iiliiiii
.>ii^i».^ji2^.
■■'\-i''Qi 'i,M 1 ',iX-
ir*'
//
HAVING been requested by Mr. Finley to give my
opinion of Dr. J. E, Smith's Introduction to Botany,
which he is about to republish, I have no hesitation to
say, that I believe it to be an excellent work, perfectly
well suited to the purpose of instructing those persons
who wiih to study Botany, and to know the Science in
its presc t state of perfection.
J. CORREA DE SERRA
* />
u,c^
'^ <^^ ^^^^^^^^^k^p^
AT^^ I N'^raO BIT C TI ■
TO
V -^^^*. .^.^^yly.
"-BO-rViiY-.
JAMK ^ KUDlYAttiFJ) f=i ^l II 'II' " H MJ3. F.R.a.&°c.
Fv e .si. 335.
The result of all Mr. Knight's experiments and re-
marks seems to be, that the fluids destined to nourish a
54 MR. KNIGHT'S EXPETtTMRNTS.
plant, being absorbed by the root and become sap, are
curried up into the leaves by these vessels, called by him
central vessels, from their situation near the pith. A
particular set otthem, appropriated to each leaf, branches
off, a few inches below the leaf to which they belong,
from the main channels that pass along the alburnum,
and extend from the fibres of the root to the extremity
of each annual shoot of the plant. As they approach the
leaf to which they are destined, the central vessels be-
come more numerous, or subdivided. " To these ves-
sels," says Mr. Knight, " the spiral tubes are every
"where appendages." /i. 336. By this expression, and
by a passage in the following page,* 337, this writer
might seem to consider the spiral line, which forms the
coats of these vessels, as itself a pervious tube, O'- else
that he was speaking of other tubes with a spiral coat,
companions of the sap-vessels ; but the plate which ac-
companies his dissertation, and the perspicuous mode in
which he treats the subject throughout, prevent our
mistaking him on the last point. In order to conceive
how the sap can be so powerfully conveyed as it is
through the vessels in which it flows, from the root of a
tall tree to its highest branches, we must take into con-
sideration the action of heat. We all know that this is
necessary to the growth and health of plants ; and that it
requires to be nicely adjusted in degree, in order to suit
* « The whole of the fluid, which passes from the wood to
the leaf, seems to me evidently to be conveyed through a single
kind of vessel ; for the spiral tubes will neither carry coloured
infusions, nor in the smallest degree retard the withering of the
leaf, when the central vessels are divided." Knight.
PROPULSION OF THE SAP. 55
the constitutlofts of different tribes of plants destined for
different parts of the globe. It cannot but act as a stim-
ulus Jo the^ living principle, and is one of the most pow-
erful agents of Nature upon the vegetable as well as
animal constitution. Besides this, however, various
mechanical causes may be supposed to have their effect ;
as the frequently spiral or screw-like form of the vessels,
in some of which, when separated from the plant, Mal-
pighi tells us he once saw a very beautiful undulating
motion that appeared spontaneous. This indeed has
not been seen by any other person, nor can it be sup-
posed that parts so delicate can, in general, be removed
from their natural situation, without the destruction of
that fine irritability on which such a motion must de-
pend. We may also take into consideration the agitation
of the vegetable body by winds, which is known by
experience to be so wholesome to it,* and must serve
powerfully to propel the fluids of lofty trees ; the pas-
sage, and evolution perhaps, of air in other parts or ves-
sels surrounding and compressing these ; and lastly the
action, so ingeniously supposed by Mr. Knight, of those
thin shining plates called the silver grain, visible in oak
wood, which passing upon the sap- vessels, and being
apparently susceptible of quick changes from varicitions
in heat or other causes, may h:ive a poweiful effect.
" Their restless temper," says M . Kaight, " after the
tree has ceased to live, inclines me to believe that they
are not made to be idle whilst it continues alive." Phil.
* See Mr. Knight's experiments in confirmation of this in the
Phil. Trans, for 1803,/;. 208.
5:6 ACTION OF THE SILVER GRAIN.
Trans, for 1801,/?. 344. These plates are presumed
by the author just quoted to be peculiarly useful in as-
sisting the ascent of the sap through the alburnum of
the trunk or chief branches, where indeed the spiral
coats of the vessels are either wanting, or less elastic
than in the leaf-stalks and summits of the more tender
shoots.
However its conveyance may be accomplished, it is
certain that the sap does reach the parts above mention-
ed, and there can surely be now as little doubt of the
vessels in which it runs. That these vessels have been
thought to contain air only, is well accounted for bv Dr,
Darwin, on the principle of their not collapsing when
emptied of their sap ; which is owing to their rigidity,
and the elastic nature of their coats. When a portion
of a stem or branch is cut off, the sap soon exhales from
it, or rather is pushed out by the action of the vessels
themselves : hence they are found empty ; and for the
same reason the arteries of animals were formerly
thought to contain air only. When the sap-vessels
have parted with their natural contents, air and even
quicksilver will readily pass through them, as is shown
by various experiments. Arguments in support of any
theorv must be very cautiously deduced from such ex-
periments, or from any other observations not made on
vegetables in their most natural state and condition ; andj
above all, that great agent the vital principle must always
be kept in view, in preference to mere mechanical con-
siderations.
These to which I give the common name of sap-
vessels, comprehending the common tubes of the albur-
COURSE OF THE SAP. St
num, and the central vessels, of Mr. Knight, may be
considered as analogous to the arteries of animals ; or
rather they are the stomach, lacteals and arteries all in
one, for I conceive it to be a great error in Dr. Darwin
to call by this name the vessels which contain the pecu-
liar secretions of the plant.* These sap-vessels, no
doubt, absorb the nutritious fluids afforded by the soil,
in which possibly, as they pass through the root, some
change analogous to digestion may take place ; for there
is evidently a great difference, in many cases, between
the fluids of the root^ at least the secreted ones, and
those of the rest of the plant ; and this leads us to pre-
sume that some considerable alteration may be wrought
in the sap in its course through that important organ.
The stem, which it next enters, is by no means an es-
sential part, for we see many plants whose leaves and
flowers grow directly from the root.
Part of the sap is conveyed into the flowers and fruit,
where various fine and essential secretions are made
from it, of which we shall speak hereafter. By far the
greater portion of the sap is carried into the leaves, of
the great importance and utility of which to the plant
itself Mr. Knight's theory is the only one that gives us
any adequate or satisfactory notion. In those organs
the sap is exposed to the action of light, air and mois-
ture, three powerful agents, by which it is enabled to
form various secretions, at the same time that much su-
perfluous matter passes off by perspiration. These ^
secretions not only give peculiar flavours and qualities
* Phytologia^ sect. 5
58 COURSE OP THK SAP.
to the leaf itself, but are returned by another set of ves
sels, as Mr. Knight has demonstrated, into the new layer
of bark, which they nourish and bring to perfection,
and which they enable in its turn to secrete matter for a
new layer of alburnum the ensuing year. It is presum-
ed that one set of the returning vessels of trees may
probably be more particularly destined to this latter
office, and another to the secretion of peculiar fluids in
the bark. See Phil. Trans, for 1801, p. 337. In the
bark principally, if I mistake noi, the peculiar secretions
of the plant are perfected, as gum, resin, &c. each un-
doubtedly in an appropriate set of vessels. From what
has just been said of the office of leaves, we readily per-
ceive why all the part of a branch above a leaf or leaf-
bud dies when cut, as each portion receives nourish-
ment, and the means of increase, from the leaf above it.
By the above view of the vegetable ceconomy, it ap-
pears that the vascular s} stem of plants is strictly annual.
This, of course, is admitted in herbaceous plants, the
existence of whose stems, and often of the whole indi-
vidual, is limited to one season ; but it is no less true
with regard to trees. (4) The layer of alburnum on the
(4) [The effect of girdling trees, as practised in new settle-
ments in the United States, is readily explained on the theory of
Mr. Knight. In this operation a circle of bark and also of the
alburnum or outer wood is removed from around the trunk. A
check is thus put both to the ascent and descent of the sup, and
the tree dies in consequence sooner or later. Sometimes how-
ever the sap ascends through a trunk which has been girdled,
and the tree puts out leaves in the Ciisuing sunmier. This lact
is not explained by the principles here laid down, but agrees with
a subsequent paper of Mr. Knight {Phil. Trans. 1808) in which
COURSE OF THE SAP. 59
one h'^nd is added to the wood, and the liher, or inner
layer of the bark, is on the other annexed to the layers
he concludes that the celUilar substance gives passage to the
sap. Though the conclusions of this paper can hardly be ad-
mitted in their full extent, it is nevertheless probable that the
cellular substance of the trunk may exert a vicarious office and
afford a temporary passage to the sap when its proper vessels
are interrupted.
If a ring of bark only is removed, the sap may continue to as-
cend with freedom, but is obstructed in its descent. This ope-
ration may be performed with perfect safety to the tree, provid-
ed the ring taken out is sufficiently narrow, so that the space
may be filled up with new bark from above, during the same
season. In trees which form new bark readily upon the surface
ef the alburnum, as in the instance page 45, the whole trunk
may be stripped with impunity, and sometimes with advantage
to the future health and productiveness of the tree. It is how-
ever often necessary that the trunk should be artificially covered
during the reproduction of the bark Du Hamel mentions trees
in perfect health 15 or 18 years after having been thus depriv-
ed ot their barl-;.
Some improvements in the cultivation of fruits have been
founded upon the intersection of the bark. Buffon removed a
girdle of bark. 3 inches in width, from the trunks of some fruit
trees, and found that they produced blossoms and fruit 3 weeks
sooner than the other trees in their neighbourhood. Mr Wil-
liams in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, states that
grapes came to maturity much earlier, were larger, and better
fla>.oured, when a small circle of bark, one or two eighths of an
inch in width, was removed from around the alburnum of the
fruitful branches, while the fruit was in its young state. This
method is annually practised in the vicinity of Boston by differ-
ent individuals with the best success. The explanation depends
on the theory of Mr. Knigiit, the sap being interrupted in its de-
scent, and confined to the branches above the incision, so that ^
greater quantity of it goes to nourish the fi-uit.]
60 GROWTH OF MONOCOTYLEDONES.
formed in the preceding seasons, and neither have any
share in the process of vegetation for the year ensuing.
Still, as they continue for a long time to be living bodies,
and help to perfect, if not to form, secretions, they must
receive some portion of nourishment from those more
active parts which have taken up their late functions.
There is a tribe of plants called monocotyledoneSy
having only one lobe to the seed,* whose growth re-
quires particular mention. To these belongs the natu-
ral order of Palms, which being the most lofty, and, in
some instances, the most long-lived of plants, have justly
acquired the name of trees. Yet, paradoxical as it may
seem, they are rather perennial herbaceous plants, hav-
ing nothing in common with the growth of trees in
general. Their nature has been learnedly explained by
M. Desfontaines, a celebrated French botanist, and by
M. ?ilirbel in his Traite d'Jnatomie et de Physiologie
F^getales, vol. 1. p. 209, and Linnaeus has long ago
made remarks to the same purpose. The Palms are
formed of successive circular crowns of leaves, which
spring directly from the root. These leaves and their
footstalks are furnished with bundles of large sap- vessels
and returning vessels, like the leaves of our trees.
When one circle of them has performed its office, an-
other is formed within it, which being confined below,
necessarily risies a little above the former. Thus suc-
cessive circles grow one above the other, by which the
vertical increase of the plant is almost without end.
Each circle of leaves is independent of its predecessor,
and has its own clusters of vessels, so that there can be
^ Or i-alher no true cotyledon at all.
or REVERSED PLANTS. Qt
no agsiregation of woody circles ; and yet in some oi'
this tribe the spurious kind of stem, formed in the man-
ner just described, when cut across shows something of
a circular arrangement of fibres, arising from the origi-
nal disposition of the leaves. The common orange lily,
Lilium bulhiferum^ Curt. Mag. t. 36, and white lily,
X. candidum, t. 278, which belong to the same natural
family called monocotyledones^ serve to elucidate this
subject. Their stems, though of only annual duration,
are formed nearly on the same principle as that of a Palm,
and are really congeries of leaves rising one above an-
other, and united by their bases into an apparent stem.
In these the spiral coats of the sap- vessels are very easily
discernible.
To conclude this subject of the propulsion of the sap,
it is necessary to say a few words on the power which
the vessels of plants are reported to possess of convey-
ing their appropriate fluids equally well in either direc-
tion ; or, in other words, that it is indifferent whether
a cutting of any kind be planted with its upper or lower
end in the ground. On this subject also Mr. Knight
has aftbrded us new information, by observing that, in
cuttings so treated, the returning vessels retain so much
of their original nature as to deposit new wood above
the leaf-buds ; that is, in the part of the cutting which,
if planted in its natural position, would have been below
them. It appears, however, that the sap-vessels must
absorb and transmit their sap in a direction contrary to
what is natural ; and it is highly probable, that, after
some revolving seasons, new returning vessels would be
formed in that part of the gtem which is now below the
62 OP UEA'KliSED PLANTS.
buds. I presume there can be no doubt that succes-
sive new branches would deposit their wood in the
usual position. It is nevertheless by no means coinmon
for such inverted cuttings to succeed at all. An ex-
periment to a similar purpose is recorded by Dr. Hales,
Vegetable Staticks, p. 132, ?. 11, of engrafting together
three trecb standing in a row, and then cutting off the
communication between the central one and the earth, so
that it became suspended in the air, and was nourished
merely through its lateral branches. The same e xper-
inu nf was successfully practised by the late Dr. Hope
at Edinburgh upon three Willows, and in the years
1781, 2, and 3, I repeatedly witnessed their health and
vigour. It was observed that the central tree was sev-
eral days later in coming into leaf than its supporters,
but I know not that any other difference was to be per-
ceived between them. The tree which wanted the sup-
port of the ground was, some years after, blown down,
so that we have now no opportunity of examining ihe
course of its vessels, or the mode in which successive
layers of wood were deposited in its branches ; but the
experiment is easily repeated.
Id the weeping variety of the Common Ash, now so
frequent in gardens, the branches are completely inver-
ted as to position, yet the returning fluids appear to run
exactly in their natural direction, depositing new wood,
as they are situated above the buds or leaves ; and if the
end of any branch be cut, all beyond (or beloiv) the next
bud dies ; so that in this case gravitation, to which Mr.
Knight attributes considerable power over the returning
fluidi, Phil. Trans, for 1804, does not counteract the
ordinary course of nature.
I 63 ]
CHAPTER IX.
OF THE SAP, AND tNSENSlBLE PEKSPIUATION-.
The sap of trees, as has been mentioned in the last
chapter, may be obtained by wounding a stem or branch
in spring, just before the buds open, or in the end of au-
tumn, though less copiously, after a slight frost ; yet
not during the frost. In the Palm-trees of hot coun-
tries, it is said to flow from a wound at any time of the
year. It has always been observed to flow from the
young wood or alburnum of our trees, not from the bark ;
which agrees with Mr. Knight's theory.
A common branch of the Vine cut through will yield
about a pint of this fluid in the course of twenty-four
hours. The Birch, Betida alba, affords plenty of sap ;
some other trees yield but a small quantity. It flows
equally upward and downward from a wound, at least
proportionably to the quantity of stem or branch in eith-
er direction to supply it. Some authors have asserted
that in the heat of the day it flows most from the lower
part of a wound, and in the cool of the evening from the
upper ; hence they concluded it was ascendiu": duriiiP-
the first period, and descending in the latter. If the
fact be true some other solution must be sought ; nor
would it be difficult to invent a theory upon this subject :
but we rather prefer the investigation of truth on more
solid foundations.
