing through them. Mr. Couch says, “In the port of Looe, in Cornwall, there is a salt-water mill-pool of thirteen acres, that is enclosed on the side of the river by an embankment, and into which the tide flows through flood-gates that afford a ready passage for fish to the space within. When the tide begins to ebb, the gates close of themselves; but even before this has happened, the mullets which have entered have been known to pass along the enclosed circuit within the bank, as if seeking the means of deliverance, and, finding no outlet, they have thrown themselves on the bank at the side, to their own de- struction.” Mr. Couch adds, all writers agree in ascribing to this fish great quickness of hearing, and it has even been sup- posed that it is capable of the perception of particular sounds. The Cornish historian, Carew, had formed a pond on a branch of the Tamar, in which mullets were fed at regular periods, and they were drawn together to the appointed spot at the sound made by the chopping of their food. — _ The carps (described in Mr. Couch’s fourth volume), like the mullets, can be brought together by sounds intimating that their dinner is ready, and they seem to be fish of a highly in- telligent character, with more than the usual fishy allowance of brain. ‘According to Professor Owen, the average pro- portion of the size of the brain to that of the body in fishes is one in three thousand ; but in the carp, according to Blumen- bach, it amounts to one in five hundred, which is the same as is found im the ‘half-reasoning’ elephant”? Why the elephant should be called “ half-reasoning”? we never could understand, unless human vanity cannot bear the *notion of ascribing reason to any other animal than man himself. Reasoning may be logically correct as far as it goes, and as far as the materials at its disposal allow it to go, and then it is as much whole reasoning in a fish as in a Newton, though the results may be less grand. The disciples of old Izaak are well acquainted with the cleverness of the carp, and when we regard him as a highly-organized specimen of the finny tribe, it is the more remarkable to find that he may—to use a Paddyism—he frozen to death, and yet come to life again. Sir J. Franklin, cited by Mr. Couch, is the authority for this statement. He says that in his voyage to the Polar Sea, Gossip about Fish. 103 “‘the fish caught in their nets became so frozen that in a short time they formed a solid mass of ice ; and by a blow or two of the hatchet they were easily split open, so that their entrails might be removed in one lump. But if in this frozen state they were thawed before the fire they recovered their anima- tion. This was particularly the case with the carp, and he has seen a carp so completely restored after being frozen for thirty-six hours as to leap about with much vigour.’ Mr. Couch alludes to experiments of John Hunter, which had an opposite result, as the carp which he subjected to a freezing mixture was killed ; and he observes, “‘1f we are to suppose that the fish frozen by Sir J. Franklin were of the same time species as those of Hunter, the only explanation of the difference of result will be that the suddenness of the operation in the north prevented that exhaustion of vitality which was fatal in the other.” We are also told that carp can be kept alive for weeks in a cool cellar, if the body is kept moist and appropriate food supplied. The minnows seem to possess their full share of piscine mother wit and natural politeness. When they have discovered some dead animal substance, “‘ they arrange themselves in the form of a ring, which has been compared to that formed by the petals of a flower, with their heads lower than the level of their bodies, and in this situation no one jostles another. But how- ever peaceable among themselves, the circle must not be broken into by a stranger, for on the approach of such, the most powerful of the company will quit his station to drive him away, while his place is kept vacant by his companions until his return to the feast.” Fishes with filaments hanging from their heads have usually keen sensations of touch, and some species seem equally re- markable for fine scent, if, indeed, the fish sense residing in the nostrils be not a sort of taste. Thus Mr. Couch informs us that the loach has been seen to follow his food by scent, so as to have discovered it “when intentionally concealed from the mere influence of sight and feeline”’ With reference to fish hearmg, Mr. Couch states that a shoal of pilchards have been known to sink and disappoint the fishermen at the firmg of a heavy gun twenty miles off. Many curious instances will be found in Mr. Couch’s fourth volume of the skill evinced by the eel in surmounting obstacles in his migrations. It appears that he gets up rocks, climbs gate-posts m canals, and, as is generally known, occasionally takes a walk in the fields. ‘‘ It is said to have been known to devour newly-sown green peas in a garden, and I have been credibly assured that one was found in a field of turnips at the distance of a quarter of a mile from a river.” An eel keeps one 104 Gossip about Fish. of his five senses, that of touch, in his tail, and Dr. Marshall Hall discovered a sort of supplementary heart in that curious situation, and he noticed that “‘ the vessels which issue from the caudal heart appears to have a particular distribution to the spinal marrow.’’ The vertebree of the tail allow of great flexi- bility. Thus, they not only use their tails to collect mforma- tion by their superior sense of feeling, but also as bands to erasp any object round which they can be twined. ‘The conger eel uses his tail in the same way. ‘ When taken on board a boat, and left undisturbed, the sensitive powers of its tail are employed in searching out the nature and limits of its prison, and then this organ is stretched out to lay hold of the gunwhale, by fixing its hold fast on which a reversed muscular action 1s put in force, and the whole body is turned overboard.” pieces sy WOO One piece damaged by felling . : 52 23 ends of crooks fi from Gee ear hennehes aa less than 6 inches in girth : 5 SAN ILINS) Or 29 tons, 35 feet : : SALAS This account, somewhat irregular in its arrangement, though there is no reason to think inaccurate as to number, weight, and measure, appears by itself somewhat extraordi- nary, but is marvellously surpassed by the next example, that im gigantic proportions may be said literally to cast it into the shade. The ensuing statement, put into the hands of the writer of this article, some years ago, by one who was resident near the place where this enormous tree grew, is detailed in a different but more satisfactory form. Like the preceding, it stood on an estate from which it took its name of THE GOLYNOS OAK. Golynos is about four miles from the town of Newport, and is in the parish of Bassaleg. The tree was purchased by his Majesty’s Purveyor of Plymouth Dockyard and Dean Forest, in the year 1810, for one hundred guineas, and was felled and converted in the same year. Five men were each twenty days stripping and cutting it down, and a pair of sawyers were constantly employed one hundred and thirty- eight days in its conversion. The expense of stripping, felling, and sawing, exclusive of superintending the conversion or hauling any part of it, was eighty-two pounds. It was felled in separate parts, and stages were erected by the workmen to stand on to cut down the valuable limbs. Previous to being felled it was divested of its brushwood, which was placed as a bed to prevent the timber from bursting in fallmg. ‘The main trunk of the tree was nine feet and a half in diameter, and consequently no saw could be found long enough to cut it down; two saws were therefore brazed together. In cutting the main trunk through, a stone was discovered six inches in diameter, six feet from the butt, and three feet in a diametrical direction from the rind, round which the timber was perfectly sound. The rings in its butt being reckoned, it was dis- covered that this tree had been improving upwards of FouR HUNDRED YEARS! and, as many of its lateral branches were dead and some broken off, it is presumed that it must have stood little short of a centwry since it attained maturity. When 110 Large British Oaks. standing it overspread four hundred and fifty-two square yards of ground. Its produce was as follows :— FEET. Main trunk, at ten feet ate 5 . 450 One limb . i 7 AA One ditto . ‘ : A P sgh eareeoe One ditto . ; i : i as One ditto . 4 , i : o) ESS One ditto . A 4 3 4 Ll trey One ditto . : 4 5 a 1) 0; Six smaller gate 3 De Ops MARRS Dead limbs of the size of dace! el G26: Total quantity of timber . . 2426 Its conversion was thus:—The main trunk was cut into quarter boards and cooper’s stuff; the limbs furnished one upper piece-stem for a hundred-gun ship; one ditto, fifty guns; one rother (rudder?) piece, seventy-four guns; three lower futtocks, each one hundred guns; one fourth futtock, one hundred guns; one ditto, seventy-four guns; one ditto, forty-four guns; one -floor-timber, seventy-four guns; one second futtock, one hundred guns; and about twenty knees, all of which were large enough forthe navy. The heavy body- bark was three inches thick. When all its parts passed mto the market, they produced nearly six hundred pounds! What compression, what expansion from a single seed, weighing probably less than a quarter of an ounce, and contained with ease in the hollow of the human hand! The secret of the growth and magnitude of these and similar specimens is, that for the most part they were solitary beings, that spreaa out their limbs without any neighbouring opponent or control. Such as these, rearing their heads aloft on the wide common or wayside green, charm the eye of the lover of nature’s beauties, who deplores the utilitarian feeling that imperils their lives. Their majesty and beauty conspire to seal their doom; the contractor and carpenter see nothing in them but pounds, shillings, and pence, and they are gradually disappearmg by the railway at hand. All things must yield to traffic in a money-getting age ; but the exertions of the poet and the painter will still survive the destruction ' wrought by man and time. “ Hiverything,” says Hpictetus, “ hath two handles.” Your readers, Mr. Editor, will be differently affected by the repre- sentation of the fate of these objects. ‘There may be those who think they could not be appropriated to a better purpose ; on the other hand, there are those who, if they had their own Large British Oaks. 11} way, would gladly have spared them till they perished by decay. All do not view the same object in the same light, and it is well for the general good that it should be so. Hach has thus his share in it. It happened to the writer many years ago that he was riding in company with several persons, among whom was the celebrated author of the Hssay on the Picturesque, together with a simple country squire, whose ideas and admiration of forest scenery centred in trees as timber. ‘ What a charming effect,” said the lover of pictorial beauty, “do those masses of foliage produce!” ‘ Yes,’? added the other, “‘but the trees are worth next to nothing in the market.” ‘The man of taste turned round with a glance of disapprobation, and was silent at the moment, but could not refrain from expressing apart his disgust and indionation at such an absence of feeling; and yet each in his own way was not far from right. Sir Uvedale Price, Bart., the person piled to, a man of taste and a scholar, was an enthusiastic lover of forest scenery, as his oaks at Foxley, near Hereford, bore ample testimony. He used to prune them regularly, in part, with his own hand, and had under him a set of pruners who worked beneath his own eye. On the loss of one of them he expressed his regret to the writer in the words employed by Priam on the death of Hector, “Os 6€ poe dsos énv (Iliad, ©), such was his zeal for the care and cultivation of the oak. A taste of this kind seems to have been inherent in the family. Colonel Price, a brother of the above gentleman, was a great and deserved favourite of George III. An anecdote is related of him that the King, intending to have a certain tree _ taken down, asked the Colonel’s advice respecting it, at the same time expecting to meet with a ready acquiescence in the notion of its propriety. The Colonel, however, ventured re- spectfully to say that he was of a different opmion. ‘ Aye,” replied the King, somewhat hastily, ‘‘ that’s your way, you continually contradict me.” ‘If your majesty,” resumed Colonel Price, ‘will not condescend to listen to the honest sentiments of your faithful servants, you can never hear the truth.” After a short pause, the King very kindly laid his hand upon the Colonel’s shoulder, “ You are right, Price, the tree shall stand.” J. W. 112 On the Genus Ficus. ON THE GENUS FICUS. BY JOHN R. JACKSON, Curator of the Museum, Royal Gardens, Kew. (With a Tinted Plate.) We have before spoken of tropical forest trees, and in a pre- vious paper in the InrELLEcTUAL OssERVER, we gave a brief account of some of the most noble of the Australian forms; we also, in that paper, made a passing allusion to the denizens of the oriental forests. We purpose now to conduct our readers into some of these forests, or rather to introduce them to some of their inhabitants. Amonst the finest trees of purely tropical scenery, of course still excepting the palms, the members of the genus Ficus hold a prominent place. This genus belongs to the natural order Moracez, and is that also to which our common fig belongs, besides Morus itself, which includes the mulberry, Broussonetia, the paper mulberry, Dorstenia, and others. Though the order is small, it is a most important one, both in an economic point of view, and also in botanical interest. The genus Ficus is especially rich in many varied forms of useful products, for besides the fig itself, we have caoutchouc, lac, etc. Whether any of the species are Huropean is a question upon which our best botanical authorities have differed. Lindley says that none of the Morads are European, and that the mulberry and common fig have both been brought from the Hast; other writers consider the fig to belong origi- nally to Asia Minor, Persia, South-Hastern Europe, and North Africa. We can only say, that if not truly indigenous, the plant has become thoroughly naturalized in all the countries mentioned above. The way in which many of the species adapt themselves to circumstances in their mode of growth is peculiar, and very striking to an observer. In many cases we find them twining, and almost enveloping, colossal palm trunks, though they are capable of forming very thick trunks of their own, which frequently bear an immense spreading crown. The magnificent wild fig-trees of the Hast, indeed, are always regarded as the true friends of the sun-scorched traveller, affording, as they do, such a cool retreat, and such a complete shelter from the sun. Lindley says the genus Ficus is one of those which travellers describe as most conducing to the peculiarities of a tropical scene; and, quoting from the ““ Annals of Natural History,” he says, “ Mr Hinds points out the complex appearance of the main stem of many species ; their immense horizontal branches, their proportionate lowness, 6 me ~~ S OMY ES we “gh 9 THE GENUS FICUS. 1.—Banyan tree, (Ficus Indica, 1.) | 4.—Section of Common Fig, (F. carica, L.) 2.—Palm encireled by F. Indica. | 5.—Open receptacle of Dorstenia 3.—Laticiferous tissue of F. elastica, Rox. | contrayerva, L. ie nh n i On the Genus Ficus. 113 | and the vast number of smaller stems in every stage of develop- ment—some just protruding from the horizontal hmbs, others hanging midway between the leafy canopy and the earth, displaying on each thick rounded extremity an enormous spongiole, while many reach the soil, and, having attained strength and size, act as columns to sustain the whole struc- ture.” The best example of this very peculiar provision for supporting so wide-spread a canopy is to be found in the Banyan-tree (Ficus Indica, L.) Fig. 1. This tree is certainly one of the most famous and interesting of all the Hast Indian forms of vegetation, and is the best type of the peculiar adapta- bility of the genus in forming irregular trunks, and that in a manner quite contrary to the usual mode of proceeding in the vegetable world. We all know that one of the laws of plant- life is to send its root downwards and its stem upwards, so that the former may take in from the earth the nutriment there stored, while the latter, developing itself by its natural appen- dages, performs the important functions of respiration. This, of course, in its infancy, is the case with the banyan; but after it has grown, and formed its crown of foliage by throwing out its branches, and while yet a young tree, these branches per- form a double duty; for besides being the support of the leaves, they throw out again downward branches, which reach, and strike root in the ground, and then go on growing as true stems, thus forming a support for the spreading mass above. These trees are common all over the Hast Indies: and to such ~ a size do they grow, that one tree forms a miniature forest in itself. The largest banyan-tree is said to be on the banks of the Nerbuddah river, where, for aught we know, it isstill growmeg. Forbes, in his “ Oriental Memoirs,” says the circumference of the tree at the time of writing the account, was nearly 2000 feet, and the overhanging branches which had not thrown down their props or supports, stretched over a much larger area. The tree had as many as 320 main trunks, and over 3000 smaller ones, and was capable of giving shelter to 7000 men. ‘These dimensions appear almost fabulous; there is, however, another fine tree at Mhow, which has sixty-eight stout stems, and can give shade, even under a vertical sun, to an immense number of men; indeed, we are constantly told that a regiment of cavalry can conveniently take refuge be- neath one. For large assemblies or meetings they form perfect natural tents. It is very certain that these immense trees must be of great age; and we should naturally expect to find a full description of so remarkable an object in the works of the old classic authors. Strabo’s description is both minute and accurate, as is also that of Pliny. ‘The banyan has been the theme of poets in more recent times, as well as of travellers VOL. X.—NO. II, I 114 On the Genus Ficus. and naturalists. Milton beautifully describes it in the follow- ing’ passage— “‘ Branching so broad and long, that in the ground - The bending twigs take root; and daughters grow About the mother tree; a pillared shade, High over-arched, with echoing walks between. There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat, Shelters in cool; and terds Fis pasturing herds At loop-holes cut through thickest shade.” And Southey, in his “ Curse of Kehama,” says— sc? was a fair scene wherein they stood, A green aud sunny glade amid the wood, And in the midst an aged banyan grew. It was a goodly sight to see That venerable tree. For o’er the lawn, irregularly spread, Fifty straight columns propped its lofty head ; And many a long depending shoot, Seeking to strike its root, Straight, like a plummet, grew towards the ground. Some on the lower boughs, which crossed their way, Fixing their bearded fibres round and round, ‘With many a ring and wild contortion wound ; Some to the passing wind, at times, with sway Of gentle motion swung ; - Others of younger growth, unmoved were hung Like stone-drops from the cavern’s fretted height. Beneath was smooth and fair to sight, No weeds nor briers deformed the natural floor; And through the leafy cope which bowered it o’er, Came gleams of chequered light. So like a temple did it seem, that there A pious heart’s first impulse would be prayer.” Though habit has taught us to look upon the root of a plant as that part alone which is buried in the earth, we see there are such things as roots bemg given off from totally different parts. This occurs mostly, if not entirely, in tropical climates, and is effected greatly by the influence of moisture and shade, considering, of course, that the plants havea natural predilection for forming these aerial, adventitious, or secondary roots. The banyan is a good example of a plant producing aerial roots. The structure of a true root, when fully developed, is very similar in all respects to a true stem. The epidermis, however, is without stomata, and the bark is always very thick, owing to the moisture it absorbs from the earth. Thus we find that stems of many plants are capable of forming roots, as is in- stanced by the growth of plants from cuttings, or by pegging a bent branch down to the ground. In the case of the banyan, so long as the roots are pendant, they derive their nourishment from the parent trunk, but so soon as they reach the ground, On the Genus Ficus. 115 the spongioles or absorbent parts of their roots become more developed, and strike into the earth, and then begin the neces- sary functions for increasing their diameter, and supporting the weight of the new foliage above. It is not at all uncommon to see the trunk of the talipot palm (Corypha wmbraculifera), or the palmyra (Borassus flabelliformis), completely encircled by one of these figs. (Fig. 2.) This is caused by the seeds, which are very small, dropping into the axils of the leaves of the palm, where they vegetate, and send their roots downwards, embracing the trunk in their descent. In very old specimens, where these aerial roots have extended to a goodly diameter. the palm is seen emerging from the thickness of the fig, as if it was actually one and the same plant. These combinations are considered sacred by the Hindoos, who call them holy marriages. A white, glutinous juice exudes from the stem, which is considered a remedy in toothache; bird-lime is also manufactured from it, and an infusion of the bark is said to be a powerful tonic. A small but very good specimen of the banyan-tree may be seen in the palm-house of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and a trunk of the talipot palm, encircled as described, is in the museum of the same establishment. The Pepul (Ficus religiosa, i.) is also a native of the Hast Indies, and is remarkable for the long tapering points of its leaves, as well as the closely reticulated and strong vascular fibre. The Chinese make very pretty and effective ornaments of these leaves, by removing the cellular tissue or green pulpy matter, and covering the skeleton with a coat of varnish or gelatine, and then painting figures of birds, flowers, etc., on the surface. The ease with which the cellular tissue is re- moved by macerating, recommends the leaves of this species for the purpose of dissecting or skeletonising for leaf bouquets. Amongst the Hindoos, the pepul-tree is greatly venerated, their belief being that among the branches the goddess Vishnu first saw the light. The plants are, in consequence, frequently to be met with near houses, pagodas, etc., and the natives are very unwilling to cut them down. Birds devour the fruit with avidity ; and in their flight, instances have been known of the seeds having fallen into the cracks of buildings, where they have germinated, and caused much damage. They are used in medicine by the native practitioners, as is also the bark. The leaves of the different species vary much in form, those of the pepul being heart-shaped, with the long slender point before spoken of, and seated upon long and slender petioles; they have a trembling motion in the air, very similar to that of the common aspen. They are a favourite food for silkworms. Peculiar as the two species here enumerated are, the most 116 On the Genus Ficus. important of the Indian species, in an economic point of view, is Lf’. elastica, Roxb. It is a tree growing some thirty or forty feet high, with large oval or oblong leaves, very thick and glossy, and is now well known as a common conservatory and parlour plant. The fruits are arranged in axillary pairs, sessile, or without stalks, not larger than an olive. From this species most, if not all, the caoutchouc or India rubber brought from the East Indies is obtained. We all know how abundantly a white milk flows from the least fracture occasioned to any part of this plant, the prick of a pin upon its stem or thick green leaf will cause it to ooze out, and by exposure to the air be- come thick and elastic. When collected in its native country for commercial purposes, deep incisions are cut through the bark nearly down to the wood, in a transverse direction, and about a foot apart. The juice flows from these wounds im large quantities, and, on coming in contact with the air, forms itself spontaneously into a solid elastic substance, from which a kind of whey or foetid fluid separates. After such a tapping as this, the tree is said to require but a fortnight’s rest before it is ready for a similar operation. The presence of caoutchouc or milky juices in plants is a character of many natural orders. Some yield a pure milky fluid, which never hardens. The vessels that contain this fluid are called laticiferous tissue, or cinenchyma. ‘They are very minute, the average diameter of one of them not exceeding 7,4, of an inch. One of the chief distinctions of these vessels is, that they le in no regular or definite position to the other tissue, and consist of long branching tubes, as seen at Vig. 3. In their young state, they are very thin and hair-like, but as they get older, they become large, their sides thicken, and contract in some places, and swell in others. This has given rise to an opinion amongst some botanists that they are merely a series of cells, placed end to end, in which the partitions have become absorbed, as there are no divisions through their entire length. The contents of these tubes, called the latex, is not in all plants milky, but sometimes coloured, and at other times quite trans- parent and colourless. It is always of a granular nature, but its chemical composition varies in different plants ; for while some give a perfectly harmless, and even a nutritious milk, others are acrid and narcotic. The cells which contain caout- chouc, and similar juices, must therefore not be confounded with the cells or vessels through which the ordinary nutritive functions of the plant are carried on, nor must the fluid itself be confounded with the sap. The common Fig (Ficus carica, L.) is perhaps the best known of all the species, owing to its valuable fruit. As we have before said, its native country is doubted. ‘The plant is, On the Genus Ficus. Tz however, now cultivated to a very large extent in Turkey, and on the shores of the Mediterranean. It isa tree growing in favourable situations to a height of twenty or thirty feet. ‘The plant is so well known in our gardens and greenhouses, that it would be needless to describe it. We may, perhaps, how- ever, be allowed to say a few words about the fruit, as it is a peculiar, though a common one. We hear people speak of the “seeds” of the fig, meaning those little granular sago- like things so numerous inside a fig. These are not seed, which we should soon discover were we to examine them in a green fig. They are each of them a small individual fruit, which in this form is called an achene. The Ficus carica is not cultivated for the sake of its flowers, for though it does flower, and that profusely, we venture to doubt if there are many of us who have actually seen the flower. It is not showy, nor is it exposed, as most flowers are, to the air and ight. In most of our common fruit-producing plants, we first behold the bud, then the expanded flower, which in time drops away, leaving the fruit to develop itself to the size limited by nature; but in the fie, what we call the fruit is not the produce of one flower, but of many. ‘The fleshy part which we eat, is in botanical language called a receptacle. (Fig. 4.) There are, however, various forms of receptacles, and even in the same family to which the fig belongs; thus, for instance, in Dorstenia (Fig. 5), we have an open, somewhat irregular square receptacle, slightly turned up at the edges like atray. In this genus the flowers are exposed, but are still numerous as in the fig. Another common example of an open receptacle is to be found in the sun-flower, and we have only to bring up the sides, and nearly unite them at the top, and we shall have the same form of receptacle as the fig, namely, a hollow one, with the inflo- rescence inside instead of out. This inflorescence is of both sexes, else fertilization could not take place; and it is worth noticing the provision of nature in placing the male flowers near the orifice, at the apex of the fruit, while the females are seated in the concave part below; by this arrangement, the pollen from the male flowers, in dropping, is more sure to fall on the stigmas of the females, as the figs themselves, in their earlier stages of formation, and when the flowers are fully expanded, are nearly always more or less upright upon the stalks which bear them, seldom drooping until after fertili- zation has taken place, and the receptacle has become swollen. It frequently occurs, however, that the stamens are imperfect and no pollen formed. A practice, called caprification, has been resorted to in the Hast to provide for this natural de- ficiency. A number of wild figs, which are often infested with © 4 species of cynips, are strung on threads and hung above the 118 On the Genus Ficus. cultivated ones. When the insects escape from the former, they enter the latter by the orifice at the apex, and so, by carrying the pollen grains upon their wings or otherwise, fertilize the female flowers. This system, however, is not so generally adopted as formerly, as it is now considered to injure the quality of the figs. It appears to have been clearly under- stood and practised by the ancients, as it is fully described by Theophrastus and Pliny. The introduction of the fig into this country is by some writers attributed to the Romanus, and by others not till the early part of the 16th century, on the return of Cardinal Pole from Italy. The very trees which he brought, and which were planted in the garden of Lambeth Palace, are said to have flourished for 300 years. There is, or at least was until very recently, several fine examples of very old fig-trees in the kingdom, some of them of very great diameter, proving that even in our climate the fig is capable of thriving, though a severe frost is liable to do it great injury. ‘The south coast of England, however, appears to agree with it, and standard trees have been known to produce fruit in tolerable abundance. There is yet another species of this interesting genus which we must just notice before taking leave of it, and this. is the sycamine or sycamore fig (f. Sycomorus, L.). This is supposed by some to be identical with the tree into which Zaccheus climbed. If thisis so, and the tree is to be identified with that mentioned in many passages of Scripture, it must have been of great importance among the Jews, though the fruit is small, and hardly worth eating compared with that of the common fig. The light wood of this plant is said to be almost imperishable, and served to make the cases of the Egyptian mummies. The genus includes about 200 species, but the few we have described are the most important in an economic point of view, the most peculiar, and the types of the genus generally. Red. Stars. 119 RED STARS. Great interest attaches to red stars, not only from their extreme beauty when seen through a good telescope in con- trast with a dark clear sky, but also from the changes which many of them undergo. Our numerous readers who possess: telescopes will therefore be gratified with the following abridged list of solitary red stars published by Dr. Schjellerup | in the Astronomische Nachrichten, No.1591. We have omitted all the stars he mentions below the eighth magnitude (except | some of the variables), as ordinary telescopes cannot exhibit them satisfactorily ; and in consideration of the wants of sub- scribers living in more southern lands, we have inserted many stars not visible in this country. Those who possess equatorial telescopes will find the red stars without difficulty, and those who are not so provided will be able to trace their position on a map, and thus learn where to point their instruments m. search of them. 5 Dr. Schjellerup remarks on the general interest excited by red stars, and he observes that with few exceptions variable’ stars are reddish, either constantly, or at some period of their transition. When changes of colour occur at definite periods in variable stars we may expect that interesting imformation concerning them may be aftorded by the spectroscope. As the following list contains the great majority of the — solitary stars mentioned by Dr. Schjellerup, it follows that the — majority of these bodies at present known are of the eighth — magnitude and upwards; and the reader will notice how large. a proportion range between the seventh and eighth magnitudes. Sir J. Herschel mentions an 8°5 mag. star, RA. 12° 39" 15 D. —58° 55’ 7 as the ‘‘ most intense blood red ” of any star he has seen, and it will be found from the list that stars approaching this tint are rare. Observers who use reflectors for their observations will find the colours more exactly seen when’a glass prism is used instead of a smooth mirror, and achromatic eye-pieces like those of Mr. Browning will (with reflectors) be more reliable than Huyghenian. vu RA. 1860. Decl. 1860. Mag. m 3 oO , 0 51 41 — 6 38,2 8 Schj. 340: red. Lt 827 +25 1,6 8 Bessel: red. 1 9 42 +46 57,5 75 Argelander: very red. 11015 + 8 11,5 var. S Pisc. Hind: reddish. 113 47 + 6 17,0 neb. h.101: red star. 7.5.45° sp. Accord- ing to d’ Arrest, in 1864, Sept. 25, this star was 9 mag. 16,6 6 Cape Obs.: most beautiful orange red. 5 vy & Pisce. Hind: fiery looking. a; fe a} ad ors — Woc#«sTocwopo Oo [cod No) DODO HB wd co S (oe) 6) 6 45 © DO DO bo nS Or Gz He Be 09 CO GO 09 DD DO De ee BC ey eg eae Dero nsonu® Oe Do > = Ob co — mt ee OD OD ES DaDAaoSoooaH SO NOT ll oe! q 0OOsT iw) i) fon) Ne} 6 55 DOADPADD ADD DOoveeeerwerereorver er NNTP SAL SLL LLL SL PPL LOCCOCOCODO LO ete Decl. 1860. °o 4 +69 30,8 + 0 46,5 +24 24,3 — 3 36,6 —57 50,9 — 6 14,8 0) 310 +60 41,6 —15 19,2 6.540 +20 28,9 + 9 50,8 4+. 9 38,0 Wwe erercoonwao© wv je MOP OOOO ONIN we v eed Ses le Oo PANES OS oes we «oS 60 erer poe eretpo kp XESS) ony IS 2) v + Geog Geen O Ox Or NT & - yo bo 90 Or OF Ee ~ Ear > or SoS © or bo cOsTs7 Co Ox & Red Stars. Mag. 8 Argelander: very red. 7 Cape Obs.: very red. vy RArietis. Winnecke A. N. 1224: orange am Ma. var. o Ceti. Cape Obs. Very full ruby; sang. 7:5 Cape Obs.: high orange or brick red. 7 Bessel: red. 8 Schj. 1182: red. 55 Conn. d. T. XV.: red. 8 Schj. 1216: yellow red. 77 Schj. 1375: yellow red. 6:5 Radcliffe Obs. XIX.: pale red. var. R Tauri. Hind: red. var. S Tauri. Hind: reddish. Winnecke AN. 1224: no colour. 6:7 Schj. 1462: yellow red. 1 « Tauri. 65 Argelander Zone 80: very red. 8 Cape Obs.: a very extraordinary ruby 5 Conn. d.T. XV.: red. — [coloured star. 55 Conn. d. T. XV.:. ved: 7 Conn. d.T. XV.: red. var. R Orionis. Hind: reddish. var. R Leporis. Hind’s erimson star. 6 Schj. 1615: yellow red. 65 Hist. Cél. pp. 49 and 316: red. (yellow. 7 Knorre Acad. Sternk: red. Schmidt: 7 h.350: very ruddy, almost orange colowred. 8 Cape Obs.: very remarkably red. 8 Schmidt: very red. 5 Hist. Cél. p. 251: red. Schmidt: yellow red. 5:5, Conn. d. T. XV.» red. [red. 7-5 Hist. Oél. p. 311: red. Schmidt: yellow 8 Schj. 1878: red. 77 Schj. 1888: red. 8 Markree Cat. I. p. 76: very red. 8 Cape Obs.: vivid sanguine red, like a vy a Orionis. [blood drop. 6 Hist. Cél. p. 142: red. [2 Observ. 7:7 Schmidt: yellow red. Schj. 2015: red. 8 Pee a Mee feel tana Seen . Aen ee eat ns Drawn by A. Herschel. PRISMATIC SPECTRA OF THE AUGUST METEORS, 1866. THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER. OCTOE HR. (leee: PRISMATIC SPECTRA OF THE AUGUST METEORS, 1866. BY A. S. HERSCHEL, B.A. (With Coloured Plate.) Aw instrument for observing meteors was described in the August number of this journal, which had for its—certainly very unique, if not indeed for what must have appeared its impossible—object, to examine the colours, or other peculiarities of the prismatic spectrum produced by a ray of light emitted from the luminous streak, or from the nucleus of a shooting- star. A wide field of view; great facility of direction,—or in other words direct vision; the means of pressing two quick eyes into the service,— or, in other words, binocular arrange- ment; and, last of all, great power in the prisms, are the characters without which an instrument for viewing meteor spectra will be comparatively useless. A peculiar construction of prisms, described in a former volume, and a binocular arrange- ment of the same prisms, figured in the last-mentioned number of this journal, and answering all the above con.-, ditions, was invented as early as the year 1864 by the writer of these pages; and a meteor spectroscope, of the pattern now made by Mr. Browning, was presented by the writer to Mr. Babinet, at Paris, in August, 1864; without any attempt having hitherto been made, so far as the writer has been able to learn, to examine the peculiarities of meteor spectra, either by this or by any other means. If the problem of chemically analysing the substance of luminous meteors, by means of their light spectra, is not yet fairly solved, it is at all events pretty certain, from the followimg observations, that the metal sodiwm produces the most enduring light of the much- admired trains of the August meteors; and that at least one other mineral substance (either potassium, sulphur, or phos- phorus) lends its aid, but in a much less remarkable degree, to produce the same luminous trains. Observations renewed VOL. X.—NO. III. M 162 Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors. on the 18th of November will, doubtless, show a different result. The streaks of the November meteors are quite as enduring as those left by meteors on the 10th of August ; but their colour is white, verging to blue, while a glance at the brightest and most enduring meteor-streaks left on the 10th of August generally shows their yellow cast of colour. The first, or rudimentary colour of the August meteor-streaks 1s, like that of the November streaks, white or bluish ; and some few continue of this colour until they disappear. The effect is owing to the ignited vapour of the other mineral substance (potassium, sulphur, or phosphorus) to which allusion was just made, playing a principal part in the production of the streaks. Although glowing for a much shorter time, and with less intensity than the vapour of the metal sodium, it nevertheless in some instances forms the entire light of the meteor-streaks seen on the 10th of August. White, bluish, r “phosphorescent” streaks are most prevalent among the November meteors, and the light of this element, whatever it be, by which this bluish kind of phosphorescence of the streaks is produced, will probably appear more highly deve- loped, and its spectrum will be more easily identified in the streaks of the meteors on the 13th of November, than it could be (from the brightness of the sodium-line) in the enduring streaks of the meteors of the 10th of August last. It extends between the red and the blue; and is that portion of the visible train-spectrum which is called “diffuse”? in the following observations :— The meteor spectroscope, as already described, presents to the view a pretty considerable extent of the star-spangled surface of the sky. The spectra of the well-known “seven stars’ of Ursa Major, may, for example, be seen together in the instrument at a glance. Hach bright star is converted into a line of highly-coloured light, nearly three- -quarters of a degree in length; and horizontal, when the instrument is held in its natural position. Fifth magnitude stars are obliterated, and fourth magnitude stars appear only as a greyish line of light of no decided tint or colour. Prismatic hues are first perceptible in stars of the third magnitude and upwards. When the spectroscope is turned to a given part of the sky, the stars, through it, appear as if a gigantic wet brush had been applied to them in that part of the sky, and their light had been par- tially washed out in a particular direction. “The effect is pro- duced by the dispersion of the light of each star in passing through the prisms. Its single beam is spread out, as it were, into a fan of different coloured rays, called its “ prismatic spectrum,” and its light is proportionately enfeebled ; but the stars appear to occupy very nearly the same relative positions Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors. 163 in the field of view of the meteor spectroscope as that which they occupy in the sky to the unassisted eye. In this manner the instrument is well adapted for analysing the light of any bright object presenting itself for a moment in the part of the sky under examination, as, for example, the ight of a shooting- star, or of its bright, fast-fading luminous train. A flame of mono-chromatic light, or of light possessing only one degree of refrangibility presents, when viewed in the meteor spectroscope, a striking aspect. ‘The flame of a common spirit-lamp, for example, possesses a faint and hardly distin- euishable spectrum. Its light, when viewed through the instrument, is so dispersed, im a horizontal direction, as to be almost washed out, or obliterated; but if salt be mtroduced into the wick, the flame at once becomes conspicuous, and the homogenous character of its light is perceived by the sharp- ness of the definition, every flicker of its outline being visible, as perfectly and as brightly as it appears to the naked eye. The example of the spirit-lamp with a salted wick illustrates the streaks of some of the August meteors, which, when examined optically by the meteor spectroscope, reveal their chemical character from the composition of their lght. Seventeen spectra were observed, in eight of which the sodium line, for the most part briliant, and in some cases forming the entire spectrum of the streak, was plainly visible. Its position relatively to the rest of the spectrum, “on the side towards the red” (Nos. 9, 12, and 14), its golden yellow -colour (Nos. 7, 8, 12, 14), its extreme brightness (Nos. 7, 14), and its single or isolated appearance (Nos. 8, 14) perfectly agree with the well-known appearance in the spectroscope of the yellow sodium flame; and at the same time with the spectrum of no other elementary substance, sodium only ex- cepted, with which the spectroscope has made us acquainted. That the element sodium should be the first detected in the meteor spectra is by no means surprising, when the well- known brightness of this line of the spectrum is considered, wherever a trace of sodium exists in the outer luminous envelope of aflame. Nevertheless the fact, that the sodium Ime has been observed in the spectrum of lightning, is no proof that the meteor-streaks owe its presence in their light to the existence of the vapour of sodium in the atmosphere. No lines of nitrogen, or of any other known gas, accompany the sodium flame in the train spectra of the August meteors ; but on the other hand the great intensity of the sodium streaks makes it almost certain that the meteors contain this element as a part and parcel of their chemical composition. To obtain the spectra of meteors, a mght must be chosen when they are more than ordinarily plentiful (such as, for 164 Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors. example, the 10th of August, or the 13th of November), and the attention should be directed below the radiant point, to that portion of the sky where the meteors will, in all proba- bility, appear to fall vertically towards the earth. Near (but not too near) the radiant point, their course is also fore- shortened, and their apparent motion is comparatively slow. Their course in the spectroscope will in this case appear parallel to the refracting edges of the prisms, which is an essential point to be kept in view in the arrangement of the spectroscope, so as to obtain the prismatic spectra of meteors. Some reso- lution, in the next place, is required to fix the attention con- stantly within the stipulated bounds; for the sky meanwhile is alive with meteors; and some few are of a startlmg kind, perhaps even calculated to shake the nerves of any but a cool observer. Paying attention to these precautions durmg the hours from midnight until sunrise on the morning of the 15th of November next, no difficulty, it is apprehended, of any kind will be experienced in obtaining the spectrum of a shoot- ing-star; and as the necessity of the case seems to require it, notes should be made of their most peculiar features. All the necessary preparations having been made, and with the prospect of a considerable meteoric shower at hand, a watch for meteors was commenced, in order to observe their spectra, on the night of the 9-10th of August last. Hxpec- tation on the first night was not destined to be disappointed, and six meteors were observed to pass across the field of view. Notes of the peculiarities were made, and of the general appearance of their spectra, and are briefly as follows :— August 9th.—No. 1; 8h. 40m. p.m. About equal to a fourth mag. star. Passed across the body of Cygnus, in half a second ; leaving no streak. The spectrum exactly resembled that of a fourth mag. star (o Cygni) close to which the meteor passed, the conclusion being that the meteor might be a solid body, heated to ignition. August 10th.—No. 2; Oh. 27m. a.m. Nearly as bright as Sirius. Commenced near Polaris (in the field of view), and shot 15° or 20° (beyond the field of view) along a line directed from Cassiopeia, leaving a streak on its whole course for four seconds. The latter part of the meteor’s course was seen with the naked eye. In the spectroscope two images of the meteor and of the streak were visible, one refracted, and one acci- dentally reflected at the side. These two images of the meteor and of its streak could not be distinguished apart, at least in their general appearance, the conclusion being that the hight both of the nucleus and of its luminous streak was homogeneous, and that its luminous substance was a gas. No. 3; 0h.42m.a.m. A very brilliant fire-ball, with a flash Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors. 165 like lightning, burst overhead, leaving a streak from # Cygni, half-way to a Lyra, for twenty seconds. A cloud unfortunately dimmed the streak. In the spectroscope, as far as cloud would permit any judgment of the streak to be formed, its aspect was the same as to the unassisted eye. The light of the streak was therefore probably homogeneous, and the streak itself probably a luminous gas. No. 4; 1h. 15m. a.m. About equal to a second mag. star. Shot in three-quarters of a second, from @ Cassiopeiz half- way to o Honorum, and then turned round the quarter of a circle, to w Honorum, where it vanished, leaving a streak for half a second on its course. In the spectroscope the general appearance of the meteor, and of the streak in the field of view, was the same as that of the purely reflected image by the side; the conclusion being, as before, that the light, both of the meteor and of the streak, was homogeneous, or that the luminous substance of the meteor was a gas. No. 5; lh. 40m. a.m. About equal to a second mag. star. Passed slowly through a short path near 6 Tauri, directed from Cassiopeiee; duration, one second; leaving a streak at the place for three seconds. The spectrum of the meteor and streak was quite equally diffused over a space about $° m width; its colour greyish white ; the diffuse train- spectrum vanished without further change, the conclusion being that in this case the train might, like the nucleus, be con- posed of heated sparks. No. 6; 2h. 15m. a.m. Equal to a first mag. star. Shot on the same course as No. 2; duration, one second; leaving a bright streak for four seconds. The spectroscope was turned towards the streak before it disappeared. ‘The train was widened by the prisms to a greyish-white band, somewhat greater than a quarter of a degree in breadth. It faded from sight without further change; the conclusion in this case also being, that the train might possibly be composed of heated sparks. Three spectra in the foregoing observations appeared homo- geneous, like that of a luminous gas (Nos. 2, 3, 4) ; and three were continuous, or diffuse (Nos. 1, 5, 6), like that of an ordinary spark. The question, accordingly, whether luminous meteors might or might not contain solid substance, remained undecided, when daylight beginning to appear, put a stop to further observations. The following night, observations could fortunately be resumed, and the perplexing appearance of the meteor spectra on the previous night, received a truly surprising and most satisfactory explanation, in the repeated appearance in the spectra of the streaks of a yellow line, wnmistakably that of the metal sodium in combustion. 