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MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.
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| i THE
INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER:

MICROSCOPIC RESEARCH, |

AND

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

VOLUME L

ILLUSTRATED WITH PLATES IN COLOURS AND TINTS, AND NUMEROUS
ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.

LONDON:

GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS,
PATERNOSTER ROW.

OW MDCCCLEII.

Iv Contents.

PAGH
Pravets oF THE Monru. By THe Rey. T. W. Wess, F.R.AS. ...... 2380
THE GENUS CEPHALOSIPHON. By ANDREW PRITCHARD ...........sceeceeres 234 —
ProcreEss oF Zootogy. By Suirtey Hisperp. With Illustrations...... 245
WorRK FOR THE TELESCOPE—PLANETS OF THE MONTH—DOUBLE STARS.
By THE Rey. T. W. WEBB, FVR.ALS. ........02...c0000e Sole geen ae 265, 373
Havnts oF THE ConpoR IN Perv. By Wittiam Bortarrt, F.R.G.S.
With a Tinted Plate........ ease M mnie Ga einalsla Ga eaieie ie nak EE eR eeeeee ween US
M. Fayr on So~ar REPULSION ............ ia sable Sosieew goes olen eee ee Ee eee eee 286
HYBERNATION oF FunaI—THE Genus Screrotium. By THE Rev.
Mites JosEPH BrrKeney, M.A., F.L.S. With Illustrations ......... see OS

Roman Minine OPERATIONS ON THE BORDERS OF WALES. By THomas
Waricut, M.A.,F.S.A. With a Tinted Plate and other Illustrations... 295

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT THE Kew Oxservatory. By C.

CHAMBERS ........000 UBER IN en Tiers HEN Inn PRA HIM ER RATE GAN oho Sabine Gintie 309
Lirr CHANGES ON THE GioBE. By Henry J. Sutacr, F.G.S. ............ 325
BEAUTIFUL Hxorico Bees. By H. Nort Humpnreys. With a Coloured

BOLO reco tuicmo cen tan Gre nemeeee ate tol ciciatsicte raver teloaeteren oheaioreristae ad co Se eaten ete 384
Arr oF Exscrro-Prattnc anp Ginpinc. By Ricnarp BrrHELL.

eee Tiast rations 0 eee ee hated ciamet anticeete ee ee eee eee 339
PARASITES FROM THE ZooLogicaL GaRpENS. By T. Spencer CoBBoLp,

MID. ENS. Wraith Coloured Plate c....5.2 sees sake eee oad
Tur Angier. By JonatHan Coucn, F.L.S. With an Tllustration...... 353
PrRincieLes or SpectTRUM ANALYSIS. By THomAS ROWNEY .............. 362
FEATHERED REPTILE OF SOLENHOFEN .........cccccccsvecccesceneersseteesaucevens 367
SrccHr ON MAGNETIC AND ATMOSPHERIC PERTURBATIONS ....ccceececseeces 368
GEroLogiIcaL VALUE OF RECENT OccuRRENCES. By GrorGe HE. Roperts. 370
IR URerEU PUNT ON: LUA CEOS cicrstcs scwcd a clave desis Slo la icra fis os lasia abc roete de ctonane set VORA RTo Alois oe 375
AcaRi IN PHOTOGRAPHIC BATHS AND CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS ...... miele . 378
Tar Great Foucaunt TELESCOPE ........... odisieidiubs LOA NSals Sioa Cth CREE 380
Dranvsts. |) Wy Wie 2B. {TREE LMPTBR: )....,jc..cheeloes «-)etoieaeiein dae eee eee Beoe on 381
GAMGEE ON UNWHOTESOME BO0D.............ccseecesscacceececcescesceeccaewns hes SRS
Ways OF mm ORCHEDS 5) 6h. /oI2 al dace onclobe db arwdtgek a sateen. mcrae abe fons eee lh
Tae Elarrpess Maw OF WATSTRATTAN 68 DORE ie ee 393
Monry and Monetyrers. By Josepnh Newton. With Two Tilustrations

CR SULDET OS FRO EE Os J BGa sO EE esata heat OS REI serena wae 405
MacHINERY aT THE Exuipition. By J. W. M‘GAvLBY .............00005 421
Harz any Snow. By Atexanprer 8. HerscHet, B.A, 2.20.0... ....cesceeee 428

Saturn’s Ring—Dovusir Stars—OccuntTations. By tue Ray. T. W.
Wess, F.R.A.S.

Hurricane or May, 1862. By H. J. Lows, F.R.A.S. With Illustrations. 439

EXNTOMOSTRACA Vins By G. 8. Brapy, M.R.C.S. With Iilus-
TL OIOTIS oie ek cs Rca MRR eibemes 3ca eo REE ana se weoet Saee 446

Frontat Srnvuses or Bos ‘BURFALDs, By Suirtey Hisserp, F.R.H.S.

Walk an LAWS IIR). BIR Le bead he eR ESTA vee 457
JENYNS'S MEMOIR OF HLENSTOW....foiiciccsscclescccscccecseccecstoverceuedenetecess 459
BALBIANI ON THE REPRODUCTION oF InFuUSoRIA. With Illustrations ... 463
AUSTRALIAN NATURALISTS ..........ccc0ecs Maciisenaaiiadad cond Meee schaeoadeets . 469
Dux DomEsricarton ior SonmNOw 2). ives vervaewscddlase ohupavaeseneeanae awed 471
PROCEEDINGS OF Lwarnep SoOcrerrms ...........cec..0: 76, 152, 235, 819, 394, 475
GLEANINGS FROM THE INTERNATIONAL PXHIBITION ........esecececeeeees occ ee

NOTES AND MEMORANDA .........ccsccecccsscccees ceeauesee 82, 160, 240, 323, 401, 481

phistoma conicurn

THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER.

FEBRUARY, 1862.

THE WORK OF THE YEAR.

TE progress of science during a single year must depend, in
some degree, on the recurrence of special phenomena in
Nature to give occasion for inquiry, experiment, and speculation,
The pure sciences are in so large a measure independent of
phenomena, that their progress is at any time a fair criterion
of the activity of thought; but im the various departments of
physics, man has to wait upon Nature, to follow where she leads
him; to encounter the difficulties of untrodden paths as she
may point the way, and whisper of what is to be sought
there. The history of science might be used as profitably, to
illustrate the relations of human character and human know-
ledge to external circumstances, as the history of the nation or
the individual in the development of successive phases of moral
phenomena. In the analysis of cosmical laws, we must shape
our courses as eclipses, and occultations, and transits may occur;
the changes of the seasons give the proper subjects for the in-
quiries of the meteorologist; and in geology an earthquake, a
volcanic eruption, or a landslip, may disclose facts that appear
to nullify previous conclusions, so as to demand a reconsidera-
tion of points supposed to have been settled long ago. In
these matters, for all the purposes of scientific inquiry, man is
the creature of circumstances. But it is no less true that in
the same pursuit he creates circumstances; and in geography,
zoology, botany, chemistry, and other allied sciences, he is as
often the inventor of methods of exploration, comparison, and
experiment, as he is, on the other hand, incited to research by
the varying aspects of the phenomenal. It has become a neces-
sity of our civilization that events should be grouped and clas-
sified from week to week, from month to month, from year to
year. But it must ever be borne in mind that no single week,
month, year, or even cycle of years, will exhibit accurately the
whole of the attainments of that one period, nor can it furnish
every datum necessary to an estimate of the magnitude, and
importance, and bearing, and scope of all the labours of the
VOL. I.—NO. I. B

2 The Work of the Year.

cultivators of physical science. The majority of results are like
graftines upon old stocks; if every graft grows with vigour,
they must be traced to the root that gives them life, ere we can
determine the age and value of the tree. The latest improve-
ment in telegraphs may be but a new graft upon the stock
planted by Frankl; and in the improved chemical nomen-
clature on the basis of the theory of equivalents we must recur
mentally to John Dalton, who believed he had attained to the
ultimate atomic constitution of matter—doubly unconscious that
as his first idea would in time begin to refute itself, yet in doing
so it would acquire a practical value to which it is impossible to
assign limits.

We must judge the year 1861 by what it has done to
ripen into facts the suggestions of preceding years; we must
judge it too by what it has actually added to the cumula-
tive power of scientific thought; we must (if we can) judge it
yet further by the nature of the work it has cut out for pos-
terity. Divisions of time are altogether artificial, as compared
with the activities of the human mind; and therefore, in sketch-
ing’ the history of science during the past year, we are, as
ib were, cutting out a portion from the woof of the continu-
ous fabric which indicates only the nature of the pattern with-
out affording any very definite hints of either its beginning
or its end.

Among the astronomical events of last year, the great comet
of June and July must have first place. Unlike Donati’s, which
emerged from the depths of space as a mere speck, and rapidly
expanded into vast proportions in its speed towards the sun,
this, first seen by Mr. Burden, of Clifton, acquired almost
immediately its full proportions as a phenomenon in its peri-
helion passage, and then dwindled away as it sped into the far
aud mysterious regions of its aphelion. This comet played the
sphynx as imperturbably as its gigantic predecessor. Unlike
Donati’s, which was photographed in seven seconds, it refused
to impress its image on the most sensitive plates, and its
elements were not correctly determimed until after it had
vanished from our view. Then it was we found ourselves in
possession of two items of possible knowledge in regard to it:
first, that it was doubtless identical with the comet of 1684;
second, that the earth had passed through its tail, experiencing
no other effect than the auroral glare described by Mr. Lowe
and Mr. Hind, as characteristic of the atmosphere on the 30th
of June. The transit of Mercury on the 13th of November,
and the eclipses of the sun and moon in December, were each,
of necessity, so imperfectly seen in these islands, that the re-
cords of the occurrences have no conspicuous place in the
annals of science. ‘Though we must wait till 1865 for an

The Work of the Year. 3

eclipse which shall equal in interest that of July, 1860, there
will be in the present year a sufficiency of special subjects to
engage astronomers. Let it be an encouragement to amateurs
to observe the aspects of the disc of the sun during March and
September, that the supposed inter-Mercurial planet Vulcan
was first discovered on March 26th, 1859, by Dr. Lescarbault,
with means so simple that the discovery stands alone in this
respect among the accomplishments of observation. There is
the more encouragement, too, that M. Leverrier believes there
are many planets circulating within the orbit of Mercury, so we
may anticipate successive discoveries to prove the immediate
region of the solar orb as thickly peopled as the interval be-
tween Mars and Jupiter. Here again is encouragement of the
same kind, for of the planetoids, now seventy-one mm number, the
greater proportion have been discovered by amateurs. The new
satellite of Saturn, and the new views obtained of the structure
of the rings of that planet, will afford subjects of peculiar
interest for observers during the present year.

From astronomical we turn to cosmical subjects; and pro-
minent among the work of the past year we must place the
researches of Dr. Thomson, on the age of the sun’s heat, on
which a paper was read before the British Association. Dr.
Thomson endeavours to show that we have, in the present
potential energy of the sun, a measure of its duration, past and
present, and, strangely, the conclusions arrived at bear directly
on the Darwinian hypothesis. Mechanical energy is inde-
structible, but there is ever a tendency to its dissipation, which
produces gradual augmentation of heat, cessation of motion,
and exhaustion of potential energy by which heat is produced.
Some heat is probably produced in the sun by the influx of
meteoric matter, and the amount thus generated may be suffi-
cient to compensate the loss by radiation. Considerations
derived from the disturbances of the inferior planets and the
‘zodiacal light, show that the amount of meteoric matter cannot
be enough to givea supply, at the present rate, for 300,000 years,
a conclusion ratified by Leverrier by his researches on the mo-
tions of the planet Mercury. Considerations of the motions of
comets prove that the meteoric matter must be derived from
spaces near the sun, the cooling of which, by radiation, cannot
be more than 1°-4 centigrade annually. Adding chemical con-
siderations to those of a strictly astronomical character, he
concludes that the sun cannot have illuminated the earth for
100,000,000 years, and it is certain it has not done so for
500,000,000 years. Therefore the conditions under which life
has passed through its successive phases on this planet, have
not been in continuance long enough to insure the results de-
manded by prevalent theories of organic transmutation. In

4 The Work of the Year.

regard to Mr. Darwin, Dr. Thomson concludes that his geolo-
gical estimates of time, necessary to the postulates on which he
reasons, are entirely inconsistent with the chronology of the
sun, to which cosmical laws induct us. No doubt, upon the
basis thus hypothetically proposed, the researches now so ably
carried on in photo-heliography will add many curious and im-
portant facts, and our new views of the spectrum may aid still
further in revealing the chemical constitution of the luminous
atmosphere as well as of the denser fabric of the solar body.
The reduction of the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism to
something like an order of periodicity, affords another connect-
ing link between meteorology and the more strictly cosmical
departments of physics. The tabulated observations of mag-
netic disturbances indicate a close relationship between these
and the changes of weather on the earth’s surface, both being
apparently subject to cyclical revolutions, embracing periods of
between ten and eleven years. There is now a stronger proba-
bility than ever that the magnetic needle will prove the true key
to meteorological law, and the weather predictions of Admiral
Fitzroy may be expected ere long to give place to bolder fore-
shadowings of atmespheric disturbance and alternations of
solar heat. But while resting in these, and hesitating to
draw the line between a fait accompl: and a possibility of the
future, what a daily witness has the world now of the direct
value of researches and speculations in science! “ Hoist
drum,” is the brief word by which the mariner is warned, and
by obedience to which human lives and costly argosies are
saved from the grasp of the approaching storm: a grand vindi-
cation of those forbidding statistics to which meteorology has
been so long committed as a science of detail rather than of
general principles applicable to purposes of the highest use-
fulness and mercy.

Chemistry is so little influenced in its progress by the
changes of the seasons, and the varying aspects of the heavens,
that its successive contributions to the stock of useful know-
ledge keep pace very closely with the march of time. Among
its numerous accomplishments two distinct modes of analysis
stand out conspicuously. Strictly speaking, the discovery of
Bunsen and Kirchoff is not chemical, but actinic ; but its appli-
cations will immediately interest and concern the chemist, who
may now work conjointly with the astronomer, informing him
what are the constituent elements of those planetary and solar
masses, about the movements of which he is so ardently occupied.
The immediate result of the application of spectrum bands to the
identification of inorganic bodies, was the discovery of two new
metals, cesium and rubidium; then we were conducted by
the same method to an analysis of the source of light, and the

The Work of the Year. 4)

sun was shown to be a solid or liquid photosphere, bathed in
an enveloping atmosphere containing iron, sodium, potassium,
lithium, and other metals, in a state of permanent sublimation.
Discovery, through the aid of the prism, will not stop here.
Science promises that we shall soon know why the planet Venus
is so pre-eminently lustrous, like a burnished silver mirror ;
why Mars has upon his homely visage the hue of a, subdued
fire; why Saturn looks so cold, and Uranus so peculiarly
metallic. The mysteries of the spectrum conduct us beyond
the boundaries of the solar system, and offer means of ana-
lyzing the constitution of the stellar masses; so that Procyon
and Syrius, “red Orion, and Arcturus huge,’ may severally
be made to describe, in the rays of light they flash on us
from afar, the nature of their elementary structure, and their
chemical relations to the earth we inhabit. Scarcely second
in importance, perhaps practically of greater value, is the
method of analysis by diffusion, on which the Master of the
Mint communicated a paper to the Royal Society on the 6th
of June last.

For the purpose of propounding this method, Professor.
Graham divides bodies into two classes,—crystalloids, those
which exhibit a tendency to crystallize, and which are of
high diffusibility ; and colloids, which are of low diffusibility,
affect a vitreous structure, and have little effect on the volatility
of the solvent. Hxamples of crystalloids will occur to the mind
of the reader in plenty, and it may therefore suffice to stato
that animal gelatine is the type of the colloids. The peculiar
fitness of gelatine and cognate organic compounds for the pur-
poses of animal organization arise from their plastic nature, and
the facility with which they become media for liquid diffusion,
while still retaining their identity. Passing by the suggestion,
thus offered us, of new modes of investigating the chemistry of
life, we will be content here to indicate the process by which
the analysis by diffusion is conducted. A septum of membrane
is provided, it may be a sheet of gutta-percha paper, or vege-
table parchment, eight or ten inches in diameter, by three inches
in depth, formed on a hoop, in the fashion of a sieve. A mixed
solution, which may be supposed to. contain sugar and gum, is
placed upon the septum to a depth of half an inch, and the
instrument is floated upon a considerable quantity of water.
In the course of time, the sugar—a crystalloid—by its high
diffusibility, separates from the gum, leaving the gum in an
undiffused state remaining on the septum. In another experi-
ment, defibrinated blood charged with a few millegrammes of
arsenious acid was found to impart the greater part of the
arsenious acid. to the water in the course of twenty-four hours.
The diffusate was so free from organic matter, that the metal

6 The Work of the Year.

could be readily precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen and the
quantity weighed. The separating action of the septum by this
process is called dialysis, under which designation a great
revolution will doubtless be effected in the processes of proximate
resolution. The applications of this method in judicial mvestiga-
tions, in the detection of adulterations, and in researches imto
the subtle phenomena of animal and vegetable life, will be of
immense value, because simple beyond all precedent in the
history of chemical practice. Other, and apparently remote
departments of science will be aided by the discovery of
dialysis; and we shall not be long in learning that we have
in it a talisman to unlock some of the secrets of the molecular
structure of bodies.

The conquest of the earth is a work shared pretty equally
by the active spirits of every class of action and thought. The
explorer and the colonist move in the van, but their efforts are
aided by every practical application of scientific theory ; and
even the recluse lends his aid when deducing from human history
and natural phenomena the conditions on which life is possible,
and civilization good. But to exploration we look for the pre-
paratory steps, and in 1861 there was much added to our
previous stock of knowledge of the physical aspects of the
globe. The hills and valleys of Japan have yielded treasures
of animal and vegetable life; we know somewhat more of
China, much more of Australia, and the African mystery takes
precedence of the Asian in modern annals.

At the commencement of the year, we had full particulars
of the results of the survey of the North Atlantic, by the
party under Captain Young, in the steam yacht “ Fox,” for
the purposes of ocean telegraphy. There was little added
thereby to our stock of geographical knowledge, but the
soundings brought to light the fact, that at a depth of 7000
feet, and about 500 miles from Greenland, the sea abounds
with life, not only of the low order of globigerina, but star-
fishes and annelids, and boring creatures capable of doing
mischief to submerged cables. The like results have followed
the investigations of Mr. Gwyn Jeftereys and others, proving
how confined have been our views hitherto of the distribution
of life on the globe. The Swedish polar expedition, under
Mr. Torrell, who is accompanied by the veteran Peterman, has
attracted considerable attention, owing to its exploration of
portions of the Spitzbergen coast not touched by any of the
numerous polar expeditions of the last half century. We may
expect shortly an account of the researches of the Expedicao
Scientifica of the Brazilian Government in the Amazon dis-
trict—a region of wonders—so far as that can be rendered in

The Work of the Year. 7

the absence of the notes and photographs of §. de Capanema,
the geologist to the expedition ; Professor Allemao, the leader
of the enterprise, having abundant material for a representa-
tion of the botany and geology of the country. Dr. Living-
stone continues his labours with unabated ardour; Sir Robert
Schomburek is gathering information on the products of Siam ;
Captain Blakiston, who explored the Kootanie Pass, through the
Rocky Mountains, three years since, is now penetrating un-
trodden regions of Central Asia, and will be able to add much
to our knowledge of the geography of China; the French
expedition to Southern Siberia is at work on the regions border-
ing the Amoor; and Dr. Beke is on his way to determine the
true site of the Biblical Haran, a poimt considered so far set-
tled already, that there is but small prospect of any important
consequences.

Conspicuous among the items of information on the subject
of physical geography, are the two recent explorations of the
interior of Australia; the one by Mr. Stuart, which was well
conducted, and came to a happy end; the other, by Mr. Robert
O’ Hara Burke, which was wofully mismanaged, and terminated
disastrously. We now know satisfactorily that the predictions of
the geologists respecting the interior of that vast continent
were founded in error. Instead of imterminable wastes of
sterile rock, broken only by lakes of brine, there are immense
tracts of fertile country ; mountain chains, whence issue streams
that water flowery valleys, and extensive tracts of metalliferous
soil. We are only beginning to understand the extent of the
resources of the prosperous colonies of Australia, to which we
may turn with renewed hope during the present American
crisis, believing in the possibility of an abundant supply from
thence, of every product for which hitherto we have been so
largely dependent on the other side of the Atlantic. The ex-
plorations of Captain Sturt comprised, perhaps, the gloomiest
and most forbidding regions of the interior; those of Mr. Stuart
were from Chamber’s Ureek to within 250 miles south-west of
the Gulf of Carpentaria, from which point he retraced his steps.
In the centre of Australia he planted the British flag on a pile
of stones, within which was inclosed a bottle, containing a
statement of his progress up to that pomt. The configuration
of the surface, and the vegetation during the greater part of
the toilsome journey, indicate that there is an almost inexhausti-
ble extent of country fitted for the diffusion inland of the
civilization which now prospers on the coast. The expedition
under Mr. Burke left Melbourne on the 20th of August, 1860,
crossed the continent, and reached the tidal waters of the Albert
River, which flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria, and returning

8 The Work of the Year.

to their depdt at Cooper’s Creek. The party consisted of Mr.
Burke, commander, Mr. G. Landells, second in command, Mr.
W. J. Wills, astronomer, Herman Beckler, surgeon and geolo-
gist, Ludwig Becker, artist and naturalist, ten men, and three
sepoys. They had camels, horses, waggons, and an abundant
outfit. At Menindie a dispute arose, and Mr. Landells left
the expedition with Dr. Beckler. Burke then divided the ex-
pedition into three parties ; and himself, Wills, and six others
proceeded to Cooper’s Creek, leaving the rest to bring up the
stores to the depot. At Cooper’s Creek, Burke again divided
his party, leaving three or four to keep charge of the depot
till his return, but about the time they were to wait there
was evidently a misunderstanding. Burke then started for
Hyre’s Creek, 300 miles distant. From this point they pro-
ceeded eastward, till they struck the 140th meridian, travelling
then due north, till they reached 17° 53'S., and 139° 49’ KE.
They next pushed on to the Gulf of Carpentaria. On the 19th
ef February last, they began to retrace their steps, and on this
journey Gray died, after indescribable sufferings. On the 21st
of April they reached Cooper’s Creek, alas! just seven hours
after the party in charge had quitted the depot on their way to
fall back on Menindie. They were now in a helpless condition,
and subsisted for a while on the seeds of a plant called nardoo.
Burke sank from exhaustion, and died; Wills died next, and
King was left alone in the wilderness. He crawled in search of
the blacks, and found them; and at last reached Melbourne, the
bearer of melancholy tidings, Five others died of scurvy and
want, including Dr. Beckler, who is believed to have added to
the misfortunes of the party by his adherence to the indefensible
cause of Landells. Miserably as this affair ended, such of the
journals as have been preserved confirm the statements of Mr.
Stuart, that the interior of the continent is diversified with
fertile tracts of vast extent, navigable rivers and lakes, and
rocky ranges rife with metallic treasures.

The conquest of the earth calls forth the energies of the
engineer, the miner, the surveyor, and the merchant, as the
proper coadjutors of the astronomer, geologist, and naturalist. .
Submarine cables have failed in so many instances that we must
hope for an entire remodelling of the system under which they
have been laid and lost hitherto. The jobbery of dishonoured
contracts has brought discredit on the science out of which they
originated ; interrupted communications by the delusion of sup-
posed improvements in the transmission of intelligence; and
caused the hopeless consignment to the sea-bottom of thousands
of pounds contributed by too confiding shareholders. It may
be a long while yet ere the message of “‘ peace and good-will”

The Work of the Year. 9

shall be again conveyed from these islands to the remoter shores
of the Atlantic, but it will be done, and we have but to wait.

Ocean telegraphy is in its infancy, and has been fruitful in
infant follies of waste, and error, and perversion; but the sa-
crifice has not all been im vain, and the promoters of such enter-
prises are brought back to the old vantage ground of fact, for
the necessary basis of their theories. That in other departments
science assiduously seconds individual energy, we had a grand
example in the transmission of the intelligence from America,
of the concession to the demands of Britain in the matter of
the “Trent” and ‘San Jacinto.” ‘To such agencies com-
merce adds her numerous means of help. The closing of the
ports of the Southern States of North America has recalled
attention to the capabilities of soils and climates where the abuse
of slavery is unknown. Now to bridge torrents, establish iron
roads through ghauts and marshes, there is opportunity for the
engineer to aid, at last, in doing justice to India; and Britain
may discover the value of the Oriental gem which has hitherto
but faintly sparkled in her diadem of empire. We are promised
ships that cannot sink; boats are made in a few hours by
machinery ; rifled ordnance and plated frigates promise to give
the command of the seas to the masters of the forge; and the
blasting system of Bessemer is overpassed by the discovery of
the part which nitrogen plays in the composition of steel. To
bring up the rear in this system of engineering applications,
Bonelli’s telegraph writes down with equal rapidity the messages
that by older systems were only spelt out in arbitrary signs,
liable to error and occasional delay. Looking to the gleam of
the morning for the promise of the coming day, the prospect
brightens and fills us with heart and hope. The learned
societies are generally in a prosperous condition. The arts
flourish. The means of life abound. Naturalists’ clubs and
scientific books are on the increase; a higher standard of men-
tal and moral culture is the desire of the English people, and the
progress of education among the masses tends to refine popu-
lar intelligence, and encourage prudence and thrift, and inculcate
that wholesome doctrine that God helps those who help them-
selves. The statistics of health and mortality increase the force
of the conclusions drawn from the last census, that human life
has a higher average duration, and is less embittered by avoid-
able ills; while the resources of Britain expand, and peace is
crowned with prosperity. In the forward glance rises, to the
broadening sunlight, the grotesque yet dignified facade of the
new International Exhibition, where, during 1862, science, and
art, and plodding mdustry will hold peaceful conference on
their several abilities to bless the world. While other plans are

10 _ Prime Movers.

immature that will be the monument—of which he was himsel.
the founder—to that noble Prince whose blameless life was
endowed with the genius of active goodness; as ib will vindi-
eate, in the face of the world, the famous motto of Lord Bacon,
“The true end of science is to enrich human life with useful
arts and inventions.”
SHIRLEY HIBBERD.

PRIME MOVERS.

BY J. W. M‘GAULEY,
Author of “ Lectures on Natural Philosophy,” etc.

We shall briefly examine the most important of those sources
of motion which have been either adopted or proposed, and shall
compare their respective advantages and defects. The subject
is one of great interest; since the cost of every industrial product
is affected by the expense of the power which is employed in
obtaiing it. And, within the memory of many of us, the prices
of nearly all the articles in general consumption have been
greatly diminished, because the prime movers used in their
manufacture have been either changed or improved. Some
consequences, which are both interesting and imstructive, will
follow from our reflections on the subject; ingenuity will be
prevented from wasting its energy on contrivances that have
been already tried, and have been proved either impracticable
or worthless ; and the capitalist may decide for himself as tu
the feasibility of any invention designed to generate motion, so
that neither shall his liberality be abused, nor he himself be de-
terred from lending his aid to the progress of science, through
an indiscriminating dread of all new discoveries.

At first, every laborious process was performed by man
himself. In the infancy of society, when his wants were few,
his subsistence easily obtained, and the calls on his exertions
not very numerous, this was attended with but little imcon-
venience. But, as civilization progressed, he called to his aid
the horse, the ox, and other animals: next, he used water-
power, afterwards the wind, and finally steam: until at length
his occupation was reduced to little more than the superin-
tendence of those gigantic powers which he had pressed into his
service. But man is never content with what he has done—
and it is well that he is not; for this is the source of progress,
the origin of every improvement. As long as the human race
shall exist on earth, it shall advance in knowledge, and therefore

Prume Movers. 11

in power ; and each succeeding age shall unfold wonders that
were not even dreamed of in the preceding. Constant efforts,
therefore, have been made to supersede the steam-engine, by
some motive power still more convenient or economical. What
will be the result of similar attempts hereafter, none can say ;
for it would be rashness to place a limit to the discoveries of
science; but, hitherto, as we shall presently perceive, success
has not attended these efforts. On the contrary, time, labour,
and ingenuity have been wasted on projects which, being
opposed, in many instances, even by physical laws, were
utterly impracticable. We shall consider, in succession, the
various sources of motive power; directing our attention prin-
cipally to those contrivances which have been intended, either
seriously to modify the present mode of applying steam, or
altogether to set it aside.

_ Although the strength of animals has been used from the
earliest times, we have arrived at but little accuracy, and no
uniformity, in our modes of determining even its average amount
for any species; and the estimates which have been madu re-
garding it vary considerably. This, however, should cause no
surprise; since not only do animals of the same species differ
in their capabilities, but the very same animal gives different
results, according to the nature of its employment, its intervals
of rest, the kind and quantity of its food, and a number of
other circumstances. The strength of an animal is equal to
“the product of its effort, its velocity, and that part of the
twenty-four hours during which the effort is continued.” And
there is, for each individual, some set of values of these quan-
tities which gives its maximum amount of work. An animal
may move so fast, as to be able to move only itself; or, from
being overburdened, so slowly, as to produce no useful effect.
The proper speed and burden lie between these extremes. An
animal may be employed either in carrying, in pushing, or in
drawing. A man will carry, on a horizontal plane, eighty-five
and a-half pounds, for seven hours a-day, two feet and four-tenths
per second ; which is equivalent to 5,171,000 pounds carried one
foot. He will draw with a force of from seventy to eighty pounds
on the level ground ; but will push at the height of his shoulders
with a force of only about twenty-seven or thirty pounds. He can
ascend a flight of steps, unburdened, at the rate of twelve twenty-
fifths of a foot per second, which—supposing him to be of aver-
age weight—is equivalent to 1,935,000 pounds lifted one foot, or
only two twenty-fifths of what he could do, moving horizontally.

Of all animals, the horse is best adapted for labour. And,
since he uses his weight to overcome resistance, his efforts are
most effectively exerted in drawing a load on a horizontal surface.
Watt considered that a borse could raise only 33,000 lbs. one

12 Prime Movers.

foot high, per minute; and this is the standard which has been
adopted in estimating the power of steam-engines. It is equiva-
lent to 15,840,000 Ibs. raised one foot high in a working day of
eight hours. According to Gerstner, the following represents
the work done by the different animals :—

plas Boonie nee a pice. Hours Pounds Effect
nimals, : ort in eed per er er er
Weight. Pounds, Second Dae Seeaeal hese
Mian iecshaessiisk 150 30 2°5 8 “95 2,160,600
Draught-horse ...| 600 120 4:0 8 480 13,824,000
x secevee| 600 120 2°5 8 180 8,640,000
MO eesecceccceaees 500 100 3:5 8 350 10,080,000
ASS eMail suaacen as 360 72 2°5 8 180 5,184,000

A horse, on the authority of Desaguliers and Smeaton, is
usually considered as equivalent to five men. Bossut reckoned
an ass as equivalent to two men.

The power of animals is derived from the combustion which
is carried on in their bodies; and the heat derived from this
source was originally absorbed from the sun’s rays during the
growth of those plants which, mediately or immediately, form
their food. And hence, in reality, thew force is derived from
the sun.

Having availed himself of the strength of animals, man was
a long time before he perceived that he might obtain a motive
power from water. Hand-mills, termed querns, were used for
erinding corn long after the still ruder method of pounding it
had been wholly, or in part, discontinued; subsequently these
were fitted with shafts, and cattle were attached to them; but,
as Strabo informs us, water-mills were not introduced at Rome
until about seventy years before the Christian era. It has been
estimated that a ton and a-half of water per minute, falling one
foot, will grind and dress a bushel of wheat per hour. The
cost of putting up any hydraulic machine is nearly the same as
that of a steam-engine of the same power ; but the force derived
from it is less expensive.—The power obtained from rivers and
streams, also, is derived from the sun. For the water is raised,
during evaporation, by the sun’s rays ; and produces its effect,
while falling back to its original position.

A vast force is generated by the rising and falling of the
water which constitutes the tide; and it has, in a few instances,
been turned to a practical use, by means of tide-mills.—The
motion obtained in this way, however, forms an exception, not
being derived from heat, but from the attractive action of the
sun and moon.

Prime Movers. le

The force of the wind was applied very early to the propul-
sion of ships; butit was not employed to drive machinery until
a comparatively recent period. Wind-mills are said, by some, to
have been invented in France, in the sixth century ; it has been
asserted by others that they were known in Greece and Arabie
in the seventh century, but were first introduced into these
countries during the Crusades. They have been very com-
monly used, particularly in Holland, for drainage; but then
frequent stoppage for want of wind, and the difficulty of regu-
lating their speed, has been a serious obstacle to their adoption
in most manufactures.—The force obtained from the wind, also,
is derived from the sun: which, by rarefying the air in distant
regions, causes atmospheric currents to be produced.

Before entering on the subject of steam-engines, and their
proposed substitutes, it will be useful to glance at a few of the
properties of Heat, which, with the one exception we have
mentioned, is probably the source of all our motive power.
Heat is employed either to cause an increase of temperature, in
which case it 1s said to be sensible; or to produce mechanical
changes, in which case it is termed latent. The work which is
lost by friction is always expended in the development of heat ;
and hence it is supposed, that the friction of a piston against
the sides of a steam cylinder causes no diminution in the power
of the engine, since the heat which is set free raises the tem-
perature of the steam, and therefore augments its pressure.
The effect producible by 772 pounds falling one foot, is con-
sidered to be the quantity of work, corresponding with the heat,
which would raise a pound of water, at the ordinarytemperatures,
through one degree Fahrenheit; and this quantity has been
termed “Joule’s unit.” When a body returns to its original
condition—steam, for example, to water—heat disappears, and
to an extent equal to that which would be generated by em-
ploying the force thus produced in overcoming friction. This
is called “the conversion of heat into mechanical energy.”? And
the efficiency of the heat, mm a heat-engine, depends on the
relation between the heat converted into mechanical energy,
and the whole heat applied. It is probable that the efficacy
of all prime movers, without exception, is proportional to the
heat so converted. ‘The efficiency of a steam-engine depends
on that of the furnace, or the effect of the steam upon the piston,
and on the power communicated by the piston, through the
crank shaft, to the machinery ; but nearly one-fifth of the heat
is expended in causing a draught in the chimney, and a large
quantity besides is lost by radiation from the various parts.

There is great reason to believe, that all sources of power
yield the same amount of it, with the same quantity of heat ;
and that the only thing we can do is to discover in what

14 Prime Movers.

machine the amount of heat expended in work approaches the
nearest to equality with the entire quantity.

The same substance, in the solid state, has less capacity for
heat than in the liquid state; and, in the liquid, less than im the
vaporous state; but combustion may change a solid, or a liquid,
into a gas which has a less capacity for heat ; and the heat given
out by fuel is the difference between its specific heat and that
of the products of its combustion. Charcoal, when burned,
takes oxygen from the atmospheric air: and, as that gas is
rendered more dense, without alteration of its volume or
elastic force, it loses the difference between its specific heat
in its former and its latter state. It was found, as the
mean of several experiments, that one pound of hydrogen,
combining with oxygen, is capable of raismg 51,146 pounds
of water, one degree Fahrenheit ; one pound of carbon,
14,500 pounds of water; one pound of phosphorus, 11,900
pounds of water; and one pound of sulphur, 2800 pounds
of water. But hydrogen, during combustion, combines with
eight times its weight of oxygen; carbon, with only twice
and two-thirds of its weight ; phosphorus, with only about
once and a quarter its weight ; and sulphur, with only an equal
weight. The heat evolved has, therefore, a very close relation
to the amount of oxygen which enters into combination. We may
deduce the heating power of any kind of fuel from these quanti-
ties, if we know the nature and relative amounts of its con-
stituents ; since all fuel consists chiefly, or altogether, of carbon,
of carbon and hydrogen, or of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
There is a loss of heat, by vaporization of water, whenever that
fluid is formed during combustion; and this loss is estimated
at one-fifth of the power of the hydrogen—any water, mecha-
nically present in the fuel, would, of course, be a cause of further
diminution. The heating powers above mentioned suppose the
combustion to be complete ; but if, from any cause, it is imper-
fect, the carbon may be only partially consumed—dense smoke
being generated ; or it may combine with only half the quantity
of oxygen; in which case the thermal unit falls from 14,500 to
4400 pounds of water. Hydrogen unites with pure oxygen at
800°, and burns in the atmosphere at 950°; carbon unites with
pure oxygen at 700°, and burns in the atmosphere at 800°; but
when the fuel contains combustible gases, higher heats are
required ; and if the temperature should exceed 1200, particu-
larly if it approach 1500’, carbon, combining with the earthy
matters found in ordinary coal, will form clinkers, and fuel will
be wasted. .

The heat of all fuel is that which has been received from the
sun, durmg the chemical changes which take place in the
growth of those plants that constitute not only the forests at

Prime Movers. 15

present in existence, but those forests also belonging to a
remote period, to which our coal-fields owe their orig. There
is no fuel which is not derived from one of the organic king-
doms—none, indeed, which has not had its origin in plants, at
least preparatory to its having entered into animal organiza-
tions. It is probable that, during combustion, the swpporter
takes the place of combmed caloric, which therefore is evolved.
Hence, when carbon becomes carbonic acid, heat is set free;
but when carbonic acid is decomposed in any way, heat is
absorbed.

We have reason to believe that the ancients knew more
about steam than is usually supposed ; and the mistake on this
point may have arisen from their terming steam “air.” ‘There
is no doubt that steam, and air expanded by heat, were used by
them for producing motive power. Hero, of Alexandria, who
flourished about B.c. 120, discusses the properties of air, as a
medium for communicating pressure and motion; and enters
into the nature of a vacuum—subjects which comprehend the
whole theory of the steam-engine. But, long as the properties
of steam have been known, and much as they have been studied,
the greatest actual efficiency of the steam-engine is still but
about one-sixth of its theoretical; that is, but one-sixth of what
its efficiency ought to be, taking into account the heat which is
expended in working it. Besides other sources of loss, steam
is wasted, in heating the cylinder, during the first part of the
stroke; which is necessary, from the cooling of the cylinder,
during the expansion effected in the latter portion of the pre-
ceding stroke. And not only is the steam, which has been
condensed from this cause, only partially revived afterwards,
but its revival becomes, in some degree, mischievous; since it
continues, while the exhaust steam is passing into the atmos-
phere, on the condenser; and thus, by increasing the “ back
pressure,” it lessens the power of the engine. The loss, from
this cause, particularly with high velocities, and great expan-
sion, 18 so serious, that it very much diminishes and sometimes
altogether destroys the advantage derived from using the steam
expansively. Some steam, also, is condensed behind the piston,
owing to the conversion of part of the heat mto work, and the
consequent precipitation of water. This, in itself, is not a loss;
but, during the latter part of the stroke, it robs the cylinder of
heat, and the steam, thus condensed, and afterwards revived,
being formed too late, creases the back pressure.

It was supposed that a large quantity of the heat, which is
carried off by the waste steam, might be retained; and the
Regenerative steam-engine was designed to effect this object.—A.
furnace, placed under the cylinder, heated the steam to a tem-
perature higher than the boiling-point corresponding with its

16 Prime Movers.

pressure; and a respirator, or apparatus capable of rapidly
absorbing or imparting heat, was employed. The steam, in
passing off to the atmosphere, through the respirator, left a
large quantity of heat behind; and this was taken up by the
steam which next entered the cylinder. It was asserted that,
with this engine, only one-twentieth of the effect was lost; but
it is nearly the same in principle, and is open to almost the
same objections, as the caloric engine, which we shall notice
presently.

A belief that the crank destroys power, has caused many
efforts to construct rotary steam-engines ; that is, such as would
produce a rotary motion, by the direct action of the steam, and
without the medium of reciprocation, which is unavoidable in
ordinary engines. ‘This belief, however, is shown, by the pro-
perties of the lever, to have no foundation: a certain amount of
force is, no doubt, lost on account of obliquity of the connecting-
rod; but this loss is far more than counterbalanced by the advan-
tages of the crank, which gradually brings the heavy masses
of matter to a state of rest, or motion; and by the diminished
speed it causes towards the end of the stroke, which gives
time for the waste steam to escape before the piston returns upon
it.—The first rotary steam-engine, of which we have any account,
was that invented, or at least described, by Hero, of Alex-
andria, in the second century before the Christian era. The
steam was made to escape from apertures, near the ends, and
at opposite sides, of a hollow arm which turned about its
centre; the reaction against the interior of the tube, opposite
to the apertures, caused a rotatory motion. Its principle has
been applied in engines constructed by Avery, i America,
and by Ruthven, in Edinburgh; and it is one of those contri-
vances which have often been reinvented ; but it is less efficient
than the common engine, since the steam leaves the revolving-
arm with a higher velocity than that of rotation.

In other forms of rotary engine, the steam produces a con-
tinuous motion, by causing vanes, etc., to revolve within a drum ;
but it has been found impossible to keep such surfaces steam-
tight.

The attempts made to obtain a more economical, or, at
least, a more convenient prime mover than steam, have given
rise to many proposed substitutes for it; butnone of them have
been successful. If any machine shall supersede the steam-
engine, it must be “ cheaper and as good,” or “better and as
cheap.” However ingenious it may be, unless it fulfils one, at
least, of these conditions, it has no chance of being adopted.—
We shall first direct attention to what has been proposed,
rather as improvements of the ordinary engine, than as dif-
ferent sources of motive power.

Prime Movers. 17

The steam and ether engine was intended to economize the
heat which is wasted in the condenser, when the steam is changed
into water. Few attempts to improve the steam-engine have
excited such sanguineexpectations; and the invention wasactually
purchased by the French Government, on the recommendation
of eminent French engineers, who estimated the saving it was
supposed to effect at seventy-four per cent.; even Rennie, who
seems to have examined it carefully, considered it to save
seventy per cent.—LHther was evaporated, by the heat given out
in condensing the steam of an ordinary low-pressure engine ;
and the resulting ether vapour was employed to move a piston.
It was assumed, that all the work done by the ether was so
much gained; but, among other inconveniences, the evapora-
tion of the ether was found incompatible with condensation of
the steam, at a sufficiently low temperature; and the effect
derived from the steam was, therefore, less than it should be.
Without great care, also, there was danger of ignition or explo-
sion, with the ether vapour ; and ether was unavoidably wasted.

It was supposed, from the very low temperature at which
certain fluids boil, that they might be used, with the steam-
engine, more advantageously than water. Thus, while the
latter, under ordinary pressure, boils at 212°, alcohol boils at
175°, and ether at 112°. And, as the elastic force of the
vapour produced is, in each case, the same, it was considered
that the vapour of alcohol, ether, and other fluids which
boil at comparatively low temperatures, might be used in
producing motive power, more economically than that obtained
from water. Their boiling points being lower, they can be
evaporated with less expenditure of fuel; and from this it was
assumed that, at a given cost, they would do much more
work. ‘This reasoning was extremely plausible; nevertheless
it was found that the vapour of water, though produced at a
higher temperature, is more economical than that of any other
fluid. The reason is a very simple one: the mechanical effect of
a vapour depends, not only on its pressure, but also on the
distance through which that pressure is exerted. Now, as a
cubic inch of water, at 212°, produces one thousand six hundred
and ninety-six cubic inches of vapour: while a cubic inch of
alcohol produces only six hundred and sixty, and a cubic inch
of ether, only four hundred and forty-three : it follows that, to
fill as much space as is occupied by the vapour obtained from
one cubic inch of water, nearly three cubic inches of alcohol, or
four of ether, must be evaporated. And hence, the motion of
a piston through a given distance is produced far more cheaply
by the evaporation of water, than by the evaporation of alcohol,
or ether. The same is true with regard to every other liquid
that has been tried—and, we may reasonably suppose, with

VOL. I.—NO. I. Cc

18 Prime Movers.

regard to any whatever: much more being lost, by the addi-
tional quantity required to be evaporated, than is gained by the
lower temperature at which the evaporation takes place. In
reality, the effect produced by any vapour depends on the
amount of heat which is necessary for its production: and this,
for water, alcohol, and ether, are as follows —- —

i 3 sy . Heat of Conversion
Specific Gravity.| Boiling Point. jute’ Vapour:

Woater......cccecsove 1:000 212° 942°

ACOH Ol Tee vecccoss* 0'825 175° 425°5°
BG Heri eres cscacaea 0:700 112° 302'6°

Cagniard de la Tour reduced alcohol, spec. grav. 0°837 at a
temperature of 497°, to a vapour having a calculated pressure
of one hundred and nineteen atmospheres; but it occupied a
space not quite three times its original volume. He converted
sulphuric ether, at 892°, into a vapour having a pressure of
nearly thirty-eight atmospheres; but it occupied a space not
twice its original volume. At 497°, water exerts a pressure of
about forty-four atmospheres ; and occupies a space about mmnety-
nine times its original volume. At 392", it exerts a pressure of
about fifteen atmospheres ; and occupies a space about one
hundred and forty-one times its original volume. Sulphuret of
carbon has an elastic force equal to about four atmospheres, at
212°; and to nearly twenty-nine atmospheres, at 392°; but it
is liable to the same objections as alcohol and ether. Oil gas
vapour, which is produced from the liquid that is separated
from oil gas by the pressure used to render it portable, was
suggested, by Tredgold, as perhaps very suitable to supply the
place of the vapour of water in a steam-engine; it boils at 170°,
and remains liquid at common temperatures. But there can be
no doubt that the mechanical effect of its vapour, also, is de-
pendent on the quantity of heat absorbed in passing from the
liquid to the vaporous state—this being most probably a general
law.

The remarkable expansion of carbonic acid and other gases,
when liquified, very soon attracted notice. Sir H. Davy ex-
pected that it would afford a mechanical agent, on account of
the immense difference between the increase of elastic force in
gases under high and low temperatures, by similar increments
of temperature. The force of carbonic acid at 12°, was found
equal to that of air compressed to one-twentieth of its bulk ;
and at 32°, to that of air compressed to one thirty-sixth ;
making an increase of pressure equal to thirteen atmospheres.
It was ascertained by Thilorier, that the pressure of the vapour

Prime Movers. 19

formed by liquified carbonic acid from 32° to 86° Fahrenheit,
amounts to from thirty-six to seventy-three atmospheres; and
the volume from twenty to twenty-nine—the expansion being
four times that of atmospheric air. But Davy did not remark
that the space through which the pressure is exerted is incon-
siderable. ‘ihe less the specific gravity of a vapour, compared
with that of the fluid from which it is produced, the more
effective it will be as a mechanical agent ; but the specific gra-
vity of steam is less than that of any vapour which has been
tried, not only when compared with liquids, such as alcohol,
etc., but with liquified gases also; as will ee from. the
following :—

Liquids. Ppeveraets SE Ca Temperature. ioe a
Sulphurous Acid ...........008 2777 1°42 45° 426
Sulphuretted Hydrogen ...... 1-192 09 50° 630
Cyaiiaenye ery seosetwcecnes se: 1318 09 45° 395
PUNO chee teccseassnssice-ieosliy SOIDOOe 0°76 50° 1057
(Clalioratiere” SP anabedetneaeeoseeensa 2496 1:33 50° 440
AEH GA medias doScondeatennndnoe | imuiliexe. 1:000 212° 1711

The gas engine was intended, by Brunel, to apply to
practical purposes the power expected from the expansion of
liquified gases; and it must be a source of wonder and regret,
that so enlightened a man should have wasted his ingenuity on
so hopeless a project. He placed liquified carbonic acid in two
receivers ; and when these were heated and cooled alternately,
the resulting expansions and contractions were made to com-
municate motion to a piston, working in a cylinder, which was
placed in an intermediate position. A rise of 180° gave a
pressure of ninety atmospheres ; which, having no resistance to
overcome, except that of the vapour in the other receiver, at a
lower temperature, tended to move the piston with a force
estimated at sixty atmospheres. The pressure was undoubtedly
very great; but the distance through which it acted was triflmg.
Brunel constructed an eight-horse engine on this principle.

It was hoped that a boiler, furnace, and all their attendant
inconveniences would be rendered unnecessary, by using ex-
plosive gases instead of steam, for the production of a vacuum ;
and the gas vacuwm engine was pavented for this purpose in 1824.
The air was rarefied alternately in two chambers, by burning
coal gas within them; water, which was then forced up by
atmospheric pressure, was used to turn an overshot wheel.
The inventor proposed applying this principle to the movement
of a piston in a cylinder; but the contrivance would then be

20 Prime Movers.

liable to the objections which are fatal to that we shall con-
sider next.

It was expected, that not only might a vacuum be produced
by explosive gases, but that a motive power also might be
directly obtained from it. The ignition-gas engine, which was
intended to carry out this object, was mvented many years
since, and was re-invented about five years ago in America. It
is at present being tried as a new invention in France, by M.
Lenoir.—An explosive mixture, consisting of hydrogen, or
some of its compounds, and common air, is ignited by electricity
or other means, in a cylinder, the piston of which is impelled by
the expansion and subsequent contraction produced by combus-
tion. One measure of hydrogen and two and a-half of common
air expand, during explosion, to three times, and then collapse
to one-half, of their original bulk. Several years since, this
engine was characterized as “violent, vacillating, and noisy,”
and it must necessarily be so. Such a principle cannot be
successfully applied ; the inertia of matter renders it impossible
for machinery to be effectually moved by sudden and transient
impulses, such as those which are the result of explosions. To
move a material substance, particularly if it is of considerable
weight, the power must continue to act upon it for some appre-
ciable time. Hven gunpowder may be so manufactured as to
explode too rapidly for the production of a proper effect on the
ball. A door, which may be easily closed by gently pushing it
with the finger, will move very little, or not at all, when struck

suddenly or violently with the hand; and, the more violent the
blow, the less it will move. Other explosive mixtures, including
gunpowder, have been tried, with similar results.

The substitution of heated air for steam was proposed, in
1816, by Stirling; and, about twenty-five or thirty years ago,
air, expanded im an iron cylinder, which was kept at a red heat,
was used for giving motion to a piston. But, as in all the
experiments of this kind which have been made, it was found
that the cylinder was soon destroyed by the high temperature.
In ricsson’s caloric engine, which was constructed on this
principle, and caused so much excitement some time ago, in
America, there were two larger and two smaller cylinders—
a smaller being placed above a larger, and the pistons of both
being made to move together. The air passed from the
smaller or supply cylinder, through a regenerator, where it was
heated to about 450°, to the larger or working cylinder, where
its temperature was raised to 480° , by a fire placed underneath.
The regenerator—to which the name of respirator was given,
in the regenerative steam-engine, mentioned above—was a vessel,
in which sheets of wire gauze were placed side by side, so as
to form innumerable cells, through which the air was made to

Prime Movers. 21

pass. The air which left the working cylinder at a high tem-
perature imparted to the wire gauze most of its heat, and this
was taken up by the air passmg through it to the working
cylinder; that side of the regenerator which was next the
latter being always very hot, and that at which the cold air
entered being always comparatively cool. The excess of pres-
sure on the piston in the working cylinder, above that on the
piston in the supply cylinder, constituted the power. When
the air was heated to 480° its volume was doubled, so that the
pressure per inch on each piston was the same; but as one of
them had twice the surface of the other, it was acted on by a
double pressure. It was asserted that, with this arrangement,
only one-tenth of the entire heat was wasted. But any appa-
ratus, capable of depriving steam, or air, of its heat, in transitu,
must retard its progress, and therefore must dimmish its effect.
The bad conducting power of air must cause ib to absorb or
relinquish heat slowly, and with difficulty. And the cylinders
required are enormous: in Hricsson’s sixty-horse engine, the
larger were siz feet in diameter; and in his marine engine,
fourteen.

The extraordinary force exerted by electro-maqnets, sug-
gested electro-magnetism as a moving power. ‘The writer of
this article, some years ago, made a great number of experi-
ments on this subject;* and he was led to the conclusion
that certain properties, which he had found in combinations of
electro-magnets, would always prevent their application m any
useful way. All the experiments that have since been made
with them, have established the soundness of the reasons on
account of which he abandoned the attempt. A superficial
view of the matter would lead to the impression that an
electro-magnetic engine must be more efficient than a steam-
engine of equal cost. But the expensive nature of the material
it consumes, the complication of its machinery, the diminution
of its power, by circumstances which cannot be avoided; and
in many cases the uncertainty—we might almost say the capri-
ciousness—of its action, must ever leave it very inferior to
the steam-engine. And its warmest advocates have long since
acknowledged} that, on the score of economy, electro-mag-
netism can never compete with steam. Indeed, the French
Government, when it offered a prize of £2000 for a successful
electro-magnetic engine, required only that it should not con-
sume more than half a kilogramme, or about seventeen and
a-half ounces, of zinc per horse-power per hour: in France
this would cost tenpence, in England less, but much more than
the same amount of steam-power. It is not difficult to show

* See Reports of the British Association for 1835, 1836, etc.
+ Page’s Letter to the Government of the United States in 1850.

22 Prime Movers.

that it must be more expensive to maintain an electro-magnetic
engine in action, than a steam-engine capable of doing the
same work. One grain of zinc was found to raise only eighty
pounds one foot high; bert one grain of coal, in the furnace of
a Cornish engine, will raise one hundred and forty-three pounds,
through the same distance. The cost of one hundred-weight
of coal is nine pence, that of one hundred-weight of zine about
two hundred and sixteen pence. Hence, electro-magnetic power
is nearly fifty tvmes as expensive as that obtaimed from steam.
Tt has been asserted by Liebig, that the zinc of the battery
cannot give out more power than the coal required to smelt it ;
and that the heating power of a galvanic battery is the equiva-
lent of its mechanical power ; so that, if applied to the vaporiza-
tion of water, the steam produced by the heating power would
do as much work as can be expected from its application to
an electro-magnetic machine.. Favre has shown that the heat
liberated from a galvanic battery is proportional to its che-
mical action; and that the mechanical work performed by the
current always incurs an expense of the heat, borrowed from
that which is evolved by the battery. It is worthy of notice that
when an effect opposite to the magnetic attraction is produced
—as, for instance, when magnetized bodies are forcibly drawn
asunder—the heat is augmented. It has been ascertained that,
using “‘ Joule’s unit,” one pound of zinc consumed in a Grove’s
battery would, if the heat were utilized, raise 1,698,000 pounds
one foot high; and one pound consumed in a Daniell’s battery,
1,019,000 pounds. But 1,698,000 pounds raised one foot
high, are equivalent to only one-horse power, during fifty-one
minutes. These, besides, are the maximum theoretical effects ;
but, from the imperfect nature of the electro-magnetic machine,
nothing like them are really attamable. If, as Joule supposes,
heat is changed into mechanical effect during the action of the
engine, the maximum power of even a perfect electro-magnetic
machine must be far less than is produced with the same ex-
penditure, by steam. Liebig observes that, according to the
experiments of Despretz, sxx pounds of zme combing with
oxygen give no more heat than one pound of coal; and that,
therefore, the coal should produce six times as much power as
the zmc. We may remark that the heat given out by the zinc
was that with which it combined during smelting, and was ob-
tained from the fuel. It would follow that the power of the
electro-magnetic machine is derived from the same source as
that of the steam-engine, but is not obtained so directly.

It has been replied to some of these facts that electricity,
and not heat, is required for electro-magnetism. But that
galvanic battery which produces most heat—a single cell of
large size—produces also most electro-magnetism. And in-

Prime Movers. 23

tensity is required, only because of the resistance which a great
length of wire offers to the current. If heat and electricity are
_ not merely modifications of the same element they are certainly
most intimately connected, and are always found associated.

Besides all this, the force of electro-magnets diminishes
rapidly through space. One which retained two hundred
pounds in contact, at one-fiftieth of an inch, lifted only forty
pounds and a-half, or about one-fifth. Also, the disturbance
caused by the motion of the electro-magnet, or of its sub-
magnet, greatly diminishes the power. A magnet which, when
free from disturbance, possessed a force of one hundred and
fifty pounds, fell to one-half when the sub-magnet, or armature,
was made to revolve near its poles. Moreover, the very change
of the electric current causes a diminution of its effect: smce
the secondary current which is generated moves in a direction
opposite to that which produces the required motion. Time
also 1s necessary for magnetization ; and on account of the secon-
dary current, for de-magnetization also.

Experiments in electro-magnetism as a motive power, have:
been made on a scale large enough to leave little uncertainty
regarding it; governments and public bodies having, in some
instances, granted liberal aid to the experimentalist. Page
received twenty thousand dollars, or about four thousand
pounds sterling, towards the expenses of his experiments.
‘The most sanguine hopes of a successful result have been fre-
quently entertaimed.—Jacobi, in 1839, propelled a boat on
the Neva; but he obtained only one horse-power from twenty
square feet of platina battery surface. Davidson, in 1842, ran
a locomotive, weighing five tons, on a railway near Glasgow:
but with a speed of only five miles an hour, which was equiva-
lent to one horse-power, yet he required seventy-cight paurs of
thirteen-inch plates of iron and amalgamated zinc. Page, in
1850, reported to the United States Government that he had
then succeeded in obtaining, at the rate of one horse-power,
during twenty-four hours, for twenty cents, or about tenpence
British ; and he stated, in a subsequent letter, that he had con-
structed a ten-horse engine. Nevertheless, it was announced
some time after, by one of his friends, that he had given up
the experiment, as the twenty thousand dollars, and a large sum
besides, had been expended on it. His engine was an ingenious
and powerful development of De la Rive’s rmg; and when one
of his large helices was magnetized, three hundred pounds
weight of iron, which had been placed within it, was lifted up
by the magnetic power, and, as long as the electric current
was transmitted, remained suspended in the centre—realizing
the fabled suspension of Mahomet’s coffin. Allen’s electro-
magnetic engine wis inspected by the present Emperor Napoleon,

24 On Flukes.

aud was exhibited, by his desire, at the Conservatoire des Arts
et Métiers ; he even appomted a commission of scientific men to
examine and report upon it, being, as was stated, so pleased
with it that he intended to purchase the mvention. But, like
every preceding attempt, it ended in nothing.

We have now, as far as our limits would permit, noticed
the various sources from which motive power has been, or was
expected to be, derived. Every experiment that bears on the
subject seems to indicate that all motive power is ultimately
reducible to heat, or at least is proportional to it. And, if such
be the case, the only useful object for which our experiments
can be made, would be to discover the most economical means
of obtaiing, and the most effectual mode of applying, heat.
One important conclusion follows from what has been said,
that if it is not absolutely impossible to discover a prime mover
which shall supersede steam, success is so difficult, and beset
with so many obstacles, that prudence suggests great caution,
both in contrivng and adopting any principle or machine
having this for its object. On the other hand, it is clear that
excellent as the steam-engine undoubtedly is, only a small por-
tion of the heat required by it is effective in producing motion ;
and, therefore, it affords abundant opportunities for ingenuity
to distinguish itself, and for enterprise to secure profit, m
further perfecting its details.

ON FLUKES.
BY T. SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.L.S.,

Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy, Zoology, and Botany, at the Middlesex
Hospital Medical College.

Fuxes constitute a numerous group of diminutive beings who
enjoy the privilege of snugly ensconcing themselves within
the interior of other living animals. That eminent parasi-
tologist, Alexander von Nordmann, well expressed the un-
pleasing sensations which pervade the human mind when
first induced to contemplate the curious variety of creatures
destined to inhabit so strange a dwelling. ‘“ Who,” he
exclaims, in the opening section of his valuable Mikrogra-
phische Beitrage, “who that did not witness the fact, could
possibly have believed that Nature had formed living animals
to grope for their existence in the interior of other beings so
advanced in the scale of organization, not only, indeed, in the
higher, but even in the highest! Nevertheless, such is the
case. Man shrinks when he first hears of it; he stands aghast

On Flukes. 25

when he first beholds it; and words fail to express the peculiar
feeling of awe and aversion of Nature which creeps over him
when he discovers the thing, that appeared to him incredible, to
be a simple matter of fact.”

Nearly thirty years have elapsed since the Russian professor
penned this prologue, and it must be conceded that our recent
helminthological discoveries have, as yet, done little calculated
to chase away such prejudice from the public mind. Perhaps,
of all the paradoxes enunciated by creative wisdom—in so far as
they affect the economy of organic being—none are more likely
to excite astonishment than the truths which demonstrate the
curious phenomena of parasitic life; yet, we make bold to num-
ber ourselves with those who believe in “necessary evils,” and
in the following pages undertake to show how a nearer acquaint-
ance with the objects of our study can impart that ‘“enchantment
to the view” which is commonly regarded as an effect of
distance.

The first group of parasites to which we invite attention are
the “flukes,” as they are popularly termed; but not unfre-
quently we shall speak of them as trematodes, or Hntozoa of the
order Trematoda, which signifies that they are internal para-
sites, suctorial worms, or helminths, generally characterized by
the possession of certain pores or openings. The Greek word,
Tpnwatwons, from which the ordinal title is derived, means per-
forate. Other parasites, it is true, display a variety of openings
and sucking disks, but we shall find them associated with
several distinctive peculiarities, into the consideration of which it
were now a loss of time to enter.

Flukes are not parasitic during the entire period of their
existence, for whilst passing through the cycle of their life-
development, they frequently change their residence, at times in-
habiting either open waters or the dewy moisture of low pasture
grounds. Their strange migrations, active and passive, from
parasitic to non-parasitic abodes, will be discussed hereafter.
In the adult condition flukes abound in all classes of vertebrated
animals ; that is to say, in fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

To convey a more precise idea of their distribution, we may
observe that flukes are sparingly found in man and monkeys.
They are still less frequent in the higher carnivora; none, to
our knowledge, having hitherto been detected either in the lion
or the tiger. In the common cat, however, two species are
known, one proper to its wild, and the other to its domesticated
state. Only a few infest the dog and fox, and they are almost
entirely absent from the civets and ichneumons; the exception
to the rule occurring in the Indian Viverra, in the lungs of which
the writer has discovered a small species.

Flukes are abundant in the nocturnal bats ; they are scarcely

26 On Flukes.

less so in the insectivorous moles and shrews, whilst at least three
distinct forms traverse the body of the unfortunate hedgehog.
As yet, none have been descried in the bears, properly so called,
but a single species is known to infest the closely allied badger.
Weasels and others are peculiarly liable to invasion, and the
same may be said of the amphibious seals. Among the her-
bage-loving rodents the squirrels and marmots are not usually
subjected to their attacks; but an Italian, named Targione
Tozzetti, is said to have detected the common liver-fluke in our
familiar Sciurus vulgaris. Hiven rats and mice are tolerably free
from trematodes, yet they harbour an immense variety of other
helminths. Flukes, like ourselves, rejoice im the flavour of
hares and rabbits, but they utterly repudiate a residence within
the body of the uninviting sloth. Our domesticated quadru-
peds, such as the horse and ass, are seldom troubled with their
presence ; but swine, on the other hand, are peculiarly annoyed
in this respect. Speaking generally, they are prevalent in all
ruminating herbivores, being grievously numerous in sheep
and cattle.

Turning our attention to the feathered tribes, on the whole
it may be said that flukes are scarcely less abundant in birds
than in mammals. Hitherto we have not met with them either
in the flesh or viscera of pigeons, parrots, or even in the insect-
eating woodpeckers; but, as might be expected, they are of re-
markably frequent occurrence in the alimentary canal of gulls,
herons, stalks, cranes, plovers, ducks, and other water birds.

Flukes readily gain admission within the bodies of the cold-.
blooded reptiles, and display an abiding partiality for the batra-
chian frogs and toads. In the water-loving salamanders they
occur less numerously ; and in the saurian, chelonian, and ophi-
dian orders they are comparatively unknown. In members of
the piscine class they are almost always present, being markedly
plentiful in the stickleback, minnow, tench, perch, pope, bull-
head, mackarel, trout, salmon, ling, burbot, turbot, flounder,
lump-fish, sander, and dorado; and still moré so in the perch,
pike, barbel, bream, eel, sole, sun-fish, and sturgeon.

A contemplation of these cursorily recorded facts can
scarcely fail to suggest several peculiarities respecting the dis-
tribution of these creatures. That worthy helminthologist,
Carolus Asmund Rudolphi, to whose investigations we owe
so much, long ago remarked that the entozoa constituted a dis-
tinct fauna, or, in other words, a special collection of animals
whose country is the circumscribed region of the interior of
living beings. We may carry the simile further, and compare
each creature thus infested to an island home, whose parasitic
inhabitants having a tendency to roam, not unfrequently visit
adjacent isles, that is, the bodies of other animals. ‘Taking a

On Flukes. 27

wider view in the matter, it is obvious that the distribution of
internal parasites, throughout space, must be co-equal and co-
extensive with the geographical range of the animals in which
they dwell; and it also follows that they will have acquired a
corresponding distribution in time. Their bathymetric position
or distribution in height and depth in relation to our planet, will
also accord with that of the infested creatures; in short, the
length, breadth, and area of their geological and geographical
range will be identical with that of the vertebrate groups
whose individual members they inhabit.

- This subject becomes yet more strikingly suggestive when
we take into consideration the complicated facts and phenomena
which the various phases of parasite development unfold; for
during their larval wanderings in search of a final resting-place
which shall prove suitable to their adult condition, they pro-
visionally occupy the bodies of different kinds of evertebrata ;
and in order to complete the genetic cycle of the parasite’s life,
there must needs be, of course, a contemporary existence of
both vertebrate and evertebrate types, a concurrence which
surely no reasonable person would ascribe to fortuitous circum-
stances. Further into this speculative inquiry we do not now
enter, having purposely suspended our record of the origin,
growth, and migration of the young flukes, until we have dis-
cussed the features of their adult structure. Meanwhile, how-
ever, it is but fair to acknowledge that we have diligently
sought for a more practical evidence of the existence of internal
parasites in ancient times. This we have done by scraping
down portions of fossil excrement, and submitting them to
microscopic observation, in the hope of possibly stumbling
upon a parasite’s hook or spe. Success in this experiment
would have enabled us triumphantly to vindicate the force of
our persuasion as to their pre-adamite creation; but as the
question now stands, few naturalists can doubt their former
prevalence. Of course, a searching like the above, can hardly
ever prove effective, for the delicacy of their tissues, the mi-
nuteness of their bulk, and more particularly, the extreme rarity
of their being mixed up with the eliminated products of the
alimentary canal, are considerations which almost warn us of
the hopelessness of such investigation. If, however, real colo-
lites, or fossil sections of the digestive tube of any of the larger
extinct vertebrates could be obtained, then we should not en-
tirely despair of recording ocular proof of the occurrence of
Hntozoa in the secondary and tertiary epochs.

In regard to the number of existing species of Trematoda,
no very accurate estimate can be formed. The writer of this
article, not very long ago, made a special investigation, partly
with the view of determining this point, and the results of this

28 On Flukes.

inquiry are embodied in a lengthened “ Synopsis of the Disto-
mide,” published in the fifth volume of the “Journal of the
Proceedings of the Linnzan Society.” In that communication
344 different species of flukes were recognized; and of these,
126 are proper to fishes, 47 to reptiles, 108 to birds, 58 to
mammalia, and 5 to non-vertebrated animals. This list, how-
ever, does not include certain leech-hke forms of fluke (such as
are described by parasitologists, under the generic titles of
Tristoma, Polystoma, Gyrodactylus, and the lke), the greater
part of which ought rather to be considered Hctozoa than
Entozoa, inasmuch as their habit is to attach themselves to the
external surface of the bodies of the creatures they attack. No
doubt, in the above record, many immature forms have been
regarded in the light of distimct species by the older authors;
but when, on the other hand, we take into consideration the
additions which have been recently made—especially by Pro-
fessor Molin of the University of Padua and by the writer
himself—and also the probably much larger number of forms
which remain undiscovered, it becomes evident that, at the
very lowest estimate, we may assume the order Trematoda to
comprise five hundred species.

Flukes are small animals, usually visible to the naked eye,
but seldom attaiming any very significant bulk, some of the
minutest forms scarcely exceeding the +45 of an inch in longi-
tudinal diameter. The species most commonly known (Fasciola
hepatica) is capable of attaiming a length of rather more than
an inch, and there are four other flukes whose measurement is
considerably beyond this. These four notables, deserving
special mention, are the following :—

1. The Distoma crasswm, fourteen of which were discovered
by George Busk, Hsq., F.R.S., in the alimentary canal of a
Lascar. ‘The original description states that “these flukes were
much thicker and larger than those of the sheep, being from
an inch and a half to near three inches in length.” One
example may be seen in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn; and a second in the Museum of the
Middlesex Hospital Medical College.

2. The Distoma veliporwm, procured by Professor Otto, of
Breslau, from the stomach of a large Mediterranean shark
(Squalus griseus), This fluke acquires a length of fully three
inches.

3. The Fasciola gigantea, a trematode of equal longitude,
and rather broader than the last named. Forty specimens
were found by the writer in the liver of a young giraffe, which
died in Wombwell’s travelling menagerie, at Edinburgh, during
the severe winter of 1854-55,

4. The Distoma gigas, discovered and described by the

On Flukes. 29

Italian naturalist Nardo. This is the longest fluke-worm
known ; it attains a length of no less thaw five inches, and has
hitherto been found only within the stomach of a large fish
(Luvarus imperialis), which frequents the Adriatic Gulf and
the coasts of Sicily.

The ordinary aspect of these creatures is not such as would,
at first sight, recommend itself to the attention of the general
observer ; yet those who will take the trouble to submit them
to microscopic examination will find their senses gratified, not
only by the evidence of a fair exterior, but by the exhibition of
elegantly-erouped internal organs. If, further, a satisfactory
attempt be made to inject some of the larger species, the
beauty of the specimens will be thereby increased tenfold.
To be completely successful, however, finely-pointed syringes
must be employed, aided by the most careful and delicate
manipulations. Up to the present time, indeed, we believe
that the so-called vascular system of the trematoda has been
efficiently injected only by M. Emile Blanchard, of Paris, and
by the author of this communication.

The introduction of pigments not only renders the objects
more attractive in appearance, but, at the same time, facilitates
our comprehension of their anatomical peculiarities. In the
illustrations, therefore, here or in future selected, to render
this subject clear, we shall employ colouring as follows :—

Blue for the digestive system. Hitherto we have found
artificially prepared ultramarie to answer the purpose admi-
rably. Specimens of flukes from the giraffe, thus injected by
the writer, may be seen in the Anatomical Museum of the
University of Edinburgh, and in the author’s private collection
of Hntozoa.

Fed for the water-vascular system. The distinguished dis-
ciple of Baron Georges Cuvier, above-mentioned, has here
employed vermilion, and we have adopted the same plan.
The principal figures in the accompanying plates will be, in
part, taken from the inimitable drawings of Blanchard, as given
by him m Victor Masson’s imperial-octavo edition of “ Le
Régne Animal,” and in the eighth volume of the Zoological
division of the third series of the “‘Annales des Sciences Natu-
relles.”” From the extreme beauty of the representations just
referred to, some parasitologists have been led to question their
accuracy. Recently, however, the writer had the satisfaction
of convincing an eminent German naturalist that his surmises
in this respect were fallacious; for, on exhibiting to him two
similarly mjected flukes from the author’s own collection, he
credited the French helminthologist with the highest manual
skill, to which we believe him to be justly entitled.

Yellow for the reproductive system. ‘This colour is usually

30 On Bites.

more or less present in the organs included under this group
of structures, owing particularly to the presence of multitudes
of minute eggs, whose shells are highly tinged. ‘Two shades
will be introduced; namely, orange yellow to characterize the
female tissues, and pale yellow to represent those of the oppo-
site sex.

Other pigments may be occasionally employed where the
natural colouring of the skin, or other special circumstances,
seem to render their exhibition suitable.

The fluke which we have first selected for description and
illustration is the cone-shaped amphistome, or Amphistoma
conicum of Rudolphi. This parasite is common in oxen, sheep,
and deer, and it has also been found in the Dorcas antelope.
This amphistome almost invariably takes up its abode in the
first stomach, or rumen, attaching itself to the walls of the
interior. In the full-grown state it never exceeds half an inch
in length; but in the accompanying plate we have purposely
given a large central figure (1), representing the fluke magnified
ten diameters linear, whilst the upper figures (2 and 3)
respectively afford an anterior and lateral view of the same
individual. If closer inspection be made it will be seen that
the animal is furnished with two pores or suckers, one at either
extremity of the body, the lower being by far the larger of the
two. By means of the latter the amphistome anchors itself to
the papillated folds of the paunch, or first stomach, as this
organ is improperly called.

In the central figure the following structures may be
remarked. The oral sucker at the anterior end, or head, as
it is termed, leads into a narrow tube forming the throat or
cesophagus, and this speedily divides, or rather widens out,
into a pair of capacious canals. These cavities are correctly
regarded as together constituting the stomach; but they are
cecal, that is, closed below, having no other outlet than the
entrance above mentioned. Hence we justly infer that nearly
all the materials or juices received into the body of the fluke
are in a fit state to be at once absorbed into the system; yet
it is not at all improbable that mdigestible particles are occa-
sionally expelled from the mouth, when the ceca are over-
distended by their accumulation. On examining flukes it is
very common to observe this engorgement of the alimentary
canals, and, taken in connection with other characters, it
affords the parasitologist a ready mode of ascertaining to what
genus the Entozoon belongs. In most flukes the digestive
canal is thus simple and divided; but in Fascioles, as we shall
subsequently illustrate when describing the common liver fluke,
it is strikingly dendritic or regularly branched.

The water-vascular system next demands our attention,

On Flukes. 31

The vessels thus named vary greatly in disposition, not only
among the flukes, but also in other orders of parasites. This
circumstance, along with other considerations, has given rise
to much discussion as to their nature and function. Into the
debate we do not now propose to enter, but may remark in
passing, that there do not appear any very good grounds for
considering them equivalent to the true blood-vessels of other
invertebrated animals. In the present example, however, it
will not be denied that the vascular arrangements bear a very
striking resemblance to that of arteries or veins; and the
centrally-placed pouch (as shown in Fig. 1 of the accompanying
plate) might very easily be taken to represent the heart. This
large cavity gives origin to two primary trunks, which pass
forward along the inner sides of the digestive czeca; in their
passage they send off secondary branches which divide and sub-
divide until we arrive at a series of minute capillary ramifications,
the latter, according to Blanchard, terminating in small oval-
shaped sacs or lacunz. The last-named organs are placed
immediately beneath the skin, and appear to have a special
connection with that structure, the nature of which will be
subsequently considered. Whatever may be the significance
of these lacunze—and on this pomt much might be said—all
will agree that the arrangement of the vessels in connection
with them is extremely beautiful. Hitherto no one has dis-
covered any external outlet to the central pouch; yet, im all
probability, such an opening exists. Several observers have
considered this water-vascular system as directly connected
with the organs of digestion ; but, in maintaining this opinion,
they are clearly erroneous.

In an anatomical and physiological point of view, the study
of the reproductive system possesses high interest. Nearly all
the flukes are hermaphroditic, that is to say, each individual is
at one and the same time both male and female. In the large
Figure (1) the essential organs connected with this system are
only partially indicated. ‘The central tortuous canal is the
so-called uterus; this, as shown im the dissection below
(Fig. 4), communicates with two rounded sacs, one in front
of the other; im this situation it also subsequently divides
into two tubular branches; these tubes pass right and
left, one to either side of the body, and curving upwards,
after the fashion displayed in the drawing, they branch out
into exquisitely delicate ramifications which terminate in
little grape-like bunches. In different kinds of flukes these
botryoidal structures display a variety of appearance, and
are collectively denominated the yelk-forming organs. The
germs of the future eggs are developed in a separate
glandular body called the ovary, which latter, in the present

32 On Flukes.

species, is probably represented by the larger of the two vesicles
seen at the junction of the lateral ducts leading from the branched
organs above described. ‘The smaller sac lying in front is, in all
likelihood, an accessory pouch in which the germs become sur-
rounded by the yelk-particles or granules; the essential act of
fertilization is, likewise, herein effected at the same time, by
the presence of Spermatozoa which have succeeded in gaining
access tothe pouch. After a while, the perfectly developed eges
descend into the broad uterine tube, and by their numerous pre-
sence impart a deep yellowish or orange-brown colour to this
organ. The ova themselves are very small, the largest being about
the +4, of an inch long, and 545 of an inch broad. The example
here drawn (Fig. 6), was taken from an Amphistoma, which,
with many others, the writer obtained from the paunch of a
Zebu, formerly living in the Zoological Society’s Gardens,
Regent’s Park. The illustrations on the opposite side of the
plate represent the male reproductive elements, the lower one
(Fig. 5) showing the two largely developed testes, which are
irregularly divided into five or six lobes; the latter consisting
of numerous smaller lobules. From each of these glands there.
passes off a duct or vas deferens, the two afterwards combin-
ing to form a single channel; this becomes enlarged towards
the end, where it constitutes a sheath for the lodgement and
protection of the intromittent organ. The small pencillings
higher up (Fig. 7) represent the sperm-cells, containing extremely
minute Spermatozoa. In the Amphistome, as in most flukes,
the external reproductive orifices terminate separately, and
near each other, at the anterior third of the body, their position
being generally indicated by a smooth, oval-shaped, papillary
eminence.

A nervous system has been described (by Laurer and
Blanchard) in Amphistomes. It consists of two so-called cere-
bral ganglions representing the brain; and from each of these
there passes off on either side a chain of smaller ganglia, all
of which distribute nerve filaments to the skin. As similar
arrangements obtain in other flukes, we shall only here farther
remark that no one has hitherto discovered any organs of
special sense in the true Trematodes or Flukes.

It remains for us further to observe, that the surface of the
Amphistome, though quite smooth to the naked eye, is clothed
with a series of minute tubercles, which may be readily brought
into view under a half-inch object-glass. Beneath the cuticle
we find a layer of cellules forming the true skin; and beneath
this, again, there are two, if not three, layers of muscular fibre ;
an anterior longitudinal series, and an inner circular set being
readily distinguishable. The substance of the body is traversed
by bands of cellular parenchyma or connective tissue, which

The Roman Cemetery of Uriconiwn. oo

here and there form thickened sheaths for the pee of the
various delicate organs above described.

The larval condition of Amphistoma conicwm is at present
unknown, but in all probability ib lives in or upon the body of
snails. This we infer from the circumstance that the larvee or
cercarice of a closely allied species—the Amplhistoma subcla-
vatum, which infests the alimentary canal of frogs and newts—
have been found by Professor de Filippi of Turin, and by Dr.
Pagenstecher of Heidelberg, on the surface of the body of
various species of Planorbis ; whilst Professor Van Beneden,
of the Louvain University, has discovered the larvee in various
species of Cyclas.

There can be little doubt, therefore, that some of the water
snails harbour the larvee of Amphistoma conicum; and, as a
natural consequence, when deer, sheep, or cattle resort to
ponds or running streams for the purpose of quenching their
thirst, they swallow, accidentally, as it were, the aforesaid
pond-snails. The cercariz, or larve, are thus transferred to
the paunch, where, attaching themselves to the walls of the
interior, they complete their final stage of development.

——e re ee

THE ROMAN CEMETERY OF URICONIUM, AT
WROXETER, SALOP.

BY THOMAS WRIGHT, M.A., F.S.A.

For several reasons, among which not the least was the want
of funds, the excavations at Wroxeter on the site of the Roman
city of Uriconium were discontinued during the spring and
summer of the past year (1861), and further delay was caused
in the autumn by the necessity of waiting until the crops had
been cleared off from the ground. It had been determined to
commence operations on this occasion upon the site of the
principal cemetery of the Roman city, which lies at a consider-
able distance from the former excavations. At length, in the
month of September, the ground was very liberally placed at
the disposal of the Committee of Excavations by the tenant-
farmer, Mr. George Juckes, of Beslow, and the men were
employed in exploring this ground, by means of trenches, from
the middle of that month to the end of November.

A shght plan of the ground will enable us best to explain
the object and progress of these excavations. It may be pre-
mised that the invariable custom of the Romans forbade the
burial of the dead within the limits of a town, for religious as

VOL. I.— NO. I. D

34. The Roman Cemetery of Uriconium.

well as sanitary motives. This rule was strictly adhered to in
all the Roman towns in Britain which have been to any degree
explored. It was followed in Uriconium, where the principal
cemetery lay outside the eastern gateway, bordermg the road
which led towards Londinium (London), and which is now
called the Watling Street. In most of the Roman towns in
this island, we find that the principal cemetery lay, like this, on
the road leading to the chief town in the island; but we can
point out another motive for selecting this locality at Uriconium,
in the circumstance that it was the highest ground round the
city, and the least exposed to be overflowed by the floods

is)

= Sa
tc .s8
\ \\\\ AW we ie ny ae,
wfttilt p= an ie \ N
Se it ith ae
“G wis aN

SITE OF THE CEMETERY OF URICONIUM.

from the Severn. In our cut, the letter I marks the site of the
eastern gate of the city of Uriconium, the dark line represent-
ing the line of the town wall. The Watling Street, as will be
seen, runs from it in nearly an easterly direction. To the
south the ground rises from the road in a gentle bank, the
brow of which, in the field where the excavations have been
chiefly carried on, is marked by the shading from D to EH.
Attention had been called to this locality by the accidental dis-
covery, it is supposed not far from the spot marked EH, of seven
slabs of stone bearing interesting sepulchral mscriptions, which
are still preserved in the Library of Shrewsbury School. This
discovery furnished at least a very strong presumption that this

(oa

The Roman Cemetery of Uriconiwm. 3

field formed part of the cemetery, and trenches have been
carried from the hedge separating it from the Watling Street
road. over the whole extent of the bank, and further over the
field to some distance to the south. One of the first dis-
coveries, made at the spot marked B, low down on the slope of
the bank, was a very important one—a thick slab of stone was
found lying on its face, on which, when raised, a rather long
and very well imcized inscription was found, probably as
early as the second century, commemorating a soldier, whose
name appears to have been FLAMINIVS. T. POL. F. (the
latter letter, of course, standing for fils), who was forty-
five years of age, and had seen twenty-two years of military
service. Unfortunately, the mscribed side of the stone has
been much rubbed, and the inscription has not yet been com-
pletely deciphered. Further exploration showed that the whole
of this end of the bank was filled with mterments, consisting
of cmerary urns and their usual accompaniments, which ap-
peared to have been put into the ground in rows. These inter-
ments covered the ground marked in. our plan with dots.
Trenches, carried further towards the ancient town wall, or
beyond the bank across the field, gave no traces of burials, so
that this appears to have been the extremity of the burial-
eround towards the town. The cemetery probably extended
over the next field I’, which cannot conveniently be excavated
until the autumn of the present year. The excavators have
simce been employed im the field H, on the other side of the
Watling Street, m the farm of Mr. Bayley, of Norton, but no
discoveries of sepulchral interments were found there, and the
cemetery would thus appear to have been confined to the
southern side of the road. An accidental discovery, however,
led to the examination of a garden in the hamlet of Norton,
at G im our plan, and there was found one well-defined inter-
ment, besides traces of others. It is not improbable, there-
fore, that the tombs of the citizens were seattered over the
ground. outside the walls along the greater part of their extent.
We have not only by these excavations ascertained the site of
what was evidently the principal cemetery of Uriconium, but
we have obtamed a number of objects and ascertained a num-
ber of facts, which illustrate the manners of the mhabitants
of Uriconium, and show us how entirely conformable they were
to those of the Romans in their native Italy.

When we use the word cemetery, we do not of course
intend it to be taken strictly in its modern sense, but merely to
signify the locality where the sepulchral interments were col-
lected together. ‘The Romans did not inclose and consecrate a
space of ground for burial purposes as we do in modern times,
but the family of the deceased bought a bit of ground to bury

36 The Roman Cemetery of Uriconiwn.

him wherever they could obtain it to their own satisfaction,
provided it was not within the walls of a town. The possessor
of a villa in the country appears to have had his burial-place
within the precincts of his own house, as was the case m the
Roman villa recently uncovered at North Wraxhall, Wilts, by
Mr. Poulett Scrope, and described in the Wiltshire Archeolo-
gical and Natural History Magazine for October, 1860; and in
that at Walesby, im Lincolnshire, described in the Reliquary
for October, 1861. The inhabitant of a town, as we have just
stated, bought himself a piece of ground outside the town; and
from the circumstance of its bemg the repository of the dead,
it became consecrated, and to trespass upon it was regarded as
sacrilege. Nevertheless, the ground adjoinmg might be em-
ployed for any other purpose; and suburban houses and villas
might be intermixed with the tombs, as was the case in Pom-
peu. In fact, the Roman seems, even when dead, to have still
courted the proximity of the living, for he always by preference
sought to establish his last home as near as possible to the
most frequented road; and the inscriptions on his roadside
tomb often contamed appeals to the passers-by—in terms
such as SISTE VIATOR (stay, traveller), or TV QVISQVIS ES QVI
TRANSIS (whoever thou art, passenger)—to think on the departed.
The epitaph on a Roman named Lollius, published by Gruter,
concludes with the followmg words, intimating that he was
placed by the roadside, in order that the passers-by might say,
‘Farewell, Lollius ! ”?

HIC . PROPTER . VIAM . POSITVS
VT. DICANT . PRAETEREVNTES
LOLLI . VALE.

These examples will explain the position of the cemetery of
Uriconium, and of those of the other Roman towns in Britain.
To explain the various objects which have been found in
our excavations, it will be necessary to give a brief sketch of
the formalities which attended death and burial among the
Romans. The last duty to the dying man was to close his
eyes, which was usually performed by his children, or by his °
nearest relatives, who, after he had breathed his last, caused
his body first to be washed with warm water, and afterwards to
be anointed. Those who performed this last-mentioned office
were called pollinctores. The corpse was afterwards dressed,
and placed on a litter in the hall with its feet to the entrance
door, where it was to remain seven days. This ceremony was
termed collocatio, and the object of it is said to have been to
show that the deceased had died a natural death, and that he
had not been murdered. In accordance with the popular
superstition, a small picce of money was placed in the mouth,

The Roman Cemetery of Uriconiwm. Oo”

which it was supposed would be required to pay the boatman
Charon for the passage over the river Styx. In the case of
persons of substance, icense was burnt in the hall, which was
often decked with branches of cypress, and a keeper was
appointed, who did not quit the body until the funeral was
completed. The public having been invited by proclamation to
attend the funeral, the body was carried out on the seventh
day, and borne in procession, attended by the relatives, friends,
and whoever chose to attend, accompanied by musicians, and
sometimes with dancers, mountebanks, and performers of
various descriptions. With rich people, the images of their
ancestors were carried in the procession, which always passed
through the Forum on its way to the place of burial, and some-
times a friend mounted the rostrum and pronounced a funeral
oration. In earlier times the burial always took place by night,
and was attended with persons carrying lamps or torches, but
this practice seems to have been afterwards neglected; yet the
lamps still continued to be carried in the procession. Women,
who were called preefice, were employed not only to howl their
lamentations over the deceased, and chant his praises, ike the
Irish keeners, but to cry also; and their tears, it appears, were
collected into small vessels of glass, and this circumstance is
termed, in some of the inscriptions found on the Continent,
bemg “buried with tears,’—sepultus cum lacrymis,—and the
tomb is spoken of as being “ full of tears.”—TVMVL . LACRIM .
PLEN.

The next ceremony was that of burning the body. In the
earlier ages of their history the Romans are said to have buried
the bodies of their dead entire, without burning; and there
seems to be no doubt that, at all events, the two practices,
burning the body and cremation, existed at the same time, but
the latter appears to have become gradually more fashionable,
until few but paupers were buried otherwise. In the age of
the Antonines the practice of cremation was finally abolished in
Italy, but the imperial ordinances appear to have had but little
effect in the distant provinces, where the two manners of burial
continued to exist simultaneously. Both are accordingly found
in the Roman cemeteries in Britain, in interments which were
undoubtedly not those of Christians. Perhaps the practices
varied in different parts of the island, according to the usages
of the country from which the cvlonists derived their origin.
It is a circumstance worthy of remark that, as far as discoveries
yet go, no trace has been met with of burials in the Roman
cemeteries of Uriconium, otherwise than by burning the dead.

The funeral pile, pyra, was built of the most inflammable
woods, to which pitch was added, and other things, which often
rendered this part of the ceremony very expensive. An in-

38 The Roman Cemetery of Uriconiwm.

scription, preserved by Griiter, speaks of some persons whose
property was only sufficient to pay for the funeral pile and the
pitch to burn their bodies—nec ex eorum bonis plus imventum
est quam quod sufficeret ad emendam pyram et picem quibus
corpora cremarentur. It had been ordered by a law of the
Twelve Tables, that the funeral pile must be formed of timber
which was rough, and untouched by the axe, but this rule was
perhaps not very closely adhered to im later times. When the
body was laid on the pile, the latter was sprinkled with wine
and other liquors, and incense and various unguents and odori-
ferous spices were thrown upon it. It was now, according to
some accounts, that the naulum, cr the com for the payment
of the passage over the Styx, was placed in the mouth of the
corpse, and at the same time the eyes were opened. Fire was
applied to the pile by the nearest relatives of the deceased,
who, in doing this, turned their faces from it while it was
burning; the relatives and friends often threw into the fire
various objects such, as personal ornaments, and even favourite
animals and birds. When the whole was reduced to ashes,
these were sprinkled with wine (and sometimes with milk),
accompanied with an invocation to the mamnes, or spirit of the
deceased. The reader will call to mind the lines of Virgil
(Ain. di. 226) :—

Postquam collapsi cineres, et flamma, quievit,
Relliquias vino et bibulam lavere favillam,
Ossaque lecta cado texit Coryneeus aéno.

The next proceeding, indeed, was to collect what remained
of the bones from the ashes, which was the duty of the mother
of the deceased, or, if the parents were not living, of the chil-
dren, and was followed by a new offering of tears. Some of the
old writers speak of the difficulty of separating the remains of
the burnt bones from the wood ashes, and we accordingly find
them usually mixed together. When collected, the bones were
deposited in an urn, which was made of various materials. The
urn, in Virgil, was made of brass, or perhaps bronze. Instances
are mentioned of silver, and even gold, bemg used for this
purpese, as well as of marble, and those found in Britain are
often of glass ; but the more common material was earthenware.
One of the performers in the ceremony, whose duty this was, then
purified the attendants by sprinkling them thrice with water,
with an olive branch (if that could be obtained), and the jra-
jice pronounced the word Ilicet (said to be a contraction of Ire
cet, you may go). Those who had attended the funeral, thrice
addressed the word Vale (fareweil) to the manes of the dead,
and departed. A sumptuous supper was usually given after
the funeral to the relatives and friends.

The Roman Cemetery of Uriconiwm. — - 39

In the case of people of better rank, the body was burnt
on the ground which had been purchased for the sepulchre, but
for the poorer people there was a public burning-place, which
was called the ustrina, where the process was probably much
less expensive, and whence the urn, with the remains (relliquie)
of the deceased, was carried to be interred. ‘The tombs of rich
families were often large and even splendid edifices, with rooms
inside, in the walls of which were small recesses, where the
urns were placed. None of the buildings remain at Wroxeter,
or, indeed, in any Roman cemetery in our island, but we can
har dly doubt that such tombs did exist in the cemetery of
Uriconium, and that they were scattered along the side of the
Watling Street. At the spot marked A on our plan, tke
foundations of a small building were met with, which appeared
to have consisted of an oblong square, with a rectangular
recess behind, but the western portion of it has been destroyed
by the process of dramimg. When opened, ashes and frag-
ments of an urn were found in the inclosed space, so that it
is not improbable that this may have been a tomb with a room.
The inscribed stone already mentioned, which was found not
far from this spot, bears evidence; in the appearance of its
reverse side and in its form, of having been fixed against a
wall, probably over a door; and the other inscribed stones,
found in the last century, had probably been placed in similar
positions. ‘The urn was perhaps here interred beneath the floor
of the room. |

In more than one case in the cemetery of Uriconium, the
dead body was certainly burnt on the spot where it was to be
buried. At the spot marked C in our plan, we found undoubted
evidence of cremation in the grave. A square pit had been
dug, on the floor of which the funeral pile had been laid. My
friend, Mr. Samuel Wood, of Shrewsbury, who was present when
this pit was opened, remarked that the remains of the timber
of the funeral pile still remaimed as it had sunk on the floor,
the ends of which were unconsumed, and the earth under-
neath quite red from burning. Mr. Wood gathered up some
fragments of melted glass among the ashes, the remains of
some of the small vessels containing aromatics or unguents,
which were thrown into the fire; and, he adds, in a letter on
the subject, written at the time of the discovery, ‘One curious
point I noticed, that you could positively tell from which direc-
tion the wind was blowing at the time of combustion, as one
side of the hole was quite burnt and all the wood; whereas on
the opposite side, the ends of the fuel were there, with the one
end only charred. The wind was in the west, or W.S.W. This,
of course, is quite unimportant; but one might venture a guess
that it occurred in autumn, when the prevailing wind is from

40 The Roman Cemetery of Uriconium.

the west, or south-west.” At the spot marked G in our plan,
where considerable traces of Roman sepulchral interments were
found in the garden of a cottage occupied by Miss Bythell, a
similar pit was found, with this difference im its circumstances :
in the former case, the soil into which the pit was cut is a
clayey loam, which would itself form a tolerably firm wall; but
the soil on the site of Miss Bythell’s garden was a hight and
sharp sand, which would crumble in unless supported. In this
case, therefore, the pit, which was somewhat more than six feet
square, was lined with clay, both bottom and sides, to a thick-
ness of twelve or fourteen inches; and the heat of the fire had
been so great, that the clay was baked quite through; and even
the sand beyond it, in its changed colour and appearance,
showed evident marks of the action of fre. Mr. Wood, who
was also present immediately after this grave was opened, de-
scribed it as having somewhat the appearance of a large square
baked vessel. The remains of the corpse had been collected,
and deposited in a very large urn, which was placed upon some
flat tiles, and supported and surrounded with clay and broken
flue-tiles. Under it was found a coin of the emperor Trajan, of
the description termed by numismatists second brass.

In most ofthe other cases of interment yet discovered in the
cemetery of Uriconium, a small hole or pit appears to have been
sunk in the ground, and the urn, which had no doubt been
brought from the ustrina, was placed in it and covered up.
These interments were not far distant from each other, and, as
I have already remarked, appear to have been placed in rows,
nearly parallel to the road. Perhaps the ground may have
been bought for this purpose m common, by associations of the
townsmen—such as trade corporations; or it may have been set
aside for burial purposes by the municipal authorities, and sold
in small portions to individuals, as the practice now exists in
modern cemeteries. It may be remarked that the accumulation
of soil above the Roman level is here very much less than in the
interior of the ancient city, where we have to dig frequently
from ten to twelve feet to reach it. The top of the clay walls
of the pit in Miss Bythell’s garden was from fourteen to sixteen
inches iclow the present surface; and the inscribed slab, com-
memorative of Flaminius Titus, which was found lying on its
face, probably on the original level of the ground, or very near it,
was met with at about eighteen inches below the present surface.
We may, therefore, probably reckon the accumulation of earth
on the side of the cemetery at from eighteen inches to two feet.
The average depth at which the urns have been found is some-
what less than four feet, so that the Romans seem to have dug
pits about two feet deep for their reception.

These recent excavations in the cemetery have contributed

SEPULCHRAL URNS FROM THE ROMAN CEMETERY OF URICONIUM, (Scule 2 inches to a foot.)

42 The Loman Cemetery of Uriconiwm.

a considerable number of urns, many of them perfect, and others
so broken only as to be easily put together, to the Wroxeter
Museum, in Shrewsbury. A few examples, with some of the
jug-shaped vessels also found in the graves, are given in the
accompanying cut. The urns, which are of baked earthenware,
of different shades of colour, but mostly brown or red, are of
coarse substance, but always more or less well-shaped, and vary
very much in size. The largest we have yet found is about
eighteen inches high. The jug-shaped earthen vessels were
perhaps used to contain some liquids which were interred with
the remains of the dead; but when found they were filled with
earth. Our next cut represents a group of glass vessels and
other objects found in the cemetery of Uriconium. We know,
from allusions in some of the ancient writers, as well as from
inscriptions, that tears, unguents, and aromatics, were some-
times thrown on the funeral pile, and sometimes interred with
the dead—contained, as it may be supposed, in small vessels of
glass. An inscription in Griiter describes the deceased as being
“moistened with tears and balsam’’—EVM . LACHRIMIS . ET .
OPOBALSAMO . vpvM. ‘The reader will call to mind, also, the
lines of Tibullus (Eleg. lib. tii.; El. ii.1. 19), im which he speaks
of depositing with the dead the precious products of Arabia and
Assyria, as well as the tears of relations and friends :—

“ Ht primum annoso spargant collecta Lyzo,
Mox etiam niveo fundere lacte parent.
Post heee carbaseis humorem tollere ventis,
Atque in marmorea ponere sicca domo.

Tlic quas mittit dives Panchaia merces,
Hoique Arabes, dives et Assyria.

Et nostri memores lacrimee fundantur eodem.
Sic ego componi versus in ossa velim.”

These precious objects were probably contaimed in the small
narrow glass phials which are so commonly found in the Roman
graves, and which, in the belief that they contained only the
tears of the mourners, antiquaries have designated by the name
of lachrymatories. Some experiments, made by my friend Dr.
Henry Johnson, of Shrewsbury, upon the earth contained in
these glass vessels, seem to confirm the belief that they were
not merely receptacles of tears. He writes to me on the 11th
of November: “ Respecting the lachrymatories, I have lately
seen rather a confirmation of what you said about these having
been filled with unguents, incense, or something of that kind,
which would by heat yield much carbon or charcoal. I took
two of these little glass vessels which had dark matter in them,
and which had never been emptied. I put some of the dark
matter under the microscope, and I could see pure red grains

~S
SQV

ROMAN GLASS VESSELS AND POTTERY FROM TIE CEMETERY OF UgiconiuM. (Scale 3 inches to a foot )

44, The Roman Cemetery of Uriconiwm.

of the sand of the field,* and intermixed with these many visible
particles of pure black carbon, evidently introduced artificially
into the sand. On putting some of the soil m a platmum
crucible, and heating it red-hot for a few minutes, all the char-
coal was burned away, and I got a pure red sand like that of
the cemetery. The contents of these two vessels were quite
black, though I have no doubt they were found deeper than the
superficial covering of black mould. One of them had evidently
been subjected to fire, so that the supposition that this had been
filled with some unctuous oblation, and then acted upon by heat
in the funeral pile, is not at all improbable.”

These glass vessels help to demonstrate that the same forms
were observed by the Romans in their performance of the
sepulchral rites in Britain as in Italy. Some of them are
found greatly affected by fire, and have been no doubt placed
on the funeral pile; others, on the contrary, are perfect, and
have evidently never been in the fire, but were no doubt de-
posited with the urn. Hxamples of them, in both conditions,
are given in our last wood-cut. The one in the middle of the
three to the right has been thus affected by the heat in a lesser
degree ; but the other, lying on the ground beneath it, has been
so much melted as to have lost its original shape.

A very usual accompaniment of Roman interments is the
lamp, usually made of terra-cotta. There can be no doubt that,
under the influence of sentiments with which we are not well
acquainted, lamps were among the usual offerings to the dead,
and that, when offered, they were filled with oil and lighted.
They were found in the tombs at Pompeii, where they were
probably placed in the recesses of the walls by the side of the
urns of the dead. Their frequent occurrence under such cir-
cumstances gave rise to a number of old legends of the finding
of lamps still burning in tombs of the ancients, who, it was sup-
posed, had invented a material for the lamp which, once lighted,
would burn for ever. One epitaph, found at Salernum, and
given in Griiter, which commemorates a lady named Septima,
expresses, in what appears to have been intended for elegiac
verse, the wish that whoever contributed a burning lamp to
her tomb, might have a “ golden soil” to cover his ashes,

HAVE . SEPTIMA . SIT . TIBI
TERRA . LEVIS . QVISQ
HVIC . TVMVLO . POSVIT
ARDENTEM . LVCERNAM
ILLIVS . CINERES . AVREA
TERRA . TEGAT
* To explain this, it must be stated that the soil of the field, which is hardly

two feet deep, lies upon a deep bed of pure sand, and that the interments had all
Leen wade in the sand in which the urns and other objects were found.

The Roman Cemetery of Uriconium. 45

Tt is probable that the lamp was burning when it was placed
in the grave with the urn. ‘Two lamps only have been found in
our excavations in the cemetery of Uriconium, which are repre-
sented in our last cut, and are of the same form which the Roman
terra-cotta lamp almost invariably presents. In one of them
the field is plain; in the other it is adorned with the figure of
a dolphin.

The same scarcity which thus characterizes the lamps, is also
to be remarked in the Roman coins, of which only one has yet
been met with in the cemetery by the Watling Street, a second
brass of the Emperor Claudius; and two in Miss Bythell’s garden,
one of Trajan, the other of Hadrian. The coin of Trajan was
found under the urn, and must therefore have belonged to the
interment; and, as it bears distinct marks of having been exposed.
to the flames, it has evidently been burnt with the corpse. ‘The
early date of these coins is worthy of remark, and though it does
not necessarily prove the early date of the mterment, it may
perhaps assist in explaining their rarity. However large may
have been the amount of true Roman and Italian blood among
the founders of the town, the number of the inhabitants was no
doubt kept up and probably increased in after times by recruits
from other countries, perhaps much of it German; and these
strangers to Roman feelings, when they accepted Roman man-
ners and customs, may have neglected many of the mimor
details. Perhaps they were not convinced of the necessity of
exporting the current coin of the state, in however small quan-
tities, to the infernal regions, and they may have deliberately
retained Charon’s passage-fare. They may also have discon-
tinued the practice of placmg lamps in the grave, or it may
only have been observed occasionally. It must at the same
time be remarked, that single coms are the objects of all others
most likely to escape the notice of the excavators.

Nearly all the graves, however, appeared to have contained
the urns and the small glass phials; and in some there were
other vessels of glass and earthenware, and among the latter
some good examples of the well-known Samian ware. ‘The
vessel in the middle of our last cut is a large and remarkably
handsome glass bowl, which was found among the graves on
the side of the bank. Behind it is a flat dish of the ight red
ware, which is found rather plentiful among the Roman ruins at ©
Wroxeter, and appears to have been manufactured in the dis-
trict. The fractured vessel, to the right of it, has been a very
handsome bowl of Samian ware. The vessel to the extreme
left is a much more uncommon ware, of a lemon-yellow drab
colour, and ornamented with rows of small knobs. All these
vessels have no doubt contained the offerimgs of the living to
the manes of the dead.

46 The Skipper.

It may be remarked, in conclusion, that the comparatively
slow accumulation of earth on the site of the cemetery explains
easily the almost total disappearance of its monuments which
stood above-ground. We learn from early writers, such as the
historian Bede, that people went to the cemeteries of the Roman
towns to seek for materials long before they began to break up
the towns themselves, and as these materials must have lain for
ages visible on the surface of the ground, and at the same time
consisted probably of large and useful stones, they held out a
stronger temptation to such depredators. Fortunately, the
stones most likely to escape were those which contained mscrip-
tions, because the people who had succeeded the Romans enter-
tained a dread of all inscriptions which they could not read,
believing them to be dangerous magical charms. Hence we
find, here and there, an inscribed stone lying where it was
dropped or thrown, when every other fragment of the monu-
ment to which it belonged has disappeared.

THE SKIPPER, SKOPSTER, OR SAURY.

BY JONATHAN COUCH, F.L.S.

Linnavus expressed the wonder he felt that animals could be
created with such properties as to be able to pass their lives
beneath the waves; but we, on the other hand, may express our
wonder that creatures whose proper residence is in the waters
should be able to raise themselves high above it, and thus
imitate the birds in sailing through the air. Yet who has not
heard of the flying-fishes ? and what landsman, and woman too,
has not wished that at least for a little space they could be
transported to the scenes where such amusing sights are met
with, and view, without the mconvenience of a voyage, the
fight of these little creatures as they spring up in haste to
escape the hurried chase of enemies below? But scenes like
these may be witnessed without encountering the sea-sickness
and dangers of the sea; and we possess among ourselves, for a
portion of the year, a fish which, strange to say, is able to

The Skipper. AT

imitate the actions of the flymg-fish, although not endowed
like it with wing-like fins. In the summer and autumn this
faculty is not unfrequently called into action, and in doing this
it finds even a more certain safety than is the lot of the fish
which is usually called by that name; for while the latter in its
blind haste often falls mto an equal amount of danger from that
which it sought to escape, by dropping on the deck of a ship,
we have never known the other to encounter a like misfortune.
But it is time we should more particularly mention the name of
the fish to which our remarks apply; this species, then, is the
Esox saurus of Linnzus, and Scomberesox sawrus of Cuvier ;
of which a larger representation, in its natural colours, will be
given in the “ Natural History of Fishes of the British Islands,”
now in the course of publication.

By the: unlearned fishermen of the West of England, the
name bestowed on this fish is the Skipper, or more broadly the
Skopster, and by some observers it is called the Sea-mouse, on -
account of a motion it sometimes adopts; perhaps when not
very closely pressed by a pursuer, or it may be, even im sport,
for the most timid fishes have their sports, more even than
their voracious pursuers, and very amusing sports they often
are. On these occasions first one of these fishes darts above
the surface of the deep, which at that time is perhaps as calm
and smooth as a mill-pond. It appears to run along upon the
surface without for a moment dipping beneath, but barely
touching the water with the poimts of its pectoral and ventral
fins ; the action appearing as if it bounded along like a mouse as
it quickly passes from one hole to another. But in its onward
course this individual is not long alone, and in a few seconds a
whole bevy of these fishes are engaged in the race, until, perhaps
tired with the exertion, they sink below and all is over. On
other occasions the true flying-fish is more closely imitated,
and the action of flight is plamly accomplished by a single vigor-
ous spring, in which the tail and finlets are the moving power,
and by which they are carried aloft for the distance of thirty or
forty feet, when they sink again in a sloping direction—it is to
‘ be feared, to the mouth of some voracious enemy that has
watched their motions from below. In the flying-fish it is the
pectoral fins which form the buoyant instrument of flight; but
these in the skopster are of small size, and it is to their con-
struction and manner of attachment to the body that they be-
come fitted to the habits of the fish; their shape being so
curved that it requires little effort to enable them to rise from
their usual depth to the surface—as the wings of the lark en-
able it to rise and hover, in a manner, beyond the capacity of
most other tenants of the air; and when the fish has reached
the surface, the vigorous action of the tail and the small fins

48 The Skipper.

near it are sufficient to give an impulse which insures what
follows.

To witness these actions in perfection, the observer on land
would do well to be possessed of a good glass of the binocular
kind, and to station himself, at no great height, on some pro-
jecting portion of the western coast of the kingdom, in the
summer or autumn. But there must also be called into action
not only some degree of good fortune, but no slight stock of
that commendable virtue patience, for this is not an exhibition
that can be got up at our own pleasure; and even when it does
occur, the gratification may receive some alloy in the reflection
that, however agreeable to the observer, it is death to some of
the performers.

This fish comes to our coast at about the end of May, and
retires towards the close of autumn; and it usually swims at a
sight depth from the surface, so that when nets are employed
within a fathom or two of that range, many are caught, but
when deeper they do not become entangled.

It is the opinion of fishermen that there exists some anti-
pathy between this fish and some others of the gregarious
sorts; in proof of which they allege that when the skippers
have entered a bay m which there are what are technically
called schools of pilchards—as they sometimes do im large
multitudes—in a short time the pilchards leave the district: a
circumstance which excites their notice, as being attended with
a disappointment of their hopes.

The skipper has not been known to take the hook, which is
to be ascribed perhaps to the form of its mouth, as well as to
the want of an appropriate bait, rather than to indifference for
food; which, on examination of the stomach, appears to consist
of a great variety of materials. Sometimes, perhaps most fre-
quently, it is formed of entomostraca, or those very small crus-
taceous animals which exist in myriads in the sea at almost all
seasons. But I have also found pieces of red sea-weeds, and
square pieces of the marine vegetable Zostera marina, with small
stones; and as the zostera is not known to grow anywhere but

in harbours where fresh water mingles with the salt, it is clear -

that such situations must sometimes be visited by these fishes.
And that they do so is further shown by the fact, that im one
instance an example of the fish was brought to me for examina-
tion that had been taken in a net, a few miles up a river, where
it is only on rare occasions that the tide has been known to
come.

The structure of the upper jaw is well fitted to retain any
small but perhaps active prey it may chance to lay hold of, pre-
paratory to its being swallowed ; an operation which we may
suppose not to be accomplished in an instant. On close ex-

A Rotifer New to Britain. 49

amination it will be seen that along the slender maxillary pro-
jection there exists on each side a row of minute teeth which,
on a small scale, bear no distant resemblance to the lateral
teeth on the snout of the saw-fish, and which are very thickly
projecting along the border on each side, with their points
directed a little downward.

The ordinary length of this fish is about a foot, but not un-
frequently it is seen a few inches longer; the shape inclined
to round near the head, more compressed along the body, and
tapering towards the tail. The head flattened above, the jaws
protruded, the lower jaw longest, upper jaw the most slender.
Scales rather large, but easily lost; and then the general colour
becomes green where in the perfect state it is a light blue.
Lateral line obscure; the belly with alow ridge along each side.
Hye lateral, conspicuous; nostril in front of it open. The pec
toral fin is broad at the base, pointed above; dorsal and anal
fins far behind, nearly opposite, and close behind them five
finlets above and the same number below; but I have seen six.
and even seven finlets above and below. Central fins small ;
tailforked. There is a row of minute blue dots along the border
of the first gill-cover, seventeen in number, which appear to be
the orifices of mucous-glands.

eee

A ROTIFER NEW TO BRITAIN—(CEPHALOSIPHON
LIMNIAS).

BY PHILIP HENRY GOSSE, F.R.S.

In the adfnirable new edition of Pritchard’s “ Infusoria”’ (p. 670),
Professor Williamson has included in the family Floscularica,
between the genera Limmias and Lacinularia, a genus named
Cephalosiphon, with the following brief characters :—“ Rotary
organ bilobed: eyes two; sheath single; two frontal horns,
including the siphon.” One sole species is mentioned, thus
characterized :—“ C. limnias. Sheath membranous, annulate,
1—6’”’ to 1—5’””. On Ceratophyllum. Berlin, July.”

As no references are given to any authority, I wrote to
Professor Williamson for further information, suggesting that
for “including,” we should probably read “inclosing.” I was
favoured with the following note in reply :—

““T am afraid I can give you no information respecting it. I
found it in the last edition of ‘ Pritchard,’ and from the habitat
(Berlin) I concluded that it had been one of those genera established
by Ehrenberg, which he has scattered broadcast through half the
journals of Germany. Hence I did not feel at liberty to omit it,

VOL. I.—NO. I. E

50 A fiotifer New to Britain.

though I could not trace its history. ‘Including’ should certainly
have been ‘inclosing,’ as you suggest.”

In Mr. Slack’s “Marvels of Pond Life,” p. 149, he has
described and figured a tubicolous Rotifer, with a very long
antennal process. He considered it to be Limnias ceratophylli,
but noticed the discrepancy between the form of the trochal
disk in my fieure of that species in “ Hvenings at the Microscope,”
and that of his animal. Having intimated to this gentleman
my suspicions that the creature was neither Limnias, nor any
other with which I was acquainted, he was so kind as to send
me from time to time a number of specimens, all found in
considerable abundance studding the stems and leaves of Ana-
charis alsinastrwm—a pond-weed which, Mr. Slack tells me, is
fast displacing all other sub-aquatic vegetation in the waters
about the north of London. The examination of the specimens
thus transmitted, has confirmed the suspicion of its novelty to
us, and has convinced me of its identity with the Berlin genus
Cephalosiphon, and probably with the species C. limnias. This
identification I shall, at least for the present, assume.

The animal manifests a very close affinity with Mcistes,
Limnias, and Melicerta ; in the form of its petaloid disk coming
between the last-named two ; for the outline of this organ (see
Hig. a) may be described as two-lobed, with each of the lateral
lobes having a tendency to divide into two; the entire form
having a striking resemblance to the expanded wings of a
butterfly, such as our little Orange-tip, for example. In the
antenna, distinctness from each of the genera named is mani-
fested, for while Melicerta has two rather long antennee, Limnias
two reduced to mere bristles, and Cicistes none at all, our Cepha-
losiphon displays a single one, of extraordinary length and
versatile power. Like Melicerta and Limnias it shows no visible
constriction or neck below the disk, whereas in (cistes this is
a conspicuous feature.

The animal inhabits a case slightly trumpet-shaped, generally
of great length and slenderness, compared with those of its
allies, standing erect on the pond-weed. It is irregular and
floccose in outline, very opaque, and of a deep bistre or umber
brown by transmitted light, but of a much lighter hue, cedar-
brown, by reflected light. It is composed doubtless of an
excretion from the skin as the foundation layer, thickened and
opacified by the addition of the dark material, which I con-
jecture to be the fiecal pellets successively discharged in process
of growth. Yet I must confess I have never seen the stomach
or intestine charged with dark brown food, in any of those that
I have examined, which have certainly been but few, in a healthy
active condition. '

Contrary to the rule in the allied genera, the petaloid disk

A Rotifer New to Britain. 51

is made to open, by the bending forward of the head towards
the ventral aspect, and its widest margin is the dorsal one.
This is shown by the position of the cloacal orifice with respect
to the foot, as seenin Fig. 6. Immediately behind the disk are
two minute lateral horn-like points, which project from the
head, and curve towards each other. These are sometimes
visible both in a frontal and a lateral view, and with the disk
closed or open (see Figs. a and B), but at other times the closest
scrutiny fails in discerning them (Fig. c). Behind these, in the
median line, there is an organ which is never concealed: it is
the single antenna, which: stands up perpendicularly from the
occiput to a great height (being almost half as long as the body,
exclusive of the foot), and generally arches over the front; but
is capable of vigorous and sudden movements to and fro, and
from side to side. It is evidently tubular throughout; either a
simple tube with thick walls; or else, if the walls are thin,
furnished with a slender piston which runs through its length.
By analogy, this organ ought to carry a pencil of diverging
bristles at its extremity; and Mr. Slack has so figured it; and
has, moreover, mentioned in a private letter to me that he has
again detected these hairs of unwonted length. On the other
hand, I have utterly failed to detect the slightest trace of hairs
or of ciliary motion in the antenna of one which I watched most
carefully with powers of 600 and 800 diameters, aided by an
achromatic condenser; though the animal was in vigorous
condition, and threw about its tube most waywardly. I did
detect signs of what seemed to be both inspiration and ex-
piration through the tube; for an atom of extraneous substance
that by accident was adhering to the tip, was now and then
suddenly drawn into the open mouth of the tube, and presently
as suddenly blown out. The appearance certainly favoured
Ehrenberg’s notion of this organ being a respiratory tube.

The disk when withdrawn forms a sort of pimple or mam-
millary prominence, with a pursed aperture, seated on the front
of the head. In this condition, and with this exception, the
general form of the trunk is cylindrical, with a slight swell on
the dorsal aspect, and with the upper end rounded to the base
of the antenna, and the lower to a closely and strongly wrinkled
foot (Fig. a), of which, however, I have been able to see only
the extreme upper portion, at a moment of unwonted extension.
If, as is no doubt the fact, the lower extremity of the animal
was in contact with the surface on which the case was erected,
the foot must be capable of bemg drawn out to amazing length.
I do not doubt that such was the fact ; yet the upper portion of
the animal is certainly able to shift its aspect in the case, aad
that with a measure of persistency which appears rather to in-
dicate a voluntary change in the foot-hold than a mere twist.

52 A Rotifer New to Britain.

The specimens that I have seen were remarkably translucent
and free from colour; but the outlines of the internal organs
are so evanescent as to be difficult of determination. The
digestive system shows a mastax, of the form of that seen in
Timnias, which I have represented in “ Phil. Trans.” 1856,
pl. xvii. figs. 66—71. From this a short cesophagus leads to
a wide and long stomach, extending down the dorsal half of the
body-cavity, and merging by a constriction into a short intestine,
whence a slender rectum turns abruptly upward, and opens by
a cloaca seated between prominent points, capable no doubt of
a very great protrusion at the moment of evacuation. As I
have before observed, I have not m any instance seen the
alimentary canal occupied by food ; in each case, the stomach and
intestine were transparent, save for some minute oil-bubbles and
pellucid specks, and were tinged with a pale yellow hue, probably
owing to effusion from the surrounding biliary glands.

The whole ventral half of the cavity is filled by an almost
commensurate ovary, which in these specimens contained only
undeveloped ova, in their usual form of clear, highly refractile
sphericles, each with a dim nucleus.

The nervous system shows a comparatively large brain,
seated as a defined gray cloudy mass of irregularly lobed form,
immediately below the antenna, and behind the discal mammilla
(Fig. c). The structure that permeates the antenna, whether
tube or nervous thread, expands upon, and is lost in, this bram-
mass; and on its side I saw, with great distinctness, in one
specimen, a bright crimson eye-speck. I could not, by focussing,
get a glimpse of the eye on the opposite side, perhaps from the
opacity or the unequal refrangibility of the intervening tissues ;
but the position of this one implied that it was one of a pair.
In no other specimen could I find a trace of eyes.

I have not been able to see any muscular bands or threads.

The Cephalosiphon is very lively and active in its motions.
It is very ready to protrude from its case; and not at all prone
to retire upon ordinary alarms, such as a jar upon the instru-
ment, that would send the Floscularia or the Stephanoceros into
its retreat in aninstant. It is very curious to see it protruding ;
the long antenna is first thrust out, and jerked to and fro, as a
feeler, exploring the surrounding water for safety. This bemg
assured, a considerable portion of the body projects, with a
quick jerk, which then, by its bowings and turnings, seems to
aid the antenna in its investigations; presently, a good piece
more of the body comes out, until at last we see the commence-
ment of the wrinkled foot itself; the jerking and feeling still
going on. Perhaps I have not been fortunate in my specimens ;
but I have not witnessed the opening of the disk in any
instance ; and the animal appears chary of exposing its facial

Notes on the Preceding Paper. 53

charms. Indeed, my delineation of the form of the disk rests
on a single individual, so that I do not attach the same cer-
tainty to it as to other features which I have observed; and
the more, as I could not trace the marginal cilia at work.
Moreover, Mr. Slack has figured it of a very different shape.

The entire height of an average specimen in its ordinary
state of extension is 3’; of an inch; of which the foot is 5th,
the body (from the cloaca to the base of the antenna), 51,th,
and the antenna 715th of an inch. The case generally reaches
up to the cloaca, The greatest breadth of the body may be
about +35th.

NOTES ON THE PRECEDING PAPER.
BY HENRY JAMES SLACK, F.G.S.

Mr. Gossz, in transmitting the observations in the preceding
paper, invited me to add any remarks, especially upon the
great discrepancy between his sketch and that which I pub-
lished in the *‘ Marvels of Pond Life,” to which he has alluded.
However plainly a particular appearance might be presented
to my view, I should hesitate in adhering to its correctness in
opposition to so able an observer, if our opportunities had been
equal, but in this case I have had the advantage of repeated and
prolonged observations ; while Mr. Gosse, even in the instance of
the ‘‘ single individual,” does not seem to have seen the disk
naturally expanded at all, and I conjecture his view of it must
have been taken under some peculiar circumstances—perhaps
of compression—which disguised its real form. I first dis-
covered the creature—which I cannot reconcile with the de-
scription given in Pritchard of the Cephalosiphon—in October,
1860, and from a single specimen gave an account of it, which
will be found in the Marvels of Pond Life. Upon receiving
from Mr. Gosse a note expressing his belief that the thing
might be a Cephalosiphon, although it was certainly not a
young Inmnias, I endeavoured to obtain fresh specimens; but
did not succeed till November, 1861, during which month I
sent a good many to him at Torquay. Some of them reached
that place alive, but from some cause (perhaps not liking the
air) not one expanded her disk as in Camden Town. As the
weed was abundant, and the creatures plentiful, in the Hamp-
stead pond, I saw no occasion to be in a hurry, and decided
not to call the attention of other naturalists to them until Mr.

54 Notes on the Preceding Paper.

Gosse had completed his researches. Unfortunately, in the
early part of December the pond was cleared out, and I could
with great difficulty find a few bits of the Anacharis, and still
fewer live specimens. I however. sent some to Professor
Williamson, of Manchester, to whose labours the last edition of
Pritchard is so highly indebted.

It will be most convenient if I comment on Mr. Gosse’s

Fria. 1,

statements in the order in which they occur. After attentively
watching some dozens of the animals in an expanded state. I
have never seen anything to justify the idea of the disk being
bilobed, with a tendency to further division, and having a
“striking resemblance to the expanded wings of a butterfly.”
The second of the annexed sketches is taken from the Marvels of

Notes on the Preceding Paper. 55

Pond Infe, and I still maintain it to be substantially correct,
although the attitude is more exceptional than I then thought.
In that position the gizzard cannot be seen distinctly, as the
observer looks down mto the open disk as he would into a
tea-cup held with its mouth slanting towards him. The feeler
appears surrounded by cilia, and situated near one margin of
the rm. ‘This state of things is not common, but I have dis-
tinctly seen it since; and it will be understood, on referring to
Fig. 1, which also represents an exceptional, but very con-
venient disposition of parts. In that sketch the
proboscis, or feeler, is shown to be seated upon a
prominence, which varies in shape, and is capable
of considerable motion. When this is thrust for-
ward, the proboscis is carried within the ciliary
circle as I first saw it, and as my wife delineated it.
The usual attitude of the animal before the disk
is opened is like Mr. Gosse’s Fig. e, the eye how-
ever bemg seldom visible. When the expansion
occurs, the amount of protrusion of the body, and
the angle at which it is bent, vary indefinitely.
Perhaps the commonest position is for the body
to be nearly upright, with the upper part bent
at an angle lke the handle of a walking-stick.
The cilia are very long; they vibrate through
their entire length, and often exhibit a row of
retreating and a row of salient curves. In my
Fig. 1, the body is unusually protruded, the pro-
jection above the tube, on the left, beg the
anus. In this sketch the disk is circular and con-
tinuous, except immediately in front of the pro-
boscis, where a depression occurs, forming a sort
of notch, but not nearly deep enough to justify
the epithet “bilobed.”” I believe the animal can
fill up this little notch by brmging the sides to-
gether, and relaxing the muscular contraction by
which that portion of the margin is pulled down
below the general level.

The tubes are generally as described by Mr. Gosse, but I
have met with a few of unusual length, slightly twisted and
strangely bent at the top on one side. In some specimens,
probably young, they are transparent enough to allow the
animal to be seen all the way to the bottom, and in that state
are so flexible as to move about as 1t moves. What share the
feecal: pellets may have in colouring the tubes I do not know;
but, with one exception, the darkest food I have seen in healthy
individuals has been of a very pale yellow-brown, very much
lighter than the flocculent adhesions.

56 Notes on the Preceding Paper.

In one individual I observed two rather large oval eggs in
the tube, and another adhering to the outside of the tube at
the top. These were watched for several days m succession.
One morning the outside egg had disappeared, and could not —
be traced. The animal did not live long enough for the develop-
ment of the two others to be witnessed.

The disk may require some bending of the body to open
it, but it is retained open in all sorts of positions. I have seen
the horn-like points which Mr. Gosse describes, but I am at a
loss to tell what becomes of them when the creature moves, as, if
a glimpse is caught of them one moment, they usually disappear
the next. I thmk the antenna has a piston to which the sete are
attached, and which carries them up and down at the will of the
creature. On learning that Mr. Gosse had failed to see these
bristles (sete), I invited a microscopic friend, and we examimed
four specimens. In three they were conspicuous with careful
illumination and a power of 180, and in one not. They were
also seen by Professor Williamson, at Manchester. Itis evident
they were not everted at Torquay, or they could not have escaped
so admirable a microscopist as Mr. Gosse, and one of my speci-
mens did not exhibit them during many examinations. The pro-
boscis is very flexible, and in one instance my wife saw it bent
like the forefinger when half closed. My wife also noticed an ap-
parent connection between the inner tubes of the proboscis, and
a fine line running round the margin of the disk; which would
be consistent with the theory of its being a respiratory organ as
well as a feeler. Upon the minute anatomy of the creature
I can add nothing to Mr. Gosse’s valuable observations, except
that the form of the gizzard was one reason why I at first con-
sidered it a Ivmmnias.

My specimens have usually been very free in exposing their
disks, much less easily frightened than the Melicerta, and if
made to shut up and retract by striking the table, willing to
try their fortune again in a few seconds. Once, however, I had
a highly nervous lady to deal with, and even a loud noise in
the street, or slamming a door in the next house, made her
retire in alarm. The same effect was produced by the striking
of a small German clock. These creatures have no difficulty in
turning about in their tubes, and it is not uncommon to find
one opening to the right, retracting suddenly, and then opening
to the left, or making other changes equally inconvenient to
any one attempting to sketch an accurate portrait.

Their food consists of very small objects, and is often so
colourless as to give no aid to the investigation of their internal
parts. This circumstance, together with the transparency of
the tissues, renders minute observation so difficult as to give

Ancient and Modern Finger-rings. 57

great value to the researches of Mr. Gosse. I should add, that
the very striking rings in the foot of that gentleman’s central
figure, have not been exhibited by any specimens under my
notice. My taking this creature for a young Limnias cerato-
phyllt arose from a general similarity of structure, and from a
remark in Pritchard that the rotary disk of that animal was
circular, in a juvenile specimen. I have usually found floscules
(ornata, cornuta, and campanulata) on the same weed with the
new rotifer, and likewise Stephanoceros Hichorni.

ANCIENT AND MODERN FINGER-RINGS.
BY H. NOEL HUMPHREYS.

Ovr modern finger-rings have lost all characteristic meaning in
their general form or details. The delicate allusion, the poetic
sentiment, the playful conceit conveyed by the graceful forms of
interwoven flowers, or other objects, have disappeared. ‘The
effect and meaning of the conjunction of various metals in the
device is a lost art; and the poetic meaning once attached to
gems isa forgotten branch of elegant symbolry. In short, the
race of ingenious and artistic artificers, who devised the exqui-
site jewels of the 15th and 16th centuries, have no modern
representatives.

So completely is the art of ring-jewelry forgotten, that it is
now sought to give a poetic sentiment to the very defects which
mark the degradation of the art; even in the unwrought and
unmeaning wedding-ring of our day, a beauty is sought in its
absolute want of any characteristic features whatever, by calling
it, with a sentimental unction, the plain gold ring.

Before, however, I attempt to show what a wedding-ring
might be made, and has been made, let us take a brief review
of the origin of finger-rings in general.

The earliest kind of rings known appear to have been
merely portable seals. In the first great empires of Central
Asia of which we have any record, Babylonia and Assyria, the
act of sealing was a most important one, and, as an act confer-
ring authenticity upon any important document, stood in the
place of the present practice of attaching to it the names of the
principal parties concerned. Royal edicts were promulgated en-
tirely through the medium of a seal; the decrees of the Assyrian

58 Ancient and Modern Finger-rings.

kings being engraved upon a cylinder, a kind of rolling seal of
cornelian or metal, from which they were impressed upon the
requisite number of pieces of prepared clay—thus the seal was,
in Assyria and Babylonia, a printing-press, which multiplied the
royal edicts to any required extent. Small seals were worn on
the royal finger, attached to a ring of metal, and such portable
signets were used to give authority to deeds of mimor import-
ance. Hyen private individuals used both the large cylinder,
as well as the lesser ring-seal.

The Greeks, so late as the time of Homer, did not use rings
or seals, but shortly afterwards, the custom appears to have
reached them from the Hast. In the time of Solon, seal-rings
(cfpayis) appear to have become usual; and with their use the
art of counterfeiting them. ‘This was the case also with coined
money, as proved by the discovery of ancient counterfeits of some
of the earliest kinds of coms known, especially the far-famed
Tortoises of Algina, so called from the highly-wrought image of
a tortoise which was the device of the double drachmas of that
state. In Athens great precautions were taken with regard to
the forgeries of seal-rings ; insomuch so, that by a law of Solon
an engraver was forbidden to keep the form of the seal which
he had sold. These early seal-rings of the Greeks were pro-
bably entirely of metal, the custom of mounting engraved gems
in rings not having become usual at that period. But already
superstition, which in early stages of civilization attaches itself
to all things, had begun to attach itself to the seal-rmg. The
ring of Gyges, king of Lydia, which he is said to have found
in a grave, was believed. to convey to its possessor extraor-
dinary powers: as was that of Charicleia, mentioned by Helio-
dorus, and also the famous iron ring of Eucrates.

Magic and rings became closely interwoven in the latter
times of Grecian independence ; and magic rings, made of wood,
bone, or some other cheap material, were manufactured in large
numbers at Athens; and could be purchased, gifted with any
kind of charm required, for the small consideration of a single
drachma.

The simple metal seal-rmg was eventually superseded
by one composed of gems, richly mounted in chasings
of gold; and as luxury increased, several were worn at once,
till at last the fingers of both hands were nearly covered
with these ornaments; and that too at a comparatively early
period, as we find the custom alluded to both by Plato and
Aristophanes.

Eventually luxury took the turn of introducing rings of
enormous size, and some exquisites went so far at a somewhat
later epoch, as we learn from Quintilian, that they hada series of
rings suited to the successive seasons of the year—as summer

Ancient and Modern Pinger-rings. 59

rings, winter rings, etc., many of them being doubtless of
highly ingenious device and finished workmanship. We may
imagine the devices to have consisted of such featureg as grace-
fully wrought representations of the divinities who were sup-
posed to preside over different seasons—Ceres or Bacchus, for
mstance, for the Autumn, with jewel-work of wheat and grapes
and other fruits ; or perhaps, for the same season, the zodiacal
sign of the “ Scales,’? to symbolize the equality of the days and
nights at the equinox, the figure richly wrought in gold, with
the sign of the Fishes, one having, as seen in existing sculptures,
rare gems to represent the dishes of the Scales. Orin Spring,
the head of a swallow, in allusion to the sun’s entrance into that
constellation at the period when the swallow first made his
annual appearance in Greece, as one of the harbingers of the
coming Spring.

There were no legal restrictions n Greece against wearing
gold rmgs, though the Spartans always affected simple iron
ones; and the women, it would appear, scarcely pretended to
this form of luxury at all, only wearing simple annulets of ivory
or amber. ‘This abstinence on the part of the ladies, may have
arisen from the fact that the ring, as originating in the seal or
signet, was a mark of power or sovereignty, and as such, incon-
sistent with the general social position of women in Greece.

It is as a sign of authority that a rmg is made the means of
transferring power, in romantic legends both ancient and modern.
“‘ Show this ring to the captain of the guard,” etc., is a phrase
often found in ancient and medieval legends, for with the
signet the power of the owner might be delegated to any
person on whom he chose for a time to bestow it.

In Rome the custom of wearing rings was said to have been
introduced through the Samnites, who are described by Livy as
wearing gold rmgs enriched with gems (gemmati annuli).
Some however state that the Romans adopted the custom in
imitation of the Htrurians, in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus.
The earliest Roman rings were, however, always of iron, and
bearing a stamp or device intended to be used as a seal. To
the end of the republic the ancient iron ring was still worn by
those who affected to contemn modern luxury and innovation ;
and among these was Marius, who, as Pliny tells us, wore an
iron ring in his triumph after the subjugation of Jugurtha.
Hventually, however, not only all patricians wore gold signet
rings, but the equites also; and other classes soon imitated
their superiors. Hventually, however, legal restrictions were
promulgated concerning the right to wear a gold signet.
These regulations were afterwards known as the jus annuli
auret.

The emperors assumed the power of granting the right of

60 Ancient and Modern Finger-rings.

the annulus aurei, or privilege to wear a gold ring; and this
license was much coveted, as it was a sort of patent of
nobility, the letter of the law requiring that the fathers and
grandfathers of those licentiates should have possessed a property
of 400,000 sesterces. At a later period, when the army be-
came the real power in the state, and the Pretorian Guard
frequently elected the emperor, the privilege of wearing the
gold ring was granted to all soldiers. The keeping of the
imperial ring (cura annuli) was confided to a state keeper; as
the great seal, with us, is placed in custody of the Lord Chan-
cellor. The devices on Roman signet-rigs were generally
subjects connected with the worship of the gods, or portraits
of friends or ancestors; and in many instances persons had
engraved upon their seal-rigs symbolical allusions to the sup-
posed origin and history of their families. The seal-rig of the
dictator Sulla bore for device the figure of Jugurtha at the
moment of his being made prisoner. Pompey used a seal-ring
which bore three trophies in allusion to his three greatest
victories. Augustus first sealed with a sphinx, then with a
portrait of Alexander the Great, and lastly with his own por-
trait. This last custom became very usual; a portrait on the
exterior of a letter at once making known its author ; just as
on the carte de visite of a modern exquisite, the photographed
perfections of his person identify him at once with his card,
without the necessity of a name. Many of the Roman rings
were wrought with the greatest skill, both m the designs of the
mounting, and the careful engraving of the device; as we
learn from numberless exquisite examples still in existence in
the great museums of Hurope.

It was in the Middle Ages, however, after a period of com-
parative barbarism in art, that the greatest degree of intricacy
in goldsmith’s work, and especially in rings, began to display
itself. Rich enamel, in curious devices, usurped the place of
gems for a time, and designs in niello still further heightened
the artistic effects of small jewelry towards the close of the 15th
century. Benvenuto Celli, the celebrated Italian sculptor,
jeweller, architect, and painter, brought the devices of the rmg,
the brooch, and the ear-ring to a degree of elaboration and per-
fection never attained in the whole range of classical art, as far
as we know of it, and for a century afterwards it continued to
flourish. The quaint conceits of the devices, the effects pro-
duced, and sentiments conveyed, by the juxtaposition of various
gems, and the introduction of mottoes exquisitely written on
waving scrolls, produced a pleasing intricacy of design full of
meaning and often epigrammatic pomt, such as the jewellers of
more recent periods never dream of—jewel-making haying fallen
from all the glory of art into all the meanness of trade.

Ancient and Modern Finger-rings. 61

Tt may be thought, perhaps, that a modern public would
not pay for a careful original design and its careful execution
demanding such an amount of artistic labour as would leave
the value of the gold and gems employed quite of secondary
consideration. But let our jewellers try it. Even in Cellini’s
time a similar feeling prevailed, as illustrated in a story which
Cellini tells of himself. He worked as a student in the shop of
one Lucagnolo, a leading goldsmith of the day, but had per-
mission to get other work on his own account. Cellini, while
studying an antique statue, attracted the attention of the
Donna Portzia Chigi, a princess of the wealthy papal family
of that name. As a first mark of patronage, she engaged him
to make a gold jewel for her (richly wrought with other
devices), but in the form of a lily. Lucagnolo dissuaded him
from undertaking the “job,” assuring him that those minute and
delicate works did not pay; pomting, at the same time, to a
large, boldly-embossed, silver vase, that he was making for
Pope Clement—one of those dinner-vases used at the time for
throwing refuse from the plate durmg dinner—and assuring his
pupil that such large, plain work “ paid ” much better. The
master and pupil made a wager on the subject, Cellini main-
taining that his work would prove the more profitable of the
two. In twelve days Benvenuto had completed his work, a
lily of gold, grouped with miniature fruit, and masks of Comedy
and Tragedy, and a number of little devices, which, when
submitted to Donna Portzia, gave her infinite delight (Ben-
venuto does not hide his ight under a bushel), and she paid
him more than half as much again as the price agreed on. The
payment was made entirely in gold, as a token of extreme
satisfaction, and accompanied, as he tells us, by compliments
“degne di cotal signora,’ while Lucagnolo only received the
exact payment of his work in heavy silver dollars, losing his
wager and becoming (as Cellini tells us, with evident self-
gratulation) the laughing-stock of the whole goldsmithian
fraternity.

In reference to a preceding remark on the modern plain gold
ring, and as an interesting historic example of the school of jewel-
making of the fifteenth and-sixteenth centuries, I will annex a
representation of the marriage and betrothal rings of Martin
Luther. They are not so rich and florid in design as many
other examples I might have selected, but, as monuments of the
great Reformer and his nun-wife, they have an interest of their
own, and sufficiently illustrate a characteristic style of jewel-
making which appears to have fallen into a state of collapse that
seems beyond the power of all restoration, even by Societies
of Arts, or Great International Exhibitions,

The betrothment-ring of Luther, which belonged to a family

62 Ancient and Modern Finger-rings.

in Hepsi as late as 1817, and is doubtless still preserved with
mmf GS the greatest care as a national relic of great
interest, is composed of an intricate device of
gold-work set with a ruby—the emblem of
exalted love. The gold devices represent all
' the symbols of the “ Passion.” In the centre is
the crucified Saviour; on one side the spear,
with which the side was pierced, and the rod of
as reeds of the flagellation. On the other 1s a leaf
of ae Beneath are the dies with which the soldiers cast
lots for the garment without seam, and below are-the three
nails. At the back may be distinguished the imside of the
ladder and other symbols connected with the last act of the
Atonement; the whole so grouped as to make a large cross,
surmounted by the ruby, the most salient feature of the device.
On the inside of the rmg the inscriptions are still perfect.
They contain the names of the betrothed pair, andthe date of
the wedding-day, in German, “‘ Der 13 Junij, 1525.” This was
the ring presented to the wife at the betrothal, and worn by
her after the marriage.

The marriage-ring, worn by Luther after his marriage, is
still more intricate in its structure. It is an ingeniously con-
trived double rmg, every intricacy of structure having its point
and meaning. In the first place, though the double rig can
be divided, s so as to form two complete : rings, yet they cannot
be separated from each other, as the one passing through the
other causes them to remain permanently interlaced, as an
emblem of the marriage vow, though still formimg two perfect
rings; illustrating also the motto engraved withm them, Wus
Got zusammen fiiget soll kein Mensch scheiden—What God doth
jom no man shall part. On the one hoop is a diamond, the
emblem of power, duration, and fidelity; and on the inside of
its raised mounting, which, when joined to the other hoop,
will be concealed, are the initials of Martin Luther, followed
by a D, denoting his academic title. On the corresponding
surface of the mounting of the gem of the other hoop are the

The Earth in the Comet’s Tail. 63

initials of his wife, Catherine von Bora, which, on the closing of
the rings, necessarily lies close to those of Luther. The gem in
this side of the ring is a ruby, the emblem of exalted love; so
that the names of Catherime and Luther are closely united, when
the rings are closed, beneath the emblems of exalted love,
power, duration, and fidelity.

There can be but little doubt that these curious and interest-
ing rings were designed by the celebrated painter and goldsmith,
Lucas Cranach, and possibly wrought with his own hand, the
marriage of his friend Luther being a special occasion which
he doutless wished to honour with every attention in his
power. Lucas was, indeed, one of the three select friends
whom Luther took to witness his betrothal, the others bemg Dr.
Bugenhagen, town preacher of Wittenberg, and the lawyer
Assel, who all accompanied him to Reichenbach’s house, where
Catherme resided.

In the rings above described there is, doubtless, such
device, and meaning, and exquisite workmanship, as the Donna
Portzia Chigi of the present day might assuredly reward with
something more than the market-price, if produced by our
jewellers, and pay for in gold, too, if the fittmg opportunity
should present itself, not omitting even the compliments degne
di cotal signora.

THE HARTH IN THE COMET’S TAIL.

BY THE REV. T. W. WEBB, F.R.A.S.

Tue reader will, no doubt, recollect the remarks that were made
by several persons, and in various places, as to something
unusual in the appearance of the evening of June 30th, 1861,
and the interest subsequently attached to them by Mr. Hind’s
calculation that at that very time, or a little earlier, the tail
of the great comet might, in all probability, have been enve-
loping the earth. The followmg additional and mdependent
testimony to that conjunction is the more worthy of remark as
being drawn from a perfectly different mode of observation.

On the night m question, after I had, like so many others,
been astonished by the. sudden appearance of the comet, and
had studied and sketched the nucleus with its marvellous train
of six envelopes, and had dismounted my telescope with the
impression that there was little more that I could do, as well as
in anticipation of the approaching moonlight, my attention was
drawn by my wife, about 11h. 45m. to a faint ray, perfectly
similar in appearance to the tail, lying nearly horizontally in
the W.N.W. beneath the quadrilateral of Ursa Major, about

64 The Earth in the Comet’s Tail.

3° or 83° broad, having 4 Urs in its lower edge, and Cor
Caroli about 1° above its upper, and traceable about half-way
from the latter star to Arcturus: it pomted to the head of
the comet, but in the twilight of the northern horizon no con-
nection could be distinguished. About twenty minutes later it
had risen higher, so as to stand midway between y and y Urs
Majoris, and its termination near e Bodtis was now plainly
visible, much more so than previously, this part of the streak
having become equally bright with the rest, and perhaps even
brighter. Some time afterwards I could no longer see it, so that

+Polaris ce

UrsaMayor

+ Capella

vight of June 30, July 1, 1861, 12%. 30m. (ubout)»

I concluded that it was probably only a cirrus cloud brought up
by the N.W. wind then blowing; and this impression was
confirmed by my erroneous idea that as the comet was evidently
moving rapidly away towards the N.W., this ray, had it been a
branch of the tail, ought to have rather sunk than risen in the
sky. Fortunately its peculiar appearance and direction induced
me to record it in allits details ; but so backward was I to recog-
nize its true character, that in a communication to the ‘‘ London
Review,” in which it was mentioned, I had expressed a doubt
whether the tail was sufficiently expanded to correspond with
its supposed vicinity to the earth, when I received a letter from

The Harth in the Comets Tail. 65

George Williams, Esq., of Liverpool, which entirely altered my
view of its nature. From his statement it appears that about
12h. 30m. he had seen the same ray in the direction of. Ursa
Major, as well as another, somewhat brighter, which diverged
towards Cassiopea, the brightest part of the latter being at
some distance from the comet, and appearing to recede from it
until it was altogether lost. Like myself he had thought at the
time that both might be cirrus clouds only; but that each should
point to the nucleus of the comet, he considered a circumstance
worthy at least of a remark, and he, therefore, recorded the
appearance in a beautiful sketch, which I have his obliging
permission to make use of, and of which a copy is here given.
It was not surprising that I had missed the eastern ray, as that
part of the sky was partially obscured by trees from my station
at the telescope, and was wholly invisible afterwards from the
window ; but we had previously noticed that the right side of
the tail had appeared to the naked eye to strike out from the
coma for a few degrees in a more easterly direction; this,
though not traceable as a separate stream, was, I have little
doubt, the point of departure of the ray in Cassiopea. Thus
it seems established, by the concurrence of two observers at
distant stations, that these rays were not clouds, but the per-
spective representation of the sides of a conical or cylindrical
tail, hanging closely above our heads, and probably just being
hfted up out of our atmosphere. The rapid movement which I
had noticed in the western beam, and which, according to Mr.
Wilhams’ sketch, was still continued afterwards, will, on
careful consideration, be found in full accordance with this idea:
for the tail was then receding so speedily from the earth that
the sides of the outspread fan must, from the effect of per-_
spective, have closed up with great swiftness towards the centre,
and thus would be produced that apparent rising in the sky by
which I was misled: the great amount, too, of that closing up
in proportion to the time of the observation, shows how very
near the object must even at that moment have been to us;
and yet the central streams must obviously have been consider-
ably closer to us than the apparent sides of the cone or
cylinder. So that, from a review of the whole phenomenon, it
seems not only certain that we were then in the immediate
vicinity of the tail, but much more probable that we had actually
passed through it, as Mr. Hind supposed, than that there still
remained, according to the German astronomer, M. Pape, an
interval of two millions of miles.

The next night proved cloudy, and I never saw ths western
ray afterwards, but 1t may have been the same with that noticed
by some observers on July 10 as deviating towards the star
Bodtis.

VOL. I.—NO. I. F

66 The Earth in the Comet?s Tail.

The want of entire continuity in these external streams
would form no argument against their cometary character, even
had it not been established by observation at two distant
stations. The interruption might be only apparent, the result
of the position of the nucleus in the bright midsummer twilight
of the north horizon ; butif real it would not be unprecedented.
In the very curious comet of alternating ight m June and
July, 1860, one of the two sides of the tail was, towards the
latter part of its appearance, separated from the head; and in

that of 1843, so remarkable for its visibility close to the sun at.

noon-day, the splendid tail which had been darted out to such
an amazing length had at one time no connection, visible to the
naked eye, with the pale and seemingly exhausted nucleus.
And so in the case of those ‘anomalous tails,” those most
inexplicable pencils of light, which are occasionally directed
from the nucleus towards the sun, two instances are on record
(in 1824 and 1845) in which they contained a fainter interval.
Admitting the probability of our passage through the tail,
it cannot be thought surprising that there should have been at
the time so little sensible indication of its presence. Whatever
may be the nature of that wholly unknown material, there can
be no question of its extreme and almost inconceivable atte-
nuation. The air we breathe may be as dense in comparison
with it, as water or even earth in comparison with air. The
minutest stars have been frequently seen through thousands of
miles of it, and it even ceases to be amenable to the all-con-
trolling force of gravitation ; so that Newton considered that
the tail of a great comet might be compressed into the bulk of
a single cubic inch before it would equal the density of our
atmosphere, and Sir J. Herschel supposes that it may not
contain more than a few pounds or even ounces of matter. It
would, therefore, be highly improbable that there should be a
sufficient quantity of it in the immediate vicinity of any one
place of observation to render its presence manifest. Distance
alone, by bringing its particles into more apparent concentration,
could give it density enough to become perceptible, just as the
same cause converts the unsubstantial and semi-transparent
mist into the massive and ponderous-looking cloud. It was a
more significant fact, and one which may not be generally
known, that no electric or magnetic effect whatever was percep-
tible during its passage ;* for such influences have been strongly
suspected in cometary phenomena, and might act independently
of any material admixture. We have certainly gained very
little information, and less, perhaps, than might have been
* Some lofty cirri, however, the next morning, had a singularly wild and

electrical aspect; and the Greenwich instruments showed a strong change the
following night.