This great motion, called the Jlozving, of the sap,
which is to be detected princip illy in the spring, and
-slightly in the autumn, is theretoie totally disiiact from
G4 OF THE SAP,
that constant propulsion of it going on in every growing
plant, about which so much has been said in the pre-
ceding chapter, and which is proved by taking an entire
herb of any kind that has been gathered and suffered
to begin to fade, and immersing its root in water. By
absorption through the sap-vessels it presently revives,
for those vessels require a constant supply from the
root.
This JJoxvmg of the sap has been thought to demon-
strate a circulation, because, there being no leaves to car-
ry it off by perspiration, it is evident that, if it were at
these periods running up the s^^p-vessels with such ve-
locity, it must run down again by other channels. As
soon as the leaves expand, its motion is no longer to be
detected. The effusion of sap from plants, when cut or
wounded, is, during the greater part of the year, compar-
atively very small. Their secreted fluids run much
more abundantly.
I conceive therefore that this Jlowing is nothing more
than a facility in the sap to run, owing to the peculiar
irritability of the vegetable body at the times above men-
tioned ; and that it runs only when a wound is made,
being naturally at rest till the leaves open, and admit of
its proper and regular conveyance. Accordingly, lig-
atures made at this period, which show so plainly the
course of the blood in an animal body, have never been
found to throw any light upon the vegetable circulation.
This great facility in the sap to run is the first step to-
wards the revival of vegetation from the torpor of win-
ter ; and its exciting cause is heat, most unquestionably
bv the action of the latter on the vital principle, and
AND INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION. 6'5
scarcely by any mechanical operation, or expansive pow-
er upon the fluids. The effect of heat is in proportion
to the degree of cold to which the plant has been accus-
tomed. In forced plants the irritability, or, to use the
words of a late ingenious author^-, who has applied this
principle very happily to the elucidation of the animal
ceconomy, excitability, is exhausted, as Mr. Knight
well remarks, and they require a stronger stimulus to
grow with vigour. See/>. 91. Hence vegetation goes
on better in the increasing heat of spring than in the de-
creasing heat of autumn. And here I cannot but oflfer,
by way of illustration, a remark on the theory advanced
by La Cepede, the able continuator of Buffon, relative
to serpents. That ingenious writer mentions, very tru-
ly, that these reptiles awake from their torpid state in
the spring, while a much less degree of heat exists in
the atmosphere than is perceptible in the autumn, when,
seemingly from the increasing cold, they become be-
numbed ; and he explains it by supposing a greater de-
gree of electricity in the air at the former season. Dr.
Brown's hypothesis, of their irritability being as it were
accumulated during winter, oflfcrs a much better solution,
either with respect to the animal or vegetable constitu-
tion. For the same reason, it is necessary to apply
warmth very slowly and carefully to persons frozen, or
even chilled only, by a more than usual degree of cold,
which renders them more susceptible of heat, and a tern-
perate diet and very moderate stimulants are most safe
* Dr. John Brown, formerly of Edinburgh. See the 1 4th
Section of Dr. Darwin's Phytologia on this subject.
66 OP THE SAP,
and useful to the unexhausted constitutions of chiMrenr
The same principle accounts for the occasional Jlowing
of the sap in autumn after a slight frost. Such a prema-
ture cold increases the sensibility of the plant to any
warmth that ma}'- follow, and produces, in a degree, the
same state of its constitution as exists after the longer
and severer cold of winter. Let me be allowed a fur-
ther illustration from the animal kingdom. Every body
conversant with labouring cattle must have observed
hovv much sooner they are exhausted by the warm days
of autumn, when the nights are cold, than in much hot-
ter weailier in summer, and this is surtly from the same
cause as the autumnal flowing of the vegetable sap.(5)
The sap, or lymph, of most plants when collected in
the spring as above mentioned, appears to the sight and
taste little else than water, but it soon undergoes fermen-
tation and putref;iction. Even that of the Vine is
scarcely acid, though it can hardly be obtained without
(5) [In addition to the above explanation of the flowing'
of the sap, we may subjoin one which has been suggested, but
not enlarged 0:1, by Mr. Knight. In the spring of the year the
sap begins to ascend from the root sometime before the expan-
sion of the buds. As at this time there are no leaves, flowers,
8cc. on which the sap may be expended, the trunk, becomes
overcharged with it, and will readily bleed if wounded. After
the leaves are developed, and the growth of the new layer of
wood has commenced, all the sap from tlie trunk is required to
atfurd the material for the new growth, and to supply the pro-
digious expenditure by perspiration from the leaves. At this
period no sap flows from incisions in the trunk. In autumn after
a frost has taken place, the functions of the leaves are suddenly
checked, the s^ip is ug dn if.stncted to the tru;iK., the vessds are
again overcharged with fluid, and will bleed again if divided.^
AND INSKNSIRLK P?:RSPIR ATFON. ^f
some of the secreted juices, which in that phmt are ex-
tremely acid and astringent. The sap ol" the Suo;ar
Maple, Acer saccharinum, has no taste, though accoiding
to Du Hamei every 2!00ib. of it will afford 101b. of
sugar. Probtbly, as he remarks, it is not collected
without an admixture of secreted fluids.
As soon as the leaves expand, insensible perspiration
takes place very copiously, chiefl\ from those oigans,
but also in some degree from the bark of the young stem
or branches. The liquor perspired becomes sensible
to us by being collected from a branch introduced into
any sufficiently capacious glass vessel, and proves, for
the most part, a clear watery liquor like the sap, and
subject !o similar chemical changes. It is observed to
be uniform in all plants, or nearly so, as well as the sap,
except where odorous secretions transude along with it.
Still there must be a very essential difference between
the original sap of any plant and its perspiration, the lat-
ter no longer retaining the rudiments of those fine secre-
tions which are elaborated from the former ; but that
diflTerence eludes our senses as well as our chemistry.
Tlie perspiration of some plants is prodigiously great.
The large Annual Sunflower, Hdianthus annuus, Ger-
arde Emac. 751. f. I, according to Dr. Hales, perspires
about 17 times as fast as the ordinary insensible perspi-
ration of the human skin. But of all plants upon record
I think the Cornelian Cherry, Cormis mascula, is most
excessive in this respect. The quanthy of fluid which
evaporates from its leaves in the course of 24 hours, is.
said to be nearly equal to twice the weight of the whole
shrub, Du Hamel PIujs. des Arbres, v, L 145.
[ 68 ]
CHAPTER X.
OF THE SECRETED FLUIDS OF PLANTS. GRAFTIXG. HEAT
OF THE VEGETABLE BODY.
The sap in its passage through the leaves and l^ark
becomes quite a new fluid, possessing the peculiar fla-
vour and qualities of the plant, and not only yielding
woody matter for the increase of the vegetable body, but
furnishing various secreted substances, more or less nu-
merous and different among themselves. These ac-
cordingly are chiefly found in the bark ; and the vessels
containing them often prove upon dissection very large
and conspicuous, as the turpentine-cells of the Fir tribe.
In herbaceous plants, whose stems are only of annual
duration, the perennial roots frequently contain these
fluids in the most perfect state, nor are they, in such,
confined to the bark, but deposited throughout the sub-
stance or wood of the root, as in Rhubarb, lihcum pal-
amafam, Linn. Jil. Fasc. f. 4, and Gentian, Gentian
liitea and purpurea^ Ger. emac. 432, f. \^ 2. In the
wood of the Fir indeed copious depositions of turpen-
tine are made, and in that of every tree more or less of a
gummy, resinous, or saccharine matter is found. Such
must be formed by branches of those returning vessels
that deposit the new alburnum. These juices appear to
be matured, or brought to greater perfection, in layers
of wood or bark that have no longer any principal share
in the circulation of the sap.
The most distinct secretions of vegetables require to
be enumerated under several diffcreiil heads.
SECRETED FLUIDS- 69
Gum or mucilage, a viscid substance of little flavour
or smell, soluble in water, is very general. When su-
perabundant it exudes from many trees in the form of
large drops or lumps, as in Plum, Cherry, and Peach-
trees, and different species of Mimosa or Sensitive plants,
one of which yields the Gum Arabic, others the Gum
Senegal, &c.(6)
Resin is a substance soluble in spirits, and much
more various in different plants than the preceding, as
the Turpentine of the Fir and Juniper, the Red Gum of
New South Wales, produced by one or more species
o^ Eucalyptus^ Bot. of N. Hall. t. 13, and the fragrant
Yellow Gum of the same country, see White'^s Voyage^
235, which exudes spontaneously from the Xanthorrhcea
Hastile, Most vegetable exudations partake of a nature
between these two, being partly soluble in water, partly
in spirits, and are therefore called Gum-resins. The
milky juice of the Fig, Spurge, &c., which Dr. Darwin
has shown, and which every body may see, to be quite
distinct from the sap, is, like animal milk, an emulsion^
or combination of a watery fluid with oil or resin. Ac-
cordingly, when suffered to evaporate in the air, such
fluids become resins or gum-resins, as the Gum Eu-
phorbium. In the Celandine, Chelidonium majus, Engl.
(6) [Mucilage is found in gi'eat quantities in the root of Al-
thea officinalis^ or Marsh Mallow, in the inner bark of Slippery
Elm (Ulimisfulva), in the pith of Sassafras, in the leaves of
different Mallows, Violets, &c. on the seeds of Quinces and
i'lax.}
rO RESINOUS SECRETIOVS.
Bot. f. 1581, and some plants allied to it, the emulsion
is orange-coloured. (7)
The more refined and volatile secretions of a resinous
nature are called Essential Oils, and are often higMj
aromatic and odoriferous. One of the most exquisite
of these is afforded by the Cinniimon bark. Tl'.ey exist
in the highest perfection in the perfumed effluvia of
flowers, some of which, capable of combination, with
spirituous fluids, are obtainable by distillation, as that
of the Lavender and Rose ; while the essential oil of
the Jasmine is best procured by immersing the flowers
in expressed oil which imbibes and retains their fra-
grance. Such Expressed or Gross Oils, as they are
called, to distinguish them from essential oils obtained
by distillation, are chiefly found in the seeds of plants.
In the pulp of the Olive indeed they occur in the form
of an emulsion, mixed with watery and bitter fluids, from
which the oil easily separates by its superior lightness.
These expressed oils are not soluble in spirits or water,
(7) [The resinous juice, known in the northern states by the
name of Fir balsajn., is a spontiineous exudation from the Pinus
Balsamea, retained in little sacs or vesicles upon the bark.
Turpentine is obtained in great quantities from the North
American Pines, particularly Pinus Palustris. by incisions or
excavations in the trunk. When Turpentine is distilled, the Oil
of Turpentine comes over, and Resin remains behind. Tar is
obtained from the resinous trees by a slow combustion of their
wood.
Wax is a vegetable product. It exists on the surface of
leaves, and probably in the pollen of flowers. It is obtained in
large quantities from the berries of Mijrica Ccri/era, Bayberry
bush, or Wax Myrtle ; Ijy boiliny; the berries in water until the
wax melts and lloais upon the surlacc.]
BITTER SECRETION*. 71
ifioiij^h by certain intermediate substances they may be
rendered capable of uniting with both.
The Bitter secretion of many plants does not seem
©xactly to accord with any oi the foregoing. Some
facts would seem to prove it of a resinous nature, but it
is often perfectly soluble in water. Remarkable instan-
ces of this secretion are in the Cinchona officinalis or
Peruvian bark, Lambert Cinchona^ t. 1, and every spe-
cies, more or less, of Gentian. (8)
Acid secretions are well known to be very general in
plants. Formerly one uniform vegetable or acetous
acid was supposed common to all plants ; but the refine-
ments of modern chemistry have detected in some a
peculiar kind, as the Oxalic acid, obtained from Oxalis
or Wood Sorrel, and several others. The astringent
principle should seem to be a sort of acid, of which
there are many different forms or kinds, afld among
them the tanning principle of the Oak, Willow, &c.(9)
(8) [The Gendana saponaria and Gentiana Crinita are two
of our most beautiful autumnal plants. The root of the first is
•decidedly bitter.
The roots of Goldthread ( Hdleborus trifolius), of Hydras-
tis Canadensis., and Zanthorhiza Jfiiifolia contain the bitter prin-
ciple in great abundance. See Professor Barton's Materia
Medica of the United StatesJ]
(9} [Among the North-American Oaks, most esteemed for
tpanning, are the Quercus alba, or White Oak, the Quercus vir-
ens, or Live Oak of the southern states, Quercus tinctoria, oP
Black Oak, Quercua falcata, or Spanish Oak, and Quercus pri-
mus monticolay or Rock Cnesnut Oak. For the investigation of
this important genus, as well as for their other lanours, we are
72 ACID AND ALKALINE SECUETIOXS.
On the other hand, two kinds of Alkali are furnished
by vegetables, of which the most general is the Vegeta-
ble Alkali, properly so called, known by the name of
Salt of Tartar, or Salt of Wormwood, or more correctly
by the Arabic term Kali. The Fossil Alkali, or Soda^
is most remarkable in certain succulent phmts that grow
near the sea, belonging to the genera Cfienopodium, Sal-
sola, &c. When these plants are cultivated in a com-
mon soil, they secrete Soda as copiously, provided their
health be good, as in their natural maritime places of
growth.
Sugar, more or less pure, is very generally found in
plants. It is not only the seasoning of most eatable
fruits, but abounds in various roots, as the Carrot, Beet
and Parsnip, and in many plants of the grass or cane
kind besides the famous Sugar Cane Saccharum o£ici-
narum. There is great reason to suppose Sugar
not so properly an original secretion, as the result of a
chemical change in secretions already formed, either of
an acid or mucilaginous nature, or possibly a mixture
of both. In ripening fruits this change is most striking,
and takes place very speedily, seeming to be greatly
promoted by heat and light. By the action of frost, as
Dr. Darwin observes, a different change is wrought in
the mucilage of the vegetable body, and it becomes
starch.
A fine red liquor is afforded by some plants, as the
Bloody Dock or Rumex sanguineus, Engl. Bot. t. 1533,
the Red Cabbage and Red Beet, which appears only to
deeply indebted to those two distinguished botanists, the elder
and younger Michaux."|
VAHIETTES OF SECRETIONS. T^l
mark a variety in all these plants, and not to constitute
a specific difference. It is however perpetuated by seed.
It is cui ions to observe, not only the various secre-
tions of different plants, or families of plants, by which
they differ from each other in taste, smell, qualities and
medical virtues, but also their great number, and strik-
ing difference, frequently in the same plant. Of this
the Peach-tree offers a familiar example. The gum of
this tree is mild and mucilaginous. The bark, leaves,
and flowers abound with a bitter secretion of a purgative
and rather dangerous quality, than which nothing can be
more distinct from the gum. The fruit is replete, not
only with acid, mucilage and sugar, but v\ ith its own
peculiar aromatic and highly volatile secretion, elabo-
rated within itself, on which its fine flavour depends.
How far are we still from understanding ihe whole anat-
omy of the vegetable body, which can create and keep
separate such distinct and discordaiit substances !
Nothing is more astonishing than the secretion of
flinty earth by plants, which, though never suspected till
wiihiii a few }ears, appears to me vvell ascertained. A
sul)-.tancc is found in the hollow stem of the Bamboo,
fAriindo Bamhos of Linnaeus, Nastos of Theophrastos,)
cahtd Tabaxir or Tabasheer, which is supposed in the
East Indies (probably because it is rare and difficult of
acquisition, like the imaginary stone in the head of a
toad) to be endowed with extraordinary virtues. Some
of it, brought to England, underwent a chemical exam-
ination, and proved, as nearly as possible, pure flint.
See Dr. Russell's and Mr. Macie's papers on the sub
74 FLINTY SECRETION.
ject in the Phil. Trans, for 1790 and 1791. It is even
found occasionally in the Bamboo cultivated in our hot-
houses. But we need not search exotic plants for flinty
earth. I have already, in speaking of the Cuticle, chap-
ter 3d, alluded to the discoveries of Mr. Davy, Professor
of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, on this subject.