166 Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors. Two observers being engaged to watch on this night, one checked the observations of the other with the naked eye. The troublesome reflected image in the spectroscope could accordingly be dispensed with, and it was kept out of sight; so that the views obtained of the meteor spectra came as nearly to perfection as could be wished. August 10th, continued.—No. 7; 4h.22m. p.m. Hqual to a first mag. star. Shot from y Cephei to 1 Draconis in three- quarters of a second; leaving a bright streak for five seconds on its course. The meteor first appeared in the field of view, and passed out of it. The. brightest portion of the streak, however, was brought into the middle of the field of view; where it occupied an exceilent position, parallel to the refract- ing edges of the prisms, for viewing its prismatic spectrum. A slight effect of distortion (produced in the prisms) caused it to appear bent, like a bow, across the field of view (Fig. 7). The spectrum presented the appearance of a narrow line of light, exceedingly brilliant, of a golden-yellow colour, and not more than 5’ in width. It faded gradually along its whole length, and disappeared in about two and a half or three seconds. Its description, noted in the register, kept for the purpose at the time, was—“ neither double, triple, nor multiple, nor con- tinuous, but purely and positively mono-chromatic.” August 11th—No. 8; Oh. 15m. a.m. Hqual to a third mag.star. Shot from 8 Cephei to 6 Draconis, in three-quarters of a second ; leaving a luminous streak for two seconds. The spectrum of the streak was a remarkably slender, orange- yellow line of no appreciable breadth, without any continuous spectrum near to it, or any other neighbouring bands, or lines. It was very bright, remaiming in sight two seconds ; and it gradually faded away until it vanished. The spectrum - of the nucleus appeared to be undistinguishably the same as that of the streak. No.9; Oh. 20m. a.m. Equal to a third mag. star. Shot from a Cephei to 33 Cygni (F1.), im three-quarters of a second ; leaving a streak for one second and a half. The spectrum of the streak was dull grey, diffuse, about 4° in width, with a yellow line included in it, on the side towards the red. The yellow line and the diffuse band disappeared together. ‘The spectrum of the nucleus, appeared to be appreciably the same as that of the streak. No. 10; Oh. 83m. am. Equal to a fourth mag. star. Shot from p Cassiopeiz to o Honorum, in half a second; leaving no streak. The spectrum of the nucleus appeared to be concentrated into a few faint lines with wide intervals be- tween them, but this description is very uncertain. No. 11; 0h. 33m. a.m. Equal to a third mag. star. Re- Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors. 167 turned about half way along the course of the preceding meteor, in half a second; leaving no streak. ‘The spectrum of the nucleus was a concentrated point of yellow light, having all the appearance of some yellow shooting-star. No. 12; Oh. 42m. am. LHqual to Sirius; colour white. Shot from a Trianguli to 7 Piscium, in one second and a quarter; leaving a streak for four seconds on its course. In the spectroscope the meteor slowly crossed the middle of the field of view, on a course directly parallel to the refracting edges of the prisms, producing a very superb spectrum. The spectrum of the nucleus was red, green, and blue; extremely briliant. The train-spectrum was diffuse; 1° in width; in which a thin bright orange-yellow line was plainly seen on the side towards the red. The diffuse portion of the train-spectrum faded in about two seconds, apparently following the nucleus. The sodium-line remained extremely bright for not less than two seconds longer, and faded gradually along its whole length, when it also disappeared. The singular characters of this spectrum were most distinctly and beautifully seen, and the long endurance of the sodium line, after the rest had dis- appeared, was leisurely watched. No. 13; lh. 23m.a.m. Equal toa third mag. star. Shot from P Camelopardi to a Draconis in half a second; leaving a streak for two seconds on its course. The train-spectrum was a diffuse band of greyish light, 1° wide, somewhat brighter on the side towards the red, and it so vanished.—The spec- trum of the nucleus was appreciably the same as that of the streak. No. 14; lh. 55m.a.m. Equal to a first mag. star. Shot from o Custodis to 3° below Polaris, in three-quarters of a second; leaving a bright streak for three seconds. The meteor first appeared in the field of view, and passed out of it. The spectrum of the early portion of the streak, behind the nucleus, waS a greyish diffuse band, 2° in width. The spectrum of the nucleus was appreciably the same. The -brightest part of the streak, before it faded, was brought into the field of view, well situated parallel to the edges of the prisms, and in the middle of the field for about two seconds. Its appearance was that of a golden-yellow line of light, about 5° in length, some 4’ in width, tapermg gently towards the ends; and perfectly sharp and well defined. It was unaccom- panied by any continuous spectrum, or any bands, or other lines ; and it so disappeared from the ends towards the centre. No. 15; 2h. ldm. am. Hqual to a second mag. star. Shot from w to a Andromedz: in three-quarters of a second ; leaving a streak for two seconds. The train-spectrum was a diffuse, greyish-white band; 4° in width, and about 6° or 7° 168 Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors. long; and faded away without any further change. ‘The spectrum of the nucleus showed prismatic colours. No. 16; 2h. 16m. a.m. LHqual to a second mag. star. Shot from 6 Cassiopeiz to 8 Andromede, in half a second, leaving a streak for two seconds and a half. The meteor was seen with the unassisted eye. The last-fading portion of the streak was examined in the spectroscope, where it appeared more widely diffused than when seen with the naked eye. Its colour in the spectroscope was a dull greyish white. No. 17; 2h. 27m. am. Brighter than a first mag. star. Shot from a Cassiopeize to o Honorum, leaving a streak for two seconds and a half. The tram-spectrum was a diffuse greyish-white band, 4° in width, not sensibly brighter in any part; and it so faded. The spectrum of the nucleus was bright,—red, and green. Daylight at this time began to appear, and observations were obliged to be discontinued; the streaks of the August meteors might, however, already be plainly divided into two classes. In the majority of cases, a bright yellow line, having the unmistakable appearance of the sodium line, was clearly visible in the spectrum. In a smaller number of cases the spectrum was merely a diffuse and greyish hght band, or ordinary spectrum of weak intensity, resembling the spectrum of the glowworm’s light. It will be interesting to observe this form of meteoric spectrum, should it be more common among the ‘‘ phosphorescent” streaks of the November meteors than it was in August last; when only five such purely ‘ phos- phorescent” streaks were noticed, entirely free from sodium hight. The spectra of the meteor-nuclei were seen ina few cases only with distinctness ; as they were in general overpowered by the brightness of the sodium light, whenever that was present. When the streaks were phosphorescent only, and free from sodium light, the nuclei in general presented highly- coloured spectra, like the spectrum of solid matter at a glowing white heat, or like the spectrum of an ordinary gas flame con- taining white-hot solid particles of carbon. A better night for observing nucleus-spectra would be the 12th of December, when meteors leaving no trains are plentiful; and they are for the most part very brilliant, radiating from some part of the constellation Gemini. That which spectral examination of the August meteors has most certainly brought to light, is the existence of an extraordinary quantity of the vapour of sodium in their lumi- nous streaks; so that many of the streaks, especially the most conspicuous, and the most slowly-fading amongst them, consist of nothing else but soda flames for a great propor- Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors. 169 tion (that is to say the latter portion) of the time that they continue visible. Their condition is then exactly that of a flame of gas in a Bunsen’s burner, freely charged with the vapour of burning sodium; or of the flame of a spirit-lamp newly trimmed, and largely dosed with a supply of moistened salt. It is difficult to believe that the vapour of the metal sodium exists, in such considerable quantities, at the confines of the atmosphere. It is much more reasonable to suppose that it is brought into the atmosphere by the meteors themselves, so as to be deposited in the luminous trams that mark their course. The material of the August meteors is, therefore, probably a mineral substance, in which sodium is one of the - chemical ingredients. Such is the rather satisfactory termi- nation of an experiment, which it will be very easy to repeat, whenever an abundance of meteors on the night of the 10th of August offers an equally favourable opportunity for examin- ing their spectra by the aid of the meteor spectroscope. The connection believed by adherents of Chladni to exist between shooting-stars and aérolites is now shown, at least in August, to extend itself m some measure to their chemical composition. The meteorites of Aumale, which fell on the 25th of August, 1865, were found, on analysis by Mr. Daubrée, to contain solwble salts (chloride and carbonate) of sodium. A circumstance so uncommon in the composition of aérolites, allies the meteorites of Aumale very closely with the sodium-bearing streaks of the meteors of the 10th of August. In this manner each new acquisition of knowledge, how- ever unforeseen may be its origin, tends to support the theory of Chladni, and to confirm the belief that shower-meteors and shooting-stars are actually aérolites of small dimensions. In whatever manner aérolites and shooting-stars are related to each other in their astronomical and other peculiarities, they will certainly require a vast number of further experiments to unfold their real source. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. The meteor spectra are numbered in the plate, after the description in the text, in the order of their appearance; a, represents the spectra of the nucleus, and b, the spectra of the meteor trains. Double white lines indicate the boundaries of the field of view. Figs. 1, 10, represent the persistent luminous impressions of the nucleus only, and the meteors left no streak. 1, a meteor in Cygnus; 10, a meteor spectrum, conveying a faint 170 The Inneated Pheasant of Burmah. impression of interruptions ; 11, the meteor could be followed by the eye, but it left no streak. Figs. 2, 4, refracted and reflected images, viewed together (A refracted, B reflected), of Polaris (a); and of two meteors. Figs. 5, 6, 13, 15, 16, 17, diffuse train-spectra. Figs. 9, 12, ditto containing the sodium line. Figs. 7, 8, 11, 14, purely mono-chromatic, or sodiwm meteor spectra; similar to Nos. 2, 4, but better defined. Fig. 12, bis., represents the appearance of No. 12, two seconds after the disappearance of the meteor. ‘Total duration of the streak, four seconds. Note.—The distortion or curvature of the streak by the prisms, was plainly seen in No. 7, but not in the remaining spectra. The meteor spectroscope was generally held nearly horizontally ; but m No. 12 the instrument was heid almost vertically, and the meteor moved in a nearly horizontal direction. The effect of producing the prismatic spectrum was the same as in the other cases. THE LINHEATED PHEASANT OF BURMA. BY CAPTAIN R. C. BHAVAN. Synonyms. Gallophasis lineatus, Auct. Jerdon’s Birds of India, vol. 11., part 2, pp. 531 and 535. Huplocomus lineatus, Belanger, who has figured it in his voyage, plate 8 of Birds. Phasianus lineatus, Latham. Phasianus reynandu. Lesson. Gunus, Grammatoptilus, of Reichenbach. Mason’s Burmah, edit. 1860, pp. 230 and 687. Burmese name “ Yeet”’ or “‘ Yit.” Dr. Jerdon, in his famous work, the Birds of India, describes the group of the Kallege Pheasants, amongst which he includes the species under review, as one which leads from the true pheasants (of which Phasianus colchicus, Linn., the Common Pheasant of the British Islands, is a type) to the Firebacked Pheasants and Jungle Fowl of India and Malayana; and as the group in question partakes of the characters of both the true pheasants and the jungle fowl, so in its geographical distribution it is found to range from the Himalayas, the head quarters of the pheasants, to the Burmese provinces, where jungle fowl and their allies take their place. The genus Gallophasis, of Hodgson, or that of the Kallege Pheasants, as they are more popularly termed, embraces at least four species—two from the Himalayas—a third from Assam and Arracan, and the fourth, our species, from the ae ~ The Inneated Pheasant of Burmah. 171 Tennasserim provinces of Burmah. They are birds about the size of a fowl, with glossy black and white plumage in the males, the females being invariably of a sober brown hue; the fleshy orbits, or naked skin round the eyes, is bright red in both sexes, and both have a well-developed crest. The tail is moderately long, of sixteen feathers, raised in the centre as in the domestic fowl, and held demi-erect, the feathers drooping and curving outwards. Hssentially hill birds, they live at various elevations of from 1500 to 7000 feet above the level of the sea, and in places where they occur abundantly, are for the most part the only species of pheasant found, at the com- paratively low elevations frequented by them. The male of the species under notice has the colouration of the neck, back, and upper parts generally, almost exactly similar to that of the domestic guinea-fowl. The two arched central tail feathers are of a pearly grey white, much more so than the rest: the throat, breast, and underparts are black, with the sides of the throat and flanks longitudinally striated with white. ‘The headis pure black, with a long pendent crest ; the orbital skin bright red, beak greenish, horny, legs duller and strongly spurred. Length, about 27 to 28 inches, and weight about 3lbs. The female is a smaller bird, of a light brown colour throughout, without a trace of black ; the orbital skin asin the male, but she has no spurs, and the crest is smaller. ‘The irides are reddish brown in both sexes. In 1865, when the last list of vertebrated animals, living in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London, was pub- lished, there were two pairs of this species flourishing there, besides hybrids, and in the same year I brought up two fine males with me from Burmah, which have since been forwarded, and I hope ere this been safely received by the Society. Whilst in Burmah, I had several opportunities of seeing this handsome bird in a state of nature, and as hardly anything regarding its habits or economy has as yet been recorded, I proceed to give briefly in detail the results of my own obser- -vations, and of information procured on the spot from intel- ligent natives who were in the habit of capturing them, either. for their own use, as food, or for sale in Moulmein. They breed in the month of “'Tagoo,” that is, about the month of May, or begining of June. The nest is always built on the ground, and the female lays from five to seven egos of a brownish olive colour, like those of the Hnglish pheasant, but perhaps somewhat smaller ; the young male 1s at first hke the female in colour, but apparently begins to gain his proper plumage after the first moult, and has it perfected by the end of a year. The general habitat of the species may be defined as the thick bamboo and forest jungle, which 172 The Inneated Pheasant of Burmah. clothes the foot and lower slopes of all the hill ranges in the Tennasserim provinces of Burmah. The elevation above the sea cannot be great, but the vegetable productions -of this tract of country agree well with those found at an elevation of about 2000 feet in the Himalayas. Their food consists chiefly of white ants, but they also pick up the roots of plants, young shoots, and when ripe the toungyar paddy, or hill-grown rice. In the dry season they are found about the foot of the hills, wandering somewhat as water becomes scarce, but in the rains return to the hill-sides, from which I imagine they never at that time of year move far. In fact, judging from the habits of their congeners in the Himalayas, I should say they were inclined, unless com- pelled to move by necessity, to keep very much to the same spots on the particular hill-sides they most ike. I have found the Sikkim kallege invariably returns to the same bough every night to roost, in spots where seldom disturbed. The Burmese bird seems to be more gregarious than the Himalayan kalleges. My informant tells me he has seen as many as twenty to twenty-five together, but I should think that this was an unusual occurrence ; four or five—perhaps a family of the previous year—would apparently be more usually met with. Mr. Blyth, a well-known authority on such matters, men- tions that some varieties of this bird-are scarcely distinguish- able from the Assam species of kallege, Gallophasis Horsfieldi, Gray, the probability being that where the two species meet in Arracan, individuals of hybrids will be found to occur, in every mtermediate phase of plumage; since we know that such are common, where, as in Nepaul, the white-crested bird of Simla meets the black-crested one of Sikkim. I was lucky enough, during ashort stay at Thatone, a town in the Martaban district, some forty miles to the north-west of Moulmein, to see the way in which the Burmese capture the species. A tame male bird, for which, if a good decoy, as large a sum as twenty-five rupees is sometimes given, is taken and pegged down to the ground in an open space, between three or four clumps of bamboos, on the hill-side frequented by the wild birds. The birdcatcher is led to the choice of a good spot by the recent signs of fresh droppings, or lately upturned soil. The tame bird has a range round his peg of a diameter of about four feet only. Ina circle round him, at the distance of about six feet, a row of upright running nooses are fixed in a continuous line, while further off, at the distance of some ten or twelve yards, all likely openings between clumps of bam- boos are guarded by other lines of nooses. Half an onion is The Iineated Pheasant of Burmah. 173 then administered to the call-bird, and his ire being aroused by shaking the hand near him, when the bird-catchers retire behind some bushes within thirty or forty yards, and there await the result. If a wild bird is within hearing of the tame bird, the latter will make a peculiar drumming sound with its wings. Jerdon mentions this noise as being also made by the male of the Simla kallege, Gallophasis albocristatus, Vigors, but was not aware of the cause which led to its production. “The male often makes a singular drumming noise with its wings, not unlike the sound produced by shaking in the air a stiff piece of cloth. It is heard only inthe pairing season, but whether to attract the attention of the females, or in defiance of its fellows, I cannot say, as I have never seen the bird in the act, though often led to the spot where they were by the sound.’’* Hach wild male is apparently “cock of the walk” of a par- ticular portion of jungle, and on hearing this insult offered to him in his own domain, quickly pushes for the spot, in order to inflict speedy punishment on the daring intruder. By follow- ine the direction of the looks of the tame bird, who gets much excited, the wild one is seen to approach quickly until within a short distance of his adversary, whose looks he measures with no friendly eye, as he marches round and round, with feathers puffed out, until he looks twice his usual size, and gives utterance at intervals to angry notes of defiance. Nearer and nearer he comes, and if he does not, in his eager haste, get noosed whilst approaching, terrific is the battle that ensues, and feathers fly in all directions. The wild bird gets so excited that he speedily becomes absorbed, so intent is he on killing his adversary, in which he would doubtless succeed, did not the hidden Burman, anxious for the safety of his pet, throw a stone, which, dropping into a bush, scares the wild bird, who runs off in a hurry through the nearest opening, and gets caught in a noose. In case the decoy does not begin to drum of his own accord, the birdcatcher imitates the sound with some feathers tied on a stick, which he rapidly twirls between the palms of his hands, so as to cause a humming sound. ‘The effect of this is increased by the voice, and the result is an exact resemblance to the humming sound produced by the quick vibration of the wines of the bird. The sound immediately sets off the decoy, or brings the wild bird to the spot. The sport is carried on by two men—one carries the decoy about, carefully muffled up in a cloth until wanted; and the other takes charge of the bundle of nooses, and a dhar, or heavy Burmese knife, with which to clear away the brushwood. If * Birds of India, vol. ii. part 2, p. 533. 174 The Street Architecture of London. after an interval of from ten minutes to a quarter of an hour no response is met with to the drumming of the decoy, the bird-catchers move off to try another spot. They are at times very successful, and catch three or four birds near one place, where plentiful. Of course, males are most frequently taken by this method ; but females, also, turn up sometimes, and in paying a friendly visit to the decoy, get captured. They appear to be much more difficult to keep in confinement than the stronger sex. The method of capture here described is practised in Burmah all the year round but with most success durmeg the pairing season. THE STREET ARCHITECTURE OF LONDON. In our former article we feel strongly that due justice has not been done to Gwynn, for his London and Westminster Improved, 1 1766; or to Mr. Haywood, for his admirable report made in the present year 1866; but we must not forget that we have undertaken to note down a few remarks upon the street architecture of our metropolis as now existing ; in attempting which we have the advantage of the observations of a young Parisian architect, who has lately been consigned to us by letters of intr oduction, and to whom we felt it both our duty and pleasure to act as cicerone. It occurred to us that we could not better commence our duties than by taking our young friend Alphonse Fontaine to the summit of St. Paul’s, for a bird’s eye (cowp dail) of our metropolis. There is always a great charm in a general view from an elevated position, and—malgré the smoke from those abominable and reeking shafts in Lambeth—our friend was dehighted with what he saw, and his first observation was, “What a charming effect from your atmosphere. With us on the Continent, everything is marked out clear, crude, and distinct; but here you have an atmospheric medium, which gives an effect to objects most agreeable and enchanting. It is what your celebrated Turner has obtained in his pictures— there is a medium between the spectator and the objects—an aerial effect, adding to the perspective and to the chiaro oscuro of the scene. But where are your domes beyond the one I am standing on? In the distance I see two gems at Greenwich ; but those on what you term your National Gallery, your London University, and Bethlehem Hospital are mere pimples. In Paris we can boast of several noble domes, and hence the The Street Architecture of London. 175 magnificent appearance of our city when viewed from any of the environs.” We had no excuse to offer, and contented ourselves with the apologetic reply that formerly there was a charming cupola upon the church of St. Benet Fink, and another very picturesque dome close by us over the College of Physicians, both of them the works of Sir Christopher ‘Wren, and both lately demolished. There were two others to the westward, which we had no little difficulty in explaining to him were called “the Brompton boilers,” but which the good sense of Parhament ordered to be taken down. The young French architect, seeing our chagrin on the paucity of domes, good naturedly replied, “ Well, but you compensate for them in your spires and steeples. What charming forms are those of Bow, St. Bride’s, St. Magnus, St. Vedast, St. Dunstan’s in the Hast, and even that humble one close upon us, St. Martin, Ludgate!” and when we informed him that they were all the works of Sir Christopher Wren, he exclaimed, “‘ He was, indeed, an architect !” The interior of St. Paul’s did not excite so much surprise or approval from our companion, beyond being astonished at the aerial effect of the dome, and its apparent over its real magnitude. Of the embellishments and decorations now in progress he was silent, although it was explained to him they were the works of foreign artists. A shrug only was expres- sive at this announcement. The exterior excited more of our friend’s praises than the interior, and the picturesque towers at the west end of the Cathedral, and the circular porticos at the north and south sides he greatly commended. Instead of adopting the usual plan of dividing the metro- polis, guide-book fashion, into certain districts, 1b was thought better to take the buildings according to their several dates, commencing with the early Hnglish and medieval, then the classical, and finish with the Italian and Palladian. According to this arrangement, the Tower of London first excited the deepest interest in our young friend; Westminster Abbey he thought finer than Notre Dame, but in parts inferior to Amiens or Beauvais ; he rejoiced to hear of the mtended restoration of the Chapter-house. The Temple Church, and that of St. Bartholomew the Great, in Smithfield, completed the list of ancient ecclesiastical structures. Of the modern, in medizval fashion, we pointed out to him the Catholic Apostolic, in Gordon Square; All Saints, in Margaret Street; and St. Alban’s, in Baldwin’s Gardens, as three of the most important of a legion in this style. The first and last of these he considered of the highest merit, and was somewhat surprised that mass had not yet been performed in them, and that they were not 176 The Street Architecture of London. already under the jurisdiction of a Roman Catholic Bishop of London. Of modern medieval works, the Palace at Westminster of course stood in the first rank. Alphonse was some time before he hazarded the remark that the enrichments and ornamenta- tions were laid on with too lavish a hand, and that, if some plain surfaces had been preserved, those portions which were enriched would, by contrast, have had an additional value. The Victoria Tower he considered as a Capo d’Opera. The buildings at the Broad Sanctuary he found most picturesque, and admirably adapted to the site, and the Crimean Memorial a most successful performance. ‘The numerous attempts at medizevalism springing up so plentifully in all parts, excited the young French architect’s greatest astonishment. He was told that by some it was called the Victoria school, to which he replied that it was well named, as it seemed to ‘‘régne partout.” Many shrugs of the shoulders were given as he passed these specimens of incongruous forms and elaborate workmanship rapidly in review, considering them generally as great monstrosities. The Music Hall in the Strand is said to be the crowning triumph of this school. My friend observed that its claims as to bemg a chef d’euvre might be a question, but that, at all events, the architect had endeavoured to make it characteristic, and had shown his knowledge of the science of thorough base. There are, however, some specimens of this style which are deserving of praise; for instance, the schools in Endell Street, St. Giles’s; some buildings on the west side of Bishopsgate Street; a house built for Messrs. Alexander, in Lombard Street ; and more especially a house on the east side of Mincing Lane, near the south end. Of Greek and classic buildings, we brought forward St. Pancras Church, in the New Road; the Propylean entrance to the North-Western Railway; the British Museum; and the Post Office in St. Martin’s le Grand. The beautiful little facade and entrance to Melbourne House, Whitehall, may be added to the list. We now approach the Italian and French school, and first of all stand the churches of Sir Christopher Wren, the several towers and spires of which had so delighted our young architect in his panoramic view from St. Paul’s. With the interior of these churches he was equally delighted; the ingenuity displayed im adapting the buildings to old sites; the cleverness with which they are lighted; the appropriate- ness and freedom of the enrichment. ‘The interiors, especially of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook; St. Bride’s; St. Laurence Jewry ; and, more particularly, St. James’s, Westminster, all impressed him with admiration at the genius of our great architect, and The Street Architecture of London. 177 with utter astonishment that fashion and false taste unfor- tunately prevail so much at the present day, that some of these beautiful interiors have been martyred at the hands of the medizevalists. Our friend, we think very justly, remarked upon the bald and incomplete appearance of the exterior of St. James’s Church, Piccadilly ; surely, m so wealthy a parish and royal neighbourhood, the necessary funds might readily be subscribed for the properly facmmg the walls with stone, and the raising a glorious tower and spire, to become as great an ornament to this quarter of London as the matchless spire of Bow Church is to the City. The church of St. Mary-le-Strand, and the glorious portico of St. Martin’s, both by Gibbs, made a most favourable impression on our visitor; but, on proceed- ing to Whitehall, the view of the Banqueting House raised his enthusiasm to boiling heat. He jumped and clapped his hands for very joy, and pronounced it to be one of the finest works he had ever seen, either for the grandeur of the pile or the refinement and exquisite delicacy of the detail. From this fragment, judge what the effect would have been if the whole of the intended palace had been completed! Both the Hscurial and the Louvre would have been inferior to it! The National Gallery and Trafalear Square of course formed the subject of some criticism ; and when it was asked how long the pedestal vis-a-vis to George IV. had been without its equestrian termi- nation, and Nelson without his guardian lions, we pretended a little deafness, and hurried on to Pall Mall; here we felt more at ease, and took some little pride and pleasure in pointing out the several palatial clubs. This is certainly London’s first street for architectural effect, occasioned very much by the buildings being insulated, and not mere fagades, and the lines of some (the War Office, for instance) , being set back with a cortile im front. The “ Travellers’,” the “ Reform,” and the “ Carlton” were particularly pomted out; the former seemed to bear away the palm for grace and beauty. St. James’s Palace was regarded more historically than architecturally interesting ; but, as for Buckingham Palace, I don’t know how many shrugs of disappointment our friend made, and, when he saw the equestrian statue in the distance, high in air, and heard that it was the Duke, he was appalled at such an outrage. He recovered somewhat in being shown Bridgewater House, and Lord Spencer’s, adjoining ; the one quite Palladian, the other of Rome’s best period. A long discussion ensued as to their rival merits, resulting perhaps in favour of Spencer House as being the more graceful of the two. The Marble Arch, in Hyde Park, was the next object we viewed, and our young friend was so jocose in his criticisms upon this work that we were positively ashamed that he should VOL, X.—NO. III. N 178 The Street Architecture of London. have seen it. “ What!” he exclaimed, “all this expensive material of marble, and no Quadriga, no statues, no imserip- tions—nothing upon the columns but those wretched scrolled blocks which I believe are called trusses? If you are at a loss for a subject, send to Birmingham foundries for a car with a Victory riding over Mayne force. You need not wait till Sir Edwin and the Baron have finished Nelson’s lions; for, as you prefer employing foreigners, we can spare you a corps of sculptors who would turn them out for you presto-presto.” Our companion, in his walk down Oxford-street, was much struck with the meanness of many of the houses at the south side of it, and suggested what a fine boulevard might have been formed when Oxford Road was converted into a street of shops. The Paris boulevards are about the most pleasing and agreeable thoroughfares of that most magnificent of all Huropean cities, and our humble London does not produce one—a want which is ever to be deplored, as Tottenham Court Road, the Marylebone Road, the City Road, the Borough Road, and the thoroughfares leading from the Elephant and Castle to Lambeth, would all have been most applicable for the forma- tion of boulevards. A detour from Oxford Street into Han- over Square was much to our tourist’s taste. He considered the view of the Square and George Street, with the Church, as one of the most scenic in London; the street not being parallel, and several of the houses being built of red brick and. stone dressings, in a quaint Queen Anne style, renders this part of London very picturesque. A ride from the Regent’s Park down Portland Place and Regent Street elicited many remarks and shrugs of the shoulders from our observant com- panion. The first shrug was at the Lilliputian statue of the late Duke of Kent, at the termination of a spacious avenue. The new Langham Hotel could not be passed by without an observation of its gigantic size, putting all around into shade, and thoroughly extingaishing its neighbouring church and spire. The Circus and Regent Street were considered worthy of a much better class and style of house than what prevails. The Quadrant is not altogether a disagreeable feature, although it has been shorn of its colonnades. Victoria Street, Westminster, now in progress, was seen by our young friend, who thought that in this case the houses were rather too high for the width of the street, and that at times we should feel it dark and gloomy. The buildings at the Grosvenor Place end, now being erected, are very superior in design to those in Victoria Street. They are quite French in character, with Mansard roots, terra cotta enrichments, and ornamental zinc-work on the curbed roofs. Our friend thought that one of his countrymen must have been employed; but The Street Architecture of London. 179 we believe that the Marquis of Westminster entrusted his London architect with the work with the request that the style should be Parisian in character. When completed, the Marquis will have every reason to be proud of his estate as being one of the most attractive in London. Montague House was much to our young friend’s taste. The new Foreign Office and the facade of the Treasury elicited no favourable expression. The screen of the Admiralty especially delighted him, but he complained sorely of the removal of the columns to form side entrances. We do not think our young architect agreed with our boastful expression that Trafalear Square was “the finest site in Hurope.” It possibly might have become so had a Visconti been engaged on it; but with its National Gallery, College of Physicians, its puerile fountains, its pedestal without an equestrian figure, and the base of Nelson’s Column still bare of the jomt productions of the pet painter and the titled Italian sculptor, made us quite ashamed of our position as cicerone. Our friend saw our distress, and adroitl expressed his admiration of the statue and pedestal of Charles the First, and the fine portico of St. Martin’s Church. The latter, he remarked, from its skilful arrangement of plan ap- peared to him infinitely larger than its real dimensions would warrant. The Charing Cross Hotel was found rather too pro- noncé, and the erection of the Eleanor Cross only to be ex- cused on archeological grounds. Somerset House was next pointed out, and greatly delighted our friend by its grandeur of outline towards the Strand, and the exquisite detail of its enrichments ; the cortile and fagade towards the river he did not so much approve of, but the new portion in Wellington Street he considered as most successful. Hn route to the City, Temple Bar he thought inferior to the Porte St. Denis, but at the same time:clever and picturesque. Fleet Street displeased him, and he asked us to compare a pretentious example of the fashionable Victoria style, exhibited im the Crown Insur- ance Office, next to St. Dunstan’s Church, and a little archi- tectural gem, the London and Provincial Law Assurance Office, on the opposite side—the one protruding in bolduess of deformity,* the other retirmg in delicacy and beauty worthy of a Peruzzi. Turning into Chancery Lane, young Mansard was quite charmed with the exquisite fagade of the Law Fire Office, which, in his opinion, had more of the refinement of Vienola than any building he had seen in London. ‘The Law Institution did not produce any favourable criticism, but the * Our Critic will find many who dissent from his strictures on the Crown Life Office ; but, having Jong made Architecture a profound study, and being the Author of one of our most beautiful recent buildings he is well entitled to be heard.—Ep, 180 The Street Architecture of London. Union Bank, at the corner of Carey Street, he considered of great merit, and somewhat Parisian in character. Ludgate Hill was pronounced as a picturesque approach to St. Paul’s, particularly in respect of St. Martin’s Church, with its elegant and unpretending spire. The Railway Bridge was abominable, and we believe there was an expression of something yery like sacre when it first came into view. St. Paul’s has been already remarked upon. ‘The neighbouring Hall of Christ’s Hospital was much approved. The Post Office and Goldsmith’s Hall were both striking ; Guildhall by no means worthy of the first city of the world—the Continental Hotels de Ville eclipse it entirely. The fagade of Mercers’ Hail detained our young friend for some time, and we felt somewhat humbled at not being able to inform our inquirer the name of the architect. The Mansion-House he thought noble and striking. The Portico of the Royal Exchange met his approval, but the pre- tentious gigantic erection immediately opposite, and soaring above it, produced an exclamation which was anything but that of approval. Why the Bank itself should be so low a structure surprised him, but the circular end of the Bank, at Princes Street and Lothbury, excited the greatest delight; he considered it perfectly unique—a choice specimen of taste and genius. Adjoming Lothbury we found the New Auction Mart, quite Venetian in character, evidently by a master hand—the same, we believe, that has given us the noble facade of Munt and Brown’s warehouse in Wood Street. The new Insurance Office, on the site of the former Auction Mart, was passed in silence; but the noble erection, the Sun Fire Office, at the corner of Bartholomew Lane and Threadneedle Street, was recognized as one of the most successful works of the most accomplished architect the present century has produced. Our young friend hardly knew which most to admire—the beautiful effect of the mass, or the exquisite taste of the orna- mentation, the proportion of ornament to plain surface, and the character and suitableness of the ornaments themselves. Pro- ceeding along Broad Street, a number of modern erections, mostly in stone, present themselves. They are not generally of great merit, save and excepting the Imperial Fire Office. ‘The large pile opposite the City Club quite enraged our French visitor that so golden an opportunity should have been lost. ‘* De- testable !”? was all he muttered. 'The new National Provincial Bank, in Bishopsgate Street, put our friend in good humour. It is by the same talented hand that produced the Imperial. This is certainly one of the best attempts at classic architec- ture that we have in the Metropolis, and the liberal applica- tion of appropriate sculpture in the design gives an appearance of Roman magnificence. The Street Architecture of London. 181 We must not neglect Lombard Street, which has been more changed of late by the architect than almost any other street in London. ‘The London and County, Robart’s, and Barclay’s Banks are all solid and important structures, but why stone was not employed throughout in the two last we are at a loss to discover, for we feel quite certain that no question of expense interfered. The Royal Insurance at the corner of Nicholas Lane is a design that has evidently been carefully _ studied, and the enrichments are in a great measure Greek in character and feeling. In Fenchurch Street, Mincing Lane, Mark Lane, Seething Lane, Billiter Street, Tower Street, many new buildings of importance have been built of late years, and many are still in progress ; in their style it appears to be a race between the medizevalists and the Italian. The first revelling in colour, red, black, white, and yellow, with a superfluity of carving, in which the London sparrows will build many a comfortable abode; the other, the Italian, also indulging in much orna- mentation, and looking rather to Venice than to Rome for ex- amples. With the exception of polished granite, the sober colour of Portland stone appears to satisfy the designers. We must not quit the City without a glance at the National Provident Office at the corner of Hastcheap, designed by the Professor of Architecture to King’s College. It is a very striking building, and courts approval; the principal entrance is well and ably designed. ‘The monument with its noble pedestal and happy termination excited much more attention from the Paris architect than the column and lionless pedestal in Trafalear Square. We were glad to take boat after our long pedestrian exercise, and with an approving glance at Fishmonger’s Hall. We had an opportunity in our voyage to observe the magnificent span of the centre arch of the South- wark Bridge, and what engineers are attempting to do with the square instead of the arched openings at Allhallows and Blackfriars ; we observed also with much regret how much the Railway Termini next the banks completely crush and dwarf all the surrounding buildings. The embankment in progress of course was a source of great interest, and we agreed that from what we could judge, the work was poor and tame, and more suited to the banks of the Cam or the Isis than to the - shores of old father Thames. The architect of York Gateway and Stairs would have adopted a bolder and more character- istic wall of masonry, and with a nobler parapet than the ill constructed one at Westminster Bridge Stairs. Landing on the Surrey side we had a good opportunity of observing the superb effect arising from the great width of the new bridge at Westminster and although the City Engineer, as a utilita- 182 The Street Architecture of London. rian, considers that two bridges of a moderate width would be preferable to one wide one, we decidedly gave our vote here in favour of the broad guage principle.. On. looking over the parapet we hope we were mistaken as to a feeling of vibration. . The site for the new St. Thomas’s Hospital was pointed out to our visitor, and the plan of the buildimgs explained to him. We believe he was more engaged in thinking of “ Les Invalides ”’ on the Seine, than the proposed pavilion hospital on the Thames, for “he made no sign.” ) We metemmed by London’s ‘‘ silent highway” to London bridge, noticing a large stock of warehouses on the Surrey side with a Venetian fagade next the river, and the fine old Tower of St. Mary Overys rose in far greater dignity than more recent piles. We com- pleted our days’ lionizing by taking our places from Moorgate Street in one of the comfortable carriages of the Metropolitan Railway, and our underground works, and particularly the sta- tion connecting the line with the Great Northern, were con- sidered by our young friend as being of far superior merit to many of our works aboveground; the admirable plan and arrangements, the excellent and careful construction, and the good taste of the architectural features impressed our visitor with a strong feeling of admiration for the talent displayed by the engineer of this most important work. Upon our return home in the evening we chatted over what ‘we had seen ; and with regard to the architecture of cities, I think we came to a cordial agreement that for the general view from the environs, domes, and towers, and spires are most de- sirable, as witnessed in the beautiful effects produced in the large eastern cities from the outlines of the domes of mosques and by the minarets. Our next poimt was that open spaces are indispensable, and that they should intersect or be in close continuity with long lines of thoroughfare, as in Regent Circus and Cavendish and Hanover Squares, in respect of Oxford Street. Perhaps the finest open space in London is Lincoln’s Inn Fields, disgraced by three of the most inferior entrances, and the inlets from Holborn by two turnstiles. That streets should not always be laid out at right angles, but that diagonal streets should be introduced as being favour- able to the traffic, and as giving variety to the different points of view must be conceded. Nothing we conceive can be more monotonous than the laying out of New York in square blocks, ad infinitum. Lines of thoroughfare need not always be straight. The width of streets should not exceed eighty feet. Pall Mall appears to us perfection for a street with 1mportant buildings ; an excess of width occasions the buildings to look low, and dw arfed, and are most inconvenient for passengers to The Street Architecture of London. 183 cross. Paved covered ways, as in Paris, are most desirable. Having agreed upon these points, we now, to our dismay, ap- proached the subject of public fountams, and our companion inquired why we had not pointed out in our rambles some ‘f the many which he understood had lately been erected ; never felt more ashamed in being obliged to reply iets we could not point out a single one deserving his notice, and that we had purposely avoided what we had hoped he had over- looked. Our friend saw our chagrin, and referring to the architecture of our recent buildings, he observed that he thought our medizevalists had run wild in their productions ; that buildings of that style when carefully studied and not caricatured were most picturesque, and formed a pleasing con- trast with the classic and Italian; that in respect of our Itahan designs they were in most instances wanting in the careful study, which is expected from the hands of a travelled and accomplished architect. The last day of our friend’s visit was reserved for a bonne bouche; adéjetiné a la fourchette at Richmond ; a visit of course to the Tunnel, and a white bait finale at Greenwich, with a previous two hours round the Hospital, followed by a glorious sunset, completely smoothed down ail the little disappoint- ments he had met with in our street architecture. We made our adieux at the London and Dover Railway Station, with a promise on our parts to make the return visit to Paris next year at the great National exposition. 184 Black Population of Natal. THE BLACK POPULATION OF THE BRITISH COLONY OF NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA. A PRELIMINARY SKETCH. BY ROBERT JAMES MANN, M.D., F.R.A.S., Superintendent of Education in Natal. (With a Tinted Plate). Tue British Colony of Natal lies on the south-eastern coast of Africa, about eight hundred miles beyond the Cape of Good Hope, and reaches upwards to within a little more than two hundred miles of the southern tropic. It is a strip of land included between the high Drakenbere step of mountains, which forms the threshold of the great continent, and the Indian ocean. Its sea-board is one hundred and fifty miles long, and its depth from the sea to the mountains, an extent varying from one hundred to one hundred and forty miles. Natal, thus placed, is the very middle of what Dr. Livingstone and the geographers have termed the ‘‘ Kaffir zone” of climate, as distinguished from the Bechuana and Namaqua zones beyond the mountains. This zone was inhabited, before the land was visited by Dutch, Portuguese, or Englishmen, by a distmct race of people, whose direct descendants now form the black popu- lation of the Colony. The land was first seen by Huropean eyes on the 25th of December, 1497, when the renowned Portuguese navigator, Vasco de Gama, touched at it on his first voyage to India round the cape, and named it the “ Terra - Natalis,”” in honour of the day. The soil was first trodden by British feet in the year 1683, when a crew of men who had been shipwrecked further north, near the spot now known as Delagoa Bay, made their way through it to the Cape of Good Hope. Three years subsequently a Dutch ship was wrecked where the Port of Natal is now established, and the stranded crew spent twelve months on the shore, and at last built a small vessel from the fragments of the wreck, and sailed away for the Cape of Good Hope, leaving, however, three Englishmen and a Frenchman behind. These were finally taken away, after a longer residence, by a Dutch vessel visiting the coast; but they carried with them reports of the place which led to the Dutch forming a settlement there in the year 1721. The settlement, however, was maintained for only a brief period, and then abandoned. In the year 1823, Lieutenant Farewell of the Marines in the progress of a surveying voyage, visited the site of the old settlement. On the following year he led ‘SHHIHO NTOOZ SSA Phetaanny Black Popwlation of Natal. 