Jottings on Copper. 67

reasonably expected, from that memorable conjunction; but at
any rate a great proportion of the terrors of ages has now been
dispelled; we have found that we have neither deluge, nor
conflagration, nor pestilence, to fear from the encounter of a
comet’s tail. There remains, indeed, the chance, an almost
incalculably smaller one, that we might come in contact with a
nucleus; and what might be the consequence of a close con-
junction with that wholly unknown and most mysterious mate-
rial it is, of course, impossible to say. We have no analogy
whatever to guide us, and notwithstanding what has recently
occurred, no experience to give us aid. It is certain that the
nucleus consists of ponderable matter, since it obeys the law of
gravity; and that ib possesses the power of either originating
or reflecting a vivid light; but beyond this, as its nature is
wholly unknown, so must be the result of its collision. But no
ground for apprehension on this subject exists. We need not
have recourse to Kepler’s idea of a guiding intelligence for our
sense of security, while we are certain that every orbit is
planned out, without the possibility of deviation, by infinite
wisdom and paternal goodness ; and that ‘‘ known unto Gop are
all His works from the beginning of the world.”

JOTTINGS ON COPPER.

PERCY’S METALLURGY.*

Tue publication of Dr. Percy’s “ Metallurgy” affords a convenient
opportunity for considering some interesting properties of copper,
a metal which, next to iron, has been most conducive to human
civilization, and which in various shapes still plays a very im-
portant part im industrial and domestic life. It appears that
its English appellation originates in the fact of its early discovery
by the ancients in the island of Cyprus, whence came the adjec-
tive Cyprian, corrupted into the substantive ewprwm, from which
the word copper was obtained. With the exception of titanium,
it is the only metal exhibiting a red colour, which is sometimes
shown very strikingly when minute irregularities of the surface
cause a peculiar play of light. It is well known to possess
the valuable qualities of malleability and ductility in a high
degree; but its physical properties are easily modified. Thus
cold rolling or hammering makes it hard and brittle, the malle-
ability being restored by annealing at a red heat. As it ap-

* “ Metallurgy: The Art of Extracting Metals from their Ores, and adapting

them to various Purposes of Manufacture.” By John Percy, M.D., F.R.8., Lec-
turer at the Government School of Mines. Murray.

68 Jottings on Copper.

proaches the melting-point, which lies between those of gold
and silver, “it becomes so brittle that it may be readily reduced
to powder by trituration,” and workmen in foundries avail
themselves of this property when ingots have to be broken up.
It is customary to judge of the quality of the copper from the
fracture thus produced. This is, however, a very imadequate
test; and Dr. Percy relates an instance of a large quantity of
copper being rejected at one of the dockyards on account of the
appearance of its fracture, and which was afterwards accepted
when it had been remelted and “‘laded” at a different tem-
perature. We shall presently have something more to say on
the peculiarities of naval mismanagement in reference to copper
sheathing, but must first allude to the action of oxygen and
other substances in affecting the quality of the metal m its
various states.

There are probably three oxides of copper, of which only two
are considered by Dr. Percy to concern the metallurgist: one the
protoxide, consisting of one equivalent of copper and one of
oxygen (Cu’O), which is the basis of the ordinary salts of the
metal. The other is the dioxide, consisting of two equivalents
of copper and one of oxygen (Cu’O). This is the red oxide, but
Dr. Percy says it constitutes a principal portion of the dark-
coloured scale formed when the metal is heated to redness with
access of air, and we shall find it has an important action in the
various processes to which the metal is subjected, im order to
fit it for the uses of man. Ina state of fusion, copper is able
to dissolve this oxide; and when it is present in considerable
quantities, the metal is brittle, whether hot or cold, and is
technically designated, by the smelters, “dry.” Rather more
than one per cent. of dioxide is stated on the authority of Karsten
to render pure copper incapable of bemg worked in ordinary
temperatures without splittmg into lamime, and cracking it at
the edges. Ordinary copper, however, which contains lead and
other impurities, actually requires a certain portion of the
dioxide to make it tough and malleable ; and if the oxygen be
removed by exposing “tough copper,’ in the state of wire or
foil, to the action of dry hydrogen at a red heat, the metal
becomes so brittle that it cannot be bent without breaking.
Unfortunately, very little is known concerning the nature of
this curious action of the dioxide, or of the proportion it should
bear to other impurities in order to afford the best result. The
copper annually wasted in the dockyards, for want of this and
some other technical knowledge, is worth an enormous sum;
but no government has hitherto exhibited enough intelligence
to pay the comparatively insignificant cost of a set of experi-
ments by which many intricate questions connected with the
metallurgy of copper might be set at rest.

Jottings on Copper. 69

Having thus briefly adverted to the effect of oxygen on
copper, we must select, from various important combinations,
those which are alleged to take place with carbon, and which
are known to occur with silicon and phosphorus. Let us com-
mence with carbon, which was presumed to be chemically com-
bined with copper during the process of poling, and to give rise
to the brittleness of what is called “ overpoled copper.” ‘These
terms will be understood when it is explained that one of the
processes of copper-melting consists in plunging a thick pole of
oak or birch, in a green state, into melted metal which contains
a good deal of dioxide; anthracite, or “pure free-burning coal,
being previously thrown on the surface. The wood in contact
with the copper is rapidly decomposed, much gas and vapour
are evolved, which cause the metal to be splashed about, and every
part of it to be exposed to the reducing action of the coal upon
its surface.””? The chief effect of this process is that of deoxidar
tion; but it obviously provides conditions under which coppe-
and carbon might unite, if their chemical affinities so decide.
When the poling is carried on to the proper extent, the copper
becomes tough by the removal of the superfluous oxygen. If,
however, it is carried on too long, it is made brittle, in accord-
ance with what has been stated of the use of a small quantity
of dioxide in copper that is impure. Dr. Percy requested Mr.
Dick to make a number of experiments to ascertain what action
the carbon exerted, and although their results do not justify the
assertion that small quantities of carbon may not combine with
the copper and affect its properties, he ascertaimed that “ com-
paratively pure copper is not rendered brittle by being heated
or melted in contact with comparatively pure charcoal.”

If copper is heated to whiteness in contact with silica and
carbon, a compound is obtained which resembles gun-metal in
colour, and is tough and much harder than copper. It may be
rolled or hammered out while cold, but cracks under such treat-
ment at a red heat. A proportion of 1°82 per cent. of silicon
gives an alloy tougher than gun-metal, and probably adapted
to manufacturing use. Much larger proportions induce brittle-
ness. A still more interesting compound is obtained by drop-
ping phosphorus—which should be covered with an electrotype
coating of copper—into the metal im a melted state. In the
Laboratory at Woolwich many experiments were made, of this
nature, with a view to obtain a material adapted to the manu-
facture of rifled guns; but the improved modes of working
iron, employed by Armstrong or Whitworth, threw them into
the shade, as far as this special object was concerned. The
quality of this compound varies with the proportion of phos-
phorus; 11 per cent. giving great hardness, but rendering the
metal brittle. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the

70 Jottings on Copper.

union of phosphorus and copper is the apparent capacity of the
alloy to withstand the action of sea-water. It seems that, m
1848, Dr. Percy mrnished Colonel Sir Henry (then Captain)
James with various specimens of copper, which he placed in
sea-water for nine months, and the. result appeared so com-
pletely to establish the protecting influence of phosphorus, that
the Admiralty was induced to grant £50 for further experiments;
and accordingly Dr. Percy caused more plates to be made, in
which 4 per cent. of phosphorus was introduced. These sheets
were placed upon buoys in three different dockyards, and after
a year or two, all that could be ascertamed was that the
authorities had caused them to be “ painted all over.” Some
years after this, Sir Henry James discovered that the phospho-
rized sheets had resisted corrosion twice as well as others with
which they had been compared ; but the “ Board,” that service-
able screen for jobbery and ignorance, could not be induced to.
take further steps in the matter.

We have not pretended, in these brief remarks, to write a
review of Dr. Percy’s work. As might have been expected
from the author’s opportunities and reputation, it contams a
large amount of important matter; but we confess it does not
appear to us to have been sufficiently digested. It is not a
very convenient book for reference, nor does it exhibit that
faculty of generalization which characterizes the higher kinds of
scientific works. It was also an error to issue it as if it had
been a complete treatise. Jt is a misnomer to call it “ Percy’s
Metallurgy,’ of which it is no more than the first volume—only
two metals, copper and zine, being dealt with. It may likewise
be questioned whether it was judicious to devote so many pages
to such matters as charcoal and coke burning ; and we should
imagine most students would have preferred the omission of
elaborate details of this kind, in order that more of the actual
science of metallurgy might have been condensed im a given
space. The remainder of the work is promised during the
current year, and when it is all before us, our opinion of its
merits may be materially improved.

ado RG) 3—G-{—-

The Transit of Mercury on November 12, 1861. 71

A PLANET'S SHADOW.

The Shadow of the Planet Mercury, and of a group of solar spots, as shown on a
sheet of paper during the Transit of Mercury, Nov. 12, 1861, 8.30 a.m.

THE TRANSIT OF MERCURY ON NOV. 12, 1861.
BY THE HON. MRS. WARD.

« A pransit of Mercury will happen on the morning of Nov.
12th. . . . The planet, at sunrise, will appear on the sun’s
disc, as a perfectly round and intensely black spot.” So said
the almanacs for 1861; and no doubt more than one possessor
of a telescope added the query, not to be answered for nearly a
year,—‘‘ Shall I see it? will fine weather, a favourably situated
horizon, and personal life and health, combine to give me the
pleasure of seeing a phenomenon which has not occurred for
thirteen years, and will not, after this transit, occur again for
seven years to come?” *

Such were my thoughts on being reminded that the transit
of 1861 was coming, and no longer to be looked on as an event
in the remote future. Time passed on its stormy way; the
grand comet of June came unannounced, and disappeared in
the distance; and November 12th found me surrounded by
many favourable circumstances for viewing the transit. I was
absent from home, but had borrowed an old and rather good

* The transits of Mercury which have occurred during the present century,
were in the years 1802, 1815, 1822, 1832, 1835, 1845, 1848, and 1861. Those
still to occur, will be in 1868, 1878, 1881, 1891, and 1894, They occur either in
May or November, since, from the position of the orbit of Mercury, the planet can
only pass between the earth and the sun, and near enough to aline joining the two
bodies, to be seen upon the solar disc, in one or other of those months. (See
Johnston’s “ School Atlas of Astronowy.’’)

72 The Transit of Mercury on November 12, 1861.

telescope (by Tulley and Sons) of two inches’ aperture, and had
during the week preceding the transit accustomed myself to
observing the sun’s disc both directly and by projection (as in
Fig. 3). The window of my room most happily commanded a
view of the eastern heavens, with a tolerably unobstructed
horizon. There were, indeed, a few treesin the way; but they
were low, and concealed only that part of the sky where the
density of the air would in any case render objects indistinct.

The afternoon of November 11th promised well. The moon
truly “ walked in brightness,” and the telescope showed “ Plato,”
“Pico,” and other lunar heights, with their black shadows in
satisfactory sharpness. So I hoped for a fine morning, and
having never seen a transit of Mercury, anticipated the pleasure
with some of the eagerness felt by old Gassendi, the first
observer of such a phenomenon.*

On November 12th, I looked out at about a quarter to seven
in the morning. Delightful sight! the sky was perfectly cloud-
less. The brightest stars were disappearing in
the increasing ight of morning, but Jupiter and
Saturn still ghttered in the south-east. The hght
of Saturn was nearly “‘ burnt out in the pale blue
air,” yet its exquisitely delicate ring could still
be detected, giving more the idea of a film than

hei of a definite Ime on each side of the planet.

(Fig. 1.) |

While Saturn remained visible, I felt I had time to spare,
but when he disappeared, and even Jupiter’s light waned, then
I knew the real work of the morning was coming. Redder
and rounder grew the glow of light exactly behind a small tree.
Soon it sparkled through the branches, the sun had risen! and
while yet only a semicircle, my telescope was there to watch it,
its outline waving like rippling water.t But the disk rose
grandly from branch to branch. Very curious was the effect,

* On November 7th, 1631, this transit, predicted two years previously by
Kepler, was observed by Gassendi, Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Paris. The next transit of Mercury which was observed, was on November 3rd,
1651. A young Englishman, named Shakerley, had found by calculation that this
transit would be visible only in Asia, and he proceeded to Surat in India for the
express purpose of witnessing its occurrence. He was successful in the object of
his pilgrimage; and the anecdote remains as one of the romantic episodes of
astronomy.

+ The ring of Saturn became edgewise to the earth, though not yet so to the
sun on November 28rd. It was, therefore, barely visible on November 12th; and
on November 28rd I observed Saturn as a round disk without the slightest trace
remaining of its ring.

{ The rippling motion observable on the outlines of the sun, moon, and other
heavenly bodies, is quaintly but well described by Derham. His descriptions, from
original observations, ure interesting from their freshness and truth ; ever fresh
and new, like the grand objects they describe. I quote from “ Astro-Theology,”
sixth edition, 1731 :—~ There are some certain transient Roughnesses and Uneyen-

The Transit of Mercury on November 12, 1861. 73

when, the sun itself out of focus, I allowed it to project on
paper the shadows of the intervening branches. LHvery twig,
and every lingering ash-leaf, parched by the sere winds of
autumn, but not yet fallen to earth, were shown in singular
sharpness and waving inthe breeze. Curious, too, when looking
directly at the sun through the dark glass of the telescope,
anxiously waiting its arrival behind a somewhat thinner part of
the tree, a little pert tomtit or robin hopped to and fro, uncon-
scious that he too was performing a transit across the sun’s
disk for my benefit. The bird was out of focus, the sun was in ;
and a few minutes later, came to more thinly crossing branches ;
(Fig. 2), and there, on his disk, was the unmistakeable Biack

Fia. 2.

First View of the Planet Mercury, on the Sun’s rising above some branches of
a tree.

Disk or Mercury! It was nearer to the edge than I had
expected to see it, and (truth to tell) it was very small; but
exactly of the size which I knew it would appear, judging by
the measurements of the sun, and of Mercury and the other
planets, always given in Dietrichsen and Hannay’s Almanacs.

The difference of longitude between Greenwich and my
position (Kingstown, near Dublin) is about twenty-five minutes
of time. Hence, when the sun rose at Kingstown, the planet
had not only accomplished half of its transit (as was the case
two minutes after sunrise at Greenwich), but had been more than

nesses on the Limb caused by Vapours, especially when the Moon is near the Hori-
zon, andin windy and some other Weather. At which Times, the Motion of the
Air and Vapours makes a pretty Crispation and Rouling, like Waves on the Moon’s
Limb, which have the appearance of moving Mountains and Valleys.”

74, The Transit of Mereury on November 12, 1861.

twenty minutes m retreat. I forgot this; and therefore when
I descried the planet as above, at 8 a.m., I supposed I had
still an hour and eighteen minutes m which to watch the tran-
sit, because it was to be over at 9h. 18m. This 9h. 18m., how-
ever, was but 8h. 53m. of Dublin time. Yet Ihave not to regret
any idleness during those fifty-three minutes, the ike of which
are not to happen to me again for seven years, if ever again.
I sketched the sun and the planet and s_ r spots repeatedly.
I viewed them directly and by projection; and I called just one
“witness to my Strange Site in the heavens,” as the coastguard
man wrote, who discovered Donati’s comet, somewhat early in
its career of celebrity. That witness came in good time to see
it appearing when projected on paper, exactly as shown in the
illustration which heads this narrative. To show it in this
manner, the telescope was
arranged as in Fig. 3,
the window shutters be-
ing partly closed, and the
curtains drawn, to add
brilliancy to the effect. It
struck me as a very curi-
ous circumstance that it
should ever be possible to
bring the veritable shadow
of a planet into one’s own
room |

The figure heading this
narrative gives a small por-
tion of the solar disk as it
appeared when projected
on paper; it was not only
inverted but reversed ; that
cee sn is to say, it was turned

Rea a upside down, and shown,

as ina lookmeg-glass, left

for right. The edge of the disk is to be imagined im constant
undulating motion.

The sun, as observed directly with the telescope at this time,
was as in Fig. 4. And now the planet rapidly neared the edge
of the disk. I regretted much the low power of the telescope,
as it prevented my looking out for some curious effects of
irradiation which are said to have been observed on the entrance
and departure of the planet during former transits. When the
upper outline of the planet touched that of the sun (Fig. 5), I
watched it intently; noting, however, nothing except that it
took a considerable time to slide completely out of sight. It
appeared as a notch on the sun’s edge, becoming smaller and

ie

|

The Transit of Mercwry on November 12, 1861. 75

shallower, till at last it could no longer be distinguished from
the rippling outlines of the sun. I then looked at a watch (one
however which has the failing of being generally two cr three
minutes slow), and
the time marked was
eight minutes to
nine.

And so the tran-
sit ended; the im-
pression on my mind
of a real movement
having been best
conveyed at its close,
as it then became
evident that the pla-
net was passing out
of sight. I thought
the planet showed
best as an unusual
object, about ten mi-
nutes before its dis-
appearance, that is
to say, shortly before its upper edge touched that of the sun.
The sun, through a telescope, always gives me the true impres-
sion of being a globe, not a disk. ‘The solar spots as they come
into sight or recede from view by the sun’s rotation, are always
foreshortened, asthe engraved pattern, for instance, on a lamp-
shade would be. Close to the sun’s edge they are extremely slight
and thin marks. But Mercury’s shape, continuing unaltered, con-
trasted well with the solar spots. It was as though a small grain
of shot were suspended in front of an illuminated lamp-shade.

Hig. 4.

Fia.6.
Fic.9. .

Fic.% Fic. 8.

Mercury passing off the Sun’s disk ; the movement being from right to left, in the
direction of the arrow.

The contrast to the solar spots was far less striking when
the planet was nearer to the centre of the disk. But, in truth, the
sight was altogether suggestive rather than striking, and was
not very truly characterized in a newspaper paragraph which
referred to it as “a grand phenomenon.”

76 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIRTIES.
BY W. B. TEGETMEIER.

[Ir is proposed, under the above title, to give each month an
account of the more interesting communications laid before
the different learned and scientific societies. ]

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—January 6.

On tHe ArtiriciaL Propucrion oF VARIETIES IN InsEctTs.—An
animated discussion took place on a paper entitled, “‘ Notes on Variety
Breeding,” read by Mr. C. 8. Gregson before the members of the
Northern Entomological Society at Manchester. The author of this
paper says: “ After years of careful study of the habits and food of
insects, I determined to ascertain if a change of food would give a
change of colouring and marking to species lable to sport, and
during the last ten years I have been pursuing my experiments. The
results of my experience go to prove that most unquestionably many
species, some of them hitherto not often thought liable to vary, may
be cultivated into varieties. For imstance, Bucephala, fed upon
sycamore, is much finer and darker than when fed upon any other
food, though it is well known that this species is never found
upon that tree in its natural state. After enumerating many varia-
tions produced by changing the food of the larve of isects the
author stated, “What will, perhaps, interest you most to know,
and undoubtedly what I know best, and have oftenest tried and
succeeded in producing, is, that Arctia caja, fed upon Petasites vul-
gare, or upon the common colt’s-foot, will produce darker specimens
than when fed upon any other plant; and the chances are, that when
fed upon this food, some of the specimens will prove extraordinarily
dark. But there is a singularity in the fact that the darkest specimeng
so bred rarely open their wings.” In opposition to the objections
that such variations were the result of disease, 1t was shown that
many of the specimens so varied were of larger and finer growth
than the ordinary specimens. In the course of the remarks on this
subject, Mr. J. Lubbock suggested the importance of ascertaining
the effect of feeding successive generations of the same insect with
substances calculated to produce variations, and expressed a hope
that some entomologists would extend the observations over a series
of years.

On THE Causes Waice INFLUENCE THE PRopucTION OF A FERTILE
Qurrn Bee rrom A Worker Hec.—At a previous meeting of this
Society, Mr. Tegetmeier called attention to a new theory, advanced
by the Rev. Mr. Leitch, to account for the development of a queen
bee from an egg, which, under ordinary circumstances, would pro-
duce a sterile worker. This fact, well known to all practical
apiarians, was supposed by Huber to be effected by feeding the

Proceedings of Learned Societies. Tl

insect, whilst in the larval state, with a peculiar food termed royal
jelly. The change, however, is always attended by an alteration in
the size and position of the cell holding the future queen, which is
enlarged and extended away from the plane of the comb, and in all
cases turned downwards so as to assume the perpendicular position.
The Rev. Mr. Leitch’s experiments prove that the position of
the queen cell is not of importance, as he inverted it in some
cases, and in others placed it horizontally, but the queen was
developed with equal certainty. He suggested that the cause of
the more perfect development of the inclosed larva was due to
the increased temperature to which it was subjected, and that it was
drawn out from the other cells in order that it might be exposed on
all sides to the warmth generated by the respiration of the bees that
always cluster closely around theroyal cell. At the present meeting
Mr. Smyth read a paper, from Mr. Woodbury, maintaining the older
theory, and stating that the transformation of any given worker egg
or young grub into a queen, could be determined by placing a small
amount of the food taken from a royal cell, and known as royal
jelly, on the edge of the worker cell. In reply it was alleged that
the food theory offered no explanation of the remarkable change of
position that always is made to accompany the transformation, and
the general opinion of the members present seemed to favour the
view that the more perfect development of a worker egg or grub into
a, queen bee depended not upon one cause only, but was influenced by
the threefold conjoined causes of increased, and probably altered
food, enlarged size of cell, and greater elevation of temperature.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY.—January 9.

Tur Propuction oF Sounps AND VISIBLE VIBRATIONS BY VOLTAIC
Currents.—Mr. Gore furnished the following particulars respecting
thé production of vibrations and sounds by a voltaic current.
It is found that when a voltaic current of suitable intensity, is
passed by a mercury anode through a solution of ten grains of cyanide
of mercury, one hundred of hydrate of potash in two ounces and
three-quarters of hydrocyanic acid (containing five per cent. of the an-
hydrous acid), into an annular cathode of mercury, two or three inches
in diameter, and one-eighth of an inch wide, visible vibrations of the
negative mercury, accompanied by sounds, are produced; and the
current, instead of being constant, becomes intermittent. Ifa voltaic
current, from about eight Smee’s elements, with large surface, is em-
ployed, the vibrations are small, and the sounds produced are high
im musical pitch. If, however, another current of the same quantity
(as determined by a voltameter), but resulting from a greater number
(say twenty) elements of small surface, be employed, then the vibra-
tions are large and the pitch of the sounds low or bass. These dif-
ferences are still more conspicuous if a galvanometer of small resist-
ance, with a short thick wire, be employed instead of a voltameter,
and four Smee’s cells be used instead of eight. Ifa current pro-
ceeding from two cells of a Grove’s battery be passed through a

78 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

primary coil consisting of 250 feet of thick copper wire, the vibra-
tions are moderate in size and the sound of medium pitch. When
a core of iron wire is placed in the centre of the copper coil, the
vibrations become larger and the sound more bass. If this primary
coil is surrounded by a secondary coil consisting of 4000 feet of fine
wire, having the ends closed, and the core of iron wire is absent, the
vibrations become very small and the pitch of the sound very high,
these variations occurring although the current remains unchanged.
It was found that if a battery of greater intensity be employed
(say one of twenty Smee’s elements), these remarkable effects were
not produced. The inference drawn by Mr. Gore from these experi-
ments was, that voltaic electricity, like heat and light, may be
viewed as consisting of vibrations, which are ordinarly inappre-
ciable, but which, under certain conditions, such as these described,
may be gradually mcreased so as to become visible. These results
are evidently worthy of the most attentive examination; their
value as tending to elucidate the nature of voltaic electricity, can
hardly be overrated, although it is evident that a sufficient number
of facts are not yet accumulated to prove the inference that has been
deduced.

On THE Existence oF Posterior Lobes IN THE BRAIN OF QUADRU-
maNA.—Mr. W. H. Flower communicated some additional observa-
tions on the existence of the posterior lobes of the cerebrum in
various genera of Quadrumana, as Cercopithecus, Macacus, and Cebus.
These lobes also exist in Presbytes and Hapale, between the brain of
the last and that of man, which are at opposite ends of a very exten-
sive series, there is a gradual gradation, although in both posterior
lobes exist which present certain characters in common. In the
Lemur the recent brain presents the sylvian fissure, median lobe,
calcarine sulcus, and general characters of convolutions, which prove
that the brain of animals of this family is formed on the same general
type as that of the higher Quadrumana. The gradation from the
brain of Homo to Hapale is regular and gradual. The Zemurs &re
not, however, in the same line of degradation, but form a sub-series,
which is parallel to the lower part of the larger group, this sub-series
being distinguished by the shortness of the posterior lobes, the large
size of the olfactory bulbs, and the inferior development of the
cerebellum.

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.—January 13.

INTELLIGENCE OF Burke’s Hxpiorine Exprpition.—In the absence
of Lord Ashburton, Sir Roderick I. Murchison took the chair. In
opening the meeting he read the address of condolence which had
been presented by the president and council of the Society to her
Majesty on the occasion of the lamented death of H. R. H. the Prince
Consort. He then proceeded to say that by the mail of that morning
he had received two deeply-interesting communications—one respect-
ing Australia, and the other concerning explorations on the coast of
Eastern Africa,

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 79

The letter and inclosures from Sir Henry Barkly, the governor
of Victoria, conveyed intelligence of the successful crossmg of the
Australian continent by the expedition under the command of Mr.
R. Burke; but at the same time told of the lamentable death of
the leaders after their return to Cooper’s Creek. They had
accomplished the journey from Cooper’s Creek to the banks of
a river flowing into the Gulf of Carpentaria, by them supposed
to be the Albert, but considered (according to corrected calcu-
lations) to be the Flinders River. They returned to Cooper’s
Creek, only to find the depot abandoned by the party who should
have awaited their return, and who, indeed, had only left the station
a few hours before the arrival of Messrs. Burke and Wills, with King,
their assistant. Provisions had been left for them, but the party
were too much exhausted to travel on. Mr. Burke and Mr. Wills
died of starvation, and the sole survivor of the expedition is King,
who has been brought back to Melbourne. The object of the jour-
ney has been fully accomplished. A fertile tract, with wood, water,
and pasture land, lies between Cooper’s Creek and the Gulf of Car-
pentaria ; and an opportunity is thus afforded for founding a settle-
ment on the northern shores of the Australian continent.

The second communication was from Mr. Thornton, the geologist
attached to the expedition of the Baron von Decken, on the coast of
Africa, near Mombas. Mr. Thornton has fully explored the coast
country from some distance inland, and has laid down several lakes
and rivers. Butthe most important intelligence is that which he sends
concerning Mount Kilimanjaro. Some discredit has been thrown
on the statement of Mr. Rebmann, the missionary, that this moun-
tain is covered with snow. Mr. Thornton, who has ascended Kili-
manjaro to the height of 8000 feet, says that the summit of the moun-
tain (which rises to 20,000 feet) is snow-covered, and that the snow
lies in patches for a considerable distance down its sides. Further,
on the north-east, south-east, and south sides, which are those that
he has explored, there are distinct evidences of voleanic action inthe .
lava-streams that have at one time poured down the mountain.

The papers of the evening, “‘On the Andaman Islands,” and
““On the Trade of New Guinea,” were then read by Dr. Mouat and
Mr. Galton.

The Andaman Islands were visited in 1859 by a party under Dr.
Mouat, with the view of re-establishing on the Great Andaman a
penal settlement. A short history of the group was given, and an
account of the survey of the islands. The Great Andaman was
stated to be not one island, but three, divided from each other by
narrow straits, extremely difficult of navigation. The islands are of
volcanic origin. The highest peak, 2400 feet, is found in the north
of the Great Andaman, and the peaks gradually decrease in height
from north to south of the island. All the elevations have steep
descents on their northern sides, and slope gradually towards the
south. The whole of the islands are covered with a dense tropical
vegetation, and forests of mangrove line every part of the coast.
The natives of the Andaman Islands are a peculiar people, short of
stature, never exceeding 4 ft. 9 in. or 4 ft. 10 in. in height, little

80 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

advanced in the arts of civilization, building wretched huts, but using
canoes, employing bows and arrows as implements of war, brave,
kind to each other, careful of their children, but extremely hostile to
strangers. Most that is known about them has been gathered from —
the statements of two convict sepoys who escaped from the settle-
ment at Port Blair, but voluntarily returned after having lived some
time with the Andamaners.

A short paper on the trade of New Guinea was read, and then
Sir R. Murchison called on Professor Owen to speak on the subject
of the natives of the Andaman Islands. He said that Dr. Mouat
had sent to him the only skeleton of an Andamaner that had ever
reached England. He had found it to be that of an adult male in
the prime of life, showing evidence, in the texture of the bones and
the development of their parts, of having belonged to an individual
who, though small of stature, must yet have been of accurate pro-
portion. He had been most interested in the examination of the
cranium, which he had expected to find allied to the Papuan or to
the Negro variety. He had found, however, that the skull exhibited
none of the characteristic peculiarities of the Papuan, and still less
of those of the Negro; that it had no affinity with the Malay or the
Mongolian type of cranium: in fact, that with the exception of the
prognathous jaw-bones, in its classic oval and in its general propor-
tions, it was most nearly allied to the skull of a Caucasian. In the
course of his investigations some suggestions had presented them-
selves to him. Why is it necessary that, in determining the race to
which the inhabitants of detached groups of islands belong, we
should expect to find invariably that they are connected with the
inhabitants of conterminous continents? In the case of many of
these islands, particularly of Ceylon, it had been shown that the
geological age of the island was much earlier than that of the adja-
cent mainland. Why, then, might not the inhabitants of such groups
of islands be the descendants of races who had peopled continents
which no longer exist, but of which these islands are the remains,
and in comparison with which the present continents in the eons of
geologic history are of very recent date? These are but suggestions.
One thing, however, is certain, that the Andamaners, from whomso-
ever they may be descended, are men just as much as the inhabitants
of any other portion of the globe, and that their frames are suited
to enable them fully to enjoy their life in the situation in which they
are found.

Mr. J. Crawfurd, F.R.G.S., president of the Ethnological Society,
agreed with Professor Owen in what he had observed, and said that
he might state, from his own experience, that natives of the Andaman
Islands were capable of receiving training, and had been made very
good household servants.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—January 14.

Hasits AND Structure oF THE AYE AvkE.—Professor Owen read
an interesting description of the habits of that singular animal, the

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 81

Aye-aye, of Madagascar, which had been kept in confinement by Dr.
Sandwith. The Aye-aye is an arboreal animal, about the size of a
cat, with grasping hands and the teeth of a rodent, the forehand
has a short opposable thumb, but is most strikingly distinguished by
the very long and extremely attenuated character of the middle
finger, which has the appearance of being deformed. The use of
this remarkable structure was rendered evident when some branches,
the wood of which had been perforated by large larve, were placed
in its cage, when the thin finger was employed by the animal as a
sounding instrument, being used in tapping, and as a probe to
feel for and extract the grubs, which were immediately devoured
with great relish; the peculiar teeth of the animal, which are
formed on precisely the same type as those of a gnawing animal,
enabling it to gnaw away the bark of the branches and a sufficient
quantity of wood to allow it to reach the grubs. The animal feeds
also on vegetable food, as dates and other fruits. The specimen,
after remaining some time in the possession of Dr. Sandwith, was
killed, and carefully preserved in spirit, previous to bemg remitted
to England. The chief portion of Professor Owen’s paper was
occupied with a description of the details of the osteology of the
animal. Its description will form the subject of future papers.

LINNAIAN SOCIETY.—January 16.

Discovery oF THE WetwitscHiA Mirapinis.—The first meeting
of the current year (held at Burlington House) was most auspi-
ciously inaugurated by a lengthened verbal communication from Dr.
J. D. Hooker, F.R.S., who described to the meeting “the most
remarkable plant that ever came to this country.” Space will not
allow us to follow Dr. Hooker with minute details, but we may re-
mark that the new plant, for which the name of Welwitschia mirabilis
is proposed, is not only structurally the most peculiar, but it is pro-
bably the ugliest plant that has ever been seen. It was discovered
by Dr. Welwitsch, A.L.S., beyond the northern limits of Cape
Town, Southern Africa, and from the letters of that indefatigable
botanist, as well as from the specimens exhibited by Dr. Hooker,
we learn that the Welwitschia is a stunted-looking kind of tree,
whose summit never reaches more than two feet above the level of
the ground, whilst the short woody trunk never possesses more
than two leaves. These extraordinary leaves are, in point of
fact, the expanded seed-lobes, or cotyledons, which make their
appearance as soon as the young plant rises out of the ground ; and,
what is still more astonishing, these aforesaid leaves live, grow, and
remain attached to the stumpy trunk during the entire life of the
tree, which, it is calculated, lives at least one hundred years. We
may also further observe that these two persistent foliar organs
spread out laterally; in some fine examples of the Welwitschia
attaiming, each of them, a length of nearly six feet. The flowering
axes shoot up from the summit of the stumpy trunk, which is
flattened at the top, and like a folded card-table is divided by a

VOL. I.—NO. I. G

82 Notes and Memoranda.

central line into two equal halves. The root is conical, and longer
than that part of the trunk which appears above ground. There
are many other points of peculiar scientific interest connected with
the form and structure of this astonishing plant. These details,
with ample illustrations, will duly appear in the next part of the
Iinnzan Society’s “ Transactions,” for the issue of which, towards
the close of the year, all botanists will consequently look forward
with unusual anxiety.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

New Porariscope Ossect.—Mr. Davies, writing in the “ Quarterly Journal
of Microscopic Science,” describes a double sulphate of copper and magnesia,
obtained by mixing solutions of the two sulphates, and then crystallizing, as
exhibiting beautiful polarizing powers. He says it is rather difficult to crystallize
well. It ought to exhibit “ peculiar flower-like forms.”

Ture MangonD-WouRrzeL Fry.—The Rev. W. Haughton describes, in the
“ Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science,” that fly whose larva has recently
proved destructive to mangold-wurzel. Until last year it seems that the male sex
predominated, and consequently little harm was done; then, however, the pro-
portions were reversed, the females being estimated as twelve to one, and hence
the extent of their injurious work.

CIRCULATION IN THE TappotE.—The “Quarterly Journal of Microscopic
Science,’ for January 1862, contains an interesting paper by Mr. Whitney, on
the circulation of the tadpole, explaining the means by which this creature enjoys
“a much higher circulation of the blood than the reptile arrangement will per-
mit.” By selecting very transparent specimens, and keeping others upon water
diet, so as to prevent the intestines containing opaque matter, he was able to
trace the connection between the three great arterial trunks (the cephalic, pul-
monary, and aortic) with the lungs. In the course of his experiments he endea-
voured to remove all opaque matter from the convoluted bowel by purgative
drugs ; but the nauseous preparations did no exhibit any cathartic effect.

DisPERSION oF Ligut.—M. Radau, writing in “Cosmos,” upon the re-
searches of Cauchy, and citing his formule, observes, “it results from these
formule that the velocity of a luminous ray depends, in general, upon its colour;
and that the unequal velocities of the different rays of the spectrum is the cause
of their dispersion by the prism.”

Gigantic CEPHALOPOoD.—M. Flourens has recently communicated to the
French Academy an account of an enormous cephalopod, seen by Lieut. Bouyer,
about forty leagues north of Teneriffe. It appeared to be about ten to fifteen
métres in length (from thirty-one to forty-six feet), having a soft gelatinous body
of a reddish colour and shaped like an immense horn; the widest part being
about two yards in diameter; and surrounded by very strong arms or tentacles.
It was repeatedly shot at, and the balls passed through it without domg much
harm. On one occasion, however, a quantity of blood and froth, of a musky
odour, flowed from the wound. After being harpooned several times, the body of
the creature was surrounded by a rope, and efforts were made to haul it on board.
Unfortunately the rope cut the soft flesh, and only the posterior part was secured.
The sailors wished to pursue the remainder of the monster in a boat, but Lieut.
Bouyer was afraid that its long tentacles, armed with suckers, might enable it to
swamp them, and it was therefore permitted to escape. M. Moquin Tandon
added some further particulars, and exhibited a sketch. He observed that the
fishermen of the Canaries often met with similar creatures, exceeding one or even

Notes and Memoranda. 83

two yards in length; but they were afraid to attack them. M. Milne Edwards
recited numerous instances of the appearance of monster Cephalopods.—Rang
had seen one with a body as big as a hogshead; and Steenstrup examined the
body of another, which was thrown on the shores of Jutland; and which he de-
nominatea .1xchiteuthis duxz. M. Milne Edwards considered there was reason to
believe that these :arge Cepha'opods were not all of the same species; and he
had no doubt that many kinds, which existed in the depths of the sea, far ex-
ceeded the bulk of any known invertebrate animal.

ARTIFICIAL CrystTats.—M. Becquerel has succeeded in producing opals and
other crystalline minerals, in a short space of time, by strong currents of electri-
city. Inorder to succeed in these experiments, the solution must be pure, and
of a particular strength, while the intensity of the current must be regulated by
the nature of the materials. From a solution of sulphate of alumina he obtained,
in the course of a few hours, a hydrate of alumina, like diopside, hard enough
to scratch quartz. In like manner he has hopes of ultimately producing topazes
and sapphires.

Way OYSTERS ARE NOT FOUND IN THE Battic.—The St. Petersburg
naturalists tell us that while oysters are found in the Mediterranean, the Atlantic,
the North Sea, and the northern parts of the Cattegat, they do not occur in the
Baltic, and refuse to be naturalized there. These facts are accounted for by the
small percentage of salt which the Baltic waters contain. The waters of the
Mediterranean contain 3°7 per cent. of salt; those of the Atlantic, 3 to 3°6 per
cent.; the north of the Cattegat, 1-8 to 2 per cent.; while the saltest part of the
Baltic yields only 1:7 per cent. of salt.

OnE-CHIMNEY Hovusrs.—We find an account, in “Cosmos,” of a plan of
making all the fires of a house communicate with one chimney. The stoves
employed are of a smoke-consuming kind, and the “ unitary chimney ” descends
to the cellar, where it is closed with a plug, which can be removed when sweep-
ing is required.

Tue Universat AcHRomatic MrcroscorPe.—This is the name given by
Messrs. Smith, Beck, and Beck to a very valuable instrument upon a new plan,
and intermediate in quality between the ordinary educational microscopes, and
those of the first class. The form is peculiar, and evidently devised with greater
regard to facility of manufacture, than elegance of effect. It is not, however, bad
looking, and presents a combination of advantages not previously offered at se low
a price. A heavy ring of metal supplies a solid foot, and on one side rises a short
pillar, by which the body of the instrument is supported, and upon which it is
balanced, so that it can be inclined and fixed at any angle. The body is square,
but this does not affect the shape of the field, which is round as in ordinary pat-
terns. The eye-pieces are on Kelner’s principle, having the field lens in the
focus of the eye lens, an arrangement which has the inconvenience of making any
particle of dust on the former exceedingly troublesome, but which possesses the
advantage of giving a, large flat field, and of obtaining a given power from the objec-
tives with a shorter body than the usual Huyghenian eye-pieces require. The
objectives are two in number, of one inch and one quarter inch focal lengths. A
large and conveniently placed milled head moves the coarse adjustment, while a
lever, like those in Mr. Ladd’s instruments, makes a fine adjustment, delicate
enough for all ordinary purposes. The mirror beneath the stage may be readily
placed so as to supply oblique light, and acondenser upon a jointed stem suffices
for opaque objects that do not require to be strongly lit. The stage is furnished
with a somewhat clumsy-looking but effective apparatus for holding slides, and
assisting their adjustment by hand, and is so made as to receive Wenham’s para-
bola, the polariscope, or other additions which the purchaser may require. In its
sunplest state this microscope will suffice for the generality of observations, and its
capacities may be brought up to a high standard by a small additional outlay.
We were particularly struck with the quality of the objectives: the quarter inch,
with the second eye-piece, enabled us immediately to exhibit both sets of lines on
pe aaa Sormosum, and we have no doubt it would resolye much more dif-

cult tests.

84, Notes and Memoranda.

DERIVATIVE CHARACTER OF CHINESE LITERATURE.—M. de Paravey, after
carrying on many investigation into the accounts of the Quadrumana, given in
Chinese works, finds his opinion confirmed, that the ancient books now extant,
belonging to this singular people, were founded upon others, still older, and
written in countries remote from China.

MOovVEMENTS OF THE HzEart.—MM. Chauveau and Marey have applied a
self-registering instrument to record the movements of the human heart, and they
inform us that the systole of the auricle begins and ends before that of the ven-
tricle, and that the systole of the ventricle and the beating of the heart begin and -
terminate simultaneously, From these observations they conclude that the beat-
ing of the heart is not the result of the auricular systole, but of the systole of the
ventricle. They publish in the Comptes Rendus (January 6, 1862), a diagram of
the lines of their registering instruments, corresponding with the movements in
the heart.

Recent Ervption or VEesuvius.—The Abbé Giardono, professor of physics
in the University of Naples, contributes to “ Cosmos” some interesting particulars
concerning the last eruption of Vesuvius. He states that the mountain has been
in nearly constant activity since 1855, when a great flood of lava overwhelmed
half the valley of Vetrana and the ravines to the west of the crater. In 1858
there was another outbreak which lasted two years, and devastated a fertile tract
of country. During this long period the grand crater at the summit of the cone
never ceased to vomit forth fire. Then followed three months’ tranquillity, broken
at mid-day on the 8th December, by a violent shaking of the earth, which was
felt as far as Naples. ‘The first shock was followed by eight others, at intervals of
ten or fifteen minutes, some of a vibratory and others of an undulating character.
Then came half an hour’srest, and at three o’clock, without any trembling of the
earth or other warning, a dense ewmulus cloud of smoke rushed from the flanks of
the mountain, and towered above the cone, forming the pine-tree appearance so
famous in old observations, and rolling down in huge masses, driven towards the
sea by the N.E. wind. At Torre del Greco the darkness was excessive, and
voleanic ashes, not in an impalpable powder, but in a granular form, were
scattered over the surrounding country. This immense quantity of matter was
emitted from a chasm opened im the side of the volcano. At this spot the first
new crater was formed, and afterwards a second anda third in the same line.
They were about fifteen hundred yards from the craters of 1794, and opened in
the midst of cultivated ground, the first actually commencing under the house of
a husbandman named Abbrucei, who was fortunate enough to escape with his
family. About an hour after the first crater was opened, the flow of lava began,
accompanied by showers of scoriz and volcanic bombs. Dismal bellowing noises
were heard throughout the country, but nothing like the tremendous explosions
that occurred in 1850. At first the fiery torrent directed its course S.E. towards
Torre del Greco, and as it descended it acquired a breadth of more than three
hundred yards. It was not liquid, but like a stiff paste, full of large masses of
scorie of curious forms. It moved slowly through the night, sometimes stopping,
sometimes advancing, and at five o’clock in the morning of the next day had
not progressed more than a sixth of a league. The lava was rich in augite, and
of ablack colour. Up to this time the grand crater had taken no part in the
eruption, but it began to pour forth smoke, cinders, and lava masses, which fell
at the base of thecone. ‘The lesser craters diminished their energies, and the
lava torrent stopped as if by magic. This, which seemed to be the time of safety,
was the moment for the destruction of the buildings in Torre del Greco, as the
earth shook violently and opened in numerous crevasses, splitting the buildings
right and left. The eruption was also signalized by electric discharges from the
great cone; claps of thunder pealed every five or ten minutes from the interior
of the crater; and flashes of lightning, straight and forked, illuminated the
clouds.

THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER.

MARCH, 1862.

THE CONDITIONS OF INFUSORIAL LIFE.

A scrIEntiFIc controversy, carried on by able and assiduous ex-
perimenters, cannot fail to enlarge the boundaries of knowledge,
although it may not decisively affect opinion on the special subject
in dispute. This has been the case with the discussions on
spontaneous generation, or “ heterogenesis,” which have occu-
pied the attention of French scientific men and of the Academy
of Sciences for the last few years. ‘The main question has not
been elucidated so as to compel the assent of both parties to the
same views; perhaps not a single eminent convert has been
made on either side, but information has been elicited of a very
valuable kind. Before M. Pouchet, of Rouen, came forward as
the champion of heterogenesis, the balance of evidence was in
favour of those who believe that infusorial life manifests itself
only when’ germs are present, and other appropriate conditions
provided; and so the matter still stands. It must not, how-
ever, be imagined that the parties to the controversy do no
more than reiterate the old convictions. The spontaneous
generationists have adopted a substantially new theory, differ-
ing as much from the opinions of their predecessors, as the
speculations of Darwin differ from those of Lamarck ; while the
“ panspermists,” as M. Pouchet calls them, must feel the
necessity of modifying their ideas of germs. It is unwise to
let the dislike of a doctrine lead to the belief that it is extinct ;
but this feeling seems to have actuated the authors of that
valuable work, the ‘‘ Microscopic Dictionary,” for im the second
edition, dated 1860, we find these words in page 312, “the -
doctrine of spontaneous generation may now be said to have
become a matter of history ;” although at that very time the
Comptes Rendus gave ample proof that many of the acutest
thinkers in France were engaged in experiments, and counter-
_ experiments, which have not yet ceased.

It is not the intention of the writer to discuss the funda-
mental principles of the opposmg theories ; but before giving
an account of M. Pouchet’s observations, which have a value

VOL. I.—NO. II. H

86 The Conditions of Infusorial Life.

quite independent of his main argument, it will be mteresting
to show what his views really are, and we find them abundantly
stated m his work entitled ‘‘ Heterogeme,” published at Paris
im 1859. He declares that he has never said a word to lead any
one to suppose that he believes mm the generation of animated
beings without the aid of vital power; that, on the contrary, he
has always thought that organized bemgs were animated by
forces which were in nowise reducible to physical or chemical
forces (p. 428). He considers generation, or the manifestation
of life on the globe, to have been one of the first acts of crea-
tion, and he believes that similar acts are contimually taking
place. As arule, heterogenists have developed a system ad-
verse to great convulsions in Nature; but M. Pouchet adopts
what may be called spasmodic theories of geology, and he tells
us that the manifestations of spontaneous generation do not
now reach the same proportions as in ancient times; that they
have grown smaller hke other telluric phenomena, because we
have not now in fermentation that immense mass of dead matter
resulting from “so many cataclysms and funerals of animals;
and therefore, mstead of the gigantic races which surged up
from the midst of agitated elements, we only witness the pro-
duction of the lowest forms”? (p. 462).

As will presently be seen, this strange supposition is a most
unphilosophical duction from some teresting experiments on
the effect of mass, m a fermentmg material, in determming the
kind of organism which will be produced. M. Pouchet further
contends that his views harmonize with the system of Nature, as
exhibited im the generation of the higher kinds of animals ; and
with the opinions of certain physiologists who affirm that m a
great number of animals of all classes, the “first lneaments of
ovules”? have no adhesion to the internal apparatus which pro-
duces them, and that the ovules form themselves, under the in-
fluence of a special force, in the midst of a granular fluid secreted
in the cavity of the apparatus (p.374). According to this hypo-
thesis, the mother does not form the egg, but it develops itself ;
and the maternal apparatus exerts a dynamic force upon it, which
reproduces the original type (p. 378). In further exemplification
of these views, he asserts that the ovary is the seat of an inde-
pendent genetic force, and that, in like manner, organic matter
may be the seat of an analogous force, so that the generation of
ovules from what he calls “‘the proligerous pellicle, or scum
which appears on infusions of vegetable matter as fermentation
proceeds, is precisely analogous to that of natural ovules in
the ovary” (p. 378).

Having explained the chief points of M. Pouchet’s theory of
heterogenesis, his method of proof next engages attention, and
this may be described as a process of elimination, He endea-

The Conditions of Infusorial Life. 87

yours to show that air, which contains no germs, water, which
contains no germs, and a decomposing solid, which contaims no
germs, may, by mutual contact and influence, give rise to ving
forms. Here it may be remarked that the almost inconceivable
minuteness of some germs, and the great difficulty of msurme
their perfect destruction and exclusion, 1s quite sufficient to throw
a doubt upon the accuracy of many of his experiments, without
domg any injustice to him as a skilful manipulator; and
although we may fail to detect the precise source of error, we
are justified, by another class of experiments, in believing that
error did exist. It is important, im the present state of physi-
ological science, to deal with these questions inductively ; and
if certam experiments appear to prove M. Pouchet’s theory,
they can only be fairly met by counter-experiments of the same
kind, conducted with greater precautions, or by analogous ex-
periments of equal importance, and indicating an opposite con-
clusion. How this has been done will be seen hereafter. Let
us now select from M. Pouchet’s book the most interesting
observations on the conditions of infusorial life.

Tt is well known that the fermentations or chemical changes
in infusions provide one of the necessary circumstances for the
development of infusoria, and as boiling imfusions checks this
action, it is inimical to the appearance of life. Four of M.
Pouchet’s experiments place this mm a striking point of view.
Four large vessels were covered by one glass shade, so that
all might be exposed to the same influences ; each vessel con-
tained 300 grammes* of liquid. The first was filled with water
which had been boiled for fifteen minutes, and twenty-five
grammes of hay, which had also submitted to ebullition, and
the other three with a different mixture. After three days,
during which the four vessels had been exposed to a tempera-
ture of 24° centigrade scale (or 75° Fahr.), the first exhibited
a shieht pellicle and afew vibrions, long and short (vib. granifer
and vib. levis). The second vessel, containing water which had.
been boiled, and five grammes of hay which had not been
boiled, had a well-formed pellicle, a much larger quantity of the
same vibrions, and an abundance of kolpods (K. triticiformis).
The third contained water which had not been boiled, and five
grammes of hay that had been subjected to the action of
boiling water for a quarter of an hour. This contained the
Same vibrions as the preceding, more numerous than in the
first, and less so than in the second vessel, and also a
few of the kolpods. The fourth vase contaimed water and
hay as before, neither having been boiled. Its pellicle was
much thicker, its inhabitants the same, but much more nume-
rous. In another case a strong decoction of hay was exposed

* The gramme is 10°434 grains troy.

88 The Conditions of Infusorial Life.

to the air for thirty-five days without giving any signs of imfu-
sorial life.

Another curious set of experiments was made with frag-
ments of human bone; all the vessels bemg placed under
similar conditions. These vessels were filled with the same
filtered water. In the first were five grammes of the skull of an
Heyptian, which M. Pouchet brought from the necropolis of
Sakkara; the second contained the same quantity of a Merovin-
gian skull, and the third was supplied with pieces from a con-
temporary cranium. Hach was placed under a bell-glass, and
left alone for a month, at the expiration of which time the
Heyptian bone liquor exhibited a numerous family of epistylis,
enchelis, and vibrions. The Merovingian liquor was rich in
Glaucoma scintillans, to the extent of legions, together with a few
vorticellids ; neither of which appeared im the first glass. The
broth made from a contemporary skull had its own peculiar in-
habitants in the shape of kolpods. The three vessels were then
placed under one bell-glass, but they still maintained the pecu-
harities of their population.

M. Pouchet remarks, that it is not only the nature of the
fermentable substance, but its quantity, that determines the
kind of infusoria that appear. For example, he took similar
vessels, placmg in each thirty grammes of spring water, but dif-
ferent quantities of hay. They were all covered by bell-glasses,
kept at about 75° Fahr., and examined in a week. The first, with
ten grammes of hay, had a thick pellicle, and the liquid con-
tained a great quantity of Kerona lepus, some pear-shaped ani-
malcules, and large cysts. The pellicle hkewise contaimed a
quantity of small cysts. The second vessel, with five orammes
of hay, had a thinner pellicle, no keronians, a few piriform
creatures, and fewer cysts. The third vessel, with two grammes
and five decigrammes of hay (that is, about thirty-three grains),
showed no keronians, no large cysts, a few small cysts, and
very minute indeterminable animalcules. The fourth glass,
which had one gramme twenty-five centigrammes of hay (about
nineteen grains), presented infusoria, “ infinitely less than those
in the first vessels, and of indeterminable character.”

Pouchet considered, somewhat hastily, that these experiments
proved that the air was not the vehicle of the germs, and that the
quantity of the decomposing matter exercised some peculiar in-
fluence. To the latter part of this supposition, he calls it a
‘ puerile objection” to affirm that the requisite aliment existed in
different quantities. It should however be remembered, that a
proximate analysis of hay would show that it contains certain sub-
stances in exceedingly small proportions, so that the fermentation
of a little bit would only give rise to an infinitesimal quantity of
particular products. It has long been known that a large mass of

The Conditions of Infusorial Life. 89

hay in a pailful of water is more productive of the higher forms
of infusoria, than trials made in a tea-cup ; but we cannot ascend
by such experiments to the spontaneous production of the
mammoth from the general smash and corruption of older
families in the organic world. ‘Tropical swamps exhibit some
of the conditions of vastness of decomposition, which «M.
Pouchet considers essential to the exhibition of heterogenesis
on a grand scale; but can he show that they produce larger
creatures than would appear, if similar materials were operated
upon under the same atmospheric conditions im an experiment
of moderate size ?

The state of division of the fermentable matter exercises a
considerable influence on the generation of infusoria, by hasten-
ing the chemical changes which make the fluid their fit abode.
Thus, a vessel containing water and chopped hay produced a
richer and different crop of animalcules, from another m which
the hay was m amass. With respect to the influence of dif-
ferent sorts of water, M. Pouchet coincides with Burdach in
finding that of dew the most prolific; after which comes rain-
water, and then spring-water. He likewise observes, that water
which has been boiled is less favourable to the production of
infusoria than the same fluid in its ordinary state. Such ob-
servations are easily explicable upon the theory of germs; but
by adopting a singular process of reasoning, M. Pouchet endea-
vours to show that they support his own views.

As mincing the fermentable material increased the produc-
tiveness of the fluid by accelerating decomposition, we should
expect a similar effect would follow an increase in the supply of
atmospheric air; and accordingly if two vessels are taken, and
in one chopped hay is kept near the surface, and in the other the
Same substance is retained under a greater depth of fluid, the
first will exhibit the earliest, most numerous, and highly de-
veloped life.

The prevalent theory of the distribution of germs supposes
the air to be the means of their dispersion, by first suspending
them, and then dropping them, wherever atmospheric dust falls.
It likewise appears, from numerous experiments, that a fresh
supply of air is necessary for the production of the higher forms
of infusoria, and that lquids in close vessels on'y yield lower
kinds ; the probability being, that some of the gaseous products
of decomposition exercise an mimical effect, when they are not
permitted to escape. But although pure air may, with some
exceptions, be designated, with M. Pouchet, ‘indispensable to
the life of microzoaries,” he discovered that the vacuum of an
air-pump did not destroy them. Fray and Burdach stated
that infusoria appeared in an atmosphere of hydrogen or nitro-
gen; but M. Pouchet sums up the results of numerous experi-

90 The Conditions of Infusorial Life.

ments by affirming, that he has never seen the appearance of a
proto-organism im water deprived of air, or in water aerated
with nitrogen, hydrogen, or carbonic acid; oxygen alone form-
ing an exception. We may here cite a curious observation of
M. Pasteur,** on the peculiar fermentation which produces butyric
acid. The agent in this process he declares to be an animaleule,
which appears in considerable numbers, like small cylmdrical
rods, isolated, or united in groups, moving in undulations and
“pirouettes,” and multiplymg by fission. They may be trans-
planted like yeast, setting up the butyric fermentation im appro-
priate substances; and they have this pecuharity, “‘not only do
these infusoria live without air; but air kills them. Carbonic
acid does not affect them.”

The influence of heat and light on the production of infu-
soria engaged much of M. Pouchet’s attention ; and we find him
repeating previous experiments, and adding others entirely
new. ‘The results he arrived at were, that no animalcules are
generated in infusions kept at a temperature below ++ 5° cent.
(41° Fahr.) In macerations, kept at a temperature of 12° cent.
(54° Fahr.), eight days often elapsed before many adult kolpods
appeared, while, at 26° cent. (79° Fahr.), four days sufficed to
produce “‘numerous legions, perfectly developed.” He likke-
wise observed the tendency of different temperatures to develop
different species in the same solutions, and came to the con-
clusion of Gruithuisen, that from 80° to 96° Fahrenheit was the
greatest heat at which infusoria were generated at all. When
however they were in existence, they could support extreme
changes. Thus, if animalcules hying in a liquid at 22° cent. (72°
Hahr.), found themselves at the freezmg pomt, i the course of
a few minutes, they manifested no mmconvenience. In order to
test the assertion, that mfusoria would revive after bemg actually
frozen, M. Pouchet made several trials, which had the result
of showing, that a mass of ice usually contams minute spaces
filled with water, which has not congealed, and it is m these
that the animalcules live. When however an entire mass was
solidified, the larger species perished, and their dead bodies re-
mained, while monads and vibrions frequently escaped. Some
vibrions he found able to sustain the intense cold of 15° below
zero in the centigrade scale, or 27 degrees below the freezing
point of Fahrenh. “it.

A moderate intensity of light was observed to be more
favourable than an excess of luminosity, and direct sunshine in
very hot weather had an injurious effect. White light was the
most favourable, then red, then violet, blue, and green, for the
production of the protozoa ; although microscopic vegetation
was affected im an opposite way, green ‘being the most favourable,

* Comptes Rendus, 25th February, 1861.

The Conditions of Infusorial Life. oe

blue and violet commg next, and then white light, red bemg
mimical. M. Morren had stated that the action of ight was
indispensable to the production of vegetable organisms, and.
that if a series of vessels filled with water were exposed to a
more or less intense illumination, those with least light exhibited
fewest protophytes and of the most simple construction; but
M. Pouchet on repeating his experiments came to an opposite

‘conclusion. In one mstance he placed a piece of crumb of

bread m a large glass, covered it with three black shades,
and placed the whole m a situation of complete darkness. Ina
week the surface of the bread was covered with blue mould,
Penicilliwm glaucum, between the filaments of which were
swarming an abundance of Monus lens, and several vibrions. In
another instance M. Pouchet placed, in a dark corner of his labora-
tory, an infusion of hay, covered with a bell-glass paimted black,
over which was put a strong sheet of gray paper, and over this
again another black shade with a roll of linen round its base.
The whole of this apparatus was further protected against the
intrusion of light by double curtains, black, and tawny (fawve).
In three days, the temperature being warm, the liquid was
covered with a thick pellicle, while monads, vibrions, and kolpods
were abundant.

The passage of a current of electricity through the infusion
materially hastens, according to M. Pouchet, the production of
infusoria, his experiments bemg performed with one element
of Bunsen’s battery. Atmospheric electricity afforded still more
striking results: the more it abounded, the faster the infusoria
appeared, especially if the tension, instead of bemg suddenly
produced by a storm, lasted for several days. Under such cir-
cumstances he obtamed kolpods as highly developed in three
days, as would have been obtained, with the same temperature
and less electrical excitation, in double that time.

Contact with mercury, and mercurial vapours, had no in-
jirious effect on infusoria; and, contrary to what had - been
affirmed by M. Morren, air which had traversed sulphuric acid
neither killed them nor hindered their production. A wooden
cover, almost touching the infusion, exerted a favourable mflu-
ence; and the shape of the vessel was important, so far as it
promoted, or hindered, the action of light and air on the fer-
mentable matter.

It has been explamed that M. Pouchet endeavours to prove his
theory of heterogenesis by an exhaustive process of experimental
reasoning. He seeks to show that the supposed germs do not
exist in the air he employs, nor in the water, nor in the putrescible
solid; but still the infusoria appear—produced, as he believes, by
the same vital force that presides over the generation of the higher
animals; and which, he tells us, “ engenders in the ovaries of

a

92 The Conditions of Infusorial Life.

created beings, other beings similar to themselves, while in putri-
factive substances it produces only microscopic animalcules.”
It will at once occur to every reader, that although the germs of
the larger infusoria might be excluded with moderate precau-
tions, those of the smaller kinds, which must be extremely minute
objects under the highest powers of magnification our micro-
scopes possess, would, if widely disseminated, be so difficult to
keep out of any large and complicated piece of apparatus, as
to justify doubts m the accuracy of any series of experiments
leading to a conclusion demanding unusual severity of proof..
And even the successful repetition of any set of experiments,
which appear to support a theory at variance with the general
conclusions of science, ought not to command our assent unless
other modes of testing the question afforded the same results.
It would also be reasonable to give greater weight to the
simplest methods, if complete in themselves, as offermg fewer
chances of error, than trials made with more complicated appa-
ratus, and presenting a greater variety of parts. Followme
this rule, itisno disparagement to M. Pouchet’s qualifications as
a manipulator if we accept his experiments for their general in-
formation, and at the same time reject their conclusiveness for
the particular end he had in view. In this spirit we may cite
several of his illustrations without recurring to the generation
arguments at every step.

Under the head of ‘‘ Hliminations of the Putrescible Body,”
we find that maize, peas, haricots, and lentils, were separately
burnt in an iron ladle at a red heat, and their remains placed
in distinct vessels with distilled water, and covered with
separate bell-glasses. In twenty days of warm temperature, the
maize vessel exhibited an abundance of a fungus (Aspergillus),
but no animalcules, nor did any appear till another fifteen days
had expired ; the peas yielded numerous and varied microzoaries,
and especially Monas attenuata. The lentils did the same,
and the beans a still thicker population of the same monads.
“ Criterium” vessels, with the same seeds not burnt, produced
abundance of animalcules m three days, and of a higher grade
than in the former cases. Here we see the influence of mimute
variations in the chemical composition of the several incinera-
tions, and possibly also of their mechanical condition, in offermg
appropriate circumstances for the evolution of different germs.

In another experiment, some hay was heated to 200° to 210,
centigrade, and even a little higher, till it began to burn, and it
was then immersed in distilled water, covered with a plate of
glass, and put under ashade. After four days of warmth, the
infusions contained a quantity of dead vibrions, with a large
population of Glaucoma scintillans and minute monads. From
these and similar experiments, it is plain that the production

The Conditions of Infusorial Life. 93

of infusoria is not dependent upon germs contained in solid
bodies.

With reference to the water and its action, M. Pouchet elu-
cidates it by experimenting with an artificial combination of
oxygen and hydrogen. Having obtained a sufficient quantity
of water in this manner, he boiled half of it to destroy any
germs that might have fallen into it, and then made an infusion
with some haythat had been heated to about 200° centigrade. The
whole was covered with a bell-glass, andin a few days displayed
two species of paramecia. The other half of the artificial water
_ was treated with hay that had been heated, and yet the same
infusoria appeared. These experiments, says M. Pouchet, prove
that water is not the receptacle of the ‘ germs” on which his
opponents rely. They merely show that water containing no
germs will suffice as a medium in which germs from some other
source may be developed. Another illustration of the action of
water was obtained by skimming off, from an infusion of China
aster, ““an immense quantity”’ of kolpods, which were transferred.
to distilled water, and remained in perfect health for fifteen
days; from which M. Pouchet concludes “that it is not the
matter dissolved in the water which feeds the microzoaries, or
at any rate they can live a long time in pure water.” Another
curious experiment was performed by grinding up with a muller,
or pestle, a legion of kolpods. One half of the homogeneous
paste thus obtained was diluted with water, filtered, and placed
under a bell-glass; the other half was mixed with the same
quantity of water, but not filtered. In a week of moderate
temperature, the filtered water exhibited an innumerable quan-
tity of vorticellids, and not a single kolpod; while the non-filtered
mixture displayed no vorticellids, and no kolpods, but small
monads. Upon these facts our author remarks, “ The partisans
of the transmission of eggs through the intervention of atmos-
pheric air, cannot in any way explain what happened in these
two experiments. If the two vessels had contained kolpods, the
supporters of ovarism would have declared that the eggs of
these animalcules were so small that the grinding process had
not broken them up.” From a single experiment of this sort
no general conclusion can be drawn; but, as we shall presently
see, there is no reason to believe that the air contains an un-
limited supply of germs of all sorts: one portion will contain
none at all; another, those of a particular kind, while a third
will differ from the other two. Speaking of the minuteness of
certain animalcules, M. Pouchet quotes Owen, to the effect that
a single drop of water may contain more monads (M. crepus-
culum) than there are human beings on the globe; and he
adds, but this microzoary can manifest itself wherever we offer
it appropriate infusions, and that on the aerial diffusion theory,

94 The Conditions of Infusorial Life.

the atmosphere must be so encumbered by its germs, that if we
add those of other imfusoria in similar proportion, we should
have the air so crammed with them, that it would almost reach
the density of iron. ‘This remark affords an illustration of
the good effect of such controversies, for it led to a complete
rectification of the thoughtless assertions often made on the
abundance of germs; and other experiments placed the question
upon a very different footing, as we shall see when we come to
the part taken im this scientific warfare by M. Pasteur. In an
endeavour to convict the germ party of absurdity, M. Pouchet
took a large quantity of beef, divided it into three portions, and
placed them in three separate vessels of water, covered with
plates of polished glass, leaving an air space of one millimétre*
(about a three hundredth of an inch). One of these vessels was
put in the roof of the Museum of Natural History, another left
in a laboratory on the’ second floor, and the third placed on
the ground floor. In three days each glass was filled with one
species of little monad (M. crepusculum), to such an extent that
if they were to be accounted for by the fall of atmospheric
germs, M. Pouchet estimates that more than sixty-two millions
must have existed in each cubic millimetre of arr: Of course
the germ theory does not necessarily demand such an abundance
of eggs, and the experiment is a proof of fecundity rather than
of anything else.

Observations of what takes place in close vessels are essential
to a comprehensive view of the conditions of infusorial life. If
air 1s entirely excluded, we cannot expect to find that any will
be developed, unless under special circumstances, like the
butyric fermentation, to which allusion has been made.
Messrs. Schultze and Schwann published some experments,
in Poggendorfi’s Annals, i 1837, tending to show that if a
maceration was well boiled, and no air admitted except what
had either passed through fire or sulphuric acid, no infusorial
life would appear. 'To these M. Pouchet opposed new observa-
tions repeatedly performed with great care. M. Schultze placed
some vegetable and animal substances in a flask with distilled
water, which was boiled to destroy any germs. ‘Two tubes,
furnished with bulbs, passed through the cork closmg the
flask. One tube contained sulphuric acid, and the other a
solution df caustic potash, so that all air transmitted through
them would come into contact with these destructive substances.
The experimenter passed air through the tube every day for
two months, during which no form of life appeared, although
abundance was developed in a similar flask in the same situation
which had free access to the atmospheric. Repeating this ex-
periment with the precaution detailed in his work, M. Pouchet

* The millimétre is 03937 of an English inch.

The Conditions of Infusorial Lrfe. 95

found the liquid clear till the twentieth day, when it became
cloudy. Four days later he discovered a little blue spot, which
was the first appearance of the fungus Penicillium glaucum.
This plant increased, vibrions appeared, and likewise monads
of indeterminable species. ‘The repetition of Schwann’s ex-
periments produced a similar result. Messrs. Joly and Musset
give an account of similar experiments in the Comptes Rendus,*
in which they say they have vainly submitted the organic
substances employed to prolonged ebullition, in vain submitted
the air to a very elevated temperature in tubes brought to a
white red heat (rouge blanc), or passed it through sulphuric acid ;
in all cases they found very simple organic substances developed
im their infusions. It may be well to mention at this pomt the
observations of M. Pasteur, who has shown that the spores of
mildews are not destroyed by being exposed to the action of con-
centrated sulphuric acid for several days. Other germs of objects
of low organization may be equally difficult to kill.

It was considered by M. Pouchet that if the air contaimed
the supply of germs usually imputed to it, and ready for depo-
sition in a suitable liquid, the first washings of the air ought to
conta the largest number, and subsequent washings would
exhibit a marked dimimution. To test this, he took eight of
Wolff’s bottles, and partially filled them with a decoction of
hay, which had been boiled for an hour, filtered, and introduced
boilmg hot into the vessels. After this he passed steam through
the series of bottles for half an hour. They were then left for
fifteen days, when every vessel exhibited a population of kolpods,
the last of the series being as rich as those preceding it.
During two years he frequently repeated these experiments,
with various contrivances to facilitate the stoppage of any par-
ticles the air contained, and he arrived at the conclusion that
“the animaicules were, normally, equally numerous in all the
vessels—in the first as in the last.?? In one case, however, he
had the curious fortune to find the first vessel solely occupied
with Navicula obtusa and a green conferva; the second chiefly
with Dileptus foliwm; the third with small animalcules and
several rotifers; the fourth with the same conferva as in the
first, and some kolpods; the fifth exhibited vorticelle, epistylis,
and glaucomee, while other objects had been developed in the
sixth and seventh. During this experiment a large measure of
air was daily blown through the series of bottles. Upon this
M. Pouchet remarks, that while the results are mexplicable
upon the germ theory, they are easily explamed by hetero-
genesis, as ‘‘each vessel has engendered special generations,
because it was the seat of particular modifications, which time had
diffused unequally through the macerations.” The “unequal

* 21st January, 1861.

96 The Conditions of Infusorval Life.

diffusion of modifications” appears to be an assumption made to
suit the hypothesis—not the observation of a fact; and if true,
it might supply the conditions necessary for the development
of different germs.

Passing over a variety of experiments that are well worthy
of attention, we come to M. Pouchet’s remarks on the scum, or
pellicle, which makes its appearance on the surface of infusions,
and which he calls the “ proligerous pellicle” (pellicule pro-
ligére). This pellicle, he asserts, is composed of the “débris”
of “animalcules,’ at first of the lowest kind, afterwards of
higher grades. He gives it the epithet “ proligerous” because
he considers it to play the part of ‘an improvised ovary which
produces the animalcules ;”’ how those previously formed were
produced he does not so clearly explain. Of these pellicles he
discovers several kinds:—1l. The granulated pellicle, composed
of the carcases of monads and bacteriums. 2. The matted pel-
licle, formed by the interlacement of the bodies of long vibrions.
3. The pseudo-cellular pellicle, which appears after the genera-
tions of small monads and vibrions have passed away, and is
composed of deceased kolpods, or great monads. 4. The com-
posite pellicle, in which the previous elements are combined.
In confirmation of his views, M. Pouchet quotes Dumas to the
effect, that if a piece of flesh be left in water, it 1s resolved into
minute organic particles which exhibit spontaneous motion, and
which combine to make more complicated forms. A similar
observation was made by Mr. H. J. Clarke, of Cambridge, U.S.,*
who states that on watching the decomposition of a proboscis of
a young Aurelia flaaidula (a jelly-fish), he observed the whole
of the component cells in violent agitation, like a single layer of
shot shaken in a flat pan, each cell appearing like a monad,
when the inner wall fell to pieces, and they scattered m various
. directions ; others looked like chilomonads, and others like hexa-
mita. The same observer affirms that the fibrillee of the decom-
posing muscle of a Sagitta looked and behaved like vibrions, and
that Professor Agassiz verified his experiments. In conclusion
he remarks, “I do not pretend to say that everything that comes
under the name of vibrio and spirillum is a decomposed muscle
or other tissue, although I believe such will turn out to be the
fact ; but this much I will vouch for, and will call on Professor
Agassiz to witness, that what would be declared by competent
authority to be a living bemg, and accounted a species of vibrio,
is nothing but absolutely dead muscle.”

The preceding account of M. Pouchet’s labours will suffice
to demonstrate that they possess great value, quite independent
of the particular theory which he has so ardently espoused.
Let us now devote a few moments to some counter-experiments

* Annual of Scientific Discovery for 1860. (Boston.)

The Conditions of Infusorial Life. 97

of M. Pasteur, which are highly instructive. He introduced the
same quantity of a fermentable liquid in several glass bulbs,
drew their necks out in a lamp, and twisted them im various
directions, but left them all open. In the greater number he
boiled the liquid for several minutes, leaving three or four in
which the heating was not carvied to ebullition. All were then
placed in a situation where the air was still. In from twenty-
four to forty-eight hours, the bulbs which had not been boiled,
but whose contents had experienced that temperature in pre-
paration, exhibited “divers mucors,” and their liquor was
“troubled,” while the fluid in the remainder remained limpid
for months. Upon these results M. Pasteur remarks, “ All
the bulbs were open; without doubt it was the sinuosity and
inclination of their necks which protected their liquid contents
from the fall of atmospheric germs. Common air, it is true,
entered briskly at the beginning; but at that time the liquid
was very hot, and slow to cool, so it caused all the germs con-
veyed by the air to perish; and afterwards, when the liquor
was cool enough to render possible the development of germs,
the air entering slowly allowed its dust to fall in the opening
of the neck, or on the walls of the entrance.” Upon cutting
off the neck of one bulb, and placing the resulting aper-
ture vertically, mildews and bacteriums appeared in a few
days.* M. Pouchet attached importance to proving that com-
mon air did not abound in germs. M. Pasteur, in the interest
of the opposite party, demonstrated the same thing. He
took a number of glass bulbs partially filled with an infusion,
boiled them to produce a vacuum, and sealed up their necks.
These, on bemg broken in various situations, allowed air to
rush im, and were again sealed up. For the most part, the
liquor became cloudy after a few days, and the vessels exhibited
a greater variety of mucedines and torulaceze than if they had
been freely exposed to the air. But it happened many times in
each series of trials that the fluid im some vessels remained as
unchanged asif it had received “ calcined air,”’ which M. Pasteur
asserts to be unproductive, in opposition to M. Pouchet. In the
course of these inquiries, air was obtained from various localities,
among others, at Montanvert, from the Glacier des Bois, and only
one of the vessels filled in that situation gave birth to a mucedine.

Thus we find the two classes of experimenters agreeing in
one conclusion, that the air does not contain that prodigious
quantity of noticeable germs that former microscopists imagined
to exist. Nor have observations been successful in discovering
enough germs to account for the appearance of animalcules of
the larger sort, which soon occurs under favourable conditions.
M. Pouchet has been at great pains to collect the particles which

* Comptes Rendus, January to June, 1860, p. 303.

98 The Cuneatic Characters of Babylon, Assyria, and Persia.

float in the atmosphere; but while he discovers numerous starch
grains wherever men are congregated, and finds that the lungs
of animals near towns contain a microscopic débris of all sorts
of substances, mcluding even fragments of clothing, neither
he nor any one else has met with any number of infusorial eggs.
Nor can we even affirm that much progress has been made in
recognizing and distinguishing the various germs which diffe-
rent species are believed to produce. It moreover appears that
many observers have mistaken certain parasitic animalcules for
egos of the creature they mhabit. At least, so M. Balbiani
tells us. According to this gentleman, certam acimetans be-
longing to the genus Spherophyra enjoy life under two
aspects. first, they appear as small cylinders, covered with
swimming cilia, and furnished with suckers and styles. In this
condition they swim freely, and devour their neighbours in the
usual way. ‘Then comes a change in ther affairs. They assume
a spherical form, strip off their ciliary vestment, but retain their
suckers, and wait quietly till touched by some roving animal-
cule, to which they clng. Gradually they work them way into
the interior of their prey, not breaking the tissue, but stretchine
it before them as they advance, and suffering it to close behmd
them, leaving only a minute channel by which their numerous
progeny subsequently escape. When once comfortably seated in
the middle of their involuntary hosts, their peregrinations cease,
and their vitality is chiefly manifested by the movements of the
contractile vesicle. As they grow, their family mcreases, and they
augment the size of the cavity m which they dwell, without
occasioning any apparent inconvenience to the paramecian or
oxytrichan which they have invaded. M. Balbiani states, that
he has noticed a single animalcule sheltermg more than fifty of
these parasites at a time.*

THE CUNEATIC CHARACTERS OF BABYLON, ASSY-
RIA, AND PERSIA—HOW THEY WERE FIRST

EXPLAINED.
BY H. NOEL HUMPHREYS.

Lone before the brilliant and successful guesses of Dr. Young,
and the subsequently triumphant labours of Champollion, had
led to the deciphermg of the hieroglyphics of Egypt, a young
and unknown German scholar, Grotefend, had succeeded in
reading several names in the cuneatic character of the Per-

* In converting centigrade degrees into those of Fahrenheit, the nearest whole
numbers haye been taken,

The Cuneatic Characters of Babylon, Assyria, and Persia. 99

sian system. It was not till 1818, after the arrival of the
“Rosetta stone”? m England, on which Heyptian inscriptions
were accompanied by a Greek translation, that.Dr. Young laid
the foundation of the method now adopted for the interpreta-
tion of Heyptian hieroglyphics; and it was not till a few years
later that Champollion developed his great system of interpreta-
tion, which has since been reduced to order and comparative
certainty by the labours of Lepsius, Bunsen, Birch, and others.

Unaided, therefore, by the labours which have led to the
interpretation of the Hgyptian method of writing, and long
before any successful attempt had been made to interpret any of
the Persian or Assyrian inscriptions of Central Asia, M. Grote-
fend, in 1808, first read off the names of Darius and Xerxes in the
cuneatic inscription of Behistun. When M. Grotefend deter-
mined to make an attempt to decipher those singular wedge-
shaped characters, all was utter darkness on the subject; for
the assertion of Tyschen, of Rostock (1798), and afterwards
of Munten, of Copenhagen, that the proper mode of reading the
cuneatic character was from right to left, was only calculated to
mislead; while the supposition of those authors that they were
real phonetic signs, though nearer the truth, was scarcely likely
to be more advantageous to the student, as, if the characters
were read backwards, no useful result was likely to be attained.

The efforts of Grotefend were therefore perfectly unaided.
by the labours of his predecessors in the field of research, which
he entered in the year 1800. The inscription which stimulated
his curiosity and led to those first steps which have proved the
basis of all subsequent discovery, was the one copied from the
rock of Behistun by the traveller Niebuhr; who succeeded, by
the aid of a telescope, in making an extremely accurate copy of
it, although at a height of 300 feet—about as high (to make an
approximate comparison) as the cross of St. Paul’s. This in-
scription, in which the writing, formed into three distinct
groups, bore conspicuous evidence of bemg written not only in
three distinct sets of characters, but in three distinct languages.
The three groups were, in fact, three copies of the same pro-
clamation, addressed to three different races all owning the
sovereignty of the Achcemenian dynasty of Persia. That the in-
scription belonged to the period of that dynasty, M. Grotefend.
was led to conclude from a long course of historical study.

In selecting one of the groups of writing as the subject of his
experiment, he fortunately pitched upon the one written in the
latest kind of character—the Persian—from which system nearly
all the pictorial and symbolic signs had disappeared, only the
phonetic or sound-expressing characters having been preserved,
and these reduced in number to about thirty or forty characters.
With these facts, however, M. Grotefend was unacquainted, as

100 The Cuneatic Characters of Babylon, Assyria, and Persia.

they are the fruits of recent discovery. He therefore went to

work entirely unaided, except by his own indomitable perseve-

rance and ingenuity.

Having determined in his own mind the probable date of
the inscription, he next came to the conclusion that, if he could
pitch upon a group of characters likely to represent a proper
name, he should obtain some clue, or some ground for guessing
at the probable meaning and value of several important charac-
ters. With this view he endeavoured to find a group of letters
likely to represent the name of Cyrus, or of any of his immediate
successors. Here, however, he was met by what appeared for
a time an insurmountable difficulty, for although such names as
those of Cambyses and Cyrus are of very unequal length, the
number of characters in any group, which by their frequent
repetition appeared likely to represent proper names, were all
of nearly equal length. At last, however, the persevermg
student fixed upon a group to which he gave the following
value, experimentally, D. A. R. HE. V. SCH. ‘Thus read, they
gave the name of Darius, as pronounced in the ancient Persian.
By sheer good fortune, he had hit upon the actual name of
Darius in this purely hypothetical experiment, and his first step
was, therefore, like that of so many great discoveries, scarcely
more than a bold and happy guess. Being however led on by
certain courses of experiments too long and intricate to detail,
the fortunate student became gradually convinced that he had
thus hit the bull’s-eye by a random shot. With this conviction
he sought diligently for another name, and eventually fixed
upon a second group of characters which he thought ought to
represent the name of Xerxes, or rather, as pronounced in the
ancient Persian, KH. SCH. H. H. R. SCH. H. He was again
successful, aud he afterwards deciphered, in a similar arbitrary
fashion, the name Hystaspes and others.

He had, however, up to this point, adopted no method of
testing the truth of these assumptions, but at last hit upon an
infallible method, which may be explained as follows; taking
the characters from a set of Persian cuneatic alphabet, arranged
according to a recent interpretation, which happens to le upon
my table, and which, though imperfect, will answer the present
purpose, as shown in the accompanyimg diagram.

It was evident that the first and second letters in the first
name ought not to occur at all m the second. ‘They did not.
The third letter in the first name ought to be the fifth in the
second name; andit was so. The fourth letter would not occur
in the second name, but the fifth letter of the first name ought
to be the fourth and the last of the second name; it proved to
be so. The sixth of the first name would be absent in the second,
but the final SCH of DA RY EU SCH should necessarily

The Cuneatic Characters of Babylon, Assyria, and Persia. 101
be both the second, on the last character but one in KH.
SCH. H. HE. R. SCH. E.; and it was so. ~

Thus was the first step in the mterpretation of the cuneatic

characters of the Persian system put to proof; and the re-
sult was acknowledged to be a brilliant discovery. in conse-

vs «il.

iv

Pa

SCH

SCH

H.
peo
A,

linge
Hie 2),

D
JI
KH

quence, however, of different methods being employed im the
Persian system for writing the same words, the discovery was
not entirely accurate, yet it was such a step as fairly led to
the expectation that further progress would speedily follow.
Yet such was not the case. So far and no further, with triflmg
exceptions, did the discoveries of the German scholar and his
immediate successors extend ; and for nearly half a century no
VOL. I.—NO. Il. I

102 Insect Vision and Insect Sleep.

further material progress was made. The whole of the great
discoveries in Egyptian hieroglyphics, in short, took place be-
fore another great step in the reading of the wedge-shaped
characters of Asia was achieved.

It was not, im fact, till the magnificent discoveries of Assy-
rian remains by Botta, and the subsequent researches of Layard,
that Rawlinson, Lassen, Hinks, Norris, and other scholars, aided
by recent progress in the knowledge of Sanscrit, Zendic, and
other ancient Asiatic dialects, completely mastered the cuneatic
characters of the Persian system; the intermediate labours of
Milln, Rask, Bournouf, and St. Martin having led to no very
material results.

Even now, the Assyrian and Babylonian forms of the cune-
atic systems are but very imperfectly known, although the
Persian may be said to be mastered. The earlier forms of
cuneatic writing are, in fact, much more complicated, containing
as they do a vast number of pictorial and symbolic characters,
while the alphabetic or sound-expressing signs form only a sup-
plemental part of those earlier systems. They have still also the
old determinative signs of the Heyptian system, and are over-
loaded with many other incumbrances belonging to the pictorial
and symbolic stage of the art of writing, which ib will require
much time to reduce to order, even after the principles are well
understood. Nevertheless, passages of great historical mterest
have been read off by Rawlinson and other cuneatic scholars,
with a very near approach to their general import, though
minor details admit of much dispute. But we are on the eve
of a final and perfect interpretation of the ancient records of
the Asiatic empires ; a result of modern scholarship which may
throw new and entirely unexpected light upon the history of
those regions.

INSECT VISION AND INSECT SLEHEP.*

BY THE HON. RICHARD HILL.
I.—INSECT VISION.

Novemsrr 24, 1860.—In setting up im a collection our several
crickets, locusts, and grasshoppers, we see that there is a
prevailing colour as marked and as intense in the eyes as.in the
body: thus, locusts are red; grasshoppers green; and crickets
black ; and their eyes are of similar decided hues. Are we to

* These notes have appeared in the pages of a journal which circulates only in

the island of Jamaica; the author wishes them to have a wider publicity, and has
kindly forwarded them to this work for that purpose.—Eps.

Insect Vision and Insect Sleep. 103

infer that objects to them have the same tint as these hues of
the choroid? Are they coloured as we see landscapes to be
when we look through a window of painted glass? Through
the red, are objects beheld as if they were blazing in a fiery fur-
nace; or do they appear as frigid as a snow scene in blue eyes
as through the blue glass? Some purpose is served by the
relation. Let us see, or let us make inquiry what it may be; if
it ends in nothing certain, it will, at least, be attended with
instruction and amusement.

_ In the solar spectrum, there are rays independent of those of
light, which impart a sensation of heat. These calorific rays
are most abundant a little beyond the red verge of the spectrum,
and diminish gradually towards the violet. When it was ob-
served, in the Conservatory at Kew, that plants suffered from
the scorching influence of the calorific rays through the giass
covering, a series of experiments were pursued to ascertain the
possibility of cutting off the heat-imparting rays by means of
tinted glass. A glass tinted of a pale yellow-green prevented
the permeation of the heat rays to the maximum of the calorific
action. The pmky hue of the light was modified, and the
scorching influence subdued. What they sought to accomplish
was effected. They obtained a properly moderated heat.

White is the simultaneous sensation of all the prismatic
colours. By suppressmg red, we obtain a bluish-green hue;
by suppressing the blue and the green, we obtain an excess of
yellow and red. The purest air, or clearest water, gradually
extinguishes, by absorption, the rays passing through them.
The lesser stars are visible on the loftiest mountains ; but their
lessened light hardly affects the sight im the stratum of the
atmosphere at the depth of the plam below. The natural
stimulus of the retina is the action of the luminous rays. Modi-
fications are essential where the activity of perception may be
allied to the conditions of diseased sight. ‘‘ Many are the waves
and coruscations—the fiery clouds and flaming spectra which
’ haunt the amaurotic when certam morbid complications exist,”
and when the optic nerve is peculiarly influenced, a compensa-
tory modification of the pecularity in regard to tint is made by
the adoption of coloured glasses for the sight. We may pre-
sume that what is im excess in the locust is modified by the red
pigment of the eye, and what is superabundant im the grass-
hopper by the yellow and the blue.

The eyes of insects are what are called facetted eyes. They
are cut in hexagonal compartments, and have the appearance
and the power of multiplymg glasses. The outer coat is com-
posed of a thin plate, resembling horn. It is stiff but flexible,
and compact but transparent. Immediately beneath each cor-
neule or hexagonal compartment, that is, beneath the facets of

104: Insect Vision and Insect Sleep.

the outer covering of the eye, is a layer of colour. It covers the
whole of the inner surface of the corneules, excepting only in
the centre of each where a minute aperture is seen, admitting
light by the iris. Between the iris and the end of the cornea
is a space, flattened and convex, filled with an aqueous humour.
Hach convex lens corresponds with each facet. The rays of
light passing through them fall upon a transparent space occu-
pied by a vitreous humour. ‘The choroid in the eyes of insects,

like the choroid in the vertebrata, is the proper vascular struc-

ture of the organ of vision. The pigment of the choroid is
subject to much variety of colour in different sects. In some
it is nearly black, in others dark blue, violet, green, purple,
brown, and yellow, and in some, two or three layers of pigment
are of different colours. The usual arrangement of these varie-
gated pigments is, first, a dark-coloured portion near the bulb
of the optic nerve, then a lighter colour, and lastly, again, a
darker near the cornea.

Puget adjusted the eye of a flea (Pulex writans) in such a
way as to see objects through it. On applying the microscope
to the multitude of mirrors, nothing could exceed the singularity
of what was seen. “A soldier appeared like an army of pig-
mies ; for what it multiplied it diminished ; the arch of a bridge
exhibited a spectacle more magnificent than an edifice erected
by human skill; and the fame of a candle seemed the illumina-
tion of a thousand lamps.” The minute regularity of the
objects in each of the facets, so disposed as to converge to a
central ganglion, make but a single picture in perception. The
great optic nerve uniting into a focal point the comcidence of
what Dr. Wells designates “ the visual direction,” impresses an
image intensely concentrated. The perception of each impres-
sion being confined to that of the object immediately in a line
with the axis of vision, the impacted lights and shadows of a
thousand representations of one and the same form—the visual
product of a thousand facets—give a stereoscopic representa-

tion under a thousand adjustments, and render the small organ .

of the small animal, in power and concentration, a microscope.

The successive zones in the insect eye modify the rays that
penetrate the sight, passing by each facet, and by the centre of
each converging cylinder radiating to the optic ganglion. The
layer of pigment does nothing but diminish the quantity of
light, and adjust it. It is found in most if not all diwrnal
insects, and the iris being perforated with as many holes as
there are facets in the cornea, it is subjected to multiplied
modifications. As might be expected, this pigment is not met
with in any of the nocturnal insects.

Insects that fly require an ample field of vision. The com-
bined corneules become one large pupil. The multiplied facets

Insect Vision and Insect Sleep. 105

render superfluous eyelids and muscles to move the eye. In
consequence of the vision being directed to the whole circum-
ference, it comprehends, by relative adjustment, all-objects
around. A simpler eye occurs in the grovelling insects that
see only what is near with distinctness. In insects which fly
by night, like the moths, there is, in place of the black or
coloured pigment, a substance of a resplendent green, or silvery
colour, serving not to absorb, but to reflect the rays of light,
and enabling them to see by a more obscure illumination than
that of dayhght. The eyes of moths look always luminous, and
appear as if they were phosphorescent, from this reflecting
power. ‘This organization gives a solution to the reason why
moths fly to the candle. They lose all discernment in the blaze
of radiance that overwhelms them by reflection ; and they perish
in the flame into which they rush.

After I had entered among my notes the preceding memo-
randum, I requested my friend, Mr. Toase, to verify for me
Puget’s examination of the facetted eye of an insect, by an in-
spection of the organ under his excellent large microscope. He
kindly complied with my request, and sent me the following
interesting letter =

4 - “ Kingston, 21st January, 1861.

“My pear Sir,—I have taken a che ou fly (Inbellula) as the
study of the eye of aninsect. * *

“The eye was first simply ase from the head of the dragon-
fly and examined under a good lens :—seen thus, it seemed as if it
were covered with intensely small drops of water, something like
dew.

“The eye was next immersed in solvents, and cleaned with a
fine camel’s-hair brush, leaving nothing behind but the cornea. This
to the naked eye had the appearance of a white transparent horny
substance, having the form of a shallow cup.

- “Tt was now placed under a microscope with a power of 250
diameters, or magnifying 62,500 times.

“Under this power the bead-like appearance, noticed with the
simple lens, resolveditself into a definite form, resembling precisely
the cells of the honeycomb as they appear on the broad plane.
like these cells, each division was hexagonal. The substance of
each division was convex exteriorly. We are reminded that this is
the form which economizes space the most, and that it is also the
form always taken by the equal sized round bodies when equally
pressed together. This law we see exemplified in the cellular tissue
of plants, and we account for the elongated form of the cells of the
fibrous tissue, by wnequal pressure. Wesee this law in the formation
of the cells of the honeycomb, as equally sized globular cells equally
pressed laterally and forming hexagonal cells. We see it again,
though imperfectly, it is true, in soap bubbles. Might we not, there-
fore, infer that this peculiar form is the natural effect of a known law,
and that it could not assume any other form? But to remove all

106 Insect Vision and Insect Sleep.

doubt, we must prove our premises, thatis, if the facettes of an in-
sect’s eye, composed originally of an immense number of spheres of
equal size, equally pressed, laterally, pass into the hexagonal form, or
suffer any other modification.

“That they are of equal size is manifest from simple inspection.

“We will now see if experiments prove they are, or have been,
spheres; but I must first speak of some further examination of the
cornea.

“T counted the number of facettes, or faces, by the micrometer,
and found im each eye 12,500, but I thmk they are somewhat more
numerous.

“ Around each facette I found a fringe of fine hairs, which seem
to fulfil the purpose of eyelashes.

“T now placed the cornea in such a manner, that, m looking
through the microscope, and through the cornea, I could see the
flame of a candle. I then saw, not.one flame, but an immense
number of flames ; in fact, an Ulumination of candles on a large scale,
which arrangement quite corresponded with the hexagonal form of
the facettes: thus there was a row of flames, and above this another
row, not one flame above another, but intermediate flames in inter-
mediate rows, and so on one row with another.

“Hach facette is then a distinct eye, producing a distinct image
in each facette.

“ An ordinary observer might infer that the insect saw not one
object, but a multitude of objects; not one flower, but thousands,
producing a complete ‘embarras de richesses,’ most confusing to
the poor fly. It is natural that we should be led to such a conclu-
sion. But, on the other hand, we are taught by analogy that ‘ order
is Nature’s first law.’ To help us to the clue of this second point,
or of this apparent confusion, we will continue our experiments.

“Taking for granted that spheres were upon the disk, I severed
them with a needle and found one end of the several pieces circular,
and the other pomted ; in fact, each separate ocellus, or eye, had the
form of a cone, the basis forming the facette, and the apex converg-
ing to a centre. Hach was embedded in a mass of pigment—in plain
terms, black paint; with each apex receiving a filament of the optic
nerve. Hach separate ocellus, therefore, has a separate power of
vision.

“Hach facette, cone, and filament being separated from all other
facettes, cones, and filaments by a layer of pigment, forms a separate
ocellus, so circumstanced that no ray of light received by one passes
into another, and all the filaments being severed from each other by
the pigment, they in no way interfere with one another.

““We now see, by experiment, that as each ocellus takes up a
distinct picture, each picture is, necessarily, slightly altered in per-
spective. The images, by the direction of the facetted mirrors
severally, are each slightly varied; but being united on the central
ganglion, they form one perception of one object, or one scene. This
is only a multiplication of the incidents of our own vision with two
eyes. If we close one eye, we sec an object in a certain perspective ;
if we close that eye that was open, and open that which was shut,

°

Insect Vision and Insect Sleep. 107

we see the same object in another perspective; yet if we open both eyes
we do not see two images of the same object in different perspectives,
but only one object im proper visual union by coincident perception.

“The moveable eyes in ourselves, and the immoveable eyes in
the insect, do not affect this analogy. The multitude of facettes
accommodate the immoveable eyes to a whole panorama. The
stereoscope will illustrate all the facts in both circumstances of
vision. In the stereoscope we have exhibited to us two representa-
tions of the same object in different perspectives :—the difference
corresponds with the distance between the two lenses through which
we are looking; they are both immoveable, but visually combined
they are but one perception of one and the same object. In the
same way insects, with their multiplied incidents of vision, see by
coincidence but one representation from a multitude of eyes.

“T trust, my dear sir, | have met your purpose in testing Puget’s
experiment.

“‘ Believe me, etc., “Hos. D. Toasn,”

II.—THE SLEEP OF INSECTS.

The ocelli, or secondary eyes of insects, which Linnzeus
regarded as a kind of coronet, and called stemmata, and which
Reaumur conceived were designed for that near vision, which
the primary eyes, by their immoveable structure, could not
accomplish with proper distinctness, have, I have but little
doubt, by the experiments which have been made on vision,
and on the excitement of sleep, a very important influence in
determining somnolency in insects. The vast field of objects
commanded. in vision, without the concentration of attention,
is one of variety, but not of accuracy. In insects there is no
dilation or contraction of a pupil to accommodate the sight to
the circumstances of light and darkness. By attention we are
conscious of perception. If the attention be limited to one
point of a landscape, it sees only the objects there, and though
there be visual impressions, there are no visual perceptions,
where the mind is not attentively absorbed on what it is looking
at. It is without the consciousness of seeing.

How do insects, with their great orbicular eyes always ex-
posed to external stimulants, sleep? Sleep, ike the inclination
for food, is periodical. The habit in the lower animals is the
alternation of light and darkness, in the degree in which one
indicates day and the other night, for in a total eclipse birds
retire to roost, and the diurnal insects resort to repose, and the
nocturnal awake.* The influence that tends to wakefulness or

* Sir Hugh Lyon Playfair, in his lectures on the application of physiology to
the rearing of cattle (Lect. 2nd), gives a very remarkable illustration of the influ-
ence of rapid alternations of light and darkness, without reference to the diurnal

revolutions of the earth, in inducing sleep and inclination for food, in the Italian
mode of rapidly fattening ortolans. At a certain hour in the morning, the keeper

108 Insect Vision and Insect Sleep.

to slumber is the condition of the nervous system. If its func-
tional activity be protracted, the vision gives way under the
exhaustion of the nervous powers. If the action of the mind
be purely intellectual, if the feelings be not excited under that
action, the waste sensorially suffered is to be repaired by sleep,
and the sensation of slumber becomes uncontrollable. The
demand for sleep is the desire to have it; and whether the ab-
sence of sensorial impressions results from the settling of the
mind to rest, or whether it be that darkness cuts off all stimu-
lation from light, or silence conduces to repose, sleep is induced
by the cessation of all visual or emotional excitement. If the
mind be withdrawn from the consciousness of it own operations,
or if it be acted upon by a monotony that either wearies, atten-
tion, or distracting it, leaves the sensorial image without per-
ceptive impression, the result is slumber, or the nervous relaxa-
tion of sleep.
“ Tir’d Nature’s sweet restorer, balmy sleep!
He, like the world, his ready visit pays

Where fortune smiles ;—the wretched he forsakes.”
Youne’s Might Thoughts.

When the mind divides itself between the thoughts and
the emotions, mental activity being unsuspended and the feel-
ings unappeased, the restlessness of anxiety becomes the in-
quietude of wakefulness; and though there be weariness of
both heart and soul, the balm of slumber may be desired, but
tired Nature remains ungratified by the restoration of sleep.

Having thus indicated the circumstances under which beings
slumber, that combine an intelligent nature with a sensational
one, let us examine how insects sleep.

When the senses are blunted to external impressions under
the lessened excitability of the mind, and our ideas, more con-
fused than vivid, are carried beyond ourselves in time and
place, we instinctively he down to repose. All the creatures
organized with eyelids close the eyes against the influence of
light. The temperature of the body sinks, owing to diminished
nervous energy, and we seek with soft things to rest upon,

of the birds places a lantern in the orifice of the wall, made for the special purpose
of darkening and illumining the room. The dim light thrown by the lantern on
the floor of the apartment induces the ortolans to believe that the sun is about to
rise, and they wake and greedily consume the food upon the floor. ‘The lantern
is withdrawn, and the succeeding darkness acting as an actual night, the ortolans
fall asleep. During sleep, little of the food being expended in the production of
force, most of it goes to the formation of flesh and fat. After the birds have been
allowed to repose for one or two hours to carry on digestion and assimilation, the
keeper again exhibits the lantern through the aperture. The mimic daylight
awakes the birds again; again they rise and feed; again darkness ensues, and
again they sleep. ‘The representative sunshine is made to shed its rays four or five
times every day, and as many nights follows its transitory beams. The ortolans
thus treated beeome like balls of fat in a few days.

Insect Vision and Insect Sleep. 109

warm things to cherish us with heat, and then we go to sleep.
The lower animals instinctively do what we do, though each
accommodates itself differently. The horse will sleep standing
in the warm shelter of the stable, though it les down in the
pasture; the bird reposes perching, but with its head buried
in the feathers of the wing; the serpent coils itself in a circle,
or folds itself into the smallest possible space; the fish screens
itself in the weeds, or buries itself in the sand or in the mud
of the stream; the insect withdraws from the scenes of its ordi-
nary activity, and is in a state of somnolent rest, when it re-
mains motionless. As the insect has no eyelids, no external
closure of the eye gives evidence of sleep. ;

As all the {physiological facts of sleep in the vertebrate
animal coincide with effects exhibited by the heart and brain,
and as insects have neither of these organic centres, then sleep
cannot be induced by any peculiar change, either im lessening
or quickening the flow of blood from one extremity to the other,
but must result solely from the quietude of the senses, and from
electrical incidents externally. Monsieur Cabanis, in his Aap-
ports du Physique et Moral, has observed in man that some
of the members and senses go to sleep sooner than others. He
assigns the soporific influence sensationally to fatigue. ‘The
part first feels drowsy in which the flow of the blood is affected.
Among the senses, the eye is the first that goes to sleep; after
it, the smell, taste, hearmg, and touch become successively
drowsy. The touch is never entirely insensitive. The sight
is more difficult to awaken than the hearmeg; a slight noise
will rouse a sleep-walker who had suffered hght upon his un-
shut eyes without any apparent influence; but insects, if
affected at all internally, are very little affected in this way.

The insect world are acutely acted upon by atmospheric
circumstances. Rain or cloudy weather operates upon them like
a continuance or recurrence of night. It is not the warmth or
the dryness of the air, its humid state or its coldness; 1t 1s the
electrical condition that affects them. The constant alternations
of sleep and waking, in whatever way they may be induced
by repose or affected by functional activity, are regulated as
periodical recurrences by the electrical laws of the seasons, by
the reiteration of day and night, by the daily variations of the
barometer, and by the conditions that move the magnetic needle
from east to west at stated hours every day. Extreme weari-
ness will prevent sleep if fatigue is unaccompanied by power-
less attention and unsettled sensation. Let us see how these
known facts may serve to explain the sleep of insects.

We shall comprehend some of the physiological incidents
of slumber by attending to the processes of mesmeric sleep, as
developed by Mr. James Braid in his work on Neurypnology,

110 Insect Vision and Insect Sleep.

or the rationale of nervous sleep, in relation with animal mag-
-netism. I would be brief with my extract, and yet I can
scarcely venture to abridge his language. He says he induced
cataleptic sleep, which he designates hypnotism, by keeping
the eyes fixed on an object, and the mind rivetted on the idea
of that one object. He so regulated the distance of it from the
sight as to produce the greatest possible strain upon the eyes
and eyelids. “It will be observed,” he says, “that, owing to
the consensual adjustment of the eyes, the pupils will be at first
contracted; they will shortly begin to dilate; and after they
have done so to a considerable extent, and have assumed a wavy
motion, the eyes will close involuntarily with perceptible vibra-
tions. Ten or fifteen minutes elapse, and the arms and legs
are found disposed to be retained in the position im which they
are placed. If the patient has not been so intensely affected
as this implies, then, if he be spoken to in a soft tone of voice,
and desired to retain the limbs in that or in an extended
position, the pulse will speedily become greatly accelerated, and
the limbs involuntarily fixed. It will now be found that all the
organs of special sense, excepting sight, including heat and
cold, and muscular motion and resistance, and certain mental
faculties, are at first prodigiously exalted. It is such an ex-
altation as happens with regard to the primary effects of opium,
wine, and spirits. After a certain point, however, this exalta-
tion of function is followed by a state of depression far greater
than the torpor of natural sleep. From the state of the most
profound torpor of the organs of special sense and tonic rigidity
of the muscles, they may at this stage be instantly restored to
the opposite condition of extreme mobility and exalted sensi-
bility, by directing a current of air against the organ or organs
we wish to render limber, and which had been in the catalepti-
form state. By mere repose the senses will speedily merge
into the original condition again.” Now, none of these pro-
cesses, in inducing sleep, would be applicable to insects whose
eyes are immoveable, if the provision for seeing was confined to
the two large globular eyes on each side of the head; but being
provided with ocelli, or auxiliary eyes, placed on the vertex of —
the head, these facts illustrate the drowsy insect. The struc-
ture of these auxiliary organs is just that of one of the lenses
of the compound eye, but being so placed that they can be set
close to what they examine, and can concentrate the attention
to the exclusion of the objects that occupy the globular facetted
eyes, it is possible that such visual concentration, when the
insect retires to repose, induces just that perceptive vibration
described in cataleptic sleep by which slumber can be brought on.

An insect composes itself to sleep with its antennae folded.
Some of the beetles adjust them to their breast; the butterfly

Application of the Microscope to the Art of Design. 111

seeks some particular aspect of a tree, and folds vertically its
wines, throws back the antennz, and remains motionless and
insensible to all external circumstances. When caterpillars,
which are insatiable feeders, are observed resting immoveable
with their heads bent down, they are asleep. The geometers
may be remarked stretched our for hours projected from a twig
resembling the angular stem of those trees they are feeding
upon, and the processionary caterpillars, whose night marches,
in marshalled communities, are regulated with such remarkable
exactness, that they resemble battalions platooning over a field,
in “strict love of fellowship combined” in passing the day in
inaction, spend it in repose.

Whatever may be the controlling cause that renders some
insects diurnal feeders and flyers, and some nocturnal and cre-
puscular movers, frolicking or feasting in the twilight, the
solution must be sought in the adaptive differences that regu-
late the “sleep of plants.’ Some plants repose by night;
others expand in the darkened hours, and slumber under the
stimulation of ight. Whether the closing of the flower be at
nightfall, or its opening be as soon as daylight fades, or whether
it be the reversal of this order, the differences are precisely the
same as in those animals that sleep through the day and awake
at night, or that awaken in light and slumber in darkness.
The regular intervals that lead to sleeping or waking are the
recurrences of those electrical incidents that attend the inter-
changes of day and night in the atmosphere.

ON THH APPLICATION OF THE MICROSCOPE TO
THE ART OF DESIGN.

BY HENRY J. SLACK, F.G.S.

MANUFACTURING experience affords many instances of surpris-
ing success achieved by ornamental goods, whose patterns were
judiciously selected from natural objects; but although examples
of various combinations of form and colour occur in great pro-
fusion in those portions of the natural world which are acces-
sible to unassisted sight, the microscope constantly presents us
with a rich store of ideas which the decorative artist would do
well to study and employ. If colour be the especial subject of
his pursuit, the wings of butterflies or the wing-cases of
beetles, the petals of flowers—such as London-pride—muinute
sea-weeds, and other common objects, are highly instruc-
tive; and if we were requested to pomt out an illustra-
tion of the union of extraordinary splendour with grateful

112 Application of the Microscope to the Art of Design.

repose, we could not do better than refer to the armour in
which the diamond beetle is arrayed. When Mr. Owen Jones
completed his “Alhambra Court,” at the Crystal Palace, every
one was struck by the mingled softness and gorgeousness
of the aspect. The eye could look steadily without beme
wearied, while a visit to the House of Lords, when its colours
were new and fresh, afflicted observers with an unpleasant
sense of tension, rapidly followed by wearmess, from which
there was no escape. Hven in the cases of persons afflicted
with colour blindness, we sometimes find that what may be
called colour discords are productive of disagreeable impres-
sions, while colour harmonies, although only partially perceived,
call forth pleasurable emotions.* Still more striking are the
effects of colour harmonies and discords upon individuals whose
physical and mental organs are in a sound and cultivated state.
They are not satisfied with the mere avoidance of mistakes, or
with the presentation of the most elementary concords which
pigments can produce. Their tastes lead them to desire to
untwist all the chams of colour harmony; they love the com-
plicated effects of tertiary combinations, and are discontented
with brilliance if it be destitute of repose.

What constitutes repose in colour is a difficult question, but
it 1s probably connected with the physical action of different
kinds of light on the optic nerve. Red, blue, and yellow, in
the proportions which theoretically produce white hght, are
agreeable ; but not exclusively so, and nearly all the modifications
of prismatic colour obtained by means of crystals and the polari-
scope are satisfactory m a greater or less degree to the eye, It
naturally follows that the more vivid the hght emanating from
coloured bodies, the more strikingly the defects of harmony are
disclosed, and although there are many cases in which brightness
and intensity become sources of a high degree of pleasure, they
are not unfrequently productive of sensations akin to pain. In
the scales which adorn the diamond beetle, the lustre, under
good illumination, is nearly equal to that of the most brilliant
gems, and yet the eye can rest upon it without fatigue. An at-
tentive observation will show how this depends upon the juxta-
position of cool and warm tints, the gorgeous yellows and
orange chromes bemg relieved by a due proportion of blues
and greens. Diamond beetle colours are not wanted in large
masses, but the first manufacturer who composes them into a
border, whether it be for porcelain or a textile fabric, with a
warm chocolate ground, can scarcely fail to be rewarded for his
pains.

* This is not an imaginary case ; the writer knows a gentleman to whom no
colour appears as it does to other people, and who is apparently insensible to pure

red rays, but who is much annoyed by many colour discords, and able to arrange
a nosegay so as to produce an agreeable effect.

Application of the Microscope to the Artof Design. 118

Before leaving the subject of microscopic colour study, let
us point to the use of the polariscope for observations, which
no other method can place so readily within reach. It is usual
to display polarizing objects in their most striking situations,
when they present contrasted masses of pure prismatic colour.
From these, however, the decorative artist will learn little; but
if he takes a concentrated solution of nitre, or tartaric acid,
and allows a drop to crystallize rapidly on a warm slide, he
is tolerably certain to obtain his material in such forms, and
i such varying thicknesses, as will enable him to produce a
number of interesting tertiary combinations, by adjusting the
polarizing and analyzing prisms to the best positions for the
particular effect desired. These experiments require a selenite
stage, and the means of rotating both prisms, and not the
polarizer only, as is the case with the arrangements that some
opticians send out.

For a combination of green tints and forms, adapted to
the jeweller and enameller, the desmids may be recommended,
of which some useful specimens are figured in Recreative Science,
vol. ii. p. 279. The beautiful fluted and otherwise marked
bottles of the Foramenifera fern, called Lagenze, would furnish
classical patterns for the glass-blower, and his attention should
likewise be directed to the polycystina from Barbadoes, whose
siliceous shells of varied shapes glitter like the finest crystal
when lit up by the dark ground illumination which the para-
bola affords.

Another class of objects that merit attention for the sugges-
tions they afford, are the spmes of the echinus, or sea urchin.
The sea urchins belong to the echinodermata, or “hedge-hoe
skinned animals,” a class which comprehends star-fishes, sea
hedge-hogs, or urchins, and those curious creatures the sea
cucumbers. Many readers will be familiar with Edward Forbes’s
classical work, entitled “ British Star-fishes ;”’ but for the benefit
of those who do not know his remarks on the urchins, we may
state that m one of moderate size he found 3720 pores arranged
in ten series, or “‘ avenues,’ with one sucker to every two pores.
Their shells are composed of nearly 600 angular pieces fitted
together like a mosaic, each plate being enveloped in the lining
membrane, by which it was deposited, and which provides for
its growth. These plates are furnished with about 4000 spines,
every spine being built up of a multitude of pieces deposited by
a livmg tissue, and producing a radiating pattern as shown in
the timted plate, which has been engraved from a drawing
by Mrs. Henry Slack. Fig. A represents a thin section of an
usually beautiful spine, illuminated by a unilateral slanting
light, arranged at such an angle as to mass certain portions
together in solid diverging rays. Fig B gives a truer idea

114 Application of the Microscope to the Art of Design.

of the minute structure ; but A is far more suggestive for the
purposes of decorative art. It only requires reducing to strict
symmetry to supply an idea for an oriel window, a tesselated
pavement, or the centre of a plate. A slght change in
the angle of the ilumimatig pencil, coupled with an in-
crease of its briliancy, produces a splendid effect at night.
The solid-looking rays shine with a lustre between that of
glass and gems, while the more transparent portions assume a
pearly or a silvery hue. In this state we have suggestions for
a star of an order of knighthood, or a superb brooch. With
the echinus spine, as with other objects adapted to our present
purpose, the decorative idea varies with the mode of illumina-
tion, and that which is best for artistic effect is not always the
most desirable for a scientific analysis of the structure. A com-
plete set of these experiments requires a good microscope, fur-
nished with a Lieberkuhn and dark cells, a side silver reflector
(which had better be on a separate stand), and the parabolic
illuminator, with all of which the object should be tried. It
is also imperative that the mirror under the stage should be
mounted upon an area capable of throwing it out of the per-
pendicular plane of the instrument, and that the aperture of the
stage should be large enough to admit light sufficiently oblique
to produce the effect of a dark ground.

We may refer, in concluding these brief remarks, to the
compound. polyps, and the polyzoa, so common on our coasts,
and which can scarcely be excelled in beauty when properly
shown. A small sketch of the Laomedea geniculata is given
n p. 131, vol. i1., of Recreative Science. When living, the ten-
tacles resembled pendants of frosted glass, the cells were clear
crystal goblets, and the stalks of a horny texture and colour.
From these polyps a clever designer could easily have devised
a pattern for an epergne, a portion of a border for a tesselated
pavement, or a figure for a sitting-room paper or a lady’s
dress. The rational use of such objects cannot be attained by
mere imitation, but through the apprehension of a principle or
an idea, and its reproduction according to the purpose of the
manufacturer and the laws of decorative art.

The Common Liver Entozoon of Cattle. 115

THE COMMON LIVER ENTOZOON OF CATTLE.

BY T. SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.L.S.,

Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy, Zoology, and Botany, at the Middlesex
Hospital Medical College.

Ir the attractive-looking amphistome, figured from Blanchard,
and described in the preceding number of this periodical, has
excited a desire for further information on “‘ parasites not gene-
rally understood,” the writer is confident that the more fami-
liarly known creature whose portrait is annexed, will be found
worthy of the most attentive consideration. i

This little entozoon, more powerful for the destruction of its
friends than are our huge armaments for the annihilation of our
enemies, destroys m Hngland alone some tens, and even hun-
dreds of thousands of sheep annually, besides afflicting in a
lesser degree the larger cattle ;* added to which, our own
viscera are sometimes deemed worthy of a visit; though,
happily, this is of extremely rare occurrence. Obviously,
therefore, the naturalist who shall be able to pomt out any
means whereby the ravages of the common liver fluke may be
frustrated, will confer a great boon on society at large, and
more especially on agriculturists and cattle-breeders, who are
most nearly interested in the welfare and preservation of their
flocks.

On more than one occasion the writer has sought to convey
to the parties above mentioned accurate intelligence as to the
mode in which the liver flukes gain access to their hosts, or, m
other words, to the bodies of the herbivorous quadrupeds they
infest; but, as happens too frequently in such cases, he has
found the vague opinions of a bygone age deemed more worthy
of credit than the clearly enunciated facts of recent scientific
discovery. When a still brighter light, however, shall have
brought to view all the missing links now wanting to complete
the chain of evidence, the promoters of science will more hope-
fully seek to enlighten those who, in so far as natural know-
ledge is concerned, are unwisely clinging to the “tales of a
grandfather.”

* Lest the writer may be thought to exaggerate the numbers here spoken of, he
begs to call attention to an extract from that trustworthy and admirably con-
ducted northern journal, the “ Edinburgh Veterinary Review.” At p. 63 of last
year’s volume the following passage occurs:—“‘In England this scourge of the
ovine race has occasionally reduced the number of sheep so much as to materially
enhance the price of healthy animals. For instance, in the season of 1830-31, the
estimated deaths of sheep from rot was between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000. By
supplying turnip, oleaginous cakes, and grain, sheep partially affected can be fat-
tened ; and those not affected can be kept sound by a limited daily allowance of

one or other of these foods.” Supposing the number to have been 1,500,000, this
would represent a sum of upwards of £4,000,000!

ALG The Common Liver Entozoon of Cattle.

The general reader and the accomplished scholar are
probably little aware of the extreme difficulties which attend
experimental investigations into the modes of reproduction
found to obtain in entozoic life, and yet it is by these artificial
means alone that practical science can successfully carry out its
benevolent purposes. If conducted properly, the necessary
experiments not only require time and the sacrifice of personal
interests; but, in addition, a special supply of funds for the
purchase of the larger animals to be operated on. In this
country, such grants from governmental sources are not usually
entertained, but on the continent—in that despised little king-
dom of Saxony, for example—we find a ready hand tendered to
the indefatigable cultivators of helminthological inquiry. One
of the foremost of these is Dr. Frederick Kiuchenmeister, of
Zittau, who, in the preface to his well-known work on human
parasites, says, “The animals employed in experiments by
myself, and at my own cost, were rabbits, cats, dogs, and a few
sheep. The greater number of the pigs and sheep thus
bestowed were procured at the expense of the Saxon ministry
of the interior, by Professor Haubner, of the Veterinary School
at Dresden; a considerable number of sheep being also
provided at the expense of the Agricultural Society of Saxon
Lusatia, and by the kindness of individual landowners.”

In England the Royal Society and the British Association,
following the example of the Parisian Academy. of Sciences,
have frequently devoted small sums to private investigators and
dredging committees, for the judicious purpose of forwarding
researches of a more or less purely scientific character; and it
would be gratifying to hear that other public bodies had volun-
teered similar assistance to independent workers whose pursuits
embrace more practical aims, and whose discoveries could not
fail to benefit the community at large. The subject matter
under consideration is one of those in which much still remains
to be accomplished; but, before pointing out the special require-
ments of the case, the writer requests attention to the follow-
ing ascertained facts respecting the structure and habits of the
common liver fluke of sheep and cattle.

This entozoon has been known from the earliest times, and
the animal may almost be said to have acquired a literature of
its own. However, as regards the obscure opinions formerly
entertained concerning it, little, perhaps, need be said; but
those who may desire a list of references are invited to consult
the author’s Synopsis of the Distomide, quoted on a former
occasion.

The scientific names of this parasite involve a question of
some importance. Amongst naturalists gcuerally it is continu-
ally spoken of under the combined generis and specific titles

o

The Common Liver Hntozoon of Cattle. 117

of Distoma hepaticum; but working parasitologists, who are
at the same time acquainted with the writings of the earlier
scientific observers, know very well that these titles are both
incorrect and inappropriate. ‘The proper generic appellation of
this parasite is Fasciola, as first proposed by the illustrious
Linneeus (1767), and subsequently adopted by I. Miller (1787),
Brera (1811), Ramdohr (1814), and others. Unfortunately,
however, Retzius (1786) and Zeder (1800) changed the generic
title without good cause, and the majority of writers, following
their authority, obstinately refuse to employ the original name,
although fair dealing with the posthumous reputation of its dis-
tinguished author, and a consideration of the distinctive types
of structure displayed by the two genera (Distoma and Fasciola),
alike demand the retention of the Linnean title. In later times,
M. Emile Blanchard (1847), of Paris, has strongly advocated
the final adoption of the Linnean nomenclature, and the writer
himself has also from time to time (in 1854, -56,-58, and 1860)
demonstrated the propriety of rejecting the. commonly received
synonym. Another distinguished French naturalist, namely,
Professor Moquin-Tandon, has also employed the term Fasciola,
but by placing in the genus several species not properly be-
longing to it, such as Distoma lanceolatwm and D. heterophyes,
he has unwittingly rendered “‘ confusion worse confounded.”

The Fasciola hepatica is not only of frequent occurrence in
all varieties of grazing cattle, but has likewise been found in
the horse and ass by Daubenton ; also in the hare and rabbit by
the writer himself and others, in the squirrel by Tozzetti as
previously mentioned, in the great kangaroo (Macropus gigan-
teus) by Bremser and Diesing, in various antelopes and deer by
Pluskal, etc., and also in the beaver (Castor fiber) by Czermack.
tis occurrence in man has been recorded by Pallas, Bauhinus,
and Bidloo, doubtful instances being also given by Mehlis and
Duval. More recently, Professor Partridge of King’s College
’ detected it in the human gall-bladder, particulars of the case
being described in the second edition of Dr: Budd’s well-known
treatise on “‘ Diseases of the Liver.” Guiesker of Zurich men-
tions an undoubted example where the Fasciola had lodged in
the sole of a woman’s foot, whilst a similar case came under the
observation of Mr. Fox of Topsham, Devon, the entozoon
being located beneath the skin, about three inches behind the
ear, Mr. Harris of Liverpool has likewise related an example ,
where six or seven flukes had apparently penetrated the scalp of
a little child, and there is every reason to believe that all these
entozoa are referable to the species under consideration.

if attention be directed to the accompanying coloured plate,
it will be noticed that the central figure, copied from Blanchard,
exhibits the ventral surface of the Fasciola hepatica; and, as

VOL. I.—NO. Il. K

118 The Common Liver Entozoon of Cattle.

the animal seldom attains the length’ of an inch, this drawing
(fig. 1) represents an ordinary specimen magnified about six
diameters linear. To the naked eye the skin appears smooth,
but microscopic aid shows the cuticle to be furnished with
numerous rows of minute pointed spines (fig. 5). In the
Amphistome we find two pores, one at either extremity of the
body ; but in the genus Fasciola, as also obtains in the majority
of flukes, the oral and ventral suckers are more nearly approxi-
mated. The latter pore is frequently termed the acetabulum,
and in the illustration before us it 1s seen occupying a median

position at the base of the neck. It does not communicate with

any cavities internally, and is simply employed as a “ holdfast.”
The oral sucker forming the mouth leads to the short cesophagus,
which very soon divides into two primary stomachal or intes-
tinal trunks, which latter in their turn give off branches and
branchlets ; the whole together forming that beautiful dendritic
system of vessels which has often been compared to foliar
venation. This remarkably formed digestive apparatus is
accurately represented in the annexed diagram (fig. 2), which
should be contrasted with the somewhat similarly racemose
character of the water-vascular system, shown on the opposite
side of the plate (fig. 3). Let it be expressly noted, however,
that in the digestive system the majority of the tubes branch
out in a direction obliquely downwards, whereas those of the

vascular system slope obliquely upwards. A further compa-.

rison of the disposition of these two systems of structure with
the same systems figured and described as characteristic of the
Amphistome, will at once serve to demonstrate the important
differences which subsist between the several members of the
two genera.

These distinctions stand out with equal cogency if we care-

fully examine the arrangements of the complicated reproductive
apparatus; and here again the colours introduced into the
plate at once enable us to institute a new comparison, and at
the same time supersede the necessity of an otherwise extended
description of the parts. All the orange-yellow-brown masses,
with their delicate, connecting, dark coloured lines belong to
the female division of the reproductive elements of this her-
maphroditic species; the dark, central mass of folded tubes
being the combined uterine cavity and oviduct, in which the
eggs complete their final stage of development, before they
gain access to the outer world. The multitude of little bo-
tryoidal organs occupying the sides of the body, and all that
part which may legitimately be called the tail, are the so-called
yelk-forming glands, and it will be observed that they commu-
nicate with the above mentioned oviducal, uterine folds, by the
intervention of two common ducts, which run transversely in-

The Common Liver Entozoon of Cattle. 119

wards from either side, and meet together in the middle line.
The canals in question convey the yelk-granules, which are
formed in this curious set of organs, specially developed for
their secretion in the flukes, ‘The terminal portion of the male
reproductive apparatus (fig. 6) is not unlike that of the Am-
phistome, the vasa deferentia uniting to form a sac, which
is lodged within a sheath-like pouch; the latter embracing the
lower part of the spirally protruded intromittent organ. The
testes, mstead of displaying the simple lobular character seen
in the Amphistome, are split up, as it were, into tortuous bands,
the two glandular masses together occupying the centre of the
body. According to Blanchard, the glands are intimately
blended with one another, and he also recognises the existence
of a third duct, which he represents as connected with the
shorter vas deferens. Be that as it may, the extent and com-
plication of these organs are sufficiently calculated to excite
astonishment ; whilst, at the same time, they afford a very fair
criterion of the reproductive powers enjoyed by this group of
animals. ‘The eggs are a trifle larger than those of the Am-
phistome, the chorion or shell being of a yellow-brown colour
(fig. 7), and provided with a lid to facilitate the escape of the
enclosed ciliated embryo. ‘The nervous system consists of two
cerebral lobes, one on either side of the oral cavity, and of a
series of feebly developed ganglia, connected to the former by
continuous filaments (fig. 4). Only two or three pairs of
ganglia have as yet been indicated, but the filaments have
been traced on either side of the body, to within a short dis-
tance of the caudal extremity. Kiichenmeister altogether
denies the existence of a nervous system in the fluke; but heis
obviously unacquainted with the original discoveries of Mehlis
and the subsequent descriptions of Otto and Blanchard.

Turn we now to the consideration of the habits of Fasciola
hepatica, which, in so far as they relate to the excitation of the
liver disease in sheep, acquire the highest practical importance.
Intelligent cattle-breeders, agriculturists, and veterinarians
have all along observed that the rot, as this disease is called, is
particularly prevalent after long continued wet weather, and
more especially so if there have been a succession of wet
seasons: and from this circumstance they have very naturally
inferred that the humidity of the atmosphere, coupled with a
moist condition of the soil, forms the sole cause of the malady.
Co-ordinating with these facts, it has likewise been noticed that
the flocks grazing in low pastures and marshy districts are
much more liable to the invasion of this endemic disease than
are those pasturing on higher and drier grounds ; a noteworthy
exception occurring in the case of those flocks feeding in the
salt-water marshes of our eastern shores. The latter circum-

120 The Common Liver Entozoon of Catile.

stance has suggested the common practice of mixing salt with
the food of sheep and cattle, both as a preventive and. curative
agent; and there can be little doubt that this remedy has been
attended with more or less satisfactory results. The intelligible
explanation of the good effected by this mode of treatment we
shall find to be intimately associated with a correct under-.
standing of the genetic relations of the entozoon im question, for’
it is probable that the larve of Fasciola hepatica exist only m
the bodies of fresh water snails or small aquatic animalcules.

Ji igs not intended in the present communication to offer a.
lenethened account of the various discoveries and facts which
enable us to make this last-named statement ; but correlating all
the known data afforded by the experience of the parties above
mentioned, by observant naturalists, by our own researches, and.
more particularly by the recent experimental investigations of
continental helminthologists, we shall provisionally state im a
tentative manner the conclusions to which a due consideration.
of all these facts inevitably lead. The deductions here recorded
may eventually require modification in respect of their minor
details, but in the main they will be found substantially correct,
and therefore be likely to convey that kind of imformation
which can scarcely fail to interest those more mmediately con-
cerned in the preservation of cattle :—

1. The Fasciola hepatica, or sexually mature liver-fluke, is
especially prevalent in sheep during the spring of the year, at
which time it constantly escapes from the alimentary canal of
the host, and is thus transferred to open pasture-grounds.

2. It has been shown by dissections that the liver of a
smmgle sheep may, at any given time, harbour several dozen
specimens of the fluke, and it is certain that every mature en-
tozoon will contain many thousands of minute eggs.

do. The escaped flukes do not exhibit powers of locomotion
sufficient to prove them capable of undertaking an extended.
migration, but their movements may subserve the purpose of
concealing them within the grass or soft soil where they have
fallen. Their habit of coiling upon themselves probably facili-
tates the expulsion of their eges.

4, The eggs can only escape from the oviduct of the ento-
zoon one at a time, but there is every reason to believe that
large numbers of loose ova are expelled from the infested sheep
in the same manner as the flukes themselves.

5. By the dispersing agency of winds, rains, insects, feet
of cattle, dogs, rabbits, and other animals, and even by man
himself, the eggs are carried in various directions, not a few of

them ultimately finding their way into pools, ponds, ditches,
canals, and running streams.

The Common Liver Hntozoon of Cattle. 121

6. The freed eggs, if mature, contain ciliated embryos,
capable of active progression when brought in contact with dew
on the blades of grass, rain-drops, pools of water, ponds, and
lakes. The prolonged action of moisture without, aided by
vigorous movements of the perfected embryo within, serves to
loosen the lid-like end of the egg-shell, by the opening of
which the animalcule 1s set free.

7. The ciliated embryo, or proscolex, as Van Beneden calls
it, contains within itself a solitary germ, which is developed by
a process of internal budding into a non-ciliated larva, or
scolez in the language of the Louvain Professor.

8. The ciliated embryo, after swimming about for a time,
sooner or later selects and attaches itself to the surface of the
body of a pond-snail, a slug, or the soft body of some aquatic
insect. In this situation it looses its ciliated covering, and
subsequently gains access to the interior of the selected host.

9. Once within the viscera of its host, the embryo disap-
pears, leaving the hitherto contained germ-bud, or scolex, to
undergo its further development, which is accomplished rapidly,
a second progeny being at the same time formed within its
own interior.

10. The enlarged and mdependent scolex is now trans-
formed into a large sac, or cyst, for the support and protection
of its contained progeny. In this condition it is frequently
called a “ Nurse,’ or ‘ Sporocyst,” and when rather highly
organized, is known by the title of “ Redia.”

11. The nurse-progeny, or trematode larve, thus produced
within the scolex, are usually furnished with tails, and when
fully developed are the well-known Cercariz. Van Beneden
calls them proglottides, but the term is appropriate.

12. The Cercariz have a tendency to migrate from ‘the
bodies of their molluscan or insect hosts, and they are quite
capable of an independent existence. During these wanderings
in the water, or in moist pastures, they are occasionally brought
‘in contact with the human body, and, in a few instances, ap-
pear to have succeeded in penetrating the skin.

13. It is not certain whether the Cercariz are taken into
the bodies of quadrupeds when the latter are drinking water
or eating solid food, but it is probable that they are trans-
ferred im either way. It is not unlikely that they are often
swallowed while still within the bodies of their molluscan or
insect hosts. .

14, From the digestive organs of the sheep or cattle the
Cercarize bore their way through the tissues into the liver, in
which situation they part with their tails, and become encysted.
This constitutes the so-called pupa stage.

15. The pupa, thus encysted for many weeks, or even

122 The Common Liver Entozoon of Cattle.

months, attains a higher organization, at last becoming con-
verted into the sexually mature Fasciola hepatica. It then
gains access to the liver ducts, passes into the common biliary
outlet, or ductus choledicus communis, from thence is trans-
ferred into the intestinal canal, being finally expelled from its
vertebrate host in the manner previously described.

If due consideration be awarded to the conclusions above
given, 1b will at once be perceived that the multitude of reme-
dies which are daily administered to sheep for the cure of the
rot, or cachexia aquosa, can prove of little avail. Hvery year
we hear of the adoption, often with enthusiasm, of new so-
called specifics, or of ancient medicines whose employment had
long fallen into desuetude. Thus, for: example, in the April
number of the Journal des Veétérinaires du Midi for 1860,
we find M. Raynaud strongly recommending soot, in doses of
from one to three spoonfuls, to be followed up by the adminis-
tration of a grain of lupin for tonic purposes. In like manner
we have received from France wonderful accounts of the me-
dicinal virtues of a certain foetid oleaginous compound, the
value of which has been lately put to a fair test by our distin-
guished veterinarian, Professor Simonds. This last-named
gentleman having with infinite care and trouble undertaken a
series of experiments with the nauseating remedy in question,
informs us, in the Scottish Farmer and Horticulturist, as a
result of his inquiries, that he fears “‘we must conclude that
this supposed cure of rot in sheep has proved quite ineffective
for good in our experience.”

It is not now proposed to enter into details respecting the
genetic relations of Fasciola hepatica; but the writer begs
to inform estate-owners, agriculturists, sheep-farmers, stock-
masters, and all other parties interested in the welfare of flocks
and in the production of cheap and wholesome food, that a
true solution of this important economic question, in so far
as it relates to the production of healthy meat, can only be
obtained by the further prosecution of our experimental re-
searches. In this attitude only can we ultimately hope to
achieve a certain knowledge of the means of preventing, if
not of entirely eradicating, this fearful disease ; and the writer
confesses that it seems to him strange that the cost of these
necessary experiments should hitherto, in this country at least,
have exclusively rested with those who have given much time,
aided by such talents as they may possess, to practically scien-
tific inquiries. On independent grounds he has himself, year
by year, sought to throw light upon the origin and develop-
ment of the various internal parasites which either annoy or
destroy our valuable animals; and as, in some instances, these
experiments have proved eminently instructive, he cannot avoid

A Visit to the Python in the Zoological Gardens. 128

expressing regret that the costly nature of these investigations
has alone prevented their further prosecution.

Those who desire to know what has been doing in other
lands towards the elucidation of this important subject should,
in particular, consult the Treatise De la Reproduction chez les
Trématodes endo-parasites, par J. J. Moulimé. Hatrait dw tome
LTT. des Mémoires de VInstitut Génévois ; and also the excel-
lent helminthological memoir by Dr. H. A. Pagenstecher, of
Heidelberg, entitled T'rematodenlarven und Trematoden, at
the close of which latter the author appends a note referring to
the above-mentioned work, finally adding, ‘‘ We are encou-
raged again to take up our hitherto fruitless searchings among
land-snails, and we hope, with M. Moulinié, that the next steps
in this direction will clear up the history of the development of
Distoma hepaticum.” In this desire the writer heartily con-
curs, regretting only, for the reasons previously stated, that
his brother-workers on the Continent should deprive the fair
fluke of its proper generic name.

A VISIT TO THE PYTHON IN THE ZOOLOGICAL
GARDENS.

BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD.

Durine the past six weeks the number of visitors to the Zoolo-
gical Gardens has been considerably augmented by the announce-
ment that the large Python might be seen “incubating her -
eggs.” On the 13th of February I had the pleasure of wit-
nessing the novel spectacle, in the company of afew friends, and
the event furnishes a proper opportunity for placing on record.
a few particulars of the addition thus made to our knowledge of
herpetology. Previous to 1849, so we learn from Dr. Sclater’s
“Guide to the Gardens,” ‘‘no attempt had been made in this
country to exhibit the class of reptiles under conditions which
might make it possible to understand anything of their habits.’
The attempt then made has been eminently successful, and
many disputed points in the history of the Reptilia have been
settled by the opportunities which the Society’s collection has
afforded for observation, inquiry into the habits, and specific
-distmections of those representatives of the class which have been
domesticated in the gardens. ‘There are two structures devoted
to them, No. 49, the reptile-house, and No. 50, the python-
house. In these warm houses the reptiles are exhibited in a
way to ensure perfect safety to visitors and perfect freedom,

124 A Visit to the Python im the Zoological Gardens.

within proper limits, to the inmates of the comfortable, roomy,
glass-fronted dens, which are variously furnished with stumps of
trees, beds of clean pebbles, drinking and bathing troughs, and
other accessories to the well-doing of the formidable pets.
Among the principal inhabitants of these houses are, first,
Python molurus, from India, the subject of this notice*: P.
vegius, P. reticulata, Boa constrictor; Chilobothrus inornatus
(the yellow boa) ; Crotalus durissus, the rattlesnake; Naia haje,
the cobra; Cenchris piscwvorus, the water viper; Pelias berus, the
common viper; and a very geod collection of snakes, vipe-
rines, and. batrachians.

Before detailing the results of our visit, a few words on the
position of Python molurus in the recognized classification may
not be out of place. The method of arranging the Reptilia,
adopted respectively by Oppel, De Blainville, Dr. J. H. Gray,
Cuvier (fegne Animal, 2nd edition), and Bell, are very nearly
identical in their leading features; those of Merrem and Fitz-
inger differ considerably from the systems which have been
generally recognized in this country, because they rely chiefly on
the characteristics of the integuments; whereas structure and
function are comprehended to a more or less extent in the ar-
rangements which have been found most useful. Objections
may be made to each of the systems hitherto devised, on the
ground that the basis of classification varies at each stage,
which is unavoidable in a natural arrangement. The result of
this in Dr. J. H. Gray’s classification is, that the crocodiles are
separated from the turtles by the whole distance of the mter-
mediate orders, the ophidian serpents standing midway between
the extremes. Cuvier groups the chelonians and crocodilians
side by side, as possessing a heart with a single auricle and
limbs ; the saurians follow, havg a heart with a double auri-
cle, teeth, and limbs; next come the ophidians, comprising ‘all
snakes and serpents. At the bottom of the scale are the
batrachians. Professor Bell departs from this system only to
place the lacertee below the ophidians, and there is scarcely an
exception in any of the systems to the assignment of a position
midway between the extreme highest and extreme lowest—to the
ereat class of serpents, which are inferior to the crocodiles, in
having either rudimentary limbs or no limbs at all, and superior
to the batrachians in the comparatively high functional capacities
of the brain and heart.

Cuvier regarded the ophidians as most deserving the name
of reptiles of any of the order, for the simple reason that they
are without feet. He arranges them in three families—anguis,
with scaly skin and three eyelids; true serpents, with scaly skin

* Tt is labelled Python sebme, but described by Dr. Sclater as Python molurus.

A Visit to the Python in the Zoological Gardens. 125

without a third eyelid; naked serpents, which have no scales.
The true serpents, as grouped by Cuvier, comprise those which
have no sternum or shoulder-blade. Many of them have, how-
ever, rudimentary posterior limbs, of which the boas and py-
thons are examples. The protrusion of these in the form of
anal hooks is usually visible, and they are no doubt of some use
to the animal in locomotion, and in that peculiar act of grasping
a tree by the tail while lying in wait for prey on the bank of a
pool or stream. Professor Owen (Odontography) proposes to
divide the Ophidia into two groups, in order to separate those
which feed on small invertebrate animals from the typical ophi-
dians, which swallow animals of greater diameter than their
own. ‘The first have the jaws articulated in a way which admits
of no expansion, whereas in the typical ophidians the superior
maxillaries are jomed by an elastic tissue with the intermaxil-
lary bone, and the articulations of the maxillary rami and the
pterygoid bones are also elastic, and a dislocation of the whole
framework takes place during the act of deglutition.

The pythons and boas form a very distinct family m the
order Ophidia. The hinder limbs are developed under the
skin, and terminate in a horny spme on each side of the vent.
They are without venom, but are compensated for that by their
immense muscular force, by the exertion of which they crush
their prey, by the almost paimless process of constriction. The
pythons at the Zoological Gardens illustrate the external aspects
and habits of the family in a most satisfactory manner, and the
preparations at the British Museum and College of Surgeons,
afford the fullest information of their anatomical structure and
typical relationships. There are so few differences between
boas and pythons, that those terms have litle else than a geo-
graphical signification. Those of the old world are usually
known as pythons, those of the new world, as boas; though
boa is a classic term, and, according to Pliny, was applied by
the ancients to certain old-world serpents which were supposed
to subsist on the milk of cows. But as Boa is a Brazilian name
for a serpent, there is an end of all difficulty as to how the
word should have the same meaning both in the Hast and the
West. In the true pythons, the crown of the head is shielded
to behind the eyes, the upper and lower labial shields are
deeply pitted, and the nostrils are vertical. In the boas the
labial shields are smooth, not pitted; the crown is covered with
scales, and the nostrils are lateral between two plates. The
species which has recently attracted attention on account of its
fertility, is Python molurus (Gray), known also as P. Coluber
(Linn.), P. Javanicus (Kuhl), P. Tigris (Daudin). It is a native
of Hindustan and Java. It is understood to attain to a length
of thirty and more feet, but large specimens are becoming rare,

126 A Visit to the Python in the Zoological Gardens.

in consequence of the extension of civilization in the districts
where the species is found. ~

The classical stories of mighty snakes and serpents are all
outdone in the event which has been, of late, so attractive in
the Zoological Gardens. The sea-serpents which Aristotle
describes as upsetting the triremes (I. vil. c. 28), the stran-
gline of the monsters by the young Hercules, Virgil’s Laocoon,
and the snake that compelled the Romans to retreat from
Bagradus, are all, no doubt, truths in disguise ; but here is one
of the most formidable of the true serpents, and an altogether
erand specimen of its race, engaged in a tender maternal office,
and exhibiting the utmost solicitude for its charge. Most of the
foll-crown serpents are shut up in their clean glass dens in soli-
tude, but this motherly python has a male companion, with whom
she has lived in peace for the greater part cf her term of eleven
years’ captivity m the Gardens. The male is a small animal—
that is, comparatively speaking. His length may be about fifteen
feet, and at the time of our visit he was lying coiled up and torpid
in his blanket, engaged in the uncomfortable process of chang-
ing his skin. The female measures twenty-two feet in length,
her weight is about one hundred and twenty-eight pounds.
As the proportions are very nearly identical m pythons and
boas, 1t may be interesting here to give the measurements of a
specimen in my own collection, the remembrance of which may
be useful in assisting visitors to the Gardens to form an estimate
of the proportions of the female python durimg the brief glimpses
now obtainable, as she occasionally presents herself to view be-
tween the folds of her blanket. ‘This is a specimen of boa-
constrictor from tropical America. It measures, Im extreme
length, twenty feet three inches, the girth at ten feet from
the head is seventeen inches, girth just below the head eight
inches ; width of upper jaw at its junction with the gullet three
inches; length of the upper jaw with its four rows of teeth four
inches, and the inner plate of the lower maxillary is not so large
as the body of a full-crown rat. So faras I could judge by the
cursory view obtainable, as the intelligent keeper of the python
removed the blanket aside, she is very slightly larger than my
own specimen; and I asked the question whether, im the act of
feeding, these pythons were ever observed to lubricate the prey
with saliva, according to the time-honoured statements in the
books. ‘The keeper could declare, from many years’ experience
in feeding these serpents with rabbits and ducks, that no such
lubrication ever takes place.

According to the narratives of Mr. McLeod, Mr. Broderip,
and other observers equally reliable, the prey is never heeded
unless it exhibits signs of life. The serpent watches it, and
strikes it suddenly while it is in motion. ‘The blow is followed

.
:
|
:

A Visit to the Python in the Zoological Gardens. 127

by a rapid coiling of the serpent around the prey, and the con-
striction upon it breaks every bone, and puts an end to life
more suddenly and painlessly than by any method of destruc-
tion ever devised by man. In all the carnivorous reptilia, this
same habit appears to prevail; they never make an attack
while the prey is motionless, but wait till it comes fairly within
reach, and prefer to strike when it 1s m full activity. Hven a
slow-worm or ringed snake follows the rule ; and, though I have
often attempted to deceive them when in a domesticated state,
by giving artificial motion to a dead frog, the ruse never suc-
ceeded, and the morsel was refused. My boa could probably
gorge a sheep or goat without difficulty, and though the great
python at the gardens is usually fed with rabbits and ducks, it
could with great complacency make an end of any one of the
pretty antelopes that occupy the pens hard by. But the point of
mterest here is the alleged act of lubrication. The pythons
swallow their ducks without even moisteng the feathers, but
there is a copious flow of saliva within the horrid jaws, and
those jaws undergo a distension, which is in effect a dislocation
of the dentigerous bones, which return slowly to their original
positions when the act of deglutition is completed. The female
python when hungry, and especially after a change of skin, will
make an end of a dozen rabbits "in rapid succession, but her
male companion is generally contented with two or three. Though
the act of feeding is not to be counted among the elegant exhi-
bitions of a menagerie, and our little British snakes follow the
example of their vaster congeners in creating a sense of disgust
in the spectator, there is system in it, over and above the im-
mense muscular force displayed. ‘The victim is imvariably
taken by the head, so that, in its passage down the gullet, the
limbs yield to the pressure of the passage; and, as the bones
are already crushed by constriction, there is much less tension
of the iteguments than would be supposed by any mere com-
parison of the respective dimensions of the gullet and the
prey, the dislocation of the jaws bemg accompanied with a dis-
tension of the cesophagus, while the muscular action conveys
the prey to the stomach.

Anxious to afford us a good view of the mass of eggs, about
which the python has coiled herself immovably, the keeper
proceeded to the back of the den, and gently removed the
blanket. There she lay im magnificent coils, the rich mottlings
-of the scaly skim shining as if oiled, and not a crevice percep-
tible between the folds, so regularly had she disposed herself to
maintain the temperature of her eggs. The keeper gently
placed his hand agaist her a few inches below the head, and
she turned aside reluctantly, brandishing her forked tongue, and
showing a few of the eggs. He then placed the other hand on

128 A Visit to the Python in the Zoological Gardens.

one of the great folds; and by gentle pressure in the opposite
direction caused her to uncoil shghtly, and display the greater
portion of the nest. As she now began to raise her head, and
assume a menacing look, her small eyes sparkling with a fire
that at least suggested the idea of offended maternity, the
blanket was carefully replaced, the door was shut, and Mrs. Py-
thon shrunk down again until the blanket lay flat and smooth, as
if she nestled yet closer to her unhatched progeny. During the
brief view thus obtained, 1t was evident that there was system
in the hatching process. The eggs appeared to be somewhat
larger than those of a goose, of the same colour, and the ex-
terior shell, instead of bemg hard and calcareous, is leathery
and elastic. Some of them are green and putrid, but 1t would
be equivalent to a sentence of death to require the keeper to
remove them, though their presence may be fatal to the young
pythons, should any be hatched. They are connected together
by a membrane, and are evidently arranged with care m con-
centric layers, so that the greater part of them have the full m-
fluence of maternal warmth.

The temper of the python when thus slightly disturbed, and
her persistency in her work of incubation, severally contradict
and confirm the statements of scientific authorities. The Rey.
L. Guilding, describing the transportation of a boa to the island
of St. Vincent says, “A noble specimen of the boa constrictor
was lately conveyed to us by the currents, twisted round the
trunk of a large cedar tree, which had been previously washed
out of the bank by the floods of some great South American
river, while its huge folds hung on the branches, as it waited
for its prey. The monster was fortunately destroyed, after
killing a few sheep, and his skeleton now hangs before me m
my study, puttmg me in mind how much reason I might have
had to fear in my future rambles through the forests of St.
Vincent, had this formidable reptile been a pregnant female,
escaped to a safe retreat.”? The pythoness is evidently m no
temper to be disturbed while waiting in instinctive expectation
for a happy issue to her tedious icubation, and very few who
have witnessed this spectacle will agree with Mr. Waterton
that “the pythoness herself would comprehend nothing of
what was going on”’!