That able chemist has detected pure flint in the cuticle
of various plants of the family of Grasses, in the Cane
(a kind of Palm) and in the Rough Horsetail, Eqmsetum
hyemale^ Engl. Bot. t. 915. (10) In the latter it is very
copious, and so disposed as to make a natural file, which
renders this plant useful in various manufactures, for
even brass cannot resist its action. Common Wheat
straw, when burnt, is found to contain a portion of flinty
earth in the form of a most exquisite powder, and this
accounts for the utility of burnt straw in giving the last
polish to marble. Ho^v great is the contrast between
this production, if it be a secretion, of the tender vege-
table frame, and those exhalations which constitute the
perfume of flowers ! Oiie is among the most permanent
substaaccs in Nature, an ingredient in the primaeval
mountains of the globe ; the other the invisible untan.
gible breath of a moment !
The odour of plants is unquestionably of a resinous
nature, a volatile essential oil and several phaanomena
attending it well deserve our attentive consideration.
Its general nature is evinced by its ready union with
spirits or oil, not with water ; yet the moisture of the
atmosphere seems, in many instances, poweifully to fa-
(10) [Used in this country under the name of Scouring Rush.]
ODOUR OF PLANTS. 7B
vour its diffusion. This I apprehend to arise more from
the favourable action of such moisture upon the health
and vigour of the plant itself, thus occasionally promot-
ing its odorous secretions, than from the fitness of the
atmosphere, so circumstanced, to convey them. Both
causes however may operate. A number of flowers
which have no scent in the course of the day, smell pow-
erfully in an evening, whether the air be moist or dry, or
whether they happen to be exposed to it or not. This
is the property of some which Linnaeus has elegantly
called Jiores tristes, melancholy flowers, belonging to
various tribes as discordant as possible, agreeing only
in their nocturnal fragrance, which is peculiar, very sim-
ilar and exquisitely delicious in all of them, and in the
pale yellowish, greenish, or brownish tint of their flow-
ers. Among these are Mesembryanthemum noctiflorum,
DHL Elth. t. 206, Pelargonium triste^ Cornut.
Canad. 110, and several species akin to it, Hesperis
tristis, Curt. Mag. t. 730, Cheiranthus tristis, t. 729,
Daphne pontica^ Andrews's Repos. t. 73, Crassula
odoratissima, t. 26, and many others*. A few more,
greatly resembling these in the green hue of their blos-
soms, exhale, in the evening chiefly, a most powerful
* These flowers afford the Poet a new image, which is in-
troduced into the following imitation of Martial, and offered here
solely for its novelty :
Go mingle Arabia's gums
With the spices all India yields.
Go crop each young flower as it blooms*
Go ransack the gardens and field?.
76 SMELL OP NTAV HAY.
lemon-like scent, as Epu^endrum ensifoJhim Sm. Spicil.
t. 24, and Chloranthus incot'.spicuits, Phil. Truns. for
1787, t. 14, great favourites of the Chinese, who seem
peculiarly fond of this scent. There are other instances
of odorous and aromatic secretions, similar among them-
selves, produced by very different plants, as Camphor.
The sweet smell of new hay is found not only in An-
thoxantJmm odoratum, Engt. Bot. t, 647, and ^ome
other grasses, but in Woodruff or Asperula odorata, t.
"755, Melilot or Trifolium officinale, t. 1340, aiid . .1
the varieties, by sf^me deemed species, of Orchis
m Uteris, t. 16 and t. 1873, plants widely different from'
each other in botanical characters, as well as in colour
and every particular except smell. Their odour has
one, peculiarity, that it is not at all perceptible vvhile the
plants are growing, nor till they begin to dry. It pro-
ceeds from their whole herbage, and should seem to es-
cape from the orifices of its containing cells, only when
Let Passtum's all-flowery groves
Their roses profusely bestow.
Go catch the light zephyr that roves
Where the wild thyme and marjoram grow.
Let every pale night-scented flower,
Sad emblem of passion forlorn,
Resign its appropriate hour.
To enhance the rich breath of the morn.
All that art or that nature can find,
Not half so delightful would prove,
Nor their sweets all together combined»
Half so sweet as the breath of my love.
BITTER-ALMOND FLAVOUR, 77
the surrounding vessels, by growing less tursficT, with-
draw their pressure from such orifices. When this
scent of new hay is vehement, it becomes the flavour of
bitter almonds. The taste of syrup of capillaire, ijjiven
by an infusion of Orange flowers, is found in the her-
bage of Gaultheria proctimhens^W) Andr, Repos. f. 1 16,
and Spiraea Ulmaria^ EngL Bot. t. 960, two very differ-
ent plants.
Some of the above examples show an evident analogy
between the smell and colours of flowers, nor are they all
that might be pointed out. A variety of the Chrysan-
themum indictim with orange-coloured flowers has been
lately procured from China by Lady Amelia Hume.
These faintly agree in scent, as they do in colour, with
the Wail-flower, Cherianthus Cheiri ; whereas the com-
mon purple variety of the same Chrysanthemum has a
totally different and much stronger odour.
There is, of course, still more analogy between the
smell of plants in general and their impression on the
palate, insomuch that we are frequently unable to dis-
criminate between the two. The taste is commonly-
more permanent than the smell, but now and then less
so. The root of the Arum maculatum, Engl. Bot. t,
1298, for instance, has, when fresh, a most acrid taste
and irritating quality, totally lost by drying, when the
root becomes simply farinaceous,tasteless and inert ;( 12)
so that well might learned physicians contrive the
(11) [ParU'idge berry of the United States.]
(12) [The same properties occur in the Arnw triphyllum, mv
Thdian Turnip, common throughout the United States.]
rS COLOURS OF PLANTS.
"Compound Powder of Arum," to excuse the continu-
ance of its use in medicine, unless they had always pre-
scribed the recent plant. — Many curious remarks are to
be found in Grew relative to the tastes of plants, imd
their different modes of affecting our organs. Anatomy
of Plants, p. 279—292.
To all the foregoing secretions of vegetables may be
added those on which their various colours depend.
We can but imperfectly account for the green so uni-
versal in their herbage, but we may gratefully ack-
nowledge the beneficence of the Creator in clothing the
earth with a colour the most pleasing and the least fa-
tiguing to our eyes. We may be dazzled with the
brilliancy of a flower-garden, but we repose at leisure
on the verdure of a grove or meadow. Of all greens
the most delicate and beautiful perhaps is displayed by
several umbelliferous plants under our hedges in the
spring.
Some of Nature's richest tints and most elegant com-
binations of colour arc reserved for the petals of flowers,
the most transient of created beings ; and even during
the short existence of the parts they decorate, the co-
lours themselves are often undergoing remarkable varia-
tions. In the pretty little weed called Scorpion-grass,
Myosotis scorpioides, E?igl. Bot. t. 480, and several of
its natural order, the flower-buds are of the most deli-
cate rose-colour, which turns to a bright blue as they
open. Many yellow flowers under the influence of
light become white. Numbers of red, purple or blue
ones are liable, from some unknown cause in the plant
to which they belong, to vary to white. Such varieties
COLOURS OF PLANTS,
-79
are sometimes propagated by seed, and are almost inva-
riably permanent if the plants be propagated by roots,
cuttings or grafting. Px mts of an acid or astringent
nature often become very red in their foliage by the ac
tionoflight, asini?^.72^a:, Polygonum, Epilobhim zndi
Berheris ; and it is remarkable that American plants
in general, as well as such European ones as are par-
ticularly related to them, are distinguished for assuming
various rich tints in their foliage of red, yellow, white
or even blue, at the decline of the year, witness the
Guelder-rose, the Cornel, the Vine, the Sumach, the
Azalea pontica. Curt. Mag. t. 433, and others. Fruits
for the most p^rt incline to a red colour, apparently
from the acid they contain. I have been assured by a
first-rate chemist that the colouring principle of the
Raspberry is a fine blue, turned red, by the acid in the
fruit. The juices of some Fungi, as Boletus bovinus
and Agarlcus deliciosus, Sowerb. Fungi, t, 202, change
almost instantaneously on exposure to\he air, from vgI
low to dark blue or green.
These are a few hints only on a subject which opens
a wide field of inquiry, and which, in professedly chem-
ical, works, is carried to a greater length than I have
thought necessary in a physiological one. See T/zom-
•son^s Chemistrt/, v. 4, and midenow^s Principles of
Botany, 229. We must ever keep in mind, as we ex-
plore it, that our anatomical instruments are not more
inadequate to dissect the organs of a scarcely distin-
guishable insect, than our experimems are to investigate
the fine chemistry of Nature, over which the living pin,
ciple presides .
«t> ITSES OF THE
Before we take leave of the secreted fluids of vegeta-
bles, a few more remarks upon their direct utiii;.y to the
pkmts themselves may not be superfluous. Mal]>ighi
first sufrgested that these secretions might nourish the
plant, and our latest inquiries confirm the suggestion.
Da Hamel compares them to the blood of animals, and
so does Durvvin. But the analogy seems more plain
between the sap, as being nearly uniform in all plants,
and the animal blood, as in that particular they accord,
while the secreted fluids are so very various. Mr.
K light's dieory confirms this analogy, at the same time
that it establishes the opinion of Malpighi. The sap
returning from the leaf, where it has been acted upon by
the air and light, forming ntw wood, is clearlv the cause
of the increase of the vegetable bodv. But it is not so
clear how the resin(jus, gummy or other secretions, laid
aside, as it were, in vessels, out of the great line of cir-
culation, can directly minister to the growth of the tree.
I conceive they may be in this respect analogous to ani-
mal fat, a reservoir of nourishment whenever its ordina-
ry supplies are interrupted, as in the winter, or in seasons
of great drought, or of unusual cold. In such circum-
stances the mucilaginous or saccharine secretions espe-
ciall} , perhaps the most general of all, may be absorbed
into the vegetable constitution ; just as fat is into the
animal one, during the existence of any disease that in-
terrupts the ordinary supplies of food, or interferes with
its due appropriation. It is well known that such ani-
mals as sheep through the winter, grow fat in the autumn
and awake veiy^ lean in the spring. Pcihaps the more
recent layers of wood in a Plum- or Cherry-tree, if they
SECRETED FLUIDS, 81
could be accurately examined, might be found to con-
tain a greater proportion of mucilage at the end of au-
tumn than in the early spring. If these substances do
not nourish the plant, they seem to be of no use to it,
whatever secondary purposes they may answer in the
schemes of Providence. The direct end, with respect
to the plant, of the finer secreted fluids of its fruit can
very well be perceived, as tempting the appetite of an-
imals, and occasioning, through their means, the disper-
sion of the seeds ; and the perfume of flowers may at-
tract insects, and so promote the fertilization of the seed,
as will be explained hereafter.
After what has been said, we need not waste much
time in considering the hypothesis, advanced by some
philosophers, that the sap- vessels are veins and the re-
turning vessels arteries. This is so far correct, that, as
the chyle prepared by the digestive organs, poured into
the veins and mixed with the blood, is, thnjugh the me-
dium of the heart, sent into the lungs to be acted upon
by the air ; so the nutrimental juices of plants, taken up
from the earth, which has been called their stomach, are
carried by the sap- vessels into the leaves, for similar
purposes already mentioned. The improved sap, like
the vivid arterial blood, then proceeds to nourish and
invigorate the whole frame. I very much doubt, how-
ever, if those who suggested the above hypothesis^
could have given so satisfactory an explanation of it.
That the secretions of plants are wonderfully constant
appears from the operation of grafting. This consists
m uniting the branches of two or more separate trees, as
8S GRAFTING.
Dr. Hope's Willows, see p. 62, and a whole row of
Lime-trees in the garden of New College, Oxford,
whose branches thus make a network. Thib is called
grafting by approach. A more common practice, called
budding, or inoculating, is to insert a bud of one tree,
accompanied by a portion of its bark, into the bark of
another, and the tree which is thus engrafted upon is
called the stock. By this mode different kinds of fruits,
as apples, pears, plums, &c., each of which is only a
variety accidentally raised from seed, but no further
perpetuated in the same manner, are nmltiplied, buds
of the kind wanted to be propagated being engrafted on
so many stocks of a wild nature. The mechanical part
of this practice is detailed in Du Hamel, Miller, and
most gardening books. It is of primary importance
that the liber ^ or young bark, of the bud, and that of the
stock, should be accurately united by their edges. The
air and wet must of course be excluded.
It is requisite for the success of this operation that
the plants should be nearly akin. Thus the Chionan-
thiis virg/fiica, Fringe-tree, succeeds well on the Com-
mon Ash, Fraximis excelsior^ by which means it is
propagated in our gardens. Varieties of the same spe-
cies succeed best of all ; but Apples and Pears, two dif-
ferent species of the same genus, may be grafted on one
stock. The story of a Black Rose being produced by
grafting a common rose, it is not worth inquiring which,
on a black currant stock, is, as far as I can learn, with-
out any foundation, and is indeed at the first sight absurd.
I have known the experiment tried to no purpose. The
rose vulgarly reported to be so produced is merely e
HEAT OF VEGKTABLES, 83
dark Double Velvet Rose, a variety, as we presume of
Rosa centifolia. Another report of the same kind has
been raised concerning the Maltese Oranges, whose red
juice has been attributed to their being budded on a
Pomegranate stock, of which I have never been able to
obtain the smallest confirmation.
Heat can scarcely be denominated a secretion, and yet
is undoubtedly a production, of the vegetable as well
as animal body, though in a much lower degree in the
former than the latter. The heat of plants is evinced
by the more speedy melting of snow when in contact
with their leaves or stems, compared with what is lodg-
ed upon dead substances, provided the preceding frost
has been sufficiently permanent to cool those substances
thoroughly. Mr. Hunter appears to have detected this
heat by a thermometer applied in frosty weather to the
internal parts of vegetables newly opened. It is evident
that a certain appropriate portion of heat is a necessary
stimulus to the constitution of every plant, without
which its Hving principle is destroyed. (IS) Most
tropical plants are as effectually killed by a freezing de-
gree of cold, as by a boiling heat, and have nearly the
(13) [The tendency of plants is to preserve an uniform tem-
perature, and to resist both heat and cold. Fruits and leaves,
situated in the sun, preserve themselves cool, while surrounding
objects are heated. Sonnerat discovered in the island of Lucdu
a rivulet, the water of which was so hot, that a thermometer im-
mersed in it rose to i7^° Fahr. Swallows when fiying seven
feet high over it dropped down motionless. Notwithstanding-
the heat, he observed on its banks two species of Asfialathus,
and the Vitex agnus castua, which with their roots swept the
water. In the island of Tanna, Messrs. Forsters found the
84 FORCING OF PLANTS-
same appearance ; which is exemplified every autumn
in the Garden Nasturtium, Tropceolum majus. The
vegetables of cold climates, on the contrary, support a
much greater degree of cold without injury, at least
while in a torpid state ; for when their buds begin to
expand they become vastly more sensible, as is but too
frequently experienced in the fickle spring of our
climate. Nor is this owing, as vulgarly supposed,
merely to the greater power of the cold to penetrate
th'ough their oj)ening buds. It must penetrate equally
through them in the course of long and severe winter
frosts, which are never known to injure them. The
extremely pernicious effects therefore of cold on open-
ing buds can only be attributed to the increased suscepr
tibility of the vital principle, after it has been revived by
the warmth of spring.
The vegetation of most plants may be accelerated by
artificial heat, which is called yorcm^ them, and others
may, by the same means, be kept in tolerable health,
ground near a volcano as hot as 210*, and at the same time cov-
ered with flowers. See Willdenow's Principles of Botany.