185 back a band of twenty Englishmen, who proposed to acquire territory there, through friendly negotiations with the native chiefs. These pioneer settlers maintained varying relations with the natives in the subsequent years, sometimes retiring southwards to avoid the consequences of disagreements, at others returning to the neighbourhood of the Bay now known as the harbour of Durban. ‘Twelve years after their first arrival a party of Dutchmen came down from the mountains in the in- terior and joined them. ‘Their successors founded the towns of Durban and Maritzburg in the year 1839, and from that time until the year 1842, there was a period of dispute and strife between the Dutch immigrants and the British Government, which claimed allegiance from them in consequence of their being emigrants from the Cape Colony. The dispute was finally adjusted in this year, and in the year 1845, the first British Lieutenant-Governor was installed in Natal. When the Portuguese and Dutch first visited Natal they found the land thickly peopled by a black race of friendly and gentle temper. The race was divided into separate com- munities, which lived in a quiet orderly way under distinct chieftains. When Lieutenant Farewell came to Natal, in 1824, matters were greatly changed. A warlike chieftain to the North had drawn together many separate clans under his dominion, and formed them into an army of aggression. With this army he had moved down towards the south, subjugating the land, and either carrymg away the remnants of the conquered tribes, to incorporate them among his followers, or driving them before him as scattered fugitives. ‘The tribe which first began this career of conquest and absorption, was a small clan located some distance to the north of the Tugela. It was then known as the Zulu tribe, and accordingly in its agerandized state it still kept the designation of Zulu. The warlike chief who struck out the bright idea of extended rule bore the name of Chaka, a name which remains a potent spell among the Kaffirs even at the present time. Wherever there was black mail to be levied, or an independent clan to be eaten up, this warlike chieftain led the short javelins and stealthy steps of his disciplined warriors, until by degrees his sway extended from Delagoa Bay in the north to the great river of St. John in the south, and Zululand became a wide kingdom five hundred miles across. When Lieutenant Farewell landed his small expedition in Natal, Chaka was at the summit of his power, and had a large military kraal on the banks of the Umblal, twenty-five miles within the boundary of what is now the colony. A few fugitives of the original Kaffir tribes lurked in concealment in the bush, as the sole representatives of the once teeming population; culti- 186 Black Population of Natal. vating small patches of maize in hidden ravines, or living upon wild roots and shell-fish. Beyond the military pete of the Zulu conqueror the entire country was a desert After some preliminary negotiation, Chaka gave the Hinglligh settlers permission to occupy territory at the Bay, and pro- mised them his protection. One of the settlers, Mr. H. Pynn, was raised to the dignity of subordinate chieftainship. In the year 1828 Chaka’s term of power came to a violent end. He was murdered at the instigation of his brother Dingaan, who thereupon proceeded to throw the royal skin over his own shoulders, and as one of the first acts of his rule, summoned all chieftains, who had shown fidelity to his brother, to appear before him. Mr. Fynn knew too well what this meant, to obey the summons; and retired with his followers beyond the Umzinkulu, until he was able to come to an under- standing with Dingaan. He returned im 183i, and was then recognized by Dingaan as the “Great Chief” of the Zulu Kaffirs. So early as the year 1827, refugee Kaffirs had commenced to return into Natal under the guarantee afforded by the presence of the pale faces. Some of these refugees came from the north, and some from the south. The influx now mcreased. In 1836 there were 1000 adult male Kaflirs im Natal, able to bear the shield and assegai, and paying alle- giance to the English. Two years subsequently the white chiefs could muster a following of 2100 armed Kaffirs. The Kaffir population at that time numbered 10,000 individuals, men, women, and children. It was in this year, 1836, that the party of Dutch emigrants, under the guidance of Jacobus Uys, Hendrick Potgieter, and Pieter Reiteif, descended into Natal by a central pass which Reiteif had discovered through the Drakenberg Mountains. From this time fresh accessions of Dutch rapidly towed down, and a period of conflict between these Dutch pioneers, and the Zulu chieftain ensued; which, after a series of vicissitudes, ended finally in the year 1839, in the destruction of Dingaan, after a signal defeat of his regiments, and in the establishment of Umpanda, the brother of Dingaan, who had been for some time a fugitive in the Natal territory, as supreme chief of the Zulus. Umpanda assumed his seat on the principles of white alliance, and in the interests of peace. He paid a subsidy of 36,000 head of cattle to the Dutch when he began his reign. The Dutch settlers in their turn became involved in dis- putes with the British Government, as has already been stated. When, in the year 1842, the Dutch flag finally went down before the British, and the Dutchmen within the Natahan territory became subjects of the British Crown, the friendly Black Population of Natal. 187 allegiance of the peaceful chief Umpanda was transferred to the new masters. Umpanda still sits in his big royal kraal beyond the Tugela River, which has been established as the boundary that sepa- rates the British territory from independent. Zululand, sur- rounded by his wives and children, and by his flocks and herds ; and sends ambassadors over from time to time to confer with the Colonial authorities, and get their advice on matters of delicacy and difficulty. But Umpanda’s days have not been altogether roseate ones. Umpanda is now a very portly potentate, and a martyr to gout. He has to be dragged about upon wheels, and when he enters upon a journey his atten- dants take off the front wheels of his travelling waggon, and shde the royal body up; and then lift up the waggon by sheer force to re-insert the wheels upon the axle. Now, an invalid and obese king, thus absolutely dependent upon the care of his people, is very convenient and satisfactory to peaceable neighbours, but, in another sense, not altogether qualified to fulfil the cravings of a glorious tradition. Umpanda and his cart do not glitter in young Zulu eyes, when young Aulu ears have heard of the stride of the conquering Chaka, at the head of his light-footed legions. Since Chaka’s time it has been the custom to band all male Zulus above adult age mto regiments, and to bring these regiments im succession to the royal kraals for service. ‘The ordinary service consists mainly in building huts and fences, and in milking and herding the cows belonging to the king. The captains and chief men of the regiments reside in huts appointed to them by the king, but receive their daily food from their own people. They have a claim, however, to certain gratuities of cattle as a guerdon for the service. In Chaka’s time there was no difficulty about these gratui- ties; there was then constant war, and the spoils of the vanquished readily furnished the royal pay. Umpanda, on the other hand, has no extrinsic supply cf this character to draw upon. He rules in the interest of peace, and has to rely entirely upon his own internal resources to meet the expenses of his state. Consequently, the chief men assembled at his place, commonly return to their kraals empty-handed, at the end of their terms of service. Some time since, as a measure of state economy, the king gave his eldest sons per- mission to found kraals of their own, and to go to reside in them. 8 | 13] 10] 20) 20] 20; 10] 15) 12] 15] 12) 7] 10, 12; 6| 8] 18| 14] 121 13) 7 4) 11| 13] 17| 12) 18} 8} 18) 20| 18] 1¢| 126 S | 4 | 17| 16) 26] 18] 19; 6 14) 15] 15] 10] 5] 9} 10} 5]. 8| 18] 14] 18] 12] 5 3 11| 15] 15] 11} 12) 8} 9} 18] 12] 1¢| 12-2 Ss gg | 5 | 15) 14] 18) 14) 17 6 12] 12] 18] 10} 4! 9] 9] 4] 7] 19] 18] 10] 11] 1] 3/10) 17] 11) 8] 10] 6] 8} 21] 6) 15) 10-7 So a} © | 17 1] 18) 16) 14) 6; 11] lo} 19] 6) 4} 6| ¥% 5] 5] 18] 13] 9} 9 38} 8] 19] 17] 12) 8} 7 7) 9} 18] 12) 14] 104 = 7 | 10] 18] 14) 13] 15} 4! 5] 18] 11} 3) 5] 5] 6| 4| 9| 15] 11) 6| 14] 2/19] 5] 13] 15| 7 5] 8| 10| 13] 5] 1s! 983 aS 8 | 9) 10) 8/16) 9) 4] 5] 11) 8] 3| 2 6 4! 3) 12) 17| 8] 4/10} 8) 8] 3] 9] 9] 5] 6] 5] 11) 18) 4} 16 78 > lao | & 8 8/36. 9 3) 5) 3a) Gg 5] 2 5] 5] 2 14/47) 7 8 5 81 8 9 5) 9] 8) 7 610 7 4) 14 68] = 10 | 9} 9} 3) 18] 7 2 713) s| 3} 2} 6 5] s|13| 11/20) 2] 4] 6/13] 8/10/10] 3] 7 6] 6 a2) alas) 72] 7 SS (41 | 8} §} 8/15; 10} 3] 6 11] 6 2) 2] 4} 4] 8} si 9] 8] 1) a] ai ia} 3] 8! % 8] 6! 5] 5} 10] 6 10] 6146 8 12 | | ea [a4 ' a S (a ee ee eee a) SS A eae Re pee Fes | | Total y| | | |. heehee Ste lg | | Bigs Daily ( |285 te 330/363 128 185 279/289 192| 98137174 a 828 287 |212}162|161 108|203,236 262 184]155)146 204 292)260,312) 91 | 3 | | ie | | 306 ' Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE - THE KEW OBSERVATORY. LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w. Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air. At 9°30 a.m., 2.30 p.m, and 5 P.m., rr respectively. Caleulated. 9°30 a.m. Direction of Wind. to Temp, 32°.* Daily Range. clouded. Dew Point, A.M, on the following Barometer, corrected Temperature of Air. | Relative Humidity. | Tension of Vapour. Maximum, read at 9:30 day. Minimum, read at Proportion of Sky | inches. p 3 inch, 29°901)| 59°5| 90°3| -73) -514| 69: ‘6 18°7\10, 29°566, 60'9| 56"2| -87) -539] 7Fo- -9'148.10, 9,10 SW by W, WNW 29°74.4) 62°0| 54°6| -'78) +559] 71- 216010, 7, 9) SW by W, aS Ww. 29°704) 57°3|42°8) -61)-478] 66: 7,15°3| 9, 8, 5 SW by W, WSW, SW by W. i 29-715) 52°0| 50°8| -96| -399 29-446) 55°5| 50°0) -g4) -450 29:653| 55'8/ 48°95} +78) -454 29:564) 58:0| 42°7| -59] -489 29-721) 54°3| 448] +79) -439 , 10,10] SW by W, SW, SW. par Se bet 5 ) . v : STO AND < 30-083) 58:0] 46°38; -68) -489 » NE y 6| SW by 8S, W, W by S, W. SW by 8, SW, WNW. W, W by 8, WNW. W, WSW, aie NNW, N, N by W. NW by N, N by W, W by N. 8 i DOUG Vos reel eat 29:777| 58°5| 53°7| -85| -497 | 29-950) 55°6| 46°4) +73) -451 29°691)| 55:3| 48°9) -g0) -4.4°7 29-788) 56°2|43°0| -64) -460 29-946] 585] 46°9) -67| -497 > . i > CO” ob ee be MNHSSSO aman 4 S j— 1 O §0 . ~ ) - Ror iie's) 29:691| 62°1| 544) -77| -561 29-830] 58°5| 95°2| +89] -497 29-979] 60:9] 54°38) -go| -539 30:010| 61°8] 56°9| -79|-555 29-996] 63°2/61°9| -96) -581 30-059] 62°8] 57°4) -g3)-574) 71: . WSwW, 8, SSW. ee) STATO cn: 29-804) 63-8] 52°8) -69| 593] 72: 59 4] 135] 8 "7, 3lSW by 8, SW by W, WSW. 29'514| 59°7| 54°9) +85] -518] 68: ; SE, ESE, 8. 29-308] 51:7} 53°0) 1-00] :395 2 ; 29-716] 56:0] 46°0| -71) -457| 65-7 |52°9] 12°8] 1,10, 8 NW, W,S by W. 29-860] 60:0] 48°2| -67} 523) 69-4 | 46-5] 22°9| 1, 5, 3) SW by S,SSW,WSW. | ° nie }| 29°776| 58-4 508] -74| -498 * To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be increased by "037 inch. > HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES), AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON’S ANEMOMETER.—Avavst, 1866. fap) Day. |1/2/3/4/5]617/ 8] 9 |10/11]12/13/14/15/16/17/18| 19) 20| 21] 22| 23! 24| 25/26 | 27/28 | 29130131 = Hour. | 3 12 | 49] 15] 13! 9] 11/ 6! 23! 16 131 7} 9 6| 7 8| 7} 5114) 8 1] 5] 2] 5] 3) 10 383i al 6 6 si isi 5] se = ( 1 | 43) 13] 10] 11] 12] 4] 25| 141 12] 7} si si of si 6] 5] 15! 7] al sl 4} 3] giao) 4! ai 7 al ii aal Bi so 3 2 | g/ 13] 7 11| 11| 6 19] 10/ 12 6| 8| G6 si si 5) 8i 16} 7 1) 3| 5] 5] 3| si al sl 7] sl alae ol 73 ES 3 | gl iz! 5] iol 111 6 Zoi 10\ 11) 7 G| 9|10i 8} 4) 6/171 4 383i si 7 al 4) 6 a gl 5] gl alias a] 73 4 | 6l 10] 9| 13] 12/ 7 19] 11] 12/ 7| 5] 121 7] 6 4| 5/14) al 1) 2] 6 3] al 6 al al 5] 3i al qi 4] 7-0 S gelic® 6] 10; 7} 17/ 10) 6 1g) 10) 9] 5) 7] 11) 6 8} 7 5) 10) 38) 38] 38] 4) 5] 6 6) 2) 2) 38) 2) 115) i 65 Se ee ; | 10| 10] 18| 10) 7 14| 10 14/ 6] 8] 10) 8| 10] 10] s| 13) 4 4) 3] 4) 3! 4) 7 al al 5] ef al1el 1 ze E Z | 7 8] 13] 21 13 10 8} 13] 17) 10] 11; 9] 9| 8} 10] 10, 15] 6 5] 4] 6 5 4) 7 5) 1 9] 7 3] 12] 1] 86 S 6| | 15] 221 14! 14/ 17] 14] 13/ 11 8] 6| 10] 9/ 11! igi 16] 6| 5) 2] 7 4) 5! 7 sl 114i) si 5i a4) 3] on aa 9 | 5] 9/ 19] 32] 10! 16] 20] 17, 10/ 10] 8] 5| 7 9] 9) 1%] 17] 8} 7 4! 7 3] 7| 5) si 6| 14) si 6/13! 3 1083 Ss 10 | 5] 9/17] 29] 16] 16| 19! 17] 13/ 13| 7] 4! 7] 8! 10] 19] 16| 19] 111 2! 7 6 7 2] 9} 12) 12] 12] 9] 13] 4] iid 2 ee 5| 9| 17| 25] 14| 151 23! 11| 16/ 11) 8] 4| 4) 10] 10] 15] 16/ 10/12 4! 5/ 4| 5! 4! tol qe! 13! 13| 9/11! 7 108 8 # | 5| 10/ 19) 24] 12] 15| 25) 24 13/13] 8| 4} 6] 13] 10| 15] 13) 9) 11) 4] 8| 8] 8) 2 10) 15) 16] 14] 15] 14] 6| 11°8 = (é 8| 6| 17| 24] 16! 18! 22] 18] 15| 10| 1o| 5] 4] 19] 98] 14/13] 9] 12] 4) 8/ sl1o) 4] 7 a8\ 16| 14| gi 12] al 11-2 5 2 | 7| 11] 18] 20] 14) 20] 29] 25] 16] 9| 9] 5] 2] 16] 6] 17| 16] 10) 10, 5| 9| 5) 15, 5] 8} 17] 14| 121 101 9| 6 5 g 12] 13] 11| 20] 15) 21) 25| 30| 17 13/ 10} 4) 1] 19] 11] 20| 18] 11| 9] 4|12/ 4/17| 3) 8] 18] 16/11/13] 9] 6 3 19] 12] 22| 23] 15) 221 29) 27] 13] 13/ s| 4/ 3] 9] 10] 18/16] 9/10) 4) 8| 4/16] 5) 10] 161 16| 8lisi 6 6 S {gj 2 | 17} 10] 19] 22) 12) 25) 23) 23) 13) 8) 4) 2] 3] 12] B] 13] 15/11] 10/ 8 5! 4] 16, 4) 9| 10] 15] 7 16| 14) 7 "S| } > | 27) 7 18) 20] 9) 26| 20) 25] 11) 4) 11) 3] 4] Jo} 4) 10| 12) 9 10) 2 4} 3/34) 8) 5 9/17 8) 15] 8] 6 Ss 4 | 22] 9| 14] 13) 7 25] 23] 24 9 7] 12] 2} 5] 12} 4] 10] 16 10] 8] 4) 4) 8] 17 8) 5] 7 8) 6) 13/10 6 p> 5 | 20| 20; 9} 14} 5] 24) 19] 21) 6| 5] 10) 3] 7/13} 4} 6| 8| 6 7 5| 4| 4) 15 6 5] % 9) 4 6| 7 ~ 19 | 20] 9} 12] 13) 6| 25) 17] 14 7] 7 8| 2 6| io) 6/12) 7 5] 7| 5) 5) 7 13) 2 4! 6 6 4 6| 7 5 11 | 20} 10] 18) 18} 7) 22] 17) 14} 6| %| 9} 4) 6 7 6) 13] 8} 3] 5) 1) 4) 5) 47) 6] 2 4 5) 4 6| 4. ae Le 12] 10} 10} 11) 7| 21] 15/ 16, 6| 8| 7] 5] 8] 6| 5| 14) 7 2] 6] 2} 5] 4) 1g) 5) 2] 4 4 2 6| 5 Sj Total 275/328|1'73/158| 86/140] 96 223/126|182/188 2491164 308 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 1866. Reduced to mean of day. iS {2} 5 ct = Barometer corrected to Temp. 32°.* ———S= | —_— ——— inches. 29°871 1 2 eee 3 | 29°849 4 | 29-609 » 92 | 29:403 6 | 29:574 7 | 29°604 8 | 29-688 » 10 | 29:595 » Ll | 29:535 x L2 | 29-923 ” 13 29°799) & Py) 14 29°d48 » 15 | 29°713 be) 17 29:737 » 18 | 80:053 » 19 | 29:929 5,5 20 | 29-930 3, 21 |29°608 5 22 | 29:278 » 24 | 29-701 » 25 |29-971 » 26 | 29:936 » 27 | 29-995 ” 28 29°798 »» 29° | 29-892 Temperature of Air, LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w. Calculated. Dew Point. | Relative Humidity. Tension of Vapour, oS @ SY & Maximum, read at 9:30 A.M. on the followin day. fe) To op) Minimum, reed at 9°30 a.m. Temperature of Air. Daily Range. At 9°30 a.m., 2°30 p.m, and 5 p.m. respectively. Direction of Wind. Proportion of Sk clouded y 0—i0 2, 6, 41 SW,SW,SW. oe WNW, W, W. 3/10, 10,10, SSW, SSW, SW. r) b) ‘0|10, 6, 3\SSW by W, SSW, SW by W. 5, 10, 10 SW, 8, 8. 8, 9,1¢ WSW, W, SW 10, 10, 10 E, NNE, — 8, 4, 2} SW, SW by 8, SW by W. LOE ee SW by 8, SW, W. 5,10,10/ W,SW by W, SW. 10, 6,10) SW by W, WSW, W. 8, 6, 8 SW, W, W. 2, 7, 8| SWbyS,8,8 by W. 4, 6, 6| NW by W, W by N.N. 3,10,10| SW byS, 8, SSW. 9,10, 9| SW, SW by W, WSW. 1¢, 10, 9|/WbyS,SW by W,SW by W. 7, 8, 7| W, WSW, SW by Ww. 10,10, 9} NNW, W by 8, SW. 9, 8, 3| S by W, WSW, SW. OF 4 8, 8, SSW. Oy iam S, W by 8, WSW. 10, 4, 1) W, WS Woon: 9,10, 8 E by N, ESE, ESE. 9,10, 8 W by 8, — —. inches. | * To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be increased by *037 inch. 309 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES), AS RECORDED, BY ROBINSON’S ANEMOMETER,—Szpr., 1866. Day. | | | Hour. A.M. pre ae: P.M. we _ Pee e OMNONEWNENKFPOOBDNONEWNE bd ‘ae 3|4/!5/6)|7) 8) 910 gi 5 9) 5/241 9| 7 10) 6 “| 6 8| 5 11) 7 14) 10 17| 16 18} 19 17| 19 25 17 25 18 / 22 16 23 15 25 18 23 17 26 13 23 9 20 9 27 8 23 | 20 10 18 8 17 —_——, 293] , 422 18 15 28) 3) 2) 17 27} 2) 4) 18 27 1) 3} 17 30; 2) 1) 13 26) 2) 2) 10 34) 1) 2| 7 43) 2) 4) 9 37| 4| 2) 10 34| 3) 5] 11 32) 3] 8] 12 18} 7| 8 16 20) 8) 9 16 17} 7 11) 18 13} 5) 14) 19 13] - 7| 15) 19 11} 4) 15) 28 11) 5; 13) 19 9} 7 14) 15 10) 5) 12) 15 9} 2} 12) 13 5| 5} 14) 17 4) 4) 11) 13 4) 6] 14) 17 3) 3} 14) 15 465)|101|/209/359 11)12)13) 14 | 15 4/71) 233/248|379|278 ae 16 | 17 328/223 18 ovo e bo tw 6 ort w& 19 | 20 bo bo STATO ONTON © 385/338 93| 9) 2! 6 2 25) 11} 2) 5) 1 a1) 9) Tl 6) 2 17) 6} 2) 5) 1 10), 7) a) a 10) & Aa SP 12) 11) 2) 8) 2 12) 12) 5) 10) 1 13) 12) 2) 14) 4 20, 12) 4) 12) 13 16} 13) 2) 14) 17 16) 12) 4) 15) 17 21) 11) 7! 16) 19 17| 10) 7| 12) 19 21) 10) 4) 15} 17 16) 11' 2] 15' 15 17; 10; 2) 15) 9 16/ 10} 3] 9) 4% s| 7} 3] 6 6 13) 8} 5) 4| 9 12) 6 4) 5] 8 138) 5) 4) 6! 11 11; 4) 5) 3] 13 11; 3] 6 12) 6 (871/214! 87|223/208 wWrwnp eb ooOoIQwywoOonoannorocounww DNWWNNOKRENNNAMTIWKHHRPORKBOWeE bt 135] 55 21 | 22 | 23 | 24.) 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 80 13 9 6/170 8 6 6 4 3 4, 3 3 ae 7 5 6 3 3 0 3 8 5 6 g 10 wayyy 305 Hourly Means. 310 The Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace. THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS OF LAPLACE EXPLAINED BY DELAUNAY. Recent investigations into the nature of nebule have strongly revived public interest in what is called the “‘ Nebular Hypo- thesis,”’ and as fresh facts, which we may expect to be made known by further research, promise to supply arguments for and agaist this theory of the origin of suns and planets, it is well that clear ideas should be entertamed concerning the views which Laplace held. Professed students of astronomy are sufficiently acquainted with them; but to the general scien- tific reader, the following explanation, given by M. Delaunay, in his Cours Hléméntaire d’Astronomie, 4th edit., will be acceptable. He tells us that “‘in adopting the ideas of Herschel concerning the progressive condensation of nebula, and their transformation into stars, and in applyimg these ideas to our planetary system, Laplace arrived at the most satis- factory mode of explaining their formation. No peculiarity that observation has disclosed relative to planets or their satellites, has escaped the ingenious explanation which he has developed at the close of his Hxposition du systéme du Monde, of which we shall proceed to give an idea.” ‘‘ Laplace supposes that in the beginning, the sun, and all the bodies circulating round him formed a single nebula, animated by a movement of rotation about a lne passing through its centre, and extending to the orbit of the most distant planet, or beyond it. He further conceives that by reason of a progressive cooling, larger and larger portions of nebulous matter were condensed at its centre, so as to form a nucleus, the mass of which gradually enlarged. Starting from this supposition, he demonstrated that in the course of time the nebula would be reduced to the state in which we actually find the planetary system.” “In proportion as the cooling caused the condensation ot new parts of thenebula, the materials so condensed would fall towards the centre just as drops of rain fall through the condensation of the vapour contained in our atmosphere. But this fall of condensed matter could not take place without occasioning an acceleration of the velocity with which the entire nebula turned upon its axis. Matters condensed and falling towards the centre of the nebula would acquire a move- ment of rotation about its axis more rapid than that of the rest of the mass. ‘Then the friction of different parts of the nebula, one againSt another, would accelerate the motions of those turning less rapidly, and would lessen the rapidity of those moving with greater velocity, and after a certain lapse of The Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace. 311 time, the entire mass of the nebula would revolve with an angular velocity greater than that which it had in the begin- ning. Thus the progressive condensation of the primitive gaseous matters of the nebula, and their agglomeration about 1ts centre, necessarily produces a continual augmentation in the velocity of the nebula’s rotation about its own axis.” ** A nebula such as we have imagined, animated with a move- ment of rotation about its axis, cannot extend itself in the plane of its equator beyond a certain limit, the position of which depends on the velocity of its motion. Any molecule ‘situated in the plane of the nebula’s equator, and participating in its movement, must be subjected at one and the same time to the attraction which the entire mass can exert upon it, and also to the centrifugal force resulting from its rotatory motion. ~The dimensions of the nebula cannot remain such as would cause the second force to prevail over the first even at any part of its equator, for should this happen, and any molecules be impelled by centrifugal force beyond the control of gravita- tion, they would cease to form part of the nebula, and move off, independently of it, with the velocity that they possessed at the instant of their starting away.” “The progressive condensations of different portions of the matter forming the nebula would, as we have said, accelerate its rotation, and by consequence give rise to a corresponding augmentation of centrifugal force for any point situated at a given distance from its axis, and thus the limit beyond which the nebula could not extend and cohere would become more and more restricted.” “Tf at a certain epoch, this ae measured from the centre, terminates at the surface of the nebula, the condensation to which this further cooling will give rise must cause the limit to fall within the surface, and then the outside molecules of the nebula surrounding its equator will be beyond this limit, and consequently this excess of matter beyond that which the - nebula can retain by means of its attraction, will cease to be a portion of the mass, and will separate in the form of a ring, rotating in its own plane about its own centre with the velocity which it possessed at the moment of its detachment. It is only about its equator that the nebula can abandon portions of the matter composing it; for in no other place, except in the plane of this circle, can a molecule be acted upon by the attractive force in the same line as that in which the centrifugal force operates. These two forces compose a resultant force,* * For those who are unacquainted with this term as used in mechanics, we may explain its meaning by stating, that if one force impels a ball straight for- ward. and a second force of the same amount impels it exactly across, or at right angles to, the line of the first force, the two forces will combine into a resultant force, sending it in an intermediate direction.. 312 The Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace. which tends more and more to make the molecule approach the equator, in proportion as the centrifugal force is increased. The imerease of angular velocity in the rotation therefore causes the surface molecules to move from all parts’ towards its equator, and then to be abandoned into space as we have described.” “Tt will be understood that our nebula, in its process of cooling, has thus abandoned successively, in the plane of its equator, divers rings of nebulous matter, which continue to revolve in the same plane, and about a common centre. The central mass to which successive condensations have reduced the nebula, is no other than the sun; and the concentric rings of nebulous matier thrown off in succession in the plane of its equator will give rise to planets, as we shall proceed to show.” ‘Hach ring must be perfectly regular, in order to preserve its annular form for an indefinite time. This regularity can only exist under exceptional circumstances, and it is natural to suppose they are wanting in the case before us. Thus the matter belonging to each tends to assemble about certain centres of attraction, and their partial condensation divides the ring into fragments, which continue to move separately very much as they did when united. The velocity of the various parts which once formed one ring not being rigorously the same, either because they were not equal at the moment of Separation, or were subsequently changed by the perturbing action to which the whole system is exposed, it follows that the different portions can rejoin each other, and end in forming a single mass, circulating round the sun in an orbit nearly cor- responding with the circumference of the ring from which it originated, and this mass condenses itself into a planet. It may, however, happen that the various fragments into which a ring was decomposed will continue to revolve as separate bodies, and give rise to many distinct planets moving in almost the same orbits, and it is thus that the planetoids between Mars and Jupiter may have resulted from the fragments into which one nebulous ring may have been divided.” ** Let us now see what becomes of the materials of an entire ring, united together about one point of its circumference as we have supposed, and let us endeavour to understand how the mass thus formed has been able to produce a planet turning upon its own axis, and accompanied by satellites, as is gene- rally the case in our planetary system. In the progressive condensation of such a mass, the molecules most remote from the sun have approached nearer to that body, and the mole- cules which were nearest have become more remote ; the first having a greater, and the latter a smaller velocity, than that of the mean portions towards which they are moving by the The Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace. 313 process of condensation, and hence must arise a movement of rotation round a centre, and in the same direction as the revo- lution of the whole mass round the sun. Henceforth the materials of a rig abandoned by a nebula become a system analogous to the nebula, but of much smaller dimensions. They have given rise to a new nebula moving round the centre of the original nebula, and in the same direction. This new nebula would, by successive condensations, throw off in suc- cession different rings of nebulous matter, and would at last form a planet turning on its own axis, and revolving in the same direction round the sun. The abandoned rings of matter would behave just as those thrown off by the original nebula, and give birth to the satellites of the planet. Some rings may preserve an exceptional regularity, and thus, as in the case of Saturn’s appendages, be able to retain their original form.” “The matter united at a certain distance from a planet to form a satellite, would elongate itself in the direction of a line joining the planet, just as the action of the moon determines an elongation of the sea in the direction of a line joiming the earth and moon. This elongation of a satellite while in its fluid state—much greater than in the comparison just made—_ would give it a tendency always to turn the same points of its surface towards the centre of the planet; and thus may be simply explained this remarkable fact with reference to the moon, which, as Herschel thought, was also exhibited by Jupiter’s satellites.” | “We see that the hypothesis of Laplace on the origi and formation of our planetary system takes due cognizance of all the peculiarities by which it is characterised. Almost complete coincidences in the planes of the orbits of the planets, slight- ness of the eccentricity of their orbits, identity of direction m the movements of rotation and revolution throughout the system—all is explained in the most natural manner, and in conformity with the laws of mechanics.” “In this hypothesis the body of a planet formed by conden- sations such as we have described, would at first be a liquid mass affecting the form of a spheroid flattened in the direction of its axis of rotation, and surrounded by an atmosphere the residue of the nebula from which it sprung. This liquid mass, continuing to grow cooler, would solidify little by little over its whole surface. The solid crust thus formed would be gradually altered in shape, and at last would split in several parts, by reason of the progressive diminution of the liquid volume in its interior, as the temperature was lowered. In the mean time if the atmosphere contained a great quantity of aqueous vapour its condensation would form enormous masses of water, which would occasion degradations of the surface, 314 The Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace. and a transport of matter which would be deposited in _hori- zontal layers at the bottom of the vast basins in which the waters would congregate. These phenomena would continually be reproduced through the successive evaporations and con- densations which the water would experience through the high temperature of the surface of the globe, and through the continual refrigeration of the atmosphere. ‘Thus the successive formations on the terrestrial globe, which it belongs to geology to elucidate, would arise naturally out of the circumstances we have considered.” “‘The comets which from time to time pass near the sun cannot be regarded as arismg from the nebula which we have supposed to be the origin of the sun and planets, and of their satellites. These comets must be regarded as small nebulee moving in immensity, and which on approaching our system are drawn into it by the sun’s attraction, and which after coming near him, recede, often never to return. Whena comet thus journeys near our sun and planets, their actions upon it may modify the line in which it moves, so as to convert it into an ellipse with a major axis not extravagantly great; and thus the comet may become periodic, and an integral part of our system. Four known periodical comets seem to be in this condition, but it may happen that the disturbing actions of the planets, near which they pass, may so modify their orbits as to elongate them indefinitely from us, without absolutely pre- venting their return; and there are instances of comets whose movements have been effected by actions of this kind.” “The zodiacal light is readily explained according to the hypothesis of Laplace. It cannot be regarded as due to the atmosphere of the sun, as it extends beyond the orbits of Mercury and Venus, and thus exceeds the limits within which the solar atmosphere must be circumscribed through the volocity of the sun’s rotation; but we might conceive that some of the matter successively abandoned by the nebula which formed our planetary system, might not be totally con- densed into the various masses out of which the planets were formed. Small quantities of this matter might remain and form a very diffuse lenticular nebula, such as the zodiacal light. Many examples of such elongated nebula are found in the heavens. It may also happen. that nebular matter diffused in the space surrounding the sun might be condensed into an immense number of little planets, and in this way we may explain the origin of shooting stars, whose periodical return gives some countenance to such a theory.” Interary Notices. 315 LITERARY NOTICES. Rewiguiz Aqurranicz: being Contributions to the Archeology and Palzontology of Périgord, and of the adjoining Provinces of Southern France. By Epwarp Lartet and Henny Curisty. Part Til. (Bailliére.)—The present part of this important and remarkably handsome work, commences by describing the mode in which the Indians of California fashion their stone arrow-heads; and cites from Sir. E. Belcher the way in which the Esquimaux of Cape Lisburne manage, by pressing the hard points of reindeer-horn upon frac- tured pieces of chert, to produce saw-like edges, which it might be supposed required the agency of metallic tools. The caves of Dordogne then form the subject of remark, and it is stated that, besides ossiferous deposits which may have resulted from water action, others must have been accumulated when the caves were the abodes of wild animals or of men. ‘‘Some have been the resorts of beasts alone, and some only inhabited by men. In the compara- tively few in which they have been tenanted by both, there are usually indications that the earlier occupancy has not been that of man.” “It is especially in the valley of the Vezére, a tributary of the Dordogne, which is an affluent of the Garonne, that these remains are in great abundance, and are indisputably contempo- raneous with the remains of animals extinct in that country before history or tradition.”” The cave deposits are composed of broken bones, pebbles, nodules, and chips of flint of various sizes, inter- mixed with charcoal in dust and in small fragments. Besides these, a multitude of implements of deer-horn have been discovered, some finished, and others in process of formation. ‘These consist of square chisel-shaped implements; round, sharp-pointed, awl-like tools, some of which may have also served as the spikes of fish- hooks; harpoon-shaped lance-heads, plain or barbed; arrow-heads with many and sometimes double barbs, cut with wonderful vigour ; and lastly, eyed needles of compact bone, finely pointed, polished, and drilled with round eyes, so small and regular that some of the most assured and acute believers in all other findings, might well doubt whether, indeed, they could have been drilled with stone, until their actual repetition, with the very stone implements found with them, has dispelled their honest doubts. More than this, all but two of the many deposits explored, have given more or less examples of ornamented work ; and three of them (Les Hyzies, Laugerie Basse, and La Madeleine) drawings and sculptures of various animals, perfectly recognizable as such,’”’ Thus it appears that these early inhabitants of France were considerably removed above what is ordinarily meant by the savage state. They had, as the remains clearly show, abundance and variety of food, they could make im- - plements requiring considerable skill, and they amused themselves with rude, though by no means despicable works of art. To esti- mate the date of their existence is extremely difficult, and indeed sufficient means for estimating the precise geological time, and con- verting that into common time, donotexist. Not only have animals. 316 Literary Notices. then living become extinct, but, as the following passage shows, there is reason to believe that considerable changes of climate have taken place. The writers say, ‘In addition to the presumption of a once colder climate, which is furnished by the fauna, it is difficult to suppose that, at the period when these remains were left, the climate was the same as it now is; for, though we may have examples in the habits of the present Hsquimaux, that in their cold climate it is possible to live, without detriment to health, amid an accumulation of animal remains, the case would be very different in the south of France, where, at the temperature of the present day, such accumulations would, except in winter, speedily become a decomposing mass. That the inhabitants of that day had no such difficulty to contend with, may be inferred from their having almost invariably chosen a southern exposure, and the warmest and sunniest nooks for their residences.” The plates given with this number continue the depiction of stone, bone, and horn implements, and are very well executed. A Dictionary or Science, Lirerarure, anp Art. Comprising the Definitions and Derivations of the Scientific Terms in general use, together with the History and Descriptions of the Scientific Principles of nearly every branch of Human Knowledge. New Hdition. Edited by the late.W.T. Branpz, D.C.L., F.R.S.L. and H., of Her Majesty’s Mint; and the Rev. Gzorcr Wm. Cox, M.A.,, late Scholar of Trinity College, Oxford. Assisted by Gentlemen of Eminent Scientific and Literary Acquirements. ‘lo be completed in Twelve Parts. Part XI. (Longmans.)—This part commences with ‘“‘Rules” and ends with ‘“Sigurdr.” The various articles appear well adapted to give the information required for all ordi- mary purposes. Some subjects, such as ‘‘ Screw-propeller,” “‘ Shooting-stars,” “ Siege,” etc,, are treated at considerable length. A Brier Accounr OF THE SCHOLARSHIPS AND EXHIBITIONS OPEN TO COMPETITION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE ; with Specimens of Examination Papers. By Rozsrrr Ports, M.A., Trinity College. (Longmans. )—The title, which gives the contents of this little book, will show persons intending to become students at Cambridge the useful information they may derive from it. Tae Screntiric anp Lirzrary Treasury. By Samuzt Mavunper, author of the “ Treasury of Knowledge,” ‘‘ Biographical Treasury,” etc. etc. New edition, thoroughly revised and in great part re-written, with upwards of One Thousand New Articles by James Yate Johnson, Esq., M.Z.S. (longmans.)—This popular work was well worth revising and improving. In its present state it isa very compendious little encyclopsdia, admirably adapted for family use. To get an enormous quantity of matter into a brief space the print is very small, but it is clear; and after referring to a good many of the articles, we feel justified in recommending it. CHART OF THE CHARACTERISTIC British Tertiary Fossits, Stratigraphically Arranged. Containing upwards of Hight Hundred Figures. Compiled and Engraved by J. W. Lowry. (Tennant.)— This beautifully engraved chart of British Tertiary Fossils will be invaluable to students and fossil collectors. It consists of a series Proceedings of Learned Societies. 317 of folding plates, which commence with the newer and post pliocene fossils, and finish with the lower eocene. In columns on the right hand side of each plate, information is given concerning the various strata in which the organic remains are found, and the nature of the principal fossils. Many of the figures are drawn in their natural size, and in other cases their proportion is given, Mr. Lowry’s name is a guarantee that due pains have been taken in all the details; and it must be admitted that he has rendered an im- portant service to students of tertiary geology. PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Turovucn the zeal of the President, Mr. Glaisher, assisted by his council, a royal charter has been obtained for this Society, and the patronage of the Prince of Wales. Fellows will use the letters F.M.S.L. The first meeting of the season took place on the 10th October, when the charter was read, and other business transacted. The President, in the name of the Society, presented an elegant silver inkstand to T. W. Burr, Hsq., F.R.A.S., F.S.C., in acknow- ledgment of his gratuitous services in the legal steps necessary for obtaining the charter. Mr. Slack read a paper describing a new diaphragm eye-piece, which is described in our Notes and Memo- randa. Mr. Suffolk exhibited some metal rings, made according to his directions by Mr. Collins, and adapted for microscopic cells of various sizes and depths. PROGRESS OF INVENTION. Tue TerrestriaL Darx Lines or THe Specrrum.—From the mo- ment that Wollaston observed that certain rays are wanting in the solar spectrum, their places being occupied by dark lines or bands, philosophers have been occupied in attempting to investigate their origin. These attempts have been in a great degree successful. They arise from a cause which, applied to spectrum analysis, en- ables us not only to detect the presence of elements so minute in quantity as to elude the most careful researches of the chemist, but to pronounce with certainty regarding the elementary substances of which the most distant stars are formed. But there is one great source of uncertainty in the application of spectrum analysis to the purposes of astronomy, the difficulty of determining whether the dark lines in the spectrum of a heavenly body belong to the light emitted by that body, or have been caused during the passage of that light through our atmosphere. This difficulty is now in a fair way of solution, if it is not already resolved. M. Jansen has 318 Notes and Memoranda. proved by the most satisfactory experiments, that a large portion of the dark lines of the solar spectrum are terrestrial, and are due to the vapour of water. When, in 1864, he ascended the Faulhorn, he found that these dark Jines became feeble in proportion to the height above the level of the sea; while, on the contrary, when the light of firewood, which affords a continuous spectrum, was made to pass through several miles of air in contact with the Lake of Geneva, and therefore saturated with its watery vapour, all the dark lines of the solar spectrum were produced. And he ascer- tained, that with a given altitude of the sun above the horizon, the higher the dew point, the more distinct the dark lines produced in the spectrum, scarcely any being perceptible on very dry days. He verified these facts by a very effective apparatus. Having placed an iron tube of considerable length, in a box, and filled the vacant space round the tube with sawdust, to prevent radiation of heat, he transmitted the light of sixteen gas-burners, placed in a line which was a prolongation of its axis, through this tube, and a continuous spectrum was thus produced. But when he filled the tube with vapour, supplied by a steam boiler, and then transmitted the light, nearly all the dark lines were reproduced, the spectrum obtained corresponding with that formed by sunlight when the sun is very near the horizon. A detenuation of the lines produced by the earth’s atmosphere renders observations regarding the constitution of the heavenly bodies founded on spectrum analysis more reliable. Tt also enables us to find the amount of moisture in portions of the atmosphere inaccessible to us. The solar lines predominate in the green, the blue, and the violet portions of the spectrum; the atmo- spheric in the red, the orange, and the yellow, being ten times more numerous than the solar lines in the same places. NOTES AND MEMORANDA. Lieut or Nesutz.—The Philosophical Transactions contains a very im- portant paper by Mr. Huggins on the spectra of some of the nebule, in which estimations of the amount of light emitted by some of these bodies is given. Mr. Huggins took for his standard of comparison a sperm candle of the size known as sixes. This was placed at a certain distance, and its light reduced by a neutral tint glass to 277 of its original intensity. It was then found that nebula No. 4628 gave a light equal to ros of that emitted by the unscreened candle, the annular nebula in Lyra was equal to zotz, and the dumb-bell nebula to xtoa of the same standard. PLUMULES OF THE Preris Ox~pracra (Canapa).—These “plumules” are peculiar scales found only on males. They occur under the ordinary scales, and Mr. Watson considers that when inflated they raise up the other scales. Those of the P. oleracea most resemble those from P. rape, figured in Microscopical Dictionary, but they are not of exactly the same shape. ‘he form is something like that of a battledore, with a pear-shaped hole at the thick end, and the handle terminating ina fringe. From the centre of the pear-shaped recess springs a peduncle with a round bag at the end of it. By this bag or bulb it is attached to the wing. A paper by Mr. John Watson on these plumules will be found in the Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine for June, 1865. We are indebted for our Notes and Memoranda. 319 Canadian specimens to one of our Canadian subscribers, who signs himself “J.J. B.,” and dates from Napanee. We beg him to accept our thanks. He compares the plumules, which he rightly designates ‘‘ puffy,” to a “ boxing- glove with two fingers or thumbs.” Mr. EH. C. Rye was kind enough to compare this Canadian butterfly with others. He tells us that it is closely allied to the American P. cruciferorum, and that both are most likely localized forms of our common green-veined white. Stak MaenitupEs.—In the Transactions of the Manchester Philosophical Society will be found a paper by Mr. Knott on the Comparative Magnitudes assigned to Stars by Admiral Smyth in the Bedford Catalogue, by Struve in the Mensure Micrometrica, and by Argelander in the Bonner Stern-verzeichniss. “It appears that the scales of the Bedford Catalogue, of the Bonner Stern-verzeich- niss are practically identical down to the 9th mag.,and assuming with M. Pogson that the 13 mag. of Argelander’s scale corresponds with the 16 mag. of Admiral Smyth, we may tabulate the results below the 9th, thus :— Maa. Sm. Maa. A. 10 96 11 10:1 12 10.7 13 11:3 14 11°9 15 12°4 16 13:0” So far as Mr. Knott’s observations go, this proportion is found to hold good. He says further, “The coincidence between the scale of the Bedyord Catalogue and that of the Mensure Micrometrica ceases practically with the naked eye mag- nitudes. At the 6th mag. the scales diverge,and the 11th mag. of the one cor- responds with the 13th mag. of the other. Five magnitudes of Admiral Smyth’s © scale, below the 11th, are represented by only one magnitude in the scale of Pro- fessor Struve.” Mr. Stacr’s DrapuracM Eye-Preve.— At the October meeting of the Micro- scopical Society of London, Mr. Slack exhibited a microscopic eye-piece which he had devised, and which was made by Mr. Ross for the purpose of protecting the eye against the glare of a large and strongly-lit field. It has four shutters, each capable of separate motion, and enables objects of any form to be exhibited in a field of any dimensions required, and bounded by straight lines. This field may be long or short, broad or narrow, as the object may require, and it is found that the exclusion of unnecessary light makes the objects more distinct, and avoids fatigue to the eye. The shutters are moved by small milled heads attached to the flange of the eye-piece. A similar eye-piece will probably be found convenient for astronomers when viewing the moon, or the solar disk. SPIDERS AND Harwics.—An illustration of the tact and skill of the spider in dealing with a dangerous foe, may be obtained by putting an earwig into the web of the Hpeira diadema, common in all gardens. On perceiving the earwig, the spider advances cautiously, and when near the creature turns her abdomen towards it, and shoots out a sheaf of threads which immediately adhere to the earwig. She then pats him round and round as if she were roasting him on a spit, and in the course of a few seconds he is effectually rolled up in a silk mummy cloth, from which there is no escape. Soap Beans oF Cu1na.— Comptes Rendus contains a paper by M. Payen on the beans of a plant belonging to the genus dialiwm, which are used instead of soap in many provinces of China. The Chinese remove the outer skin with a knife, and then rub the bean against wet linen which they wish to wash. A rinsing completes the process. The pericarp, which is dry in most beans, is of a fieshy character, and contains saponine, besides many other substances. M. Payen, also found in these beans a gelatinous substance, differmg from pectin, pectose, ete., and which he calls dialose. EARTHQUAKE IN FRANCE, SEPTEMBER 14, 1866.—M. Rovet describes the particulars of this earthquake to the French Academy. It occurred about ten minutes past five,a.m., aod there were two oscillations, the first from west to east, the second south to north, and with an interval of afew seconds between them. 320 Notes and Memoranda. The spots at which the shocks were felt might be enclosed in a polygon, of which Paris, Auxerre, Tournus, Montbrison, Bordeaux, Nantes, and Rouen would form the principal summits. The west-east shock was particularly felt in Dordogne, Haute Vienne, and Charente on one hand, and Loire Inférieure and Orne on the other. The south-north shock was chiefly felt in Indre, Indre et: Loire, Loire-et- Cher, Eure:et-Loir, Seine-et-Oise, and Seine, being most violent in Indre-et-Loir and Soir-et-Cher. In Paris it was slight. At Perigueux the west-east shock damaged many houses, and at Luche people at work were obliged to lean against the walls to prevent their being thrown down. At St. Marc, near Orleans, two persons were thrown down, the windows broken, and doors opened. Heavy noises were heard at various places. Fuint Corrs FROM THE InDUS.—The Geological Magazine for October has a plate of remarkably neatly worked flint cores discovered by Lieut. Twemlow three feet below the rock in the bed of the river, near Shikapoor, Upper Scinde, and described by Mr. John Evans, who remarks that further details of the rock must be obtained before their age can be determined. From their form alone he would refer them to the neolithic rather than to the paleolithic period of India. The cores are composed of fawn-coloured flint, and flakes were struck from them so as to have a regular polygonal pattern. Tue “Guass Ropr” OF THE HyoLtonEMA.