Previous to the extrusion of the eggs, this python exhibited
evidence of uneasiness. She hada plethoric look, and it be-
gan to be questioned whether she might not have swallowed a
blanket. Hearmg the loss of so valuable a creature, it was
determined that, on Monday, the 13th of January, an emetic

should be administered, when lo! on that very morning the >

keeper found his pet engaged in incubation, the eggs having
been laid on the night of Sunday, Jan. 12th. Once she left

A Visit to the Python in the Zoological Gardens. 129

them for a few moments, and then it was estimated there were
upwards of a hundred, but the precise number will probably
never be known.

On this matter of incubation authorities differ. The author
of the Treatise on Reptiles in the Hneyclopedia Britannica
says, “No reptile is known to hatch its eggs.” In the Gar-
dener’s Chronicle of February 22, Mr. Waterton says, “The
body of a snake is hard and cold, and scaly ; qualities quite
useless in hatching eggs, which require warmth and softness,
and pliability when birds sit on them; and the heat of the sun
and dryness, when the atmosphere acts the part of a parent.”
On the other hand, the Hnglish Cyclopedia says, “'They (the
pythons) are distinguished by placing their eggs im a group,
and covering them with their bodies.. This statement, which
was made by Mr. Bennett, and afterwards confirmed by M.
Lamare-Picquot, has been doubted; but its truthfulness has
been confirmed by the proceedings of a python in the Garden of
Plants at Paris.” (Vol. 1. Boidee, c. 540.)

On the 13th of February last, the pythoness had fasted for
twenty-five weeks, and then disdained food, and thrust from
her the rabbits which were allowed to skip about her cage
unsuspectingly as a temptation. She drinks freely; and there
is a large tank close at hand, so that she can obtain water
without quitting her eggs. The temperature of her den ave-
rages 70°, and the temperature of the eggs may be estimated
at 80°. As numerous broods of serpents have been artificially
hatched at the Gardens, the temperature favourable to the
process is a matter of importance. ‘The time usually occupied
is sixty days, im a temperature of 80°. It is anticipated that
the imcubation of the python will be at an end, for better
or worse, on the 20th of this month, which will be seventy days
from the deposition of the eggs. Opposite the den of the
pythoness is a viper, which was hatched from an egg in the
Gardens in 1860, and at the rear of the den is a cage full of
little vipermes (Tripodonothus viperinus), which I had the
pleasure of playing with, which were hatched artificially ; they
now average from ten inches to a foot in length, and are lively,
interesting creatures that change their garments frequently, and
eat a prodigious number of mice and frogs.

The age of the pythoness is not known. She is supposed
to be about thirty years old, and if we may assume that her
magnitude has not. increased at the rate it would have done
had she been free instead of caged during the past eleven
years, the measurement in feet will afford a near approximation
to the number of years of the existence of such a creature.
She may bring out a few little pythons from her mound of
eggs, and a new attraction will thereby be offered to the sight-

130 The Aye-aye.

seers who will haunt London during the coming summer.
In the year 1841 a similar circumstance took place with a
pair of pythons in the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris. The phenomena of the reproduction of the youne pythons
in this case were accurately watched by Professor Valenciennes,
and the results of his observations published m the Comptes
Rendus of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. The number of
ego's In this case was only fifteen, and the mother sat bravely
on, until, at the length of two months, eight young ones were
produced. Professor Valenciennes has attempted to show, by
careful thermometrical experiments, that this female python,
during her incubation, developed heat to the amount of ten or
twelve degrees (centigrade) above the temperature of the sur-
rounding objects. But it has been considered by other autho-
rities on the subject, that there is some doubt whether this
increase of heat was really caused by the incubative action, and
there is still much uncertainty upon this point. Hxperiments
made at the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens go to show,
according to the report of Dr. P. L. Sclater, “that the heat of
the incubating female python is not greater than the heat of
a non-incubating boa in an adjoming compartment.”

THH AYH-AYE.

BY W. B. TEGETMEIER.

Tue Aye-aye of Madagascar, the Chiromys Madagascariensis of
Cuvier, is one of the most anomalous of living mammalia. In
consequence of the exclusion of Kuropeans by the tyranny of

the late queen, but little information has latterly reached:

Europe respecting the productions of that island, so that one
of our best known naturalists has stated, in a book published
within a few weeks, that “ not a specimen of the aye-aye has,
as I believe, been seen since Sonnerat’s day, so that if not
actually obliterated, the species must be on the verge of extinc-
tion.” . Fortunately, this conjecture is not borne out by the facts
of the case; the recent throwing open of Madagascar to Huro-
peans has made known that the natives regard the animal with
interest, and Dr. Sandwith has availed himself of his oppor-
tunities, as Colonial Secretary at the Mauritius, to obtain these
animals in a living state, and to study their actions and habits.

A specimen, most carefully preserved in spirits, has also
been recently forwarded to Professor Owen, who has studied
its structural peculiarities, so that at the present time we
are in possession of much fuller details regarding this extra-
ordinary quadruped than heretofore, and are enabled to arrive at

ae

LOWER JAW OF AYE-AYE.

132 The Aye-Aye.

a somewhat more satisfactory conclusion as to whether it is to
be regarded as a gnawing animal with the grasping hands of a
monkey, or a monkey with the rat-like teeth of a rodent. On
consideration of the most important peculiarities in its structure,
we cannot fail to observe their extraordinary adaptation to the
habits, food, and mode of life of the animal, as recently made
known by the peculiarly interesting observations of Dr. Sand-
with.

The aye-aye is about the size of a small cat. The head is
peculiar, the eyes being directed forwards, and not laterally as
in rodents. ‘The ears are of large size, and also directed to the
front. ‘The trunk is large, the chest being well developed ; the

FOREHAND OF AYE-AYE,

body is clothed abundantly with hair, and terminates in a long
bushy tail, which does not possess any power of grasping. The
great peculiarity of the outward form of the animal is in the
fore limbs, which somewhat resemble those of a lemur. The
fore-hand, like that of man and the quadrumana generally, is
capable of bemg turned either into the prone or supine posi-
tion. ‘The first digit is readily opposable to the others, and so
constitutes a true thumb. The index finger, as shown in our
engraving of the fore-hand, is very short; the middle finger is
long, and so singularly attenuated as to appear withered or
deformed, whereas the other fingers are of the ordinary thick-
ness. ‘The palm is naked, and the whole hand looks not unlike
the miniature of a deformed and paralyzed human limb. The

The Aye-Aye. 133

hinder hand has a powerful grasping thumb, and resembles
closely that of the lemur, and other nocturnal quadrumanous
animals.

The teeth of this animal, however, offer a remarkable depar-
ture from the monkey type. The fore teeth, as shown in the
views of the skull, are truly those of a rodent or gnawing animal.
having sharp, cutting edges, and are furnished with a layer of
enamel on the front surface, which, like the steel facing ofan iron
chisel, keeps them constantly keen and in cutting order. Like
the teeth of a rodent, they are continually growing during
the life of the owner. ‘They differ, however, somewhat from the
incisors of our common gnawing animals, in bemg very narrow
in proportion to their great depth from front to back.

The grinding teeth are much more vertical in their position
than those of rodents, and instead of bemg formed of alternate
transverse vertical ridges of bone and enamel are capped with
smooth crowns of enamel, asin man and the quadrumana gener-
ally ; their number is unequal, being, as shown in our engray-
ines, four in the upper, and three in the lower jaw. The skull
compared with that of the squirrel, is larger, the brain-case
being well developed, and the brain itself resembles that of a
lemur, and not that of a rodent. This wonderful combination
of the structure of two groups of animals, so widely removed as
are the quadrumana and the rodentia, has hitherto proved exceed-
ingly puzzling, especially to those naturalists who imagine that
all animals should be constituted with reference to some given
type. To those, however, who are intent upon tracing the
intimate relation that exists between structural peculiarities
and habits, the aye-aye is one of the most interesting of all
animals, but until the exact nature of its habits were made
known by the communication of Dr. Sandwith, this relation
could not be accurately traced.

The aye-aye is a nocturnal animal, sleeping during the day
and becoming active at night, as might be inferred from its
large circular eyes, wide iris, and great expanse of pupil. Its
food, as indicated by its simple molars, consists in great part of
fruits and soft vegetable substances, such as dates; that itis a
climber is evidenced by the grasping character of its ex-
tremities. It was not until Dr. Sandwith accidentally placed
some branches for the living animal to climb, that the true
co-relation of its organs to its habits was noticed. ‘These
branches had been perforated by some wood-boring larve. On
beig placed in the cage of the aye-aye, the animal was observed
to direct the large expansive ears towards them; when its
acute sense of hearmg gave evidence of the working of some
concealed insect in a larval state. The long attenuated finger,
that even Buffon himself could now no longer regard as a defor-

VOL. I.—NO, II. L

134 The Idol Head of the Jivaros.

mity, was employed as a probe; it failed to reach the imtended
prey, so that the slender hooked claw, with which it is armed,
was for a time useless, but the powerful gnawing teeth of the
animal were instantly put into requisition ; sufficient of the wood
was rapidly bitten away to enable the probe-like middle-finger
to be inserted with success, and the slender claw transfixed and
drew forth a large luscious larva, which was devoured with the
greatest relish.

The peculiar configuration of the aye-aye is no longer a
mystery; its grasping hinder hands, leaving the fore limbs free,
its long attenuated probe-like finger, with its slender hook-like
claw; its enlarged ears, its gnawing teeth, are all evidently
adapted to the habits, instincts, and food of the animal, and
although they may not enable closet naturalists to locate it
with unerring certainty in this or that artificial group; they,
nevertheless, prove what is of much more importance to be
determined, that there is a co-relation of structure with external
circumstances, which proves, as far as such evidence can prove,
that the organs of the animals are formed with special and direct
reference to the objects upon which they are to be exercised.

THE IDOL HEAD OF THE JIVAROS.
BY WM. BOLLAERT, F.R.G.S.

On the eastern side of the Republic of Ecuador, formerly known
as Quito, live a tribe of Indians called Jivaros, a strange, wild
people, dwelling in the midst of a most beautiful mountainous
country rich with tropical vegetation, and dense forests, and
including in its wild grandeur the by no means inconsiderable
volcano of Macas. There, may be found, among. other valu-
able vegetable productions, the handsome mahogany, sandal,
and ebony trees, the cinchonas, india-rubber, copal, storax,
indigo, guayusa, canelo, etc., most of them well known to
civilized life, and all of them deserving to be so for their useful
properties and capacities. The laurelo or wax palm is very
abundant, the wax being obtained by merely scraping it off the
bark. Cotton, of a long fibre, strong, and of a fine quality,
grows there indigenously ; no limits could be put to its cultiva-
tion, and the Amazon affords an easy shipment to Burope.
Coffee and cacoa grow freely. The guayusa, a plant which the
Indians cultivate near their huts, might probably compete with
tea from China in the English market, as it has a similar
aromatic flavour without bitterness. Canelo is a species of
cinnamon; the ishpingo is the calyx of its flower. It is equal

_— — —

The Idol Head of the Jiwaros. 135

in flavour to the best Hast India cinnamon, and 3000 to 4000
Ibs. of it are annually ga-
thered. A wholesome and
nourishing drink is made
from the Jatropha manihot,
and this valuable root is of
almost universal use as food,
and for many other purposes
throughout Hcuador, New
Granada, and Peru. The
Torquilla palm is most abun-
dant, and yields the beautiful
straw used in making the
Panama hats.

In addition to all this
vegetable productiveness and
wealth, this favoured district
is rich in gold, and may boast
of having the famous aurife-
rous mountain of Llanganate
within its boundaries. The
natives are not slow in turn-
ing this to their own account,
and quickly collect for the
traders an ample supply of
the precious metal to ex-
change for their much co-
veted goods. ‘The fertility
of the soil is, in a great mea-
sure, to be attributed to its
plentiful irrigation, not only
by the smaller rivers, Chin-
chipe, Pastasa, and Mara-
fion, but likewise by the
mighty Amazon, of which
they are tributaries; and it
is in the forests among
these rivers that the Jivaro
Indians now make their
homes. They are an an-
cient and warlike people, and |
their history is given by
Vela,czo, the historian of
Quito, togetber with an ac-
count of their conspiracy
against the Spaniards in
1599, an outbreak which procured for them the title of Arau-

136 The Idol Head of the Jiwaros.

canos of the North. At that period they made the governor
of Macas prisoner, and killed him by pourmg molten gold
down his throat; afterwards they destroyed the Spanish settle-
ments in their part of the country in one day, killig the men,
but taking the women into captivity. In modern times many
expeditions have been organized to punish them, but all have
failed.

The Jivaros are a warlike, brave, and astute people; they
love liberty, and can tolerate no yoke. ‘Their bodies are mus-
cular, they have small and very animated black eyes, aquiline
noses, and thin lips. Many have beards and fair com-
plexions, most probably arising from the numbers of Spanish
women they captured in the insurrection of 1599. They have
fixed homes, cultivate yucas, maize, beans, and plantains, and
their women wear cotton cloth. They live in well-built huts
made of wood, and sleep in fixed bed-places instead of hammocks.
Their lances are made of the Chonta palm, the head being trian-
gular, thirty to fifty inches long, and ten to fifteen inches broad.
They are accustomed to take a strong emetic every morning,
consisting of an infusion of the guayusa, or tea plant, for the
sake of getting rid of all undigested food, and being ready for the
chase with an empty stomach. Their hair hangs over their
shoulders, and they wear a helmet of bright feathers. Velasco, in
1789, divided them into three branches; Villavicencio, in our
own times, divides them into ten, all speaking the same lan-
guage, which is sonorous, clear, and harmonious, easy to learn,
and energetic. Their branch tribes are constantly at war with
each other, but readily unite against a common enemy. ‘Their
dissensions are frequently caused by their good lying; the
abundance of fish and game makes them saucy to each other,
which often leads to serious quarrels.

At each village they have a drum called Tunduli, to call the
warriors to arms, and the signal is repeatedfrom village to village.
When engaged in war, their faces and bodies are painted; but
during peace they wear breeches down to their knees, and a
shirt without sleeves.

One of their prominent customs is to deify the heads of their
prisoners. This fact has been known for some time, but only
lately have any specimens been obtained. ‘The first was
brought to Hurope by Professor Cassola in June, 1861, and
was exhibited to a few persons in London. This had been
stolen from a temple on the river Pastasa. At the latter end
of the same year another specimen fell into the hands of Don R,
de Silya Ferro, Chilian consul in London, with an explanatory
document, which has been translated by Mr. Bollaert, and com-
municated to the Hthnological Society, together with some
account of the Jivaros themselves.

Mediceval England. 137

The Idol Head from which our sketch is taken, was obtained
through a baptized Indian, who persuaded a Jivaro, notorious
for ill luck, that this was occasioned by the imprisonment of the
idol, who was desirous to travel. The Jivaro handed it over for
this object, when it was taken to the governor of Macas, who
sent suitable presents to the Indian in return for his interesting
oft.

These curious trophies are thus prepared: after a war
the heads of the victims are cut off, the skull and its con-
tents removed, and a heated stone (it is said) is introduced into
the hollow of the skin; desiccation goes on, and it is reduced to
about one-fourth, retaining some appearance of the features.

A feast ensues, when the victor abuses the head roundly, to
which the head is made to reply in similar terms—the Indian
priest being the spokesman for the head, or chancha (an Indian
name for a sow), and he concludes his part thus : ‘‘ Coward ! when
I was in life, thou didst not dare to insult me thus; thou didst
tremble at the sound of my name. Coward! some brother of
mine will revenge me.” ‘The victor at this raises his lance,
strikes, and wounds the face of his enemy, after which he sews
the mouth up, dooming the idol to perpetual silence, exceptmg
as aS an oracle; questions being put to 1t when the mquirer is
under the spell of a narcotic.

When the Jivaro is pressed by the enemy, and has not
time to cut off the head of a victim, the ceremony is per-
formed on the head of a sow, which is adored as a real Idol
Head. Should the fruits of the earth not be in abundance, the
women hold a feast of supplication to the head, and if their
request is not granted, the hair is shaved off, and it is thrown
into the woods.

A double string is attached to the top of the head, so that
it may be worn round the neck. The lips are sewn together,
and a number of strmgs hang from them, the use of which is
not apparent.

MEDIAVAL ENGLAND.-*

Amone the aids to the philosophical study of history, a high
place must be given to the labours of the modern archeologist,
who has collected and arranged an innumerable array of facts,
by the help of which it is possible to reconstruct the society of

* A History of Domestic Manners and Sentiments in England during the Middle
Ages, by Thomas Wright, Esq., M.A., F'.S.A., Corresponding Member of the Im-
perial Institute of France, etc., with Illustrations from the Illuminations in con-
temporary Manuscripts and other sources, drawn and engraved by F. W. Fair-
holt, Esq., F.S.A. Chapman and Hall, 1862.

138 Mediceval England.

the past. It is no longer fancied that to learn by rote a few
score of names and dates, to get up “tables of kings,” and
long lists of battles, is to become a historian. In looking back
to any particular period, we want to know something more than
the external facts of public and political transactions. We
desire to gain an insight into the conditions of the people, the
relations in which the various classes of society stood towards
each other, and to understand the nature of the impulses by
which retrogression was compelled, or progress was achieved.
The ideal of social development is the substitution of enlightened
opinion for brute force, the enlargement of the total quantity of
the means of well being, and their more equitable diffusion,
so as to realize Bentham’s grand desideratum of the “ greatest
happiness of the greatest number.’? Keeping this in view, we
are especially interested in those movements by which medizval
ideas and institutions were graduallyreplaced bymodern arrange-
ments, destined in their turn to give way before that mcrease of
intelligence which promises to be the great characteristic of the
next epoch in the civilization of man.

An enlightened study of history is alike fatal to a supersti-
tious reverence, or a self-sufficient contempt of the past. We
discover no “ goed old times” that we would exchange for our
own, and in the sense in which Tennyson exclaims— ~

“Through the shadow of the globe we sweep into the younger day ;
Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay,”

we value a year of the present more than a generation of a
barbarous age. And if such a comparison tends to puff us up
with pride, the very study which suggests it, supplies the cor-
rective of which our vanity has need. We select, for example, a
period in our own history many centuries ago; we see the action
of the upward struggle which was then gomg on, and we find
that, notwithstanding our inheritance of the victories which our
forefathers won, the work which remains to be accomplished is
far larger than that which has already been achieved, and we
are made to feel that, although our days may be hereafter
“ood old times” to our posterity, on account of the service-
able materials we shall leave behind us, they will likewise be
“bad old times”? when a wiser generation looks back upon
the ignorance, crime, pauperism, and sufferme by which our
condition is so sadly marred.

A work like Mr. Wright’s History of Domestic Manners and
Sentiments in England during the Middle Ages, furnishes a
store of delightful reading bearing upon the preceding remarks.
Aided by his laborious, but gracefully employed learning, and
assisted by the hundreds of curious illustrations copied from
authentic sources by Mr. Fairholt’s pencil, we can make a morn-

Mediceval England. 139

ing call upon the Anglo-Saxons, dine with the Anglo-Normans,
or pay a familiar visit to the early Englishman, when the con-
flicting races were fused together, and a single national appella-
tion became the grand name of all. We find the Saxon, so far
as the upper class was concerned, ina higher condition than has
often been supposed, and after Roman mfluence had been felt,
his mode of life was not wantmg in the elegance that is com-
patible with aroughironage. Although stone was occasionally
employed, the chief material for the construction of habitations
was wood, and the carpenter was the builder in those simple
days. The principai apartment was the hall, or public living
room for the family and their guests. Internally 1t was covered,
by those who could afford the luxury, with “ wall clothing,” or
hangings, either of plain cloth, or richly ornamented with em-
broidered patterns, or pictures of historic scenes. So early as
the seventh century, Mr. Wright tells us, that Aldhelm observed
that if the tapestries were of “one colour, uniform, they would
not seem beautiful to eye.’ These hangings, together with
arms, armour, and trophies of the chase and war, constitute
the most noticeable decorations of the abode; but we find orna-
mental tiles covering the roof, and variegated or tesselated pave-
ments not unknown for the floor. The vessels of domestic use
were not without a fair share of beauty and constructive skill.
The bowls with double handles were of graceful form, and
buckets, probably used to hold ale or mead, were decorated
with bronze handles and hoops, exhibiting considerable know-
ledge of design. Very characteristic also were the drinking
vessels, especially the “‘tumblers,” rounded or trumpet-shaped
glasses which would not stand, and which the topers of both
sexes emptied at a draught. One of them, sketched by Mr.
Fairholt, is elegantly fluted, while another exhibits a ‘‘ twisted”
pattern often mentioned by Beowulf, and evidently highly
esteemed by the fashionables of his day. Separated from the
hall were the “bowers,” or private sleeping rooms, in which
very little luxury was displayed. The bed was a sack of straw,
the bed-clothes of a primitive character, and night-gowns (as
was the case for many centuries) consisted merely of the natural
covermg which Nature provided when she benevolently fur-
nished our progenitors with a skin. The table m the livin

room, or hall, was, for the most part, literally a “‘ board,” which
tressels supported when its services were required for the rough
but hospitable meal. Very harsh were the distinctions of class,
but, nevertheless, certain elements of equality prevailed. All
halls were open, and any stranger, however lowly his condition,
was at liberty to enter, and take his place even at the “ board”
of a noble or a king. ‘The dinner must have been a very
clumsy and dirty affair. In an old picture, given by Mr. Wright,

140 Medieval England.

we see a table covered by an ornamental cloth, but destitute of
plates, and although some rather good-looking vessels are in
use, the meats are presented by kneeling domestics upon the
spits with which they were prepared, and the guests cut off the
tit-bits with clumsy knives. ‘The treatment of servants, even
by ladies, was.very brutal; fetters and flagellations bemg
freely employed. Mr. Wright thinks it probable that the early
babies of our country were swaddled, but whatever may have
been their treatment in this respect, maternal tenderness was
not sufficient to prevent the common occurrence of gross
negligence, and Archbishop Theodore, who lived in the latter
half of the seventh century, found it necessary to enjoin a special
penance to mothers who left their children on the hearth,
exposed to the unfortunate influence of an over-boiling pot.
Nor could the matrimonial system be considered quite perfect,
when a law of Hthelred provided that any gentleman who was
euilty of over fondness for his neighbour’s wife should buy him
another as compensation for the wrong.

At a very much later period it is surprismg to find how
deficient our ancestors were in what we should call the neces-
saries of life. Thus the Ménagier de Paris, a work written
about the year 1393, informs us, that the servants who had
charge of candles used to accompany those valuable articles to
the bed-rooms, and hold them in their hands until the would-be
sleepers had undressed and gone to rest. Similar adventures
repeatedly occurred to Mr. Olmsted, in his recent travels through
the semi-barbarous Slave States of America, and, indeed, as we
read his Cotton Kingdom, the details of brutality and discomfort
often remind us of the dark ages in European lands. The
coarseness of those times has been thought by superficial ob-
servers to have been consistent with moral imnocence. Mr.
Wright, estimating them more profoundly, asserts that the
“whole tenor of contemporary literature and anecdote will
leave no doubt that medizeval society was profoundly immoral
and licentious.” Of courseit was. Nothing else was possible,
unless in exceptional cases, when the rights of individuals were
very imperfectly recognized, when the mind of the people had
no rational employment, when ignorance was universal, and
gross superstition exercised an almost unbroken sway.

The position of woman is a sure index to the condition’ of
society, and some old books which our author cites are very
instructive on this head. ‘Thus we find a social moralist, the
Chevalier de la Tour-Landry, instructing his daughters in
matrimonial obedience, by tellmg them what happened to a lady
who ventured to contradict her lord and master, and was there-
upon knocked down and kicked, so as to break her nose, and
thus disfigure her for life—a punishment which the chivalrous

Medieval England. 141

narrator thought justly warranted by the offence. Another
reformer of domestic manners, Robert de Blois, who furnished
young ladies with a code of instruction in verse, entitled the
Chastisement des Dames, does not make us in love with the ways
of feudalism in the fourteenth century. Many of his directions
point to practices of gross indecency, and the believers in the
so-called “ages of faith,’ which preceded the Reformation,
may be astonished to find it was necessary to recommend the
daughters of noble families not to get drunk, and not to use the
table-cloth for a pocket handkerchief when they went out to
dine !

It is customary to talk of the refined cookery introduced by
the Normans, but when the luxury of feasting was at its height,
we do not discover any rational principles of culinary art. The
dinners were elaborate and costly, consisting of many courses,
prepared with great trouble and expense, and yet scarcely a
dish would be tolerated by the palate of modern times. In the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries there seems to have been a
rage for highly-flavoured compositions, in which the ingredients
were mingled with little regard to what we should consider
their natural affinities. Perhaps equally disagreeable combi-
nations might be selected from the records of Roman feasts ;
and there is scarcely anything, however nauseous, to which
habit and fashion will not reconcile the accommodating stomach
of man. Here is a specimen of a delicacy in the days of
Richard I1.; it is called a farsed browet, or browet farsyn :

“Take almonds, and pound them, and mix them with beef
broth, so as to make it thick, and put it into a pot, with cloves,
maces, and figs and currants, and minced ginger, and let this
seethe: take bread, and steep it in sweet wine, and ‘ draw it
up, and put it to the almonds with ginger: then take conyngs
(rabbits) or rabettes (young rabbits), or squirrels, and first par-
boil, and then fry them, and partridges parboiled: fry them
whole for a lord, but otherwise chop them into gobbets; and
when they are almost fried, cast them into a pot, and let them
boil altogether, and colour with sandal-wood and saffron; then
add vinegar and powdered cinnamon, stramed with wine, and
give it a boil; then take it from the fire, and see that the
potage is thin, and throw in a good quantity of powdered
ginger.”

During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries a desire for
education exercised a beneficial effect, and Mr. Wright artributes
this movement to the rise of an industrial class. It was, as he
tells us, the merchants in the towns who made the first step in
advance, and founded the most important local schools. We
could have wished he had devoted more space to tracing the
growth of the intellectual element in English society, and ex-

142 Medieval England.

hibited the enormous difficulties it had to encounter, and the
causes of its very slow success.

Hiven in the fifteenth century, notwithstanding the aug-
mented wealth cf the middle class, and the importance assigned
to a more private apartment than the hall, the conveniences
were so few as to mdicate that very little talent had been ex-
erted in contriving the arrangements of domestic life. Thus
the “parlour” was thought well furnished if it had a hangme
of worsted, a cupboard of ash board, a table and a pair of
tressels, ‘‘a branch of latten with four lights;” a pair of
andirons, a pair of tongs, one form, and one chair. looked at
as a social institution, the “ parlour” was a grand ivention.
Iife then acquired the possibility of privacy, with some share
of comfort, and the morals of the ladies were improved by
having a convenient room to receive their visitors, without tak-
ing them, whether male or female, tc the retirement of the bed-
chamber or ‘‘bower.”? Domestic discipline was, however, still
founded upon “laws” analogous to those of which Cannme
represented Mrs. Brownrigg to have dreamt, and the wife of Sir
Wilham Paston, in 1454, probably did not depart far from the
general custom, in beating one of her daughters one or twice a
week, and sometimes twice a day. As vice and brutality were
common qualities, demure propriety of outward demeanour was
rigorously enforced while the sons and daughters were under
the parental eye. We have a sketch of a little party at which
all present sit with their hands crossed before them in solemn
state. There were, however, redeeming features; music was
commonly cultivated, and women began to distinguish them-
selves in literary acquirements, or through the practise of the
painter’s art. In the sixteenth century, progress became more
rapid, and with the emancipation of intellect from medizeyval
bondage, we notice a wider departure from the ancient ways.

The growth of a nation is no more an accident or a com-
bination of accidents, than the growth of a flower from its seed.
We are to this day what our forefathers made us, modified by
our own energies, and the circumstances of our time; but as
society moves onward, the scope for individual exertion be-
comes enlarged. It may be more difficult for a single great

man to tower above the rest, but whoever can think a good

thought or suggest a valuable course of action has the many
to listen to him, instead of the few. Society is not an aggre-
gation of independent units, but a vital whole, so bound to-
gether that its highest advances, are possible only when the
interests of all are cared for and sustained. Our life is richer
than that of the past, because it is compounded of more varied
elements, as both our exertions and our speculations take a
more extended range. It is richer also through the improved

Double Stars. 143

condition of social relations, and the larger proportion of per-
sons who share with us the advantages of civilization, and con-
tribute their mental and moral forces to the common stock.
We love to trace the past through the pages of a delightful
work like Mr. Wright’s Domestic Manners of the English, which
will commend itself to all readers, but m proportion as his
admirable descriptions bring the old times home to us, not like
the figures on a faded tapestry, but with the vividness of actu-
ality, we are glad that we are workers in the present, and, as
we trust, servants of the future, by sowing seed that may here-
after bear serviceable fruit.

DOUBLE STARS,
BY THH REV. LT. W. WEBB, F.R.A.S.

Ir on some transparent night, when the moon is absent, and
“the firmament glows with living sapphires,” we take our
stand im the open air and gaze around us and above us, as silent
worshippers in the great Temple of Creation, our first impres-
sion will probably be, as it was with Abraham in the plain of
Mamre, that of the presence of multitudes innumerable. A
more concentrated attention to any circumscribed portion of
the sky will reduce our estimate, and we shall find that the
number of stars which we can actually reckon will be but
moderate, or even few in proportion; but a general view, in
restoring liberty to our gaze, will bring back our first impres-
sion in all its strength. When the eye is relieved from the
immediate effort of counting, and especially when we can give
our attention to those oblique pencils, to which, as astronomers
know, the retima is peculiarly sensitive, we shall detect unnum-
bered glimpses and sparklings over the whole ground of the
firmament. If now we take some common telescope, even of
the smallest dimensions, and point it to those twinkling regions,
we shall find our surmise converted into certainty by the dis-
tinct appearance of stars m many places where we had only
suspected them ; if we lay aside our instrument for larger ones,
we shall perceive that every successive increase of aperture
brings fresh discoveries into view, till at length, in using the
great reflectors and achromatics of the present day, we find that
the faint points of light, revealed im. their space-penetrating
fields could literally be numbered by millions.

Amid such inconceivable profusion, it must of course be a
frequent occurrence that two stars are found im very close
proximity to each other, constituting the objects so well known

144, Double Stars.

as a double, or, in some cases, triple, quadruple, or multiple
star. If, however, their mutual distance is sufficient to admit
of their being separately distinguished by the naked eye, they
are seldom classed under these titles, which are, generally
speaking, reserved for those too close, as well as in many cases
too minute to be seen without a telescope. Of such it has been
computed that there may be about 6000 in the heavens (in-
cluding of course both hemispheres), and as many of them are
especially interesting objects of telescopic research, it is in-
tended in the present paper, and others which will form its
continuation, to give some plain directions which may enable
amateurs to find them readily, and view them to advantage.
But in the first place it may be asked, what peculiar interest
do stars acquire from being thus brought into juxtaposition ?
In many cases it may be answered, that the mere comparison of
magnitude, or contrast of colour, thus brought out, is both
singular and beautiful, and will well repay the slight trouble of
the search. But others possess a higher claim upon our atten-
tion. In many instances they are not merely supposed, but
ascertained to be systems of connecting suns, bound together
and revolving round each other by the same combined action
of gravitating and propulsive force which governs the motions
of our solar system, and is thus proved to pervade the nearer
regions, and must by analogy be supposed co-extensive with
the whole domain of the starry universe. Such pairs of stars
are called binary, to distinguish them from those whose duplicity
is only optical or apparent; the mere accidental consequence of
their lying behind each other in a line passing nearly through
the observer’s eye. ‘This distinction cannot be demonstrated
by a single observation, however accurate, but may be effected
in two different ways, by examinations repeated after sufficient
intervals of time. In many instances, as experience will readily
show, the very aspect of a pair is enough to poimt out the pro-
bability of its physical relation. The components are frequently
so curiously alike in physiognomy, if we may so apply the term,
that their family connexion is all but self-evident; and the
chances are exceedingly small that in such a case one object
should be found almost exactly in a line with another, whose
difference im size is so precisely balanced by a corresponding
difference in distance, as to produce the effect of equality.
Still this, though a very high probability, does not amount to
actual demonstration, which can only be obtained, as we have
said, in one of two ways. Hither we may observe such a change
from time to time in the relative position of the two stars, as
actually to exhibit their revolution to the eye; or we may find
them, after the lapse of years, though sensibly unmoved with
respect to each other, get both gradually displaced through

Double Stars. 145

equal distances from their former position, and travelling in
company on an unknown and mysterious way through the vast
expanse of creation. It is well-known that the term “ fixed”
is most incorrectly applied to the stars, a great proportion of
which are found to change their places in the sky year after
year, with a slow but steady progress, the combined result, it
is believed, of their own movement, and a similar motion on the
part of our sun. How this “proper motion,” as it is called,
can affect a pair of stars equally, and thus show their com-
parative nearness to each other, while yet they exhibit no ap-
preciable motion of revolution round each other, is wholly
unknown, though it may perhaps point to an extraordinary
deficiency in mass, as compared with magnitude or luminosity ;
but who can wonder at our tenorance of the nature of those
distant suns when we know so little of the constitution of our
own? Itis of course possible that a progressive motion in the
sun may cause the apparent movement of a double star in the
opposite direction ; but it is obvious that such an illusory dis-
placement would betray its cause by the inequality of its amount
im the two stars, unless they were nearly at the same distance
from the eye, on which supposition we are brought round to
the same point again, by this proof that they were actually
adjacent, a real pair. It is then by the one or the other of the
these two ways—by displacement relatively to each other, in
such a manner as to show revolution round a common centre of
gravity, or by displacement relatively to the ground of the
heavens, and common to both individuals, that a very large
proportion of double stars are ascertamed to be mutually
dependent systems.

The study of these interesting objects has been advancing
with rapid steps. Only about four double stars had been
noticed, or at least recorded, when the elder Herschel began
to turn his powerful reflectors upon the heavens. He soon per-
ceived the importance of his research, and in 1782 published
the first of a series of catalogues containing in all about 500
stars; but it was not till the beginning of the present century
that, in seeking for the parallax of the stars in order to deter-
mine their distance, he obtained unquestionable evidence of the
mutual relation of some of these pairs. His son, and other
observers, followed in the same track, and at length W. Struve,
then at Dorpat, but subsequently Director of the Imperial
Observatory at Poulkova, near St. Petersburg, produced a
catalogue of 2787 double stars, lymg between the North Pole
and 15° of south Declinations, which has since been universally
regarded as the great authority for that portion of the sky.
According to him there were, in 1837, fifty-eight systems
within his limits, known to be undoubtedly binary, thirty-nine

146 Double Stars.

probably so, and sixty-six suspected. In 1849, Madler, his
successor at Dorpat, considered that 650 pairs throughout the
heavens were certainly of binary character; and the subsequent
period, if, in some instances, it may have thrown doubt upon
hasty inferences, has on the whole added materially to the
number. ‘The chief increase, however, has not been due to the
discovery of fresh objects, for the superiority of the Dorpat
telescope, which has 9°43 inches of aperture, and the unwearied
zeal of Struve, who carefully examined with it in two years
about 120,000 stars, left comparatively litle to be done in the
northern hemisphere; it is the mterval of time, which by
enabling the slower movements to be recognized and measured,
has developed a new character of connexion in many pairs pre-
viously known. :

The amateur who is impressed with the extreme sublimity
and beauty of these distant exhibitions of the Creator’s glory, will
not be satisfied with a cursory glance, but will like to see, and
see carefully, all that his instrument can show him. It will be,
therefore, well to specify the following as the points of interest
in double stars.

1. Magnitude.—It is to be regretted that on this head there
is much that is very arbitrary and uncertain; the magnitudes
of stars as given by different authorities varying sometimes to a’
surprising degree. Sir J. Herschel, Argelander, and others,
have indeed done much in the very difficult inquiries of stellar
photometry, but the results are either not fully satisfactory, or
have met with a very limited application. In the present series
_of papers the data of Admiral Smyth’s most accurate and valu-
able Bedford Catalogue will be adopted as the standard, in this
as well as all other respects, with occasional additions from
other quarters.

2. Distance.—This is one of the most important elements of
observation, and gives more especially its character to the aspect
of a pair of stars. It is always measured from centre to centre,
and expressed in seconds and decimals of are (on space). We
often find the decimals carried to three places in these measures,
but it is of course not to be supposed that instruments exist
capable of marking, or eyes of discriminating, such subdivi-
sions; they merely express a mean deduced from many obser-
vations. In Smyth’s measures such refinements are not
employed. The Dorpat Catalogue terminates at 32” as its
exterior limit, but from a calculation of chances it appears that
there is a possibility of mutual relation even as far as 15’; that
is to say, between stars, double, even to the naked eye.

‘3. Position of the components with respect to each other.—
This deserves the more attention, as being one of the elements
which would vary on the supposition of orbital motion, and by

Double Stars. 147

which it would be most easily recognised. It is always deter-
mined by measuring the angle between two lines, one, the
parallel of declination passing through the larger star, or in
other words, its apparent course through the field of the tele-
scope; the other, a line drawn from the larger to the smaller
star. Astronomers estimate the positions of all objects near
one another in this way, and amateurs, unprovided with the
convenient apparatus, called a position micrometer, will do well
to master thoroughly the accompanying diagram.

It represents the field of an astronomical eye-piece, in which
objects being inverted, the N., where the measures commence,
will be found at the bottom, the 8. at the top: the line joming

them is a portion of a meridian; the one at right angles to it
is a parallel of dechnation, along which (or parallel to which)
all objects move across the field from right to left, or from the
word ‘ Followimg” towards “ Preceding”’” The initials n. p,
n. f, s. p, and s. f, which are constantly used in astronomical
works, stand for north preceding, north following, south pre-
ceding, and south following, and characterize the quadrants in
which they are respectively placed, so as to show at once, and
in a most convenient way, the general bearings of objects,
where accuracy of measurement is not required. In describing
a double star, the larger of the two, if differing in size, is sup-
posed to be placed in the centre of the field, and the position
of the lesser one, which, if very small, is often called a comes,

148 Double Stars.

or attendant, is given, if roughly, by the quadrant in which it
stands; if accurately, by the degrees included in the angle
already referred to, which is called its angle of position.

In estimating angles of position, for the purpose of tracing
orbital motion, or knowing in what direction to look for very
minute attendants, the experienced observer may at first be
much puzzled, and frequently misled, by the varying situation
of the N. point, or zero of the diagram, according to the quarter
of the sky in which the object is situated at the time. From
the amount of elevation of the pole in our latitudes, the transits
of stars through the field may be performed at angles of every
‘degree of inclination in one part or other of the sky, and the
line which stands horizontally in our diagram will be sensibly
horizontal in the heavens only when the object is in, or near,
the meridian of the place; in the circumpolar regions of the
sky it may even become perpendicular to the horizon : m addi-
tion to which, the observer’s head is frequently so twisted,
especially in using an achromatic telescope, that all accustomed
ideas of the position of objects are thrown into confusion. It
will be necessary, therefore, for the student to attend carefully
to the course of the principal star through the field, which
gives the parallel of declination ; to estimate the position of the
smaller object by referring to the diagram; and to compare
this estimation with the measured angle: the eye will thus
require a traiing which will prove very serviceable. If he
possesses the habit of observing with both eyes open (a very
desirable one, as producing less uneasiness and fatigue), a glance
with the unarmed eye at the polar star, if within convenient
distance, will help to fix the lne of the meridian; from the
inversion in the eye-piece, the pole will of course stand at
180° in the diagram.

4, Colouwr.—This, when fully developed, and especially when
strongly contrasted, adds a charm to many a pair otherwise
less interesting from the relative fixity of its components.
There is, however, a good deal of uncertainty about it, as there
is Some diversity in the pictures in different instruments, and
much discrepancy in the estimates by different observers. The
achromatic, from its inherent defects, the uncorrected or “ out-
standing” colours, which cannot be united with the rest, neces-
sarily gives an image whose tint is minus that outstanding
colour; thus, as the latter is usually blue or purple, a white
star will be found to have a yellowish or shghtly orange cast.
Reflectors are in theory exempt from this imperfection, but
unless the speculum is of perfectly white metal, and free from
tarnish, they are apt to give a smoky hue. From this cause,
or from some peculiarity of vision, Sir W. Herschel was so
partial to ruddy tints, that his observations, in this sole respect,

Double Stars. 149

do not afford so good a starting-point as might be desired ; and
it is well known that certain eyes, perfect in other respects,
fail, more or less, and some even altogether, in their apprecia-
tion of colour. ‘These circumstances throw an unfortunate
impediment in the way of a curious inquiry, and one well adapted
for general prosecution—whether stars are hable to any change
of colour. The wonderful New Star of 1572 passed through
various tints in its diminution, and there is sufficient evidence
to prove that Sirius, now of so brilliant a white, was once
decidedly red, Seneca says even redder than Mars; and other
similar suspicions have been entertained. Upon what such
alterations may depend, or what corresponding changes they
may indicate in the constitution of those far distant suns, is of
course wholly unknown, but they form a point of great interest.
It is here that a multiplication of observers may be of much
service, as the combination of the impressions of many eyes is
the most probable way of eliminating individual peculiarity,
and testing suspected changes; and it is here that amateurs,
with eyes sensitive to colour, and provided only with telescopes
of adequate size, may afford assistance as effectual as could he
derived from all the appliances of a regular observatory.

When a large star is of any decided hue, it may be
~ naturally expected that its feebler companions may from con-
trast assume the complementary colour; just as the moon,
viewed near, or just after, a powerful yellow artificial light, will
appear decidedly blue, or as Schmidt saw it, of a lively green,
among the ruddy clouds of volcanic smoke and steam, which
encompassed his observatory upon Vesuvius during the great
eruption of 1855. In such cases the accidental colour of the
smaller star will disappear when its overpowering neighbour is
hidden behind the edge of the field, or a thick wire introduced
into it. But in many instances the colours, though complemen-
tary, as red and green, or yellow and purple, or orange and
blue, are proved, by the same means, to be independent; and
it is a curious and suggestive sight, to behold the whole light
of the spectrum thus divided in unequal proportions between
two comparion suns. As a general rule, Struve found that.
when a pair of stars are not both of the same colour, the larger
verges towards the red end of the spectrum, the smaller towards.
the blue. He gives the following result of his observations :—
379 pairs of the same colour and intensity; 101 of the same
colour, but different intensity ; 120 of different colours; 295
both white ; 118 both yellowish or reddish ; 63 both bluish. In
cases of great inequality of magnitude, when the smaller star
is blue, he found the larger, white in 53 pairs, light yellow in
52, yellow or red in 52, green in 16. He assigns no colour to
very minute stars, but such were frequently seen by Smyth of a

VOL. I.—NO. Il. M

150 Double Stars.

beautiful blue tint. Instances of a ruby colour are to be found
in the heavens, but only in solitary and not large stars.

5. Variation of light—The experience of later times has

shown the wide extent of this marvellous phenomenon, and
every year is adding to the probability of the worthy old
Hanoverian astronomer Schroter’s idea, that variable light is
present throughout the whole creation. It will be readily seen
how favourable an opportunity is offered for its detection in
nearly equal pairs, where juxtaposition gives an admirable test
‘of change. But a more surprising and still more unintelligible
development of this peculiarity comes out of the Dorpat obser-
vations. Struve has discovered what he thinks satisfactory
evidence of alternate variation, each component taking prece-
dence in turn, in 23 pairs, and has suspected itin 42 more. It
may be remarked that it must be difficult to ascertain, im many
cases, whether this variation is extended to both mdividuals, or
is confined to one, as the relative effect would be the same upon
either supposition; and it remains to be seen whether these
alleged changes are equally apparent to other ages ; all of them,
at any rate, have not been so, but the subject is too interesting
to be passed by lightly, and, as in the case of colours, it is from
‘an average of not only many observations, but many observers,
-that these very delicate and almost evanescent data can be de-
termined. ‘The amateur who is not provided witha telescope
equal to those of Struve and Smyth, need not despair, as, from
-Ssome cause not yet clearly explained, but connected probably
with the sensitiveness of the retina, inequality of light is found
to be more perceptible when its absolute quantity is diminished
im the use of a smaller aperture.

To this enumeration of the principal points to be noticed,
“we must add that the observer should record the epoch of his
‘observation. ‘This may prove not merely interesting to himself,
“but of more general value. Hven a negative statement—as of

apparent permanency—is of use if followed by positive change.
-Our readers may not have the means of executing those delicate
measurements which decide the periods of revolution, but they
may feel much interest in watching, year by year, the diminution
or increase of distance, or progressive change of angle, which
‘attests the fact; and memory, in such cases, is seldom to be
fully depended upon. Astr ‘onomical dates are frequentiy given
in decimals of a year, rather than in months and days; thus
1862°49 signifies June 30 of the present year. This mode of
reckoning may be found in the Nautical Almanac ; it has the
advantage of conciseness, and ranges much better in column.

It may be well to remind the commencing student that as

few, comparativ ely, of the planes of the or bits of these binary
stars he at right angles to our line of vision, they are for the

Double Stars. oul

‘most part foreshortened in perspective; and hence circular
orbits (if there be any) will usually be projected on the sky as
- ellipses, and ellipses will be thinned off till in some cases they
are seen edgeways as straight lines, and the stars will appear,
twice in every revolution, to close up into ane, at least, with
such optical means as are at our command. A true occultation
is, however, probably extremely infrequent, as we have reason
to think that the real discs of the stars are too minute to be
perceived—the merest pomts conceivable. They have never
yet been seen by mortal eye. The circular appearance which,
inafine state of atmcsphere, a star exhibits in a telescope, is
not its realimage, but what Sir W. Herschel termed a “spurious
disc,” arising partly from peculiarities in the original constitu-
tion of light, and partly from unavoidable imperfection in the
instrument. With low magnifying powers, indeed, this little
_dise is not to be distinguished from a point, but these are in
general inadequate to the purposes of sidereal astronomy; as
we employ higher magnifiers, we shall find that the pomt will
» expand into a little Imminous circle, surrounded by one or two
. famt rings, which are present in every good telescope; one
great test of goodness being the perfect circularity of the disc
and rings ; by increasing’ our aperture, we shall diminish the
proportional diameter of the disc, and hence it is that the same
magnifying power in a small telescope will fail in separating the
dises of clese double stars, which are readily divided by a larger
'one; but we have never yet succeeded, and have little hope
_ that we ever shall, in contracting the disc to so minute a point
_as to be a true representation of the star. The progressive
diminution of the discs, as telescopes attain greater magnitude
and perfection, is at present but a remote approximation to the
real image, as is conclusively shown by the imstantaneous dis-
‘ appearance in occultation of a star even of the first magnitude,
behind the slowly advancing limb of the moon ; and hence it is
highly improbable that a real eclipse of one star by another has
~ever been observed. In such a case, as Sir J. Herschel has
_remarked, the tact would become evident to the naked eye, from
the diminution of the total amount of light emitted jointly by
the pair.
. The possessors of small telescopes will be glad to find that
_a considerable number of interesting double stars, and even
binary systems will be within their reach. They will, of course,
not expect to distinguish the closer pairs, or to pickup the
minuter comites ; nor will they succeed very well in the discri-
‘mination of colour, which becomes more distinct and full in pro-
portion to the quantity of light. But they may gain such a
‘glimpse into the interior of the temple as may give them some
shght idea of its grandeur and glory, and in these days, when

152 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

excellence and costliness are no longer inseparably associated
in the optician’s workshop, they may be induced, by what they
see imperfectly, to arm themselves with the means of seeing to
moreadvantage. We shall in future papers indieate to amateurs
a wide and interesting field in which their labours will find
abundant scope.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

BY W, B. TEGHTMEIER.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—January 22.

Discovery oF Bone anp Frint Arrow-Heaps, Etc., IN Hymna
Cave, at Wooxry Hots, Somerser.—In a ravine at the village of
Wookey-Hole, near Wells, the River Axe flows through a canal cut
in the rock. In cutting this passage, a cave, filled with ossiferous
loam, was exposed, and its entrance cut away. In 1859, Mr. W.
Boyd Dawkins and Mr. Williamson began to explore it by digging
away the red earth with which the cave was filled, and continued
their operations in 1860 and 1861. They penetrated 34 feet into
the cave, which is hollowed out of the Dolomitic Conglomerate,
from which have been derived the angular and water-worn stones
scattered in the ossiferous cave-earth. Its greatest height is 9 feet,
and the width 36 feet. Remains of Hycna spelceea (abundant),
Canis Vulpes, C. Lupus, Ursus speleeus, Equus (abundant), Rhinoceros
tichorhinns. Rh. leptorhinus (2), Bos primigenius, Megaceros Hibernicus,
C. Bucklandi, C. Guettardi, C. Tarandus (2), C. Dama (?), and Hle-
phas primigenius were met with; remains of Felis speleea were found
when the cave was first discovered. The following evidences of
man were found in the red earth of the cave—chipped flints, flint-
splinters, a spear-head of flint, chipped and shaped pieces of chert,
and two bone arrow-heads. Mr. Dawkins believes that the condi-
tions of the cave and its infilling prove that man was contempora-
neous here with the extinct animals whose remains were found, and
that the cave was filled with its present contents slowly by the
ordinary operations of nature, not by any violent cataclysm.

Narurat Formavion or supposep Frit Arrow-Hraps.—Imme-
diately beneath the surface-soil at Croyde Bay, North Devon, at the
mouth of a small transverse valley, Mr. Whitley found broken
flints in considerable number. About ten per cent. of the splintered
flints at this place have more or less of an arrow-head form, but
they pass by insensible gradations from what appear to be perfect
arrow-heads of human manufacture to such rough splinters as are
evidently the result of natural causes. Hence great caution should
be used in judging what flints have been naturally, and what have
been artificially shaped.

OT ae

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 153

[ We regret that we cannot, in the present number, lay before
our readers such a summary of the remarkable address read b
Professor Huxley (in the absence of the President) to the Geolo-
gical Society, on the 21st ult. It was in every respect a striking
paper, calculated to exert a powerful influence upon the thoughta
of scientific men. We can only now advert to its masterly
analysis of the negative evidence by which paleontologists and
others have built up many of the assumptions on which too much of
recent geology has been based. Mr. Huxley shows that we have
no reason to assume that similar formations in different parts of the
world were deposited at the same time, or even in the same age or
era. What we know is the order of superposition in stratification,
and something of the order of succession in the plants and animals
which fossil remains present to our view; but we do not know, and
have no right to infer, that chalk formations or Silurian formations
in different countries, bear to each other any relation of contempo-
raneity ; nor have we any justification for assuming that we can
discern the beginnings of life in the oldest rocks in which organic
remains have been discovered.

From this branch of his subject the learned Professor passed to
a consideration of the arguments that support prevalent theories of
development, either regarded as a progress from a general to a spe-
cialized structure, or as an advance from embryonic to adult forms
during the long course of ages. Here, as in the former case, he de-
monstrated the insufficiency of the data on which broad assertions
are very often made; and showed that the extent of changes in the
organic world during past geological eras was much less than is
commonly asserted, and not brought about in such an abrupt and
violent way.—LD. |

ROYAL SOCIETY.—January 23.

INFLUENCE OF Paysica AGENTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
Taprote.—It is usually believed, in consequence of a statement by
Dr. Edwards, of Paris, in his work, On the Influence of Physical
Agents on Life, that the presence of light is necessary to the de-
velopment of the tadpole into the frog. In a paper read before
the Royal Society, Mr. Higginbottom has demonstrated the fallacy
of that opinion. His experiments were performed in cellars in Not-
tingham cut out of solid rock, not subject to any great change of
temperature, and into which no solar light ever enters. The lowest
cellar is 30 feet deep, and has a mean temperature of 51° Fahren-
heit. Ova just deposited were placed in the cellar on the 11th of
March, and on the 31st of October the first was fully developed in
the form of a frog; whilst ova placed in the dark in a room at the
temperature of 60° Fahrenheit were fully developed on May 22nd,
twenty-three weeks earlier than those in the cellar; proving that
the development of the ova depended on temperature, and not on
light. In fact, an excess of light retarded the development.

Mr. Higginbottom attributes the failure of Dr. Edwards’s expe-

154 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

riments to the fact of the ova being placed deep in the water, as
they will not develope even when submerged a few inches.

. Dr. Edwards also stated that light was essential to the meta-
morphosis from the tadpole to the frog, stating that tadpoles deeply
submerged in a perforated box in the river Seme do not become
transformed. Mr. Higginbottom maintains that the arrest of deve-
lopment is to be attributed to the seclusion from the atmospheric —
air, and not from light, as the tadpoles, both of the froe and triton,
obtain their perfect development in the dark rock-cellars of Not-
tingham, the rapidity of the change varying with the temperature.
He states, that “The situation in which Dr. Edwards placed the tad-
poles, ‘some feet below the surface of the river’ im his experiment,
would inevitably prove unsuccessful in the full development of the
frog. I have always found the transformation, both of the triton
and of the frog, equal, in the same temperature, both in the light
and in the absence of light, if placed in shallow water; but durmg
their metamorphosis they must be allowed to rise to the surface of
the water to obtain air, or they become asphyxiated. To prevent
this, I placed stones in the vessel, and allowed them to leave the
water for the purpose of atmospheric respiration. The metamor-
phosis of the tadpole, when at its full growth, requires about fourteeu
days to bring it to the condition of a frog. About the termination
of that period, the diminution of the body is so great, and also the
absorption of the expanded caudal extremity is such as to diminish —
cutaneous respiration. Respiration by the lungs becomes absolutely
necessary to prevent the animal from becoming asphyxiated, which
would be the case if it remained in the water; requiring then not
an aquatic, but an atmospheric medium of respiration. It may be
observed that after the tail is partially absorbed, leaving only a por-
tion of the solid part, the asphyxiated state has commenced; the
little animal, with open mouth, gasps for breath; but if removed
into atmospheric air, the mouth is directly closed, and respiration is
effected through the nostrils with perfect freedom; the animal is
restored directly, jumps about and is lively.”

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.—January 27.

Ascent oF Kitimanpsaro.—Mr. Thornton’s paper on the Ascent
of Kilimandjaro was read. The journey of the Baron von Decken
and Mr. Thornton, from the coast to Kilimandjaro and back again,
occupied 101 days. The mountain was ascended to the height of
8000 feet; and was seen to be incontestably snow-capped. The
scientific confirmation of the statements of Mr. Rebmann is satis-
factory, in the first place as settling what has long been a doubtful
point, viz. the existence of snow-covered mountains in Africa at so
short a distance from the equator; and, in the second place, as
proving the truthfulness of the Missionary reports. Mr. Thornton
states that, considering the imperfection of the instruments for
making calculations which they possessed, the observations and
maps of the Missionaries are wonderfully accurate. The Kilimand-

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 155 |

jaro mountain was observed from various points. It is said to rise °
very gradually from the surrounding country. The summit, from
one point of view, presents the appearance of a great dome, and
from another that of a cone with a small plain on the top. Two
other high peaks, belonging to the same group of mountains as Ki-
limandjaro, have been observed. One of these, at a distance of
about 15 miles N., appears to have a height of 17,000 feet, and the
other, apparently 60 miles W., seems to be 18,000 feet in height.
The explored peak is decidedly volcanic; and Mr. Thornton con-
siders that it may be merely the remaining peak of a vast volcano,
by far the larger part of which has subsided to a lower level. The
central axis of the mountains appears to run from N.H. to S.W.;
and it is thought probable that, when this is reached, granite will
be found.

Sir Henry Rawlinson read a letter from Colonel Pelley, H.B.M.
Consul at Zanzibar, stating that Baron von Decken intended to
continue his explorations, and that the river Ozee, which flows into
the Indian Ocean, not far south of the Equator, and is supposed to
rise in the northern prolongation of the Kilimandjaro range, was be-
ginning to attract attention.

Ascent of THE OcuN (the Abbeokuta River), by Capts. Burton
and Bedingfield and Dr. Hales.—Captain Burton recorded his ascent
of this river, and his opinion that the whole country, from the
Niger to the Volta, is well suited for the growth of cotton. He
thinks that the population of the district has been under estimated,
and that, instead of being called 100,000, it ought to be 150,000.
He rather scoffs at the King of Dahomey’s Amazons, and thinks
that their number is less than previous travellers have stated.

Captain Strickland made some remarks with regard to the Ab-
beokutans. He said that they displayed great aptitude for trading,
and might be called the Jews of Africa. Abbeokutans taken as
slaves to Brazil, soon purchase their freedom, and also that of others
who are brought to that country as part of cargoes of slaves.
They are iutelligent, and appear to preserve the remains of an
ancient civilization.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY.—January 30.

ABSORPTION AND Rapration or Heat py Gasnovs Marrers.—Dr.
Tyndall described the results of his continued investigations on the
absorption of heat by gases and vapours. The absorption of radiant
heat by atmospheric air m a short tube, and at a tension of thirty
inches, being taken as 1; Chlorine would be 36; Hydrochloric
acid, 62; Carbonic acid, 90; Sulphuretted hydrogen, 390; Olefiant
gas, 970; Ammonia, 1195. The absorption of radiant heat by
vapours was also found to be very considerable, and even small
quantities of perfumes, when diffused through common air, increase
its power of arresting heat to an extraordinary degree; thus the
absoptive power of air charged with the perfume of patchouli is 30
times greater than that of pure air; lavender increases the power

156 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

to 60 times; and aniseed 372 times the natural amount: hence the
perfume arising from a bed of flowers increases the temperature of
the air around them by rendering it more absorptive of radiant solar
heat. The vapour of water, when present, increases the absorption
of heat by the air in a very extraordinary degree; during the month
of October last Dr. Tyndall found that the atmosphere was 60 times
more absorptive than dry air, owing to the continued moisture. Dr.
Tyndall infers that as the amount of vapour diminishes rapidly at a
distance from the earth’s surface, the sun’s rays are not sensibly
arrested until they reach our atmosphere, but that, on the other
hand, the heat of the earth is prevented from being radiated into the
free space and lost, by the existence of vapour in the air; and owing
to the influence of this action, he thinks that even those planets
most distant from the sun may have a temperature sufficiently hich
to render them inhabitable.

CHEMICAL SOCIETY.—February 6.

Formation or Siniczous Minzrats.—Seyveral interesting com-
munications were made to this Society. Professor Bloxam, of King’s
College, read a paper on the presence of arsenic in sulphuric acid,
and the great difficulty of obtainmg chemical substances absolutely
free from that element. Mr. Dugald Campbell, in the discussion
which followed, made an interesting statement relating to the almost
invariable presence of arsenic in hydrochloric acid, and traced its
origin to the sea-salt used in the manufacture of that acid: arsenic,
as 1s well known, being, in common with silver, copper, etc., an in-
variable constituent of the waters of the ocean. In all the above
cases the arsenic exists in a proportion far too minute to be dis-
coverable except by the most delicate tests. Mr. A. H. Church then
gave the results of some experiments on the aqueous solution of
silica, which chemists are now able to prepare of considerable
strength by means of the dialytic process of Professor Graham. He
found that a solution containing three per cent. of dry silica, or flint,
was as transparent and nearly as mobile as water, when freshly made,
but that it soon became of the consistency of glycerine, and finally,
after six days, gelatinized completely. A very large quantity of the
pure aqueous solution of silica may be changed from the liquid into
the solid state in the course of ten minutes by the fifteen-thousandth
part of a grain, or less, of carbonate of lime; the process of the
transformation into a firm jelly of several ounces of the limpid
solution by means of a few minute particles of the carbonate of an
alkaline earth being very remarkable. Mr. Church pointed out the
important geological effects which might have had their origin in an
aqueous solution of silica, referring more especially to the formation
of an interesting mineralized fossil known as “ Beekite.” This
substance, originally coral or shell, has been transformed into chale-
dony or flint, having lost nearly all its carbonate of lime. Mr.
Church had succeeded in effecting a similar transformation in recent
coral by means of the infiltration of an aqueous solution of silica.

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 157

He pointed out the almost constant presence of silica in the waters of
the earth, as enhancing the probability of his views. The tendency to
circular or globular arrangements often observed in siliceous minerals
was compared by the author to certain minute rings observed to
form during the evaporation of an aqueous solution of silica. A
second paper relating to silica was also read at the same meeting.
In it several springs in New Zealand, very rich in silica and alkaline
silicates, were reported on, and the beautiful quartz-sinter described,
with which they rapidly incrust surrounding objects, such as leaves,
flowers, buds, and fruits. A singular crystallization of large quan-
tities of phosphate of lime occurring in cavities in teakwood was
also brought under the notice of the Society by Professor Abel.

ROYAL INSTITUTION.—February 7.

On tHE Fossiz Remains oF Man, py Proressorn Huxtey.—The
brain-case of man has many varieties of shape and proportion among
the different races of men.

The skull of a Negro was shown; its breadth was small in pro-
portion to its length—in fact, was only six-tenths of it. The skull
of a Turk, on the contrary, was, in breadth, nine-tenths of its length.
All skulls come under one or other of these classes. Taking eight-
tenths of the length as a standard from which to classify skulls
according to the proportion between their length and breadth, all
that have for breadth a less proportion than eight-tenths of the
length are termed dolichocephalic, or long-headed; all that have a
greater proportion, or even that proportion (eight-tenths), of the
length in the breadth, are termed brachycephalic, or round-headed.

Skulls which are of the second class generally have the jaws
orthognathous—nearly or quite in a perpendicular line with the fore-
head. Those of the first class have the jaws prognathous, or more
prominent than the forehead.

Tf a line be drawn on a map from the centre of Russian Tartary
to the Bight of Benin, it will be found that north and east of this
line the heads are of the brachycephalic type; south and west of it
they are dolichocephalic ; north and east the faces are orthognathous;
south and west, prognathous. This, however, is a very broad state-
ment of fact. Near these points may be found heads of all varieties
of breadth ; but, as a rule, the round headed races, Mongols, Tartars,
Turks (modified Tartars), are north of this line, and long-headed,
Negro races are south and west of it.

These great changes are doubtless influenced by, and may be,
in great measure, caused by difference of physical condition. So
great are the differences, that these points may be called the ethno-
logical poles. At the northern end are cold, barren, treeless plains;
at the southern, the warm, rank fertility of the tropics. As we go
away from these ethnological poles, we find, in going from Tartary,
the Chinese become longer-headed and more prognathous; the
Greenlanders are long-headed, so are the Hsquimaux, so are the

158 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

North American Indians. In fact, all heads vary as we depart from
the ethnological poles.

A line drawn from the British Isles, through Hurope and West-
ern Asia to Hindostan, represents the Hthnological Equator, along
which the skulls are found to be oval.

The question arises whether the same varieties of the human race

have always inhabited the regions of the earth in which they are now
found. In Asia, in Africa, all remains that are found are of races
similar to those now dwelling in the countries. In North America,
in the valley of the Mississippi, are found, however, the remains of
a race entirely different from those who now live there—a race
whose remains are the great earthworks found in that region.

When we come to Europe, however, we find, first of all, everywhere
the remains of the great Roman people. Im northern Europe we
find the remains of a long-headed people, acquainted with the use cf
iron ;.the ancestors of the present Germanic races. These, however,
‘were preceded by a race smaller of stature, long-headed, like the
Hindoos, unacquainted with the working of iron—workers im bronze
—and traces of them are found all over Europe.

But behind these, and earlier than these, come the remains of an
earlier race still—a ruder race—who possessed weapons of stone
ground to an edge. These were a rounder-headed people—the
transverse measurement of the skull was eight-tenths of the longi-
tudinal—but the forehead was flat, the supra-orbital ridges were
extremely prominent, and the jaws were prominent, though not
decidedly prognathous.

At what distance from* our epoch was this Stone Period? Itis
impossible to state in years. In Denmark, there are vast peat-bogs.
In the upper layer of these are found beech trees, the trees which
which now form the forests of Denmark; and in these bogs are found
the remains of the won age. Deeper than these is a layer of peat,
in which are imbedded oaks of enormous size—oaks, whose cir-
cumference speaks of centuries of growth. With the oak trees are
found the implements of bronze.

Deeper yet, is another stratum, in which are found pines,
which show by their long stems that they have grown up in dense
forests, into which the light could hardly penetrate; and at the
very bottom of these pine bogs are found the stone weapons; under
them, again, is found peat, in which are found no weapons of any
kind, or any remains of man.

It is not possible to make any calculation of the years that have
elapsed between the stone period and the present day—the conside-
ration of the immense length of time which must have been occupied
in the formation of these bogs can alone furnish us with any idea
on the subject. But before even these bogs were formed, there was
a time when the physical features of the country were totally different
from what they now are, when the urus and bos primigenius, the
fossil elephant, hyzna, and cave bear roared over the land. The
question has arisen, was man contemporaneous with these animals ?
The recent numerous discoveries of stone weapons, chipped to an
edge, and fossil bones acted upon by instruments, tends to the con-

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 159

clusion that man was co-existent with these animals. The question
then arises, what races of men? This has been answered by the
discovery of a well-developed dolichocephalic human skull, in a cave
at Hngis, in Belgium, associated with the remains of the animals
enumerated above. Since that, a skull has been discovered at Nean-
derthal, near Diisseldorf, very different, and much lower in type than
that of the Engis cave. It is a flat-topped skull, so much so that
there was a question whether or not its shape had been produced
by artificial means, and the supra-orbital ridges are extremely pro-
jecting.

An interesting question arises as to the relations which ex-
isted between the possessors of these skulls. Could they be all of
one race, or were they of entirely different races? This ques-
tion was settled by an examination of skulls which belonged to
Australian aborigines—the purest existing race of human beings.
In a large collection of these, there were found skulls which
almost exactly matched both the Hngis and the Neanderthal skulls,
in actual dimensions; and which certainly differed as much from
each other in relative proportion as did these. A remarkable fact
is, that the present aboriginal Australians resemble these ancient
people in modes of life as well as in development of skull. Like
them, they use stone weapons; like them, they use the bones of the
kangaroo, as they did the bones of the deer and wrus; like them,
they make mounds of refuse skulls; and lke them, they build their
huts on piles in the water.

The Engis skull can, however, be paralleled in proportions even
by English skulls.

Far back as is the age of the men who made and used the flint
implements, still farther removed is that at which must be placed
the commencement of the human race.

ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Tue Artesian WELL At Sours Kensincton.—Mr. Nesfield’s bold
and original design for these gardens was characterized by the exten-
sive series of water scenes, canals, cascades, fountains and ponds,
as much as by its grand architectural accessories. The plan was
adopted without any consideration bemg given to the question how
the immense body of water that would be required for the fountains
was to be supplied. The council knew that by payment of a certain
rent the resources of a water company would be available, and to
fill the canals, and work the fountains, was a matter of no immediate
concern. When this question came to be considered seriously, it
appeared that there was every probability of a sufficient supply bemg
obtamable by the sinking of an artesian well in the garden, the first
outlay for which would be as nothing compared with the large yearly
rent for a supply from a water-company. Messrs. Haston, Amos,
and Sons, were so confident that the chalk would yield water in
abundance, that they undertook the work of boring on the condition
that if unsuccessful they should receive no pay. The work has been

160 Notes and Memoranda.

completed, and in spite of all the risk attending such operations, has
proved successful beyond all previous undertakings of the kind within
the London basin. The engineers guaranteed a supply of seventy-
five gallons per minute, but the well is capable of supplying ten
times that amount; it can,in fact, supply a million of gallons in twenty-
four hours, and will apparently be wholly unaffected by local cir-
cumstances, and but slightly by the changes of the seasons. The
total depth sunk and bored is 401 feet, a well having been sunk to
the depth of 226 feet, and a bore thereafter carried down 175 feet
farther. In boring this well, it was found the London clay forms
a much thicker stratum at Kensington than usual. Below it
the strata are successively mottled clay, pebbles, greensand, grey-
sand, flints, and lastly the chalk. But there is a circumstance of
peculiar interest in connection with the enormous capabilities of
this well. Whilst boring through the chalk, the instrument came
upon a fissure, and dropped down a space of several feet, indicating
that the boring had penetrated into one of those subterraneous
streams which are known to occur in the chalk, and which when
met with appear to be incapable of exhaustion. This, and the well
at Trafalgar Square, are the only two in which this fortunate corre-
spondence of the bore into a fissure has occurred, of the many wells
bored by Messrs. Haston and Amos; all other in the metropolis being

dependent on the supplies which percolate through the chalk into
' the well. This running stream, or natural main, may be the same
as that hit upon in boring the well at Trafalear Square, but at pre-
sent there are no evidences of identity. . Fortunately too the water
from this well is fit for garden purposes, and the cost of the under-
taking will prove to be one of the best investments of the funds of
the Society, both for the maintenance of the garden and the interests
of the fellows. It is unquestionably the finest well in the metro-
polis, a triumph of engineering, and an important contribution to
our knowledge of the characteristics of the London basin.

RE SER es SUC RIRR GE peer Tet Ras She See ey

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

PuystoLocicaL Errrcts or Mirx.—Mothers have long been aware of the
fact that their infants were affected by any changes in the composition of breast-
milk, brought about by particular kinds of food, medicine, or other disturbing
causes; and a French doctor, M. Labourdette, takes advantage of this cireum-
stance by administering to the mother the physic he wishes to operate upon the
child, M. Flourens also has made divers experiments with pigs and other
animals. He coloured the maternal food with madder, and in twenty days found
the bones of the little sucklings tinged with that dye. At the meeting of the
British Association in 1860, Mr. Gibb, referring to Vogel’s discovery of vibrions
in human milk, stated that a child had been brought to him in a state of ema-
ciation. The mother appeared in good health, and her milk was rich in cream
and sugar, but it contained numerous vibrions. Subsequent observations con-
firmed the opinion that milk containing infusoria reduced the children who were
suckled upon it to skin and bone.

Ferrtiniry or Hyzrips.—M. J. G. St. Hilaire, after collecting facts from
various sources, and making numerous original experiments on the reproductive
powers of hybrids formed by the alliance of species of the same genus, arrived at

Notes and Memoranda. "161

the conclusion that there were a great many sterile hybrids, and also a great
number that were imperfectly fecund; but that there were others which possessed
the faculty of reproduction either with stock species or among themselves. It
would be of the highest importance to ascertain under what circumstances the
fertility takes place, and to what extent hybrids are formed by animals in a wild
state. M.St. Hilaire considered such commingling of species occurred much
oftener than is usually supposed.

ANTIQUITY OF BonEs.—M. J. P. Couerbe has proposed to the French Academy
of Sciences a clever, but uncertain mode of ascertaining:the date of human bones
discovered in tumuli or similar situations. He analyzed portions of skeletons dug
up at the Chateau of Vertheuil. The bones were friable, but well preserved; and
. from part of an arm-bone he obtained carbonate of lime, 15°50; phosphate of
lime, 67°17; phosphate of magnesia, 3°16 ; oxides of iron, manganese, and alu-
minium, 1°50; silica, 2 ; organic nitrogenous matter, 10°47 per cent., and traces of
chlorides. Berzelius obtained 33 per cent. of nitrogenous organic matter from fresh
bones, and M. Couerbe considers that it is possible to discover the rate at which
this matter disappears from buried remains, and consequently that the age of any
fragments could be ascertained by the results of analysis. He tells us that
Vogelsang could only obtain traces of organic nitrogenous bodies in bones which
had been eleven centuries under ground; and hence he concludes, with perhaps
more haste than judgment, that these elements disappear at the rate of three per
cent. per century. He admits that difference of soil and other conditions would
materially affect the question to be solved, but nevertheless considers that if the
loss of organic matter experienced by any bone be divided by three, an approxi-
mate age will be obtained in centuries.

EMBRYOGENY.—M. Ch. Robin observes: “‘ Under the name of ‘ mucous
globule,’ ‘hyaline corpuscule,’ etc., most embryogenists have distinguished a
translucent globule which appears on the sides of the embryon. Once produced,
it remains, under the vitelline membrane, a stranger to the phenomena which
take place around it, and it is abandoned, with the aforesaid membrane, when
the hatching (éclosion) takes place. Becoming useless as soon as formed, its
production has prepared the way for the segmentation of the vitellus.” He
proposes to call these agents in generation “ polar globules,” because their appear-
ance “marks some hours in advance the pole of the vitellus which is about to be
depressed.” After various details, he remarks: “It is by germination, and with
the aid and at the expense of the substance of the vitellus, that the polar globules
are produced. Among all the vertebrate and most of the invertebrate animals,
their appearance is followed by the segmentation of the vitellus. But there are
animals, such as gnats (Tipulaires culiciformes), among which the vitellus does
not undergo segmentation, and the cellules of their blastoderm originate by
germination, as the polar globules do in other creatures.” —Comptes Rendus.

GrowTH oF Corat.—M. de Lacaze du Thiers, having been directed by the
Governor-General of Algeria to report on the reproduction of coral, devoted
himself to the requisite observations, and communicated the results to the French
Academy. He found coral branches to contain male polyps, females, and herma-
phrodites, the latter being the least numerous. One or other sex usually predomi-
nated in a particular branch, and when fecundation was not the result of
hermaphroditism, the currents of the water carried the male seed just as the air
carries the pollen of diccious plants. In lively specimens, the male polyps may
be seen to emit a white fluid, which produces a milkiness in the water, and
diffuses the spermatic elements. He found some difficulty in distinguishing the
seminal from the ovigerous capsules under a hand magnifier, but the microscope
revealed egg appearances in the latter, and spermatozoa in the former. ‘The
incubation takes place in the digestive cavity, the coral is viviparous, and its
young resemble little worms, which move with agility. They swim backwards,
and after becoming fixed, experience curious transformations in reaching the form
of the perfect animal.—Tdid.

ADULTERATION OF TIN-FoIL.—As many experimenters might be under the
delusion that tin-foil was really composed of tin, it may be as well to cite the

162 Notes and Memoranda.

analyses of Mr. Baldock, who found various specimens to contain lead, the purest
having rather more than 34 per cent. of that metal, and the worst 86 per cent.

Carzoxic Acip.—Dr. Crace Calvert calls this substance the most powerful
preventive of putrefaction with which he is acquainted. By its aid he succeeds
in preserving gelatine solutions, and preparations of starch, flour, ete. It pre-
vents the conversion of tannin into carbonic acid and sugar, and arrests lactic
fermentation. Diluted with from two to seven parts of water, it is found useful
in putrid ulcers and sloughing wounds. The non-chemical reader may be re-
minded that carbolic acid is very similar to creosote, and obtained from coal-tar.

Divisipitity oF Matrer.—A writer in the Chemical News proposes, as an
illustration of the mechanical subdivision of matter, that a film of gold leaf reduced
by Faraday’s plan, through the action of cyanide of potassium, so as to be quite
transparent, and about 1-3,000,000th of an inch in thickness, should be divided
by cross-lines 1-80,000th of an inch apart, like those in Norbert’s test-plates,
belonging to the highest series which the microscope will revolve. By this means
squares of gold might be obtained so small, that three billion eight hundred
and forty million of them would occupy no more than a single square inch; and
yet each one would be distinctly visible under the best objectives of modern
microscopes

THE Comet oF 1861.—The Comptes Rendus of the 13th of January contains
an elaborate paper by M. Faye on “the Figure of the Great Comet of 1861,”
in which he first comments upon what he terms the “‘ cyathiform,” or “ nucleated
cup-shaped anterior emission.” He alleges various reasons for considering this
emission to have the shape of a cup, with reversed edges. He remarks that in
attempting to compare theoretical figures with the forms naturally observed, it is
necessary to remember that the former represent geometrical surfaces without
thickness, while the latter exhibit considerable thickness, and are not homo-
geneous in substance. He further compares the cometary emission forms to the.
conical or spherical sheets of water in wide-spread fountain jets, which after a
certain limit lose their regular shape, and are resolved into torn and divided
streams (Jambeaux) and drops. M. Faye states that these details may be con-
veniently studied by causing the flame of a spirit-lamp to be deflected by an
obstacle held in a horizontal plane. He also describes ‘“‘a posterior conoidal
emission,” which he finds prolonged far into the tail, following its curvature, and
gradually enlarging itself until it presents the perspective appearance of two
distinct branches.

Inrra-MrrcurtaL Pranets.—Ihe same number of the Oomptes Rendus
contains an extract from the Annales de l’ Observatoire on the theory of Mercury,
detailing various objections to the hypothesis of a large planet comparable with
Mercury in size, and circulating within its orbit, and suggesting the belief in a
series of asteroids, whose joint action might produce the disturbance which has
to be accounted for. The writer urges the importance of noticing every regular
spot that may appear on the disk of the sun, in order to ascertain whether it
possesses the character of an asteroid.

Vetociry or BoripEs.—M. Petit estimates the velocity with which the bolide
of the 9th of December, 1858, passed over the communes of Muret, Longage, ete.,
at 5200 métres per second, and its height above the earth during the explosions at
5000 metres. A previous meteor (13th September, 1858) had an elevation of
220 kilométres, and a velocity cf 29 kilométres. The métre is 39°37100 English
inches, and the kilométre 4 furlongs 213 yards 1 foot 10°2 inghes. M. Petit
observes that the last-named meteor exhibited a brilliant light, far beyond the
limits usually assigned to our atmosphere.

PHOTOGRAPHY AND Eranotogy.—The Russians have taken photographic
portraits of the various inhabitants of the Steppes of the Oural, with a view to
ethnological studies. One view gives a profile, and another a full face; and the
subjects of the operation were shaved, so as to exhibit the true form and dimen-
sions of the skull.

A New Votcano has appeared in the Planeito de los Vaqueros, Chili, in a

Notes and Memoranda. 163

region of perpetual snow, and about twenty leagues from the Baths of Chillon,
known for their hot sulphurous springs.

THE PerroteuM Sprines or Norra America.—Dr. Abraham Gesner com-
municated to the Geological Society an account of these extraordinary springs,
and an abstract of his paper will be found in the Quarterly Journal. The oil
region comprises parts of Lower and Upper Canada, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ken-
tucky, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, Texas, New Mexico, and California, reaching
from the 65th to the 128th degree of longitude west, and there are likewise
outlying tracts. The oil is believed to be derived from silurian, devonian, and
carboniferous rocks, and is conjectured to be a product of the chemical action
by which ligneous matter is transmuted into coal. Dr. Gesner also suggests
that in some cases animal matter may have been the source of the hydro-carbon.
To obtain the petroleum, borings are made through various strata to the depth
of 150 to 500 feet. As a general rule, these borings pass through clay, with
boulders, sandstones, and conglomerates, shale, bituminous shale, and then the
_ oil, underlaid by the oil-bearmg stratum of fire clay, containing fragments of
stigmaria and other coal plants. As soon as the oil stratum is reached there.is
an escape of carburetted hydrogen gas, often violent enough to blow the boring-
rods into the air. When the oil comes it is ejected with much force, sometimes
rising to the height of 100 feet. Some wells have at first given 4000 gallons in
six hours, and the ayerage daily yield of mineral oils in the United States is
estimated at about 50,000 gallons.

Lanp ANIMALS IN THE Coat Measures oF Nova Scorza.—Dr. Dawson has
obtained numerous animal remains from the cliffs of the South Joggins, Nova
Scotia, among them some reptilian skeletons, one of which, the Dendrerpeton
acadianum, he considers the most perfect carboniferous reptile hitherto discovered.
These were obtained from a tree trunk fossilized 2m situ, and it also contained,
amongst other treasures, many remains of insects, the most interesting being a
compound eye, with the facets perfectly preserved. Further details are given in
the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.

New Votcanic Istanp IN THE CasPIAN SzA.—In August last, the crew of
the steamer “Turkey” discovered a new island in the middle of the Caspian,
23 fathoms long, 12 fathoms wide, and the height above the water about 6 feet.
The soil is very loose, and smells strongly of petroleum. The new isle is in a line
of volcanic action, from the mud eruptions of Kertch to the fires of Bakou. An
account of its discovery appeared in the Russian Naval Review, a translation of
which by Lieut. Lutke was communicated to the Geological Society, through
Sir R. Murchison.

BakEeweE.u’s Copying TELEGRAPH.—We understand from Mr. Bakewell that
he considers Bonelli’s telegraph, noticed in our last Number, to be an imitation
of his copying telegraph, to which a Council Medal was awarded at the Great
Exhibition of 1851. The latter effects with a single wire what Signor Bonelli’s
- telegraph does with twenty; and it was at once evident, when the method of
. copying writing by the means of electricity with one wire was shown, that a
greater number would do the work more quickly, if cost were no object. We
ave informed that with eight or ten wires copies of writing may be transmitted
with Mr. Bakewell’s instrument at the rate of 3000 letters per minute.

HetiocHromy.—M. Niepeé de St. Victor has communicated to the French
Academy an important step towards the fixation of heliochromic tints, which
increases the hope that before long coloured objects may be successfully photo-
graphed. He states that he “ obtains the heliochromic colours ona film of chloride
of silver formed on a metallic plate.” In preparing this plate he employs hypo-
chlorite of potash, and he remarks, “this alkaline bath, although very variable
in its composition, generally gives fine colours, only the bottom of the image
remains somewhat dark, and divers causes occasion certain colours to dominate
over the rest.” Continuing his description, he observes, “it is known that to
obtain the colours on a white ground it is necessary to heat the plate, before ex-
posing it to the light, until the chloride of silver assumes a rosy tint, or to sub-
stitute for the action of heat that of light, in the manner indicated by M. C.

164 Notes and Memoranda.

Becquerel. I conceived the idea of covering the chloride film, before exposing it
to the light, with a layer of a saturated solution of chloride of lead mixed with
enough dextrine to form a varnish.” He found that the colours were produced
with greater brilliancy on a plate thus prepared, and after their appearance the
plate was heated over a spirit-lamp, not raising the temperature high enough to
carbonize the varnish. ‘“ Under the influence of heat, the colours usually grow
more intense, especially if the light has influenced the whole thickness of the
chloride of silver; but if otherwise, the blues are turned into violets, and the
blacks to reds.” The result of the process is, “‘that the destructive action of
light upon the plate is retarded, so that ten or twelve hours are necessary to
destroy the colours, which, under ordinary circumstances, would disappear in a
few minutes. Such is the state of heliochromy to-day, and if the problem of
fixation is not yet solved, we may at least hope fora solution.” M. Chevreul
remarks that the discovery of the dextrine and chloride of lead varnish is a great
advance, and he ‘compares the sensitive films of M. St. Victor to the retina of
the human eye.

A Livine SKELETON.—Under this title a very remarkable monstrosity is ex-
hibited at Lima, in Peru. The individual, whose name is Montaos, appears about
thirty-five years of age, but he says he is only twenty-eight. He seems to enjoy
good health, his complexion is rosy, his cheeks full, and his eyes bright. His arms
are long and fleshless, his body flattened, the legs dried and bent up like those of
a Peruvian mummy, and terminating into two small half-bent feet. He has
never been able to stand, and presents himself for exhibition seated on a three-
legged stool. Notwithstanding his unfortunate organization, he contrives to play
the violin and accordion with considerable taste. His body has a slight power of
motion backwards and forwards, and he is able to use one hand and arm. To
play the violin, he fixes one end of the bow between his legs, and steadies the
other with the upper part of his body. He then takes the instrument in his
right hand, fingers the strings, and at the same time draws them across the bow.
The accordion he manages by securing the loose portion between his body and
left leg, his mouth seizes the upper part, and the fingers of the right hand touch
the keys.—rom the “ Camercio de Lima,” January 3, 1862.

Curious Errect or VIS INERTI£.—M. Tardiret states that if a perfectly
smooth and polished plate of glass, ivory, or metal is caused to rotate with great
velocity in a horizontal plane, it does not communicate its own motion to a
highly-finished ball which may be placed upon it.

Action oF Jop1InE on Tin.—In the Comptes Rendus (January 27th 1862)
will be found a paper, by M. Personne, on the iodides of tin. To obtain a direct
combination of the two substances, he placed 21 grammes of iodine and 10 grammes
of powdered tin in asealed tube. At about + 50° cent. (122° Fahr.) a violent action
took place, accompanied by the evolution of light. After cooling, the tube was
broken, and there was found in it a metallic button of tin, anda red substance
highly fusible and volatile. This was the bi-iodide of tin SnI?. This substance
crystallizes in octahedra of a red-orange colour. It melts at + 146° cent.
(294°8° Fahr.), and emits yellow vapours; at|+ 142° cent. (287°6° Fahr.) it solidifies.
After vaporization, it condenses on cool bodies in beautiful needles, resembling in
form those of sal ammoniac. It is decomposed by water, into hydriodic acid, and
binoxide of tin. It dissolves in bisulphide of carbon, chloroform, and benzine,
and likewise in anhydrous alcohol or ether; but, like bichloride of tin, it can
enter into combination with these last solvents. It absorbs ammonia, and forms
three compounds. The protoiodide of tin is obtained by dissolving powdered tin
in concentrated hydriodic acid, or by a double decomposition produced by pouring
a solution of protochloride of tin into a moderately strong solution of iodide of
potassium. In concluding his paper, M. Personne observes that it results from
the experiments which he details that the action of iodine on tin is precisely
similar to that of chlorine or bromine on that metal, and the iodides of tin are
analogous in composition and chemical properties to its chlorides and bromides.

+olBBe-

THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER.

APRIL, 1862.

BEES AND THEIR COUNTERFEITS; OR, BEES,
CUCKOO-BEES, AND FLY-BEES.

BY H. NOEL HUMPHEEYS.

No insect is so well known to our unentomological public as
the hive-bee of North-Western Hurope. All the habits, pecu-
liarities, and interesting social arrangements of this insect have
been popularized in a series of works, the public appetite for
which never seems satiated, and so, new volumes upon this
never-failing theme, always possessing more or less merit, are
continually issuing from the press; but although the natural
history of our common hive-bee (Apis mellifica) has been thus
rendered so familiar, the other members of the bee family have
found but few popular historians, and less is generally known
about them—except to entomologists—than about other far
less interesting insect families.

Yet there are many interesting peculiarities connected with
different species of the bee tribe which would amply repay the
cost of a little study. I may, therefore, within the limits of the
present paper, call attention to a few remarkable kinds of Bri-
tish and foreign bees, more especially with reference to certain
extraordinary resemblances which exist between some of the
honey-collecting kinds and those belonging to the parasitic or
cuckoo class ; which will lead to the notice of still more curious
resemblances that exist between bees and certain insects be-
longing to a distinct order, Diptera. These last, though only
furnished with two wings, while the bees and the whole order
(Hymenoptera) to which they belong have four, yet bear such a
striking resemblance to the bees, m company with which they
are found, that an untrained observer would not, at all events
on a first glance, perceive the existing difference.

The bee family was termed by the great French naturalist,
Latreille, Mellifera (honey gatherers), or Anthophila (flower
lovers), both terms being characteristic of the general habits of
the family. One of the most remarkable features in those kinds

VOL. I.—NO. III. N

166 Bees and their Counterfetts.

of bees which live in societies, as is well known in the case of
the hive-bee, is the existence of a third sex, the neuter or
worker; and there are other singular peculiarities of this kind
in less known species, such as the existence of two distinct
kinds of females. The material of which the ege-cells are
composed is very various. The comb of the hive-bee, as
is well known, is formed of wax, secreted in a peculiar manner,
as described in hundreds of popular works; but other species,
though forming a comb almost identical in appearance, make it
by the manipulation of certain substances which they reduce
to a material more analogous to common manufactured paper
than anything else; while others, again, make cells with sand,
moistened with a glutinous secretion, which reduces it to a
kind of tenacious cement. Some of these species, again, collect
an inferior kind of honey, while others only collect pollen, of
which they place a small mass or ball in each cell in which an
ege is to be deposited, so as to form a supply of food for the
grub or larva to subsist on till full grown. The exactly sufii-
cient quantity is prepared by the instinct of the parent; and, in
fact, when that is consumed, the young grub bee has no choice
but to subside at once into the torpor in which his change of
organization is to take place. ‘This is a necessity, as he has no
powers of locomotion, being a clumsy maggot-formed larva,
which, placed at the bottom of a smooth-sided cell, would have
no means of seeking food for himself. The tribes of para-
sitic bees which do not make cells to contain honey or pollen
for the separate use of each infant bee, visit the nests of their
more industrious cousins, and surreptitiously place an egg of
their own in the cell contaming the honey or pollen, as the
case may be.

It was formerly believed that the egg of the parasitic bee was
placed in the same cell with the egg of the honey-bee, and that
being hatched first, the young parasite devoured all the food,
leaving the infant of the honey-bee to find himself born to an
empty larder, and consequently speedy starvation; but more
recent observation has led to the conclusion that this is not the
case, but that the parasitic bee, on entering the nest, selects
cells already furnished with honey or pollen, but in which no
ego has as yet been laid. While the unsuspicious female pro-
prietors of the nest, finding an unexpected egg deposited in the
cell they first visit, ‘exhibit no sion of surprise, but pass on to
the next, not seeming to be at all disturbed by the presence of
the uninvited deposit ; just as small birds make no attempt to
exclude the egg of the cuckoo, but hatch it, and rear the young
intruder along With their own offspring.

This occurs in the nests of wild bees constructed in different
situations, some kinds making an excavation expressly, others

Bees and their Counterfeits. 167

adopting the deserted work of some other insect, or taking
advantage of an accidental hollow. For instance, Anthidiwm
manicatum, one of our summer bees, generally uses the holes
bored in willow stumps by the Cossus ligniperda ; but a nest of
this species was once found, as described by Mr. F. Smith, in
the keyhole of a garden door. Some of the humble bees, on
the other hand, carefully construct their own burrow. A beau-
tiful exotic species, a large and powerful bee, has received the
specific name of Latipes, from the singular broadening and
strengthening of the front pair of feet. ‘These broadened feet
assume somewhat of the character of the front feet of the mole,
or rather those of that curious insect the mole cricket. These
enlarged feet, with the thick brushes of strong hairs with
which they are furnished, are evidently excavating implements,
and no doubt the works produced by their agency are of a very
interesting kind ; but entomological discovery has not at present

made us acquainted with the nest architecture of this handsome
insect. A pretty little English bee,.one of the solitary kinds,
often makes its burrow in sheltered parts of hard gravel walks,
an affair evidently of very great labour, as the female bee, who
is the sole architect in this instance, frequently comes to the
opening of the burrow to rest, when the male commences flying
rapidly round and round his mate with great rapidity, as though
to encourage her to renew the task.

Iam not aware whether the nest of the little bee of the
oravel walk is subject to the visits of a parasitic cousin, but
among those most subject to intruders of this kind is that of the
common garden humble-bee, Bombus hortorwm. In the en-
graving above, this pretty bee (Fig. 1) is engraved side by
side with its parasite, Apathus barbutellus (Fig. 2). These bees
bear such a generally close resemblance to each other, that one
may easily be mistaken for the other, even by the initiated, till

168 Bees and their Counterfeits.

after a close examination, as colour, size, and general form are
almost identical. There is, however, one marked difference,
which is easily perceived when the trained eye has been taught
where to look for it: the hind legs of the honey or pollen
collector are invariably furnished with an enlarged tibia, the
flattened and somewhat hollowed breadth of which serves as a
reservoir, in which the pollen collected from flowers is carried
to the nest. This peculiarity of formation will be observed in
the engraving, Fig. 1, whilst in Fig. 2 the same part of the hind
leg will be found simply rounded, and entirely without that
broadened, flattened, and hollow character which distinguishes
the hind leg of the honey collector. This parasite, having

neither the instinct to collect food for its expected progeny,
nor, in fact, the means of carrying it home even if the will
existed, has been deemed by naturalists to be entirely devoid of
those parental and home instincts which distinguish the recol-
tant or harvesting kinds. It is on that account that it has, like
the genus to which it belongs, received the name of Apathus ;
apathy in regard to the providing protection or food for their
young being the leading characteristic of parasites. ‘It will be
observed that the light band on the thorax, near the head, is
less distinct in the Apathus, and also that the abdomen is not
quite so profusely furred. lLatreille termed these parasitic bees
Cuculine, or cuckoo-bees, the term Apathus having been sub-
stituted by an English naturalist.

' The resemblance of the third insect figure in the group
above is still more curious. Although, at a glance, it so much
resembles both the bees represented in the engraving as to
cheat the careless observer, it will on closer examination prove
itself not only far from beimg identical, but will be found so
radically different as at once to show that it belongs to another
and distinct order of insects, the Diptera, or two-winged order.
It is, in fact, merely the general size and the colourmg which
deceive the eye untrained to appreciate anatomical form with
accuracy. On examination, almost every part of the structure
will be found to be exceedingly distinct from that of the bee:
the eyes are differently placed and different in form, while their
size and colour are nearly identical; the antenne, instead of
being horny and robust, like those of the bee, are delicately
slender and feathered, like some kinds of moths—but these
are not conspicuous appendages, and escape the attention of
the ordinary spectator. The thorax, or fore part of the body,
is, however, furred with orange hairs next the head, which
become yellow near the abdomen, leaving the centre of the
thorax black ; the segments of the abdomen nearest the thorax
are clothed with yellow fur; the central segments are black,
and the last segments, or tail, are white—-this is precisely the

Bees and their Counterfeits. 169

colouring of both the bees (Figs. 1 and 2); butthen the single
pair of wings, the legs have not the enlarged or honey-bearing
tibia, and even the anatomical structure of the body itself,
though under the disguising fur mantle of identical colour, is
of itself amply sufficient to denote that the sect belongs to
another and very distinct class.

Still, the close general resemblance of this insect, Volucella
plumata, is indisputable, and as it passes into the nest of the
bee, in order to deposit its eggs (one to each) on many of the
livmg larve of the bees, “it might certainly, to a casual
observer, pass for one of the family, while entering the bees’
nest on its mission of murder to the mfant bees in their cell-
eradles. The egg of this parasite being deposited in the warm
folds of the soft skin of the bee-larva is rapidly hatched, and it
at once proceeds to its unnatural feast, slowly devouring the
foster parent whose breast had warmed it into life ; the bee-larva,
as I have stated, bemg a soft, legless grub with no powers of
escape. The engraving below (Fig. 4) is the larva of one of the
solitary bees; very closely resembling that of the humble-bee,
and indeed of the hive-bee also. The larva of the Volucella is
represented at Fig. 5. This
odious-looking creature, with its
broad tail, armed with sharp
spines, and its muscular body
taperig to the head, and fur-
nished with rigid serrations
along each side, forms a ane contrast to the soft, ate
larva of the bee. Like all the larvee of the Syv-’dce, to which
the genus Volucella belongs, it is blind;.but resting attached
by the broad tail, it moves its head rapidly about as a feeler,
before changing its position. The spikes at the tail may be
adapted to enable it to raise itself up the smooth sides of the
cell of the bee larva, in case that one infant bee should prove
insufficient, and that it might require to pass on to the next
cradle. But it may be as well to describe the progress of the
parasitic larva on the supposition that one baby bee will prove
enough for its purpose. The devoted larva of the bee, then, is
gradually eaten alive by the parasite; which, with seemingly
horrible instinct, spares all the actually vital parts, taking only
the more fleshy portions, until the carnivorous young Volucella
feels itself full fed and ready to undergo its torpid state of
change. Then, the last remains of the wretched infant bee are
greedily consumed, and the parasite passes into its sleepy chry-
saline stage, taking its long siesta in the comfortable cradle
whose infant tenant it has devoured, and from which it eventually
comes boldly forth in all the pride of its winged and perfect
state, walking out of the bee home as from its own proper

170 Bees and their Counterfeits.

abode, and attracting no notice whatever from the bees, in
whose nursery it has performed the odious act of eating a baby
bee, and appropriating its comfortable cradle cell. The stolid
unconsciousness with which the bees allow this insect vampire
to pass out and escape from the scene of his horrid proceedings
with impunity, has induced some naturalists to believe that the
carnivorous Volucella owes its safety to its complete disguise in
the colouring of the bee, which is supposed to be so perfect as .
to deceive the bees themselves into the belief that these strangers
are members of their own fraternity. Mr. Westwood, quoting
Messrs. Kirby and Spence, in their admirable work, in which
the habits and instincts of British msects were first classified
and grouped together in a pleasantly readable form, makes the
following statement on the likeness of the Volucella to the
bee :—‘ This similarity to the humble-bee is of eminent service
to the insects which deposit their eggs in the nests of those
bees, an admirable provision of Nature, since, as Messrs. Kirby
and Spence observe, ‘did these intruders venture themselves
among’ humble-bees in a less kindred form, their lives would
probably pay the forfeit of their presumption.’?” ‘This state-
ment, however, though appearing so plausible, is not borne out
by analogy, there bemg many parasites on bees which do not
bear the slightest resemblance to the msects whose nests they
invade. Not only are some of the Diptera, who deposit their
eggs in the nests of bees, very unlike the bees whose homes
they infest, but even the parasitic bees themselves do not
always resemble the bees whose nests they appropriate. For
instance, the species Hucera longicornis has a broad brownish
body, without any conspicuous mark, while its parasitic relative,
Nomada sex-fasciata, has the narrow body of a wasp, and, as its
name implies, six conspicuous yellow bands on the abdomen,
which with the intermediate black spaces, make it a very dis-
tinct-looking creature indeed.

In some of the exotic bees more especially, the distinct
aspects of the harvesting bee and the parasite are very striking ;
they are, in fact, so much so, that the insects might be thought
to belong to entirely different families. The beautiful Brazilian
bee, Huglossa dimidiata (No. 3 in the coloured plate), has an
attendant parasite as totally unlike it as itis possible to conceive
of insects of the same order. Huglossa dimidiata is one of the
most beautifully and variously coloured of the whole bee tribe.
The specimen from which our representation is taken, was cap-
tured by Mr. Bates, at Para, in the Brazils; and it is found in
other tropical parts of South America. Latreille described this
handsome species in Schomberg’s Fauna of British Guiana ; but
it had been previously described by Fabricius, from specimens
taken at Cayenne, and named by him Apis dimidiata; subse-

Bees and their Counterfeits. 171

quent divisions of the family having rendered another generic
name necessary, this beautiful species was attached to the
genus Huglossa. It forms its nest by boring tubular hollows
in large reeds, and there is a specimen of a reed in the British
Museum bored in this manner by this bee, or by a bee belong-
ing to a closely allied genus.

Into such a tube the parasite bee penetrates, for the purpose
of depositing its egg in the cells which have been furnished
with honey or pollen by Huglossa dimidiata.

In this case, in order to support the theory of Messrs. Kirby
and Spence, it would be more than usually necessary that the
intruder should be furnished with a very complete disguise, as
he must, in such a narrow tubular home, necessarily come to
very close quarters with the master of the house. Yet, on the
contrary, the whole aspect of the parasite of Huglossa dium-
diata is not only extremely different, but its appearance is of
that striking character calculated to excite immediate attention.
Instead of being soft and furry after the fashion of the humble-
bee tribe and their allies, he is entirely hard, smooth, and glitter-
ing—the entire body, thorax and abdomen, and also the legs,
being of a light vivid metallic green like that of our rose-beetle.
It might be urged, on the other hand, that although not pro-
vided with a security in the form of a disguise, a defence of
another kind has been substituted, in the suit of impenetrable
plate-armour, of magnificent green bronze, in which this insect
is incased. But I feel convinced that it is entirely futile to ©
attempt to explain the nature of providential arrangement, and
point out the secret purposes for which either apparent analogies
or discrepancies were devised. ‘The best explanations offered,
indeed, are too full of contradictions to be for a moment seri-
ously accepted as revelations of intended purpose. As a ready
example of the contradictions to which such speculations must
be lable, I may mention here, that although the parasitic bee,
which infests the nests of Huglossa dimidiata, is entirely unlike
the harvesting-bee, whose home he invades, yet the doubly-
unfortunate Huglossa has a second enemy, in the form of a
gigantic diptera, whose similarity to the bee is most curious.
This enormous fly-bee, Asilus fasciatus, has, it is true, only two
wings, but those being of deep brown to half their length, and
transparent for the remainder, bear an extraordinary general
resemblance to those of the bee; while the colouring of this
handsome insect being nearly identical with those of the bee,
and the size and shape of the markings being almost identical,
the general resemblance becomes very remarkable; hence the
conspicuous appearance of one enemy is rendered utterly useless
as a defence, while the seemingly perfect disguise of another
apparently favours his fatal entrance to the nest. There is

172 Bees and thetr Counterfeits.

another instance of a likeness so very extraordinary between a
large exotic bee and its parasitic diptera, that I have repre-
sented them in the engraving below, in order to allow of care-
ful comparison (Figs. 6 and 7).

The handsome bee figured above (Fig. 4, and No. 2 in the
coloured plate), is Xylocopa nigrita (the female); it is a na-
tive of Sierra Leone, and is remarkable for the full deep
velvety black of the greater part of the body, while the
sides of the abdomen are conspicuously fringed, and partly

FIN A
SAAN \\\ i iD
ye

Fig. 7.

covered, with milk-white furry hairs; the effect of which call
to mind the appearance of an aged negro, of the same part
of the African coast, whose woolly hair has become white with
age. The legs, also, are thickly fringed on one side with a simi-
lar white fur, and the “face” is white, with large, brown eyes.
The wings are nearly opaque, and of deep, dull purple, with a
metallic gloss, bronzy-red towards the extremities. The Dip-
tera, or two-winged counterpart of this insect (Fig. 5), has all
the characteristic contrasts of black and white, similarly dis-

Bees and their Counterfeits. 173

posed, even to the white face and brown eyes; while the
opaque, iridescent wings are precisely similar in tone and
colour. The somewhat longer legs, the single pair of wings,
and the different structure of the antennz, at once prove to
the entomologist that these two insects are not only not the
same, but that they belong even to different “orders.” They are,
however, in all probability, found together, like the other bees
and diptera which so strongly resemble each other—the larva
of the diptera, no doubt, preying upon the larva of the bee. In
proof of this hypothesis, it may be stated that both specimens
were brought to Hngland from the west coast of Africa, the bee,
from Sierra Leone, the bee-fly from Port Natal, and probably
beth will eventually be found in the same district. The last,
the bee-fly, is at present an entomological novelty, and has
not yet been named. The bee exhibits, in an unusual degree,
a peculiarity common to many of the family, namely, a marked
difference in the general aspect of the two sexes. The imdi-
vidual engraved above is the female bee, the male being of a
light tawny brown colour, and having a mvch longer body, a
characteristic which generally distinguishes the female rather
than the male. ‘The two sexes of this remarkable insect are
both figured in the coloured plate, No. 1 being the male, and
No. 2 the female. It would be interesting to know, whether
in the bee-fly, which bears so extraordinary a resemblance to
this fine bee, an equal disparity of appearance exists between
the two sexes; but, as we have at present only a solitary speci-
men of this insect, that is a pomt which cannot be decided ;
but other specimens will, doubtless, be captured, which may
may enable us to solve this interesting entomological problem.

The other exotic bees figured in the coloured plate are, the
pretty little Huglossa cordata (No. 5), a native of the Brazils;
Anthophora elegans (No. 6); and Crocisa picta (No. 7), are also
from South America.

In concluding my remarks on curious resemblances between
“bees” and various kinds of two-winged “ flies,” I may mention
a curious instance of a resemblance between a dipterous insect
and one of the wasp tribe (Vespida). Humenes esuriens, a small
Indian wasp, found in Bengal, has its counterpart (the resem-
blance being truly extraordinary) in Cesia eumenoides, the speci-
fic name of which has been conferred upon it in consequence of
this smgular resemblance. I ought also to mention, as a case
in point not the least singular, that a British dipterous insect
of the Syrphus tribe, belonging to the genus Hristalis, is so like
the common hive-bee, that it would, at a glance, deceive any
observer untrained as an entomologist.

174 The Shell of the Cutile Fish.

THE SHELL OF THE CUTTLE FISH.

Ir is not generally known that the internal shell of the cuttle
fish (Sepia officinalis), so commonly found by the sea-shore, and
likewise having its place among the miscellaneous items of the
chemist’s shop, affords one of the most beautiful objects for
microscopic examination by polarized light. All that is re-
quired is to scrape a little of the soft part of the shell with a
penknife, taking care not to reduce it to too fine a powder,
and then mount it in Canada balsam. ‘The slide is thus easily
prepared, but to view it requires some little nicety. If ex-
hibited without a selenite stage, the polarizer and analyzer
should be so adjusted as transmit their least amount of hight.
When they are in this position the cuttle shell shde may be
placed on the stage, and there will be seen a number of irregular
shaped masses of a dull golden hue, variegated with numerous
points of a brighter aspect, and likewise many more or less
oblong fragments, glowimg with rich purples, crimsons, yellows,
emerald-greens, and shades of golden-brown. ‘The colours or
tints are arranged in numerous horizontal bands which, under
an inch or two-third object-glass, show symptoms of crystal-
lization in the shape of thousands of minute needles, an aspect
that is strengthened if a higher power, such as a quarter or a
fifth, is employed. Revolving the analyzing prism produces no
good effects, nor does a similar process with the polarizer, the
object presenting no beauty except in the one position we have
described. While the prisms are in such relative positions as
to transmit little or no light, the selenite stage may be intro-
duced beneath the slide, and the colours will appear somewhat
more brilliant, but pretty much the same. Mevolving the
analyzer still exhibits only one good view, namely, that with
the dark ground, on which the fragments glisten like jewels
upon black velvet. But if the polarizer is made to take a
quarter turn, and the selenite is of the right thickness, a revolu-
tion of the analyzer will then exhibit two new effects, one
exhibiting briliant colours on a rich sky-blue ground, and the
other on a ground of an amber tint. The blue one is exceed-
ingly fine. A thin slice of mica, about the thickness of writing
paper, placed under the slide and on the selenite, affords further
changes of extreme richness and beauty, the grounds assuming,
as the analyzer revolves, crimson, violet, and green hues, with
ee alterations in the colours of the particles of the
shell.

If the experimenter is successful in adjusting the prisms,
and employing the right thickness of selinite or mica, this object
is quite equal in splendour to the most esteemed crystals, such as

The Shell of the Cuttle Fish. 175

salicine or asparagin ; but greater care is required for the cuttle
shell than for them, and even an experienced microscopist may
not immediately hit upon the right way. Perhaps no polar-
iscope slide is better adapted to assist the artist-designer in
devising patterns for shawls, carpets, and other ornamental
goods, and the effect may be varied not only by the methods
we have indicated, but also by the degree of fineness of the
powder employed, and by determining, as we shall presently
explain, the proportion which the amorphous dull golden par-
ticles bear to the most brilliant and crystalline portions of the
display. But to make this intelligible we must, at all risks of
offending very learned readers, say a few words on the structure
of the cuttle shell, and the mode of examining it.

The first step is to cut a little block of the soft brittle sub-
stance of which what may be called the inside of the shell is
composed. If such a block is viewed in vertical section as an
opaque object, it will appear to consist of a great many tiers of
columns of a*white glittering semi-transparent substance, about
one-fortieth of an inch high, and between each tier of the tiny
pillars a foorme of somewhat similar material will be seen to
run. ‘Thus the first idea of construction would be that of
dozens of floors supported by millions of columns, and many
sections may be made and viewed in various directions without
the real principle of the fabric being found out. A horizontal -
view, when one floor has been cut away, may perhaps disclose
the secret; but the apparent columns are so brittle, that enough
of them may not remain after the knife has passed through
them to show the true form. By beginning at the back of the
shell the chance of success is greater. First, a rough brittle
layer of carbonate of lime is removed, then comes a transparent
glassy-looking substance, and behind this the pillars begin,
and a portion of the flooring may be taken away without
materially disturbing the order in which they stood. If this
does not readily yield a good horizontal section, a cube of the
shell may be saturated with the colourless varnish used in
photography, and when this is dry the brittle part will be
strengthened sufficiently to bear rougher usage without harm.
However it be accomplished, if the horizontal slide is well
made, it at once becomes obvious that the columnar appearance
was an optical mistake, and that instead of the floors resting
upon thousands of separate pillars, they are supported by the
sheet of carbonate of lime, corrugated just as a sheet of paper
would be by folding it alternately backwards and forwards
across a square-edgedruler. The chemical nature of the several
parts may be readily ascertamed by acetic acid. If a few
minute fragments from different portions are placed in a drop of
dilute acid, covered up with thin glass, and placed under the

176 Aluminium.

microscope, the pillars or fragments of the corrugated sheet
dissolve first; while the portions of the floors do not change
their form, for although much carbonate of lime is removed,
the animal membrane remains. ‘The back of the shell dissolves
quickly, and the glassy-looking film behind it is converted in a
few minutes into a tough transparent material lke gelatine
paper.

Our polariscope object was composed of the floors, which
furnished the amorphous fragments of dull speckled golden
hue, while the corrugated supports supplied the portions that
glowed with the rainbow lights. If mere splendour is required,
the particles of the floorimg should be rejected, and pieces of
the corrugations mounted alone, taking care not to spoil the
effect by breaking them up too small.

It is interesting to find the vital and chemical processes by
which the cuttle shell is formed, combining to produce upon
the principle of corrugation that strength associated with light-
ness, which man, in his recent inventions, seeks- to obtain in
precisely the same way. Hundreds of similar illustrations
might be given, of reason obtaining by slow degrees, and mani-
fold experiments, to methods of construction which abound in
the organic world. Sometimes the human -contrivance is
assuredly an imitation, but oftener it is reached by an original
method, and when this is the case it is impossible not to be
struck with the evidence thus afforded of the unity of plan in
creation, as displayed in the intimate correspondence, or rela-
tion, that exists between the tendencies of human thought and
the processes, consciously or unconsciously, carried on in the
lower spheres of material existence, or of subordinate animated
being.

ALUMINIUM.
BY J. W. M‘GAULEY.

Tre is no subject connected with chemistry of more impor-
tance than that of the metals: nor is it an exaggeration to
assert, that they have been the principal agents im civilization.
We are chiefly indebted for the latter, however, not to those
which are costly and rare, but to that which, by a beneficent
dispensation of Providence, i is the most common of them all;
since iron has been of far more value to mankind than gold.
The ancients were acquainted with but few metals. In very
remote antiquity, metallurgical knowledge was almost confined
to copper and tin, which were more easily reduced than iron.
And, as it was soon discovered that some of their alloys were

od

Alwininiwm. 17
extremely hard, they were employed in the manufacture of axes,
swords, and other weapons, after still ruder materials were dis-
carded: hence, warlike and domestic instruments of bronze,
are found among the oldest relics of distant ages. But iron
at length obtained its fitting place among the substances
useful to man; and its abundance, its extreme softness when
softness is required, its extreme hardness when that quality
is desirable, its elasticity, its malleability, ductility, tenacity,
and other admirable qualities, have caused it to acquire and
maintain the very first rank among the useful metals. Gold and
silver, it is true, have been known from the earliest times; but
their use, like their supply, has always been limited ; and much
of the value attached to them is due to their scarcity. Lead,
also, and zinc—at least as an ore, and as one of the ingredients
of brass—were familiar to the ancients. But we have now
enumerated all the metals with which they were acquainted ;
and, in truth, all that to any great extent have yet been utilized.
We are, on this occasion, specially to treat of a metal
which has been a source of great expectations: and, for-
tunately, there is no reason to consider that these have been
disappomted; their complete realization is only deferred,
and most probably for but a short period: and one of our
objects in directing attention to it, is to excite a more general
inquiry regarding it. The establishment of aluminium among
the most important of the metals, is a mere question of the
cheapness of its production: and as, up to this time at least,
it is most conveniently obtamed by means of sodium, investiga-
tions regarding it, resolve themselves into a determination of
the most economical method of obtaming that metal. On this
point, our knowledge has already progressed considerably, and
hence the price of aluminium has greatly fallen. Not long ago
it was £3 per ounce, it is now only about 5s.: and it will, no
doubt, be far less, if we are to judge by the extraordinary im-
provements always made, after a time, in chemical processes.
How much lower in price are the most useful substances at
present than they were a very few years ago, because the me-
thods of manufacturing them have been simplified. But, even
at its present cost which, by weight, is the same es that of
silver, aluminium is really only one-fourth as dear, bulk for
bulk: and this, after all, is the test, sce bulk for bulk, it is
as strong, and even stronger than silver. When there is ques-
tion, however, of its application to domestic purposes, we must
compare its cost with that of pewter or copper : it would chiefly
supersede these, which, among other disadvantages, are pro-
ductive of very noxious compounds, particularly the copper.
The qualities of the precious metals are quite distinct from
those of the more common: nor have the two classes hitherto

178 Aluminium.

been connected by any intermediate metal—that is, by one pos-
sessing the most characteristic properties of each ; but itis hoped
that aluminium may supply such a connection. Like the pre-
cious metals, it is brillant, and little alterable by chemical
agents—scarcely at all, under ordinary circumstances. Like the
common metals, it is very abundant, constituting one-fourth,
by weight, of the most widely diffused bodies. Itis malleable,
ductile, hard, and tenacious; its compounds are harmless—
which is true of scarcely any other metal but iron: and, unlike
both the precious and the common metals, it has the advantage
of being extremely light. It is admirably suited to all ordinary
purposes: and is one of the best that can be used for those
which are artistic and ornamental. M. Christofle, in 1858,
exhibited before the Academy of Sciences a group in aluminium,
which had been cast and chiseled: and which afforded an excel-
lent example of its capabilities, though it was its first appli-
cation to such a purpose. .

Davy, soon after he had discovered the metallic bases of the
alkaline earths, in 1807, proved the existence of aluminium,
from potassa bemg produced when the vapour of potassium
was brought in contact with alumina heated to whiteness; and
he even obtained it, in combination with potassium. It was
procured by Wohler, in 1827, as a grey powder; and in 1845
in the form of very minute globules: but probably from being
more or less impure, it did not exhibit the same properties as
when in a massive state. On accountof the high price of po-
tassium, at the time he made his experiments, and other ob-
stacles, he did not obtain it in particles larger than a pin’s
head: and he succeeded in uniting these, only by great
chance, and after many trials: since the presence of minute
quantities of other substances, ora slight coating of oxide, would
prevent their coalescng. M. Degousse, a gold-beater of Paris,
succeeded in preparing it in the form of very thin plates: and
he found that, in beating them out, it was necessary to re-heat
them more frequently than other metals in similar circumstances.
M. Deville has been the most successful of all those who have
made experiments upon it. We shall first describe the most
convenient methods of obtaining aluminium, particularly on the
small scale: and shall then examine its properties and com-
binations—omitting nothing of any importance, that has yet
been discovered regarding it. As to the mode of procuring
it on the large scale, it does not concern the object we have
in view: but it may, in a great degree, be conceived from
what we shall say.

When we attempt to get aluminium directly from alumina,
with potassium, or sodium, we do not succeed : most likely from
its being necessary that the potash, or soda, which would then

Aluminium. 179

be formed, should unite with some of the undecomposed oxide
—which does not seem to occur, though aluminates of the
alkalies are very easily made. But M. Chapelle, in 1854, pro-
cured it by introducing pulverized clay, sea salt, and powdered
charcoal, into a common crucible, and heating the mixture with
coke, though not to whiteness, in a reverberatory furnace.
When the crucible was cold, a considerable quantity of minute
globules of aluminium were found at the bottom. It must be
admitted that the simplicity of this method, if it could be
rendered economical, would make it deserving of preference :
and it is not improbable that it may hereafter be so improved
as to supersede all others. To obtain aluminium through the
medium of a troublesome metal, seems at best a clumsy process.
It is, however, the most successful that has been yet devised ;
and we are indebted for it, in its present improved state, to
the ingenuity and researches of Deville, whose method is a
modification of Wohler’s. He received from the present
Emperor Napoleon the funds necessary for making his ex-
periments on alarge scale, and in a satisfactory manner: and
he first published an account of them in 1854.

Tt occurred to him that, on account of its smaller equivalent,
and the commercial value of its salts, sodium would be better
for the purpose of obtaiming aluminium than potassium, which
had been employed by Wohler. Other advantages, besides,
were found to follow from its adoption: the manufacture
of sodium is easier, and even safer, than that of potassium:
and when the process goes on well, those carbon compounds
which are so annoying with potassium, do not make their
appearance: nor is its reduction accompanied by the explosive
substances—probably compounds of hydrogen—which are so
dangerous in the reduction of potassium. Moreover, the use
of potassium in obtaining aluminium is not very safe, it
inflames so easily, and often produces such violent explosions :
while sodium can be employed without fear, smce it may be
raised in the atmosphere to a higher temperature than its point
of fusion—indeed, we have reason to believe that it is in-
flammable only in a state of vapour, though still at a tempera-
ture below its boiling poimt; and, if it is kept very carefully
from water, there will be little likelihood of its taking fire.

To get pure aluminium by Deville’s method, we require
pure alumina, pure chloride of aluminium, and metallic sodium :
for any impurities present in these will be concentrated in the
aluminium, and affect its properties very much: nor, if once
combined with it, can they ever be entirely removed. We shall
first, therefore, describe how these are to be had.

To obtain pure alumina.—Hight and a half parts, by weight,
of the sulphate of alumina of commerce, for every required

180 Aluminiwm.

part, by weight, of pure alumina, are dissolved in an equal
weight of water, and precipitated by a concentrated and boiling
solution of acetate of lead in slight excess; and the smallest
possible quantity of tartaric acid, is added to the liquor which
is separated by decantation, to prevent the precipitation of
alumina. The acetate of alumina is then supersaturated with
ammonia, and the ammoniacal solution, after bemg treated with
hydrosulphuret of ammonia, in a closed vessel, is placed in a
stove having a temperature of from 122° to 140° Fahr.: this
determines the precipitation of the sulphurets of iron and lead,
which are removed, first by decantation, and then by filterme
—but without washing the filters. The clear and shghtly yellow
liquor, which consists of acetate and tartrate of alumina com-
bined with ammonia, and some hydrosulphuret of ammonia,
is rapidly evaporated and carbonized in an earthen crucible.
The residual mixture of alumina and carbon is made into a paste
with oil, and strongly calcined to expel the sulphur—due to
a little sulphuric acid which remains in the alumina, the whole
of it not having been separated by the acetate of lead.

To obtain pure chloride of aluminiwn.—Some of the mixture
of alumina and carbon, just mentioned, is introduced into a
porcelain tube that has been fitted with another tube, and is
heated to redness in a current of dry chlorine. Chloride of
aluminium sublimes, and is removed from the tubes m compact
masses, which are composed of very beautiful crystals, that
are either colourless or slightly timged with yellow. If,
however, from the impurity of the materials, this chloride is
not found to be quite pure, it is heated with nails or iron-
turnings, in an earthen or cast-iron vessel, which, when the
permanent gases have passed off, is closed: after which,
the heat bemg continued, a slight pressure results, that causes
the chloride of aluminium to melt and come in contact with the
iron. This changes the volatile perchloride of that metal into
the protochloride, which is comparatively fixed : and the chloride
of aluminium, completely purified, crystallizes in the vessel itself
in large transparent and colourless prisms : and a distillation in
hydrogen finishes the process. hail

To obtain the sodiwn.—lIts preparation is founded on the
reaction of an alkaline carbonate on carbon; and carbonate of
soda, wood charcoal, and carbonate of lime are required in the
following proportions—

Carbonate of soda ............ 717
Wood charcoal................+. 15
Challe "02 Re eee 108

Aluminium. 181

The carbonate of soda should be obtained from crystals dried
and pulverized fine: the carbon and chalk should also be
reduced to powder; and the whole, as soon as possible after
having been mixed, should be made into a paste with very dry
oil, and then calcined at a red heat in an iron mercury-bottle,
that it may occupy a small space—and thus a larger quan-
tity of potassium be obtained by the subsequent process. The
calemed mass is subjected to a high heat in an iron mercury-
bottle, which is not so rapidly destroyed as might be expected,
and ought to last for three or four operations ; itis kept compa-
ratively cool by the resulting oxide of carbon, and by the sodium
assuming an eriform state, and the heat required is not near so
great as might be supposed. An iron tube leads from the bot-
tle which is inside the furnace, to a receiver, which is outside,
and has an aperture for the escape of the gases. The car-
bonic oxide formed from the chalk, assists m carrying the
vapour of sodium rapidly into the receiver, and thus prevents
it from decomposing any of the gas by which it is necessarily
surrounded—an effect that would be facilitated by its finely
divided state as vapour; the receiver also is thus kept hot
enough to unite the metallic globules, without a wasteful after
process. One-seventh of the weight of the mixture which has
been used, or one-fourth of the weight ofthe carbonate of soda,
should be obtained in sodium. If the mixture employed has
been such as to melt, it will have prevented a free disen-
gagement of the gases.

To obtain the aluminium.—From 3000 to 5000 grain of
chloride of aluminium are placed in a tube of glass or por-
celain, about one and a half inches interior diameter, and are
insulated by two plugs of asbestos. Hydrogen, purified and
dried, by being transmitted through sulphuric acid and chloride
of calcium, is sent through the tube: and, while it is passing,
the chloride of aluminium is gently heated by a few coals, to
drive away any hydrochloric acid which may have been formed
by the action of the air on the chloride, and also the chlorides
of sulphur and silicium which are invariably present in small
quantities. Sodium, previously crushed between two pieces of
dry filtering paper, and placed in a boat, is then introduced into
one end of the tube while it is still full of hydrogen, and is
melted ; the chloride is at the same time heated so as to make
it rise in vapour, that it may come in contact with the sodium,
and be decomposed; and when the sodium has disappeared,
and the chloride of sodium that has been formed is saturated
with chloride of aluminium, the process is complete. An in-
candescence which occurs is easily regulated. The boat, being
taken from the tube, the mixed chlorides, in which the globules
of aluminium are suspended, are removed, by dissolving in

VOL. I.—NO. III. 6)

182 Aluminium.

water: and the globules, covered up in a porcelain crucible
either with mixed chlorides of aluminium and sodium, or with
common salt, are fused together by a strong heat.

This process answers still better on the large scale; but,
instead of the porcelain tube and boat, two cast-iron cylinders
connected by a smaller tube of iron are employed. The an-
terior cylinder contains the chloride of aluminium ; the posterior,
‘sodium in a tray; and the iron tube; kept at a temperature
of from 400° to 500° Fahr, scraps of iron to separate any of
that metal which may rise with the vapour of chloride of
aluminium, by changing it from volatile per to fixed proto-
chloride.

(irsted, who was the first to form chloride of aluminium, is
said to have obtained that metal, by heating the chloride with
an amalgam of potassium, rich in the latter, and driving off
the mercury from the resulting amalgam of aluminium, by
heat.

Aluminium may also be procured from Cryolite, a mineral
which exists abundantly in Greenland, though it is found only
in small quantities elsewhere. It is a double fluoride of alumi-
nium and sodium: and may be produced artificially, by adding
hydrofluoric acid in excess to calcined aluminium and carbonate
of soda, so as to produce

PTOnING ca. 0.6 ease ee 54°5
PAMUTATTNITIN 1, eh gies gen eee 13:0
SS OMLUTTTIN cre peer gsc cic 32°59

100:0

then evaporating, and fusing the result. Both the native and
factitious cryolite give aluminium with sodium, and with the
galvanic current. ‘The latter, with a mere mixture of aluminium
and fluoride of sodium, would afford only sodium and fluorine. It
occurred to Rose that, on account of the deliquescence and
volatility of the chlorides of the alkaline metals, and the neces-
sity, when they are employed, of preventing any access of
atmospheric air, it would be better, im the reduction of alumi-
nium, to use a fluoride of that metal combined with an alkaline
fluoride; and he proposed to use cryolite, but was deterred by
its scarcity at that period. To obtain aluminum in this way,
finely powdered eryolite and sodium are placed alternately
in layers, in cast-iron crucibles, the whole being covered with
a good thickness of chloride of potassium as a flux. The cru-
cible is then carefully closed with a porcelain cover, and raised
to ared heat forhalf anhour. After which, the calcined matter
having been softened with water, it is broken down in a por-
celain mortar. The larger globules of aluminium are easily

Aluminium. 183

separated mechanically; the smaller, by dissolvmg away the
mass in which they are imbedded, with nitric acid, without
heat. The globules are fused, as before, under the mixed
chlorides, or common salt; without this, the slight coating of
oxide on their surface would prevent their union. When com-
mon salt alone is used, a higher temperature is required. The
aluminium obtained from cryolite almost always contains silicium,
and even iron: and the product is not abundant, since 10 of
cryolite and 4 of sodium give only 0°5 of aluminium. Rose
attempted also to procure aluminium, by placing the mixed
chloride of aluminium and sodium, in alternate layers with
sodium; but the results were not satisfactory.

Bunsen proved, in 1804, that aluminium may be obtained
by means of the galvanic battery, m the same way as mag-
nesium. But, as chloride of aluminium cannot be used for the
purpose, since, instead of fusing, it volatilizes, he employed the
double chloride of aluminium and sodium, which is not volatile
except at a higher temperature than the fusing point of alumi-
nium. The apparatus also must be somewhat different from that
used in reducing magnesium. For the electrolysis, two parts
chloride of aluminium, and one part common salt dried and
pulverized, are mixed in a porcelain capsule, and heated to
about 390° Fahr.; after a while the mixture becomes a clear
liquid.

: The apparatus, in which the decomposition is to be effected,
consists of a glazed porcelain crucible, placed in another of earth ;
the latter is closed with a cover having one opening, at the side,
sufficient to allow a thick plate of platina to pass down through
it for the negative electrode, and another in the centre, to ad-
mit a porous vessel, which has been well dried, and in which
is placed the positive electrode—a piece of gas-retort graphite.
Both the crucible and the porous vessel—which is of less depth,
are filled to the same height with the melted double chlo-
ride: and the latter is kept hot, but not sufficiently so to melt
the aluminium. A battery of about five circles is connected
with the electrodes ; and the aluminium and common salt, which
will be deposited on the platina plate, is occasionally removed.
Chlorine and a little chloride of aluminium will separate in the
porous vessel, unless prevented by a small quantity of common
salt, thrown into it now and then, in a dry pulverulent state.
The mixture which has been detached from the platina plate,
is melted in a porcelain crucible protected by another of earth;
the fused mass is dissolved in water, and the particles of metal
obtaimed from it, are melted several times under the double
chloride of aluminium and sodium.

The battery does not give so pure a metal as the sodium
process, which removes the silicium, sulphur,—and even the iron,

184 Alumimum.

from the materials; but these impurities are found only in the
first portions detached from the platina plate. On account of
the small atomic weight of aluminium, compared with that of
_zinc, the mode of obtaining it by electrolysis is too expensive
for ordinary purposes.

The properties of aluminium are very remarkable, and many
of them are highly important. It is white, with a bluish tinge,
but when its surface is quite clean, its appearance differs very
little from that of silver ; its splendour is not indeed quite so
great, but lasts much longer. A very white and beautiful,
though not a polished surface, may be easily given to it, by
plunging it for an instant into a very dilute solution of caustic
soda, washing it with water, and then digesting it im strong
nitric acid. ‘This removes everything that can soil it, except
silicium if in considerable proportion. Aluminium takes a fine
polish, and preserves it for an indefinite period ; but to render it
as brilliant as possible, a mixture of stearic acid and spirits of
turpentine must be used, between the rotten stone and finishing
powder; and the polishing process must end with spirits of
turpentine. Its characteristic blue tint is more perceptible
when the surface is polished than when it is dull. It often
assumes a crystalline form, if cooled slowly. When pure, it
has not any taste. Ifit contains a large portion of silicium, it
has a slight smell of siliciuretted hydrogen; otherwise it is
inodorous. Hot or cold, it is as malleable as gold or silver,
and is reducible to as thin leaves. It differs from all other
malleable metals, by being deprived of malleability if alloyed
with any other metal. It is so ductile, that it may be drawn
into an extremely fine wire: but its ductility also is affected by
admixture. Its tenacity, and elasticity, are nearly the same as
those of silver. When cast, it is as hard as pure silver; but
when hammered, it is as hard as soft iron. It seems to be one
of the best known conductors of electricity ; its conducting
power is eight times greater than that of iron: but this also
depends very much on its purity. Since metals generally con-
duct heat in about the same proportion as electricity, it is, as we
might expect, an excellent conductor of heat—probably a better
one than silver. It is slightly magnetic. When pure, and in
the form of a bar, itis remarkably sonorous: and if suspended by

a thread, it emits a sound like that of a glass bell: but in other
forms, its tones have not been found agreeable. Its specific
gravity 1s only 2°56, and when hammered 2°67; no other
metal of small density has been found malleable, tenacious,
sonorous, and a good conductor. Iron is nearly three times as
heavy, copper nearly four times, lead nearly five times, and
platina nearly nine times. Even though prepared to find it
very light, we are astonished on handling it. This property

Aluminum. 185

causes it to answer admirably for spectacles, the beams of
delicate balances, sextants, etc. It is well adapted for small
chemical weights: the increased size of which causes them to
be more easily moved, and less easily lost. M. Dumas exhi-
bited to the Academy of Sciences a helmet of aluminium, which
was very brilliant, had been gilt by the battery, and was joined by
solder with great solidity; it weighed less than twenty-five ounces
avoirdupois. If of brass, it had weighed nearly sixty ounces,
and would not have been so strong. Aluminium cannot easily
be adulterated, because even small quantities of other metals
deprive it of malleability and ductility. Nor can it be imitated
by other metals, for their weight would betray them. All the
other less oxidizable metals are heavy, and. have a much greater
atomic weight. Its pomt of fusion is somewhat higher than
that of zinc, and lower than that of silver. It flows readily into
moulds of metal, or sand; any flux would be injurious to it,
but it requires none. It fuses very slowly, for its specific heat
is very high, and therefore its latent heat is considerable—it ex-
ceeds all ordinary metals in this respect. It therefore keeps
warm for a long time, which may be found a useful property.
If pure, it is scarcely affected even by the oxyhydrogen
blowpipe, but the presence of oxidizable metals facilitates its
oxidation. ‘Though silicium has itself little tendency to unite
with oxygen, its presence causes aluminium to burn with great
splendour, silicate of aluminium being produced. In the form
of a thin plate, it burns with great brilliancy, in the flame of a
spirit-lamp ; but the light it emits in combustion becomes in-
tense, when the flame is urged with a jet of oxygen. If pure,
or nearly so, it is not tarnished by air or moisture; it may be
fused in the atmosphere without oxidation, and may even be
raised in a cupel to a temperature higher than is required for the
assay of gold, without beg altered. Water, either as a liquid
or vapour, has no effect upon it, though heated to near its melt-
ing-point: and at a white heat, produces only a slight oxidation. ©
But if chlorine is present, it acts upon it like a hydracid, hydro-
gen being disengaged, and a soluble compound formed. If, how-
ever, it is in the form ofa thin plate, it will cause a small quan-
tity of hydrogen to be evolved, when it is placed in boiling
water.

Nitric acid, whether concentrated or dilute, has no effect
upon it, at ordinary temperatures ; it is slowly dissolved in boil-
ing nitric acid, but the solution ceases if the acid is allowed to
cool. Sulphuric acid, whether concentrated or dilute, does not
act upon it; nor is it, like zinc, rendered soluble in the acid by
contact with another metal. But it is dissolved by hydrochloric
acid, whether concentrated or dilute; slowly if pure, but with
great rapidity if otherwise. It is the acid, and not the water

186 Aluminium.

in which the acid is dissolved, that is decomposed; since hy-
drochloric acid gas acts upon it at a very low temperature,
forming an anhydrous and very volatile chloride; and the more
concentrated the acid, the more energetic its effect. Whenever
aluminium is tarnished with water, on testing with nitrate
of silver, it will be found that chlorine is present. Ifa wire
of aluminium is plunged for an instant into dilute hydrochloric
acid, a considerable amount of it will be changed into a white
substance, after it has been withdrawn from the acid, and
without any absorption of oxygen. Acetic acid, diluted to
the strength of strong vinegar, has little or no effect upon it;
but it is important to bear in mind that a mixture of vinegar
and salt dissolved in water, acts upon it—in accordance with a
well-known chemical law, according to which the acetic acid
displaces some of the chlorine, and this forms hydrochloric
acid, its proper solvent; but the action in such a case is very
slow, particularly if the metal is pure. Tin would be more
affected in the same circumstances, and would impart a bad
taste, which does not occur with alummium. It is scarcely
acted on by tartaric acid—a valuable property, if it is used
m connection with wines. Its combimations with the fee-
ble acids are harmless, which is not the case with most of
the other metals ; and they are decomposed at a low tempera-
ture. Solutions of potash and soda act upon aluminium very
energetically, forming aluminates of the alkalies, with evolution
of hydrogen. But monohydrates of the alkalies, even at a red
heat, affect it no further than to remove from its surface any
silicium that may be present upon it. Ammonia acts upon it
shghtly, but only in presence of water—which is decomposed,
hydrogen being set free: and the resulting alumina is dissolved
by the alkali. Sulphur has no action upon it, even when it is
heated to redness : but enters into combination with it at a high
temperature. Its utility, as applied to domestic purposes, is
mereased by its not being tarnished by the sulphur which is in
eggs and mustard. Sulphuretted hydrogen does not affect it:
hence the air of cities, which always contains that compound,
particularly when they are lighted with gas, does not dim its
lustre, though it tarnishes silver with great rapidity. It may
be used therefore as a reflector, with a jet of gas, even though
the flame comes occasionally in contact with it. IPf sulphuret
of ammonia is evaporated from it, there will be produced only
a spot of sulphur, which will be driven off by continuing the
heat. Polysulphuret of potassium will merely act on any iron
or copper that may be united with it: but that substance can-
not be applied to its purification, since it would more or less
protect these metals, and prevent their complete removal.
Metallic salts comport themselves with aluminium according

Aluminium. 187

to the acids they contain; thus the chlorides act upon it, the
sulphates do not. Aluminium fused with nitre is not affected
by it, except at a high temperature, and then aluminate of pot-
ash is formed. The chlorides of sodium and potassium do not
perceptibly act upon it when pure, and only very slowly when
impure. Ordinary metals cannot resist the action of common
salt—particularly as it is found in sea-water; even silver is
slightly corroded by being boiled im water holding it in solution :
and silver articles, which usually conta five per cent. copper,
become dangerous when food is allowed to cool in them. Now,
supposing silver and aluminium to be even equally affected in
such cases, the latter, on account of its low equivalent, will
give rise to a much smaller quantity of resulting salt: since a
quantity of acid that will dissolve one hundred grains of silver,
will dissolve only eight and a half of aluminium; and the
physiological effects of the salts are very different. Other
metallic chlorides, including even its own, are decomposed
by it: and with a facility dependent on the elevated rank
of the metal they contam. It does not combine with car-
bon: and in this respect has the advantage of platina, in the
laboratory.

Compounds containing silicium are decomposed by alu-
minium, at a high temperature: yet we may fuse it in glass,
or porcelain, because they are not in contact with it, unless
some fusible substance is present; and hence, when we melt
it in vessels which contain silicium, a flux is inadmissible. When
aluminium containing silicium is dissolved in hydrochloric
acid, siliciuretted hydrogen, a compound not long discovered,
is disengaged, and is recognised by its peculiar odour: and
the presence of silicium greatly assists the action of that
solvent.

Aluminium combines also with boron: and the latter, like
silicium, affects it properties. A very interesting compound,
the diamond of boron, is produced by the intervention of alu-
minium. Boron assumes three states, corresponding with the
three conditions of carbon—amorphous carbon, graphite, and
diamond. Boron, in the state of diamond, is obtained by caus-
ing aluminium to act on boracic acid: it bears a heat suffi-
cient to melt iridium, without change; and unites with oxygen,
at the temperature at which diamond burns—but only on the
surface, as it is protected by the boracic acid which is formed
externally. It scratches the hardest diamond, by which alone
it is exceeded in brilliancy and refractive power. It assumes
three forms, having somewhat different qualities: one of them is
exceedingly hard, and answers well instead of diamond pow-
der, its crystals not being abraded by use: and the least hard
is more so than corundum.

188 Aluminium.

M. Hulot, director of the Mint at Paris, discovered that
aluminium may be used in the galvanic battery, instead of pla-
tina, zinc bemg employed as the electro-negative element. It
had long before been ascertained by Wheatstone, that it is as
strongly negative as that metal. It becomes soiled, however,
after a while, but may be cleansed by immersion for an instant
in nitric acid, and washing with water.

Aluminium unites very imperfectly with lead, and only tem-
porarily with mercury. It combines with small quantities of
sodium, which changes its properties, and is with great diffi-
culty separated from it entirely. It alloys with iron, in all pro-
portions: but seven or eight per cent. makes it hard and brit-
tle. Cadmium, tin, and zinc, render it fusible. ‘Two or three
per cent. silver, gives it a hardness and colour, equal to that
of the silver alloy which is commonly used ; a larger quantity
destroys its malleability. If any chlorine is present, which,
unless it is very pure, will probably be the case, the silver
alloy soon blackens. Aluminium containing ten per cent. gold
is softer than when pure, but not so malleable. Its most im-
portant combinations, however, are those which it forms with
copper: if it contaims two or three per cent. of that metal, it 1s
aluminium bronze, a material well adapted for artistic, and
many other purposes: if it contains ten per cent. it is as
brittle as glass. Ten per cent. aluminium, and ninety per
cent. copper, gives an alloy which, though harder than com-
mon bronze, laminates extremely well—particularly if it is
heated, and is very ductile. The lastis a definite compound,
since it is in the proportion of nine atoms copper to one of
aluminium, and great heat is disengaged during combination :
hence its constituents do not separate by fusion and cool-
ing. Its colour is that of green gold, which consists of gold
and silver: and it is capable of as fine a polish as steel. Its
tenacity is very great ; and, compared with that of copper and
iron, is found to be as follows—

WGP DER a. iite es tenten ie ac vascaa 190
PLTOTIMN ces ean Sek ees cro oe ae RE 280
Aluminium Bronze............ 434,

It answers well for the material of axle-bearings, and similar
parts of machinery: after having been used for six months
with a steam-engine, it showed no wear ; and it lasted eighteen
months, in a machine which made two thousand two hundred
revolutions per minute, while any other substance, in the cir-
cumstances, was found to last only three months. Possessing
hardness without brittleness, it sustains shocks uninjured: and
is well adapted for artillery, or the barrels of firearms.

It is difficult to gild or silver aluminium: baths of acid

Aluminum. 189

sulphuret of gold, and hyposulphite of silver containing excess
of sulphurous acid, have, however, been employed with tolerable
success for these purposes. Other processes have been found to
answer better, but their details are not known. Plates of cop-
per or brass, and aluminium, strongly pressed together ata
dark red heat, will unite; ifit is attempted to treat gold and
aluminium in the same way, the temperature required for cohe-
sion will cause the two metals to combine. In depositing me-
tals on aluminium, by means of the galvanic battery, we must
not use acid solutions in which hydrochloric acid, or combined
chlorine is present; nor must alkaline solutions of the metals—
so useful in other cases, be employed. Pure aluminium may
be easily coated with copper, by a bath of sulphate of copper.
A patent was taken out some time ago, for plating with alu-
minium. The solution used was obtained by dissolving alum
in water, adding ammonia as long as any alumina was thrown
down ; then filtermg, adding distilled water, boiling with cya-
nide of potassium, and filtermg when cold. And the article
to be coated was suspended in it, by copper or brass rods con-
nected with the zinc pole of a battery ; a bag of alumina, or a
piece of platina, bemg connected with the other pole.

Té is difficult to solder aluminium, on account of our not
knowing a flux that cleanses without altering it, or protects the
solder without acting upon it; anda thoroughly strong joint has
not yet been made in this way, although various methods have
been adopted. Some persons deposit copper on the surfaces,
and then apply the solder to unite them. With the process of
M. Mourey, which is probably the best that has yet been used,
the surfaces to be united are smeared over with a mixture of tur-
pentine, balsam of copaiba, and lemon juice; they are then
placed on hot coals, and the flame of a gas lamp, or of a self-
acting blowpipe, is directed between them; after which, small
pieces of an alloy containing six parts aluminium and ninety-
four parts zinc, are placed in contact with them, and, when
melted, are pressed upon them with tools made of aluminium.
The surfaces thus coated, are next brought close together, and
kept so by wires; after which, an alloy containing twenty parts
aluminium and eighty parts zinc, is applied, in bits, to the
points in contact outside, and is melted in with alamp. When
cold, the article bears filing and re-working.

We have now brought under the notice of the reader, almost
everything of importance yet known regarding this interesting
metal: and we do this the more willingly, because its general
adoption is assuredly but a question of time. ‘This must be
greatly shortened, through the labours of ingenious and per-
severing experimentalists, who may be induced to give their
attention to the subject; by the reasonable expectation of bene-

190 Hunting for Diatoms.

fitting the community, and at the same time deriving consi-
derable profit from success. The method of obtaining it, by
means of sodium, is the best that has yet been proposed ; but
it is more than probable, that one far less troublesome and ex-
pensive will hereafter be discovered.

HUNTING FOR DIATOMS.

Let us suppose the diatom collector and his friends to be set-
ting forth, properly equipped with the necessary apparatus for
securing and preserving the gatherings they may meet with.
Here it will be as well to describe the arrangement of apparatus
used by the writer of this paper in his expeditions after Dia-
tomaceee.

First of all, is a morocco leather bag, with a strap to go over
the shoulders. This bag contains several pockets, to carry a
dozen or more wide-necked bottles of say two-ounce capacity.
A smaller leather case, with six narrow one-ounce phials, with
wide necks, the phials slipping into partitions. This case is
carried in the pocket of the shooting coat when out on a trip.

Next comes a box with small tubes and a camel-hair pencil,
for painting off pure gatherings, or when it is inconvenient to
bring home a larger quantity of the material.

In addition to the bottles and tubes some pieces of gutta-
percha paper, or waterproof macintosh cloth, nine inches square,
are very useful to wrap up Algz, masses of Confervze, and other
diatom-yielding plants, into bundles, after slightly pressing out
part of the water. These bundles, kept from unfolding by
an elastic ring, are put at once into the bag. For scraping
the surface of mud, the sides of jetties, etc., the writer uses a
copper spoon, with ascrew clamp, to fasten to the end ofa walk-
ing-stick when used. On one side of the neck of the spoon
is riveted a small knife blade, which forms a convenient means
of cutting away portions of aquatic plants covered with diatoms,
and lifting them out of the water.

The only lens necessary to the diatomist when out collecting
is a Coddington ; but the writer has found a small compound
hand microscope very useful occasionally. This, with some slips
of glass, are carried in a separate compartment of the leather
satchel.

We will now suppose all these arrangements made, and the
diatomists, who live in some large sea-port town, are sallying
forth, as mentioned in the commencement of this paper.

A knowledge of the most likely places to look for Diatomaceze
is only to be gained after some experience, and it is the wish of

Hunting for Diatoms. 191

the writer to give the result of his experience in the matter,
which has induced him to pen these lines. In mentioning the
various species of Diatomacez in connection with given habitats
and localities, it may be as well to say that the writer has in
most cases found the species named in such localities ; not neces-
sarily in one particular district, but at various times and in dif-
ferent parts of the country.

We will now suppose the collectors are commencing their
imaginary collecting tour, and, before leaving the town, let us
take a stroll round the Docks—for here we may meet with ma-
terial in places where such might be the least expected. For
instance, let us examine the logs of Baltic or American timber
as they come from the vessels. Ifthe timber has remained for
any length of time afloat before shipping, the logs are almost
sure to have traces of Conferva, either fresh-water or marine,
growing on them, and these, on being carefully scraped off, will,
in all probability, yield diatoms to reward the collector. Some
of the logs from the St. Lawrence or the Ottawa will yield us
American forms, while logs from Dantzig will give us interesting
gatherings from the Vistula and the interior of Poland.

Should a vessel be unloading “ Kaurie spars,” from New
Zealand, or some of those gigantic “ sticks”? which have lately
been imported from Vancouver’s Island, we may, probably, be
rewarded by finding beautiful Antipodean forms of Diatomaceze
on the former, and the exquisite Arachnoidiscus or Triceratiwm
Wilkes from the latter, perhaps even Aulacodiscus Oregonus.

Let us not go past these mahogany logs landing from
Mexico or Honduras, as the case may be, without casting an
eye over them, for these may have been rafted for some time in
the sea before shipment, or may have brought down new or
little known forms from the interior of Central America. Here,
on the first log we examine, is a copious incrustation of a form,
either identical with or closely allied to Melostra nwmmuloides,
abundant hkewise in our Docks. The gathering is so copious
that it fairly glistens in the sun.

Let us also scrape away some of the shelly incrustation of
Balamus, which completely covers some of the logs, for possibly
among this we may find that exquisite American form Terpsince
musica, so called, I suppose, from the costz appearing like so
many musical notes.