In a similar manner the plants of high latitudes are capable of
withstanding intense and long continued cold. Acerbi, in his
travels in Sweden and Lapland, found Pines, Firs, and Birches
from Tornea almost to the North Cape. Mackenzie, in latitude
about 69, near the Frozen ocean, found the ground in July cover-
ed with short grass and flowers, though the earth was not thaw-
ed above four inches from the surface, beneath which was a solid
body of ice. In the island of Spitzbeigen, there grow not less
than thirty species of plants. In these climates, vegetation is
exceedingly rapid during the few months which permit it.]
HEAT OF THE ARUM. 85
ynder a colder sky than is natural to them. But many
alpine plants, naturally buried for months under a deep
snow, are not only extremely impatient of sharp frosts,
but will not bear the least portion of artificial heat. The
pretty Primula maj'ginata^ Curt, Mag. t. 191, if
brought into a room with a fire when beginning to blos-
som, never opens another bud ; while the American
Cowslip, Dodecatheon Meadia, t. 12, one of the most
hardy of plants with respect to cold, bears forcing ad-
mirably well.
Mr. Knight very satisfactorily shows, Phil. Trans.
for 1801, 343, that plants acquire habits vvuh regard. to
heat which prove their vitality, and that a forced Peach-
tree will in the following season expand its buds pre-
maturely in the open air, so as to expose them to inev-
itable destruction. See p. 65. A thousand parallel
instances may be observed, by the sagacious gardener,
of plants retaining the habits of their native climates,
which very often proves one of the greatest impediments
to their successful cultivation.
The most remarkable account that has fallen in my
way concerning the production of heat in plants, is that
given by Lamarck in his Flore Frangoise^ v. 3. 538, of
the common Jrum maculatum, Engl. Pot. t. 1298,
(the white-veined variety,) the flower of which, at a cer-
tain period of its growth, he asserts to be, for a few hours,
" so hot as to seem burning." The learned M. Sene-
bier of Geneva, examining into this fact, discovered
that the heat began when the sheath was about to open,
and the cylindrical body within just peeping forth : and
that it was percept! 'ole from about three or four o'clock
86 HKAlT OF THE ARUAf.
in the afternoon till eleven or twelve at night. Its great-
est degree was seven of Reaumur's scale above the heat
of the air, which at the time of his observation was about
fourteen or fifteen of that thermometer. Such is the ac-
count with which I have been favoured by Dr. Bostock
of Liverpool, from a letter of M. Senebier*, dated Nov.
28, 1796, to M. De la Rive. 1 have not hidierto been
successful in observing the phaenomenon in question,
which however is well worthy of attention, and may
probably not be confined to this species oiArum.
* It is now published in his Physiolog-ie Vegetale.v. S. 314,
where nevertheless this ingenious philosopher has declared his
opinion to be rather against the existence of a spontaneous heat
in vegetables, and he explains even the above striking phaeriom-
won upon chemical principles, which seem to me very inadequate.
[ 87 1
CHAPTER XT.
THE PROCESS OF VEGETATIOX. USE OF THE COTYLEDONS.
When a seed is committed to the ground, it swells by
the moisture which its vessels soon absorb, and which,
in conjunction with some degree of heat, stimulates its
vital principle. Atmospherical air is also necessary to
incipient vegetation, for seeds in general will not grow
under water, except those of aquatic plants, nor under
an exhausted receiver ; and modern chemists have de-
termined oxygen gas, which is always an ingredient in
our atmosphere, to be absorbed by seeds in vegetation.
An experiment is recorded in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, No. 23, of sowing Lettuce-seed in two separ-
ate pots, one of which was placed in the common air,
the other in the vacuum of an air-pump. In the form-
er the young plants rose to the height of two inches, or
more, in a week's time ; in the other none appeared,
till after the pot had been removed for a similar period
into the air again. Seeds buried in the ground to a
greater depth than is natural to them do not vegetate,
but they often retain their power of vegetation for an
unlimited period. Earth taken from a considerable
depth will, when exposed to the air, be soon covered
with young plants, especially of Thistles, or of the Cress
or Mustard kind, though no seeds have been allowed
to liave access to it. If the ground in old established
boianic gardens be dug much deeper than ordinary, it
liequently happens that species which have been long-
88 PUOCESS OF VEGETABLES.
lost are recovered, from their seeds being latent in the
soil, as I have been assured by Mr. Fairbairn of Chelsea
garden, and others.( 14)
The integuments of the seed, having^ fulfilled their
destined office of protection, burst and decay. The
young root is the first part of the infant plant that comes
forth, and by an unerring law of Nature, it is sent down-
wards, to seek out nourishment as well as to fix the plant
to the ground. In sea- weeds, Fuci, Ulvce, and Confer-
Vte-, it seems merely to answer the latter purpose. In
the Dodder, Cuscuta, a parasitical plant, the original
root lasts only till the stems have established themselves
on some vegetable, on whose juices they feed by means
of other roots or fibres, and then withers away.
The descent of the root, and the ascent of the leaf-bud
in a contrary direction, are ingeniously explained by Dr.
Darwin, Phytologia, Sect. 9. 3, on the principle of the
former being stimulated by moisture, and the latter by
air, whence each elongates itself where it is most exci-
ted. This is perhaps more satisfactory than any me-
chanical hypothesis. In whatever position seeds happen
to lie in the earth, the root makes more or less of a
curve in order to shoot downwards. Mr. Hunter sowed
a number of seeds in a basket of earth placed on an axis,
by which their position was a little altered every day.
After the basket had thus made two or three circumvol-
utions, the young roots were found to have formed as
many turns in attenapting to attain their natural perpen-
(14) [Exotic plants are often found growing where the ballast
of vessels has been thrown, and their seeds exposed to the air.]
PROCESS OF VEGETABLES. 89
diciUar direction. Mr. Knight has ascertained, Ph'il.
Trans, for 1806, that a strong centrifugal force apphed
to vep-etating seeds will considerably divert the root from
this direction outwards, while the stem seems to have a
centripetal inclination. (15)
Tlie young root, if it grew in a soil which afforded no
inequality of resistance, would probably in every case be
perfectly straight, like the radical fibres of bulbous roots
in water ; but as scarcely any soil is so perfectly homo-
geneous, the root acquires an uneven or zigzag figure.
It is elongated chiefly at its extremity*, and has always,
at that part especially, more or less of a conical or taper-
ing figure.
When the young root has made some progress, the
two lobes, commonly of a hemispherical figure, which
compose the chief bulk of the seed, swell and expand,
and are raised out of the ground by the ascending stem<
(15) [In this experiment a number of seeds of the Garden
Bean were confined on the surface of a vertical wheel, which
was made to revolve rapidly by a stream of water that like-
wise moistened the seeds. When germination took place, the
radicles tended uniformly toward the circumference and the
plumules towards the centre. When the wheel was placed hor-
izontally, the radicles and plumules pursued an oblique direc-
tion, intermediate between that of the centrifugal and gravitating
forces. Mr. Knight accounts mechanically for the direction of
the young plant, upon the principle of gravitation, the radicle
being elongated by parts successively added to its apex or point,
the plumule by the extension of parts already formed.]
* As may be seen by marking the fibres of Hyacinth roots \n
water, or the roots of Peas made to vegetate in wet cotton wooL
f>f> QV THK COTYLEDONS.
These are called the Cotyledons, f. 4. Between them
is seiited the Embryo or germ of the planr, called by
Limiseiis Corculum or little heart, in allusion to the heart
of ihe walnut. Mr. Knight denominates it the germen,
bill that term is appropriated to a very different part,
the rudiment of the fruit. The expanding E.nbryo, re-
sembling a little feather, has been for that reason named
b} Linnaeus Pliimula ; it soon becomes a tuft of young
leaves, widi which the young srem, if there be any, as-
cends. Till the leaves unfold, and sometimes after, the
cotyledons, assuming their green colour, perform their
functions ; then the latter generally wither. This may
be seen in the Radish, Lupine, Garden Bean, and vari-
ous umbelliferous plants, in all which the expanded coty-
ledons are remarkably different from the true leaves.
Such is the general course of vegetation in plants fur-
nished with two cotyledons, or dicotyledones ; but I
have already mentioned a very distinct tribe called mo-
nocotyledones ; see p. 60. These are the Grass and
Corn tribCj Palms, the beautiful Orchis family, and
many others. In these the body of the seed does not
ascend out of the ground, and they are rather to be con-
sidered as having no cotyledon at all. See Mr. Salis-
bury's pajjer in the Transactions of the Linnean Socie-
ty, V. 7, on the germination of the Orchis tribe. We
reserve more particular remarks on this subject till we
examine the structure of seeds.
Some plants are reckoned by Linnscus to have many
cotyledons, as the Fir and Cypress. But the germina-
tion of these differs in no respect from that of the gene-
rality of dicotyledones. Mi. Lambeit, in his splendid
OF THE COTYLEDONS. yi
history of the genus Finus, iias illustrated this peculiarit}
ot" structure in the Swuss F. Cembra ; see our tab. 1,
Jig. 2. In the Dotnbeya, or Noilolk Island Pine, the co.
tyledons are veiy dicunctly lour : stejig. 3.
The preservation of the vital principle in seeds is
one of those wonders of Nature which pass unregarded,
from being every day under our notice. Some lose
their>, vegrtative power by being kept out of the ground
ever so little a while after they are ripe, and in order to
succeed must sow themselves in tlieir own way, and at
their own time. Others may be sent round the world
through every vicissitude of climate, or buried fur ages
deep in the ground, till favourable circumstances cause
them to vegetate. Great degrees of heat, short of boil-
ing, do not impair the vegetative power of seeds, nor do
we know any degree of cold that has such an effect.
Those who convey seeds from distant countries, should
be instructed to keep them dry ; for if they receive any
damp sufficient to cause an attempt at vegetation, they
necessarily die, because the process cannot, as they are
situated, go on. If, therefore, they are not exposed to
so great an artificial heat as might change the nature of
their oily juices, they can scarcely, according to the ex-
perience of Mr. Salisbury, be kept in too warm a place.
By the preservation of many seeds so long under ground,
it seems that long-continued moisture is not in itself fatal
to their living powers ; neither does it cause their pre-
mature germination, unless accompanied by some action
of the air.
It is usual with gardeners to keep Melon and Cucum-
ber seeds for a few years, in order that the future plants
$2 OF THE COTYLEDONS.
may grow less luxuriantly, and be more abundant in
blossoms and fruit. Dr. Darwin accounts for this from
the damage which the cotyledons may receive from
keeping, by which their power of nourishing the infant
plant, at its first germination, is lessened, and it be-
comes stunted and dwarfish through its whole duration.
Dr. Thomson of Edinburgh, in his System of Chem-
istry, vol. 4, 374, has published a very satisfactory ex-
planation of one part of the functions of the cotyledons.
Several philosophers have discovered that very soon after
the seed begins to imbibe moisture, it gives out a quan-
tity of carbonic acid gas, even though no oxygen gas be
present. In this case the process stops here, and no
germination takes place. But if oxygen gas be present,
it is gradually absorbed in the same proportion. At the
same time the farina of the cotyledons becomes sweet,
being converted into sugar. " Hence it is evident,"
says this intelligent writer, " that the farina is changed
into sugar, by diminishing its carbon, and of course by
augmenting the proportion of its hydrogen and oxygen.*
This is precisely the process of malting, during which it
is well known that there is a considerable heat evolved.
We may conclude from this, that during the germina-
tion of seeds in the earth, there is also an evolution of
a considerable portion of heat. This indeed might
have been expected, as it usually happens when oxygen
gas is absorbed. So far seems to be the work of che-
mistry alone ; at least we have no right to conclude that
* This is also the opinion of M, d;? Saussure, Recherchei
Chimiquea gur la Vegetation, fi. 16.
OP THE COTYLEDONS, 93
any other agent interferes ; since hay, when it happens
to imbibe moisture, exhibits nearly the same proces-
ses."
I conceive the evolution of this heat tnay powerfully
further the progress of vegetation by stimulating the vi-
tal principle of the embryo, till its leaves unfold and as-
sume their functions. It is necessary to observe, that
the above process equally takes place, whether the farin-
aceous particles be lodged in the bulk of the cotyledons
themselves, or compose a separate body, called by au-
thors the albumeriy as in grasses and corn.
[ 94 ]
CHAPTER XII.
«P THE ROOT, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS.
We be,^in the description of the completely formed
ve£!:etable by its Root, as being- the basis of all the rest,
as well as the first part produced from the seed. Its
use in general is two-fold ; to fix the plant to a com-
modious situation, and to derive nourishment for its
support. This part is therefore commonly plunged
deeply into the ground, having, as we have already
shown, a natural tendency to grow downwards. In
some cases however, when plants grow on the stems or
branches of others, as the Dodder or Cuscuta, several
Ferns, and a portion of the Orchis tribe, the root is
closely attached to the bark, from which it draws nour-
ishment, by the under side only, the upper being bare.
The Root consists of two parts, Caudex the body of
the Root, and Radicula the fibre. The latter only is es-
sential, being the part which imbibes nourishment.
Roots are either of annual, biennial or perennial dura-
tion. The first belong to plants which live only one
year, or rather one summer, as Barley ; the second to
such as are produced one season, and, living through
the ensuing winter, produce flowers aiid fruit the follow-
ing summer, as Wheat ; and the third to those which
live and blossom through many succeeding seasons to an
indefinite period, as trees, and many herbaceous plants.
The term biennial is applied to any plant that is produ-
ced one year and flowers another, provided it flowers
OF THE ROOT. 9$
but once, whether that event takes place the second
year, as usual, or whether, from unfavourable circum-
stances, it may happen to be deferred to any future
time. This is often the case with the Lavatera aborea,
Tree Mallow, Engl. Bot. t. 1841, and some other
plants, especially when growing out of their natural soil
or station. Linnaeus justly observes that however har-
dy with respect to cold such plants may prove before
they blossom, they perish at the first approach of the
succeeding winter, nor can any artificial heat preserve
them. This is, no doubt, to be attributed to the ex-
haustion of their vital energy by flowering. Several
plants of hot climates, naturally perennial and even
shrubby, become annual in our gardens, as the Tropieo-
lum^ Garden Nasturtium.
In the Turnip, and sometimes the Carrot, Parsnep,
&c., the Caudcx or body of the root is above-ground
and bare, becoming as it were a stem. Linnaeus indeed
calls the stems of trees " roots above-ground ;" but
this seems paradoxical and scarcely correct. Perhaps it
would be more accurate to say the caudex is a subter-
raneous stem ; but we rather presume it has functions
distinct from the stem, analogous, as has been hinted p,
75, to digestion, at least in those plants whose stems arc
annual though their roots are perennial.
The fibres of the root, particularly those extremities of
them which imbibe nourishment from the, earth, are in
every case strictly annual. During the winter, oi torpid
season of the year, the powers of roots lie dormant,
which season therefore is proper for their transpianra-
tion. After they hav© begun t© throw out new fiijies,
Q6 OF THE ROOT,
it is more or less dangerous, or even fatal, to remove
them. Very young annual plants, as they form new
fibres with great facility, survive transplantation tolera-
bly well, provided they receive abundant supplies of wa-
ter by the leaves till the root has recovered itself.
Botanists distinguish several different kinds of roots,
which are necessary to be known, not only for botanical
purposes, but as being of great importance in agricul-
ture and gardening. The generality of roots may be
arranged under the following heads.
1. Radix fibrosa, fig. 5. A Fibrous Root. The most
simple in its nature of all, consisting only of fibres,
either branched or undivided, which convey nourish-
ment directly to the basis of the stem or leaves.