—Dr. Gray has a paper in the Annals of Natural History on the structure of the sponge Hyolonema Sieboldi, and he considers that the researches of Professor Borboza du Bocage, who has found the “ glass ropes” with attached polyps off the coast of Portugal, show that the long glass, or silica spicules do not, as Schulze and some other observers have thought, belong to the sponge, but are formed by the polyps, as he affirmed long ago. M. de Bocage did not tind any object attached to these spicules, and as it is plain they must have had some support, the evidence is inconclusive. Weshall shortly publish a paper on this subject, and therefore say no more now. Fie~tp ADJUSTMENT FoR Ossect Finpinc.—A “Subscriber” writes :— “When the position of a good specimen in a slide of Diatomacex has been marked, the recovery of the view is more difficult than would appear at first sight, owing to the smallness of the marking, or indicating circle, and the size and propinquity to the slide of the end of an object-giass such as Smith, Beck, and Beck’s one-eighth. If, however, the observer will incline the body of the microscope towards the horizontal position, and set the plane side of the mirror to give an easy and convenient view of the end of the object-glass, the slide may be put in exact position at once.” TuE YOTH PLANET was discovered by Dr. Luther, of Bilk, near Disseldorff, on the Ist of October. It is of 11 mag. 2 Oct. R.A., Oh. 8m. 428.07 D—2? 35’ 42'-7. Daily movement in R.A. 44s. in D—4‘-2. Porosiry oF CaourtcHouc.—M. Payen states in Comptes Rendus that a microscopic examination of thin sheets of caoutchouc discloses minute holes or pores, which are rounded, and communicate with each other. Contact with liquids makes these pores more distinct. Vulvanized indian rubber exhibits nar- rower cavities and concentric circles spreading from one pore to another, showing successive zones of diminishing action of the sulphur. By exposure to water the caoutchouce becomes whiter and opaque through absorbing the fluid. M. Payen considers this porosity to be concerned in the dialytic action of indian rubber on gases discovered by Professor Graham. SILVERED OBJECT GLASSES FOR SuN Virwine.—M. Le Verrier describes in Comptes Rendus successful experiments made with an object-glass of 25 centi- metres aperture. ‘The silvering allowed excellent views of the sun to be made with magnification up to 300. It isfound that the blue tinge of light that has passed through the silver film results from an elimination of the extreme red rays; nearly all the other rays passing through. Mrraruic Firm Srecractrs.—M. Melsens states in Comptes Rendus that having suffered from an accident, by which his eyes were rendered exceedingly averse to light, he found the greatest relief by employing spectacles containing glasses covered with gold leaf, through which he could see the contour of bright clouds. co rATADWE™M £4? —_") — >= ef eo > pe fee Stirs ROIS ? CHAMELEON. THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER. DECEMBER, 1866. OBSERVATIONS OF THE CHANGES OF COLOUR AND MODES OF TAKING FOOD IN THE CHAMELEON. BY JONATHAN’ COUCH, F.L.S., Corresponding Member 4.S., ete. Tae chameleon has ever been an object of curiosity, and in the times of great ignorance of natural history it was a special — subject of wonder, as well as of much fable, in consequence of its frequent and unaccountable changes of colour, and its supposed. faculty of living without food: its only diet being the air, of which it drew within itself a large abundance, and from which it was believed to acquire a considerable increase of size. But its habits in these respects were differently repre- sented, even by those who appeared to be careful observers ; and it was therefore with much pleasure that I had an oppor- tunity of observing them im an example which was presented to me, and which was embarked on board of a ship at Cadiz, with several others, the larger number of which died on the voyage to England. It came to my hands about the end of the month of July in perfect health; and when presented to me the only caution given with it was, that I should be careful _ to provide it with water; and, it was added, that those which had died on the passage had refused it, whilst such as drank freely remained alive. To this observation and recommen- dation, however, I paid no attention; as a Mr. Jackson, who studied the habits of this creature in its native country, in his Account of the Hmpire of Morocco, had asserted that the chameleon was not accustomed to drink. The example which thus came into my possession mea- sured ten inches in length, of which the tail was four inches and a half. The head compressed, jaws of equal length, furnished with slight cartilagmous teeth. From above the upper jaw commenced on each side a ridge, which passing VOL. X.——-NO. V. ns yA Observations on the Chameleon. backward formed an elevated crest of a triangular shape, the posterior edges of which passed down, one on each side, to the hindmost angles of the jaw. The eye large, projecting, conical, covered with the common skin; the pupil: deeply seated in a hole scarcely larger than would be made with a pin. Tt is black and lively, and encircled with a gold coloured iris that is not wider than a thread. The projecting eyeball is capable of very extensive movement, and the movements of each eye are independent of its opposite ; so that they are rarely seen directed to one object, except when this creature is intent on seizing its prey. ‘T’he body is usually much compressed, but on the inhalation of air it becomes greatly distended; and 1b may be readily supposed that the difference im its appearance from this cause was what led to the opimion that air formed the material portion of its diet. The back is ridged, and, on account of the tubercles on it, slightly serrated ; the belly also has an obscure ridge. Above the hind lees the body is slender; the tail flattened at its origin, round and tapering through its posterior half; the legs long, those behind longest and with a very extensive motion at their articulation with the body: the claws sharp, five on each leg, and united in sets; that is, on the anterior legs two of the toes are joined together on the outward side and three inward; on the hind legs three are joimed together on the outward side and two inward. The body is covered with slight papillous elevations. This creature moves slowly and with much apparent de- liberation, especially when on the ground; but its favourite place of resort is a bush or branched stick, along which it proceeds with great care, never losing its grasp with one hand —as its singularly formed feet may weil be termed—until it has secured a firm holdfast with the others; and the tail at the same time is employed in keeping itself safe by twisting round the branch on which it is to advance. ‘This last named expe- dient is especially needed, in order to keep the body erect when ona slender twig; since for this purpose the feet alone appear to be of comparatively small service. The colour of the chameleon is subject to continual change ; but if a creature that rarely retaims the same hue for ten minutes together can be said to possess one which may be termed ils own, it is dusky brown, or almost black, nearly approaching to the darkness of soot. This it is which it assumes when it compresses its sides, and places its body with the plane of its surface to be exposed to the direct beams of the sun, so as to receive the full benefit of its rays: of which, as we shall have further to remark, the light is of more importance to its health and comfort than the heat. And when thus enjoying itself even the mouth is extended to receive the influence, although Observations on the Chameleon. 329 at other times it is kept closely shut. It was noticed also that as a dingy black was the common colour when enjoying itself in the usual habit of basking in the sun, a light, or whitish yellow pr evails when it is asleep; during which time it never changes its position. Desirous of obtaining a knowledge of the temperature of its body, at nine o’clock of the evening of the 18th of August, when a thermometer in the room stood at 64°, this instrument was moved carefully to the side of the chameleon, when the colour changed from yellow to greenish, and then to deeper green, followed by purple spots, and it expanded itself by inhialing air, an action which sometimes is accompanied with a. rushing or hissing sound, the lungs appearing to occupy the lower portion of the belly. While the thermometer lay in contact with its side, in a few minutes it rose to 68°; and a. few hours afterwards, when the animal was still asleep and distended with air, with the colour a light yellowish green, and the thermometer in the room stood at 63°, on its being applied to the side it again rose to 68°. At this time, although the touch of the thermometer did not cause it to awake, two rows of purple spots made their appearance on the former ground; and it was observed that whenever two rows of spots were produced they were large, and in one situation and direction. On another evening, at eleven o’clock, when the thermo- meter stood at 62°, and the chameleon was asleep, with the colour light yellow, although the touch of the instrument did not cause it to awake, yet the colour changed to darker, and it became covered with numerous purple lines; and then, in a few minutes the colour was dark green with obscure purple spots. But both sides do not always adopt the same colours ; for while basking in the sun with the side towards the light a very dark brown, the shaded side was lighter, with green tints and two large rows of purple spots, and yet sometimes spots - in the same order are altogether white. When asleep at nicht the colour was light yellow, with two rows of white spots, on holding a lighted candle at only a sufficient distance to com- municate warmth, the side thus aeted on became of a uniform brown, while the other side continued of the former light yellow. Afterwards, while still asleep, and the colour was. yellow with two rows of white spots, when a candle was held within the distance of three imches, the side exposed to the candle became brown with a row of deeper brown spots, and the other side continued with the unchanged light yellow and white spots; the change when it took place not requiring more than a minute, and within a minute afterwards, on re- moving the candle both sides were of a greenish yellow with 324 Observations on the Chameleon. two rows of large purple spots. When the stick on which it rested was touched gently, without waking it, it, became instantly covered all over with minute brown spots. On another occasion, when the colour was altogether yellow, a book was held so as to cast a shade on the anterior part of the body, while a candle was held within four inches of the hind- most portion ; and then presently the illuminated part changed to a hght brown, while the shaded portion remained as before ; and when the screen was removed the exact limit of the shade was visible. When again the colour was yellow with two rows of white spots, in breathing on it so gently that nothing beyond the warmth of the breath could have been perceived, it imme- diately became covered with minute brown spots on both its sides ; and at all times it was discerned by examination with a lens, that the colours existed entirely in the very small tubercles with which the body was covered, and not in the skin which lay between them. I had hitherto paid no attention to the question whether it was necessary to its health that it should be supphed with drink ; but it was not lone before an opportunity was afforded for removing all doubt on that subject. Whilst the chameleon was near me at a window, basking in the sun, I was engaged in drawing the figure of a fish; and in order to preserve it alive, it had been wrapped up in sea-weed that was charged with salt water. Having removed the weed, some fresh water was poured on the fish, on perceiving which the chameleon immediately left its station at the distance of about a foot, and hastened with unusual speed to the place; where it scrambled into the vessel, and began to lap the water by repeatedly placing its tongue in contact with the fish, in which action the fleshy portion of its tongue being thrust a little beyond the lips, and then lifting its head, it swallowed the water in repeated efforts. When the fish was removed to different parts of the vessel, the chameleon followed it, without bemg alarmed, as it usually was, at my meddling with it. In order to ascertain whether it was the salt that might be still on the fish which attracted its attention, I sprimkled a portion of the fish with salt ; but when it touched this part with its tongue, it turned away to where the water was fresh; but having lapped it for a moment it returned and applied its tongue to a portion of the fish which I had newly turned up; and it was from this manner of proceeding that I concluded its habits to be to quench its thirst by taking moisture from some fixed surface rather than by drinking from a pool or floating liquid. At this time the quantity of water swallowed appeared to be equal to a tablespoonful, and when satisfied its sides had become very much distended. From the 23rd of August this Observations on the Chameleon. 325 chameleon did not again drink until the 12th of September ; and I afterwards observed that it required water once in about a fortnight. As the opinion that the chameleon does not drink was thus proved an error, so it seemed equally clear that the popular opinion of its assuming the colour of any sub- stance on which it rests is equally so. It has passed over and rested on carpets variegated with different colours—a large ereen cloth, a large growing myrtle, with other coloured sub- stances, without my being able to discern that there was ever any connection between the colour of its surface and that of the material on which it rested. On one occasion, indeed, there appeared something like this ; for when it had made its escape to the outside of the window, it became so much lke the stones on which it rested—black and white—as to escape observation for a considerable time ; but it has been known to assume precisely the same appearance under other circum- stances, and when surrounded with substances very different in colour. It was not kept in greater restraint than was afforded by a large room; but after continuing for several hours on a green or scarlet cloth, or on green vegetables, it was not seen to assume these colours; nor, indeed, was it ever seen to © assume the colour of scarlet. It was only after it had been a fortnight in my possession, that I had an opportunity of seeing it take a fly; but after this 16 not only took all that came in its way, but would seize them as fast as children would bring them; and it even became so familiar with the act as to take them repeatedly fromthe hand. It was thus easy to measure the distance to which it was able to dart its tongue in seizing its prey, which was found to be six inches—or rather more than the length of its body ; but the more usual distance was about three inches, and it was very rarely seen to miss the mark. In approaching a fly, the motion at first was slow and cautious, and within a favourable distance the mouth opened and the tongue pro- truded. slowly to the extent of about an inch, beyond which it darted swiftly, although not as has been represented, for it has been described as more sudden and swift than human sight could follow it. The extremity of the tongue is usually flat and poimted; but when darted forward to its prey, the end is formed into the shape of a (large) pea, the middle bemg the most projecting part. To this the fly adheres by means of the tenacicus mucus with which it is covered, and it is instantly conveyed into the mouth. But it is necessary to the success of this operation that the fly should be on some fixed substance, and almost, if not entirely, at rest; for if other- wise the chameleon will not attempt to take it, and repeatedly it has been observed to protrude a portion of the tongue, 326 Observations on the Chameleon. and then withdraw it as the fly has been in motion, until at last 1b has either secured the prey, or given up the attempt. About the middle of September, when the weather had become moist, and the thermometer had ceased to stand at 60° at noon, its activity was greatly lessened, scarcely moving when awake, and sleeping the greater part of the day; but the appearance of sunshine restored some degree of activity. It was noticed also that when asleep at night, with the thermometer below 56°, the colour had ceased to be yellow or whitish, as was formerly the case under these circumstances of rest, but pea green. But the greatest changes were in the first week of December, when, with the thermometer at about 50°, it ceased to take the flies presented to 1t; and when the thermometer was at 46° it had become so torpid as, although taken in the hands, it seemed unable to move or open its eyes. As the coldness of the air appeared to be the cause of this insensibility to impressions which at one time effected visible alterations in its actions, as well as in its changes of colour, it was often brought within the influence of artificial heat ; but this appeared to produce little effect, and it never spon- taneously sought the aid of the fire ; whereas the faintest sun- beam was a source of enjoyment, in which it would bask, and for the sake of which it would change its position as the gleam moved in the room. Its breathing at this time appeared distinctly to be counted; the portion of its body pre- sented to the sunbeams was darker than the rest, and when, on the 5th of December, it was found dead, the general colour of the surface was dark. From later and extensive observation of the change of colour found in fishes, it seems certain that there is no physio- logical analogy between what occurs in them and in the chameleon, but that the circumstances, as well as the causes, are altogether different. On the Variations of certain Crustacea. 327 ON THE VARIATIONS OF CERTAIN CRUSTACEA, IN RELATION TO THE THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY NATURAL MODIFICATION. BY GHORGE S§. BRADY, M.R.C.S8., C.M.Z.S., Secretary to the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club. Darwin’s theory of the origin of species has outlived the viru- lent abuse of an extreme school of scientific, or one might more correctly say, of unscientific opinion, and has entered upon a second phase of existence. It has now to undergo the ordeal of a searching comparison with the phenomena of nature; with phenomena not only old and familiar, but with many others which have been brought to light since the pub- lication of Mr. Darwin’s treatise, and with a still greater mul- titude which must before long reward the efforts of such laborious students as are now engaged in the pursuit of natural history. The time must come, though we do not yet see it, in which educated men will be willing to receive new truths of biological science, however much these may conflict with pre-. conceived ideas, in a temper as calm as that with which they now contemplate those revelations of geology and astronomy which a past generation counted no better than damnable heresies. It is obvious that the lower orders of animals present a field on which the many details of descent and variation can be examined with much greater facility than amongst more highly-organized beings. The great numbers in which mem- bers of many of the lower groups may be obtained, both in a recent and fossil state, their excessive fecundity, their curious metamorphoses, and other circumstances, render it highly probable that amongst them we shall look with the greatest chance of success for information regarding the true relation- ships of species, and the modes in which they have originated. There is, doubtless, at the outset, a considerable difficulty in accurately defining what we mean by a species. This must, in the long run, be left to the discretion of each observer in the department which he specially cultivates. We can lay down no recognized rule by which one nearly allied species may be absolutely, and without fear of contradiction, sepa- rated from another, and the practice of different naturalists waries in this respect very widely. Thus while “ M. Gremier enumerates only twenty-three roses for the whole of France, M. Déséelise describes or mentions one hundred and seven in his elaborate monograph of the French Roses ; and M. Boreau, in the last edition of his Vlora, gives seventy-four for the 328 On the Variations of certain Crustacea. Central Departments only.”* Our common ‘bramble, Rubus jruticosus, 18 a parallel example. By some botanists it may still be, as it used to be, considered as one very variable species ; by others it is divided into a multitude of distinct species: that these are “‘ good” species, according to any possible morphological or physiological test, I cannot believe, though their distinction by specific names may be very con- venient to the botanist. But suppose a few links in different parts of this chain to be lost, then there would be no question as to the ‘* goodness” of the several species. And this con- tinuity is equally apparent in the animal kingdom. Dr. Car- penter’s conclusions with respect to the Foraminifera are that their range of variation is so great as to include, not merely the differential characters which have been accounted specific, but also those upon which the greater part of the genera, or even in some instances the orders, have been founded ; that the ordinary notion of species as assemblages of individuals marked out from each other by definite characters that have been genetically transmitted from original prototypes similarly distinguished, is quite inapplicable to this group; since even if the limits of such assemblages were extended so as to in- clude what elsewhere would be accounted genera, they would still be found so closely connected by gradational links, that definite lines could not be drawn between them; that any arrangement of genera and species which may for convenience be adopted, must be regarded merely as assemblages of forms characterized by the nature and degree of modification of the original type, which they may have respectively acquired in the course of genetic descent from a common ancestry; that even as to the family types it may fairly be questioned whether analogical evidence does not rather favour the idea of their derivation from a common original than that of their primitive distinctness.+ My object, however, in the present paper, is to give a brief account of some recent researches of two German naturalists, Dr. Miller, and more particularly Dr. Claus, the Professor of Natural History at Marburg. The work of Dr. Fritz Miiller, fiir Darwin, I know only by some extracts given about a year ago in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. These are especially interesting, inasmuch as the author conducted his investigations on a deductive, instead of on the usual inductive plan ; that is to say, instead of in the first instance ascertaining a number of facts, and then looking for some general explanation of them, he, to begin with, set before him- self Darwin’s theory of descent, and said, “If this theory be <. * J. G. Baker, Review of the British Roses. + Dr. Carpenter, quoted by Mr. Grove, Address to British Association. On the Variations of certain Crustacea. 329 - true, we ought in such and such a case to find such and such peculiarities.” He then set to work to investigate on this basis, and the following is a very striking example of his results. Crabs are divided into several natural families, so grouped because all the species of each family ;possess certain cha- racters in common which distinguish them from those of neigh- bouring families. This, according to Darwin’s hypothesis, is the natural result of their descent from one common ancestor. Then the species of all these families, which we may call A, B, and C, present certain ordinal characters common to all, and due to the fact that the families A, B, and C, descended from a more remote type X. ‘This may be more plainly shown as follows :— ‘ a a’ a” a’’—al b b’ b” b”’—bl ¢ c’ ce! c”’—c* First family. Second family. Third family. Now it is remarkable that in each of these families we find, as exceptions to the normal mode of life of the crabs, certain terrestrial species. It is permissible to suppose, d priori, that these must present certain modifications of the respiratory apparatus, enabling them to breathe air, and if each terrestrial species has gradually renounced, for itself, the aquatic mode of life, there is every probability that each would present a modi- fication, swi generis, very different from those presented by others. If, on the contrary, observation proved that all these terrestrial species present the same modification’ of the respi- ratory apparatus, the Darwinian theory could only account for them by assuming that these terrestrial species belonging to various families, which we may distinguish as a’, b', c', descended from a common type, O, which had already acquired the organic conditions of aérial respiration. But then the theory would contradict itself; for while the study of the respiratory organs would compel us to make at, b', c', descend from O, the dis- tinctive characters of the familes to which they belong lead us to assign to them a different origin, namely, from X through Pe Band: C. The details of the organization of the respiratory apparatus in the land crabs have hitherto been unknown ; and thus a fine field of investigation was open to Dr. Muller. If he found in the terrestrial species of different families the same arrange- ment for effecting aérial respiration, the Darwinian theory would be irrevocably condemned, but if he should discover differences so complete as not to be reducible to the same type, 330 On the Variations of certain Crustacea. this would certainly furnish a strong argument in favour of the theory, and the latter alternative has proved to be the true one. In an Aratus which climbs upon the branches of the man- groves, and in a Grapsus which runs about the rocks of Santa Catharina, the air finds entrance to the branchial cavity by a fissure situated above the last pair of feet. These crabs open the respiratory fissure by elevating the posterior extremity of the carapace. ‘This aperture is consequently at the extremity of the branchial cavity opposite to that by which water enters and issues; for the apertures for the ingestion and egestion of water are in the same position in all crabs. The genera Sesarma and Cyclograpsus, belonging, like the preceding, to the family Grapside, contain species living m holes on the shore. These possess the same posterior res- ~ piratory fissure: but it is difficult to see the gaping, as the animals rarely open it, indeed only when they have been a long time out of the water. This is due to a very curious arrangement, which does not exist in the preceding species, and which enables these animals for a long time to respire the air dissolved in the water that bathes the branchie. The region which separates the aperture for the reception and emission of water is, aS it were, reticulated, and bristles with small recurved hairs. The water issuing from the egestive orifice spreads in an instant over this network of hairs, and becomes saturated with air, after which it 1s conducted by a special arrangement into the ingestive aperture. ‘The same portion of water may thus pass through the branchial chamber a great many times, carrying always a fresh supply of oxygen with it. In moist air this circulation of water may be main- tained for a very long time, but when the provision of water is evaporated, the crab has recourse to the posterior aperture for aerial respiration. The arenicolous Ocypode have been so completely estranged from an aquatic mode of life that a stay of one day in sea- water is sufficient to kill them. It has long been observed that in these animals the third and fourth pairs of feet are exceedingly close together. Their contiguous surfaces are clothed at the margins with a dense coat of hairs. It has been supposed that these hairs were intended to diminish the friction of the surfaces, but this is evidently a mistake. Dr. Muller has discovered between the bases of these approximated legs an aperture leading into the respiratory cavity. This arrangement exists in several species of the family, particularly in certain Gelasimi, some of which inhabit the mangrove swamps, whilst others run about upon the sand im open day. It might, perhaps, be said that this arrangement was necessary On the Variations of certain Crustacea. ool to protect the respiratory cavity from the entrance of the sand in which the creatures live, but a species of Gelasimus, which lives far from the sands, in the mangrove forests, in company with several Grapside, nevertheless has the respiratory orifice concealed between the third and fourth pairs of feet.* The limits of this paper do not permit me to follow Dr. Miller in his investigations into the development of various erustacea. The metamorphoses which these animals undergo are amongst the most wonderful in the whole range of natural history, fully equalling, and perhaps, from their significance even exceeding in interest, the more generally known changes of the Lepidoptera. The phenomena of embryonic development in all kingdoms of nature lend very strong support to Darwin’s theory, and are indeed perfectly explicable without recourse to:some such hypothesis, and Dr. Muller has, by his recent investigations, added considerably to our knowledge of these amongst the crustacea, and given additional reasons for belief in the theory of transmutation. For the details of his researches I must refer the reader to the translation from which I have already quoted largely. The Ostracoda belonging to the families Cyprince and Cytherine have been hitherto divided into genera and sub- genera on the strength of characters taken in great measure from the carapace, or outer shell of the animal, and more par- ticularly from those of the hinge-joint. This mode of classi- fication must in time give place to one founded on the structure of the animals themselves; but these are often so difficult to obtain in a living or unmutilated state, and are withal so diffi- cult to examine thoroughly and minutely without the aid of a large supply of specimens, that a thorough knowledge of their organization must involve the labour of a lengthened period. Meantime, a good beginning of the work has been made by Dr. Zenker, Professor Lilljeborg, G. O. Sars, and other natu- ralists. But by far the greater number of Ostracoda hitherto described are fossil species, which can be known only by their shells ; or recent species, which have as yet only been examined in a dry state. In these cases the characters of the hinge- joint are very valuable, exhibiting peculiarities which seem to coincide pretty definitely, so far as we at present know, with certain differences of the animal organization. When I began the study of the Ostracoda, I, supposed that every species (I refer now to those of the families Cytherine and Cyprine, which comprise a vast majority of the British species) might unhesitatingly be placed, by virtue of the pecu- harities of the hinge and external shell-surface, in one or other of the established genera. What I wish now to show, is that * Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Third Series; vol.’xv. 302 On the. Variations of certain Crustacea. no such arrangement is possible without leaving numerous intermediate forms—evidently, as it appears to me, links in a chain of descent—which cannot be referred with certainty to any genus. Up to a very recent period, the recognized genera of these two families, founded upon characters of hingement, were as follows :—(1) Jonesia*, the hinge of which 1s perfectly simple, the edge of the valves being quite straight, and held in opposition by ligamentous tissue; (2) Cytherideis, m which the edge of one valve projects sharply at each extremity, and articulates with corresponding excavations or notches of the opposite valve; (3) Cytheridea, bearing on the right valve two knurled or crenulated elevations, which are received ito shallow fossee of the opposite valve; (4) Cythere, which, instead of knurled elevations, bears two strong projecting teeth, arti- culating with corresponding fossee of the left valve, and between the two teeth a bar which is received into a furrow of the opposed valve ; (5) Cythereis, similar to the foregoing, except that the bar and furrow are cbsolete; (6) Bairdia,t m which the left valve is much the larger, overlapping considerably the edge of the right valve, which is received within it. But between the typical forms of Jonesia and Oytherideis there are many gradations of hinge character, no two species being exactly alike in this respect. Many species, instead of having margins either absolutely straight or angularly notched, have more or less pronounced curvatures. In this category may be placed Cythere variabilis, Baird, C. contorta, Norman, and other species. The genera Cythere and Cytheridea are not, so far as we at present know, so closely interwoven; still there are several species which are intermediate in character. One of the commoner littoral species, Cythere lutea, Miller (C. renifornis, Baird), has hinge-processes which are distinctly crenulated, and many species possess a crenulated bar between the two terminal teeth. Cythere and Cythereis are so mex- tricably united that it 1s impossible to draw any line of sepa- ration which at all takes into account the character of the hinge, and even if we look to more general peculiarities, the task of discrimination is scarcely more practicable. The genus Bairdia is very distinct indeed in its most strongly marked forms, the great inequality in the size of the two valves, and the peculiar overlapping of the left hinge-margin being un- mistakeable characters. But besides that the tendency to a * The genus Jonesia was proposed by myself (Zrans. Zool. Soc., vol. yv.), but appears to be equivalent to Bythocythere, G. O. Sars,a genus founded on exclusively animal characters. When my paper was written, 1 was not acquainted with the valuable memoir of M. Sars, which indeed was probably not printed at the time. + The genus Bairdia is related to Cypris, belonging to the family Cyprine, and not Cythering, with which it has been hitherto classed. i) Ow the Variations of certain Crustacea. 033 sight mequality of the valves is very general amongst the Ostr acoda, there are some species which possess this character strongly developed, and are at the same time not at all refer- able to the genus Bairdia. Cythere convexa, Baird, is a well- marked example, the carapace having the general form of Bardia, and also the unequal and overlapping valves, but exhibiting at the same time the strongly-developed hinge-pro- cesses of Oythere. It may also be noted as a most interesting fact that there exist several genera of marine Ostracoda—not hitherto de- scribed as British*—which are distinctly intermediate, in the character of the contained animals, between the (chiefly) marine ambulatory genus Cythere, and the purely fresh water, natatory genus Cypris. These intermediate genera are— Bairdia, Pontocypris, Paracypris, and Argilloecia. The first- named group is represented in the British seas by several species, D. inflata, Norman; B. acanthigera, Brady ; B. inter- media, Brady; B. obtusata, G. O. Sars; B. minna, Baird. Of Paracypris, we have one British species, P. polita, C0. Sars ; of Pontocypris two species, P. semilafa, G. O. Sars; and P. trigonella, G. O. Sars, while the genus Argilloecia seems to be unrepresented on our shores. The object which I have now more especially in view is to give a brief abstract of a memoir recently published by Dr. Claust{ on the Copepoda of Nice. ‘This paper has not, so far as I know, been yet translated, or even noticed, in England. The object of the author, besides the description of new species, was to give an account of some remarkable variations which have come under his notice during a long study of this tribe of animals, and I propose now to notice, very briefly, some of the facts which he describes. The Copepoda of Nice, are, as might be expected from geographical considerations, much more nearly related to those of Messina than to those of the North Sea, but the following particularly northern forms are found likewise at Nice :— Anomalocera Patersonit, an Atlantic Bowselia Cetochilus sep- tentrionalis, which forms the chief food of the Arctic whales, but attains in that northern region to a much greater size ; also Tisbe furcata and Huterpe gracilis. Other species occur less commonly, such as Ichthyophorba denticornis, of which the Nice variety is of strikingly slender form, and has, in the male, remarkably small clasping feet. The variations noticed in Dias longiremis are also remarkable. * Some of these species have been described from the external shell charac- ters by British authors, but of the animals themselves nothing has been published in this country. t “Die Copepoden- Fauna von Wize: ein Beitrag zur charakteristik der formen und deren Abinderungen im sinne Darwin’s.’ Marburg und Leipzig, 1866. 304: On the Variations of certain Crustacea. Some northern species are, at Nice, represented by very ° nearly related forms. Thus the northern Dactylopus Stromii, gives place to D. similis ; the northern Harpaticus chelifer to HI. niceensis. Similar differences may be noted between the Copepoda of Nice and Messina, the species and genera of which places are for the most part the same, and, in many cases, of invariable form, e.g., Hucheta Prestandree, and Candace melanops. . But there is a constant deviation observed in Calanus mastigophorus. The most important distinctive characters met with amongst the Copepoda are in the size and colour of the body, the form and length of the tail, the form and number of jomts of the upper antennee, the character of their appen- dages, the character of the eyes, etc. The colour of a species may, however, be due to the distribution of pigment in various form through the external tissues of the body, or it may result merely from masses of food lodged im the alimentary canal, or from the natural colour of organs such as the ovaries. Indeed, it is often very difficult to decide how far in particular cases variations of colour may depend upon outward conditions, such as those of food and tem- perature. It is worthy of remark that some very common species have a large and a small variety, and that we do not find intermediate sizes. These may, perhaps, exist, but they are seldom seen. Thus a large form of Dactylopus similis is 1°2 mm. im length, the small variety only 0°7 mm. Tisbe furcata also varies at Nice from 1-4mm. to 2°3 mm., and there is a form of Antaria mediterranea, in which some of the middle segments are wholly, or in part, wanting. As connected with this part of the subject, I may note that I find a variety of Dias longivemis in brackish water at Burgh Marsh, Cum- berland, also in similar situations at Hartlepool and Alnmouth, the length of which is only one-thirty-fifth of an imch, that of the normal form being one-twentieth of an inch. The characters of the tail sete, and the joints of the antennee are of great specific importance amongst the Cope- oda, and there are many striking variations in these respects, as, for instance, in Cyclops serrulatus, Antaria mediterranea, and various Corycet. Differences im the size of the various joints of the antenne are very common. In Harpacticus niceeensis the third and fourth joints are often much elongated ; in a large variety of Tisbe furcata, the size of each joint is subject to much variation ; and there is also a variety of this species which bears a very large secondary branch on the lower antenna; the terminal joint being excessively elongated. In Dactylopus similis the fifth and sixth joimts are very variable, On the Variations of certain Crustacea. 390 and the nearly related D. Stromu, of Heligoland, likewise shows a similar tendency to variation. Circumstances of this kind prove that closely-allied species are subject to changes of a similar nature. Dactylopus Stromw seems especially lable to great divergence. The seventh antennal joint is of very uncertain length, and is even sometimes divided mto two joits. This Dr. Claus has observed only in one instance, the antenne having nine, instead of eight joints, and in their relative size simulating those of the allied genus Thalestris. Of thirteen known species of Dactylopus, far the most have eight-jomted antenne, two species have ten joints, one has seven and one five. Nine-jointed antennee are not met with normally in any species of Dactylopus. ‘Thus it appears that through individual alteration characters may be acquired which one is accustomed to regard as being even of generic import- ance. Inthe same way, the Mediterranean species of Har- pacticus have mmne-jointed antenne, the northern species being eight-jointed. Greater and smaller individual differences may - occur in all parts of the body, and these often occur in such wise that though there may be no intermediate forms, it is quite impossible to regard the animals as belonging to distinct species. We must in such cases allow the influence of “ time’s effacing fingers.” Highly interesting and important in this view are the variations in the length of the third and fourth antennal joints of Harpacticus niceensis. The stronger, and, on the average, the larger form, has a heavy, strong body, ill-bred apparently, inactive and wanting in mobility, the antennee clumsy, with their third and fourth joints short and thick, the second joint very long ; the second foot-jaw ends in a strong, massive, clasping hand; the first pair of feet are armed with doubly-curved claws; the feet, especially the last pair, are strong and clumsy, all the setz showing a tendency to become plumose. The smaller and slenderer breed has longer antennze, the third and fourth joints of which are much elongated; the prehensile apparatus of the foot-jaws and first pair of feet more slender, and there is also a much slimmer, slenderer form of the limbs. In general structure and con- formation of body, in the peculiar arrangement of sete, the serration of the abdominal segments, in short, in those points where distinct species mostly diverge, there is here a striking agreement. “ After diligent inquiry,” says Dr. Claus, “ these differences remained unexplained, and I was inclined to con- sider them as mere individual variations. But further inves- tigation of all portions of the body convinced me that two distinct forms, with qualities diversely useful, had originated two separate races, one slender, swift, and agile; the other, clumsy in figure, but robust and powerfully armed. The two 386 On the Variations of certain Crustacea. races are so far separate, that mtermediate individuals, par- taking of the characters of both, are not met with. The upper antennee, however, in each case, show a tendency to’ similar variations. At the same time, these variations are not so profound that they might not have been acquired singly or in combination. The differences in the relative size of the claws and prehensile organs may be traced back to the youngest stages of growth. . . . Many species may, no doubt, have been founded on characters no more distinct than these, and on mere deviation of character in the joints, which a critical investigation would prove to be worthless.” When the advocate of immutability urges the absence of forms intermediate between distinct species, he forgets that between acknowledged varieties itis mostly impossible to obtain connecting links. Besides forms, varieties, and nearly allied species observed in places near to each other, Dr. Claus notes examples of variation depending on influences of climate and other external conditions. He lays little stress on varieties of colouring, but much upon difference of size, instancing the Cetochilus sep- tentrionalis as found at Nice, which is only one-third of the normal size of the species. The little Calanus mastigophorus which he distinguished at Messina by the long, whip-shaped, antennal setee, occurred also at Nice, but without these setae. Very remarkable also are the differences of form im the male prehensile foot of Dias longwemis. While the fifth feet of the females of Nice and Heligoland are in all essential respects the same, that of the Nicewan male has a stronger claw and appendage, to allow, as it seems, of a stronger grasp. We have here, asin the case of Orchestia Darwiwit, two different males in the same species, and can only explain the deviation as the result of natural causes connected with different localities. The difference of the feet is deed so striking as to have led to the supposition of the two forms being distinct species. An instance of concurrent variation of different parts of the body occurs in the Ichthyophorba denticornis of Nice and Heligoland. The former is not only smaller than the northern species, but has proportionally far more slender armatures of the antenne, and a much less marked angular projection of the last segment of the body, and in the males much weaker prehensile appa- ratus of the fifth foot. It thus stands, in size and conform- ation, between the northern I. angustata and denticornis, the distinctions, indeed, are here so sharply defined that according to some schools of naturalists they might properly constitute species rather than varieties. ‘‘ The opponent of the origin of species by descent,” continues Dr. Claus, ‘‘ asks to see forms of an intermediate character. When we succeed in showing On the Variatious of certain Crustacea. 307 these, which, from the requirements of natural selection, must be but seldom, he immediately answers that the two extreme forms are not good species, but only varieties. This is a vicious style of argument. Darwin rightly says that facts seems to prove the fruitfulness or sterility of animals iier se, to be a criterion of no value whatever, but his opponents maintain that the descendants of varieties are fruitful, and of species sterile, inter se. So when Rouy in Angouléme obtained - many successive generations of a breed between the hare and the rabbit, they directly affirm that these animals had been hitherto misunderstood, and that they are evidently only varie- ties of the same species. In the same way, however, as we discriminate species by characters occurring either singly or in combination, we are entitled to believe in the general un- fruitfulness together of animals belonging to those forms which we designate by the name of species—-a peculiarity imparted to them along with many other characters, and having in itself nothing requiring separate explanation.”’ A great many people fear to believe in the derivative origin of species, because they vaguely fancy that the doctrine leads to materialism, and even worse phases of belief or unbelief. They charge its advocates with inability to appreciate what- ever cannot be weighed and handled, with a want of reverence for the spiritual and unseen. And, indeed, it is obvious that material organisms must be subject to the laws which regu- late matter, just as much as spiritual entities must obey the laws of spirit. But though we believe that the phenomena of origin and creation are the result of the operations of immu- table law, no less as regards species and races than as regards the individual; we believe likewise that these laws are at once an expression of the will, and a revelation of the wisdom of the Hternal, and that through them “the whole round earth is every way bound by gold chains about the feet of God.” 038 A New Charr from British Columbia. A NEW CHARR* FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA. BY JOHN KEAST LORD, F.zZ.S., Naturalist to the North American Boundary Commission; Author of ‘The Naturalist in Vancouver’s Island and British Columbia.” Sp. Co.