Here are some fishermen just coming in. Let us examine
their nets, for these men are trawlers, and have been fishing in
deep water, aud the meshes of their nets may still have diatoms
bearing Algze attached to them. On such Algz we may probably
find Ehabdonema arcuatum or Adriaticum, Grammatophora
serpentina and marina, with species of parasitic Synedras ; pos-
sibly the singular Synedra undulata, may reward our search.

192 Hunting for Diatoms.

Some of the oyster shells from deep water are worth ex-
amining for marine Algw, or, what is even better, the greenish,
leathery-looking ascidians attached to them. ‘The ascidians are

‘regular feeders on diatoms, and their stomach contents often
yield a rich harvest of deep-water forms difficult to obtam m
any other way. Perhaps we may be securing the rare Biddul-
phia regina, at any rate, Bidd. Bailey and aurita. We will
take some for future examination, for the curious Rhizosolena
styliformis is almost sure to be there.

Let us step into a boat and examine that ship’s bottom and
sides, which look so brown with a growth of conferva and bar-
nacles. Here the spoon becomes of use. Scrape very gently
where the deposit is the darkest in colour, and let us see what
we have got—Achnanthes longipes and brevipes in abundance.
These are common enough elsewhere in the timber ponds, so
we will only secure the little thing in zig-zag filaments, for this
is probably Diatoma hyalinum, or, perhaps, the rare Hyalosira
delicatula. ;

Is it not singular that such delicate filaments, hanging to-
gether by the angles of the frustules, should be able to with-
stand the rushing of the vessel through the water during the
long voyage she has just completed ?

The ballast heap must not be passed without examining.
Here are stones densely covered with marine Algve and Coral-
lines, which we will scrape off, and store away for after ex-
amination. Biddulpma pulchella, Amplitetras, Grammatophora
serpentina, or possibly some of the beautiful foreign species of
Aulacodiscus, may reward our trouble, for this ballast is brought
from all parts of the world. The only matter of regret is the
difficulty in ascertaining the exact localities.

Let us now take some of the Zostera which is being landed
on the quay in large bales; it is extensively imported from the
Baltic as Alva marina, for stuffing chairs and mattresses.
Cocconeis scutellum and diaphana, with Hpithemia and a medley
of other forms, are generally found parasitic on the Zostera,
aud may be easily separated by maceration in weak acid.

But what are those brown bundles landing from the steamer ?
These are “ Dutch rushes,” for coopers’ purposes and chair-
bottoms, and are well worth examining, for, growing as they
do in brackish water in Holland, the sheath at the base is often
completely coated with diatoms, Coscinodiscus subtilis, for in-
stance, with other good things, such as Lupodiscus argus and
Lriceratium favus.

Nor must we pass these cargoes of bones discharging into
lighters. See, some of the larger bones have evidently been
lying in the water some time, for they are covered with a green
incrustation. Let us scrape away the incrustation, for we may

Hunting for Diatoms. 193

find among it the fine Synedra erystallina or undulata, together
with valves of Coscinodiscus and Hupodiscus. Many good |
gatherings have been procured from this source, especially
from cargoes coming from Constantinople, Smyrna, and the
Black Sea.

Ask this sailor if he has any foreign shells still inthe rough
state; if he has any for sale, they are certainly worth securing
for the small Alez and Corallines found growing on them.
These, on being cleaned, often yield splendid results. Many of
the most beautiful and rare species of Campylodiscus have been
obtained from this source. The Californian Haliotws shell is
almost certain to yield the fine Aulacodiscus Oregonus, Arachnot-
discus, Hyalodiscus cervinus, and Biddulphia Ropert; while the
Haliotus from New Zealand will probably furnish the rare
Aulacodiscus Beeverice and Macraeanus.

The West Indian Strombus shells invariably yield beautiful
forms, such as Campylodiscus-ecclesianus, ambiguus, and impe-
rialis.

Vessels with guano are worth visiting. The Peruvian guano,
when properly prepared, yields the magnificent Asterolampras
and Aulacodiscus scaber; while the Bolivian is even richer
in fine things, such as the superb Awlacodiscus formosus and
Comberi. Californian guano yields, among an infinite variety
of forms, many of great beauty and rarity, such as Aulacodiscus
margaritaceus and Biddulphia Tuomeyw. Algoa Bay is fre-
quently rich in Aulacodiscus Petersii ; and, finally, the Ichaboe
guano, Hupodiscus Khrenberqu, and other good things.

The old mooring anchors and cables which are now lying
on the quay are covered with a marine incrustation, which on
examination will be found deserving of notice.

We will now take a stroll towards the timber ponds, where
the timber often remains afloat for years. Here we see ample
traces of the objects of our search. The sides of the logs seem
quite covered with a tangled mass of the filamentous forms ;
but before we bottle up any of them, let us collect with the
spoon some of the brown pellicle which covers the surface of
the water. This proves to be avery pure gathering of Amphi-
prora constricta. ‘Then let us collect some of the green Ulva
and Hnteromorpha, growing on the sides of the timber, which
seems so brown and furry. With the Coddington lens we
find the brown tint is owing to a dense parasitic growth of
Achnanthes longipes and brevipes. The long brown filaments
are principally Melosira nummuloides and Borrerii, with Schizo-
nema crucigerwum and Dillwynit, mixed with Bacillaria paradoxa,
shooting into long filaments, then suddenly retreating until the
filament is closed again, one frustule sliding past the other in a
most marvellous manner. By the way, this species will live,

194 — Hunting for Diatoms.

and even thrive, quite well in perfectly fresh water. Mixed
with the Bacillaria, we find Nitzschia sigma, and other free
forms.

The wooden piers running out into the river are brown
with a covering of Homeocladia sigmoidea, Pinnularia John-
sonii, and Navicula ellipsis. On another wooden breakwater
we find Pleurosigma scalprum and Navicula mutica.

Leaving the immediate vicinity of the docks we come to a
maze of ditches, to which the salt-water has access during
spring tides, and these ditches are often very rich in Diato-
maces. Let us commence operations here by collecting this
brown covering from the mud. Here we have Plewrosigma
angulatum, Fasciola, Strigilis, Hippocampus, Nitaschia sigma,
and Surirella gemma. Such gatherings may afterwards be
entirely cleaned from the mud by covering the outside of the
bottle with black cloth, and letting it stand for some days in
the sun. The diatoms by this time will have worked them-
selves to the surface, and the thick brown layer will be found
quite free from impurities. This plan, if carefully carried out,
rarely fails. The brown floating scum must by no means be
neglected, for on bottling some we find we have secured a good
gathering of Plewrosigma Fasciola, macrum, and delicatulum,
with, perhaps, Navicula ambiqua, and other good things.

Proceeding to another ditch, we will take a dip from the
mass of brownish stuff which coats the weeds. Well, here
indeed is a capital haul, for we have Nitzschia bilobata, Brebis-
son, vivax, with Tryblionella gracilis, Navicula amphisbena,
Pinnularia peregrina, and Cyprinus. :

Further on we pull out some of the weeds which are covered
with brown furriness, and we have a gathering of Synedra
fulgens and Amphipleura Danica ; while on the mud we obtain
a copious one of Stawroneis salina, Nitzschia dubia B, with
Navicula minutula.

But what can this brown hair-like mass be, growing para-
sitically on the reeds and floating pieces of stick? On exami-
nation it will prove to be pure Melosira Borrerii, which we will
bottle up with great satisfaction.

Further on we come to a large lagoon, and find therein
some plants very promising in appearance, and well worth
gathering. These yield us afterwards a fine mass of Amplhi-
prora alata and paludosa, Pleurosigma Strigilis, Amphora salina,
with Surirella Brightwellii.

Mind how you step over this boggy ground, with the ink-
black mud, smelling so unpleasantly of sulphuretted hydrogen.
In spite of the smell, we shall probably get something to
reward us. Collect carefully the brown covering from the mud,
and you may find Navicule, elegans, twmeus, Niteschia dubia,

Hunting for Diatoms. 195

Epithemia musculus, Amphora affinis, with Pinnularia Cyprinus
and peregrina.

We now approach the banks of a canal, into which the
brackish water sometimes gains access. Let us hook out some
of the Potamogeton and other weeds. Well done, we have here
something that will reward us for our fatigue. Examine it
with the Coddington; the circular discs are valves of the rare
Cyclotella punctata. Mixed with these we find Campylodiscus
ertbrosus, Bacillaria paradoxa, with a host of other both fresh
and salt-water forms.

With the tweezers let us now carefully pull off some of the
brown tufts growing on the clay banks of theriver. This looks
like some stunted Conferva. On examination with the lens,
the filaments are found crowded with rows of little sigmoid
things, for all the world lke miniature specimens of Plewro-
sigma Balticum. This is a prize again, being no other than
the rare Colletonema eximiuwm.

Leaving this locality, let us proceed a few miles down the
river towards its embouchure, and where the water is salter.
Being low tide, we see for miles the mud is coloured of a dark
chocolate-brown tint, owing to the presence of millions of
Navicula Jennertt. In the large lagoon, formed by the salt-
water getting over the embankment during spring tides, we
shall probably find an abundance of good things; among these
many of the filamentous Schizonemas, Rhipidiphoras, and Po-
dosphemas, and even Licmophora flabellata. Proceeding even
further down the river, the mud gradually disappears, sand
takes its place, and afterwards we come to the open sea, where
the coast is in places guarded by rocks. Here is a fine field for
the purely marine forms. Let us gather some of the wiry green
tufts of Cladophora rupestris, one of the best of the diatom-
bearing Aloz. The tips of the Cladophora are quite brown
with a parasitic growth of Grammatophora marina and maci-
lenta, together with Rhabdonema arcuatum, Cocconeis scutellwm,
and Gomphonema marina. On the other Algz, growing among
the rocks, we find masses of Podosphenia, and perhaps the easily-
overlooked Hyalosira delicatula. The brown hair-like mass
floating about, but attached to the stones, is Fragillaria stri-
atula, and some of the filamentous Schizonemas.

In the rocky pools left by the tide are some masses of
Corallina officinalis, growing in dense tufts. This Algze is an
excellent diatom trap, collecting the floating frustules among
its tangled branches. We must, therefore, select a good stock
of the Coralline, lifting it out of the water with as little violence
as possible, for fear of washing off the diatoms.

Washing afterwards in acidulated water will liberate the
frustules, and then we have probably a fine gathering of the

196 Hunting for Diatoms.

beautiful Hupodiscus Ralfsii, with Hupodiscus subtilis ; perhaps
also Amphiprora lepidoptera, and other good forms.

The sand in sheltered places, you will observe, is brown in
the hollows of the ripple marks. ‘This is caused by millions of
diatomaceous frustules, and we must by all means take home
a good store of the brown sand which by washing easily yields
up its riches.

Having spent so much time on the marine and brackish
water gatherings, let us turn inland and proceed where the tide
ceases to have any influence. To make sure of this, we will
take the rails and go to the rocky hills some ten miles dis-
tance. Having arrived there, let us examine, in the first place,
this rocky streamlet, for I see traces of a brownish covering on
the stones, and also some pretty long streamers. Lift the fila-
ments out gently, or you will get little into the bottle. On
examination at home you will probably detect Odontidium
mesodon, Himantidium wndulatum, and Arcus, with Tabellaria
fenestrata and flocculosa.

Proceeding a little further, we come to a little waterfall
trickling down the surface of the rock, and gradually finding its
way to the stream. The brown, velvety covering on the stones
looks very promising for our purpose, and if I mistake not, we
shall be well rewarded for our trouble in carefully collecting a
bottle full of the material, for we have a good gathering of the
beautiful Gomphonema geminatum and ventricosum mixed with
the minute Achnantlidiwm lineare. The brown mass completely
covering the stones in the bed of the stream is Cocconema lan-
ceolatum, not often found so pure.

Let us see what causes the green colour on the surface of
the mud in the roadside puddle. Ah! thisisindeed a treasure,
for it is seldom that Navicula cuspidata occurs as perfectly free
from mixtures. The green colour is also remarkable, being so
different from the usual brown endochrome of most diatoms.

Here is another roadside puddle left by the recent rain,
and see what a brown coating has grown at the bottom in so
short atime. At any rate we have here Diatomacec in abun-
dance, though small in size, probably Nitzschia palea and Pin-
nularia pygmed.

Proceeding further inland we are supposed to be passing a
water-mill, and as the mill race is covered with confervoid
growths, let us examine some of the coating from the wooden
aqueduct. The brown streamers are in all probability Diatoma
vulgare and elongatwm, and the beautiful stellate form is the
local Asterionella formosa, which, by the way, seems to select its
habitat always in some out of the way place, such as the
present one in the mill aqueduct, water tanks, and reservoirs.

Having climbed up some distance on the hill sides, let us

Hunting for Diatoms. 197

collect some of the weeds from the sides of the bogey pool,
for im such localities we may expect to find some of the rarer
alpine forms, Navicula rhomboides, obtusa, Pinnularia divergens,
lata, and Alpina, for instance. The pale green flocculent mass
growing in quantities like a conferva, is well worth collecting,
for it is a pure gathering of V'abellaria flocculosa and. fenestrata.

In tramping over this quaking bog it is well to roll up a
bundle of the Sphagnum, for on afterwards squeezing out the
water, we may be rewarded by finding some of the rarer species
of Pinnularia, such as Hemiptera and Alpina.

Before leaving this rocky part of the country for the flat
country below, let us scrape some of the brown mucus from the
face of the dripping rocks, for it will probably yield such forms
as Hpithemia, Cocconeis Thwaitsu, Naviewla Trinodis, Denticula
sinuata, etc.

The weather being warm we will quench our thirst at the
little spring in the cavern-like hollow in the rocky roadside.
Observe, the roof of the little cavern is quite covered with a
chocolate-brown mass, which feels rough and gritty to the fin-
gers. Here is a splendid and pure gathering of Orthosira
arenaria, and I recommend you to take a good store of it
away with you, for it is seldom one finds this fine form so pure
and unmixed.

Proceeding towards the low country let us take a scrape
from the side of this horse-trough, for it is quite brown. It is
well we have done so, for it is a nice pure gathering of Cyclo-
tella operculata and Pinnularia pygmea.

Passing a little further on we come to a clump of ash trees,
with a crop of moss growing on their trunks. Perhaps you
may smile when I proceed to peel off this moss and store it
away ina bundle in my satchel. On washing the moss after-
wards, however, 1 may be rewarded with some of our most
local and rare species, viz. Orthosira mirabilis, mixed with
Navicula tumida, Pinnularia borealis, and Orthosira spinosa.

Having secured a bundle of moss from the tree trunks, we
will take another from the roof of this old thatched cottage,
the north side of which is quite carpeted with beautiful green
moss. This will probably yield Nitzschia Amphioxys and Pin-
nularia borealis.

The white-coloured stratum of earth exposed in the cutting
on the roadside must now be examined, for it is probably a
deposit of fossil, diatomaceous earth, in which case a large
piece must be secured. .

These fossil deposits are generally composed of a compact
mass of Diatomacez of recent as well as extinct species. The
deposit we are at present examining is several feet thick, and
has at some remote period formed the bed of a lake, the

VOL. I.—NO. iil. P

198 Hunting for Diatoms.

diatoms accumulating at the bottom until the present thickness
was attained. You will observe that the endochrome has been
removed by long rotting, and the entire mass is now composed
of the pure white siliceous valves. Pray also observe that
this richness in silex suits the cereal crops growing over it, but
does not seem to furnish much nutriment to the potatoes and
turnips.

The adjacent peat beds may also be examined, for fre-
quently rare Diatomaceze are found in the turf which is cut for
fuel.

The dark, hair-hke mass growing on the woodwork of this
sluice-gate, is a nice pure gathering of Schizonema neglectum,
the frustules arranged in regular rows in the interior of the
long filaments.

Before leaving this pond let us pull out a mass of the
Myriophyllum, which seems rusty in colour. Well! here is a
medley of forms, but the gathering is worth bottling up, owing
to the abundance of Amphiplewra pellucida.

The clear ditch by the roadside is a likely place for such
forms as Plewrosigma attenuatum, Spencerii and lacustre, Nitz-
schia linearis and tenuis, Surirella ovata, Navicula elliptica and
Cymbella maculata.

The yellow mass attached to plants a little further on is
Oyclotella operculata, Amphora ovalis and Nitzschia sigmoidea,
while the brown covering on the Anacharis is Gomphonema
tenellum, dichotomwm and curvatum. 'The stones in the running
beck, issuing from the clear spring close by, are covered with
long, yellowish-brown streamers, which are well worth collect-
ing. Take them out very gently, for they are very fragile and
likely to drop again into the water. The species is the beau-
tiful Meridion circulare, with Melosira varians.

At the bubbling spring itself, which forms the head of the
streamlet, the sand, which is tossed and heaved about by the
ascending water, seems tinted of a brown colour. Let us
secure some of the sand, when we shall find the brown colour
is caused by a dense parasitic growth of Odontidiwn Harrisonii:
quite pure, ‘

Further on the dark brown streamers must be collected, for
here are two species of Fragillaria, Capucina, and virescens,
mixed with Diatoma elongatum. The stones and aquatic plants
are likewise covered with a dense brown coating of Synedra
radians, and Ulna, species found in almost every clear water-
ditch.

The boggy place where the plants are coated with a yellow
coating of the oxide of iron, is not to be passed without col-
lecting a tittle of the light flocculent surface mud. This will
be almost sure to yield some fine diatoms, such as Campylodis-

ere eee ee ee ee a

Spacearsne™

Retina,

the

The Lye of the Cod-fish. 199

cus spiralis, Pinnularia nobilis, Stawroneis Phoenicenteron, Su-
rivella splendida, and Cymatopleura solea.

Here we must finish our day’s work, having arrived at the
railway station, from whence we proceed home with our trea-
sures. The work of collecting has been finished, yet much
remains to be done before the material is cleansed and mounted
on slides for microscopical investigation.

Let us hope our fatigue has not been in vain, but that the
store of riches we have collected together, will furnish us with
ample material for much interesting study and instruction.

Wee Dei a ee

THE EYE OF THE COD-FISH.

BY T. SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.L.S.,

Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy, Zoology, and Botany, at the Middlesex
Hospital Medical College.

From the earliest periods of physiological inquiry, the organ
of vision, especially in connection with man and the higher
animals, has uninterruptedly occupied the attention of the
anatomist, the physicist, and the philosopher; and yet, not-
withstanding the instructive teachings of a most voluminous
eye-literature, there remain difficulties to be solved both as
regards the visual functions of the organ and the structural
elements concerned in the production of its optical effects. In
the view, therefore, of contributing something towards our
knowledge of the histological peculiarities found to occur in
the eye of fishes, I hereby propose to dwell more particularly
on the existence of certain parasitic vegetations im the sclerotic
coat, on the structure and functions of the so-called choroid
gland, and on certain artificially-produced phenomena in con-
nection with the cones of the retina.

Recent discoveries respecting the microscopical anatomy of
the vertebrate eye have, in most instances, resulted from ex-
aminations of the eyeball after it has been immersed for a
greater or lesser period in solutions of chromic acid. This
method appears to have origimated with Dr. Hannover, of
Copenhagen, who published a series of papers on the subject
in Miller’s Archiv, during the year 1845. In 1851, Dr.
Hannover came over to this country, bringing with him a
number of preparations illustrative of his recorded views as
to the structure of the vitreous humour in different orders of
mammalia; and at a meeting of the Physiological Society of
Edinburgh, I had an opportunity of examining them attentively.
These choice preparations unequivocally demonstrated the cor-

200 The Hye of the Cod-fish.

rectness of the descriptions and figures given by Dr. Hannover;
but I then pomted out, and subsequent investigations have
confirmed the truth of my statements, that the assumed lami-
nated character of the vitreous body had no real existence in
nature, seeing that the laminz only made their appearance
after the eyeball had been steeped in a solution of chromic acid
or some other coagulating agent.

During my antecedent investigations into the anatomy of
the eye—the results of which were only partially recorded in
my graduation Thesis, for which the Edinburgh Medical Faculty
awarded me the University Gold Medal in 1851—I had followed
out the indications initiated by Dr. Hannover, and had thus
satisfied myself as to the danger of drawing hasty conclusions
from the occurrence of appearances so palpably the result of
chemical action; yet, at the same time, it should be acknow-
ledged that the application of chromic acid solutions has mate-
rially assisted us in the determination of the relations and
component parts of the retina, especially in the hands of Pro-
fessor Kolliker and Heinrich Muller. Even here, however, as
will be shown in the following pages, the true characters pre-
sented by the individual elements of the retina have been either
changed or altogether obliterated ; and as regards the vitreous
body, the fallacy of supposing it to be made up of delicate mem-
branous lamin is evident from circumstances altogether inde-
pendent of microscopical inquiry. Thus, if several punctures be
made through the hyaloid covering of the vitreous mass in a
recent condition, its fluid contents will rapidly escape, and all
that we shall ultimately find left will be the external tunic and
a few septa or membranous prolongations from the internal
wall of the hyaloid, these together constitutmg scarcely a
fiftieth part of the bulk of the entire vitreous body.

I may premise, also, in regard to the so-called choroid gland,
that the anciently received opinion, supported by John Hunter,
as to its muscularity, is still maintained by many at the present
day; at least, they aver that this organ is in some way or other
concerned in the adjustment of the crystallime lens and vitreous
body to different focal distances. At a later period, Sommering
doubted whether it were glandular, vascular, or muscular;
whilst Baron Cuvier, who supplied accurate descriptions of its
ordinary appearance in various fishes, returned to the still
older notion of Haller, that its structure partook more of the
character of a gland. Subsequently, I believe, Cuvier took up
with the opinion that the choroid gland was to be classed with
erectile tissues, but with whom this idea originated I am not
able to state. In later times, amongst others, Dr. Arthur
Jacob, of Dublin, diligently applied himself to the solution of
this question, but at the conclusion of his excellent article,

The Hye of the Cod-fish. 201

“Hye,” in Dr. Todd’s Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physio-
logy, he simply observes :—“ The organization of the part is
certainly not merely vascular, as stated by Cuvier, and un-
doubtedly bears a stronger resemblance to muscular than any
other structure ; it also retains the peculiar colour of red muscle
after all the rest of the eye has been blanched by continued
maceration in water.”

On recently consulting Leydig’s Lehrbuch der Histologie,
I was surprised not to find any description of the organ, in
question, which is the more remarkable as the author has given
a good account of the processus faleiformis and campanula Hal-
leri. It seems, therefore, that the now very generally received
opinion as to the erectile character of the so-called choroid gland
is still deemed worthy of credit, and further, that in virtue of
its erectile properties, it is, to use Dr. Carpenter’s words, ‘‘con-
cerned in the adaptation of the eye for distinct vision at differ-
ent distances.” ‘To me it appears that a due consideration
of the facts and arguments which I shall immediately re-
cord, are sufficient to demonstrate the erroneousness of these
v1ews.

If the perfectly fresh eye of a full-grown cod be removed
from its socket, three large vessels will be seen to enter or
emerge from the sclerotic covering ; namely, a vein passing out
from within the optic sheath, an artery entermg immediately
behind the sheath, and a vein situated further back, at a little
distance from the circumferential border of the tunic. If the
loose cellular connective tissues be next dissected off from the
sclerotic, the latter will be found to consist of three distinct
layers; that is to say, of an outer and inner fibrous membrane
which inclose between them the true cartilaginous coat. The
first-mentioned layer consists of coarse fibrous tissue closely
investing the cartilage, but the internal connective layer is
delicate, transparent, and easily separable from the middle coat.
A thin verticle section of the latter, or true sclerotic layer, dis-
plays, under the quarter-inch objective, a hyaline, ground-glass-
like matrix, m which the characteristic cartilage cells are
numerous, thickly set, and rather irregularly disposed.

In addition to these ordinary structural characters, it is not
uncommon to find, especially in old fishes, milky-white patches
partially or entirely embedded in the cartilaginous matrix, and
they not unfrequently project considerably from the inner true
sclerotic surface. These striking-looking patches vary in size
from a pin’s head to that of a threepenny-piece, and invariably
present a more or less rounded, oval, or semicircular outline,
the borders of which are usually cleft and lobed in so regular
a manner that the entire mass frequently exhibits a curiously stel-
late appearance, such as is accurately represented in the accom-

202 The Hye of the Cod-fish.

panying plate (Fig. 1). It is probable that these bodies have
been seen by observers in this country, as their contents are
evidently referable to the so-called Psorospermize described by
J. Muller, Creplin, Leydig, and others on the Continent. Some
years ago they were brought under my notice by my friend
Dr. Drummond, at Edinburgh, when we both endeavoured to
ascertain their true character. As then demonstrated, and in
accordance with my more recent examinations, the patches in
question appear to form a sort of nidus for the lodgement, pro-
tection, and development of the minute cells which are found
by myriads in their interior. These little bodies are evidently
parasitic in their nature, and forcibly remind one of the so-called
pseudo-naviculee of Gregarina. I think that they are of a vege-
table nature; this algous character being also, im my opinion,
applicable to the somewhat similar parasitic cells described by
Mr. Lubbock, F.R.S., in his valuable memoir “On the Ova and
Pseudova of Insects,” in the Philosophical Transactions for the
year 1857. Be this as it may, I have further to remark, that
im specimens recently subjected to microscopic analysis, the
cellules measured about the 1-4000th of an inch in their longest
diameter, and they presented an oval figure, being at the same
time slightly pomted at either extremity (Fig.2). The cell-wall
itself is double; but by far the most striking peculiarity con-
sists in the universal presence of two bright, highly refracting
nuclei, usually located side by side at one end of the cell cavity.
They also exhibit a pale yellow colour, due apparently to a clear
fluid surrounding the nuclei. In no instance have I observed
any metamorphotic appearances, neither have I seen any altered
condition of the cells, such as might imdicate an earlier or later
stage of growth. On the addition of caustic potass the colour
of the cellules quickly disappeared, and they performed a series
of peculiar jerking movements, due, it would seem, to the burst-
ing of the outer cell-wall; a little sarcode matter appeared to
make its escape, but the oval form of the cells remained un-
affected.

Between the internal separable layer of the sclerotic coat
and the marsupiwm of the choroid there exists a clear albu-
minous fluid, which, in the perfectly fresh condition of the eye,
is entirely free from blood corpuscles, sarcode globules, and
other particles ; but this fluid is not uniformly disposed between
the two membranes, because at certain spots, and especially in
the neighbourhood of the optic nerve, the marsupium is inti-
mately blended with the inner sclerotic layer above mentioned.
The fibrous marsupium itself is in great part made up of, or
rather contains, numerous cylindrical rods, which offer a de-
cidedly inorganic crystalline aspect, but which do not consist
of carbonate of lime. The Neapolitan naturalist, Delle Chiaje,

The Hye of the Cod-fish. 203

designated them eye-stones, and I have represented a few
in the upper part of Fie. 3. When I added acetic acid there
was neither effervescence nor disintegration, although, on the
other hand, the application of strong caustic potass gradually
caused their dissolution. Between the marsupium and the
vascular layers of the choroid there exists a fibrous membrane
coated with yellow-brown pigment cells, the latter being
characteristic of the lamina fusca of authors. These coloured
cells, shown in Fig. 4, are somewhat irregular both in form and
size, and contrast strongly with the true black pigment cells,
which are much larger and particularly abundant at the ciliary
margin of the choroid. One of the latter and two sarcode
globules are represented in the lower part of Fig. 3, magnified
about two hundred diameters linear.

The vascular choroid itself consists of two distinct layers,
the outer one constituting the true choroid, and the inner being
the so-called tiwiica, or membrana Ruyschiana, which is partly
separated from the former by the intervention of a non-vascular
fibrous membrane, containing neither nuclei nor granules. The
choroid proper consists of vessels united byconnective tissue, the
latter element being particularly abundant in the neighbourhood
of the vascular trunks before they suddenly divide to form the
so-called choroid gland; the inner layer, or membrana Ruys-
chiana, 18 comparatively thin, becoming intimately blended
with the former as it approaches the ciliary circle. To the
naked eye the choroid gland of the cod invariably displays the
figure of an irregularly horseshoe-shaped band, the incomplete
portion of the band occupying the anterior aspect of the eye-
ball in relation to the longitudinal axis of the fish. In some
instances the continuity of the band is interrupted at two or
more distinct places, but in this case the lineal arrangement of
the independent segments combines to produce the charac-
teristic form above described.

If in another fresh eye of the cod fine injections of ver-
milion and artificially prepared ultramarine be severally thrown
into the vein emerging from the optic sheath and the artery
entering the sclerotic immediately behind the latter, both in-
jections, if not too violently forced from the syringe, will be
found to have filled the trunks of the choroidal arteries and
veins as far as the inner margin of the band; and if, there-
after, the eyeball is laid open by a clean tranverse cut from
before backwards, the true choroid being also carefully isolated
from all the other membranes, the operator will probably be
rewarded for his trouble by the production of a preparation of
the posterior half of the choroid very similar to the one depicted
in the accompanying plate (fig.5). The illustration, however,
represents the parts enlarged to twice their natural diameter,

204 The Hye of the Cod-fish.

the minuteness of the vessels not permitting a clear picture of
their disposition had they been drawn of the natural size. In
the several instances in which I have thus treated the eye, I
have never found the colours to pass into the vascular con-
tinuation of the true choroid beyond the band, neither into
the band itself, nor even, so far as I can remember, into the
membrana Ruyschiana; and thus it is seen that naked-eye
experiences taken by themselves are calculated to convey the
idea of the non-vascularity of the so-called gland. By a series
of careful microscopic investigations, however, I have satisfied
myself as to the inaccuracy of this inference, and I therefore
now proceed to show what is the true character of the structure
in question.

If a thin vertical or horizontal section be removed from the
choroid band, and placed under a quarter-inch objective, the
smaller arterial and venous branches will be seen to divide
suddenly into multitudes of minute capillaries, the latter taking
their origin at a point precisely corresponding with the clearly-
defined line of limitation indicated by the stoppage of the
artificially-introduced pigments. These small vessels are closely
connected to one another by their own walls, and not by the
intervention or extension of any fibres from the connective
elements of the choroid. They are all arranged in a simple,
linear, parallel manner, and their width does not appear
to exceed that of the short diameter of the blood corpus-
cles, the admeasurements of the latter being about the 1-2500th
of an inch long, and the 1-3500th of an inch in breadth, In
fresh eyes the capillaries are always found gorged with blood,
and when I recently succeeded in isolating, more or less com-
pletely, a few of the vessels of the band, one of them was seen
to contain blood corpuscles arranged in single file. As shown
in the accompanying diagram (Iig.6), the capillaries are straight
and of uniform’ diameter throughout; moreover, they do not
give off any branches or dilatations such as are found to occur
in the true erectile structures.

From beneath the external border of the horseshoe-shaped
band the outer vascular choroid is supplied with numerous
vessels, which for the most part proceed in a radiating manner
to the circumferential border of the choroidal membrane. These
vessels are obviously a continuation of the reunited capillaries
of the band, but their mode of origin is not so easily seen at
the outer as at the inner border of the band. As previously
remarked, a simple fibrous layer is interposed between the
choroid proper and the membrana Ruyschiana, the latter being
also lined internally by another non-vascular membrane, which
is entirely destitute of fibres (Fig. 7). This membrane is ap-
plied against the baccillary layer of the retina, and consists of a

The Bye of the Cod-fish. 205

delicate membrane almost entirely made up of minute, closely-
agereeated granules.

Turning now to the consideration of the retina, I may, in
the first place, observe that it is well-nigh impossible to obtain
a thin vertical section of this membrane, unless the eyeball has
been previously immersed in a strong acid solution; at least
this is the case with the posterior division commonly described
as Jacob’s membrane. Very soon after death, the relations of
the delicate and complex elements of this structure are lost by
disintegration, but a careful examination of the broken-up
tissues themselves affords a clearer insight into their true
histological character than can possibly be obtained from the
artificially consolidated section. Whilst the latter method,
therefore, demonstrates the actual relations of the component
tissues of the organ, the former conveys a truthful conception
of the nature of these elementary particles.

Under ordinary circumstances, when a small portion of the
retina of the cod is subjected to microscopic examination, with
the one-fourth or one-fifth objective, all that we see is a more
or less confused mass of semi-transparent tissues, in which,
however, the followmg elements may be distinctly recognized :
a fibrous matrix inclosing oval nuclei, dense layers of granules,
nerve filaments with or without ganglionic enlargements (Fig. 8);
rod-like fragments which are portions of the well-known bac-
cillee variously twisted, and frequently tapering to a narrow
poimt at one end (Fig. 9); and large oval corpuscular bodies
which are neither more nor less than the so-called cones, whose
character varies considerably in different members of the ver-
tebrata. If the eye be not perfectly fresh, the cones display
the utmost irregularity of outline, some being cylindrical, some
club-shaped (Fig. 10); many of them split up longitudinally
(Fig. 11), and showing a central cavity (Fig. 12); a few per-
fectly spherical (Fig. 13), and others oval (Fig. 14), mm which
case the contents of the corpuscles are usually confined within
a second investing membrane, the latter beg more or less
widely separated from the outer covering.

These appearances, though im part abnormal, are not alto-
gether uninstructive; but when the retina of a fish more re-
cently killed is examined, it will then be seen that all the fore-
going illustrations represent only the separated halves of the
cones which are double in the cod (Fig. 15) and its allies, as
indeed has also been shown to obtain in the perch by the
researches of Koliker and H. Miller. Although the twin-
cone last referred to does not exhibit the true normal con-
dition of these corpuscles, yet, before going further, I may here
remark that these various demonstrations seem to prove the
cones to possess a double envelope, the mner one inclosing a

206 The Hye of the Cod-fish.

dense mass of extremely fine molecules, agglutinated together
by an albuminous fluid, which becomes gradually less dense to-
wards the centre of the corpuscular cavity. The half-cone may,
therefore, not inaptly be compared to an ovum in which the
chorion, yelk-membrane, and granular yelk respectively occupy
the same relative position as the parts just described. Such
are the appearances ordinarily found on examining the retina of
the cod, a small appendage being occasionally visible at one
end of the cone (as shown in Fig. 10), which, however, drops off
immediately any floating particles strike against it. In the
case of the twin-cone (Fig. 15) here represented, there were
two appendages adherent, both of which I saw detached im the
manner just indicated. Mr. Nunneley, of Leeds, who describes
the appendage in question as “‘the conical lee” of the cone,
has noticed similar changes to ‘ occur withim a very short
time after death; but notwithstanding the extent of his
recent and valuable researches on the retina, the antecedent
phenomena which I am now about to detail do not appear to
have come under his observation. My attention was first called
to a special examination of these cone structures in the cod at a
meeting of the Brighton Microscopical Society, held in the even-
ing of the 6th of December last, and as I derived great assistance
from the distinguished members of that society who were pre-
sent, I think it right to allude to the particular circumstances
under which certain observations, preceding those I have just
recorded, were made; and in doing this I shall describe the
mode of occurrence of a series of phenomena in connection
with the cones, which I have subsequently and independently
confirmed. I had taken with me to the meeting a perfectly
fresh cod’s eye, with the view more particularly of re-examining
the choroid gland under Mr. Hennah’s powerful ‘‘ Smith and
Beck” microscope, which is fitted with Wenham’s binocular
arrangement. After examining the choroid band, without,
however, obtaining any other results than such as I had pre-
viously acquired from my own instrument (by Ross), I placed a
portion of the retina under the one-fifth objective, when the
following facts were elicited :—Conspicuous beyond any other
histological element were numerous oval corpuscular bodies, or
perfect twin-cones, all of which were slightly truncated at
either extremity, symmetrical in form, and divided longitu-
dinally by a straight line passing in the middle line from pole
to pole (Fig. 16). All of them in the first demonstration
exhibited these characters. Following Mr. Hennah’s advice, I
had in this demonstration only added to the slide a little of the
albuminous fluid, which is naturally present in the eyeball, but
when this medium was supplanted by the addition of a drop or
two of clear, cold, hard water, the effect at once produced upon

The Hye of the Cod-jish. 207

the corpuscles was as remarkable as it was unexpected. The
cones now displayed a series of curious phenomena ; all of them
began to alter in form, the two halves partly separating from
one another, whilst each half at the same time gradually
assumed a more or less completely oval outline. Usually the
upper poles of the twin-corpuscles retained somewhat of their
normally truncated figure, and at this end they appeared
broader than at the other. Contemporaneously with these
changes, the borders of a clear transparent membrane connect-
ing the two halves of the cone became visible, and there also
appeared two minute globular vesicles, one at either lower pole
of each half of the cone. These seemed to be formed by the
outward extension of the external investing envelope, and they
invariably occupied the position indicated in the accompanying
drawing (Fig. 17). ‘These saccular appendages, gradually in-
creasing in size, were evidently not the result of mere endos-
mosis, inasmuch as there appeared within them distinct evi-
dences of another structure, which to all present appeared to
be a filament spirally folded upon itself. This coil continued
to unroll and extend itself until at length the globular sac
assumed the condition of a cylindrical tube, the enclosed fila-
ment at the same time losing its essentially spiral aspect
(Fig. 18). Many of the cones had by this time separated
more or less completely into their characteristic halves, and the
delicate outer membranes surrounding the partially uncoiled
filaments subsequently’ disappeared (Fig. 19). No further
changes affecting this latter structure, were observed that even-
ing, but during my examinations of another fresh eye, made
next day with Mr. Murray’s “ Oberhaiiser”? microscope, I
saw one example of the half-cone, in which the filament had
unrolled itself to the fullest extent of which it appeared
capable (Fig. 20). In addition to the above particulars, I have
further to remark that when acetic acid is added to these cones,
they immediately lose their normally plastic character, becom-
ing brittle, less regular in outline, and refract light more power-
fully. Caustic potass, on the other hand, gradually dissolves
them. TF inally, it remains for me to state that the twin-cones
of the cod, in their unaltered condition, present an average
measurement of 1-500th of an inch in length by about 1-800th
of an inch in breadth. On the addition of water they attain a
length of 1-400th, but some normal cones which I have since
examined measured only the 1-650th of an inch longitudinally.
It has occurred to me as possible that some might consider
the filament shown in Fig. 20 to be referable to the class of
structures known as the radial filaments of Miller, which are
said to be normally connected to the upper end of the cones.
Such an interpretation, however, I do not think probable,

208 The Hye of the Cod-fish.

although it must be confessed that the filament in question bears
a very considerable resemblance to the radial filaments attached
to the similar twin-cones of the perch as represented by Kolliker
and H. Miller in Hecker and R. Wagner’s beautiful Icones Phy-
stologice, plate 19, fig. 13. In support of my opmion, how-
ever, that the protruded filaments I have described are neither
more nor less than the so-called baccillary prolongations (Zap-
fenstaébchen) from the outer, choroidal, or lower ends of the
cones, I may observe that even in the human retina the true
baccilli of the cones have been seen expanded at their free ends,
whilst the radial filaments in the perch do not immediately
proceed from the cones, but are connected thereto by the inter-
calation of nucleated corpuscles (Zapfenkorner) placed at the
upper pole of the cones. Whatever interpretation be eventually
put upon the phenomena I have here recorded, those members
of the Brighton Microscopical Society who were present on the
occasion to which I have referred, will bear me out as to the
occurrence of many of the changes above described, and I con-
sider myself particularly fortunate in having been assisted in
the determination of these facts by Dr. William Addison, F'.R.S.,
F.L.S., Mr. J. Jardine Murray, F.R.C.8.H., Dr. Hallifax, Mr.
D’Alquin, and especially also by Mr. Hennah, whose skilful
manipulations are so well known to microscopists. Let me add,
in conclusion, that after a due consideration of the foregomg
particulars, associated with many data previously known to
science, as well as other personal experiences not here recorded,
I think the following deductions may be legitimately drawn and
placed on record.

1. That the occurrence of opaque, white, stellate, circular
patches in the sclerotic of the cod is almost invariable in old
and tolerably full-grown examples of this fish, and that their
contents resemble the so-called pseudo-navicule of Gregarine.
They are, in point of fact, tailless Psorospernuc, and therefore,
also perhaps, non-ciliated zoospoores, whose genetic relations
with Gregarine are not clearly made out. In my opinion the
Psorospermie are referable to the lowest forms of vegetable life,
and should be transferred from the Protozoa to the Chlorospores,
or Confervoids; or, to speak more precisely, they should come
somewhere between the Pulmellacece and Desmidiacee.

2. The so-called choroid gland of the cod and other osseous
fishes, is neither glandular, muscular, nor erectile, but is a spe-
cialized vascular plexus of capillaries. It is in no way con-
nected with the adaptation of the humours of the eye to
varying focal distances, but is probably intended to modify the
circulation of the blood in a situation where, from the proximity
of the heart, a strong impulse would interfere with the reflec-
tion of a correct image from the choroid. In cartilaginous

The Voyage of Aguirre in Search of Hl Dorado. 209

fishes, where no choroid gland exists, other anatomical arrange-
ments appear to subserve the same purpose.

3. The phenomena above described in connection with the
twin-cones of the cod show that the baccillary prolongations
(Zapfenstabchen) are not persistently formed appendages, as
hitherto supposed, but they are filaments capable of pro-
trusion from the cones on the application of certain stimuli.
The cones themselves are to be regarded as special tactile
bodies, destined to receive and convey to the true nervous ele-
ments of the retina, pencils of light reflected from the choroid.
They are analogous, therefore, to the ordinary Pacinian corpuscles
of the skin, which they resemble in many respects, and each
cone may not inaptly be compared, in a functional sense, to a
single ocellus in the compound eye of an insect. The vertebrate
ocelli, so to speak, are arranged on a convex expansion of the optic
nerve, with their visual planes directed inwards, whilst in the
compound eye of invertebrates the ocelli are directed outwards.

THE VOYAGE OF AGUIRRE IN SEARCH OF
KL DORADO.*

No picture of the sixteenth century would be complete unless it
recorded the remarkable adventures of the Spaniards in search
of the marvellous treasures which the American Continent was
presumed to contain. Nowhere else do we find such a strange
combination of credulity, superstition, avarice, chivalry, and
ruffianism, as was exhibited by the varicus bands of marauders
who went in search of the famous Hl Dorado, the imaginary
region of exhaustless wealth.

After plundering the flourishing states of Mexico, Bogota,
and Peru, the madness for gain was increased, and instead of
availing themselves of the boundless opportunities for the exer-
cise of industry, which the new countries presented, the atten-
tion of the adventurers was turned to the imterior of the
continent, where golden cities were supposed to be concealed
by the vast primeval forests which separated them from the
common world. Among the local facts and customs which
served as the basis for the wildest fables, it appears that the
chief of Guatavita made a solemn sacrifice once a year, and to

* The Expedition of Pedro de Ursua and Lope de Aguirre in Search of El
Dorado and Omagua, in 1560—1, translated from Fray Pedro Simon’s Sixth
Historical Notice of the Conquest of Tierra Firme, by Wm. Bollaert, Esq.,
F.R.G.S., Correspondiag Member of the University of Chile, Member of the Eth-
nological Society of New York, with an Introduction, by Clements R. Markham,
Esq. London: printed for the Hakluyt Society,

210 The Voyage of Aguirre in Search of El Dorado.

fit himself for this importaut ceremony, he smeared his body
with turpentine, and then rolled in gold dust, which caused the
precious metal to adhere. In this condition he went upon a
raft, in company with his chief nobles, and when the centre of a
lake (Guatayvita) was reached, he made an offering of precious
stones, and then jumped in to bathe. These proceedings were
supposed to propitiate the aquatic deity of the place—the mira-
culous Cacica—who, having been thrown into the lake by a
quarrelsome husband, was believed to dwell in a delicious re-
treat beneath its waters, in company with her daughter, whose
favour the worshipper hkewise invoked. In his learned work*
on the antiquities of these countries, Mr. Bollaert informs us
that “the principal places of adoration of the Chibchas were
lakes, where they could make offerings of the most precious
things, without fear of others profiting by them; for although
they had confidence in their priests, and knew that they care-
fully buried the offerings in the vases destined to receive them,
they were naturally more secure when they threw those objects
themselves into lakes and rivers.” ‘The same writer tells us
that the Geques, or Chibcha priests, were taught, during an
initiation of twelve years, the computation of time and other
traditional learning, which has been lost through the savage
persecutions to which the bigoted Spaniards exposed the
ministers of a superstition scarcely grosser than their own most
deplorably perverted faith.
The origin of Mexican civilization will remain a puzzle for
future ethnologists and antiquarians to unriddle, if they can;
but in any speculations of this nature we must not be too easily
induced by analogies to imagine that it was copied from other
countries, as large allowance should be made for the operation
of the law, under which, similarity of condition, tends to produce
similarity of habits and opinions amongst races the most remote.
Whatever may have been the early history of the people of
Mexico, Bogota, and Peru, they were found by the Spaniards
in a state of society peculiarly calculated to stimulate their ad-
venturous and avaricious propensities. The love of the mar-
vellous, the desire to acquire wealth without the monotony of
daily toil, together with boundless opportunities for personal
distinction, all conspired to make the New World a favourite
field for the exertion of restless spirits, and as its unfortunate
inhabitants were heathens who resisted conversion, they might
be robbed and murdered with the sanction of the Church. It
was while these feelings were in their full strength that a Captain
Pedro de Ursua, having been duly authorized by the powers of
* Antiquarian, Ethnological, and other Researches in New Granada, Eeua-

dor, Peru, and Chile, with Observations on the Pre-Incarial, Incarial, and other
Monuments of Peruvian Nations, by Wm. Bollaert, F.R.G.8. Triibner and Co.

The Voyage of Aguirre im Search of Hl Dorado. 211

the State, left Peru in search of certain countries, of which some
Brazilian Indians had given a tempting description. After
various difficulties and dangers, he made his way from Lima to
a spot on the Amazon, in the interior of the continent, and ra-
ther less than half way towards the mouth of the gigantic river.
The young knight, who was accompanied by a beautiful lady,
the Dofia Inez de Atienza, appears to have conducted his
operations with considerable skill. He was a brave and accom-
plished soldier, but far too mild a commander for the turbulent
marauders he had undertaken to lead. Such an expedition, in
imperfect vessels, through an unknown country, could not be
devoid of hardships, and as these were encountered, mutinous
feelings, which had manifested themselves from the heginning,
gathered increasing strength, until, on the Ist January, 1561,
Ursua and his lieutenant were murdered, and one Don Fernando
chosen as chief, while Aguirre was appointed ‘ master of the
camp.” The new commander commenced his administration
by calling a council, at which he proposed that all the officers
should sign a document incriminating Ursua, and representing
his assassination as a necessary act done in a spirit of loyal
obedience to the King of Spain. By this trick, Fernando hoped to
secure the favour of his sovereign as well as the profit of the anti-
cipated discovery of the golden lands. Such ascheme might have
succeeded with villains of the common sort, but the new camp
master was a monster of a different stamp, and with the reckless
daring of unblushing infamy, he signed himself the “ Traitor
Aguirre,” and ridiculed the idea of employing deceit. From
this moment he became the real leader of the expedition, and
from time to time he kept up his prestige by aseries of revolting
murders and atrocities, which are very wearisome and diseust-
ing reading in Father Simon’s memoirs. Of course, Don Fer-
nando did not escape from so dangerous a rival, and not even
the beauty and sorrows of Dofia Inez could preserve her life
from this tiger chief. As a career of crime, that of Aguirre is
most extraordinary, and it gives us no little insight into the
character of the kind of persons who joined these adventures, to
find that such a mad monster should have been able to retain
his command. It is not our intention to follow his guilty steps;
but it may afford some consolation to know that both he and
his. principal followers were finally disposed of in pursuance
of the decrees of the King of Spain.

In a geographical point of view, the voyage of Aguirre has
been invested with a fictitious importance by a theory which
Mr. Markham espouses, and according to which he managed to
pass from the Amazon to the Orinoco by way of the Rio Negro
and the Cassiquiare Canal. Humboldt, who was acquainted
with Simon’s book, assigned to hima much more probable route,

212 The New Temple of Industry.

and supposes that he simply sailed down the Amazon, and then
followed the line of the coast to the N.-W. till he reached Mar-
garita, a little beyond Trinidad. Mr. Markham goes so far as
to represent the Rio Negro track as the one which is sanctioned
by Simon’s narrative. Such a conclusion does not, however,
seem warranted by the text, and it would have been more pru-
dent, if Mr. Markham had avoided committing himself to what
will probably prove an untenable theory, not sustamed by a sin-
gle mdubitable fact. We do not discover in Mr. Bollaert’s
portion of the volume before us any indications of his supporting
the more improbable view.

THE NEW TEMPLE OF INDUSTRY. |
BY JOHN HOLLINGSHEAD.

Ir the building raised at South Kensington for the Second
Great International Exhibition had not been practically the
work of a not over modest department of the State, it is pos-
sible that it might have been quietly accepted as one of those
costly makeshifts for which, as a nation, we are rather famous.
A few keen critics would doubtless have questioned the claim
of its designer to be immortalized as a constructive genius ;
a few imaginative architects, who love to turn all our black
riverside wharves into marble palaces on paper, and dream of
reviving the glories of ancient Babylon at Holborn Hill, would
have shown us pretty fancy chromo-lithographs of what it
might have been, while the majority of practical exhibitors
would have been satisfied with it as a shed that had the merit
of being water-tight and sun-proof.

The buildmg designed by Captain Fowke, however, can
claim no pity on account of its parentage. It springs from the
very centre of a school which aspires to teach the true princi-
ples of designing art to an ignorant and benighted country.
From the days when Marlborough House schoolmasters lectured
us upon our barbarously-coloured carpets, designed shirts, and
shaped wine-glasses, to this present period, when the South
Kensington Museum gets two hundred thousand pounds at a
time from a not very flourishing exchequer to enable it to teach
its doctrines, we have been loudly told where to go to if we
want to improve our taste. We have been carefully directed
to the one existing college whose professors believe they pos-
sess the only true eye for harmony of form and colour, and
whose missionaries, duly primed at head-quarters, are actively
teaching South Kensington art throughout the country in local

The New Temple of Industry. 213

schools of design. This is not an organization to be treated
tenderly because of its weakness or retiring disposition, and
what it builds must be taken as the realization of what it
teaches. The structure prepared for the forthcoming Inter-
national Exhibition is not so much the production of one man
as of a clique, a school, and a system; and it affords us but a
poor prospect of getting educational value for our money.

The first view of the building, approaching it from the
Brompton Road, is disappointing and depressing. Never, per-
haps, was so much thoroughly commonplace bulk put upon a
given quantity of earth at one time. The factory-looking cle-
restory windows of the eastern transepts have an appearance
of unutterable meanness; the long, dull line of the Cromwell
Road, or southern front, overshadowed as it is by a row of
unlet stuccoed mansions, looks hke an ordinary carriage
repository. The eastern dome, the first object prominently seen
from this point, looks like a huge balloon that has fallen amongst
the trees of the “ Boiler” gardens; and the entrance under
this disproportionate cupola is built much in the bygone bare
style of a country dissenting chapel. A whole chapter might
be written about these huge, misplaced domes, which have
sucked up sixty thousand pounds sterling, or nearly one-third
of the money guaranteed at the outset for the cost of the
building. The lines of the sash-bars do not correspond in their
curves with the iron ribs, and the result is that the panes of
glass appear to be broken through by the iron-work towards
the apex. The domes, though built of the lightest material,
have a solid, earthy, heavy effect, because of their size and the
lowness of their elevation. ‘They are the largest structures of
the kind ever executed, bemg one hundred and sixty feet in
external diameter. ‘The dome of St. Peter’s is one hundred
and fifty-seven feet and a half in diameter, and that of St.
Paul’s one hundred and twelve feet; so that, putting it arith-
metically, Captam Fowke is a greater architect than either
Bramanti, Michael Angelo, or Wren. Fortunately for the re-
putation of the old designers, the cross of St. Peter’s stands
four hundred and thirty-four feet, and that of St Paul’s three
hundred and forty feet above the pavement; while the gilded
finials of Captain Fowke’s structure are only two hundred and
sixty feet above the ground. ‘The domes of the two great ca-
thedrals press upon buildings whose proportions are able to
bear them without apparent effort; but Captam Fowke’s swollen
cupolas seem to crush the shght wooden framework on which
they appear to stand. The South Kensington architect has
certainly broken the flat monotony of his eastern and western
fronts by these hollow mockeries, but ata cost of life and money
far beyond what the effect is worth. The southern front gets

VOL. I.—NO. JII. Q

214 The New Temple of Industry.

no pictorial advantage from these overgrown monsters, being
too far removed from them ; and this is, oddly enough, alluded
to asa merit in the general design. <A great central dome
over the southern courts (which will certainly never now be
built) was intended to relieve the flatness of the southern front,
and therefore the effect of the two existing domes in combina-
tion is confined to the Horticultural Gardens. As these grounds
are now little more than a back garden to the Exhibition, it is
only fair that they should have some compensating prospects,
and from no point can Captam Fowke’s building be seen in a
more favourable ight. Even here the disproportion of the
domes still stands prominently forth, and they must be classed
as twin monsters with the two water-towers at Sydenham.

Inside the building, the same harmony of proportion is felt
to be sadly wanting, with the single exception of the British
and foreign picture-galleries. The southern courts—called
the open or glass courts—are light and spacious ; but from the
dwarfed height of the side-walls they have a depressing appear-
ance of flatness. In design they are nothing more than a
repetition of the Birmingham Railway Station, with this dif-
ference, that the latter has a noble span four times as great
as that of these courts. The nave, which divides the build-
ing into two unequal halves lengthways, runs from one
dome to the other; and its style, when we look at the
meanly-glazed, commonplace, workshop clerestory windows, can
hardly be called by any other name than factory-Gothic. The
transepts, which run along the whole length of the eastern and
western fronts (being intersected, of course, by the dome co-
lumns), are designed in the same style, and are surrounded, like
the nave, with broad galleries. The spaces under these galleries
must be more or less dark, as the flooring above is necessarily
laid down dust-tight. The northern courts—a smaller repeti-
tion of the southern open or glass courts—are shut in by the
brick wall of the refreshment-rooms, and as several windows
and doors have been knocked in this wall to light and give
access to the premises taken at a heavy rental by the food con-
tractors, the eye is offended by what looks like a row of common
irregularly-built houses. One or two of the staircases leading
up to the galleries are also out of keeping with the rest of the
building, having balustrades such as are generally found in
small villas at Dalston. The two annexes—western and eastern
—which sprout out from the main building, running along the
sides of the Horticultural Gardens towards the Kensington
Road, are lightly and inexpensively built, and having no avowed
pretensions to architectural effect, promise to be the most
pleasing parts of the structure.

The main picture-galleries, before alluded to, which occupy

The New Temple of Industry. 215

the upper part of the southern, or Cromwell Road front, are
substantially built, as im all probability they will become the
property of the Society of Arts. The proportions here are
noble and harmonious, and the plan of lightmg from the top -
gives large wall-space, and a light free from glitter. It is upon
these galleries, and the other “ permanent portions” of the
building, that the Commissioners are bound to spend fifty
thousand pounds in architectural improvements, under contract
with their landlords, the Commissioners of the former Exhibi-
tion. ‘Twenty thousand pounds of this amount are already ex-
pended, and the outlay of the other thirty thousand is made
contingent on the realization of a surplus.

The decoration of the building was taken out of the hands
of the South Kensington art teachers, and given to Mr. Crace.
In the nave the roof is coloured a warm grey, with upright
scroll ornaments in maroon red, rising from the sides to the
apex of the roof, the ridge of which is strongly defined by a
chevrony in black and white. The main arches are coloured a
warm brown, with panellings of blue and red, relieved with
light lmes and ornaments, and separated by medallions of
black, on which are gold stars. On the crown of each arch are
inscribed the names of the principal countries and towns con-
tributing to the Hxhibition. To avoid the succession of repeated
Imes of the same colour, variety is produced by alternating the
colourings. The edges of the arched ribs, which are in three
thicknesses, are defined by springs of black and white in the
outer, and red in the centre thickness. The iron columns sup-
porting the roof are painted a pale bronze colour, relieved with
light coloured vertical limes, and having the capitals painted
red and blue alternately, the raised ornaments beimg richly
gilt. The iron ornamental gallery railings are also pamted
bronze, relieved with gilding. The two domes are decorated in
a very effective manner. ‘The twelve main ribs are painted red
and gold, bordered with black and white, and relieved with gilt
stars on small lozenges of blue. The top centres of the domes
are painted blue, with gold rays, and are bordered with red and
gold. The broad frieze running round the springing is painted
blue, with an inscription in bold gold letters, and the cornice
above is principally in red and gold colour. The walls above
the arches under the frieze are richly ornamented in red pan-
ellmg. In the four smaller compartments are Hurope, Asia,
Africa, and America; and in the spandrils of the large arches
are medallions containing figures representing Arts, Sciences,
and Manufactures. The walls at the ends of the nave and
transepts are also richly ornamented and inscribed with appro-
priate legends.

The picture-galleries have their walls painted a sage green

216 The New Temple of Industry.

as a background for the pictures, and the cove is tinted to cor-
respond, the cornices and soffits bemge vellum-colour, relieved
with maroon lines and ornaments. ‘The wall round the arches
is also ornamented, but the general decoration of these galleries
was obliged to be curtailed, from the necessity of their being
used for the arrangement of the pictures.

The Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851, as before
stated, are the legal proprietors of the site on which this build-
ing is raised—the ground having been bought out of the sur-
plus (about one hundred and eighty-six thousand pounds)
arising from the first Great International Exhibition. ‘The in-
vestment of that sum in South Kensington land has proved
so fortunate, that the old Commissioners, by making roads,
letting ground on building leases, and their arrangement with
the Horticultural Society, must certainly have doubled their
capital.

To secure the greater portion of this remaining site for a
third proposed Exhibition in 1872, they have agreed to reserve
about sixteen acres of it for that purpose on receiving ten
thousand pounds by way of ground-rent. It is already agreed
that a lease shall be granted to the Society of Arts of the cen-
tral portion of the picture-gallery, one acre in extent, along the
Cromwell Road, for ninety-nine years, on condition that
ground-rent to the amount of two hundred and forty pounds per
annum be paid to them, and that the building be given up un-
reservedly for the use of the Exhibition in 1872.

The work of building this new temple of industry was given
to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas, under an arrangement with the
Commissioners of 1862 that is very lke a partnership. The
whole responsibility for the execution of the works rested with
the contractors, and the amount they are to receive is contin-
gent on the receipts of the Exhibition. The Commissioners
have the option of purchasing the building out and out, or of
merely paying for the use of it. For the rent of the building a
sum of two hundred thousand pounds is guaranteed absolutely ;
if the receipts exceed four hundred thousand pounds, the con-
tractors are to be paid one hundred thousand pounds more for
rent, and if the sum is fully paid, then the centre acre of the
great picture-galleries is to be left as the property of the So-
ciety of Arts. The contractors are also bound, if required, to
sell the whole for a further sum of one hundred and thirty
thousand pounds, thus making its total cost four hundred and
thirty thousand pounds. Captain Fowke’s original design,
with the great hall and central dome, was estimated to cost five
hundred and ninety thousand pounds. ‘This hall was to have
been placed immediately behind the middle entrance of the
south front, and was to have been five hundred feet long, two

Observed Heights of Meteors or Shooting Stars. 217

hundred and fifty feet wide, and two hundred and ten feet
high.

"The laying out of the works was commenced on the 9th
of March, 1861. About two weeks were occupied in making the
measurements, and the building was begun at the commence-
ment of April. It covers about twenty-four acres and a half
or sixty millions of cubic feet; and, though smaller than the
building raised for the Paris Exhibition of 1855, it is larger
than the Hyde Park Crystal Palace of 1851. The latter struc-
ture, however, covered nearly twenty acres; was begun about
the middle of August, 1850, and was finished by the day ap-
poited, February 12th, 1851; whereas the present building
has taken a year to raise, and was not completed until six weeks
after the contract date. The original contract for the building
in 185] fixed eighty thousand pounds as the cost ; but this sum
was increased by the Commissioners to one hundred and eight
thousand pounds, and the sale of the materials to the Crystal
Palace Company of Sydenham placed seventy thousand pounds
more in the hands of the contractors—raising the sum they re-
ceived to one hundred and seventy-eight thousand pounds.
The old buildmg had many imperfections, and was not, in many
respects, well adapted to preserve costly goods from sun, dust,
and rain; but still it was valued for itself alone, and was
not the least interesting part of the show. The new building,
however, large as it is, will add nothing to the forthcoming
display except heaviness and bad proportions, and the wisest
visitors will devote themselves to the industrial collections,
and endeavour to forget the roof they are under.

OBSERVED HEIGHTS OF METEORS AND SHOOTING
STARS.

BY ALEXANDER 8. HERSCHEL.

On the night of Tuesday, July 16, 1861, three meteors at least
attracted the attention of travellers in different parts of England.
That of 10h. 15m. p.m., first described by the Duke of Argyle in
the Times newspaper, was soon found to be irreconcileable with
that of 1lh.32m., p.m., which took a southward course, and the
discussion elicited an account of a third, which was seen at Bris-
tol to move from north-west down to the west at half-past nine
of the same evening. ‘The accounts collected of the two former
meteors showed that of 10.15 p.m. to have moved from 305 miles
over Liege in Belgium to 35 miles over the North Sea, 70 miles
east of the town of Morpeth, m Northumberland. This we
gather from accounts at London, where it disappeared due

218 Observed Heights of Meteors and Shooting Stars.

north at an altitude given at Tunbridge Wells as 8 or 10»,
while from Tunbridge Wells it was seen to commence at an
altitude of 40° due east. At Darlington, in Yorkshire, the
commencement was due south-east at altitude 30°, the disap-
pearance was north-east by east altitude 25°. The intersection

0 Res (=) =o
i=)
© =
= e

eee

aad
| #y

of these lines of sight are accurate at the above points, and
the prodigious flight of 350 miles appears to have been per-
formed in 10 or 11 seconds, or a very little less. The inclina-
tion is 31° to the horizon towards 37° west of north. An adher-
ing tail, but fugitive like the meteor, pursued the nucleus, which

Observed Heights of Meteors and Shooting Stars, 219

was almost globular and 5’ or 6’ in diameter, and shed at
Furness Abbey a light equal to the crescent moon. This tail
was 2° or 23° im leneth, and colourless like the meteor. No
change appeared throughout the flight until before disappear-
ance a companion was seen to pursue it closely. Both then
vanished together abruptly.

The second meteor appeared to move at London from 15°
S. of the zenith towards a point of the horizon 54° W. of S:
At Liverpool, it flew from alt. 40° in the S.H. by H. toa few
degrees above the horizon 8. by W. We infer from these data
(shghtly modified by other observations), a flight of 300 miles
from 195 miles above the Straits of Dover by North Foreland,
to 60 or 70 miles above the English Channel, 60 miles S. of
Plymouth. This course passes at a height of 150 miles over the
Isle of Wight, at which point an enduring tail began to be given
off, and contimued to be developed to the end of its course.
After the dispersion of the nucleus, this tail drifted eastward in
the direction of the rising wind at a speed of 1000 feet a
second.

The course of 270 horizontal and 130 vertical miles, is in-
clined 27° to the horizon towards 57° W. of S., and the velocity
of the meteor was 60 miles a second, while that of the former
was only 30.

Encouraged by the success of these determinations, a cam-
paign was organized for the observation of the shower of
meteors on the coming 10th of August, in which Mr. Glaisher,
and numerous other observers, professional and amateur, pro-
mised their assistance for a single hour on every night.

The first result of this combination was a letter from Mr.
J. Baxendell, in Manchester, describing a brilliant meteor
at 11h. 21m. p.m., I.M.T. of the 6th of August, having two
maxima of brightness in a short crooked path of only 33°, near
the star ¢ Capricorni, im which it moved for more than two se-
conds of time. A later communication, from Messrs. J. Townsend
and T. Crumplen, contained the following observation, of the
same date, in Trafalgar Square. The time differs only one minute
from that of Mr. Baxendell’s observation :—“ A meteor brighter
than that of July 16th shot from near « Corone to x, Urs
Majoris. It appeared to be extinguished, and then suddenly
rekindled. Duration 6 sec.; tail 2 sec.” ;

Taking half-way between the two last observed places as a
trustworthy pomt in the meteor course as seen from London,
this ine of sight is found to pass within seven miles of that
from Manchester to the centre of the meteor (as there observed),
at 80 miles high, half-way between Leicester and Birmingham.
Judging from the foreshortening of 48°, as seen from London,
to 33° as seen from Manchester, we must accept the course to

220 Observed Heights of Meteors and Shooting Stars.

have been directed through this point almost direct upon Man-
chester, and hence we obtain by the London observation a
flight of 176 miles in five or six seconds; from 126 miles over
Winchester to 21 miles over the north point of Staffordshire,
at an inclination of 37° to the horizon, from 16° H. of S.;
and in this course of 105 vertical and 140 horizontal miles, the
flame was kindled into brilliance two distinct and separate times.

On the 8th of August the Rev. James Challis saw at Cam-
bridge a second magnitude star shoot downwards at alt. 40°,
11° E. of S., rapidly at an inclination of 30° to the right from
horizontal. While at Greenwich, within 20 sec. of the same
time, Messrs. W. C. Nash and J. Howe saw a second magnitude
star pass very rapidly from « Cygni to Delphinus, leaving a
faint tail,

Placing the Greenwich centre at q Vulpeculz, we have a
line of sight which intersects the Cambridge line of sight
accurately at 67 miles over Sandhurst, in Kent, through which
point this meteor was directed upon Alton, in Hampshire, at
46° from horizontal towards 3° 8. of W. The meteor may
have been 20 miles long, with a speed of 30 or 40 miles a
second.

Two minutes later a flash was seen at Cambridge Observa-
tory by Mr. A. Bowden, altitude 61°, 73° E. from 8. No path
could be perceived in it. Dr. Lee’s party of observers at
Aylesbury beheld it near # Andromede, but from the absence
of any bright stars for reference near the foot of Andromeda,
we must not trust this observation beyond a certain point. It
was recorded by Mr. 8. Horton “Like a gas flame suddenly
lighted and then put out. Very curious.” These two lines of
sight are 12 miles asunder, at 50 miles above the neighbour-
hood of Bury St. Edmunds, and as the parallax is 34°, we
must suppose this singular meteor to have had no per-
ceptible path, but to have been indeed, as described at both
stations, a momentary flash equal to the illumination of not
one, but of 500 or 600 gas-lights at once; for it is recorded
equal to a second magnitude star at Cambridge, and there its
distance was 54 miles.

The next accordances were on the 10th, when two third
magnitude meteors appeared at Greenwich, one below the
other, whose paths at Cranford were coincident. The appari-
tions were undoubtedly the same, but the observations are
somewhat vague. ‘The lines of sight for one meteor pass 15
miles apart, at 30 miles over Guildford, in Surrey. Those for
the second are 19 miles apart, 105 miles over Bishop Waltham,
in Dorsetshire ; both appear to have been nearly vertical.

Three minutes after this remarkable pair, a more brilliant
meteor shot at Cranford to the right in the square of Pegasus.

Observed Heights of Meteors and Shooting Stars. 221

It was observed at Greenwich to commence over a Andro-
med. The parallax of 7°, obtained from the records, give a
height of 47 miles over the English Channel, 20 miles east of
the North Foreland. The meteor was conformable to 6 Camelo-
pardalis, and we may infer for it a course of 35 to 40 miles, per-
formed in little more than one second of time, at an inclination
of 38° to the horizon towards 42° W. of S.

Five minutes later than this a second magnitude meteor,
with a tail, was observed by Mr. Nash to fall from vy Ursz
Majoris towards the horizon, while at Cambridge two meteors
with centres coincident succeeded each other almost imme-
diately—one of third magnitude, the second of first magnitude,
leaving a tail. The second was seen, by the Rev. James Challis,
to shoot to the left at 45° to the horizon, at altitude 20°, 13°
S. of W. A line of sight at Greenwich, half-way between
y Ursee and the horizon, intersects this Cambridge line of sight
accurately at 17 miles over Buckingham, and assuming it to
have been slightly inclined to the left at Greenwich, we infer it
to have flown some 20 miles at 40° to the horizontal from
N. to §., from a height of 24 miles to perhaps only seven
above the earth. This is the lowest meteor which the obser-
vations render in any degree probable.

About a quarter of an hour after this two small meteors
appeared, to Messrs. W. C. Nash and J. Howe, to succeed each
other rapidly from « Cygni—one toe Lyre, the other towards
Delphinus. Within 10 seconds of the time of the first, a
meteor is recorded at Cambridge, by the Rev. James Challis,
of third magnitude, altitude 46°, 26° W. of S., moving
downwards to the right at 30° to the horizontal. A line of
sight, directed from Greenwich to + Lyre 3-5ths of the way
from « Cygni to a Lyre, intersects a line of sight from Cam-
bridge, altitude 48°, 21° W. of South, accurately at 70 miles
over Leatherhead. From this poimt the meteor was directed
to the town of Andover, at 54° to the horizontal, towards 20°
S. of W., in a course perpendicular to the town of Cam-
bridge, where, at a distance of 94 miles, every 5 miles of flight
would subtend 3° of are. This meteor closes the list among
the accordances of the 10th of August. It was probably from
20 to 25 miles in length. At 300 yards’ distance it would
have shed the light of the full moon, and it burned with the
brilliance of 400 ordinary gas-lights.

On August the 11th fewer accordances were obtained. Sixty
observations at Hawkhurst, and nearly half as many at the
contiguous station of Flimwell, are so strangely discordant
that the wonder is how so many meteors should have been in-
serted so entirely disagreeing in time and place: the only one
accordance is too vague to yield a useful parallax. This was

222 Observed Heights of Meteors and Shooting Stars.

dull red, and tailless during the last third part of its course,
in strong contrast to the previous two-thirds, where the meteor
was brilliant blue, and emitted a lengthy endurmg train. It
was not noticed at any other station, and was possibly of low
altitude like that surmised over Buckingham.

Within five minutes from this time, however, a beautiful
white meteor shot 8° very slowly in the H. from Hawkhurst.
The tail was the most enduring of the evening (7 seconds),
Duration 14 secs.; shot to clock hour IV, at altitude 16°, 33°
N.of E.; a careful observation.

At Ipswich the same meteor was seen to terminate at
y Pegasi, inclined 40° to the horizontal. We infer from this a
path of 36 miles, from 44 to 21 miles above the Hnglish
Channel, 70 miles H. of Ipswich, at an inclination of 42° to
the horizon towards 20° W. of S.

Seven minutes later a second bright meteor was at Ips-
wich observed to pass down the centre of the Milky Way,
which was vertical at Hawkhurst. It was of first magnitude
and left a tail, and appears to have been 64 miles over Hail-
sham, in Sussex, performing 25 miles in half a second, almost
horizontally towards 12° W. of 8S.

A map of these accordances is annexed for illustration, and
it is particularly desirable to make these observations on the
nights when meteors are most abundant, as we may hope to
trace on quiet nights an outline to the regions where these
fugitive particles become incandescent more surely than on
separate nights, and in separate conditions of the atmosphere.
On the 28th of January, 1862, a shooting star was very
accurately observed, between London and Aylesbury, to
traverse a horizontal distance of 60 miles, with a uniform speed
of 40 miles a second, horizontally from 44 miles over Melton
Mowbray, in Leicestershire, to 47 miles over Macclesfield, in
Derbyshire. It shone throughout as a first magnitude star,
without change of brightness; the course appears only 12° in
length at London, and 20° in length at Aylesbury, and it is
difficult to account for these decided points of kindling and
extinction upon a horizontal course of a projectile, if we do not
admit a column, or wave, of the atmosphere to be here sin-
gularly uplifted ; and the rapid motion of the tail in the meteor
of July 16th seems to pomt equally to violent commotions
upon the upper surface of the atmosphere.

The Fish World at Home. 228

THE FISH WORLD AT HOME.*.

Except as a race of creatures which supply a peculiar kind of
food, the fish world is less popularly known than any other
conspicuous division of the animal kinedom. Indeed, unless
we consider it in a culinary sense, it is easier to hke anything
better than a fish ; for although the forms of many species are
strange and wonderful, though they are decorated with colours
as varied and as brillant as those of birds, the great difficulty
of studymeg their habits diminishes the interest which their
peculiar or splendid appearance might otherwise induce us to
feel. Our affection for animals is strongly influenced by their
agreeableness or unpleasantness to the sense of touch; and
even when prudence forbids such tactile experiments, we look
at the hon or bear as creatures we should have no objection to
fondle, if their moral character was of a more amiable kind.
When we pass from the warm-blooded mammalia to the im-
portant group of reptiles, we are conscious of a great diminu-
tion of sympathy, and though a few people make pets of
snakes and tortoises, while some of the graceful lizards of warm
countries are welcomed in the domestic circle, there is on the
whole too great a gulf between the human and the reptile
life for us to enter readily into their mode of being. This dis-
crepancy becomes still more striking when we descend to the
fish, the inhabitants of an alien element, and the dwellers
under conditions by no means easy for us to ascertain. It is
true that from an early antiquity men have half domesticated
certain kinds in ponds, and before the aquarium assumed its
present elegant and instructive shape, many generations had
seen gold and silver fish swimming round the old-fashioned
globes, with a monotony of motion only varied by the occa-
sional occurrence of illness or death. But these experiments
and. observations added very little to our substantial knowledge
of fishy hfe, and when the naturalist obtaimed his specimens, ,
he usually studied them as dead organisms and not as fellow-
inhabitants of this living world. These causes may tend to
make icthyology less often a favourite study than other
branches of natural history, but very little attention is required
to invest it with an interest of its own. Regarded geologically,
the fish present us with the oldest distinctly known group of
vertebrate animals. Older, or as old, may have existed; but
if land vertebrata should be proved to have been contempora-
ries with the earliest fish, the latter would still appear to have

* A History of Fishes of the British Islands. By Jonathan Couch, F.R.S,
Vol. 1, containing fifty-seven coloured plates from drawings by the Author
Groombridge and Sons, 1862.

224, The Fish World at Home.

played a very important part among the pristine* inhabitants
of the globe. In our own times the waters cover two-thirds
of the earth, and within certain limits they are thickly peopled
by the finny race. The subaqueous land is as diversified as the
subaérial, and if we could roam over the sea-bottom as we do
over the dry surface, we should find its varieties of contour as
strongly marked. In some spots we should discover sedimen-
tary plains, in others elevated table-lands and lofty mountain
chains, while the vegetation would be plentiful, scarce, or
absent, according to laws analogous to those which affect ter-
restrial plants. In some situations, where the water is shallow
‘ and the soil appropriate, we should come upon green meadows
of the common Zostera marina; on rocks in deeper water we
should find groves and forests of the oar-weed (lamimaria),
and other tree-like alge; and if in our own climate these
seldom exceeded twelve or fourteen feet in length, we need
only go to the coast of North America to find a tangle, named
nereocystis, with stems three hundred feet long, and floats like
huge casks, crowned by tufts of prodigious leaves, among
which the sea-otter makes his lair. On dry land the most
numerous population is seated at, or near, the sea-level, or at
what we may call the bottom of the aérial ocean which enfolds
our globe; except on the Mexican plateaux, animal forms become
scarce after an elevation of a few thousand feet, while extreme
mountain heights are solitudes scarcely broken by the sound or
sight of life. In the watery regions some differences occur.
There, the mountains, instead of bemg deserts, present condi-
tions which offer some analogies to the sea-level surface of the
earth. Light is abundant in such situations, and the moving
waves carry to the limited depth a more ample supply of air.
Here then life abounds, and it is the lowest valleys and plains
of the ocean beds, which correspond with the subaérial moun-
tain-peaks, in affording a very restricted accommodation for
living beings. Recent discoveries in deep sea dredging modify
old statements about the total absence of life in the dark and
profound recesses of the sea; but at any rate, so far as the
higher forms are concerned, dense populations occur only at
moderate depths.

The subaqueous scenery of our own shores exhibits on a
limited scale the varied aspects to which allusion has been
made; but it nowhere sinks to remarkable depths. In the
North Sea, between us and Norway, 140 fathoms is said to

* “No vertebrate animal higher in the scale than fishes is as yet certainly
known to have been found in any rock of Devonian age. In fact, until demon-
strative stentigraphical evidence of the Devonian age of the red known Elgin beds
is obtained, the bearing of the paleontological evidence against that conclusion is

too strong to allow of its being entertained.”—Professor Huxley, Memoirs of
Geological Survey, Decade X.

The Fish World at Home. 225

be the extreme depression. The English Channel, east of
Hddystone, is not more that 50 fathoms; but on the west
coast of Ireland, Dr. Harvey tells us, a depth of 300 to 400
fathoms is soon attained. As a rule, the sea-bed, within a
a moderate distance from the shore, partakes of the geological
character of the formations on the coast; and if a fish swam
from the granites and slates of Cornwall to the chalk of Sussex,
he would find the peculiarities of the watery region changing
very much like those on the land. Such, then, are a few par-
ticulars of the localities in which fish existence is carried on.
As on dry land, the plants nourish certain kinds of animals, ard
the strong devour the weak according to the various methods of
predaceous life ; but there is this difference between terrestrial
and marine vegetation, that the latter derives nearly all its
nutriment from the fluid element, as its roots are, for the most
part, only anchors and supports, and not also a machinery for
the absorption of food. Thus the water, with the various
saline, earthy, and other elements that it holds in solution,
forms the foundation of the entire mass of existence whichit
contains. i

If we pass from the consideration of where the fish lives, to
the inquiry of what the fish is, we find it to be, in the words of
Dr. Grant,* “a cold-blooded, oviparous, branchiated animal,
with one auricle and one ventricle of the heart, not under-
going metamorphosis, covered with scales, and having the
arms and legs constructed as fins, for a permanent residence in
the waters. The rudimentary lungs (air-bladders) are very
rarely employed for breathing, generally for regulating their
specific gravity. They mostly impregnate the ova externally,
aud there is no amnion or allantois in the ovum.”’ To this
brief description some particulars must be added, for, in the
words of Mr. Couch, “in a fish the whole mass of blood passes
through the gills for the purpose of receiving the influence of
the air contaimed in the water, without being again returned to
the heart, until it has been carried to the other parts of the
body.”

The heart of a fish is thus devoted to the respiratory cir-
culation. In the reptile, which stands in zoological rank higher
than the fish, the heart has three cavities—a single ventricle,
and two auricles; but breathmg air direct, by means of lungs,
and passing much of its time in torpor, or repose, it does not
need that all its circulating fluid should be exposed to the
respiratory process before traversing its body; and hence
one portion of aérated blood from the lungs, is mingled
with ancther portion of venous blood which has not passed
through them, and this mixture is sent out by the single ven-

* Taoular View of the Primary Divisions of the Animal Kingdom.

226 The Fish World at Home.

tricle of its three-chambered heart. As energy of character
and capacity for exertion are usually proportioned to the amount
of heat which an animal evolves, we must expect that fishes,
with a respiration rendered imperfect or slow, from the nature
of the fluid in which they live, and with bodies whose internal
temperature is lower than that of mammals or birds, would be,
in many respects, sluggish creatures ; and to a large extent they
deserve this character ; though the shark tribe exhibit activities
very analogous to those of terrestrial beasts of prey. In Mr.
Couch’s valuable and interesting History of the Fishes of the
British Islands, which follows a generally-recognized system,
these voracious creatures are placed at the head of all the families
of Fish. Together with the ray-fishes, they belong to the
Chondropterygious order; and it is consolatory for those who
are alarmed at such an awkward, jaw-breaking term, that a
better-sounding and more popular word, “ cartilagimous,” will
do just as well. The characteristic of the skeleton of these
fishes is the absence of that quantity of mineral matter which
gives rigidity to ordinary bones ; but, as Professor Owen says,
“J know not why a flexible vascular animal substance should
be supposed to be raised in the histological scale because it has
become impregnated by the abundant intussusception of earthy
salts.”? The shark has, for a fish, a large brain, immense strength,
and a capacity for prolonged exertion, which Mr. Couch traces
to the highly-developed character of its muscles, which “ bear
a resemblance to those of quadrupeds.” The eye of this tiger
of the deep affords the quick vision required for its predacious
life, and Mr. Couch thus explains its peculiar mechanism :—
“‘On examining the cavity m which the eye of the shark re-
volves, we find that the globe, which is the immediate seat of
the power of vision, is lifted from the bottom on which, in other
animals besides this great family, it rolls, and is placed on a
small table that itself forms the top of a slender pillar, the
bottom of which is fixed on the bony circle of the common
ocular cavity, or, more properly speaking, of the pillar itself,
which leans a little forward that it may be accommodated to
the most usual direction in which objects are viewed .....
The height of this ocular pillar has the additional advantage
of allowing a greater length to the muscles which move the
eye, and, by so doing, of providing for a more sudden as well
as a more extensive action of the eyes in prowling for their
rey.”
fh The general form of the jaws of the shark is well known
through specimens in museums, but to Mr. Couch must be
assigned the merit of observations on the formation of the teeth,
which appear to have been simultaneous with those made known
by Mr. Owen, and which are thus described :—* In all fishes

The Fish World at Home. 27

the first-step in the formation of teeth is the simple production
of a soft vascular papilla, or pimple, from the free surface of
the membrane of the jaw, near the mouth; but in the sharks
and rays these papillz do not proceed to sink into the sub-
stance of the gum, but become covered by caps of an opposite
free fold of this membrane. These caps do not contract any
organic connection with the papilliform matrix (and in the
torpedo they are very loose), but as this is converted into the
dental tissue, the tooth is gradually withdrawn (the points of
the teeth at first lying flat downward, or in the direction toward
the mouth) from the extraneous protecting cap, and as they
become hard from being clothed with an enamelled surface,
they assume the upright posture on the border of the jaw.”
The several rows of teeth are successively carried forward “ by
action in the membrane itself on which they rest, until beme
commonly broken or worn down by the viclence to which they
have been exposed, by the time they have reached the outer
jaw, an exfoliation of the membrane itself has taken place, and
they drop off by a natural process of exfoliation, to be succeeded
by others, which are in their turn formed at the border of the
jaw nearest the mouth, and pass upward and outward.”

The greater number of sharks hatch their eggs in their own
bodies, but the ground sharks deposit their ova in singular
leathery bags, with long twisted strings at their corners, similar
to those of the skates, which are common on every beach. The
British sharks, which are most generally seen by sea-side
visitors, are dog-fish of small dimensions; but many larger
species frequent our shores, and Mr. Couch describes no less
than seventeen which belong to us, as more or less regular
inhabitants, and among them we find several quite worthy of
their formidable fame. One magnificent species, and less
ferocious than most of his brethren, performs a regular migration
along the west coast of Ireland, and the western islands of Scot-
land, and is the profitable subject of periodical attack. This is
the “ basking shark,” or sun-fish, so called from its habit of
basking in the sunshine during calm, bright weather. It is
killed with a harpoon, and valued on account of its liver, which
weighs “two tons,” and yields a large quantity of fine oil.
Mr. Couch says this is the largest of all true fishes, and he
gives a drawing of one captured im Cornwall, which measured
thirty-one feet eight inches in length. The two most extraor-
dinary-looking sharks are the “ Thrasher,” which is not “ un-
common on the western and southern coasts of Britain in the
summer,” and the “ Hammer-head,”? which is “‘a rare wanderer
in our seas.” The first is eleven or twelve feet long, and
remarkable for the great length and strength of the upper
division of its tail, while the second has a head extended

228 The Fish World at Home.

sideways like a hammer on its handle, with an eye at each
end.

We may picture the sharks roving freely in search of their
prey; and could we witness the daily life of the sea, we should
find them as ferocious, and more ravenous, than the lions and
tigers of the land. But if we surveyed the bottoms of smooth
bays, we should be struck with the peculiar aspects, and large di-
mensions, of the family of skates. Although capable of vigorous
motions, their usual habit is to he flat, and as they are creatures
of high organization, they require a breathing apparatus which
can act powerfully in such a position. Accordingly, each side
of the body of a skate is provided with four double gills, and
one single gill; the entire gill system exhibiting one hundred
and forty-four thousand folds, with an aggregate surface of
fifteen square feet, the whole being covered by an elaborate net-
work of minute vessels. If a great fish of the skate family is
seen lying dead, as a huge lump, on the beach, it is difficult to
form an idea of its behaviour in the water, when its swimming
capacities are aroused, but a glance at the beautiful coloured
plates in Mr. Couch’s work, affords an easy insight into some of
their habitudes and powers. One of the most striking of these
pictorial illustrations, is the figure of the “ Hagle Ray,” in which
the brilliance of the green eye, the wing-like character of the
expanded fins, and the fierce flapping of the long whip-like
tail, furnish a picture as wonderful as that of any monster of
which mythology or fable tells.

Nor must we suppose that, if 1t were possible for us to
take a journey through the watery regions of the fish world,
that we should meet with no instances of constructive skill, or
intimations of that maternal affection which reaches its full
development among the mammalian tribes. There is, for ex-
ample, a fish well known on all our coasts which makes a nest,
and watches over the safety of its progeny until they are able
to take care of themselves. Thisis the ‘‘ Fifteen-spined Stickle-
back,” or Sea-Adder, a creature about six inches long, of an.
elegant tapering form, and varying in colour, but figured by
Mr. Couch as golden-yellow and brown. The nest-making
capacities of this animal have only recently been ascertained.
Something of the kind was previously suspected, and this led
Mr. R. Q. Couch to prosecute his investigations, until he was
happily rewarded by success. The places selected by the Sea-
Adder for its nursery are harbours or recesses sheltered from
the violence of the waves. The nests are formed by tying
together tufts of seaweed and coralline with a thread secreted
from the fish’s own body, and which resembles elastic silk.
In one instance, Mr. Couch found a nest as big as a man’s fist
attached to the separated strands of a rope which was hanging

The Fish World at Home. 229

in the water, and in this case the materials for the structure
_ must have been carried about thirty feet. Mr. Couch observes
on this interesting phenomenon, that the roe does not appear. to
be deposited all at once, that it is passed through the mass
which forms the nest in various directions, and appears in little
clumps in various stages of development. He adds—“ They
are watched over by the parent—in every case, I believe, by
the male—who never quits his station; but an instance has
occurred where two fishes have been engaged in attending one
nest; and if the guardian is forced to retreat by the receding
of the tide, he returns as soon as the way is open, and for three
or four weeks continues his guard, until the young are able of
themselves to take ther chance in the broad expanse of the
sea. So much is he intent on the principal objects of his
solicitude, that at this time himself may be easily caught, but
he resents every interference with his nest; andif the grains of
ova be exposed to sight, as was done by way of trial, the
breach was immediately repaired by the labour of dragging the
materials into a position by which they were again concealed
and protected.”

Referring those who desire to gain a knowledge of the various
genera and species of British fishes to Mr. Couch’s agreeable
and richly-illustrated pages, we may advert to the labours of
Dr. Dufossé in rescuing the piscine world from the wholesale
charges of dumbness that have been brought against it, and
showing the foundation of ancient stories that were too often
disbelieved. His researches have been chiefly confined to the
gurnards and dories, which he tells us are able to utter pro-
longed and varied notes by means of vibrations in the muscles
of their swimming bladder, and if all that the learned doctor
tells us be true, the fish family may have oral discussions
and concerts of their own, the performers being able to execute
passages which an opera prima donna would be astonished to
hear. This certainly opens a new view of submarine society.
Tt may, after all, be diversified by other incidents, besides
devouring and being devoured; fishes may exchange such
thoughts and sentiments as their feeble brains may form, and
their existence be rather more than

“ A cold, sweet, silver life, wrapp’d in round waves,
Quickened with touches of transporting fear.”

VOL. I.—NO. III. R

230 The Planets of the Month.

THE PLANETS OF THE MONTH,
BY THE REV. T. W. WEBB, F.R.A.S.

Mercury may be seen in the morning, at the beginning of the
month ; but a more favourable opportunity will occur m May.

Venus is now transferred to the other side of the Sun, and,
rising before him, she will be only watched by those few who
pursue their studies

“ Under the opening eyelids of the morn.”

They, however, will see her to advantage, aS she has already
attained a considerable elongation from the Sun. Her greatest
brilhancy takes place on April 2, when, as well as for some
time afterwards, she may be followed, not only with the tele-
scope, but even with the naked eye, even till noon-day: and
an exquisitely beautiful object she is, when her glare is thus
subdued by an ilumimated background. An equatorial tele-
scope of course renders it perfectly easy to find her at any time ;
but those who do not possess such an instrument will have
little difficulty in keeping her in view im a clear day, if she is
first found before sunrise, and subsequently watched from time
to time, without allowing.too great an mterval between the
observations. The-epoch of greatest brightness depends upon
two continually varying conditions—her distance from the
earth, and the magnitude of her phasis, that is, the proportion
of her illuminated surface which is turned towards us. When
her phasis is largest, resembling a full moon, she is so distant
from us, that even were she not obscured by the Sun’s rays,
she would not be a very brilliant object; on the other hand,
when she is nearest to us, we look for the most part upon her
unenlightened side; and though her apparent diameter is then
greater than that of any other planet, her crescent is so thin
that the advantage gained in point of distance is lost by her

narrowness of illumination. ‘here will, however, be a point, °

which calculation will ascertain, where these two varying quan-
tities will combine to produce the largest apparent illuminated
area; this is not at the quadrature, or half-moon phasis, as she
is then too distant, but when the crescent has attained a con-
siderable breadth.

Jupiter is in great splendour, having been in opposition to
the sun on March 12, with a diameter of 416, only reduced to
40” by April 17. His belts seem now to be becoming more
distinct than they have been for some time; as usual, two, one
on each side of the equator, are most conspicuous, and the
southern asserts its customary pre-eminence. Their variations

ee ee ee ee

The Planets of the Month. 231

will form a most interesting study, especially should a season of
activity be coming on in that frequently-disturbed atmosphere.
The transits of the satellites and their shadows across the
planet always afford a beautiful spectacle, if the air is favour-
able, especially in a telescope which has power enough to show
the disc of the entering or emerging satellite distinctly, and
the circular form of the ink-spot which marks the place of its
shadow. Sometimes more than one satellite, or more than one
shadow, may be seen at the same moment, on the face of that
noble planet ; at others, the satellite passes away into the clear
blue sky, and leaves its shadow behind it, or the shadow breaks
in upon the planet’s limb, to announce the distant approach of
the little globe that casts it. But these are not merely beau-
tiful phenomena—they are attended with circumstances of
mystery which yet remain to be investigated. LExcepting
towards the limbs, where the light of the planet is less vivid,
or in front of a dark belt, a satellite is usually invisible upon
the face of its primary, from want of contrast; but instances
from time to time occur in which the same satellite—usually
III. or [V.—assumes so dark an aspect in that situation, as to
be barely distinguishable from its shadow. There can be no
question that this arises from spots upon the disc of the satel-
lite, which the magnificent telescopes of Lassell, Secchi, and
Dawes, have occasionally rendered perceptible in III., even on
the background of the blue sky; but as these dark transits
are of irregular recurrence, we are obliged to suppose either
that these little moons have atmospheres subject to extraordi-
nary variation, or that they have rotations upon their axes much
more rapid than their revolutions round their primary—each
alternative inferring a constitution totally dissimilar to that of
our own satellite. These dark transits were noticed from a
very early period—lI believe 1666; Maraldi saw IV. pass as a
black spot 1707; Schréter probably observed them under
the mistaken idea that they were spots on the disc, in 1785
and 1786; he and Harding recognized their true nature in
1796; about this time Sir W. Herschel paid much attention to
these objects, and suspected that their forms might not be
spherical (which has since been actually shown in the case of
III., by the telescopes of Lassell and Secchi) ; but, strange to
say, he never alludes to these darkened transits—an omission
which, on the part of so accurate an observer, seems to imply
that none of them had taken place under his notice. Beer and
Madler too have made no mention of them, though it can
hardly be supposed that they were ignorant of former observa-
tions. But of late years they have attracted much attention,
and the following description by the American astronomer
Bond will be the more welcome, as few of our readers are likely

232 The Planets of the Month.

to possess the means of witnessing the minuter details for
themselves :—“ 1848, Jan. 28.—The 3rd satellite itself was
seen with the great refractor” (of nearly fifteen inches aperture)
“under very beautiful definition, as a black spot between the
two shadows” (of I. and JII.), “and not to be distinguished
from them except by the place it occupied. It was smaller
than its shadow in the proportion of 3 to 5, not duskish simply,
but quite black like the shadows ;” and under March 18th, he
thus records a similar transit of the same satellite :—“At the
first internal contact the satellite was distinctly seen on the
disc, brighter than Jupiter, though it had entered on a bright
channel, south of one of the great equatorial belts; twenty
minutes after, it had become nearly of the same brightness
with the planet, so as to be barely perceptible, yet still whiter
than the surrounding surface. While watching it with close
attention, a minute dark speck suddenly made its appearance
in the place of the satellite, increasing very rapidly till it occu-
pied a space of about one second of arc in diameter, quite black,
and nearly round, though an irregularity of shape was suspected.
Remaining thus for about two hours, the darkness gradually
lost its intensity, and quite disappeared before the satellite left
the disc.” The change thus described is of course due to the
rapid diminution of Jupiter’s light towards the edges of the
disc; but it is strange that the eye is so little sensible of that
decrease in any other way, though its amount must be extremely
great, before it could thus turn white to black, from the mere
effect of contrast. This wonderful observation, for such it
really is, and will the more appear so, the more it is studied,
tends greatly, it must be owned, to shake our confidence in
the discriminating power of the eye. Dawes, from the perfec-
tion of whose telescopic vision there can be no appeal, informs
us that the 2nd satellite is never thus shaded, that I. is some-
times grey, III. darker by many shades, and IV. darkest of all.
-Another marvellous peculiarity, mentioned by several ob-
servers, is thus described by Lassell in the Monthly Notices ot
the Royal Astronumical Society, under the date of Februar
28th, 1850. ‘12h. 11m. The shadow and satellite” (IV.)
“bemg now equally distant from the limb, the greater size of
the shadow is most obvious; indeed, it appears to be twice as
ereat in diameter.” It is difficult to conceive any mode of ac-
counting for this, unless we could suppose the satellite to be
encompassed with an atmosphere possessed of refractive power
in the opposite direction to every substance or medium within
the compass of our knowledge ; that it was no illusion is ren-
dered probable by the fact that the irradiation, or spreading out
of light, which is inseparable from telescopic vision, would have
produced exactly the contrary effect, expanding the apparent

The Planets of the Month. 233

diameter of the satellite on the dark ground of the sky, and
diminishing that of the shadow on the luminous face of the
planet. We have at present no means of interpreting this mys-
tery. As the more obvious features of these curious and beau-
tiful phenomena may be perceived with a very moderate
aperture—I have myself seen the “ ink-spots” well with only
three inches—we shall give a list of all that are visible at con-
venient hours during the present month ; including May Ist, for
the sake of readers whom our information might not otherwise
reach in time.

April Ist. I. ison the disc from 8h. 10m. to 10h. 27m. fol-
lowed (as always after the planet’s opposition) by its shadow.
2nd, Il. emerges at 7h. 41m.; the shadow continuing in sight
an hour longer. 8th, I. isin transit from 9h. 57m. to 12h. 13m.
9th, shadow of II. enters at 8h. 27m., the satellite being already
on the disc; egress of II. 9h. 57m.; of shadow, 11h. 15m.
IV. having crossed already, and being to the left of the planet
im an inverting eyepiece, its shadow comes on separately at
9h. 28m. and leaves at 12h.34m. . 15th, I. enters at 11h. 43m.,
followed by the shadow at 12h. 28m. 16th, II. enters at
9h. 28m., its shadow at 11h. lm.; it goes off at 12h. 15m., the
shadow at 13h. 49m. 17th, I. leaves the disc at 8h. 26m. ; its
shadow at 9h. 14m. 22nd, I. enters at 13h. 30m., the shadow
at 14h. 23m. 28rd, II. enters at 1lh. 45m., the shadow at
13h. 36m. 24th, I. evress at 10h. 14m., ditto of shadow at
11h. 9m. 27th, III. being already off the planet to the left,
the shadow enters at 8h. 13m., and departs at 11h. 28m.
May Ist, I. is on the disc from 9h. 46m. till 12h. 38m.; the
shadow enters at 10h. 47m.

It will be seen that there is no chance of a thoroughly dark
transit this month, as III. and LV. will not be on the disc; but,
weather permitting, we must not miss the interesting sight on
the 9th, when the shadows of II. and IV. will both be visible
at once for nearly two hours; and we shall not fail to remark, if
we have a sufficiently powerful instrument, the contrast in the
size of the spots, as well as the difference in their velocities, and
distances from the bodies which cast them. |

The presentation of Saturn’s ring as a slender but conspi-
cuous line, will be very beautiful this month. The Sun and
Karth are at present both on the same side of it; were they
both at the same elevation above its plane, it would, of course,
exactly conceal its own shadow; but asthe the Harth is slightly
the more elevated, we see a very little under its inner edge, as
compared with the Sun (the south side being the one visible),
and it is possible that in fine telescopes a very narrow black
line, the edge of the shadow, may cross the centre of the ball.
The belts on each side of the equator seem to be faint this

234 The Genus Cephalosiphon.

season. A three and three-quarter inch object-glass, if good,
will show the five old satellites every clear night, unless any of
them happen to be before or behind the planet, or in its shadow.
The shadow of Titan, the largest statellite, was once seen cross-
ing the disc by Sir W. Herschelin 1789. Gruithuisen also says
he saw it in 1833 with a four and a-quarter inch object-glass ;
which is no doubt possible, as it may have a diameter of 0°75;
but his assertion that he saw the two innermost and most
minute satellites at the same time, gives an imaginary character
to the recital.

THE GENUS CEPHALOSIPHON,
BY ANDREW PRITCHARD.

Ir may interest naturalists engaged in these studies to learn
the source from which I obtained the character of the genus
Cephalosiphon, referred to in a paper by Mr. Gosse, “On a
Rotifer new to Britain” (Intellectual Observer, p. 49). Allow
me to premise that in preparing the fourth edition of my work
on Infusoria, one part of my self-imposed task was the search
through foreign transactions and journals for new forms, having
determined to introduce every published genus and species.
This task became laborious, as no public library contains the
whole of the foreign works on this subject; nay, even a com-
plete set of the proceedings of the Berlin Academy is not to
be found in any one of them. After making these searches, a
copy of my notes on the Rotifers was forwarded to Professor
Williamson, who inserted the Cephalosiphon in his revise, for
it is not in his MS., nor in my edition of 1852. On looking
over my notes, 1 find that referred to was taken from the
Proceedings of the Berlin Academy for 1853, p. 193, im the
library of the College of Surgeons, and is as follows :—

‘“‘ CEPHALOSIPHON (new genus, Hhrenberg), Horn-Réschen.
Family, Flosculariorum ; organon rotatorium bilobum; ocelli
duo; Vagina s. lorica singula ; Cornicula duo frontalia siphonem
includentia.

“ 0. Limnias, E. Vaginulis membranaceis annulatis, 1”°6’
15’. In ceratophyllo: Berolini.”

In conclusion, permit me to express the pleasure I feel that
the labour of collecting the characters of so many exotic forms
has not been thrown away; also for Mr. Slack’s valuable re-
searches, by which we learn the rotatorial animalcules have a
wide range of geographical distribution.

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 230

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

BY W. B. TEGETMEIER.

ROYAL SOCIETY.—February 6.

Ow THE Motion OF SMALL PORTIONS OF CAMPHOR WHEN THROWN ON
THE SURFACE OF PURE WateR.—Mr. Tomlinson communicated a paper
descriptive of the very elaborate series of experiments he had made to
investigate this curious subject. The following is an abstract of
the conclusions he had deduced from his investigations :—That to
succeed in the production of these movements the camphor must be
thrown on the surface of clean water in a perfectly clean vessel.
That these phenomena may be also produced by certain salts, and
other substances that diffuse readily over the surtace of water. Thus
the motions of camphor may be imitated by placing on water float-
ing rafts of talc, tinfoil, paper, etc., smeared with or containing vola-
tile oils, or any volatile liquid, such as ether, alcohol, chloroform, etc.,
provided there be a communication between such liquid and the water.
The camphor or other volatile substance, being slightly soluble
in water, spreads a film over the surface of the water the moment
that it comes in contact with it. The dimensions and form of this
film evidently depend on those of the piece of camphor operated
on, and in general the film separates more easily from broken sur-
faces and angles than from a smooth surface, as the broken surface
of a crystal is more soluble than the natural surface. These films
being constantly detached from the camphor so long as it is in
contact with the water, displace each other, the preceding film being
conveyed away by the adhesion of the water in radial lines, which
produce motion by reaction on the fragments of camphor, causing
them to rotate in the same manner as a Barker’s mill. These jets
or films of camphor can be rendered visible by various means, as b
fixing the camphor in water, and dusting the surface lightly with
lycopodium powder, when a series of currents produced by the films
will be made visible. The motions of the fragments of camphor
on water are greatly influenced and complicated by their mutual
attraction, and by the attraction of the sides of the vessel. The
film of camphor diffused over the surface of the water is very volatile,
disappearing as fast as it is formed, chiefly into the air, only a very
small portion being retained by the water. Hence camphor wastes
‘away much more quickly at the surface of the water than in water
alone, or in air alone, because at the surface the film is bemg con-
stantly formed at the expense of the camphor, and is spread out to
the united action of air and water. Whatever interferes with eva-
poration lowers or arrests the motions of the camphor and the allied
phenomena; so, on the contrary, whatever promotes evaporation
exalts these phenomena—effects which are displayed with great
energy on a bright and sunny day, are produced either sluggishly
or not at all on a wet, dull, or foggy one. A fixed oil forming a

236 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

film on water will displace the camphor-film, and so permanently
arrest the motions of the camphor; but a volatile oil will only
arrest the motions while it is present and undergoing evaporation.
The motions of camphor on the surface of water are increased
by the action of the vapour of benzole and some other volatile sub-
stances, such vapours condensing in the liquid form on the camphor,
and being then diffused by the adhesion of the water.

ROYAL SOCIETY, February 20.

On tHe Dicyopont ReEPTILIA BROUGHT FROM SouvH AFRICA, BY
His Royat Hicuyuss Prince ALFRED.—A communication was made by
Professor R. Owen, describing some fossil remains obtained by His
Royal Highness Prince Alfred, durmg his recent journey in South
Africa. They belong to two genera of Dicyodont Reptilia, the
first being an unusually perfect specimen of the skull of a species of
Ptychognathus, which the author proposes to name P. Alfred. The
second specimen is the skull of the largest known species Dicyodon
trigriceps. This skull is remarkable as exemplifying the near equality
in size of this extinct two-tusked reptile of South Africa with the
existing walrus. The pelvis of the Dicyodon is singularly massive,
and offers many points of approach to the mammalian type, which
is remarkable when taken into connection with the mammalian
tusks in the skull.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—February 26.

On THE Icz-worn Rocks or Scorianp, py T. F. Jamieson, F.G.S.
—The author, first referring to the eroded surface of the rocks be-
neath the Drift-bed in Scotland, proceeded to show that the action
of ice, and not that of torrents, could produce such markings as he
had observed in the bed of a mountain-stream in Argyllshire, down
which had poured the torrent caused by the bursting of the reser-
voirs of the Crinan Canal. He then advanced reasons for considering
that the erosion of the rocks in Scotland was due chiefly to land-ice,

and not to water-borne ice, bringing forward remarkable instances

of ice-action on the glens and on the hill-sides at Loch Treig and
Glen Spean, where moraines, blocs perchés, striw, roches mouton-
nées, and boulders lifted above the parent-rocks, indicate a northern
direction for the great ice-stream from Loch-Treig to the Spean, and
then an eastern course on one hand up Loch Laggan, and a western,
on the other, down the Spean. Up Glen Roy the ice had apparently
passed north-eastwardly, over the watershed, towards the Spey.
In Knapdale, Argyllshire, similar evidence is obtained of a great
ice-stream passing over hill and dale, here falling into the Sound of
Jura. The author referred to Rink’s and Sutherland’s observations
on the continental ice of Greenland, as affording a probable solution
of these phenomena; and, objecting to the hypothesis either of
floating ice and of debacles being sufficient to account for the con-

———es le ee Le

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 237

ditions observed, he thought that land-ice, moving from central
plateaux downwards and outwards, has effected the extensive
erosions referred to, both in Scotland and other northern regions,
at a time when the land was at a much higher level than at present.
This must have been followed by a deep submergence, to account
for the stratified and shell-bearing drift-beds.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—February 28.

IncuBatTion OF THE PytrHon,—Mr. Bartlett exhibited a young
python, taken on the 15th day of incubation from an egg which had
been detached from the general mass; the animal was about 6 inches
in length, the eyes were very distinctly visible ; estimating the deve-
lopment as equal to that of a chick on its seventh day, Mr.
Bartlett calculated the full period of incubation as being seven to
eight weeks. In connection with Mr. Negretti, who had constructed
some exceedingly delicate thermometers for the purpose, Mr. Bartlett
had made a number of observations on the temperature of the incu-
bating python.

The temperature of the air in the room was maintained at about
55° Fahr., that of the water-bath heating the sand on which the
animals rested was 74; on the 12th of February the temperature
of the incubating female on the surface of the body was 73°, that of
male in same den being 70°2, whilst between the coils the female
was 81°°6, the male only 74°°8. On the 23rd of February, the sur-
face of the body of the female was 75°°4, that of the male 71°8.
Whilst between the coils the female was 83°2, the male 74°. Ob-
servations made subsequently to this date showed a still greater
difference of temperature between the two sexes, amounting on
March 2nd to 20°, the female being 96°, the male only 76° between
the coils. Some days after this, the female left the eggs and bathed
in the tank placed im the den, changing her skin at the same time.
After that her temperature fell considerably, and she did not for
some days incubate the eggs with the same closeness as before. On
March 16th the temperature was again carefully tested, the at-
mosphere of the den was 66°. That of the male on the surface
of the body 72°4, between the coils 77°°6; whilst the temperature
of the incubating female was 77°°6 on the surface, and 86° between
the coils; but as an outer coil was tested, it is probably that a
higher temperature may exist between the innermost coils. On the
25th of March, the eggs were examined as far as practicable. Many
of them promise to be productive ; others have collapsed. The fe-
male python is now only 10° hotter than the male, instead of 20°, as
formerly. She has now been incubating nine weeks.

On tHE Rep Corrusches or THE Boop OF VERTEBRATA, BY
Proressor Gutiiver, F.R.S.—There have been two parties differing
essentially in their conclusions as to the structure of the corpuscles
of the blood, both correct as far as they went. The first party, of
which Hewson was the representative, insisted that the red corpuscle

238 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

is a vesicle inclosing a nucleus; the second party, of which Dr.
Hodgkin and Mr. Lister were the chiefs, were equally certain that
Hewson was wrong, and that the red corpuscle has no nucleus.
Professor Gulliver showed, as the result of his researches from
1839-42, that the red corpuscle of mammalia is destitute of any
nucleus, while the red corpuscle of oviparous vertebrata, on the
other hand, always has a nucleus. Hewson having drawn his
description from the corpuscles of fish or fowls was quite right so
far ; and Hodgkin and Lister having examined only the corpuscles
of man were equally correct in the same restricted sense. Thus Mr.
Gulliver’s observations not only completely cleared up the lon
existing discrepancies between former observers, but fairly settled
“this vexed question of a nucleus,”’ as it had so long been called.

Further, he asserted that the result of his observations clearly
was, that the most important, because the most universal and funda-
mental, difference between the two great divisions of the vertebrate
sub-kingdom, is the presence or absence of this nucleus; so that
any one possessing a good microscope could at once plainly see the
difference between the red corpuscles of these two divisions of ver-
tebrata. It was also shown that this character is perfectly good from
before birth, and throughout life, and in every age and sex, which
was more than can be said of any other single diagnostic, whatever
may be its importance. Hence Mr. Gulliver proposed to define the
two divisions as follows :—

1. MammatiA, animals whose red corpuscles of the blood are
destitute of nuclei.

2. Ovirarous VERTEBRATA, animals whose red corpuscles of the
blood contain nuclei.

He said there was no known exception to the accuracy of these
definitions, and that he had proved in 1839 that even the singular
oval corpuscles in the blood of Camelide were in size and structure
truly mammalian.

The largest corpuscles among mammalia were shown to be those
of the whale, the great ant-eater, and the elephant; and the smallest,
as originally described by Mr. Gulliver, those of the musk deer.
The largest corpuscles in the vertebrata are those of naked reptiles,
and the most regular or least variable those of birds.

Thus the microscope is fairly enlisted into the service of sys-
tematic zoology. The subject was followed out in detail throughout
the different classes and orders; and so plainly, that an observer
might, by remarking the structure of the blood corpuscle, arrive im-
mediately at results which, without the aid of the microscope would
have formerly puzzled the most eminent comparative anatomists.
One minutest drop of the blood, for example, of the duck-billed crea-
ture, Ornithorynchus paradowus, would have shown it to belong to
the mammalia, and this even in the most immature specimen !

The following suggestions have been made by Professor Gulliver.
Reverting to his discovery of the microscopic structure of the red
corpuscles of the blood being a better diagnostic than any hitherto
offered between the two great subdivisions of the vertebrata, he now
suggests that the intimate structure of the latex may afford good bota-

ee — ee ee ee eee i

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 239

nical characters. The milkiness or opacity of the latex may be due
to equal sized particles of extreme minuteness, like the molecular base
of the chyle of mammalia; or to larger, unequal sized, oil-like
elobules. There may also be starch-cells in the juice, as in Huphor-
biacece. The limpid fluid in which the microscopic objects of the
milky juice swim he calls Liquor Laticis. Itis spontaneously coagu-
lable at the temperature of the air, and is remarkably coagulated
by water. The whole subjectis one that may be easily examined by
micrographers in the country, and the season is approaching for this
interesting pursuit.

—_——

CHEMICAL SOCIETY.—March 1.

DestRucTION OF Oak TimBeR In Sed WATER BY CONTACT WITH
Tron.—Mr. Crace Calvert called attention to the destructive action
of iron plates and bolts on oak timber when submerged in sea
water; the oak at the point of contact becomes dark in colour,
softened, and partially disorganized. This change appears to be
dependent on the presence of tannin, as teak and mahogany are not
affected in the same manner as oak. The probable result of the
action will be, that ships of oak plated with iron, after the manner
of the “ Warrior’ and other vessels recently constructed, will become
unserviceable in the course of a very few years. It is found that if
the iron is protected by a coating of zinc—or, as it is termed, is
galvanized—the action is prevented, and the oak timber does not
change in colour or solidity. This mode of protection is even appli-
cable to the iron bolts used in ship-building, as it is found that so
close and complete is the adhesion of the two metals, that the zinc
is not stripped off when the bolts are driven into the timber.

ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY. — March 4.

On THE SHELL Mounps or THe Matay Peninsuta—Mr. G. W.
Karl described the singular shell mounds existing in the province
of Wellesley, near the Mudah River. They are about five or six
miles from the sea, being situated on sand ridges that appeared
formerly to bound the narrow estuaries communicating with the
ocean. The mounds, which are entirely composed of cockle-shells, are
about 18 to 20 feet in height, and recently have been largely em-
ployed by the Chinese immigrants as a source of lime. The anti-
quity of the mounds must be very great, as shown by the fact that
the shells were partly cemented together by crystallized carbonate
_ of lime, the result of the very slow action of atmospheric and

aqueous influences. At the bottom of one mound, which contained
20,000 tons of shells, a human pelvis was found, and other remains
and stone implements have been obtained from the Chinese lime-
burners. The formation of these mounds was attributed by Mr. Earl
to the Semangs, who are described as a diminutive negro race that
are now sparsely scattered over the surrounding country, but who
were evidently very numerous and widely spread formerly.

240 Notes and Mensa

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.—Mavch 10.

Campopia.—At the present moment, when the French appear
likely to be about to establish their empire permanently in Cochin-
China, any information about the little-known countries of Farther
India must be regarded not only as valuable contributions to geo-
graphical science, but as worthy of general interest. The province
of Cambodia, lying between Siam and Assam, was, in the end of
last century, the subject of constant wars between the peoples of
those kingdoms. In 1860 the French landed, and in 1861 took
Saigon. They have since been endeavouring to establish a footing
in Cochin-China.

M. Mouhot, a French traveller, has recently passed through |

Cambodia, up the Me-Kong, near to the frontier of Laos, and visited
the savage and independent tribes which live between these two
countries and Cochin-China. These Steings he considers to be the
aboriginal inhabitants of the peninsula. During his journey, M.
Mouhot discovered two active volcanoes on the north shores of the
Gulf of Siam, and everywhere in the mountains to the north the
evidences of volcanic action. He refers to the products of the
country, which are cotton, iron, coal, gold, silver, and copper, be-
sides valuable woods. In an extension of his journey across the
lake of Touli-Sap, and through the provinces of Ongeor and Bat-
tambong, M. Mouhot discovered and examined some splendid ruins
and a monument, the temple of Ongeor the Great. He has sent
home drawings and descriptions of these ruins. ‘Many of the
buildings were constructed cf large stones, elaborately carved and
covered with designs of imaginary animals, as well as of beasts of
burden. These temples were found in a district completely em-
bedded in the forest, and in such a state of ruin that trees were found
growing upon the roofs. The inscriptions, from their antiquity,
were not intelligible to the natives; yet they so nearly resemble the
Siamese character, that it is probable they will soon be deciphered.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

INFLUENCE OF WATER ON Voxtcanic Action.—In a paper read before the
French Academy, on “ Volcanic effects corresponding with geological epochs”
(Comptes Rendus, January 27, 1862), M. Pissis remarks that it is generally
believed, in those districts of South America which are most subject to earth-
quakes, that these disturbances occur during the rainy season, and up to the
period of drought. During twelve years of his own residence on the spot this
theory has held good, and the years of most violent rain were distinguished by a
greater number of earthquakes; and he adds, that if we consider that during the
wet season the Andes are covered with a dense bed of snow, which is perpetually
melting from contact with the soil, it will be obvious that an extensive infiltration
must take place; so if there exist any fissures communicating with the interior,
large quantities of water may be brought into contact with incandescent matter,
and thus occasion very powerful disturbances.

Comparative Fusrpitity oF Iron.—MM. Minary and Résal state that the
fusibility of iron augments with the proportion of oxygen which it contains : thus,
in placing side by side, in a blast furnace, two crucibles containing iron shavings
of the best quality, but adding to the second a certain proportion of oxide of iron

a

Vutes and Memoranda. 241

after exposure to a hot blast (coup de feu), the fragments in the first crucible
preserved their original condition, except that they were slightly welded together,
while those in the second were fused into a lamellated button.— Comptes Rendus.

Voncanic PHENOMENON IN Maniria.—A letter to Dr. Hooke, communicated
to the Geological Society, states that on the lst of May, 1861, a portion of the
river Pasig was subject to a violent commotion, which continued for four hours.
For the space of a quarter of a mile the water was covered with air-bubbles and
foam, the temperature being raised to 100° and 105°, other parts of the river
being at 80°. Mounds of mud were raised several feet above the surface of the
water, and gave out an offensive odour. At the expiration of the time mentioned
the mounds disappeared, and the river resumed its ordinary aspect.

Tre Divintne Rop.—M. Chanoit, director of the hydraulic works of the
Paris and Lyons Railway, announcesthat he has in service a young man so well
practised in discovering springs or masses of water with the divining rod, that he
would undertake that if he were taken blindfold through Paris, he would indicate
the various water channels and their relative importance. He has such con-
fidence in his hydrologist, that he begs the Academy to appoint a commission to
witness his performances.— Cosmos.

PuysiIoLogy OF THE Nerves or InsEcts.—M. Yersin has communicated to
the French Academy the results of observations on the field-cricket (Comptes
Rendus, February 10th, 1862). He finds the power of co-ordinating movements
not affected by cutting through both cords of the ganglionic chain. On the con-
trary, the motions became abnormal every time a single cord was severed at any
point anterior to the ganglion of the meta-thorax, and likewise when two or more
divisions were made, each of one cord, between different ganglia, one at least of
the sections being anterior to the meta-thorax. He regards the cephalic and
thoracic ganglia as together presiding over the co-ordination of locomotive move-
ments, so that it is impossible to assign this function to any one ganglion, to the
exclusion of the others. In this he traces a relation to the cerebellum of verte-
brate animals, and he remarks that it is probable that it is in the “reunion of
ganglia that we must look for an analogy to the brain of the vertebrata.”

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA OF VESuVIUS.—M. L. Palmieri first observed the
flashes of volcanic lightning at a distance of a few hundred yards from the new
crater at Torre del Greco. They always originated in large “globes of smoke,”
and were followed by explosions like pistol discharges. Afterwards from the
Observatory he noticed similar flashes between the smoke and cinder masses and
the aqueous vapour above them, but very seldom between the “ globe of smoke”
and the earth beneath it. At each violent projection of smoke, his instruments
indicated a strong tension of positive electricity, and when this reached a certain
force, thunder and lightning occurred. If the discharge occurred in the direction
of the zenith of the Observatory, a sudden increase of positive electrical tension
was produced; while, if the discharge was directed towards the earth, or to a
distant region in the air, the tension became negative. The vapour which moved
towards the Observatory, if free from cinders, was strongly positive; but the
cinders which fell when the smoke of a superior current deviated from the
zenith were negative.

M. Pasteur ON FERMENTATION.—We find in the Comptes Rendus of the
10th of February a further account of M. Pasteur’s laborious researches on fer-

mentation, of which the following are the chief particulars. He began his inves-
tigations by experimenting on the Mycoderma vini or cervisie, popularly known
as the “mother of wine.” Causing this plant to develop in various alcoholic
liquids in contact with air, he never obtained acetic acid ; and if he introduced a
small portion of that acid, it usually disappeared. When the Mycoderma aceti,
or vinegar-plant, was grown in alcoholic liquids, acetic acid was always formed,
with the intermediate production of smal] quantities of aldehyd.* In both cases

* “The alcohols may all be regarded as compound oxides of hydrogen, and
of a peculiar hydro-carbon. . . . The alcohols, by imperfect oxidation, furnish

aldehyds ; avd these bodies, by the further absorption of oxygen, yield acids.”—
Millers Chemistry, vol, il. p. 119,

242 Notes and Memoranda.

the chemical phenomena and the life of the plants were clearly correlative.
When the experiments were performed in close vessels containing besides the
liquid a known quantity of air, it was ascertained that the vinegar-plant took
oxygen from the air, and therewith converted the alcohol into acetic acid; and
that the mycoderm of wine took oxygen from the air, and converted the alcohol
into water and carbonic acid. It was likewise ascertained that if the alcohol was
removed, and the vinegar-plant grown im an acetic liquid, the acid was trans-
formed into water and carbonic acid. With the mycoderm of wine the effect was
the same, especially if there was a little aleohol in the liquid. From these facts
M. Pasteur concludes that the wine and vinegar plants behave in the same
manner, and that there are circumstances in which their action is exalted, that is
to say, that the plant, instead of taking from the air two, or four, molecules of
oxygen to combine with one molecule of alcohol, and thus produce aldehyd or
acetic acid, takes eight, or twelve, molecules of oxygen, and by their aid com-
pletely transforms the alcohol and the acetic acid into water and carbonic acid.
The vinegar-plant does not produce acetification when it is submerged. This
was ascertained by noting the degree of acidity of a liquid in which a growing plant
floated. The plant was made to sink by glass rods, and the acetification was
arrested. Following his investigations, M. Pasteur arrives at the conviction that
the well-known process of manufacturing vinegar by allowing a suitable liquid to
trickle over wood twigs or shavings, is not, as was supposed, a purely chemical
process, but dependent upon the formation of a pellicle of the vinegar-plant.
The important paper from which we have condensed these observations concludes
in these words :—‘ If the mycoderms possessed solely the property of acting as
agents for the combustion of alcohol and acetic acid, their performance would be
well worth attention; but I recognize in their functions a generality of action
which opens a field for new researches in physiology and organic chemistry. In
fact, the mycoderms are able to bring about the combustion of a great number of
organic substances, such as sugars, organic acids, various alcohols, and albuminoid
matters, giving rise in some cases to intermediate compounds, of which I have
recognized a few. I may add that the property which we are discussing exists in
various degrees among the mueidines, and I believe also among the smallest of
the infusoria. Ihave observed that by the development of a mueidine, it is
possible to transform into carbonic acid and water considerable quantities of
sugar, so that scarcely any of that substance shall be left in a solution. If
microscopic beings disappeared from our globe, its surface would be en-
cumbered with dead organic matter and carcases of all kinds, animal and
vegetable. It is they who chiefly give to oxygen its combustion-producing
qualities. Without them life would be impossible, for the work of death would
be incomplete. After death life reappears under another form, and with new
properties. The germs, everywhere disseminated, of microscopic beings com-
mence their evolutions, and by their aid oxygen is combined in enormous masses
with the organic substances, and their combustion gradually rendered complete.
If I may be permitted to characterize briefly another point of view to which we
have been conducted, I would say that we obscure the existence of organized cel-
lules endowed with a property of completely burning organic masses with consider-
able evolution of heat, or of carrying their oxidization to a variable extent. This
is a faithful image of the respiration and combustion which take place in the pul-
monary cells through the circulation of the blood, whose globules seek oxygen
from the air, in order that they may burn,in various degrees the different
principles of the human economy.”

Roman Rine-KEYs.—Some of the Roman keys attached to rings so as to be
worn on the finger, and which are well known to antiquaries, were recently
found at Water Newton in digging for gravel, close to the road from Stamford to
Peterborough. Associated with them were cinerary urns and lachrymatories.
‘The rings were of brass and bronze, and of the size used by the Roman ladies,
who were accustomed to carry their casket keys in this manner.

New Treory or Comets.—Mr. Benjamin Marsh has published some inte-
resting facts and opinions concerning these curious bodies in the American Journal
of Science and Arts. He attributes the peculiar character of cometary matter

Notes and Memoranda. 943

to the extreme and violent changes which it undergoes in its rotation round the
sun. Halley’s comet, for example, at one time approaches the sun to within
56 millions of miles, and then recedes to the enormous distance of 3370 millions
of miles. At the time of its perihelion, or least distance, it passes through one
heliocentric degree of its orbit in 15°7 hours, and receives in a given time 3600
times as much heat as when it reaches its aphelion, or greatest distance, in which
position its motion is so slow that 6} years are required for its passage through
one heliocentric degree. Thus it will be seen that comets with eccentric orbits
are subject to violent changes of temperature and velocity, which do not affect
planets whose orbits approximate more closely to the circular form, and from this
circumstance a greater electrical disturbance and excitation may possibly be pro-
duced. Mr. Marsh gives a table of remarkable comets, showing that those which
have exhibited the greatest splendour have been distinguished by extreme eccen-
tricity, while comets of small eccentricity have been inconspicuous. From this
law it follows that brilliant comets have long periods; and he tells us that, with
the exception of Halley’s comet, which performs its journey in seventy-six
years, no other first-class comet has a shorter period than one measured by
centuries. Mr. Marsh likens the tails of comets to auroral streamers, and con-
siders that their envelopes resemble the electrical discharges in Mr. Gassiot’s
vacuum tubes, the luminous character being derived from the solid particles
which the electrical current transports from the nucleus, just as similar particles
are carried off from the electrodes in a voltaic discharge.

Hetiocrapuy.—M. Chevreul, in presenting to the French Academy some
fresh researches of M. Niepce de St. Victor, explained two remarkable facts : “the
first is, that the image produced by the sun is direct, and not inverted, like those
obtained by ordinary methods; the second is, that the light whitens the parts
which it strikes, through a special action of the dextrine and chloride of lead
varnish, while without this varnish it would impress a violet tint on the chloride
of silver of the daguerreotype plate—a remarkable result, since M. Niepce has
observed that the shadows of an engraving are reproduced in black on plates
prepared with his varnish. The colours of the image are not produced simul-
taneously ; for example, the yellow appears before the green, and when this latter
is manifested the yellow is weakened, if not effaced. Does it not follow from this,
that the way to reproduce the colours with fidelity would be by the use of
screens, so arranged as to cover the parts where the colours are first exhibited, so
as to give mure time to other colours which require it ?”

M. FiovrEns on Resprration.—In a warm-blooded vertebrate animal, respi-
ratory movements are instantly arrested if the medulla oblongata is divided “in
the centre of the V of the gray matter,” and the creature dies immediately. In
a frog, pulmonary respiration ceases on making a similar division,* but the animal
continues to live through its cutaneous respiration. The respiration of a fish
ceases if the medulla oblongata is divided by a section which passes just behind
the cerebellum, and the animal dies more or less quickly, according to the species.
M. Flourens observes—“ The lobes, or cerebral hemispheres, minister to intelli-
gence, and that only; the cerebellum is devoted to the co-ordination of the
movements of locomotion, and there is a point in the medulla oblongata which
presides over the movements of respiration.”

CoNNECTION BETWEEN Human anp Carrier DisorpERS.—Professor Gamgee,
in an article on the “ Health of Stock,” in the Hdinburgh Veterinary Review,
states that he has noticed a remarkable connection between diseases in man and
in the lower animals ; he believes many of the former may be traced to unwhole-
some food. ‘lhe same authority affirms that on the average 334 per cent. of the
cows kept in any large town die annually of disease; and he asks, “If our
sanitary reformers are alarmed at a mortality of two hundred persons in ten
thousand, what will they say to more than sixteen times that mortality amongst
our poor cows ?”

* The “nceud vital” of the frog exists in “Vespéce de pont que forme sur le
plancher du quatriéme ventricule, le cervelet, ailleurs trés-petit, de ces
animaux. ’—Comptes Rendus, p. 315, No. 6, 1862.

244 Notes and Memoranda.

MeEtTEOROLOGY.—On the 18th of February, 1862, Mr. Thomas Hopkins read
a paper before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, in which
he alluded to the abandonment, by some recent writers, of the Hadleian theory
of winds being caused by the ascent of heated air in tropical regions, and con-
tended that “the great cause of atmospheric disturbance is to be found in the
local heating of gases by the liberated heat of condensing vapour.” He com-
plained that such a phrase as a storm “comes from” a certain quarter misleads,
as the cause of storms exists in the quarter towards which the wind blows.

Porsonous Funet.—The Veterinarian of February, 1862, contains an im-
portant paper, by Professor Varnell, on the poisonous’ character of some oats on
which fungi were growing. It appears that in August last year six horses died
suddenly in the neighbourhood of Leeds, and the local surgeons and analysts
could discover no traces of poison, although they ascertained that three feeds of
the suspected oats were sufficient to cause death. The symptoms of the attack
were a staggering gait, laboured respiration, and partial paralysis. Post mortem
examinations exhibited congestion of liver and lungs, with inflammation of
stomach and bowels. Having obtained a quantity of the oats, Professor Varnell
examined them chemically and microscopically. The first method gave no in-
formation as to the cause of their action, but the latter disclosed a fungoid
vegetation belonging to the genus Aspergillus, and some of the affected grain
soon killed a horse to which they were given by way-of experiment. Mr. Jabez
Hogg, to whom drawings of the fungi were shown, stated that he met with
many instances in which similar fungi had occasioned sickness and death in various
animals. ;

Hinp’s VARIABLE NepuLa.—The position of this curious body for 1862 is
4h. 13m. 54°6s. right ascension, and declination + 19°11’ 37”. It was noticed
by Mr. Hind, in 1852, by the side of a star of the tenth magnitude. Both
nebula and star appear variable. From November 3rd, 1855, to January 12th,
1856, they were observed by M. Chacornac, who found the nebula plainly
visible and the star 10 mag. Recently M. Le Verrier viewed both objects with a
twelve-inch equatorial, and he found a star a, to the south-west of which the
nebula is situated 5’ distant from a star 6, marked 10 mag. in M. Chacornac’s
chart, No. 13. Like the latter observer, he found the star 6 always of 10 mag.,
but the star a only 12 mag. In a line with these two stars, and near b, he found
a third star, smaller and not exceeding 13 mag. Neither M. Le Verrier nor
M. Chacornac could discern any trace of the nebula. M. Foucault, with a larger
telescope, confirmed this negative result. On the same date (January 26th),
Mr. Hind noted the disappearance of the nebula. On February 14th, M.
Chacornac found the star @ visibly diminished, and less than the star ¢; the
following evening a still inferior to ¢, and dull and nebulous, but no certain
trace could be obtained of the nebula. On the 18th @ was brighter than ec, but
still nebulous; at midnight the moonlight rendered ¢ invisible with a telescope
of 25 centimétres aperture, but @ was distinctly seen.—Comptes Rendus, No. 6,
1862, p. 299.

TERRESTRIAL MaGnetism.—M. Secchi, of Rome, publishes in Comptes Rendus
a table of observations in 1861, from which it appears that the horizontal in-
tensity of magnetic action has a tendency to vary with the wind. He observes,
“this table evidently shows the predominance of a descending movement when
the wind is south to the extent of 74 out of 100 times which this wind blows,
and of an ascending movement during a north wind to the extent of 84 in 100.”
East and west he calls ‘‘ winds of transition.” He believes that the indications of
a delicate galvanometer are capable of giving us notice of distant atmospheric per-
turbations, or of those which are coming within a couple of days.

TnE Comet or 1860.—M. Secchi observes—“ It is singular that this comet
should exhibit an obscure place in the middle of its tail till the 13th of June; it
then manifested a bright luminous ray, which lasted till its disappearance in the
southern hemisphere. ‘The head had the nucleus surrounded with an aureole of
rays. At length, on the 26th of June, a great eccentricity appeared in the two

branches.” wal
f+ ERS

THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER.

MEAG EES G2.

THH PROGRESS OF ZOOLOGY.
BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD.

ZooLoey may be considered one of the most fortunate of sciences.
Like a well-spread table, it has something to tempt every taste,
milk for babes, and strong meat for men. Its subjects are so
varied, many of them so familiar, and all of them have so direct
a reference to life, that its very theories are romantic, and its
facts oftentimes rise to the level of poetry. The affection of a
dove for her nestlings, or the persistent faithfulness of a dog
following the corpse of his master to the grave, that he also may
die there, are matters that scarcely come within the domain of
the science to which the modern term “ Biology’? has been
applied, but they represent the sentiment which has been, and
still is, the corner-stone of zoological science. 'The animals that
are more immediately associated with man in his enterprises are
those in which the most notable variations of form and colour
occur ; and the economy of civilization has required a more than
casual investigation of the circumstances which influence their
welfare, as well as of their relations to each other. The two
most natural of all sciences—if such a term may be allowed—
are zoology and botany: they deal with the material necessities
of human life, with the best adornments of the world, and,
above all, with organization. It isthe possession of Life that
renders a waving blade of grass or a chirping sparrow more
attractive than animpassive stone. If there were no stone there
would, perhaps, be no sparrow, they are both essential to the
oneness of the world; but the sparrow has consciousness; it
exhibits the working of mysterious instincts; it moves by
volition per se, and it utters in its chirpimgs somewhat of an
idea. It may be that we are searching after the Principle of
Life as if it were a material substance or mathematical entity,
forgetful of Stahl’s definition, putredini contrarium; but any
way we do search, and not in vain, for at every step some
discovery is made which affords encouragement for perseve-
rance. But we may adopt the term “natural,” as applicable to
VOL, I.—NO. IV. s

246 The Progress of Zoology.

zoology and botany, in an especial sense, not because they treat
of natural objects, for all sciences do that, but because their
subjects are almost wholly contemporaneous, and those that are
not so may be made so by the aid of analogy; so that even
paleontology may be studied at the Zoolegical Gardens, and
recent species among the models of extinct forms in the Crystal
Palace. What Margaret Fuller expected of the sculptor may
be as well expected also of the zoologist :—

“Tf he already sees what he must do,
Well may he shade his eyes from the far-seeing view.”

Student and professor are alike concerned in one effort, and
that is the separation of the natural from the artificial, and the
proven from the conjectural, in all inquiries and all accumu-
lations of facts. At the very threshold of zoology we perceive
that there are many stumbling-blocks, and if we escape those
without damage, we next perceive that there is a sort of anta-
gonism between man and nature, the one insisting on creating,
if he cannot find, a system, the other insisting that every fact
shall stard for itself, and every creature enjoy an mdependent
sovereiguty. No doubt the plants and animals that re-
deem the world from stony deadness are so many members
of a system as truly mathematical as the law which governs
the relationships of the planets, but man has not yet dis-
covered what that system is; and until he has mastered the
last little item of organography, he must perforce rely upon
invention, and classify his knowledge by artificial rules. It is
a wonderful testimony to man’s power of perception and ana-
lysis that since the second edition of Cuvier’s Régne Animal
there have been scarcely any contributions to the classification
of animated nature of a character to influence deeply the
aspects of the science. Hven those of Professor Owen, who,
pursuing the indications of analogy with the instinct of a poet,
has only been able to rectify in some few particulars the de-
ficiencies of Cuvier’s magnificent scheme. In fact it is no
easier for Owen than it was for Cuvier or Linnezus to define
on what grounds a class, order, or genus shall be formed.
Nature has no classes, no orders, no genera, she fashions crea-
tures to lead a certain life, and places them in the conditions
requisite to their well-being, and with a defiant nonchalance
says, ‘Group them as you please ;” and all that we can do is
to define apparent relationships, and make a sort of artificial
memory out of the signs presented to us. The acquisitions of
anatomy and physiology have favoured the study of zoology in
connection with the homologies of internal structure, and
rendered zoology more recondite in the exact proportion in
which its tests and comparisons have been removed from

The Progress of Zoology. 247

popular eyesight ; but it has yet to be proved that structure and _
function are alone sufficient to afford satisfactory evidence of
relationship for the purpose of grouping the subjects of the
science into families and classes. There is a tendency in the
modern school cf zoologists to consider form as an accident of
life, and as very remotely connected with organization, whereas,
though it be very objective, it is certainly the true key to
structure and function. The botanists have the best of it in a
choice between two systems; they are neither tied to Linneus
nor Jussieu: and while the system of the first is a mere aid to
memory, and as such invaluable, the other is self-expounding,
and conveys information in its very terms, yet becomes entirely
artificial under false pretences, when its assumed “ natural”
principle fails in the application.

It has never been attempted yet to establish a parallel
between Bacen and Linnzeus, and show how the inductive method
so differently dealt with by each became the substantial basis
on which their successors in the several departments of physics
and natural history have built up the edifice of modern science.
The Novum Organon and the Systema Natwre are the two great
pillars which sustain the portico of the temple for the com-
pletion and embellishment of which so many energies have
been evoked, and so many splendid abilities combined. When
we compare the classification now generally adopted with
the scheme of the mammalia which Linnezeus so patiently
elaborated, we are astonished at the few departures from it
which have been found necessary in modern times. Cuvier
found ready to his hand a magnificent framework, and he did
well in boldly clothing it, to hold im reverence the genius of his
Swedish predecessor, who had determined the true elements of
zoology so accurately, and had invented a language so well
adapted to a comprehensive natural system, that the supply of
deficiencies was almost all that remained to be done. But the
deficiencies were many, and in none of the groups has recti-
fication been more necessary than in the section to which
Linnzeus assigned the opossums, in the order Pere, placme
them between the bears, badgers, and racoons. Cuvier had the
advantage of knowing most of the marsupials of Australia, and
he arranged them in an order between the Carnassiers and
Rodents, making the one great peculiarity in ther mode of re-
production, the basis of the order Marsupiata. This, as regards
the mammahia, was the distinguishing feature of Cuvier’s scheme,
and it is the one most likely soon to undergo a complete revolution.
Jt is in the classification of the tribes below the Mammalia, and
especially the invertebrates, that Cuvier shines; as on the other
hand it was amongst those that Linneus lost himself, as witness
his class ‘‘Vermes,” into which he flung all the animals that

248 The Progress of Zoology.

refused to take positions among vertebrates, or insects. To
form a fair estimate of the progress of zoology in the classifica-
tion of the orders in the vast stretch between Batrachians and
Zoophytes, the Systema Nature must be explored, and its
method of dealing with these compared with the labours of
Cuvier and his successors. Still the principles of classification
have remained nearly the same, at least since Cuvier, proving
how truly he seized upon the characteristics really indicative of
structural and physiological relationships. The most important
proposal for a redistribution is that of Professor Owen for the
division of the Mammalia into two great groups, the designations
of which are self-explanatory. Under Placentalia he ranges all
the higher mammalian forms in the same order as im Cuvier’s
scheme, but the marsupiates and monotremes are separated to
form another grand division called A-placentalia, in which the
monotremes are ranged to correspond to the edentates' in the
first division, and as their counterparts witha less perfect mode
of reproduction. But this, though based on obvious and
important distinctions, appears to have found little favour with
zoologists, and, like the labours of Grant and Blaimville on the
nervous system, is valued more for the prominence it gives to
certain physiological facts than for its adaptability to the pur-
poses of classification in the present transition state of zoological
science. ‘These things are, however, the proper fruit of the
labours in philosophical zoology which have been conducted
with such ardour in Hurcpe during the past half century, and
we seem now to be waiting for a second Cuvier who shall boldly
grasp the distinctive features of the animal kingdom, and
arrest for a time the growing tendency to trifle with zoological
landmarks by a revision of all boundary lines, and fitting into
their proper places all that is true and durable in the various
systems that have been of late propounded.

The frequent varymg of the basis of classification, though
inevitable, is not the less destructive to harmony, and that
correspondence of mutual relationships which a system professes
to unfold. That homologies of structure are to be regarded as
of the first importance in the determination of the place an
animal is to occupy in a natural system is self-evident ; but it is
worth asking, whether a purely artificial system would not serve
as useful a purpose in zoology as it has done in botany, because
it could be framed once for all, and serve for comparison at any
future time with a progressive natural system, which of neces-
sity can never be perfect. Pliny excites the laughter of the
young naturalist when he describes the cat as the only bird
that suckles its young; but a strictly homomorphic system
would have its value, and the worider is that no one has
ventured hitherto to propose a scheme of the kind. Bats,

The Progress of Zoology. 249

squirrels, and marsupiates claim relationship with birds in their
faculty of flight; the quadrumanes might as well contribute the
marmosets to the family of squirrels, and the Douroucouli to the
cats, as retain them for the doubtful character of their hands.
The armadillo, Dasypus apar, is more like a turtle than a
mammal; the Aard-wolf, Proteles Lalandw, is a hyena in its
external aspects; the Cetacea are fishes, to all intents and |
purposes, in their habits of life, as well as in general form.
Perhaps the difficulty of classing the marsupiates might be got
over at once by homomorphism, for as at present regarded
theythreaten the boundaries of Rodentia, Carnivora, Cheiroptera,
and Testudinata, and a classification resting on external con-
figuration would serve all the purpose of an index to species
without impeding inquiry into physiological and anatomical
details. As it is, the natural system affords only a few faint
indications of character, and the fault of all natural systems is
that as soon as they cease to indicate correctly they lead the stu-
dent astray, for after a few of the most characteristic groups have
been defined—as in botany the Coniferee, the Cupuliferee, and the
Ranunculaceze, and in zoology the Quadrumana, the Carnivora,
and the Rodentia—there are mnumerabie other subjects that re-
fuse to conform to distinct positions by reason of their combining
the characteristics of many. No system can suffice to indicate
the place, for instance, of that curious vertebrate, Amphiouus
lanceolatus, which, emulating the chameleon, has a life on one
side, which has no necessary conformity on the other. The
chameleon may sleep on the left side, while the right side is
awake, and in the Amphiorus the bronchial aperture, the
olfactory organ, and the eye, are all situated on the left side.
The Chamelonide are, however, a well-defined group of saurians,
but the Branchiostoma is as indefinable for scientific purposes
as any of the cattle of fairyland. There is certainly room for
an artificial system of zoology of a comprehensive kind for the
tabulation of the entire animal kingdom.

Looking at the several departments of zoology in their pre-
sent aspects, it 1s evident that the most satisfactory progress
has of late years been in the study and classification of the
lower forms of life. The aquarium and the microscope have given
an impetus to the study of the Invertebrata, and such immense
additions have been made to the knowledge of this great sec-
tion, that the mere weight of facts threatens to separate it from
the hitherto recognized connection with the vertebrates, and so
to constitute in zoology two distinct sciences, the future paths
of which will be separate though parallel. It is in this section
that we have most striking evidence of the abundance of life
in every region of the globe. Dr. Wallich and Mr. Gwyn
Jeffreys have, by their researches on the subject of deep sea

250 The Progress of Zoology.

life, enlarged immensely the geographical limits and the physi-
cal conditions known to be favourable to the production of
animal life. In that still lower department of the Infusoria, the
magnificent work of Pritchard offers another example of the
splitting up of old divisional arrangements through the accumu-
lation of facts indicative of distinctive characteristics. The
publication of a fourth edition of this work, combining the
labours of Arliidge, Archer, Ralfs, Wilhamson, and Pritchard,
with the magical delineations by Mr. Tuffen West,* is a suffi-
cient proof that natural history flourishes in Brita, and that
the objects least attractive to the popular eye are acquiring a
popularity, such as to assure us that the cultivation of science 1s
almost universally shared in by the intelligent classes of this
country. But when we get among desmids and diatoms we
have almost done with zoology, and we may take advantage of
this extremity to offer a few remarks on the higher forms of
the vetebrata.

If we are astonished at the abundance of life on the globe,
and can sympathize with Dr. Livingstone’s remark, that it
“seems like a mantle of happy existence encircling the world,”
it is also pretty certain that some of its forms are fast passing
away from us, and that not very far in the future the zoologist
will pay as much attention to mammals recently extinct, as
we do to certain fossil forms, because they fill up gaps im our
classified system of tr ansitions. That the dodo is utterly extinct
there can be no reasonable doubt, for the region it inhabited
has not only been thoroughly explored, but is now densely
populated. The kiwi or apteryx is fast gomg in the same
direction, and as the interior of New Zealand becomes a home for
the white man, that and other feree must of necessity disappear.
The last dinornis has probably long since perished ; yet it could
not be long since there were at least eight species of dinornis,
varying in size from that of the bustard upwards, D. gigan-
teus beimg vastly superior to the ostrich in magnitude. The
ereat quadrumana will probably be the next to disappear, for
civilization will not tolerate the existence of anthropoid apes,
and the mere savagery of what is called “ sport” will extinguish
them. The gorilla evidently occupies but a limited range of
country,and that near the coast,and the tendency of civilization is
to people the coasts everywhere with colonies of Anglo-Saxons,
French, and Portuguese, respecting whom it is not easy to say
which are the most active in the destruction of indigenous
fauna. ‘The beaver still holds afew secluded weirs m the
North of Europe, but no cue can say when it became extinct
in Britain, The otter isso scarce in this country that the sport

* A History of Infusoria, including the Desmidiacee and Diatomacee. By
Andrew Pritchard. London: Whittaker and Co.

The Progress of Zoology. 251

of hunting it is almost obsolete, yet it is only thirty years since
the finest otter ever seen in Britain was shot at Walthamstow,
on the borders of Epping Forest, where it may still be seen in
avery fair state of preservation. Of the Falconide there are few
living examples left in these islands, and the eyrie of an eagle is
as rare in Hneland as the nest of a thrush in France, where the
most melodious of songsters is valued only for its flavour in a
pasty by a people who make great pretensions to the culture
of the sentimental. The noble blackcock and the ignoble
black rat appear to have vanished almost simultaneously from
the British fauna, and the fox is probably following the wolf in
full conviction that its mission is accomplished. Indeed the
fiercest war maintained by man against animal races, is waged
against the carnivora and the raptorial birds. In the Biblical nar-
rative there are numerous evidences of the abundance of beasts of
prey in Palestine and Phoenicia, where there is now scarce any-
thing more rapacious than a fox to be found. David’s adven-
ture with the lon and bear could not now be repeated by any
brave shepherd within a hundred miles of Jerusalem, and the
traveller on the Huphrates and Tigris need entertain but little
fear of those hungry lions which figure so conspicuously on the
huntimge freizes of Nineveh. Man not only lays the whole
animal kingdom under tribute to furnish him with meat and
labour, and entertamment and knowledge, but he busies himself
to disturb the balances, and the gamekeepers of this country
might be collectively described as destroyers of the British
fauna. The relations of Sir Hmerson Tennent and Dr. Living-
stone make it pretty evident that the “ half-reasoning elephant’
is fast passmg from the face of the earth to be numbered
among the extinct animals by the naturalists of a century hence.
When we read of the wanton slaughter of thousands of elephants,
with no object but the gratification of the passion for destruc-
tion, we are tempted to lament that man possesses such com-
plete dominion to subjugate, and such unlimited power to
destroy. ‘‘ Had the motive,” says Sir Emerson Tennent, “ that
invites to the destruction of the elephant im Africa and India
prevailed in Ceylon, that is, had the elephants there been pro-
vided with tusks, they would long since have been annihilated
for the sake of their ivory. But it is a curious fact that, whilst
in Africa and India both sexes have tusks, with some slight
disproportion in the size of those of the females, not one
elephant in a hundred is found with tusks in Ceylon, and the
few that possess them are exclusively males.”* In Africa the
hunger for meat and ivory causes the destruction of the elephant
to an extent which threatens soon to extinguish the large-eared.

* Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon, with Narratives and Anecdotes.
&e. &. By Sir J. Emerson Tennent, K.C.B., LL.D., &c. Longmans and Co.

252 The Progress of Zoology.

species altogether, but with neither of these incitements, it 1s
perhaps being extinguished with still greater speed m Ceylon
and India. 'Thereis a saving clause in the fact now established,
that elephants will breed in captivity, but against it must be set
the fact that im captivity it does not pay for its keep, and is
scarcely worth the attention of those who employ it either for
burden or draught. The elephant has too much character, too
high a reasoning faculty, to be perfect as a servant; it has too
many whims, too many eccentricities of temper, and consumes
far more food than it earns in harness. Thus economically re-
garded, everything is against its preservation, and when the
wild herds disappear, there will probably remain but few in a
domesticated state, for unlike the horse, ox, ass, and sheep, itis
both unprofitable and unmanageable.

Zoology has been somewhat restricted in aim, spite of its
own breadth as a science and the liberality of its leading culti-
vators. It owes most of its advance in recent times im the
absorption into its circle of the facts of past biological history
to Professor Owen, whose “ Palzontology” is a sort of panorama
of extinct forms, placed side by side with their existing con-
geners and representatives. Australia and New Zealand have
not only furnished innumerable subjects of anomalous kinds for
the consideration of system makers, but they have opened the
way for rays of light to fall on the present direct from the past,
by their illustrations of geological eras. Nothing more strilk-
ingly exemplifies the relationship that subsists between all
departments of knowledge, than the aid which zoology and
geology respectively offer to each other. The existing fauna
of Ceylon, as analyzed by Sir Emerson Tennent, affords very
satisfactory indications that the island is, nm no geological or
zoological sense, an outlier of the vast Indian continent, but a
site sui generis like Australia, detached not only in its geography
from the neighbouring continent, but im its chronology also,
and in all its organic productions. On the other hand, geology
does more than whisper of the connection that once subsisted
between England and the Continent of Hurope by way of the
straits of Dover, for it furnishes all the evidence requisite to
establish the conclusion that the separation was effected not
very long antecedent to the commencement of the historic era.
Zoology does not touch the chronology of the question, but it
affixes the general conclusion; and we begin to discover that,
however valuable are the floras and faunas of Britain, they tell
but half their proper story unless considered in connection with
the floras and faunas of the Continent.

Two admirable works have recently been published, with
the object of indicating the relations of British and Continental
zoology. That by Lord Clermont is a compilation, but it is

The Progress of Zoology. 253

accomplished with so much skill and good taste, that it acquires
a character of originality both by its purpose and its merit.*
The British fauna is a part of the fauna of Hurope, just as the
fauna of a county is part of the fauna of the country at large:
and Lord Clermont’s work will tend to widen the range |
of the British naturalist, by showmg that many of his sub-
jects have an extensive area, and must be studied under all
their several geographical conditions for a full knowledge of
their habits and physiology. Dr. Bree,+} though working in
another direction, points to the same lesson. By registering
the birds of Europe not found in Britain, he enables us to
estimate the close connection by reason of community of
species which exists between the aves of Brita and the Con-
timent, so that we can lay claim to but very few as exclusively
British.

The great scientific question of the day is, What is a
species? We shall not attempt to offer a reply. Mr. Darwin
has made as great an agitation im the world of science as the
Hssays and Reviews have in theology, but there is no process of
excommunication known in the zoological establishment; and
those who differ from Mr. Darwin can heartily thank him for
having put their accepted formulee to a severe test, and opened
an almost new channel of inquiry. If there is a vagueness
about the characters of species, there is still more about the
meaning of varieties. Has it never occurred to the reader
that every animal is, in a certain sense, a variety; that every
individual creature has a distinctive character of its own; so
that our so-called varieties are such only by reason of a greater
departure from type than usual, the fact of departure being
itself so universal that type is almost undiscoverable. Sir
Emerson Tennent says every herd of elephants in Ceylon has
some distinctive features; m one herd the individuals are
affected with red spots on the skin, in another the tushes are
more fully developed ; and what is more remarkable, as bearmg
on this question of species, it appears that every separate herd
is a separate family, bound by ties of consanguinity, so that
we may suspect—the case not bemg proved—that the dis-
tinctive family characters, which give every herd some peculi-
arity of form or colour, is the result of breeding in and in, which
every flockmaster and poultry-keeper knows to be remark-
ably productive of what are called permanent varieties. The
African elephant appears to be equally subject to variety as
those of India and Ceylon. In his twenty-seventh chapter

* A Guide to the Quadrupeds and Reptiles of Europe. By Lord Clermont,
London: John Van Voorst.

+ Birds of Europe not observed in the British Isles. By Dr. C. R. Bree .
London: Groombridge.

254 The Progress of Zoology.

Livingstone says, “On the Kalomo we met an elephant which
had no tusks—as rare a sight in Africa as one with tusks is in
Ceylon.” So in the proportions of the beast it varies so much
that the rule that twice the circumference of the fore-foot equals
the height of the animal has many exceptions, and one measure-
ment is by no means a certain indication of the other.

The facts accumulated by Darwin and his coadjutors in this
inquiry place the question of species in a very different light to
that in which it was regarded by Lamarck. Hxternal influences
and a power of adaptation to circumstances are terms that
sound well and promise much, but they come to little when
severely tested. Melia qui potwit rerwm cognoscere causas.
If the wading birds have acquired long legs by treading tip-
toe on the muddy flats where they seek their food, how 1s 1t the
ostrich has not, during morethan 3000 years, accomplished a
stretch of its wings? for it flaps them fiercely enough during its
perambulations to cause growth if they were conformable to the
alleged law of modification by circumstances. The fancy pigeons,
which assume so many forms that we almost doubt at last if they
are pigeons, maintain the specific characters of the wing almost
unaltered. The ibis of to-day is the same in all its characters as
the ibis on the oldest Egyptian monuments; the same is the
case with the African elephant as figured on ancient coms, and
it becomes now a question whether any departure from type
can long maintain its ground—whether, in fact, variation in a
marked degree is not the first step in the process of the extinc-
tion of the race in which the variation has occurred. The
turnip and the potato as now cultivated in our fields are
varieties secured by artificial selection, and they appear to be
fast declining in vigour, so much so that farmers are seeking
substitutes for both, to fill the places in the routine of tillage,
which they threaten soon to leave vacant. In these cases the
process of Nature seems to be only permissive as regards varie-
ties, and that but for a season; they must revert to type or
disappear.

In the applications of zoology, especially in connection with
physiology, which is the key to zoological secrets, this question
of species has more than a technical value. The whole interests
of civilization are bound up with it. ‘The patriarch Jacob was
evidently an adept in cross breeding and the selection of
races, and observed the law that “like produces like” with as
much discretion as Mr. Jonathan Webb, the modern master of
the art of sheep breeding. Dr. Beke, who has just traversed the
country where Jacob grew rich in tending Laban’s flocks,
reports that “ ring-straked, speckled, and grisled cattle” abound
there, and apparently within such a circumscribed range as to
render it probable that the race has maintained its mtegrity

The Progress of Zoology. 255

smce the day of the patriarch’s servitude, which our marginal
Bibles place at a date 3600 years antecedent to the present
time. ‘he tailless cats of the Isle of Man and the tailless
poultry of Burmah are scarcely to be traced back to their
parentage, and have all the characteristics of true species as
far as their constancy of reproduction is concerned. In his
twentieth chapter Livingstone says, “ Near Massangano I
observed what seemed to be an effort of Nature to furnish a
variety of domestic fowls capable of bearing with comfort the
intense heat of the sun. Their feathers were curled upwards ;
thus giving shade to the body without increasing the heat.
They are here named ‘kisafw’ by the natives, and ‘ arripiada,’
or shivering, by the Portuguese. There seems to be a tendency
in Nature to afford varieties adapted to the convenience of
man. or instance, a very short-legged species of fowl was
obtained by the Boers, who required one that could be easily
caught in their frequent removals. A similar instance of
securing a variety occurred in the short-limbed sheep of
America.” Such things as these are matters of daily observa-
tion ; the question is, to what law are they subject, or, in other
words, what is the philosophy of their occurrence? If Mr.
Darwin had sent forth his book as a collection of data, instead
of as the statement of an hypothesis, there would have been
the same broad field for discussion, but with the advantage of
greater freedom ; for it is in vain to seek for the philosophy of
varieties until we have arrived at an unexceptional theory of
species, which we certainly have not, unless it be the vague
definition that a species is a congenital expression of all the
forces concerned in its production. Our conclusions for the
present are provisional, and each new conclusion arrived at
simply pushes the inquiry a stage farther back. The subjectis
as much one for experiment as for inquiry into the accidents of
nature. ‘The intermediate form between the horse and the ass is
a mule, which is infertile with another mule of the opposite sex,
and it is thenceforth concluded that all hybrids of a given class
are incapable of procreation among themselves. But M. Rouy,
of Angouléme, is reported to breed hybrids between the hare
and the rabbit by thousands for the market, and these leporines
are further stated to be fertile both with the hare and the rabbit,
and with each other. Some of these leporines have borne
young in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, but whether
they are of the first cross is at present unknown. The differ-
ences between the two types are many, yet they are rather in
degree than kind. The heart of the hare is nearly five times
the weight of that of the rabbit, the lungs are nearly four times
as heavy, the calibre of the trachea three or four times as
great. Furthermore, the period of gestation in the hare is

256 The Progress of Zoology.

understood to be a month, that of the wild rabbit three weeks ;
the young of the rabbit are born blind, those of the hare see ;
the rabbit burrows, the hare seldom goes to earth. There is
one great peculiarity of these hybrids of very great importance
as to the question at issue—the males show a great disinclina-
tion to copulation, which is very different to the males of the
(so-called) species, and if we were to suppose such a cross to
arise In nature, we must also suppose it would soon be lost
through this very peculiarity. But much more interesting cases
bearmeg on the same question were communicated by Dr. Crisp,
in the paper from which we have gathered the above particu-
lars.* Four hybrid ducks were bred at the Zoological Gardens
between the summer duck (Anas sponsa), the pochard (Fuliqula
feria), and the ferruginous duck (Muligula nyroca). It is true
that in these instances the parent species are in structure and
habits very nearly allied, and the only difference of importance
is, that the summer duck has eight pairs of ribs, the others
have nine; but an extra pair of ribs is no proof of specific
distinctness, for in man an extra pair occurs occasionally, and
in the anthropoid apes there is sometimes a pair of ribs and
one or two vertebrze above the typical number, and the ribs
themselves are but elongations of processes with which every
segment of the vertebral column is furnished. But these facts
compel us to ask still more eagerly, what is a species? Are
the three species of duck just named specifically identical, and
did the hare and the rabbit originally proceed from the same
stock ?

t will be observed that the most notorious cases of hybri-
dization and variation occur in connection with the mterference
of man with the proceedings of Nature. Wild varieties are
plentiful, but the range of variation is more limited. ‘The first
object of man, whether he subjects animals to an artificial mode
of life for profit or amusement, is to cause them to produce
varieties. One way or another he invariably makes attack on
the organs of reproduction, or attempts a diversion of their
function from its normal course; and it is worth considering
whether he does not unintentionally bring into action cireum-
stances that will some day bring about an extinction of his
varieties, unless their vigour is occasionally replenished by the
infusion into it of wild blood. The frequent crossing of the
most valued varieties of domestic animals indicates somewhat
of a recognition of this fact, that varieties tend to die out. In
the case of the animals used in agriculture, the practice of
castration must have some effect in diminishing the vigour of
races, ‘T'he males castrated are at once removed for ever from

* Proceedings of Zoological Society, Feb. 12,1861, paper by Edward Crisp.
M.D., F.LS. ars ;

The Progress of Zoology. 257

the domestic circle, and no variation or deterioration of the
race can possibly arise through their communication of a
diminished yital force. But their removal throws the task of
procreation on a fewer number of males, and a given amount of
procreative force is of necessity spread over a larger surface; in
other words, every ram, bull, and-stallion, has to beget a
larger number of progeny than it would do in a state of Nature,
and that progeny, it seems fair to assume, must inherit less of
the initial vigour which is the foundation of the physical con-
stitution of the individual. Variation itself, apart from this
consideration, appears to be in the majority of cases congenital,
and so representative of the circumstances attending the phy-
sical origin of the individual life. The story in the Cloud of
Witnesses of a man yielding milk when a child was put to his
breast during the persecution in Scotland, receives some con-
firmation from the account given by Humboldt of a human
male that gave forth milk. Livingstone tells of grandmothers
suckling ovandchildren, which are cases quite to the point,
and evidently of the class of congenital variation. In the
individual, castration has an immense influence in modifying
all the characteristics peculiar to the male sex; and barren
females and impotent males, whether of the genus Homo
or any other genus, are influenced in their whole physical
character im a manner consistent with their exceptional sexual
condition. Among our domestic horned animals, the size
and configuration of the horns vary so much from the normal
type, that we have a tolerably safe index thereby to the
whole pedigree of the races, and congenital peculiarities are
most strikingly exhibited in the variations which the horns
exhibit. It is said that if a stag is castrated when his horns
are in a state of perfection they will never be shed ; that if the
operation is performed when the head is bare they will never be
regenerated ; and if it is done when secretion is actually gomg
on, a stunted, ill-formed, permanent horn is the result, more or
less developed, according to the period at which the animal is
emasculated. In the museum of the College of Surgeons is
the head of a fallow-deer, bearing a pair of half developed
horns unequal in size, and wholly without palmations, but
of unusual thickness, and covered with wart-like protuberances
resembling incrustations. This animal was castrated; the
horns were not shed at the usual time, and they shortly after-
wards acquired the peculiar character which renders them so
unique aS specimens.

In horned animals that have never been subjected to
domestication, there is a remarkable constancy of character in
the development of the horns and their symmetry. The beau-

* English Cyclopedia, Nat. Hist. Cervide, c. 843.

258 The Progress of Zoology.

tiful lyrate horns of the Kobus maria (Gray), a new antelope
from Central Africa, afford a fair sample of the beautiful pro-
portions and graceful outlines common to all horned animals in
a wild state; and though no antelope from Central Africa
could be expected to prosper m our climate, so as to form an
addition to the embellishments of an English park, the southern
regions of the same continent offer numerous species equally
beautiful for economic as well as decorative uses in this country.
(Fig. 1.)

Another equally beautiful example is that of the Sable
Antelope, Aigocerus niger, recently added to the collection of
the Zoological Society from the mountainous region lying to
the north and east of Southern Africa. The graceful crescent-
like sweep of these horns, upwards of three feet in length,
would, doubtless, soon undergo such modifications as would
make an end of their beauty if the animals were reduced to
domestication, and a breed secured for market purposes.
(Fig. 2.)

That we are not give undue importance to this subject
may be determined any day in Smithfield market. The ten-
dency of breeding is to destroy horns altogether. Our best
breeds of sheep are now hornless. Many of the most esteemed
breeds of cattle are also hornless, and of those that still possess
those appendages, the short horns are the most prized. In the
few forests that still shelter the deer in Britain, fine specimens
of horns are rare, and the “‘ muckle Hart of Benmore,” stalked
by the late Mr. Charles St. John, was probably the last of its
race for magnitude of frame and antlers. So the goat having
altered less than any of the animals of the homestead, because
less cared for than all the rest, retains his ‘‘ crescented cornua’’
in all the breeds except the Spanish, which is the most fertile,
the most improved according to agricultural standard, and the
most easily managed, because by loss of horns rendered harm-
less. Bucks of this breed do occasionally wear the proper sign
of Capricornus, but they are becoming more rare every day.
But Nature defends her types with some obstimacy, and rather
than part with them when the current of her aims is turned
aside by the inventions of man, she sometimes pursues an oppo-
site course, and in the case of horns the development is then
such as to indicate a stronger probability of extinction than
when horns are obliterated altogether. A curious example of
this is the Galla, or Sanga Ox of Abyssinia, of which Bruce
gave the first account, alleging that “ the extraordinary size of
the horns proceeds from a disease that the cattle have in these
countries, of which they die, and is probably derived from
their pasture and climate. * * * * His value then lies
in his horns, for his body becomes emaciated and lank in

The Progress of Zoology. 259

)
VE

Fig. 1.—Symmetrical Horns of Kobus maria (Gray).

\, a

\

Wy ew

\i A \ \
it ¥

Fig. 2. Symmetrical Horns of Sable Antelope (Aigocerus niger).

MG i Mh
Wi) \\
Z HM \)

260 The Progress of Zoology:

proportion as the horns grow large; at the last period of his
life the weight of his head is so great that he is unable to lift
it up, or at least for any space of time.” Mr. Salt, who saw
these oxen in Abyssinia, denied that the size of the horns was
occasioned by disease; but Mr. Vasey, in his Delineations of
the Ox Tribe, insists that Salt’s own evidence is against him,
and he reproduces a figure from Salt to substantiate Bruce’s
account of the animal being both “lank and emaciated.” We
have copied the head and horns from Vasey’s plate (Fig. 3),
which will give the reader an idea of the disproportion between
the horns and the head that carries them. This is usually con-
sidered to be a variety of Bos Taurus, but there are some
differences which Mr. Vasey considers sufficient to render the
identity doubtful. In the specimen of the Sanga, in the
museum of the College of Surgeons, which is not the largest
that has been seen, the horns measure 3 feet 104 inches in
length round the outer curve ; the distance between the tips is
-3 feet 4 inches, the circumference at the base 1 foot 3 imches ;
and the distance between the bases at the forehead, 34 inches.
The last measurement is certainly favourable to Bruce’s state-
ment, for it implies a narrowness of the frontal plate quite out
of proportion to the enormous magnitude of the horns.
According to Livingstone, the Bakalahari, one of the oldest of
the Bechuana tribes, possessed ‘ enormous herds of the large-
horned cattle mentioned by Bruce, until they were driven into
the desert by a fresh migration of their own nation,” and
their loss of them may be attributed to their occupation of an
almost rainless region unfitted for the support of herds of
cattle, rather than to any inherent weakness in the large-horned
race. The Hungarian ox, which has horns measuring 3 feet 44
inches, with a distance between the tips of 5 feet 1 inch, though
known to be a variety of Bos Tawrus, resembles the Sanga in the
narrowness of the head, which is so neatly and delicately formed
as to appear unfit to carry such enormous appendages. ‘The
Arnee, a native of the higher parts of Hindostan, has horns of
still greater dimensions than either of the preceding examples
of the genus Bos. A pair im the British Museum measure in
length from tip to base 6 feet 6 inches and 6 feet 3 inches
respectively, but the animal is reported to measure usually
twelve, and sometimes fourteen feet from the ground to the
highest part of the back. To quit this subject we subjoin a
fioure of the head of a four-horned sheep in the possession of
the writer, in which the horns are remarkably unsymmetrical
and largely developed, the result of imperfect castration.
(Fig. 4.) .
“Whatever may be the ultimate effect of hybridizing and
domestication, society looks to zoologists for assistance in

VOL. I.—NO.

IV.

The Progress of Zoology.

261

Horns of Sanga Ox of Abyssinia.

Fig, 4,

Four-horned sheep (unsymmetrical),

Fig. 8.

262 The Progress of Zoology.

increasing the necessities and comforts of life by an utilization
of acquired knowledge. ‘The Zoological Society has done so
much in the way of acclimatizing animals suited to vary the
supplies of our tables, that we look to it for something more:
the contribution, for instance, of a few new dishes, for it begins
to be a discredit to us that, having laid the world under tribute
for its animal products, our staple animal foods should still
comprise so small around as beef, mutton, and pork, varied
only by inversion to pork, and mutton, and beef. The kanga-
roo, which affords the choicest of all dishes to the Australian
squatter, has been found to prosper in English parks, and is
remarkably prolific and manageable. "We may some day see
herds of elands among the pasture stocks, for it is now
thoroughly acchmatized at Hawkstone and Taymouth; but
there are numerous antelopes, Himalayan partridges, and
species of Ovis and Caprea that prosper in this climate, and
might become permanent additions both to our fauna and our
food resources. The nilgai, the largest of the Asiatic ante-
lopes, breeds freely in the Society’s garden, and produces two
fawns at a litter. The Sambur deer (Rusa aristotelis) is proved
to be as hardy in England as any of our domestic cattle. The
Persian deer (Cervus Wallichit) promises to become permanently
established. ‘The Barbary deer (C. barbarus) is bred by Vis-
count Hall, at Hawkstone, and has been seen in Hngland in the
form of meat. The pretty Ceylonese deer (Hyelaphus porcinus)
breeds readily in confinement, and might be distributed for
fancy culture as a household pet, and to vary the round of
comestibles on festive occasions ; and the magnificent species of
wild sheep from Northern India and Tartary thrive so well
in this country, that breeders might take note of them as
offering the materials for new crosses with our domestic breeds,
to stimulate with fresh vigour the future races of British sheep.
It is odd that among nearly ninety species of antelopes now
known, there is not one available for the purposes of the
butcher. The ravages of pleuropneumonia and rot among
cattle and sheep in this country, entail losses which, if the aver-
age annual aggregate were stated, would appear fabulous, afford,
at least, one good reason for a bolder policy in the applications
of zoological science. It would be a good beginning in such a
desirable undertaking if the Zoological Society were to follow
the example of the Horticultural, and appoint committees to
cook and eat a few selected specimens occasionally, and haying
reported thereon, to arrange for the distribution of animals in
pairs for peopling the parks and meadows, and, if possible, the
paddocks, and waysides, and commons of Britain.

We remarked above that the literature of science is of late
years distinguished by the number and value of monographs. We

The Progress of Zoology. 263

have already referred to some of these, and must now be brief.
The best reswmé of the rectifications now generally adopted in
the classification of the animal kingdom, is unquestionably Mr.
Rymer Jones’ General Outlime,* and im this will be found care-
fully digested, the results of recent inquiries into the structure
and physiology of the Quadrumana, the Marsupiata, and the
Reptiles. A Dutch zoologist, Professor Van der Hoeven, of
heyden, has published a valuable systematic work, which has
been carefully translated by Dr. Clark. This is the best sum-
mary we have of the present state of zoology, and, as soon as it
becomes known, will be generally accepted as a safe guide to
the results of scientific endeavour in the rectification of funda-
mental principles.; The Hssay on Classification, by Louis
Agassiz,f is a grand analysis of the distinguishing features
of the several departments of the animal kingdom. Professor
Bell’s History of British Quadrupeds,§ is a worthy companion
to the same author’s admirable History of British Reptiles, and
the beauty of the illustrations give it that peculiar value
which most of Mr. Van Voorst’s books have; that of render-
ine zoology popular and attractive without lowering the tone
of scientific teaching, or coupling with it the sin of imaccu-
racy which is so wofully committed by compilers of popular
books. But the best monograph of modern times is Mr.
Gosse’s Actinologia Britannica, || because it compasses untrodden
ground, rectifies the errors of Johnston, who stood for this class
until Mr. Gosse took it in hand, and develops a system of
classification founded on observation, dissection, and experi- |
ment; it is, in fact, as near an approach to the model of a
natural system as can be imagined im the present state of
zoological science. If envy were pardonable, we would envy
Mr. Gosse the two-fold capability of wielding pen and pencil with
equal effect, and by reproducing living forms of a somewhat
untangible character, so that whether by description or repre-
sentation, we can not only identify them as counterparts of
realities, but penetrate the secrets of their structure, as he him-
self has done by unwearied toil and perseverance, with the
aids of the aquarium and the microscope. Jonathan Couch’s
British Fishes§] will probably supersede the great and glorious

* General Outline of the Organization of the: Animal Kingdom. By 'T. Rymer
Jones, F.R.S. London: Van Voorst. Third edition.

+ Handbook of Zoology. By T. Van der Hoeven, Professor of Zoology in the
University of Leyden. ‘Translated by the Rev. W. Clark, M.D., E.RB.S., etc.
2yols. Longman.

t Longman and Co., and Triibner and Co.

§ Van Voorst.

|| 4 History of British Sea Anemones and Corals. By Philip Henry Gosse,
F.R.S. Van Voorst.

§| 4 History of the Fishes of the British Islands. By Jonathan Couch, F.LS.,
with coloured illustrations of all the species. Groombridge and Sons,

264 The Progress of Zoology.

work of Yarrell. There is a magic in colour where birds and
fishes are delineated, and identification can only be safely
secured by the assistance of coloured prints accurately drawn
from the life. Mr. Couch has done this much for British fishes,
and deserves the thanks of all naturalists for the production of
a work that was much needed, and that will add considerably
to his high reputation. Mr. Vasey’s work on the Genus Bos *
has evidently been a labour of love. It embodies the results of
pamstaking research extending over several years, and the
spirit of careful discrimination and severe accuracy in which it
is written, merit the attention not only of readers of books on
natural history, but also of the writers of them, for guess-work
is largely indulged in and anecdotes are too often made the
means of covering positive deficiency of zoological knowledge.
We need monographs of the Equidiz, Cervide, and Antelopez,
m a similar style, and a gathering of the facts im each towards
the determination of the relations of varieties to types, and the
economical values of the species which are adapted to the cli-
mate of Britam. Another desideratum of zoological literature,
is a comprehensive treatise on the distribution of the British
fauna, for which Dr. Forbes’s British Quadrupeds already affords
a basis. If such a work were undertaken in the spirit and
worked out to the completeness of Watson’s Cybele Britannica,
ib would be invaluable, not only as affording information of the
geographical range of any British species, but also of assisting
to the determination of the relations of British to Huropean
zoology. Other monographs, which we cannot stay to eulogize
as they deserve, are Mr. Blackwall’s on Spiders, published by
the Ray Society; Dawson’s Geodephaga Britannica ; and the
Dodo and its Kindred, by H. HE. Strickland and Dr. Melville.
But the strictly popular works of the present day are mostly
built on substantial frameworks, and the fragmentary know-
ledge they communicate to the great class known as “ general
readers” is good of its kind, carefully arranged, and reliable as
to detail. The Rev. J. G. Wood’s Natural Historyt is the best
sample we know of the popular method of treating a scientific
subject, and it is due to its amiable and industrious author to
say that he has gathered pearls from many seas, and strung
them on thread that will bear some critical tension. It is the
best and most beautiful popular work now before the public.

* Delineations of the Ox Tribe, or the Natural History of Bulls, Bisons, and
Buffaloes. By George Vasey. Briggs, 421, Strand.
+ Routledge, Warne, and Routledge.

Work for the Telescope. 268

WORK FOR THE TELESCOPE—PLANETS OF THE
MONTH—DOUBLE STARS.

BY THE REV. T. W. WEBB, F.R.A.S.
PLANETS OF THE MONTH.

Mercury will be favourably situated towards the end of the
month, and may be looked for with the naked eye, between
sunset and 10 p.m.

Venus continues very brilliant in the mornings.

The transits of Jupiter’s satellites and their shadows will
occur as follows :—

May Ist was included in our last number. 4th, ILI.
emerges at 11h. 14m.: its shadow enters at 12h. 12m. 8th,
I. enters at 11h. 36m.: its shadow at 12h.42m. 10th, shadow
of I. goes off, 9h. 27m. I1th, shadow of Il. emerges at 10h.
49m. III. enters at 11h. 34m. 12th, IV. enters at 10h. 40m.
17th, shadow of I. comes on, 9h. 6m., the satellite itself leaves
at 10h. 12m.: the shadow at 1lh. 22m. 1[8th, shadow of II.
enters at 10h. 37m. II. goes off, 11h. 24th, I. enters at 9h.
47m., and departs at 12h. 4m.: the shadow’s ingress is at 11h.
Im. 25th, I.comes on, 10h.40m. 31st, I. enters at 11h. 40m.

It will be observed how much the satellites and shadows
have widened their distance in proportion to the increasing
departure of the planet from opposition to the Sun. ‘There
may be some hope of dark transits on 4th, 11th, and 12th; .
but we must look out carefully, for the planet is getting furthcr
from the Harth, and by the end of the month his diameter will
have diminished to 35'-4.

The most interesting phenomenon in the heavens at the
present season is unquestionably the disappearance of the rng
of Saturn, which will take place May 18, from which time, till
August 12, the planet will appear destitute of this magnificent
ornament, if ornament that may be called, which is no doubt
so constructed by the All-wise Creator, as to subserve the most
important and beneficial purposes. The cause of the pheno-
menon is pretty generally understood; but it may be well to
refer to it in this place on account of some curious details con-
nected with it. The position of this great plane (or rather
assemblage of planes—the only flat surface that we know of wm
the wniverse) does not coincide with the plane of the orbit of
Saturn: if it did, it would always present its edge to the sun,
and neither of its sides would receive more than a horizontal
illumination. Nor does it he in the plane of the orbit of the
Earth, which is inclined to that of Saturn, and, excepting in

266 Work for the Telescope.

the two points where it crosses his orbit, has no reference to it
whatever. But itis so placed as to make a considerable angle
(26° 49’ 17") with the orbit of Saturn, and while it is carried
round the Sun with the planet, it remains always parallel to
itself, since a fresh direction could only he the result of a fresh
force impressed upon it from without; and no such force exists.
Hence, in the course of one revolution of Saturn, or 294 of our
years, it turns first one and then the other side to the Sun;
and in passing from the one to the other position, presents to
him for a short time its edge, in which situation, from its ex-
treme thinness, estimated by the American astronomer Bond
at less than 40 miles, it will not reflect light enough to be
visible at the distance of the Harth, without the greatest diffi-
culty. But thisis not the sole condition of the phenomenon,
which depends not only on the position of the Sun, but of the
Harth also: as the Harth is but seldom exactly in the line be-
tween the Sun and Saturn, it may so happen that the edge of
the rmg, when not presented to the Sun, may be turned to-
wards ourselves, and then again its thinness will withdraw it
from sight. And there is a third case of partial disappearance
when the Sun and Earth are on opposite sides of the rmg, and
we look on the darkened side. This conjuncture is soon about
to take place. May 18, the Sun passes from the south side,
which we have been looking upon since February 1, to the
opposite one out of sight from the Harth, and consequently its
aspect will be entirely reversed from light to dark, with a
singular corresponding reversal of visibility: the portion cross-
ing the ball, hitherto undistinguishable on a bright background,
will become strongly visible asa dark line of fully 2” in breadth,
and the extremities, previously so distinct against the dark sky,
will disappear. After this epoch (May 18) the Harth’s orbital
motion carrymg our eye towards the plane of the ring, the
breadth of the dark streak will diminish; but not im a regular
progression, for the Sun, gradually rismg to a height of 1°
20’ above the rmg, will cast a shadow upon the ball, which,
increasing as the ring decreases, will keep in some degree
the apparent breadth of the band. A few telescopes will be
able, durmg this period, to distinguish the ring from its shadow,
by bringing out a most delicate lme of light between them ; but
they will be few indeed. It was seen by Dawes in 1848 with
a 64 inch object-glass; but his eye is an extraordinary one.
Schmidt also seems to have seen it in that year; and Jacob
perceived it with an object-glass of 9 inches as recently as
last December. This interesting series of phases will terminate
on August 12, by the final disappearance of the ring as we pass
to its enlightened north side, which will continue uninterrup-
tedly in sight for nearly fifteen years; and fifteen years are

Work for the Telescope. 267

enough, compared with the short existence of man, to make us
anxious to see all we can of this beautiful phenomenon, whose
recurrence to us lies among expectations so uncertain in the
far-off distance.

Were the ring symmetrical in all its parts and subdivisions,
as we perhaps might have expected, this description would
comprise all that would fall under our notice: the ellipse would
close up into a Ime, and open out into an ellipse again, with ma-
thematical precision. But such is not the case: there are ano-
males, and lke other anomalies they are, or may become,
peculiarly instructive. As to the knotty aspect which the rmg
often assumes when reduced to extreme thinness, this, as
Olbers pointed out long ago, is the mere effect of perspective
foreshortening upon unequal degrees of illumination: the ring
consists of concentric zones of different degrees of brightness ;
the ends of these, when viewed very obliquely, will expose the
greatest amount of illuminated area, and in consequence of that
irradiation which apparently enlarges all luminous spaces, in
proportion to their brilliancy, at the expense of neighbouring
dark ones, will appear to project like knots or beads upon the
minute line formed by the fainter parts of the ring.* So far
the explanation is satisfactory: and though these knots have
been seen even when the dark side of the ring has been turned.
towards us, this has been accounted for by Bond, as the reflec-
tion of the Sun’s light from the edges of the rmgs, which we
might see through their interstices from beneath. But when
we find the number of knots unequal on the two sides of the
planet, as has often been noticed, and especially by Schroter
and Harding in 1803, or when the two ansz are unlike in
length, or breadth, or continuity, or in the epoch of vanishing
or reappearing, as in 1671, 1714, 1744, 1774, 1789, 1803,
1833, and 1848, we are obliged to infer some physical irregu-
larity ;—either the rings do not all le in the same plane, or
they have, as Schréter thought, mountainous prominences of
great magnitude: the latter idea, smgular as it may appear, is
countenanced by the notched form of the shadow upon the ball
which was several times seen by him, and since by Schwabe
(probably) in 1848, by Lassell m 1849 and 1861, and by De La
Rue also last sprme. If this, however, is the cause, the rotation
assigned to the rmg by Sir W. Herschel from a moveable pro-
tuberance in 1789 must be abandoned, at least upon that
ground, since his observation, never since confirmed, is contra-
vened by the stationary character of these projections: rotation
would not be incompatible with the idea of different planes ;

* This appearance I witnessed with my 53-inch object glass on February 7
and 8, and March 4, last, but best under inferior definition, any obscuring cause
affecting the brighter less in proportion than the fainter parts of the line.

268 Work for the Telescope.

but if we may credit the statements of a far inferior observer;
De-Vico, who saw a lucid point adhering to the opened ring
in 1840 and 1842, it can no longer be maintained upon any
ground, and the ring must be considered fixed. How to account
for its stable equilibrium and permanency would then be a diffi-
culty indeed ; for even with the powerful aid of rotation it has
driven the American mathematicians (who have especially in-
vestigated the subject) from the old idea of solidity; Pierce
taking refuge in the supposition of a fluid, and Maxwell in an
aggregation of unconnected particles. The great Roman ob-
server, Secchi, inclines to the idea of a gaseous or vaporous
constitution. The faint visibility of the dark side of the ring,
when it has been turned towards us, which was remarked by
Herschel I. in 1789, and by Bond and Dawes in 1848, is an
additional puzzle, especially the coppery tinge which was
detected in it by the latter observer. It seems, from Bond’s
investigations, that it cannot arise from a twilight produced by
an atmosphere surrounding the ring; nor is the direction of
the Sun’s rays favourable to the idea of a slight transparency,
which otherwise its astonishing thinness would render very
probable. Almost everything connected with this wonderful
appendage seems at present involved in impenetrable mystery.

DOUBLE STARS.

Bzrore offering to the reader a list of beautiful or interesting
double stars,* we shall repeat what was stated at the close of the
previous paper, that the possessors of even small telescopes will
find many of them within their range, though of course limited
apertures will detract from their brilliancy and distinctness.
Admiral Smyth has assured us that the majority of the binary
pairs may be reached with an object-glass of 3% mches in dia-
meter, and that many of them may be beautifully seen with
27 inches; some of them he found distinctly visible with only
two inches. Even the common little hand telescope, if good,
may be turned to some account by any one who will adapt to it
a deep astronomical eye-piece, and a small amount of skill in
such matters will enable this to be done, and a suitable stand
to be added, at a triflmg expense. As an illustration of what
might be effected in this way, | may mention that I have thus
seen not only Mizar, but even Castor, of course in feeble light,

but very well defined, with an object-glass of only 15 inch. It
is possible indeed that with inferior optical means our first view
may not answer our expectations ; but the same great master, to

cary an “ Introductory Paper on Double Stars,” Intellectual Observer,
p- 143.

i el th

SS a ene

Work for the Telescope. 269

whom we amateurs are so deeply indebted, will teach us that
“many things deemed invisible to secondary instruments are
plain enough to one who ‘ knows how to see them;’. . . . the
eye itself improves, and the vision becomes sharper under prac-
tice, msomuch that the telescope seems to improve.’

‘Assuming, then, that the student is anxious to make the best
of his means, ¥ ‘whatever they may be, we shall previously beg his
attention to a few remarks which, an some cases at least, may be
found of service.

No observer who hopes to see anything to advantage will .
think of stationing himself at a window, unless indeed his tube
is long enough to carry the object-glass well out into the open
air. Hxcepting at those seasons of the year when the external
and internal temperature are equalized, the mtermixture of
warmer and cooler currents at an open window destroys all hope
of distinctness with any magnifying power worthy of the name.
It seems to be from this very cause on a large scale that the
undulations and flickerines arise of which astronomers com:
plam so much and so often. The success of Professor Piazzi
Smyth’s “ Experiment” on the Peak of Teneriffe demonstrates
how much the definition of our telescopes would be improved,
could we leave the less equable regions of the atmosphere
beneath our feet ; but at any rate we need not artificially agera-
vate the evil which at our ordinary level we cannot avoid. The
indistinctness thus produced is found to grow rapidly with
increase of aperture, as indeed must be the natural consequence
of including a greater amount of agitated medium in the cylinder
of rays which the telescope brings to a focus; and hence the
Roman astronomers who, even in that serene and pellucid air,
find many a cause of complaint, occasionally contract the 93-inch
aperture of their noble achromatic to little more than five inches,
in order to diminish the disturbance in less favourable nights.
So far the possessors of smaller instruments are not without
their advantage: they do not see so much, but they see more
quietly, and they can employ a greater number of nights with
tolerable comfort. The unsteadiness of a boarded floor is an-
other argument for out-door observation. We are, generally
speaking, scarcely aware how extensively vibrations may be
propagated, even through materials of little apparent elasticity ;
but the shaking of the earth for many miles round an exploding
powder-mill—fifty or sixty miles im the terrible Hounslow ex-
plosion im 1850—is a convincing instance of this; and when
the celebrated optician Troughton used a small observatory i in
Fleet Street, during the two quiet hours—from 2h. till 4h.—in
a London night, he used to perceive the approach of a distant
carriage by the vibrations of a star in the telescope some con-
siderable time before the shghtest sound was audible. Hence,

270 Work for the Telescope.

for accurate observations, instruments are mounted on the most
selid piers of stone or brickwork, entirely insulated from the
tremors of the surrounding floor; and hence the disadvantage
of keeping the same boards under our telescope and ourselves.
On all accounts, therefore, an out-door situation is best; and
we may be assured, from the almost universal experience of
astronomers, that the much and very unjustly calumniated
“night air” will work us no kind of harm. Of course, we shall
use the ordinary precautions against catching cold; and our
, Instrument will require equal attention, for object-glasses
have a very inconvenient facility in catchmg dew. If brought
uncovered suddenly into air of a very different temperature, this
is pretty sure to happen, just as it does to a glass of cold water
brought into a keated room; and in a dewy or frosty evening
it will take place from radiation. The best mode of obviating
this is to take off and ultimately replace the cap of the object-
glass in the air in which it is used, and to provide it witha
“dew-cap,” a cylinder of pasteboard, light thin wood from a
hat-box, or bright tin blackened in the interior, two or three
times the length of its own diameter. On the removal of the
brass cap, this should immediately be substituted for it, and
remain till the last; and when the brass cap is about to be
replaced, it will be advantageous to warm it previously. Where
there is a finder it should be provided with a dew-cap also. If
dew should have accidentally settled upon an object-glass, it is
a good plan to unscrew it, and hold it before the fire; this will
diminish the necessity of frequent wiping, which should be
avoided, as the polish is very lable to injury ; but the remoying
and replacing of an object-glass of any size demands a careful
hand. After all, little specks will be formed in time, and occa-
sional cleaning will be required; this may be safely done by
dusting the glass with a camel’s hair pencil, breathing upon it
very slightly, and wiping it gently with very fine wash leather,
or areal silk handkerchief, both of which should be free from grit
and dust, and kept for the purpose. Foreign glass will some-
times become discoloured even from the contact of loose par-
ticles which may have long lain upon it; no amount of friction
will remove these stains which will not endanger the polish. If
objects appear dim and foggy on a clear night, damp has, in all
probability, settled on the surface of the eye-lens; this may be
immediately dissipated by taking out the eye-piece, and hold-
ing it before the fire: the eye-piece of the finder is especially
subject to this annoyance, as it is less frequently protected by
the application of the eye: if the fire is not conveniently acces-
sible, a bit of wash-leather may be kept at hand.

As no positive or Ramsden eye-piece (which has the plane
surface of each of itslenses outwards) is achromatic, and even

Work for the Telescope. 271

Huygenian or negative ones are not always perfectly so, in
estimating the colours of double stars the image should be kept
in the centre of the field: for a similar reason such objects
should never be examined near the horizon, when instead of a
circular disc, they will show a coloured and flaring spectrum.

It may be occasionally advantageous to know the diameter
of our field; this may be roughly estimated from the propor-
tion it bears to the diameter of the moon, which may for very
_ ordinary purposes be taken at half a degree. But it will be
more satisfactory to note the time which a star near the equator
occupies in crossing it; such as 6 in Orion (the uppermost of
the three in the belt); or y Virginis (the method of finding
which will be given under No. 10 in the catalogue), especial
care being taken to make the star’s passage as central as may
be. The time thus given will be minutes and seconds of Right
Ascension; these multiplied by 15 (since 15°=1 hour) will be
converted into minutes and seconds of space, by which celestial
distances are most usually measured. ‘The reason of the em-
ployment of an equatorial star (a planet or the moon in the
equator will answer equally well) will be at once apparent; the
distance between the meridians, or hour-lines, decreasing con-
tinually as they recede from the equator, corresponds less and
less with the same number of absolute degrees of space, which
are always considered of the same value with those measured on
that circle.

A general idea of the position of the meridian will always
be of service ; it may, of course, be obtained from a common
compass, allowance being made for the declination of the
needle, now amounting to about 21° W.; or from the gnomon
of a good sundial, or from the position of the sun at noon by
the dial, that is, uncorrected by the equation of time.

A few words may be added as to weather. With regard to
wide double stars, which may be well seen with a low power, a
choice of nights is not very important, the only essential point
bemg that there shall be no haze capable of obscurimg the
smaller companions. But the matter is entirely altered when we
attempt the separation of the closer pairs. Astronomers well
know that a high degree of transparency may be combined
with a most annoying amount of unsteadiness, and that what is
called a briliant night may hence prove perfectly useless for
all delicate investigations : and thus we find Herschel LI. speak-
ing of such a night as ‘the worst possible for vision, though
superbly clear.” Higher powers becoming necessary as the
components are nearer together, every atmospheric defect is
magnified in the same proportion. At one time no care in
focal adjustment will sharpen up the diffused blot to the sem-
blance of a star; at another, the comparatively defined discs

J

272 Work for the Telescope.

will be vippled over, as it were, as though they lay at the bottom
of a rapid stream; at another, “ flares’? and distortions of
various kinds and degrees will task the observer’s patience,
if they do not wholly frustrate his expectations. It is almost
impossible to form a conjecture beforehand as to the prospect
of a good night. Hasterly winds have borne perhaps a heavier
share of blame than they deserve; at least, | have noticed that
when we have a warm breeze from the N.E., it usually brings
sharp definition: and Herschel II. speaks of three nights of
unexampled perfection (March 28, 29, 30, 1830), as ushered m
by an east wind. His illustrious father states that dry air is
unfavourable ; frost sometimes favourable, sometimes not; thaw
may be expected to be unfavourable, from the conflict of cooler
and warmer currents. But, strange as if may seem, the un-
varying experience of observers speaks strongly in behalf of a
sheht fog or haze, not, of course, for the detection of evan-
escent points of light, but for that steady definition which, with
large apertures especially, is so seldom to be met with, and so
very beautiful when it is attamed. It would be easy to cite in-
stances. Sir J. Herschel, speaking of March 28, 1830, says,
“such a night for measurement I never witnessed, yet to the
naked eye the stars are very dull (stellis acies obtusa), and no
small ones (below 4°5 mag.) visible ;” and the new dusky ring of
Saturn was discovered by Bond, in America, in a sky so hazy
that to the naked eye only the brighter stars were perceptible.
Herschel I. states that vision is generally very perfect in windy
weather; but a very steady stand will be necessary to avail
ourselves of it. In the winter, his son tells us that distinct
vision often comes on an hour or two before midnight. It is a
singular fact, but attested by the concurrence of many observers,
that a twilight sky is often favourable to the definition of diffi-
cult objects ; the spurious discs seeming to be diminished upon
a brighter background.

The objects in the following list are numbered for con-
venience of reference, but no regular arrangement has been
adopted ; the easiest and most instructive take the lead, but
any stated classification would be too much complicated with
considerations of absolute and relative magnitude and distance,
and would have to be subordinated after all to the season of
observation, which will cause the postponement of many pairs
otherwise entitled to precedence. For the student’s conve-
nience the present series has been restricted to objects visible
with the naked eye, and in easily recognized positions, as well
as with the reach of ordinary telescopes ; the directions given
for finding them will probably supersede the use of maps; but
should such illustrations be desired, the Larger Star Maps of
the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, sold by

Work for the Telescope. 273

Stanford, Charing Cross, can be strongly recommended, both
for accuracy and extraordinary cheapness. Their chief defect
arises inevitably from the attempt to represent a sphere by a
cube, so as to comprehend the whole in six maps; in conse-
quence of this the corners become very much distorted, and
the squared-out degrees of the centre are there transformed
ito a kind of lozenge-shape ; this must be carefully borne in
mind in comparing those parts with the heavens. A Moveable
Planisphere, by Smith, Strand, is also spoken of as very useful
in showing the principal stars above the horizon at any given
time.

We may now proceed to our little working catalogue.

1. € Ursee Majoris. Mizar. Distance 14°°4. Position 147°°4.
Magnitudes 3 and 5. Colours, white and pale green. Struve
makes them both greenish white. Relatively stationary, but
probably with common proper motion. There are several
reasons why this star may properly head the list. It is very
readily found, being the sixth in order of the seven stars of the
Great Bear, or the centre one of the tail; it is at a sufficient
height above the horizon during the whole year (though unfor-
tunately rather awkwardly elevated during the spring months) ;
it ig within the grasp of very small instruments ; and from-its
association with a third star, called Alcor, bright enough and
distant enough from the irradiation of its neighbours to be
visible without a telescope, it furnishes a peculiarly apt means
for trainmg an untutored eye. Amateurs may be expected to
have at first confused and inadequate ideas of magnifying power ;
and those who have never before viewed double stars with the
telescope will sometimes even imagine that they can distin-
guish them without it, though it is found that, for this purpose,
they ought, generally speaking, to be four minutes of space
asunder, a distance from eight to eighty times greater than
that of the generality of stars in the present lst. Another
source of mistake may be that the great increase of brightness
in the telescope does not render itself at once intelligible to
the inexperienced eye. Hrroneous impressions from these
causes may be effectually corrected by means of Mizar and
Alcor. Let these two be alternately viewed, in and out of the
telescope, a low power being used to include Alcor in the field,
and the inversion in the instrument being borne in mind; and
it will be readily perceived how great is the effect of magnifying
power in separation, as well as of aperture in increased bright-
ness. It will be at once seen that no unaided eye could possibly
separate Mizar into its components, and the idea will never
be revived of the possibility of distinguishimg double stars with-

out the telescope, excepting under circumstances of unusual
distance.

274 Work for the Telescope.

Alcor is of the fifth magnitude, and is distant 11’ 30” from
Mizar. Itis known as the “rider upon the horse ;” the middle
one of the team of three, in the figure of Charles’s Wain; as
Ursa Major has been popularly called m this country. This
name must be very ancient, long before Shakespeare’s time, for
we find from Admiral Smyth that it is familarized from the
Gothic Karlwagen, the charl (ceorl, Saxon) or peasant’s cart.
Alcor seems to have formed a trial of sight among the Arabians,
according to their proverb, “Thou canst see Alcor, yet canst
not perceive the full moon;” they gave it also the name of
Saidak, the “test” ; and hence Arago thinks a change may be
inferred, as it is now so readily visible: it was also known
amongst them, as the Admiral tells us, by the term Suha, and
implored to guard its viewers against scorpions and snakes ;
why, it does not appear.

Mizar seems to have been a strange stumbling-block to
observers in the last century ; and for no intelligible reason, as
it 18 so easy an object. Its duplicity was discovered by Riccioli,
nearly in the middle of the seventeenth century: it was again
noticed in 1700 by Gottfried Kirch and his scientific wife, Maria
Margareta, who was subsequently, in her widowhood, astronomer
to the Academy of Sciences at Berlin: and it was observed
double by Bradley in 1755: yet Flaugergues used to try his
telescopes upon it about and after the year 1750, without per-
ceiving the companion till 1787: and even then he fancied that
the pair gradually widened to three or four times its original
distance ; which, as Smyth remarks, “‘ must have been merely
the effect of becoming better acquainted with the object before
him.” Even such men as Delambre and Mechain have been
suspected of overlooking the smaller star: and there is a strange
story told about Miadler at Dorpat as recently as 1841, when,
on observing this star by day, he was astonished to find it
single; he waited till after sunset in vain, perceiving in the
meanwhile distinctly severai other pairs difficult to be observed
in twilight ; but, within an hour afterwards, he found it double
in all its splendour. One is tempted to think that he must
have been previously looking at the wrong star, but he does not
seem to have suspected this himself. The Roman astronomers
in 1842 described an imaginary comes lying nearly between the
two stars ; but this was not their only blunder of the kind. Their
telescope—a very fine one, with a 64-inch object-glass by
Cauchoix, had this imperfection, and they, unfortunately for
their reputation, published its defects as discoveries. Sestini,
De-Vico’s assistant at Rome, gave the colour of the smaller
star yellowish with the Cauchoix telescope. Admiral Smyth
has. republished in his Aides Hartwelliane, a detailed com-
parison of the colours cf 109 stars as noted once by Sestini, and

Work jor the Telescope. 275

twice by himself and his friends. The discrepancies are
occasionally very strange, and some of them will be given in our
present list ; but, on the whole, many of the Italian observations
of that date seem more valuable as illustrations of imdi-
vidual peculiarity than as evidences of fact.

It has been suspected that Alcor, together with Mizar and
its companion, may be mutually connected as one grand ternary
system, Several minute stars will be found in the field, the
largest of the eighth magnitude. Mizar has of late years been
photographed no less than 86 times with the great achromatic
of 142 inches aperture at Harvard College, U. 8., in order to
measure the image instead of the objectp—a much more conve-
nient process, which seems to promise some great advantages.

2. a Urscee Minoris. Polaris. 186. 210°1. 24 and 94.
Yellow and dull white. So Struve. Sestini and Dawes make
94 blue, and so I have thought it. This is the Pole-star, so
called, not from its occupying the polar point, from which it is
distant about 1° 25’, or somewhat more than 24 diameters of
the sun, but from its beimg the nearest to it perceptible by the
naked eye. The mode of finding it by a long line passing
through the Pointers, or right hand stars of the Great Bear, is
well known, and once found it will not be lost, as it stands
comparatively alone in a wide space. The comes has long been
referred to as a test of the goodness of small glasses. It was
formerly proposed as a standard of eyes and instruments by
Dawes, who considered that in most instances two mches' of
aperture would be scarcely sufficient to show it steadily.
Smyth, however, saw it distinctly with his 5,4 -inch object-
glass reduced to that size. The celebrated Dorpat achromatic
of 94 inches exhibits it even while the sun is above the horizon,
and Kitchiner saw it with a power of 18 applied to a 7-inch
object-glass by the elder Tulley. In the case of minute points
which approach the minimum visibile in a telescope, the device
of oblique or averted vision, by which the image is made to fall
on a more sensitive part of the retina, will often give the first
intimation of their existence; and when their position is once
known, they frequently become much more perceptible.

Polaris seems to be merely an optical pair, their proximity
being the effect of perspective alone, and their real distance
being incalculable and incomprehensible. We shall find, how-
ever, as we proceed, that magnitude is a much less safe criterion
of distance than was supposed in former days.

A small amount of parallax has been ascribed to the large
star. If correct, it shows a distance which light, reaching us in
8% minutes from the sun, would not traverse in less than thirty
years.

3. a Urse Majoris. Dubhe. 6 206. 2038, 13 and 8.

276 Work for the Telescope.

Both yellow. I have thought 8 violet with a 3,4, object-glass,
lilac with 53 inches. This is the most northerly of the Pointers.
It is a very wide object, and of little scientific mterest ; but it
appeared to me of sufficient beauty to merit insertion, especially
as the yellow hue of the large star is very fine.

A. a Geminorum. Castor. 4°°7. 2588. (1830-95). 4°°9.
248°1, (1849°17). Fletcher found 5-309. 245°66. (1857-28).
3 and 34. Bright and pale white; greenish, according to
Struve ; greenish yellow and greener, Dembowski. This is the
most northerly of the two large stars which mark the heads of
the Twins, and which will be found declining towards the W.
at the beginning of May. Castor is an intrinsically glorious
pair, and especially interesting as being, in Sir John Herschel’s
words, “‘the largest and finest of all the double stars in our
hemisphere, and that whose unequivocal angular motion first
impressed on my father’s mind a full conviction of the reality of
his long-cherished views on the subject of the binary stars.”
‘That it is binary—a superb system of two neighbouring suns,
there can be no doubt; but there is some difficulty in ascertain-
ing its period, although it has been watched from an earlier
epoch than most objects of this kind. Sir J. Herschel has
assigned 253 years, Smyth 240; the result is not entirely satis-
factory, but of the revolution round a common centre of gravity
there is no doubt. ‘This,’ as Admiral Smyth says, “is a
ereat fact,and an astronomical revelation which, in all probability,
Newton himselfnever contemplated.” Inthe case of undoubted
binary pairs, more than one of Smyth’s epochs will be given as
above, for comparison. ‘The earliest observation, that of Bradley
and Pound in 1719, made the angle 355°53 ; a very little experi-
ence in estimating positions will show how great has been the in-
termediate change. A power of 80 should bring out this pair
well. I have divided it with 55, and an aperture of 53 inches.

5. €Cancri. 54: 149°4. (18382°23). 478. 1441.
(185317). 6 and 73. Both yellow. Sestini makes the small
star white; yet he calls Castor yellowish and yellow. This easy
double star is apparently in slow motion, in an orbit of possibly
500 or 600 years; none but very fine telescopes are now capable
of showing, what was more easily distinguishable twenty years
ago, that the larger star has another of seventh mag. almost in
contact with it. A very fine five feet achromatic may possibly
detect some elongation. This close pair is in rapid motion, but
with a period as yet undecided ; and the whole triple combina-
tion, if such it be, with all its intricate relations and movements,
is a truly wonderful object. To find it, run a line from Castor
through Pollux, and continue it between two and three times
the distance of those stars; it will pass a little above ¢ when
W. of the meridian.

Work for the Telescope. 2700

A little to the K., somewhat N., of & and consequently just
above it, as it declines towards the W.,* lies the famous cluster
Preesepe, visible to the naked eye as a nebulous spot. It
scarcely comes within the scope of the present list, belonging
rather to the class of Groups and Clusters, of which it is one
of the most conspicuous. However, as we are so near to it,
we shall probably feel disinclined to let it pass. Our lowest
power will be required to enlarge the field, and comprehend at
once as much as we can of this magnificent cluster, which,
after all, will probably much exceed our limits.

6. « Cancri. 30"1. 307°°8. 5% and 8. Pale orange and
clear blue. Herschel I. made the smaller deep garnet,
1782, February 8; bluish, December 28; blue, 1785, March
12. Relatively stationary, but there seems to be a common
motion in space. A beautifully-contrasted pair, in which, as
usual, the hue of the larger component is taken from the less
refrangible end of the spectrum, an arrangement too general
not to indicate the footsteps of some unknown law. ‘To find
it, a line is to be drawn from Preesepe to Polaris, bearing a
little to the left ; where another line passing between Castor and
Pollux would intersect the first at right angles, we come upon
this star, which, though not bright, is the most conspicuous for
several degrees around.

foe Hydra. owe we lOSr Ay OSs.) obs) 20a28
(1843°14.) Fletcher, 208°°52. (1852:96.) 4 and 83. Pale yellow
and purple. ‘The small star im this beautiful object was missed
by Herschel I., and Dawes therefore suspects that it may be
variable. Struve discovered it, and his measure confirms the
idea that it may be in orbital motion, with a possible period of
450 years. It may be found thus :—a line drawn from Polaris
through Pollux, will fall upon Procyon, a lst magnitude star
in Canis Minor. Another line carried from Procyon to
Regulus passes just above a little group of stars, rather nearer
to Procyon of the two, marking the head of Hydra. The
most northerly of these is e.

Here we suspend for the present our selected list of double
stars, proposing to resume it in our next number, together with
other matter of special interest during the month.

* The student may be reminded that N.,S., E., and W. are always understood
as expressing the bearings of objects when they are on the meridian, and that, in
proportion as they are removed from it, they cease to be synonymous with above,
below, to the left or right.

VOL. I.—WNO. IV. U

278 Haunts of the Condor in Peru.

HAUNTS OF THE CONDOR IN PERU.
BY WM. BOLLAERT, F.R.G.S. 3

THERE are three routes by which Iquique, the scene of the
following adventures, may be reached. The first, and most
general, at the period adverted to (1826), was by “‘ doubling’
Cape Horn, and then pursuing a north course in the Pacific; the
second, by the River Plata, braving its fierce pamperos, taking
a gallop of a thousand miles over the pampas to the once smiling
Mendoza—lately destroyed, with nearly all its inhabitants, by
a fearful earthquake—making the passage of the mighty Andes,
descending to Chile, and embarking at Valparaiso for the
‘coast of Peru ; the third, which is the one now usually followed,
is by steamer from Southampton to the West Indies, and across
the Caribbean Sea to Colon (a distance of about 4800 miles) the
Atlantic port of the Isthmus of Darien; here we finda railroad
forty-eight miles in length, over which one is whisked, through .
one of the most beautiful, natural, and tropical gardens in the
world to the city of Panama. Off you go again, by steamer,
towards the south, crossing the equator, and if not cloudy you
may get a peep at Chimborazo, and remain a couple of days at
Jima, founded by Pizarro, and where he was assassinated, and.
long celebrated as the ‘‘ heaven of women, purgatory of men,
and ‘ other place’ of jackasses’”—the meaning of which is that
the Limeiias are beautiful, the men are enslaved by them, and
the donkeys cruelly cudgelled by their negro drivers.

Leaving Callao, the port of Lima, you pass the considerable
ruims—more ancient than Manco Capac and his dynasty—of the
city and temple of Pachacamac, built by rulers called Curysman-
cus, the last of whom were conquered by the later Incas ; you
look in at the Chincha Islands, from which so much guano is ex-
tracted, and may get a peep at the volcano of Arequipa. You
continue along a high arid coast, seldom or never watered by
the shghtest shower of rain, and steam through a most pacific
sea, which, during the hot summer months, looks like a saline,
half seething, cauldron.

In latitude 20° 12’ south and 70° 14’ west, you arrive at
Iquique, now well known as being the principal port for the
shipment of nitrate of soda, which is found im very great
quantities a few leagues up the country, on a table-land 3000
feet above the level of the sea. It is the principal harbour of
the province of Tarapacé. In 1826 it contained only a few
fishermen and their families: it now shelters a population of
5000 souls, and according to recent accounts could boast of an
Italian opera, although it is situated on a complete saline,

lor in Peru.

Conc

Haunts of the Condor in Peru. 279

shelly, and sandy desert. No fresh water can be got by
digeine, so water for drinking is distilled from that of the
ocean, and food is supplied pr incipally from Chile. The history
of ate place—its hospitality, customs, and manners—would
make a curious and interesting chapter, the more particularly
as its rapid growth has been the consequence of the discovery
of nitrate of soda in the adjacent region.

The writer of the present paper, with his old and valued
friend, Don Jorge, when there, in 1826, superintending the
working of a silver mine at Huantajaya, were the only foreign-
ers in the province. These mines, like the majority im this dis-
trict, are in the desert mountains of the coast, at an elevation
of from 3000 to 6000 feet high, where there is neither moisture
nor vegetation. Water had to be brought to them from a dis-
tance of thirty miles, in bags made of sheep-skins; and this
journey through a broiling sun did not tend to increase the
palatableness of the liquid.

Water for the use of man being so scarce, it was at times
next to an impossibility to allow it to animals; and the writer
has often had to trudge on foot from Iquique to Huantajaya,
which, although only seven or eight miles, is a most fatiguing
journey, over a burning pla, up a wearisome sandy ascent,
along the base of the high escarped mountain range, and finish-
ing with a grand tug up the “caracol,” or zig-zag road, the
summit of which is nearly 2000 feet above the level of the sea,
with yawning chasms and jagged peaks on either side. The
track then goes along a most desolate-lookimg route, covered
with patches of salt m cakes and nodules, and sun-incinerated
stones ; and to the left, among other ranges, is that of the silver
mountain of Huantajaya, sometimes called the Potosi of Peru.*

The silver produced from 1726 to 1826 was worth about fif-
teen millions of pounds sterling. Since 1826, and in conse-
quence of labour being diverted to the extracting, refinme, and
carrying the nitrate of soda to the coast, the annual yield has
fallen to about six thousand pounds. The mimes of Santa
Rosa, within sight of Huantajaya, have likewise afforded consi-
derable supplies of the same metal.

The ordinary route from the mines down to the coast is not
difficult, most of it being an easy descent ; but there is a “ short
cut”? by the Lomas of Guantaca, and very much steeper than the
other. It was by the former that Don Jorge and myself arranged
to go to Iquique, our object also bemg to explore the country
and behold the reported ‘ panizos,’”’ or indications of metallic
veins in the mountains.

So, one morning, each with his alforjas, or saddle-bags,
contaimmg a gourd full of water and some “ provend,” slung

* The original Potosi is in Bolivia,

280 Haunts of the Condor in Peru.

over the shoulders, Don Jorge with his sketch-book, myself with
geological hammer and chisel, we sallied forth from Huanta-
jaya, a town built of caliche, or salt and earthy matters found
on the surface, and supplying the readiest material at hand.
Not the slightest vegetation was to be seen—it was a very pic-
ture of utter desolation.

Journeying up the ravine of San Guillermo, we halted to
survey the old silver mines and ruins of Coronel, and the thick
beds of a kind of fossil oyster shell, at nearly 3000 feet above
the sea—the silver vems having apparently pierced this an-
cient mass of organic matter. Then followed a couple of hours
more trudging under a burning sun and cloudless sky, up
and down, and crossing ravines, and along sandy laderas or
sides of mountains, stopping to examime here and there the
protruding edges of silver veins, and wondering how so much
salt, generally in nodules, could have got there. The un-
learned said it had been left there when the sea retired from
the land. This is improbable; but after some research in
these regions it would appear to the writer that the great quan-
tity of salt, which is on the surface only, is most likely formed
by infiltration from the Andean regions, where he has seen
interminable salt plains at 14,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea.
He has succeeded in tracing the salt percolation downwards to a
lower country, say to 3000 feet above the sea, the saline waters
keeping near the surface, and containing, in addition to the chlo-
ride of sodium, boracic, iodic, chromic and other salts.* This
saline water has been met with in one of the mines of Huan-
tajaya.

Salt was then found in such quantities that ship loads were
taken from the vicinity of the silver mines of Santa Rosa, and
thirty years afterwards there was another crop on the same
ground. One proof that this saltis not of oceanic origin is, that
itis nearly a pure chloride of sodiwm, and as it appears to be
brought by infiltration from the Andes, it may claim a yol-
canic origin by the direct combination of chlorime and sodium.

We will rest awhile, take a little bread and charqui (sun-
dried beef), a draught of water, and a cigar, in the ruined
corales of Guantaca. These corales, or enclosures, had been
used by the Indian fishermen of the coast when out hunting

* NITRATE or Sopa.—In 1830 only 900 tons were exported, but in 1859 there
were nearly 79,000 tons. In 1860 it was calculated that there was some
63,000,000 tons of native nitrate on the ground, so that at the present rate of
extraction it would take about 1400 years to work it up.

It would appear that common salt brought down by ravines and percolation
from the Andes, in process of time undergoes nitrification, being now in company
with lime and the nitrogen of the air, by a process at present not easily explained
—the chlorine of the sodium going to the lime, forming chloride of calcium, and a
nitrate of soda being produced.

Haunts of the Condor in Peru. 281

hwanacos, which, during the spring months of these regions,
called by the natives ‘El Tiempo de Flores,” roam about in
search of the spare pasture occasionally found on the summits
of the mountains of the coast. This peculiarly-placed vegeta-
tion—constituting the flower spots of the desert—consists of
some twenty to thirty species of plants, many of them small
bulbs producing white and blue flowers. There is also much of
the oxalis, and some giantic cacti, thirty or forty feet high and
ten or fifteen in girth, with yellow blossoms.

The morning breeze had died away, and the scorching sun
was in its zenith, when we commenced the ascent of the steep
ravine of Guantaca, deeply strewed with angular stones, formed
by the breaking away of its rocky walls, which are composed on
one side of granite and on the other porphyry. On the gran-
itic side of this sombre and melancholy-looking spot, grew here
and there the gigantic cactus trees of the kind just mentioned ;
and at their bases lay small heaps of dead bulimi, whitened by
exposure, and on the leaves others in a live state, with shells
of a brown hue; there were three or four species of them.
There were no cacti on the porphyritic rocks; and the greater
fertility of the granite arises from its containing so much
soluble alcali as to be more easily decomposed by the dews
at night and the intense heat of the sun during the day, and
thus affording a comparatively nutritious material for the plants
—soil it can scarcely be called.

The stillness of the scene was most impressive; all that we
heard was our tramp over the track, and now and then the
sight chirrup of a little slate-coloured bird, the ‘‘ come sebo,”
or fat-eater.

Instead of contimuing our course up the ravine to its pass,
and then descending by the ordinary track to Iquique, we bore
off to the right, picking our way over and through masses of
granitic rock for a considerable time, not with the intention of
making a “ short cut,” but to explore the “ Lomas,” or sum-
mits of the mountains of the coast. This we did to our heart’s
content, having traversed a district probably never before
visited by a white man.

From some of the passes and summits we had a glorious
view of the wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean; from our
elevation and proximity we appeared to be looking into it, not
along it; and the horizon being on a level with the eye, ap-
peared like a line almost withm our grasp. A little to our left
stood Iquique and its guano island, which we could see as if it
were in plan, and two small guano vessels im the offing were at
such an angle that we thought we could perceive the very
decks.

After fasting our eyes upon so peculiar a sight, we medi-

282 Haunts of the Condor in Peru.

tated about our descent to Iquique, which we anticipated would
be rather amusing, for it was sure to be steeper than the
Guantaca track. Having had some experience in clambermg
about the badly- worked mines of Huantajaya, we imagined our-
selves fit for any emergency. Now and then we called out to
one another, “Take care ;”’ “ Mind that piece of rock you are
standing on, it looks rather loose ;” or “ That lump of rock above
does not want much of an earthquake-shake to send 1t down ;”
for earthquakes are almost of daily occurrence in that region.
Onwards we went, having to pick our way with the greatest
caution ; above us were the rugged peaks, below us the abrupt
declivity going down to the very ocean. Had giddiness seized
us and caused a false step, it would have been our last.

My companion was in advance, and as he had been to sea

in his younger days, he had a better knack of balancmg him-

self whilst progressing and springing over bad places. At
length this paseo, or ramble, began to tire us, and although
Iquique appeared as if at our feet, we were not in a position
to make anything like a straight course to it; and, after a
little time, we got into a most awkward position as the moun-
tain became much rounded on the steep descending slope;
our footway was of decomposing granite, which we felt had
only to be heavily trod on, and then away would slide down
a portion of the coating of the hill. Occasionally pieces of rock
would fall, and the way they made their descent showed too
plainly how we should go if we fell.

Our course became worse. I was brought to a stand still,
and not beimg able to ascend or descend, was obliged to poise
myself most carefully. I now commenced cutting foot holes,
working myself round a projecting bluff, when I came in sight
of Don Jorge scrambling up to a withered cactus, astride of
which he got, so as to take a rest. He soon shouted, “ Look
out, Don Guillermo, here come a lot of condors, we must take
care of ourselves.” I looked up and around, and sure enough
I saw the condors whirling round in circles, the circles getting
smaller as they approached us. Other condors were in the
distance, all apparently of the same flock. ‘They had doubtless
seen us for some time from one of their look-outs, probably the
Morro of Tarapaca, about nine miles off, in a straight line, and
some 3000 feet higher than we were.

Two of the lare est of the condors would approach at inter-

vals, in rather too close a proximity to my friend, when he
would shout his loudest, and bang stones at them, ‘sometimes
hitting our enemy; this seemed to astonish the bir ds, and we
could see them gently shake their wings.

I had some hovering about me, but one kept itself in a line,
as if it intended to come butt up against me. These were

>

Launts of the Condor in Peru. 283

fearful moments for us both. I could observe Don Jorge’s
exposed situation, and that, if the decayed branch of cactus
gave way, he would be hurled down and dashed to pieces. As
to myself he could see that a portion of my body was projecting
- over a precipice.

I stood on the defensive with the geological hammer in my
right hand, whilst my left was stuck in a hole in the loose
granitic stuff for support. If I had been compelled to have
struck an assailmg condor with my hammer, the chances
were that such a movement would have dislodged me, and down
the rock I must have gone. I had previously, and have since
been, in personal “ difficulties,” but never so near being rolled
down a precipice, dashed to pieces, and made food for condors.

Whilst this skirmishing was going on, my companion cried
out, informing me that at the bottom of the not very deep break
that separated us, there was a collection of sand, and the only
way of extricating ourselves irom our present perilous situation,
was to do our best and jump into the sand below. Once there,
we should be a better match for the condors, pelt them at our
ease, and then see who would have the best of the fight.

Watching an opportunity when his assailant had veered off
a little, he left his somewhat uneasy position on the cactus,
which still retamed a quantity of its spmes, took a jump, and
Janded without broken bones on the patch of sand beneath.

I now left my cramped and awkward berth, putting myself
into a jumping attitude, whilst Don Jorge stationed himself
below so as to break my fall. I took the leap, or rather a
sort of flight, coming lengthways upon my face, sliding some
distance down in the sand. Thankful, indeed, were we, that
we had been thus protected from an untimely death.

Once on the sandy spot we sat down, and could observe
without fear the bold and graceful whirling course of the
condors, and when any of them darted, out ‘of their circle of
flight, to approach us, we could pelt at them ; although few if
any of our missiles reached them. We watched and pelted at
these kings of the feathered tribe, until they concluded that we
were not designed for their consumption, and slowly drew off
in the direction of the Morro de Tarapaca, where doubtless they
had their resting place durimg their visits to the coast, and
from whence they could, with their wonderfully far-seeing eye,
scan on the desert tracks below, carrion, in the shape of a dead.
mule, or ass, or the body of a defunct whale on the sea-shore.

It is hoped that the scenes I have attempted to delineate
will assist my readers in picturing the condor at home. The
wild creatures of the forest or the desert cannot be under-
stood and appreciated if severed from their natural surround-
ings ; and now that I have endeavoured to show the character

284: Haunts of the Condor in Peru.
of their haunts, I may be permitted to add a few particulars
which I collected while residing im their vicinity.

The condor, or Sarcoramphus gryphus, the huitre of the
Spaniards, is one of the largest of the vulture tribe. Its breedmg

places are in the Andes of South America, at great elevations. .

Tts food is carrion, but it will attack lambs and goats, or the
young of the llama genus, ‘Two, it is said, will fight a lama,
a heifer, or even a puma. In Chili they are known to roost.
on trees, when the guasso, or countryman, climbs up and
lassoes them. It is reported, that the condor, makes no nest,
that the female lays two large white eggs on a bare rock, like
most raptorial birds, and the young are unable to fly before a

ear.
: Tschudi, who had good opportunities of studying the habits
of this bird, tells us, that it hatches its young in April and May.
The full grown bird measures from the poimt of the beak to the
end of the tail, from 4 feet 10 inches to 5 feet, and from the
tip of one wing to that of the other, 12 to 13 feet, When flyme
it cannot carry a weight of more than eight to ten pounds.

The condor passes the greater portion of the day in sleep ;
hovering in quest of prey chiefly in the morning and evening.
While soaring at a height beyond the reach of human eye, the
sharp sighted bird discovers his quarry beneath him, and darts
down upon it with the swiftness of lightning. ‘'T'schudi kept a
young one at Lima, and to prevent its escape, when it was able
to fly, fastened a chain to its leg, to which was attached a
piece of iron of six pounds weight. When it was a year and
a half old it flew off, with both chain and iron, and perched
upon the spire of a church, whence it was scared away by the
carrion hawks. On alighting in the street, a negro attempted
to catch him, upon which the bird seized the negro by the ear,
and tore it off. The condor then attacked a negro child of three
years old, threw him on the ground, and knocked him on the
head so severely that the child died. This bird died on his
passage to Europe.

The writer’s first acquaintance with condors was in Chile, in
1825, whilst hunting the puma in the Cordillera, above the hot
baths of Colina. Thereabouts this fine bird may often be seen
descending from the Andean regions, hovering in the air and
on the look out for dead cattle. In Peru they range from the
sea coast to an elevation of 16,000 or 17,000 feet in the Cor-
dillera ; the writer particularly noticed them when he ascended
the Andean peak of Tata Jachura, in the province of Tara-
| paca, with his friend, Don Jorge. This peak is 17,000 feet
high at least. His next meeting with them was in the attack
at Iquique, and he has since observed them in the desert of
Atacama.

Haunts of the Condor in Peru. 285

It is generally asserted that condors are only seen in groups
of three or four, but never in large companies, like vultures.
This is hardly the case, for in our narrative it may be observed
that the attack was made by a rather large flock of them. In
1854, the writer saw a group of fifty condors, near the Caracol,
or zig-zag road at Iquique. He was also informed that a hundred
or more may be seen hovering over the cattle estates in Chile.
In 1820-3, when there was whale-fishing off Coquimbo, the offal
would float on shore, and as many as two or three hundred
would collect to gorge on the remains. I was once exploring
with Don Jorge the mountain of Molle, near the nitrate of
soda works of La Noria, on the summit of which there is an
abandoned silver mine. Having entered it to rest and get out
of the mtense heat of the sun for awhile, we very soon had
to make our exit in consequence of becoming thickly covered
with what we afterwards learnt were the lice of the condor.
Such a locality is called their alojanviento, restmg-place, or
look-out. On another occasion, exploring some high moun-
tains overlooking the great saline table-land of Tamarugal, and
where the newly discovered salts of borax exist, we came upon
another condor alojamiento, on an exposed rocky crag, but
here we only observed a collection of their ordure. It is from
such a spot that the condor watches for dead and dying mules,
on the tracks to or from the various oficinas or nitrate works.

I once observed a young condor perched on the sore back
pecking at the wound of a mule who had just strength enough
to slowly crawl along. I drove the bird away, and shot the
mule.

In 1852, whilst Don Jorge was travelling from Iquique to
the Noria, a condor fell from a great height, just before him
and his party, and was quite dead; had it fallen on any of them,
the individual must have been unhorsed and bruised.

It might be expected that such a remarkable bird would
make its appearance in the local mythologies, and we find
that the worship of the condor, together with that of serpents,
and other animals, was celebrated in the early times of Peru.
On the pre-Incarial monuments of Tia-Huanaco, situated to
the south of Lake Titicaca, are sculptured the heads of large
birds, most probably intended for the condor, and likely to have
received the adoration of the builders of those most ancient
remains,

286 M. Faye on Solar Repulsion.

M. FAYH ON SOLAR REPULSION.*

Ir follows from a consideration of all the facts relating to the
acceleration of comets, and of the forms they assume, that there
exists in celestial space a repulsive force, exerted by the surface
of the sun; that this force is due to incandescence, and operates
like attraction at all distances. The physical phenomena which
surround us afford striking indications of a force of this
nature, and we can put them im evidence by causing an incan-
descent surface to act under the conditions which are revealed
to us by the study of astronomical effects. There is thus an
identity between the two forces which have their origin in heat,
just as there is an identity between celestial attraction and
terrestrial attraction, as shown by the fall of heavy bodies m the
celebrated experiments of Maskeleyne and Cavendish. But
repulsion exerted at a distance by an incandescent surface can-
not be a different thing from the molecular repulsion which is
equally due to heat, the force to which physicists attribute the
phenomena of dilatation, of changes in the state of bodies, and
their elasticity m the gaseous form. We arrive, then, at the
conclusion that there exists in nature a force not less general
than attraction, and which, like attraction, manifests itself m
celestial spaces as well as in molecular intervals.

There is, however, a difficulty which seems to oppose this
complete identification. The molecular repulsion due to heat
has always been considered as a force which disappears at any
appreciable distance from its centre of action, and it has this
character, whether we admit with Newton an interruption of
continuity, or prefer to have recourse with Laplace to the remark-
able hypothesis of forces whose sphere of activity does not
extend to sensible distances. . . . . Laplace thus expresses
himself on this subject. After having calculated the pressure
in a gaseous mass, bounded by a spherical envelope, in accord-
ance with the hypothesis of a repulsive force with an indefinite
sphere of activity ; he shows that the law of repulsion adopted
by Newton is far from representing the conditions which this
constant pressure exhibits, and he then remarks, “This great
geometer does indeed assign to this law of repulsion an imsen-
sible sphere of activity ; but the manner in which he explains
its wants of continuity is little satisfactory. We must, without
doubt, admit a repulsive force between the molecules of the air,
which is only operative at imperceptible distances. The diffi-
culty consists in deducing from it the laws of elastic fluids, and
this can only be done by the following considerations.” These

considerations take for their poimt of departure, the formula’

* Translated from the Comptes Rendus, 10th March, 1862-

aa

M. Faye on Solar Repulsion. 287

by which the mutual attraction of spherical bodies is determined,
and a simple change of sign enables us to pass from a case of
attraction to one of repulsion.

No one will deny the necessity for this narrow limitation of
the sphere of activity assigned to molecular force, but must we
therefore conclude with Laplace that it is a special force, dis-
tinct from the great forces of nature which operate at all
distances? No. It is easy to see that the repulsion due to
heat, and defined by its astronomical characters, exhibits
precisely the phenomena of forces with an imsensible sphere
of activity, although in free space it operates at all distances.
That which conceals the true explanation, is that our minds, for
a long time habituated to speculations on Newtonian attraction,
experience a difficulty in considermg forces of a totally differ-
ent nature, and if we speak of repulsion we conceive of it only
as an attraction with a change of sign, and philosophers like
Bessel only see a negative attraction in the repulsion so visibly
exerted by the sun. But it is not so; solar repulsion as exhi-
bited in the movements and figures of comets, differs widely
from a negative attraction, first by its successive propagation,
and secondly, that it does not pass through matter as the attrac-
tive force does. It is im this last characteristic that we find the
key of the difficulty, and it is in harmony with all the evidence
collected m my researches, and on which I have had to insist
so often during the last three years. For if we consider the
essential character of the repulsive force we shall easily perceive
that it assumes in all bodies the conditions of a force with an
_Insensible sphere of activity. Hach molecule of a body is in
fact surrounded, at an imappreciable distance, by other mole-
cules which receive its repulsive influence, and at the same time
behave to it like a screen. And as these molecules are not
mathematical points, and as their dimensions are considerable
when compared with the intervals which separate them, the ©
repulsion due to heat—an action of surface, exhausting itself on
the surface of the body which it affects—will find itself sensibly
reduced beyond the limits of the molecules surrounding each
centre of action. We may further conceive that the radius
of this boundary, that is to say, the sphere of activity of each
molecule, may be equal toa definite number of times the inter-
val between the several molecules, and thus, belonging to the
same order of minute magnitudes as they do, may be equally in-
appreciable. To this remark M. Faye adds in a note that instead
of bemg an absolute quantity this radius may depend upon tem-
perature, and he then observes: Thus the repulsive force which
acts at all distances in celestial spaces, finds itself reduced in the
interior of bodies to an action at insensible distances, and con-
sequently in all that concerns the mechanical action of heat, a

288 Hybernation of Fungi.

special hypothesis, like that of Laplace, is useless, as every-
thing is explamed on the supposition of a force distinct from
Newtonian attraction, but not less general im its operation. Is it
not remarkable that we have had to seek in the heavens for the
essential characteristics of the two great forces which govern
the material universe ?

HYBERNATION OF FUNGI—THE GENUS
SCLEROTIUM.

BY THE REV. MILES JOSEPH BERKELEY, M.A., F.L.S.

Up to a very recent date the science of Mycologogy was over-
laid by a host of spurious genera and species, destitute of every
trace of fructification, and often of most uncertain origin and
affinity, and in consequence quite unworthy of admission into
any arrangement professing to be natural. The eyes of one or
two first rate mycologists were first well opened to their true
character about forty years ago, when Fries propounded the wise
rule that no fungus should be admitted into the system whose
fruit was wholly unknown, or whose affinities were so doubt-
ful, that the nature of the fruit could not be readily divined. He
did not indeed always keep himself to his own rule, and perhaps
it was impossible for him, at that time, to do so, but the great
host of mycologists, whether of greater or less considera-
tion, instead of profiting by his advice, still clung to their
own “mumpsimus” and burdened science with multitudes of
Himantic, Rhizomorphe, and other equally imperfect organisms.
It was easy enough, indeed, for any one who was inclined to
make use of his eyes, to see that many of these were merely
the spawn of various fungi, in imperfect conditions, or arising
from abnormal places of growth. A morning’s search after
fungi in our woods and forests could scarcely fail to convince
one that many a white Himantia was due to the common
species of Marasmius, which occur on oak leaves, or to some
well-known Agaric, such as Agaricus dryophyllus, and as little
could it escape notice that Phlebomorpha was merely the early
condition of some T'rinchia or allied genus. Still such genera
were retained by authors with the utmost tenacity, and perhaps
for one reason amongst others, that they were easy to recognize
by some empirical process, without any of the difficulties which
almost always attend the precise determination of genuine
species.

Though Fries, with that peculiar tact which has characterized
his career as an observer and has assigned him one of the highest

Hybernation of Fungi. 289

places amongst modern botanists, was eagled-eyed about the
ereater part of these spurious productions, with one or two
exceptions, the most prominent of which will be noted presently,
he was strangely misled by Unger and others as to the nature
of those rust-like parasitic fungi which grow on living leaves,
and constitute one of the greatest scourges of the cultivator.
Though in reality amongst the most imteresting of fungi, and
most instructive in regard of affinity, as well as in other impor-
tant respects, he regarded them as scarcely worthy a botanist’s
notice; and, indeed, though at times impressed with more or
less of philosophic doubt, he was inclined with Unger to regard
them as mere abnormal developments of the cellular tissue of
plants, analogous in plants to the exanthemata of animals.

Our business is not, however, with such productions at
present, but with those compact fleshy or horny cellular bodies
which occur so often in the guise of little flat cakes, irregular
tuberiform masses, or seed-hke organisms of a more or less
definite form on decayed plants, whether more or less naked or
buried in the midst of their pith, or other tissues, and more rarely
on animal substances, which have been referred by authors to
Sclerotiwm, and one or two allied genera. Fries still adheres to
the notion that many of these are autonomous, and I have
myself ventured to express an opinion that though the greater
part are spurious, there may possibly be some which bear fruit,
and are not mere conditions of other fungi, though the more
the matter is considered the less reason there is to believe this
possible.

In the Systema Mycologicwm, while Fries confesses that they
have affinities with every order of fungi, he states as his opinion

Fie. 2.—Thin slice from surface of Fra. 3.—Thin vertical slice of Scle-
Sclerotium complanatum highly rotium minutum highly magnified.
magnified.

that they are, according to the “ notio idealis,” Coniomycetes
congested into a sort of hymenium. The notion was perhaps
the most unfortunate that he could have formed, for with the
exception of Sclerotiwm betulinum, and about three allied species,
none of which are properly Sclerotia, they have no relation at
all to Coniomycetes. In the year 1824 the cellular structure of
the cuticle of Sclerotiwm semen, and more especially the waved

290 Hybernation of Fungi.

superficial cells in S. complanatwm, so like those of the cuticle of
many leaves, convinced me that there was much to make out
about these plants, and soon after Dr. Greville’s attention was
called by me to the subject. A few years afterwards, on com-
mencing an active correspondence with Fries, I pointed out to
him the origi of Sclerotiwm pyrinuwm from the common Peni-
cillium, and the necessity of modifying his notions as to their
affinities. This Sclerotiwm, moreover, though evidently derived
from the Penicillium, consisted, like other legitimate forms of
the spurious genus, of a compact mass of cells, and not merely
of close packed threads capable of being resolved by careful
manipulation mto the original flocci, which appears to have
been the case with some supposed Sclerotia of similar origin,
which were, in fact, nothing more than unusually compact
examples of that state of Penicilluwm which has received the

Fid. 8.— Mucor Subtilissimus springing Fic. 9.—Mucor Subtilissimus spring-

from the tip of an Onion whose bulb ing from a thin slice of Selerotiwm
was covered with Sclerotium Cepe, Cepe placed in a drop of fluid in a
' highly magnified. closed cell, highly magnified.

name of Coremium. In 1848, in conjunction with Mr. Hoff-
mann of Margate, I succeeded in making a thin shce of the
minute Selerotiwm (S. Cepe, Libert), which occurs sometimes in
myriads, like the grains of coarse gunpowder, on onions, vege-
tate in a closed cell; and the result was the production of a
minute species of mould which is figured in the Jowrnal of
the Horticultural Society of London for that year, under the
name of Mucor subtilissimus. This was, of course, a step m
the same direction as the tracing the origin of Sclerotiwm pyrt-

—- eee = =

Hybernation of Fungi. 291

num to the Penicilliwm. It had, however, been observed for
some time that various hymenomycetous fungi were constantly
connected with Selerotia, and, in some cases, as in
Agaricus tuberosus, Typhula erythropus, and Peziza
tuberosa, the connection was so intimate, that it
was matter of doubt whether the one was not a
mere condition of the other. It has been left for
modern observers to confirm this notion com-
pletely, and it is now well ascertaied that plants
of various affinities are capable of assuming a scle-
rotioid condition, in which they pass a greater or
less time, according to circumstances, until a fa-
vourable opportunity arises for their complete de-
velopment. Fie. 5.

Though many observations have already been Typhula ery-
made, much remains to be done, and we can “opus, nat.
scarcely conceive any more full of interest to the
mycologist than those which may be made amongst these curi-
ous productions.

Sclerotia occur everywhere amongst decaying vegetable
matter. The surface of the stems of our large herbaceous
plants yield more than one; their pith, as for example, that of
the sunflower or bulrush, yields others; several may be found
on carrots and other roots, or tubers heaped up m cellars, and two
at least on bulbs of onions in the garden. The tan of our stoves
is frequently productive, the cow dung which has been exposed
to the weather in our fields, decaying leaves, in woods and gar-
dens, blettmg or mouldy fruit, the roots of mosses, but more
especially laree decaying fungi like Lactarius adustus, which
are driven about by the winds in our woods, afford a multi-
plicity of subjects for experiment. It may be remarked that
many Spheeric in an early state of growth, as Spheria pheo-
comes, for instance, appear under the form of Selerotia. In-
deed, many of the compound species either assume at times
sclerotioid character, or the parts of the stroma which are
ultimately destined to produce the asci, consist at first of a uni-
form cellular mass. This is especially observable in the genus
Dothidea and Hypocrea, imperfect individuals of which might be
referred without violence to the genus.

Nor must we pass unnoticed the productions of a similar
nature which occur on anatomical preparations left for macera-
tion or preserved in weak spirit. Even living bodies are not
entirely without such organisms, or at least some which simu-
late them very closely. The fungus-foot of India, of which
such an interesting account was published by Dr. Carter of
Bombay, last year, is a case in point, though we are not certain
whether the dark truffle-hke bodies, some of them as large as

292 - Hybernation of Fungi.

walnuts, which fill up as a bullet in its mould the more or less
globose cavities which are hollowed out in the carious bones,
consist of tissue so intimately compacted as to lose the character
of threads entirely, and to justify their association with true
Sclerotia. 'The specimens kindly forwarded by Dr. Carter in
spirits, were perhaps more in favour of such an association than
the drawings made from the specimens when fresh.

The greater part of these productions may be made to yield
their proper fruit, either by covering them lightly with soil in a
well-drained garden pot, and preserving them at once from too
rapid evaporation, or from a degree of damp likely to generate
mould by a bell glass either entirely closed, partially open
above, or gently tilted. It will be necessary also to modify the
light according to circumstances, the degree in which this may
be needful, being entirely matter of experience. In other
cases it will be better not to cover the Sclerotia with soil at all,
but to place the leaves and sticks which bear them as nearly as
possibly in their natural condition, while in others, the lower

art of the mother-plant may be immersed in water in a wide
mouthed bottle, the orifice being more or less completely closed,
as may be judged best. Any one who has succeeded in raising
the curious fungi of which ergoted grains are a condition, from
the black spur-hke bodies, will at once see what a fund of
amusement is before the observer. Sometimes an Agaric or
Coprinus will reward his care; some-
times a Clavaria, sometimes a Peziza,
not unfrequently a Pis-
tillaria or Typhula, while
sometimes he must con-
tent himself, as in the case Si
of Sclerotium durum and yyeg.4,— aes
its varieties, or closely quisquiliaris, nat.
allied forms, with some ‘*i®
humble mould. If he is in warmer coun-
tries than our own he may chance to have
a good crop of edible fungi, though we
must exclude the far-famed Pietra Fun-
gaja which is so prized in Italy for the
excellent fungi which spring from the
tuberous masses of earth and spawn when
moistened, because it is not really a Sele-
votium. Ergot must also be excluded, as
ait oth DA it has several material points of diffe-
an SbiSponenl Loh lana. rence, though the cultivation for the pro-
tum, nat. size. duction of its more perfect form is pre-
cisely similar to that mentioned above.
If he has been diligent in collecting specimens from decayed

é
i

a

ee a ee oe

Hybernation of Fungi. 293

agarics, he may be fortunate enough to raise Agaricus race-

mosus, which is one of the most singular species

of fungi ever recorded, presenting him with two

distinct forms of fructification on the same root.
As an instance of the pleasure derived from

this source, we may instance the success of Mr.

Currey, whois doing so much for fungi, m raising

a beautiful Peziza from the little pink fleshed
Sclerotium Knevffit which occurs not

es unfrequently in the pith of Scirpus

: palustris and Juncus conglomeratus

when fallen to the ground, and con- te

/ stantly saturated with moisture. , IKE 1G.

| Salis garicus race-

gx) But this is not the only pleasure neues

which the mycologist may antici-

pate. He will soon perceive that the attentive

cultivation of these Sclerotia will enable him to

= discriminate satisfactorily many closely allied
14. 7. : :

Peziza Curreyi Species. Sclerotium complanatum, and S. scutel-
on Selerotium latum,for example, both produce a Pistillaria, and
Kneiffiz, nat. the two at first sight may be considered as iden-
ee tical, but cultivation will doubtless give a nicer

discrimination than we have at present respecting them. So

again there is a Peziza which springs from a white fleshed

Sclerotiwm, very like Peziza Curreyi, which, as said above, is

due toa pink fleshed kind, and other instances might be adduced.

Much information will be found on the subject in Tulasne’s new

work, Fungorum Carpologia, which contains a mass of informa-

tion unequalled in any work with which I am acquainted. One
of the most curious instances that he adduces of a fungus
appearing in a dormant state under a sclerotioid form, is that
of the cobweb-like Corticiwnm arachnoidewm, which is common
in almost every wood on fallen sticks, forming a very thin white
film, spreading over, but not adhering, like so many of its rela-
tions, to the matrix, the very last fungus perhaps one would
suppose likely to assume sucha form. From the sterile threads
there arise sometimes in great numbers, sometimes more
sparingly, little velvety white heads, which gradually become
smooth, acquiring a light red or bay tinge, and, in fact, are so
many globose or irregular Sclerotia of various dimensions, from
that of a poppy seed to that of a hemp seed, or even more. These
are at length of a deep chesnut or somewhat variegated, and
consist of an extremely solid mass of cells. They remain
either attached to the matrix or fall to the ground, and wher.
the proper season comes round reproduce the web-like fungus.

Tulasne remarks further that it will be matter of wonder to

many that a delicate byssoid fungus, such as Corticiwm arach-
VOL. IL—No. IV. x

294. Hybernation of Fungi.

noidewm, should be capable of cultivation. A quantity of these
Sclerotia on dry bark, were collected by himself, m conjunction
with his brother, in winter, and in the followmg April were
placed in sand. They remamed dormant till the end of summer,
when the surface of the sand began to be covered witha very de-
licate web, which in the middle of September had spread in
every direction, and continued to do so for months, though indi-
vidual Sclerotia dug up in the month of October, seemed quite
unaltered in size, colour, or density. He remarks, moreover,
that the formation of a previous mycelium from the Sclerotium
is without example so far as his observations go, the fungus
arising in other cases immediately from the Sclerotiwm ; though
Léveillé makes a different statement in his paper on Sclerotia in
the 20th volume of the second series of Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, which will be found well worth attention.

A taste for the cultivation of cryptogamic plants in general
iS gainine ground in this country very fast. Not only are ferns
favourite objects of cultivation, but houses are now devoted to
mosses and liverworts, many of which grow admirably when
guarded against the attacks of the white mycelium of a little scar-
let Nectria, which if not constantly rubbed off, soon makes dread-
ful havoc amongst them. That fungi admit of extensive culti-
vation cannot be doubted, when the luxuriance of such agarics
as A. Cepestipes, A. clypeolarius, and A.volvacews, and, 1 may
add, their beauty in our stovesis taken into consideration. The
Australian Aserée rubra, one ogthe most interesting and beauti-
ful, though not the most sweet scented of fungi, once made its
appearance at Kew, as did the lovely Marasmius heematocephalus
with its blood-red pileus, slender fawn coloured stem, and
cream coloured hymenium. Many species could undoubtedly
be imported, and especially those which m a dormant state
assume the condition of Sclerotia. Our native Sclerotia will
not indeed produce many species of brilliant colour, but their
progeny often exhibit an elegance of form and delicacy of tint
which command admiration from every lover of the intrinsically
beautiful. We trust, then, that the time may not be far distant,
when there may be, besides the ordinary mushroom bed, a fun-
gus-house as well as a fern and moss house in every first-rate
establishment.

*
se

Steg e
chy

col in il
K \i
AN WS

rf

(yh

an

Md
\

ea

i
i
\|

Vine.

Roman

fioman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales. 295

ROMAN MINING OPERATIONS ON THE BORDERS
OF WALES.*

BY THOMAS WRIGHT, M.A., F.S.A.

Our history of the first establishment of the Romans in Britain
is very imperfect and very obscure. After a short campaign
under Claudius, A.p. 43 and 44, which appears to have been
carried on chiefly m the south, we find the Romans exercising a
superiority over all the eastern and central States, including
that of the Brigantes, and suddenly carrying nearly all their
forces to the borders of Wales. When Ostorius Scapula was
sent, in the year 50, to take the command of this distant pro-
vince, and to suppress the disorders which had arisen in it, he
made the Avon the base of his operations, and then marched
into the country of the Cangi, who evidently mhabited the
districts lymg on the northern coast of Wales. Beyond their
territory, the Romans came upon the sea that looked towards
the island of Ireland. They were called back from this con-
quest, first by a revolt of the Brigantes, and then by the more
resolute hostility of the Silures of South Wales, which led to
the defeat and capture of Caractacus. Under the government of
Suetonius Paulinus, in the year 61, the spirit of insurrection was
again active in Britain, and the Romans appear attaching the same
importance to that district of the Cangi; for his grand exploit
was the reduction of the island of Anglesey, because it was by
the Britons assembled there that the Cangi were continually
urged into revolt. The multitude of the Roman troops was
still collected in this quarter, and it was from thence that they
were taken to repress the more formidable insurrection of
Boadicea.

We might naturally inquire what was the particular cir-
cumstance which drew the attention of the Romans, at this
early period, so strongly to this distant part of Brita; and
a rather curious antiquarian discovery furnishes the reply. In
1783, a Roman pig of lead was found in Hampshire, bearing
the inscription—

NERONIS . AVG . HX . KIAN . IJIII . COS . BRIT

intimating that this lead was taken from the mimes in the
country of the Kiangi, or Cangi, in the fourth consulate of the
Emperor Nero. Now Nero’s fourth consulate began in the year

* Since this article was written, we learn that Mr. More of Linley Hall has
contributed to the International Exhibition a very elaborate model, on a large scale,
with plans and sections, of the Shelve mining district, in which all the remains
of the Roman mines are shown, and that he will exhibit in the same case the
various objects which were found in or in connection with the latter.

296 Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales.

60, so that this pig was probably cast in the year before Boadicea’s
revolt. It is clear, therefore, that 1t was the metallic riches
of the mountains on the border, and on the northern coast of
Wales, which drew the Romans thither at so early a period.
Britain had long had a celebrity for its richness m metals,
derived from the treasures carried from the south, and the
Romans would no doubt be attracted by any report of moun-
tainous districts. They had thus ata very early period fixed upon
the peak of Derbyshire; and in the mountams of the Welsh
border, their richness in metals must have been visible on the
surface, and would have caught the eye of the Roman metallur-
gists at the first glance.

There are evidences of a much more definite character, which
show the extent to which the Romans laboured on these metal-
liferous regions, and which will repay well the labours of the
scientific inquirer in exploring them. The attraction of these
researches is increased by the fact that the most imposmg
remains of the Roman mining operations are scattered through
by far the most lovely scenery of the Welsh border. We
may trace them from the wild country of the Forest of Dean,
and the beautiful Wye scenery in the south, through the hills
of Shropshire and Montgomeryshire, Cheshire, and the countries
of Flint and Denbigh, and through the ancient country of the
Cangi, or Kiangi, up to the shores of the Irish Channel. We
can only, im the space here allowed us, review this extent of
country briefly, but we will begin with the iron district in the
south.

The best position from which to visit the Roman mining
districts of the forest of Dean is Ross or Monmouth. Nearly
the whole country for some extent on both sides of the river
Wye, between those towns, has a deep substratum of the
scorie from the Roman iron works, sometimes lying close upon
the surface. I am told that in places the depth of scoriz has
been found to be from twelve to twenty feet, and I have myself
traced it on the surface over a considerable part of the district.
Coins and pottery of the Romans, and other objects, found fre-
quently among the scoriz, leave no room for doubt that the
latter were deposited there by that people.

Nor are their cinders the only remains of their iron works,
which that extraordinary people have left behind them in this
district. > In a turn of the river Wye, amid the beautiful scenery
between the ruins of Goodrich Castle and Monmouth, rise two
massive hills, called the Great and Little Dowards. ‘They con-
sist of mountain limestone, resting on the old red sandstone,
in the former of which the iron ore is here found. Both hills
have been largely mined by the Romans, and their manner of
proceeding on this occasion is explained fully by the entrance

Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales. 297

to one of their mines, which still remains on the site of the
Great Doward. They had excavated a large cavern into the
side of the hill, and wherever they came upon the vein of iron
ore, they followed it into the heart of the mountain. Thus from
the cavern, as it still exists, rude galleries run in more than one
direction, leading to successions of chambers made by the ex-
traction of theiron ore. The entrances from the outer cave are
now much clogged up, but they are said to have been entered
' and explored to a great depth underground. ‘They are, as is
frequently the case with such remains, the subject of many
popular legends of fairies which dwellin them, hidden treasures,
and the like, and the entrance cavern is called in the locality
“ King Arthur’s Hall.” On the adjacent Little Doward there
is an ancient entrenched inclosure, which had probably some
connection with the mines.

The Romans had, in this district, another method of
mining, or rather a modification of the same, which was
caused by the character of the ground. It is seen to
most advantage in the neighbourhood of Coleford, on the
Monmouth side of the Forest of Dean. Coleford is reached
most easily from Monmouth, through a country of moun-
tain and forest of the greatest beauty. It is situated upon
the same mountain limestone which here skirts the Forest of
Dean, and in which the iron ore is found; but here, as the
ground lies more level, and cannot be entered from the side of
a hill, the Romans began their operations} by sinking a large
pit—in some cases these pits are from twenty to thirty feet in
diameter—and when atthe bottom of this pit they came upon a
vein of ore, they followed it just as they did the veins fromthe cave
in the Great Doward.. These pits as they now remain are popu-
larly called scowles, a word the origin or meaning of which I
have not been able to discover. They have, as may be sup-
posed, rendered the ground on which they are situated very
uneven, and unfit for cultivation ; itis thus always overgrown
with copse and brushwood, and it requires some care on the
part of the explorer not to fall unawares into a pit. They are
seen to most advantage not far from a farm house, called, from
them, the Scowles Farm, about a mile to the westward of
Coleford. In one of these scowles which I examined, the
round pit, was nearly twenty feet deep, at which depth the
Romans had come upon a vein of ore, which they had followed
by a shaft, the entrance to which looks now something like
the mouth of a large oven. Without a light, and the other
necessary accoutrements of a miner, it was not advisable to
enter beyond a few feet; but a stone thrown in could be
heard rolling down for some seconds; and the cottagers stated
that some of these mines extended two or three hundred feet _

298 Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales.

- underground, and that they could easily descend them with
lanterns, and generally found clear water at the bottom. The
ore is of fibrous appearance, and so rich in metal that it often
looks like malleable iron, and pieces of it are picked up plen-
tifully about the Roman mines. That they are Roman we can
have little doubt, from the frequent discoveries of Roman coms
and pottery in and about the scowles.

Space will not allow of any detailed description of the scorize
which are found in such marvellous quantities over this district,
but which, nevertheless, present many circumstances worthy of
remark. There can be no doubt that wood was used im the smelt-
ine, as pieces of charcoal are often found imbedded in the
ciaders. The Roman process of smeltmg was evidently very
mperfect, for they still contam so much ore, that in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries they were carried away and
re-smelted on an extensive scale, and large quantities of iron
were thus obtained.*

This incredible quantity of the scoriz shows the immense
activity of the iron mines in this district during, no doubt, the
whole Roman period. They are traced also, I believe, in some
parts of Monmouthshire, but its neighbour Radnorshire is not
a mining district, and we find no further traces of the eagerness
of the Romans to profit by the existence of metallic treasures till
we reach the lead and copper fields of Salop and Montgomery.

The most important group of the Shropshire lead-producmg
mountains is that of the Stiperstones and its dependents, es-
pecially that which is known as Shelve Hill. My head-quarters
for exploring this district have always been at the hospitable man-
sion of an esteemed friend, the Rev. T. F. More of Linley Hall,
one of the most lovely spots in this island. Mr. More takes in his,
mining property all the interest of an antiquary and of a man of
science. ‘lhe park of Linley runs from the hall, first northward,
and then bending round to the west, along a narrow and
beautifully picturesque valley, between ranges of mountains,
a distance of about three miles, at the end of which we enter
the high road from Newtown and Bishop’s Castle to Minsterley.
Two miles along this road, towards the latter place, brings us to
a long mountain, extending nearly north and south, and parallel
to the Stiperstones, at a distance of some two miles to the west,
which is called, from the name of the parish in which it is
situated, Shelve Hill. This hill, the property of Mr. More,
is full of lead ore, which runs in almost horizontal veins from
east to west, turning a little towards the north-west, and when

* A more full account of the Roman ironworks in the Forest of Dean, and
also of those of the weald of Kent and Sussex, will be found in a little volume by

the author of the present paper, entitled Wanderings of an Antiquary, published
in 1854.

Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales. 299

the Romans came to these parts, all these veins cropped out on
the surface on the western side of the hill. The Romans, who
considered lead as a very valuable metal, were not likely to
overlook so open a manifestation of great wealth, for the ore
in this locality is particularly rich, and this locality was without
doubt the scene of some of their earliest mming operations.
Leadis the only metal produced from the British mines of which
we find the pigs bearing the imperial marks, and these pigs
have been found in rather considerable numbers. All such
pigs of the Roman period hitherto found under circumstances
which would lead us to suppose that they came from the Shelve
hill mines bear the same mark, that of the Emperor Hadrian
(a.D. 117—138), in the simple form—

IMP . HADRIANI . AVG

from which it would appear that the mines were in great activity
in the earlier part of the second century. Three of the pigs of
lead with this inscription are well preserved; one found on
Mr. More’s own property is to be seen among the curiosities
at Linley Hall; another, found in the parish of Snead, near
Linley, is now in Mr. Joseph Mayer’s museum, at Liverpool ;
and a third, found in the last century at Snailbeach, is de-
posited m the British Museum. With these facts before us,
it is more than probable that it was to this locality that Plny
referred, when, writing before a.p. 79 (when he died), he says,
that lead (which he calls nigrum plumbum, to distinguish it
from plumbum album, or tin), was found in Britain so plentifully
on the surface of the ground, that it was thought necessary to
pass a law to mit its extraction.*

The remains of the Roman workings on this spot are of a
very remarkable character. Pliny’s description of the lead
as found swmmo terre corio, on the very skin of the earth,
was here literally true, for some eight or nine parallel veins
came out upon the surface of the rock, and all these the
Romans worked, beginning apparently from the bottom of the
hill, and following the vein into the rock, as far as they could
trace it. The remains of their labours are visible along the
whole surface of the hill, like irregular cuttings along a large
cheese; but it presents the most remarkable appearance at a
spot near the northern end, where, at the foot of the hill, a
mine called the Roman Gravel Mine is now in operation. The
way in which the Roman miners followed the veins of ore is
here exhibited in the most remarkable manner. Where it did
not appear to run deep they soon stopped, and have left but a

* Nigro plumbo ad fistulas laminasque utimus, laboriosius in Hispania eruto

totasque per Gallias, sed in Britannisummo terre corio adeo large, ut lex dicatur ne
plus certo modo fiat. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xxxiv. cap. 17.

‘300 Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales.

shallow cutting. In some places the cuttmg is wide; while in
others it is at the same time very narrow and very deep, in one
instance sinking to a depth of, I believe, forty yards, yet not
wide enough for more than one man to workin it. In other
places the vem of ore had been more massive, and im following
it the Romans had hollowed in the rock cavern-like chambers,
from which galleries ran in different directions, which are
now blocked up by rubbish. The entrance to one of these
caverns is shown in the accompanying engraving, made from
a very excellent photograph by Mr. Colley of Shrewsbury.
The Roman miners also sunk shafts. In cne of the largest of the
cayerns on the line of the vein I am describing, near the brow of
the hill, the vein has been followed downward by a shaft of great
depth; in its present state a stone is heard rolling down for
several seconds. It is not easily examined from its position,
but having been carried up to the surface of the rock above,
no doubt for the purpose of more easily raising weights up and
letting them down, we were enabled to ascertain that it was a
square shaft of small dimensions. We have, however, still
better evidence of the extent to which the Roman miners per-
forated the mountain. I have just stated that at the bottom of
the hill, just under these large Roman surface workings, there
is a modern mine, which was begun some years ago, but, for
Some reason or other, was soon abandoned. This mine has
been recently taken by a most respectable company, which has
taken the name of the Roman Gravel Lead Mining Company,
who in the prosecution of their own works have met with nume-
rous Roman shafts and galleries to a considerable depth.*
The antiquity of these mines has been proved, not only by the
Roman pigs of lead already mentioned, but by Roman coins and
pottery found from time to time among the old rubbish. Harly
mining implements also have been found, but none have been
preserved, with the exception of a curious description of spade,
two examples of which, in the possession of Mr. More, are repre-
sented in the accompanying cut. These spades are formed of
laminee of oak timber, roughly split, and cut into the shape here
exhibited, with a very short stumpy handle, and a square hole,
slopmg on one side in the blade. This hole was evidently in-
tended to receive a short staff, which might be used as a lever

* When we consider the facility which nature gave to the ancients to obtain
the higher metal from the surface, and the length of time they no doubt worked
the mines, and the fact that we learn from ancient documents that mines were
worked here in the middle ages, and at various more recent times, and that dur-
ing the last seventy years an unceasing large supply has been raised, although not
a fifth of the ground has been explored, we may imagine the richness of this
district in ore. Immediately under one part of the ancient workings, about fif-
teen years ago, one pipe of ore produced two thousand tons in eleyen months at
a depth of eighty yards.

Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales. 301

to give force to the movement of the hand; and the implement
itself was no doubt designed for shovelling the broken stones
containing the lead ore in narrow passages where there was
not space for giving much movement tothe body. The dimen-
sions of the two spades here represented are nearly 84 inches
by 16, and 83 by 11. It is worthy of remark that similar
spades have been frequently found in other parts of our island
in the remains of mines which no one doubts to be Roman; and
these confirm us in believing them to be of the Roman period.
a furnish a remarkable proof of the great durability of sound
oak.

No traces of the washing and smelting places attached to these
Roman mines have yet been met with ; but they are accompanied

11 inches by 83. 16 inches by 83.

OAK SPADES FOUND IN ROMAN MINES.

by other monuments of a very important description. The
remains of a very extensive Roman villa have been discovered,
occupying the southern part of the park at Linley and part of
the adjacent fields, and standing ina very commanding position.
This great mansion, which covered the space of a small town,
had no doubt some connection with the mining works in the
mountains above. Again, to the north of Shelve, at the ex-
tremity of the Stiperstones, and in the parish of Minsterley, is
the Snailbeach mine, one of the most productive lead-mines in
this kingdom. It also had been extensively worked by the
Romans; and the miners, I believe, still speak of the upper
part of it as the Roman level. Two or three miles distant,
in the fertile country below, the remains of a fine Roman villa
have also been found in the parish of Pontesbury.

Westward of the Stiperstones mountains, and through the
county of Montgomery, copper and lead are found in abund-
ance, and we trace everywhere the presence of the Roman
miners. Roman mines have been found in Newtown Park, and
were re-opened a few years ago. They were found productive
in copper and “ silver lead ;” to explain which, it may be stated

302 Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales.

that the lead ore found in this country has always an alloy of
silver, varying in quantity, and particularly rich im the latter
metal as we go westward into Montgomeryshire. At present
the alloy of silver is considered rather as a defect than other-
wise, aS it is not worth the trouble of extractmg; but the
Romans, who set greater value on silver, extracted 1t with care,
of which many of the Roman pigs of lead found in England bear
testimony by the words in the imscription—sX. ARG., or LVT.
EX.ARG., OF MET.LVT.EX.ARG., the latter of which has been inter-
preted as meaning metallum lutwm ew argento, metal washed
from silver, in accordance with Pliny’s account of the process
of extracting the more precious metal from the other; but Lv.
has also been interpreted, perhaps rightly, as referrmg to amim-
ing town or district in Derbyshire, named by the Romans Lu-
tudee. I believe that among the miners on the borders of Wales,
the lead ore is still sometimes called silver. Most of the Roman
mines in Montgomeryshire, as far as they have yet been observed,
are formed by shafts sunk from the surface, or from caves made
in the bank. In the park at Newtown, they thus sunk shafts for
copper, and appear to have been very successful, to judge by
the report of the resumption of these excavations in 1856.*
About six miles westward from Newtown, on an elevation on
the banks of the Severn, are the remains of a rather important
Roman station, called by the Welsh Caer Sws, probably a
mining town, in the neighbourhood of which I believe that
remains of Roman mines are also found, and by which runs a
Roman road, called in Welsh Sarn Swsan, which is said to run
by way of Rhaiadyr through this mining district towards Chester.
At the western extremity of the county of Montgomery, im the
park of Machynlleth, a Roman mine was also re-opened in 1856,
which produced copper and “silver lead.” Like most of these
ancient excavations, it had become an object of superstition,

* An account of the re-opening of this mine was communicated to Eddowes’s
Shrewsbury Journal, in October, 1856, by a mining captain at Llanidloes, Mr.
William Vivian, who says—“ The interest excited in Newtown by the opening of
the old mine at the Park, near that place, has caused me to direct my attention to
that interesting spot. I have this day inspected the ancient work, and find that,
in clearing out the level, an old shaft has been discovered, sunk, it is supposed,
upwards of a thousand years ago. The men are now employed night and day in
clearing the shaft, and they have already arrived to the depth of ten fathoms, but
have not as yet reached the bottom. Amongst the stuff now being brought up
are some ancient pieces of oak timber, and, strange to say, also large quantities of
bones, supposed to be those of the deer, which, owing to their having been lodged
in mineral water, are in perfect preservation and freshness. The lode at this part
of the shaft is about four feet wide, composed of barytes, intermixed nicely through-
out with copper ore, just diverging into silver lead; at which point the lode and
branches (which are about ten feet wide) fall altogether into the main vein, show-
ing perhaps one of the finest lodes at the same depth in this or any other country ;
indeed, had such a lode been discovered in the mining districts of Cornwall or
Devon, it would have been considered of immense importance.”

Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales. 303

was believed to be the dwelling of the fairies, and had obtained
the popular name of the Ogo- Gwyddsyg, or Witch’s Cave.
Machynlleth itself has been supposed by antiquaries to stand
on the site of a Roman town, but about two miles from it, at a
place called Cefn Caer, on the ridge of the city, are the un-
doubted remains of an extensive Roman settlement. In the
neighbourhood of Lianrhaiadyr, on the borders of Montgomery-
shire and Denbighshire, the Romans appear also to have had
extensive mines, and at no great distance from this place pro-
bably stood the Roman station of Mediolanum, on the great
Roman road from Uriconium (Wroveter), which passed hence
over the mountains of North Wales to Segontium, near the
modern town of Caernarvon.

To the east of the Stiperstones copper is found, but not in
such quantity as to pay for the labour of miming, as far as ib has
yet been discovered. I am informed by Mr. More that the little
stream, which enters his park under Radley Hill, which is
marked in the Ordinance Survey map as the Black Brook, and.
which runs southwardly at the eastern foot of the Stiperstones,
divides the lead district from the copper. The hill in Linley
Park, opposite Radley Hill, certainly contains copper ; and there
are traces of copper over the whole district between Minsterley
and the Stiperstones on one side, and the Long-Mynd on the
other. Copper has also been found, though im no great quan-
tity, in Lythe Hill, facing the entrance to the Church Stretton
Valley. Hence the copper district turns northwardly. ‘To the
north of Shrewsbury we meet a flat country with a broken line
of eminences, represented by Grinshill and the Hawkstone
hills, which all contain copper. My friend Mr. Samuel Wood in-
forms me that there are traces of mines which had been worked

+ The following paragraph appeared in the Shrewsbury Journal, May 14,
1856 :—“ OGoGwyDDsyYG, oR THE Witcn’s Cavz.—In the park near to the town
of Machynlleth is a deep pit, known by the above name, attached to which are
many legends of ghosts, hobgoblins, and fairies; and occasionally pranks have
been played off on old crones and timid maidens as they passed at night, so that
the read has been shunned as haunted. ‘The scene has, however changed in one
short week; and however it might be shunned after nightfall, it is the great
attraction of the neighbourhood by day. An active miner, Morris Williams, con-
ceiving this to be an old Roman mine, applied for a take-note to Sir Watkin W.
Wynn, which beimg promised, he commenced, with the aid of Mr. Weston, a
gentleman residing in the town. As the water was reduced they came to some
woodwork, and an old shaft was soon developed, which was dried, and at the
bottom was discovered a second shaft about eighteen feet deep, also timbered ; but
owing to the obstructions and danger attending the getting the water out of it, it
was resolved to drive a level upon it. This is now in progress upon the course of
a fine lode, from which there have already been taken some fine stones, rich in
silver and copper. At the foot of the work flows the little stream called Nant-yr-
Arian, or the Silver River, a name, doubtless, arising from the knowledge, in days of
old, of the precious metal through which it flowed, though, till now, its origin has
been long unknown. ‘The quiet town of Machynlleth has been roused into a state
of unusual excitement by this unexpected discovery.”

oa

304 | Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales.

by the Romans at the Clive near Grinshill, and he is of opinion
that the well-known grottoin Hawkstone Park, with its aark pas-
sage of eighty yards, was certainly formed bythe Romans in work-
ing for copper ore. From this spot the traces of Roman mining
disappear until we arrive at the lll of Lilanymynech, on the
northern borders of Shropshire and Montgomeryshire, m an
isolated part of Denbighshire, a few miles from Llanrahaiadyr,
already mentioned. Llanymynech Hill is a mountain of lme-
stone of considerable extent, arismg from the plain at some
distance in advance of the edge of the mountain district of
Denbighshire. Between the strata of lime occurs a very tena-
cious smooth clay, with orange-coloured ochre and green plu-
mose carbonate of copper. It was the latter which attracted
the Roman miners; and the remains of their extensive works
are found on the north-west side of the hill, consisting of shallow
pits, the debris from the excavations of which are full of small
pieces of copper ore. In the neighbourhood of these pits are
found traces of vitrification which show that here the Romans
smelted their copper on open hearths. Their excavations, how-
ever, were by no means confined to the surface, for there still
remains a very large cavern, known popularly by the Welsh
name of Ogo (the cave), from which run irregular winding pas-
sages, connected with which are the remains of air-shafts. The
Ogo at Llanymynech, like so many of these monuments of
primeval times, is popularly believed to be inhabited by fairies
and similar bemgs; a lad, whom I once took for my guide
thither, knew all about these spirits of the mine, and gave me
an account of one of the miners, with whom he was acquainted,
who, coming over the mountain rather late at night, had seen
the fairies dancing on the sward. But, though not very easy
of access at the commencement, the Roman workings im the
interior of Llanymynech hill have been explored more than
once, and are better known than those in any other locality.
In the latter half of the last century they were entered more
than once by miners in search of copper, who found a number
of Roman coms,’some mining implements, and, it is stated,
culinary utensils, and several human skeletons and scattered
bones—one of the skeletons having a bracelet on the left arm,
anda “battle-axe’” by his side.* Some of the mining imple-
ments were deposited with other antiquities in the library of
Shrewsbury School, but they have long disappeared. I possess
a drawing of one, which was a roughly made iron implement
resembling a pick, except that it had only one limb, and which
had evidently been used for pulling out the rock after it had
been cracked and broken. At a later period, a man well known

* See Pennant’s Tours in Wales, edit. of 1810, vol. iii. p. 218, and Nicholson's
Cambrian Traveller's Guide, under Llan y Mynach.

Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales. 305

in the literary history of Shropshire, J. F. M. Dovaston, ex-
plored the Roman workings as completely as it could be done,
taking the precaution of carrying a piece of chalk with him to
mark his way. Some of the shafts, or passages, which were
extremely sinuous, extended as far as two hundred yards,
sometimes they were so small that 1t was necessary even to
creep through them, but they were usually from a yard to three
yards wide, and from time to time became developed into broad
and lofty chambers, where the ore had been found in larger
quantities. They had all been cut through the solid rock, and
in many places the marks of the chisel were distinctly visible.
“Long passages,” we are told in the account of this exploration,
“frequently terminate in small holes about the size to admit a
man’s arm, as if the metal ran in strings, and had been picked
out quite clean, with hammers and long chisels, as far as they
could reach.”” It may be added that the roofs of these caverns
were covered with pendent stalactites, which glittered bril-
hantly m the light of the torches. So many human bones were
found scattered about, that it was conjectured that these caves
had become a place of refuge in the troubled times which fol-
lowed the overthrow of the Roman power, and that the fugitives
had perished there. Roman antiquities of various kinds, and
especially coins, are often found on Llanymynech Hill; of the
latter, a friend in Shrewsbury, Mr. Henry Pidgeon, well known
for his zealous and successful investigations of Shropshire
antiquities, possesses about twenty copper coms found here,
ranging from the earlier emperors to a tolerably late period of
the imperial sway in Britain. The metal which was taken from
the mines I have been describing was no doubt copper; but
the Romans obtained also from this hill lead and calamine.
Lianymynech Hill still produces both copper and lead, though,
I believe, not in very large quantity.

The Romans seem not to have been aware of the existence
of iron in Shropshire ; but there can now be no doubt that they
discovered the Shropshire coal-field. It has been long sus-
pected that they used mineral coals in Britain, though different
circumstances rendered it very difficult to substantiate the con-
jecture; but the question has been set at rest by the recent
. excavations at Wroxeter, on the site of Uriconium, where
mineral coal is found in abundance, both unburnt and in cin-
ders, and under circumstances which can admit of no doubt.
It appears to be, generally, a coal of inferior quality which they
found near the surface, and which is still spoken of as surface
coal.

When the Romans came into Britain, the metals in these
parts of the island were probably as yet undisturbed, and
they found employment enough where the existence of ore

306 Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales.

was plainly indicated on the surface of the earth. From the
copper and lead of Shropshire we find few, if any, traces
of their labours until we reach the mountains of Flintshire,
where copper and lead agam presented themselves on or
near the surface. We are now, no doubt, im the country
of the Cangi, which, stretching along the coast districts to
Bangor, is full of mineral wealth; but I must pass over it
brietly. The remains of Roman lead-mines are met with in
almost every part of this district, and they usually present
features similar to those observed at Shelve, in Shropshire. It
is a remarkable circumstance that, in the latter locality, and
similarly in the mining districts of Montgomeryshire and. at
Hlanymynech, we are so entirely ignorant of any deposits of
scorie, or slag, that we might suppose that the ore had been
carried away to be smelted elsewhere, were not this hypothesis
contradicted by the discovery in the immediate neighbourhood
of the pigs of lead ready for exportation. This is not the case
in Whintshire, where the land bordermg on the coast to the west
of Flint is covered with thick layers of lead scoriez, deposited
in the same manner as the iron scorize on the borders of the
Forest of Dean. These scorize are found chiefly at Croes-Ati, a
kind of eastern suburb of the town of Flint, and in the adjoim-
ing parish of Northop; and, like the iron scorie of the south,
the process of smelting had been performed so imperfectly that
in the time of Pennant, who is our chief authority on the traces
of old mining operations in this part, people collected them and
subjected them again to the process of smelting, and thus ob-
tained large quantities of metal.* Pennant further mforms
us that rudely made pick-axes had been found in the Roman
mines in Flintshire; and that distinct marks of fire were
found in the deep parts, as though the rock had been heated
and cold water thrown on it while hot to make it crack+—a
process which is alluded to by Pliny. Pennant had an iron
wedge, thickly incrusted with lead, which had been found in
the ancient workings in the parish of Dysearth.

From the quantity of scoriz found at Croes-Ati and Northop
we are justified in supposing,that the lead-ore was brought
down from the Flintshire mountains to be smelted at this spot ;
and the activity of the miners of this district is proved by the
great numbers of Roman pigs of lead, all belonging to early
emperors, and bearing the mark px.crANG, which have been
found in the adjacent county of Chester. One of these was
found in 1838, at about a mile from Chester, in excavating for
the railway to Crewe, and bore the date of the third consulate
of Vespasian, A.D. 74. In the time of Camden no less than

* Pennant’s Tours in Wales, vol. i. p. 71. + Ibid. vol. i. p.'74. S20 also,
vol. iii. p. 58. .

Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales. 307

twenty pigs of lead were found together at Runcorn, on the
Cheshire coast, near the mouth of the Mersey, all bearing the
iuscription DE.CEANG; some of them bearing date in the fifth
consulate of Vespasian, A.D. 76, and others inscribed with the
name of Domitian, A.D. 81-96. Another, with the mark of the
Ceangi, or Cangi, and the date of the fifth consulate of Ves-
pasian, was found in 1772 on Hirst’s Common in Staffordshire,
near to Watling Street, where it had been left in its transit
from the mining district to the south. It is a remarkable
circumstance that nearly all the pigs of lead found im Britain
bearing the imperial mark, belong to the early emperors, and
the absence of any of a later date perhaps implies some great
change in the system of administration of the mines.*

The Romans found lead again in the limestone mountains
behind Abergele. On the side of one of these, which, from
some ancient intrenchments on its summit, is called Castell
Cawr, the vem of lead appears to have cropped out on its
surface as in Shelve Hill; and in following it the Romans have
cut a trench across the mountain of such vast depth and width,
that the cuttings on Shelve Hill are mere scratches in com-
parison to it. After the departure of the Romans, this country
had been left so wild and unfrequented that the caverns of the
Roman miners became the haunts of beasts of prey; and the
trench of which we are speaking received from the Welsh the
name of Ffos y Blaiddiaid, or the Wolves’ Ditch. More recent
attempts at mining have showed that the Romans had pene-
trated deep into the hill, and had cleared away the ore. They
are thus recorded in the local guide-books: “ In driving a level
into the mountain some years ago, the miners discovered that
the Romans had been deep in the bowels of the earth before
them. They had followed the vein where it was large enough
to admit a small man, and where it opened out into a larger
chamber, they had cleared it quite away. When the vem be-
came too small to admit a man, they were obliged to relinquish
the ore. Some curious hammers and tools, but almost decayed
into dust, were found im these chambers.”

We are now leaving the borders of Wales, whatever limits
might be given to them, but we may still pursue the Roman
mining operations through the country of the Cangi. They
found copper inthe Great Orme’s Head, and worked it success-
fnlly; and when digging for the foundations of buildings in the
town of Llandudno the modern excavators came upon the soil

* A complete and valuable list of the Roman pigs of lead found in this country,
was contributed by Mr. Albert Way to the Archeological Journal, and another
will be found in a paper by Mr. James Yates, “‘On the Mining Operations of the
Romans in Britain,” published in the Pr oceedings of the ; Somersetsbire Archeo-
logical and Natural History Society.

308 Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of Wales.

of the Roman level, coloured by the washings of the ore. I
believe that in the neighbourhood of Caerhen or Caerhun,
supposed to represent the ancient Concvium, about five miles
to the south of Conway, there are also traces of ancient mining.
Here was found, in the last century, a mass of copper m form
like a cake, but weighing forty-two pounds, which had evidently
come fresh from the smelting. It bore two singular inscrip-
tions, which have not been satisfactorily explained; one was
Socio RoMAE, the other Nav SoL, supposed to be for natale solwm.
Tt is, I believe, still preserved at Mostyn. The Romans found
copper in the mountains of Anglesey, and although they failed
to discover the immense mass of that metal which has given
celebrity to the Parys mountain, the remains of their miming
operations are found in its immediate neighbourhood.

A comparison of these various remains give us a tolerably
complete view of the manner in which the Romans obtained
metals from the earth. It is more than probable that, in these
districts at least, no miners had preceded the Romans, who there-
fore found the veins of metallic ore on the surface, and first
worked upon them there, until, when they were obliged to trace
them further, they followed them by shafts and galleries. They
evidently preferred, where it was possible, to make a cave on
the side of a mountain, or snk a pit in the ground till they
came to a vein, and then follow and clear away the vein itself.
They worked with rude implements, including wooden shovels
and wedges, and chisels of stone. It was the work of slaves
and condemned criminals, and was no doubt laborious and
slow, but at the same time productive, because they found the
metallic ores where they were abundant and often easy of
access. ‘The ore itself they seem to have worked out with
chisels and axes, and when they had to deal with the hard rock,
they cracked it by the application of fire, and then split it
further with wedges of iron or stone, and pulled it apart
with rough iron picks. In smelting, they evidently used no-
thing but wood; coals seem not then to have been found in
sufficient abundance, and the smelting was performed on the
spot and very imperfectly.

This inquiry also leads to very important results throwing
hght on the condition of Roman Britain, and these results will be
more important as we trace the Roman mining operations through
the interior of Wales. We shall find the whole of that country,
even into the districts which have hardly been approachable
since the Roman period, in the peaceful occupation of the im-
perial colonists, and covered even in the wildest mountain dis-
tricts with excellent and numerous roads, and with towns,
stations, country villas, and settlements of all descriptions,
quite contrary to the old popular notion, that here the Britons

Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. 309

continued to retain their independence; and at the same time
we understand why, at so early a period of their conquest, the
Romans established permanently at the southern and northern
extremities of the border of this mountain district two of the
three legions which occupied the island. It was not to hold
in check mdependent and turbulent natives, but to overawe
a large population of slaves and condemned criminals who were
employed in the extensive mining operations. Many of the
numerous early entrenched inclosures which are scattered over
the mountains in which the mines were situated, and which
our antiquaries have so hastily and so mnjudiciously called camps,
contained probably villages of mimers, or places for works in
connection with the mines, or possibly posts which were occu-
pied from time to time by detachments of troops when their
presence happened to be necessary.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT THE KEW
OBSERVATORY OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCH.

BY CHARLES CHAMBERS.
INTRODUCTION.

TxE situation of the Kew Observatory, in the north western
part of the Old Deer Park, is on the whole well adapted to afford
true indications of meteorological phenomena. ‘The building,
which was erected about eighty-five years ago as a private
astronomical observatory for George III., stands on a slight
elevation surrounded by a flat grassy surface, and is freely
exposed to winds from every direction, the nearest obstacles
being three elm trees 170 feet to the south-east. The Thames
sweeps close past the boundary of the park, approaching very
near to the observatory, which it surrounds on all sides but the
east ; a circumstance which may render the moisture of the air
somewhat higher at Kew than at other places in the same lo-
cality, its effect being evident in an extreme prevalence of fogs.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENTS.

Barometer.—This instrument, which is one of Newman’s
construction, is placed in the east room, on the first floor of the
building, with its cistern at a height of about thirty-four feet
above the level of the sea. The internal diameter of the tube
measures 0°55 inch. The temperature of the mercury and of
the scale is observed by a thermometer immersed in mercury
contained in a tube of the same bore as the barometer, and

VOU. ge NOs LV Y

310 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory.

placed alongside of it. Newman’s standard has been found to
accord with the two large standard barometers of the’observa-
tory which also agree together.

Thermometers.—These are supported in a wooden frame, or
cage, opposite the north entrance of the observatory, at a height
of eleven feet above the ground. The sides of the cage are
like venetian shutters, consisting of flat bars of wood placed
horizontally with the upper edge inclining inwards, each bar
overlapping the one beneath it, yet so as to leave an ich’ of
clear space between them. ‘'he objects of this construction are
to exclude rain, while interfering as little as possible with the
free circulation of air, and to avoid any possible error arising
from radiation. In order still further to guard agaist the
latter source of error, the cage is surrounded by another of
similar construction; they are nearly cubical in form with i-
clined close roofs, and open at the bottom. During the heat of

_the day they are defended from the direct rays of the sun by
the observatory building, from the north wall of which the
thermometers are eight feet distant.

The instruments are five in number ; two, the ordinary dry
and wet bulb thermometers, placed vertically, with their bulbs
six inches apart, and the others, which are self-registering,
placed horizontally. The highest temperature is shown by a
Phillips’ maximum thermometer, im which a small column is
separated from the body of mercury by a speck of air; on
increase of temperature the column is forced forwards, but it
does not recede when the temperature diminishes, thus forming
an index of the highest temperature attained. The lowest
temperature is observed by a Rutherford’s spirit thermometer

- (with glass mdex) of the ordimary construction, and by a
Casella’s new mercurial minimum ; the indications of the latter
beimg remarkably consistent with those of the spirit thermometer.

Rain Gauge.—This instrument is placed on a level with the

eround, about eighteen feet above the sea, and exposes a °

surface of 100 square inches for the collection of rain. The
position selected for it, to ensure freedom from obstructions to
the falling rain, is near the middle of an enclosure of an acre of
land attached to the observatory, where it is 110 feet removed
from the nearest obstacle, and 200 feet from the observatory.
Anemometer.—This is Robinson’s arrangement, which con-
sists of four hollow hemispherical cups attached to horizontal
arms projecting at right angles to each other, from the top of
an easily moveable vertical axis. The cups are so placed, that
in revolving about the axis the convex side of each of them
precedes the concave from whatever direction the wind is blow-
ing, the velocity of rotation bemg nearly equal to one third of
the velocity of the wind. By the intervention of suitable toothed
wheels, the axis (a portion of which forms an endless screw)

Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observaiory. 311

communicates its motion to a cylinder covered with paper, and
a pencil is driven by clockwork from end to end of the cylinder
in twenty-four hours; thus a curve is traced upon the paper by
the combined motions of the pencil and cylinder, from which
we can ascertain the space passed over by the wind from one
moment of time to another. The hemispherical cups project
two feet above the dome of the observatory, which is fifty feet
above the ground. As an indication of the delicacy of this
instrument, it may be stated that it is the rarest possible occur-
rence to find the cups stationary even for a moment, happening
perhaps not oftener than twice in a year, at which time; alone
the wind is too feeble to overcome the small amount of friction
of the axis in its bearings.

Wind Vane.—The vane consists of a hollow parallelopepid
without ends, fixed to the top of a vertical rod, which is capa-
ble of rotating freely about its axis, and to which is attached
a divided circle with numbers, mdicating the direction of wind.
The vane is two and a-half feet above the dome.

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES OF OBSERVATIONS.

With the aid of the followmg remarks the headings of the
different columns will be found sufficiently intelligible. The se-
cond and third columns contain respectively the mean barometric
pressure, and mean temperature of the air, for each day, reduced
by means of Mr. Glaisher’s tables from the individual obser-
vations, and corrected for the errors of the instruments.

The tension of vapour is calculated, from the numbers given
in the second and third columns, and from the corrected mean
readings of the wet bulb thermometer, by the following formula
of Dr. Apjohn :—

Bin iho fall Sot
tah yey 80
for reading of wet bulb thermometer above 32°; and
ay SES h
Jia, 96 48D

for reading of wet bulb thermometer below 32°; f” being the
elasticity of vapour required ; 7” the elasticity corresponding to
the temperature of the wet bulb thermometer; d the difference
between the dry and wet bulb thermometers ; and h the height
of the barometer. The labour of calculation has been abridged
by the use of a sliding rule, adapted to Apjohn’s formula,
invented. by the late Mr. Welsh, by means of which the dew-
point and relative humidity were also obtained.

By the dew-point is understood the lowest temperature at
which the whole of the moisture contained in the air can
remain in the state of vapour, any further cooling producing
dew. If we represent by 1:00 the greatest quantity of moisture

312 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory.

which can exist in the air in the condition of vapour at the
temperature recorded in the second column, the number entered
under “relative humidity’ shows the proportion of yapour pre-
sent on the day of observation. When fog prevails the air is
saturated with moisture, and this number becomes 1:00. The
tension of vapour is the quantity by which the elastic force of
air (represented by the pressure of the barometer) at the place
of observation would be diminished by extracting all the aqueous
vapour from the air without altering its temperature.

In the eighth column the number 10 denotes that the sky is
entirely clouded. The daily range of temperature (11th column)
is the difference between the numbers in the two columns
preceding.

It must be remarked that though the reduction of the ob-
servations of the barometer and dry and wet bulb thermometers,
by means of Mr. Glaisher’s tables, will generally lead to an
approximate mean value for the day, and to a result very near
the truth when several successive days are grouped together ;
yet, while it is the only method open to us, it is strictly appli-
cable only to averages extending over a period of a month, as is
implied by the headings of the tables of corrections, masmuch as
these are derived from monthly growps of observations for several
successive years. On this account the corrected numbers will
occasionally present an anomalous appearance, which m the
case of temperature will be evident in the tables of observa-
tions, the calculated mean temperature exceeding the maximum,
or fallmg below the minimum of the day, or the reduced mean
temperature of the dew-point exceeding that ofthe air. On such
days the variations of temperature do not possess the general cha-
racter due to the season in which the observations aremade. Ne-
vertheless, as in the calculation of the monthly means, these days
should have equal weight with others, it has not been thought
desirable to omit the reduced daily means on these occasions.

Hourly movement of the wind.—These numbers are obtained
from tabulations of the anemometer registers. The mean daily
variation of the velocity ofthe wind (without regard to direction)
is shown by the numbers in the last column for each month,
from which it appears that the strength of the wind is greatest
about noon, and least about midnight; and that between the
hours 10 a.m. and 4 p.m., its velocity is decidedly above the
mean, and belowit between 11 p.m. and 74.m. ‘The total move-
ment for each day is given at the foot of the several columns.

As few observatories possess the means of supplying informa-
tion on this subject derived from the records of an instrument of
such delicacy and reliability, itis thought that these results are of
sufficient interest to justify amore extended report of them than
is given of the more ordinary meteorological elements.

Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. 313

RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE
KEW OBSERVATORY.

LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w.

1862. | Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air. At 9,30 a.m., 2 P.M., and 5 P.M.,
pe respectively.
rs = Calculated. % bo es
les 3 Sug Se = 3 i Rain—
Ha rs) eu a= Sg = 5 oul a read at
Day Che eee se sel oa) ls ce raion ls =e i
of Mats lc Bie ine sia (er ag ooti rs A.M.
Month 25 s oy i os es I % > 23 Direction of Wind.
BET MS | rTM ral oe Ieee eR coy ii BS
as q ras 5 SL z:| reel =) =
S = S14 |gael4 &
is os & S40
inches.| G inch. 5 ° ° inches.
Jan. 1 | 30°389) 32°2| 30:3] -93/-187| 39:0 | 3071) 8-9)10, 10, 10 NE, NW, NW. “000
» 2 | 80-403] 36-9 34-1] -90|-215| 39:5 |30-°7| 8-8] 9, 8,10| NE by N,NNE, NEby N.| -017
> & | 80:020) 35°8| 35°5| 1-99) 226) 41°0 |32°6) 84/10, 10, 0 SW, W by 8S, WSW. ‘010
, 4 | 29°868| 37-5] 30-0| -77/-185| 40°8 |33°3| 75] 1, 1, 1] NW by W, NW, W by N.| -018
RS Ehcl Sek remove ne wt fcc 44°9 |32°612°9| “ w -006
» 6 | 30°122) 33-2) 28:3) -84)-174) 37°5 | 28°38) 9:2 7, 4,10 W, W by N, W. 036
> @ | 80:064''40:2) 37-6) -92)°243) 43°7 | 30-2) 13°5) 4, 10, 10 SW, SW, SSW. “000
> 8 | 29°691) 43°6] 39°7| -87|-261) 50°1 36°7| 13°4)10, 10, O SSW, W by N, WSW. "158
» 9 | 29°701) 49-3] 45:3] -87|°318) 52°6 | 86 0/ 166/10, 10, 10 SW by 8, SW, SW. -200
5, LO | 29°786] 47-7] 43:5] -86|°298] 51-7 |43°3) 8:4) 2, 9, 2 SW by W, WSW,SW byS. 037
> 11 | 29°412) 48-3) 40°8| -77)°272) 52°2 | 45:0 7-2! 8, 10, 10 SW by W, SW, WSW. 073
a. 2 560 w | uae | wee | 4774 | 8672) 11-2 nae a0 ts “010
J dls} 29-736 38: 5 36-5 93) 234) 43°7 | 32°3)11°4)11, 7,10 —, W, —, SW. 013
5, 14 | 29°628} 40:0) 37-7] -92)°244) 423 |33°8) 8°5/10,10, 8 —, ENE, NNE, —. “130
” 45 | 29-975] 368| 32-21 -85)-201| 384 |368| 1610,10,10/ NNE.NEby N,NE. | -032
», 16 | 30°074| 32°2| 28:0| -86/°173| 3€°6 | 30°8| 5:8) 6, 8, 0 SE by E, SE, SE. ‘003
3 17 | 80°059| 27°7| 26-2) -95) 162) 29°8 | 242) 5-6)10,10, 2 SH, E by N, i. “000
B, 18 | S0080)27-4)) 73.0) 20.2 | 380'8 /2L5" 9:37, er ESE, SE by 4 SE by 8. “000
US) zoo Perle une liteone 22 (ADB). 84, ons “000
‘55 20 | 29°688) 27°4| ... | ... | ... | 30°8 | 24-3) 6°5/10, 9,10 E by 8, E, BE. “000
» 21 | 29°536| 30°6| 29°1) -95) 180} 32°2 | 26:3; 5°9/10, 10, 10 ENE, E by 8S, ENE. “000
ey 22 29-478] 43°4| 39-1) -86|°256| 47:2 | 29°8/17-4| 9, 1, 1 S by E, S by W,S. “030
3 23 | 29°565| 39°5| 37-0) -91):238| 49°0 | 35-7) 13°3) 9, 10, 10 SE by E, SE, SE by S. 043

» 24 | 29°469| 48:2] 40:8, -77|:272| 49-9 |38:6|11°3| 8, 8, 2] SW by S, SW by S, SSW. | -072
» 25 | 29°751) 42:2) 38:9} -89|-254| 45-0 | 43-5) 1°5/10,10, 8| S, NW by N, NW by W. | -095

4 ENS ee Ve nee cme es 2 em Nae

5. 27 | 30-174) 40-9| 34-4} -g0|-217) 451]... |... | 7, 3, 3| SSE, SSE,SEbyS. |{

| 2 98 | 29:819| 431/393 -88|-258) 39-0 |35-6| 3-4{10,—, 4 8, —, SSW. -030
” 99 | 29°726| 49-7] 453| -86)-318| 52-9 | 40-0 12'9|10, 10, 10, SW by 8, SW by 8, SW. | -032
” 30 | 29-682| 46'8| 43-6 -89|-299| 543 |47-9| 6-4| 9,10,10 SW by W,—,SW,—. | -082
” 31 | 29°776| 52-9] 45-7| -78)-322) 54°6 [45-1] 9:5] 9,10,10| WhyS,W, WbyS. | -345

fo) 29:840| 39°7|36'8| 87 -240 9:1 1-637

tH
[i

Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory.

314

HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES) AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON'S ANEMOMETER.

JANUARY 1862.

Day. |1/2/3/4]5|6|7|8| 9 |10|11| 12] 18 | 14/15] 16/17 | 18) 19) 20) 21 | 22 | 28 | 24) 25 | 26 | 27 | 28) 29) 80) 31
Hour.
a 8 es 3 | 9| 2] 17] 15| 171 13} 17, 9] 4 6 4] 9| 10, 10; 6| 21) 15) 10) 14) 16 5} 2) 10
f Socata 8| 2] 15] 17| 17| 17) 16| 5] 6| 7 4] 12) 11) 11) 6| 19) 20; 8 12/12 3) 7 10
| 3 8 |l0| 2] 9 g| 4| 1s| 14| 14] 20; 12) 4) 8} 7 4) 11/11) 7 6] 17) 18) 10,19 14 5) 7 8
| 4 |8/9)3| 10 9| 4| 22] 12| 13] 21} 8] 4/10) 4) 4/11) 9| 7 6 18) 17) 9) 20 14 5 6 12
clog (Oe 6| 2] 19] 13] 11) 22] 8) 8] 10; 3] 3] 11) 8] 8 5} 25) 18) 10) 24) 11) 5 11) 18
A j 6 |6|6| 6| 14123/ 5) 2| 19) 18) 12) 22; 8 5) 10 2 2) 1h 8 7| gl 21) 14) 11] 23} 10, 3} 11) 12
4/4 |5/9/6] 18 6| 4] 18] 18] 12/ 25 6| 4| 6| 2] 2) 8} 9 10; 2) 23) 13) 8 26) 6 38 11) 11
| 3 |2| 5/8) 12 5| 4] 22] 19] 12| 31| 5] 4| 3) 3] 4] 12| 8] 8} 3) 20) 16) 7 26) 3 3) 11) 4
g {6/6 7) 18 4| 7 20] 21/ 12] 34 af 4} a} 6] 2] 11) 8} 10] 7 16 14) 8| 25) 4) 2) 12) 17
ge | Se |e 5| 6| 19| 21/ 14) 33} 5) 3] 2} 4) 7 9 10) 7] 10) 20) 16) 10) 26) 5 2 12) 16
17 | 4 | 8 [tO | 19} 14) 6) 5] 16] 22) 14) 82, 10, 5] 8 4) 10) 8 1) DO 8 16| 14) 9] 23} 5] 3} 15) 11
in (8 [7 | 7 | 18] 12] 6 9] 14) 20) 14) 88 12, 10) 7 6 8 IY) 16, 11) OTe 19| 12] 25) 3] 5) 18) 16
i | 4 [11] 5 | 21) lo) 6) 7 20) 22) 17) 34) 15) 11) 12, 8) 9] 13) 16 18) te 15| 20] 14) 87| 6) 6] 20) 17
5 | 8 (10 | 4| 12] 10) 7 8 15) 21) 15) 85) 15) 9 13) 5) 8} 11) 16) 9) 18 9} 18| 17, 34] 11) 15] 21) 17
@ |i (10 | 5 | 21) (9) 3} (6) db) 22) 12] i) 16) 7) 10) 8) a te) 7| 18] 19] 81] 14, 12] 19) 15
4 |2|8|6| 12) 6 8 6 14) 22] 14) 34) 13) 6 10, 7 8} 9B 10) & 15 9} 15] 21} 80] 11] 8} 15) 20
lee (2,8 6 | 8) 8 to) i 2) at eo eee eee 10| 20] 27} 10) 6/ 12) 19
2) 6 1217/8] 7 § 3) 8 47 19) 13) 31) 12) 2 7 6 4 7| 8| 7 16] 6| 8 23} 30/ 6} 6} 10) 18
aj» |3)/6)8 6 2| si s| 18/11] 28/ 11) 5| 8| 7 4) 4) 9| 6] 18] 9 15) 19) 84 6 7 8 18
g | 4) 5) 7 g| 4| g| 4} 20] 11/ 26| 15| 6| 11) 12] 4} 4) 7 8) 17] 6) 8| 21) 29; 6 5 11) 16
g |2) 4/6 5) 3/ | ol 17} gl 28| 14) 7] 8} 6| 38} 5] 8} 8| 20] 5) 9 19) 29) 5 10) 14) 14
FF 1) 3/8 s| 3| | 6| 16] 10| 28] 16, 5) 9] 4} 8| 7 8| 4! 25) 6) 11) 15) 24) 5} 6) 11) 1b
ate Le 2 9| 3! 4 101 17! 8] 29] 14/ 8] 8] 6] 12| 10] 9] 5| 22) 9} 9) 16) 22; 6 3 11) lo
1g [22 | 1 |1o 9| 2] 14] 101 20| 6| 18] 13/ 6| 9| 6] 10| 10| 10] 7 18| 10} 9 11) 18) 4) 3) 13) 18
ee a | ee (eee ay | | ee SS SE > a ———_—
Total
ey iiyliegli4ol 473 (117/147/350/445|299|669|277/136|184|196|129|222/243/188|276|336 344 327 603/191 131|288)337/445)302)548 | 11S
ment. :

a

Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. 319

RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW
OBSERVATORY.

LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE O° 18’ 47” w.

1862.

’ Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air. At 9°30 eae
Caleulated. ee,
S Se : 3 of be
z= Seals Re Ne See ol ese once
a He | 2 Sole | eae ae Be) se
g 3 a, 5 S| ss a 9 Be ga| os f
= ge | £2| 3 E = ee 28] 2 ce Direction of Wind.
aS 3 é = co 2&|8S| i =o
Sy ee e. | meals bees te We |) ee
o go J 5 s °
[a=] =I
inches.| , x inch. x i 3
1 | 29-949] 50:4) 45:4) -84/-319| 53:0 | 505] 2°5/10, 10, 10 SW by W, W, W.
EN oa WP ue aoe ee af mecctt Ee Zeal nacslFa ad ie
3 |30-187| 50-4) 47-1] -89)-338| 53:8 | 46-7| 7-1|10, 10, 10SSW, SW pee ae
4, | 30-210) 51°3| 48-2} -90|-351) 54-4 | 47-2} 7-2/10, 10,10) W, SW by W, ee -
5 | 30-030] 48°7| 43°9| -85|-303) 53°3 | 45-3| 8-0| 8, 8, 5) WSW, WSW, ee
| 29-976] 44°2| 38-41 -82/-250| 48-4 | 41-8] 66| 6, 8, 3) WNW, NE ee va
7 | 30°234| 32-2| 22°4| -70/-141) 35:9 |31-7| 4:2) 5, 1, 2 NE, WSW, ie
g | 30-616] 28-1] 23-2} -84)-145| 31-6 [25-4] 6-2/1, 6, 2; NE by N, ENE, NE.
en ey sae Mee netics POAC Metre Vics i ce
10 | 30-467| 36:0| 27-4| -74/-169| 40-8 |32:0) 8:8| 7, 1, 0, N, NNW, NW by W.

z | ; by S.

11 | 30-226] 36-5) 34°35) -93/-218) 41-7 | 25-7|16-0|10, 10,10, SW by, W, W by

12 | 30-037) 41-0] 37-9| -90)-245| 44-4 | 31-7] 12°7|10, 10,10, NW by N, ae Bh
13 | 30090] 35°7/32:3| -89|-201) 38-0 |35:3| 2-7/10, 10,10) NE by N, NE ee
14 | 30-106 36-0| 32°8) -89)-205) 39-5 | 35-2| 4:3/10, 10,10, ENE, E by N, NE by H.

15 | 30°127| 38:4) 31:5| -78|-196| 41:5 | 36-1} 5-4|10, 10, 10 E by N, H, B.
TGA na candace i VS eae hse Oh? BOR oc i

17 | 29-442} 39-8] 40-0] 1-00 -264| 43-1 | 34-2} 89/10, 10, 10 El by Nj 9 se
18 | 29°379| 48°7| 44°3| -86) -307| 53-4 | 38:8} 14:6] 9, 7, 9 SSE, S by W, 8.

SE by 8
19 | 29:561| 48°3| 44:8} -89| -312) 52°8 |45-2) 7-6| 8,10, 10) SE,S by B, SH by p.
90 | 29°619| 50°3| 43°3| -78|-296| 54:5 |47-1| 7-4) 8, 5, 1) SSW, SW, SW by 8.

H, SE
21 | 29°836| 48'3| 41:0) -°77| -274| 54°71 |37°2/16-9) 1, 2, 4 SSE, SE, SH.
22, | 29°764| 48°3) 439] -86| 803) 52°5 | 43-1) 9-4] 8, 10, 10 8, ESE, SE.
Bee tea | eseollh kop wou ltesn |) OUeMe Abra Beales i: vo

24 | 30:090} 37°5| 33-9} -91) 213] 40-4 | 39-6) 08/10, 10, 10 E by N, 5, Me
25 | 80°149| 87°7| 81°6| -81)-196) 40-4 | 37-4) 3:0)10, 10, 10 ESE, E, as
26 | 30°349| 33-0] 28°3| -85)-174| 35-4 [340] 14/10 10,10, NE, NE by ae :
27 | 80°186| 33-2] 27°3| -80| -168| 35°8 | 32-6) 3 2/10, 10, 4 E, Ni, NE.

98 | 30-018) 35°2|27°9| -77|-172| 39°3 |32-9| 6-4| 9, 5,10/ ENE, ENE, NE by E.

Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory.

316

HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES) AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON'S ANEMOMETER.—F ez. 1862.

UR a ae Se

E
Day. 1/2/3/4)/5/6/7]|8]|9 |10)/11/12/18|14/15 16|17/18|19| 20] 21) 22} 23) 24
Hour.
. 20) 10] 16] 12) 12) 14) 4) 12) 2) 10) 4 si 7| 3] 10] 18] 8] 13) 15) 8 13) 6] 5
f 2 21) 12) 9] 13] 14) 10} 9) 15) 5) 5) 38 vy! 5! 3] 18] 18] 12] 13] 15) 7 11) 8) 38
3 20) 13] 13] 13] 20) 11) 17| 15) 4) 8] 5 g| 4) 4) 13] 20) 12) 13] 16; 7} 12} 6) 11
A 18] 11) 14) 11) 20) 9] 18] 15) 5) 7 3 gs} 9] 5} 10] 15) 14) 9] 11) 8 9} 6 14
iB 17| 11) 15) 13] 16) 10) 20) 15) 8] 6 3 9} 9] 5] 14] 14; 16) 12) 8) 8 8 4 20
| 1 6 17| 8] 10] 10) 16) 8] 27) 12; 9) 7 4 9} 1) 2) 12] 12) 12) 7] 13) 6) 9} 6) 21
4 Ui 20| 7| 10) 11| 16] 7 23) 9| 6) 7 3 9| 6] 2! 10] 13) 10); 7| 16) 4) 10) 6) 24
8 20| 11) 9] 12] 15) 7 16) 9] 6) 8] 4 “| 7! 8! 10] 12) 10] 9] 21) 4) 10) 3) 23
9 95) 138| 8] 12] 20) 11/ 290/ 9} 7 7 4 vl | 3] 14) 13] 15] 10] 22) 6) 10) 4) 22
10 22) 11] 11) 14) 23) 11) 22] 15) 15) 8] 4 7| 8) 4 18 11) 17} 18] 23) 10} 14) 2) 25
(11 22) 18] 10) 14) 20) LO 15| 16) 10 5; 5/10] 8] 15] 11] 17] 18] 24) 14) 12) 0} 26
12 21) 17) 10) 11) 21) 9 17| 18) 9 6) si 11} 9] 22] 9) 18] 19] 26) 22) 9; 1) 24
(il 26) 20) 15) 11) 18) 11 15| 17| 18 9| 5] 10] 12] 21/ 9] 16] 18] 32) 22) 6) 3} 27
9g 94! 16) 12] 13} 20) 10/125) 12) 17) 18 8| 4} 8] 10) 21) 4 22 19 2§| 22) 4) 2) 26
3 20) 14) 13) 14) 15) 10 11) 15) 10 9g} 5) 7] 9} 23] 3] 20) 16] 28} 22] 10) 3) 28
A 22) 15) 7| 12) 13) 10 9} 15) 9 8] 5] 4] 11) 29] 1) 19] 15) 27} 25) 10) 6) 380
ales 18) 12) 7| 13] 15) 6) 13, 7 14) 8 10) 2 5) 10; 25) 38} 12) 15 28 23 11} 2] 32
=| 16 12} 12) 4) 12) 10) 4) 6) 7 11) 8 8} 92] 9] 7 20) 1) 14) 14] 17] 17) 6] 3) 26
4 vA 13] 13) 9) 12) 12) 6) 5) 5) 9) 4 5] 1! 5] 10} 16) 3) 16) 16) 18 16 3] 2! 31
8 14) 16) 11) 11) 12) 14) 4) 5) 11) 6 9) 9) 4] 8! 15] 38) 14) 17) 18) 17) 5) 38) 382
9 9| 17| 4| 10] 12 101 6 5] 10) 5/128) 7 1) 2] ¢| 15) 3) 10) 19 13) 12) 3) 2) 27
10 10) 16) 8) 10) 11/ 10) 7 4) 10) 8 wi 4] | ¢] 1S] 1} 14) 19) 9) 11) 4) 3) 30
(11 12) 19) 12) 12) 12) 8) 12) 4 10) 4 10/ 1! 10] 9] 19} 2} 15) 20) 10) 14) 6) 3) 384
12 8} 13) 12) 11) 10) 4) 10) 2) 10) 38 4| 7} 5) 8] 16] 4} 10) 15) 10) 10) 4) 4) 28
Se ee ee NaN ru a ee cre eee | ee | ee meee oe | ema
Total
ow 431/325|249)287/3'73|220/364/244/250|178| 258 1281157|163'400|203/343/346)443/315)199 88/563
ove- .
ment.

118
VAST
131
122
130
12°1
119
11'8
13°3
148
153
16°4
17-2
16:1
16:1
15°7
145
12:2
12°3
12°4
11:3
115
12°7
10°4

13°1

26 | 27 | 28 | Hourly Means.

— |—__.— , —___

Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. 317

RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE
KEW OBSERVATORY.

LATITUDE 51° 28’ 8” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” N.

1862. Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air. At 9.30 a.M.,2P.M., and 5?.M.,
respectively.
: Calculated.
= H |————_|#e |#
ee = | os an oO ae bee ,
Bay i) a ab r ap = read ai
monn, | €a | 2] 2 feel oel*c2lae) 2 | 23 acne ae
EE & | Sepas ees gta aol on S88 Direction of Wind. A.M.
en | 2 | 2 lgel ee | sce lee 2 |. 2
Bo a) AOR weedy (os
fp resale a a a
inches. x = R s inches,
Mar. 1 | 29-951) 355 41:5 | 336] 7-910, 7,,6 NE by E, E,E by N. -000
5, eS aT, a Oe SAAQ| SiG 27) eae jaa i 000
» 8 | 29-260| 31-3 37-2 | 23°5}13-7|10, 5, 1 SW, NW, NNW. ‘000
» 4: | 29:688| 32°3 38:0 | 21-7] 16-3| 1, 3, 3) NW by N, NE, NW. ‘000
» 95 | 29-807] 36-7 43:1 | 22-8] 20:3] 3, 8,10 S, S, S. ‘000
», 6 | 29-529] 49°5| 47-3] “93! - 544. | 36-1] 18°3/10, 10, 10 SW by W, SSW, SSW. 112
» 7 | 29-427) 50°9| 46:4) *86| ° 56:0 | 47:9} 81/10, 7, 3 S W, SW, SSW. -098
»» 8 | 29-5341 52-6} 47-1] -83}- 58°9 | 47-7|11-2} 4, 9, 2) ENE, SE by E, SE by S. | -010}
RIS 1 sae errs acer yee reese ache 2 edt 4 ma a ie -020
», 1O | 29-946) 47-5] 42°8} | °85]- 53°4 | 41-4) 12-0/10, 8, 6 W by 8, W, SSW. “151
»5 11 | 29-762) 46-2) 46.6 "832| 51:5 | 41-7/ 9:8/10,10,10/ SW by 8, SW, SW byS. | -250
»» 12 | 29-690) 47-8] 40°3| °77|- 53°2 | 44-8} 84/10, 4, 3) SW by W, WSW, W. 012
>> 13 | 29-981) 46:2) 44°7 ;. 52°4 | 41-7|10°7/10, 10,10) NNE, NE, NE by N. ‘050
» 14 | 30-150) 40:3] 39-2] °96)- 44:2, | 40-6] 3°6/10, 10, 10! NE, NE, NE. 031
>» 15 | 30-098] 40:5] 38:4) -93) - 46-4. | 39:3} 7-1/10, 9,10/ NE by N, NE, NE by E. | -008
a ea ee BUNGAG 52 39-0) 7-510 oh =. a Bs -000 |.
» 17 | 29-779) 39°2 46°5 | 40-4) 6:1/10, 10, 10 SE, SSW, SW. .400
x» 18 | 29-738) 41-0] 38°8| 93] - 46:1 |37-7| 84/10, 9, 8| SW,NW by W,NWby W.| -220
x 19 | 29-579) 41-9] 35°8| -81)- 48°8 | 30°7|/18'1|10, 4, 3) NE by N, NE by N, NE. | -005
» 20 | 29-354) 34-6] 33-6] 97] - 38'6 | 37-8] 08/10, 10, 10 NNE, NE, NE. -030
— » 21 | 29-521} 33-1]/31-1| -93]- 38:0 | 32:8} 52/10, 10 10) NNE, N, N. 1144.
> 22 | 30-003) 36°6 41-1 | 34-1} 7:0|10,10, 9 N by E, —, ESE. “032
ee, 26) Se Wee Up ea) a ee lWoroe HSG:ONG Ol. > i oe ‘175
24 | 29-514 53:3] 48-9] -86] - 60°8 | 36:9] 23°9/10, 9, 1 SW, —, SE. "363
» 29 | 29-448] 51-9] 51-4) -98)- 59-0 | 45:0) 14:0|10, 10, 10 SSW, E by §. E. 008
x 26 | 29-461) 47-2) 47-2] 1-00] - 53:2 | 44-3) 89/10, 10, 10 E by N, E, E. 063
— » 27 | 29-352} 51-1| 49:3] -94) - 58°9 | 44°2)14-7|10, 8, 9| SE by EH, NE by N, E. 116
x» 28 | 29-186} 44-5] 43°6| -97]- 49'5 | 45:4} 4:1/10, 10, 10 NNW, NNW, N. -093
» 29 | 99-261) 42-5] 39-3] -89] - 48-1 | 41:4) 6-7|10, 10, 10 NNW, W, —.- -000
Peon) 6 | Dene ale Oe WAZ RT Oral eal, te a -000
» 381 | 29-586] 48-6] 45:0] -89]- 56-2 | 44-3] 11-9/10, 3, 8 W, WSW, SW. 1-081
:
ey} 29-638] 43-2| 39:4] -88] -269 10:3 4472,

=a
~

.
:

318 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory.

HOURLY MOVEMENT O

Bay, | 1 | 2) 8) 40) 6 edaieeias
Hour.
12
ri | 26 8 4 6 21| 17| 19
9 | 22] 5] 38 5 20| 15] 15
3 | 20| 4| 38 4/286) 20| 19| 18
| 20) ie 6 4 24) 18| 12
| 5 | 22] 8] 5 4 19} 8} 15
Aig | 22| 7 3 (05 21| 10| 15
4] 7 | 18) 8| 5) | 45 24) 8| 18
g | 23; 6| 5 8 23 8] 20
g | 20) 3| 7 ih 29| 9) 22
10 | 28} 4| 6 19 24| 13] 24
(1 21; 6 9| 23) 26) 30 14 34.
19 | 22| 6 5| 31| 25] 380] 15] 34
(1 | 25] 5 4| 35| 26| 34] 15] 30
3 | 25| 5 4| 36] 30| 31) 17] 30
a | Mlle 5| 27| 28] 82| 25] 82
i (| 2B 6| 28] 27| 83] 19] 39
ie, | 25| 6 4| 33| 31] 30] 19] 34
Ai ¢ | 21) 4 1) 28} 32] 30] 17} 26
ie a ame fe) 9] 33] 35] 26) 19) 29
eB | 22l 6 4| 80) 27| 24| 20) 27
qe | tol 2 3| 33] 25| 22) 23] 23
| 10 7| 312007 5] 86) 23} 22) 26) 21
lai, PE 6 27| 24) 30] 16
12 9| 4 5 23] 17| 21) &
| ye | er | |
Total
Daily \ /483|126| 310 | 1110 |610.405/556
Move-
ment.

10

| TATA AOAKARYORADOOTMBONR OED

147

> 15 GO ST CO ST OO & OO ut

280

H
OO WOO OT ON

a
wore

13 | 14] 15 |j16 17/18 19 | 20| 21 | 22

22
17
16
19
16
19
20
18
17
15
18
20
17
16
17
17
17
16
17
18
18
18
14
14

415

13
14
13
18
16
15
15
16
16
14
15
13
10
10
11
10
13

8
12
11
10
13
12

OTD ATT O OxnrsT

—
iv)

an ee ee

Bee ee rmonsToOso sob ok & RAT OO ATATO

WwNOWOrNWNHEE Wb

—

15

17
20
19
20
21
24:
22

22
20
20
18
17
18
20
iby
20
20

438]204

1i

23 | 24.) 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29] 30) 31

——| |! | ———_ | ——— | ———

17| 11
14; 10
16) 15
14) 16
15} 15
11; 9
12) 8
15} 12
15} 8
15} 8
18) 9
17| 10
13] 6
15) 4
13) 6
1LO;9
Oleg
8) 7
18} 5
17| 4
1G Al
15) 1
15) 2
14; 1
345/187

| AwWnMEOODYWN@MaIWOwMobkwwNwNnmeH WNwhNHH

no
BNW OOOWE WHEN WN HEHE ewe OAD

T

lee
C™

&

|

¥ THE WIND (IN MILES) AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON'S ANEMOMETER—Maneu 1862.

WTATOTIAANMILADDALwWLOwWOWST

alles
co Oo ©

[op)

150;131

hoe O89 Go OT pO & OV ST OV OUST ® M O10 OOO STST OO tT

Hourly
Means.

—
_—

ce 2)

DOAN FBENTODOENNWWEORDRDE DONTE
ey
(=)

120180] 12°1

i ee

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 319

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

BY W, B. TEGETMEIER.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—WMarch 19.

Tae Last ELrvation or THE CreyTrat VALLEY oF SCOTLAND, BY
ARcHIBALD Guixiz.—After alluding to the position and nature of the
raised beach which, at the height of from twenty to thirty feet
above the present high-water mark, fringes the coast-line of Scot-
land, the author proceeded to describe the works of art which had
been found init. From their occurrence in beds of elevated silt and
sand, containing layers of marine shells, it was evident that the
change of level had been effected since the commencement of the
human period. The character of the remains likewise proved that
the elevation could not be assigned to so ancient a time as the Stone
Period of the archeologist. The canoes which had from time to time
been exhumed from the upraised deposits of the Clyde at Glasgow
clearly showed that at the time when at least the more finished of
them were in use, the natives of this part of Scotland were ac-
quainted with the use of bronze, if not of iron. The remains found
in the corresponding beds of the Forth estuary likewise indicated
that there had been an upheaval long after the earlier races had
settled in the country, and that the movement was subsequent to
the employment of iron. From the Firth of Tay similar evidence
was adduced to indicate an upheaval possibly as recent as the time
of the Roman occupation. The author then cited several antiquaries
who from a consideration of the present position of the Roman re-
mains in Scotland had inferred a considerable change in the aspect
of the coast-line since the earlier centuries of the Christian era.
He pointed out also several circumstances in relation to these
Roman relics, which tended to show a change of level, and he
referred to the discovery of Roman pottery in a point of the raised
beach at Leith. The conclusion to which the evidence led him was
that since the first century of our era the central parts of Scotland,
from the Clyde to the Forth and the Tay, had risen to a height of
from twenty to twenty-five feet above their present level.

—

ROYAL SOCIETY.—March 20.

Exurpition or M. Puatzav’s Frums.—Dr. Frankland exhibited be-
fore the society a series of very beautiful experiments with the solu-
tions and apparatus of M. Plateau, designed to show the optical and
mechanical properties of thin films. The films are obtained by
means of a solution of one part of pure oleate of soda im fifty of
water; three parts of this solution are then mixed with two parts
of glycerine. The liquid thus obtained is capable of being blown,
by means of a common tobacco-pipe, into bubbles of very large size

320 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

and great permanency. Dr. Frankland stated that he had succeeded,
by means of a blowpipe bellows, in obtaining a bubble nearly nine-
teen inches in diameter. When inflated with air these bubbles
often last more than twenty-four hours; but, when the breath is
employed, the oleate of soda is slowly acted on by the carbonic
acid expired, and their duration is limited to three or four hours.

A series of these bubbles, about six inches in diameter, were
placed on a number of glass rings situated in a line, and on a ray of
light from the electric lamp being transmitted through the series,
their beautiful irridescent colours were developed in the most magni-
cent manner.

Other bubbles were inflated with a mixture of eight parts of
air and one part of coal gas, which, by overcoming the specific
gravity of the film, enabled the bubbles to float in the atmosphere
so as to be wafted by the slightest current. The tenacity of the
film was shown by allowing drops of water to fall through the bub-
bles which could be accomplished without breaking them.

By dipping small wire cages forming the outlines of geometrical
solids, into the mixture of oleate of soda and glycerime, plane
films were produced intersecting each other in various directions
in the interior of the wire frames. Many of these offered very
remarkable geometrical combinations; the wire outline of a tetra-
hedron, for example, on being withdrawn from the solution, was
shown to contain six triangular films, all meeting at the centre of
the figure.

The films, formed in the cages which represented the outlines
of short rectangular prisms, were in several cases bounded by
curved lines, the mathematical properties of which have been closely
investigated by M. Plateau.

SOCIETY OF ARTS.—April 2.

OxipizeD Orn as Susstiture ror THE Hxastic Gums.—Mr. F.
Walton described the manufacture of a new substitute for gutta
percha and india-rubber, consisting of oil oxidized by exposure to
the air in thin films, and subsequently either dissolved in a volatile
solvent, or worked up ina solid form. By these means an elastic
solid is obtaimed, possessing in a great degree the properties of
rubber in its various conditions, and applicable to similar purposes.

LINNEAN SOCIETY.—<4pril 3.

On tHe Ferrinizarion or Cerrarn Orcuips.—Mr. C, Darwin
described some remarkable peculiarities existing in certain orchids,
specimens of which were in the possession of the Linnean Society.
In the plants belonging to the genus Catasetwm, it not unfrequently
happens that two, and sometimes three, supposed distinct genera
exist on the same spike. Thus the Catasetum tridentatum is inter-
mixed with the flowers of the Monocanthus viridis and those of the
Myanthus barbatus.

Proceedings of Learned Societies. ooo

Mr. Darwin has ascertained that the Catasetum tridentatum
is the male form, the flowers bearing pollen masses only; that
in the so-called Monocanthus the pollen masses are rudimentary, the
inferior ovary being well-developed and twisted as is usual in orchi-
daceous plants, and, further, that the so-styled Myanthus barbatus,
which is borne on the same plant, is merely the hermaphrodite form.

Mr. Darwin remarked on the very extraordinary mechanism
which was necessary to ensure the fertilization of the orchids of
the unisexual flowers of the genus Catasetum. The pollen masses
are attached to elastic fibres, held down by a membrane, and each
is furnished with an adhesive disk. The flowers are furnished
with antenne ; when these are touched by any object, as an insect,
the elastic fibres project out the pollen mass with such force that
its adhesive surface adheres to the insect, which, in its search for
honey, conveys it to the stigmatic surface of the pistil bearing
flower.

Mr. Darwin stated that the position of the excitable surface of the
flower varied in the different species, but that the projection of the
pollen mass was, in all cases, in such a direction as to cause its
attachment to the insect passing over the irritable surface.

Toran Amount or AUSTRALIAN GOLD INTRODUCED INTO ENGLAND.
—Professor Tennant exhibited some rich specimens of auriferous
quartz from Nova Scotia, and also the first»specimen of Australian
gold that was brought to England. This nugget was exhibited at
the Great Exhibition of 1851: Since that time 1000 tons of gold
have been imported into this country from Australia, the value of
which cannot be estimated as less than about £143,000,000.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—April 7.

Sink-propuciné Morus or Asra.—Mr. F. Moore exhibited a
magnificent collection of the various silk-producing moths of India,
with specimens of their cocoons and samples of the silks in their
raw and manufactured states. The best silk is yielded by the
common silkworm, the Bombyx mori, which is now so generally culti-
vated ; it is an annual, and feeds on the mulberry. Many other species
of Bombyx are also known and cultivated, some yielding several
crops of silk every year; specimens of eleven distinct species are
contained in Mr. Moore’s collection.

The genus dAtiacus contains several species of silk-yielding
moths. The Tusseh cloth of China is said to be produced by the
A. atlas. And the A. Cynthia, which is known as the Hria, or the
Ailanthus silkworm, from feeding on the leaves of that plant,
exceeds six inches in length in China, where it has been cultivated
for centuries, and clothes large masses of the people.

The Hria has been introduced into the south of Europe, and has
been successfully cultivated in many parts of France, as has also a
hybrid between it and the Bengal Hria, Attacus ricint, this latter
also feeds freely on the leaves of the castor-oil plant, Ricinus
communis.

The Actias selene is domesticated at Mussooree, where it yields

322 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

four crops of silk annually. The Moonga, <Anthercee assama, is

extensively cultivated in the open air im Assam; the silk forms one

of its principal exports. There are generally five broods during the
ear.

The Antherea paphia, or Tussur, or Tusseh silkworm of the
Bengalese, is very widely distributed throughout India; its silk is a
most abundant product; it is the most common in use of all the
wild silkworms, millions of cocoons are annually collected in the
jungles and brought to the silk factories near Calcutta. Other
species of Antherca, as the d. Roylei, feeding on different species of
oak, have also been cultivated.

In addition to the moths above enumerated, the collection of
Mr. Moore exhibited several others belonging to the genera Cricula,
Salassa, Saturnia, etc., etc., many of which, it is evident, may be
made largely available for the production of different silks, having
various qualities hkely to render them useful to man. This unique
collection will be shown in the Indian department at the Inter-
national Hxhibition.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—April 8.

Tae Leprposiren.—Dr. 'T. Spencer Cobbold, F.L.S., gave a
minute description of the bones of the skull of Lepidosiren annectans,
which animal differs so materially from that of the American
species (Lepidosiren paradoxa) that some have placed it in a distinet
genus, under the title of Protopteris. The New World species, dis-
covered by Natteur, has been carefully anatomized by Bischoff and
Hyrtle, whilst the one under consideration has been dissected and
described by Owen, Melville, M’Donnell, and others. The osteology
of Lepidosiren annectans, however, is still incompletely understood.
Dr. Cobbold observed that three, or at most four, bones only were
concerned in the formation of the cranium proper, whilst four others
formed the face, two of them belonging to the jaws. He stated
that there were no true superior maxillary bones, the upper massive
jaw being in reality made up of the enormously developed palatine
bones. ‘The most remarkable cranial elements are the pair of horn-
like bones which stretch backwards to form the vault of the skull.
Bischoff says they are altered molar bones, but Dr. Cobbold con-
siders them to be the frontals, and he observed that “ their presence
more than any other of the osseous elements imparts to the skull
its unique character.” There are many striking differences in the
skeletal element of Protopteris annectans as compared with Lepido-
siren poradowa.

(Sis)

Notes and Memoranda. on

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

Srar Finprer.—Messrs. Horne and Thornthwaite have supplied a want widely
felt by the possessors of telescopes, in producing a small, portable, and elegant
instrument, by which celestial objects may be eastly found from the data given in
the Nautical Almanack, or any similar authority. It is, in fact, a miniature
equatorial of accurate workmanship and very moderate price. We regret that the
demands upon our space oblige us to postpone any detailed description, but it is
due to our astronomical readers to give them the earliest intimation of a new and
important aid to their favourite pursuit.

TaARANAKI STEEL.—We have received from Messrs. Moseley a specimen of that
very curious and interesting mineral, the iron-sand from New Zealand, which
appears to realize all the expectations which were formed of its value in metal-
lurgy. The chemical composition of this ore, for such it must be called, is emi-
nently favourable for the production of the finer kinds of steel, as it not only
contains no element of a deteriorating quality, but has the great advantage of
possessing a considerable quantity of titanium. In appearance the Taranaki sand
resembles bright grains of gunpowder, and is readily attracted by the magnet.
Professor Herapath says it contains 16 per cent. of titanium, 6 of silica, and a
trace of manganese. The deposit extends for miles on the beach, at the foot of
the voleanic mountain Hemont, and when smelted yields 60 per cent. of iron of
the first quality. Under the microscope it presents a beautiful appearance, the
grains exhibiting very irregular but polished surfaces, with a lustre between that
of steel and silver. Here and there a grain will be observed, composed chiefly of
silica, dotted with minute portions of the ore, but it is singularly free from im-
purities. The steel made from it is highly praised, and when we remember the
extraordinary affinity of titanium for nitrogen at high temperatures, we call to
mind the recent assertion of a Freneh chemist on the action of the last-named
element in changing iron into steel.

LINKS BETWEEN FEATHERS AND Scates.—Mr. Latham exhibited to the same
society scales from the wing of the Catarrhactes papua, a penguin from the Falk-
land Isles. They appear intermediate between feathers and scales, This fact
should be considered in connection with the discovery of the feathered reptile in
the Solenhofen state.

THE Mass oF Juprrer.—M. Schubert expects to be able to calculate the exact
mass of Jupiter from tke disturbances he produces on the asteroid Leucothea.

AstTRONOMICAL PHotogRaPus.—The beautiful photographs of M. Warren de
la Rue are a most valuable contribution to astronomical science. By means of his
labours we are obtaining a continuous history of the changes in the spots and
faculee on the face of the sun, more accurate and more instructive than could be
preserved by any verbal description or ordinary drawing. By this means questions
relating to the periodicity of these changes and their connection with terrestrial
magnetism will be solved, and likewise those concerning the movements of the sup-
posed ring of asteroids in the region of Mercury. Among the most remarkable of
Mr. de la Rue’s works are stereoscopic views of the larger planets. As it would
be impossible to stereoscope objects so remote by the usual methods of operation,
he has obtained the requisite change in the aspect of the two views by photo-
graphing the planetary disks in two positions at two different periods of observation.

THE Soprum Sprctrum.— Mr. Fizeau called the attention of the French
Academy, on the 3rd March, to the character of the light obtained by burning the
metal sodium in common air, when examined with the spectroscope. He ob-
served, “the results differed entirely from those obtained with other flames in
which the presence of sodium is revealed in a very constant manner by a yellow
light, which, when observed in the spectrum, presents the double ray D detached
from the background and very luminous. ‘The effects produced with the burning
sodium do not coincide with the expectation of a great development of the ray D,
and we find with surprise that the spectrum it produces is continued after the red
as far as the violet, with the exception of the double ray D, which detaches itself
in shaded black (noir foncé) and like velvet on the brilliant ground of the spec-
trum. This appearance is the converse of that which is given by other flamés
containing sodium. With them, in fact, all the rays of the spectrum are wanting,
with the exception of that which forms the ray D. With burning sodium all the
rays are very brilliant except those of the ray D, which appear entirely absent.

oA Notes and Memorande.

This phenomenon only occurs when the combustion is vivid. When the metal
begins to burn the ray D shines on a black ground; as the combustion becomes
more active it developes in one part and another of the ray D, which it enfeebles,
intense rays, which at first do not pass beyond its immediate vicinity, but which
rapidly invade the whole expanse of the spectrum with ordinary tints as the sodium
becomes completely on fire ; and at last there is observed only the rays of the dou-
ble ray D which detaches itself in intense black—that is to say, with the same ap-
pearance as in the spectrum formed with the light which emanates from the sun.”

TREPIDATION OF THE Sort aT Nicr.—From a letter by M. Prost to M. Elie
de Beaumont, published in Comptes Rendus, we learn that, during the late erup-
tion of Vesuvius, tremblings of the ground occurred at Nice, varying suddenly in
force and direction.

Tur Companton oF Srrius.—Mr. Clark of Cambridge, U.S., has discovered,
and Mr. Bond has verified, the existence of a companion of Sirius, distant 10”.
It had been suspected by Bessel and Peters, on account of certain periodical per-
turbations in the right ascensions of the great star, and was conjectured to be a
dark body, as it could not be found before Mr. Clark’s fortunate observation with
an 18-inch instrument. The companion of Sirius has been seen at Paris (since
its discovery in America) with M. Foucault’s large telescope, with a silvered
mirror, 80 centimetres. It is visible only when atmospheric conditions diminish
the radiation from the great star. Mr. Peters has written to Cosmos, stating that
it cannot be identified with the body whose existence he suspects. ‘The exact dis-
tance of the little star is 10-5, angle of position, 85°.

CarBon anD Hyprocren.—M. Berthelot, who has been long engaged in forming
hydro-carbons by a synthetical process, has recently made a remarkable experiment
by passing a current of hydrogen between the charcoal points of a Biinsen’s battery
of 60 elements. At this extreme temperature the hydrogen combined with the car-
bon producing a cetyline. The facts were communicated to the French Academy
by M. Balard on the 17th March.

Vocat Fisurs.—Dr. Dufossé communicates to the French Academy further
researches into the vocal powers of certain fish, most of his observations being
made upon species of Trigla and Zeus (gurnards and dories). He states the
sounds to be produced by the vibration of the muscles belonging to the air-
bladder, and that large gurnards may be heard at a distance of six or seven
yards. Out of five or six hundred individuals of the species mentioned, their
voices were comprised between si, and re; inclusive. ‘The sounds were instan-
taneous, or prolonged for several minutes, sometimes as long as seven or eight
minutes. The pitch often varies during a single “sonorous emission.” ‘he
finest vocal performers appear to belong to the species Morrude, who surpass all
their congeners in producing a great number of completely distinct sounds.
“They sustain the simple sounds better, and modulate better the compound
sounds ; they render more distinctly long successions of sounds different in toue
and pitch ; in fine, there is less dissonance in the sonorous vibrations they pro-
duce. Other species, however, beat them in intensity,

Mrcroscoric Writtne.—The President of the Microscopic Society of London
stated in his annual address that the beautiful machine presented by Mr. Peters
has enabled the Lord’s Prayer to be written in the 356,000th of a square inch—a
space like a minute dot. The English Bible contains 3,566,480 letters. The
Lord’s Prayer, ending with ‘ Deliver us from evil,” 223 letters ; so that the Bible
is 15,992 times longer than the prayer, and if we employ round numbers we may
say it could be written in 16,000 times the space occupied by the prayer, or in less
than the twenty-second part of a square inch. In other words, the whole Bible
might be written twenty-two times in one square inch. This wonderfully minute
writing is clearly legible when placed under a good microscope. In using the
machine the operator writes with a pencil attached to one end of a long lever ;
whatever marks he makes on a piece of paper are infinitesimally reduced in corre-
sponding motions, by which a glass plate is moved over a minute diamond point.
By means of Ibbetson’s geometric chuck, beautiful geometric designs may be
engraved on a similar scale of minuteness.

eet Dae Sr ee ee

THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER.

JUNE, 1862.

LIFE CHANGES ON THE GLOBE.
BY HENRY J. SLACK, TF.G.S.

Aw assemblage of facts concernmg any branch of Nature’s
operations cannot fail to interest an intelligent being; but they
do not constitute a science until they are arranged and co-
ordinated, so as to mark the ascent from particular, to general,
or universal truths, and thus contribute to that speculative phi-
losophy which constitutes the noblest triumph which the human
intellect can achieve. Regarded in this light, departments of
physical inquiry are interesting in proportion to the amplitude
of the views which they disclose, or i other words in propor-
tion to the number and variety of special facts which they are
able to refer to simple principles, or comprehensive laws. Mo-
dern discoveries concerning the correlation and conservation of
forces show us the purely artificial character of the divisions
which the limitation of our faculties compels us to make, and
point to the conclusion that all spheres of activity, all realms of
space would only exhibit the phenomena of a single science to a
mind capable of grasping the majestic whole. In the direction
of this goal, man, as the child of Time and the heir of Immor-
tality, feels that he is progressing. It may be, probably must
be, for ever afar off, and impossible to attain, but when we
deal with infinities, an approach may be constant, a boundary
never reached.

Among the sciences which at the present time exercise the
profoundest influence upon the diligent searcher, and the casual
collector of the golden particles of truth, geology must claim
a noble rank, and although—dating its progress in time—it is
one of the shortest of the many rivers of knowledge, it has
become one of the broadest and richest through the confluence
of a thousand tributary streams. At a very early period of its
brief career, it connected the changes in the structure of the
globe, with successive scenes of animated life, and extended
the domains of what is commonly called “natural history,”’ and
other biological sciences, from the limited present to the im-

VOL. I.—NO. V. Z

326 Life Changes on the Globe.

mense, and incalculable, ages of the past. The natural arrange-
ment of various strata necessitated the idea that some were
ancient, and others comparatively new. ‘The same fact of se-
quence in formation was testified by their structure, some
being obviously composed of materials obtaimed from those of
earlier date; but the various leaves of the great earth-book
would have been comparatively blank pages, if they had not

been written over with the hieroglyphic characters of once .

living beings. It was soon found that fossils, which some
early observers thought to have been only freaks of Nature’s
“* plastic power,” were the most important records of terrestrial

modification. Particular kinds were ascertained to have been |

connected with particular periods of the history of any locality
which presented a succession of forms. Up to a certain point
similar remains were discovered in analogous formations in
different countries, and it was assumed that we were thus mm
possession of the means of establishing a comparative chronology
universally applicable i our mundane world. The age, for
example—eiving geological latitude to the word—of Silurian
slates and sandstones, coal measures, or chalk, was supposed
to be the same all over the globe. If the characteristic fossils
were found, they were presumed to decide the epoch to which
the strata belonged, and few geologists, even in the recesses of
their own minds, ventured to question the dogmas of a scien-
tific orthodoxy which were not without convenience in appli-
cation, and which were widely received. ‘To Professor Huxley
belongs the honour of boldly assailme the ground of this
belief, and of recalling the whole tribe of stratigraphical deci-
pherers to a just consideration of the wide distinction between
facts arrived at through the genuine processes of mductive or
deductive investigation, and the various fancies and figments
by which men delude themselves into the notion that their
knowledge extends to regions which in reality their inquiries
have failed to reach.

Human egotism has been at the bottom of many speculative
errors, and man has too often tried to dwarf the universe so as
to bring it within the limits of his feeble faculties, and make
its operations correspond in brevity of duration with the short-
ness of his mortal life. It is to this source that we owe many
folhes of cosmogony and geology, and it is very rarely that
even the professed investigators of science can be induced to
forego the idle effort to explain the history of our planet by
theories prodigal in violence and parsimonious in time. From
atl such blunders English geologists, at least, might have easily
emancipated themselves if they had followed to their legitimate
conclusions the principles established by Sir Charles Lyell in
his masterly examination of the connection between past facts

RR fF i

Life Changes on the Globe. 327

and existing causes; but, notwithstanding the exhaustive
reasonings which that distinguished philosopher embodied in a
most fascinating style, it has been customary to represent the ~
earlier epochs of our globe as periods of such continuous
violence as to make us exclaim with Isabel, “nothmg but
thunder,” and it has also been common to exalt negative evi-
dence to a most unwarrantable position in the scale of proof.
To get the world made and unmade as quickly as impatient
_ professors desired, it was necessary to fancy that, comparatively
speaking, no great while had elapsed since it “ wandered
lonely as a cloud” in the nebulous form. Condensation
followed almost as rapidly as the drops fall from the con-
densed steam of the locomotive, and it spun round as a fluid
fiery mass, getting sufficiently crusted at the surface to be a
convenient lodging for such forms of life as require what the
gardeners call a strong “bottom heat.’ Radiation enabled
more and more of the molten material to become solid, and
colder creatures appeared upon the scene. Still the central
fires maintained their sway, every volcano was their outlet,
and where no lava streams could burst forth, continents were
upheaved with all the facility which characterizes the elevation
of bubbles on the surface of a baking pie. These high-pressure
movements soon exhausted and absorbed successive races of
organized existences, and when the earth had been tossed and
tumbled about, so that “chaos was come again,” a fresh exer-
tion of creative energy upraised new forests, and caused new
creatures to bound or crawl beneath their shade. One apparent
advantage of this school of geology was its supposed power to
exhibit the first dawn of life, and the successive catastrophes by
which systems were swept away, and a higher fawna and flora
convulsively introduced. The general results of this mode of
philosophizing are thus stated by Professor Huxley, the words
in brackets being added’ by ourselves.*

“ Animals and plants began their existence together, not long
after the commencement of the deposition of the [earliest known |
sedimentary rocks, and then succeeded one another in such a
manner that totally distinct faune and flore occupied the whole
surface of the earth, one after the other, and during distinct epochs
of time.

“A geclogical formation is the sum of all the strata deposited
over the whole surface of the earth during one of these epochs; a
geological fauna or flora is the sum ofall the species of animals or
plants which occupied the whole surface of the globe during one of
these epochs.

“The population of the earth’s surface was at first very similar
in all parts, and only from the middle of the Tertiary epoch
onwards began to show a distinct distribution in zones.

* Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, May 1862.

328 Life Changes on the Globe.

“The coustitution of the original population, as well as the
numerical proportions of its members, indicates a warmer and, on
the whole, somewhat tropical climate, which remained tolerably
equable throughout the year. The subsequent distribution of
living beings in zones is the result of a gradual lowering of the
general temperature, which first began to be felt at the poles.

“It is not now proposed to inquire whether these doctrines are
true or false; but to direct your attention to a much simpler though
very essential preliminary question—What is their logical basis P
what are the fundamental assumptions upon which they all logically
depend ? and what is the evidence on which those fundamental pro-
positions demand our assent P

“These assumptions are two: the first, that the commencement
of [that part of | the geological record [which has hitherto been de-
ciphered] is coeval with the commencement of life on the globe ;
the second, that geological contemporaneity is the same thing as
as chronological synchrony. Without the first of these assumptions
there would of course be no ground for any statement respecting
the commencement of life; without the second, all the other state-
ments cited, every one of which implies a knowledge of the state of
different parts of the earth at one and the same time, will be no less
devoid of demonstration.

“The first assumption obviously rests entirely on negative
evidence. This is, of course, the only evidence that ever can be
available to prove the commencement of any series of phenomena :
but, at.the same time, it must be recollected that the value of nega-
tive evidence depends entirely on the amount of positive corrobora-
tion it receives. If A B wishes to prove an alibi, it is of no use
for him to get a thousand witnesses simply to swear that they did
not see him in such and such a place, unless the witnesses are pre-
pared to prove that they must have seen him had he been there.
But the evidence that animal life commenced with the Lingula-flags,
e.g. would seem to be exactly of this unsatisfactory uncorroborated
sort. The Cambrian witnesses simply swear they “ hayven’t seen
anybody their way;” upon which the counsel for the other side
immediately puts in ten or twelve thousand feet of Devonian sand-
stones to make oath they never saw a fish or a mollusc, though all
the world knows there were plenty in their time.”

Having thus defined the nature of his inquiry, Professor
Huxley shows that when the has of England and that of Ger-
many, or the cretaceous rocks of Britain or of India are said
to be “ contemporaneous,” the word is most loosely employed,
and that no evidence exists by which synchronism of formation
can be demonstrated in either case. Taking for an illustration the
computation of the late Daniel Sharpe that thirty or forty per
cent. of the known Silurian mollusca are common to both sides
of the Atlantic, and by way of allowance for undiscovered
specimens, assuming that sixty per cent. are common to the
North American and British Silurians, he avers that if contem-

Ife Changes on the Gilobe. 329

poraneity or synchronism were assumed upon such evidence, we
should fall into serious mistakes :—

“Now suppose that, a million or two years hence, when Britain
has made another dip beneath the sea and has come up again,
some geologist applies this doctrine, in comparing the strata laid
bare by the upheaval of the bottom, say of St. George’s Channel,
with what may then remain of the Suffolk Crag. Reasoning in the
some way, he will at once decide the Suffolk Crag and the St.
‘George’s Channel beds to be contemporaneous ; although we happen
to know that a vast period (even in the geological sense) of time,
and physical changes of almost unprecedented extent, separate the
two.

“ But if it be a demonstrablefact that strata containing more than
sixty or seventy per cent. of species of Mollusca in common, and
comparatively close together, may yet be separated by an amount
of geological time sufficient to allow of some of the greatest phy-
sical changes the world has seen, what becomes of that sort of con-
temporaneity the sole evidence of which is a similarity of facies, or
the identity of half a dozen species, or of a good many genera ?P

“‘ And yet there is no better evidence for the contemporaneity
assumed by all who adopt the hypotheses of universal faune and
flore, of a universally uniform chmate, and of a sensible cooling of
the globe during geological time.”

Looking fairly at the evidence before us, we can only come
to the conclusion that ‘‘a Devonian fauna and flora in the
British Islands may have been contemporaneous with Silurian
life in North America, and with a carboniferous fauna and
flora in Africa.” What was the case we have as yet no means
of knowing, and while grounds of decision are wanting, judg-
ment should hold suspense. If we may compare the successive
changes in various parts of the globe to the movements of a
clock, we must not assume the starting-point of any series of
operations to have been identical. Hach country, so to speak,
may have had its own clock—all the clocks going upon the
same principle, and to a large extent with the same order in
their motions, but the dawn marked by one may correspond in
actual time with the noon on the evening of another place.

The extreme value so often assigned to negative evidence
has materially assisted spasmodic theories. It has led to the
unproved and improbable assumption that our very limited
search for the remains of older periods enables us to decide
authoritatively the proximate periods at which fish, reptiles, or
mammals were introduced, and it has also induced many autho-
rities to affirm in the most positive manner that the organized
beings of two epochs have been totally distinct. As an instance
of this common phraseology we may cite Professor M‘Coy’s
declaration that in Australia as in Hurope “‘the greater part
of the country sank under the sea during the Tertiary period,

300 Life Changes on the Globe.

and every trace of the previous creations of plants and animals
were destroyed, and replaced by a totally different set.’* We shall
see how far this violence of expression is justified by Professor
Huxley’s investigations; but before dismissing the subject of
negative evidence, let us call to mind Sir C. Lyell’s remarks in
185i,+ m reference to the dredging operations of Messrs.
Forbes and MacAndrew between the Isle of Portland and the
Land’s End. During one hundred and forty dredgings, at va-
rious distances from the shore, they obtained a large quantity
of marine invertebrates, but very few traces of vertebrate life,
none of them referable to terrestrial animals. “Tf,” says Sir
Charles, “reliance could be placed on negative evidence, we
might deduce from such facts, that no cetacea existed in the sea,
and no reptiles, birds, or quadrupeds on the neighbouring land.”

In comparing the fauna and flora of the two periods, or of
two contemporaneous countries, the amount of agreement or
difference which an observer will trace must depend very much
upon the method he employs. If he is a profound believer m
certain systems of classification, he may affirm objects to be
totally distinct, or new creations, and so forth, while they are
closely allied; and if we consider the pernicious influence
of spasmodic theories in blinding the mind even to obvious
facts, 1b 1s consoling to find so oreat an authority as Professor
Husley confirming opinions which are in conformity with the
most probable deductions from general science. He tell us that,
if we leave negative differences out of consideration, and regard
the fossil world in the broad spirit suggested by comparative
anatomy, we shall be struck with “ the smallness of the total
change.” Out of “two hundred known orders of plants, not
one 1s certainly known to exist exclusively in a fossil state.
The whole lapse of geological time has as yet not yielded a
single new ordinal type of vegetable structure.” In the animal
world the change has been oreater ; but still ‘no fossil animal
is so distinct from those now living : as to require to be arranged
even in a separate class from those which contain existing

forms. It is only when we come to the orders, which may be |

roughly estimated at about a hundred and thirty, that we meet
with fossil animals so distinct from those now living as to
require orders from themselves; and these do not amount on
the most liberal estimate to more than about ten per cent. of
the whole.” The Protozoa, it appears, have not lost any known

order, the Coelenterata but one, the rugose corals—the Mollusca.

none, the Hchinoderms three, and the “Crustacea two, “ making
altogether five for the great subkingdom of Annulosa. Among
vertebrates there is no ordinally distinct fossil fish: there is

* Annals of Natural History, Feb..1862, p. 144.
45 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, May 1851, p. 53.

ee en an ee ee

Life Changes on the Globe. 301

only one extinct order of Amphibia, the Labyrinthodonts ; but
there are at least four distinct extinct orders of Reptilia, viz. the
Icthyosauria, Plesiosauria, Pterosauria, Dinosauria, and perhaps
another or two. There is no known extinct order of birds,
and no certainly known extinct order of Mammals, the ordinal
distinctness of the ‘ Toxodontia’ bemg doubtful :’— /

‘The two highest groups of the Annulosa, Insecta and Arach-
nida, are represented in the Coal either by existing genera or by
forms differing from existing genera in quite minor peculiarities.

“Turning to the Vertebrata, the only paleozoic Hlasmobranch
Fish of which we have any complete knowledge is the Devonian
and Carboniferous Plewracanthus, which differs no more from exist-
ing Sharks than these do from one another.

“ Aoain, vast as is the number of undoubtedly Ganoid fossil
Fishes, and great as is their range in time, a large mass of evidence
has recently been adduced to show that almost all those respecting
which we possess sufficient information are referable to the same
subordinal groups as the existing Lepidosteus, Polypterus, and Stur-
geon ; and that a singular relation obtains between the older and
the younger Fishes; the former, the Devonian Ganoids, bemg
almost all members of the same suborder as Polypterus, while the
Mesozoic Ganoids are almost all similarly allied to Lepidosteus.”

With these facts before us, how are we justified if we retain the
phraseology of the scientific convulsionnaires, or impute to the
operations of nature, jerks, cataclysms, and violence, which are
not evidenced by external facts, and which are highly improb-
able upon @ prior’ grounds ?

It is curious that the theories of spasmodic geology have
readily allied themselves with development speculations, which,
if valid in any shape, must demand such enormous periods of
time, and such gradual processes of modification, as to have
more real affinity with the philosophy that Lyell has traced.
In common with most other physiologists, Professor Huxley
comes to the conclusion that “ positive evidence fails to de-
monstrate any sort of progressive modification towards a less
embryonic or less generalized type in a great many groups of
animals of long-continued geological existence.” In such
groups he finds abundant evidence of variation—none of what
is ordinarily understood as progression,” and he adds, “if the
known geological record is to be regarded as even any con-
siderable fragment of the whole, it is inconceivable that any
theory of a necessarily progressive development can stand.”
If, however, the plan of creation involves progressive modifica-
tion, then even what we commonly understand by “ geological
eras’ will appear brief spaces of time when compared with
the enormous periods during which modifications have taken
place, and “the conclusion will inevitably present itself that the

332 Life Changes on the Globe.

Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic faunz and flore, taken
together, bear somewhat the same proportion to the whole
series of living begs which have occupied this globe, as the
existing faunee and floree do to them.”

Serious difficulties are experienced when itis attempted to
convert geological into historical time; but the periods re-
quired for even minor changes in the earth’s surface must
greatly exceed those with which the records of human civiliza-
tion have to deal, and no geologist of repute would contend
that a small number of ages would suffice for the deposition
of any considerable thickness of sedimentary rock, or for
the denudation of an extensive area by aqueous and atmo-
spheric action. When, therefore, we contemplate an epoch in
the physical history of the globe, we must beware of assigning
hmits upon imaginary grounds; and if on the one hand we
accept Professor Phillips’s caution, to avoid random speaking
about “millions on millions of ages,” we must at any rate be
equally on our guard lest we condemn ourselves to an erroneous
mode of interpretation by refraining from the perception of the
fact that the operations which geology traces could not possibly
have taken place within any duration that our faculties enable
us to appreciate. In astronomical distances our understanding
is soon brought to a-condition in which the multiplication of
figures fails to produce a corresponding enlargement in our
ideas, and we must not expect more success in the attempt to
grasp the ages of the earth. Taking the whole group of sta-
tified rocks in the British Isles at 100, Professor Phillips
assigns 79 to the Palzozoic, 18 to the Mesozoic, and 3 to the
Cainozoic ; and if the thicker formations absorbed a propor-
tionably greater length of time, it would not be easy to imagine
calculations that would transcend the truth. ‘Life changes on the
earth can only be imperfectly understood from the incomplete
series of remains that have been discovered, but from them the
authority last cited computes the rate of progressive change
at 5 for the Paleozoic > for the Mesozoic, and 3 for the
Cainozoic time, and he adds, “The slowness of early changes
has been ascribed to a greater uniformity of terrestrial tempe-
rature than is now experienced.”

How and in what manner climates have altered is too large
a question to be treated incidentally ; but, in connection with
the present inquiry, we may quote some remarks of Mr. Hop-
kins, which cut off the recourse to central fires and rapid
refrigeration as causes which produced noticeable effects in a
few thousands or a few millions of years. ‘The part of the
superficial temperature due to primitive heat is very small,
amounting to about one-twentieth of a degree of Fahrenheit.
It must have been constantly diminishing for an immense

Life Changes on the Globe. 5535)

period of time, and has now approached so near its ultimate
limit, that if the earth’s refrigeration should continue under
the same natural conditions as at present, it would require, as
shown by Poisson, the enormous period of a hundred thousand
millions of years to reduce this small fraction to half its actual
value. . . . . We are, however, more immediately con-
cerned with past than with future changes. We should not be
justified in supposing from what I have stated respecting the
slow future variations of the earth’s superficial temperature,
that it has been equally slow for an equal period of past time ;
but it is still highly probable that some millions of centuries
must have elapsed since the mean superficial temperature could
have been greater by a single degree than at present, from the
operation of the causes we are now discussing.”* Changes in
climate within the periods we trace, are to be accounted for as
the results of varying configurations of land and water very
gradually and slowly produced. They must have been im-
portant agencies in modifying the life upon the globe, but if
ever the laws regulating the succession of animated beings are
to be understood, the explanation must come from biological
inquiries ; and until physiology and kindred sciences have
entered into their deductive stage, it is not probable that the
question of the Origin of Species will be definitively solved.

As is usually the case with reformers, whatever may be the
sphere of their labours, Professor Huxley neither stands alone
in the opinions which he has enunciated, nor has he risen
abruptly to be the pioneer of a new process of inquiry. As
he himself remarked, others had felt similar difficulties, and
cherished similar thoughts. He, however, has given clear and
distinct utterance to what they hesitated to state, and although
we think a few inaccuracies of expression occur in his admi-
rable paper, further consideration only deepens the conviction
produced upon all who were so fortunate as to hear the address
delivered, that it exhibits that rare combination of the faculty
of reasoning with ample knowledge of detail, which characterizes
a work destined to be a landmark in the search for truth.

* Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, February 1852, p. 59.

334 Beautiful Exotic Bees.

BEAUTIFUL EXOTIC BEES.

BY H. NOEL HUMPHREYS.

As will be seen by the species represented in the accompanying

plate, some of the exotic bees are almost as richly coloured as

the more gaudy butterfly tribe, and at the same time are of
such conspicuous size as must render them very remarkable

objects, winging their rapid and always musical passage among

the exuberant vegetation of the tropics. A thoughtful spec-

tator seeing for the first time in their native wilds these gigantic

and magnificently tinted bees, robbing the nectaries of tropic

flowers of sweets whose mere perfume seems almost too delicious,

could scarcely forbear picturmg to himself the produce of un-

known kinds of honey, of a luscious sweetness and exquisite

flavour, as yet undreamed of. If, (he might reflect) those mean

httle plants of wild thyme, trailing their humble stems among

the scanty herbage of our bleak northern hills, can yield deli-

cious honey to that poor little brown gatherer, the old hive

bee, what may one naturally expect to be the result of honey-

gathering by such a noble race of bees as these of the tropics,

and with such exquisite flowers to gather from! Such might

easily be conceived to be the exclamation of an observer of the
fight of bees among the gorgeous plants in one of the natural

gardens of some intertropical valley; and he would think of
those bees mentioned by Amer which make natural hives of
the cavities of rocks, laying up honey in large pouches, or cells,

of the size of a pigeon’s egg, and which being dark coloured,

and. hanging to the sides of the hive in clusters, look like

bunches of delicious grapes, containing, in fact, a juice far more

sweet :* he might think also of what Clavigero, the Spanish

historian of Mexico, says of a bee, evidently of a nearly allied

species, which abounds in Yucatan, and produces the famous

honey of Estabentiem, the finest in the world, which is said to

be taken from the bees every two months. ‘These bees are,

however, small imconspicuous creatures, evidently belonging to

the same group as our own honey hive-bee, though distin-

guished from it by being stingless.

The most magnificent bees are, on the other hand, not of
the true honey kind. They belong principally to the class of
solitary bees, including a few of the humble-bee class and their
relatives. These last, though it is true that many of them
of the “social” kinds do collect honey, yet manipulate it
in a very inferior manner to that of the hive-bee. Other
kinds only collect pollen, which being exclusively intended as

* In wild hives of this kind, Captain Basil Hall found comb of the usual size
made as cells for the larvae.

Beautiful Huxotic Bees. 300

food for the young larve, is generally rolled into little balls, or
pills, one bemg placed in each of the cells in which an egg is
to be deposited, so that the infant larvee may find food ready
prepared for immediate consumption ; but very little is accurately
known with regard to the preparation of the food for the fant
bees. It is probable that different kinds of food are prepared
for the different sexes ; so that in the case of the social bees, in
whose community there is a third, or neutral sex, and in some,
a second kind of female, three or four different sorts of food
may be prepared, just as cells of a distinctly different size are
constructed for the males, females, and neuters. The influence
of the peculiar foodis no doubt very essential ; and indeed some
entomologists have supposed that all the larvee are, while in that
stage, perfectly neutral, the sex bemg eventually determined
by the kind of food upon which they are fed.* Under the in-
fluence of this view of the subject, it has been asserted that a
peculiar kind of honey prepared expressly to feed the larva des-
tined to become a queen, or foundress bee, will, if given to
another larva, not originally intended to become a queen, cause
that other larva to develop itself into a queen ; although, if fed
upon the food usually prepared for it, it would have remained
a neuter. Such is the wonderful power attributed to this “ royal
jelly,” as the prepared queen-food has been termed. The feed-
ing of a neuter with the royal food is a course which some have
supposed (on perhaps insufficient grounds) to be resorted to in
cases where the queen bee of a hive has died, or been acciden-
tally destroyed. A larva is then selected, it is said, from among
the cells of the neutral larve, neutral larvee having been proved
by dissection to be imperfect females, and fed upon the royal
jelly, the cell bemg enlarged to suit the size of a queen, for
whose bulk a cell originally constructed for a male, or a worker
would be insufficient. Some of the handsomest of the exotic
bees are parasites and, consequently, not either honey or pollen-
meat producers. Some, however, of those which are at present
assigned to this idle and worthless class may, with mcreased
knowledge of the subject, be found to have been unjustly treated
in being classed among parasites, and have eventually a place
assigned to them among their more respectable confréres the
harvesting bees.

The ground upon which the fiat of parasitism has been pro-
nounced against certain bees, is founded upon peculiarities in
their anatomical structure; such, for instance, as the absence
of the large flattened hollow in the tibia of the hind leg, which
appears absolutely necessary to the honey carrier. Among the
andrenidz, however, the genus prosopis, though destitute of the

* This view seems, however, inconsistent with the known fact, that the female
bee only deposits certain eggs in certain cells, and not elsewhere.”

306 Beautiful Haotic Bees.

usual apparatus for collecting honey, has been recently proved
a honey producer nevertheless. Its nest has been discovered
in tubes formed in the main stems of the bramble ; and in the
nest, filmy cells containing liquid honey. In the sub-family
“‘acutilingues,” also, the genus Sphecodes, though without the
usual polleniferous organs, and consequently thought to be
parasitic, has been watched by that indefatigable entomological
observer Mr. I’. Smith of the British Museum, while in the act
of forming its burrow; an act which appears to afford conclu-
sive evidence in favour of the non-parasitic habits of this genus
of bees. Thus, some of the splendid foreign bees which have
been pronounced parasitic on grounds similar to those above
described may yet prove to be honey-makers, or at all events pol-
len collectors. Among the most conspicuous of the fine exotic
bees figured in the annexed plate, is the truly splendid insect
Xylocopa nobilis (No. 6), not one of the wood-boring, or carpenter
bees, as they have beentermed. This fine insect was captured
by Mr. Wallis in the island of Celebes, an almost unknown col-
lecting ground, from whence we may hope to receive many
others new and splendid additions to our lists of exotic insects.
The body of this fine bee is of the richest conceivable velvet
black, bearing a rich brown bloom upon it—this deep ground
colour is banded with transverse stripes of the richest gold
colour—the two central stripes having a peculiarly bright and
sparkling effect from their extreme narrowness. The wings
are semi-opaque, and their colour modulates from a deep
indigo-yviolet in the centre to a rich bronzy green at the extre-
mities ; the violet becoming nearly crimson where the wings
join the body.

The terms, carpenter bees, upholsterer bees, mason bees,
etc., which are, it must be owned, somewhat fanciful, were in-
vented by the ingenious and indefatigable French naturalist,
Réaumur, who intended by such names to convey the idea
that his ‘‘ carpenter bees” worked in wood, his “mason bees”
im stone, or with stony cement, etc.

The amount of carpenter’s work done, however, by the bees
of the genus Xylocopa, a scientific term which conveys the same

meaning as the popular name, consists merely in boring, or ~

otherwise forming a burrow in wood; within which are formed
‘separate cells, each destined to receive an egg, and a certain
quantity of food for the young larva; some species sealing up
the entrance with a cement formed of clay and a glutinous
secretion mixed with it by the bee, as a security against
the entrance of parasites. The carpenter bees do not live in
communities, but in solitary pairs—the female doing all the
carpenter work, and, as it would seem, every other kind of
work also ; the, male leading a life of indolent pleasure. Nearly

Beautiful Exotic Bees. 337

all the exotic bees of the genus Xylocopa are remarkably hand-
some. A new species from India, figured at No. 5 in the plate,
is perhaps handsomer than the one just described. It is true
that the unusually slender and elongated body is entirely black,
but then the wings exhibit the most gorgeous iridescent colours
that can be conceived. They are of a reddish tawny bronze at
the ends, getting redder towards the centre, where the red sud-
denly but softly blends into a rich metallic green, followed by
a portion of rich deep blue, which in its turn becomes violet
at the base of the wings. This species has not yet been named,
but some such name as iridipennis, rainbow-winged, might not
be inappropriate in allusion to their rich prismatic effect, and
at the same time showing its affinity to an allied species which
has been recently named fulgidipennis, or fuleed-winged.

Centris flavopicta, No. 1 in the plate, is a very beautiful bee
belonging to another genus. It is one of the many fine insects
recently received from an energetic collector on the banks of
the river Amazon. ‘This is another new species which, though
named, has never before been figured. It is indebted for its
specific name to the subdued yellow tone of the abdomen and
legs—the latter being finely painted or marked with patches of
dark brown.

Oxeea flavescens, No. 2 in the plate, is a remarkably bril-
hant imsect, to which no engraving or painting can do the
slightest justice. The abdomen is of the richest metallic orange,
of the greatest richness, but entirely without gloss, striped
transversely with bands of pale ghttermg yellow, which have
the appearance of positive bands of the most highly burnished
pale gold.

No. 3, Huglossa analis, is one of the pretty and gaily-
coloured small bees of the Brazilian forests, which have been
often described before ; but few of the more recently discovered
species surpass this one in brilliant metallic tmting. No. 8,
EKuglossea Brullei is another species of the same genus; as
well as No. 7, Huglossa violacea, the rich violet colour of which
offered the artist a tempting contrast to the orange and yellow
tones of the other specimens, or, as a third well-known species
of Huglossa, it would hardly have found a place in our plate.

There is, however, yet another species of Huglossa which
claims a place, not only on account of its beauty, but also for
its novelty—bemg a very recently discovered species, and
one never figured till it made its appearance in the present
plate. This exquisite insect, to which the most highly-finished
representation would do but ‘scanty justice, was purchased from
a rich collection of Brazilian insects lately received. It has
been distinguished by Mr. F. Smith, the well-known author
of the Museum Catalogue of Hymenoptera, by the appropriate

338 Beautiful Hxotic Bees.

specific name “pulchra” (No. 4). The colour of the “face”
is rich metallic apple green, contrasting finely with the ruddy
brown of the large eyes. The thorax is of the finest velvety
purple, appearing deep black in the parts which do not receive
a direct ight. The two upper segments of the abdomen are
of a bright red violet, inclining to’crimson; the remaining seg-
ments being of a vivid metallic straw colour, resembling the
colour of electrum—that is to say, gold paled by an admixture
of silver, a natural combination anciently found im the sands of
the celebrated Pactolus, and from which some of the most
ancient gold money of Sardis was coined. This new Huglossa
is certainly the mest beautiful of the genus, and at the same
time the largest. .
Many other exotic bees of very remarkable appearance
‘might be described; some of the genus Chrysantheda being
perhaps more beautiful than any imsect figured in our plate.
But in looking over various collections, the embarras de richesses
became at last so great, that perhaps the very best choice was
not always made. However, to choose eight as the most beau-
tiful, out of several hundreds, was no easy task; yet, the selec-
tion may fairly be accepted as pretty complete for its extent,

A drawing, made at the same time, of another very fine bee
(Centris denudans) is, however, now lying before me, which
I may briefly describe, as our last specimen of Bee beauty. It
is indeed extremely interesting on account of its curiously close
resemblance to one of the great bee-flies described in a former
paper, and is one of the very largest of the bee family. It
has semi-opaque brown wings, a deep brown abdomen, and the
lees are of the same colour; but the thorax is covered with a
rich fur, resembling a deep plush velvet of a rich glossy tone,
which might be defined as scarlet-brown, taking a flash of
orange in a strong heht.

The dipterous insect which so closely resembles it, even in
its large size, is asilus ardens, which, even to the colour and
character of the fur of the thorax, is so like the bee as to be
easily mistaken for it at the first glance. This bee was re-
ceived from the river Tapajos, a branch of the Amazon; and
the great bee-fly, its counterpart, was taken near Para, not far
distant—so that there is but little doubt that they will even-
tually be found together; the fly counterpart being, possibly,
a parasitic attendant on the bee.

_ The Art of Electro-plating and Gilding. 309

THE ART OF ELECTRO-PLATING AND GILDING.
BY RICHARD BETHELL.

Ir often occurs in the experience of collectors of coms, medal-
lions, and works of art, that when originals are not to be had,
models, facsimiles, and casts must be substituted ; and m order
to render them perfect, it is im very many instances desirable
‘to finish them by a coating of silver, gold, or some other
metal.

In most cases where gold and silver are thus applied, the
mpression will probably be first taken in copper by the electro-
type, or in fusible metal by castmg. But whatever method
- may be adopted for producing the first impression, the process
of plating or gilding will be in each case the same, so that the
production of the cast need not be further alluded to, except
to note that, when the cast is taken in some non-metallic
material, the operation becomes a little more complicated, as

we shall presently see.

I purpose in this paper, giving somewhat minute details of
the processes most generally approved, so that those unac-
quainted with the art may not meet with any difficulties which
shall appear to them insurmountable; and I would strongly
recommend all those who are making first attempts, to operate
only on small articles; for, apart from the consideration of the
convenience arising out of the use of ight and portable appa-
-ratus, we have also to consider the question of cost, the mate-
rials used being expensive. When we remember that every
pinch of oxide of silver that is used contains 198 of pure silver,
while the oxide of gold contaims as much as 19% of the noble
metal, it will be sufficiently obvious that when we speak of
using these oxides it is pretty nearly equivalent to speaking of
so much pure gold and silver. Hence arises the necessity also
of certain forms of battery apparatus by which the quantity of
these costly materials is diminished, and every possibility of
waste prevented.

As the plating and gilding processes are for the most part
applied to metallic articles, and because they are much more
readily covered by this means than non-metallic surfaces are, we
will deal with them exclusively at first. Metals bemg good
conductors of electricity, the labour of rendering them con-
ductuous is unnecessary. It will soon be discovered by the
experimenter that few difficulties present themselves in his
efforts to obtain a deposit on his medallions or other objects ;
but on the other hand, he will discover by more mature ex-
perience, that his deposits are not equally firm and permanent.
As a rule, he will find that when his surfaces are perfectly clean,

340 The Art of Electro-plating and Gilding.

his deposits will appear almost to enter the pores of the metal
deposited upon; while if his surfaces are contaminated with
grease, or with metallic oxide, although he may obtain a deposit
to all appearance most satisfactory, it will be found to consist
of a mere shell covering his mould, which, in some cases, may
be easily removed, or will even separate of its own accord.
Hence it becomes our first concern to know how metallic sur-
faces may be rendered perfectly clean, the cleansing process
being a prelimimary operation to every case of deposition. All
dirt and impurity in reference to this subject, may be arranged
under two divisions,—first, greasy matters; second, metallic
oxides ; and the means used to remove impurities of these two
kinds will remove almost all others.
_ For the removal of grease, chemistry at once points out the
use of alkaline solutions. Soda, potash, or ammonia in any
form. will answer the purpose, and convenience will generally
decide which should be adopted in any particular case. It is,
however, commonly found advantageous to use the above alka-
lies in the form of common commercial “ soda,” of pearl-ash,
dissolved in clean rain water, or of hartshorn. If the form of
the article be such as admits of rubbing up with a stiff brush,
it should be well brushed, with the addition of fine sand or
emery-powder, immediately before placing it in the plating
solution. In many cases, as with copies of coms, the dry
method—that is, with brush and sand—is not only sufficient
but the best that can be used; care being taken, of course,
to see that the brushes are free from grease, and that neither
hand nor fingers touch the object on the parts to be de-
posited upon.

For the removal of oxides, the brush and sand or emery
should be used whenever the form of the object will admit of it.
If the object have crevices or recesses which cannot be reached
by a brush or other means of dry cleansing, it will be necessary
to have recourse to an acidified solution. Sulphuric, nitric, or
hydrochloric acid, diluted with water, will answer the purpose ;
but it will be necessary to observe that, if the solution be
strongly acid—as, for instance, half acid and half water—the
object must not be immersed for more than a second or two
without examination ; if the solution be weak, it may remain a
minute or more. When it is sufficiently apparent that the sur-
face is cleansed from oxidised matters, it should be washed in
several waters successively ; a weak alkaline wash may then be
applied for the removal of all traces of acid, and, finally, one or
two more water-washings for the removal of any possible im-
purities that may yet remain.

In practice, it will be convenient in most cases to use both
the aboye methods, or a modification of either, as the judgment

*

The Art of Hlectro-plating and Gilding. o4L

and experience of the operator may dictate. It is especially
useful when cleansing by.means of sand and brush, to mix a
little pulverized chalk with the sand, and to moisten it with
hydrochloric acid; but a final scrubbing with the clean brush
would in that case be necessary.

A
aie
CG)
{
i>
YZ
es ee P3
eZ Di ee a

Fig.d

After the final cleansing, the object should be istantly
immersed in the plating solution, and the manner of preparing
this next claims our attention.

Several such solutions have been recommended by different
chemists; of these, there is one more in favour than any other,
and this alone I shall at present describe. It is that which L
have used in making a great number of experiments, and is

VOL. I.—NO. V. AA

342 The Art of Hlectro-plating and Gilding.

easily prepared :—Dissolve in half a pint of clear rain water (or
distilled water) one ounce of cyanide of potassium, if any sedi-
ment subsides, decant the clear liquor and add one-eighth of an
ounce avoirdupois of oxide of silver; when the oxide is com-
pletely dissolved the liquid is ready for use. A gilding solu-
tion is made precisely im the same manner, merely substituting
oxide of gold for oxide of silver.*

Supposing our solutions thus prepared, we may now arrange
our battery apparatus, which, it will be seen, is of an extremely
simple nature. Let AB be an ordinary preserve jar. Turn a
piece of common sheet zinc into the form shown at cD, and
attach to its upper edge the binding-screw e. Within the
cylinder of zinc, place a porous jar, sufficiently large to receive
the articles to be plated; and over this place a binding-screw,
supported by the wire m. ‘To the lower end of the wire n
attach the article to be plated, and fix the upper end in the
binding-screw H. In attaching the object to the wire n, con-
venience is the chief thing to be studied. I have obtamed a
perfect coating to objects by soldering them to the wire, by
twisting the wire round them, or by binding the wire as in
fic. 2, and laying the coin upon it. Jn either case the con-
duction is sufficiently complete to answer every purpose.

To set the apparatus in action, pour into the jar A B water
acidulated with sulphuric acid (1 acid to 30 water), and into
the porous vessel F as much of plating solution as will completely
cover the object. The apparatus may then be left to itself, and
in half an hour, or even less, the article will be covered with
silver—very thin, as may be supposed, but perfectly covered, if
all has been well managed. Thin as it is, however, it will be
sufficient for articles intended for the cabinet, as copies of coms
and medallions, or, indeed, any other object not subject to wear
and tear. For works of art exposed to the atmosphere and
dust, and which will, therefore, want occasional cleaning, a
thicker deposit will be required, and two hours would probably
be none too much for them; while in the case of spoons or
forks, four hours would be necessary.

Were the experimenter not previously apprised of what he
ought to expect, he would doubtless feel some astonishment on
removing his medallion from the plating solution for the first
time. Instead of a bright, sparkling, silvery surface, he would
find a dirty-white, chalky-looking object, altogether unlike what
he is aiming after; and though he might wash and wash again
in water, the most he would accomplish by these means would
be to render the surface of the object a little cleaner, though it

* Tt is well to know that these oxides when sold by chemists who supply prac~-
tical platers and gilders, are obtained fully 25 per cent. cheaper than by those who

sell them merely for experimental purposes; a fact that may guide the tyro in the
choice of a shop.

The Art of Hlectro-plating and Gilding. 343

remained as dull and chalky as ever. The deposit, in fact, is
what is technically called “‘ dead,” as distinguished from ‘ po-
lished.””,. He will, however, be glad to learn that this dull
surface only requires the application of the plate-brush ora lock
of cotton wool with rouge, to make it perfectly bright, that is,
if the surface of the metal before putting it in the solution was
bright; or if the form of the object admits of it, he may apply
the steel burnisher, or a piece of polished agate, to brig up the
surface to the requisite degree of brilhancy.

It is not, however, a matter of necessity that the deposit
should be of this dead character. When the surface of the ob-
ject operated upon is smooth and bright, a few drops of bisul-
phide of carbon added to the plating solution will cause the
deposit also to be smooth and bright. Hence, it is worth while
to learn the art of using this liquid judiciously, as it saves a great
deal of subsequent labour, when polished surfaces are required
in every part. But in the case of jewellery and many ornaments,
a dead surface is preferred to a great extent, and only certain
portions are wanted to be “‘ brought out.” In these instances,
the “ dead ”” deposit is obtained, and the burnisher does the rest.

Thus far we have spoken only of the single-cell apparatus,
which is very certai in its operation, and easily constructed.
By using porous jars of different sizes and shapes, its use may
be greatly extended, and articles of various forms may be suc-
cessfully treated by its means. But when the experimenter
comes to deal with objects too large, or otherwise unsuitable to
this form of apparatus, he will have to adopt the combination
represented in fig. 3, which consists of a battery, B, and de-
positing trough a. The trough may be made of glass or porce-
lam, and should be furnished with two wires, cd and ef, long
enough to rest upon the edges of the trough. These two wires
are to be connected, one with the negative, the other with the
positive plate of the battery. The wire ef, on which the articles
to be plated must be suspended, is connected with the zine (or
negative) plate ; the wire c d, with the copper (or positive) plate.
Small hooked wires descend from these; those on cd bemg of
silver, to keep up the strength of the solution, by replacing the
metal deposited on the object; those on ef may be of copper,
and are used simply to suspend the articles operated upon.

For objects of medium, size, one cell of Daniell’s or Smee’s
battery will be sufficient, and for larger ones two. In gilding
a rather higher battery power will be requisite, and gold wire or
gold leaf should then be suspended on ¢ d.

On reviewmg the operations above-described, and noting
their simplicity, one cannot help feeling what resources they
add to the means at the disposal of that numerous class of per-
sons who cultivate “Homes of Taste.” By means of apparatus

344, The Art of Hlectro-plating and Gilding.

costing but a few shillings, a man of moderate means may sur-
round himself with articles of elegance and beauty, or supply
for the use of his family articles of a more serviceable nature.
Spoons, forks, fruit-knives, candlesticks, medallions, casts, sal-
vers, anything, in fact, which may be purchased im brass or
white metal, and of the form desired, may be coated with silver
or gold at a small additional expense, while its value, whether
for use or ornament, would be immensely enhanced.

There is another way in which this process serves a most
useful purpose, and, in pointing it out, | am enabled to answer
a question frequently put to me: ‘ Is it possible to plate a por-
tion only of a spoon, or fork, or other article, without plating
the whole??? Now, nothing can be easier. Suppose—as the
case was put to me a few days ago—suppose it is desired to
plate the bowl of a spoon which has been abraded and worn,
while the handle has been left unimpaired, a case often occur-
ring to those who use electro-plated goods. Take the apparatus
(fig. 1), and fix the handle of the spoon in the binding-screw
(a); then adjust the wire so as to depress the spoon till the
bowl is covered by the solution, and leave it as long as may be
deemed necessary. Of course it is essential to the success of
the experiment that the bowl be thoroughly cleaned and po-
lished before placing it in the solution.

It is probable that it is this last application of the art that
will recommend it most strongly to amateurs. Hlectro-plated
goods are accessible to persons of narrow incomes; but they
are commonly avoided, because it is known that they cannot be
used long without being disfigured by abrasions in parts ex-
posed to the wear and tear of daily use. When it is generally
known, and practically demonstrated, that these parts may be
easily and cheaply renovated, the chief objection to this kind of
ware will be removed, and another step will have been gained
towards the diffusion of works of beauty among the masses,
who have hitherto been excluded from the enjoyment of them.

Thus far we have spoken of the deposition of gold and silver
upon metallic surfaces alone ; and the extreme simplicity of the
process, together with the facility with which it may be performed,
will recommend it to those who have had but little experience in
the art. It happens very frequently, however, that the experi-
menter wishes to cover other surfaces besides these with a coat-
ing of the precious metals, and then some new difficulties present
themselves which must next be pointed out and overcome.

Of the various substances used in the formation of models
and casts, the most common are plaster of Paris, wax, gutta-
percha, and sulphur. Now, none of these are conductors of
electricity, and there is, perhaps, no operation conducted by the
electrotypist which taxes his skill and patience more than that

The Art of Hlectro-plating and Gilding. 345

of rendering the surfaces of his cast perfectly conductuous, and
establishing an uninterrupted connection between the guiding
wires and the surface to be deposited on. Spite of every pre-
caution, and the most careful observance of prescribed rules, he
is almost sure, in his early attempts, to have the mortification
of seeing the silver deposited in abundance and perfection upon
so much of the guidmg wire as may dip below the surface of
the plating solution, while his cast or model is as free from the
smallest particle of the precious metal as it was before immersion.

Plaster of Paris (a material more commonly used, probably,
than any of the above-named) requires preliminary treatment
before applyimeg the substance (blacklead) which is to make it
more conductuous; for, if the blacklead be added to the bare
plaster, it separates and peels off in flakes almost immediately
after putting the cast into the solution. Various modes of
preparation have been devised, but there is one which I have
found very generally applicable, and which will most lkely
serve in a great majority of instances that come under the
operator’s observation. It consists in saturating the plaster-
cast with a mixture of oil and wax. Take equal weights of
beeswax and sweet oil, warm them sufficiently to reduce the
former to a liquid state, and then place the plaster-cast m the
mixture, moving it about so that every part of its surface may
absorb a considerable quantity ; when cold, the plaster will be
found to possess a firm, tenacious, and somewhat adhesive ex-
terior, admirably adapted for the reception of the substance
next to be applied.

The cheapest and most easily accessible substance for ren-
dering surfaces conductuous is plumbago, or blacklead, names
which would suggest the idea that lead entered into its compo-
sition, whereas, when pure, they are quite free from that metal.
Its correct name is carbide of 1ron,* and consists of carbon and
iron. Neither the name or composition of the substance, how-
ever, is of any great consequence in so far as its present use 1s
concerned, for we have to do with its conducting power, and
not with its chemical properties. In applymg it to plaster
casts, a soft brush is the best implement to use, and with this
it may generally be applied dry, especially if the cast be
slightly warmed, so as to render the wax with which it is
saturated a little adhesive ; in other cases, breathing upon the
object will do equally well: but a few hours’ experience will
aid the operator much more than whole pages of written in-
struction. When sealing-wax models require coating, they
should be moistened with spirit of wme with the same view.
Gutta-percha moulds take the plumbago readily without any

* According to some chemists; but later researches go to prove that the
oxides of iron and manganese are in a state of mere mechanical admixture with
the carbon, and form no definite chemical compound with it.

346 The Art of Hlectro-plating and Gilding.

preparation, and a brush as stiff as a tooth-brush may be used
upon them without injuring the impression.

Supposing the surfaces of the mould to have been properly
prepared, another point of at least equal importance is the
attachment to them of conducting-wires, by means of which the
mould may be connected with the battery apparatus. Little
instruction is here needed: the electric fluid passes along the
metallic wire readily enough, and when once it reaches a well-
prepared conducting surface, its diffusion over every part of it
may be relied on. The main point, therefore, is the perfect
union of the two. In wax, sulphur, or gutta percha, the wires
are easily fixed by heating their ends, and then pressing them
into suitable parts of the mould. To fix them into plaster of
Paris, small holes must be bored in the cast, and the wires
fixed into these with wax or cement. Then, to render the
metallic connection perfect, blacklead is rubbed on to the jomt
freely, and finally brushed up to the well-known polish.

Another mode of rendering surfaces conductuous is often
resorted to, and, though a little more tedious at first, is on the
whole more effective. A piece of phosphorus is dissolved in
about twenty times its weight of bisulphide of carbon; in
another vessel a solution of nitrate of silver is prepared. It
need not be saturated; or, if a saturated solution is prepared,
it may be diluted with about two or three times its bulk of
water. ‘The cast is immersed for a minute or two, first in the
phosphorus solution, and immediately on its removal from this
is placed in the solution of nitrate of silver. The action of the
phosphorus on the silver salt is so energetic that, in a few mo-
ments after it has been removed, and left to dry wnder the
action of daylight, the metallic silver is separated from its
combination, and forms an exceedingly thin metallic surface to
the cast. ‘The mexperienced operator must not be deceived by
appearances here, for he will be deceived if he looks for silver
in the form in which it commonly presents itself to his notice.
Silver, when deposited from its solutions by this method, is
black, and an unbroken black surface is the best evidence he
can have that his experiment has succeeded.

Nor must a deposit on a surface prepared as above be ex-
pected so promptly as on surfaces purely metallic. A deposit
often appears in the neighbourhood of the conducting-wire in the
course of an hour or so after immersion, but even then it will
sometimes take several hours to complete the coating over every
part of the cast. When once the coating is complete, however
thin it may be, the further deposition of course proceeds rapidly.

As to the battery apparatus to be used in these latter ex-
periments, it will suffice to state that the forms described for
medallions and coins will answer equally well for these.

Parasites from the Zoological Gardens. 347

PARASITES FROM THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS.
BY T. SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.L.S.,

Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy, Zoology, and Botany, at the Middlesex
Hospital Medical College.

Havine during the four successive winters of 1857—60, in-
clusive, examined the carcasses of upwards of one hundred
different species of vertebrata dying at the Zoological Society’s
Menagerie, Regent’s Park, we are enabled to form a tolerably
accurate estimate of the prevalence of entozoa in animals sub-
jected to a condition of domesticity as compared with those
living ina wild state. It is, we believe, very commonly sup-
posed that tame quadrupeds and other beasts kept “ cribbed,
cabined, and confined,” are much more troubled with parasites
than those fortunate individuals who roam at large “ o’er hill
and dale” without any human bemg to molest them. ‘This
conclusion, in so far as external parasites are concerned, may
possibly be true (which, by the way, however, we very much
doubt), but, as regards the frequency of internal parasites, we
have satisfied ourselves as to the erroneousness of the general
belief. About one-third only of the birds, reptiles, and quadru-
peds just enumerated were found infested, or thirty-eight species
in all; and of these, nineteen were mammals, fourteen were
birds, and five were reptiles. This is decidedly a small pro-
portion, and the comparative scarcity of the parasites is espe-
cially marked when we limit the question of their number with
particular reference to the presence or absence of the members
of that remarkable group of entozoa which we call flukes. In
all cur carefully conducted examinations we have only found
seven different kinds of flukes, or trematodes, as they are more
scientifically called ; and as some of these offer interesting types
of structure, and at the same time give rise to curious sugges-
tions, it accords with our present purpose to offer a more or
less brief account of each of them, omitting such details as
are interesting merely to systematists. It may be premised,
however, that a true explanation of the cause of this com-
parative freedom from flukes, which the animals in the
Society’s menagerie appear to enjoy, arises out of the circum-
stance that the larve of Trematodes exist only in a limited
number and kind of molluscan hosts, and consequently qua-
drupeds, and other vertebrates from foreign lands, are not so
hhable to swallow the larvce suitable to themselves, seeing that
the larvee frequently exist in molluscs, and in other hosts, which
are not to be found in this country. No doubt, as in the case
of the Fasciola hepatica, some trematode parasites will take

348 Parasites from the Zoological Gardens.

up their abode in a variety of animals; but, as a rule, appli-
cable to adult as well as to immature forms, each fluke has
a special liking for a particular host, though this “ natural
selection” is not always bounded by the consideration of the
species, the genus, the family, or even, in some few cases, the
order.

Without further prelude, we proceed to notice the seven
flukes above referred to, in the following succession :—(1.) the
Distoma equale (Dujardin), from the alimentary canal of an
American barn owl (Strix perlata) ; (2.) the Distoma nunutum
(T.S.C), from the duodenum of an oyster-catcher (Hematopus
ostralegus) ; (3.) the Distoma Boscii (‘T.8.C.), from the lungs of
an American snake (Coluber); (4.) the Distoma coronariwm
(T.S.C.), from the intestine of an alligator (Alligator Missis-
sipprensis) ; (5.) the Distoma conjunctum (T.S.C.), from the
liver ducts of the American red fox (Cams fulvus); (6.) the
Distoma compactum (T.8.C.), from the lungs of an Indian
ichneumon (Viverra mungos) ; (7.) the Bilharzia magna (T.8.C.),
from the blood of the portal vein of the sooty monkey (Cer-
copithecus fuligimosus).

1. Distoma equale——On the 8th of January, 1858, nine
examples were removed from the American owl. These little
parasites scarcely exceed a line in length, but they exhibit a

reddish-brown colour, in consquence of the numerous highly- -

coloured and extremely mmute eggs which are seen through
the transparent skin.

2. Distoma nunutum.—This species is principally remark-
able for its excessive minuteness, being barely discernible by
the naked eye, and seldom exceeding the
1-100th of an inch in longitudinal diameter.
Its form is entirely different from the Dis-
toma brevicolle (Creplin), also described as
infesting this bird, and in our early examin-
ations we believe ourselves to have obtained
satisfactory evidences of its sexual maturity.
As, however, in so tiny a parasite, the appear-
ances of true reproductive organs and ova
may have misled us, we suspend further de-
tails regarding it until we have again had an
opportunity of examining fresh specimens.

me Those we originally discovered were procured
Distoma minutum. on the 19th of February, 1857.

3. Distoma Boscti—Though, like Bosc,
we found a great number of these Trematodes occupying the
cavity of the mouth, the larynx, and the lungs of an American
coluber, yet we were not able to determine the precise species
of snake from which our parasites were taken. There is no

7. S. Cobbold, del.

Distoma conjunctum.

Parasites from the Zoological Gardens. 349

doubt, however, of the identity of our fluke with his Fasciola
colubri. This yomnehac a: is much elongated in form, flat, covered
with little spines, and about one- third of an inch Gm

in length, on the average. It is furnished with
a well-marked cesophageal bulb, two simple diges-
tive tubes, and largely developed reproductive
organs. Our specimens were obtained on the
20th of February, 1857.

A. Distoma coronarium.—This species is rather
a prettily marked one, owing to the presence of a
well-defined coronet of twenty-four spies which
encircle the so-called head and mouth. On the
25th of December, 1860, we took large numbers
from the alimentary canal of an alligator. The
general aspect and character of this species is
admirably represented in the accompanying wood-
cut, which is copied from an original drawing made
with the aid of a camera. This species has an
average length of about one-fourth of an inch, but
it is only about 1-30th of an inch in breadth.
The body is linear, flattened, subconical in front,
and somewhat attenuated posteriorly. ‘The ventral
sucker is less than one-half of the size of the oral we
opening, including the muscular cup. The body
Remit 1S Sroci. the spines of the mouth being nae
conical, pointed, and circumferentially disposed at the margin
of the prominent lip. They form pretty micro-
scopic preparations when preserved in glycerine.

5. Distoma conjunctum.—On the 24th of De-
cember, 1858, a considerable number of small
flukes were obtained from the liver of an American
fox, and as the species in question forms an ad-
mirable type of the genus Distoma, we have not
hesitated to give an enlarged representation of it
in the accompanying plate. In group (Fig. i)
eight individuals are represented of the natural
size, and the accidental circumstance of finding
two of them united by their suckers suggested
the specific name above indicated. We have sel-
dom seen a Distome in which the visceral arrange-
ments were so simple, distinct, and compact as in
this ; and therefore to facilitate the investigations

Distoma of those who are desirous of commencing a study
coronarim. — of the organization of these curious parasites, we
invite attention to the character and disposition of its internal
organs. In Fig. 2 we have a view of the ventral surface of
one of the individuals magnified thirty-five diameters linear.

300 Parasites from the Zoological Gardens.

At the upper or anterior extremity of the body we notice the
round oral sucker (a), which is almost as large as the ventral
sucker, or acetabulum (marked b). The mouth, properly so
called, is placed at the bottom of the oral sucker, and leads
into a small oval muscular cavity, which is termed the ceso-
phageal bulb (c), and this, again, directly communicates with
the two long, cylindrical, digestive tubes (d, d), which widen
out a little as they approach the caudal extremity of the body,
where they terminate in closed, rounded, cecal ends. This
arrangement constitutes the simplest form of alimentary appa-
ratus with which we are acquainted in the trematode parasites,
and, associated with the disposition of the two suckers as here
placed, it is eminently characteristic of the genus Distoma.
Immediately above, and in contact with, the ventral acetabulum
there will be observed a small, round papilla (e); this is im-
variably furnished with and usually exhibits two minute open-
ings upon it, which are respectively the orifices of the male and
female reproductive organs. One of these openings communi-
cates with that set of wide, tortuous tubes (f), occupying the
centre of the upper half of the body. The brown colour is a
natural appearance due to the presence of multitudes of mature
eggs (Hig. 3) which are crowded within this coiled uterine duct,
the latter beimg also connected by a narrow channel with the
ovary (g), and by two other minute ducts, passing, one on
either side, to the so-called yelk-forming glands. These last-
named organs form botryoidal masses on either side of the
body, and, though varying considerably both in extent and
arrangement, their presence is in a measure characteristic of
this class of parasites. The letters hh refer to these organs,
but the dotted lmes have been prolonged by the engraver
rather too far inwards; the glands are coloured yellow. In
Fig. 4 the lid-like end of one of the highly magmified eggs has
been represented artificially burst open. The ova have a long
diameter of 1-750th of an inch. The male reproductive orifice,
like the other, is not seen in the accompanying illustration,
but it communicates with the reproductive glands (&, k) by
the intervention of vasa deferentia, or channels of outlet, in
the usual manner. The true excretory system of vessels is
well marked in this fluke, and consists of two main trunks
(t, 7) lymg immediately in front of the yelk-forming glands ;
gradually increasing in size, and passing in a nearly straight
line downwards, they converge to meet at a point corre-
sponding with the centre of an imaginary line separating the
lower third of the body, and in this situation the common tube
Sweeps round and between the reproductive glands in the
form of the letter s, after which it swells out into a contractile
vesicle (1), which opens externally by a very narrow outlet at

Parasites from the Zoological Gardens. ool

the centre of the so-called tail. The cavity of the vesicle con-
tains a mulitude of highly refractive, glittering particles (Fig.
5) which, on their escape from the organ in a fresh state,
display those curious and well-known phenomena of molecular
motion in the greatest perfection. Finally, it 1s worthy of re-
mark, that the flukes in question were found not merely here
and there in single numbers, but in certain places they had ac-
cumulated to the extent of ten or a dozen, causing great swell-
ing and cystic enlargement of the liver ducts, sufficient to have
proved highly injurious, if not altogether fatal, to the animal
they infested. A similar morbid change takes place in cattle
where the rot has far advanced, and we have observed the same
diseased conditions in a porpoise infested by another small
species of the genus under consideration.

6. Distoma compactwm.—Although flukes are most commonly
found in the alimentary canal, and in structures associated with
it, yet they are by no means unfrequent in the lungs, as our
own investigations have proved. On the 19th of February,
1857, we obtained five examples from the left lung ofan Indian
ichneumon, which had been living in the Society’s Menagerie
for about a twelvemonth. They were lodged in cavities re-
sulting from the inflammation their presence had excited, and
thus, no doubt, contributed to the animal’s
death. This species is well marked, and
easily recognised by the peculiar twisted con-
dition of its digestive tubes, an arrangement
very uncommon, and approaching the still
more remarkable zigzag form of the same
canals, which we found to occur in the fluke
of the porpoise above alluded to. Another
distinguishing feature in this species consists
in the extended development of the yelk-
forming organs or vitellne glands which
almost entirely cover the lateral and dorsal
surfaces ; the reproductive papilla is here situ-
ated beneath the ventral acetabulum, and in
the central line, a little below the papilla, the common duct of
the vitelline gland on one side, is seen passing inwards to jom
its fellow of the opposite side before they enter together by a
single trunk into the short and regularly folded uterine tube.
A species of fluke, apparently distinct, but not unlike this, was
long ago discovered by Natterer, at Matogrosso, Brazil, in
cavities of the lungs of the American otter. Under the title
of Distomwm rude, Diesing has described and figured it in his
Neunzehn Arten von Trematoden, published in the Transactions
of the Vienna Academy of Sciences for the year 1856.

Bilharzia magna.—This combined generic and specific name

Distoma compactum.

302 Parasites from the Zoological Gardens.

is applicable to a somewhat remarkable entozoon which we
found on the 4th of December, 1857, in the portal blood of the
sooty monkey. It is particularly interesting from the circum-
stance that it is the second species only of a peculiar and re-
cently established genus of flukes, the original type of which
was discovered by that indefatigable naturalist, Dr. Bilharz of
Cairo. Up to the time of Bilharz’s announcement of the exist-
ence of the Distoma hematobium, so abundantly found by him
in the people of Heypt, almost all the flukes were considered
to be hermaphroditic, or, in other words, each
individual was provided both with male and
female organs; the only exception being that
of the Distoma filicolle, regarded by Rudolphi
and Dujardin as a species of Monostoma. So
common and numerous is the Distoma heema-
tobium in Kgypt, that in 363 examinations of
the human body after death Griesinger found
this entozoon present no less than 117 times,
and it is quite certain that it gives rise to a
very formidable disease. In consequence of
the reproductive peculiarity just mentioned,
associated as it is with the existence of a re-
markable ventral groove in the male, the writer,
a short while ago, formed a distinct genus for
the reception of the Egyptian fluke, substitut-
ing the name of the original discoverer of the
species for the generic title of Distoma. Since
this was done he has observed that several
foreign parasitologists have been led to act in a
similar manner, and, as usually happens in
such cases, they have adopted different generic
titles, so that we are in danger of complicating
the nomenclature, and exposing ourselves to
the ready criticism of those who love simplicity.
Thus Professor Leuckart of Giessen, says we
must yield priority to Diesing of Vienna, who,
in 1858, proposed the generic term Gynzco-
phorus, in reference to the so-called gyna-
cophoric canal of the male above-mentioned. Dr. Weinland
of Frankfort subsequently formed his genus Schistosoma for
similar reasons. Without, however, further dwelling on this
question as to its proper name, we shall here employ the one
first proposed by ourselves, directing special attention to the
fact that the genus, in itself so peculiar, is only yet known to
infest men and monkeys, and in these hosts the two species
appear to be confined to Egyptians and the sooty monkey.
Here is an interesting little circumstance, admirably suited to

(upper two-thirds).

The Angler. 303

the taste of those who are on the look-out for affinities of habit
between bimana and quadrumana. The Cercopithecus fuligi-
nosus is an African monkey, and no doubt in its native haunts
it procures the larvee of Bilharzia magna from the same, or
from similar sources as those from whence our brethren in
Keypt procure the larvee of Bilharzia (Distoma) hematobium.
Animals lower in the scale do not appear to be lable to
attacks from this strangely organized genus of flukes, and as
yet we are uninformed as to the hosts which entertain 16 in
its larval condition. The adult fluke from man never exceeds
one-third of an inch, but the solitary example which we
obtained from the monkey was about an inch in length.
Griesinger conjectures that the young of Bilharzia exist in the
waters of the Nile, in the fishes which therein abound, or even
in bread, grain, and fruit; but, in our opinion, it is more
probable that the larve, in the form of cercariz, rediz, and
sporocysts, will be found in certain gasteropod molluscs proper
to the localities from whence the adult forms have been
obtained. Our sooty host was, we understood, imported direct
from its native country, and was not bred im the Society’s
gardens; had it been otherwise he would not, in all probability,
have been infested by Bulharzia magna.

THH ANGLER.
BY JONATHAN COUCH, F.L.S., ETC.

Tuts fish has been called the toadfish, frogfish, fishing frog-
monk, and sea-devil. It is the rana piscatrix and rana marina
of old writers, and lophius piscatrix of Linneeus and Cuvier. It
appears also to be the fish which is described by Caius at the
end of the work De Canibus Britannicis, under the name of
ceruchus; but he does not seem to be aware that it had been
noticed by any other writer; and indeed he may have been, as
he remarks, the first who gave a precise description of it.

But the remarkable form of this fish in connection with its
still more remarkable manners, had attracted the attention of
observers of Nature from the earliest times; and, strange to
say, at a time when imagination, superstition, and imposture
were united in ascribing to the inhabitants of the ocean myste-
rious properties—so that the circumstance of his inquiring into
their nature and structure was believed to be a sufficient proof
te show that Apuleims, the Roman writer of the famous romance
the Golden Ass, could be no other than a magician—and, when

354 The Angler.

in numerous particulars of form this fish differs much from all
others that were known to the ancients, there was, still, con-
siderably less of the wildness of imagination applied to it than
to a large proportion of the others. The general appearance of
this fish, which is represented as at least unsightly, has caused
it to be compared to a tadpole, but a tadpole of enormous size ;
and when the rough protuberances of its head, and its pro-
jecting teeth and ample mouth were taken into the account, its
supposed hideous aspect was judged sufficient to entitle it to
the designation of sea-devil. Yet, im the form and arrange-
ment of these parts, we can discern a noble example of exquisite
contrivance.

The teeth of this fish are set round the mouth lke the
prongs of a rat-trap ; and are long, strong, pomted, and those
of the lower jaw are directed obliquely inward; so that as this
jaw is withdrawn to close with the upper, these teeth may

The Angler.

become interlocked together, and thus prevent the escape of
the prey; while the teeth of the tongue and gullet by the action
of muscles which act on the latter, prevent such a struggle as
might obstruct the process of swallowing. ‘The teeth appear
to be in a state of perpetual renewal, and those of the mner
row are, forthe most part, the largest. They carry with them,
in their growth, a covering of the membrane from which they
are produced, and from it, perhaps, they derive nourishment
long after their protrusion from the gums, and it’ may be
some amount of sensation. The instinctive force with which
the angler retains its prey, when this has come within the
grasp of its teeth, may be judged from a fact related by the
natural historian Jonston, who tells us that the fish had been
left on the beach by the receding tide when a fox came
prowling along in search of provender, and chanced to thrust

The Angler. 355

its nose within the compass of the expanded jaws; which then
closed upon it and held it fast, until after a considerable time,
the captive was discovered by people that were passing by. Mr.
Thompson of Belfast records an instance where a gentleman dis-
covered an angler near the shore, and presented the butt-end of
his whip to it, when it seized and held by it until it was thus
drawn on shore. An angler of large size was also discovered in
shallow water, by a couple of boys who were in a boat, where
they happened to be without oars. But with the intention, per-
haps, of annoying the fish, they loosened a board that lay alone
the bottom of the boat and thrust it within the creature’s ex-
panded jaws, which immediately closed upon it. A struggle
then commenced; but so firmly did the fish retain its grasp,
that it suffered itself to be dragged out of the water and
secured.

It is by this, as in the corresponding instance of the apparently
sluggish lumpfish, that what seems at first sight a defect is fully
balanced by a skilful adaptation of instinct and inward organi-
zation, so aS to answer to that definite end which comprises
the comfort and safety of the creature itself. It was further
the instinctive habits displayed by the angler, that especially
drew the attentions of ancient philosophic observers; and,
accordingly, we find them particularly described in the poet
Oppian’s verses ; although, indeed, they are there accompanied
with the addition of some particulars which tend to raise a
doubt whether this usually accurate writer had closely studied
the fish itself. He represents that—

“‘ Within her jaws the fleshy fibre les,
Whose whiteness, grateful scent, and worm-like size,
Attract the shoals and charm their longing eyes.
But as they near approach with subtle art,
The wily toad contracts the inviting part.”

A more accurate description of the organ and its use is given
by Atlan, b. 9, c. 24, where he says the fishing frog derives
its name from the manner in which it employs itself. In front
of its eyes there are placed some long processes, to the end of
which are affixed enticing baits for the purpose of enabling it to
ensnare little fishes. This toadfish is aware of the use it maymake
of these organs to obtain food, and for concealment hides itself
in some muddy place, where it keeps its body unmoved while it
lifts up and stretches out its line and bait. Little fishes that
are wandering about are soon attracted, and begin to nibble,
which the angler is quick to perceive, and then it proceeds to
move its line in a cautious manner, so as to lead the prey, with-
out alarming them, in the gulf of its jaws, which then close
upon them beyond the power of escape.

The generally abrupt depth of water in our seas is a hin-

306 The Angler.

drance to the observation of such actions as these, but there
does not appear to be any reason for doubting the accuracy
of this account; and on the contrary, an examination of
other portions of the structure of this fish will tend to point
out an extension of these powers in other directions. Thus,
from the jaws round the border of the body to the tail there is
found arow of membranous or cutaneous lobes, which in most
instances, at their extremities, are divided into club-shaped
partitions. These are not merely sensible doublings of the
skin, but, although in a less degree, they perform the office
commonly assigned to the fictitious bait suspended from the
fishing-rod, on the top of the head. They offer themselves
enticingly to be nibbled by fishes which wander in that direc-
tion, and then is brought into exercise an organization which
distinguishes the structure of the pectoral and ventral fins. The
species of this and the neighbouring family of blennies, possess
the power to change their place as they le on the ground without
an effort of the tail or dorsal fins; which latter organs are the
instruments of motion in the generality of fishes, but which if
put into action by the angler would excite alarm, and so drive
away the prey. ‘The pectoral fin of this fish possesses such a
frame-work of bones as is equivalent to the wrist-joit ofa
higher class of animals, and the ventral fin also is fitted with
joints resting on a firm series of bones, to which also the pec-
toral is attached ; and the whole is so well supplied with nerves
of sensation that, with slow but sure and consciously directed
motion, the fish is enabled to creep in advance or retreat, or to
turn itself round, and so lay hold of such incautious rovers as
have crowded round it without a suspicion of the danger pro-
ceeding from the gaping but quiescent cavern of a mouth.
And formidable indeed is that gulf, which, as we have seen,
lies open to receive the prey—as hungry is the stomach which
is prepared to receive it.

But sometimes stratagem will fail to supply the cravings of
a hungry stomach; and then, in spite of its imaptitude for
effort, the angler will mount into the higher regions of the sea,
and there, without discrimination, endeavour to glut itself with
any object that may attract its attention. It has been known to
grasp within its jaws the floating barrel which is usually fastened
to the head of a sean, and it “Has swallowed the large white-
washed ball of cork which formed the buoy of a crab-pot, by
which it became choked. When an individual was seen by a
fisherman to be swimming near the surface, he threw his boat’s
iron grapnel at the fish, but not terrified with the blow the fish
turned and seized the object asit sunk. Again, a struggle was
observed at the surface, and on the approach of a boat it was
found to proceed from an angler in its efforts to swallow a gull

The Angler. 807

which it seems to have laid hold of as it was floating on the
surface. ‘The fish measured three feet in length, and had so
far swallowed the bird, which was found to be the Larus argen-
tatus, and which measured almost four feet six inches from
wing to wing, as that its stomach and gullet were filled, while
the feet, tail, and ends of the wings projected from the mouth.
The fish had become choked with struggles of its prey, and
they together form a portion of a local museum. An angler
was seen to have seized a bird called the northern diver—
Colymbus Glacialis—but after a long and earnest struggle both
the combatants were secured by a fisherman. And, however
difficult it may be to imagine how it can happen that such an
apparently unwieldy fish has been able to lay hold of the active
birds and fishes we have mentioned, some portion of the difficultys
will disappear when we know, that in addition to the width of
the gape and stealthiness of approach, by a particular con-
struction of the uppermost portion of the chain of vertebre,
by which a distance is preserved between the upper processes
of these bones close to the head, and the head itself, the head
may be lifted without any motion of the body, which is contrary
to what takes place in the generality of fishes.

As another proof that the angler sometimes seeks its prey
at midwater, a fisherman had hooked a codfish, and while draw-
ing it up he felt a heavier weight attach itself to his line; this
proved to be an angler of large size, which he compelled to
quit its hold as it grasped its prey across the mouth, by a heavy
blow on the head, and the codfish still remained attached to the
hook. In another instance, an angler seized a conger that had
taken the hook, but after the last named fish had been engulfed
within the cavern of the mouth, and perhaps the stomach, it
struggled through the aperture of the gills, and in that situa-
tion both the fishes were drawn up together. ‘This fish is all
one vast extended mouth, says Oppian, to which we may add
by adaptation from our English poet Spenser :—

“The open mouth that seemed to contain
A full good peck within the utmost brain ;
All set with dreadful teeth in ranges twain,
That terrified his foes and armed him,
Appearing like the mouth of orcus ghastly grim.”

The extent of the mouth is indeed formidable, for in an example
which measured four feet and a half in length, and weighed
seventy-two pounds, this organ measured fourteen inches across ;
and this in action is capable of being greatly extended by means
of several joints with which these parts are supplied to a larger
degree than in most other fishes. In opening the mouth the
lower jaw is rather protruded than lowered. The upper jaw also
is capable of some degree of protrusion, and in its symphysis a
VOL. I.—NO. V. BB

358 The Angler.

sidelong motion is also put in action, by which it appears pos-
sible that the angler may be able to swallow a prey equal or
nearly so to its own bulk; to which also a wide gullet can
afford a passage, and the stomach a welcome, while the skin of
the body 1s so loose as to allow of any degree of distension with-
out inconvenience, and there are no ribs on the sides that might
offer a mechanical resistance. ' Nor can the food pass easily out
of the stomach into the intestines without beme entirely
digested, for the lower or pyloric orifice of that organ is smali,
and there is reason for supposing that the process of digestion is
itself slow. On one occasion there were found in the stomach
of an angler nearly three-quarters of a hundred herrmgs; and
So little had they suffered change that they were sold by the
fisherman in the market without any suspicion in the buyer of
the manner in which they had been obtained. In another
instance there were taken from the stomach twenty-one flounders
anda dory, all of them of sufficient size and sufficiently un-
injured to make a good appearance in the market where they
were sold.

And how indiscriminately fishes feed on each other appears
from the fact, that in the stomach of an angler which measured.
two feet and a half, was found a codfish that measured two feet ;
and in the latter were the skeletons of two whitings; within
which, again, were other small fishes.

As this fish has on some occasions displayed a considerable
degree of apparently stupid indifference to fear, with remarkable
want of caution in avoiding danger, it has been concluded that
its powers of perception are in a low degree; and this opinion
is strengthened by noticing the small size of the brain in com-
parison with the bulk of the body. It scarcely fills half the
chamber of the skull in which it les; the remainder of the
space being occupied with water, as in other fishes; and it is
even said that this brain is in bulk but little above that of a
sparrow. The whole head also is regarded as being in a con-
dition of restricted, or arrested development; for, as in most
animals in their embryotic state, the head is proportionally
larger in reference to the body than it continues to be in the
condition of perfect development, it has been judged that its
existence in the magnitude we find it in the angler is a proof
of the small development also of its other powers. But the
abstract truth cannot be reached by such an analogy, and it is
to be questioned whether a comparison of the brain of this fish
with that of the sparrow be in any respect a just one. There
are in all creatures nerves and portions of the brain which are
- endued with special sensibility—as that of seeing, hearig, and
tasting— but in which the anatomist, with his microscope, has
not yet learnt to discern a different structure from that which

The Angler. 309

is possessed by other nerves that are altogether imsensible to
such, or any other conscious sensations.

And again, there exist creatures which, to all appearance, are
guided by strong powers of reason in their animal actions, whose
brains are vastly smaller in absolute size than that ofthe angler.
The weight of the brain of the bulky fish and of the bird may
therefore be the same; but we know that their form, extent of
surface, and arrangement of parts, are different; and it is pro-
bable that the internal structure of the lobes is still more so—
as we know further is the expansion and arrangement of the
nerves of the external development of the organs of sensa-
tion—in which last particular, indeed, this fish excels a large
number of the other inhabitants of the sea. The eyes are di-
rected towards the sides, so that they cannot, as in the case of
the skulpins and other flat-headed stargazing fishes, be brought
to bear together on a single object ; and such is the size of the
crystalline lens that, with its strictly globular form, and its po-
sition on the posterior part of the chamber of the eye, close to
the retina, or nerve of sight, objects at a moderate distance
can scarcely be discerned; but it is here that the special func-
tion is displayed of a particular muscle of the interior of the eye,
first described by Mr. Dalrymple, and known to exist in some
other fishes. ts influence is to draw back, as that of the ex-
ternal director muscles is to press forward, the crystalline lens,
that by modifyimg the angle at which the rays of light cross each
other, and so enable the fish to discern more clearly at varying
distances. ‘There is reason to believe also, that the iris of the
eye is furnished with muscular fibres, by which the quantity of
light which passes inward to the nerve of sight may be regu-
lated; and how necessary this must be to the varying habits
of the fish will presently be seen. In common with some other
kindred fishes, the angler is able to move its eyes in various
directions, and it is probable that this is effected by each one
independent of the other, as is certainly the case with the blen-
nies. From the appearance of lines or stripes on the iris of
the eye, there seems reason to suppose also that the organ is
capable of contraction and expansion ; by which means the eye
may be fitted to the varyig degrees of light as it exists near
the bottom or at the surface of the sea. This fish is retentive
of life, so that when the skin has been kept moist, 1t has been
known to live out of its proper element several days.

It is known that the race of this fish is continued by means
of spawn, as in other bony fishes; but much obscurity has
existed in regard to the early stages of its growth; and from
the observations of Dr. Giinther, in the Annals and Magazine
of Natural History for 1861, there appears to be a foundation
for the supposition that in its young condition it possesses a

360 The Angler.

different shape from what it subsequently assumes ; and that in
this state it has been regarded even as a distinct species, under
the name of lophius eurypterus; but a remarkable portion of
the history of this species is the scarceness of this young con-
dition as compared with the commonness of full-grown examples,
and its prolific character. Mr. Thompson weighed the roe in
an angler which measured four feet and a half in length, and
found the bulk enclosed in the membrane to amount to one
pound and thirteen ounces ; from which, with due allowance for
the superfluous materials, he concluded the number of grains
to amount to almost a million and a half.

This fish is not thought of for table with us; but Jonston
quotes an unknown author, Alexandrides, for the fact that it
was produced at a feast given by Cotys, King of Thrace ; and,
according to Antiphonis, the belly was particularly esteemed.
Willoughby says that when boiled the flesh is white, and in
taste like a frog ; to which we may add that, according to Risso,
a fish which he calls genelli, and which he considers as a variety
of the angler, is a delicious dish, as has also been reported by
a private individual of our own angler.

A large example of this species may measure in length
between five and six feet, but the specimen described measured
three feet, and its breadth across the widest expansion of the
pectoral fins, about twenty-two inches. The head broad and
rounded, forming a large proportion of the bulk; the body
tapering behind the pectoral fins, and more compressed towards
the tail. Head studded with bony tubercles, six m number,
with a depression from the symphysis of the upper jaw upward
between the rows, in which the processes of the maxillary bone
are received. The lower jaw projects, and is capable of great
protrusion ; breadth of the mouth in this example ten inches,
with two or three rows of long, sharp teeth, the mnermost row
generally the stoutest and longest, especially in the lower jaw,
and each tooth through much of its length encased in its own
membranous covering; in front of the palate also are rows of
strong teeth, and the same in the floor of the mouth m the
place of tongue. yes high on the head separate, with a depres-
sion between them ; vision towards the sides. Round the body
from head to tail a series of membranous processes, flat and
lobulated, but of some variety in shape; the longest round the
head. Skin smooth, loose, and slimy. Strong tubercles be-
hind the eyes; the head covered with numerous irregular lines,
from which proceeds a tenacious slime. ‘Two short soft pro-
cesses, already referred to, above the upper jaw ; between them
a slender upright filament, its interior structure bony, and which
is joined to the bony substance of the head in some cases by a
ring joint; in others, a portion of the ring is formed of soft

The Angler. 361

substance. This forms the fishing-rod and line; its termination
expanded, soft, hanging down like a bait, and in this example
the whole was nine inches long. Behind this are five slender
processes, obscurely united by a membrane, which may be
regarded as the first dorsal fin; these processes or rays becom-
ing gradually shorter, second dorsal and anal opposite each
other, the former having twelve rays, the latter ten ; pectoral
fins horizontal, with twenty-four rays, jomed to the body by a
lengthened wrist which is hid under the skin; and the
longijudinal direction of the bones of the wrist causes this fin
to be placed far behind, yet not so far as the gill open-
ing, which is situated behind it, and is so open in consequence
of the loose nature of its membrane and the length of the six
slender branchial bony rays, that by fishermen the pair are
termed pockets. The ventral fins resemble slender paws, with
six rays. ‘Tail slightly rounded, with eight rays; all the fins
thick and Heshy, with lobes or crenations at the border. The
colour above is of various shades of dark or ashy-grey, mottled,
and in a younger condition, prettily and regularly striped, white
below: extremities of the fins oftenred. The olfactory portion
of the brain exists as a separate globe of nervous matter, dis-
tinct from the united ganglions forming the true brain, although
it is united to it by a bar or string of nerve; and from this anterior
globe proceed some fine fibres which we should have described
as passing foward to the perforated elevations above the upper
jaw, which we suppose to form the nostrils; but we hesitate to
say that these fibres are actually united to or expanded on these
membranous processes, since Professor Owen, whose accuracy in
observation no one will question, has not been able to trace them
thither. These processes are also furnished, at their root at
least, with nerves of considerable size, but which are only
organs of feeling, as is the nervous trunk from which these
branches spring, and which conveys its powers of sensation
over the face and to the corners of the mouth with the neigh-
bouring parts. As this nerve is the largest in the body, except
the nerve of sight, we may believe it to bestow the function of
exquisite touch in a degree proportionate to its superior size.
There exists in this fish also what perhaps we should least expect
to find in it, an organ of hearing, which it possesses in a higher
degree of development than in many other species. It is true
there is no external orifice by which undulations causing
sound can obtain access; but there is no reason to suppose that
any modulations of sound are felt by any true fish. Iltis only a
few variations of noise or tone that are perceived by them, and in
this particular the angler is at least equal with the generality of
the inhabitants of the ocean. But to the eye of this fish we
would direct particular attention, as it is in its structure we

362 The Principles of Spectrum Analysis.

discern it to be better prepared for variety of vision than is the
case with the larger part of bony fishes. The crystalline lens
is large, by which means it is able to take m, a wide range of
vision, while its situation far back in the chamber, and very
near the retina or expanded fibres of the nerve of sight, from
which, by bringing the rays of light to a short focus, the dis-
tance at which objects would be seen must be small, is changed,
and a larger extent of perception secured by the compressing
operation of the external muscles of the eye-ball, the lens itself
being thus driven forward towards the front.

THE PRINCIPLES OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.
BY THOMAS ROWNEY.

Srxty years or more ago Dr. Wollaston detected in the spec-
trum obtained from solar light a series of dark bands crossing
it throughout its entire length. These limes may be easily
seen through a prismatic telescope, of which Mr. Crookes has
contrived a simple form. The discoverer does not appear to
have thought much of the fact, and seems to have discon-
tinued his experiments, as we have no further account of his
researches in that direction. Jt was not until Fraunhofer of
Munich announced his independent discovery of the same
lines, and showed that they were constant both in number and
position, and mapped them out to the extent of more than
600, with the most sedulous care, that they came to be regarded
as features worth notice. He showed that these lines, which
now bear his name, might be found in all spectra, by viewing
them through a telescope, whether the source of light were the
sun, moon, fixed stars, or planets. He also found them in the
electric spark, and im flames coloured by the combustion of
metals. These two philosophers might justly lay claim to the
honour of having laid the foundation of what is now termed
spectrum chemistry. In the words of Dr. Miller,*

“The inquiry thus launched by Fraunhofer has been followed in
four principal branches of research, which may be described as re-
lating to,—

“1. Cosmical lines, or the black lines produced in the light of
the sun, the planetary bodies, and the fixed stars.

“2. Black lines produced by absorption, a class of phenomena dis-
covered by Sir D. Brewster; in his observations upon the red vapours
of nitrous acid.

“3. Bright lines produced by the electric spark, when taken between
different conductors.

* Lecture reported in Chemical News, No. 123.

The Principles of Spectrum Analysis. 363

“4, Bright lines produced by coloured flames, or by the introduc-
tion of different substances into flame.

“ The following chronological table contains the names of those
who have made the principal steps in these different subjects :— _

CAIN sarod ee enki sa Rae 1701
olism 8 jhe ee SS. 1802
Hranmhofer \ ijt endsanneseslanteack 1815

Cosmical. Absorption Bands.
Brewster, 1832. Brewster, 1832.
EK. Becquerel, 1842. W AE set 1833
Draper, 1842. and Daniell, ra
Stokes, 1852. W. A. Miller, 1845.
Brewster and
Gladstone, Hee.

Electric Light. Coloured Flames.
Wheatstone, 1835. Brewster, 1822.
Foucault, 1849. Herschel, 1822.
Masson, 1851—55. Fox Talbot, 1826, 1833,
Angstrom, 1853. 1834.

Alter, 1854—55. W. A. Miller, 1845.
Secchi, 1855. Swan, 1857.

Plucker, 1858—59.
V. Willigen, 1859.
Karchoff

In order to a right understanding of the results which have
been reached by the recent labours of Kirchhoff and Bunsen, 1t
is necessary to be acquainted with the nature of the dark lines,
which are so many touchstones or tests by which they have
worked them out. Let us suppose a prism of blue glass to be
used for effecting the decomposition of a ray of solar light.
We have an elongated image, not, however, containing seven
colours, as when a white prism is used. The yellow, blue, and
green are all absorbed, and we have only the two extreme
colours, violet and red, the latter also diminished in breadth,
A comparison with the normal spectrum will make the differ-
ence at once clear. In passing through our atmosphere, or
the atmosphere of the sun, similar changes may take place,
and thus materially assist in producing these dark lines. More-
over, there are a class of rays in the solar spectrum which our
eyes cannot see, and of which we can only judge by their effects.
Of such are the chemical rays which manifest their action in
the beautiful results of the photographic art. We may instance
also another set found beyond the violet rays, whose presence
has been demonstrated by Professor Stokes, by transmitting
them through a solution of sulphate of quinme. They have a
light bluish-layender colour. Thus, it will seem that certain

364 The Principles of Spectrum Analysis,

rays have such a refrangibility that our eyes cannot take
cognizance of them; and so also certain rays exist in solar ight
which are incapable of transmission through certain media.
Applying this to the solar spectrum, we have a clue to the
production of the dark lines, by supposing, with Kirchhoff and
Bunsen, that the sun has the property of imducine or giving
out rays of a certain refrangibility, but yet cannot produce
others capable of filling the interspaces. Another interpreta-
tion has been given, by supposing an interference in the undu-
lations of certain rays, which produce darkness ; but this theory
will not meet the circumstances of the case, and we can show
by experiment that by making an artificial atmosphere the same
or parallel results can be produced.

The natural variations in the composition of the atmosphere
produce similar effects, and Brewster was the first to notice
bands in the red and green spaces, whose appearance was not
constant. These appearances are usually observed when the
sun is not far from our horizon; and Dr. Miller mentions an
instance in which he saw a group of lines during a thunder
shower. They came suddenly, and faded as the rain passed away.

The readiness with which the spectrum responds to changes
in the atmosphere, or in the nature of the source of light, is
shown in the following experiment of Kirchhoff and Bunsen :—

They threw up into the air of the apartment a small quantity
of chloride of sodium in very fine powder. Motion was imparted
to the atmosphere, to ensure an equable diffusion of the salt.
The spectrum in an instant demonstrated its presence, by show-
ing a golden-yellow band in the yellow space. ‘This effect is
uniform whenever sodium is present in a state of incandescence,
and is therefore called the sodium spectrum. ‘This result
might have been expected, knowing that sodium in any form
always tinges flame an intense yellow; but when we come to
the combustion of other metals, the bands produced by them
are such as could never have been anticipated. When silver
is burnt we have other coloured bands brought out equally cha-
racteristic, and so with every other metallic substance. ‘T’o show
the relation between these coloured bands and the dark lines, we
will suppose the light of a pure white flame to be passed through
a yellow sodium flame, and then through the prism. Now,
mark the change. The spectrum is no longer continuous, and
having its bright yellow band in the yellow space; but where
it flashed out so conspicuously is now to be seen a dark line,
known as “ D.” ‘The rationale is obvious. The yellow atmo-
sphere has interfered with the yellow of our normal spectrum,
and by that interference darkness has resulted.

Keeping these results in view, we have a key to the whole
subject of spectrum chemistry. It can be shown that each

The Principles of Spectrum Analysis. 360

metal in a state of vapour has the power to arrest particular
rays with a constancy that can be relied on. The arrangement
best suited for these experiments is either Dubosq’s electric
lamp, or the Drummond light, but many of the spectra may be
conveniently studied by using Crookes’s spectroscope, as made
by Spencer Brownmeg and Co., and now too well known to
need detailed description. This instrument is well adapted for
ordinary purposes, but to appreciate the full beauty and delicacy
of the various spectra, we should need an apparatus as perfect
as that constructed for Kirchhoff by Stemheil of Munich.

When artificial ight is employed—as that of gas or lamp—
the dark lines may be brought out by interposing a glass trough
or bottle contaming nitrous acid gas between the light and the
instrument. ‘This gas may be obtained by the action of a small
quantity of nitric acid on a piece of copper; and, as we have
before mentioned, it acts as an absorptive medium. If a piece
of sulphur be introduced into the flame of a spirit-lamp, a good
view of its dark bands may be obtaimmed. If the subject for
examination be an alkaline metal, the spirit-lamp may be used,
or better still, a flame of hydrogen mixed with air and burnt on
the top of a tube covered with wire gauze. We thus obtain
aflame of high temperature with little light, except what is
derived from the substance employed. The metal in a state
of chloride is the most convenient form—it being more easily
volatilized. It may be introduced into the cotton wick; or if
the gas-burner be used, then a loop of platina wire sliding on
an upright support is the easiest to manage. The copper
spectrum may be readily obtained by dipping a coil of fine
wire into pure hydrocloric acid, and immediately inserting it
into the gas-flame. When iron, silver, etc., are operated upon,
wires of these metals should form the electrodes of a powerful
voltaic battery, and be brought by its agency to an incandescent
state, when a portion of their substance is volatilized, and ex-
hibits its characteristic action through the prism.

Kirchhoff and Bunsen, while pursuing their researches on the
composition of some mineral water, obtained from the combus-
tion of the solid matter a series of bands in two spectra, which
did not correspond with those produced by any of the known
metals. This led them to infer the presence of some new
elements which the eye of man had never yet seen. After
evaporating several tons of the fluid, their labours were re-
warded by obtaining two new metals, which they named
Coesium—(greyish blue) that being the colour of the bands—
and Rubidiam (dark red). No sooner had they done this than
they were off mto the depths of speculation, conceiving that
they had in their power a means of analysis capable of much
higher application.

366 The Principles of Spectrum Analysis.

These ingenious and indefatigable workers found that the
bright lines in the metallic spectra corresponded closely with
the dark lines of the solar spectrum. Why was this? and
how could it be explained? ‘l'hey found, by experiments be-
fore cited, that each colour was opaque to rays of its own colour.

To illustrate the poimt more clearly, we may suppose two
pendulums of equal length to be placed side by side. If the
one be made to vibrate, it will, after a time, cause its com-
panion to do the same in consequence of its equal length or
isochronous condition; and so it is supposed that the rays of
one colour will be taken up by another whose vibrations are of
equal length, and so be arrested in their voyage. Now look
at the application of this result. If, in the rays of light from
an artificial source, this principle be correct, it may also be
correct with the rays of solar light. Hence they have inferred
that the dark bands of the solar spectra are produced by their
passage through an atmosphere containmg certain metals in a
state of high combustion or vapour.

Upon these grounds they have concluded phsiha in the outer-
most solar envelope exist all those metals in a state of vapour,
whose colour-bands coincide with dark lines of the solar spec-
trum, as sodium, potassium, iron and nickel; and that itis by the
more powerful licht of the photosphere shining through this only
feebly-luminous layer that the dark bands of Fraunhofer are
produced by the process before described. They have also
inferred the source from which these metals are derived to be
the mass of the sun. A bold assertion, perhaps a correct one ;
but we are certainly not at present justified in accepting it as
if it were proved; and we may advantageously reflect upon the
words of Dr. Miller :—

“ Wascinating as this theory is, it must be remembered that
it is yet upon its trial, and that it does not explain the facts at pre-
sent known respecting the vapours of hydrogen, mercury, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and nitrogen. M. Morren even questions the accu-
racy of some of Kirchhoft’s observations. Thus, he states that in
a measurement which he made of the red band of potassium, con-
jointly with Pliicker, they found that it did not correspond with the
solar line A, but that it is considerably more refrangible.”

There are many other important facts which will have to
be considered before we can arrive at a complete theory of the
spectral phenomenon. For example, chloride of lithium pro-
duces a single crimson line in,the flame of a Bunsen burner ;
the greater heat of a hydrogen flame enables it to emit an orange
ray, and the voltaic arc adds a brilliant stripe of blue. In like
manner, iron and other metals furnish spectra which advance
» n complication as the temperature of their vapour is increased.

Professor Roscoe says that “ the general rule is that lwmi-

The Feathered Reptile of Solenhofen. 367

nous solids give off a different quality of light when they are
differently heated, and luminous gases give off the same kind
of hight at all temperatures.”* The spectra of gases are quite
as interesting as those of the metals; hydrogen, for example,
giving a red and a blue band, and nitrogen beautiful violet
stripes.

THE FEATHERED REPTILE OF SOLENHOFEN sai

Last summer M. Witte of Hanover, called the attention of M.
A. Wagner to a slab of the well known Solenhofen lithographic
slate, about one and a quarter square feet in size, contaming
fossil remains of an extraordinary and bewildering character.
The skull, neck, and both hands were wanting, but the greater
part of the dorsal vertebree and all belonging to the tail were
well preserved. The humerus and fore arm, consisting of
radius and ulna were present on both sides. “ At the anterior
extremity of each fore arm there is a broad short bone which
is injured.” The pelvis, more like that of a Pterodactyl than a
bird, is imperfect, the right side only remaining. The hinder
extremity is complete on the left side; on the right only the
thigh and shank remain. The thigh bone is strong but not
long, and the shank not perceptibly divided into tibia and
fibula. The tarsus consists of a single powerful bone shorter
than the shank, and having its lower extremity widened, and
bearing three articular processes to which as many toes are
attached. The latter are of moderate length, and armed with
strong hooked claws. Except to the comparative anatomist,
these smgular remains might present nothing striking, but
the description proceeds to tell us that the anterior limbs and
tail were covered with feathers, which have left their impres-
sions in well marked lines. “From the short broad bone
which les close to the extremity of each fore arm there issues
a radiating fan of feathers, by which two feathered wings are
produced, having their external outline curved like a bow.”’ The
tail is also feathered, but the feathers are shorter than those of
the wings, and instead of radiating from the end of the tail
they spring from both sides throughout its length, starting at
a small angle, and forming a “leaf like or oval group.” Before
the discovery of this fossil, Von Meyer described a feather from
the same quarries, which he conjectured to have belonged to a
bird, as 16 was not to be distinguished by any special peculiarity.
On receiving the account of M. Witte’s investigation, he how-
ever came to the conclusion that the feather he had seen must

* Lecture at Royal Institution reprinted in Chemical News.
t+ See Annals of Natural History, April and May 1862.

368 Secchi on Magnetic and Atmospheric Perturbations.

have belonged to a “similar animal,’ which he designated
Archceopteryx lithographica. For various reasons drawn from
comparative anatomy, M. Wagner rejects the idea of the crea-
ture having been a variety or new kind of bird. He says “a
reptile with the simple tarsal bone of a bird, and with epider-
mic structures presenting a deceptive appearance to bird’s
feathers, is far more comprehensible to me than a bird with the
pelvis and vertebral column (especially the long slender series
of caudal vertebree) of a long tailed Pterodactyl, and with a
perfectly different mede of attachment and of feathers.” The
idea of a “ deceptive appearance’’ in the feather is negatived
by Von Meyer, who states that m his specimen the fibres of the
vane can be distinctly traced, and even the small barbules with
which they are beset. M. Wagner named the fossil which he
examined Griphosauwrus (Hnigma-lizard), and it does not seem
that Von Meyer has any reason for supposing the creature to
which his feather belonged was of a different nature, although
he has given it a different appellation. M. Wagner thinks the
discovery of the new fossil may explain the foot prints im the
Trias, which have been ascribed to birds, and Von Meyer re-
marks that im 1824 he pomted out the danger of too closely
following Cuvier’s theory that a similarity of particular parts
indicated a similarity of other parts, or of the whole.

SECCHI ON MAGNETIC AND ATMOSPHERIC
PERTURBATIONS.

In a letter to the French Academy, the distinguished Roman
observer Secchi, gives a summary of the conclusions he has
arrived at respecting the connection between magnetic pertur-
bations and atmospheric movements. ‘This he considers esta-
blished, first, by the great variations of magnetic elements, and
especially in the intensity of the horizontal force, on the occur-
rence of storms; secondly, by the irreyularities which accom-
pany periods of squalls ; thirdly, by the great depression of the
bifilaire,* and the variations of other instruments which precede,
or follow immediately, great changes in the weather ; fourthly,
by variations of intensity corresponding with variations of the
winds ; fifthly, by the aurora borealis, which, considered as a
signal of variation in wind and weather, belongs to the class
of phenomena under discussion.

* The “Bifilaire,” or Bifilar, is a Horizontal Force Magnetometer, so called
from the magnetic bar being suspended by a double thread of silk or wire. Its
object is to measure variations in the intensity of the horizontal component of the
earth’s magnetic force,

Secchi on Magnetic and Atmospheric Perturbations. 369

The immediate cause of the connection thus traced, M.
Secchi ascribes to atmospheric electricity, which, when dis-
charged from the air to the earth, must generate strong currents
by which the needle is affected. Such currents, he observes,
exist not only during auroral manifestations, but also during
storms, and are exhibited by each instrument according to its
nature, the galvanometer showing changes in tension, and the
compass-needle making known alterations in the total force of
the current which passes beneath it. With reference to the
questions of whence comes the electricity circulating in the soil,
and what is its immediate vehicle, he replies by pointing to the
precipitations from the atmosphere. ‘The rain especially, he
says, discharges an immense quantity of electricity into the
earth, and, in general, it may be said that strong actions upon
the instruments only occur after a rainfall has taken place at
some point more or less remote, even beyond the limits of the
visible horizon. ‘This circumstance may, perhaps, explain the
fact that magnetic perturbations indicate approaching squalls.
Rain usually produces negative electricity over a considerable
extent of atmosphere, and it 1s itself generally negative, which
accounts for the notable diminution of horizontal imtensity
which precedes squalls. The precipitation of vapour without
rain, which often happens between eight and nine on clear
nights, and which is accompanied by very strong electricity,
may explain the magnetic perturbations which occur at that
time, and the diurnal electric period which corresponds with
the movements of the horizontal needle may belong to the
same class of meteorological facts. Even the aurora borealis
may be included in this category, as there is a continual fall of
ice-needles, almost invisible, but whose existence is clearly
shown in the narratives of Polar voyages. Atmospheric elec-
tricity on these occasions may, perhaps, be exalted by accessory
causes, such as the change which takes place when vapour
passes to the state of ice, or by the friction of wind against the
little icicles in a dry and very insulating atmosphere, and also
by the inductive action of superior regions on the falling and
floating particles of ice. These various subjects, M. Secchi tells
us, are illustrated in his Mémoitres, but he does not pretend that
magnetic disturbances have no other causes than those indicated
in the preceding remarks. Further observations will be made
at Rome, and notices afforded in the Bulletin Météorologique,
published in that city.

It is interesting to know that the instruments used by Mr.
Secchi were supplied from the Observatory at Kew.

Bye) On the Geological Value of Recent Occurrences.

ON THE GHOLOGICAL VALUE OF RECENT
OCCURRENCHS.

BY GHEORGHE HE. ROBERTS.

Not unfrequently in the passing, and by many scarce-heeded,
news of the day, facts in the physical condition of the earth’s sur-
face are chronicled, which, rightly studied, are of high geological
importance. As “Intellectual Observers,” we may aid very
greatly our comprehension of bygone physical events by seekine
out these apparently valueless phenomena of modern times, and
comparing their results with those operations of past ages
which our acceptation of Lyellan philosophy teaches us were
the accomplishments of like ordinary, and, m our day, unre-
garded means. If these principles rule our daily observations,
much that has heretofore been unseen and ‘uncared for will be
perceived, and found replete with mstruction. Risimgs and sink-
ings of the surface will be noted as going on simultaneously in
many parts of the British Isles, and the rate of growth—so to
speak—of land above the sea, of sandbanks from wind action,
of morasses by the extension of Sphagni and other bog-plants,
and of tide-covered estuaries into areas of permanent land will
become ascertained facts. Observations of this kind are pecu-
larly easy of record just now in the neighbourhood of Lon-
don, by reason of the trench-diging into the alluvium of the
Thames for the main drainage works, and I notice with much
pleasure that one gentleman; officially connected with these
works, Mr. Cresy, is taking accurate sections of the depth and
variety of character displayed in that alluvial deposit, in the
formation of which, durmg the last 2000 years, man and the
river seem to have been co-workers. In the study of these
modern physical conditions, a re-action resembling that of the
new school of German Bibliopoles, who are, collecting and
laying up in store the ephemeral publications of the day—the
street ballad, the tradesman’s bill, and the thousand-and one
circulars of social and unionist character which flutter our hbrary
tables, seems to have set in among geologists; with this differ-
ence—that he who studies human life collects for the learning
of the future, for the delight of antiquaries in centuries to come ;
while the philosopher of Nature collects the new-born rarities
of the day that they may aid his comprehension of kindred
workings in the ages which are past.

A very notable example of a modern occurrence thus
throwing light backwards upon ancient physical story I see in
the Times newspaper of the 5th April. It is worthy of pre-
servation in a remarkable degree, for it illustrates in a clear and
decided manner phenomena of ancient deltas and estuarine

On the Geological Value of Recent Occurrences. av]

brackish water deposits in Permian, Carboniferous, and Triassic
times, whose commingle of marine, fresh water, and terrestrial
organisms have puzzled the geologist. This is the occurrence
In question.

“THE FLoops in Catrrornta.—San Francisco, February 11th.—I
have just received your letter, which has been double its usual time
getting here, owing to our fearful visitation of tempest and flood.
We have been shut out from the world ever since the 15th of Decem-
ber last. It began to rain on the Ist of December, and we did not
regard it much, for we looked for the annual rains. But the rain—
which, as usual, was snow in the mountains—continued the whole of
the month of December, and about the middle the mountain snows
began to melt, as the rain had actually got warmer. The consequence
was that the Sierra Nevadas poured down rivers upon rivers of
water, until the whole of that great basin of California which the
mountains bound was entirely submerged. The only outlet to this
water is the Golden-gate, the entrance to the bay at San Francisco
from the Pacific Ocean. Take the map of California, and see where,
on the south, the mountains come to a point below Tularo Lake, and
then go up north to where they again join at Shasta, and then pic-
ture the whole of the immense tract of land they enclose under
water, and the bay of San Francisco a vast river, pouring its volumes
into the Pacific Ocean by the before-named Golden-gate. Fancy,
also, the tides of that ocean having no effect in our bay, and welling
up at its entrance, and you will have a feeble idea of the magnitude
of the volume of water that has for two months ravaged California.
Not a ship could enter our harbour, and only the most powerful
steamers could stem the torrent. Sacramento, Marysville, and
Stockton, our three principal interior cities, all under water, and all
communication cut off with them excepting by boats. Business com-
pletely at a stand-still, no goods going up and no money coming
down. It was very strange to see the sea for about ten miles around
the mouth of our bay. - In the interior, about sixty miles from San
Francisco, and at the embouchure of the northern rivers, are vast
tracts of land covered with rushes and semi-aquatic plants, that go
by the name of tulé lands, something like the paddy-fields of India.
Well, as the waters rose, these immense morasses rose also, and in
process of time, becoming detached, floated away with the current in
masses of from 100 yards to half a mile in size, and they all floated
out to sea, travelling, some of them, more than 100 miles before their
arriving. Once arrived in their grander sphere of action, it was the
most extraordinary thing to see the myriads of water-snakes, faithful
to their home, twisting and twirling in the salt sea, and to see the
water-fowl that screamed over their nests as though warning the
islands of their danger, and to see our coast when any of the islands
were thrown up on it, and the thousands and thousands of snakes
wriggling their way over the shrubless sands that bound it for miles
in search of anything to hide them from the wholesale slaughter that
sticks and stones, and knives and even guns made among their host.
We wanted St. Patrick to come. You know the innate dread we

3V2 On the Geological Value of Recent Occurrences.

have of a snake, and you can fancy our disgust, amounting to horror,
at this invasion of slimy things crawling upon us. All the salt
water fish have left the bay, and all the oysters have, like good men,
died in their beds.”

Another remarkable modern illustration of ancient work I
have lately met with a shght note of in a paper of the day. In
a comparatively recent eruption of one of the Icelandic volca-
noes, a stream of lava making its way to the sea, caught up and
embedded in its flow the recent shells and pebbles of the beach.
Some specimens of this lava, lately shown to me by Captain
Campbell, contained this beach-debris, and reminded me forci-
bly of the layers of volcanic ash, contemporaries in time of far
gone Silurian ages, which lie inter-stratified with the sea beds
they intruded on through Northern Wales.

Another exceptional modern event—may it be the last of its
kind! which has been made to do good service in the geological
cause was the bursting of the Holmfirth reservoir ; by observing
the effects of which, in moving huge stones and re-laying the
transported material along the course of the flood, Mr. Prestwich
was enabled to throw light upon the power and effects of water-
action similarly confined in geological times.*

These cases I have noted, however, may truly be regarded
as exceptional ones, though by their prominent character their
power of teaching is the greater; but, as they illustrate the
kind of phenomenon which it will be instructive to study when-
ever opportunity presents, I have quoted them in illustration of
the work. In an excellent paper upon “ Trails, Worm-markings,
and Tracks,” contributed by my friend Professor Rupert Jones
to the Geologist of last month, much valuable material for study
is pointed out, and he shows most clearly, by direct teaching
and by inference, that by the use of a modern key we read the
Nature-printed hieroglyphs of the past.

Geological Society of London, May 1862.

* Journal of the Geological Society, vol. viii. p. 225.

Work for the Telescope. 373

WORK FOR THE TELESCOPH.—PLANETS OF THE
MONTH.—DOUBLE STARS.

BY THE REV. T. WEBB, F.R.A.S.
PLANETS OF THE MONTH.

THERE may be a fair chance of getting a sight of Mercury in
the evening twilight at the beginning of the month, as he
attains his greatest elongation from the Sun, and his dicho-
tomy, or half-moon phasis, on the 6th. A position, however,
near the horizon is seldom favourable for the employment of those
high powers which are requisite to make out details inan object |
at that time scarcely 8” in diameter. Those who possess good
instruments equatorially mounted may, of course, always find
him (except when too near the Sun) at a more suitable altitude,
as his brightness renders him visible throughout the day; and
it is in their power to supply one of the desiderata of planetary
astronomy, the confirmation of the phenomena discovered by
Schroter and Harding at the beginning of this century. These
consisted chiefly in a difference in the shape of the two cusps,
and in the occasional presence of dusky spots and belts, whence
Bessel deduced a rotation in 24h. Om. 53s. Schréter also per-
ceived shght irregularities of form not only in the terminator
or boundary of day and night, but in the circular limb, and a
difference between the breadth of the observed and calculated
phasis, which last has been confirmed by Beer and Midler.

Venus is still conspicuous in the mornings, but is becoming
gibbous and comparatively uninteresting.

Jupiter is passing away towards the west. The following

transits may be looked for, though the planet is getting more
distant and smaller, his diameter at the end of the month beng
reduced to 326.

2nd. Shadow of I. goes off at 9h. 41m. 9th, I. and its shadow,
and III., are all on the disc together. I. emerges at 10h. 21m.,
II. at ee 20m., the shadow at llm. 36m. 12th, Shadow of
IT. departs at 10h. 25m. 15th, Shadow of IV. enters 9h. 44m.
16th, I. is on the disc from 9h. 59m. to 12h. 16m. IIT. willbe in
transit at the same time, emerging at 10h. 19m.; the shadow
of I. enters at 11h. 15m. 19th, Shadow of II. enters at 10h. 16m.,
the satellite 15m. later. 25th, Shadow of I. goes off, 9h. 55m.
26th, II. enters, 10h. 20m, “Gane of these, it will Re seen, are
interesting configurations.

Saturn continues to turn to us the dark side of his ring.

DOUBLE STARS.

The rapid advance of summer twilight has somewhat over-
taken our work, and we are compelled to defer some remark-
VOL. I.—NO. V. (OG

o”v4 Work for the Telescope.

able pairs to a future opportunity ; many other beautiful objects
are succeeding them, but the nights are so short that the tele-
scope is not likely to be much in requisition: and we shall
therefore postpone for the present the description of such as
may be equally well seen later in the year, and confine ourselves
to a small number, which, from their nearness to the horizon,
are passing speedily away, or cannot be observed, during
ordinary hours, at any other than the present season.

8. y Virginis. 16. 77-9. (1831°38). round, (133606).
IQ. 191°6. (1848°33). 378. 169°9. : ((ebsiseie aot:
Silvery-white and pale yellow, the latter the less brilliant.
Struve pronounced them alternately variable; this seems con-
firmed by some observations of Smyth, Dawes, and Fletcher ;
and, as Humboldt remarks, probably indicates a very slow
rotation of both suns upon their axes. In every respect a most
remarkable pair. No stars are more unquestionably binary,
and none have run so interesting a course, combining such
varied distances and velocities. Cassini IT. perceived that this
was a double star at Paris in 1720, with a distance of about 7’°5,
fully half that of Mizar. Since that time the components have
been approaching with a gradually accelerated speed, and after
a most rapid perihelion, or rather periastron, passage in 1836,
have been widening out again, and are now a comparatively
easy object, at least 4° apart. At the nearest appulse, Sir J.
Herschel’s great reflector at the Cape failed to exhibit any
other than a circular disc; and the splendid achromatic at
Poulkowa, near St. Petersburg, with an object-glass of about
142 inches in diameter, and a power of 1000, was only able
just to indicate, what was proved by the undiminished light to
the naked eye, that there was no actual eclipse. ‘The orbit
has given a great deal of trouble to computers, from the imac-
curacy of some of the observations. Admiral Smyth has
laboured most diligently in clearme up the difficulties which
beset his favourite object; and on the whole Sir J. Herschel
considers that the period must lie between 140 and 190 years:
about 180 seems the more probable duration,

There is little difficulty in finding y, from a, Spica Virginis,
the principal star in the constellation. Spica is on the meridian
about 8h. 30m. in the early part of June, and is the most con-
spicuous star in the southern sky: y is the nearest bright star
to the right of it, and a little above it. yy, as well as 7 Virginis
a little W. of it, and € further off to the E., are all near enough
to the equator to measure the diameter of the field ofview.