Many grasses, as Poa annua, Engl. Bot. t. 1141, and
the greater part of annual herbs, have this kind of root.
The radical fibres of grasses that grow in loose sand
are remarkably downy, possibly for the purpose of
fixing them more securely to so slippery a support, or
to multiply the surface or points of absorption in so
mea2:re a source of nutriment. The fibres of some
parasitical plants already alluded to, particularly of
the beautiful genus Epidendrum, are peculiarly thick
and fleshy, not only for the purpose of imbibing the
more nourishment, but also to bind them so strongly
to the branches of trees, as to defy the force of winds
upon their large and rigid leaves.
2. Radix repens, f. (S. A Creeping Root, as in Mint,
Mentha. A kind of subterraneous stem, creeping,
AKD ITS DIFFEKEXT KINDS. 9?
and branching off horizontally, and throwing out
fibres as it goes. This kind of root is cKtrcmelv te-
nacious of life, for any portion of it will grow. Hence
weeds furnished with it are among the most trouble-
some, as the different sorts of Couch-grass, Triticum
repens, Engl. Bot. t. 909, Bolctis mollis, t, 1170, Sec;
while, on the other hand, many sea-side grasses, hav-
ing such a root, prove of the most important service
in binding down loose blowing sand, and so resisting
the encroachments of the ocean. These are princi-
pally Carex arenaria, Engl. Bot. t. 928, Arundo are^
nana, t. 520, and Elymus arenar'ms, t. 1672,
3. Radix fusiformis, / 7. A Spindle-shaped or Ta-
pering Root. Of this the Carrot, Parsncp and Rad-
ish are familiar examples. Such a root is formed, on
the principle of a wedge, for penetrating perpendicu-
larly into the ground. It is common in biennial
plants, but not peculiar to them. The caiidex, which
is the spindle shaped part, abounds with the proper
secreted juices of the plant, and throws out numerous
fibres or radicles, which are in fact the real roots, as
they alone imbibe nourishment.
4. Radix pramorsa,/. 8. An Abrupt Root, is natu-
rally inclined to the last- mentioned form, but from
some decay or interruption in its descending point, it
becomes abrupt, or as it were bitten off. Scahiosa
succisa, Devil's-bit, Scabious, Engl, Bot. t. 878,
Hedypnois hirta, t. 555, and some other Hawk weeds,
have this kind of root, the old opinion concerning
98 OF THE ROOT,
which cannot be better described than in Gerarde'b
Herbal, under the plant first named, p. 726.(16)
*' The great part of the root seemeth to be bitten
away : old fantasticke charmers report, that the divel
did bite it for envie, because it is an herbe that hath
^ so many good vertues, and is so beneficial to man-
kinde." The malice of the devil has unhap-
pily been so successful that no virtues can now be
found in the remainder of the root or herb. '
5. Radix tuberosa, f. 9. A Tuberous or Knobbed
Root, is of many different kinds. The most genuine
consists of fleshy knobs, various in form, connected
by common stalks or fibres, as in the Potatoe, Sola-
num tuberosum^ and Jerusalem Artichoke*, Heliati-
thus tuberosus J acq. Hort. Find. t. 161. These knobs
are reservoirs of nourishment, moisture, and vital en-
ergy. Several of the Vetch or Pea kind are furnish-
ed with them on a smaller scale ; see Ficia lathyroi-
des, Engl. Bot. t. 30, and several species of Trifolium^
either annuals, as glomeratum, t. 1063, or perennials.
2& fragiferum, t. 1050. — The knobs in these instan-
ces are only of annual duration ; in the Paonia, Pseo-
ny, t. 1513, and Spircea Fihpendida, Drop wort, t.
(16) [A striking example of the abrupt roof is found in the
Viola jiedata, a North American blue Violet, with many cleft
leaves. This root however is not abrupt from any decay of its
descending point .J
* A corruption, as I presume, of the Italian name- Giranolc
Articiocco, sun-flower Artichoke, as the plant was first brought
from Peru to Italy, and thence propagated throughout Europe
AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 99
i284, they are perennial. — In the Orchide(C of Europe
thev are mostly biennial. The root in many of the
latter consists either of a pair of globular or oval bod-
ies, y^ 10, as in Satyrium hircinum, Engl. Bot. t. 54,
Ophrys aranifera, t. 65, and apifera, t. 383 ; or are
palmate, that is, shaped somewhat like the human
hand,/ 11, as in Orchis maculata, t. 632. Of these
globular or palmate knobs or bulbs one produces the
herb and flowers of the present year, withering away
towards autumn, and the other is reserved for the fol-
lowing season, while ui the mean time a third is pro-
duced to succeed the latter. The knobs of Ophrys
spiralis^ t. 541, are formed three or four years before
they flower, and their flowering appears to be occa-
sionally deferred to a more distant period. The root
of Satirium albidiim, t. 505, consists of three pairs of
tapering knobs or bulbs,/ 12, which flower in suc-
cession. On the contrary, Ophrys monorchism t 71,
forms its new bulb so late that it is not perfected till
the autumn immediately preceding its flowering, and
the plant seems to have but one bulb. Ophrys JVt-
dus avis, t. 48, has clusters of cylindrical knobs,
which are formed, and also wither away, in parcels,
each parcel being equivalent to one of the above-men-
tioned bulbs.
Such of the Orchis tribe as have biennial bulbs are
supposed to be very difficult of cultivation ; but, ac-
cording to the experience of my excellent friend the
late Mr. Crowe, in whose garden I have seen them
many successive years, they are best removed when
\\\ full flower, the earth being cleared completely
WU OF THE ROOT,
away from the roots, which are then to be replanted
in their natural soil previously dried and silted. Af-
terwards they must be well watered. The bulb for
the following year has not at the flowering period be-
gun to throw out its fibres, for after that happens it
will not bear removal. Satyrium albidinn having,
as mentioned above, so many pairs of roots, the
growth of some of which is always going on, has hith-
erto not been found to survive transplantation at all.
Iris tiiberosa, Sm. FL Grac. Sihth. t. 41, has a
root very analogous to these just described, but /.
jiorentina and /. germanica, ^.39 and 40 of the same
work, have more properly creeping roots, though so
thick and fleshy in their substance, and so slow in
their progress, that they are generally denominated
tuberous,
6. Radix bulbosa. A Bulbous Root, properly so cal-
led, is either solid,/! 13, as in Crocus, Ixia, Gladio-
hiSy &:c. ; tunicate,/! 14, timicata, composed of con-
centric layers enveloping one another as in Allium ^
the Onion tribe ; or scaly, f. 15, consisting of
fleshy scales connected only at their base, as in Lilium^
the White or Orange Lily. The two latter kinds
have the closest analogy with leaf-buds. They are
reservoirs of the vital powers of the plant during the
season when those powers are torpid or latent, and in
order to perform the functions of roots, they first pro-
duce fibres, which are the actual roots. The strict
affinity between bulbs and buds appears from the
scaly buds formed on the stem of the Orange Lily,
Jjiliun} bulbijbrum, which fall to the ground, and.
AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. lUl
throwin,^ out fibres from their base, become bulbous
roo-:-*. The same thing happens in Dentaria hid-
bifera, Engl. Bot. t. 309, and Saxifraga cernua, t.
664.
These two last-mentioned plants however have
scaly roots, like the Toothwort, Lathrcea Squamaria^
t. 50, which seem bulbs lengthened out. Whether
they would, in the torpid season of the year, bear re-
moval like bulbs, we have no information. If dis-
turbed at other times they are immediately killed.
Many plants with solid bulbs are provided by Nature
to inhabit sandy countries, over the face of v/hich, in
the dry season succeeding their flowering, they arc
scattered by the winds to a great distance, as happens
to our own Poa bidbosa^ Engl. Bot. t. 1071, as well
as to numerous beautiful productions of the Cape of
Good Hope.
7. Radix articulata, or granulata,jl 16. A Jointed or
Granulated Root agrees very much with those de-
scribed in the last section. The Oxalis Acetosella,
Wood Sorrel, Engl. Bot. t. 762, and Saxifraga
granulata. White Saxifrage, t. 500, are instances of
it. The former has most affinity with scaly bulbs,
the latter with solid ones.
It is evident that fleshy roots, whether of a tuberous
or bulbous nature, must, at all times, powerfully resist
* I have had scaly buds form even on the flowerstalk of La-
■:henalia tricolor, Curt. Mai^. t. 82, whilst lying for many weeks
between papers to dry, which, on being put into the ground,
liave become perfect plants, though of slow growth.
102 OF THE ROOT,
drought. We have already mentioned, /;. 43, the ac-
quisition of a bulb in Phleum prateme^ll) Engl, Bot. t.
1076, whenever that grass is situated in a fluctuating
soil, by which its vital powers are supported wlule the
fibrous roots are deprived of their usual suppHes. In
this state it becomes the Phleum iiodvsiini of authors ;
but on being removed to a thoroughly wet soil, it re-
sumes the entirely fibrous root, and luxuriant growth,
of Ph. pratense. I have also found yllopecurus genicula-
tiis, t. 1250, (an aquatic grass, whose root is naturally
fibrous and creeping,) growing with an ovate juicy bulb
on the top of a dry wall. This variety has been taken
for the true A. Bulbosiis, t. 1249, which has always
bulbs even in its native marshes. We see the wisdom
of this provision of Nature in the grasses above mention-
ed, nor may the cause be totally inexplicable. When a
tree happens to grow from seed on a wall, it has been
observed, on arriving at a certain size, to stop for a
while, and send down a root to the ground. As soon
as this root was established in the soil, the tree continu-
ed increasing to a large magnitude.* Here the vital
powers of the tree not being adequate, from scanty nou-
rishment, to the usual annual degree of increase in the
branches, were accumulated in the root, which tl^erefore
was excited to an extraordinary exertion, in its own nat-
ural direction, downward. There is no occasion then to
(17) [Common Herds grass with usj or Timolhy tjrass.]
* A particular fact of this kind concerning an ash was coin ■
municated to me by the late Rev. Dr. Walker of Edinburgh.
See also Trans, of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 263.
AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 103
suppose, as some have done, that the tree had any in-
formation of the store of food at the foundation of the
wall, and voluntarily sent down its root to obtain it ; nor
is it wonderful that the Author of life should provide
for it as effectually as it could for itself, had it really
been a reflecting being.(18) So in the case of the
grasses in question, I presume the herb being in the
first instance starved, by a failure of the nutrimental flu.
ids hitherto conveyed by the water of the soil, its growth
would be checked, and when checked, the same growth
could not, as we know by observation on vegetation in
general, be instantaneously renewed. A sudden fresh
supply of food would therefore cause an accumulation
(18) [" A tree growing upon a wall and unconnected with
f.lie earth, will almost of necessity grow slowly ; and as it must
be scantily supplied with moisture during the summer, it will
rarely produce any other leaves than those which the buds con-
tained, which were formed in the preceding year. Some of the
roots of a tree thus circumstanced, will be less well supplied
with moisture than others, and these will be first affected 'by
drought : their points will in consequence become rigid and in-
expansible, and they will thence generally cease to elongate at
an early period in the summer. The descending current of sap
will then be employed in promoting the growth and eiongatioa
of those roots only which are more favourably situated, and
those, comparatively with other parts of the tree, will grow
rapidly. Gravitation will direct these roots perpendicularly
downward, and the tree v/ill appear to have adopted the wisest
and best plan of connecting itself with the ground ; and it will
really have employed the readiest means of doing so, as effec-
tually as it could have done if it had possessed all the feeling«
and instinctive passions and powers of animal life. The subsp-
104 OF THE ROOT.
of vital energy in the root, which would consequently
assume a degree of vigour and a luxuriant mode of
growth not natural to it, and become bulbous.- Thus
it acquires a resource against such checks in future,
and the herb is preserved alive, though in a very far less
luxuriant state than when regularly and uniformly sup-
plied with its requisite nourishment. These are not
solitary instances. It is well worthy the attention of an
intelligent cultivator to seek them out, and turn them to
his advantage.
quent vigorous growth of such a tree, is the natural consequence
of an improved and more extensive pasture." T. A. Knight.
The same ingenious author has adduced other facts and ex-
periments to disprove the existence of instinct or perception in
the roots of plants. He considers that where roots are found
tending toward water or a rich soil, it is not because the plant
originally sent most of its roots in that direction ; but because
the roots which accidentally tended that way, met with a larger
supply of nourishment, and increased rapidly in size and length j
while those which were in contact with dry and barren soil were
stuiited and increased but little. — See his paper in the Phil.
Trans, for 1811]
[ 105 j
CHAPTER XIIL
DIFFERENT KINDS OF STEMS AND STALKS OF PLANTS.
Linnaeus enumerates seven kinds of Trunks, Stemsj
or Stalks of Vegetables. These are necessary to be
known, for botanical distinctions, though some are more
important than others, both in that respect and in a
physiological point of view.
1. Caul IS. A Stem properly so called, which bears
or elevates from the root, the leaves as well as flowers.
The trunks and branches of all trees and shrubs come
under this denomination, as well as of a great pro-
portion of herbaceous plants, especially annuals.
The Stem is either simple, as in the White Lily, or
branched, as in most instances. When it is regular-
ly and repeatedly divided, and a flower springs from
each division, it is called caulis dichotomus, f. 17, a
forked stem, as in Chlora perfoliata^ Bot. t. 60, as
well as the common Mouse-ear Chick weeds, (18) Ce-
rasthim vulgatum, t. 789, and viscosum., t. 790.
Though generally leafy, a stem may be partially
naked, or even entirely so in plants destitute of leaves
altogether as the Creeping Cereus, Cactus jiagellifor-
mis^ Curt. Mag. t. 17, various exotic species of
Euphorbia or Spurge, and the whole genus oi Stapelia,
In Orobanche, it is scaly, yi 18, squamosum.
(18) [Native.]
lOG OF THE DIFFERENT
With respect to mode of growth, the Stem is
Erectus, upright, as in Yellow Loosestrife, Lysimachia
vulgaris. Efigl. Bot. t. 761.
Procumbens, procumbent. Wood Loosestrife, L. nem-
orum, t. 527. (19)
Repens., creeping, Creeping Loosestrife, L. Nummula'
rla^ t. 528, and Creeping Crowfoot, Ranunculus rep'
ens,t. 516. (20)
Adsceiidens, ascending obliquel}^ without support, as
Panicum sangumale, t. 849. (21)
Prostratus, prostrate, or Depressus, depressed, when it
lies remarkably fiat, spreading horizontally over the
ground, as in Coldenia procumhens ; also Coronopus
Rudliu Swine's-cress, Engl. Bot. t. 1660.
Reclinatua, reclining, curved towards the ground, as in
Ficus, the Fig, Rubus, the Bramble, &c.
Rndicans,/. 19, clinging to any other body for support,
by means of fibres, which do not imbibe nourishment,
as Hedera Helix., Engl. Bot. t. 1267, Fitis quinquefo-
lia^ Sm. Insects of Georgia^ t. 30. Bignotiia radi-
cans^ Curt. Mag. t. 485.(22) — Linnaeus, Philosoph-
ia Botannica 59, has expressed this by the term re-
pens. but has corrected it in his own copy. Still he
does not distinguish between these plants, and those
(19) [Lying along the ground, as in Knot grass, Polygonum
avicularct and Purslane, Portulacca oleracea.']
(20) [Native.]
(21) [The Panicum sanguinale^ or fingered grass, with us
usually sends forth roots from the lower joints, and is not strict-
ly without support.]
(22) [The two last are American plants.]