— Scales minute. Head and body rather com- pressed ; the height of the head equals the length of the head, and is two-ninths of the total (without caudal) ; the length of the head is one-half the distance between the snout and the vertical from the origin of the dorsal fin. Snout very obtuse, scarcely longer than the diameter of the eye, which is three- fourths of the width of the interorbital space. ‘The lower jaw is a little shorter than the upper ; maxillary of moderate length, scarcely reaching to the vertical from the margin of the orbit. Teeth of moderate strength; those along the medium line of the hyoid are very small. Praeoperculum with a very distinct lower limb. Fins rather small; the length of the pectoral is less than that of the head (without snout), or one-half of the distance of its root from the ventrals; caudal fin slightly emareinate. Back and sides reddish olive; sides with nume- rous round light-coloured spots. Belly whitish powdered with reddish olive; paired fins and anal colourless; caudal immaculate. Pyloric appendages very long and wide. ; “This is one of the smallest species of charr, both our specimens having the abdomen filled with mature ova.” It would be of no practical use to give a lengthy description of the specific differences which separates the charr from the rest of the Salmonide. The charr we are familiar with, as tenanting British waters, are as a rule residentin deep lakes. Yarrell, in his History of British Fishes, vol. ii., p. 125, tells us “The charr generally inhabit the deepest parts of those lakes, in which they are found, and afford but little amusement to the angler.” The charr are very seldom known to wander into any of the streams, by which these lakes are either sup- plied or drained, except at the season of spawning, and their decided partiality for clear water and a hard bottom is then very conspicuous. The spawning season is in November and December. I must ask my readers to forget for a short time the beautiful lake scenery we are all so justly proud of, to leave the haunts of the British charr (with which, if the reader is a disciple of the “gentle art,’ he is pretty sure to be familiar), and to visit with me, in imagination, its near relative, a dweller in the % Se das Lordii, Noy. Sp., Gunther, Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Fishes, vol. vi., p. 148. A New Charr from British Columbia. 399 wild regions of North-western America. Let us suppose ourselves to be entering the Fraser River, which, I need hardly say, 18 the principal navigable stream flowing through British Columbia; it heads from the Rocky Mountains, drains a large extent of country west of the Cascade Mountains, and empties into the Gulf of Georgia, about six miles north of the British and American boundary line, the 49th parallel of N. lat.; the entire length of the river may be roughly set down as 1000 miles. Asmall steamer conveys us so far as New Westminster (which is the capital town of British Columbia), a small straggling place built on a steep wooded slope, about fifteen miles from the mouth of the Fraser River. Here we charter a canoe, and provide a stout crew of Indians, and if we start early, we may manage to reach Fort Langley by sundown. This so-called fort is a trading station belonging to the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany, whereat in salmon-time immense numbers of these lordly fish are salted and barrelled, to be eventually disposed of at the Sandwich Islands atid San Francisco. Putting wp cran- berries also, at one time, formed a large item of the trade done at this station. The berries were bartered from the Indians, then headed into casks made at the fort, these casks were lastly filled with water, through a hole in the head bored for the purpose, and then plugged up. We sleep at Fort Langley, and paddle away again early in the morning. On either side of the stream (which in this, the month of August, is swift and turbulent), rise steep sharp-pointed hills, deeply cleft into ravines, and densely clothed with massive pine-trees, from the water’s edge to the very topmost pinnacles of their craggy rocks. Here and there some tributary stream makes its way from amidst the trees, and, as we pass, little clusters of Indian lodges are revealed, resembling hillocks, but from which many columns of white smoke are stealing up through the trees, and but for such tell-tales we might have gone by the village fifty times, and have been none the wiser. Suddenly, as we round a sharp bend in the river, we come into a wide expanse of water, tranquil as a lake (these lake-like stretches of water are peculiarly characteristic of the scenery on the Lower Fraser) green grassy banks like verdant meadows extend for some distance from the water’s edge to meet the bases of the hills, to be at last absorbed amidst their timbered slopes. These banks are favourite camping-grounds for the fishing Indians, and we can make out, as we paddle slowly past, little fleets of canoes, laying bottom uppermost on the grass, whilst behind them are lodges of all sizes: many camp-fires are burning brightly, and round about them groups of dingy savages loll lazily or squat on their heels. A-head of us are four canoes, each of 340 A New Charr from British Columbia. them manned by two nearly nude savages, the one paddling is seated in the stern, the other, standing in the bow, is armed with a spear seventy feet in lenoth. These Indians are stur- geon-spearing—sturgeon five hundred, and sometimes as ‘much as seven hundred weight, are speared and landed with these frail canoes, that the slightest mequality of balance would upset Ina moment. We land in the evening on the ““Sumass spit,’ a large sand-bank at the junction of the Sumass and Fraser Rivers. Here we find a regular Indian town, not very large as regards the number of its houses, but each house contains from nine to twelve families. The houses are built like sheds, with cedar planks, a small part of the interior is apportioned to each family, who sit or lie on the bare ground round the fire, every family has its own fire, and the smoke from the whole of them finds its way out as best it can. A stockade about twelve feet high, constructed of small trees and stout poles, encircles the village; this defence is pierced with small apertures, through which arrows or bullets, if need be, can be fired at an enemy. About three miles higher up the river lives another tribe, we shall not see their village, because it is situated inside a small island, and, thus craftily hidden from sight, any one going up or down the river, would not know of its existence. The owners, the Chilukweyuk Indians, are dire enemies of the Sumass tribe, hence the latter, bemg the weaker, need a stockade to prevent their foes from pouncing upon them unexpectedly. These Indians live in a great measure upon white fish (Coregonus quadrilateralis) and salmon, fresh and sun-dried. We have fifty miles more to accomplish ere we reach Fort Hope, our destination. The river above Sumass gets swifter in its course, rapids are more numerous and difficult to ascend, and what is most astounding, heaps of drift timber, each heap containing many thousands of immense trees, are piled up at nearly every bend, or wherever rocks, a point of land, ora sand-bank, has offered any obstruction to their onward course. These trees are washed down by the floods, which commence in May, and are at their highest during June and July, at which time the sun rapidly melts the snow from off the hills. If one did not previously know that the river rises quite forty feet during the summer freshets, it would be a puzzle to conceive how such gigantic trees could be piled one upon top of another ; as the canoe glides along beneath their shadow, it is precisely like looking up at a cliff ‘composed of huge trees. ‘Two living things only are to be seen on this chaos of wood; one of these, the dipper (Cinctus Americanus) hunts busily on the submerged stumps for aquatic insects and larvae, sometimes quite under water, at others only half immersed ; whilst the A New Charr from Bie Columbia. 341 "other, the “store keeper” squirrel (Tanias quadrivittatus) scampers along from tree to tree, chattering, whistling, and scolding, as if in angry remonstrance at so impudent an intru- sion into its solitudes. It is ticklish work getting up some of the rapids; paddles are of no avail, and the canoe has to be propelled with light poles (poling a canoe up a swift rapid is a feat I have never geen a white man perform with the same skill as an Indian, not even the oldest and most skilful voya- geurs belonging to the Hudson’s Bay Company are equal to the red-skins ; the art of holding the canoe with the pole, and whilst propelling her against the current, preventing its sweeping her round, is an art Indians, and only Indians, know how to manage) the shghtest slip and over we go, with the water running like a mill-race, rocks, boulders, and snags everywhere, and eddies, and whirlpools strong enough to suck down a boat; why, a man would not have the shghtest chance of saving himself from drowning, even if he could swim like a beaver ; but somehow the red-men get us through in safety. Now and then we pass beneath a rocky cliff, the splintery points of which knock the water into spray as it hurries on its way; then coaxing the frothy current into clefts and hol- lows, whirls it round in countless eddies. Here in these dark retreats salmon love to linger, as they toil on against every obstacle in search of some gravelly stream, wherein to make a nest and bury their eggs; and we may count these noble fish by the thousand, and then fail to arrive at a fair estimate of the numbers which every year ascend the Fraser and its tributaries. Stages suspended by ropes of twisted bark dangle over these gloomy whirlpools, frail are they in con- struction, being simply leht poles tied clumsily together, one shudders even to look at the fearless savages, as kneeling or sitting on their heels they ply a small round net affixed to the end of a long handle, and one by one land goodly salmon on the treacherous platform. It is no easy feat to lift a heavy fish, fappimg and struggling in the full vigour of superfluous health, on to a stage swinging in mid-air, or to knock it senseless with a single blow when it is there; and yet these untutored men manage to do it, every day and all day lone. To fall from off the stage must be certain death, and yet they are compelled by hard necessity thus to imperil life and limb in order to obtain food, on which to exist during the biting cold of a six months’ winter. We need not linger to describe all our different campine- places, but we will pass them by as offering little worthy of particular notice. Fort Hope, our destination, is_ visible a-head, perched upon a bluff some height above the river. The scenery is grand and massive beyond description ; lofty J42 A New Charr from British Columbia. mountains, some of them crowned with perpetual snow, com- pletely shut the river in on both sides. A dense impenetrable forest of pine-trees seem to rise from out the water, and in a series of green slopes end only at the sky-line. But this mass of dark green is so broken, divided, and grouped, if J may so express it, by craggy masses of rock, deep ravines, and narrow valleys, through which streams rattle noisily, that all idea of monotony vanishes, and on every side is a magnificent natural picture, wherein are all the elements requisite to make a land- scape beautiful, but on such a scale of immensity, that 1b fairly staggers one to gaze upon it. The river sweeps past Fort Hope with great velocity, then making a sudden bend to the right, is suddenly lost amidst the juttmeg pomts of land and the dense foliage of the forest. Fort Hope is but a small place, consisting of the Hudson’s Bay trade post, some scattered log houses, and a kind of street facing the water, made up of stores, groggeries, billiard saloons, and barber’s shops. This town, since the period of which I am writing (bemg the head of steamer navigation) has grown to be a place of some importance, because one of the routes to Cariboo is vid Fort Hope and Lytton. A steamer in old days did occasionally come up to Fort Hope at certain periods of the year, in order to take away the furs collected there during the year, and at the same time to bring goods for barter with Indians, which goods were destined for the supply of the frontier trading posts. We are now near the home of our new charr, and I shall continue this imaginary journey, because it will the better enable me to describe the character of the river in which the fish lives, and the kind of country through which the stream flows, matters of importance, as showing how the charr of British Columbia differs in habit and habitat from its better known British brethren. The distance to our fishing-ground is rather too great to walk comfortably, and the hills are steep, so we will mount our mustangs, and ride. Our route is along a flat at first, covered with shingle and large rounded boulders, which were brought here, in all probability, on the shoulders of the ice king, for in no other way could masses of rock, differmg entirely from the rocks comprising the encircling mountains have been transported from a distance. Water power could never have rolled them; their weights must be caleulated by tons, not pounds. ‘The flat we are traversing was, most likely, the bed of an ancient lake. The best evidence obtain- able respecting the age of these vast accumulations of water- . Worn stones is at best but very imperfect. Whether this huge continent has been depressed in the mass, or whether the A New Charr from British Columbia. O43 upheaval in the centre has greatly exceeded that along its margins are speculations for geologists to decide. These terrace formations, as they are styled, must strike the most obtuse traveller as being unlike anything he has seen before in other parts of the world. There is hardly a valley between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast lower than 4000 feet above the sea im which these shingle terraces are not met with. Two miles across the shingle, which is but sparsely covered with timber, brings us to a beautiful stream, the Qua-que-alla, clear as crystal, and cold asice. Jt has a swift rocky course, and as we look into the glass-like water, brigades of salmon (Salmo lycaodon) are seen toiling on, all with their heads up stream, literally crowd- ine one another against the rocks and banks, the bright scarlet stripe marking the sides of every fish; the worn noses and large ulcerous wounds that have eaten holes into the living fish, tell their own tales of har dships, difficulties, and priva- tions, endured in obeying an instinct ever prompting them to deposit their eggs as high up m the mountain streams as they can get. Neither can we be blind to the fact that another purpose is fulfilled by the bountiful hand of God, thus direct- ing myriads of fish to quit the sea, and enter rivers intersect- ime the interior of a continent or anisland. This obedience to an unalterable law is a simple means by which heat-yielding materials, and meat requiring sunshine only to cure it (salmon sun-dried will keep sound for years), are floated, free of all freight, to the dwellings of the aborigines who live far inland, and have to endure a rigorous winter and six months snow. Tt is not at all overstating the fact to say, that four out of every six of these salmon we are watching, will die as they strugele onwards, and drift back again in rotting masses, towards the ocean from whence they came. We only follow this stream for a short distance to reach its junction with a second stream, up the course of which we ride by following a narrow trail. Where the forest is a little open we can look upwards through the trees and discern the water-shed of the Cascade Mountains. The waters of the eastern side find their way imto the Columbia, whilst these . - on the west flow mito the Fraser. The hill we are ascending is steep, and the river tumbles from rock to rock with tre- mendous force; a louder roar than we have been hstening to, directs us to a waterfall, where the river plunges over a vertical wall of rock, and puts an effectual stop to the salmon’s further ascent (bear this fact in mind). We by-and-by reach a kind of plateau, where the water has a slower course; now we will tether our mustangs, put our fishing-gear into working order, and commence work. 344. A New Charr from British Columbia. The flies we must use are small, and of bright, gaudy colours. My first cast results only in a rise; my second is attended with better success—a fine speckled trout, the Oregon- brook trout (fario stellatus) les flappmg on the grass. The next throw is into a comparatively still pool; with a gentle splash a small fish seizes the fly, and finds itself suddenly m the hands of a naturalist ; I examine it carefully, and discover that I have a charr; more than this, it was a female fish, and she was full of eggs, others were soon taken; but im all the roe and milts were near to maturity, the largest charr did not exceed six inches in length, and there could be no doubt the fish were adult, and fully grown. I had frequently fished in the lakes on Vancouver’s Island, as well as in other lakes and streams (I may mention the Sumass, Chilukweyuk, and Sweltza, as examples; these are mountain lakes, with streams flowing out from them), at lower levels along the spurs of this, the Cascade range of mountains ; but in no single imstance did I ever catch a charr. The three lakes I have named fulfil every condition of the Cumberland, Swiss, and other lakes in which our charr (Salmo salvelinuws) are usually taken, and one woald have naturally supposed that if charr were to be found at all, they would have been in localities similar to those they favour and frequent in other countries. Not so, however; here is the only place (as far as my experience goes) where charr are to be obtained in British Columbia. The first thing which occurs to us as being unusual as regards this charr is, that there is no lake, nor even still water, near to where it resides, and not far above the spot on which we are standing, is the source of the river (about 7000 feet above the sea level), owing its origin to the melting snows, of course the water is at all times intensely cold. In the second place, we have tracked the river courses from the sea, and itis quite clear this tiny charr could never have come from the lower part of the river; it must have quitted its egg near to where I caught it, and have lived there to a mature age, and in its turn is now ready to deposit eggs for the produc- tion of another family. Even supposing this small and delicate charr risked a plunge over the cascade we peeped at, and survived the tumble, it is hardly conceivable that it would escape the thousand and one dangers which would beset it; and if it did, by no possibility could it ever return again to this part of the river. In the third place, the habit of leaving the lakes at the spawning time common to all our charr (according to Yarrell) can never be indulged in by this British Columbian species, because it is completely imprisoned in a few miles of river. The barrier on one side is a waterfall ; on the other the source of the stream. A New Charr from British Columbia. 345 The stomachs of all the charr I opened were crammed with the remains of winged insects, and in a few of them I observed portions of the wings, together with other parts of the larger dragon-flies (Hshna), an insect that in size nearly equalled its devourer. I did not see any remains of aquatic larve inter- mixed with the other contents of the stomach, hence I am disposed to think these charr during the summer take the greater part of their food on the surface of the water. They are the most greedy little gluttons conceivable, I could see them dash at my flies two or three at a time, fighting and struggling to get the first chance to seize it. The British Columbian charr is a particularly handsome little fish. The body is more slender than is that of the trout, and in colour olive-green, blushed with pink; the sides are densely covered with minute white spots, as if the fish had been sprinkled with whitewash ; all the fins are of a pinkish hue, whilst the fish is alive, but turn to a dingy white immediately after death. The lower jaw being a little shorter than the upper, gives the head and snout (if I may use the word for want of a better) a snubby appearance. As the eggs of the female fish were nearly mature, there can be but little, if any, doubt that these charr spawn in August, although I had no opportunity to watch them as to their modes of depositing the egos; and, singular to say, I never obtained a male fish. Itis a somewhat remarkable difference, as regards the Salmonidee of North-western America, when compared in habits with our own, that the former spawn in summer and early in the autumn, whereas our salmon generally deposit their eggs in December. But then we must not forget that during the summer the North-western rivers are at their highest, from the enormous inflow of water caused by the rapid melting of the snow, and also that the temperature of the water is never, in the hottest weather, more thana degree or two above the freezing point. If the salmon did not ascend the rivers during the flood time, they -could not leap over the falls, or twist their way against the rapids, that everywhere occur to intercept their progress towards the spawning grounds. What are obstructions only when the rivers are high, become impassable barriers when the waters are at their lowest level. There is another curious feature in the habits of North- western American salmon, one isat once struck with, which is, salmon never take a bait of any kind after quitting the sea; whereas their near relatives, the charr, trout, and salmon-trout, greedily take anything offered to them. My own opinion is, that the salmon in North-western rivers never feed after they abandon the salt water until they either perish or again reach the ocean, and I say, without fear of contradiction, that four 346 A New Charr from British Columbia. out of every six salmon die which ascend the river for the purpose of spawning in its tributaries. So vast, during the winter months, is the accumulation of dead salmon in the small streams, that to live anywhere near to them is next to impos- sible. Rotting fish hang from every spray that dips mto the water ; rotting fish lodge in every eddy, and jam against the irregularities of the rocks and boulders ; rotting fish le stranded on every sand-spit; and rotting fish are day and night drift- ing onwards towards the sea. Why such a waste of valuable food is permitted by the all-wise God who bountifully sent it, no one can tell; but that 1b is mtended to serve some wise and useful purpose, although to us inscrutable, is indisputable. To return to our little charr, it is equally puzzling to me to account for the presence of this member of the Salmomde in a mountain stream, shut in betwixt two barriers, and, as far as 1 know, it is not to be found in any other part of British Columbia. J am almost afraid to venture a suggestion, lest some geologist pounce down upon me. It is disagreeable, to say the least of it, to find oneself tumbled over, and sent floundering amidst the fragments of a pet theory, by some person who happens to be more learned in matters geological. 1 have my own opinions, however, and I mean to state them, and if I am snuffed out and utterly extinguished, so to speak, then so be it; there must be a right side and a wrong side to this question as there is to every other, and if I am groping my way along the latter, why the sooner somebody comes to the rescue the better. J cannot help thinking this isolated charr might possibly have lived in a lake at some remote period, the bottom of which, now high and dry, we rode across when we left Fort Hope. Upheaval of the land drained the lake of its water, and as the mountains were tilted up higher and higher, a few charr might have either followed up the course of this stream, then a tributary to the lake, or they may have been lifted up bodily by a sudden convulsion, such as caused the cliff of rock over which the stream now finds its way, and constitutes an impassable barrier to the ascent or descent of fish. The other charr, after the lake was drained, perished, it may be, suddenly ; — or if they escaped, have given place, during the course of ages, to some stronger race of fishes “‘ in the struggle for existence.” Only in this way can I account for so singular a case of isola- tion as shown us in this British Columbian charr. Bearmg upon, and in some degree, too, confirmatory of this theory, is another fact. Near by this stream wherein the charr live, rhododendrons grow, and in no other part of the Cascade Mountains were these plants discovered. How, then, can we account for this? Here we find a group of flowering shrubs completely islanded, if I may so express it, on a small spot of A New Charr from British Columbia. 347 ground in the very midst of a vast mountain-range. I can see no other way to solve the problem save that of admitting. that some geological change has so modified and altered the general conditions requisite for the growth of this plant in the sur- rounding district, as to cause its extinction, whereas the small spot of land on which it thrives remains unchanged. Perhaps I had better stop my theorizing, lest I get mex- tricably entangled. ‘‘ Fools rush where angels fear to tread,” says the adage. Dr. Gunther for some time imagined the specimens of this charr, which I brought home to the British Museum, to be the young of one of the species of salmon com- mon to the rivers of British Columbia ; and it was not until he examined them carefully, and discovered the fish were females containing fully-matured eges, did he decide they were charr, and the smallest known species. In compliment to the discoverer, Dr. Gunther has named ‘the new charr Fario Lordit. I have given briefly a sketch of the general features of the Fraser River, the stream in which I caught the charr, and of the district through which it flows. How far my speculations as regards this fish’s isolated position may accord with the opinions of those more conversant with the changes which have from time to time altered the earth’s surface than I am, I do not know; of the charr itself I have not deemed it neces- sary to say more than was sufficient to put any reader in pos- session of its most prominent characteristics. Minute descrip- tions of structural peculiarities, by which it was known to be a species new to science, would prove anything but amusing, and of no practical value to any but the scientific icthyologist. My end was to place its habits, and the singularity of its posi- tion, in a pleasant guise, for I fully believe the general reader, though looking upon a fish as only a fish, feels a pleasure in knowing what it does, and how and where it lives in far away lands. Whether or not I have succeeded in my endeavour my reader must decide. 348 | Parasitical Plants—The Balanophoracece. PARASITICAL PLANTS.—THE BALANOPHORACHA. BY JCHN R. JACKSON, Curator of the Museum, Royal Gardeus, Kew. (With a Tinted Plate.) Tue structure and habits of parasitical plants are so peculiar and anomalous to those of other branches of the vegetable kingdom, that they have not only claimed the particular atten- tion of learned and acute observers, but are also of great interest to all lovers of nature; mdeed one of the most popular plants, the mistletoe, belongs to this class, as well as the largest known flower in the vegetable world, namely, that of Ltafflesia Arnoldi. tis to the class of parasites to which the fiaffiesia was formerly considered to be allied—the Bala- nophore—that we wish to direct the reader’s attention ; Bala- nophoracee Cytinacee, and Rafflesiacece were included by Lindley under the head of Rhizanthe, which constitutes one of his five divisions of the vegetable kingdom. The plants so classed are all destitute of true leaves, but having instead cellular scales they do not partake of any of the appear- ances of other plants, having no indication whatever of green colouring matter about them, but are either brown, purple, yellow, or a pale, livid pik. They have short amorphous stems; that is, they are without regular or definite form, and are always parasitical on the roots of other plants. They have true flowers, with stamens, pistils, etc., but these flowers vary considerably in their form and structure ; so much so, indeed, as to induce some botanists to consider them widely distinct, and to place them widely apart in botanical classification. Dr. Hooker is of opinion that the Balanophore have no affinities whatever with Rafflesia, but are nearly connected with Halor- ageace, to which the 'Trapas belong. Numerous papers have been read from time to time at the various learned societies both here and on the continent, on the structure and affinities of the various genera and species of the Balanophorce, but no one has devoted so much attention to the whole group as Dr. J. D. Hooker, the present Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, who by the aid of his extensive cor- respondence, as well as by his own travels, has secured an un- rivalled collection of these peculiar vegetable forms for the Kew Museum. These plants rise not more than a foot above the ground. They are all natives of hot countries, in the tropical and sub- tropical mountains of Asia and South America, where they Parasitical Plants—The Balanophoracec. "849 probably occur in nearly equal proportions. The rhizome, or rooting portion of Balanophorous plants is usually in the form of a simple or branched tuber, seated flat upon the root of the plant, to which it is attached. In very young plants the appearance is nothing more than a mass of cellular tissue, united with the tissue of the root. Dr. Hooker says, “ It offers at first no trace of a vascular system, nor any distinction of parts, but before it has reached the cambium layer of the bark, and before its upper extremity has attained any con- siderable size, an opaque line of white cellular tissue, different from the rest, may be found in the centre of the mass, or beneath each of its lobes, in which vascular tissue makes its appearance. Shortly afterwards the wood of the root upon which the parasite grows appears to become affected, its annual layers are displaced, and at astill later period vascular bundles, enclosed in a cellular sheath, are found in the axis of the rhizome, and are continuous with those already found in it. Some genera do not present the appearance of any vascular bundles communicating with those of the root stock, but their own vascular bundles may be traced descending to the line of union between the root and the parasite, where they become closely applied to the vascular system of the former, without, however, forming any interlacement or organic union.” The roots or rhizomes of these plants are of comparatively slow growth, but vary much in the several species. This may in some measure be referred to the different forms of attach- ment or union with the roots upon which the parasites grow, for it would appear that there are three distinct modes of attachment in the several distinctive forms or genera, and these have been suggested as lines by which to divide the Balanophore into three sections ; firstly, where the vascular tissue of the parasite and nourishing plant is apparently merged in one, or continuous ; secondly, where the attachment is alone effected by means of the cellular system; and thirdly, where the termination of the vessels from the root into the parasite are definite or distinct. The most perfect examples of the first of these divisions are to be found in the genera Rhopalocnemis and Balanophora itself, where also the most perfect vascular system exists, the woody tissue being present throughout the whole plant. Fig. 1 shows a transverse section of B. involu- crata. ‘The formation of the tissue in Helosis Mexicana illus- trates the second division, Fig. 2; while that of Langsdorfia _ illustrates clearly the third, Fie. 3. In the cellular tissue of many of the Balanophore, wax is secreted in large quantities. A view of one of these cells, burst open, and discharging its waxy granules, is shown at Hig. 4. The wax is found mostly in Balanophora and Langs- 300 Parasitical Plants.—The Balanophoracec. dorfia, while in Lophophytum, Cynomorlum, and Sarcophyte in particular, as well as in other genera, starch grains are found in the place of wax. The plants are either moncecious or dicecious. The flowers in some species are arranged in a capitulum, or head, varying in shape, being either round, oblong, ovoid, etc., and in other species they are in compound spikes or panicles. The individual flowers also vary considerably in the different species; they are most perfectly developed in Mystropetalon, and the least so in the female of Balanophora and the male of Lophophytwn. The flowers are either with or without a perianth, but when present it is usually dimorphous. In the genus Rhopalocnemis it is tubular, while in Thonningia it is composed merely of three very minute scales. The styles, stamens, etc., are very variable in number, as well as in form, but though they are always present, they are in many species so imperfectly deve- loped as almost to warrant a very low position in the arrange- ment of flowering plants; but, on the other hand, “if we disregard imperfection, and inquire what organs are wanting in the order, we shall find that, with the exception of terres- trial roots, all are present which are necessary to justify their - being placed among pheenogamic plants.” Of the whole of the genera of the Balanophoracece, Mys- tropetalon is the most perfect, or highly developed. In the capitulz, or flower-heads of this genus, the male flowers are always seated at the top, and the female flowers below. ‘This does not occur as a rule through the other genera, the males in many instances being lowest. Cynomorium coccinewm, Michx. is the Fungus melitensis of the old writers. From its old _ name one might be led to expect that it is alone indigenous to the Island of Malta, but its range extends to the Levant, the Canary Islands, and Northern Africa. The plant grows to about a foot in height, it has a deep pink or reddish tinge, and a very fleshy appearance. The flowers are unisexual, but some- times hermaphrodite flowers are likewise found on the same head. The parts of the perianth, or floral coverings, are always in sixes. The whole plant is covered with small scales. This plant was formerly much valued in Malta as a medicine for the cure of dysentery, and the places where it grew were carefully guarded to prevent its being stolen. The plants were, even up to a recent date, protected and gathered under the supervision of an officer appointed by the British Government. They formerly had a great reputation for stopping the flow of blood, and it is said that the celebrated styptic used by the Crusaders to stanch their wounds was none other than this plant. Mr. P. B. Webb, who travelled in the Canaries, tells us that it is eaten for food there, and much esteemed. Of the genus Parasitical Plants.—The Balanophoracee. dol Sarcophyte, 8. sanguinea, Sparrm. is the only species known. It is found only in South Africa, principally on the roots of species of Acacia. The male flowers are panicled, but one of the characters by which this genus is distinguished from Balano- phora is that the filaments and connectives of the stamens are free, while in Balanophora they are united. The male flowers have a three-lobed perianth, and the female flowers are arranged in globose heads, and have no perianth. The arrangement of the tissues in the stem of Sarcophyte do not differ essentially from other species of the order, though in the peduncle the vascular bundles are very irregularly deposited. ‘The roots of the plant upon which it grows are connected by stout, woody branches with the rhizome of the parasite, and there seems to be a complete fusion of the vascular tissues of both. The stems of Sarcophyte contain innumerable starch granules. Two species are enumerated of Langsdorfia, L. hypogea, Mart., and L. rubiginosa, Wedd., but Dr. Hooker, who is un- doubtedly the best authority on Balanophore, doubts whether there are sufficient characters to distinguish the latter from Li. hypogea. They are both natives of South America, the first being distributed through Mexico and Brazil. The remarkable parasitism of Langsdorffia, Dr. Hooker describes in the following terms :—‘‘ The dichotomously branching rhizomes appear most frequently to corrode, as it were, the back of the roots they encounter, which they even sever, and then enclose the end that remains attached to the parent plant. The root swells considerably at the junction, and appears to send pro- longations of wood into the rhizome of the parasite, which run along its axis for several inches, and though there is an intimate union between the wood of the root and the cellular tissue of the parasite, there seems to be no blending of their vascular systems.” ‘The fruit-bearing receptacle after flowering dilates very much, which causes the scales to spread open, and when fully expanded the whole has a similar appearance to the involucre of a thistle (Fig. 5). The rhizome of this species is highly charged with wax, and ib will burn freely with a clear flame. The secretion is contained entirely in the cellular tissue where it appears as a large opaque mass in every utricle. This wax is collected to a large extent by the people of New Grenada, who make candles of it, while in Bogota the stems themselves are collected and sold in all the markets without any preparation, for use as candles on Saints’-days. On the Tolima range of mountains around Bogota the plant is known by the names of “ Belacha” and Melonsita, and the soft receptacle, when ripe, is eaten and considered stimulating and refreshing. Thonningia sanguinea, Vahl., is found i Western Tropical Africa, on the roots of trees. Its root-stock is of a dingy 302 Parasitical Plants.—The Balanophoracee. brown colour, and the flower-stalks are covered with closely- unbricated scales of a bright red colour. The only difference between the female flower of this plant and that of Larigsdorfia is that in Thonningia it has a more complete tubular 3—5 toothed perianth, the stamens are united into one column, at the base of which are a fewscales. Specimens of these plants were first brought to Hurope by Thonning in 1804, Vahl exa- mined them, and described the genus, naming it after its discoverer. So far as is known they have no economic uses. Of the genus Balanophora, eight or nine species are enu- merated, but in bringing them down to this number, some varied forms or varieties are included as one species. Quoting Dr. Hooker upon this point, it appears these varieties are so numerous that neither colour, form, nor the sexuality of the capitula are constant characters. In the same woods wherein the Doctor gathered B. involucrata var. gracilis, growing upon the roots of oak, he also gathered var. flava, growing on those of an Araliaceous shrub, and differing from the var. gracilis only in its more robust habit. B. imvolucrata, Hook. fil, grows in the Himalayas at an elevation of from 7000 to 9000 feet. It is, however, common in Sikkim up to 8000 or 10,000 feet. The capitula of this species, as well as the stalks, are of a very bright colour, either red, a rich deep crimson, a brightish yellow, or of a purplish tinge. _ Balanophora dioica, Br., B. indica, Wall., and B. polyandra are all Hast Indian species. The first is very common in HKastern Himalaya and Khasia, and is also very variable in form, according to the localities in whichitis found. “‘ Spe- cimens of all sizes may be found, from an inch to a foot high, of all degrees of robustness, and of all colours between blood red, yellow and white, or brown.”? B. polyandra is very abundant on the Khasian and Himalayan mountains, at an elevation of from 4000 to 6000 feet. It varies from two inches to six inches mm height, and differs from some of the other species in haying the capitula always short and sub-cylindric or conical, but hike BG. diovca it varies much in colour and robustness. It flowers during the months of August, September, October, and November. B. elongata, Bl., is an inhabitant of the mountains of Java, where it is found at an altitude of from 5000 to 9000 feet. It is also found in Ceylon, and on the mountains of the Hast Indian islands. It has been found in flower in the months of March, May, and Augusi. JB. globasa, Jung., is found m Burmah, and B. alutacea, Jung., in the Philippine islands. They both flower in April. The first of these two species in general habit much resembles B. indica. ‘The rhizome has a peculiar, crumpled appearance, covered with small tubercles, or KS = Transverse section of rhizom«é nvolucrata. Vertical secti NY V dele mn. of Helosis Mexicana s attachment to the 3. Vertical sect ion of Langsdc attachment t Parasitical Rlants—The Balanophoracec. 308 warts. The whole mass appears highly charged with wax. Wallich says that it is sold in the Burmese bazaars for medi- cinal purposes. B. fungosa, Forst., is peculiar, as being the only Australian species. The following description of the arrangement of the tissues in this species is so clear that we cannot do better than quote it entire :—‘‘The most curious point in this species is the tendency of the tissues forming each vascular bundle in the rhizome to arrange themselves rudely into the form of an exogenous stem, the wood forming a zone of wedges round a central pith, enclosed by a cellular zone that communicates with the pith by broad medullary rays. The total absence of pith in the root, with whose wood these bundles communicate, would thus seem to indicate that the wood of the rhizome belongs to itself, though it has all the appearance of being Solely produced by the root; the root, in short, supplies the nutriment from its own vascular tissue, but the parasite organizes it.” The several species 6f Balanophore are found on the roots of such trees as oaks, maples, vines, etc., but B. involucrata has also been found growing on the exposed aérial rootlets of oaks in damp or humid forests. This species, when growing upon subterranean roots, appears to afiect them much more than any other, as it produces large knots from two to four inches in diameter. ‘These are much prized by the natives, who make from them very neat wooden cups, which are in general use throughout the Himalaya and Thibet. Some of them are esteemed antidotes for poison, and for this purpose fetch a high price. This and the Java species, B. elongata, which furnishes a wax from which candles are made, are the only species of any importance in an economic point of view. In Lophophylum Weddellii, Hf., the root-stock is a somewhat spherical fleshy mass, covered on the upper part with long overlapping scales. From the top of this mass springs the flower-stalk, very much in the form of a pine cone, and covered likewise with imbricated scales. On the upper portion of this stalk small regular branches are given off, upon which the flowers are closely packed. A better idea of this singular plant will be obtained from Fig. 6 of the plate. It is a native of New Grenada, in moist woods. It is said to be used by the natives as an article of food. ‘Two other species have been described, viz.:—J. mirabile, Schott and Endl., and £. Boli- vianum, Wedd. Both of these are South American, the first being found in Brazil, the other in Bolivia. Ombrophytum Peruvianum, Peeppig and Hndl., is another of those peculiar plants which Pcoeppig has described as being eaten by the Peruvians, who boil it, and treat it similar VOL. X.—NO. V. AA 304 Parasitical Plants —The Balanophoracec. to fungi. The generic name is derived from the Greek, ombros, a shower, and phyton, a plant; im reference to the sudden way in which they are said to spring up aftera shower of ram. The genera Scybaliwm and Sphcronhizon follow here in the order of classification. Scybalium fungiforme, Sch. et Endl.,a native of the forests of Brazil, being the only described species of the first genus, and Spherorhizon curvatum, H.f., the only species of the second. This plant, from the fact of its roots pene- trating only the last year’s wood of its prey, and producmg no effects in the layers below, would seem to be only of annual duration. Phyllorcoryne Jamaicensis, H.f., is found in the savannahs of Jamaica, as its specific name indicates. It is the only West Indian species, and is commonly known im Jamaica as John Crow’s nose, but whence the derivation of such a singular vernacular we are unable to tell. The plant is found m flower from January to July. The rhizome or root-stock is branched or lobed, a transverse section of which shows “a thick brown cellular cortical layer, formed of hexagonal cells full of starch granules and chlorophyll, with occasional masses of hard, woody, or sclerogen cells.”” From this root-stock nume- rous flower-stalks arise, covered all the way up with closely imbricating scales. These flower-stalks bear large cylindrical or oblong flower-heads. (Fig. 7). Lhopalocnemis phalloides, Jung., is undoubtedly the most noble, if we may so speak, of all the Balanophore. It is found at the roots of trees in the mountains of Java, at an elevation of 7000 feet, as well as inthe Khasian and Himalayan mountains, Nepal and Sikkim, at 6000 to 8000 feet. It grows in shady woods in large masses, and has a very pretty appear- ance, with its pale yellow brown heads only showing above the ground. The rhizomes are of various sizes, from that of an ege to masses as large as the human head. The flower-buds, which spring from the rhizome in their earliest state, appear like swellings, which presently burst forth and reveal the most magnificent flower-heads. ‘‘ Both males and females expand at the same time, throwing off their cohermg bracteal scales in large masses, and exposing a velvety pile of style, and a dense mass of subjacent articulate threads. There are several crops of male flowers which expand successively, and in the dense humid woods in which this genus grows, insect agency is probably necessary to impregnation.” A representation of this plant will be found at Fig. 8 Three species of Coryncea are enumerated, namely, O. crassa, Hook. fil, C. spherica, H.f., and C. Purdiei, Hook. fil. The first of these is the most imposing plant of the three, frequently weighine many pounds. Ii attacks the roots of its prey in all Parasitical Plants —The Balanophoracee. 300 directions, swelling over stems, and completely encircling them. It has a thick, fleshy flower-stalk and dense flower heads ; the male flowers much resemble those of Rhopalocnemis, it is a native of New Granada, at an altitude of 8000 feet. C. spheerica is also a New Granada species, and is found at a similar elevation. Like the former, the rhizome completely encircles the root of its prey ; though the plant itself has a very different appearance to C. crassa, the flower heads are more globular and regularly formed. OC. Purdiei is a native also of the same country, growing chiefly on the roots of Cinchona. The capitula and the flowers themselves are very similar to those of C. spherica. Helosis Guyanensis, Rich., is a very remarkable plant, and has been described and written about by several illustrious botanists. It is found in Guiana,asits specific name indicates. Its range, however, appears to be in “damp woods on the Hast coast of South America, from Trinidad to south of the equator.” The rhizome, or root, runs underground for a great distance, adhering to any roots which come in its way. Dr. Hooker has shown that the arrangement of the tissues in a transverse section of this rhizome closely resembles that of many menispermaceous plants, and that the vascular system of the peduncle consists of scattered bundles that run free, and unbranched from the rhizome to the capitulum, where they partially anastomose, forming a plexus within the circum- ference, from which bundles are given off with great regularity towards the base of each scale. The plants vary much in size from an inch to about a foot high. The flower-stalks are nume- rous, with globose or ovoid heads of flowers, the males and females beg on separate heads. From close observation it would appear that the female flowers are seldom, if ever, fer- tilized except through insect agency. The native country of H. Mexicana, Lieb., is also indicated by its specific name. It is found on the Mexican mountains, at an altitude of 3000 to 5000 feet. It does not differ considerably in form or struc- ture to H. Guyanensis, but it is not sovariable. Plants of this . genus are of little or no economic value, though they are some- times used as styptics in their native countries. Though the Balanophore are of no value or importance in a commercial or economic point of view, they are most inte- resting in a scientific point. Popularly little is known about them, or even of the existence of such plants. This is easily to be attributed to the fact that no living plants have been seen in this country, and they are certainly less attractive to a gene- ral observer in a dried state than when arrayed in their bright colours. But even with a slight acquaintance of their habits and modes of growth, they cannot fail to excite some interest. 