9. d Corvi. Algorab. 285. 210°9. 3 and 8%. Pale
yellow and purple. Sestini calls the small star white. This
pleasing pair is easily found, being that nearest to Spica of the
four principal stars in Corvus, and forming an equilateral

Exhibition Tactics. 375

triangle with Spica and y Virginis. As it is now declining
rapidly, the search for it should not be postponed.

10. @ and ae Inbre. 3' 49". 314°3. 3 and 6. Pale
yellow and light grey. A little after 10h. at the commence-
ment of June, when Spica is beginning to decline towards the
S.W., two considerable stars will be seen near the meridian H.
of it; the lowest, which lies most to the right, is the star m
question ; the upper one bemg 6. «@ is a wide but grand object,
owning merely an optical connection. The Sun passes very
close to this pair, a little beneath them, durme the night of
Nov. 5. 8 Libree is well worth looking at, on account of its
beautiful pale green hue, a very uncommon colour in large
stars, though often existing, or duced by contrast, in smaller
companions.

EXHIBITION TACTICS.

TE opening of the first great International Exhibition created
a phrenzy of egotism and self-glorification, and the success of
England in so novel an undertaking stimulated other countries
to follow in her wake.

The idea was a happy one, and although there may be only
two cities in the world in which it could be advantageously
carried out on a grand scale, every country which has entered
into the industrial stage of development has an interest in
securing a periodical repetition of the friendly strife. Stripped
of rhetorical exaggerations, the process 1s a stock-taking of the
_ skilland power which various nations employ in the production of
exchangeable goods. Hvery department is a page of the ledger
or balance-sheet, and the objects are so many entries in the
complicated account. ‘The whole concern is thus a matter of
bookkeeping with things instead of figures, and must be
primarily tested by the facility, or difficulty, of arriving at re-
sults. In the first Exhibition, making allowance for that want
of experience under which all parties syfiered, there was a
marvellous adaptation of means to the desired end. ‘The
building was not only beautiful of its kind, but its details were
so arranged as to secure individual convenience while present-
ing the prospect of a magnificent whole. Moreover, the
structure enabled the largest quantity of goods to be examined
with an approximation to the smallest quantity of walking about.
From such a beginning we ought to have made decided pro-
gress in what may be called ‘‘ Hxhibition Tactics,” or the art
of managing so varied and extensive a display. That we have
not done so will be apparent to everybody who remembers the
structure in Hyde Park, and pays a visit to the great higeledy-

376 Hahibition Tactics.

piggledy at the Brompton end of the town. We will not stop
to discuss the inconvenience of selecting a locality accessible
with great difficulty to nine-tenths of the inhabitants of the
metropolis, and remote from the mass of inns and lodging-
houses which visitors frequent. ‘The land was vacant, and
must become a profitable speculation for influential jobbers if
a large stream of public money could be turned that way.
This, in brief, appears to be the history of the foundation of
the far-famed “ Boilers,’ which were the precursors of the
present scheme. The story may some day be told in full; but
our present purpose is less with the site than with the arrange-
ments of the newly-opened enterprise.

As an international undertaking the value of such an
Exhibition must depend, first, upon the collections beng a
tolerably fair and complete representation of industrial skill ;
and, secondly, upon the facilities afforded by their collocation
for the purposes of investigation and comparison. Could ex-
hibitors be persuaded to co-operate in such a manner, objects
of the same kind should be placed in series; the porcelain or
textile fabrics of England, for example, occupying one side of
a gallery, and similar productions of foreign nations occupying
the other. In the Picture Gallery at Brompton, “ Foreign
Schools” fill one portion of the fine suite of noble and suitable
rooms, while ‘ British Schools” are exhibited in the other.
Here we have an approximate illustration of a good method,
although there are certain drawbacks, as the pictures which are
first seen on entering the British, from the foreign department,
seem to have been selected for their position on account of their
not possessing those properties of colour which enable them to
be viewed with advantage, while the impression of the con-
tinental paintings is still fresh and vivid upon the eye. Hnglish
art has, moreover, suffered from the snobbishness engendered
by the Royal Academy, whose agents have been permitted
to thrust their water-colour brethren into an inferior set of
apartments, and hang their productions in defiance of every-
thing but that malice prepense which the oleaginous prac-
titioners are accustomed to manifest towards their aqueous
rivals amongst the wielders of the brush. But notwithstanding
these defects, if we were to assume British and foreign art as
fairly represented in the two collections, the arrangement offers
considerable facilities for the comparison of the two. Very
different is the result if we try to ascertain how we stand with
reference to other countries in the industrial race. The nave,
with its conglomerations of incongruous and oddly huddled
together objects and edifices, shows at once that the genius of
muddle and confusion animated the Commissioners when they
disposed of their space. The building itself is badly adapted
to the purpose, because it offers no convenient natural diyi-

Hehibition Tactics. 377

sions for a technological display; but its original defects have
been aggravated by corresponding imperfections in the Com-
missioners’ minds. As a fashionable lounge, i which pro-
menaders are sure to find something of interest, and do not
care whether it be a bronze gate, an equatorial telescope, a case
of mixed pickles, or a diamond necklace, the new show may
win considerable praise ; but it is almost as much trouble to go
from Regent Street to the Boulevard des Italiens as to discover .
and follow any given branch of trade in the English and French
portions of the large Babel which Captain Fowkes and the
Commissioners have made.

Not only is the arrangement bad and abominable in its
logical conception, but itis, in the main, ill adapted to do justice
to specific portions of the contents. Generally speaking, the
eye is greeted on all hands with a confusion worse confounded
of incongruous objects, and it is quite a relief to turn out of
the clumsy bustle to such a tranquil nook as the little court in
which the Mintons exhibit their unrivalled porcelain. ‘“ Gene-
ral Jumble” appears to have been the chief manager of the
concern, and when we have had proof of the disorderly brains
which have presided over the mélée, we shall not be surprised
to find minor defects, in full harmony with the confusion which
has been so thoroughly attained. Foremost among these
lesser grievances is the want of directions where anything is to
be found, and the want of labels to explain 1t when it turns up.
At conspicuous and convenient spots, plans of the buildmge
should be shown, with references to its contents; a few sign-
posts should add their guiding remarks, and in each leading
division the public ought to find tables of its contents. In
some cases a sufficient description is appended to each article,
but as a rule the information is very meagre, and often confined
to Russian, Spanish, or some other little known tongue. It is
also important to give prices—which is seldom done—as the
appearance or quality of an article is only one condition of
industrial merit, and an international exhibition ought to afford
an easy mode of ascertaining who will supply our wants at the
cheapest rate. The meanness of the Commissioners in re-
fusing season tickets to exhibitors has sadly curtailed the
number of attendants necessary to display their wares, and
give the explanations which visitors require, and in this we may
see a warning not to permit private greediness to stand, on
another occasion, in the way of the public good.

The intelligence of the Commissioners is illustrated by their
treatment of the scientific collections, which have experienced
little respect. Dalmeyer, Cooke of York, and one or two others,
have managed to obtain a limited allowance of ground floor,
for a portion of their exhibition of optical instruments; but on
the whole the makers of philosophical apparatus have a right

378 Acari in Photographic Baths and Chemical Solutions.

to doubt the judgment of gentlemen who seem to consider a
superb telescope inferior to a pound of candles, or a first-class
microscope below an arm-chair.’ With reference to this im-
portant class of productions neither commissioners nor ex-
hibitors—excepting a few of the latter, such as Smith, Beck,
and Beck, with their microscopes—have made any provision
by which the quality or use of the objects can be seen. It
would, for example, have been very interesting and instructive
to compare the performances of undoubtedly first-rate mstru-
ments, by expensive makers, with cheaper forms by Parkes of
Birmingham and other meritorious manufacturers, who have a
benevolent, and we trust to themselves. profitable, regard for
the poorer student’s purse. This want will be felt with regard
to articles whose use is well known, but when we come to such
novelties as the chronographs in the French dapartment, special
arrangements should have been made to illustrate their action.
li is interesting to be told that a mysterious-looking combina-
tion of brass and steel, locked up in a glass box, can measure
the flight of a musket ball to the thirty-thousandth part of a
second, and the visitor may consider himself lucky that the
label tells him thus much, but far more ought to have been
done to make such objects understood.

On the whole the Exhibition looks well for British skill and
taste—the chief exception bemg the management of the con-
cern itself, and we would suggest that the guilty parties should
be piled up ina “ trophy,” so as to show the inhabitants of all
countries the sort of people to whom such work ought not to
be confided when another opportunity comes round.

ACARI IN PHOTOGRAPHIC BATHS AND CHEMICAL
SOLUTIONS

In our report of the proceedings of the Microscopical Society,
the reader will see an account of ‘the appearance of some acari
in a nitrate of silver bath employed for photographic purposes
by Dr. Maddox. ‘The occurrence of such a form of life under
these singular, and, as might have been thought, fatal condi-
tions, calls to mind the experiments made many years ago by
Mr. Crosse, and which were ridiculously misrepresented in many
statements current then and since. The simple facts are re-
corded by Dr. Noad in the first volume of his Manual of Hlec-
tricity, from which we extract a few of the most important
particulars. In the course of his numerous experiments on
electro-crystallization, the philosopher of Broomfield operated
upon a solution of silicate of potash, which he supersaturated by
hydrochloric acid, and allowed to fall in drops upon a piece of

Acari in Photographic Baths and Chenucal Solutions. 379

porous red oxide of iron from Vesuvius, connected by platinum
wires with a voltaic battery. On the fourteenth day he noticed
a few whitish excrescences, or nipples, which proceeded to
develope filaments, and on the twenty-second day assumed
the forms of perfect acari. Mr. Crosse observed, when these
facts were commented on: “I never ventured an opinion
as to the cause of thei birth, and fora very good reason—I
was unable to form one.”” He succeeded in obtaining similar
acarl in solutions of nitrate, and sulphate of copper, sulphate
of iron, and sulphate of zinc; likewise in solutions of silicate of
potash, and fluosilicic acid. ‘The latter experiment occupied
eight months, when the creatures appeared at the negative
pole. Mr. Weekes of Sandwich repeated these experiments
with silicate of potash “inverted over mercury, the greatest
possible care bemg taken to shut out extraneous matter, and
in some cases filling the receivers with oxygen gas.” In these
instances the acari appeared after the lapse of more than a year.
Dr. Noad made similar trials, and after more than sixteen
months found the acari on and about the terminal cells of the
battery, but not within the bell-jars. Mr. Crosse repeated his
experiments, with greater precaution to exclude extraneous
matter, and with the same results; but he discovered that it
was necessary, aS mentioned by Mr. Slack in the discussion at
the Microscopical Society, to furnish the little animals with the
means of emerging from the fluid. He noticed that “if he let
an acarus fall into the fluid under which he was born, he was
immediately drowned,” and Mr. Weekes observed the same
fact. In another case the acari were developed in an atmo-
sphere of chlorine, but they were motionless, and Mr. Crosse
remarked, ‘‘ whether the chlorine prevented their complete
animation, I cannot say.”

The nutrition of creatures formed under such circumstances
is as difficult to account for as their orig; but the paper in a
former number of the InreLtectuaL OpszeRver on the Condi-
tions of Infusorial Infe, will suggest many considerations that
may be advantageously borne in mind. In remarking upon
Dr. Maddox’s experiments, Dr. Lankester suggested that the
paper with which his vessel was covered may have furnished
some nutritious matter for the singular visitants; and he also
pointed out the great importance of studying manifestations of
hfe under unusual circumstances.
, No mention of the objects discovered by Crosse and Weekes
appears under the head Acarus in the Micrographice Dictionary.
A certain portion of the scientific world found their prejudices
interfered with ; so some misrepresented, and others suppressed
what had actually occurred. Dr. Maddox is fortunate in having
made his observations when better treatment may be anticipated.

380 The Great Foucault Telescope.

THE GREAT FOUCAULT TELESCOPE.

M. Lion Fovucautt has laid before the French Academy an
account of the great telescope constructed upon his principle
for the Observatory at Paris. He observes that his efforts to
obtain large instruments with reflectors of silvered glass could
not be deemed completely successful until he had reached di-
mensions exceeding those of the largest achromatic objectives,
and that 1t was only by way of establishing a claim to the recog-
nition of his plans that he announced the formation of mirrors
of 10, 20, and 40 centimetres in diameter. Now, he is able to
speak of one nearly 80 centimetres in diameter, having a focal
length of 44 metres,* which has been completed in the esta-
blishment of M. Secrétan. This mirror, mounted in a Newtonian
telescope, has been at work for three months at the Observatory,
performing to the entire satisfaction of the director, M. Cha-
cornac.

The thick glass disc was cast in a curved form (hombé), at
the factory of St. Gobain, in a mould prepared by M. Sautter,
the director of the works for the lenticular ighthouse apparatus,
and although possessing sufficient homogeneity for its intended
purpose, showed before it was silvered that a flaw had occurred
during the process of cooling. On its arrival at M. Sautter’s
workshops, it was reduced in dimensions by bringing it nearer
to the required shape, and by cutting a groove to fix the me-
chanism necessary for its manipulation. It then passed into
the hands of M. Secrétan’s skilful operatives, who ground it with
a counter piece of glass, 50 centimetres in diameter, assisted by
emery and water. This process, which was frequently tested by
the spherometer, occupied a week, at the end of which time a
fine grained and exactly spherical surface was obtained. Hay-
ing been thus prepared, it was polished by hand, the polisher
employed being 22 centimetres in diameter, and covered with
rouge. This polishing was completed by one able workman in
another week, and the mirror was changed from the spherical to ,
the paraboloid form. From this moment its success appeared cer-
tain, and it was removed, with the necessary tools, to the Obser-
vatory, to be optically tested, and to receive the finishing touches.

The frame and stand were made by M. Hichens, the director
of M. Secrétan’s works. The telescope is suspended from its
centre of gravity by two trunnions, resting on two solid vertical
columns. It possesses vertical and azimuthal movements, so
that it only requires to have its inclination adjusted to the lati-
tude of the place in which it may finally rest, to constitute a
veritable equatorial. In consequence of the complaints made

* The metre is 39°3779 inches; the centimetre 0°3937 of an inch.

Dialysis. 381

by the French astronomers of the unfavourable atmosphere of
Paris, the new telescope will be placed in an observatory to be
erected in the south, and specially devoted to original investi-
gations.

On the 28th ult., M. Le Verrier exhibited to the Academy a
drawing representing the double nebula in Canes Venatici—the
wonderful spiral formation of which was made known through
the magnificent instrument at Parsonstown—as seen by the
Foucault mirror. The Abbé Moigno tells us that the drawing
exhibits “imcomparably more details than those given by Her-
schel and Lord Rosse.” If this be correct, the Foucault tele-
scope must possess an enormous advantage over the old form
of reflectors, as the diameter of the new instrument is less than
half that at Parsonstown.

We understand that four-inch instruments of this descrip-
tion, in a square mahogany frame, elevated or depressed by a
rack movement like that of a reading-desk, may be had in Paris
for ten pounds. They are, however, liable to become tarnished,
when they need an inexpensive process of repair.

DIALYSIS.
BY W. B. TEGETMEIER.

Tux application of the researches of Mr. Graham respecting
the diffusion of liquids to the purposes of practical chemistry
and the arts of civilization, offers one of the most interesting
examples of the eventual tendency of even the most abstract
scientific investigations to become practical, and so to aid in pro-
moting the comfort and welfare of mankind. It is almost impos-
sible to imagine a subject offermg apparently less practical ad-
vantages than does the admixture of two liquids with each other,
and yet from the rigorous and scientific investigation of the phe-
nomena of their mutual diffusion, and the laws which regulate
its operation, has sprung the new method of dialysis, which pro-
mises to revolutionize a very large number of chemical opera-
tions, and to introduce new methods of maunfacture into the
arts that will entirely subvert many existing processes.

The subject is so interesting and so novel in its practical
bearings, that 1t will be desirable to trace its gradual develop-
ment from an abstract scientific truth to its present useful appli-
cations. Mr.'T. Graham, the Master of the Mint, has long held
a very high position among the most eminent scientific chemists
that this country has produced; among other subjects that
were diligently investigated by him some years since were the
laws which regulate the mutual diffusion of gases. The in-

382 Dialysis.

quiry as to the rapidity with wluch liquids of different densities
diffused themselves followed almost as a natural sequel to that
respecting the gases. Mr. Graham’s first experiments on the
diffusion of liquids were made by means of what he terms phial
diffusion, and they were performed as follows:—Solutions of
different salts, whose diffusive powers were to be examined,
were prepared of equal strength, and phials of exactly the same
size and shape were filled with these solutions, and then placed
separately under the surface of water contained in much larger
vessels, the mouths of the phials being left open. Under these
circumstances it was found that a certain proportion of the
heavy solution contained in the phial rose m opposition to the
attraction of gravitation, and mingled with the water by which
the phial was surrounded. In the case of coloured solutions,
this diffusion was visible to the eye, and in others it was capable
of being proved by analysis. It was found, however, that the so-
lutions of different bodies diffused themselves with very different
degrees of velocity. Thus common salt diffused with twice the
rapidity of Hipsom salts or sugar. These, again, are double as di-
fusive as a solution of gum ; and albumen, or white of egg, in its
turn, does not possess one-fourth of the diffusive power of gum,
nor scarcely more than one-twentieth of that of common salt.

These experiments were varied in different modes, by allow-
ing the diffusion to take place under slightly varying conditions,
but the same general results were obtained. The laws deduced
from these phenomena are, that crystalline bodies—such as
salt, sugar, nitre, etc.—are much more readily diffusible than
those that are amorphous, such as gum, gelatine, albumen,
solution of starch, or any substances that enter into combination
with water in the same manner that they do.

Hence, with reference to this subject, Mr. Graham arranges
substances into two groups: those crystalline in character
and readily diffusible in water he terms crystalloids ; the solu-
tion of these is always free from gumminess or viscocity, is
sapid, possessing, in a higher or lower degree, the power of
affecting the nerves of taste. The other class, whose diffusive
power is low, he distinguishes as colloids, because gelatine or
glue (colle) may be taken as their type. The solutions of these
substances have no disposition to crystallize, and im the solid
form they do not possess flat surfaces, such as characterize crys-
tals, but exhibit an irregular roundness of outline. Their
solutions are always gummy when concentrated, and what is
strikingly remarkable, they are all insipid or wholly tasteless.
In the moist condition they are liable to undergo great changes,
and solutions of them in a state of purity cannot be preserved
unaltered for any length of time.

A solution of a colloid body such as gelatine is found to

Dialysis. 383

offer scarcely any impediment to the diffusion of a crystalloid
throughout its entire mass. This diffusion will also take place
through any soft solid with almost equal rapidity; a very
familiar example of this fact is shown in the process of salting
meat, in which case the rapidly diffusible crystallizable sea-salt
penetrates to the interior of the flesh, which is a combination
of different colloid bodies, such as fibrin, albumen, gelatine, ete.

Upon the fact that crystalloid bodies possess the power of
diffusing themselves through soft solids depends the operation
known as dialysis, and the construction of the instrument called
the dialyser. This consists simply of a tambourine-shaped
frame of gutta-percha, over which is tightly stretched a piece
of parchment paper, which completes the resemblance to that
musical instrument. This parchment paper is quite impervious
to water, so that no passage of fluid similar to filtration can take
place through it. If the dialyser be floated on the surface of
pure water, and a mixed solution of a crystalloid and a colloid
body be poured into it, the process termed dialysis immediately
commences; all the crystalloid matter passes through the
parchment paper into the water, and the colloid matter remains
behind in the dialyser. As an instance of its action, let us
suppose a mixed solution of sugar and gum to be poured into
the dialyser, when the sugar passes through into the water
below, and the gum remains behind in a pure form. If a mix-
ture of the beautiful aniline dye known as magenta and some
burnt sugar or caramel be employed, the passage of the ma-
genta into the pure water is readily observed, the dark-brown
uncrystallizable colloid caramel remaining in the dialyser.

Other facts of great interest have been discovered as the
results of these investigations. Thus it is found that by
means of dialysis, we may obtain pure in solution many sub-
stances hitherto regarded as being perfectly insoluble. Amongst
these may be mentioned silica, alumina, Prussian blue, peroxide
of iron, stannic acid, and numerous other bodies of a similar
character.

For example, if a solution of soluble glass, which is formed
by fusing silica with an excess of soda, be taken and acidified
with hydrochloric acid, the acid unites with the soda, forming
common salt, or chloride of sodium, the silica remaining for
some time dissolved in a gelatinous or colloid form, mixed with
the solution of the chloride of sodium. If, however, this mix-
ture of gelatinous silica and common salt be placed in the
dialyser, the salt rapidly diffuses itself into the water in the
outer vessel, and the solution of pure silica in water remains
in the dialyser. This solution is found to have a feebly acid
reaction on test paper, but not to the taste, as, bemg a
colloid, 1t cannot pass through the membrane of the tongue

384 Dialysis.

so as to affect the nerves of taste. The solution of silica
remains for some time perfectly lmpid, but eventually sets
into afirm jelly. This alteration may be brought about immedi-
ately by the presence of several substances, particularly by any
earthy carbonate such as chalk. ‘This solution of pure silica
possesses remarkable properties; it is absorbed by gelatinous
tissues such as the skin of animals, in the same manner as
tannin; and like it converts them into a kind of leather, which
possesses the remarkable property of not putrefymg when kept
moist. In the same manner a solution of pure peroxide of iron
may be obtained, by first dissolving excess of the hydrated
oxide m hydrochloric acid, and then dialysing, when a colloid
solution of oxide of iron remains, that is capable of bemg
gelatinized like the silica.

Prussian blue, which is insoluble in pure water, is capable,
when recently precipitated, of bemg dissolved by the aid of
gentle heat in a solution of one-sixth of its weight of oxalic acid,
when it forms the well-known permanent blue ink. If such
a solution be dialysed, the Prussian blue, is in the course of a
few days, obtaimed im a solution in pure water, and may be
rendered gelatinous by the addition of sulphate of zinc and
several other metallic salts, as the solution of silica is gelati-
nized by the addition of carbonate of lime.

Such are afew of the many examples of these remarkable
phenomena. ‘They are as yet of too recent discovery to have
been applied to many practical purposes, but a vast number of
applications at once suggest themselves. In cases of the sus-
pected poisoning of articles of food, the poison, if a crystalloid
substance like arsenic, can be readily dialysed and obtained in
a pure form, however heterogenous may be the mixture in
which it is contained.

Dyeing will be greatly facilitated by steeping a fabric im a
pure solution of some colloid dye, which will unite with the
animal or vegetable fibre as 1t gelatinizes.

The purification of many drugs, and the separation of dif-
ferent substances in the chemical arts will be rendered much
easier than heretofore. In fact there appears scarcely a limit
to the application of this principle. Already, as may be seen
by the report of Mr. Church’s paper, read before the Chemical
Society, and reported in our second number, page 156, dialysis
has thrown light upon obscure points in geology, such as the
formation of flints and other silicious fossils, and it promises
equally to benefit physiological research. In fact, humble and
inconspicuous as its phenomena may appear at first sight, it 1s
probable that in its influence on science and art, it will greatly
surpass any discovery of late years.

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Professor Gamgee on Unwholesome Food. 389

PROFESSOR GAMGEE ON UNWHOLESOME FOOD.

ANIMAL poisons still constitute one of the most obscure pro-
blems with which chemistry and physiology have to deal.
When the Tsetze fly, mentioned by Dr. Livingstone, kills his
victim the horse by a wasting disease, how small in quantity
must be the morbific matter, which, working we know not
how, deranges the vital processes of nutrition and assimilation,
and modifies the condition of all the fluids in the great body
of the unhappy brute. When a German village suffers from
the influence of the peculiar virus developed in badly pre-
pared sausages, or when a dish of mussels torments the ad-
mirers of that questionable variety of mulluscous food, our
analysts fail in their efforts to separate the peccant matter
from the general mass, and our physicians are not more success-
ful im the endeavour to explain the precise mode in which
disease or death may supervene. We look to the general law
that ‘‘a molecule in motion tends to communicate similar mo-
tions to other molecules within its influence,” as expressing
what probably takes place in the class of facts with which we
have to deal; and although we may in some cases be able to
discriminate between the varying amount of danger attending
different stages of putrefaction, we cannot define the precise
conditions in which a decaying substance exists, when it is
invested with the highest amount of deleterious power. Of-
fensiveness to the sense of smell is no criterion, because
sulphuretted hydrogen, and other gases, which make a violently
unpleasant appeal to cur olfactory nerves, are capable of exist-
ing quite independent of any organic poison, or miasma, which
may or may not accompany them according to the circumstances
of the case.

When we have to deal with a preparation of arsenic, to-
bacco, opium, or any substance employed in medicine or
the arts, we are able to extract a definite material which has
little or no tendency to undergo further change, unless it is
brought into contact with other bodies under certain conditions.
Thus arsenious acid may be preserved unaltered for an indefinite
period; the oil of tobacco, or the alkaloids of opium will remain
unchanged in our bottles; but when putrefaction assails an
organized structure, the morbific power that is evolved, lies in
the peculiar motions and changes which influence the ultimate
arrangement of particles, and in the operation which they exert
upon other substances susceptible of similar alterations in their
condition. ‘There is also another consideration that we mus¢
bear in mind, and which results from the complex arrangement
of atoms in the organic world, or in products which may be
derived therefrom. As an illustration of this complexity, let

386 Professor Gamgee on Unwholesome Food.

us look at the amylaceous and saccharine group of bodies,
starting with cane-sugar, in which we find twelve equivalents of
carbon, eleven of hydrogen, and eleven of oxygen. Professor
Miller gives a list of eighteen substances of this group, exhibit-
ing various elaborate combinations of a multiplicity of atoms
of the three elements. In other groups belonging to the
animal series, still greater complexity prevails, and as such
substances are built up in a great variety of ways, so there is
an equal variety im the modes in which they may be taken to
pieces, and a change of properties—sometimes a very striking
one—is found at every stage, whether of the ascending or
descending scale. Thus we can understand how putrefactions—
which are regulated modes of resolving complex bodies into
simpler forms—may, under different circumstances, afford very
different results.

These reflexions will assist in explaining the great dangers
which result from animal food in an unsound condition. If
disease has changed the normal state of the particles, we may

be sure that the food is made mischievous, although we may ~

not, without experiment, be able to say to what extent any
particular individual may suffer from eating it.

Professor Gamgee, in an important article on “ Unwhole-
some Meat and Muilk,’’* classifies the evils of bad animal food
under five heads,.as produced by (1) Cadaveric venom and
animal poisons of undetermined nature, developed spontaneously
in health or disease. (2) Animal poisons well known from their
effects in creating specific contagious diseases. (3) Organic
poisons, the result of decomposition. (4) Mineral and vegetable
poisons absorbed into the systems of animals, and which con-
taminate their flesh and milk. (5) Parasitic animals and vege-
tables, inducing disease in men. ‘The learned professor is
inclined to “regard as one and the same deleterious principle
developed in an infuriated and over-driven ox, a passionate
woman, the cadaveric venom of the human subject, or that of
human beings or animals suffermg many hours in labour, or
from parturient fever.” We may presume that the juices of
an enraged philosopher would be quite as dangerous as those
of a passionate woman; and im all these cases there is a con-
nexion between a certain mental or nervous condition, and the
poisonous character which the solids or fluids assume. Mr.
Gamgee says that he has frequently spoken to butchers on the
subject, and received from them an account of how they have
suffered from cuts received in dressing over-driven animals.
In man, he tell us, the meat of such creatures produces vio-
lent dysentery, with febrile excitement.

Where specific malignant disease exists in animals, the

* Edinburgh Veterinary Review, May 1862.

*

The Ways of the Orchids. 387

danger of using their flesh for food is exceedingly great, and
very numerous cases of severe disorder and death are on record,
both here and on the Continent. With reference to pleuro-
pneumonia, which brmgs so many beasts prematurely to the
shambles, it is satisfactory to learn that although the flesh is
deteriorated, it ‘‘ cannot be called poisonous ;” and strange as
ib may seem, the occurrence of this disorder has furnished the
-milkmen with a profitable mode of carrying on their trade.
Professor Gamgee says, ‘In the city of Hdinburgh there are
dairymen who never knew what it was to make money until
pleuropneumonia appeared. They origmally paid £10 or £15
for a rich-milking Ayrshire, which they kept a twelvemonth or
more. They now pay £25 or £30 for a fat crossbred short-
horn cow, which they calculate on selling diseased within three
months from entering their dairy, and they find the latter
system most profitable..... They have gone so far as to say,
““We do not want disease out of the country; it is keeping
everything high.”

We need not pursue the subject further, especially as the
valuable papers of Dr. Cobbold have exposed the dangers of
introducing parasites in company with food. We will, how-
ever, observe, on the authority of Professor Gamgee, that many
persons suffer from tape-worm through indulging in a nasty
propensity for eating raw pork. Our benevolence does not
prevent our saying, “served them right;” but while such
savage feeding may have its appropriate reward, we must enter
a strong protest in favour of those who are poisoned against
their will.

THE WAYS OF THE ORCHIDS.*

OrcHips are universal favourites: the children love to pick
them in the meadows, and they occupy the place of honour in
the costly conservatory. They combine beauty with grotesque-
ness, strangeness with elegance, to an extent not paralleled by
any other tribe of plants; and now that they have secured an
eloquent and erudite imterpreter in the person of Mr. Charles
Darwim, they make their appearance as Floral Professors,
delivering to us the profoundest lectures on methods of adapta-
tion, theories of evolution, and other wondrous mysteries of
organization and life. Mr. Darwin is one of the few writers
so possessed with his subject as to be incapable of circumlocu-
tion. He speaks out of the fulness of his heart and brain, and

* Onthe Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Ferti-

tilized by Insects, and on the Good Effects of Intercrossing, by Charles Darwin,
M.A., F.R.S., etc. London: John Murray. 1862.

388 The Ways of the Orchids.

crowds his pages with rich stores of clearly elucidated, care-
fully arranged, and for the most part recondite facts. The
Origin of Species is always present to his mind: but what-
ever may be our opinion of the great theory which will here-
after be associated with his name, we cannot lay down his
volume without acknowledging that he helps us to know,
and teaches us to think. Philosophers have often invented
hypotheses, and promulgated doctrines, which tended to darken
counsel and limit enquiry, which acted as a poisonous narcotic
upon the intellect, and placed a pretended explanation, like a
barrier, across the path of truth. In Mr. Darwin’s speculations
we discover none of this evil tendency. They form no opiate
to lull us into repose, but suggest endless fields of investi-
gation, and spur us on to a vigorous collection and examination
of facts. In this way they are good. ‘They may be refuted ;
they may be swallowed up in an ampler exposition of ultimate
laws; but whatever their fate, they will have assisted to train
fresh bands of keen observers, and they will have scattered far
and wide the seeds of scientific thought.

The stories of the orchids belong to the “ fairy tales of
science.” In the structure of these eccentric plants we meet
with startling contrivances elaborately combined to produce un-
expected results. In the Bee Ophrys alone has Mr. Darwin dis-
covered “‘ perfectly efficient contrivances for self-fertilization,’
and even then combined with “ manifest adaptations” for the
occasional transport of pollen from one flower to another. As a
rule, these curious plants are dependent for their perpetuation
upon humbie members of the animal world, and their structure
exhibits a combination of peculiar difficulties with still morepe-
culiar facilities, for the accomplishment of the final act of vege-
table existence, the production of a fertile seed. Fora detailed
exposition of these arrangements we must refer to Mr. Darwin’s
book, but we will endeavour to explain the leading facts of or-
chid history, and just glance at their value in a scientific point of
view. In ordinary flowers, the stamens, supporting the pollen-
bearing anthers, surround one or more organs of a different
shape, called the pistils. When the right time comes the pollen
erains fall upon the pistils, and send forth slender tubes, which
reach the ovaries and fertilize the germs which they contain.
In ‘all common orchids there is only one stamen, and this is
confluent with the pistil, forming the column.” ‘The anther
is divided into two cells, which often gives the appearance of
their being two anthers instead of one. In common plants
the pollen, when ripe, is detached with great facility as a fine
powder; in orchids the grains are coherent, tied together in
masses by peculiar threads, and “ often supported by a very
curious appendage called the caudicle” or little tail.

The Ways of the Orchids. 389

The pollen masses with their appendages are collectively
ealled Pollinia, a word which we shall have occasion to use.
The orchids are botanically considered to have “ three united
pistils or female organs.” The two lower stigmas* are often
confluent, so as to appear as one. ‘The upper pistil exists in a
very modified and curious condition, having its stigma con-
verted into the Rostellwm, of which it is very difficult to give
an intelligible description without the aid of a drawing, which
time will not allow us to prepare. Mr. Darwin observes: “ the
rostellum is a nearly spherical, somewhat pointed projection,
overhanging the two almost confluent stigmas.” It either
includes, or is formed of viscid matter, and has two discs to
which the pollen masses are attached by means of their caudicles.
These organs, as we shall see, have a most important work to
perform, and they may be discovered in any common orchid,
by removing the sepals, or leaves of the calyx, and the petals or
flower leaves, except the lowest, which has the most singular
shape, and is called the labellum, or lower lip. This lip forms
a convenient landing-place for insects, “i secretes nectar, im
order to attract them, and is often produced into a long spur-
hike nectary.” If an insect alights on the lip, and tries to
reach the nectary with his proboscis, it finds the rostellum in
the way, and in pushing by it detaches one or more of the
viscid discs to which the pollen masses are attached. Mr.
Darwin succeeded in imitating this action by introducing a
pointed pencil, and on drawing it back the disc was firmly
attached. While these discs are in their place a liquid keeps
their cement moist, but when they are removed it sets in a
few minutes, and causes the pollen masses to be firmly fixed to
the intruding body. ‘This is essential to the process of fertiliza-
tion, for if it slipped on one side or the other it would not come
into contact with tke right portion of the pistil of the flower to
which the insect paid its next visit. Nor would it succeed if it
preserved the upright attitude in which the adhesion took place.
Let the reader hold a finger upright, and suppose the pollen
mass attached to its tip, let him then curve the finger hori-
zontally—that is the position which the anther must atta. This
change is effected in about half a minute, by the contraction of
the adhesive disc. ‘Thus, while an insect flies from one flower
to another, this highly curious apparatus arranges itself exactly
in the right direction for its work. Now comes another in-
teresting adaptation, noticed long ago by Robert Brown. The
stigma or pistil head is very sticky, but not so tenacious as to
pull off all the pollen after a smgle contact. Its resistance to
an insect’s return snaps some of the threads by which the

* The stigma is the fleshy extremity of the pistil, and may be seated upon the
ovary, or elevated upon a stalk—the style,
VOL. I.—NO. V. DD

390 The Ways of the Orchids.

pollen grains are fastened, but it leaves others for another
flower to catch in turn. This description applies, especially
to O. maculata, and similar flowers, but it affords the key
to the process which takes place throughout the tribe. In
O. pyramidalis the viscid disc is single and saddle-shaped, and
the labellum, or lip leaf, is furnished with two ridges “‘ expand-
ing outwards like the mouth of a decoy,” and which will guide
any fine flexible body to the trap which the plant contains.
The proboscis of a moth, or a bristle, im an artificial experiment,
finds itself saddled with the adhesive disc, and Mr. Darwin
gives a drawing of the head of an Acantia luctuosa, to whose
proboscis seven pairs of pollinia are attached.

There is a highly mteresting question of orchid manners
not quite solved, although an explanation suggested by Darwin
appears likely to prove true. In many orchids no secreted nectar
has been discovered, and it was supposed that they were the
Jeremy Diddlers of the vegetable world, existmg by an “orga- .
nized system of deception.” Mr. Darwin chivalrously endea-
vours to rescue their morality from so odious a charge, which
likewise impuens the sagacity of countless generations of moths,
and, after sundry experiments, he arrived at the conclusion that
the insects have to bore through a delicate membrane to arrive
at the treasured sweets, and that this delay gives the adhesive
matter of the discs time to set. In five species he found the
honied bait within the nectaries, and im them the cement
solidified so quickly that the plant had no need to detain its
useful ouest.

In the genus Ophrys, important varieties of structure are
met with, and the motive of the insects for visiting the flowers
is not clear, but, nevertheless, their curious imtervention is
proved to take place. In another great tribe of British orchids,
the Neottece, a new set of difficulties, and special arrangements
to overcome them, appear. ‘Thus, in the Marsh Epispactis an
insect could enter without touching the rostellum, but when
once inside the labellum would spring up, and he would have
to back out, and place himself in the right positon for the
rostellum to fit him with a membranous cap, bearmg the pol-
len grains. Inthe Ladies’ Tresses, spiranthes autwmnalis, the
rostellum is “a long, thin, flat projection,” bearing in its
middle what Mr. Darwin terms the “ boat-formed disc.” The
touch of an insect’s proboscis, the vapour of chloroform, or a
natural change im the condition of the plant, splits a fine mem-
brane, and sets the apparatus free.

In three genera of British orchids, the Malawis, Listera,
and Neottea, ‘no portion of the exterior membrancus surface
of the rostellum is permanently attached to the pollimia.”
The first we shall pass over, but the second introduces us to

The Ways of the Orchids. 391

new wonders. The Listera ovata, or “ 'Tway-blade,”’ derives
its English and most expressive name, from the singular cleft
form of the labellum. In this tribe “the pollen grains are at-
tached together in the usual manner by a few elastic threads; but
the threads are weak, and large masses of pollen can be easily
broken off.” The rostellum, according to Dr. Hooker, is mter-
nally divided into a series of little chambers (loculi) which con-
tain and shoot out drops of viscid matter. It is, in fact, a
vegetable spring-gun, and the moment it is touched, off goes
. the sticky shot, carrying with it the pollen it catches in its way.
“* As the pointed tips of the loose pollinia,” says Dr. Darwin,
““lie on the crest of the rostellum, they are always caught by
the exploded drop. I have never once seen this fail. So rapid
is the explosion, and so viscid the fluid, that it is difficult to
touch the rostellum with a needle quickly enough not to catch
the pollinia already attached to the partially hardened drop.”
In two or three seconds the cement hardens, and the pollen
mass is securely fixed to the object which this vegetable artil-
lery has assailed.

We have thus given a very faint idea of the ways of the
British orchids. Of their splendid foreign relatives we must
not now speak, nor anticipate the delight which the student
will experience in reading Mr. Darwin’s book. Such themes
remind us of the beautiful picture given by Longfellow, in his
Liftveth Birthday of Agassiz, where, reverting to the infancy of
the great plulosopher, he makes “ Nature, the old nurse,” take
the child upon her knee—

Saying : “ Here is a story-book
Thy Father hath written for thee.

*‘ Come wander with me, she said,
Into regions yet untrod,
And read what is still unread
In the manuscript of God.

“ And he wandered away and away,
With Nature, the dear old nurse,
Who sang to him night and day
The rhymes of the Universe.

“ And whenever the way seemed long,
Or his heart began to fail,
She would sing a more wonderful song,
Or tell a more wonderful tale.”

These “wondrous tales” become more wonderful when
science endeavours to explain the enigmas which they present.
Most botanists would agree with Darwin in tracing the relation
which the various parts of the orchids bear to those of ordi-
nary plants. The science of homology, as he tells us, “ clears
away all mist from such terms as the scheme of nature, ideal

392 The Ways of the Orchids.

types, archetypal patterns, or ideas, etc. The naturalist, thus
guided, sees that all homologous parts or organs, however
much diversified, are modifications of one and the same ances-
tral organ: in tracing existing gradations he gains a clue in
tracing, as lar as that is possible, the probable course of a
modification during a long line of generations. He may feel
assured that, whether he follows embryological development, or
searches for the merest rudiments, or traces gradations be-
tween the most different beings, he is pursuing the same object
by different routes, and is tending towards the knowledge of
the actual progenitor of the group as it once grew and lived.”
Following Robert Brown, Mr. Darwin resolves the orchid ito
five simple parts, three sepals and two petals, and two com-
pounded parts, the column and the labellum. The latter he
considers as ‘formed of one petal and two petaloid stamens of
the outer whorl, likewise completely confluent.” Those who
deny the modification for which Darwin contends would explain
the agreements and correspondences which he traces, by a
theory of “‘types;” but he asks “ Can we, in truth, feel satis-
fied by sayme that each orchid was created exactly as we now
see it, on a certaim ideal type; that the omnipotent Creator,
having fixed on one plan for the whoie order, did not please to
depart from his plan ; that He, therefore, made the same organ
to perform divers functions—often of trifling importance com-
pared with their proper functions—converted other organs into
mere purposeless rudiments, and arranged all as if they had to
stand separate, and then made them cohere? It is not a more
simple and intelligible view that all orchids owe what they have
in common to descent from some monocotyledonous plant,
which, like so many other plants of the same division, possessed
fifteen organs arranged alternately, three within three in five
whorls, and that the now wonderfully changed structure of the
flower is due to along course of slow modifications—each modi-
fication having preserved that which was useful to each plant
during the incessant changes to which the organic and in-
organic world has been exposed.”

Thus speaks Mr. Darwin in defence of his ingenious scheme,
upon which we feel no call to pronounce sentence, because
the means of final decision do not as yet exist. To prove
inductively what really was the order of the universe in any
great group of facts, requires that we should have a complete
series of the facts before us, which in this case we have not.
To prove deductively the correctness of any hypothesis, demands
the previous establishment of the general laws from which the
particular phenomena spring, and this has not yet been done.
We are entitled to say to Mr. Darwin : we suspend decision with
more or less doubt against you, because, as you know, your

The Hairless Men of Australia. 393

proof is incomplete ; but we are not justified in demanding the
production of a particular kind of evidence, unless we can show
that it exists and might be obtained. We may, for example,
logically say, “If your theory be true, connecting links and
transition forms must have existed during the lapse of time,
and until you can prove that they did exist, we are not con-
vinced.”” But if we ask for so many connecting links within
certain limits of time or space, we are bound to show the pro-
bability of their having existed within those limits if ever they
existed at all.

Fortunately, itis not necessary that we should make positive
affirmations concerning things of which we know little, or
nothing at all; and if, speaking physically, science enlarges the
sphere of action assigned to secondary causes, our conception
of the First Cause becomes grander in proportion to the preci-
sion and complexity of the work which we see performed. If
the orchids be only modified descendants of a more ordinary
kind of plant, what a wonderful picture of powers, forces, and
relations is presented to our view. How inconceivable the Wis-
dom which established and guides the whole, and which secured
the occurrence of the most skilful and amazing changes of
parts and organs, precisely at the right time. If a little flower
moved a great poet to “ thoughts too deep for tears,” surely
the “ Ways of the Orchids,” may excite a reverential contem-
plation of Nature, far removed from the arrogant dogmatism
which prejudice and ignorance so readily beget.

THE HAIRLESS MEN OF AUSTRALIA,

Tue following curious account of the Bald men of the Balonne
is taken from the Sydney Empire, Feb. 19th, 1862, and as it
suggests very curious inquiries, both ethnological and physi-
ological, it 1s to be hoped that further information may be
obtained.

“Tt is now some few years since a report first obtaimed currency,
that, far in the Western interior, beyond the Balonne River, a tribe
of aboriginal natives existed who exhibited remarkable physical dis-
tinctions from those with whom explorers and other colonists have
so long been familiar. It was said that the natives in question were
entirely destitute of hair, even on the head, which was as bald as a
billiard ball. Other remarkable peculiarities were also mentioned,
but the absence of ocular proof led most people to doubt them, and
it was pretty generally believed that either the blacks alluded to
were merely suffering from some cutaneous disorder, or the tale was
one of those bush ‘ yarns’ which outlying settlers think it no harm
to hoax the townsman withal. Yesterday, however, we had an op-

394 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

portunity of ascertaining that all the statements were perfectly true.
Mr. M‘Kay, a gentleman just arrived from the Balonne River by
way of Rockampton, called at our office with one of these natives.
He is a young man, according to Mr. M‘Kay’s belief, only about
sixteen or seventeen years of age, but certainly looking much older..
His head is entirely destitute of hair, nor is there any trace of hir-
sute honours on his body. There was a black, ingrained appearance
on the scalp as if the roots of hair remained, but Mr. M‘Kay states
that this is merely the traces of a dirty cloth which he was in the
habit of wearing on his head. There needed not, however, this re-
markable destitution of hair to show that the mdividual before us
was the type of a‘race utterly differmg in physical peculiarities
from the ordinary aboriginals of Australia. The whole contour of
the face, form of the head, expression, colour of skin, and listless,
almost sullen attitude, at once suggested the Mongolian. His physi-
cal development is far inferior to that of the healthy aboriginal found
in other parts of Australia. The large, rapid eye, thick lips, broadly-
spread nose, and deep brown skin were all absent. The peculiarity
of the face was most evidently Chinese, and the eye confirmed this im-
pression. The skin of this interesting stranger is precisely of that deep
yellow-brown shade which might be expected in a descendant from
Chinese and aboriginal Australian parents. The party to whom he
belonged, for there is no clear reason for calling it a tribe, appeared
to inhabit the country to the north-westward of the Upper Warrego.
Mr. M‘Kay had not seen more than six or seven of them at various
times, one, at least, of whom was a woman, and one man was much
taller and more strongly proportioned than the specimen brought
to our office. The whole circumstances of the case render it ex-
tremely probable that these remarkable people are the descendants
of Chinese fisherman, who having, years ago, landed or been cast
away in the Gulf of Carpentaria, or on the Australian coast of the
Avafura Sea, have remained with the Australian aborigines, and
transmitted the physical peculiarities of their race to their de-
scendants.”

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

BY W. B. THGETMEIER.

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

ASCENT OF THE YANG-Tsn-KIANG.—Dr. Barton’s paper gave an
account of a journey made up this river. It was intended that the
exploration should continue as far as possible up the Yang-tse, and
should then traverse Thibet, cross the Himalaya range, and deseend
into the plains of Hindostan. The disturbed state of the country,
however, rendered the journey impossible beyond the town of Ping-
Shan. This town is situated on the Yang-tse-kiang, in the province

Proceedings of Learned Societies. O90

of Sze-chuen (hitherto known to Europeans only by the reports
of the Jesuit missionaries), and is 1800 miles above Shanghai.
Up to this expedition, only 900 miles of the river have been
known.

The paper gave a most interesting account of the river valley,
and described the mountainous country through which the river
flows in its upper and middle course to 360 miles above Han-kow.
It was shown how, by means of the tributaries of this river, water
communication is kept up between the ports at the mouth, and the
north-west provinces, Canton and Pekin. With the last mentioned
place, intercourse is carried on by means of the imperial canal,
which crosses the river at Ching-kiang-foo.

The alluvial soil of the river-valley above the Tong-ting lake,
produces wheat, beans, and millet in abundance. In its higher
course the river passes through deep gorges, where the bed is
narrow and the water very deep. In one of these, the H-chang
gorge, the cliffs rise abruptly above the river to a height of 500
teet. The mountaims are covered with oak, fir, and cedar trees.
The hill sides are subject to terrace cultivation, and for a long dis-
tance, about 200 miles, the principal objects of culture appeared to
be the poppy and tobacco. The sands of the river are washed for
gold, and coal and iron are worked to a considerable extent.

The lower part of the Yang-tse-kiang was in the bands of the
Taepings, and everywhere evidences were seen of the desolation and
utter ruin that they had brought along with them. The city of
Nankin, which had a population of 600,000, was reduced to about
2000 inhabitants. The town was in ruins, the far-famed Porcelain
Tower a heap of fragments, and the gardens and fields overgrown
with weeds.

Farther up the river, where the people were undisturbed, there
was a dense population, and all the evidences of Chinese industry.
But on reaching the province of Sze-chuen, the travellers found
another insurrection—totally unconnected with that of the Tae-pings
—which rendered it impossible for them to proceed, Almost at the
farthest pomt reached, the party were met by some native Chris-
tians, who welcomed them, and took them to their service in a
little chapel, meanly furnished. Tor this the excuse was made that
the rebels of Sze-chuen were unfavourable to the Christians.

The results of the journey may be summed up as follows: 1800
miles of the river had been ascended, that is, 900 miles farther than
any Huropean, except the Jesuit missionaries, had been; coal in
very large quantity had been found, enough to supply all steamers
that should be engaged in the navigation of the river ; the river had
been found to be navigable for small steamers up to the point
reached by the exploring party; the whole of the valley had been
found fertile, producing corn, tea, silk, and opium; and lastly, it
had been found that the province of Yunnan forms the right bank
of the river, and is not, as it has been represented on older maps,
about 100 miles to the south of it.

The imperial rule is by no means general in China. In the
east there is the rebellion of the Taepings; in the south there are

396 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

insurrections of the Mussulman population ; there is the rebellion
in Sze-chuen, and there are others in other provinces.

Consul Parkes said that the Taeping rebellion broke out in
1849 in the province of Kwang-si. Its effect had been to desolate all
the flourishing and populous provinces which had been overrun.
The rebels have no flotilla, and cannot hinder the navigation of the
Yang-tse-kiang. As a proof of the probable value of the future
commerce of that river, it was stated that from April to December
of last year, 152 foreign vessels passed up from Shanghai to Han-
kow, and 170 junks in foreign employ; and it was estimated that
trade to the extent of £10,000,000 sterling would be done there
during the present year. The probable causes of such wide-spread
insurrections are the pressure of population on production, the
absence of poor laws, and the inefficiency of the police. The
government tried to rule by moral suasion, but the people were
not obedient. The Chinese government is a stationary despotism,
with no vigour, and has been for 1200 years in entire isolation from
the rest of the world. Had it not been for the Tartar invasion 220
years ago, matters would have been worse. Now, the hope is that
intercourse with western nations will give life.

The Chinese were acquainted with the use of opium long before
the British took it to them, and they only prefer what is imported,
because it is better than what is home-grown.

The Jesuit missionaries have been very successful; but when
they were first established in China, in the sixteenth century, they
were high in court favour, which they did not lose till they con-
cerned themselves in political intrigues in 1720. At present it is
reckoned that there are 400,000 Roman catholics, 12 bishops, 80
missionaries, and 90 native priests. The missions cost 69,000
dollars a-year.

Up to the present time Protestant missionaries have laboured
under the disadvantage of being confined to districts within thirty
or forty miles of the ports. Now, however, they will be able to do
more ; and Dr. Lockhart’s medical mission at Pekin has been already
most successful. .

Tue Fir Istanps.—These islands are at present peculiarly
interesting from the fact that the chiefs wish to cede them to the
British, and that the question of their acceptance is now under con-
sideration. Dr. Bensusan’s paper gave an account of the group.
There are two large and many small islands, 180 in all. They are
of volcanic, or of coral formation. The larger islands are hilly, the
heights rising from 2000 to 4000 feet. The chief exports are cocoa-
nut oil, tripang, sent in large quantities to China, tortoise, and
pearl shell. The islands are well adapted to the growth of cotton,
and the produce of this plant has been as much as 800 lbs. to the
acre, which is more than the average of South Carolina and
Georgia. The harbours are extensive and numerous, and afford
good anchorage. The Fiji (or Viti Islands as they are more cor-
rectly called) would afford return cargoes for ships coming home
from Australia.

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 397

VaNcouver’s Isnanp anp Brivisa Conumpra.—Captain Mayne,
R.N., read a paper on a journey across Vancouver island, from the
New Saw Mill settlement, established at the head of the Alberni
Canal to Nanaimo, the coal depdt of the island. During this journey
many difficulties were encountered. At one place snow-covered
mountains obstructed the passage, but on the whole the country was
found good; and a road between these settlements would be highly
advantageous,to the colony. It was also stated that along the
courses of several rivers of the island there are large extents of land
fit for ploughing without needing previous clearmg. A paper on
British Columbia, by Mr. Kelly, was read. It gave a detailed
account of the mineral wealth, the extensive gold-fields, splendid
forests, and fertile land of this colony. The Fraser River 1s open
to vessels drawing from eighteen to twenty feet at all time of tides ;
and after the channels are buoyed and lighthouses erected, it will be
navigable as far up as Yale. The great obstacle at present to the
development of the wealth of British Columbia is the difficulty of
getting emigrants to it from England. Mr. Kelly proposed to make
the trade of this colony flow through British territory, vid the Ver-
milion Pass, Pembina, and the Grand Trunk Canadian Railway.
The Vermilion Pass will present little difficulty in road-making, the
grade being only 1 in 135. New Westminster might be reached
from Portland (Maine) in twenty-five days. Captain Mayne and
Dr. Ray both said that, at present, the route by the Rocky Moun-
tains was almost impracticable. The passes through the mountains
are much encumbered with wood ; and in crossing the prairie ground
between the Red River settlement and the Rocky Mountains, game
and buffalo are not abundant, and, indeed, not always to be found.
In speaking of the richness of the]Cariboo diggings, Captain Mayne
said that he had been told of three men, who, after one day’s work,
took out nearly 195 ounces of gold in nuggets of large size.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—May 13.

Gieantic Parr or AntLErs.—Mr. Louis Fraser exhibited a pair
of enormous antlers, the property of Lord Powerscourt, who for-
warded the following note respecting them :—“ This pair of horns
was bought for me by the Hon. Julian Fane, at Vienna, about six
weeks ago. The history he got with them was that they belonged
to a person who lived near Kronstsdt, in Transylvania, and they
were sold out of his Schloss (Palace) at his death, and bought
by a travelling merchant, who again sold them to a burgher of
Vienna, from whom Julian Fane bought them for me.—‘ PowrErs-
court.” The weight of this pair of antlers is 74lbs. The height
in a direct line four feet three inches, but following the curve of
the antler, five feet eight inches, the greatest width being five feet
five inches, and the number of points on which a cap can be hung,
the usual test as to what constitutes a point, is forty-five. These

398 Gleanings from the International Hxhibition.

appear to be the largest horns on record. The antlers shed by
the Wapite deer in the Zoological Society’s garden rarely reach half
the weight above stated.

MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY, May 14th.

Messrs. Surru, Beck, anp Beck, exhibited an instrument called
the ‘‘ Museum Microscope.” It consists of a large cylinder of brass,
resting on a cast-iron frame, and surmounted by a microscope
body. The great cylinder contains a series of small cylinders, each
carryimg numerous slides, exceeding five hundred in all. One slide
cylinder after another is brought under the microscope; and by
turning a milled head the objects are presented in succession—the
name of each being conspicuously shown. The microscope is fur-
nished with three powers, any one of which may be brought into
action by a simple mechanism. The instrument, which is only
adapted for transparent objects, presents great advantages for
public exhibitions, as its movements are easily understood, and there
is little chance of unskilful observers doing any harm to the objects
or the machinery.

Mr. Webb presented to the Society a slide containing the first
chapter of the Gospel of St. John, written by himself with a machine
of his own invention, in the 500th of an inch. Mr. Ross presented
a fine bust of his late father.

Dr. Leary read a paper on some new flukes. Mr. Smith de-
scribed his method of taking micro-stereographic drawings; and a
paper was communicated by Dr. Maddox on some living organisms
found in a nitrate of silver bath used for photographic purposes.
They appeared to be mites, bearing a strong resemblance to the
Acarus Crossit. From the circumstances detailed their appearance
could not be accounted for, nor was it at all clear what they could
find to live upon. The nitrate of silver was in the proportion of
forty grains to the ounce; a sheet of paper was usually laid over
the vessel and the cover pressed down.

GLEANINGS FROM THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION.

Tue duties of the writer of the following short paragraphsnecessitates
his careful examination of almost every article in the raw material
and scientific classes at the International Exhibition. He proposes
to utilize the advantages he possesses by bringing before the readers
of the InrEtiuctuaL OBSERVER a series of notes on those objects of
scientific interest that may be most worthy of notice, or that from
the magnitude of the collection might be liable to escape observation.

The present series is confined to the first four classes, those in-
cluding what are termed raw materials. All the objects alluded to
are contained in the eastern annexe or its approaches.

Atuminium Bronzz.—The applications of aluminium and alu-

Gleanings from the International Exhibition. 399

minium bronze to the purposes of ornamental art as well as to the
manufacture of objects of utility is strikingly exemplified in the
magnificent series of articles exhibited by Bell Brothers (18). One
of the strangest properties of this singular alloy of copper and
aluminium is that after being forged it is annealed by precisely the
reverse treatment to which iron is subjected, as it is heated to dull
redness and then plunged into cold water.

British Go~p anp SitvEr.—The value of the precious metals
that may be obtained from British sources is but beginning to be
appreciated. Cox of Derby (71), shows a mass of silver weighing
nearly 2000 ounces, obtained from lead ores, and the Vigra and
Clogau Mining Company (383), exhibit ingots of gold of 123 ounces,
showing the weekly yield obtained from these mines.

Tensite StrenerH or Iron.—At the end of the case of iron
manufactures from the Round Oak Iron Works of Lord Dudley
(332), is a piece of cold rolled plate, having a sectional area of one
square inch, that was tested at the government dockyards, and was
found to support the enormous strain of upwards of fifty tons
before it broke. This inch bar of iron would have supported a
greater weight than that of 700 persons. .

Sueer or Meran One Mine iw Leneru.—A sheet, or shaving of
cut lead, one mile in length, and having an area of nearly 300
square feet, is exhibited by Wilmhurst’s Patent Foil Company (410).
This is, perhaps, the longest sheet of metal ever manufactured.

Ram, One Huyprep anp SEVENTEEN Fenr in Leneru.—In the
open court adjoining the eastern annexe, may be seen a rail 117 feet
long, rolled by the Butterley Iron Company in one length.

Gicantic Massus or Roitimp and Forcep Iroy.—Among the
stupendous masses of iron exhibited may be mentioned the forged
double crank shaft, weighing twenty-five tons, and designed for
the engines of one of the new armour-plated vessels now build-
ing. Forged armour-plates are also shown more than six feet in
width, that can be manufactured of any thickness and almost of any
length required, and a rolled boiler plate 112 square feet is exhi-
bited.

AMORPHOUS PHOSPHORUS AND ITS PracricaL APPLICATIONS.—The
discovery that phosphorus is capable of existing in a condition
in which it is no longer spontaneously inflammable but capable of
being exposed to the air without change, or danger of ignition, is
turned to account by Bryant and May (488), who exhibit matches
which cannot be ignited by friction anywhere except on the pre-
pared surface of the box. The secret of the contrivance being that
the chlorate of potash compound, tipping the match, is destitute of
phosphorus, which in the amorphous form, is placed on the sand
paper, hence these matches are perfectly safe from accidental igni-
tion, and moreover are not poisonous.

PseupomorpHous Crystais.—Mineralogists are acquainted with
many substances which crystallize in forms that do not belong to
them, or are pseudomorphous ; the formation of these crystals is

400 Gleanings from the International Exhibition.

well illustrated by the soda manufactures shown in the building.
Gigantic and beautiful crystals of bicarbonate of soda are exhibited
having the exact form of the common carbonate when crystallized
with ten equivalents of water. They are produced by exposing the
latter to the action of carbonic acid, which is absorbed, and changes
the chemical constitution of the substance without affecting its
physical form, hence results one salt having the form proper to
another.

THALLIUM, THR LAST New Evement.—The last new element which
has been recently discovered, in extremely minute quantity, in some
ores of sulphur, by the aid of the spectroscope and process of spec-
trum analysis, is shown by its discoverer, Mr. Crookes; several of
its compounds are also exhibited. Thallium gives a single, bright
green line in the prismatic spectrum, hence its name from Thallus,
a green branch. :

Urination of Mixrp Corron anp Woonten Racs.—A very
ingenious method of utilizing a waste product has been devised by
Mr. Ward, and is illustrated by his specimens in case 618. The rags
of mixed cotton and wool such as the ordinary Orleans and barége
and many fancy Norwich goods, are submitted to the action of
superheated steam, which is of such a temperature as completely to
char and destroy the animal fibres without effecting the destruction
of the vegetable tissue, which can consequently be employed in
paper-making, the charred remains of the wool bemg useful as
manure.

ANILINE AND Coat Tar Dyrs.—The production of the valuable
dyes derived from coal tar is illustrated by a beautiful series of spe-
cimens showing the various stages of the manufacture, and a block of
solid aniline purple, or mauve, about one thousand pounds in yalue,
containing sufficient amount of colouring material to dye hundreds
of miles of silks (581). These beautiful specimens are exhibited by
Mr. Perkins, the discoverer of the colours. Splendid specimens of
crystallized rose aniline or magenta are shown by Messrs. Simpson
and Nicholson (600). This colour, which in the solid form is of a
lustrous metallic green, resembling the wing-cases of tropical
beetles, is crystallized around wires, arranged into large crowns.

New Process ror Preserving Uncooxep Mear.—Specimens
illustrative of Jones’s process of preserving of raw meat, as joints
of beef, fowls, salmon, etc., aro exhibited (795). The plan adopted
is to extract the atmospheric air by means of a vacuum, and then to
admit nitrogen or azote. This permeates the substance of the flesh,
and prevents the putrefactive changes which would otherwise
ensue.

Muutipte Trtucrarpah Caste.—The Gutta Percha Company
exhibit a specimen showing the perfection of their mechanism and
workmanship. It consists of a cable half an inch in diameter,
which contains forty-nine telegraphic wires, each perfectly and
separately insulated, and capable of conveying its own electric cur-
rent without influencing, or being influenced by, the currents passing
along the other wires.

Notes and Memoranda. 4.01

AvuEsive StrenctH or Gutuz.—The tensile strength of the
iron exhibited has been already noticed ; one of the makers of glue
shows a wooden bar having the same sectional area of one square
inch; when sawn across and united by glue, the joint resisted a
tensile strain of 504 lbs. before breaking, a remarkable contrast to
the 50 tons supported by the iron.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

THE CoMPANION oF Sirius.—It appears that Dr. Peters has reconsidered
this subject, and written to Cosmos to the effect that the newly-discovered star may
be that body whose existence was first conjectured by Bessel. Mr. Bond has pub-
lished in Sildiman’s Journal some additional particulars, and he states that Mr.
Safford having concluded his calculations, agrees with Dr. Peters in assigning fifty
years as the period of the revolution of Sirius. M. Chacornac estimates the light
of the companion star at one ten thousandth of that emitted by Sirius, and M.
Le Verrier calculates its bulk at a third or a fourth of that of the larger orb.

New Poxariscope Oxpsect.—Mr. Marston of Ludlow recommends a double
oxalate of chromium and potash. He dissolves in hot water one part bichromate
of potash, two binoxalate of potash, and two oxalic acid. A specimen he has
been kind enough to forward to us exhibits splendid effects, which are improved
by the selenite stage. He recommends viewing the crystals with a half-inch. We
succeeded well with a two-thirds.

Mr. Hinn’s Nesura Founp.—Messrs. Winnecke and Otto Struve saw this
curious variable body through the great instrument at Pultowa on the 22nd of
March. Its brilliancy is now little inferior to that of the comet of 1861, which
remains visible. On the 29th of last December the nebula was likewise seen at
Pultowa.

Insect DrstrovEr.—A weak solution of chloride of lime is said to preserve
plants from insects if sprinkled over them. Flies are also got rid of in stables
and other places by scattering chloride of lime on a plank. If the same sub-
stance is mixed with halfits weight of some fatty matter, and a narrow band of the
composition smeared round a tree, insects will not pass it.

THe Sinxworm Diszase.—The Archives des Sciences gives an account of an
important discovery of the nature of this obscure and mischievous complaint,
which, without changing the external appearance of the silkworms, destroys their
value by attacking their internal organization, and especially causing an atrophy of
the apparatus which secretes the silk. The microscope disclosed the supposed morbid
element in the shape of small bodies which M. Cornalia designated oscillating
corpuscles, and to which M. Guérin gave the inappropriate name of “ hema-
tozoids.” M. Lebert considered them unicellular plants, and Professor Chayannes
called them “crystals.” M. Cornalia announced, in confirmation of his view, that
when worms which died of the disease were exposed to moisture their bodies
were covered with a mould whose spores had a remarkable resemblance to the
* oscillating corpuscules.” But whatever be the real nature of these bodies, their
presence is a certain sign of the existence of the disease, and M. Vittadini has
made the curious discovery of their appearance in the egg. He tells us that, as
soon as the development of the embryo commences, its tissues in diseased speci-
mens are filled with the oscillating corpuscules. He has also ascertained that the
diseased eggs are developed more slowly than healthy ones, their complete evo-
lution requiring four or five days, and even more, instead of two or three. He,
therefore, recommends the destruction of all the backward progeny ; and, confirming
the observations of Marshal Vaillant, M. Quatrefages, and others, he advises the
culture of the worms in the open air. M. Chavannes states that if the eggs are
developed in the open air upon trees furnished with a metallic trellis, upon which
the process may take place, a complete regeneration of the race can be readily
effected.

402 Notes and Memoranda.

PuHoroeraPnic Hints.—M. Civiale has obtained fine impressions by employ-
ing a mixture of one part of wax and four of paraffine. Major Webster Gordon
employs equal parts of the iodide and bromide of cadmium in the preparation of
collodion for instantaneous photographs, which he developes by means of pyro-
gallic acid. M. Reynaud remarks, that when great sensitiyveness is required, the
collodion should contain but a very small quantity of free iodine. He also states
that bromide of silver is, in comparison with the iodide, more sensitive to the least
refrangible colours, red, yellow, etc. Bromides of ammonium ana cadmium pos-
sess this property in a still higher degree. Bromide of potassium communicates
to collodion a delicacy similar to that produced byitsiodide. For moist collodion
he employs three or four grammes of the bromide to twelve grammes of the iodide,
and one /tre of normal collodion.

New CHronoGRraPH.— Cosmos gives a brief account of an instrument invented
by Captain Schultz which is able to measure the duration of phenomena which
only last the five hundred thousandth of a second. It consists, first, of a drum,
about a metre in circumference, having its surface silvered and covered with lamp- ©
black before the experiment begins. A double motion gives this drum three turns
inasecond. Its next portion is a “ diapason”’ giving five hundred vibrations in
a second; its third portion is a point fixed on the “ diapason,”’ which traces a
sinuous curve on the drum ; and lastly, it has a small electrical apparatus which
marks by an induction spark, the beginning and the end of the phenomenon, which
is investigated. ‘‘ That which characterizes this instrument is the great length of
the mark on the cylinder which represents an infinitesimal duration ;” and it is
affirmed that it recently measured the time occupied by a projectile fired from a
rifle in traversing a few centimetres. Each centimetre is equal to 0°3937 of an inch.

Diatom Cysts.—Madame Liiders states the cysts enveloping certain speci-
mens of Coconema cistula, Gomphonema, etc., are not, as has been supposed,
vesicles formed by the diatoms, but Amcebe by whom they were: assailed.
She found that an Ameba occupied one or two hours in surrounding a group
of Synedra. This lady is also of opinion that observers have taken for spores
of diatoms small infusoria which are often developed in their interior.—Mohl
Botanische Zeitung, Bibliothéque Universel, Feb. 1862.

Lercurs.—Dr. Ebrard observes that an adult leech gorged with blood re-
quires nearly eighteen months in a state of captivity for the process of digestion.
Young and free specimens accomplish the same task in six weeks or two months.

PECULIAR GREENS.—In a recent paper on dyeing, read by Dr. Crace Calvert,
at the Society of Arts, he called attention to the curious fact that the greens pro-
duced by dyeing silks first with Prussian blue and then in an acidulated bath of
carboazotic or picric acid, appeared green in artificial light, while the greens ob-
tained with indigo and picric acid turned blue under the same conditions. He
also stated that the Chinese vegetable green Lokao, which M. Charwin has sue-
ceeded in obtaining from the European seed Rhamnus Catharticus, is the only
substance he was acquainted with capable with suitable reagents of producing
the seven colours of the spectrum.

IMPROVEMENT IN Ketp ManvracturEs.—Mr. Stanford dries the seaweed he
operates upon, and presses it into cakes, which he carbonizes at a low red heat in
iron retorts, collecting the volatile products, among which he finds ammonia, wood
spirit, and paraffine oil. By this process a considerable loss of iodine is prevented,
and a larger quantity of useful products obtained. He hopes that the masses
of weed thrown up on the south coast of England will in future be utilized, espe-
cially as the deep water weeds from the Atlantic are found to be the most valuable.

DEVELOPMENT oF CorAt.—In No. II. Intellectual Observer, p. 167, we gave
a short account of the investigations of M. de Lacaze Duthiers on the growth of
coral; we extract the following additional particulars from Comptes Rendus, 3rd
March, 1862. The embryos, which are vermiform, swim with their tails foremost
and mouths backwards, and after continually bumping against various objects,
they fix themselves, and give up a locomotive life. They are most disposed to
come into contact with other bodies when their elongation ceases, and they begin
to lose the worm-like form. In their process of growth they become shorter and

Notes and Memoranda. 4.03

broader, and then the slender extremity which carries the mouth recedes in the
centre of a circular disk or pad, from which the rudiments jof eight tentacles
speedily grow. In addition to multiplication by ova, the coral polyps increase by
budding, and thus build up their well-known reefs. The living coral is composed
of an axis, or central solid portion, and the external soft polypiferous layer, which
M. Duthiers tells us owes its colour to the multitude of spicules which it contains.
In tracing their growth it appears that, after exchanging the elongated worm shape
for the disk form, the young coral animals pass quickly from white to rose colour,
and then to a lively red, as the calcareous corpuscules are formed. They have as
yet no axis, and the solid portion is represented entirely by the corpuscules. The
little creatures are elegant objects with their expanded tentacles, although exceed-
ingly minute—a quarter or half a millimetre in diameter. They areat first single,
but bud freely, and as each bud repeats the same process, a large compound family
is soon produced. At first the solid particles are uniformly distributed through
the tissues, but after the budding they multiply in particular directions, and are
surrounded and united by a calcareous cement, and thus the axis is produced.
This mode of producing a polypary is not restricted to the individuals who com-
mence a colony, but takes place at the extremities of old branches, where juvenile
members always exist, and it always happens that towards the base of adult
branches the cement is deposited faster than the corpuscules (spicules), and in
regular concentric layers.

A Moprrn Cyctors.—Doctor Depaul lately exhibited to the Academy of
Medicine at Paris the body of an infant, which lived a short time. It had only
one eye in the centre of its forehead. The nose was wanting, and the mouth,
reduced to a small orifice. The mother of this monstrosity was twenty-three

_ years old, and had previously given birth to a properly-formed child.

VEGETABLE Ama@zBorp Bopres.—Dr. Hicks states he has verfied his observa-
tions on the Ameceboid state assumed by zoospores of Volvox Globator. He
also finds that when mosses are kept in water, the endoplast of the elongated cells
in their radicles is apt to become detached, and collect in ovoid masses, which
comport themselves like Amcebee. Watching some for several hours, he found the
whole exterior to become covered with minute cilia.— Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopic Science.

Dr. BuaLE oN THE TissvESs.—In summarizing his conclusions, Dr. Beale
regards every living structure as composed of matter formed and matter forming.
The latter he denotes as “ germinal;” a cell he describes as matter in these two
states. The “germinal matter’ sometimes corresponds with the ‘ nucleus,” in
others with the ‘‘ nucleus and cell contents,” in others to the matter lying between
the “cell wall, and the cell contents,’’ in others to “intercellular substance,” or to
the fluid or viscid material which separates cells, nuclei, or corpscules from each
other. Thus the nucleus of the frog’s blood corpuscle is “‘ germinal matter,” the
external red portion being “formed material.”"—Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopie Science.

A Porrasre Srypric.—The Moniteur des Sciences Médicales recommends
country surgeons and others to soak amadou or German tinder in a solution of .
perchloride of iron of a density about 1:250. It should then be dried in the sun
and be rubbed between the hands to restore its suppleness and porosity. Small
pieces applied to leech bites soon stop their bleeding. ‘They may be held in their
place by strips of plaister.

New Axtoys.—The cannons recently cast for the Austrian navy are composed
of copper 600 parts, zinc 382 parts, iron 18 parts. This alloy is reported to be
excessively tenacious, and easy to forge and drill. It is called after its inventor,
Aich metal. We also notice in Cosmos a description of an alloy of block tin 375
parts, nickel 55, regulus of antimony 50, and bismuth 20 parts, which M. Trabuc
of Nismes proposes as a substitute for silver, as it resists the action of vegetable
acids. It is prepared by placing in a crucible one third of the tin, together with
the nickel, antimony, and bismuth; over this is laid another third of the tin, and
above that a layer of charcoal. The crucible is then closed and brought to a red-
dish-white heat, and its contents examined with a red-hot rod of iron to ascertain

4.04, Notes and Memoranda.

if the nickel is melted and the antimony reduced. ‘The last portion of tinis then
made to pass through the charcoal, and the mixture well agitated.

Tut New Rortirer.—Professor Williamson, in calling the attention of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society to the Cephalosiphon Limmas,
described in the Intellectual Observer for February, noticed its possessing only one
calcar, whereas the floscularia, when furnished with them, have two, and he sug-
gested the importance of ascertaining whether two existed in the primary condi-
tion, and one was suppressed in the process of development.

CRYSTALLIZATIONS FOR POLARISCOPE.—Mr. Davies read a paper to the above
Society, showing how beautiful arborescent forms could be obtained by taking a
salt like the double sulphate of copper and magnesia, drying a portion on a glass
slide, fusing it in its water of crystallization, then allowing it to cool slowly.
Starting points for groups of crystals could be obtained by touching the film with
a fine needle.

THe Briguton Wetu.—After digging to the great depth of 1285 feet, water
was obtained on the 16th of March. It burst up suddenly with great violence,
and a loud report, through the lower green sand, which had been reached in the
excavation, and rose more than 800 feet in thirty-six hours. ;

‘Sir Jonn HERScHEL ON MeTEoRoLoGY.—In a letter to the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, Sir J. Herschel denies that he has abandoned
the Hadleian theory of winds. He is disposed to attribute the extraordinary
climatic features of the last two years to the great outbreak of solar spots in Sep-
tember 1859, which was associated with unprecedented magnetic disturbances.
This occurred as the sun was passing southwards across the equator, and Australia
experienced a summer of unusual heat. The quantity of vapour then thrown
into the atmosphere from the southern ocean does not appear to have been yet
got rid of.

Hom@opaTHic MEDICINES AND THE SPECTROSCOPE.—Dr. Ch. Ozanam states
in the British Journal of Homeopathy that a spectroscope by Steinheil enabled
him to recognize lithium in the fifth dilution of its chloruret, a drop containing

5 billionths of a milligramme. The milligramme is one thousandth of one ©

gramme, which is a minute fraction less than 154 grains. He detected sodium in a
drop of the 6th dilution of its chloruret, which weighed 3 centigrammes, and con-
tained three hundred billionths of a milligramme.

Marxines on Dratoms.—Professor O. N. Road, U.S., has published in
Silliman’s Journal (Jan. 1862) some fresh investigations on the much-disputed
question of diatom markings. He brings the microscope to a horizontal position,
removes the mirror, and places a lamp or candle in the axis of the instrument,
and not more than three inches from the stage. If a small sphere of glass is
then placed in the focus of the objective the inverted image of the lamp or can-
dle which it forms is seen in an erect position, and if a rod one-tenth of an
inch in diameter is moved up and down between the sphere of glass and the light,
its image is distinctly seen. ‘Upon replacing the sphere by a minute concave
lens, as an air-bubble in water, the reverse takes place; to gain distinct vision of
the flame, it becomes necessary to move the compound body within the focus:
the image of the flame appears inverted, and the motion of the rod seems reversed.”
Having thus noticed the different action of concave and convex lenses, he experi-
mented with the markings on Coscinodiscus, Triceratium, etc. When these objects
were mounted in water, which possesses a much smaller index of refraction than
the silica of which they are composed, and viewed with a power of 600 or 800
diameters, ‘‘ each hexagon was found to contain a minute distinct image of the flame,
the motion of the rod showed that the images were inverted, and consequently
formed by concave lenses. When mounted in Canada balsam, which has a higher
index of refraction than silica, the influence of the balsam predominates, and the
action of the lens is reversed, so that the markings behave like convex glasses,
Balsam of Tolu, with a still higher index of refraction, gives the same results.

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THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER,

JU LYGr SiG 25

MONEY AND MONEYERS.

BY JOSEPH NEWTON, OF H.M. MINT.

THERE are many conflicting accounts of the origin of money;
but all agree in giving to its introduction a very ancient date.
It is certain, however, that at the period of the Trojan war it
was not known to the Greeks. Neither Homer nor Hesiod
speaks of gold or silver. They, on the contrary, invariably ex-
press the value of things by stating that they are worth so
many sheep, or oxen; and they estimate a man’s wealth by the
extent of his flocks and herds. ‘The wealth of a country they
judged of by the abundance of its pastures. Homer values,
for example, the golden armour of Glaucus at one hundred
oxen, and the brazen armour of Diomedes at nine oxen.
Laertes purchased the beautiful slave, Huryclea, for one hun-
dred oxen. In the seventh book of the Iliad we read, that—

** Each in exchange proportioned treasures gave,
Some, brass or iron, some, an ox or slave.”

Tt is pretty certain too that no gold coms existed in Egypt
till the time of the Ptolemies. Lucan attributes the invention
of money to Itonus, King of Thessaly, and son of Deucalion,
the hero of the mythological deluge, and who was said to have
re-peopled the earth. Several other theories, all probably as
baseless, have been current as to the invention of money.
According to Herodotus, the first people who coined gold and
silver were the Lydians. It is tolerably clear that so far as
Persia is concerned, Darius, the son of Hystapses, was the first
monarch who coined gold in that country. The pieces of
money produced by him were named after him—“ Darics”—in
the same manner as the gold coins of Philip of Macedon, father
of Alexander the Great, were called “ Philips.” The Persian
coins had so little alloy in their composition, that they may
almost be said to be pure gold. One of them, im Lord Pem-
broke’s collection, weighed 129 grains, which, singularly enough,
was the standard weight of an Hnglish guinea. While Persia
VOL. I.—NO. VI. EE

406 Money and Moneyers.

maintained her independence, the Darics were in extensive
circulation; but after the Grecian conquest of the country it is
believed that they were almost entirely melted down, re-coined,
and re-issued with “ the image and superscription” of Alexander.

The silver coins of Aryandes, who was appointed a prefect

in Heypt by Cambyses, were of Persian mintage, and they, like
the Daric, had an indent on one side, and the effigy of an
archer on the other. The specimens of these silver coms in
England vary in weight from seventy-nine to eighty-one grains.
This discrepancy, no doubt, arose from the imperfect mode of
manufacture then pursued; and, indeed, as we shall probably
have occasion to show, it is next to impossible, even now, to
produce coins, in large quantities, of uniform weight. With
regard to the scriptural word “ talent,’ in reference to money,
it may be stated that Homer used it to signify a balance; and,
in general, in his days, it was applied either to a weight or a
sum of money—such sum differing in value with the country or
period in which it was used. Hvery talent consisted of sixty
mine, and every mina of one hundred drachme; but of course
the talent varied in weight with the mine or drachmee of which
they were composed. When Darius became sovereign of Persia _
he divided the kingdom into satrapies or provinces, each of
which was assessed at a fixed amount of tribute money. Those
provinces that paid in silver were compelled to adopt the talent
of Babylon for their standard, whilst those which paid in gold
adopted the Euboic standard. The Babylonian talent, accord-
ing to the showing of Herodotus, was equal to seventy Huboic
mine. The Euboic talent was so called from the island of
Eubcea. It is generally supposed to be identical with the
Attic talent, because Athens and Eubcea used the same stand-
ard of weight. The mina Euboica and the mina Attica con-
sisted each of one hundred drachmz. As represented by Eng-
lish money of the present day, the talent of Babylon was worth
£226, and that of Euboea, or the Attic talent, £193 15s.

It is well ascertained, however, that among the ancients
the relative proportionate value of gold and silver was subject to
considerable fluctuations. In the reign of Darius, for example,
gold was thirteen times as valuable, weight for weight, as silver.
In the time of Plato it was twelve times as valuable; in that of
Meander, the Ionic poet, it was only ten times the value; and
in the days of Julius Caesar gold was only nine times more
valuable than silver. The last named reduction was due, un-
doubtedly, to the enormous quantities of gold which Czsar
had “‘ appropriated” from the temples and public buildings in
the various cities he conquered.

The word “ Money” is derived from Moneta, which, again,
came from the verb Monere, to advise. The Anglo-Saxon

Money and Moneyers. 407

word Monige, the German Muntz, the French Monnoie, the
Ttalian Moneta, and the Spanish Moneda, are palpably all trace-
able to the same Latin root from which comes the English word
money. When Britain became subject to the Romans, no
coined money was lawful unless it bore the effigies of Ceesar :
it was called tribute-money. This tribute-money was not only
impressed with the effigy of the emperor, but with certain in-
scriptions indicating rent money, represented by symbolic coins.
Thus, for large cattle, the tribute-money was stamped with the
fioure of a horse ; for less, with that of a hog; for corn-fields,
with an ear of corn ; and for a poll-tax, with the head of a man.
The coins of the British prince Cunobeline were not only im-
pressed with the figures of animals, but with the word tascio,
which signified task, tax, or tribute. Without venturmg further
into the history of money, generally, we may at once come to
its history, so far as England is concerned, and give some
account of those who have been entrusted from time to time
with its literal production. It is established, then, on the most
conclusive bases, that in the earliest periods at which coins, or
records of coining, exist in this country, mints were established
in every large town. From about the close of the ninth to
the middle of the sixteenth century, the practice prevailed of
stamping on coins the name of the town or city at which it was
minted. Thus, therefore, we possess evidence of the existence
of numerous mints. In early periods, moreover, several persons
as the king, certain archbishops, bishops, abbots, and others,
exercised by royal prerogative, by usurpation, or by grant, the
privilege of minting in the same place at the same time. Pre-.
vious to the union of the seven or eight Saxon kingdoms, each
of the petty kings, and several archbishops and bishops, appear
to have exercised the right of coming independently, and to
have put their own effigies and devices on the coi produced.
After the transformation, however, of the heptarchy into one
monarchy, Athelstan, who reigned a.p. 920-940, at a grand
council or parliament, ordained that there should in future be
but “one money” throughout the kingdom. ‘This expression
undoubtediy meant that there should be but one authority,
efigy, and device—namely, those of the monarch himself—
attached to, or ornamenting the comage of the realm. At the
same time that Athelstan and subsequent monarchs denied to
their subjects the right of minting independently, they conceded
to some of them the privilege of minting vicariously, as grantees
of the crown. Accordingly, we find that royal, episcopal, and
abbatical mints were in being, and in full operation long after
Athelstan’s “ order in council.”

For instance, it is on authentic record, that that monarch,
the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Abbot of St. Augus-

408 Money and Moneyers.

tine’s were all engaged in coining in the City of Canterbury at
the same time, and under royal ordinances. At the time,
of the compilation of Domesday Book, and long subsequently, the
king and the respective bishops of Norwich, Hereford, etc.,
minted at the same time in those cities, and this practice of
coining, by prelates and other favourite subjects did not cease
and determine until the middle of the sixteenth century. It
further appears probable that in the same early times the king,
archbishop, or abbot had several distinct mints in the same
city at the same time. In Athelstan’s Mint Ordinance, in the
Anglo-Saxon Records, and in Domesday Book it is particularly
notified, in almost every instance, how many minters, or
monetari there shall be in each place, or under each person
privileged to mint. For instance, Athelstan’s chief ordinance
runs that at Canterbury there shall be seven minters, four for
the king, two for the archbishop, and one for the abbot, and
so on for other places. Now, that each minter had his own |
die, which, with a hammer, a pair of shears, and a balance,

constituted the apparatus of a mint, is very nearly demon-

strated by a variety of writs and records in which the monetarii

and cunell, or dies, agree in number. The connection between
monetarius and cuneus is rendered still more obvious by notic-

ing that, soon after the date of Domesday Book, the custom

of specifying the number of monetarii in any place was super-

seded by specifying only the number of cuneii.

That the privilege of having one die did not involve the
right of haying another, is also tolerably certain. ‘Those who
were permitted to com pence were not justified in coming
halfpence, and vice versd. Enough has been said, probably, to
prove the fact that mints existed at the periods of which we
speak in various towns, and that frequently there were two or
three mints in the same town. In all these the monetarii were
held responsible for the character of the com produced at their
particular mints, and heavy and peculiar punishments were
awarded to those who ventured to abuse their trust, and debase
the coinage.

Coming to a much later period, that of King Edward VI.,
we find in one of his letters-patent, that he and his father had
“erected, as well within our ower of London as within divers
other places of our realmes of England and Ireland, sundry
myntes to be employed, and ordered in such sorte and forme
as 18 contained in certain several indentures.” On the 10th of
October, 1550, the same king in his journal, now extant in the
British Museum, speaks of ‘ York, Master of one of the
myntes in the Tower ;” and on the 21st of September, 1551,
speaks not only of “ York’s mint,”’ but also of “ Throgmorton’s
mynte in the Tower.” Again, in the year 1553, we find that

Money and Moneyers. 409

a commission was issued by Philip and Mary to Sir Hdmond
Pakham, High Treasurer of oure Myntes within oure Tower of
London.” During the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward
VI., while there were certainly two or three mints in the Tower
there were two others without that fortress. One of these was
“in the Manor of Suffolk House, in the Borough of South-
wark,’” and another “in Duresme Place in the suburbs of
London.” The site of the first has since attained, and, toa
certain extent, maintains an unenviable character, while that
of the second is occupied by Durham Street, Strand.

Hach of these distinct mints appears to have been presided
over, and worked, by a single officer with workmen under him,
and these were the monetarii before alluded to. From the
seventh to the thirteenth century, as the coins of the inter-
vening time abundantly testify, the practice prevailed of
stamping on each coin the name of the minter, above the name,
or emblem, of the place of mintage. Little, however, 1s actually
known of the minters, or monetarii, except that m the Anglo-
Saxon and Anglo-Norman laws and ordinances they were the
only persons from whom penalties were exacted for debasement
of the comage. The position of these money makers in society
has been much discussed, but it is pretty plain that they were
servants or attendants of the king or prelate, who accompanied
their master, and struck money for his use when required so
to do. They were certainly in close dependance on the king,
had houses or apartments rent free while at work for him, and
were obliged to get their dies from the Crown Die Office.

A.D. 1132-1135 seems to have been the epoch of a
systematic identification of the Mint with the Exchange, in the
persons of their respective officers, the minter and the ex-
changer—the latter being the person appointed to: exercise
the prerogative monopoly of “ exchanging,” that is, of bullion,
and coin dealing, and broking. The writ of the same date is
further worthy of remark, from the fact that it implied that
the whole country had been mapped out into comitatus—coun-
ties or districts—to each of which its own minter, or mint and
exchange had been assigned.

This was the epoch also of the first step towards a con-
solidation of the exchanges and mints, namely, of the con-
solidation of their accounts, so far as the profits of the Royal
Seignorage were concerned, by the appointment of a single
accounting officer, known as the keeper or warden. It
appears to have been the earliest date of the triple or-
ganization of the Mint—two other departments now being
named as checks upon the master. One of them was repre-
sented by the warden, and the custos cuneorum, or keeper of
the dies, and the other by the king’s assayer and the “trial

410 Money and Moneyers.

of the pyx,” on behalf of the king and the public. With
reference to the original institution of the trial of the pyx,
which ceremony is still occasionally performed, and is too
well understood to need explanation here; it 1s only necessary
to say that Ruding, a very good authority, datés it in the reion
of Henry IT., a.p. 1154-1189. In the year 1208, we find in a
royal writ the name of operatores, or operarii monete, or
workers in the Mint, introduced for the first time. From this
time forward, indeed, the Mint which had previously consisted
of but one operative department consisted of two, superin-
tended respectively by the operarii, and the monetaril. Most

probably the imtroduction of mechanical improvements in the

art of coining, and possibly the increasing demand for coin, led
to those changes, and gave rise to the term operari, which

might consistently be supposed to include all the labourers in the

establishment:

The year 1279 is a remarkable one in the annalg of British
minting, for in that year the mints throughout England were
consolidated in their operative departments, and placed under
one mint-master. This officer, singular to say, was a French-
man, and his name was William de Turnemire. He was sent
for from Marseilles, and constituted Magister Moneto Regis in
Anglia, or Royal Mint-master throughout England. Itis some-
what remarkable that from this period the practice of stamp-
ing the name of the minter on the coin ceased, and it was never
again resorted to. The mint agreement between the king and
Turnemire refers almost exclusively to operative matters. It
is preserved in the Red Book of the Hxchequer, and we give
some of its rather quaint and curious enactments. It appears
that Turnemire was to cause the money to be made in four
places ‘‘ for the present,” viz. London, Canterbury, Bristol, and
York. In each of the three latter places he was to have under
him a magister, to have the custody of the mmt and money
there. He was to bear all burdens and expenses in the said
four places, and to provide for the wages of the monetarii, for
the loss of silver by fire, sizing of the coins, as also for the
wages and expenses of himself, of the deputy masters under
him, and to provide his other servants with meat, drink, and
dress. He was to pay for charcoal, repair of dies, and other
expenses about the money. The king, however, was to pro-
vide convenient houses, to satisfy the cuneator or hereditary
die-engrayver, for his fees, and T'urnemire was then bound to
deliver the coin to the king of right standard, blanched and
perfect in all respects, and he was to receive from his majesty
in return, sevenpence on every pound weight of sterlings—
namely, 34d. for the wages of the “ Monetariorum percutientium
et fabricantium monetam,” 14d. for adjusting and sizing the

*

Money and Moneyers. All

coins, and 1d. for wages, expenses, diet, etc. For the striking
of farthings, which from their small size involved more labour
in their manufacture, 'Turnemire was to receive 103d. per pound
weight. ‘The mints under Turnemire’s management were
worked satisfactorily, and his system prevailed for many
years. In 1281 the check upon various offices of the mints
was increased, and a comptroller appointed.

Henry VII., it may be stated, was the monarch who origi-
nated our present coinage or currency. In the year 1489 he
ordered the striking of a new money, of double the value of a
royal noble, to be called a sovereign, and to pass current for
twenty shillings. In 1594 he also first authorised the strik-
ine of shillings and half shillmes, m addition to groats and
half groats. By the statute of the same year he appears to
have given the present form to our coins, by ordaiming that
every piece of his new money should have ‘‘a circle about the
‘utter’ part thereof; and also that all manner of gold coms
thereafter to be coined, should have the whole scripture about
every piece of the same gold, without lacking of any part
thereof; to the intent that lis subjects might have perfect
knowledge by that circle and scripture when the said coms
might be clipped and impaired.”

He also appears to have revised the custom of placing nu-
merals on the coins after the name of the monarch, to dis-
tinguish those struck by different monarchs of the same name—
a custom which had been disused from the time cf Henry III.
(A.D. 1272), until his own (a.pD. 1485), which now renders it
extremely difficult to appropriate with accuracy the coins of the
intermediate kings.

Unquestionably, however, the most important change made
in connection with the Mint, between the years 1344 and
1509, consisted in the gradual rise of the joint authority of the
warden, master, and comptroller, or virtual Mint Board, and
in the gradual transference into their hands jointly of great
part of the several supervising responsibilities of the warden,
and comptroller, and of some part of the active management of
the master. Into the causes and motives of these changes it is
not necessary here to go. It will be sufficient for our purposes
merely to record them.

The Mint indenture of the year 1350 is remarkable as being
the first on record which specifies that the mint-master shall be
master and worker ‘in the Tower.” It obviously, however,
contemplates his minting in several places, as the king engages
to appoint wardens in each place where he shall mint. In the
indenture of 1356 the wider title occurs of master and worker
in the Tower of London “ eé aillowrs parmie Hngleterre;” in
that of 1395, in the Tower and at Calais, in that of 1422, in the

412, Money and Moneyers.

Tower, at York, Bristol, and Calais; im that of 1464,
in the Tower, in the realm of England, in the territory
of Ireland, and in the town of Calais; while in that of 1483 the
mint-master becomes ‘‘ master and worker in London, and else-
where within the realm of England,” and this has continued to
be the usual style of the mint-master down to this hour. Other
alterations in the system of government took place during the
165 years in question, but they were of minor importance, and
need not be specified more exactly.

Between the years 1509 and 1544, some remarkable innova-
tions on the purity of the comage took place, and they are by
no means creditable to the memory of Henry VIII. That
monarch indeed departed from the wise mint policy of Henry
VII., and debased the silver currency until it contamed only
one-third, or even one-fourth of precious metal, to two-thirds, or
three-fourths alloy. The evils, confusion, and counterfeiting
to which such a degradation of the coinage gave rise may be
imagined, and indeed it took twenty-six or twenty-seven years to
remedy the mischief done in this direction by Henry VIII.

An instance of the attempts made to rectify the then dis-
ordered state of the Mint may be found in the letters-patent of
the year 1551 (temp. Edward VI.), reciting “ Forasmuch as it
it has come to our knowledge and to the knowledge of our
Counsail, that there be divers and many things practysed and
used within our Myntes, and by our officers and ministers in
our said Myntes, necessarye for our honour and _ profit
of our realms and dominions, to be reformed, altered, and
changed.” To effect these reforms the Harl of Warwick,
High Admiral of England, and Sir William Herbert, Master of
the Horses are by the same letters-patent nominated ‘‘ Chief
Commissioners, Surveyors, Controllers, and Overseers of all
officers and ministers within our said Myntes, and of all
rules, statutes, and ordinances heretofore had or made con-
concerning the same.” ‘These newly appointed officers set
themselves to work in earnest, and much good came of their
labours. Another and similar commission was appointed in
1559, to inquire into the state of the Mint, and devise what
standards, officers and ministers, ordinances, profits, ete., might
advantageously be continued, or abolished, or adopted.

One material feature of change resulting from these com-
missions of inquiry, was the defining more accurately the con-
stitution of the Mint. ‘his was done in an instrument called
the “‘ Establishment of the Mint,” and specifying the officers of
the Mint, their duties, responsibilities, and salaries. Several
of these documents were subsequently issued, with various
modifications—one, for instance, in the reign of Queen Mary,
and another in that of Queen Elizabeth. The “ Establishment”

Money and Moneyers. 413

_ of the last-named monarch is the only one now known to be in
existence, and it is of an elaborate, minute, and curious cha-
racter; it is entitled “The Hstablishment of the Courte and
Office of the Quenes Highnes Mynte within the Towre of Lon-
don, made the 6th day of December, in the thirde yere of our
Soveraigne Lady Quene Hlizabeth,” and did space allow we
should certainly quote from it at some length. As a specimen
of its phraseology and orthography, we give the following :—
*“Ttem, the Quenes Highnes is pleased that the under-treasurer,
comptroller, and assay-master, for the more perfecte and sure
domge of all her Highnes affayers in the sayde Mynte, shall
appointe these inferior offycers hereafter specifyed, so that they
be skylfull: that is to saye, one clerke, to make the dayly
indentures and other wrytyngs betwyxt the sayde under-
treasorer, comptroller, assay-master, and moneyers, and he to
have for his wages £10: Item, one syncker, to syncke the irons
(dies), and to have for his yerlye fee £20.” In this quaint
fashion the whole document is couched, and it defines very
closely the duties and emoluments of all employed in “ ye
sayde Mynte.”

Before passing forward from the period included between
the years 1544-71, it would be unjust to omit mentioning the
following convenient Mint arrangements of Queen Mary’s.
Queen Mary, in reforming the currency, which she commenced
doing within two months of her accession, did not restore
exactly the old standard from which Henry VIII. had so dis-
gracefully deviated, and which consisted of 11 oz. 2 dwt. of
fine silver to 18 dwt. of alloy, but instituted a new standard of
Il oz. fine to 1 oz. of alloy. Had this excellent plan been
allowed to continue, we should now have had in Great Britain,
as in British India, a uniform alloy in both silver and gold
coinages, namely, 11 parts fine to | of alloy. Queen Hlizabeth
unfortunately undid these regulations, and reverted to the old
standard, and hence has arisen the difficulty of comparing the
relative values of gold and silver.

So much has been said against Queen Mary, that it is a
satisfaction to have something to say in her majesty’s favour,
and this we can conscientiously do in reference to the coinage.
Queen Mary ordered that the pound weight of silver should be
coined into sixty shillings, whereby every crown weighed pre-
cisely an ounce, and every subordinate coin became an aliquot
part of a pound, or an ounce. Elizabeth, by debasing the silver
currency to sixty-two shillings m the pound, destroyed this
convenient arrangement. In restoring the old standard of
gold again, Queen Mary cut the pound weight into £36, so
that three sovereigns, weighed an ounce. In her reign too
the complete consolidation of the Royal Mints was first effected,

414, Money and Moneyers.

and the whole of her money was consequently struck in the
Tower of London.

In the year 1571 many alterations as regarded the working
staff were contemplated, and even proposed in the Mint, but as
they did not take place it is unnecessary to define them. In
respect of the apparatus, mechanical and otherwise, it may be
said that up to the year 1561 it was of the most primitive
nature. ‘The hammer was the stamping-press, and shears,
scales, and files the principal accessories. In the year just
named the ‘‘ mill and screw” system of coining was introduced
by a Frenchman, who unfortunately adopted the same plan of
money making for his own private behoof, and was, it is said,
hanged at ''yburn in consequence. It is pretty clear that “mill
and screw” did not supersede “hammer and tongs” coming
for many years after the date named by Ruding for the in-
troduction of the former. Mr. Joseph Burnley Hume—to
whose indefatigable exertions while secretary of a recent Royal
Mint Commission we are indebted for much historical matter
contained in this paper—is of opinion that the Company of
Moneyers was first formed between 1561 and 1578, though
he cannot specify the exact date. Prior to that period they
were only, he thinks, ordinary workmen; and in support of his
view, 2. ¢. as to the formation of the ‘‘ Company,” he adduces
the fact that the most ancient document extant m reference to
that body bears date 1578. Certain it is that from this time
forward to 1851, the Company of Moneyers contracted with
successive governments for the coming of the monies of the
realm, and that they kept up the succession in their own body
by the reception of apprentices, for whose admittance among
them they received heavy premiums. ‘Thus much in passing.
We shall have hereafter to refer to the Company, and so for
the present, we leave them in order to trace the annals of coining
—the physical history, so to speak, of money in England.

By the year 1583 the Mint had passed into a state of con-
siderable internal disorganization, and its expenses had mate-
rially increased. One individual—Sir Richard Martin—had
obtained a kind of monopoly in the establishment. He was
indeed a “ pluralist,” and drew the salaries for three or four
offices, besides being ‘‘ Goldsmith and Platesmith to the Queen.”
Another series of ttle reforms ensued, and then matters re-
mained in statw quo till 1626, when a considerable departure
from the constitution of the Mint took place. The power of
the moneyers was much increased by the change, and they
became practically mint-masters, though nominally subservient
to the chief officer. No grounds appear to exist for this altera-
tion, except the desire on the part of Charles I. to appropriate
to himself profits which had previously been allowed to the

Money and Moneyers. 415

master and worker. Charles, in fact, farmed out—nominally
on a sub-contract with the mint-master—the moneying process
to the moneyers, thereby creating an inyperiwn in imperio which
paved the way for the introduction into the Mint system of
many anomalies and incongruities. From the year 1626, there-
fore, may be traced the rise and influence of the Company of
Moneyers, which influence culminated, and was overthrown in
the reign of Queen Victoria.

Previous to this time almost the only notices respecting
them which occur in legal documents have reference to their
bemg impressed or imported from beyond seas, or being in
poverty or distress. The power thus placed in their hands by
the unfortunate monarch was used in successfully obstructing,
for some thirty years subsequently, the introduction of improved
machinery into the mint. On the 11th of February, 1629, for
example, a royal warrant was issued authorising Nicholas Briot,
the eminent mint engraver, to make trial in the Tower, of his
new mills and presses for coimmg, but up to the year 1631, as
appears from a petition of Briot, this trial was never permitted.
The moneyers, in fact, disapproved the experiment, and pre-
vented its being made. Similarly, m 1649, “The Council of
State and the Commons in Parliament, having had it repre-
sented to them that the coins of the realm might be more
perfectly and beautifully done, it was ordaimed, that Peter
Blondeau should be sent for from Paris to come to London to
treat for the price and expense of coming money after his new
invention.” Blondeau arrived in London in September of that
year, but though the committee of the Mint was appointed to
examine his new way of- coming, and reported favourably upon
it, the opposition of the moneyers was so powerful that a con-
siderable time elapsed before he could proceed to realize his
_ plans. He was at last permitted to execute some proof pieces,
whereupon the moneyers exhibited against Blondeau a charge
of treason, for coming in a private house! Under pressure of
this he was driven out of the kingdom. The introduction of
improved machinery into the mint was thus vexatiously delayed
until 1662, when Blondeau was again sent for—the office of
engineer, with a salary of £100, was created for him, and profit-
able rates were assigned him under a twenty-one years’ patent.
: Before passing finally from these times, it may be well to

state that it was the period when the British coinage attaimed
its greatest beauty and perfection. In 1628, Nicholas Briot,
and in 1649, Thomas Simon, his pupil, were respectively ap-
pointed engravers to the mint, in which position the latter,
indeed, remained till after the Restoration ; and it is a striking
fact that, notwithstanding the introduction latterly of machinery
of the most elaborate and ingenious kind, scarcely an approach

416 Money and Moneyers.

has been made to the excellence of the coms then executed.
When it is remembered too that the inferiority of the comage
is one of the main inducements to counterfeiting this fact
becomes sufficiently eloquent. As a proof of the admirable
talent of Thomas Simon as an engraver, we refer to the illus-
tration forming the frontispiece of the present number of the
TNTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, which is a faithful copy of his cele-
brated petition crown. The history of this is too well known
to require repetition. As it would be an invidious act to depict
only the work of an engraver of times long past, it has been
considered proper to introduce also a facsimile of the scarcely
less remarkable work of the late Wilham Wyon—the Victoria
crown piece. This arrangement may appear inconsistent with
the chronological order of our narrative, but it certainly is
not obnoxious to a charge of injustice towards the memory of
Wyon.

Once the moneyers were compelled to submit to the mtro-
duction of Blondeau’s machinery, they set about making the
best bargain they could respecting it, and a new contract was
arranged between them and the mint-master. They were
taught and instructed in their new duties by Blondeau, and
undertook to perform all the operations of minting, from the
stage of the standard wrought bar downwards; to provide all
materials and necessaries; to defray all waste of working, all
repairs of machinery, etc. ‘They also agreed to maintain the
horses for workmg the horse mills, to find alum, argol, and
sawdust; “to keep in repair the ovens and utensils for nealing
and blanching, and to make good the balances, tubs, bowls,
and sacks.” Thus things went on till the year 1666, when a
new Coinage Act was passed which altered completely the
financial arrangements of the Mint. It also interfered materi-
ally with the constitution of the establishment, and Ruding, no
mean authority, says, that the act was “‘most fatal to the
interests of the mint.”

Between the years 1695 and 1697, a great re-comage into
milled money, of all the clipped and defaced hammered silver
money of the country took place; and on April 6, 1697, a commit-
tee of the House of Commons, appointed to inquire into the
“* Miscarriages of the officers of the Mint,” made its report. This
report is of a most interesting character, and throws great light
upon the internal economy of the money manufactory as it ex-
isted at that time. It is, unfortunately, of too great length for
transcription here. We may, however, mention that Dr. (after-
wards Sir) Isaac Newton, who was then warden of the mint,
figures in the report as a witness examined by the committee.
A number of stringent resolutions were passed by the commit-
tee, who also proposed to bring in a bill for the prevention of

EDGE INSCRIPTION.

KGNI # UNDECIMO * DECUS * RD» TUTAMEN.

ANNO * ik N

Money and Moneyers. 417

sundry malpractices which they had discovered to exist in the
Mint. It does not appear, however, that any bill was brought
in, or that any material alteration or improvement followed the
presentation of the report.

In 1706 the following change took place in reference to
the Corporation of Moneyers, as they loved to style them-
selves. They were allotted certain small salaries when the
coinage in one year did not reach a certain amount. Hitherto,
they had not been considered to be in the position of “ stand-
ing officers’ of the Mint, but more in that of workmen re-
celving piece wages when at work. ‘The history of this altera-
tion, which remained in force up to the period of the dissolution
of the Company, may be briefly given:—The “ Corporation,”
in 1693, had petitioned the Treasury to the effect, “ that by
reason of the work falling off so much of late years, they had
become pocr and so much in debt, that they must be ruined
without some consideration were had for them.” Again, in the
reion of Queen Anne a similar claim was presented; and at
length a Treasury order awarded the moneyers £25 each |per
annum when the comage in any one year should not reach the
value of £500,000. Afterwards, in 1743, this allowance was
increased to £40 per annum, under like condivions.

Probably the most important change made during the
eighteenth century in the practical management of the Mint,
was the total cessation of the mint-master’s practical functions,
and his gradual transition from a permanent practical head-
officer, having personal knowledge of the process of minting,
to a salaried officer of rank, having frequently no knowledge
whatever of the process of minting, and quitting his office with
every change of ministry. This absurd and mischievous system
remained in force till 1848, when the Russell ministry abolished
it by the appointment, for life, of Sir John Herschel. The re-
coinage of the gold currency of the kingdom, in 1774, effected
a considerable improvement in the status of the Company of
Moneyers. The number of persons comprising it had been
reduced at the instance of the Government, when awarding
them subsistence-money; and the consequence of the re-
coinage of gold was, that large profits were shared by compara-
tively few persons. They were thus raised to affluence, and the
tone of their communications varied avcordingly. In 1780 an
attempt was made to abolish the Mint altogether, and to place
the coiage in the hands of the directors of the Bank. ‘This,
in fact, was the avowed intention of Mr. Burke’s famous bill
for economical reform. It set forth “ that the Mint is expensive,
and that the comage ought to be none or little expense to the
nation; therefore, itis enacted, that the office of the Mint shall
be abolished.” There were clauses for paying salaries to the

418 Money and Moneyers.

present officers of the Mint who should be removed; it was
proposed too that the Treasury should contract with the Bank
for coimage, and that the Bank should undertake the remittance
of all money for foreign parts. It is needless to say that this
bill never became part of the law of the land; and that the
Mint, with all its faults and shortcomings, remained unscathed
by Mr. Burke’s onslaught.

In 1806, and some years after the pressure upon the Royal
Mint had necessitated the employment of contractors to sup-
plement its exertions by the production of large quantities of
copper coin, the erection of the present noble institution on
Tower Hill for the manufacture of com was commenced. It
was fitted with powerful machinery, made principally by Messrs.
Rennie, and Messrs. Boulton and Watt; and in 1810 the first
coinage—one of copper—took place thereat. The years 1815,
1816, and 1817, witnessed considerable changes im the Mint
organization and constitution. One of the principal of these
was that the master or his deputy, the king’s assayer, the
comptroller, the king’s clerk, and the superintendent of ma-
chinery—a new officer appointed to have charge of the steam-
engines and machinery recently erected—were constituted a
Mint Board, for the management of the affairs of the Mint.
Another was, that the moneyer’s rates, which had previously
’ been fixed and mentioned in and by the indenture, were left to
form the subject of a separate agreement, terminable at three
months’ notice, between the mint-master and the moneyers.
In 1815 a statute was passed to provide for the new silver
commage then undertaken, and this contained many important
enactments, which space unfortunately forbids further reference
to. In 1817 the ancient office of warden was abolished, and
the duties, powers, and authorities pertaining to it were trans-
ferred to the master and worker. In 1837 a Select Committee
of the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the
establishment of the Mint, and much important information was
elicited by it. The death of King William IV., and the sub-
sequent dissolution of Parliament, prevented any action being
taken upon the report of that committee; and until the year
1848 the imperium in imperio of the Corporation of Moneyers
remained unquestioned, or at least, undisturbed. The end of
their long reign, however, was approaching. In the last-named
year a Royal Commission was appointed for the purpose of “‘in-
quiring into and reporting upon the constitution, management,
and expense of our Royal Mint.” This commission was com-
posed of Richard Lalor Sheil, master and worker of the Mint,
William Cotton, Esq., Sir Edward Pine Coffin, and Colonel
William Nairn Forbes; and Mr. Joseph Burnley Hume was
appointed their secretary.

i a.

Money and Moneyers. 419

On Tuesday, March 28th, 1848, the Royal Mint Commission
first met for the “despatch of business,” and their sittings
continued at intervals up to January, 1849. Almost every
principal officer of the establishment was examined, together
with several belonging to the Bank of England, and others
connected with Goldsmiths’ Hall. From these examinations a
‘ mass of information was derived, and the indefatigable secretary
to the Commissioners engaged himself in adding to this by his
researches in the British Museum, the State Paper Office, and
other quarters where information could be obtained. The Pro-
vost of the Corporation of Moneyers was the champion of that
body, and he as diligently sought out evidence in support of
their claims. Some of the documents handed in by this gentle-
man were of a curious character, and but that this paper has
already extended itself to so great a length, we should feel
disposed to quote from them. All the ingenuity and exertions
of the Company proved of little avail, however. They could
after all only demonstrate that they had enjoyed the privileges
and emoluments arising from their position by “ prescriptive,”
and not legal right. Jt was shown, on the other hand, that
inconvenience and expense arose from the system of “ farming”’’
out, as it were, the fabrication of the coimage of the realm, and
that really the Crown possessed the power of terminating the
contract with the Company at a very short notice.

Accordingly the Commission in 1849 reported to Her Majesty
the results of their inquiries and deliberations. Without
troubling the readers of the Inreniecruan Oxsserver with the
whole of the reasons which induced the Commission to come
to a conclusion completely adverse to the Company of Moneyers,
and fatal to their further existence as a corporate and privileged
body, it may be well to extract from their report one of its
main clauses:—‘‘ We are convinced,” say they, “that the
Moneyers’ claim of exclusive right rests on no more substantial
ground than ancient usage, no charter or other written record
of its commission having been produced by them, or otherwise
discovered to exist; that it cannot be shown that they existed
as a distinct united body earlier than the middle of the sixteenth
century; that their pretensions to be a separate corporation,
with legal rights, are supported neither by proof nor proba-
bility; and that if the abolition of their long-exercised privilege of
exclusive employment in the work of the comage should ever
give them a title to pecuniary compensation for the loss of its
advantages, they have in no way established their right to its
perpetual continuance.”

It was impossible to misunderstand language so plainly
expressed as this, and it is certain that so acute a lawyer as
Mr. Sheil would not have appended his signature thereto unless

420 Money and Moneyers.

fully justified by the facts and evidence adduced. Many months
elapsed, nevertheless, before steps were taken to remove the
Company from their posts. There were, during the years 1849
and 1850, great demands made upon the Mint for gold and
silver coin, and it was probably considered unwise to dislocate
existing arrangements during the existence of the pressure.
The Moneyers were not averse to the delay for their percent-
ages upon coin produced were going on, and these were of
more value than the retiring allowances which they were likely
to obtain when superseded.

Meanwhile Captain (now Colonel) Harness, of the Royal
Engineers, was appointed Deputy-master of the Mint, and he
at once, and with consummate talent and vigour, applied him-
self to the task of framing a new system of government for the
executive department of the establishment. The work was
arduous and difficult. The moneyers had retained in their
own hands the exclusive control of the operations of the coinage,
and they were not too willing to transfer to others the results
of their experience. The new deputy-master was not to be
deterred by the reticence of those over whose heads the “‘ sword
of Damocles” was suspended, but he carefully and cautiously
completed his plans, and prepared himself for his future cam-
paign. Mr. Sheil was succeeded in the Mastership of the
Mint by Sir John Herschel, towards the end of the year 1850,
and at the beginning of 1851 the moneyers received the ‘‘ no-
tice to quit” which they had so long been expecting. Again
fortune favoured them, the Bank pressed the Mint for gold coin,
and they were asked to retain office some time longer. This
they did until the autumn of that year, when their connection
with the place was finally and irrevocably severed. By way of
compensation they however received annuities, varying in
amount from £500 to £1000. At the time of their official dis-
solution the number of moneyers was five. ‘There were also
two apprentices to the company, and these received annuities
amounting to £100 each, for their loss of prospects.

Thus terminated the reign of the moneyers, whose history
has been elucidated as far as the space allotable here for the
purpose has permitted, and thus passed away an institution
which, in one form or another, had existed from the time of the
Heptarchy. It only remains to be said that in the hands of the
Government the Royal Mint has lost none of its efficiency,
whilst the country has gained considerably, in a pecuniary sense,
by the change. Sir John Herschel retired from his office in
1854, and he was succeeded, in April 1855, by Professor Gra-
ham, F.R.S., who at this moment is Master of the Mint.

It would be unfair to omit stating that Duncan’s Work
on the Currency has been laid under contribution for some

Machinery at the Exhibition. 421

facts in reference to the early history of money. With this ac-
knowledgment the subject of “‘ Money and Moneyers” may be
for the present left, although the writer is conscious that much
of interest in reference to it remains unsaid.

MACHINERY AT THH EXHIBITION.
BY J. W. M‘GAULEY.

ProceEDING from the western dome northward, along the tran-
sept, we catch such a glimpse of the vast collection of ma-
chinery to be found in the western annex, and of the immense
building itself, that we must assuredly be devoid of all curiosity,
and must feel very little interest in arts and manufactures, if
we do not experience the most intense desire to explore its
wonders. And that such are the feelings of the great majority
of those who visit the Exhibition, is evinced by the fact that
the machinery department is at all times one of its most
crowded portions. The great advantage of such assemblages
consists not only in the opportunity which it affords to every
one of becoming acquainted with the various machines which
are used for industrial purposes, but also in the means it
supplies of making comparisons, and thus marking with accu-
racy the progress of improvement. At the last Exhibition the
specimens of what might be done in the different branches of
mechanical art were calculated to awaken the deepest interest ;
but South Kensington presents to our view at this moment
such a collection of machinery as was never before seen in one
place; and possibly during the existence of the present gene-
ration shall never be seen again. Its superiority over every-
thing of the kind is manifested not only by the number of
specimens exhibited, but by the great size of some of them.
In this one vast hall are collected almost every contrivance of
practical utility, and the mechanical requisites of almost every
art and manufacture.

Machinery had made great progress at the time of the last
International Exhibition ; the skill and ingenuity of modern
times had even then devised all the admirable contrivances, by
means of which we are at present enabled to perform such
wonders in the constructive art, and to work on so large a
scale, and yet with such precision. And if we examine the
different modes that are used for obtaining motive power, or of
applying it to practical purposes, we shall find that we have
not, since 1851, either creased their number or, to any consi-
derable extent, augmented their capabilities. There is no

VOL, IL—No. VI. FE

AD? Machinery at the Exhibition.

species of steam engine now in use that was not at that time well
known and skilfully constructed ; but the extent to which the
various kinds are used has undergone some modification, smee
the oscillating-engine is less and the trunk-engine more com-
monly employed. Certain important alterations also have been
made in the form and in the arrangement of marine-engines.
These are due to the screw-propeller having in a great measure
superseded the paddle-wheel. At the period of the last Exhi-
bition, almost every steam vessel was furnished with paddles ;
but experiments had recently been made, which rendered it
probable that the screw would be applied to vessels of war,
although no idea was then entertained that 1t possessed advan-
tages which have caused it since to be almost universally
adopted in the navy. The change which has thus taken place
has rendered a considerable modification of the marine-engine
necessary ; ib must have a higher velocity, and the crank-axle
must occupy a very different position from that which was
formerly assigned to it. There is also a great and general
endeavour to diminish the space occupied in steam-vessels by
the engines; hence a great compactness has been given to
them, and a great condensation of their parts has been effected,
and this has been accompanied by an augmentation of their
strength and solidity. This is effected im various ways; the
beam, in every form, has been nearly discarded, and direct-
action engines are almost always used in steamers. When the
oscillating engine is employed, there is no connecting-rod ;
when the trunk-engine, there is no piston rod; and the use of
a double piston-rod, causes the piston and connecting-rods to
occupy only the space usually required by one of them. More-
over, the position and form given to the condenser and pumps,
tends more or less to the economization of space. When the
screw was first applied, the required velocity was obtaimed by
gearing’, or some similar contrivance ; but these methods have
been abandoned, and the screw-shaft is driven to its full speed
by the engines themselves. In 1851, the largest steam-engines
exhibited were of but six hundred horse power; those in the
present Exhibition include engines of eight hundred horse-
power, and portions of others of twelve hundred and fifty, and
even of thirteen hundred and fifty. Nothing can exceed these
admirable specimens, in the arrangement of their details, and
the excellence of their finish. Stationary engines also have
been modified to some extent, chiefly by a more general use,
and a more simple application of the condenser and of the
principle of expansion. The latter was well understood long
since, but it is now being generally applied in the best manner,
and in most cases with a power of varying its extent at
pleasure,

2

Machinery at the Exhibition. 423

Powerful locomotives were found in the last, and they are
very numerous in the present Hxhibition; but they have
undergone very little change in the arrangement of their
details ; the chief innovation, perhaps, being the use of in-
jectors instead of feed-pumps. On the present occasion the
magnificent line of locomotives found in the western annex
presents 4 most imposing appearance. In connection with this
subject, we ought to notice the method adopted by the London
and North-Western Railway Company, for supplying the
tenders of quick trains with water without stoppage ; it is very
simple, and is fully illustrated by the model exhibited; there
seems to be no reason why ib should not be very generally
adopted. An excellent opportunity is afforded, on the present
occasion, of comparing the various kinds of engines as con-
structed by ourselves and by foreigners: and in making such a
comparison we cannot fail to be struck by certain novelties in
two Austrian locomotives. One of them, which has fowr cylin-
ders, is intended for high velocities; it is supposed to secure
greater safety, and a more perfect freedom from the jumping
which arises from the necessarily imperfect balancing of parts,
by a more equal distribution of force on the crank-axle.
Whatever may be found to be the result of such an arrange-
ment in practice, the weight, complication, and expense of
construction and repair are seriously increased. ‘The other
locomotive, which has ten coupled wheels, is intended for steep
inclines and sharp curves ; its weight is distributed more uni-
formly, on account of the number of wheels, and adhesion to
the rails is rendered more effective by all of them beimg
coupled. To prevent strains, a certain amount of motion is
allowed to the axles at the boxes, and the coupling, from its
form, accommodates itself to the curvature of the ‘line, being
lengthened at the outer and contracted at the inner side.
Whether this capability of self-adjustment is compatible with
firmness and strength, is a matter which may fairly be ques
tioned.

Machine-tools rank next m importance to the steam-en-
gine. All those we employ at present were in general use in
1851, though some of them have undergone modifications and.
Improvement ; and it may be affirmed that, during the past
eleven years, we have neither increased their number nor much
extended their usefulness; nevertheless, practical mechanics
and the constructive art have progressed during that period.
We cannot, it is true, point out any novelties in the strict
sense of the word. Our chance of producing these becomes
every day diminished ; the constant exertions of men of the
highest genius and most extensive experience must have
brought forth so much fruit, that comparatively little in the

424, Machinery at the Exhibition.

way of machinery must remain to be discovered. But there
is, and there always will be, abundant opportunities for making
valuable improvements in practical science, and the time that
has elapsed since 1851 has been by no means barren in such
indications of progress. This will be sufficiently evident to
those who compare the past with the present Exhibition.
Eleven years constitute a very considerable portion of the dura-
tion of human life; those who eleven years ago were young
are now of mature age; and those who were then of mature
age are now old; but we and numbers of our readers can
make the comparison. In doing this, it is impossible not to
advert to the very important part which is played by those
contrivances which are included under the general name of
machine-tools. In reality they are the means by which all im-
provements are effected in the construction of the various kinds
of machinery; and thus, indirectly, they are the sources of
every advance in arts and manufactures. The imperfections
of these appliances, or, as we ought rather say, the want of
them, caused the greatest difficulties and embarrassments to
Watt in his endeavours toimprove the steam-engine. But
time removed these obstacles to the carrying out of his admi-
rable conceptions. ‘This, however, was merely in accordance
with a general law, by force of which the creation of a demand
is always followed by a means of supply. ‘Thus the necessity
of forging an unusually large bar led Nasmyth to the invention
of his steam-hammer. The impossibility of guiding a turning-
tool with accuracy, or indeed at all, without almost intolerable
labour, in the case of very heavy work, led to the invention of
the slide-rest. The nearly incontrollable vibration of a long
bar, in a single lathe, led Whitworth to the invention of his
duplex: and such instances might be multiplied almost without
limit.

Comparing the machine-tools exhibited in 1851 and 1862,
we find that the lathe, planing, slotting, and drilling-machines,
exhibited on the last, might very well take their places on the
present occasion, so little have they been altered. The lathe is
by far the oldest contrivance, and itis still the most generally used
in the construction of machinery. In its best form, it may be
considered as a kind of universal appliance, that to a great ex-
tent may be made to supply the place of every other ; for besides
turning, it will bore, and drill, and even plane, ete. As might
be expected from its importance, it was not only well repre-
sented at the last Exhibition, but on a very large scale also;
since, among the specimens of it were some for turning rail-
way-wheels seven feet in diameter, and shafting thirty-six feet
in length, and we have scarcely advanced farther since that
time. The enormous weight of those lathes which are used for

Machinery at the Exhibition. 425

boring large cylinders, both then and now, prevented their
being exhibited.

The planing-machine, though in some respects improved,
has undergone no very serious modification since 1851. The
ponderous nature of the larger machines, must always present
great obstacles to their being transported from place to place,
and must render the proprietors unwilling to move them
without very urgent necessity. The difficulty experienced in
such circumstances has however been greatly lessened, by the ~
use of the steam-crane; masses of eighteen or twenty tons
weight, and even more, are now handled without any difficulty :
and hence the larger machines are better represented on the
present than on any former occasion. Shaping, drilling, and
other machines of an equally important character, are found in
great numbers in the present exhibition, as was true also of
the last.

There are certain contrivances of great importance to
the machine-maker, which have advanced more perceptibly.
Thus the steam-hammer, which, in 1851, was comparatively a
clumsy and complicated machine, has become compact and
simple, while its efficiency has been greatly augmented. In
its most imperfect form, it was still a welcome substitute for the
old forge-hammer. The latter weighed at most a few hundred
weight, the steam-hammer often weighs fifteen or twenty, and
sometimes fifty tons, and yet can be controlled with the utmost
exactness. It has greatly the advantage of the radial hammer,
on account of its whole weight being effective, and its face
being in all circumstances parallel to the face of the anvil. It
enables us to manufacture immense masses of iron and steel
with great ease; and to weld them, if necessary, with but little
danger of leaving flaws: its capabilities are well illustrated by
the very large crank shafts, both in the rough and finished
states, which are seen in the eastern and western annexes. In
1851 it was not exhibited in action; at present many speci-
mens of it are in operation daily.

The steam-crane, to which we have already alluded, is
another contrivance that greatly facilitates the construction of
machinery. It was barely invented at the time of the last
Exhibition, and the steam was supplied to it by a separate
stationary boiler; at present the boiler is attached to it and
without its bulk being inconveniently increased. Steam-cranes
did good service durimg the erection of the exhibition build-
ings; two of them raised all the ironwork to its position, and
a few more brought the heavy goods and machinery to their
allotted places. One of those used on such occasions is.
exhibited.

While we direct attention to the present favourable state

426 Machinery at the Hahibition.

of constructive science, we must not pass over unnoticed those
proofs, afforded by the present Hxhibition, that for some the
teachings of experience are of little avail, and that time, in-
genuity, and money are often wasted on contrivances which
have been sufficiently tried before and found wanting. The
principle of expansion is now universally received as of un-
questionable utility, but the way in which it is carried out
is not always in accordance with the progress which has been
made: and hence we find engines exhibited, m which it is
applied by the methods of Hornblower and Woolff, that have
been long since exploded. It has been clearly established that

no practical advantage is gained by expanding the steam in a.
separate cylinder. A heavy flywheel is almost always found to.

produce sufficient uniformity of action, but if the variation of
power consequent on carrying the expansions to great lengths
is found inconvenient im particular cases, it is a more adyan-
tageous and almost as simple a mode of remedying the incon-
venience to use the two cylinders in the form of a double
engine, whose piston rods, as in the case of marine engines and
locomotives, act on the crank axle at right angles to each other.
The caloric engine also is exhibited, although many experi-
ments have shown that it is surrounded with difficulties. which

in practice cannot be overcome. ‘This would have been an.

excellent opportunity for repeating the experiments which have
been recently made at Paris, and, as it has been triumphantly
asserted, with so much reason for hope.

We find electro-magnetic engines also. In 1851 numbers
of these were exhibited ; and the jury, as they inform us, enter-
tained very sanguine expectations of their ultimate success.
Time, however, has shown these expectations to have been
without foundation, and they are now indulged in by very few.
The electro-magnetic engine, as we have shown, page 22 (I am
referring to the first number of the InrettecruaL OBSERVER),
cannot possibly compete with the steam-engine in economy,
were there no other obstacle to its adoption. Hlectro-magne-
tism has been recently applied to a purpose the success of
which is far more probable—the production of artificial light.
The principle on which this is sought to be effected is illus-
trated, at the Exhibition, by two machines of considerable
power; the one English, with commutators, the other French,
without them. It is certainly capable of emitting a very intense
light: and, after the machine is constructed, at the cost of little
more than a small amount of steam power ; nevertheless, though
its advocates are very confidens of success, there does not seem
at present much probability of its general application as an illu-
minating agent, even in lighthouses, for which it is supposed
to be specially adapted.

cad pened

ae

Beiter.

Machinery at the Ezlubition. 427

There are many points in which the present Exhibition re-
minds us of the progress which has been made. Castings are
now produced with ease that but a short time since would not
have been even attempted; cylmders are now bored and
finished which a few years ago would have been considered of
unmanageable size; forgings are executed which not long ago
would have been out of the question. To prove the accuracy
of these assertions, we have only to direct the attention of our
readers to the connecting-rod “and crosshead exhibited by
Maudslay and Field, and to the cylinder and crank-axle exhi-
bited by Penn and Sons.

Another improvement which has been introduced, is the use
of steel more generally, and in very much larger quantities.
lis advantages have always been admitted ; it is far more to be
depended on than iron, and, with the same strength, may be
much lighter and less bulky; but, until recently, its cost and
the difficulty of obtaining it in large masses prohibited its more
general application. ‘These obstacles have, however, been re-
moved. ‘The production of steel from pig-iron was proposed
by Bessemer in 1856; but the process he used was for some
time not very successful, an impure steel being the result. It
was, however, subsequently ascertained that, when pure ores,
which are very abundant, are employed, the quality of the pro-
duct is everything that can be desired. The vast quantity
manufactured by Bessemer’s method in this and other countries
is a proof of its excellence. Hverything is at present made of
steel; tires, rails, axles, bells, cannon, steam boilers, etc.; and
ib is now produced in enormous masses :—one block of steel in
the western annex weighs twenty tons, and there are seve-
ral others of very great size. Bessemer’s process is founded
on common sense; he takes just as much carbon from the pig-
iron, as will leave any required quality of steel or malleable iron.
In the roundabout way that was previously used, all the carbon
was removed to form malleable iron, and then some was
restored to change the malleable iron into steel. The rational
method is now used everywhere, and the quantity of steel ex-
hibited by the various countries is very great.

This is not the only illustration which the present Hxhibi-
tion affords, of the application of scientific principles to practical
purposes. Philosophy had taught us long ago that evaporation
causes cold, and established the truth of this by some experi-
ments on a small scale. But our knowledge on this point is
now practically applied: and ice is made abundantly at the
Exhibition by steam, the required cold bemg produced by suc-
cessive evaporations of ether.

But to whatever side we turn, while we survey the wonders
which are amassed in this great storehouse of the productions

42.8 Hail and Siow. —

of human skill and human knowledge, we shall observe the uti-
lization of scientific discoveries, and their applications to prac-
tical purposes. ‘There is often a very wide space between the
discovery of a principle in the laboratory and its application in
the workshop or the factory; but the mission of philosophy is
fulfilled only when the discoveries it has made have been turned
to the benefit of mankind. One of the greatest advantages of
such exhibitions as the present is, that all the marvels of art
and science, all the fruits of ingenuity and perseverance being
gathered together under one mighty roof, everyone may
learn what science has achieved, and what principles have been
applied to practical purposes. Of the millions who wander
through this maze of wonders, many, no doubt, are occupied in
considering what may be done in addition to what has been al-
ready done, what new material may be utilized, what old pro-
cess may be improved or what new one suggested, what novel
application may be made of the countless principles that are
suggested in this vast assemblage of all that man has discovered
and all that he has achieved.

HAIL AND SNOW.
BY ALEXANDER S. HERSCHEL, B.A.

Ait who have examined attentively the feathery down that
forms the crystals of a snow-flake, and the compacter pellets of
ice that characterize a hail-storm, will have asked themselves
the question, What is the origin of so curious a difference in
their structure? The answer is by no means long, and may
be considered at this time to be pretty firmly established.

The most careful balloon ascents of the last and present
centuries have shown that for every mile that ascent is made
above the earth, the thermometer sinks 15 Fahrenheit degrees.
It is a practice pretty commonly known, to estimate roughly
by pulses of the wrist the distance of hghtning flashes from the
spectator, six pulses being reckoned to the mile until the first
peal of the thunder is perceived ; and many persons will have
noticed as a fact that while near flashes of lightning are followed
shortly by drenching rains, falls of hail are more commonly
ushered in by distant flashes, which they follow at greater in-
tervals of time. A flash of lightning is generally understood
to announce the formation of more or less large drops of rain.
The sudden refrigeration of a large highly aqueous tract of the
atmosphere, converts the vapour which it embodies to mist, the
small particles of which, descending and overtaking each other,

Hail and Snow. 429

presently collect to large drops. It is the property of elec-
tricity to reside only upon the exposed surfaces of excited
bodies, and hence the electricity, originally imparted to the
vapour by evaporation from the earth and sea, acquires rapidly
a high state of tension in exact ratio to the diameters of the
drops. ‘The latter relieve themselves of their charge by flashes
of electricity to the neighbourig bodies of mist, or vapour less
advanced in concentration, and lightning and thunder are the
results, The drops so formed continue a rapid descent to the
earth.

If we take four miles as a usual height for such flashes as
precede a storm of hail, we have a cold of 60 degrees below
the temperature upon the earth, or 30 degrees below freezing
in our ordinary summer temperature, for the condition of the
atmosphere where the drops are formed. That they are not
frozen upon the spot is partly due to the warmth of the gaseous
vehicle that accompanies the vapour to this height, but more
especially to the latent heat evolved in the condensation, which
maintains the whole at the dew-point of the existing vapour
until its last portions are condensed to the fluid form. With
our knowledge of the low intervening temperature, we need not
however, be surprised that the drops so formed in a moderate
temperature should be converted into pellets of ice before their
arrival at the earth.

Why should we not then experience the very same processes
in winter that are so frequent in summer ?

The mean temperature of the former season approximates
to the freezing-point of the scale and is more than 30 degrees
Fahrenheit below our summer mean. In consequence, the snow
line of the atmosphere has descended as it were two miles upon
our heads, and the source and fountai-head of our hail-storms
is extinguished. These are the very two miles of substratum
which in summer despatch vapour of high pressure and dew-
point in copious quantities to the colder regions above, and
whose most violent upheavals produce the phenomenon of hail.

In winter such an elevated dew-point and pressure are rarely
attained, and never in any considerable quantities. The snow
that we may watch gradually wastmg away upon the ground,
in frosts that are long and unbroken, even when severe, be-
speaks clearly the low dew-point and pressure of the aqueous
vapour at this season of the year. Let us consider what occurs
to such a body of vapour elevated suddenly to an unusual height
above the earth.

An experiment is easily performed, which is highly in-
structive in this inquiry. Conceive ordinary alum to be boiled
to saturation in a consistent cream of pipeclay and water, and
to be set aside to cool. The deposition in crystals is found

430 Hail and Snow.

to have been curiously obstructed.. The current which in a
clear solution sets constantly upwards from a formine crystal,
like the rejected stream from the cilia of a rotifer, bringing to
the crystal a steady supply of fresh particles for its aggran-
dizement, finds here an impediment to motion in the crowded
grains of foreign matter; and tree-like, branching skeletons of
octahedra are the result of the crystallization, as if feelers had
been thrown out from a stem in quest of the saturated solution.
The cbstructing action of the nitrogen and oxygen gases to
the crystallization of snow is of an exactly similar nature.

In the case we have supposed, where vapour of extreme
tenuity is elevated, often by its own buoyancy, into regions far
colder than its dew-point, a process of direct sublimation takes
place. The crystallizing gas in this process bears no larger
proportion than two or three parts in a thousand to the obtru-
sive and far denser gases among which its snow crystals must
take their form. In the guarded operations of our laboratories
the sublimation of pure vapours is attended with the formation

of crystals of considerable solidity and often of great regularity, —

but in the free play of the elements the hexagonal growth of
the ice crystals is developed into an endless variety of forms.
Messrs. Lowe and Glaisher have delineated some hundred ex-
amples of these figures. In place of the solid prisms peculiar
to the system of crystallization, these are flat, patterned, stars
of six rays, grotesquely ramified, and having diameters of a
twelfth or even a tenth of an inch. They are the skeleton-
bases of regular prisms, which, grouped together, form the
downy material of a snow-flake.

Thus it is that conditions in the depth of winter are quite
unfitted for the formation of hail; but in the microscopic rami-
fications of the snow crystals we also perceive a plausible reason
why lightning and thunder should not in the winter season ac-
company falls of snow, as they so frequently do in summer
those of rain and hail. The large surface and the numerous
acute points which these crystals present, are, in all probahility,
means sufficient for the complete and rapid dissipation of the
electricity which they accumulate by their assembiage.

Saturi’s Ring.—Double Stars.—Occultations. 431

SATURN’S RING.—DOUBLE STARS.—
OCCULTATIONS.

BY THE REV. T. W. WEBB, F.R.A.S.

SATURN’S RING.

Our evening skies are losing much of their attraction in the
departure of Jupiter and Saturn into the strong twilight, where
16 will be scarcely worth while to follow them. The globe of
the latter is still bisected by the line of the dark side of the
ring, the breadth of which* will rapidly diminish during the
month, as the earth’s annual movement carries us nearer to its
plane, till, on July 28th, it will amount only to 0”.085, prepara-
tory to its entire disappearance edgeways on August 12th,
after which time the N. side comes permanently into view for
15 years. We intend, shortly, to give some account of the
very interesting transits of the shadow of the 6th satellite
which have been recently observed: unfortunately its approach
to the sun will now put this phenomenon beyond the reach of
any but the most powerful instruments. Mr. Dawes has de-
tected with his 84-inch object-glass a “very faint gleam of
coppery light’? m the place of the ans, as i 1848; but he has
been surprised at the non-appearance of the shadow of the ring,
an additional proof of its ‘‘ almost inconceivable thinness,” or
of its possessing an atmosphere sufficient to convert its shadow
intoa mere penumbra. As the sun is, however, now rising higher
above its N. side, he says (May 22) that in a few weeks it will
probably become distinctly visible as a black line S. of the
projected ring, and he calls upon the possessors of powerful
instruments to watch the time of its first appearance.

DOUBLE STARS.

We proceed with our list of such of these objects as will not
bear delay, unless we can resolve to rise long before the dawn
in the early spring. Our first is a'very remarkable star :—

11. a Scorpii. Antares : supposed to be so named as equi-
valent in colour to Ares, the Greek name of Mars. Scorpio
will be easily identified as a fine group of tolerably bright stars
near the 8. horizon, which, on account of its low elevation,
should be examined as soon as the twilight will admit of it.
The most conspicuous amongst these is Antares, both in re-
spect of its magnitude and its colour, being the reddest of all
the larger stars in the heavens. Smyth calls it fiery red. With

* This breadth was given much too large in the INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER for

May, the whole minor axis (= 2’"04) having been inadvertently substituted for
the part visible in front of the ball.

432 Saturn’s Ring.— Double Stars.—Occultations.

my 37-inch aperture the disc appeared yellow, surrounded by
flashes of deep crimson, mixed, or rather alternating, with a
smaller quantity of beautiful green rays. My attention was
called to this peculiarity by an old observation of Dr. Forster,
in which he stated that he had ‘‘ observed a remarkable chang-
ing of colour in Antares: for a second or two of time it appeared
of a deep crimson colour, then of a whitish colour; then the
crimson was resumed,” the red colour being irregular both in
its alternations and continuance. He ascribes a similar pheno-
menon, in a less degree, to Betelgeuze, Aldebaran, and other
red stars. The attendant registered by Smyth is very distant,
and I have not entered it; but a much more interesting dis-
covery has since been made by Professor Mitchell with a
12-inch Munich refractor at Cincinnati, U.S., of a very near
bluish-green companion; thus constituting it the only close
double star of the first magnitude hitherto known. Our astro-
nomer royal thought it would be impossible to see it in Hng-
land, but it was detected by Dawes several times with a 64-
inch object-glass, and found to have a distance of about 35,
and an angle of 273°17; and on March 27, 1856, he saw it
with 8-inches under most interesting circumstances, emerging
from behind the dark limb of the moon, about 7: before the
principal. star appeared ; it was thus proved that its magnitude
was about the 7th, and its colour independent, and not, as
might have been supposed, the effect of contrast. The fol-
lowing remark by this great observer is worthy of attention :—
“If the angle of position were nearly coimcident with the
meridian, it would be almost impossible to observe the small
star in these latitudes, as the bright star forms a strong pris-
matic spectrum in that direction. This atmospherical effect
may, however, be in a great measure counteracted by using
a single lens as an eye-glass, or by the ordinary double micro-
meter eye-piece. The star being placed towards the southern
(upper) side of the field of view, the eye-piece spectrum may
be made very nearly to neutralize the atmospheric spectrum,
and a very tolerable image obtained under favourable circum-
stances.” Hippisley also has seen the comes twice with a 9}-
inch Newtonian, and his remark likewise is deserving of being
cited, as to “ the great value of the half-hour at and after sun-
set, for the more delicate and difficult observations in all cases
where the object has light enough to be well visible telescopi-
cally by daylight, such as exists at that period. This may
probably arise from the short equilibrium between the heat of
day and the chill of evening; during which atmospheric dis-
turbances, arising from the intermixture of beds of air of dif-
ferent temperatures and densities, may be expected to be at a
minimum.” Secchi, after several failures, which led him to

Saturn’s Ring.—Double Stars.—Occultations. 433

suspect variable light, saw the companion perfectly with the
great achromatic at Rome; and I have been informed by a
correspondent, that under very favourable atmospheric circum-
stances he has seen it distinctly with as small an aperture as 22
inches. It is evidently not difficult from either minuteness or
closeness, but merely from its low elevation, and the blaze of
its superior: but should we fail to detect it, we shall assuredly
not regret a nearer acquaintance with so superb an object as
the great star—a fiery sun, the quality of whose light, so totally
dissimilar to that of ours, must, to our apprehension, induce an
equal disparity in the development of vegetable and animal life
in the system subjected to its influence. ‘There are many other
instances of stars of an equally deep or even deeper red, but
they are for the most part only visible with the telescope, and
as Sir J. Herschel observes, are insulated. It will be peculiarly
interesting to ascertain whether Antares is physically or only
optically connected with its companion.

12. 6 Scorpwi. 1871. 24°9. 2 and 53. Yellowish white
. and pale lilac. JI fancied the smaller star greenish with 344-
inches, 1850°46. This is a magnificent pair, though apparently
optical only. It is the brightest star n p a.

18. ¢ Scorpiit. 205, 271°6. 4 and 9%. Dusky white and
plum-colour. Sestini called the companion white, 1846-5.
Hasily found from Antares, which it precedes about 2°, a
little 7.

14. v Scorpi. 40”. 33875. 4 and 7. Pale yellow and
dusky hue. This “ charming object,” as I have entered it, fol-
lows 6 at about 2° distance, a little n. Smyth records it as
above, but Jacob found, in 1847, that the small star has an
8 mag. companion, at a distance of 1"°75, which, though not
seen by Sir John Herschel at the Cape, is an easy object
with my 54-inches, and renders the combination still more
beautiful.

15. 51 Libre (alias & Scorpti). 7-2. 761 (1834-42).
7”. 6871 (1846-49). 43 and 73. Bright white and grey. This
is a highly interesting object, being really triple, a 5 mag. star,
pale yellow, lying close to 43. Smyth gives for it 1-4, 6°6 at
the earlier, 1”, 24°°9 at the later epoch. Hence it is evident
that under the aspect of a single star we have a binary pair
before us in rapid motion. It is to be regretted that it is now
too close for ordinary telescopes. With 37%-inches of aperture,
its elongation was very doubtful as far back as 1851; Secchi
found it but 0463 in 1855; andif there is sufficient ground
for Theile’s computations, the distance would be only 0-018 in
1860, after which it would speedily widen, attainmg 1” in 1870.
He gives a period of 44 years, or 49 by including Herschel I.’s
observation in 1782, Jacob prefers 52 years. The more dis-

434, Saturn’s Ring.—Double Siars.—Occultations.

tant companion is also undoubtedly in motion, and is probably
connected with the others, forming a wonderful system of self-
luminous bodies, whose mutual relations are to us quite unin-
telligible. There is another smaller pair, 8 mag. s a little f,
followed by an 11 mag. star; the whole making upa very beauti-
ful group. It may be found thus :—When 6 Scorpii (No. 12)
is on the meridian, a remarkable pair of 3 mag. stars, 6 and «
Ophiuchi, otherwise Yed, the hand of the figure, will be seen
nearly over it, almost twice as far from it as Antares. 51 Libree
is a little to the right, and rather above the centre, of a lne
joming 6 Scorpu and this pair.

16. p Ophiuchi, 3"°8. 3°1. 5 and 74. Pale topaz and blue.
This very beautiful object, which may perhaps be in motion, is
finely grouped with two 7 mag. stars, 68 and 72 P. XVL., that is
to say, the 68th and 72nd in the XVIth hour of Right Ascen-
sion in Piazzi’s great Palermo Catalogue—pointing out two
angles of an equilateral triangle, of which p occupies the centre.
Ti lies 3° n from Antares, a little p. The star: maps of the
8. D. U. K. include it in the boundary of Scorpio.

17. 36 Ophiuchi, 5°:2. 2261. 44and 64. Ruddy and pale
yellow. This is supposed to be a binary pair, and the larger
star has been thought variable: when I observed it (185434),
it certainly was but little brighter than its companion. A 73
mag. star forms with it a triple group. It appears certain that
it has a motion through space, in the same direction, and to the
same amount, with 3() Scorpii, which is more than 13’ distant
nf. Should this indicate a real connection, how marvellous an
instance is before us of influence exerted through distances
which human faculties refuse to comprehend, and where we can
only wonder and adore! ‘This pair is due H. at a considerable
distance from Antares, nothing conspicuous intervening, with a
brighter star, § Ophiuchi, n 7, about 2° distant.

18. 39 Ophiuchi, 12'1. 3562. 53 and,73. Pale orange
and blue, 1838°52. Sestimi called the companion yellow in
1846°5: Smyth’s review made it bluishin 18514, and I entered
it “clear blue” three years later. This beautiful pair, which
shows no movement, is 1° n p from 4 (see last No.) Near it was
the wonderful New Star of 1604, discovered Oct. 10th, at
Prague, by Kepler’s pupil, Bronowski, and seen by Kepler on
the 17th. It was white, and more brilliant than the brightest
stars or even planets, Venus alone excepted; but when it re-
appeared as a morning star at the end of the year, it had already
begun to diminish; it continued to decay through 1605, and
never came round in the morning again, nor .has any trace of
it been since recovered. Only two phenomena of the kind have
recurred since the invention of the telescope, and both were
far inferior; one near 6 Cygni was only 3rd mag., and Mr.

a
53
f
T,
a
i
h

Saturn’s Ring.—Double Stavs.—Oceultations. 435

Hind’s New Star in 1848, which broke outatno great distance
from the place of that in 1604, barely surpassed the 5th mag.;
but as an equally, if not more conspicuous star blazed forth in
Cassiopea in 1572, and there are obscure relations, especially
in the Chinese records, of similar events in earlier ages, we
are warranted in not despairing of witnessimg such a glorious
sight again, and possibly of getting some approximate idea of
its distance and magnitude. Thus far only we can see at pre-
sent that both must be immensely great, as such phenomena
undoubtedly le far beyond the planetary system, and in the
true region of the stars. Imagination shrinks from the con-
templation of the impenetrable mystery of their nature, not
without some appreciation of the astounding magnitude of the
change indicated by so sudden an evolution of most vivid light,
and probably corresponding heat also. Whether the new star
in the 2nd century B.c., which we are told induced Hipparchus
to form the first catalogue, was of this character, seems doubt-
ful. It is strange that among all the authorities whom I have
consulted, not one, excepting Humboldt, alludes to the curious
fact that Pliny, from whom we have the story, expressly ascribes
motion to the new object ;* Humboldt, who was aware of it,
has not much confidence in Pliny’s “rhetorical style ;”” but the
expressions of the latter seem as explicit as could in reason be
expected.