KINDS OF STEMS. 107
whose Stems throw out real roots, which last only are
justly called creeping^ whether they grow on the
ground like those above mentioned, or on other
plants, like Cuscuta, Dodder, Engl. Bot. t. 55 and
378. See/?. 84.
Scandens, climbing ; either with spiral tendrils for its
support, as the Vine, Fitis^ the various species of
Passion-flower, Passijioray ccsrulea, Curt. Alag. t. 28
alata, t. 66, &c. and ^ryomaf/zozVa, Red- berried Bry-
ony, E7igl. Bot. t. 439 ; or by adhesive fibres, as in
the preceding parapraph.
Volubilis, twining round other plants by its own spiral
form, either from left to right, f. 20, supposing the
observer in the centre, (or in other words, according
to the apparent motion of the sun,) as the Black Bry-
ony, Tamils communis, Engl. Bot. t. 91, the Honey-
suckles, Lonicera Caprifolium, t. 799, and Pericly-
meniim, t. 800, and Polygoliim Convolvulus, (23) t.
941 ; or from right to left,/ 21, contrary to the sun,
as theGreat Bindweed, Convolvulus sepmm,{24^) t. 313,
the French Bean, P/iaseolus vulgaris, Ger. em. 1212,
Jig. 1, &c.— Figures of plants being sometimes re-
versed by the engraver, in that case give a wrong rep-
resentation of the circumstance in question, witness
Lonicera Periclymenum in Curtis's Floi'a Londinen-
sis, fasc. \. t. 15, and many instances might be
pointed out of its not being attended to at all.
Flagelliformis, long and pliant, like the Common Jas-
mine, Jasminum officinale, Curt. Mag. t. 31, or
Plue Box-thorn, Lycium harbarum.
'p) [Native.] (24) TNative.
108 OF THE DIFFERENT
Sarmentosiis, trailing. A creeping stem, barren of
flowers, thrown out from the root for the purpose of
increase, is called sarmentum or Jiagelliim, a runner,
f. 22, as in the Strawberry, Fragaria vesca, Engl.
JBot.t. 1524. When leafy it is generally denomin-
ated stolo^ a sucker or scyon, as in Bugle, ^Juga rep-
tansy t. 489, and Viola odorata^ the Sweet Violet, t.
619. When the stolo has taken root, it sometimes
flowers the first year, see Curt. Lond. fasc. 1. t. 63,
but generally not till the following season.
Rectus, straight, as in Lilium, the different species of
garden Lily.
StrictuSy expreses only a more absolute degree of
strajghtness.
Laxus or Diffusus, loosely spreading, has a contrary
meaning, as in Bunias Cakile, Sea Rocket, Ejigl.
Bot. t. 231, and Sedum acre, Biting Stone-crop, t.
839.
Flexuosus, zigzag, forming angles alternately from right
to left and from left to right, as in Smilax aspera,
Ger. em. 859^ and many of that genus, also Statice
reticulata. Matted Sea Lavender, Engl. Bot. t. 328.
In a less degree it is not un frequent. See Atriplex
pedunculata, t. 232.
Alterne ramosus, alternately branched, as Polygonum
minus, t. 1043, Dianthus deltqides, t. 61, 85:c.
Distichus, two-ranked, when the branches spread in two
horizontal directions, as in the Silver Fir, Pinus picea^
Duhamel, Arb. v. I. t. I. (25)
(25) [Also in the Hemlock tree, Fiiius Cajiadcjuis.']
KINDS OF STEMS, 109
Brachiatus, brachiate, or four-rankeJ, when they spread
in four directions, crossing each other ahernately in
pairs ; a very common mode of growth in shrubs that
have opposite leaves, as the Common Lilac, Syringa
vulgaris.
Ramosissimus, much branched, is applied to a stem re-
peatedly subdivided into a great many branches with-
out order, as that of an Apple- or Pear-tree, or Goose-
berry bush.
Prolifery proliferous, shooting out new branches from
the summits of the former ones*, as in the Scotch
Fir, Pinus st/hestris, Lamberfs Pi?ius, t. 1. and Ly-
copodiiim annotinum, Engl. Bot. t. 1727. This is
obsolete, and seldom used.
Determinate ramosus, f. 23, abruptly branched, when
each branch, after terminating in flowers, produces a
number of fresh shoots in a circular order from just
below the origin of those flowers. This term occurs
frequently in the later publications of Linnaeus, par-
ticularly the second Mantissa^ but I know not that he
has any where explained its meaning. It is exempli-
fied in Azalea nudijlora^ (26) Ciii't. Mag. t. 180, Erica
Tetralix, Engl. Bot. t. 1014, many Cape Heaths,
and other shrubs of the same Natural Order. (27)
?^ Linn. Phil. Bot. sect. 82. 28.
(26) [Native.]
(27) \_Verticillatus, a verticillate stem gives off its branches at
regular intervals in whorls, like rays from a centre, as in the
White Pine, Pinus strobus.
Divaricatus, a divaricate stem, sends its branches obliquely-
downward, so as to form an obtuse angle with the stem above,
and an acute angle below.]
110 OF THE DIFFEKENT
ArtictilatuSy jointed, as in Samphire, Salicomia anmia,
Engl. Bot. t. 415, and more remarkably in the In
dian Figs, Cactus Tuna^ Sec.
In shape the stem is
Teres^f,32, round, as in Trollius enropceus^ Engl. Bot.
t. 28, and Hydrangm Hortensis, Sm. Ic. Pict. t. 12.
Anceps, two-edged, as Sisyiinchium striatum^ Sm. Ic.
Pict. t, 9. S. gramineum, (28) Curt. Mag. t, 464,
and some of the genus Lathyrus.
Trigonus, or Triangularis, triangular or three-edged, as
Cactus triangularis, Plukenet, t. '2.9. f. 3.
Triqueter, three-sided, is applied to a stem with 3 flat
sides.
Tetragonus, or Quadrangularis, square, as Ea?jiium al-
bum, White Dead-nettle, E?igL Bot. t. 768, and a
multitude of other plants.
Pentagonus, or Quinguangularis, fivesided, as Aspara-
gus horridus, Cavanilles Ic. t. 136, where however
the character is not well expressed.
When the number of angles is either variable, or
more than live, it is usual merely to describe the stpm
as angulosus, angular, except where the precise num-
ber makes a specific difference, as in the genus Cac-
tus.
Alatus, f. 36, winged, when the angles are extended
into flat leafy borders, as Passijiora alata. Curt. Mag.
t. 66, Lathyrus lutifolius, Engl. Bot. t. 1108, and
many others of the Pea kind, besides several Thistles,
(28) [Native.]
KINDS OE STEMS. Ill
as Cardiius acanthoides, t. 973, palustris, t. 974, and
Centaurea solstitialis, t. 243.(29)
The Surface of the Stem is
Glaber, smooth, opposed to all kinds of hairiness or
pubescence, as in Petty Spurge, Euphorbia Fepliis,
Engl, Bot. t. 959, and numerous plants besides.
Lisvis, smooth and even, opposed to all roughness and
inequality whatever, as in the last example, and abo
Euojiymus europaiis, t. 362.
JMtidus, polished, smooth and shining, as Ch^erophyllum
sylvestre, t. 752.
Viscldm, viscid, covered with a clammy juice, as Lych-
nis Fiscaria, t. 788.
Verrucosus, warty, like Euonymus verrucosus, Jacq. FL
Austriaca, t. 49, and Malpighia volubilis, Curt. Mag.
t. 809.
Papillosus, papillose, covered with soft tubercles, as the
Ice plant, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. Dill,
Elth. t. 180.
Scaber, rough to the touch from any little rigid inequal-
ities, opposed to Icevis, as Caucalis Anthriscus, EngL
Bot. t. 987, Centaurea nigra, t. 278, and Stellaria
holostea, t. 511.
Hispidus, bristly, as Borage, Borago officinalis, t. 36,
and Charahispida, t. 463.
Hirtus, or Pilosus, hairy, as Salvia pratensis, t. 153, and
Cerastium alpinum, t. 472.
»
(29) [Also the Spear Thistle, Carduus ovCnicus lanceelatus, and
Cotton Thistle, Onofwrdon JcantMum.']
1 12 OF THE SURFACE OF THE STEM.
Tomentosus, downy, as Geranium rottindifolium, t. 157^
very soft to the touch.
Villosus, shaggy, as Cineraria infegrifolia, t. 1 52.
Lanatus^ wooUy, as Verbascum pulverulentum^ t. 487,
V. ThapsuSy (30) t. 549, and Santolina maritima, t.
141.
Incanus, hoary, as Wormwood, Artemisia Absinthium, f,
1230, ^n6. Atriplex portulacoides, t. 261, in the for-
mer case from close silky hairs, in the latter from a
kind of scaly mealiness.
Glaiicus, clothed with fine sea-green mealiness which
easily rubs off, as Chloi-a perfoliata, t. 60, and Fid-
monaria maritima, t. 368.(31)
Striatus, striated, marked with fine parallel lines, as
Oenanthe Jistidosa, t. 363.
Sulcatiis, furrowed, with deeper lines, as Smyrnium
Olusatrum, t. 230.
Maculatus, spotted, as Hemlock, Conium maculatum^ t.
1191. (32)
The spines and prickles of the stem will be explained
hereafter.
Internally the stem is either solidus, solid, as that of
Inula crithmoides, t. 68, and numerous others ; or ca-
viis, hollow, as in Cineraria palustris, t. 151, as well as
Hemlock, and many umbelliferous plants besides. (33)
(30) [Common Mullein.]
(31) [Likewise Rubus occidentalism the common Black
Raspberry.]
(32) [Native.]
(33) [Some botanists use the terms solidus, solid; i««m*,pithy;
And ^stidosusf fistulous or hollow.]
OP STEMS. 113
Plants destitute of a stem are called acaules, stemlesS;,
as Neottia ccatilis, Exot. Bot. t. 105, and Carduus
acaulis, Engl. Bot. t. 161. Such plants, when they be-
long to a genus or family generally furnished .with
stems, as in these instances and Carlina acaulis, Camer.
Epit. 428, are liable from occasional luxuriance to ac-
quire some degree of stem, but seldom otherwise. Pin-
guiciila^ Engl. Bot. t. 70 and 145, is a genus invariably
stemless, while Primula, t. 4, 5, 6 and 513, is much less
truly so. The term acaulis however must never be too
rigidly understood, for logical precision is rarely appli^
cable to natural productions,
Caiilis fascicidattts, a clustered stemj is a disease or
accident, in which several branches or stems are
united longitudinally into a flat broad figure,
crowded with leaves or flowers at the extremity.,
It occurs in the Ash, several species of Daphne^
Ranunculus, Antirrhinum, &:c. In a kind o^Pisum,
called the Top-knot Pea, it is a permanent variety
propagated by seed.
2. CuLMus. A Straw or Culm, is the peculiar Stem
of the Grasses, Rushes, and plants nearly allied to
them. It bears both leaves and flowers, and its na-
ture is more easily understood than defined. Many
botanists have thought this term superfluous.
The Culm is occasionally
Enoclis, without joints, as in our common Rushes^
Juncus conglomeratus, Engl. Bot. t. 835, and effu-
sus, t. 836 ; (34)
(34) [Bulrush in the New England states. This name is al-
so applied to Scirfms lacustris, a much larger plant.]
P
114 OF THE STALK.
^rticulaf US /jomted, as in Agrostis alba^ t. 1189, Aira
canescensy t. 1190, Avena strigosa, t. 1266, and
most other grasses ;
Geniculatus, bent like the knee, as Alopecurus genicu-
latus, t. 1250.
It is either soUd or hollow, round or triangular,
rough or smooth, sometimes hairy or downy, scarcely
woolly. I know of no instance of sueh a scaly culm as
Linnseus has figured mhis Fhilosophia Botanicay t. 4.y^
111, nor can I conceive what he had in view.
o, ScAPus. A Stalk, springs from the Root, and
bears the flowers and fruit, but not the leaves. Pri-
mula vulgaris^ the Primrose, Engl. Bot. t. 4, and P.
veris, the Cowslip, t. 5, are examples of it. In the
former the stalk is simple and single-flowered; in the
latter subdivided and many flowered. It is either
naked, as in Narcissus, Engl. Bot. t. 1 7, or scaly, as
in Tussilago Farfara, t. 429. In others of this last
genus, t. 430 and 431, the scales become leafy, and
render the Scapus a proper Caulis.{35)
The Stalk is spiral in Cyclajnen, Engl. Bot. t. 548>
and Valisneria spiralis, a wonderful plant, whose history
will be detailed hereafter.
Linnaeus believed* that a plant could not be increased
by its Scapusy which in general is correct, but we have
{ob) [Plants furnished with the stalk, or, as it is more fre-
quently rendered, scape ; come under the head of Acaules, or
stendess plants, p. 112. Thus the Daffodil, Dandelion, and many
of the Violets are stemless plants.]
* MSS. m Phil. Bot. 40.
OF THE FLOWER-STALK 115
already recorded an exception, p. 101, mLachenalia tri~
eolor. The same great author has observed* that " a
Scapus is only a species of Fedunculus.'' The term
might therefore be spared, were it not found very com-
modious in constructing neat specific definitions of
plants. If abolished, Pedimciilus radicalis, a radical
flower-stalk, should be substituted in its room.
4. Pendunculus, the Flower-stalk, springs from the
stem, and bears the flowers and fruit, not the leaves.
Pedicellus, a partial flower-stalk, is the ultimate subdi-
vision of a general one, as in the Cowslip, and Sax^
ifraga timbrosa, Engl. Bot. t. 663.
The Flower. stalk is
CaulinuSy cauline, when it grows immediately out of
the nv.\in stem, especially of a tree, as in Averrhoa
Bdlimhi, Rumph Amhobt, v, 1. t. 36, the Indian
substitute for our green gooseberries.
JRameuSj growing out of a main branch, as in Averr-
hoa Cai'ambola, ibid. t. 35, and Eugenia malaccen-
sis, Exot. Bot. t. 61.
Axdlaris, axillary, growing either from the bosom of
a leaf, that is, between it and the stem, as Anchusa
sempervirenSy ^Engl. Bot. t. 45, and Campanula
Trachelium, t. \2 ; or between a branch and the
stem, as Ruppia maritima^ t. 136.(36)
Oppositifolius, opposite to a leaf, as Geranium pyreniac-
urn, t. 405, G. molle, t. 778, and Sium angustifolium^ ^
t. 139.
* MSS. in Phil. Dot. 40, (36) [Native.]
$16 OF THE FLOWER-STALK.
Jnternodisj proceeding from the intermediate part of a
branch between two leaves, as in Ehretia internodis,
UHerit'ier Stirp. t. 24, Solamim carolinense. Dill.
Hort. Elth. t. 259, and iyidicum, t. 260 ; but this
mode of insertion is rare.
Gemmaceus, growing out of a leaf-bud, as the Barber-
ry, Berheris vulgaris^ Engl. Bot. t. 49.(37)
Terminalis^ terminal, when it terminates a stem or
branch, as Tulipa sylvestris^ t 63, and Centaur ea Sca^
biosa, t. 56.
^ J^ateralis, lateral, when situated on the side of a stem
or branch, as Erica vagans, t. 3.
Solitarius, solitary, either single on a plant, as in Riibus
Chamamorus, t. 716, or only one in the same place,
as in Antirrhinum spurium, t. (691, and many com-
mon plants.
Aggregati Pedunculi, clustered flower-stalks, when sev-
eral grow together, as in Verbascum tiigrian, t. 59.
Sparsi, scattered, dispersed irregularly over the plant
or branches, as Liniim perenne, t. 40, and Ranuricu-
las sceleratus, t. 681.(38)
Unijlori, bijiori, triflori, &c. bearing one, two, three, or
more flowers, of which examples are needless.
Multifiori, many-fiowered, ^s Daphne Lanreola,t. 119.
When there is no flower-stalk, the flowers are said
to be Sessiks, sessile, as in Centaurea Calcitrapa,
t. 125, and the Dodders, t. 55 and 378.