356 Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Life. PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY OF INFUSORIAL, ANIMAL LIFEH,* BY JABEZ HOGG, F.1S., F.R.M.S., ETC. Tue elucidation of the mystery which surrounds the begin- nings of organic life, and the discovery of the living principle which exerts so powerful an influence on all animated creation, has often and long been sought for by philosophers as well as physiologists, from the earliest ages down to the present time; but all their efforts have been in vain, and we stand in precisely the same position in regard to this subject as that occupied by the first philosopher who entered upon its inyesti- gations. Although we have not been able to throw much light on the nature of life, we find that the degree of vitality possessed by an animal is to a great extent in proportion to the degree of its organization, and we may conclude from this that there is an intimate connection between life and organization. Not that organization can create life; of this we have no instance at all, but that the principle of life, which exists in and has been given to any organic germ is only brought to maturity in accordance with the original law of its organization; and by means of this principle of life it is enabled to pass into a state of greater perfection, constituting what has been called, and is now recognized as the law of progressive development. First, let me say that I do not purpose to enter upon any inquiry into the precise nature of life, such as I have just hinted at, but rather let me on this occasion direct attention to some points of interest in the developmental history of infusorial life. On the threshold of this inquiry a remarkable theory, and one which cannot be passed over without discussion, stares us in the face, ‘‘ Whether among the smallest, and ap- parently the most elementary forms of organic life, the phe- nomenon of spontaneous generation obtains?” This question has quite recently formed the subject of careful experiment and animated discussion on the continent; the general opinion, however, seems to be that the lowest forms, in common with oe highest, are generated by reproduction from preceding orms. Aristotle found no difficulty in believing that worms and insects were generated by dead bodies; and to the mind im- perfectly acquainted with the results of modern investigations, spontaneous generation is as easy of belief as it was to Aristotle. * Being the substance of a lecture delivered to the Old Change Microscopical Society, September 27th, 1866. Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Life. 357 Do we not constantly see vegetable mould covering our cheese, our jam, our bread? Sven our air-tight vessels cannot be kept free from plants and animals, where neither plant nor animal could be seen before, and where it appears impossible that their seeds could have penetrated. Where do those para- sitic animals come from which are to be found in the blood, the brain, the liver, and the eye ? How got they there? These questions are more easily answered on the supposition that generation can take place spontaneously; nevertheless, the weight of scientific evidence has been year after year accumu- lating against such a supposition, and the majority of physiolo- gists have come to the positive conclusion that no generation whatever can occur except by direct parentage.* And yet how difficult at times to divest the mind altogether of some such theory, when asked to account for the apparently sudden appearance in a most unlikely place, of some such ex- traordinary creature as that of Mr. Crosse’s acarus. This, as you are aware, was found in a solution of silicate of potash, through which an electric current was passing, and after every care had apparently been taken to free the apparatus from every particle of dust and foreign matter; or that noticed by Dr. Maddox on the surface of a nitrate of silver bath, which had been set by for some time. The several bright spots in motion proved to be well-developed, highly-organized acari, looking like “miniature fat sheep.” + These, and other like remarkable instances were at one time regarded as good evidences of spontaneous generation, and afforded a simple and easy mode of getting rid of a difficulty. The first formidable assailant of the doctrine of spontaneous generation was the celebrated Italian naturalist, Redi. In his work On the Generation of Insects, he proved that the worms and insects which appear in decaying substances, are really developed from eggs designedly deposited there by the mature animal. But it was thought preposterous to suppose that putrefaction could produce an insect, and this explanation was for a time rejected. But driven from the insect world, where such an hypothesis could have no chance of success, the up- holders of it sought refuge in the world of infusorial and parasitic life. Any one acquainted with the writings of Leuwenhoek will see how steadily this father of microscopy set his face against spontaneous generation, because even his imperfect instrument showed him that many of the most minute animals produced egos, and were generated like the larger ones. Since his time * Lewes. ~ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, vol. ii. p. 96. 308 Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Life. hundreds of observers have brought their contributions to the | general stock, and the modes of development of plants and | animals have been more and more clearly traced; and each | extension of knowledge in this direction has had the effect of © narrowing the ground on which the spontaneous hypothesis — could possibly find a footing; and the question now comes to this: “Is it more probable that a law of generation which is well nigh universal in the organic world, should have an excep- tion; or that our researches have as yet been so faulty that we have not as yet been able to bring this seeming exception under the law? One after another, cases which seemed excep- tions have turned out to be none at all. One after another, the various obscurities have been cleared away, and it is there- fore the dictate of philosophic caution which suggests that so long as we remain im positive ignorance of the actual process, we must assume that a general law prevails.”’* Positive evidence would at once settle the dispute, and I take this opportunity of directing ardent and aspiring microscopists to the question, as one well worthy any amount of time and trouble; but I must tell them beforehand that every one who has hitherto made any experiments, or atten- tively followed those of others, has found it exceedingly difii- cult to devise any experiment which shall be conclusive. This arises, first, because the facts elicited admit of very different interpretations ; and secondly, from numerous sources of error. “For it is quite true that there are organic beings of which we can as yet only say that there is the strongest presumptive evidence against their being exceptions to the otherwise uni- versal law to which I have alluded. As an instance, we do not know how the Ameba arises, no one has even seen its eggs, or ever been a witness of its mode of reproduction; and yet we find the Ameba in almost every drop of rain-water, and most vegetable infusions, so that we may be perfectly certain that its ova are carried about by every breath of air.” Schultze, of Berlin, devised an experiment which might have been thought to settle the question. This experiment proved that an infusion of organic substance, supplied with air driven through a strong acid, could be suffered to remain for three months without either any animal or vegetable life becoming apparent. At the end of that time atmospheric air was allowed to enter freely, and in three days the infusion was found to be swarming with animalcules. It will be at once observed that the essential condition in such an investigation is to be quite certain that no organic germs are introduced into the liquid from without, and that there should be secured a free supply of air, carrying no * Lewes. Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Infe. 359 organic germs ; on the hypothesis that animalcules, like other animals and plants, are produced from germs or eggs, which might be in the water and yet so excessively minute as to be easily overlooked, and only awaiting the proper conditions for their speedy development; or, on the other hand, supposing them to be floating about in the air, they would fall into or enter any vessel containing organic matter in a state of decom- position and there develop. Schultze’s experiment, then, looked very like a conclusive one, for no sooner were measures taken to destroy the germs, supposed to be suspended in the air, than the infusion was kept free from animalcules ; and no sooner was the air allowed to enter in the ordinary manner than both animal and vegetable life abounded. It was thought, however, by M. Morren, that air in its passage through sul- phuric acid underwent some alteration which affected its power of supporting life; and upon putting this to the test, he found that air passed through sulphuric acid was incapable of sus- taining life. We have then, M. Pouchet’s experiments, which are of a most imposing character. He announced that there was nothing in either Schultze’s test or Morren’s correction, for he declared that in following the former’s experiment in every particular, and also in repeating it with fresh precau- tions, he could constantly find both plants and animals in an infusion in which every organic germ had been previously destroyed, and to which the air only had access after passing through concentrated sulphuric acid, or through a series of porcelain chambers kept at a red heat. M. Pouchet even goes farther than this. He determined to substitute for atmospheric air, artificial avr ; this he introduced into a flask containing an infusion of hay, the hay having previously been subjected for twenty minutes to a heat of 212° F. He thus guarded against the presence of any germs in the infusion orin the air. The whole was then hermetically sealed; but in spite of all these precautions, both plants and animals appeared in the infusion. He repeated the experiment with pure oxygen gas instead of common air and with similar results. Professor Wyman instituted a series of thirty-three experi- ments, prepared in different ways, im which solutions of organic matter, some of them previously filtered, having been boiled at the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere for a length of time varying from fifteen minutes to two hours, were exposed to air purified by heat. In only four were the contents of the flasks unchanged when opened; in all the rest Bacteriums, Vibrios, Ferment-cells, Monads, or Kolpoda-like bodies were seen, some of them having ciliary movements. In nearly every instance their presence was indicated by the formation of a film, which appeared in some, on the second, and in others not until the 360 Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Life. nineteenth day. The result of these experiments is, that the boiled solutions of organic matter made use of, exposed only to air which has passed through tubes heated to redness, or enclosed with air in hermetically sealed vessels, and exposed to the heat of boilmg water, became the seat of infusorial life ; but such experiments throw no light on the immediate source from whence the organisms in question were derived. I have shown repeatedly, as well as numerous other observers, that the air contains many kinds of organic matter, spores of cryptogams, starch granules, and other vegetable fragments, and probably also the eggs of many animalcules, all of which are floating freely about. Milne-Hdwards objected to the conclusions of Pouchet, saying, there is no proof that the hay itself had been subjected to the temperature of boiling water, it being very probable that although the furnace was at that heat, the hay, which was in a glass vessel and surrounded with air at rest, was not at anything like that temperature. On the other hand, granting that the temperature may have been reached, that would not suffice for the destruction of all the germs if they were per- fectly dry; the power of resistance possessed by vegetable stlicated cylindrical tubes, as hay and straw, is well known. The observations of M. Doyere prove that the Tardigrada, *““water-bears,’ when thoroughly desiccated, preserve the power of reviving even after having been subjected to a tem- perature of 316° F. The Vibrio tritict will maintain its vitality for many years through all the vicissitudes of heat and cold. Ihave kept wheat for ten years, and still find these animals easily resuscitated; and Mr. Deane mentions a remarkable fact, “that on a particular piece of land whenever wheat is grown itis always infested with Vibrio, no matter what the length of time since the previous wheat crops, nor what crops have been sown in the meantime.” If, therefore, animals of so complex a structure as these T'ardigrada and Vibrios can resist the action of time and temperature, there is no reason for sup- posing that the germs of the simpler animalcules would be destroyed by them. The Rev. Lord Sidney Godolphin Osborne, in a letter filled with interesting remarks on “ Cholera and its germs,’ which appeared a few weeks ago in the columns of the Times, writes— “T know from experiment that there are ‘germs’ containing a principle of life, that will stand very strange usage, and yet not have that principle destroyed. Many years since I applied a certain matter to a piece of glass about four inches square. This has another very thin piece cemented close over it on three sides, leaving a space just sufficient for a thin stratum of water between the two. It has been exposed for days to Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Infe. 361 the action of the direct rays of the sun, it has been kept in the dark, and sometimes has been for a year or two in a very dry place without a particle of water touching its surface. To amuse friends I have again and agaim allowed a little water, sometimes filtered, generally of the coldest spring nature, to fill up the space between the two glasses—water I had previ- ously tested for any living organisms. I have never failed to produce, in a few hours, a most beautiful exhibition of one of the most interesting species of Infusoria, having beforehand sketched the exact creature I would produce. With the same water, in another glass tank of the same nature but not so prepared, I fail to produce anything at all until it has been left for some days, and then the creatures seen are not my old friends. Ihave read, not seen, that these organisms retain their vitality even when the glass has been made red hot. I don’t say I believe, but from what I have seen I think it quite possible.” I have myself found, upon subjecting the spores of Penicil- liwm to the action of boiling water, twice over, that they remain uninjured, their vitality is so little impaired that on placing some of them in saccharine solutions and other sub- stances, carefully excluded from the air, a very short time sufficed to show the presence of the characteristic mould grow- ing up from the spots where the spores rested, and micro- scopic examination confirmed the character of the growth. M. Quatrefages says, that he examined the dust remaining on the filter after ignition from some observations on rain- water, and found that the organic elements presented a con- fused assemblage of particles, and this continued to be the case for a few minutes after their immersion in water; but in a few hours he detected a great number of vegetable spores, infusoria, and those minute spherical and ovoid bodies familiar to micro- scopists, which inevitably suggest the idea of eggs of extremely small size. He also declares that he has frequently seen monads revive and move about after a few hours immersion.* M. Pouchet’s reply is, that if the air is filled with animal- cules and their eggs, they will, of course, fall into any vessel of water, and as water is their natural element, will there exhibit their vitality. But if half-a-dozen vessels of distilled water, perfectly free from animalcules, be left exposed to the air beside one vessel of distilled water containing organic matter in decay, the half-dozen will be free from animalcules and eggs, but the one will abound with them. Now it is per- fectly intelligible that inasmuch as organic matter is said to * Mr. Samuelson examined the dust shaken from rags brought from Alex- andria, Trieste, Tunis, Peru, and Melbourne, and found in all germs of Monads, Bacterig, and Kolpoda. 362 Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Infe. form the indispensable condition for the development of the eges, it is only in the vessel containing such matter that the egos will develop; but why are they not also visible as eggs in the other vessels? Why are not the animalcules themselves visible there as they were in the water examined by M. Quatrefages ? My reply to Pouchet’s question is, that in all the vessels ova had probably been deposited, but for lack of nourish- ment, in five, they had quickly died. It is well known that in all organized structures, disorganization rapidly sets im, unless either some vegetable matter or a well-oxygenated medium be ready at hand to carry the ova on to maturity. And as to their snot appearing in all the six vessels, I can only say that this does not accord with my experience; for upon exposing any number of bottles to the same atmospheric influences, all have given positive results, and I can only suppose that M. Pouchet either made a very imperfect and cursory examination, or his micro- scopic manipulation must have been greatly at fault. A few years ago an observation made by Cienkowski, the botanist, seemed finally to settle the question of spontaneous generation, and to place the matter beyond doubt, because it caught nature in the act, so to speak, of spontaneously gene- rating. Cienkowski’s statement is as follows:—Ifa slice of raw potatoe be allowed to decompose in a little water, 1t will be found, after some days, that the starch cells have a peculiar border, bearmg a strong resemblance to a cell-membrane. This shortly turns out to be a real cell-membrane, and is gradually raised above the starch grain, which then occupies the position of a cell-nucleus. Thus, owt of a grain of starch a cell has been formed under the observers eye. Inside this cell little granular masses are developed, which begin to contract. Finally, minute eel-like animalcules (a species of Angwillulide) are developed there, which bore their way through the cell- wail into the water. Franke, in his report of this observation, which he says he has verified, asks, “how is it possible to deny spontaneous generation here? Before our eyes a grain of starch becomes a cell, in that cell are developed living forms, which bore their way out.” Again, Professor Negeli stated that he had been baffled at first in the attempt to verify this observation, but that after nearly a hundred trials he had succeeded; he appears to have confirmed all the statements made by Cienkowski ; but if the phenomenon was of such rare occurrence, surely there must have been some other explanation than that of spontaneous generation. It seemed probable that error had crept in somewhere. Cienkowski himself at length discovered the source of his own Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Life. 368 error: the membrane which seemed to form itself round the starch granule had quite another origin. He observed the little Monads swimming about, and noticed one of them adhere to a starch grain, spread its elastic body round it, and finally envelope it, just as the Amba does its food. Thus was explained how the starch grain came to be inside acell; and as this process was never suspected, and as the starch-grain was within a cell-wall, the idea of natural formation was inevitable, the more so as the wall seemed to grow larger and larger. M. Pasteur, who has been the leading and most determined opponent of the spontaneous generation theory, contrived a Series of experiments which met many of the arguments brought forward by Pouchet, and he thought it was possible to obtain, in some place, atmospheric air so pure that it would not produce any change whatever in a putrescible liquid. M. Pouchet, Joly, and others, in their desire to meet this idea, as- cended the glacier of La Maladetta, in the Pyrenees, taking with them a number of flasks, each one third filled with an infusion of hay, which had been previously filtered and boiled for more than an hour. The air was then exhausted, and the flasks hermetically sealed. Four were then afterwards filled with air on the surface of the glacier, and four in a crevasse. The examination of four of the flasks, three days afterwards, gave specimens of Bacteria, Monads, Vibrio, Mucidinea, and Ameba. The conclusion drawn from this was that even the air of high mountains did not fulfil the conditions which M. Pasteur pre- dicated of it. Nevertheless M. Joly said that he believed that M. Pasteur was quite right in his statement that all that was required for the production of animalcules was “air and a liquid susceptible of putrescence,”’ and that in his opinion there is no such thing as ‘‘ spontaneous generation.” M. Pasteur goes on to state that the doctrine of spontaneous generation may be expected to be constantly turning up, since it maintains a hold over us, unknown to ourselves, from its relation to the impenetrable mystery of the origin of life upon the surface of the globe. Gay Lussac’s report of his examina- tion of the method of preserving provisions for the army, was not without its influence on the minds of men on the subject now under consideration. He proved that when the air in the bottles in which substances have been well preserved is analyzed, it no longer contains oxygen, and consequently that the absence of that gas 1s a necessary condition for the conserva- tion of animal and vegetable substances. He also found that grapes crushed under mercury do not undergo fermentation unless brought into contact with pure oxygen, or with common air, even inascarcely perceptible quantity. Such experiments, made with so much exactness and care by so great a master of 364 Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Infe. chemistry, have never been disputed, and other observers, following in his footsteps, have extended their researches.to the organisms which arise in vegetable infusions; and all, whether partisans or opponents of the theory of spontaneous generation, admit that the smallest possible quantity of atmospheric air is sufficient, when brought into contact with a suitable imfusion, to produce in a short time such changes, that there appears an incredible number of minute forms of animal life. The character of the infusion most decidedly exerts an influence over the ultimate results ; as for instancewhen any kindofalbumimous material is added to the saccharine fluid, the spores of a fungus, Penicillium glaucwm, cover the surface in a few days; the in- fusions are also affected by the atmospheric conditions, whether summer or winter, by locality, whether placed inside or out- side the house, in town or in country. To sum up, and in a few words, after having carefully con- sidered the arguments used by disputants on both sides of this question, I believe I am perfectly right in saying that the balance of experiment is certainly very much against the spontaneous generation theorists ; but so much has been said and written on this subject, that we might if space permitted, ereatly extend our remarks. There is, however, another point deserving of notice, which appears naturally to follow an inquiry into the source of living organisms, namely, the order of their successive appearance in vegetable infusions. This poimt in the life history of the infusoria has already occupied the attention of many investigators : and one in particular I wish to direct atten- tion to,—Mr. Samuelson, whose researches were carried on in conjunction with Dr. Balbiani of Paris, and confirmed by him. As might have been expected of this gentleman, he starts by asserting his utter disbelief in spontaneous generation, and then goes on to tell us that when a carefully prepared infusion of vegetable matter in distilled water is exposed to the air, the Protozoa which first appear in it are Amba: these in a few days disappear, and are succeeded by ciliated infusoria, such as Kolpoda, Cyclidium glaucoma, and sometimes Vorticella, and these in their turn by what we have looked upon as higher forms, as Oxytrichum, Huplotes, Kerona, etc., consequently Mr. Samuelson thinks that Monads are but the larval condition of the ciliated infusoria. He also noticed the constant oc- currence of Monads belonging to the species Circomonas fusiformis, or acuminata of Dujardin, etc., in pure distilled water after a certain exposure to the air, and this without the previous admixture of vegetable matter of any kind in the water. The same results were obtained upon shaking rags, from various and distant parts of the world, over the distilled water ; other experiments were also tried, and in all cases in Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Life. 365 about three weeks he invariably obtained forms of ciliated in- fusoria. ‘‘ The fusiform body of the cico-monas bears a long whip-like cilium at its anterior end, and a short seta at its caudal extremity: this finally drops off, and when exposed to undue heat and light, the animal is transformed mto an Ameba.” Mr. Samuelson’s results do not very materially differ from my Own, save in one or two particulars. I have not seen the succession of generations take quite the same course, and the animal and vegetable bodies generally appear simultaneously, or so soon after each other, that it is at times difficult to decide the priority of appearance; but as my experiments have been chiefly confined to collections of rain and distilled water, without the addition of vegetable matter of any kind, this will materially affect the results. We are, however, quite agreed as to the wide and general distribution and great tenacity of life presented by these infusorial germs. With regard to the supposed purity of rain-water, at no time can it be taken without the numerous matters floating in the air being brought down with it, and, consequently, within a few hours after it is caught, Protococus pluvialis, Amcebe, and Circomonas, may always be found in great numbers. It is somewhat remark- able that the purest snow water, caught in a clear glass vessel, and allowed to remain well corked, will, in the course of two or three weeks, be found to contain Amebce and Circomonas, but it rarely presents other forms of animal life; the vegetable matter completes its growth very slowly, gradually passes to confervee, and for a time no other change is seen to take place ; so that it is painfully apparent that the atmosphere in which we live and move and have our being is something more than a mixture of gases, as apparently determined by chemical analysis. Mr. Glashier’s “‘ blue mist,’ which he believes to be in Some way associated with our cholera visitations, certainly does not depend upon the presence of any unusually large number of spores floating about in the air. Although spores, etc., exist, as I have shown, in the atmosphere, in greater abundance about the period of such visitations, they also exist when the public health is good. And therefore it should be regarded as a mere coincidence, if certain bodies prove to be more abundant during the prevalence of epidemic disease. But this ‘‘ fungus-spore” theory is no new thing, for it is upon record that rusts and mildews have sprung up so rapidly upon articles of food and clothing, as to have appeared to herald approaching plagues. A so called ‘ blood-rain” is said to have been the forerunner of the plague of Rome. It has been noticed, however, that the present year (1866) has been especially characterized by the prevalence of all kinds of moulds and mildews upon vegetation generally; we consequently 366 Developmental History of Infusorial, Animal Infe. find the air thoroughly charged with the germs of Uredo (smut) and Penicilliwm; and we may readily believe that the same depressing influences that render the human family subject to epidemic disease also affect vegetable life, and the weakly and sickly plant equally with the higher human creature, goes to the wall, and may ultimately furnish the nidus for a colony of parasites. In all my collections of rain, snow, and distilled waiter, animal and vegetable life proceeds to one definite point, and then recedes. I have never found any go beyond Huglena ; and unless some vegetable matter be added to the solution, no higher form of life appears; on the contrary, a retrogade condition takes place. If some kind of vegetable matter, as hay or lettuce-leaf, be added, then I find, with Mr. Samuelson, rotifers make their appearance—not otherwise. But here, again, we get no further, and the mfusion requires a something more to give it a start in life. As might be predicted, these changes are all modified, accelerated, or retarded by the action of light, heat, season, and so forth, and by the presence of any albuminoid material. If fresh-caught rain water be filtered and excluded from atmospheric influences, the appearance of both vegetable and animal life is very much delayed; but when fresh and clean rain water is exposed to the air, Protococews quickly makes its appearance, and with it Amba; the cells of the Protococcus soon throw off zoospores, and the Ameeba take possession of the cells and feed uponthe zoospores. I mention this latter circumstance, because some observers, both before and since Cienkowski, having doubtless seen the same occur- rences, have stated their belief in the conversion of the contents of the cells of the Protococcus or Chlamydococcus into a free moving mass of amceboid bodies. Mr. Carter, well known for his valuable contributions to ‘microscopical science, was one of the first to notice and pro- mulgate this apparently impossible transitory condition of the volvox-zoospores; but he afterwards saw fit to change his opinion, and in place of looking upon it as the conversion of the vegetable protoplasm into that of an animal, he now believes that the germ of the Ameba must have been included in the vegetable cell, or as a parasite made its way into its interior ; and remarking upon his first statement, that Acitence are thrown off by Vorticelle, he writes thus: ‘‘ Seeimg, then, the great analogy, if not real identity, that exists bebween the nature of these organisms, I would suggest that the germ of the ’s catalogues having been 155, a difference arising im part from the enlarged extent. “It has been found hardly possible to confirm =’s supposed discovery of variable stars, except in one or two instances. The special difficulty arises from the fact that a bad state of the atmosphere, and the consequent blending of the nebula with small stars in its immediate neighbourhood, renders the latter invisible.” They have found 6, not identical with >’s, which show marked signs of change. They mention among their other results, the tracing of the connection of c, and 1, Orionis, with @, especially the great loop uniting ¢ with @, one of the finest features of the whole nebula: the association of the nebulosity with stars by general aggregation round the three clusters—by wisps of nebula attached to certain stars—and by larger numbers of small stars in bright nebulous areas, contrary to the natural optical effect of a brighter ground: the spiral structure of the parts surrounding @: and the com- parative permanency of the form and aspect of the nebula, in contradistinction to the rapid variations supposed by Otto Struve. These observations, so far as respects the extent and con- nection of the whole nebulous mass, are in exact correspondence * There seems to be some mistake in these figures, which I am unable to rectify. 388 Nebular and Stellar Spectra. with those of Secchi (Int. Oxns. vii. 139); and the possessors of the large silvered specula which are now coming into use will find it an interesting task to ascertain how far they may be able to confirm them. We have already mentioned the full recognition of the gaseous character of this marvellous phe- nomenon, which cannot be discredited after the accordant results of Huggins and Secchi; but it is gratifyme to add that the resolution which has for twenty years been usually ascribed to the reflector of the H. of Rosse, has been disclaimed by its noble maker ; his lordship having authorized Mr. Huggins to state “that the matter of the great nebula in Orion, which the prism shows to be gaseous, has not been resolved by his telescope. In some parts of the nebula he observed a large number of exceedingly minute red stars. These red stars, however, though apparently connected with the irresolvable blue material of the nebula, yet seem to be distinct from it.” This alone was wanted, to set that most curious inquiry definitively at rest. One singular fact, however, may be noted here. The spiral arrangement ascribed to part of the nebu- losity by the American observers is also a well-known characteristic of many clusters and groups of stars, and should its existence in the Orion nebula be confirmed, it will form a curicus bond of connection between objects of a nature ap- parently most dissimilar. An examination of former observations with the great reflector, for which we are indebted to Lord Oxmantown, leads to the important conclusion, that no object to which prismatic Investigation has ascribed a gaseous nature has shown a stellar composition in the telescope; the widest discrepancy being that 6 nebule giving a gaseous spectrum, had been considered “resolved, or resolvable?” at Parsonstown. The indications of the two very distinct and dissimilar modes of analysis seem therefore to be rapidly and satisfactorily converging. Our readers will be interested in knowing what results the spectroscope of Huggins has given with respect to the objects already enumerated in our list of clustersand nebule. The following were all found to exhibit a continuous spectrum: by which is meant, in'contradistinction to the insulated bright lines given out by incandescent gases, a spectrum similar to that of such stars as are bright enough for examination, and to that of our own sun. No. 19 (Int. Ons. vi. 115). 11M. 4437 Gen. Cat. ‘ The continuous spectra of all the brighter stars were separately visible. When the clockwork of the equatoreal was stopped, an interesting spectacle was presented by the flashing in rapid succession of the linear spectra of the minute stars of the cluster as they passed before the slit. In no part of the Nebular and Stellar Spectra. 389 cluster was any trace of bright lines [?.e., the indication of gaseous matter] detected.” No. 20 (Int. Ons. vi. 117). 13 M. 4280 Gen. Cat. “Spectrum ends abruptly in the orange. The light of the brighter part is not uniform; probably it is crossed either by bright lines or by lines of absorption.” No. 25 (Int. Ops. vi. 847). 56M. 4485 Gen. Cat. ‘ Sus- picion of unusual brightness in the middle part of the spectrum.”’ No. 26 (Inr. Ons. vi. 348). 81M. 1949 Gen. Cat. “The red end of the spectrum wanting or very faint.” ; No. 27 (Inz. Ops. vi. 848). 82M. 1950 Gen. Cat. “ The absence or great faintness of the red portion of the spectrum more marked than in the spectrum of No. 1949.” No. 29 (Int. Oss. vii. 207). ° 51M. 3572 Gen. Cat. “A suspicion that some parts of the spectrum [of each of the bright centres] were abnormally bright relatively to the other parts.” Such is the result of prismatic analysis applied to nebulee and clusters with which we have been made familiar. In a very remarkable and suggestive note the author states that the peculiar appearance of the continuous spectra of some of the nebule and clusters has suggested to him, from his first examination, that possibly the luminous points into which the telescope resolves some of them, may not be of the same nature as the true stars. The spectrum of the great nebula in Andromeda and its small companion was recorded in August 1864 as ending abruptly in the orange: and throughout its length not uniform, but evidently crossed, either by lines of absorption, or by bright lmes. The same characters, he adds (as we have already seen), have since been found in several of the brighter nebule and clusters: it would be possible to explain the absence of the less refrangible rays by absorption through vapour; but the apparently complete want of light at that end, and the unequal, mottled appearance of the brighter parts suggest rather a gaseous source ; and that the spectrum consists of numerous bright lines: they are too faint, however, to admit of a sufficient contraction of the slit to determine this point. But some quite recent observations (June, 1866) not yet complete, appear to support the view that the bright points of some clusters may not be similar in constitution to the sun, or the brighter stars. Thus it would seem that a new and unsuspected, and most singular field of inquiry is opened to the view of those whose instrumental means admit of its investigation. Such means, indeed, are rare. But if, where they exist, they were pushed to their full capability, much valuable aid might be given to 390 Nebular and Stellar Spectra. one whose name must ever stand foremost as the leader of the prismatic analysis of the starry heavens. Another eminent observer, Secchi, has been diligently prosecuting spectroscopic, or, as he calls them, “ spectro- metric’ inquiries, and has arrived at conclusions differing in some respects from those of Huggins. He has formed a classification of stellar spectra according to distinctly-marked types :—l. That of the bluish-white stars, such as Sirius and Wega, with dark bands in the blue and violet, including nearly one-half of the stars examined :—2. That of the red, or orange stars, with broad zones, such as Betelgeuse and Antares :—3. That of the yellow stars, comprising Capella, Arc- turus, etc., marked by fine lines, and resembling the spectrum of our sun. ‘To these are added a type the inverse of the first, found only as yet in y Cassiopez and @ Lyre, anda type pecu- liar to Orion, distinguished by the intensity of the green. He has also observed in other regions the separate and special predominance of some one type of light. All this is certamly very remarkable, but is only given by himself. as the result of a few evenings’ work preparatory to a more general and detailed research. Before, however, any fully satisfactory con- clusion can be attained, a question will. have to be decided as to the nature of many of the bands towards the red end of the solar spectrum, the origin of which, as will be seen im our last number (p. 317), has been largely referred by M. Jansen, of Paris, to the presence of aqueous vapour. As to some of these confessedly delicate and obscure points, further imves- tigation and the labours of many observers are obviously de- sirable. In such stellar spectra as are crossed by numerous dark bands, a difficulty has been pointed out in ascertaining whether certain intervening luminous spaces may not assume the deceptive aspect of bright and gaseous lines from contrast alone, and here the finest instruments will be required for the decision. As to nebulous material, it is frequently so deficient in luminosity as to elude all known means of analysis. Up to the beginning of the present year Secchi had discovered fourteen very feeble nebulae which had escaped all former observers ; and has found occasionally large spaces where the sky has a milky aspect—the “diffused nebulosity,” no doubt, of the Herschels. In the latter case there seems no impos- sibility in the idea of a vicinity to our own system, which, if it could be estimated, might perhaps surprise us. According to the Roman astronomer the nebula of Orion extends through all the space from € southwards to 49 and v, two 5 mag. stars nearly on the parallel, and somewhat less than 2° apart, forming the bottom of the sword. One of the most curious observations of this nature, for Solar Observation. 391 which we areindebted to Secchi, relates to a singular convo- lution of nebulous streaks, RA. 17h. 55m. 18s. DS. 24° 21’ 15”, This is M 8*, or Gen. Cat. 4361. Hesays (1865, Aug. 8) that this object ‘‘ se trouve notablement changée. La portion qui divisait ses ovales a disparu, et les ovales ne sont qu’un canal presque continu.”’? The ovals are three included spaces, one entirely, two others comparatively dark, which were, when figured by H. at the Cape (1837, June 27), divided by two streaks of irresolvable haze. There is, indeed, some difficulty in reconciling H.’s description and drawing (semi-inverted, it must be remembered, owing to his front view) with the ex- pressions of Secchi. If I interpret the former aright, his three ovals thrown into one would not form a continuous canal, but an opening bent back at an acute angle, and Secchi seems to be referring to another opening described by H. as a larger and more ill-defined basin distinct from the ovals, and lying in the same straight line with two of them. But whether this con- jecture may or may not be right, there seems strong evidence of change. H. observes that the nucleus (which is in the p streak) is not stellar, and greatly resembles that of the nebula in Andromeda. Secchi finds that under the spectroscope it exhibits ‘a raie ordinaire,” the usual bright band of gaseous matter. To a suspicion that the great aperture of H.’s reflector (18+ inches, front view) might reveal interruptions of continuity which Secchi might not perceive, it might be replied that the former was on the other hand unsuccessful in tracing any connection between the principal mass of the Orion nebula and that surrounding the star c. 8 M is not included in the Bedford Catalogue; it has now left our evening sky, but may form an interesting object of search in another year, when Sagittarius is in a suitable position.+ SOLAR OBSERVATION, The “ Solar Caps ” or dark glasses which have hitherto been adapted to the eye-pieces of telescopes to intercept the heat, and as much as is unnecessary of the light of the sun, are all more or less objectionable as giving a tint to the solar image which might interfere with the real colour, and in some cases perhaps affect the visibility of the more delicate details. A very ingenious contrivance has lately been introduced by G. and §. Merz of Munich to obviate this defect. It is well * M1 in the Astronomische Nachrichten, from a misreading of the Cape Observations. + It should have been noticed before that subsequent investigation has shown the relative fixity of the nebulous star 45 Hi iv. and its companion: so that the suspicion of proper motion advanced in Inv. Oss, vii. 188, and derived from earlier measures, must be abandoned. 3892 Red Star—Planets of the Month. known that the rays of light, when reflected at a certain angle from a surface of glass, become polarized, and consequently will be either transmitted through, or reflected from, a second similar surface, according to the angle under which the latter receives them. In Merz’s new solar eye-piece, 2 pairs of plane glass mirrors (of course, un-silvered), are so arranged as by the rotation of one pair relatively to the other, to intercept at pleasure the whole, or any required part, of the light trans- mitted through the telescope. Secchi’s opinion of this con- trivance is decidedly favourable. He says, ‘‘ your helioscopic polarizing ocular is preferable, because it shows the sun of its true colour; thus films which appeared blue in the ordinary oculars with blue glass, are seen with yours of a rosy hue, the same tint as the protuberances which are seen during eclipses. This isan important fact.” Itisto be hoped that Mr. Browning or some other skilful optician will turn his attention to this construction in our own country, where the solar phenomena are at present attracting so much notice. RED STAR. In an extract from the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, Vol. i. p. 187, I find the following statement on the authority of H. . “No. '895 (2) RA. 6h. 12m. PD eae ee N. 5° 48] L full ruby red, or almost blood colour. S fine green, which it loses when the large star is concealed.” This object from its double character may possibly have been in- tentionally omitted from the catalogue of Dr. Schjellerup, of which an abridgment was given in our Sept. number; but it seems likely to repay the scarch. It will be found near the nose of Monoceros. PLANETS OF THE MONTH. Mars is now rapidly approaching the earth, and becoming a telescopic object of much interest. As the opposition, which occurs on Jan. 10, will be somewhat more favourable than the last, as well as those for some years to come, we trust that all available telescopes will be employed in the scrutiny and de- lineation of his features. The following remarks, by one so pre-eminent in the art of design as De la Rue, are too valuable not to find a place in relation to this subject. Speaking of the disagreement too frequently observable in astronomical drawings, he says, ‘‘ These discrepancies no doubt arise in some measure from differences in the aperture and defining power of the telescopes employed ; in other instances, much is attributable to the state of the atmosphere at the places of observation. The discordances On Silk produced by Diwrnal Lepidoptera. 393 arising from the foregoing causes, would, however, not present so many difficulties, were astronomers, as a rule, able to de- lineate what they see with anything like an approach to accuracy of detail. Much confusion is created by the exaggeration of certain details which happen to strike forcibly the mind of particular observers, who give undue prominence to those features both as regards size and intensity. But astronomers are not responsible for the whole of the difficulties placed in the way of those who undertake the task of reducing observa- tions; the steel-engraver, the lithographer, and the wood- engraver, are answerable for a great share of the confusion engendered by their very free translations of the drawings placed in their hands to be copied.” Mr. Banks, to whom we owe a beautiful series of drawings of this planet in 1864, published in the Astronomical Register, remarks that a considerable change will be found in the position of the poles, the N., which was then beyond the limb, coming more and more into sight, while the spots near the equator will be projected further from the centre of the disc, and follow a course much more curved upwards (as seen inverted) so as to render their identification more difficult. Uranus will be very well situated for observation this month ; at the commencement of it lying very near the sf edge of the fine cluster near Propus (Int. Oss. v. 54) and reaching at its opposition on the 27th, a station between 2° and 3° sp e Geminorum, a 3 mag. star standing about 1 of the way from Pollux to Aldebaran. OCCULTATION. 20th. B.A.C. 1526, 6 mag. 5h. 11m. to 5h. 59m. ON SILK PRODUCED BY DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA. BY PHILIP HENRY GOSSE, F.R.S. Tue Rev. D. C. Timins, in his interesting paper On the Habits of some Lepidopterous Larve (INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, Nov., 1866) says at p. 255, after describing a silken couch spun across a leaf by the caterpillar of Charaxes Jasius— “‘ This is, so far as I know, the only instance of silk being pro- duced by amember of the diurnal Lepidoptera.” The expression is too strong; for I need not remind Mr. Timins, I am sure, that the pupe of the Vanessade and similar dangling forms hang from a dense conical button of silk spun by the mature caterpillars, while those of the 394 Archeologia. Papilionide and Preride have, besides, a thoracic girdle of sulk But my object in writing is not to correct this little over- sight of phrase, but to mention a case very curiously parallel to that recorded by Mr. Timings, of a reposmg couch of silk spun by the caterpillar of another showy butterfly, the Tiger Swallow-tail of North America (Papilio Twrnus). Nearly twenty-seven years ago I thus announced the fact im question in my Canadian Naturalist :— “September Ist. I have lately taken several of the fine green velvety caterpillars of the Tiger Swallow-tail, with violet spots on the body, and two eye-spots. It spins a bed of silk so tightly stretched from one edge of a leaf to the other as to bend it up, so that a section of it would represent a bow, the silk bemg the string. On this elastic bed the larva reposes, the fore parts of the body drawn in so as to swell out that part, on which the eye-spots are very conspicuous. I have taken it from willow, poplar, and basswood, but chiefly from brown ash. Before it spims its button and suspending girth, it gradually changes colour to a dingy purple.”