Having now reviewed the principal double stars near the 8.
horizon, we will proceed to a constellation—Bdotes—which will
be in sight some time, but part of which we had better take at
once, since work will crowd upon us as the days decline. And
here Arcturus (¢ Boéotis) shall be our guide. LHvery observer
will easily recognize him ata considerable height in the 8.W.
sky, as one of the most conspicuous ornaments of our summer
evenings. - Wega, further H., and near the zenith, alone rivals,
with its lovely sapphire beam, this glowing topaz. Observers
have differed as to their precedency. In 1806, Sir W. Herschel
gave the preference to Arcturus; and his son has done the
same in the proportion of 718 to 510; Seidel, on the contrary,
in 1846, with Steinheil’s photometer, gives Wega 100, Arcturus
84. Photometry, however, is confessedly in an imperfect state ;
and it is not only possible, as Smyth remarks, that ‘ colour
may interfere with our exact perception of size,” but it has
been shown by Argelander and Pogson that in the case of red
and white stars there is a considerable difference in the estimates
of different eyes and telescopes. Fletcher has also found that
the light of Arcturus is slightly variable. On the whole, how-

* Novam stellam et aliam in evo suo genitam deprehendit: ejusque motu,
qua die fulsit, ad dubitationem est adductus anne hoc sepius fieret, moverentur-
que et ex, quas putamus aflfixas,—Historia Mundi, ii. 26.

436 Saturn’s Ring.—Double Stars.—Occultations.

ever, Arcturus will probably be generally owned as the leader
of the northern hemisphere: and in accordance with this, it
happened to be the first star seen by Morm, in 1635, in broad
daylight; as Morin was perhaps the first observer of stars
under such circumstances. Schmidt, formerly of Olmiitz, but
at present director of the observatory at Athens, has asserted
that Arcturus has changed its colour; he had for11 years con-
sidered it one of the reddest stars, and had, in 1841, compared
it with the planet Mars; but in 1852 he was surprised to find
it yellow, without a trace of red, and whiter even than Capella
to the naked eye. This alteration seems unconfirmed by his
contemporaries, but the subject is a curious one, as such a
change appears to be more than probable in the case of Sirius.
In another respect Arcturus is peculiarly interesting, as possess-
ing so great an amount of proper motion: its position alters
annually 2°25 towards the 8.W., so that supposing its rate to
have been invariable, it must have traversed a space equal to
about 7 diameters of the moon, since the creation of man.
This extraordinary displacement might be taken as an indica-
tion of comparative nearness to our system, and might be
wholly or in part ascribed to a contrary motion on the part of
our sun, did not the extreme minuteness of the parallax of
Arcturus (about 0-169 according to Johnson) demonstrate its
astounding distance, requiring 19 years for the transmission of
its light to our eyes; and prove at the same time its incalcu-
lable velocity and enormous magnitude. This is a golden sun
indeed—the centre, probably of a magnificent system of at-
tendant worlds. It is a grand object im the telescope, but
though we have deservedly given it some attention, it is but an
intruder in our list, and we proceed to

19. ¢ Béotis, 2-9, 321°2. 38and 7. Pale orange and sea-
green. A pair well deserving of Struve’s epithet “ pulcher-
rima,”’ and long celebrated as a test of the goodness of
telescopes. The recent extension of their size and power now
demands a more rigorous criterion, but it is still very useful for
trying smaller instruments. An aperture of 2? inches ought
to bring it out; I have seen it as a known object, but do not
suppose I should have discovered it, with 27. W. Struve*
thinks there is no doubt of this pair being in slow motion, but
Smyth does not consider the question decided. This object is
closer than any that we have as yet attempted, and may be con-
sidered as our first introduction to a more difficult class, requir-

* Tt has been recently announced that this distinguished observer, who has
rendered such eminent services to sidereal astronomy, has resigned the post of
President of the Imperial Observatory at Poulkowa, near St. Petersburg, which
he has worthily filled for many years. He is succeeded by his son M, Otto
Struve,

Saturn’s Ring.— Double Stars.—Occultations. A437

ing greater instrumental and atmospheric advantages. We
may therefore here suitably introduce, for the encouragement
of the beginner, Sir W. Herschel’s remark, already exemplified
im the case of Mizar, No. 1—that when first seen, such objects
“will appear nearer together than after a certain time; nor is
it So soon as might be expected, that we see them at their
greatest distance. I have known it take up 2 or 3 months,
before the eye was sufficiently acquainted with the object to
judge with the requisite precision.”

e may be easily found from our pointer, Arcturus, being the
next moderately bright star n f, or nearly over it as itis declining
in the 8.W.

20. € Bootis, 7°38. 3382°1. (1831°53). 69. 33229 (1842-42).
Secchi found it 6”, 1855419. 35 and 6}. Orange and purple.
This is a very interesting pair, undoubtedly binary, and revolv-
ing probably in a highly elongated ellipse, lying very obliquely
towards the eye, with a period given by Sir J. Herschel at 117
years. It will be found nearly due H. of Arcturus, forming
with it and < an almost rectangular triangle, the greater angle
being at &. It is also the uppermost of a crooked row of four
stars bearing downwards, whose position must be noticed, as
we shall call up two more of them.

21. x Bootis, 6". 99°3. 33 and 6. White: a ruddy tinge
seems, however, to have been sometimes noticed in the smaller
star. <A beautiful pair, though stationary. An alternate view
of this and the preceding object forms an interesting study of
colour. It may appear surprising that with so much general
similarity the one pair should be moving, the other fixed, and
apparently optical. It is, however, possible that x may be
hereafter found to be binary, its motion, much slower than that
of €, from inferior density, or from greater mutual distance
reduced in apparent amount by greater distance from ourselves,
being for the present masked by the position of the companion,
at the end of an ellipse foreshortened into a straight Ime. The
concurrence of all these conditions is certainly very improbable,
but it is well to be aware of their possibility.

x is the 3rd star, counting downwards, of the crooked row
beginning with é.

22. { Béootis, 12. 127°3. 34 and 43. Bright white and
bluish white. Struve asserted that they were alternately vari-
able; but Smyth could not perceive it. This pair forms our
first instance of a really close object, and is in fact far too
difficult for the generality of small instruments, though its sepa-
ration has been accomplished by one of Ross, senior’s achro-
matics, having an object-glass of only 3 inches. My 37% inches
would strongly elongate, but not actually divide it; this, how-
ever, was effected by Dawes’s celebrated Ormskirk telescope by

VOL. I.—NO. VI. GG

438 Saturn’s Ring.—Double Stars.—Occultations.

Dollond, which had +4, more aperture, and a most exquisite cor-
rection. Secchi, mn 1855, with the grand Merz achromatic at
Rome, gave it but 0-978 of distance, and it must be owned
that its aspect is entirely that of mutual connection, but it is
generally considered stationary ; and this fact renders it a most
useful criterion for instruments of moderate size, as the rapid
motion of many test-objects is continually altermg their value.
¢ is the lowermost, and somewhat the brightest of the “ crooked
row.”

To give the smaller struments their turn, we will conclude
our present section with

23. 3 Bootis, 1’ 50”. 75°. 3% and 83. Yellow and light
blue, or lilac. Wide as this object is, it is pleasing from the
contrast of colour. To find it, run a line from Arcturus
through «, and carry it nearly as far again.

OCCULTATIONS.

The occultation of a considerable star by the moon, espe-
cially its disappearance behind the dark limb, when rendered
sufficiently visible by the earth-light, is a striking phenomenon.
Though the different positions of the moon in the sky, night
after might, sufficiently show the rapidity of its orbital motion,
it is much more impressively brought before us, when a fixed
mark enables us to trace its steady advance minute by minute ;
and there is something extremely grand and beautiful in the
smooth, swift motion of that ponderous globe, so perfectly
balanced in free space, and urged so uninterruptedly onward by
the Creator’s power. Occultations, especially of telescopic
stars, are constantly taking place, but the majority of them are
mvisible or mconvenient from the hour, or mconspicuous from
the star’s minuteness or the moon’s brightness. ‘lhe beginner
may be reminded that in these cases, if he lives far N. or 8.
from Greenwich, the specified times, even though corrected as
they require to be for difference of longitude, will not be found
accurate ; for owing to the moon’s comparative nearness to us,
each county m England refers her at the same moment to a
different position in the sky, and brings a different part of her
limb in contact with the star, occasionally raising or depressing
her apparent path sufficiently to let the star, oceulted at Green-
wich, escape entirely free. ‘The country observer, therefore,

especially im situations far N., must expect discrepancies, and

look out in time, as the event may anticipate the tables. Hx-
tinction and reappearance are usually instantaneous. I once
(May 19, 1858) witnessed the great star Regulus snuffed out
in a moment, and a grand sight it was, especially as the tele-

scope (an achromatic exhibited by Slater, in Huston Road, ~

Islington), had upwards of 14 inches of aperture. But in some

The Hurricane of May 1862. 439

cases gradual diminution has been observed, which may probably
be ascribed to the impinging of the star upon the limb where
its general direction, or that of some precipitous slope upon it,
forms so small an angle with the moon’s path, that the star,
whose real (not spwrious or optical) disc, however minute, must
have some magnitude, is hidden by slow degrees, and thus the
existence is manifested of a quantity too small, hitherto, for the
finest telescopic vision. The strange phenomenon of projection
iS occasionally witnessed, when a star, instead of passing at
once behind the limb, seems to glide in front of it for a short
distance before it disappears. Much attention has been paid to
this singular appearance by South, Airy, and others, but to little
purpose ; it seems to depend upon some illusion in the eye or
the telescope; and though its recurrence from time to time is
unquestionable, it can never be predicted on any occasion. The
present month affords no very favourable specimen of occulta-
tion, but the following may be looked for :—

July 10th, 10h. 57m. 30 Sagittari, 6 mag. This, only a
near approach at Greenwich, will be an occultation further N.
11th (day of full moon), 57 Sagittaru, 54 mag. Disapp. 10h.
22m. Reapp. 10h. 41m. 14th, « Aquari, 5 mag. Disapp.
10h, 21m. Reapp. 11h. 24m. 15th, 9 Piscium, 6 mag. Disapp.
10h. 29m. Reapp. 11h. 30m. x Piscium,43 mag. Disapp. 10h.
dlm. Reapp. 11h. 24m.

THE HURRICANE OF MAY 1862.
BY E. J. LOWE, F.RAS., ETC.

THERE is something very singular and startling in a hurricane.
The suddenness of its appearance, the rapidity of its motion,
and the devastation, which shows but too plainly where it has
been, are points of special interest to the meteorologist. Un-
fortunately the exact pressure or velocity cannot be satisfactorily
established ; a rough approximation being the nearest approach
to the truth of a violence so great that the anemometer or
instrument used to measure a gale cannot withstand its fearful
violence. We can register 10, 20, or 30 lb. pressure on the
square foot, but a hurricane, which levels all before it, even
sound and deeply-rooted oak trees that have withstood the
storms of 200 years, requires something as strong as itself to
enable us to record its violence. Fortunately these devastating
visitants are not frequent in this country, and, more fortunate
still, their violence is confined within narrow limits. The one
we are about to describe was accompanied by a thunderstorm
which was more or less spread over the centre of England,

440 The Hurricane of May 1862.

where in numerous places there was great destruction caused by
the hailstones, but not by the hurricane except in the neighbour-
hood of Newark. Near Peterborough, the direction of the
storm was from 8. to N.E.; here, for one and a half miles in
width, the cropsweredevastated by huge hailstonesof threeinches
long, two inches wide, and half an inch thick, and much glass
was broken. At Oundle, the crops were destroyed andthe
windows broken, which was also the case at Whittlesea, Hye,
Thorney, Crowland, Leeds, Newark, and Whittington near
Chesterfield.. At Whittlesea, the storm began at three o’clock,
and lasted till four o’clock, the wind being rough from §.
At Crowland it began at 4 p.m. from 8.H.; here the hail-
stones were from four to five imches in circumference. At
Whittington, hail commenced fallmg at 4h. 45m., the wind
W., veering to S., then to E., and by 5h. 45m. agam W. At
Hye, the storm raged from 3 till 4 p.m. At Buxton, the
storm commenced between four and five o’clock, and by 5h.
45m. p.m. the darkness was too great to allow of reading or
working, and gas was lighted; there was heavy rain but no hail.
The lightning was first blue, then peach, mauve, or rosy blue.
At Whaley Bridge there was a deluge of rain with sudden fierce
S.W. gusts. At Walton (five miles from Wisbech) a sudden
S.E. gale for a few minutes at 4h. 50m., the sky being very
thick in the W. At the Middle Level Sluice, at 5h. 30m.,
there was a strong §.8.H. wind, with lightning, thunder, and
large rain, which moderated at 6 p.m., goimg to the N.;
strong 8. wind till 7 p.m. At Wisbech at 6h. 15m. p.m.
the darkness so great as to render it almost impossible to see
close to a window; wind 8.W. At Lea (two miles south of
Gainsborough) continuous thunder from 4 till 6 p.m., at
first over Lincoln; at 5 p.m. over Newark (where a dark lurid
cloud rested), and after 6 p.m. over Worksop. The day was
hot till 6 p.m. when a sudden W. breeze sprung up, and it
became colder. No rain or hail. At Radborne (five miles
N.W. of Derby) the storm came from §. bearmg H., com-
mencing at half-past four o’clock, and lasting till 6 p.m. Heavy
rain but no hail, and the lightning never overhead. ‘The course of
the storm was from Burton. At Whittington (three miles from
Chesterfield) hail commenced at a quarter to five o’clock with
W. wind; some stones were four inches round and one and a
quarter inches in diameter, weighing from a quarter to half an
ounce, and breaking much glass. The wind soon veered to
S., then to E., and in an hour was again W. At Chester-
field there was no hail. At Leeds the hailstones were seven
inches in circumference. At Wath (near Rotherham) thander
commenced at a quarter past five p.m., and became continuous
at a quarter to six; at half-past six very dark, a black cloud

The Hurricane of May 1862. 441

extending from 8.8.H. to W.S.W.; wind S.W.; storm over at
a quarter past seven. At Silloth a storm at 10 p.m. At
Shiffnel (Salop) there was no thunder but incessant rain, with a
N.N.W. wind. At Ventnor also, and at Clayton, Hurst-Pier-
_ point, and Clifton incessant rain but no storm. At Sandgate
(Kent), Tunbridge, Ramsgate, Gloucester, Byfleet, Barnstaple,
and Aldershott there was no storm. At Kington (Hereford-
shire) incessant rain, and unusually dark, but no storm.

On the previous evening, it is worthy of remark that a
violent thunderstorm was raging in the Isle of Wight, extend-
ing all the way to London. Also at Clitheroe, Tunbridge,
Hurst-Pierpoint, Byfleet, Aldershott, Nottingham, Derbyshire,
Leicestershire, Yorkshire, and Lincolnshire, accompanied with
large hailstones and rose coloured lightning. At Highfield
House there was continuous thunder all the afternoon in S.
and §.H., from storms following each other in rapid succession
in a 8.W. current; at 4 p.m. the wind, which had been N.,
veered to W., and at ten minutes to eight a thunderstorm,
in a 8.8.H. current, commenced passing over, the lightning
exceedingly vivid and very blue in colour. At eight o’clock,
for two minutes, there was a hailstorm with stones of a conical
form, and as large as nuts. Above an inch of rain fell. In
half an hour this storm had passed over to N., but there was
much lightning and heavy rain all night. The similarity in
many respects of this storm with the one next day makes it
desirable to mention it briefly.

And this leads us to the memorable 7th of May, a day that
will long be remembered in Nottinghamshire, memorable for
the hurricane near Newark, and for the violence of the thunder-
storm in the neighbourhood and elsewhere, particularly striking
from the night-like darkness, the great size and curious forms of
the hailstones, and on account of the magnificence of the colour
of the lightning. At Highfield House the morning was fine and
sultry, about noon thunder was heard in the 8.H., and again
continuously in the 8. and 8.H. at 3 pm. At half-past
two the temperature in the shade had risen to 73°6° with a W.
wind, but with clouds whirling round in all directions ; a low
current carried the broken nimbi rapidly from the W., whilst
at the same time the storm-cloud was approaching in a S.S.H,
current; at 4h. 30m. the temperature had fallen to 60° (a de-
scent of 13-6” in two hours), whilst the wind had risen to half a
gale. At this time in the 8.E., low, long-rolling distant thunder
gave ominous signs of an approaching storm of great magni-
tude. The sky gradually became blacker and blacker until, at
five o’clock, it was darker than I had ever before seen it in the
daytime, with the solitary exception of the total eclipse of the
sun in July 1860, within the central path in Spain. A book

443, The Hurricane of May 1862.

could be scarcely read at a window, nor away from it could the
time be ascertained by a watch. This storm put on very much
the appearance of a total eclipse, all near objects hada yellowish
glare cast upon them, and the landscape was closed in on all
sides at the distance of half a mile by a storm-cloud wall. Rain
fell in torrents, being swept along the ground in clouds like
smoke. Flashes of hghtning followed each other in rapid suc-
cession, four or five fiashes following close upon each other, then
a brief pause, and four or five more. The colour of the hghtning
was lovely beyond description, an intense tint of blwish-red,
approaching ‘ose, all the flashes bemg of the same hue. The
hghtning was too brilliant to look at without pain to the eyes,
but when reflected on white paper, the colour was most beautiful,
and indeed surpassed all known colours, as much as ultra-
marine surpasses ordinary blue. The wind now veered to the
S. or §.8.H., taking the storm’s direction. At 5h. 35m.
the temperature had descended to 51° (a fall of 22°6°) ; the wet
bulb bemg also 51°, the rain was however less heavy. The
storm had mostly passed to the N.W., and the sky, more espe-
cially in the N.H., was considerably lighter. At 5h. 50m. the
wind veered to W.N.W., and the temperature commenced
rising. It is worthy of remark that the barometer was almost
stationary, being no doubt held up by the great coldness of the
storm in comparison with the surrounding air. At six o’clock
the temperature had reached 53°3°, the wet bulb being 52°5°,
and the wind W.., the force having moderated from a pressure
of 9 lb. on the square foot (at 5 p.m.) to a, pleasant breeze.
The storm had passed over us in a 8.8... current, moving
slowly across a violent W. wind. At six o’clock the clouds
were ina §.H. current, except in the S.W., where they were in
a N.W. current. The nearest flashes were a mile and a half
off. At 6h. 15m. the storm was evidently sinking more
westerly, the course having become §.H. and then H.8.H. At
seven o’clock there was again distant thunder in the H., and at
7h. 15m. flymg scud in a W.N.W. current moved with fearful
rapidity, passing from overhead a distance of 45° in 42 seconds,
a higher speed than I had ever before registered ; at the same
time a more lofty current carried clouds slowly from the 8.E.
7h. 40m. lightning in the N.E., where the sky was again
black. From 8h. 40m. till 8h. 55m. a gale, after which the
wind moderated. The amount of rain was not excessive, viz.
0°665 of an inch. Several trees were uprooted, and the ground ~
was quite white all over from the bloom torn off the apple-
trees.

Severe as this storm was at Highfield House, it dwindles
into imsignificance when compared with its violence near
Newark, where it was accompanied by a hurricane and hail-

The Hurricane of May 1862. AAS

storm similar to those occasionally witnessed in India. It is
scarcely possible to imagine any destruction more complete
than that effected by this fearful storm, but fortunately its
ravages were confined within narrow limits. It appeared to
commence at the village of Barnby, where a small barn was
thrown down. After proceeding a mile, its force considerably
increased, and just before reaching Coddington its course
crossed a farm-house and buildings, which were unroofed. It
then passed over several fields, tearing up the hedges. One of
the fields was ploughed in ridges for potatoes; these ridges had
entirely vanished, and the field was left perfectly level. As it
crossed Balderton Lane it unroofed a farm-house and threw
down the farm buildings, uprooting two enormous oak trees;
a quarter of a mile further it unroofed the house of the head
keeper of Mr. James Thorpe, of Beaconfield, breaking nearly
all the windows, the hail-stones having in many instances been
positively driven through the glass, cutting out a smooth hole
without cracking the window-pane. The spout of this house—
one too heavy for a man to lift—was carried a hundred yards.
A perfectly sound tree, about 60 feet in height and 5 feet
10 inches in circumference (where broken off), was snapped
asunder four feet from the ground, and the tree itself carried
twenty-nine yards through the air. Although snapped off sud-
denly, it shows the circular motion of the storm, as the wood is
twisted to the very heart of the tree. Near here a man was
lifted off the ground, and carried twenty yards, finally being
deposited in a hedge. From this point to Mr. Thorpe’s house
were many fine trees, all of which were torn up by the roots
or broken off. About thirty or forty yards from the house the
hurricane divided, as the house itself is intact, and also the
trees in its immediate neighbourhood from 8. round by H. to
N. (a lilac tree not having its blossoms damaged) ; while on
the western side outbuildings are unroofed and in some cases
destroyed, the large garden wall thrown down, the green-
houses smashed, the fencmg round the plantations broken off
and carried into the fallen timber, and a heavy plank of wood
lifted off the ground, snapped in two, one half lodging on the
top of a building, and the remainder carried over:it into the.
kitchen garden. A few yards beyond the house the divided
gale reunited; its course now passed through a wood, where
everything in its path was destroyed; then proceeding onwards
a mile and a half reached Winthorpe, doing considerable damage
to the grounds of Mr. Hodgkimson, M.P., and some little to
those of Mr. Marfleet. A short distance further and its fury
became exhausted. The greatest violence was restricted to
about three miles in length, and its extreme breadth was from
100 to 150 yards, except near Coddington, where, for a short

+

44.4, The Hurricane of May 1862. :

distance, it was much broader. The course was from §.S.H. to
N.N.W., being almost a straight line.

Mr. A. Stevenson, of Tynemouth, who was visitmg Mr.
Thorpe at the time, was an eye-witness of the storm, and from
him I derived the following valuable information. He says
that “‘at 3°30 p.m. there were mutterings of thunder. From
A p.m. till 4°30 heat oppressive; about 4°45 and till 5 exceed-
ingly large and curious hail fell; they were of four shapes.

lst. Hemispherical, clear like ice, except the central point,

1A. 1B,

oe

Section. Base.

which was opaque, and from which semi-opaque lines radiated

along the base. The diagrams represent the average size ; some

were a little larger. Of these only a few fell near Beaconfield.
2nd, Flattened spheres, more numerous than the first,

2 A, 2B. 3.2

Section Base. Section.

semi-opaque, with hard white centre, thinner at the axis than
at the circuyference.

ord, Opaque and pear-shaped. These were numerous.

Ath. Ordinary circular hail-stones, opaque and softish. ‘

On the falling of these hail-stones the air became chilly.

At about three minutes past five o’clock, on looking out of
a window facing the H., Mr. Stevenson’s attention was attracted
by seeing a small pony, closely followed by the sheep and
cattle, rushing in terror and at great speed from the §.8.H.
Opposite the house the pony stopped and looked back, and
then started off at still greater speed, as if pursued, On

The Hurricane of May 1862. 44.5

lookimg in the direction from which the cattle came, he saw
the sky quite obscured by a strange dark wall of cloud, which
was approaching; then a large quantity of hay and straw,
which seemed to fill the air, followed by clouds of the blossom
of the horse-chesnut and small twigs; then at once, with a
roar which is indescribable, came a furious blast, which seemed
as if it would sweep the land of all which stood on it. Great
trees went down before it torn up by the roots, levelled as if
by a sudden blow. The impression was that the house must
be swept away. This continued rather more than a minute,
and was accompanied by gleams of lightning so frequent as to
Seem continuous. When it passed there was a torrent of rain,
with extremely vivid lightning.

The gardener, who was out in this storm, says that he ob-
served it hurling down the trees to the south of him passing
by, and then throwing them down in the north; and that
from where he stood, he considered that in two minutes every
thing was destroyed within his view, which extended a mile
and a half.

My brother, who was with his regiment about a mile
from Beaconfield, describes the storm-cloud seen from this
distance as tapering to a point like a waterspout, and exceed-
ingly black and dense. He measured many hail-stones an inch
and a half in diameter, and some few were larger. He says
the hail fell with great force, yet not with sufficient violence to
pass through glass without cracking it; it was, therefore, the
force of the gale that propelled them like bullets shot from a
rifle. These bullet-like holes were drilled through the windows
both on the east and west side of the house, showing the circular
movement of the air. From the keeper’s house I had several
of these panes of glass cut out of the windows, in order to pre-
serve them, I also procured the circular pieces of glass that
had been punched out.

It is interesting to observe that, whilst at Highfield House
there was a gale from the W. of nine pounds pressure on the
square foot, at Beaconfield the hurricane was in a 8.8.H. current,
and that whilst the hurricane was passing the wind changed to
this quarter, and then returned to W.N.W. Probably these
gales combined, and the southerly one being the most powerful,
a rotation was caused moving in the direction of W. to 8.
That this was the case was very readily proved on examination,
not only from the direction of the twist of the wood on the
snapped-off trees, but from an avenue of chesnuts situate on
the extreme eastern edge of the hurricane, all the torn-off
boughs lying on the S. or storm side, and carried back beyond
the level of these trees. Then, again, the dividing of the hurri-
cane at Mr. Thorpe’s house was a further proof of the rotation

446- Entomostraca (Water-Fleas).

being from W. to S., as no doubt the substantially-built house

and stables to the W. of it saved the trees, yet those left

standing were such as would have received no protection if the
force had been either direct, or if it had rotated from S. to W.

. The fall of 22°°6 of temperature in two hours at the High-

field House Observatory (twenty miles away) was no doubt

owing to this gale.

A number of photographs were taken along the path of
the gale with “ Dr. Hill Norris’s Dry Plates.” I name this as
these plates had previously travelled with me to Spain in July
1860, and although this box was only opened in May 1862,
they were in excellent condition. .

ENTOMOSTRACA* (WATER-FLEAS).

BY G. S. BRADY, M.R.C.S.

Amone the many groups of minute organisms to which micro-
scopic observers are accustomed to devote their attention, there
is scarcely any that is more calculated to interest the student
inquiring into the curiosities of animal life, or to fascinate one
who seeks only for amusement from the employment of his
microscope, than that which embraces the strange beings
known as Entomostraca. They are objects too particularly
easy of access to almost everyone; for wherever water is they
are abundant. It is, indeed, scarcely possible to dip a net into
any weedy pool without bringing out of it some examples of
the tribe ; though probably in this case only common species,
such as Cyclops quadricornis or Chydorus sphericus. ‘These two
animals must be known by sight, if not by name, to every one
who has examined microscopically a drop of water from a stag-
nant pond. And not only in fresh water do Hntomostraca
abound ; they exist, likewise, in prodigious numbers in the sea, in
brackish waters, and even in the concentrated brine of salt mines.
Many species are parasitic on the skin, gills, and eyes of fishes,
and some are found living even in the interior of zoophytes,
etc. Though thus almost ubiquitous in habitat, they are seldom
found in rapidly-running streams—delighting rather in the clear,
still and sweet waters of lakes and large ponds: these, when

* The class Crustacea is divided as follows:—Podophthalma, or stalk-eyed
Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, ete.) ; 2driophthalma, or sessile-eyed Crustacea (sand-
hoppers, étc.); ntomostraca (water-fleas, fish-lice, etc.) By some authors the
Podosomata, or sea-spiders, and the Cirripedia (Barnacles), are included amongst
Crustacea. The Rotifera have also been considered to belong properly to this
class, but probably with less propriety. Mr. Gosse, who has paid great attention
to them, thinks that they have closer affinity with the insects.

*
&

Entomostraca (Water-Fleas). AAT

44.8 Lintomostraca (Water-Fleas) .

well supplied with growing weeds, are the best “ hunting
grounds.” It is a mistake to suppose that a dirty, foul- smelling,
stagnant pool is the likeliest to afford a rich harvest to the
collector in any branch of natural history; a pond, to be good,
should be of tolerable size, long-established, and stocked with
aquatic plants. ‘These, by the constant liberation of oxygen,
tend to keep the water pure, besides affording food and a home
among their branches to countless animals which could not
thrive without them. ‘There are, however, several species of
Hntomostraca, whose congenial habitat is the muddy bottom of
ponds and ditches.

The rate of increase amongst these creatures is prodigious.
“* Specimens of the Cyclops quadricornis are often found carry-
ing thirty or forty eggs on each side (fig. 4); and though the
other species, which have only one external ovary, do not carry
so many, still the number is very considerable. Jurine has,
with great fidelity, watched the hatching and increase of the
Cyclops quadricornis in particular, and has given a calculation
which shows the amazing fertility of the species. He has seen
one female isolated lay ten times successively ; but in order to
speak within bounds he supposes her to lay eight times within
three months, and each time only forty eggs. At the end of
one year, this female would have been the progenitor of
4,442,189,120 young!! The first mother lays forty eggs,
which at the end of three months, at eight laymgs during that
time, would give 320 young. Out of this number he calculates
eighty as males (there being in every laying a great proportion
of females) the remaining 240 as females. The following table
will show the prodigious extent of their fecundity* :—

Each laying sup-| subtract for Females

No, of | Time employed for |" oced to be of

layings.| these eight layings. forty young. males, remaining,
1st mother , 8 | From Ist Jan. to
end of March, 320 80 240
Ist family of From 1st April to
females . 8 end of June, 76,800 » 19,200 57,600
2nd family of From Ist July to
females . 8 end of Sept. 18,432,000 4,608,000} 13,824,000
3rd family of From Ist Oct. to
females . 8 end of Dec. 4,4.23,680,000 |1,105,920,000 |3,317,760,000
Total . . . |4,442,189,120|1,110,547,280 |3,331,641,840 :

Among the most remarkable phenomena connected with the
natural history of the Crustacea, are the transformations which

* Baird, British Entomostraca, p. 189 et seq.

Entomostraca (Water-Fleas). AAO

the young undergo from the time of their escape from the ovum
to the attamment of their fully matured specific form. And it
is of the highest interest to remark, that in obedience to a law
which, if not universal, is at any rate widely prevalent in the
animal kingdom, these temporary or larval forms are themselves
closely analogous to the perfect forms of groups still lower im
the scale of nature; so that many of these undeveloped beings
were formerly, before their life-history was known, classed as
distinct species, in a position very far from that which they are
now seen to occupy. ‘These changes have been closely studied
in the common shore crab (Carcinus moenas). The embryo of
this species before, and for a short time after, its liberation
from the ovum, presents both in size and general outline a
strong resemblance to some Hntomostraca. In this stage it was
of old assigned to a distinct genus under the name of Zoea, and
having undergone a still further transformation was called
Megalopa. In this latter stage it puts on somewhat the appear-
ance of the “lobster-crab” (Galathea), and after another step
attains its true crab form, bemg the highest development of
which itis capable. These changes are not produced gradually,
but by a succession of “ moults,” the animal becoming for a
time sluggish, casting its hard covering, and reappearing in a
new guise. It is a well-known fact that the after-growth of
crustacea is carried on by the system of moulting—the hard
calcareous case of the animal preventing its growth in any other
fashion. And as in the higher orders of Crustacea, so also
amonest the Hntomostraca, are transformations of this kind
constantly apparent. For example, let us take the same species
which we have just noticed as a characteristic instance of repro-
ductive energy—Cyclops quadricornis. When first born, these
little creatures (figs. 1, 2) are totally unlike their parent, being
of an ovoid shape, and having only two short antennz and two
pairs of feet; but by three moultings the animal reaches its
perfect form, having then two pairs of antenne and five pairs
of feet, besides which the body is seen to be divided into seve-
ral distinct rmgs or segments. These changes will be best
understood by reference to the plate (figs. 1, 2, 3, 4), the
drawings in this instance being copied from Dr. Baird’s work.
The length of time occupied by these changes varies much
according to the temperature. In February and March, Jurine
found if to extend over twenty-eight days, whereas Dr. Baird
has seen the process completed in eleven days during the warm
weather of June.

Among the many interesting phenomena connected with
the reproductive process in the Hntomostraca, there remain
one or two which we cannot pass over without brief notice.
It is in members of this group that several of the most un-

450 Entomostraca (Water-Fleas).

doubted instances of Parthenogenesis* occur. It is certain
that with many species one copulation is sufficient to impreg-
nate the female for life. And not only this, but that the youne
which she produces are likewise fecundated and capable, with-
out further impregnation, of continuing the species for many
successive generations. In Chydorus sphericus (a common
form), Jurine observed the process through jifteen generations,
and through mwne in Alona quadrangularis. Dr. Baird has fol-
lowed up the successive generations in Daphnice Pulew as far as
the fourth in the Daphnia born from the ordinary ova, and as
far as the third in those born from ephippial eggs. These
ephippia, or “winter eggs” require, probably, a few words of
explanation. They are, in fact, ova covered with envelopes of
more than usual hardness and thickness, and thus enabled to
withstand an excess of cold, which would surely prove fatal to
the parent. ‘They are borne (in the Daphne) near the back of
the shell in a considerable open space termed the matrix. (Fig.
5 represents Daphnia rotunda bearing an ephippium.) Here
they may be seen in the form of a dense mass of hexagonal
cells, through which appear one or two oval bodies, each of
which contains an ovum covered with a shell. The ephippium
with its enclosed eggs is set free at the fifth moulting of the
animal, and floats on the water until spring, when the young
are called into active life by the rays of the ‘‘ world-reviving
sun.” The authors of the Micrographic Dictionary, however,
reject this theory of the use of the ephippia, saying :—‘‘ The
formation of this coat can scarcely have any relation to tempera-
ture, either from its structure, or from its requirement in an
organism which has no heat to retain. Its presence would be
perfectly intelligible, however, as a means of protection from
evaporation when the pools become dry; and for this purpose
its structure is well adapted. It might also afford a protection
against the attacks of predatory animals, many of which could
easily devour an ovarian ovum, while they could not break
through the horny cases of the winter ova; and these winter
ova are only formed when the ova are not to be hatched soon
after extrusion from the parent.” It is somewhat startling to
read in a scientific work of animals which ‘have no heat to -
retain.” Why, even a block of ice has heat in it, and although
Hntomostraca are what we call ‘ cold-blooded” animals they
are only relatively so, and cannot bear more than a moderate
decrease of temperature with impunity. If these winter-eggs
are meant chiefly as a protection against drought and not
against cold, it seems strange that they should not be most
* For further information on this subject see Owen’s Lectures on Partheno-

genesis, and Dallas’s Translation of Von Siebold on A True Parthenogenesis in
the Honey Bee and Silkworm Moth,—the last a most interesting work.

Entomostraca (Water-Fleas). A51

abundant during the hot summer months when pools are most
subject to be dried up. Moreover, it is probable that in many
eases the animals themselves would bear such a desiccation
without loss of life. Thus Dr. Baird “has found, upon ex-
amining ponds which had been filled again by the rain after
remaining two months dry, numerous specimens of the Cyclops
quadricormis in all stages of growth.” It seems, indeed, to be
almost a condition of existence with some species that their -
habitats should be exposed to alternations of wet and drought ;
as for instance Chirocephalus diaphanus. This, which is one
of the largest (being upwards of an inch in length), and cer-
tainly the most beautiful of Hntomostraca, habits cart-ruts
and shallow pools mostly near the edges of plantations, but
never any, so far as I can learn, which are not liable to be dried
up easily. The Chirocephalus is rare in Britain, most of the
known localities for it being in the south of England. The
only living specimens. I have seen were taken at Tillmire, near
York, the most northern point at which it appears to have been
hitherto found. Some species are much more susceptible of
cold than others. For stance, Polyphemus pediculus is killed
on the first approach of frost, while the Daphnice and Cyclops
may be found lying the winter through, and, indeed, may be
positively frozen and yet recover. For the following interest-
ing table, exhibiting the effect of temperature on the species
of Hntomostraca, I am indebted to the Rev. Alfred Merle Nor-
man. ‘The table shows the number of species taken at a single
gathering in the same piece of water, during the successive
months of 1861 :—

January (after the intense July . : : . 14 species.

frost of 1860-61) . . Aspecies.| August Rds MP toy as
February : : bk aher ad September . oft lifieeess
March . : ; ae Thee October. ' op
Apri)". 4 . Billie November . 5 2 LON
May y 4 5 AP LOM 3 December . 3 RS
June 6 ‘ A Fe ates Eh

Mr. Norman remarks that the deficiency in the May number
may perhaps arise from the day when the gathering took place
not having been fine, the animals for that reason withdrawing
into deeper water. While thus tolerant of all but very intense
cold, it is interesting to note that Hntomostraca will also live
and thrive in water of very considerable heat. There is a re-
servoir connected with the engine of the Monkwearmouth col-
liery, the water of which is somewhat irregular in temperature,
but mostly sufficiently hot to steam profusely. On one occasion
I found the heat to be 100° Fahrenheit, and I suppose this may
be taken as about the general temperature of the water. A
pond-weed (Potamogeton perfoliatus), and a Callitriche, grow

452 Entomostraca (Water-Fleas).

freely in this hot bath (though their stems and leaves are plenti-
fully encrusted with a deposit of calcareous matter), and sporting
amongst the vegetation are myriads of Entomostraca, belong-
ing chiefly to two species, Cypris aculeata (fig. 7), and Cypris
strigata (fig. 6), the former, I believe, hitherto unknown in
Britain. Beside these there were found Cypris vidua, Candona
reptans, Daphnia vetula, and Cyclops quadricornis. It is worthy
of remark that the two latter species were of stunted growth,
while all the bivalve species (Ostracoda) attained a fine develop-
ment. But it is not only under extreme conditions of heat,
cold, and drought, that these creatures are capable of existence.
We find at least one species which luxuriates in a brine strong
enough to destroy almost any other animal. This is the Arte-
mia salina, a species approaching in form the beautiful Chiro-
cephalus diaphanus before alluded to. It is found abundantly
in the brine-pits at Lymington in Hampshire, and it is remark-
able that it is only in the most concentrated brine—containine
four ounces of salt in the pint—that it makes its appearance.
It is said that even if this solution be slightly diluted by rain
the animal disappears. ‘‘ During the fine days in summer they
may be observed in immense numbers near the surface of the
water, and as they are frequently of a lively red colour, the
water appears to be tinged of the same hue. ‘There is nothing
more elegant,’ says M. Joly, ‘than the form of this little crus-
tracean ; nothing more graceful than its movements. It swims
almost always on its back, and by means of its fins and tail it
runs in all directions through the element it inhabits. It may
be seen to mount, descend, turn over, spring forward, curve its
body into the form of an arch, and then rebound, and deliver
itself up to a thousand bizarre and capricious gambols. Their
feet are in constant motion, and their undulations have a soft-
ness difficult to describe.’ . . . ‘ If we observe, ina small quantity
of liquid, the mother at the time of parturition, we see the
young group themselves round her body, and there is nothing
more pretty, more agile, more graceful than this httle troop.
But soon the scene changes; one, two, or three young ones are
involved in the current which the motion of its fins causes, they
pass into the gutter situated between these organs, and from
thence come to the mouth of the mother. She at first disperses
them as being inconvenient bodies, but soon afterwards they
present themselves again, and pressed upon by the stiff hairs
which form the branchiz, then by the papille, lastly by the
jaws, they arrive at the mandibles reduced nearly to pulp, and
they are swallowed as any other substance would be.’” *
Though mostly found, as has been stated, in brine pits, this
species also occurs in saltmarshes. ‘The cause of its red colour
* Baird’s Entomostraca, p. 59.

Entemostraca (Water-Fleas). 453

has been ascertained by M. Joly to depend on its food, which
consists to a great extent of a small monad (Monas Duwvallii)
which colours the marshes and reservoirs of Montpellier.
Whether the same cause exists in the saltpans at Lymington
I do not know, but it is remarkable that the spontaneous vege-
tation which arises in vessels of stagnant salt water has often a
red hue. Thus, Mr. Gosse tells us* that a tank of sea water
on one occasion produced in great profusion patches of a “‘ rich
crimson-purple colour,” which spread rapidly over the bottom
and sides of the vessel, as well as over the surface of the water.
This proved to be a sea-weed of the genus Oscillatoria, appa-
rently undescribed in Dr. Harvey’s Phycologia. But it seems
unnecessary to resort to phenomena of this kind for an explana-
tion of the colour of the Artemia. There is a very common
tendency to redness amongst Hntomostraca, which appears to
be quite independent of the colour of their food. I have seen
a variety of Cyclops quadricorns so red as to appear lke
brilhant spots amongst the mud in which it was taken; and
amongst a gathering from Grisedale Tarn, in Westmoreland,
were multitudes of Diaptomus Castor, which looked like ani-
mated scraps of red sealing-wax. ‘The marine species (Ceto-
chilus septentrionalis, &c.) may sometimes on a fine summer
day be taken in such abundance as to resemble a mass of red
paint in the bottom of the net. The Great Salt Lake of the
Mormons is stated to contain twenty per cent. of saline con-
stituents—precisely the strength of the solution which Artemia
inhabits—and is also said to be quite devoid of animal hfe. We
do not read, however, that it has ever been examined with a
view to the discovery of minute forms. Possibly it may contain
curious examples of this much-enduring race, for that its waters
are not fatal to all phases of animal existence is proved by the
multitudes of caddis-cases which are found washed up on its
banks.

Bearing in mind the excessive fecundity of Hntomostraca,
we need feel no surprise at the prodigious shoals in which they
are met with. Some of the Daphnice have been observed in
numbers large enough to give to the water in which they swam
the appearance of blood. Dr. Baird says that he has himself
seen “large patches of water assume a ruddy hue, like the red
rust of iron, or as if blood had been mixed with it, and ascer-
tained the cause to be an immerse number of D. pulex. The
myriads necessary to produce this effect is really astonishing,
and it is extremely interesting to watch their motions. On a
sunshiny day, in a large pond, a streak of red, a foot broad,
and ten or twelve yards in length, will suddenly appear in a
particular spot, and this belt may be seen rapidly changing its

* Gosse’s Romance of Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, p. 105.
VOL. I.—NO. VI. 0H

ASA Entomostraca (Water-Fleas).

position, and in a very short time wheel completely round the
pond. Should the mass come near enough the edge to allow
the shadow of the observer to fall upon them, or should a dark
cloud suddenly obscure the sun, the whole body immediately
disappear, rising to the surface again when they have reached
beyond the shadow, or as soon as the cloud has passed over.’’
I on one occasion gathered a curious species, Cyprideis torosa,
Rupert Jones (fig. 8), in such numbers, that when the contents
of the net were turned out into a bottle of water they resembled
a huge mass of mites in constant motion. ‘Though naturally
unable to swim, they were literally “all alive and kicking ;
this was mm a salt marsh on the Northumberland coast, but 16
is in the sea that Hntomostraca reach their most astonishing
development as to numbers. So numerous are they in the

South Atlantic, that they form the chief food of the whale;

and the red streaks which have been noticed as sometimes
occurring in freshwater ponds, may in those regions be seen
in the sea on an infinitely larger scale, stretching over many
miles of its surface. ‘They swarmed in myriads,” says Vau-
zeme, ‘‘and when the wind was boisterous, a.whole bank of
them would be taken up by a wave, and carried on board the
vessel, covering the deck and the clothes of the sailors.” On
our own coasts they may be seen in scarcely inferior numbers.
The Rev. Mr. Norman has noticed them in a sheltered bay
among the Shetland Islands, so numerous that the water was
literally thick—viscid with them, so that when a net was dipped
amongst them, and allowed to drain, quite a consistent mass
remained. And Mr. Goodsir says, respecting the Firth of
Forth :—“ On looking into the water it was found to be quite
obscured by the moving masses of Entomostraca, which rendered
it impossible to see anything even a few inches below the sur-
face; but if a clear spot is obtained, so as to allow the observer
to get a view of the bottom, immense shoals of cod-fish are
seen swimming lazily about, and devouring their minute prey
in great quantities. Occasionally small shoals of herrmg are
seen pursuing them with greater agility. Great numbers of
Cetacea often frequent the neighbourhood in the summer
months, droves of dolphins and porpoises swimming about
with great activity ; and occasionally an immense rorqual may
be seen, raising his enormous back at intervals from the water,
and is to be observed coursing round and round the island.”
As to diet, Entomostraca exhibit by no means a vegetarian
tendency; on the contrary, they appear to be m many cases
most ferocious in their mode of supplying the commissariat.
Doubtless they fulfil a very useful purpose in destroying great
quantities of decaying animal matter, and when put into an
aquarium which does not afford a sufficient supply of this sort

Entomostraca (Water-Fleas). 455

of food they quickly pine away. But it is not only on dead
animal food that they subsist; they devour voraciously mul-
titudes of infusorial animalcules, and even, as we have noticed
in the Artemia, their own young. The Cyprides are among the
most bloodthirsty of the race. They not only prey upon each
other, but upon animals much larger than themselves, such as
the Chirocephalus.

The free-swimming Hntomostraca are mostly very active in
their habits, but there is great variety in the character of their
motions. Cyclops swims through the water with a succession
of short, rapid jerks; the Cyprides work their bivalve shells
along steadily, but rapidly, by means of their lower antennee
acting as a pair of paddles; whilst an allied genus (Candona)
is unable to swim because these lower antennz are not armed
with the long filaments which give swimming power to Cypris.
Candona, therefore, is content to crawl on the bottom, or on
the leaves and stems of water-plants. The beautiful motions
of Chirocephalus and Artemia have already been referred to.
The most grotesque and amusing of the whole tribe are the
Douphnic ; these curious creatures use a pair of lone arms or
antennee as propellers, which they work up and down most
energetically ; and as the machinery comes to an occasional
stand-still, they look; with arms raised high above their heads
and great staring eye, as if transfixed with stupid astonish-
ment,

Standing in strange contrast to the liveliness of the
Daphivie is the lazy helplessness of a nearly allied form, Acan-
tholeberis sordida. This singular species has, within the last
few months, been found for the first time in Brita by the Rev.
A. M. Norman, whose account of it has not yet been published.
Tt has been taken on the Continent by two naturalists, but
they each found only one specimen, nor could they ever suc-
ceed in re-discovering it. Their attention was first drawn to
the animal by observing it lying motionless—a bright red
speck—at the bottom of their collecting bottle. Mr. Norman’s
experience was precisely similar, but he has been more fortu-
nate as regards the nwmber of specimens taken, his captures
having amounted to four or five. Still, it 1s evidently a species
of excessive rarity, and not more rare than curious. The crea-
ture is built, so to speak, on the model of a Daphnian, for
swimming, but its antenne, which ought to raise and propel it
through the water, seem too weak for their purpose; and as
no crawling apparatus is provided, it lies on its back, waving
its clumsy arms, and reminding one forcibly of the man who,
when his cart got into the mire, did nothing but throw up his
hands and call to Jupiter for help. The only proyression
which I have ever seen it make was a sort of jumping, pro-

4.56 Entomostraca (Water-Fleas).

duced by using one arm like a leaping-pole against the bottom
of the vessel. When full grown, it 1s mostly covered with
diatomaceee and other confervoid growths, so that the conti-
nental authors alluded to suppose this to be the reason of its
inactivity. Such, however, is not the case, as the followmg
observations will show. A specimen which was sent to me by
Mr. Norman to make drawings from, produced, while in my
possession, five young ones. These, though they were for a
few hours rather more active than their parent, presently
took to the same mode of life, and though at first per-
fectly free from any parasitic growth, they soon became covered
with diatoms, etc.—the result, not the cause, of their activity.

Pertaining to the anatomy and physiology of the Entomos-
traca, there is much of the highest interest which we have not
at all noticed.

There is also a large group of parasitic species, deriving
their nourishment chiefly from the juices of fishes and the
larger Crustacea, concerning which a very few words must for
the present suffice. These curious beings infest both marie
and freshwater fishes, mostly attacking such as are im a sickly
condition—unless, indeed, the sickliness be a consequence of
their presence. Tish thus infested are called by the fishermen
lousy. Some of these species attach themselves by suckers ;
others possess hooks, or anchors, which they bury in the tis-
sues of their unfortunate victim, obtainmg by this means a
hold which baffles every effort at dislodgement. No part of
the fish’s body is secure from the vermin; most of the com-
moner species live on the skin, fixing themselves in the inter-
stices between the scales; but some forms are found only on
the gills and eyes. Fig. 9 is a representation of Lerneonema
Spratta, a species which has been found attached to the eye of
the sprat. Fig. 10 1s Nicothoe Astact, whose habitat is the gills
of the common lobster.

In conclusion, we may say that scarcely any field of re-
search offers more abundant chances of success in the disco-
very of new species, or more room for investigation towards
solving doubtful physiological problems. There are but few
labourers in this field, and whilst the student will find in the
monograph of Dr. Baird, published by the Ray Society, and
in Mr. White’s excellent little Manual of British Crustacea,
admirable guides to his researches, he will, in all probability,
before he has gone very far, prove for himself, by the discovery
of undescribed forms, how little labour has as yet been spent
over this interesting group of beings.

4

The Frontal Sinuses of the Bos Buffalus. A57

THE FRONTAL SINUSES OF BOS BUFFALUS.

BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD.

In making a sectional division of a skull of Bos buffalus, the
immense development of the frontal sinuses were a matter of
surprise, and as but few sections of heads of this and other species
of Bos have been published, it was thought advisable to place
the section in the hands of the engraver. The subjoined cut
is in every detail faithful to the original; and the reader will
doubtless agree with the writer, that the frontal bones have a
strange conformation. The animal which supplied this skull
was full grown and of grand proportions. The horns were
remarkably symmetrical, and in every respect conformable to
the figure and description of the species in Vasey’s monograph
of the genus Bos (p. 76). The characteristics of the species are,
convex forehead, horns flattened at the base, bent down, and re-
curved atthe tip. The Arnee is said to bea variety of the
species with larger horns, not bent down.

Placing the section aslant at an angle of 45°, with the
occipital below, we have presented to view the sawn face of
the section, extending through the frontal and temporal bones,
just above the plane of the auditory foramina, and within the
eighth of an inch of the foramen magnum. The brain-case is

458 The Frontal Sinuses of the Bos Buffalus.

large and deep anteriorly, the sphenoid considerably depressed,
optic foramina small, the structure of the whole dense and
heavy, the diploé in some places: scarcely distinguishable from.
the external tables, which are hard as flint. It will be seen by
the cut that the frontal forms a huge protecting shield over the
brain-case, and that it projects right and left by horn-like pro-
cesses, and is throughout its whole bulk divided into a series
of partitions or smuses, the walls of which are: arranged sym-
metrically. ‘They are very dense, and the spaces between them
vary in form and size, though if a vertical line be drawn through
this portion of the skull at the sagittal suture, the sinuses on
one side are very exact counterparts of those on the other.
From the wpper exterior edge of the frontal at ‘the sagittal
suture, to the sectional line over the foramen magnum, the mea-
surement is 74 inches... The extreme width of the frontal, mea-
sured. from: the extreme points of the horn-like projections is
113 inches. The two lateral sinuses differ sliehtly in size ; that -
on the left hand in the cut, measures 3 inches in’ length, and
13 imches aeross at its widest part, by a line drawn across it
vertically. The other has a length of 33 inches, and 1$ inches
respectively. The loss of a portion of the intersecting walls of
the sinuses to the right of the sagittal suture, was owing to an
accident in making the section, owing to the extreme hard-
ness of the bone. The cavity of the cerebrum is, in the
opinion of the writer, proportionately large, but this opmion is
hazarded in the absence of means of comparison with similar
sections. In the section the measurement across at the line of
the two wings of the sphenoid is 4% inches, and vertically, from
the central dip of the mferior surface of the frontal to the supe-
rior ridge of the temporal, over the foramen magnum, is 5 inches.
It was not possible to measure the internal capacity of the
brain-case in this instance, the portion of the skull figured
being the only one which remained for leisurely examination, .
and that was kept solely on account of the curious conforma-
tion of the sinuses.

No doubt many reasons may be conjectured to account for
the peculiar structure of the frontal. It evidently possessed
immense strength, both for the support of the horns and for
their use as weapons of offence. But it is worthy of remem-
brance tliat this buffalo is semi-aquatic in its habits, and thrives
best im regions most infected with malaria. May not the
sinuses be in some way connected with the function of respira-
tion, to enable the creature to bear submersion for some length
of time while fording a stream, or when taking shelter in the
swamp from the myriads of insects which annoy it ?

Jenyns’s Memoir of Henslow. 459

JENYNS’S MEMOIR OF HENSLOW.*

Tue career of the late Professor Henslow was well worth its
memorial in a biographical form. As aman, he possessed an
honesty of purpose and force of character which led him, in
spite of serious obstacles, to make his own knowledge and
powers of observation the means of benefiting all with whom
he came in contact. From childhood his tastes were scientific,
with special tendencies to botany, entomology, and other
branches of natural history. He carried his pursuits with him
to Cambridge, and instead of sinking under the dead routine of
mere classical and mathematical studies, he was one of the few
gifted men who infused a new life into that venerable place,
which was thus rescued from being a mere museum of medizval
notions, and brought into something like harmony with the
wants and the spirit of a more enlightened age. Let us not
depreciate either literature, or pure mathematics; but however
permanent may be the value of the masterpieces of Greek and
Roman writings, or the importance of studies directed to the
consideration of the properties of number and form, it 1s quite
clear that thousands of young men might go through the old
form of scholastic traming, and be left with very narrow minds,
and feeble conceptions of a host of matters of primary import-
ance at the present day. From bygone periods we are mainly
distinguished by our advances in positive knowledge, and from
the number of directions in which scientific principles are applied
to the affairs of life. We recognize the dominion of law—which
is nothing more than the continuous, unchanging expression of
Divine intelligence and will—in every department which human
thought can penetrate, or human action effect, and we endea-
vour to shape our conduct so as to make the powers and forces
of nature the executive ministers of our commands. Words-
worth grandly tells us—

“ Winds blow, and waters roll
Strength to the brave ;”

but the brave must neither be ignorant nor stupid if they wish
the elements to serve them. It is knowledge that gives the
talisman by which their services are compelled. Simple as this
fact is, modern intellectual reformers have had a hard task to
enforce its recognition, and though Professor Henslow had
predecessors and fellow-labourers in the good work, still to him
must be assigned a large portion of the honour of forcing the
physical sciences into the educational scheme.

* Memoir of the Rev. John Stevens Henslow, M.A., F.LS., HGS , F.CP.S.,
late Rector of Hitcham, and Professor of Botany in the University of Cam-

bridge. By the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., B.C.P.S. Van
Voorst.

4.60 Jenyns’s Memoir of Henslow.

In 1822, Dr. Clark, the Cambridge Professor of Mineralogy,
died, having done much by the excellence of his lectures to
kindle an ardour for scientific pursuits. Mr. Henslow was his
temporary successor, although he had not completed his M.A.
degree. In 1825 the chair of Botany became vacant, and it
had long been the object of Mr. Henslow’s desire. Mr. Jenyns
tells us that the previous professor, Martin, was at the time of
his decease a very old man, who ceased to lecture, or even
reside at, the University. Sir James Edward Smith had indeed
offered to supply the deficiency in 1818, but the tutors of the
Colleges prevented his delivering lectures, ‘‘on the ground of
his being neither a member of the University nor a member of
the Church of Hneland.” “ Darkness rather than hight from
any candle but our own,” was the motto of these distinguished
pedagogues, and, so far as botany was concerned, they remained
in the dark, till fortune sent them a teacher whose qualifications
they did not dispute. Except in the hands of a real man of
science, botany is apt to degenerate into the mere acquisition
of a multitude of hard words. An unfortunate vegetable, or
any of its parts, is treated to a nickname with which the pupil
does not associate the ghost of an idea; and the mind is no
more cultivated by the process than if the memory had been
burdened with an equal number of unexplamed terms from the
extinct dialects of the Caribbean Sea. This vain pretence of
learning did not satisfy Mr. Henslow, who provided his pupils
with baskets filled with hving plants, which he taught them to
dissect, and thus follow his expositions of their structure and
modes of growth. In the same spirit he made the botanical
examinations of the London University realities—not shams—in
which the real knowledge of the student could be tested, and
positive acquisition preferred to useless cram. Part of his
system, as a teacher, consisted in excursions to various dis-
tricts, which were attended by entomologists and others, as
well as by botanists—all being glad to avail themselves of the
Professor’s extensive information, and his readiness to help all
who were in need.

After being allowed to labour for many years in honourable
poverty, he was fortunate enough to obtain the living of Hitcham,
in Suffolk, worth more than £1000 a-year. Whether an honest
change to liberal opinions, and service to the Whigs, induced
Lord Melbourne to give him this preferment in 1837 does not
very clearly appear, but it opened for his energies a new sphere
of exertion, in which he laboured with great ‘zeal and success,
continuing to perform the duties of his professorship all the
while. He found his new flock in a deplorable state, but not
worse than many agricultural districts were at that time, and
perhaps not worse than some still remain. A straggling street

Jenyns’s Memoir of Henslow. 461

held about a thousand persons, amongst whom was a sad pro-
portion of vagabonds and unemployed. The real property was
assessed at £6000 a-year, but the village had no better edu-
cational apparatus than a single dame school. Ignorance,
crime, beggary, vice, and destitution had possession of the
charming place, and supplied enough dragons for the knight of
science to assail. Hitcham might have had a new rector of
equal benevolence, but less knowledge, and then in spite of
well-meaning exhortations, the dragons would have won the
day. Not so with Professor Henslow. He studied the cha-
racters he had to reform. Cricket, and other manly games
which rose under his auspices, prepared their minds as well as
their bodies for healthy admonitions of a moral kind, while an
annual exhibition of fireworks on the parsonage lawn attracted
many to look at specimens of natural or artificial curiosities
which no one knew better how to explain.

He lost no time in establishing a better school, and he insti-
tuted ploughing matches, and promoted allotments, to raise the
labourer in the social scale. The farmers raised an outcry
against this latter innovation. “They held their men,” says
Mr. Jenyns, “in grievous subjection. They viewed them as
little better than slaves to do their work.” It was a terrible
task to teach these thick-headed farmers that their own in-
terests would be served by doing their duty to the labourers.
So high did their antagonism rage, and so fully were they im-
bued with the kind of feeling that actuated the Cambridge
tutors in their opposition to Sir J. H. Smith, that they actually
passed a resolution to “refuse all employment, and show no
favour to any day labourer who should hold an allotment.”
Nothing daunted by these threats, Professor Henslow circu-
lated a printed statement of his unalterable determination to
sustain the rights of the poor, and so the allotments flourished,
and the ignorant prejudice was in time put down.

Another benevolent scheme, in which Science taught Bene-
volence what to do, was the establisment of Horticultural Shows,
in which prizes were given for things such as wood-carving not
specially connected with the object indicated in the name. At
these meetings the Professor had his “‘ Marquee Museum,” in
which he delivered what he called “lecturets” to all who
chose to come. The objects exhibited were selected to suit
all tastes, even the children had their case containing a “ heap
of shells and corals,” and a “‘mew device from the last horti-
cultural show in Fairy Land.” Among the prizes distributed
on these occasions were some to the village botanists—botany
being a subject of instruction in his village school. On Mon-
day he spent one or two hours in this pursuit, “the botanical
pupils were all volunteers, and limited in number to forty-two.

4.62 Jenyns’s Memoir of Henslow.

They varied in age from eight to eighteen, and mostly entered
with great spirit into the work set before them, seeming
thoroughly to enjoy it.” In dealing with his uneducated stu-
dents, the Professor displayed uncommon tact. So far as prac-
ticable, the difficulties were diminished, but those mherent to
the subject were as fairly met and as fully conquered as if the
village children had been members of his university class.
As technical terms could not be dispensed with, the boys and
girls who wished to learn botany, had to begin with spellme
dicotyledons, monocotyledons, angiospermous, and other
afflicting looking words, which in due course were practically
explained. Deal stands furnished with vials afforded the means
of displaying the wild flowers that could be obtained in blossom,
and which. the children were encouraged to collect, in order that
they might be properly labelled and form the subjects of the
lesson to be conveyed. Hach pupil was supplied with a dis-
secting board ‘‘ made of deal, twelve inches long and nine wide.
Across the upper half of each board was pasted -a paper with
four compartments. Opposite these, the names of the four
floral whorls, and their subordinate parts, were printed, together
with the adjective terminations for expressing botanically the
numerical and other relations between them.”

The children pulled their flowers to pieces, and wrote the
results of their examinations upon their slates, which were all
sent to the rectory to be looked over and corrected. For
further details of this admirable method of teaching, we must
refer to Mr. Jenyns’s work, but we must not forget to allude to
the annual excursions, in which he conducted his pupils to some
pleasant place, and to the larger excursions in which the adult
villagers jomed. In one instance he conducted a large party to
Ipswich, where they saw the town and the Museum which he
arranged. Another time they went to Harwich, and many had
there their first sight of the sea. In other years Norwich,
Cambridge, and Felixstowe received the happy parties, the
funds for their trip being provided partly by the Professor, who
thus appropriated the sum that his predecessor expended upon
a tithe dinner, partly by other donations, and partly by the sub-
scriptions of the people themselves. Such continued goodness,
guided by intelligence, converted even the farmers, and in
testimony of their estimation they presented their rector with
a silver cup.

Such a man was Professor Henslow, as a teacher of science,
and a social reformer, of a type which had no existence in pre-
scientific days. We have regarded him under two aspects only,
and passing over his claims to honour as an original investi-
gator, or in his purely clerical capacity—subjects which would
exceed our limits—we find the spirit of knowledge strong im

Balbiani on the Reproduction of Infusoria. 463

death at the close of his career; for as disease was busy chang-
ing his mortal state, he studied the phenomena of a dissolution,
of which his religious nature had no fear.

His greatest works remain behind in the moral and intellec-
tual elevation of his pupils, his parishioners and his friends ; ‘but
his writings were numerous, not the least important being the
elementary, such as the “ Practical Lessons in Botany,” com-
piled for the South Kensington Museum, and his admirable
“* Dictionary of Botanical Terms,”* which is an invaluable aid to
the regular student, and a work of constant usefulness in
family circles where scientific tastes prevail. In this excel-
lent little volume each word is clearly explained, and its deriva-
tion given, while numerous woodcuts convey at once to the eye
the information which words alone might fail to give.

BALBIANI ON THH REPRODUCTION OF
INFUSORIA.+

Our present object in dealing with M. Balbiani’s researches is
expository, not critical, so for the sake of brevity we omit
historical details and pass at once to his declaration that
*“Infusoria, like other animals, propagate at certain epochs
with the aid of elements characterizing sexual generation.”
These elements originate in the interior of organs known as
the nucleus and nucleolus. The nucleus is the producer of
germs or ovules, the nucleolus develops fecundating corpuscules,
or zoosperms. The first may be considered as the ovary, the
second as the testicle of infusoria. These two organs consti-
tute all the sexual apparatus of these animals. In some
cases an excretory channel seems added to the ovary, and
perhaps also to the testicle, and appears to open directly out-
side. The reproductive organs are always distinct, though united
in one individual; but the hermaphrodism which results from
this arrangement is not compléte, as the concurrence of two
individuals is always needful for the process of fecundation,
which takes place inside the creatures, and requires the trans-
port of the male elements of one to the female organs of the
other.

The situation of these organs varies considerably, not only
in different groups, but also in different species of the same

* A Dictionary of Botanical Terms, by the Rev. J. 8. Henslow, M.A., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge, new edition, illustrated by
nearly Two Hundred Cuts. Groombridge and Sons.

t+ Recherches sur les Phénoméenes Sexuels des Infusoires, par le Docteur G.
Balbiani. Victor Masson, Paris, 1861.

%,

464 Balbiam on the Reproduction of Infusoria.

genera. ‘The nucleus, or female organ, exhibits three principal
varieties: (1) spherical, or ovoid; (2) tubular; (3) moniliform,
or like a chaplet of beads. ‘The nucleolus is much smaller than
the nucleus. “The male and female corpuscules are often
united simply by their common envelop; but im other cases,
not less numerous, the first is received in a depression (échan-
crure), more or less deep, of the second, where it sometimes
disappears entirely, but nevertheless preserves its own envelop,
although the confusion of the two bodies may be so complete,
that the hiding-place of the male corpuscule can only be dis-
covered by the employment of re-agents, such as diluted acetic
acid, which determines the condensation of their substance and
the visible separation of their walls.’ M. Balbiami divides
Infusoria into (1) ‘‘ species whose ovary has the form of a little
utricle, or bag, of a rounded or ovoid form, containing an un-
divided mass of vitelline matter. In these the testicle during
its existence exhibits a similar appearance.” Among these he
places Colpods, Glaucomas, Paramecia, some of the Trachelia,
Nassula, Chilodons, etc. ‘In these species the ovary has con-
stantly the form of a little vesicle, usually situated m the middle
of the body, and completely filled with a granular matter, in
the interior of which the ovules are developed at the time of
sexual reproduction.” (2.) ‘‘ Species with an elongated ovary,
cylindrical, or tubular, variously curved or twisted, containing
a vitellme mass not presenting divisions (non fragmenteé).
Testicle as in the former.’ To this division Huplotes, Aspi-
discus, most of the Vorticellids, Trachelius ovum, etc. belong.
In it “the male organ does not participate im the elongated
or cylindrical shape of the nucleus,’ but in the instances in
which M. Balbiani has detected it, appears as “a little globular
or oblong corpuscule, free, or more or less entangled (engagé)
with the substance of the ovary.” (8.) “Species with an
elongated ovary, straight or bent, containing a vitelline mass
divided into two or more distinct fragments (ovary bi or multi-
locular). Testicle usually composed of an equal number of
elements which accompany the vitelline fragments, more rarely
of a single element.”” M. Balbiani remarks, “ In the preceding
group we have seen the ovary affect the form of a tube more
or less elongated, in the interior of which a granular mass
extends without interruption from one extremity to the other
of the organ. If, instead of supposing this mass equally dis-
tributed through the ovarian tube, we conceive it divided into
a certain number of fragments which succeed each other with —
regularity, and in the intervals we imagine the tube more or
less constricted, we shall have an exact picture of the arrange-
ment that we shall meet with in all the species composing this
group. The family of the Oxytrichians, reduced to its principal

Balbiani on the Reproduction of Infusoria. 465

Khrenbergian types, Oxytricha, Stylonichia, Kerona, and
Urostyla, exhibits this arrangement in its greatest simplicity.”
In this division of his subject M. Balbiani describes what is
commonly considered to be the mouth of Trachelius ovum as a
generative aperture.

M. Balbiani considers that species have been erroneously
made on account of the appearance presented by the ovary at
different epochs. He says, “ Since my observations on the
singular transformations which the ovary of the infusoria under-
goes during the spontaneous division of those, animals, 16 is
evident that one phase of these transformations is characterized
by the elongated ribbon-lke aspect which this gland assumes,
shortly before it divides itself between the two new individuals.
In this respect the ovoid and moniliform nuclei behave in pre-
cisely the same way, and recall for the moment, under this
aspect, the form which this gland presents among the vorti-
cellids and other types previously mentioned. These modifica-
tions, transitory and purely physiological, have more than once
been taken by classifying authors for permanent forms, and
employed under this idea for the characterization of certain
species. It is thus that under the name of Stentor Reeseli,
Hhrenberg describes an animalcule which differs from all others
of the same genus by its testicle (ovary) which takes the shape of
a long sinuous band destitute of articulation, while amongst the
other stentors it 1s usually disposed as a chaplet. To this pecu-
liarity we must reduce the difference which Hhrenberg esta-
blishes between this species and 8. Miilleri. . ... It is only
necessary to look at his four figures of S. Reeselii to be satisfied
that two of them refer to specimens observed at the moment
of spontaneous division. As to the others it is probable that
they also relate to individuals about to divide themselves, but in
whom the signs of this process, and especially the existence of
a longitudinal ciliary crest, which is the first indication of it,
had escaped the celebrated microscopist.”

Let us now pass to the mode of fecundation, under which
title we read, “‘ The facts by which I was led to study the pheno-
mena of the propagation of these animalcules, have received
from all the naturalists and physiologists of our epoch, a signi-
fication entirely different from that which I assign to them. All
these authors in fact see only a longitudinal self-division in the
appearance which I shall demonstrate to arise from the sexual
union of two individuals, and admit in consequence that the
greater part oftthe species of this class are able to multiply
indifferently by transverse or longitudinal fission. The favour
with which this opinion—so little conformable to the real state
of things—has been received, and generally accepted as one of
the best ascertained facts of science, has induced me to describe

466 Balbian on the Reproduction of Infusoria.

in detail the phenomena of infusorial reproduction. To restore
to them their true significance it is enough that I should show,
by reference to pure and simple facts, that the infusoria couple
for the purposes of fecundation like most other animals.
.... We have seen that hermaphrodism is the rule among
nfusoria .... and in mode of fecundation they approach

certain gasteropods and worms, which, having both sexes united
in a single animal, nevertheless require the co-operation of a
second individual to produce fertile germs;”’ but while these
latter are usually provided with well-developed organs for the
intromission of the prolific fluid, ‘‘ the mfusoria are totally
destitute of them,” and to supply their absence, nature has
recourse to other means. Describing these, M. Balbiani divides
Infusoria into two classes—one having the mouth situated at
one anterior extremity of the body, and in the direction of its
longitudinal-axis, and in others, which form the great majority,
this orifice is placed beyond the axis, on one side of the body,
and usually in its anterior half; and he speaks of the animals
coupling by bringing together the “ depressed region placed
in front of the mouth; or where it only exists in the form of a
minute and simple depression, or narrow groove, by the contact
of this part only, the remainder of the body beg free. ‘ The
exudation of a glutinous substance at the point of contact serves
to consolidate their adhesion, by soldering them intimately
together; so that their premature separation becomes impos-
sible, notwithstanding the energe-
tic strains to which they expose
each other.”’ At first he considered
the mouth was the organ for the
transmission of the fertilizing fluid,
and this opinion was strengthened
by noticing its position durmg the
process, but by examining the Pa-
ramecum aurelia with a good illu-
mination, and powers of 700 or 800
diameters, and treating the objects
with very dilute acetic acid, or aque-
ous solution of iodine, he states he
' was “‘able to demonstrate that not
welt only the ovary, but also the testi-

cle, was provided with an execre-

tory duct, whose course he could follow, from its origin in
the glands to a point situated below the mouth, towards the
posterior extremity of the buccal furrow.” 'The annexed sketch
(fig. 1) from M. Balbiani represents the appearance of two
Paramecia aurelia slightly compressed, and acted upon by
dilute acetic acid: ais the ovary; c its execretory duct; b the

SEPA Pr

Balbiani on the Reproduction of Infusoria. 457

male capsule, containing a bundle of spermatozoa bent into
an arc; @the mouth; v the contractile vesicles. M. Balbiani
has not been able to ascertain whether the ducts of the two
organs unite in one cloaca, or have distinct orifices. In some
genera he has not even satisfied himself of the existence of a
genital orifice. The coupling lasts from twenty-four hours
to five or six days, according to the development of the or-
gans. When they exist only as a simple rounded granule,
which is their lowest condition, the longest time is required, and
it diminishes as their evolution is advanced. ‘ This remark ap-
plies not only to species in which the ovary and testicle are de-
veloped simultaneously and attain the end of their transforma-
tions at the same time, but also to those in which the evolution
takes place in an unequal and successive manner. Constantly
the female organ precedes the male organ, in order both of
appearance and development, so that in some species (Stentors,
Spirostomes) the ovary contains a number of eggs almost fully
developed, while no vestige exists of the male elements.”

M. Balbiani describes the nucleus as always present, but
varying in appearance according to its development. In young
animalcules it is a colourless, transparent, minute roundish mass,
the contents of which appear granulated when acted upon by
acetic acid. ‘“ Among most infusoria, the male and female
organs disappear completely after each effort of propagation,
and are immediately replaced by other productions of the same
nature, which, commencing their existence in a rudimentary
form, rapidly pass through the phases of their evolution, and
re-establish a complete sexual apparatus in a short time. From
their first appearance the new organs are of larger dimensions
than in young individuals, and thus offer a greater resistance to
the action of re-agents, and enable their structure to be better
appreciated. If we examine a Stylonichia, Oxytricha, Stentor,
or other animalcule possessing this property, immediately after
reproduction has taken place, we do not find the nucleus under
the characteristic form belonging to the species, but in its stead
we note a body which offers the greatest resemblance to the
nucleus which the same infusoria presents in a young stage.”
In’ some species, M. Balbiani tells us, that the “primitive
female ovule” enlarges, and reaches maturity without multi-
plying itself, except that it divides when spontaneous fission of
the animal occurs ; in most kinds, however, the primitive eee
gives rise to a number of other eggs by transverse division.
He observes: “ The number of eggs which enter into the com-
position of the same chain, is often considerable. I have often
counted from twenty-five to thirty in certain large Trachelians
(Amphileptus cygnus, Lowophyllum meleagris), and from forty
to fifty in adult specimens of Spriostomum ambiguum, imme-

468 Balbiani on the Reproduction of Infusoria.

diately after reproduction. At other times they are so nu- -

merous that their chain can only lodge in the interior of the
body on condition of folding several times on itself, as occurs
in certain Urostyla.” In another place the writer informs us,
““When the eggs have reached their full development they
exhibit the appearance of little spheres
whose bulk is noticeably uniform im the
same individual. But at this epoch their
transparency is so great, that they only
appear in the greater number of species
as simple spots surrounded by darker
eranulations of the parenchyma. It is
therefore indispensable, in order to form
; an idea of their shape and structure, to
treat them with a reagent lke acetic
acid, which augments their cohesion and

agent immediately exhibits little glo-
bules of a bluish or yellowish-grey, and
endowed with considerable powers of re-
fraction. ‘The vitellus, of a homogeneous,
or finely granulated appearance, is seen, on being
crushed, to be composed of larger or smaller gra-
nules loosely adherent, and connected by a mass com-
posed of fine moletular granulations. The germinat-
ing vesicle is usually completely masked by the
vitelline granulations, and cannot be
seen. Sometimes, however, it can be
shown by employing first a very dilute
solution of caustic potash, and then a little
iodine in water, or acetic acid. For the
same purpose ammonia and carmine may
be employed, which gives the vitellus a
rose tint, and causes the vesicle to ap-
pear as a more clear central spot.”
Although the eggs appear irce in the
cavity of the body, M. Balbiaz.i affirms
that they are enclosed in a membranous
canal, which is only the terminal portion
of the long, bent, tube resulting from
Weeds the metamorphosis of the ovary. His
view is exhibited in the annexed draw-
ing (fig. 2), taken from his published work, in which 9, 0, 0, 0,
represent the eggs, m, m, their tube open in m’ in the bucela
groove, a, a, are sterile fragments of granular matter, and
no trace remains of the spermatic capsules; those not having
been employed in fecundation being absorbed. In fig. 3 the

Fig. 3.

refractive power. ‘The action of this

;

o ot lh ee ee ae WS ey NT

Australian Naturalists. 469

male capsule is seen fully developed; the fine lines represent-
ing the spermatozoa. In fig. 4 several of them are seen elon-
gated, and ready to multiply by division (0, b, 6); the o’s again
represent fertile ovules in their duct, the a’s and m’s the ova-
rian tube, the latter letters indicating empty spaces.

Mr. Balbiani’s experiments and observations will no doubt
be repeated by other observers, and while recognizing their
importance, we must await their confirmation or confutation.

AUSTRALIAN NATURALISTS.

From the Melbourne Argus, February 28, we extract the
following particulars concerning the Australian ‘‘ Sea Horses.”
The specimen alluded to was obtained by Mr. Joseph Harri-
son, who received it with a statement that it was found
on the beach at Lacepede Bay. ‘This same naturalist has formed
an extensive collection of Australian entomology, which is said
to be particularly rich in beetles, and to contain about seven
hundred moths, varying in size from five inches across the
wings to the minute dimensions of a mosquito. The colours
are described as being very fine. The Argus says :—

“« A very fine and perfect specimen of the sea-horse—Hippocam-
pus (?)—(the Australian species not being yet defined) has been sent
to our office by Mr. Joseph Harrison. The most interesting pecu-
liarity in the order to which the sea-horse belongs is that of the
males of most species carrying the eggs about them till they are
hatched. In some, the egg-pouches are on the breast, in others, on
the tail, or the eggs are merely glued on in rows, and not covered
by a membrane. In this they seem to resemble the marsupials of
Australia, upon the coast of which continent they are common, as
well as in the seas which divide it from New Guinea. Notwith-
standing the odd and stiff appearance of the sea-horse, and other
small members of the order Lophobranchu, some have prehensile
tails, like those of the American monkey; and when kept in vases
furnished with slender twigs to which they can suspend themselves,
they form pleasing objects of study. It is said that they resemble
the chameleon, in being able to direct one eye backwards and the
other forwards. This, however, is not an established fact, though
their eyes are certainly movable either backwards or forwards, even
if not separately so. We believe that small specimens of this
singular fish are pretty frequently found on the coast at Brighton
and Glenelg; but the southern species are at present only partially
known, and have not, as we remark above, been properly classified.”

The naturalization of English and other foreign creatures
is making considerable progress, and there is a project on foot
VOL. I.—NO. VI. II

470 Australian Naturalists.

fer renting ‘ Betsy’s Island” from Lady Franklin’s agent,
im order to convert it into a nursery for game. Hfferts have
also been made, but as yet without success, to imtroduce the
Guranie from the Mauritius, where it has the reputation of
being the best pond fish in the world. Captain Lowrie,
addressing the president of the Acclimatization Society, said that
he obtaimed about 300 of these fish, most of them bemg very
young, but about fifty from three to eight inches long. ‘These
specimens were divided between an aquarium, furnished by
Mr. Jones of the Argus, and a seasoned water-cask, hung upon
gimbals, each ina skylight. During the first days (the ship
sailed on the 19th of January) a good many of the small fry
died in the aquarium, but none in the cask. Having provided
abundance of fresh water, about five gallons a day were removed
from the cask and replaced, and the fish were supplied with a
hittle bran, which the captain says they eat. After getting to
sea, those in the aquarium died quickly, while the mhabitants
of the cask continued well. very five days the whole of the
water was changed, and air was pumped into the water every
hour. On the eleventh daya S.W. gale arose, and the tempera-
ture fell to 60°. In the morning all those in the aquarium were
dead, except about half a dozen of the largest, which were
removed to the cask, whose inhabitants had not been diminished
to the extent of five per cent. On the 18th and 19th of
February ancther $.W. gale came, and lowered the tempera-
ture to 57°, and by the morning all the finny passengers had
perished. Captaim Lowrie thinks that on another voyage he may
manage to transport the Guramies safely, if he employs a stove
to prevent the temperature falling below 70°, but if they should
arrive safely in Australia, it is by no means clear that they
would thrive in any but the warmest spots.

The Domestication of Science. AT

THE DOMESTICATION OF SCIENCE.

A couUNTRY may contain a considerable amount of scientific
knowledge, and may take a high stand for the variety and ori-
ginality of its investigations, and yet the majority of its homes
may remain in a comparatively ignorant state. The university
may have its learned professors, the schools of medicine may
possess able demonstrators and lecturers; and yet the general
condition of society may be feebly affected by the elevating
influence of scientific tastes. While this is the case, science
cannot be said to be domesticated. It may manifest its power
in great national undertakings, in the improvement of particular
branches of manufacture, or in arrangements for the public
health ; butit contributes nothing to the intellectual or moral dig-
nity of the homes of the people. Such was the state of England
until a very recent date; and although we have now emerged
from the profound barbarism of the Georgian era, we are only
at the very commencement and threshold of those beneficent
changes by which social relations will be modified and improved.
Compared with other countries in Hurope, or in America, we
may have a large number of persons capable of appreciating
scientific reasoning, or engaged in some kind of scientific pur-
suit ; but many families in the middle and upper classes are
still deplorably ignorant of elementary laws and facts; and
vanity and frivolity too often rule their leisure hours, because
they are not sufficiently cultivated to appreciate the delights
which any form of study can afford. In ordinary schools the
physical sciences are as much neglected as if Nature offered
no phenomena to investigate, no principles to discern; and
although so-called “ mechanics’ ”’? and other institutions are
scattered by hundreds over the land, the lecture system has
been degraded into a mere amusement for idleness; and the
subjects selected, succeed each other in defiance of any method
by which positive knowledge can be increased. On the other
hand, we may note with satisfaction the rise of naturalists’ field
clubs, and other societies by whose agency a large amount of
information is pleasantly obtained, and likewise the extensive
sale of numerous publications of a more or less elementary
kind. There is also the striking fact of the great imcrease in
the number of purchasers of microscopes and telescopes, which
are becoming necessary portions of the furniture of every well-
ordered home.

In London and many other great towns, the means are now
provided by which systematic study may be carried on at a
moderate cost ; and thousands of young men destined for indus-
trial pursuits are preparing for their future career by laying a

472 The Domestication of Science.

foundation of natural philosophy, chemistry, and geology, and
other researches of a scientific kind; nevertheless, it too often
happens that the scientific member of a family is an isolated
being. He, or she, may be applied to asa convenient dictionary
to explain any hard word that occurs in casual reading, or to
elucidate any startling fact that forces itself upon the attention,
but his pursuits are not contagious, and his tastes seldom elevate
the household to which he is attached. Where the microscope
is habitually used, the beneficial influence of a good example is
more easily felt, as few can resist the opportunity of viewing
the exquisite objects which a skilful manipulator can so
readily display. But in this as in other occupations, the
presence of unsympathetic persons is disagreeable, and
families can gain little from a microscopic member unless
they make him sufficiently comfortable in the general circle
to draw him from his special retreat. Similar remarks may be
made with reference to telescopic inquiries. Most people are
delighted to see the sun rise and set upon the jagged peaks of
the crescent moon, or behold on the full face of our satellite
the appearance of seas,* contents, and volcanic cones. In
both cases, however, the interest is evanescent, unless the mind
1s prepared by previous knowledge to speculate upon the ob-
jects presented to the view. Where there is no idea of the
relation between life and organization, no conception of physi-
ology, natural history, or biology, the microscope is no better
than a toy, from which only temporary amusement can be
obtained ; nor can the telescope minister to a more permanent
delight, if some previous study does not indicate the meaning
of lunar formations, or tell the story of the planet or the star.
In all the aspects of Nature those see most who know most,
and unless the faculty of attention is cultivated, the difficulties
which beset the porch of science cannot be removed.

The existence of our own magazine, and the wide welcome
it has received in every town, may be taken as a convincing
proof that intellectual tastes already possess an extended sway.
‘Twenty years ago, no sane publisher would have ventured on
such an experiment, and many who expressed their personal
delight at our proceedings, thought we made a great mistake
in offering matter of so high a class at so low a price. For the
select few, they knew strong meat would be required, but they
doubted the existence of many who could digest anything
better than the milk-and-water that is deemed suitable for
babes. We knew more of British society than our faint-
hearted friends; we did not expect to circulate with the velo-
city of the penny novel or the startling romance; but we did

* Most of our readers are aware that the moon is supposed to be destitute of
water, and that her seas are dry.

The Domestication of Science. A73

not forget the adage that “many a little makes a mickle’;’’
and although in any given street or town, the cultivators of
Science are an undoubted minority, yet when all are put to-
gether they make a mighty host. We aimed at the homes of
the intellectual, and there we are.

During the past six months we have had a swarm of corre-
spondents ; and although the extent of our constituency ren-
dered it impossible that we could reply to individual communi-
cations, we have not lost sight of any useful hint; and although
we have not repeated our programme in so many words, we
have not forgotten to provide our readers with something to
do, while we have endeavoured to lay before them abundant
matter about which they might pleasantly and profitably think.
From our own observations during many years, and from
portions of our correspondence, we have discerned in many
individuals and families a want of self-help. In reference to
popular astronomy, people deficient in this quality are apt to
forget how easy it is to learn from an almanac—like Die-
trichsen and Hannay’s—a host of necessary facts about the
rising, southing, and setting of the sun, moon, planets, and
stars. In chemistry they forget the number of cheap manuals
which they can easily use, but which we cannot undertake to
reprint. In microscopy they do not perceive that every atom
they come into contact with is an object that they may examine,
and that every description of minute anatomy, or organization,
supplies hints concerning what they are to observe. Persons
whose tastes are decided, and mental fibres firm, may do
wonders by themselves, but co-operation, invaluable to all, is
indispensable to most. The members of a good local society
can see what others do, and how they doit. They can refer to
one colleague for the name of a plant, to another for the de-
scription of a fossil, to a third how to get over a difficulty in
using an instrument of research. In many circles this kind of
mutual help takes place without formal arrangements for its
provision. Families fond of any branch of science naturally
associate together—and how far preferable is a gathering for any
rational purpose, to a conglomeration of tedious mortals bent
upon a millinery and tailorcraft display.

The domestication of science and literature—which are the
closest allies—is a most important incident for civilization and
happiness ; and although the male part of creation may do their
share of the good work, it cannot be accomplished unless the
women choose to aid. The very general failure of mechanics’ and
similar institutions to provide the means for scientific culture, has
naturally arisen from the average condition of the families from
whom their members were derived. Even in the metropolis—if
we except the feeble efforts of the London Institution, which al-

4,74, The Domestication of Science.

though rich in funds, has sunk into a state of intellectual paralysis
—it isin Albemarle Street only, that any association of the kind
does really serviceable work; and even there the pay of the
professors does not equal that of a first-class bookkeeper, or an
attorney’s managing clerk. In 1801 Davy was secured for a
hundred guineas a year, “‘one room, coals, and candles.”
Faraday began with twenty-five shillings a week, and it was
only in 1853 that his remuneration reached the annual value of
£300. Tyndall was captured in 1853 for the small sum of £200,
and in 1859 his income was raised to £300. We mention these
facts as specimens of the difficulties which still beset the pur-
suit of science, for although considerable incomes may now be
gained im some departments, original research, and the best
kind of popular exposition are as unremunerative as of old.
What we want for the domestication of science is, that each
town and district should regularly supply two courses of instruc-
tion, the one elementary, and the other imtended to keep pace
with the advancing knowledge of the day. But whether the
means of study be public or private, a logical system should be
pursued. Thousands of intelligently disposed people find every
scientific subject difficult, because they have never mastered the
elements of a single one. If the principle of the lever, the
nature of fluid pressure and motion, the simplest incidents of
electric repulsion, attraction, or induction, the chemical pheno-
mena of combustion and combination are not understood, no
progress can be made. Such matters ought to be taught alike
to boys and girls in school, and easily secure their attention if
illustrated by appropriate experiments. We say these things
ought to be taught m the scholastic routine; but as the great
majority of the pupils of expensive establishments learn no
more of them than if they had been placed under chloroform
as soon as the term commenced, and only revived for the holi-
days, the neglect of the pedagogues must be repaired after
their inefficient labours have been performed.

In 1810 Sir Humphry Davy appealed to the “higher fe-
male classes” in words which are now applicable to women of
allranks. He said, “ Let them make it disgraceful for men
to be ignorant, and ignorance will perish; and that part of
their empire founded upon mental improvement will be
strengthened and exalted by time, will be untouched by age,
will be immortal in its youth.’ Unhappily, we have still a
number of uncultivated young men who do not feel at ease in
the society of intelligent women; and mothers of a certain
order lock upon their girls as a kind of live stock, to be grown
so as to suit the taste of the market, whatever it may be.
Notwithstanding these circumstances, the demand for stupidity,
whether male or female, is less than it was; and both sexes

Proceedings of Learned Societies. AWS

are beginning to perceive that, where ignorance rubs against
ignorance, dulness is the result. Domestic life without ideas is
worse than a bottle with no wine init. When the actual busi-
ness of the day is transacted, ignorant people have nothing to in-
terchange, and they suffer the disadvantage of solitary confine-
ment in a crowd of the same sort. Quarrelling, under such
circumstances, is Nature’s effort to break a monotony which
their constitution cannot endure. The happy home is the m-
telligent one, where each member communicates something to
the common stock of thought and knowledge, and where the
family does not consist of an ill-assorted aggregation of babies
great and smali, dependent for their amusement upon some
rattle of frivolity, or the chance of a stranger tickling them
with a fashionable straw. Of such happy homes there are
thousands in our country, and we say of their possessors,
** May their tribe in¢rease.” To them the capture of an insect,
the opening of a flower, the skimming of a pond, or the move-
ments of a star, furnishes occupation and delight. Nor are
human interests forgotten, because all Nature speaks with a
million voices, proclaiming truths which the ignorant do not
hear. As arule, the most cultivated families are the most effi-
cient workers in every useful direction. They may not choose
to go out of doors for purposes of no worth; but, by making all
with whom they come into contact wiser, they augment the
forces which are employed in removing evil, and add to the
powers which labour effectively for good.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIHTIES.

BY W. B. TEGETMEIER.

CHEMICAL SOCIETY.—May 29.

Action or Morpants in Dyernc.—On May 29th, several interest-
ing papers were read. An elaborate memoir by Mr, W. Crum, “ On
the Action of Mordants in Dyeing,” explained, with much detail,
the nature of the union between fabric and dyeing materials. Mr.
Crum repudiated the idea that any chemical union took place,
but regarded the action in some cases as one of adhesion to an
extended surface, in others where the colouring matter (or mordant
and colouring matter) is in solution, absorption took place. The
structure of the fibre bears out this view, for on examining cotton
under the microscope it is seen to be composed of flattened tubes
with translucent walls, permeable, no doubt, to fluids. When
mordants are used they are often deposited within the fibre, and

4.76 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

retained there mechanically, and afterwards, combining with the
dye, serve to fix it in the material. What is technically termed
dead cotton does not take the dye, for being immature or imperfectly
formed fibre, it possesses no central tube; it occurs in small quan-
tities along with ordinary cotton, and remains white and unaffected
after mordanting and dyeing. Mr. Crum exhibited numerous speci-
mens of dyed and printed cotton fabrics in which threads and
bundles of undyed dead fibres were very well seen.

On the same evening Mr. Riley read a paper in which he
announced the presence of titanic acid in a number of specimens
of clay which he had tested for that substance; he believed that it
was an invariable constituent of clay. He found also, that im all
cases in which the blast furnaces produced good iron, titanium
was present. This result is in accordance with the conclusions of
several chemists and manufacturers, who have pursued experiments
in the same direction.

”

CHEMICAL SOCIETY.—June 5.

OxipE or Eruyienr: a Link BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC
Compounps.—The recent meetings of the Chemical Society have
been peculiarly interesting, MM. H. St. Claire-Deville and A.
Wurtz having delivered two instructive and eloquent discourses
to a large concourse of its foreign and English members.

The first-named of these illustrious French chemists gave an
account of the laws of Vapour-Densities, detailing more especially
the chief results of those experiments of his own which tend to
throw light upon certain apparent perturbations of these laws; the
lecturer’s comparison of such perturbations to analogous phenomena
in astronomy and other sciences was most happily conceived and
clearly enounced.

Professor Wurtz’s discourse on “ Oxide of Ethylene, considered
as a Link between Mineral and Organic Chemistry,” was given on
June the 5th. It is to M. Wurtz that we are indebted for the
discovery of many of the most important facts in the history
of that well-known hydrocarbon, ethylene, or olefiant gas. The
first glimpse into the true character of this interesting product
was obtained by Herr H. L. Buff in 1855, but in the following year
M. Wurtz obtained from it several new derivatives, one of these,
more especially remarkable, having given him the means of pro-
curing the substance which formed the topic of his discourse.

The gaseous hydrocarbon ethylene, represented in chemical
symbols by the formula C,H,, has been long known to combine
with two equivalents of chlorine, forming a heavy oily liquid,
C,H,Cl,, termed Dutch Liquid, or Oil of the Dutch chemists.
Now these expressions suggest nothing as to the constitution of
this product, but many views have been held with regard to it ;
some chemists, for instance, believing it to be a compound of
hydrochloric acid and chloride of vinyle (C,H,Cl), because, when’

Proceedings of Learned Societies. AT7

acted upon by caustic potash, hydrochloric acid was removed from
it, in this way :—

C,H,Cl, = HCl a C,H,CL.
Dutch Liquid. | Hydrochloric Acid. | Chloride of Vinyle.

A simpler view regards it as a bichloride, presenting some analogy
with the inorganic chlorides, such as that of platinum :—

C,H,) Cl,. PtCl,
Bichloride of Ethylene. Bichloride of Platinum.

On heating bichloride of ethylene with acetate of silver the follow-
ing change takes place :—One equivalent of the former substance,
containing two equivalents of chlorine, removes, from two equiva-
lents of acetate of silver, two equivalents of silver in the form of
chloride, while the remainder of the constituents of the two bodies
unite to form acetate of ethylene. The chemical equation repre-
senting this change may be put thus :—

C,H, Cl, + 2AgC,H,O, = 2AgCl + C,H,20,H,0,

Bichloride of Acetate of Chloride of Binacetate of
Ethylene. Silver. Silver. Ethylene.
Or thus :-—
C,H,, A 2 + C,H,0, ———a Ag A; + C,H,0,
Ag, 4 (C,H,)” O,
C,H,0O, C,H,O-2

The two dashes placed after the symbol for ethylene, show that it
is equal to two equivalents of silver, Ag».

On exposing binacetate of ethylene to caustic potash, acetic acid
is removed, and hydrate of ethylene formed. Hydrate of ethylene
is also termed glycol, and is an alcohol, standing in the same
relation to ethylene as ordinary alcohol does to ethyle :—

Ethyle. Alcohol. Ethylene. Glycol.
(C,H5)') (C.Hs)" O (CsHy)” = (C,H")” i O
(C,H;)’ H : Hi, i

When glycol, C,H, H,O,, or C,H,, O,, H,O,, is exposed to the
action of hydrochloric acid, a substance intermediate in composition
between Dutch liquid and glycol is formed, namely, C,H,, O,, HCl,
which, when decomposed by caustic potash, yields oxide of ethylene,
C,H,, O,. This is the ether of the series, and stands in the same

relation to ethylene as ordinary ether does to ethyle:— ,»
Ethyle. Oxide of Ethyle. Ethylene. Oxide of Ethylene.
(C,H;)’ (C,H;)’ 1 T\ Uy
(C,H;) (C,H,) { O; (C,H) (C,Hy)"O,

The action of oxydizing agents on this substance gives rise to many
compounds comparable with inorganic bodies ; one series of ethylene
derivatives may be placed side by side with the series derived from
hydrochloric acid, namely :—

C,H,O, ; C,H,O, ; C,H,O;

HCIOL; 2 HClO YS HClO:

A78 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

Oxide of ethylene is a gas.at ordinary temperatures ; but below three
degrees centigrade it is a liquid. When a glass tube containing this
body is opened, a jet of vapour rushes out, and may be lighted. If
this vapour be conducted in a jar of hydrochloric acid gas, it imme-
diately enters into union with it, with almost the energy and rapidity
of ammonia. It is an unique base, without nitrogen, and without
a metal; but it connects these two classes of bases together. It
bears a remarkable analogy to an oxide of a metal, yielding definite
compounds with acids, and even displacing some mineral bases from
their combinations with acids. Its salts form double compounds
with salts of barium, calcium, iron, zinc, copper, lead, and mercury,
and these compounds invariably contain two equivalents of the
metal. From various considerations, however, Professor Wurtz
is led to conclude that the equivalents of these metals should be
doubled; an argument in favour of this conclusion being drawn
from their specific heat, which is half that of many of the other
elements. If the equivalents were doubled, these metals would
occupy a position in the salts above named identical with that
occupied by ethylene. Oxide of ethylene is capable of combining
directly with water, in the same manner as some metallic oxides;
if the water be in excess, glycol is formed; if the oxide preponde-
rate, other hydrates are produced, containing two, three, or four
equivalents of the oxide to one of water. An analogy may be
traced between these hydrates and certain complex hydrates of silicic
and stannic acids, the relations of which had previously seemed
somewhat doubtful.

But oxide of ethylene unites not only with hydrochloric and
other acids, to form a great variety of saline compounds, but also
with ammonia, forming bodies containing one, two, or three equiva- .
lents of oxide to one of ammonia. Of these there are several
analogous to the ammonia compounds of copper, mercury, and
platinum. ;

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.—Juwne 16.

Surveyine Voyace in THE Paciric.—Dr. Shaw read a paper on
the Surveys of H.M.S. Herald, in the Pacific, under the command
of Capt. H. Mangles Denham, R.N., F.R.G.S. This surveying
voyage, undertaken in consequence of the representations made to
Her Majesty’s Government of the benefits which would result to
commerce and navigation from a thorough examination of the
dangers of the Western Pacific, extended from the year 1852 to
1861. A slight conception of the results of this voyage may be
realized when it is mentioned that no fewer than 163 determinations
of latitude and longitude were obtained, besides 2601 magnetic
results, 41 islands carefully mapped, with 42 reefs and shoals, and
450 miles of the Australian coast-line. One of the many practical
results is, that ships making the voyage from India and China to
Australia can now save one-fifth of the distance usually traversed,
owing to many supposed reefs having been expunged from our

Proceedings of Learned Societies. 479

chart, ete. In the South Atlantic, in lat. 37°-S., lon. “37° W.,
soundings were obtained in 7706 fathoms; more than 16,0U0 fee
deeper than the highest mountains are high.

Discoveries iv Canaan.—Dr. Charles Beke then read the second
paper, entitled ‘“‘ Notes on an Excursion to Harran in Padan
Aram, and thence over Mount Gilead into the land of Canaan.” The
town of Harran, near Damascus, having been long since identified
by Dr. Beke with the Harran or Charran of Scripture ; this journey
was undertaken by him, accompanied by Mrs. Beke, in December
last, for the purpose of verifying this identification. Their road was
from Beyrout to Damascus, and thence about fifteen miles further
east to Harran of the Columns, so called from three Ionic columns,
which, with numerous other architectural remains, attest its great
antiquity. At the entrance to the town from the west is an ancient
draw-well, which Dr. Beke regards as representing “‘ Rebekah’s well.”
On the first of January of the present year, the travellers proceeded
to trace the “seven days’ journey” of the patriarch Jacob in his
flight from Padan Aran. They “ passed over the river (Pharpar or
Awaj), and set their faces towards the Mount Gilead;’’ which,
unconnected with any other mountain system, serves as a landmark
and guide to travellers crossing the plains of Hauran from the north
or east. Their route lay along the great Haj road from Damascus
to Mecca, passing through Hshmiskin, the residence of Ahmed-et-
Turk, the Sheikh of the Sheikhs of Hauran, of whose noble and
disinterested conduct in protecting the Christians of Edr’a during
the massacres of 1860, Dr. Beke made honourable mention. Near
Mispeh, at the summit of Gilead, was discovered a cromlech, re-
sembling Kit’s Cotty House in Kent. Passing Mahanaim, and
following always in the footsteps of the patriarch, they reached the
Jordan near the “ ford Jabbok,”’ where Jacob was met by his brother
Hsau. Here they were nearly drowned in crossing the river, after
which they were attacked by Beduins; but in spite of those mis-
haps, they arrived in safety at Nablus, the Shechem of Scripture, on
the tenth day after their departure from Harran.

Mr. Rutherford Alcock, F.R.G-.S., H.B.M.’s Envoy Hxtraordinary
etc., in Japan, then read a short,paper giving an account of his
journey, overland, from Nagasaki to Yeddo, in Japan, principally in
order to see the newly-opened port of Osaca. He started from
Nagasaki on the first of June last year, and in consequence of the
many obstructions on the part of the natives, owing to their un-
conquerable hatred to foreigners of all nations, had the greatest
difficulty in bringing his travels to a successful termination. The
paper also gave an interesting description of the curious customs of
the natives, character of the soil, and the state of our relations with
the Japanese government. Mr. Alcock did not seem to consider it
wise to force on the Japanese commercial relations for which they
were not prepared, and the effect of which would probably be to
disturb the existing state of society in Japan without substituting
anything better.

480 Proceedings of Learned Societies.

ROYAL INSTITUTION.

On Forcz.—Dr. Tyndall’s Lecture on the Correlation of Mecha-
nical Force and Heat, delivered before the members of the Royal
Institution, offers so many remarkable facts, that we are desirous to
reproduce them in a condensed form. A substance suspended at a
height of sixteen feet above the earth’s surface, and allowed to fall,
reaches the surface in one second of time, its velocity, which has
been regularly accelerated, being then at the rate of thirty-two feet
per second. If the movement of this falling body is arrested, the
force is not lost, but converted into heat. ‘Thus the force of a body
fallme sixteen feet is sufficient, if suddenly arrested, to raise its
temperature three-fifths of a degree Fahrenheit. The work done,
or the mechanical force exerted by any moving object, augments
with the square of the velocity; thus, doubling the weight of a
cannon-ball doubles its power; but doubling its velocity, though
the original weight is retained, quadruples its effect. Hence the
efforts of artillerists to augment the velocity of their projectiles. A
rifle bullet has at least forty times the velocity of a body falling for
one second: hence, when suddenly arrested, as by an iron target,
the heat generated, provided it could be concentrated in the bullet,
would raise its temperature to about 960°, sufficient to melt the lead.

The conversion of muscular force into heat is strikingly shown
in the concussion of flint and steel, as in the old method of obtaining a
light. Energetic chemical union is always attended with the evolution
of heat, which may be regarded as being produced by the falling to-
gether of atoms ata high velocity. The heat so evolved can be made
to reproduce the exact amount of force that was arrested in its
production. Thus, the union of a pound of coal with about two
pounds of oxygen evolves an amount of heat capable, if properly
applied, of raising a hundred pounds weight to a height of twenty
miles. The coal raised every year in England amounts to 84,000,000
tons, which, were they all applied to the production of force, would
be equal to 108,000,000 horses working constantly ; or a pound of
coal may be regarded as equal to the force of three hundred horses
working for one minute.

The fact that force may be converted into heat has given rise to
a theory which attributes the light and heat evolved from the sun
to the falling of meteoric bodies on to its surface. Of the amount
of heat produced by this luminary, some idea may be gained from
the fact that the earth receives only 1-2,300,000,000th part. More-
over, it is calculated that the heat given out by the sun every
minute is sufficient to boil 12,000,000 cubic miles of ice-cold water.
This vast amount of heat is supposed by Dr. Mayer of Heilbron to
be due to the falling into the sun of meteorites. The objection to
the theory that these bodies are too few in number is met by the
fact, that at one observatory alone as many as 240,000 have been
observed in nine hours.

Meteoric bodies attracted by the sun would necessarily move
with a high and rapidly-accelerating velocity, and it is calculated

ee

Notes and Memoranda. 481

that a body falling into the sun at a velocity of 390 miles a second,
would attain a temperature 9000 times that produced by the com-
bustion of coal. A body the size of the earth falling into the sun
would supply its heat for about one hundred years, but would make
no appreciable increase in its bulk; and were the earth’s motion
suddenly arrested, the heat developed would raise the temperature
to such a degree that the elements would be dissipated in vapour.
Notwithstanding the difficulties in the way of receiving this theory
of Dr. Mayer’s, it was regarded by Dr. Tyndall as that which offered
the best explanation of the cause of solar heat.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

DIFFUSION OF RuzBiIpIuM.—M. Grandeau discovers this newly-recognized
metal in coffee, tea, tobacco, grapes, and crude tartar. The tobacco employed
came from Kentucky and Havannah. ‘The leaves were acted upon by water, which
was evaporated, and the residue calcined and tested by the method of spectrum
analysis, which indicated potassium, a small quantity of lithium, and a notable
proportion of rubidium. Coffee is still richer in rubidium than tobacco; but, as
is the case with tea, yields no trace of lithium. He found no rubidium in colza,
cocoa, and cane sugar, nor in certain kinds of fucus.

DISTRIBUTION OF SPRINGS.—The Abbé Richard, Professor at the little school
of Montlieu, announces his discovery of what he calls a “ hydrogeologic” law, by
which he professes to be able to tell, after a brief examination of the soil, the
position and depth, together with the volume of the water to be found below. He
gives numerous instances of successful predictions, but states that before explaining
his method he wishes to verify it by further experiments.

EXPERIMENTS ON Sotupitiry.—M. Gay-Lussac has ascertained that the
** solubility of a body is not modified when it passes from the solid to the liquid
state.” The converse of this proposition is also affirmed, that is to say, “that the
presence of a solvent does not modify the fusing temperature of a body if no
chemical action takes place.” Thus, if finely-divided sulphur is suspended im sul-
phuric acid, bichloride of tin, and amylic alcohol, which are three of its solvents,
it is seen to enter into fusion (be dissolved) in the three liquids exactly at the
same temperature of 111°°5 Cent. Phosphorus enters into fusion at 44° Cent. in
water, the various alcohols, chloroform, bichloride of tin, etc. Similar observations
have been made with iodine, and various fatty bodies, always with similar results.

Transit or Trran.—M. Chacornac has presented to the French Academy a
drawing of the passage of Titan over the disk of Saturn. In addition to the
shadow M. Chacornac perceived the satellite itself contrasting with the brillant
bands in the centre of the planet—near the margin the satellite became invisible.
This phenomenon is the inverse of that which occurs when Jupiter’s satellites
make their transits, and indicates a difference in the atmosphere of the two
planets. The observations were made with the great Foucault telescope.

Tur Great Srrrat Nesura.—In our last number we mentioned the exa-
mination of this wonderful formation in Canes Venatici, by M. Chacornac, with the
Foucault reflector. The following are the remarks of this astronomer in presenting
his drawing to the French Academy :—‘ We must first notice the stellar appear-
ance of the luminous centres of this double nebula, and observe that the central
nebulosity of the greatest of them, has under high magnification the appearance of
a whirlpool of little stars environing a principal star, which has not the planetary
character indicated by Lord Rosse. These stars, of which those nearest the
centre are seen through a nebulous veil, are not the only novelties, for as many as

482 Notes and Memoranda.

nine are found distributed in the whorls of the great nebula, and which are not
shown in the drawings of Lord Rosse. In addition to these objects, of which I .
hope to discover more, I would call attention to divers branches of the spiraloid
nebula as crossing each other in a different manner. The configuration of the
most brilliant spirals, as indicated in our drawing, establishes the accuracy of the
representation given by Sir J. Herschel. The branch which ties the smaller to
the greater nebula, cuts the two principal spirals of the latter, near the place where
these branches cross, in such a way that the interlacing of the curves presents the
aspect of a spherical triangle. The companion nebula itself exhibits a spiral
form, and not the appearance of a planetary disk, surrounded by an uniformly
distributed atmosphere.” Ina communication with which we have been favoured
by M. Chacornac, he informs us that he does not intend to compare the Foucault
telescope in point of power with the giant at Parsonstown. This observation of
the distinguished astronomer has reference to the remarks made in our last number.

ParaFrrin Orns.—At the request of the Manchester Sanitary Association, Mr.
Charles O'Neil, F.C.S., has examined many specimens of paraffin oils. Out of
twenty-five bought in Manchester, sixteen agreed with genuine samples of the
Paraftin Company; the other nine differed from these, and from each other;
three.or four purported to be American, and were called petroline, kerosine, and
photogene. He also obtained fourteen samples from the springs in Pennsylvania
and Canada. One sample from London and one from Liverpool formed an ex-
plosive vapour with air at as lowa temperature as 60° Fahr., and might be con-
sidered decidedly unsafe. At 85° there gave an explosive mixture with air. Of
the remainder, only four formed an explosive mixture at 100°. Of the rest, three
did the same at 120°, and the twenty that were left did so at 150°. Of the twenty
that would not make an explosive mixture at 120°, two were American, and eighteen
Young’s, all of whose manufacture were found safe. Out of thirty-two samples,
twenty were quite safe, three less so, and nine dangerous. In specilie gravity, the
American oils are generally below 816°, but two bad samples were as high as 865°.
Thus specific gravity is no test of their safety. Nor is the boiling point, as many
substances have so high a diffusive power as to compensate for high boiling points
—coal naphtha, for example, which boils at 260°, gives an explosive mixture almost
instantly even at the freezing-point.

CanInE Mapness.—M. Berthaud, writing in La Patrie, states that two mad
dogs were recently taken to the Veterinary School of Alfort, and shut up in a
cage. They exhibited all the symptoms of hydrophobia, and made desperate
efforts to escape and attack the bystanders. After some days both had puppies,
and in turns they manifested maternal affection, and gave way to paroxysms of
their malady. At the expiration of a time not named they died, and the
puppies which survived are kept to see whether they will become afilicted with the
maternal complaint.

Botrprs.—Professor Newton, U.S., describes two of these meteors, which he
saw on the 2nd and 6th of August, 1860. The first, he says, was dissipated in our
atmosphere, or in the earth, and he thinks its enormous velocity would account for
its dissipation before it reached the ground. Those which let fall meteoric stars
he thinks travel at a lower speed.

Tne Companion oF Srrius.—M. Lassell, on hearing of Mr. Alvan Clark’s
discovery, directed his telescope (at Malta) to search for it, and found it with a
power of 231. The angle of position was 83°°85, the distance from the great star
4'"92, Mr. Lassell is astonished at the discrepancy in the measurements of dis-
tance, which at Cambridge, U.S., appeared 10°37 on the 20th of February; at
Paris, 20th March, 7"°4.; at Malta, 11th April, 4’"92.

Raitways AnD Hearru.—Dr. Gallard communicated to the French Academy
a paper on this subject, in which he shows from statistical evidence that the stokers
and guards are not subject to any special maladies peculiar to their vocation, and
that with reference to throat and pulmonary attacks during winter, much good is
effected by their taking a cup of tea or coffee, or a basin of soup every two hours,
or less. Ia many districts, where intermittent fevers had prevailed from time im-

Notes and Memoranda. 483.

memorial, he states that the drainage effected by railway works has removed these
disorders. ;

Aw Oystrr Surin Istanp.—M. Aucapitaine describes an island composed of
layers of oyster shells in the Lake of Diana, on the east coast of Corsica, and
which bears some resemblance to the shell mounds of Saint Michel-en-Lherm in
Lia Vendée. The Corsican island, like these masses, is formed of the shells of
species still living. It is between three and four hundred yards in circumference,
and the greatest elevation about thirty yards, the mean elevation being rather
more than two yards above the sea-level. The fishermen say the Romans used
to deposit there the shells of the oysters, which they salted for exportation, but
he does not believe the island had an artificial origin.

Logwoop as A DistnrecTant.—M. Desmartis describes to the French
Academy an ointment made with equal parts of fat and extract of logwood, as
removing the nauseous odour of putrefying sores.

THe Guinea Worm.—Mr. H. J. Carter, F.R.S., finds some confirmation of
his idea that the Guinea worm is a monster growth of a worm whose natural
habitat is not of the human body, and whose young may be introduced through
the sudorifie ducts in the skin, from the behaviour of certain Filaride who make
their way into the tissues of fungi. He tells us that free microscopic Filaride
frequent gelatinous alge and large fungi by myriads, and that when examining a
large digitiform Xyloria which grows on the decayed trunks of tamarind trees, he
saw delicate thread-like bodies which appeared to exhibit animal motion, and
which projected from the conceptacles of the plant one from each. Extracting a
few with a fine needle, and transferring them to a little water on a slide, he found
them to be young Filaride. The mouths of the conceptacles did not exceed
1-1880th of an inch in diameter, which is less than the size of the openings of the
human sudorific ducts. These observations were read at the Medical and Physical
Society, Bombay, and published in the Annals of Natural History, No. liv.

Funeous Disrase.—The same authority considers that the fungous disease
which ravages the bones and soft part of the feet and ankles is occasioned by the
entrance through the sudorific ducts of minute spores in an amcboid state, and
which attain a monstrous growth as the black fungus in the human body.

Mesozoic Lirz ry Ausrratia.—The Annals of Natural History, No. liv., p.
486, publishes a letter from Professor Owen to Dr. Francis, stating that Mr. J. 8.
Poare dredged up a living encrinite from eight fathoms at King George’s Sound,
Western Australia. Professor Owen adds, ‘‘This, in connection with Stutch-
bury’s discovery of a living Zrigonia at Fort Jackson, and other evidences of
mesozoic life at the antipodes, noticed in the published descriptions of the fossil
marsupials of British oolites, is an interesting fact.

PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SxEA.—According to Cosmos, this phenomenon
was exhibited with extraordinary splendour at Cherbourg on the 18th of May.

Carponic Acip as AN ANESTHETIC.—Dr. Ozonam detailed to the French
Academy on the 2nd of June his experiments on this subject. After forty trials
with delicate animals, whose sleep he had prolonged for one or two hours at a time
without accident, he operated upon a human subject suffering from a deep abscess
in the thigh. He began by administering a mixture of three parts of carbonic
acid and one of common air contained in a caoutchoue bag, and furnished with a
long tube, terminating in an enlarged. opening, capable of receiving the mouth and
nose. his was applied so loosely that the patient could respire air as weil as
the gas mixture. In two minutes he was asleep with accelerated respiration and
abundant perspiration from the face. This last phenomenon, Dr. Ozanam observes,
appears to be the result of a specific action of carbonic acid, which produces it, if
directed upon the skin as a douche, orin a bath. The yatient evinced no con-
sciousness when tle incision was made, but the inhalation of the gas was sus-
pended just before the last cut, which was felt, and the young man awoke. When
the gas is properly administered, consciousness is recovered as soon as the process
is suspended, and Dr. Ozonam claims for his method greater safety than belongs
to chloroform. M. Flourens spoke very favourably of the new plan. It is quite

AS br Notes and Memoranda.

impossible to tell from Dr. Ozanam’s description what proportion of carbonic acid
his patient really did mhale. Professor Miller says, “if the , Proportion exceeds
three or four per cent. of the air, it acts as a narcotic poison.’”” We mention this
as a warning to our non-medical readers against foolish experiments.

Mountain BaroMetEer.—Under this title Messrs. Horne and Thornthwaite
have produced a very excellent aneroid, especially adapted to facilitate the measure-
ment of heights. Being only 2% inches in diameter, it is very portable, while from
the excellent workmanship, no practical loss of efficiency is the consequence of its
reduced size. The face is graduated in two circles, the outer one giving the baro-
metrical pressure in inches and tenths of an inch. Below thisis the second circle
upon which the peculiar convenience of the instrument depends. This is graduated
in spaces corresponding with hundreds and thousands of feet, so that a mere
inspection is sufficient, without any calculation, for the measurement of ordinary
heights. Thus if the hand, points to 1000, and on being carried to an elevation
indicates 1100, it is evident that the last station is 100 feet higher than the first.
Where the elevation to be measured is considerable, there will be a difference of
temperature between the upper and lower levels, which must be allowed for to
obtain a correct result; and the makers of this instrument supply a convenient
and easily worked table, calculated in degrees of Fahrenheit according to the
formula of La Place. To test the accuracy of the instrument, we have made
repeated trials with heights of twenty or thirty feet and upwards, always obtaining
closely approximate results. We have also compared its indications with a mercurial
barometer, and observed its prompt indications of slight changes in the density
of the air. We have likewise carried it loose in our pockets during long walks,
and on two railway journeys, to see if a good shaking would doit any harm. The
result of these experiments has been very satisfactory, and we can, therefore,
recommend it to the tourist as a pleasant companion, serving the double purpose
of a good barometer and measurer of heights.

New Pranet.—Mr. Tuttle, Cambridge, U.S., has discovered the 73rd planet.
The asteroid resembles a 13 magnitude star, and was seen on the 8th of April,
near 8 Virginis.

Soap BuBBLES AND MretTEoroLogy.—M. Felix Plateau having been requested
by his father to throw away a liquid of a bad quality which had “been employed
to produce films, endeavoured to make it form a sheet of liquid in its descent,
when to his surprise it took on the shape of a large bubble, and fell slowly. He
repeated the experiment a good many times with soapsuds, and sometimes suec-
ceeded in making as many as fifteen bubbles at a time. He recommends a hemi-
spherical vessel about five inches diameter, holding a considerable quantity of the
fluid, which should be thrown at an angle of 45° with the horizon, and have a
spinning motion communicated to it. In this experiment the elder Plateau saw
an illustration of the formation of vesicles of vapour. The Abbé Moigno remarks
in Cosmos that such a result was quite unexpected, and is eminently curious.

INDEX,

Acari in chemical solutions, 378.

Acclimatization of antelopes, kangaroos,
etc., 263.

Achnanthes longipes and brevipes on
ships’ bottoms, 192.

Achnanthidium lineare, a fresh-water
diatom, 196.

Achromatic microscope, new, 83.

Aguirre, voyage of, 209.

Alloys and compounds of aluminium, 188.

Alloys and compounds of copper, 69.

Aluminium, 176; compounds, 185.

Amphiprora lepidoptera on Corallina,
196.

Amphitetras, localities of, 192.

Analysis by spectrum, 362.

Ancients acquainted with few metals, 176.

Ancient and modern finger-rings, 57.

Andaman Islands, history of, 79.

Angler fish, 353.

Animals likely soon to become extinct,
250.

Antelopes, new species, 259.

Anthidium manicatum, a British bee, 167.

Anthophora elegans, a South American
bee, 178.

ANTIQUITIES AND PHILOLOGy.—Roman
cemetery of Uriconium, 33; ancient
and modern finger-rings, 57; deriva-
tive character of Chinese literature, 84;
cuneatic writing, 98; Medieval Ene-
land, 187; flint arrow-heads, 152;
shell mounds, 239, 483 ; Roman ring-
keys, 242; Roman mining, 295 ; money
and moneyers, 405; gigantic antlers,
397.

Apathus barbutellus, a parasite on Bom-
bus, 167.

Arachnoidiscus, where to find, 191.

Artemia salina, 453.

Artesian well at South Kensington, 159.

Artificial crystals, 83.

Artificial light in spectrum analysis, 365.

Artificial production of varieties of in-
sects, 76.

Aryandes, coins of, 406.

Asilus fasciatus, a fly-bee, 171.

Assyrian history, studies of, 99.

Asterionella formosa, habitat of, 196.

Astronomical discovery in 1861, 2.

VOL. I.—NO. VI.

Astronomical photographs, 324.

AsTronomy.—Recent discoveries in, 2:
earth in comet’s tail, 63; transit of
Mercury, Noy. 12, 1861, 71; double
stars, 142, 266, 431; comet of 1861,
162; Intra-Mercurial planets, 162;
heights of meteors, 217; planets dis-
cernable in April, 1862, 230, May, 265,
June, 373, July, 431; Hind’s variable
nebula, 244; comet of 1860, 244;
companion of Sirius, 324, 401, 482 ;
Foucault telescope, 380; Saturn’s ring,
431; transit of Titan, 431; spiral
nebula, 481; new planet, 484.

Aulacodiscus Oregonus, localities of, 191.

Aurora borealis, characteristics of, 369.

Australian geography, 7.

Australian gold, total amount in Eng-
land, 321.

Australian naturalists, 469.

Aye-aye, habits of, 80, 130.

Bacon and Linneus, parallel suggested,
247.

Bakewell’s copying telegraph, 163.

Balbiani on Infusoria, 463.

Balloon ascents for scientific purposes,
428.

Baltic, why oysters are not found there,
83.

Bee, queen, how produced from mother
egg, 76.

Bees and their counterfeits, 165.

Bessemer’s process of steel manufacture,
427.

Betrothment ring of Luther, 61.

Biddulphia regina in stomachs of Asci-
dians, 192; pulchella, 192.

Blondeau’s reformation of the Mint, 415.

Bolides, 482.

Bombus hortorum, garden humble-bee,
167.

Bones, antiquity of, 161.

Bone and flint arrows found at Wookey
Hole, Somerset, 152.

Books on zoology, 262.

Bos taurus and varieties, 260.

Botany, high demands of as a science,
460.

Botany.—Welwitschia mirabilis,

KK

81;

486

poisonous fungi, 244; hybernation
of fungi, 288; fertilization of orchids,
320, 327; vegetable amceboid bodies,
403. .
Brain-vase of Bos buffalus, 458.
Brighton well, 404.
Burial customs of the Romans, 36.
Burke’s exploring expedition, 7, 78.

Cmstum, how discovered, 365.

Caloric-engines at International Hxhibi-
tion, 426.

Cambodia, 239.

Camphor, movements of, on water, 235.

Canpylodiscus - ecclesianus, ambiguus,
cribrosus, and imperialis, 193.

Canine madness, 482.

Carbolic acid, 162.

Carbon and hydrogen, 324.

Carbonic acid as an anesthetic, 483

Carpenter bees, 336.

Cartilagimous fishes, 226.

Castration, effects of, on individuals and
races, 257.

Cemetery of Uriconium, 34.

Central valley of Scotland, last elevation
of, 319.

Centris flavopicta, 337; denudans, 338.

Cephalosiphon limnias, 49, 234.

Cephalopods, gigantic, 82.

Cesia eumenoides, 173.

Champollion’s researches on cuneatic
inscriptions, 99.

Chemical analysis by diffusion, 5.

CuEmistry.— Recent discoveries in, 5;
artificial crystals, 83; absorption of
heat by gases, 155 ; formation of sili-
ceous minerals, 156; adulteration of
tinfoil, 161; carbolic acid, 162; pe-
troleum springs, 163; heliochromy,
163; action of iodine on tin, 164;
aluminium, 176; oxidized oil, 220;
sodium spectrum, 323; carbon and
hydrogen, 324; spectrum analysis,
362; dialysis, 381; portable styptic,
403 ; experiments on solubility, 481;
paraffin oils, 482 ; logwood as a disin-
fectant, 483; carbonic acid as an
anesthetic, 483; action of mordants
in dyeing, 475; oxide of ethylene, 476.

Chinese literature, derivative character
of, 84.

Chirocephalus diaphanus, 451.

Chloride of aluminium, production of, 180.

Chloride of sodium, discovered by the
spectrum, 364.

Chydorus spheericus, 446.

Choroid gland, muscularity of, 200.

Chromic acid, use of, in examination of
eye-ball, 199.

Chronograph, new, 402.

Chrysantheda, a species of bee, 338.

Indez.

Circulatory system of fishes, 225.

Climates of the earth, changes of, 332.

Cocconeis scutellum on Cladophora, 195 ;

» Thyaitsii, 197.

Cod-fish, eye of, 199.

Coinage of the ancients, 406; of early
English period, 408.

Coins found at Uriconium, 45.

Colletonema eximium, a rare diatom, 195.

Colour blindness, instances cited, 112.

Colour and vision, 103.

Colymbus glacialis, 357.

Coma of comets, 64.

Combustion, a generation of force, 14.

Comets, density of, 66.

Comets, new theory of, 242.

Comet of 1561, 162; of 1860, 244.

Companion of Sirius, 401, 482.

Complementary colours of double stars,
149.

Cone, structures in eye of cod-fish, 205.

Consanguinity a key to varieties, 253.

Cookery in the Middle Ages, 141.

Copper, jottings on, 67.

Coral, development of, 402; growth of,
161.

Corticium arachnoideum, a sclerotoid
fungus, 293.

Coscinodiscus subtilis on Dutch rushes, ~
192.

Cosmical phenomena investigated, 3.

Cremation, how performed by the Ro-
mans, 37.

Crocisa picta, a South American bee, 173.

Cryolite, a source of aluminium, 182.

Cryptogamic botany, advance of, 204.

Crystallizations for polariscope, 404.

Crystalloids, behaviour of, 383.

Cuckoo bees, 165.

Cuneatic characters, how first explamed
98.

Currencies of the ancients, 405.

Cuttle-fish, shell of, 174.

Cuvier and Linneus, their respective
labours, 245.

Cuvier’s “ Régne Animal” cited, 246.

Cyclops, a modern, 403; quadricornis, 446.

Cyclotella operculata, habitat of, 197;
punctata, valves of, 195.

Cysts of diatoms, 402.

=

RD ET RN eNom i

Darunra rotunda, ephippium of, 450. f
“ Darics” and “ Philips,” coins so called, ‘
405. AS
Deep sea life, curiosities of, 6. s
Deglutition of ophidians, 127.
Designs for manufactures suggested, 113. |
Design, use of microscope in, 111.
Development of life on the globe, 330.
Dialysis, 381 ; principles of, 6. }
Diatoma byalinum in timber ponds, 192; ;
vulgare and elongatum, 196. {

~ Index.

Diatom cysts, 402.

Diatoms, hunting for, 190.

Diffusion of rubidium, 481.

Diseases of man and animals, 243.

Disinfecting uses of logwood, 483.

Disk, petaloid, of Cephalosiphon limnias,
51, 54,

Distoma crassum, veliporum, and gigas,
etc., described, 28; species from ani-
mals j in the Zoologie al Gardens, 348.

Distomids, notes on, 24, 116.

Divining rod, 241.

Divisibility of matter, 162.

Domestication of science, 471.

Double stars, 142, 266.

Dragon-fly, vision of, 105.

EARTH in comet’s tail, 63.

Electrolysis for obtaining aluminium, 183.

_Electro-magnet as a motive power, 21.

Hlectro-magnetic engine at International
Exhibition, 426.

Electro-plating and gilding, 339.

Elephant likely soon to be extinct, 251.

Embryogeny, 161.

Engineering, progress of, in 1861, 9;
first applications of, 10.

Entomostraca, 446.

Epithemia musculus in bogs, 195; para-
sitic on Zostera, 192.

Ericsson’s caloric-engine, 20.

Error, sources of, in geology, 327.

Ether vapour as a motive power, 17.

Kithnology of Australia, 393.

Ethylene, oxide of, 476.

Euglossa analis, and pulchra, Brazilian
bees, 337; dimidiata described, 170;
cordata, 173.

Eumenes esuriens, an Indian wasp, 173.
Eupodiscus argus on Dutch rushes, 192 ;
Ralfsii and subtilis on corallina, 196.

Exhibition tactics, 375.

Exotic bees, 334.

Expeditions for scientific discovery, 7.

Hxtinct animals, 250.

Hye of cod-fish described, 199.

Eyes of insects, 103.

Fascroua gigantea described, 28; hepa-
tica figured and described, 117, 347.

Feathered reptile of Solenhofen, 367.

Fecundation of Infusoria, 465.

_ Fecundity of Entomostraca, 453.

Fermentation and generation of Infu-
soria, 89.

Fermentation, M. Pasteur on, 241.

Fertilization of orchids, 388.

Feudal forms and usages, 140.

Finger-rings, ancient and modern, 57.

Fish worl: at home, 223.

Flint arrow-heads, natural formation of,
152.

487

Flukes, physiology and habits of, 25, 347.

Flying-fish of the British coast, 47.

Force, mechanical, produced by heat, 13;
Dr. Tyndall on, 480.

Fossil remains of man, 157.

Foucault’s telescope, 380.

Four-horned sheep, curious specimen of,
260.

Fragillaria striatula on seaside stones,195.

Funereal customs of the Romans, 38.

Fungi, hybernation of, 388.

Fungous disease, 483.

GAS-ENGINE, Brunel’s, 19.

Gases, absorption of heat by, 155.

GxEOoGRAPHY.—Progress of discovery, 6 ;
Burke’s exploring expedition, 78;
Kolimandjaro, 154; ascent of the Ogun,
155; voyage of Aguirre in search of
El Dorado, 209; Cambodia, 239;
Highlands of Peru, 278; ascent of
Yang-tse-Kiang, 394; Fiji Islands,
396 ; Vancouver’s Island, 397.

Geological value of recent occurrences,
370.

GEoLoGy anD Mineratogy.—LHruption
of Vesuvius, 84; bone and flint arrow-
heads found at Wookey Hole, Somer-
set, 152; formation of silicious mine-
rals, 156; fossil remains of man, 157 ;
artesian wells, 159, 404; antiquity of
bones, 161; land animals of the coal
measures, 163 ; volcanic island in the
Caspian, 163; ice-worn rocks of Scot-
land, 286; volcanic phenomena in
Manilla, 241; Roman mining, 295;
last elevation of Central Valley of
Scotland, 319; trepidation of the soil
at Nice, 324; life changes on the
globe, 325; geological value of recent
occurrences, 370.

Geology as related to zoology, 252.

Germs, organic, distribution of, 89.

Glass vessels found at Uriconium, 42.

Gleanings from the Exhibition, 398.

Gold coins of the ancients, 406.

Goldsmiths’ work in Middle Ages, 61.

Gomphonema marina on Cladophora,
195 ; geminatum and ventricosum, 196.

Grammatophora serpentina and marina,
191 ; serpentina on alge, 192.

Grecian finger-rings, 58.

Griphosaurus, the feathered reptile, 367.

Grotefend’s researches on cuneatic in-
scriptions, 99.

Guinea-worm, 483.

Guramie, introduction of, to Australia,
470.

Hatt and snow, 428.
Hailstones of the 7th of ‘ae 1862,, at
Tynemouth, 444.

488 Index.

Hairless men of Australia, 393.

Haunts of the condor, 278.

Heart, movements of, 84.

Heliochromy, 163.

Heliography, 243.

Heterogenesis, theory of, 91.

Himantidium undulatum in brooks, 196.

Hind’s variable nebula, 244, 401.

Hippocampus, habits of, 469.

Historical tests of the permanency of
species, 254.

Hive bee and its congeners, 166.

Homeopathic medicines and the spec-
troscope, 404.

Homomorphism as a basis of classifica-
tion, 249.

Horned animals, curious points in their
history, 258.

Houses with one chimney, 83.

Hurricane of May 1862, 436.

tyes cave at Wookey Hole, Somerset,

2.

Hylaosira delicatula on marine alge, 195.

Hybrids, fertility of, 160.

Hybrid hares and duck, 255.

Icr-worn rocks of Scotland, 236.

Icthyology, studies of, 223.

Idol head of the Jivaros, 135.

Ignition-gas engine, invention of, 20.

Incubation of the python, 237.

Industry, new temple of, 212.

Infusoria, experiments on production of,
87, 463.

Infusorial life, conditions of, 85.

Injection of the eye of the cod-fish, 203.

Improvement in kelp manufacture, 402.

Insect destroyer, 401.

Insect vision and sleep, 102.

Insects, nerves of, 2411. .

sects varieties of, artificially produced,

INTERNATIONAL Exurprrion.—Architec-
ture and decorations, 212 ; Exhibition
tactics, 375 ; machinery, 421; miscel-
laneous gleanings, 398.

Intra-Mercurial planets, 162.

Iodine, effects of, on tin, 164.

JENYNS’s memoir of Henslow, 459.
Jivaros, idol of, 135.

Jottings on copper, 67.

Jupiter, satellites of, 232.

KILIMANDIARO, ascent of, 154.

Lanxpd animals of the coal measures, 163.

Lead mines of the Romans, 307.

Leeches, 402.

Lepidosiren, 322.

Leporines produced at Zoological Gar-
dens, 255.

Licmophora flabellata in salt lagoons, 195-

Life, infusorial, 85. .

Life changes on the globe, 325.

Light, influence of, in the generation of
infusoria, 90 ; dispersion of, 82.

Liver entozoon of cattle, 115.

Locomotive engines, four-cylinder, 423.

Logwood as a disinfectant, 483.

Lophius piscatrix, 353.

MacuINE-TOOLS at International Exhibi-
tion, 423.

Machinery at Great Exhibition, 421.

Man, fossil remains of, 157.

Mangold-wuyrzel fly, 82.

Markings on diatoms, 404,

Marsupials, Linnzean arrangement of, 247.

Mechanical powers analyzed, 11.

Medieval customs, 139.

Medieval England, 137.

Melicerta, relations of, to Limnias, 50.

Melosira nummuloides and Borrerii, 193.

Mesozoic life in Australia, 483.

Metallic earths, Davy’s researches on, 178.

Metallurgy of the Romans, 296.

MrrtaLLurey.—Jottings on copper, 67;
aluminium, 176; fusibility of iron, 240;
Roman mining, 295; Australian gold,
321; electro-plating, 339; new alloys,
408 ; diffusion, 481.

MerrTeoroLocy.—Progress, 4; Hadleian
theory of winds, 244; observations at
Kew, 309 ; atmospheric perturbations,
368 ; hail and snow, 428; hurricane
of May, 1862, 436; soap-bubbles and
meteorology, 484.

Meteors, observed heights of, 217.

Mexican civilization, 210.

Microscopy.—Cephalosiphon __limnias,
49, 234; parasites, 24, 199, 347; po-
lariscope objects, 82, 174, 401, 404 ;
universal achromatic microscope, 83 ;
application of microscope tothe art of
design, 111; shell of cuttle-fish, 174 ;
hunting for diatoms, 190; eye of cod-
fish, 199; microscopic writing, 324;
silkworm disease, 401; diatom cysts,
402; amceboid bodies, 403 ; markings
on diatoms, 404; Entomostraca, 446 ;
infusorial life, 85, 463; museum mi-
croscope, 398.

Microscope, use of, in design, 111.

Microscopie writing, 324.

Milk, physiological effects of, 160.

Mint, consolidation of English, 410.

Mints, origin of, 407.

Molecular repulsion, 287.

Money and moneyers, 405.

Monographs, zoological, 263.

Mordants, action of, 475.

Mountain barometer, 484.

Museum microscope, 398.

Index.

Mutual help in scientific studies, 473.
Mythology of South America, 135.

NatTuraL History anp ZooLocy.—
Flukes, 24; skipper, 46; new rotifer,
49; insect varieties, 76; production
of queen bee, 76; brain of quadrumana,
78; aye-aye, 80, 180; Welwitschia,
$1; mangold-wurzel fly, 82; circu-
lation of tadpole, 82; oysters not
found in Baltic, 83; infusorial life,
85; imsect vision and sleep, 102;
liver entozoon of cattle, 115; incuba-
tion of the python, 123, 237; fossil
remains of man, 157; bees and their
counterfeits, 165; diatoms, 190; eye
of cod-fish, 199; fish world at home,
223; dicyodont reptilia, 236 ; progress
of zoology, 245; haunts of the condor,
278; fungi, 288; silk-producing
moths of Asia, 321; lepidosiren, 322 ;
vocal fishes, 324; exotic bees, 334;
parasites from the Zoological Gardens,
347 ; angler fish, 353; feathered rep-
tile of Solenhofen, 367; acari in pho-
tographic baths, 378; hairless men of
Australia, 393 ; leeches, 402 ; Entomo-
straca, 446 ; frontal sinuses of Bos buf-
falus, 457 ; Australian naturalists, 469.

Navicula ellipsis, ambigua, elegans, cus-
pidata, tumeus, Jennerii, 196; and
mutica, 194.

Nebula, spiral, 481.

New alloys, 403.

New Guinea, trade of, 81.

New rotifer, 49, 234, 404.

New planet, 484.

Nice, trepidation of soil at, 324.

Nitzschiasigmaand dubia, 194; palea,196.

Nutrition of acari, 379.

Oak timber, decay of, in sea-water, 249.

Oceanic life, distribution of, 224, 249.

Odontidium mesodon in brooks, 196.

Ogun, account of, 155.

One-chimney houses, 83.

Ophidian reptiles, 124.

Ophrys, fertilization of, 399.

Orchids, fertilization of, 320.

Orthosira arenaria, mirabilis, and spinosa,
197.

--Oxee flavescens, an exotic bee, 337.

Oxides of copper, 68.

Oxidized oil a substitute for elastic gums,
320.

Ovary of infusoria, a basis of classifica-
tion, 464.

Oyster-shell Island, 483.

Oysters not found in the Baltic, 83.

PARAFFIN oils, 482.
Parasites in eye of cod-fish, 208.

489

Parasites of the erder Trematoda, distri-
bution and characters of, 25, 115.

Parasitic bees, 166.

Pasteur on fermentation, 241.

Pasteur’s experiments on spontaneous
generation, 97.

Peculiar greens, 402.

Pellicle on infusions, analysis of, 96.

Penicillium and sclerotium identical, 290.

Percy’s metallurgy reviewed, 67.

Persian inscriptions deciphered, 101.

Petroleum springs of America, 163.

Peziza and sclerotium, how related, 293.

Phosphorescence of the sea, 483.

Photographic hints, 402.

Photography and ethnology, 162.

Puysics.—Discoveries in, 4; prime
moyvers,10 ; visible vibrations by voltaic
currents, 77; dispersion of light, 82 ;
crystals, 83 ; absorption and radiation
of heat by gases, 155; divisibility of
matter, 162; vis inertiz, 164; heights
of meteors, 217; volcanic action, 240,
241; solar repulsion, 286; Plateau’s
films, 319; spectrum analysis, 362 ; mag-
netic perturbations, 368 ; experiments
on solubility, 481; mountain barometer,
484; Dr. Tyndall on force, 480.

Pig iron of the Romans, 299.

Pinnularia cyprinus and peregrina on
ditch weeds, 194.

Planetary shadows, 72.

Planing machines at International Exhi-
bition, 425.

Plateau’s films, 319.

Pleurosigma fasciola, scalprum, augula-
tum, and strigilis, 194.

Podosphenias in salt lagoons, 195.

Poisons, classification of, 386.

Poisonous fungi, 244.

Polarization, preparation of microscopic
objects for, 82, 175, 401.

Portable styptic, 403.

Potamogeton, diatoms of, 195.

Potassium, use of, in obtaining alumi-
nium, 179.

Pottery, examples of Roman, 41.

Pouchet’s experiments on spontaneous
generation, 85.

Prime movers, 10.

Progress of science in 1861, 1.

Properties of aluminium, 184.

Pulex irritans, vision of, 104.

Python, incubation of, 123.

QUADEUMANA, posterior lobes of brain, 78.

Ratiways and health, 482.

Regenerative steam-engine explained, 15.

Reproductive system of the entozoons,
110; of the trematodes, 31.

Reptilia from South Africa, 236.

490

Reptilian economy and classification, 124.
Respiration, M. Flourens on, 243.
Respiratory system of fishes, 225.

Retina of cod-fish, 205.

REVIEWS OF Booxs.—Percy’s Metal-
lurgy, 70; Pasteur and Pouchet on
Infusoria, 85; .Wright’s Medizval
England, 137; Bollaert’s Expedition
of Aguirre, 209; Monographs in Zoo-
logy, 245; Darwin on Fertilization
of Orchids, 387; Jenyns’s Memoir of
Dr. Henslow, 459 ; Surveying Voyages
in the Pacific, 478.

Rhabdonema areuatum on alge, 191; on
Cladophora, 195.

Rhipidiphoras in. salt lagoons, 195.

Rhizosolenia stiliformis in stomachs of
Ascidians, 192.

Rodents, relations of, to Aye-aye, 133.

Roman burial in towns, 34; mining ope-

. rations, 295.

Roman cemetery of Uriconium, 38 ; finger-
rings, 59; ring-keys, 242.

Rotarysteam-engines, first invention of, 16.

Rotifer (Cephalosiphon limnias) new to
Britam, 49.

Rot in sheep, prevention of, 115.

SaTuRN’s ring, 431; the only flat sur-
face known, 265.

Saxon art in England, 139.

Scales and feathers, links between, 328.

Schizonema crucigerum and Dillwynii,
193 ; neglectum, frustules of, 198.

Schultze and Schwann’s experiments on
infusorial generation, 94.

Science, domestication of, 471; progress
of, in 1861, 1.

Sclerotium complanatum and minutum,
hybernation of, 289.

Sea-horse, note on, 469.

Sea-urchin, section of spine of, 113.

Sea-water, effects on oak timber, 239.

Sex, peculiarities of, in the bee, 335.

Shark, natural history of, 226.

Shell mounds of Malay peninsula, 239.

Shooting stars, observed heights of, 217.

Silicious minerals, formation of, 156.

Silk-producing moths of Asia, 321.

Silkworm disease, 401.

ae in frontal bones of Bos buffalus,
457.

Sirius, companion star of, 324, 482.

Skeleton, living, 164.

Skipper, skopster, or saury, 46.

Slack’s marvels of pond life, criticism

on, 50.

Sleep of insects, 102 ; how induced in man
and other animals, 109.

Soap-bubbles and meteorology, 484.

Sodium spectrum, 323.

Soil'at Nice, trepidation of, 324.

Index.

Solar repulsion, 286.

Solitary bees, 434.

Solubility, experiments on, 481.

Species, definition of, 253.

Spectrum analysis, 5.

Spehric and Sclerotia, relations of, 291.

Spiral nebula, 481.

Springs, distribution of, 481.

Star-finder, 323.

Stauroneis salina on ditch weeds, 194:,

Steam crane at International Exhibition,
425 ; engines, improvements in, 422 ;
hammer at International Exhibition,
425 ; power known to the ancients, 15.

Steel from Taranaki, 323.

Stellar movements and systems, 145.

Strength of man compared with animals,
12.

Sun, history of its heat, 3; metallic con-
stitution of its vaporous envelope, 366.

Surirella Brightwellii in lagoons, 194;
ovata in ditches, 198.

Synedra undulata found on alge, 191.

TABELLARIA fenestrataand fioceulosa, 196.

Tadpole, circulation of, 82; physical de-
velopment of, 153.

Talent, various values of, 406.

Tarapaca in Peru, products of, 278.

Telescope, work for, 265.

Terpsine musica, localities of, 191.

Terra cotta, examples of, found at Uri-
conium, 44. s

Terrestrial magnetism, 244.

Thames valley, geology of, 370.

Tin, effects of iodine on, 164.

Tinfoil, adulteration of, 161.

Tissues, Dr. Beale on, 403.

Titan, transit of, 481.

Transformations of Entomostraca, 449.

Transit of Titan, 481.

Transit of Mercury, Noy. 12, 1861, 71.

Transmutation of species, 254,

Trematodes, distribution of, in animals,
26, 348.

Triceratium Wilkesii, localities of, 191 ;
fayus, on Dutch rushes, 192.

Vacuum engine, invention of, 19.

Vapours used as motive powers, 18.

Varieties, how produced and preserved,
255 ; of insects artificially produeed, 76.

Vegetable amceboid bodies, 403.

Velocity of Bolides, 162.

Vertebrata, blood corpusules of, 287.

Vesuvius, eruption of, 84; electrical phe-
nomena of, 241.

Vision of fishes, 201.

Vision of insects, 102.

Vis inertise, effect of, 164.

Vocal fishes, 324.

Volcanic island in the Caspian, 163.

=

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Sh le. tn

Ce aes te ene

ey pees

Inst of Illustrations, 491

Volcanic action, influence of water on, | Welwitschia wirabilis, 81.

240; action in Manilla, 241. Work of the year, 1.
Volcano, new, in Chili, 162. Writing, microscopic, 324.
Voltaic currents productive of sounds

and visible vibrations, 77. XYLOCOPA nigrita, a Sierra Leone bee,
Volucella plumata described, 169. 172; nobilis, figured and described, 336.
Uxva, diatoms common to, 1938. YeEaR 1861, scientific work of, 1.
Unwholesome food, 385.
Uriconium, cemetery of, 38. ZozA, a transition form of crustaceans,

449,

Wars of the orchids, 387. Zoology, progress of, 245.

Wedding-rings, ancient and modern, 57. | Zostera, diatoms common to, 192.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOURS.

PAGE PAGE
Amphistoma conicum . . . . . 24] Eyeofthe Cod-fish. . . . . . 199
Fasciola hepatica. . . . . . . 117 | Beautiful Exotic Bees (frontispiece) 336
Bees and their Counterfeits . . . 165 | Distoma conjunctum. Bice. cats:

ILLUSTRATIONS IN SILVER.

The Celebrated Simon Petition The Wyon Crown Piece . . . . 416
@rowitw sips press cbt ack . 406

TINTED PLATES

Haunts of the Condorin Peru . . 279

Cephalosiphon limnias. . . . . 49
Entrance to Roman Mime. . . . 295

AO GTIATENS OE ORG in ee een EL

ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
(Printed with the Text.)

Site of the Cemetery of Uriconium. 34 | Bees and their Counterfeits . 167, 172
Sepulchral Urns from Uriconium . 41] Larve of Bees; . . . . . . . 169
Roman Glass Vessels and Pottery . 43 | Meteors and Shooting Stars . . . 218
Skipper, Skopster, or Saury . . . 46|HornsofSangaOx. ... . . 261
Rotifer new to Britain. . . . 54,55 | Four-horned Sheep... . . . 261
Ancient and Modern Finger-Rings. 62 | Symmetrical Horns of Kobus maria, 259
Earth in the Comet’s Tail. . . . 64 | Symmetrical Horns of Sable Antelope 259

Planet's Shadow . . . . . . . 71{Hybernation of Fungi . 289, 290, 291
Ring of Saturn . . . . . . . 42] Oak Spades found in Roman Mine. 301
Transit of Mercury . . . . 73, 74,75 | Electro-plating and Gilding . . . 341
Cuneatic Characters of Babylon, As- Parasites from Zoological Gardens
syria, and Persia. . . . .. . 101 348, 349, 301, 352

micalnatpAve-ayer.i i) si leip tse -- 18t | Angler, The 25 2) 2" - Me | ood
Lower Jaw of Aye-aye . . . . . 1831] Reproduction of Infusoria . . 466, 468
Forehand of Aye-aye . . . . .132|Hailstones . . . . . . « . » 444

Idol Head of the Jivaros . . . .135/Entomostraca. . . . . . . . 447
Field of Astronomical Eye-Piece. . 147 | Frontal Sinuses of Bos Buffalus. . 457

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