The subject of inflorescence, or particular modes of
flowering, will be explained in a future chapter.
, (37) [Native.] (38) [Native.]
OF THE FLOWER-STALK. IIT
S. Petiolus. The Footstalk, or Leafstalk. This
term is applied exclusively to the stalk of a leaf, which
is either simple, as in licniunculiis parvijiorus^ Engl.
Bot. t. 120, Slum angusti folium^ t. 139, and all sim-
ple leaves ; or compound, as Coriandnim sativum, t.
67, and Fumaria daviculata, t. 103. In the latter
the footstalks end in tendrils, and are called Petioli
cin'ije?-i. (39)
This part is commonly channelled on the upper side.
Sometimes it is greatly dilated and concave at the base,
as in Angelica sylvestris^ t. 1128.
The Footstalk bears the Flower- stalk in Turnera
ulmifolia, Linn. Hort. Cliff, t. 10. Menyanthes indica^
Curt. Mag. t. 658, and perhaps Epimedium alpinum,
Engl. Bot. t. 458.
6. Frons. a frond. In this the stem, leaf and
fructification are united, or, in other words, the flow-
ers and fruit are produced from the leaf itself, as
in the Fern tribe, Scolopendrium vidgare, Engl. Bot.
t. 1150, Polypodium vulgare, t. 1149, Aspidium, t.
(39) [The Petiole or leaf stalk may be
Teres^ round, as in the common Hollyhock.
Semiteres, half round, as in the yellow Water Lily, JVi/m-
fihxa advena.
Co?n/ij-essjis, flattened, as in the Lombardy Poplar. Pojmlns
dilatata^ also P. grandidentata, and others.
Alatus, winged, or furnished on each side with a leafy appen-
dage, as in the Orange tree, also in Phr^s Cofialllmun, called
Copal, Dwarf, or White Sumach.
Cirrhifer, bearing tendrils, as in th^ Fumaria above, and the
common Pea.
Scandens, climbing, performing the oflire of a tendril, as in the
C'le?na!is Ftrpnia/m.']
118 OF THE FROND.
1458 — 1461, Osmunda regalis, t. 209, Scc.(40) It
is also applied to the Licliin tribe, and others, in which
the whole plant is either a crustaceous or a leafy sub-
stance, from which the fructification immediately pro-
ceeds. Linnaeus considered Palm-trees as fronds, so
far correctly as that they have not the proper stem of
a tree, see/>. 59 ; but they are rather perhaps herbs
whose stalks bear the fructification. It must however
be observed that the deposition of wood in ferns,
t£:kes place exactly as in palms.
The term frond is now used in the class Crypto-
gamia only.
7. Stipes, Stipe*, is the stem of a frond, which in
ferns is commonly scaly. See the plates cited in
the last section. The term is likewise applied to the
stalk of a Fungus, as the Common Mushroom, Aga-
ricus ca?7ipestris, Sowerby^s Fungi, t. 305.
(40) [Many Fei'ns, of the three last mentioned genera, are
found in the United States.]
* Martyn, Language of Botany.
C 119 ]
CHAPTER XIV.
OF BUDS.
Gemma, a Bud, contains the rudiments of a plant, or
of part of a plant, for a while in a latent state, till the time
of the year and other circumstances favour their evolu-
tion. In the bud therefore the vital principle is dor-
mant, and its excitability is accumulated. The closest
analogy exists between buds and bulbs ; and indeed the
Dentaria bidbifera, Engl. Bot. t 309, Lilium bulbifer-
um, Jacq. Fl. Austr. t. 226, and Gerarde emac. 193,
with other similar plants, as mentioned p. 100, almost
prove their identity.
Buds of trees or shrubs, destined for cold countries,
are formed in the course of the summer in the bosoms
of their leaves, and are generally solitary ; but m the
Blue-berried Honeysuckle, Lonicera aerulea, Jacq. FL
Aiistr. append, t. 17, they grow one under another for
three successive seasons,/ 24. The buds of the Plane-
tree, Platanus, Du Hamel Arb. v. 2. 1 7 1 , are concealed
in the footstalk, which must be removed before they
can be seen, and which they force off by their increase ;
so that no plant can have more truly and necessarily de-
ciduous leaves than the Plane. Shrubs in general have
no buds, neither have the trees of hot climates. Lin-
nasus once thought the presence of buds might distin-
guish a tree from a shrub, but he was soon convinced of
tliere being no real limits between them.
120 or THE BUD.
The situation of buds is necessarily like that of the
leaves, alternate, opposite, 8cc. Trees with opposite
leaves have three buds, those with alternate ones a sol-
itary bud, at the top of each branch. Du Hamel.
Buds are various in their forms, but very uniform in
the same species or even genus. They consist of scales
closely enveloping each other, and enfolding the embryo
plant or branch. Externally they have often an addi-
tional guard, of gum, resin or wooUiness, against wet
and cold. The Horse Chesnut, jEsciiius ffippocastanum,
now so common with us, though,^ as I have learnt from
Mr. Hawkins*, a native of Mount Pindus in Arcadia,
is a fine example of large and wellformed buds,/ 25 ;
and some of the American Walnuts are still more re-
markablca
It has been already remarked, p. 84, that buds resist
cold only till they begin to grow : hence, according to
the nature and earliness of their buds, plants differ in
their powers of bearing a severe or variable climate.
Grew is elaborate on the forms of buds, and the ar-
rangement of the spots apparent within them when cut
transversely, which indicate the number and situation of
their vessels. It was the character of this excellent
man to observe every thing, without reference to any
theory, and his book is a storehouse of facts relating to
vegetation. Loefling, a favourite pupil of Linnasus,
wrote, under the eye of his great teacher, an essay on
this subject, published in the A}na7iitates AcademiaSy v,
* See a note on this subject, which Mr. R. If*. Knight has
honoured with a place in the second edition of his poem on
Landscape.
OF BUDS. 121
2, in which the various forms of buds, and the different
disposition of the leaves within them, are illustrated by
numerous examples. The Abbe de Ramatuelle had
taken up this subject with ^reat zeal at Paris, about
twenty years ago, but the result of his inquiries has not
reached me.
Dr. Darwin, Phytologia, sect. 9, has many acute ob-
servations on the physiology of buds, but he appears to
draw the analogy too closely between them and the em-
bryo of a seed, or the chick in the egg. By buds indeed,
as we well know, plants are propagated, and in that
sense each bud is a separate being, or a young plant in
itself; but such propagation is only the extension of
an individual, and not a reproduction of the species as
by seed. Accordingly, all plants increased by buds,
cuttings, layers or roots, retain precisely the peculiar
qualities of the individual to which they owe their origin.
If those qualities differ from what are common to the
species, sufficiently to constitute what is called a varie-
ty, that variety is perpetuated through all the progeny
thus obtained. This fact is exemplified in a thousand
instances, none more notorious than the different kinds
of Apples, all which are varieties of the common Crab,
Pyriis Mains, Engl. Bot. t. 179 ; and 1 cannot but as-
sent to Mr. Knight's opinion, that each individual thus
propagated has only a determinate existence, in some
cases longer, in others shorter ; from which cause many
valuable varieties of apples and pears, known in former
times, are now worn out, and others are dwindling awaj^
before our eyes. New varieties of Cape Geraniums,
132 OF UUDS.
raised from seed in our greenhouses, are of still shorter
duration, and can be preserved by cuttings for a few
successive seasons only ; yet several of these stand in
our botanic works, with all the importance of real spe-
cies. Gardeners know bow many of the most hardy
perennial herbs require to be frequently renewed from
seed to exist in full vigour ; and though others appear,
to our confined experience, unlimited in that respect,
we have many reasons to believe they are not so. Pro-
pagation bv seeds is therefore the only true reproduc-
tion of plants, by which each species remains distinct,
and all variations are effaced ; for though new varieties
may arise among a great number of seedling plants, it
does not appear that such varieties owe their peculiari-
ties to any that may have existed in the parent plants.
How propagation by seed is accomplished will be ex-
plained in a future chapter, as well as the causes of some
varieties produced by that means.
Mr. Knight, in the Philosophical Transactions for
1805, has shown that buds originate from the alburnum,
as might indeed be expected. The trunks and branch-
es of trees, and the knobs of genuine tuberous roots, like
the potatoc, are studded with them ; in which respect,
as Professor Willdenow judiciously observes. Princi-
ples of Botany, p. 15, such roots essentially differ from
bulbous ones, which last are themselves simple buds,
and produce their shoots, as well as their offsets, either
from the centre or from the base.
The contents of buds are different, even in different
species of the same genus, as Willows. The buds of
some produce leaves only, others flowers ; while in oth-
OF BUDS. 12^
er species the same bud bears both leaves and flowers.
Different causes, depending on the soil or situation,
seem in one case to generate leaf- buds, in another flower-
buds. Thus the Solandra grandifiora, Tr. of Linn.
Soc. V. 6. 99. t. 6, a Jamaica shrub, was for a number
of years cultivated in the English stoves, and propaga-
ted extensively by cuttings, each plant growing many
feet in length every season, from abundance of moisture
and nourishment, without showing any signs of fructifi-
cation. At length a pot of the Solandra was accidentally
left without water in the dry stove at Kew ; and in con-
sequence of this unintentional neglect, the kixu riant
growth of its branches was greatly checked, and a flower
came forth at the extremity of each. By a similar mode
of treatment the same effect has since frequentl) bten
produced. Several plants, especially with bulbous rootb.
which blossom abundantly in their native soils, liav'e
hitherto defied all the art of our gardeners to produce
this desirable effect ; yet future experience may possibly
place it within our reach by some very simple means.
In general, whatever checks the luxuriant production of
leaf-buds, favours the formation of flowers and seeds.
That variety, or perhaps species, of the Orange Lily,
Lilium bidbiferum^ which is most prolific in buds, sel~
dom forms seeds, or even those organs of the flower
necessary to their perfection. So likewise the seeds of
Mints, a tribe of plants which increase excessively by
roots, have hardly been detected by any botanist ; and
it is asserted by Doody in Ray's Synopsis^ that when
the elegant little Qmithopiis perpusillus, Engl. Bot. t.
369, does not produce pods, it propagates itself by the
grains or tubercles of its root, though in general th^i
root is annual.
[ J24 ]
CHAPTER XV.
OF LEAVES, THEIR SITUATIONS, INSERTIONS, SURFACES, AND
VARIOUS FORMS.
Folium, the Leaf, is a very general, but not universal,
organ of vegetables, of an expanded form, presenting a
much greater surface to the atmosphere than all the
other parts of the plant together. Its colour is almost
universally green, its internal substance pulpy and vas-
cular, sometimes very succulent, and its upper and un-
der surfaces commonly differ in hue, as well as in kind
or degree of roughness.
Leaves are eminently ornamental to plants from their
pleasing colour, and the infinite variety as well as ele-
gance of their forms. Their many ccconomical uses to
mankind, and the importance they hold in the scale of
nature as furnishing food to the brute creation, are sub-
jects foreign to our present purpose, and need not here
be insisted upon. Their essential importance to the
plant which bears them, and the curious functions by
which they contribute to its health and increase, will
presently be detailed at length. We shall first explain
their different situations, insertions, forms, and surfaces,
which are of the greatest possible use in systematical
botany.
The leaves- are wanting in many plants, called for
that reason plant^e aphylU', as Salicornia, (41) Engl.
Bot. t. 415, and 1691, Stapella variegata, Curt. Mag.
(41) [Samphire or Glassvort.}
V
SITUATION" AND POSITION OF LEAVES. ISc'A
t. 26, glcmduli flora, Exot. Bot. t. 71, and all the species
of that genus. In such cases the surface of the stem
must perform all their necessary functions.
1. With respect to Situation and Position,
Folia radicalia, radical leaves, are such as spring from
the root, like those of the Cowslip, Engl. Bot. t. 5,
and Anemone Pulsatilla, t. 51.
Caulma. stem-leaves, i^rrovv on the stem as in Paris
quadrifolia, t. 7, Polefnonimn aeruleum, t. 14, Sec.
Ramea, branch-leaves, sometimes differ from those of
the main stem, and then require to be distinguished
from them, as Melampyritm arvense, t. 53.
Alterna, f. 21, alternate leaves, stand solitarily on the
stem or branches, spreading in different directions,
as those of Borage, t. 36, and innumerable other
plants.
Sparsa,f. 19, scattered irregularly, as in Gejiista tincto-
ria, t. 44, Lil'um chalcedonicianj Curt. Mag. t. 30,
and hidbiferum, t. 36.
Opposite, opposite to each other, as Saxifraga oppositi-
folia, Engl. Bot. t. 9, Ballota nigra, t. 46, &c.
Conferta, clustered, or crowded together, as those of
Trientahs europaa, t. 15.(42)
Bina, only two upon a plant or stem, as in the Snow-
drop, Galanthits Jiivalis, t. 19, Scilla bifolia, t. 24,
and Convallaria majalis, t. 1035.(43)
Tcrna, three together, as Verbena triphylla, Curt. Mag.
(42) [Chickweed wintei'green.l
(43) [Lily of the valley.]
'U6 SITUATION^ AND POSITION OF LEAVES.
t. 367. The plants of Chili and Peru seem particu-
larly disposed to this arrangement of their leaves.
Quafema, quina, &c. when 4, 5, or more are so situat-
ed, as in various species of Heath, Erica.
Vcrticillata, vvhorled, is used to express several leaves
growing in a circle round the stem, without a refer-
ence to their precise number, as in Asperula cijnan-
chica, Ejigl. Bot. t. 33, and odorata, t. 755, which
with the genus Galium, and some others, are for this
reason called stellata, star.leaved plants. Whorled
leaves are also found in Hippuris vulgaris, t. 763, and
many besides.(44)
Fasciculata,/. 26, tufted, as in the Larch, Pinus, Larix,
Lamb, Pin. t. 35, the Cedar, and some others of that
genus.
Imbricata,/. 27, imbricated, like tiles upon a house, as
in the common Ling, Erica vulgaris, Engl. Bot. t.
1013, and Euphorbia par alia, t. 195.
Decussata,f.2^, decussated, in pairs alternately crossing
each other, as Fe?'onica decussata, Curt. Mag. t. 242,
and Melaleuca thymifolia, Exot. Bot. ^.36.
Disticha,f.29, two-ranked, spreading in two directions,
and yet not regularly opposite at their insertion, as
Pinus canadensis, Lamb.Pin.t. 32, and the Ytw,Tax-
us baccata, Engl. Bot. t. 746.
Secunda, f. 30, unilateral, or leaning all towards one
side, as Convallaria multijlora, t. 279.(45)
(44) [Examples of whorled leaves are foond in the Lilies,
Lilium CanadcJise and Philadclphicum.']
(45) [Many flowered Solomon's seal.]
SITUATION AND POSITION OF LEAVES. 127
Adpressa, close-pressed to the stem, as Xeranthemum
sesamoides^ Curt. Mag. t. 425.
Verticalia, perpendicuhir, both sides at right angles
with the horizon, as Lactuca Scariola, Engl. Bot.
t. 268.
Erecta, upright, forming a very acute angle with the
stem, as Juncus articidatiis, t. 238.
Patentia, spreading, forming a moderately acute an-
gle with the stem or branch, as Atriplex portulaco-
ides, t. 261.
Horizontalia, horizontal, or patentissima, spreading in
the greatest possible degree, as Gentiana campestris^
t. 237.
Reclinata, inclining downward, as Leonurus Cardiaca,
t. 286.(46)
Recurva, or refiexa, curved backward, as Erica retor-
ta. Curt. Mag. t. ^62.
Inciirva, or inflexa, curved inward, as Erica empetri-
folia, t. 447.