— (Op. cit. p. 298.) ARCHAOLOGIA. Discoveries of considerable importance to English history were made in the latter part of the last month in the CarHmpRAL OF Roven, under the -care of the well-known Norman antiquary, the Abbé Cochet. It is well known that, as far back as 1838, some well-directed excavations brought to light the original effigy, or statue, of Richard Coeur-de-Lion ; the Abbé Cochet has discovered that of Richard’s elder brother, Henry Court-Manret, the tur- bulent son of Henry II., who, as it is well known, was crowned during his father’s life. Contrary to the statement of Montfaucon, who said that Henry’s effigy was sculptured in white marble, the material was found to be the hard lias of Créteil, as was the case of that of Richard I. It is unfortunately much mutilated, and the body cracked through the middle. Still it presents many points of great interest. It represents a king of England and Duke of Nor- mandy, and offers a faithful representation of the royal costume of the time. The young prince wears a tunic, or long robe, fastened under the throat by a handsome circular fibula. of the new nomenclature. It was some time before this discovery was confirmed, as the smaller crater 1C™ > was very difficult to catch ; at length, towards the end of 1860, Mr. F. Bird of Birmingham, saw the pair with his silvered glass mirror, the writer having previously seen them at Cuckfield, in October, 1865. It is extremely difficult to say if these craters were really new, still the facts are sufficiently interesting to induce a very careful scrutiny in the neighbourhood of ‘‘ Linné,” especially as from the observation of Schréter there is reason to believe that the crater has suffered two obscurations within a period of 80 ears. : Upon receipt of Herr Schmidt’s letter to the writer, a translation of which we give below, the Moon Committee of the British Association issued a circular, calling the attention of astronomers to the interesting fact recorded in it. It is 446 Obscuration of a Lunar Crater. probable some valuable observations will result -from the adoption of this course. P.S. Since the preceding was in type, we have received a note from Mr. Birt, with the following additional information :— “Mr. Buckingham of Walworth, has obtained several photo- graphs of the Moon, m October and November, which I have examined. In almost all I find the place of ‘ Linné, > but the object is very famt. I have one which he took on November 18, 1866, at6°308.M.T. In this ‘ Linné’ is visible, but its ight I estimate, by comparison with the ground around Copernicus, to be only 2°. I have collected all the recorded brightnesses and compared the photographs which I have in my possession. The results are as follow :— “Variations of brilliancy of the crater ‘ Linné, since the year 1788. Observations. W.R.B. 1788, Nov. 5. Schroter 6-5 0-125 1823, May. 28. Lohrmann 7:0+ 1831, Dec. 12,18. B. and M. 6° Photographs. 1858, Feb. 22. DelaRue 5 1865, Oct. 4. Fe the 5° print. Rutherford 6° . 53 1866, Nov. 18. Buckingham 2° _,, “The above values for the photographs have been estimated, and may be considered as a continuation of the series, W.R.B. ; except Rutherford’s, which is brighter than any degree of this scale. There is some uncertainty in the determination of the brightness on the prints, but the difference between 6° and 2° is, 1 apprehend, too great to be attributed to differences aris- ing in the printing. “The crater appears to have been brightest in 1823 ; Lohr- mann always saw it brighter than Conon, which he records at 7°°0. “ From these records, it appears that Lohrmann and B. and M. observed ‘ Linné’ to be brighter than any degree of the scale you have—i. e., brighter than the surface around Kepler. Schroéter’s observations give about the eighth of a degree of my scale; but De la Rue’s photographs give a brightness of about that of the surface around Kepler ; and Rutherford’s brighter— probably the same as B. and M.’s. Buckingham’s series is so far accordant with Schmidt’s observations as to indicate, very ae that the crater has really undergone a change of some sind,” ae Obscuration of a Lunar Crater. AAT NORTH THE MARE SERENITATIS, FROM MADLER’S SMALL MAP. References. No. 30 Plineus. 49 Le Mounier. > od Taquet. 50 Bessel. » 384 Menelaus. 62 Posidonius. » ©9 Sulpicius Gallus. The interior dotted line, shows the boundary of the dark border of the Ware. The exterior of the Ware, on the N. is not shown, as it is not so well marked as the S.; the white streak, part of a ray from Tycho, across the Mare, is indicated by the double dotted line, from Menelaus to the N. border. RECORDED OBSERVATIONS OF LINNE. 1788, Noy. 5. Schroter. Dark spot in place of the Crater. 1823, May 28. Lohrmann. 1 Measure. Always saw it brighter than Conon in the Apennines. 1813, Dec. 12,13. Madler. 7 Measures. No remarks on its appearance. - 1866, Oct., Nov. Schmidt. Obscured ; only a little whitish cloud visible. 448 Schmidt on the Lunar Crater “ Linné-? SCHMIDT ON THE LUNAR CRATER “ LINNE,”? AND ON THE NOVEMBER METEORS. Tue following is a translation of a letter from Herr Julius Schmidt, the Director of the Observatory at Athens, to Mr. W. R. Birt, from whom we have received a copy of the original :— “For some time past I find that a lunar crater situated in the plain of the Mare Serenitatis has been invisible. It is the crater which Madler named Linné, and is in the fourth section of Lohrmann, under the sign A. I have known this crater since 1841, and even at the full it has not been difficult to see. In October and November, 1866, at its epoch of maximum visibility, 2.c., about the time of the rising of the sun on its horizon, this deep crater, whose diameter is 5°6 English miles, had completely disappeared, and in its place there was only a little whitish luminous cloud. Be so kind as to make some observations on this locality. ** At Athens, I observed the great meteor shower on the night of the 13-14th November. On the nights of the 12th and 14th, the sky beimg partially clear, the hourly number of meteors was very small. On the night of 13-14th the sky was perfectly clear, and we found the meteors very scarce between 6 and 12 o’clock; but later the hourly number became enor- mous, and the spectacle was very brilhant and magnificent by reason of the great number of bolides. From observations made between 6 and 14 hours, and from 16 to 18 hours, and from an approximate calculation, I found the maximum, on November 13th, |4h. 15m., Athens mean time, and the number per hour for one observer—1055. Almost all the meteors —that is to say, 343 out of 345—came from a radiant point in the vicinity of y Leonis.” This letter has been communicated to the Lunar and Luminous Meteor Committees of the British Association. The November Shooting Stars. 449 THE NOVEMBER SHOOTING STARS. BY THE HON. MRS. WARD. (With a Woodcut Lilustration.) ‘TruzE to astronomical prediction, the great November shower of meteors arrived on the night of November 13th, and con- tinued to stream in radiant succession during the early hours of the 14th. Those observers who for years have devoted close attention to luminous meteors, hailed this opportunity for ascertaining fresh facts with regard to their distance, velocity, and physical properties, and for becoming acquainted even with their chemical nature, by the wondrous process of spectrum analysis.* Some of the results of such olbsemreiiorns will probably be laid before the readers of this periodical. My remarks in this paper are intended merely to afford answers to such questions as are likely to be asked by intelligent observers, to whom the whole subject of meteors is new, but who have felt mterested by the beautiful display on the morning of the 14th of Novem- ber; and, secondly, I wish to describe the scene for the benefit ae those who, with considerable vexation, are con- strained to own that they forgot to look out, and have missed the sight altogether. For my own part, I narrowly escaped a similar fate. I knew the ordinary November meteors only by hearsay, havin watched for them vainly, on the nights of the 12th and 13th im two or three former years; and my attention had not been much attracted by the notices given in the INTELLECTUAL OzseRver, and elsewhere, of the probability that the flight of meteors this November was likely to be of imposing appear- ance. - But now—the morning of the 14th has passed—I have seen the November shooting stars in all their beauty and grandeur, a phenomenon unequalled since 1833, and my thoughts turn to the hundreds of observers who probably saw them also, and who inquire with newly-awakened curiosity, What are they ? Whence do they come? What possible rea- son can be given for their appearance on a fixed day in our calendar? And what grounds were there for supposing that a more splendid display than usual would be seen in 1866? What are they? And whence do they come ?—These are questions difficult to answer; but for the answering of them a vast quantity of evidence has been collected within the last few years, and all observations seem to confirm the theory, * See INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, August and October, 1866. VOL. X.—NO. VI. GG 4.50 The November Shooting Stars. that they do not belong to this earth or its atmosphere, but that on the contrary they are from afar; and that they circu- late round the sun in definite orbits. On almost any fine night a few shooting stars will be seen ; such is the experience of those who have watched for them in various parts of the world. A bright object, looking like a star, 18 suddenly seen moving a little way through the heavens, and then disappearing. ‘They are common at all times, and, to use Professor Ansted’s words, “‘they are as little exceptional as clouds.”’ These are the ordinary shooting stars, which 1 have seen hundreds of times, though generally not more than three or four of them during one evening: but we have now to speak of those which are known to be periodical in their displays, and by the pre-concerted observation of which, some knowledge has been gained respecting the shooting stars in general. ‘On several occasions these wanderers have appeared, not few and far between, but in astonishing numbers, conveying the idea of a shower of rockets, or of snow-flakes falling. Observers have noted the dates of such appearances, and the very remarkable fact has been established, that the greatest displays of the kind have uniformly happened on the night between the 12th and 13th, or on that between the 13th and 14th of November. Time out of mind those identical days, or those directly corresponding to them have been occasionally signalized by such exhibitions. They appear likewise on the 10th of August, and more or less on the 9th and Ilthalso. The display is less briluant than in November, but more certain. The No- vember show is often interrupted for a number of years, but on those three days in August shooting stars are almost sure to be seen. Other epochs have also been, to a certain extent, established. And here our third question must be answered—‘‘ What possible reason can be given for their appearance on a fixed day in our calendar?” A reason has been given; and itis so well stated by Sir John Herschel, that I shall give his remarks verba- tim.* “Itisimpossible,” he says, “to attribute such a recurrence of identical dates of very remarkable phenomena to accident. Annual periodicity, irrespective of geographical position, refers us at once to the place occupied by the earth in its annual orbit, and leads direct to the conclusion that at that place the earth incurs a liability to frequent encounters or concurrences | with a stream of meteors in their progress of circulation round the sun. Let us test this idea by pursuing it into some of its * Outlines of Astronomy, Art, 901. (1859.) ‘The November Shooting Stars. 451 consequences. In the first place, then, supposing the earth to plunge, in its yearly circuit, into a uniform ring of innu- merable small meteor-planets, of such breadths as would be traversed by it im one or two days; since during this small time the motions, whether of the earth or of each individual meteor, may be taken as uniform and rectilinear, and those of all the latter (at the place and time) parallel, or very nearly so, 1b will follow that the relative motion of the meteors referred to the earth as at rest, will be also uniform, rectilinear, and parallel. Viewed, therefore, from the centre of the earth (or from any point in its circumference, if we neglect the diurnal velocity as very small compared with the annual) they will all appear to diverge from a common point, fixed in relation to the celestial sphere, as if emanating from a sideral apex.” Here Sir John Herschel refers us to his very interesting remarks in an early chapter on the subject of “ celestial per- spective ”—‘‘ that branch of the general science of perspective which teaches us to conclude, from a knowledge of the real situation and forms of objects, lines, angles, motions, etc., with respect to the spectator, their apparent aspects as seen by him projected on the imaginary concave of the heavens; and vice versa, from the apparent configurations and movements of objects so seen projected, to conclude, so far as they can be thence concluded, their real geometrical relations to each other and to the spectator.” He then proves that in celestial per- spective “every straight lie (supposed to be indefinitely prolonged) is projected into a semicircle of the sphere, that, namely, in which a plane passing through the Ime and the eye, cuts its surface. And every system of parallel straight lines, in whatever direction, is projected into a system of semicircles of the sphere, meeting in two common apexes, or vanishing points, diametrically opposite to each other.” This digression is to explain what is meant by a “ sidereal apex.” And here let me anticipate. On the morning of Nov. 14th, when I saw the meteors emanating from a point at some distance above the horizon, when I observed many of them mounting overhead, and the whole display retaining the form of a canopy, while tending as if to some point far below the opposite horizon, I felt that perspective had in some way a great deal to do with their aspect, and that I should not think of them as of sky rockets shot in real curves over the house; but it required the luminous words of Sir John Herschel to place the matter in an intelligible form. Let us now take up the thread of his argument. , The shooting stars, he says, ought to appear to diverge from a common point; and he proceeds to tell us, “This is precisely what actually happens. The meteors of the 12—14th 452 The November Shooting Stars. of November, or at least the vast majority of them, describe ap- parently, arcs of great circles, passing through or near y Leonis. No matter what the situation of that star with respect to the horizon, or to its east or west points may be at the time of observation, the paths of the meteors all appear to diverge from that star.’ The exact position in the heavens from which the meteors appear to radiate, technically known as the “radiant point,” is one of the subjects to which the attention of observers has been of late years much directed, and the spot which it occu- pies in Leo has probably been ascertained witk great precision on the present occasion. And now to sum up the theory, so far. We suppose the earth in its orbit, A, around the sun, to encounter a ring of meteors, B, at the point marked “ Nov.” ‘There, and there only, we are led to believe, the orbit intersects the rmg. At the opposite point, marked “ May,” the ring falls a little within the orbit of the earth, instead of cutting through it. A display of the meteors in this ring can therefore occur only in November. Nowifthe rme were uniform, 2. e., an unbroken stream of meteors through its whole circle or ellipse,* the earth’s encounter with it would take place every revolution— _ we should see an exactly similar star-shower every November 13 or 14. But “if the ring be broken,”—here again I quote Sir John Herschel—“‘if it be a succession of groups revolving in a period not identical with that of the earth, years may pass without a rencontre; and when such happen, they may differ to any extent in their intensity of character, according as richer or poorer groups have been encountered.” A blank part of the ring will occasionally occupy the point of intersection just as the earth arrives there—then there will be no November meteors visible that year. Again, a rich part of the stream, the jewel of the ring, of which we shall presently have much to say, may come to the point of intersection when the earth is there—then we shall have a glorious display, as in the year 1866. Or, let us suppose we meet a thinner part of the rig, then we have an ordinary November star-shower, such as those which occurred in 1822, 1823, 1832, 1833, etc.; or, to take * It is believed to be nearly circular. — The November Shooting Stars. 453 more recent years, a display of them seen from Malta on Nov. 13th, 1864, when clouds obscured the sky in England, and in 1865, when a considerable number (250 per hour) were observed from Greenwich. A ring of meteors in space, large almost as this earth’s great track round the sun—what a wonderful idea, when one comes to consider it, or to represent it im a diagram! One ring! there are probably several, belonging to the various periodic groups of these strange bodies which up to the pre- sent time have been detected. The August meteors are as well-marked a group as those of November; they, too, have a sidereal apex always the same at each return, but it is far away from Leo, being close to the small star B Camelopardali. Certain other star-showers, also proved to be periodical, have also their points of radiation ; and though in some cases these are not actually to be described as points but rather as regions of radiation (implying perhaps a want of parallelism in the movements of the meteors), astronomers still hold that it is highly probable that all shooting stars are grouped according to some law, and may form a number of rings, some nearly circular,.some of a lengthened elliptical form, like those of comets ; and that those which appear to be not periodical may be out-liers of such rings.* Nor are the positions or dates of appearance the only dis- tinctive features of the various groups of shooting stars, they have their own individuality—“The meteors of particular showers vary in their distinctive characters, some being larger and brighter than others; some swifter, and drawing after them more persistent trains than others.”’+ Two well-marked groups—probably rings—of meteors,— several others more or less known—their nearest approach to the earth estimated at an average of sixty miles, and their ordinary velocity supposed to be somewhere about twenty miles in a second, hastened as they approach the earth’s at- traction to nearly forty miles—so much being granted, have we yet answered the question “what are they?”’? Are they solid or gaseous, are they large or small, perpetually luminous or only exceptionally so? The late observations which have succeeded in subjecting their fleeting light to the process of spectrum analysis will probably clear up some of the difficulties respecting their nature.t But eyen before this clue was given for their in- vestigation, the learned had arrived at the conclusion that all shooting stars are ‘‘assemblages of fragments, finer or * British Association Report, 1865, p. 131. + Ibid, 1864, p. 101. + See Mr. Alexander Herschel’s paper on the Prismatic Spectra of the August Meteors, 1866, INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, October, 1866. 454 The November Shooting Stars. coarser,” that they are not luminous as they travel through space: but that as they near the earth, the friction of our atmosphere ignites them, and they are entirely consumed in a few moments. ‘This description applies to meteors such as we see in general, and during the periodic displays; but occa- sionally we encounter bodies of greater density, which cannot be so readily consumed, sometimes entire, and at other times in a fragmentary condition. Samples of such meteors are to be found in various mineralogical collections. | The subject of these metallic stones which have really ‘fallen from the sky” is most curious, but must not be pursued here; we have made a sufficiently long digression from our fourth question, ‘‘ What grounds were there for sup- posing that a more splendid display of meteors than usual would be seen in 1866?” To answer this, I revert to the IyrenLectuat Osserver for August, 1866. It contaims (p. 39) extracts from a lecture given at the Royal Institution, by Mr. Alexander Herschel, On the Shooting Stars of the years 1865-66, and on the probability of the Cosmical Theory of their origin. The lecturer stated that Professor H. A. Newton, of Yale College, U.S., had calculated that in the current year, 1866, a prodigious flight of meteors, the most imposing of its kind, and visible over a large area of the earth’s surface would make its appearance—perhaps for the last time in the present century—on the morning of the 14th of November. Pro- fessor Newton had searched in ancient records, and observed that between the 12th of October (O.8.) and the 13th of November (N.S.), during the years from a.p. 902 to 1833, not less than thirteen great star-showers have been recorded. When he had made the requisite corrections for the change of the earth’s position, astronomically known as the precession of the equinoxes, he was able to compare the dates with exact- ness,* and became convinced of the fact that there are period- ical re-appearances of the November-shower in extra grandeur, at intervals separated from each other by nearly the third part of a century, or by some multiple of this period. This shower was observed from Cumana in South America by Humboldt and his companion Bonpland, on the morning of November 12th, 1789, and was a spectacle of extraordinary grandeur. Nothing comparable to it appeared till the morning of the 13th of November, 1833, when another magnificent display was seen in the United States of America. Professor Newton proposed the following theory to account for these returns of the phenomenon, that there is a condensed * See British Association Report, 1863, p. 325. The November Shooting Stars. 455 part in the November ring of meteors,—which I have ventured to call the jewel of the ring,—and that each meteor in the whole ring, and in this condensed part or cloud, moves in a nearly circular orbit round the sun in a period which may be about eleven days less than that of the earth. The earth (for example) encountered the densest portion of this cloud in November, 1833 ; but the next year this portion passed eleven days before the earth returned to that point of its orbit; the following year the difference amounted to twenty-two days; so that at the end of about thirty-three years 11 must gain one entire revolution, and return nearly to the position where it must encounter the earth. (See diagram on page 452.) Pro- fessor Newton shows that the same result would follow by supposing the period of the ring eleven days longer than the earth’s, but seems on the whole to incline to the former theory. I have taken some of these explanatory details from a letter lately written to the New York Times by Professor Loomis, of Yale College ; also from the American Journal of Science, as quoted in the British Association Report for 1864, p. 96, con- taming Professor Newton’s data and theories as given by himself. In referrime to past recurrences of the phenomenon, he remarks that, “a want of punctuality of one, two, or even three years in the return of the display may be accounted for by the revolution of the earth on its axis, by which observers were deprived of a view of the spectacle during a part of its existence ;” but ends his communication by predicting with considerable confidence, a ‘‘ maximum display on the morning of the 14th November, 1866.” The morning of the 14th of November came—and now let us make an essay in celestial perspective, and see what had happened. Let us divest our minds, if possible, of the idea of a canopy of sky-rockets, and “ from the apparent configura- tions and movements of objects as seen projected on the imaginary concave of the heavens, conclude, so far as they can be thence concluded, their real geometrical relations to each other and to the spectator.” What were the real bearings of the earth and the stream of meteors on that memorable morn- ing when this “terrestrial ball” had been for some short time plunged in the current? Somewhat, I think, like this. Never mind, reader, if I have made the earth a little too large in proportion, or the stream too narrow, or too defined in outline. The inclination of the two paths is, or should be, 17°: the course of the meteors is retrograde, as stated by Professor Newton: and the shaded appearance of the stream is meant to indicate the sudden transitions of richness which occurred in the star-shower, causing the meteors to come at the rate some- 456 The November Shooting Stars. times of a hundred per minute, then only fifty, then a-hundred, and so on.* The reflection will probably occur to our readers, were the meteors really like that, a dark, formal stream? How much more beautiful was their actual aspect as seen by us! Truly it was so, as indicated by Mr. Herschel’s heartfelt words, describing how they travelled to all parts of the sky “with a swift and stately motion most beautiful to behold, if not almost IDEAL REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH’S PASSAGE THROUGH THE STREAM OF METEORS. too wonderful and too surprising to describe.” + I was roused from sleep to look at them. My informant told me that an old railway porter had just said, “God has sent us fire-works to-night ;”? and I appreciated the remark when I saw them. My thoughts had, on that day, been unavoidably fixed on the concerns of this earthly ball, rather to the neglect of the affairs of space; and I shall long remember how much I was cheered and uplifted by the sight of the November meteors, and how I felt that they were indeed given by Him who gives us richly all things to enjoy. I intended to have attempted a sort of resumé of the ob- servations of others, but will leave the task to abler hands, * The attempt to introduce this circumstance into my drawing was suggested to me by the Rey. I’. Howlett, F.R.A.S. + Letter to the Times, November 17, 1866. The November Shooting Stars. 457 and merely tell my own story of what I saw, copied from a narrative which I wrote on that morning before daybreak.* Té will. be seen how conspicuous was the fact of the meteors radiating from a point in Leo—a circumstance of which I had doubtless read in books, but had little or no recollection of it. On the evening of the 13th, at eleven o’clock, I looked out from my house at Seapoint, near Dublin, to see whether anything unusual were occurring, and observed that all was still—Mars glowing near Castor and Pollux; Sirius calmly accompanying Orion. “Good night to the stars,’ thought I; but it was not to be so. At a few minutes after twelve, Dublin time (say 12°30, Greenwich time), I was called up with the information that the shooting stars were chasing each other with wonderful rapidity. I hastened to look at them, and the first idea suggested was indeed that of an exhibition of fire- works, but how much more beautiful they were! Their oc- currence was almost incessant. From 12°40 to 1:30, and later,+ it would have been difficult to find a moment in which none were visible in some part or other of the sky. Some- times three or four fine ones could be seen at once. There was a marked difference in their appearance as seen from a window facing the east, and from a bow window com- manding a view of the north, west, and south; and I set myself to find out in what this difference consisted. I first viewed them attentively from the bow window; the shooting stars invariably moved downwards there. Hach commenced with an outburst of brilliant white light, like one of the many stars of a rocket; and this bright star travelled a second or two, and then disappeared, not very rapidly, but remaining visible four or five seconds as a beautiful spmdle-shaped track of white light, the general straightness of its form being very remarkable. These spindles tended almost perpendicularly downward in the west, downward from left to right in the ‘south, and downward from right to left m the north. Some- times a wonderfully bright star appeared, with a long, thread- like track of extraordinary length, nearly from the zenith to the horizon. The stars, or nuclei, of these meteors were gene- rally white, but occasionally one appeared blue, or red, or bright yellow. My impression is, that in these cases the train or track of light was sometimes of a different colour from the star. The shooting-stars in the east were in general smaller than those observed in the north, south, and west; but they soon riveted my attention even more than the others had done. * Mr. Slack’s spirited account of the display is already in the hands of my readers. See No. for last month. [The reader is requested to correct the date in Mr. Slack’s paper to 13-14th. ED. ] + Greenwich time, which will be henceforth used in this description. 4.58 The November Shooting Stars. For I presently perceived that their course was not inyariably downward. I could see some move perpendicularly upward, some darting quite horizontally towards the left, some moving upward in asloping course, and some also downward like those seen from the bow window. ‘These latter, sloping downward, were those nearest to the north and to the south; and, having ascertained this, I soon observed that there was a point in the heavens from which they actually started in all directions—l do not mean at random, or crossing each other, but im an in- variable course, like the railroads from a great city. The meteors at that spot (close to the position of the star y im Leo) were not of very frequent occurrence, but I observed all the different directions described, probably in the course of ten minutes, during one part of the morning; and more than once I saw with great interest two shooting stars at the same mo- ment moving away from this point at right angles to each other. Numerous meteors commenced at points quite distant from y in Leo; but wherever they commenced they seemed to travel with regularity, as if from about that point. With respect to the size of the meteors in the east, 1 am certain I saw none which were long or threadlike, anywhere near y; at one time, on the contrary, I saw strangely small and even crooked ones near that spot.* They increased in magnitude as observed towards the north or south. Several fine ones passed above and across Orion, and always downward from left to right. Their nuclei were, in my opinion, much brighter than Sirius. Many meteors went as if over the house, like sky-rockets; and twice, meteors of extraordinary bright- ness came, lighting up the whole landscape, but I cannot give a description of their form, as in neither case had I happened to look in the right direction at the moment they appeared. These bright flashes occurred at about 1:45. I saw one or two exceptions to the straight form in the long meteors. There was one decidedly crooked, or waved. Several of the meteors indeed were curved, as an effect of perspective, from their great length, if seen in the south or north 3 o sa9sld. 1g PWMIdO9S 9am a7 i ° : ear Oc EES : ZB 2 2 os ‘a i 1 : Sites. ‘ DEAN = F S) 3 5 ae —_— Se % (J Re - [Wat \ N SS Sea eee 3 & Paes ee emt SA VN —— peg Ap , s ‘ea “i t=] 2 a i 8 bs I aH 4 ae ° we) B= a O'@ s 422° nm pc 6. nog ale" vaaicuany je | Z B= 2 fouany 2 rohan) : tH OD cy ria & -= 8 lLre2e2 £2 a GES snsvoad $32 = ao Z ; ogy ae 7." O56 al am ey = 323% ’ iS) 3 9 fe Fa an a e S 68 2's a Ws a2 dz on se ~ near the radiant point The November Meteor-Shower at Glasgow. 465 the surrounding regions, at all distances from the point of radiation of the shower. lor the use of directing a telescope towards its place on the morning of the 14th of November next, a future page will be taken up with a list of twelve places of the radiant-point obtained by observers at Glasgow, and at other places in the “* Great November shower” of 1866 ; together with the heights and distances from the earth of some of the larger meteors so favourably observed at Glasgow in that shower, and, fortunately, also at the same time at other places.: The following is the extract of a letter, to which reference was made above. For this, as it contains valuable notes on the spectra of the meteoric bodies, the reader of the paper is indebted to the successful endeavours, which characterize the use of the spectroscope, in every observation to which it has been applied by Mr. John Browning, F.R.A.S. :— “ON THE SPECTRA OF SOME OF THE METEORS OF THE NOVEMBER SHOWER IN 1866. BY JOHN BROWNING, F.RB.A.S. “On the night of the 13th of November, I chose for my place of observation the Observatory of Mr. Barnes at Upper Holloway, which is situated on the highest ground in the immediate neighbourhood of the observatory. I began observing at 9h. 30m. p.m., and continued my observations until 4h. a.m., on the morning of the 14th. The spectra I obtamed were of four kinds. “Ist. Continuous spectra; in which the whole of the colours of the spectrum, except violet, were visible. In even the most uniform of these, however, I am inclined to think that the yellow was strongly predominant. «2nd. Those which gave a bright orange-yellow line of light; or only a faint continuous spectrum in addition to this yellow lme. Such spectra have been clearly described in the INTELLECTUAL Ospserver, Number for October, 1866. “3rd. Those consisting apparently of only a single line of green light of nearly the same colour as that shown by Thallium. Of this kind I only obtaimed the spectra of two meteors. In one of these I thought I detected a trace of a very faint con- tinuous spectrum, nearly obscured by the brilliancy of the green line. “Ath. The spectra of the trains. The light from green trains appeared continuous in the prisms. Those which were of a blue colour appeared as a line of lavender colour, with a still fainter trace of a continuous spectrum. In some few in- stances, no continuous spectrum could be detected.” The occurrence of bright green light in some of the nuclei, is a very remarkable result of these observations ; pointing, VOL. X.—NO. VI. HH 4.66 : The Planet Mars. possibly, to the existence of Thallium in the meteoric bodies ; as is also the existence of strong lavender light in some of the blue-coloured meteor-streaks occasionally without any con- tinuous spectrum. The morning of the 14th of Novembernext will present an opportunity for verifying the striking variety of colour so unexpectedly revealed by the spectroscope in the light; and hence also, probably, a corresponding diversity in the chemical composition of the November meteors. Mr. Browning adds :— “On account of the great difficulty which attends these observations, I cannot be at all positive of the accuracy of these results, except in the case of those which I have called the first class of meteor-spectra (7. e., uniform continuous spectra of the nuclei). “« At about a quarter to two, a large meteor, of a greenish- yellow colour, shot from near Regulus through the belt of Orion. ‘This meteor left a train of a steel-gray colour, which was visible for nearly three minutes, although the end of its path was partially obscured by fleecy clouds.” THE PLANET MARS. BY RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A., F.R.A.S. My object in the present paper is to exhibit to the readers of the InrELLEcTUAL OpsuRvER the true relations under which the planet Mars will present himself at the opposition which takes place during January, 1867. There is a marked variation in the circumstances under which Mars is seen at successive oppositions. The other superior planets vary chiefly as respects the altitude at which they cross the meridian (or culminate) while in or near oppo- sition. Mars partakes of these changes*—in fact we shall pre- sently see that they are exhibited in a somewhat exaggerated form im his case; but there are other and more marked * A superior planet coming to opposition in midwinter attains an altitude about equal to the sun’s midsummer altitude; near the equinoxes a planet in opposition has a mean altitude about equal to the sun’s altitude at either equinox ; and, lastly, a planet coming to opposition in midsummer attains an altitude only equalling the sun’s altitude in midwinter. The reason is obvious—for the sun is always on the ecliptic, while the planets all travel near the ecliptic, and the ecliptic must be high by night when it is low by day, and vice versa. These changes produce a variation of 47° in the meridian altitude of a planet, a range of change which is yet further increased owing to the inclination of the planetary orbits to the ecliptic. The effect due to the last cause is small, howeyer, except in the case of Mars. The Planet Mars. 467 variations presented by Mars, which the other superior planets do not exhibit, or at least not to any noteworthy extent. These peculiarities will be understood when we come to examine the nature of Mars’ orbit. The planetary orbits it is well known, are elliptical. But although several of these orbits differ very appreciably from circles concentric with the sun, yet their difference from the circular form is always very small indeed. For instance, the orbit of Mars, which is one of the most eccentric, yet dif- fers so little from the circular form thatif it were accurately traced down as an ellipse having a greater axis one foot in length, a circle described around this ellipse would nowhere Separate from it by a distance exceeding one-eightieth part of an inch ; though on the same scale, the distance of the sun from the centre of the ellipse would be represented by a length of more than half an inch (almost exactly °56 of an inch). Again, the mclination of the planetary orbits to the ecliptic, though quite sufficient to make the absolute distances by which the planets may be separated from the plane of the ecliptic very considerable, is yet so small in itself, that a representation of the orbits in plano is not unsatisfactory—save only in the case of Mercury, and some of the minor planets. It appears, then, that circles traced on paper may be taken to represent ap- proximately the orbits of planets, if only these circles are properly centred. In Figs. | and 2, parts of the orbits of Mars and the earth are traced down as accurately as possible, on the scale of one-eighth of an inch to 4,000,000 miles. S is the posi- tion of the sun, © is the centre of the earth’s orbit. CO’ the centre of the orbit of Mars. ‘The position of the earth at the time of winter-solstice is at W. Sol., while in Fig. 2, the position of the earth at the time of vernal equinox is at V. Hq. The two figures must be supposed to be parts of a single delmeation of the orbits, the scale of which would be some- what too large for our pages. The reader is recommended, however, to describe such circles on a larger sheet, taking the centering from Vig.1. He will then be able to appreciate what is only partially indicated m Figs. 1 and 2, the remark- able variation in the distance separating the two orbits. He will find, indeed, that at the pomt of nearest approach (nearly in direction C’ S) the distance separating the orbits is little more than half the correspondimg distance on the opposite side—that is, in direction S C’. The orbit of the earth is supposed to lie in the plane of the paper, while the plane of Mars’ orbit must be supposed to cut the plane of the paper, in the line S Q the part of the orbit which appears in our figures lying above the plane of the paper. SSS _———_ ~- Fiqure 4. The Planet Mars. 469 The short lines surmounted by arrow-heads, represent the dis- tance at which different parts of the orbit lie above the plane of the ecliptic.* The figures representing the earth and Mars, are not drawn to scale, but purposely enlarged. The meridian lines upon them serve to indicate the position of the polar axes of the two planets. They are such that whereas the earth, when at V. Eq., has its polar axis square to the line from the sun, Mars is similarly circumstanced when near N or N’. The axis of the earth must be supposed to be inclined at an angle of 664 de- grees to the plane of the paper; that of Mars, at an angle of about 60 degrees. The two planets move round their orbits in the same direc- tion (H’ HK” or M’M M”) at different rates; the earth taking one year to complete her circuit, Mars taking 1 year 3212 days to complete his. Thus if they start together, the earth will go twice round, while Mars has gone little more than once round ; and on an average the earth will make up this small are by which Mars is in advance, in 494 days. Thus the interval between successive oppositions is on an average 2 years 494 | days. But the rate at which Mars travelsis so variable, owing to the eccentricity of his orbit, that this interval of 49} days is sometimes largely exceeded, at other times as largely fallen short of. For Mars in perihelion travels nearly halfas fast again as he does in aphelion: the earth also moves at a variable rate, though her variation is much less marked than that of Mars; it happens, further, that the earth is moving at a rate less than her mean rate, when opposite that part of Mars’ orbit in which he travels fastest, and vice versa. Hence it is that the intervals between successive oppositions differ so noticeably, For example: in 1860, Mars came to opposition on the 17th of July; in 1862, he was in opposition on October 5th, 80 days later; in 1864, on December Ist, 56 days later; in 1867, he will come to opposition on January 10th, only 41 days later ; in 1869, on February 13th, only 33 days later ; and in 1871, a yet smaller number of days will separate the date of opposition from that of 1569. A word or two as to the absolute dimensions of the two orbits. The mean distance of the earth from the sun, is 91,650,000 miles ; her greatest and least distances 93,190,000 miles, and 90,110,000 miles, respectively ; thus the eccentricity, or C 8, is 1,540,000 miles. ‘he mean distance of Mars from the sun, or the distance C’M, is 189,650,000 miles; his aphelion and perihelion distances being, respectively, 152,670,000, and * Only the part of such lines between the two cross-lines is to be taken as representing this distance. 470 The Planet Mars. 126,620,000 miles; his eccentricity, or C'S, is 13,025,000 miles. The rising node of the Martial orbit, is in longitude 48° 27’, measured from § V in the direction of the planet’s motion. Mars reaches his greatest distance from the ecliptic plane, near M” (Fig. 2), when his distance from that plane is no less than 4,850,000 miles. The pomt at which the two orbits approach nearest hes nearly in direction O'S, but somewhat precedes that direction, owing tothe eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. Here the orbits are separated only by 34,140,000 miles, whereas, in direction SC’, they are separated by no less than 61,860,000 miles. Hence the planet Mars appears much larger when he is in opposition near perihelion, than when he is in opposition near aphelion. He is also more brilliantly illuminated when in the former position. Hence, when in opposition near perihelion, he shines with a brilhancy comparable to that of Jupiter and Venus ; and his appearance at such a time has caused alarm to the uneducated. In August, 1719, for mstance, when he was only 24° from perihelion, at the time of opposition, he created the same sort of panic that brilliant comets are apt to produce. His ruddy aspect, which gained for him among the Greeks the epithet o arupoeus, tended to increase this effect. . Since Mars, when he comes to opposition near perihelion, is south of the equinoctial, he attains but a moderate altitude on the meridian, and on this account he is less favourably seen. He isin fact thrown much further south at this time than he would beif he travelled in the plane of the ecliptic. For, although the plane in which he moves is inclined at an angle of only 1° dl’ 5” to the plane of the ecliptic, yet, seen from the earth in opposition, when nearly at his greatest distance south of the ecliptic (which happens if he is in opposition near perihelion), he is thrown nearly 74° south of the ecliptic. This will be clearly under- stood if we refer to Fig. 2 to exhibit the corresponding projec- tion of Mars north of the ecliptic; for it will be very evident that Mars, being raised above the plane of the paper at M or M”, would appear much more elevated above that plane to an eye placed at or near the centre of EH or W”, than he would to an eye placed at 8. The greatest possible meridian altitude of Mars in our latitude is about 66°, his least scarcely exceeds 10°. Those who are in the habit of using the teles- cope will know very well what this means, and will readily understand that perihelion oppositions of Mars lose much of their superiority, through the comparatively low altitude of the planet on the meridian. Hence far better views of Mars were obtained in 1862 and 1864 than in 1860, though he was farther off slightly in 1862, and very considerably in 1864, than he had been in 1860. ‘The approaching opposition is The Planet Mars. A71 exceedingly favourable as respects altitude ; but the planet will be yet further removed from us than he was in 1864. Some misapprehension, by the way, appears to prevail respecting the apparent diameter of Mars in 1867. We find it stated by some of our best authorities that the planet will appear larger than he did in 1864. This is a mistake, though the Nautical Almanack appears to countenance the supposition. In 1864, Mars came to opposition when situated as at M’ in Fig. 1, the earth being at H’; this was on December Ist, 1864. In 1867 Mars in opposition will be situated as at M, the earth being at EH. If now the distance H M (measured of course from centre to centre) be measured, it will be found to exceed the distance E’M’ by more than one-seventh. I would not be understood as placing the accuracy of my figures against the calculations of the Nautical Almanack computers; though I I may note in passing that much more may be learned from carefully drawn diagrams than is commonly supposed.* Asa matter of fact, however, the increased diameter given in the Nautical Almanack results from a change in the assumed value of the planet’s actual diameter, and a reference to the columns in which the distance of Mars is noted will at once show that the planet is farther off, and therefore must present a smaller apparent diameter. The actual distance of the planet will be about 58,500,000 miles on January 10, 1867, against less than 50,000,000 miles on December Ist, 1864. At the opposition of February 18, 1869 (see Fig. 2), Mars will be yet further off han in 1867. In fact the next three or four oppositions will be very unfavourable ones as respects the distance of Mars, and will be successively less and less favourable as respects his meridian altitude. At the approaching opposition the planet will attain an altitude of 643° when in opposition. But, if we would rightly understand the physical peculi- * Tt seems to me that most works on popular astronomy fail in this respect ; it is as easy, or nearly so, to give diagrams correctly representing the relations to be illustrated, as to give incorrect drawings, and it is surely far more instruc- tive. The mind apprehends much more readily, and retains much more certainly, what is presented to the eye, than what is stated verbally. Many of the most marked features of the solar system, or of astronomy generally, admit, too, of being fairly exhibited in diagrams. Occasionally, indeed, it becomes necessary to exaggerate dimensions; in such a case it is sufficient to call the attention of the re der to the want of proportion in the drawing. But often (almost always, in fact) incorrect drawing is admitted where the just proportions could be easily presented. Take, for instance, the eccentricity of Mars’ orbit. In Guillemin’s Heavens we find a figure representing the orbits of the earth and Mars, in which no attempt whatever is made to exhibit this feature, though it is one of the most remarkable and most easily illustrated in the solar system. Singularly enough, in the Bridgewater Treatises, Whewell remarks that all readers of works on popular astronomy are familiar with the appearance of the solar system, represented as it is in such works by a number of slightly eccentric ellipses. Where are we to find such works ? A472 The Planet Mars. arities presented by this interesting planet—the only one whose true surface we are able to examine satisfactorily—we are not to content ourselves with observing him im this or that position among the signs. For then we should only know of his appearance at this or that Martial season. We must examine him at every opposition, and endeavour, if possible, to connect the appearances presented at diiferent oppositions with the seasonal changes which may fairly be assumed to be taking place upon his surface. The seasons on Mars are due to an axial inclination not differing greatly from that of our own earth. From a series of observations by Sir W. Herschel it would appear to follow that . the point of Mars’ orbit corresponding to our vernal equinox (northern hemisphere) is at present in longitude 78°,—N im Fig. 1. He made the inclination of the axis to the plane of Mars’ orbit 28° 42’, to the plane of the elliptic 30° 30’. The determination of these elements is not a problem which we can expect to have exactly solved. Accordingly, we find that Dr. Oudemans, applying observations taken in 1830—1837 by Bessel, with the Konigsberg heliometer, obtained results differing appreciably from Herschel’s. He assigns an inclina- tion 13° less than that given by Herschel, and he places the Martial vernal equinox as at N’, Fig. 1. We learn also that this determination does not correspond quite accurately with some pictures of Mars taken by good observers.* Fig. 3 indicates the polar presentation of Mars (supposed to be seen in an inverting telescope) at opposition, on Dr. Oudemans’ assumption as to the inclination of the axis. The arrow represents the direction in which the planet is actually moving, while mm’ represents a declination-circle through his centre, and ee’ a declination-parallel, so that the apparent motion of Mars across the field of the telescope will take place in direction e’e. The polar presentation will gradually diminish as the planet retrogrades (that is, until the middle of February), and then gradually increase. In the beginning of April, when Mars has nearly reached his maximum phase of gibbosity, he will appear as shown at Fig. 3. At this time he will nearly have reached the summer-solstice of his northern hemisphere, so that the southern polar snows may be expected to be much more extensive than they had been three months before. ‘the planet will, of course, appear much smaller his distance being so much greater—sce in Fig. 2 the longer line marked 1867. * It appears to me that the two pictures by Dela Rue, reproduced in Guillemin’s Heavens, require a somewhat larger inclination than that assigned by Dr, Oudemans, ‘ ESS Progress of Invention. A73 Figs. 4 and 5 represent the features of land, water, snow- caps, etc., which have been seen by Dawes, De la Rue, Lockyer, Phillips, and others of our best observers on the southern and northern hemispheres of Mars, respectively. It need hardly be said that Mars never presents either pole directly towards the earth: nor, if he did, would he appear as in Figs. 4 and 5. These must be looked upon as maps, and they are intended to enable the student to fill in tracings or copies of Fig. 3 with suitable details—the upper half (or rather the part above the equator) from Fig. 4, the other part from Fig. 5; the bounding circles in Figs. 4 and 5 representing the Martial equator. When this is carefully done, the student will re- cognize the well-known features given in works on popular astronomy ; and the observer, having made several such maps corresponding to different stages of rotation, will be able to interpret or correct the results of his own telescopic observa- tions of the planet during the first three months of 1867. PROGRESS OF INVENTION. Kconomic Propuction or AnitinE.—The importance of aniline and its derivatives, in a commercial point of view, has become’ so great, that any improvement which tends to facilitate its production is of great value. It is obtained, as our readers are aware, by means of benzine, which hitherto has been procured only by a some- what complicated process. M. Bobcef has been able greatly to sim- plify this. He dissolves the heavy oils contained in coal-tar with soda, at ordinary temperatures. They are thus separated from the benzine, which floats on the surface, and may be obtained quite pure by mere decantation and rectification. The residue, after decantation, is a product of some value. It is a combination of coal tar and alkali, which constitutes a kind of soap, and has been termed by M. Bobcef phenate of soda. He considers that it pos- sesses all the useful properties of phenic acid. Dettcate Test ror Acips.—Hitherto blue litmus paper has been the most sensitive test possessed by the chemists for the pre- sence of an acid. Unfortunately, however, it has been found that its not being reddened by a given fluid affords no absolute certainty of the absence of acids. It is even inferior in delicacy to the red- dened litmus paper used as a test for alkalies. M. Schonbein has, however, furnished us with a test for acids of remarkable sensitive- ness. It indicates the presence of the very smallest amount of an acid, being so delicate that it shows the presence of carbonic acid in distilled water that has been merely breathed upon. It is obtained in treating cyanine blue with soda; dissolving one part of the product in one hundred parts alcohol, and adding twice its volume of water to the solution. The cyanine blue is formed by ATA Progress of Invention. acting on iodide of amyl with lepidine. Schonbein’s test fluid is applicable also to the detection of bases, and is of extraordimary delicacy when used to that purpose, enabling us to ascertain the presence of the exceedingly small amount of oxide of lead, which is dissolved by water, and which is not to be rendered perceptible by sulphuretted hydrogen. That.used for acids is adapted to alkalies by merely reddening it with an acid. Proputsion or Boats on Canaus.—Great as has been the exten- sion of the railway system, and numerous as are the advantages it possesses over every other mode of conveyance, canals, at least those already constructed, would retain a large portion of their utility, and of their superiority, m point of economy, could steam be employed generally uponthem. But such has not been found the case, notwithstanding the many efforts which have been made for the purpose. The great disturbance caused in the water, not only by every form and application of paddle-wheel, but also by every adaptation of the screw propeller, causes a ruinous effect on the banks. A trialis, however, beimg made in France of a mode of using the paddle-wheel, which is found to be free from objections of this kind, and which will, if not accompanied by others peculiar to itself, most probably give a new impulse to canal navigation. Only one paddle-wheel is used, and it works in the centre of the boat, in a space which is enclosed on all sides, except at the bottom. The lowermost paddles project below the keel, and are so effective as to produce, it is said, a velocity equal to that obtained with any other arrangement that has been tried. SimpL—E Mopge or RENDERING Rastins Souvusiy.—Certain resins, such as Calcutta copal, are not, in ordinary circumstances, soluble in spirits of turpentine, benzine, petroleum, and other hydrocarbons; but they are rendered so by the application of heat. This, however, is objectionable, among other reasons, from the loss of one-fourth of the weight which occurs. It has been found by M. Violette that this loss may be avoided by heating the resins in close and strong vessels to a temperature between 350° and 400° Cent., and after this cooling them. They are then soluble, even at ordinary temperatures, im the above-mentioned fluids, forming excellent varnishes, which may be used for even the most delicate purposes. They undergo no loss of weight, and the effect produced on them is due to the conjoined action of both heat and pressure. There is one circum- stance, however, which, at first, may be a source of difficulty, when the manufacture is carried on upon the large scale. The vessel in which the resin is heated must be able to support a pressure of about twenty atmospheres. The resin may be heated, and the varnish made by a single process. or this purpose it is only necessary to heat to the required temperature a mixture consisting of one part by weight boiled linseed oil, four parts spirits of tur- pentine, and one part Calcutta copal. Precirrration or Merats rrom tarrr Sonurions By Macyestum. —Magnesium, for a long period after its discovery, remained a mere chemical curiosity. It was then applied to the production of a light, suitable not only for ordinary illumination, but, which is of far Progress of Invention. ATS more importance, to the purposes of the photographer ; and in such a way as that, to him, the day was practically rendered twenty-four hours long, and the darkest cavern became as well adapted to his art as the most brilliantly lighted studio. Anew, and scarcely less important use of magnesium has now been discovered. It is found to precipitate metals from their solutions, and in such circumstances _as to afford valuable aid to the toxicologist in medico-legal inves- tigations regarding cases of supposed poisoning. Sometimes it gives rise to precipitation in the metallic state. Thus it throws down iron and zinc from slightly acidulated solutions of their proto or sesqui salts; and cobalt trom a similar solution of its pro- toxide. In these, and other cases, a very remarkable circumstance occurs—hydrogen is evolved. The evolution of this gas, however, prevents arsenic, or antimony, from being precipitated in the metallic state; since each of these metals combines with the hydrogen, and passes off with it. The iron, zine, and cobalt thus precipitated assume a brilliant metallic appearance if they are well-washed, and then compressed—a very slight pressure being sufficient with the zine. Iron, cobalt, and nickel obtained in this way are highly magnetic. These are not the only metals which are thrown down by magnesium. Ii precipitates also gold, silver, pla- tinum, bismuth, tin, mercury, copper, lead, cadmium, and thallium. Other important circumstances are the consequence of the great solubility of magnesium. Thus it decomposes water with great rapidity, if a very small quantity of chloride of sodium or sal ammoniac is present; and the hydrogen thus evolved when the mag- nesium contains no silicium, is quite pure. The great tendency of magnesium to become oxidized also renders it highly effective as a battery element. Ifa plate of magnesium, only 0:1 gramme in weight, is immersed, with a very small plate of copper, in a glass tube which has a capacity of six cubic centimetres, and is filled with water which has been acidulated, a galvanic current will be pro- duced that will suffice to keep a small electro-magnetic apparatus, or to afford with a Geissler tube an illumination ten centimetres in length for about ten minutes. _ New Appuication or Cottoi Diaparacms.—A mode of dialysing gases by means of colloid diaphragms has recently been discovered. It has long been known that even a thin pellicle of caoutchouc is totally impervious to gases, as such. But it has been found that it is capable of liquifying certain gases, which then pass through it, and are again restored to the gaseous form, or reaching the other side of the pellicle. Atmospheric air is one of these gases; but its constituents are not transmitted with a velocity proportioned to their relative amounts; the whole of its oxygen, but only half of its nitrogen is allowed to pass through. We are thus enabled to obtain oxygen sufficiently pure to rekindle incandescent wood. To render the pellicle as effective as possible, the air to be dialysed must have free access to one side of it, and a partial vacuum must be maintained at the other. Colloid membranes are not the only simple means of liquifying gases. Platinum, pal- ladium, and iron condense hydrogen into a liquid which, possibly, A76 Inierary Notices. is metallic. Palladium is especially effective in this way. And iron absorbs carbonic acid in still larger quantities than hydrogen— a circumstance which seems to explain certain facts connected with the manufacture of steel. These metals have no effect whatever on either oxygen or nitrogen. The necessity for the liquifaction of gases, previous to their passage through caoutchoue, is due to certain peculiarities of that substance. Though it refuses to ransmit gases as such, it is very pervious to fluid. It will absorb water to such an extent, as to become opaque; and its pores are so much opened by this fluid, that the latter will pass through, and be evaporated at the other side. The pores, indeed, are visible under the microscope. PROJECTILES AFFECTED BY THE HartH’s Roration.—The discovery of the effect of the earth’s rotation on the path of a projectile is not new; but the practical consideration of it has only recently engaged attention. The flight of projectiles, from their imperfec- tion, and that of the fire-arms then in use, was formerly so uncertain, that the small deviation produced by the rotation of the earth was considered unworthy of any attention. Such is not the case at present; and hence the subject has been of late carefully studied. The deviation depends on the latitude : being greatest at the poles, and zero at the equator. In our latitude a shell, about twelve inches in diameter, with a range of four thousand yards, would deviate to the extent of eight yards. The direction of deviation is different in the different hemispheres; in ours it is, whatever the azimuth of the vertical plane in which the path of the projectile lies, always to the right. A deviation is caused also by the rifling ; and as this depends on the direction of the latter, it may, according to circumstances, either augment, or, to a greater or less extent, diminish that caused by the rotation of the earth. - In our latitude, with a Whitworth gun, half the deviation arises from the earth’s rotation ; a proper system of riflimg would therefore prevent any deviation whatever. But it must not be forgotten that a rifle without any deviation in one hemisphere would have a very considerable one in the other: as it would become equal to the sum of the deviations caused by both the rifling and by the earths rotation. LITERARY NOTICKS. BENEDICITE; OR, THE Sone or THe Toren Cuitpren. Being illus- trations of the Power, Wisdom, avd Goodness of God, as manifested in his Works, By G. Caarnin Cup, M.D. In two Volumes. (J. urray.)—The canticle known as the “ Benedicite,” and commencing “ Oh all ye works of the Lord, bless ye the Lord: praise him and magnify him for ever,” supplies Dr. Chaplin Child with a series of texts on which he has written elegant little disser- tations of a scientific character.s The book is beautifully got up, Interary Notices. 477 with good print, pleasant cream-coloured paper, well-designed headings, and tail-pieces to the chapters. The verses of the “‘ Bene- dicite” carry the doctor through a wide range of subjects, from astronomy to natural history. Dr. Chaplin is strictly orthodox— more so than is common with scientific men—but his pages are free from anything like cant, and they will be welcomed in many fami- lies which more elaborate treatises would not reach. The “ Bene- _ dicite’’ is a very favourite hymn, botn on account of its literary merit, and from its adaptability to music, and it is certainly desirable that those who use it for the expression of their devotional feelings should have some idea of the way in which “all the works of the Lord do praise Him,” in the thoughts which they excite in intel- ligent minds. THe Oricin or Sprcies BY MEANS OF NaturaL SELECTION; or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. B Cuartes Darwin, M.A., F.R.S., etc. Fourth edition, with additions and corrections. Wighth thousand. (Murray.)—No book of modern times has contributed so much to philosophical thinking on the sub- ject of natural history as the Origin of Species of Charles Darwin. A considerable allowance of abuse from those whose minds were ossified with old-established prejudice, did more to call attention to this masterly work than to obstruct the reception of the truths which it conveys, and if its author has to complain of some ill-treatment on the part of those who know no better, he has the satisfaction of being more or less supported by the greatest thinkers of the day. Gross mistakes have been often made in treating the doctrine of “natural selection”’ as if it were merely a hypothesis capable of being entirely overthrown ; whereas the exposition of the doctrine is simply a statement of facts ; and the scientific doubt pertaining to it, concerns the extent of its action, and not the question of its existence. That living beings succeed in hereditary series is one fact; that progeny are subject to variations from the parent type is another fact ; and it is a third fact that some of these variations are transmissible in long succession. Man, by careful breeding, trans- mits peculiarities in horses, dogs, cattle, pigeons, etc., according to his wants, or according to his whims. In nature, the permanence, or long duration of a transmissible peculiarity must, as Darwin shows, depend upon its adaptability to the circumstances in which the modified creature finds itself. If it lessens the power of the individual to fight the battle of life, it dies out, while if it assists in that conflict, it remains. The hypothetical part of Darwinism con- sists in the inferences which he draws, or suggests, as to the extent to which these causes have operated in past times. If we suppose their extent of action to be no greater than we can prove it to have been, it will not account for the descent of a vast multitude of divergent forms from one, or from a few parent forms; but if the positive evidence in this matter is incomplete, the negative evidence is palpably afflicted with the same defect to an enormous degree. If we had cause to suppose that geology and palzontology displayed to usa fair and unbroken sequence of organic beings from early times to our own, the negative evidence against the hypothesis would be A738 Interary Notices. very strong indeed; but an immense deal has been done of late years, not only to show beyond all doubt that our palzontological record is incomplete; but that it is imperfect to such an extent that it may be likened to a book from which whole chapters of unknown size, and unknown contents, have been cut out. How many of these chapters we may be able to recover no one can guess, as only a small part of the earth has yet been subjected to accurate exami- nation. We are likewise profoundly ignorant of the physiological causes of hereditary transmission, with or without variation. Dar- winism, therefore, stands in the position of an array of facts, proving the operation of certain principles, but leaving room for conjecture as to the extent of that operation, and its consequent capacity of evolving new forms. Whether, therefore, it be accepted or rejected, the mind should still have its “‘ philosophic doubt,” and avoid bigotry with its antagonism to reason, on either one side or the other. As for the religious questions which have been mixed up with this, as with all former innovations upon received modes of thought, they must be subordinated to the love of truth, and to the conviction that whatever method it may have pleased the Creator to adopt in peopling his world, that method must necessarily be one which, when understood, will excite the love and admiration of his rational sub- jects. The testimony of all science is conclusive as to the infinitely small proportion of nature which we can either observe or under- stand; but there is much to lead us to believe that all parts of the vast whole are bound together by a unity of design, as well as by a unity of origin from one ultimate source of intelligence and power. From the vastness of the Cosmos, human speculation is necessarily imperfect, from insufficiency of information, or from the complexity of the system baffling men’s powers of analysis. The readers of Darwin will find many beautiful and amazing instances of the inter- dependence of objects that might have been supposed disconnected ; and no one in whom the religious spirit is active can rise from a perusal of his pages without higher conceptions of the evidence which Natural Theology offers to the mind. Aw Hummenrary Treatise oN Hear. By Batrovr Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Kew Observatory, Examiner at the Universities of Edinburgh and London. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, mpcccixvi.)—This is by far the most compendious and well-arranged treatise on heat which we have seen, and the best adapted for class-teaching, or private study. It contains an immense amount of well-arranged information, and a clear ex- position of the most recent theories and facts pertaiming to its subject. An Hasy Inrropuction to tHe Hicuor Treatises or THE Conic Suctions. By the Rev. Jonny Hunter, M.A. (Longmans.)—This little book, as the author tells us, has resulted from practical expe- rience of the difficulties pupils feel in the study of conic sections, and we have no doubt it will be found of much use to the class of students for whom it is intended. ———— se ee eee a be a Notes and Memoranda. 4,79 NOTES AND MEMORANDA. Norman Lockyer oN THE SpEcTRA oF Sun Spots.—-The Proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 87, contain an account of experiments by Mr. Norman Lockyer to test the opposing theories of Faye, and De La ltue, Balfour, Stewart, and Loewy. The former regards the interior of the sun as a nebulous mass of feeble radiating power at a temperature of dissociation, and the photosphere as of high radiating power, lower temperature, and chemical action. A sun spot he supposes to be an exhibition of the interior mass through rents in the photosphere made by ascend- ing currents. The latter refer sun spots to a downward current of the cooler atmosphere, producing condensation and absorption in the photosphere. Mr. Lockyer in an experiment, which he hopes to repeat on a larger spot, did not find the spectra of the umbra give the character required by M. Faye’s hy pothesis. Maximum Prrrop oF Novemper Mzrzors.—M. Coulvier-Gravier gives a diagram in Comptes Rendus, showing the proportions of meteors seen on the 12th and 13th November, from 1830 to 1866. The maximum was in 1833, the mini- mum in 1860, and he expects the next maximum to be in 1867, which would be in accordance with the prediction of Olbers. He says that, unfortunately, there will be a full moon at the time. There has been, he states, a progressive augmen- tation from 1862 to 1866, and he expects this will continue and culminate in 1867. DISENGAGEMENTS OF GASES FROM THEIZ SUPERSATURATED Soxnurions.— M. Grenez has a paper in Comptes Rendus, No. 21, on this subject. Solutions of gases in liquids are made under certain pressures, and the temperature of the fluid is then raised, and if, as is usually the case, the gas is less soluble in a warm fluid than im a cooler one, it will remain for a time supersaturated. If any rod of solid matter is then introduced, it becomes covered with gas bubbles, which escape freely if the liquid is stirred by the rod. After a time the immersed part of the rod loses the power of promoting the formation of gas bubbles; heat will also destroy this power, and solid bodies which have not been in contact with air do not possess it, and it is the air, or gas, adhering to the solid body which excites the action. Porson In WHALE Fisuine.—In Comptes Rendus, No. 22, will be found an account by M. Thiercelin of the employment of ‘small explosive shells to shoot whales, and killthem by conveying strychnine and curare poison into their systems. He states that a mixture in powder of soluble salts of strychnine, with one- twentieth of curare, wil! kill any animal if discharged to awound. The animals require a five-thousandth of a gramme of the poison to each kilogramme of their bulk, or less if they are extremely large. He estimates whales to weigh, according to the sort, from 50,000 to 90,000 kilogrammes, and he mentions several instances of whales killed in a few minutes by his poison shells. The animals exhibit symp- toms of tetanus, followed by death. THE Iconoscopz.—M. Javal describes in Comptes Rendus the above named instrument as taking its place between Wheatstone’s pseudoscope and the tele- stereoscope of Helmholtz. He says, by an optical combination identical with that employed in the binocular microscope of Nachtet, and the binocular opthalmoscope of Giraud-Teulon, the two eyes cease to receive different images of external objects. Tt results that if, under these conditions, a large picture is examined, the eyes preserve the same state of convergence towards whichever part of the canvas they are directed, and the spectator having no means of assuring himself concerning the plain form of the surface he examines, it assumes an Upp: of pe in proportion to the time it is observed. Yeast or Beur.—M. Herman Hoffman states (Comptus Rendus) that if a little beer yeast is placed in a weak solution of honey that has been boiled, bubbles of carbonic acid rise for a few days from the liquid, but not directly from the yeast cells; after which the acid which is developed stops the fermentation. A pellicle of yeast cells and baciliform cells, frequently i in chains composed of several 480 Notes and Memoranda. members (? bacteriums), this pellicle fructifies in the form of Penicillium. Many yeast cells fall to the bottom, and they can be made to fructify as Mucor or Penicillium, if placed on pieces of potato. Heating the liquid to 60° or 74° (C.) arrests the fermentation for some days, after which it takes place feebly, and many of the cells fructify in the bacillar form. After exposure to a still higher temperature the yeast loses its faculty of inducing fermentation, but can still produce a pellicle. 84° (C.) destroys its vitality altogether, unless 16 is heated in a dry state, when it can survive a temperature not exceeding 150°, and still pro- duce a feeble fermentation. At 215° it loses this property, but still produces the pellicle. Similar results followed the application of creosote, chloroform and sulphuric acid in appropriate doses. A New GLow-woRM, WITH Two Firzs, has been found in the Grand Chaco, Argentine Republic. Wm. Perkins, lsq., F.R.G.S., writes from Rosario, October 20, 1866, to Wm. Bollaert, Esq., F.R.G.S. :—‘‘I think I have made a discovery in natural history, and which you may make known to the scientific world. L found the female of the most extraordinary Hlateride ever heard of, at least that I know off. Itis a most brilliant glow-worm, one inch and a half long, with TWO FIRES. The body emits a most vivid flame of the ordinary greenish phos- phorescent colour, while the head presents the appearance of a bright glowing ved coal of fire. The reflection on a piece of paper is also of the two colours. I never saw anything so beautiful.” Mr. Bollaert adds: “This is doubtless one of the Cocuyos family. One, the Pyrophorus noctilucus, is described as the South American Cocuyo, or glow-worm. Mr. Bollaert has noticed glow-worms in the West Indies, North and South America, but never in such abundance and beauty as in the wilds of Western Texas, still he never observed but the one light, the green.” GEOLOGY OF THE PaRANA.—Mr. Perkins writes also to Mr. Bollaert: ‘ You know how completely alluvial is all the littoral to the west of the Parana. From Santé Fé up to the Bermejo, the right side of the Parana is bordered to a strip of low alluvial land from two to five leagues in breadth. Then come the high barrancos of the Chaco, also alluvial, not a stone to be found from Rosario to the Bermejo; noclay neither. Well, I found, running in a direction S.H. and N.W. across the low lands mentioned, a large formation of conglomerate of agates and red clay, the latter of a brilliant colour, soft and homogeneous. The formation, where [ found it, crossed the San Javier river, in latitude 29°11’ S. At the town of San Javier, where the river of the same name approaches, the high banks (80 feet high) of the lowlands, I found, at the depth of 90 feet, a bright red coarse sand that was going through the process of hardening into stone. I also found large numbers of old oyster shells, with very brilliant colouring inside. They seemed to me so similar to the pearl oysters I have seen at Paranda and the, Gulf of Guaymas, that I made minute inquiries of some old Indians in the town of San Javier. They said that little stones had been found in the shells in former times. I had to take the information for what it was worth. The wonderful shell forma- tion at Parana, where we found them in the gradations from a perfect shell to a finished formation of fine limestone, does not leave us any room for surprise at finding them a couple of degrees further north.” pw? Boorts awp ¢ AquaRti, SeccuI’s Mrasvres.—Our attention has been called to the probability that the distance of the first of these stars as lately given by Secchi is too much. Mr. Webb finds it easier to divide than y* Andromeda, which he ascribes to the size of the disks. In 1864, Mr. Knott’s measure of pe” Bootis was 05; and in 1865, Mr. Dawes made it 0°48. We are asked, but cannot tell, what Secchi means by the note he makes against this star, “ Non é ben certo, qual sia delle due pare = 1938.” Mr. Knott thinks there may be a misprint in Secchi’s position of ¢ Aquarii, which he makes 347°°83. Mr. Knott finds it 337°01 D. 3'"644. oe G) Ste INDEX, ———_- ACHROMATIC condensers, 60. Achromatic eye-pieces for telescopes, 80. Acids, delicate test for, 473. Aerolite, a monster, 399. Aids to microscopic inquiry, 298. Albumen, 299. Algiers as a winter residence, 1. Amalgamated zinc in the galvanic bat- tery, substitute for, 238. Ameeboid bodies, development of, 367. Amorphous phosphorus, 236. Ancient settlements in Ireland, 73. Ancient sword at Norham, 395. Anglo-Saxon antiquities in Leicester, 72. Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, 225, 227. Aniline, economic production of, 473. Animal life in South Africa, 41. Antelopes of South Africa, 45. Anthropological Review, 231. Ants, 416. Apple congress, 240. Aquarii and Bootis, Secchi’s measures, 480. Archeologia, 72, 225, 394. ARCH®HOLOGIA.—Canoe in Whettall moss, 72; Roman tesselated pave- ment, 72; Anglo-Saxon antiquities, 72; ancient settlements,73; Anglo- Saxon cemetery at Sarr, 225; bal- ance and scales, 225; Roman in- scriptions, 226 ; excavations at Sutton Hill, 226; sepulchral tumuli, 227; Reliquize Aquitanice, 315; flint cores from India, 320; Rouen, 394; City of Hereford, 395 ; ancient sword at Norham, 395; ex- cavations at Silchester, 395; ancient pyramid, 396; Roman inscription, 396. Archeological Societies of Hereford, 395. Ascent of Cader Idris, 27. Asphali of the Dead Sea, 62. VOL. X.—wNO. VI. Cathedral of Astinomus, species of, 129. ASTRONOMY.—Chacornac’s solar theo- ries, 15; deceptive figures, with re- marks on Saturn’s square-shouldered phase, 23 ; coming meteor shower— spectra of meteors, 38; planet Saturn, 49 ; ring system of Saturn, 49, 148 ; rotation of Saturn’s ring, 57; Dhurm- salla meteoric stone, 78; zodiacal light, 79; effect of increase on sun’s mass, 79; prisms and silvered flats for tele- scopes, 80; achromatic eye-pieces for telescopes, 80; red stars, 119; planet Saturn, 142; spectrum of apa- tite, 159; rapid increase of star in Corona, 159 ; new planets, 159 ; mag- netic action of the moon, 160; pris- matic spectra of August meteors, 161; meteor spectroscope, 162; mono- chromatic light, 163; spectra of meteors, 163; material of meteors— planet Saturn, 194; Chacornac on the comets, 209; obscurations of the sun, 228; hand-book to the stars, 232; shooting stars near the earth, 239; silvered object-glasses for sun viewing, 240; cometary light, 281 ; nebula, 281; occultations, 149, 288, 393, 443; nebular hypothesis of La- place explamed by Delaunay, 310; terrestrial dark lines of the spectrum, 317; light of nebule, 318; star mag- nitudes, 319: nimetieth planet, 320; November meteors, 373; nebular and stellar spectra, 386; solar obser- vations, 391; red stars, 392; planets, 392; Orion nebula, 386; measuring smallintervals and counting meteors, 398; pseudoscopic appearance of the moon, 395; Seccii on double stars, 399 ; monster aerolite, 399; ninety- first planet, 399; the heavens, 400 ; lunar details, 441; obscuration of lunar crater, 444; Mare Serenitatis, 11 A82 Index. 444; Schmidt on the lunar crater *Tinne” and November meteors, 448 ; celestial perspective, 451; No- vember meteor shower at Glasgow, 459; spectra of meteors, 465 ; planet Mars, 466; orbit of Mars, 467; seasons of Mars, 471; Norman Lockyer on the spectra of sun spots, 479; maximum period of November meteors, 479; Boéotis and Aquarii, Secchi’s measures, 480. Batance and scales, ancient, 225. Balanophorace, 348. Banyan-tree, 113. Bee parasites, 414. Beetles, 130. Beetles or coleoptera, 409. Bell-birds of America, 401. Benedicite, or Song of the Three Chil- dren, 476. Birds of Middlesex, 233. Bitumen on the Dead Sea, 63. Black population of the British Colony of Natal, 184. Black wood, Forest of Kinloch, 125. Bleaching process, new, 157. Bolide at Vichy, 239. Bootis and Aquarii, Secchi’s measures, 480. Borany.—Notes on fungi, 32; blackish purple or brown-spored mushrooms, 32; mushroom diseases, 34; size and life of a mammoth tree, 79; fungus in a tree, 80 ; ladies’ slippers, 81; cypripedium, species of, 84; Miocene plants, 91; Eocene flora, 93; large British oaks, 107 ; Bryng- wyn oak, 108; Golynos oak, 109 ; genus ficus, 112; banyan tree, 113; pepul, 115 ; India-rubber tree, 116 ; fig tree, 117; 3 sycamore tree, 118; plants found in the lake- -dwellings, 151; flora of Ireland, 202; Hiber- nian plants, 203; wayside flora, 232; medical properties of the teazle, 239; apple congress, 240; para- sitical plants, 348 ; rhizomes of para- sitical plants, 349. British Columbia charr-fishing, 339. Bronze work of lake dwellings, 154. Brown-spored mushrooms, 32. Browning’s spectroscope, 161. Bryngwyn oak, 108. Buckland’s Curiosities of Natural His- tory, 45. Buddhist astronomy, 426. Buddhism and its legends, 421. Burmah pheasants, 170. Butterflies of the Highlands, 126, Caper Ipris, ascent of, 27. ~ Canoe, found in Whettall Moss, 72. Caoutchouc tree, 116. Cape Colony elephants, 44. Capturing pheasants, 173. Carnivora, South Africa, 48. Cathedral of Rouen, 394. Celestial perspective, 451. Cellulose, 301. Cerebric acid, 300. Chacornac on comets, 209. - Chacornac’s solar theories, 15. Chameleon, 321. Charaxes jasius, 259. Charles Waterton, 227. Charr-fishing, 339. Charr from British Columbia, 338. Chart of the characteristic British ter- tiary fossils, 316. Chasmorhynchus priscus, 406. Chemical materials of man, 298. Chemical poisoning, 239. CuHEMISTRY.—New electrical apparatus, 74; peroxide of hydrogen, 75; oxy- gen in a different state in different peroxides, 76; electrotype process, 76; purification of water, 77; pe- troleum as fuel, 77; utilizing com- bustible fluids as fuel, 78; iodine dissolves gold, 79; new bleaching process, 157; substitute for sodium amalgam in metallurgical operations, 157; dissociation of gases at high temperatures, 158; dialytic action of India-rubber and metals on gases, 160; crystallizing carbon, 160; elec- tricity, 231; magnesium and its salts as illuminating agents, 234; amorphous phosphorous, capable of crystallization, 236; electric alarm, 237; thermo-electric properties of iron, 238; oxygen obtained from atmospheric air, 288; substitute for amalgamated zinc in the galvanic battery, 288; chemical poisoning, 239; peculiar disengagements of gas, 399; economic production of aniline, 478; delicate test for acids, 473; simple mode of rendering resins soluble, 474; precipitation of metals from their solutions by mag- nesium, 474; colloid diaphragms, 475; heat, elementary treatise on, 478 ; disengagements of gases from their supersaturated solutions, 479. China, stone age, 221. Cholera mist, 240. Climate of Algeria, 4 Coleoptera or wood-feeder, 128. Colonial life in Algiers, 3. Colour of chameleon, 322. Index. ee diaphragms, new application of, 475. Cometary light, 281. Comets, 209, 314. Condenser, Ross’s four-tenths, 59. Confucius, passage from the life of, 221. Congelation and death of animals, 160. Conic sections, easy introduction to the higher treatises, 478. Copepoda of mice, 333. Copper sheathing for iron ships, 263. Cork, new application of, 239. Corynea, 354. Cotingas, 401. Couch’s British fish, 99. Crustacea, 327. Crystallizing carbon, 160. Curtis’s process of photo-micrograpby, Al. Cypripediums, 82. Damping apparatus for copying, 77. Date stones, 231. Deceptive figures, 23. Deep sea life, 4.00. Developmental history of infusorial, animal life, 356. Dhurmsalla meteoric shower, 78. Dialytic action of India-rubber and metals on gases, 160. Diamond-work, 9. Diaphragm eye-piece, 319. Dictionary of science and art, 231. Dictionary of science, art, and litera- ture, 316. Dinocharis Collinsii; a rotiferon new to science, 269. Disengagements of gases from their ' supersaturated solutions, 479. Dissociation of gases at high tempera- ture, 158. Double stars by Secchi, 399. Down, three sorts of, 377. Dragon-flies, 128. Dr. Curtis’s process of photo-micro- graphy, 41. Drinking habits of chameleon, 324. Dutch settlers in Natal, 186. HARTHQUAKE in France, 319. Economic production of aniline, 473. Education of the Kaffirs, 296, 433. Electricity, 231. Eleetric-alarm, new, 237. Electrical apparatus, new, 74. Electrotype process, improved, 76. Elementary treatise on physics, experi- mental and applied, 233. Elephants of South Africa, 42. Enamelled feathers, 385. Eocene flora, 93. 483 EntomoLocy.—Tsetse, 45; highland insects, 124; butterflies of the high- lands, 126; glory of Kent moth, 126; oak-egzar moth, 127; petasia moth saw-fly, 128; wood ant, 128; notes on the habits of some lepidop- terous larvee, 253; processionary moth, 253; charaxes jasius, 205 ; spider and earwigs, 319; worms and insects generated by dead bodies, 356); generation of insectz, 357; silk produced by diurnal lepidoptera, 393; parasitic beetles, 409; coleoptera, 409 ; oil beetles, 414; bee parasites, 414; ants, 416; nest of ants, 418; new glowworm, with two fires, 480. Epidermis, 248. Hrunotoey. — Algierenes, 2; Jake » dwellers in Switzerland, 149; Kaffirs of Natal, 184, 289, 428; human re- mains in the Rhine-valley, 399; Kaflir promise and capability, 428. Excavations at Silchester, 395. Excavations at Sutton Hill, 226. Famity life of the middle class, 218. Fatio on the forms and colours of plu- mage, 377. eathers, 381. Ficus, on the genus, 112. Field adjustment for object-finding, 320. Wig trees, 116, Pilagree work, 12. Fire-arms, application of a new prin- ciple, 138. Fishing-nets and hooks of the lake- dwellers, 150. Flint cores from the Indus, 320. Flora of Ireland, 202. Food of the lake-dwellers, 150. Force of the mental and moral correl- lates, 229. Form, growth, and construction of shells, 241. Four-tenths condenser, 59. Fraser river, 3438. From Kurrachee to Mooltan, 272, Frozen fish of the Polar sea, 103. Fungi, notes on, 32. Fungus-feeding beetles, 184. Fungus in a tree, 80. Gas, peculiar disengagements of, 399. Gemmiparous animals, 376. Generation of insects, 357. Genus ficus, 112. GroLogy.—Surface geology of Cader Idris, 27 ; bituminous deposits of the Dead Sea asphalt, 64; calcareous” rock, 65; hypothetical continents, 484 | Index. 88: new parasitic crustacea, 160; British tertiary fossils, 316; varia- tions of crustacea, 327 ; remains of Dinosaurian reptiles, 396; rocks of Devon and Somerset, 397: geology of the Parana, 480. Geological society, 396, 397. Glashier’s blue mist, 365. Glass, improvement of, for optical pur- poses, 237. Glass rope of the Hyalonema, 320, 399. Glory of Kent moth, 126. Glow-worm, new, with two fires, 480. Goldsmith’s work in the time of Queen Elizabeth, 10. Golynos oak, 109. Gurnards, 101. Gossip about fish, 99. Gotama Buddha, 422. Government of Kaffirs, 20. Hasits of North-western American salmon, 345. Habits of lepidopterous larvee, 253. Head of the chameleon, 321. Heat, elementary treatise, 478. “* Heavens, the,” new edition, 400. Helosis Guyanensis, 355. Herbage of South Africa, 47. Hibernian plants, 203. Highland fauna, 180. Highland insects, 124. Hippopotami, 44. Hotels of Algiers, 2. Human remains in the Rhine valley, 399. Hunting at Algeria, 4. Huntixg in South Africa, 43. Hydra, 371. Eypsometer, improvement of, 234. Hypothetical continents, 88. IcutTHYoIDs,, 100. Iconoscope, 479. Implements of the lake-dwellers, 152. Increase of sun’s mass, effects of, 79. India-rubber trees, 116. Infueorial animal Jife, 356. Insect life in the Highlands, 125. Iodine dissolves gold, 79. Iron manufacture, 259. Iron and steel in the construction of | ships and bridges, 257. Tron-work of lake-dwellers, 155. Italian and French architecture, 176. | | JEWELLERY, modern, 7. Jewellery work of 18th century, 11. Journey from London to Algiers, 1. Karrir huts, 291 Kaffir families, 292. Kaffir food, 293. Kaffir labourers, 431. Kaffir life and intelligence, 289. Kafiirs of Natal, 189. Kaflir promise and capability, 428. Ketchup, mushroom, 35. Kurrachee to Mooltan, 272. LaDiEs’ slippers, 81. Lake-basins of Cader Idris, 29. Lake-dwellers of Switzerland, 149. Lampreys, 105. Laplace’s Nebular hypothesis, 310. Large British oaks, 107. * Lartet on the asphalt of the Dead Sea, 62. Lepidopterous larvee, 253. Light of nebule, 318. Lightning, strange effect of, 80. Lineated pheasant of Burmah, 170. Literary Notices, 227, 315, 476. Lunar crater, 444. Lunar crater “ Linné,” 448. Lunar details, occultations, 441. | MAGNesIvM and its salts as iliuminating agents, 234. Magnetic action of the moon, 160. Mahometan worship, 2. Mammalia, 95, 109. Mammoth tree, size and life of, 79. Mare serenitatis, 444, | Marie worm, new, 78. | Mars, 466. Marriages among the Kaffirs, 295. Material of meteors, 168. Maximum period of November meteors, 479, Measuring small intervals and counting meteors, 398. Medical properties of the teazle, 259. Medisevai works of London, 176. _, Metallic film spectacles, 320. | Metallurgical operations, substitute for sodium amalgam, 157, Meteors in November, 373. Meteor shower, 38. | Meteor shower at Glasgow, 459. Meteor spectroscope, 162. Meteorological observations at Kew Observatory, 66, 304. Microscopic inquiry, 298. Microscopical Society of London, 817. Microscopy.—Dr. Curtis’s process of photo-micrography, 41; Ross’s four-tenths condenser, 59; aids to microscopic inquiry, No. Vvill., ors ganic substances and formations, 298; Microscopical Society, 317; Royal Microscopical Society, 397; How’s Index. New Student’s Microscope, 398; wire spring clip for microscopic objects, 398; Mr. Pearson’s photo- micrographs, 400. Middle-class family life, 218. Migrations of animals, 46. Migrations of the eel, 103. Miocene plants, 91. Missionary work among the Katfiirs, 436. Modern jewellery and art, 7. Monads, 363. Mono-chromatie light, 163. Moults, 379. Movements of chameleon, 322. Mushrooms, black-spored, 32. Mushrooms, diseases, 34. Myxine, or borer, 106. NAKED-THROATED, bird, 402. Natal, black population, 184. Nata! elephants, 44. Natal Kaffirs,,289. Naturat History, including Zo- oLtogy.—Animal life in South Africa, 42; elephants, 42; hippopotami, 44; rhinoceri, 44; antelopes, 45; Buckland’s Curiosities of Natural His- tory, 45; migrations of animals, 46; carnivora of South Africa, 48; gossip about fish, 99; Highland insects, 124; congelation and death of ani- mals, 160; lineated pheasant of Bur- mah, 170; capturing pheasants, 173 ; the birds of Middlesex, 233; dino- charis collinsii, 269 ; chameleon, 321; head of chameleon, 321; movements of chameleon, 322; colour of chame- leon, 322; drinking habits of chame- leon, 324; new charr from British Columbia, 338; charr fishing, 339; habits of North-western American - salmon, 345; plumage of birds, 377; deep-sea life, 400; bell-birds of Ame- rica, 401; cotinga, 401; naked- throated bird, 402; chasmorhynchus priscus, 406; beetles, 409; bees and ants, 414; origin of species by means of natural selection, 477; poison in whale fishing, 479. Nebule, hypothesis of Laplace ex- plained by Delaunay, 310. Nebular and stellar spectra. solar ob- servation, red star, planets, 386. Nests of ants, 418. New charr from British Columbia, 338. New planets, 159. Ninety-first planet, 399. Norman Lockyer on the spectra of sun spots, 479. a or Brazilian bell- | 485 Note of the bell-bird, 404. Notes on fungi, 32. Notes on the habits of some lepidop- terous larve, 253. November meteors, 373. November meteors, maximum period of, 479. November meteor-shower at Glasgow, 459. November shooting stars, 449. * Oaks, large British, 107. Obscuration of a lunar crater, 444. Oak-eggar moth, 127. Obscurations of the sun, 223. Observations on the changes of colour and modes of taking food in the chameleon, 321. Occultations, 149, 281, 293, 386. Oil-beetles, 414. Ombrophytum Peruvianum, 353. } Orbit of Mars, 467. Orchids, 84. Organic substances and formations, 298. Orion nebula, 386. Origin of ancient faunas and floras, 88. Origin of .species by means of natural selection, 477. Oxygen obtained from atmospheric air, 238. Oxygen in a different state in different peroxides, 76. Paper substitute for lint, 399. Paleontology, 89. Parasitic beetles, 409. Parasitic crustacean, 160. Parasitical plants, 348. Pathmakers of the tropical forests, 44. Pepul, ficus religiosa, 115. Peripneumonia, of Africa, 46. Persistence of luminous impressions, 98. Peroxide of hydrogen, 75. Petasia moth, 127. Petroleum as fuel, 77. Phases in the developmental history of infusorial, animal lite, 356. Pheasant of Burmah, 170. Phosphorous, a metal, 236. Photography with dry plates, 156. Photography as a fine art, 19. Photographer’s light, 399. Photographie prints, new mode of fix- ing, 78. Photo-micrographs, 400. Photo-micrography, 41. Phyllorcoryne tamaicensis, 354. Pictures of Algeria, 5. Pipe fish, 104. 486 Plans for improving London, 136. Planets, the ninetieth, 320. Planet Mars, 466. Planet Saturn, 49, 142, 194. Plants found in the lake dwellings, 151. Plumules of the pieris oleracea, 318. Plumage, forms and colour of, 377. Poison in whale fishing, 479. Polar insects, 128. Polyzoa, new freshwater, 240. Porosity of caoutchoue, 520. Pottery of the lake dwellers, 153. Portable horizontal slide, cabinet, and covered opaque slide, 398. Precipitation of metals from their solu- tions by magnesium, 474. Prevention of the spark produced by the extra current, 235, Prismatic spectra of the August me- teors, 161. Prisms and silvered flats for telescopes, Proceedings of learned societies, 317, 396. Processionary moth, 258. Progress of invention, 73, 156, 234, 317, 473. Projectiles affected by the earth’s rota- tion, 476. Propulsion of boats on canals, 474. Pseudoscopic appearance of the moon, 399. Purification of water, 77. Pyramid at Mexico, 396. RaPip increase of the star in Corona, 159. Red star, 392. Red stars, 119. Refugee Kafiirs, 186. Regulator of velocity, 73. Reliquize Aquitanice, 315. Remains jof large dinosaurian reptiles from Stormberg Mountains, South Africa, 396. Reproduction of designs on glass, 76. Researches of Dr. Miller and Dr. Claus, 328. Resins soluble, simple mode of render- ing, 474, Respiratory apparatus of land crabs, 329. Results of meteorological observations at Kew Observatory, 66, 304. Rhinoceri, 44. Rhizomes of parasitical plants, 349. Rhapalocnemis phalloides, 354, Ring system of Saturn, 49, 143. Rocks of North Deyon and West Somerset, 397. Roman inscriptions, 226, 396. Index. Ross’s four-tenths condenser, 59. Rotation of Saturn’s ring, 57. Rotifers, strange place for, 211. Royal Microscopical Society, 397. Saturn, 194. Saturn’s “ square-shouldered” phase, 23. Saw-fly, 128. Sauroids, 100. Schmidt on the lunar crater “Linné’ and November meteors, 448. Scholarships and exhibitions in the University of Cambridge, 316. Scientific and Literary Treasury, 316. Seasons of Mars, 4/71. Secchi on double stars, 399. Sepulchral tumuli, 227. Settlers in Natal, 185. Shells, form, growth, and construction of, 241 Shell structure, 249. Ships and bridges, iron and steel in the construction of, 257. Shooting stars near the earth, 239. Shoting stars of November, 449. Silica, 302. Silk produced by diurnal lepidoptera, 393. Silvered object glasses for sun viewing, 240, 320. Sleep of fishes, 104. Soap beans of China, 319. Soda manufacture, simplification of, 237. Solar observation, 391. Solar theories, Chacornac’s, 15. Spectra of some meteors in November, 1866, 465. Spectra of meteors, 38, 163. Spectrum of apatite, 159. Spiders and earwigs, 319. Spiral form of shells, 242. Spots on the equatorial regions of the sun, 18. Spontaneous 240. Spontaneous generaliony 362. Stag beetle, 131. Star magnitudes, 319. Starches, 302. Stars, Handbock of, 231. Stone-age in China, 22]. Stones on Cader Idris, 28. Strange place for rotifers, 211. Street architecture of London, 174. Sun, obscurations of the, 223. Sun spots, Norman Lockyer on spectra of, 479. Swedish fauua, 130, Sycamore tree, 118. generation controversy, Indez. TAPE-WoRMS, human entozoa, 231. Terrestrial dark lines of the spectrum, 317. Tesselated pavement in the churchyard of Caerleon, 72. Textile fibre, new, 239. Textile fabrics} of the lake-dwellers, 153. - Thermo-electric properties of iron, 238. Tsetse of Africa, 45. Tuning forks, new application, 158. Ut1tizinad combustible fluids as fuel, new mode, 78. VALVES of shells, 2438, Variable light, 287. Variations of certain crustacea in rela- tion to the theory of the origin of species by natural modification, 327. Vertebrates of Madagascar and Ame- rica, 96. Viennese jewellery, 10. 487 Volcanic emanations and disease, 79. Voyage from New Westminster to Fort Langley, 339. Wayside flora, 231. Whale fishing, poison in, 479. Whelks, 247. Wild Kaffir life and wild Kaffir intelli- gence, 289. Wire spring clip for microscopic objects, 398. Wood-feeding beetles, 132. Wood-ants, 128. Worm Phenacia pulchella, 159. Worms and insects generated by dead bodies, 356. Yeast of beer, 479. Zinc protections for ships, 265. Zodiacal light, 79. Zulu Kaffirs, 429. Zulu tribe, 185. HARRILD, PRINTER, LONDON. iz ~ s « as ’ is Or ait . Soe > es : = a 2 > ~ —- Xs —— ms . i a . & ‘ ( ‘ * % ce Ce a Oe: é Exon es © a = - —_— 5s Sa a > : = : <0 ai we SS ce < CE os Ee Se ae < Gis NE 4 106 188 923 ‘ANOTOOZ TAILVAVdNOO JO WOASOW ‘AMVHSIT ASNLIHM “ALISUHAINA GUVAUYVH ae ee fi