Obliqua, twisted, so that one part of each leaf is verti-
cal, the other horizontal, as Fritillaria obliqua, t.
857, and some of the large Proteoe.
Resnpinata, reversed, when the upper surface is turn-
ed downward, as Pharuslatifolius, Browne' s Jamai-
ca,t. 38. Linn. Mss,, 2Lwd Alstrcsmeria pelegrina.
Curt. Mag. ^ 139.
Depressa, radical leaves pressed close to the ground,
as Plantago media, Engl. Bot. t. 1559, and P,
. Coronopus, t. 892. The same term applied to
'46) [Common Motherwort.!
128 INSERTION OF LEAVES.
stem-leaves, expresses their shape only, as being
vertically flattened, in opposition to compressa.
Natantia, floating, on the surface of the water, as
Nymphcea lutea, t. 159, and alba, t. 160, (47) and
Potamogeton natans, (48) and many water plants.
De?nersa, immersa, or siibmersa, plunged under wa-
ter, as Potamogeton perfoliatum, t, 168, Hottonia
palustris, (49) t. 364, Lobelia Dortmanna, t. 140,
and the lower leaves di Ranunculus aquatilis^ t. 101,
while its upper are folia natantia.
Emersa, raised above the water, as the upper leaves,
accompanying the flowers, of Myriophyllum verti-
cilatum, t. 218, (50) while its lower ones are de-
mersa.
2. By Insertion is meant the mode in which one part
of a plant is connected with another.
Folia petiolata, leaves on footstalks, are such as are
furnished with that organ, whether long or short,
simple or compound, as Ferbaseum 7iigrmn, Engl.
Bat. t. 59, Thalictrum inifius, ?. 11, alpinum^ t.
262, &c.
Peltata, /^ 31, peltate, when the footstalk is inserted
into the middle of the leaf, like the arm of a man
holding a shield, as in the Common Nasturtium,
Tropcsolum majus^ Curt. Mag. t. 23, Drosera pel-
(47) [So the American Water Lilies, Al/?«/j A o, perfoliate, when the stem runs through
the leaf, as Bupleurum rotufidifolium, t. 99, and the
Uvularits, Exot. Bot. t. 49, 50, 51.(54)
Faginanfia, f. 34, sheathing the stem or each other, as
in most grasses ; see Phleum Alpinum^ Engl. Bot. t.
(51) [Penny wort.]
(52) [Sessile leaves are very common, as in many of the ge-
nus Solidago, Golden Rod ; &c.]
(53) [Clasping- leaves are exemplified in many of the Star-
worts or Asters, as in Aster A''ov(Z Anglix and am/ilexicaulis.']
(54) [The veins or nerves of a leaf will generally determine
whether it be a single, perfoliate leaf, as in U-vularia ficrfoliata ;
or double and connate, as oecurs in different degrees in the up
per leaves of the Trumpet Honeysuckle, Loniccra sem/iervivens^
in Fever Wort, Triosteufn fierfoliatuniy and in Rudbeckia Amfilex^
ifolia, where the connexion is slight.]
R
loJ> FORMS OF LEAA'ES.
519, and Arundo arenaria, t. 520. Tiie same char-
acter is found in many of the Orcliis tribe, as Satijri-
um albidiim, t^ 505.
Eqidtantia^ f. 35, eqiiitant, disposed in two opposite
rovA s and clasping each other by their compressed
base, as in Narthec'ium ossifragum^ t. 5^5, and the
genus Iris ; also JFitsenia conjmbosa, Exot. Bot. t.
68, and Dilaths corijmbosa^ t. 16.
Decurrentia^f. 36, decurrent, running down the stem or
branch in a leafy border or wing, as Onopordum Acan-
tliium, (55) Engl. Bot. t. 977, Carduus tennijiorus, t.
412, and many other Thistles, alsp the Great Mullein,
Verbasciiin Thapsus, t. 549, and Comfrey, Symphy-
tum officinale, f. 817.
Florifera^ f. 37, flower-bearing, when flowers grow out
of the disk or margin of any leaf, as in Rusciis aculea-
tus, I. 560, Xylophylld latifolla^ and X.falcata^ Andr.
Repos. t. 331. This is equivalent to a frond in the
class Crypfogamia ; btc p. 117.
3. With regard to form. Leaves are either siinpliciay
simple, like those of Grasses, Orchises, Lilies, and
many other plants, -as Ballota mg?'a, Engl. Bot. t. 46,
and Berber'is vulgaris, t. 49 ; or composita, com-
pound, as in most Umbelliferous plants. Parsley,
Hemlock, Sec. ; also Roses, Engl. Bot. t. 990—992.
In compound leaves, the footstalk is either simple, as in
the instances last quoted, and Slum angustifoliian, t.
139 ; or compound, as those of Selinum palustre, t.
229, and Thalictnim ma jus, t. 611. — In simple
(55) [Cotton Thistle]
FORMS OF LEAVES, Ul
leaves the footstalk, if present, must of course be
simple, while in compound ones it must always be
present, though not always subdivided.
Simple Leaves are either Integra^ undivided, as those of
Grasses and Orchises ; or lobata, lobed, like the
Vine, the Thisdc, most kinds of Cranesbill, as Gera-
nium pratense^ Engl. Bot. t. 404, &c.
Leaves are frequently undivided and lobed on the same
plant, as the Hop, Engl. Bot. t. 427.(55.)
4. The following are the most remarkable forms of
Simple Leaves, considering their outline only.
Orbiculatwn, f. 38, a circular or orbicular leaf, whose
length and breadth are equal, and the circumference
an even ciixular line. Precise examples of this are
scarcely to be found. Some species of Piper ap-
proach it, and the leaf of Hedysarum styracifolium is
perfectly orbicular, except a notch at the base.
Subrotimdum.f. 39, roundish, as Pyrola^ (56) Engl.
Bot. t. 146, 158 and 213, and many other plants.
Ovatum,f. 40, ovate, of the shape of an egg cut length-
wise, the base being rounded and broader than the
extremity, a very comm.on form of leaves, as Urtica
pilulifera, t. 148, and Vinca major ^ t. 514.
Oiovatitm^ /^ 41, obovate, of the same figure with the
broader end uppermost, as those of the Primrose, t.
4, and the Daisy, t. 424.(57) Linn^us at first used
the words obverse ovatum.
(55) [This is the case in the Sassafras tree, Zaz^r?/s sassafras.^
(56) [The Pyrola rotundifoUat or Winter green, is very com-
mon in the United States.]
(57) [And the leaves of Clcthra Mnisolia.']
132 FORMS OF LEAVES.
Ellipt'icum^ f. 42, or ovale^ elliptical or oval, of a similar
form to the foregoing, but of equal breadth at each
end, as in the Lily of the Valley, and other Convalla-
ri(C, t. 1035, 279 and 280.
Oblongum^ oblong, three or four times longer than
broad. This term is used with great latitude, and
serves chiefly in a specific character to contrast a leaf
which has a variable, or not very decided, form, with
others that are precisely round, ovate, linear. Sec.
Spatulatum^ f. 43, spatulate, of a roundish figure taper-
ing into an oblong base, as in Silene Otites, FL Brit.
Engl. Bot. t. 85.
Cuneijbr?ne,f. 44, wedge-shaped, broad and abrupt at
the summit, and tapering down to the base, as in
Saxifraga cuneifolia.[58)
Lanceolatum^f. 45, lanceolate, of a narrow oblong form,
tapering towards each end, very comon, as Tulipa
sylvestris, Engl. Bot. t. 63, IJithosperynum purpuro-^
carideum, t. 117, Plantago lanceolata^ (59) t. 507,
many Willows, &c.
Lineare,f. 46, linear, narrow with parallel sides, as those
of most Grasses ; also Gentiana Pneiimonanthe, t.
20, and JVa7"cissiis Pseudo-narcissus., t. 17.
Acerosum^ f% 47, needle-shaped, linear and evergreen,
generally acute and rigid, as in the Fir, Pinus, Juni-
per, Juniperus cofiimunis, t. 1100, and Yew, Taxus
haccata^ t. 746. Linnasus observes, PKiL Bot. 219,
that this kind of leaf has, for the most part, a joint at
its union with the branch.
(58) [Also in Purslane, Portulacca olcracca.']
(59) {^Ribwort, or Field Plantain.]
FORMS OF LEAVES. 133
Triangulares f. 48, triangular, having three prominent
angles, without any reference to their raeasureinent
or direction, as in the genus Chenopodlum^ (60)
Cochlearia damca^ t. 696, and some leaves of the Ivy,
Quadranguhwe,/. 49, with four angles, as the Tulip-tree,
Liriodendrum tulipifera, (61) Sm. Ins. of Georgia,
t. 102. Curt. Mag. t. 275.
Quinquangulare, f. 19, with five angles, as some Ivy
leaves, Sec.
Deltoides,/. 50, trowel-shaped or deltoid, having three
angles, of which the terminal one is much further
from the base than the lateral ones, as Chenopodhim
Bonus- Henricus, Engl. Bot. t. 1033, and some leaves
of Cochlearia danica. A wrong figure is quoted for
this in Phiiosophia Botanica^ which has caused much
confusion.
Rhombeum, / 51, rhomboid, or diamond- shaped, ap-
proaching to a square, as Chenopodium olidum, t.
1034, Trapa ?iata?is, Camer. Epit. 715, and Trillium
erectum. Curt. Mag. t. 470.(62)
ReniformeJ. 52, kidney-shaped, a short, broad, round-
ish leaf, whose base is hollowed out, as Asariim euro-
pmwi, Engl. Bot. t. 1083, and Sibthorpia europxa, t.
649.(63)
Cordatum,/. 53, heart-shaped, according to the vulgar
idea of a heart ; that is, ovate hollowed out at the
base, as Tamus convnunis, t.9l.[6i)
(60) [Goosefoot or Hogweed.]
(61) [One of the most elegant of North American trees.]
(62) [Native.]
(63) [Likewise Glecoma hcderacea. Ground Ivy.]
(64) [Also, the common annual Sunflower, many Violets, As.
ters, &c.]
134 FORMS OF LEAVES
Lunulatiim^ f. 54, crescent-shaped, like a half-moon,
whether the poirts are directed towards the stalk, or
from it, as Passijlora^ limata, Sm. Ic. Pict. t. I.
Sagittatiim, f. 55, arrow-shaped, triangular, hollowed
out very much at the base, as Sagiftaria sagittifoUa,
(64) Engl. Bot. t. 84, and Rumex Acetosa, t. 127.
Sometimes the posterior angles are cut off, as in Co7i-
volvulus sep'ium^ t. 313.(65)
Hastatiim, f. 56, halberd-shaped, triangular, hollowed
out at the base and sides, but with spreading lobes,
as Rumex Acetosella,{6&) t. 1674, Antirrhinum Ela-
tine, t. 692, and the upper leaves of Solanum Dulca-
mara, (67) t. 565.
Panduriforme, f. 57, fiddle- shaped, oblong, broad at the
two extremities and contracted in the middle, as the
Fiddle Dock, Rumex pulcher, t. 1576.
Runcinatum, f. 58, runcinate, or lion-toothed, cut into
several transverse,acute segments,pointing backwards,
as the Dandelion, Leant odon Taraxacum, t. 510.
Lyratum,/. 59, lyrate, or lyre-shaped, cut into several
transverse segments, gradually larger towards the ex-
tremity of the leaf, which is rounded, as Erysimum
Barharea, t. 443.
Fissum,f. 60, cloven, when the margins of the fissures
-and segments are straight, as in the Gingko-tree,
Salishuria adiantifolla . Bijidum, trijidum, multijidum,
&c. express the number of the segments.
Lobatum, f. 61, lobed, when the margins of the seg-
(64) [Arrow licacl.] (65) [Bindweed.]
(66) [Sheep sorel.] (67) [Bitter sweet.]
FORMS OF LEAVES. 1^5
ments are rounded, as in Anemone Hepatica, Curt,
Mag. t. 10. (68)
Bilobiim, trilobiim, &c., according to the number of
the lobes.
Sinuatum,/. 62, sinuated, cut into rounded or wide
openings, as Statice sinuata^ t. 7i, and Firgilia heli-
oides, Exot. Bot. t. 37.
Partititm,/. 63, deeply divided, nearly to the base, as
Helleborus viridis, Engl. Bot. t. 200.
Bipartitum, tripartitum^ multipartitumj according to
the number of the divisions.
Lac'miatiim^ f. 64, laciniated, cut into numerous irreg-
ular portions, as Ranunculus parvijlor us, t. 120, and
Geranium columbinum, t. 259.
Incisum, and Dissectum, cut, are nearly synonymous
with the last.
It is remarked by Linuccus that aquatic plants have
their lower, and mountainous ones their upper, leaves
most divided, by which they better resist the action
of the stream in one case, and of wind in the other.
Probably these actions are in some measure the caus-
es of such configurations.
Falmatum,J\ 65, palmate, cut into several oblong, near-
ly equal segments, about half way, or rather more,
towards the base, leaving an entire space like the
palm of the hand, as Passijiora carulea^ Curt, Mag,
t. 28.
Plnnatifidum^f. 66, pinnatifid, cut transversely into sev-
eral oblong parallel segments, as in Ipomopsis^ Exot,
^68) [Early Anemane or Liverwort. Nativor
186 TERMINATIONS OF LEAVES.
Bot. t. 13, 14, Bunias Cakile. Engl. Bot. f. 231, Le^
pidium dichjmum^ t. 24i^^ petraiim, t. Ill, and Myri-
ophyllum verticillaturriy t. 218.
Blpinnatijidum, f. 67, doubly pinnatifid, as Papaver
Argemone, t. 643, and Eriocalia major ^ Exot. Bot t.
78. (69)
Pect'inatum.f. 68, pectinate, is a pinnatifid leaf, whose
segments are remarkably narrow and parallel, like the
teeth of a comb, as the lower leaves of Mi/riophijllum
verticillatum, and those of Hottonia palustris, Engl.
Bot. t. 364.
Ineequale^ f. 69, unequal, sometimes called oblique,
when the two halves of the leaf are unequal in dimen-
sions, and their bases not parallel, as in Eucalyptus
resinifera, Exot. Bot. t. 84, and most of that genus,
as well as of Begonia.
5. The Terminations of leaves are various.
Folium trujicatum,/. 49, an abrupt leaf, has the extrem-
ity cut off, as it were, by a transverse line, as Lirio-
dendrum tulipifera^ Curt. Mag. t. 275.
Prcemorsum, f. 70, jagged-pointed, very blunt, with
various irregular notches, as in Dr. Swartz's genus,
Aerides, comprehended under the Epidendrum of Lin-
naeus. See E. tessellatum, Roxb. PI. of Coromandel^
t. 42, and pr^morsum, ?.43.
Betusum,/. 71, retuse, ending in a broad shallow notch,
as Rumex digynus, Engl. Bot. t. 910.
(69) Leaves singly and doubly pinnatifid, are found in the
weeds called Roman Wormwood or Hogweed, Ambrosia, clatiovy
Jianiculata, 8cc.
TERMINATIONS OF LEAVES. 13?
Emarginatiim^ f. 72, emarginate, or nicked, having a
small acute notch at the summit, as the Bladder Sen-
na, Coliitea arbor escens. Curt. Mag. ?. 81.
Obtiisum^f. 39, blunt, terminating in a segment of a
circle, as the Primrose, Engl. Bot. t. 4, Snowdrop, t.
19, Hypericum quadranguliim^ t. 370, and Linum
catharlicum^ t. 382.
Acutum.f. 51, sharp, ending in an acute angle^ which
is common to a great variety of plants, as Ladies'
Slipper, t. 1, Campanula Trachelium t. 12, and Zw-
um angustifolium^ ?. 381.
Acuminatum^ f. 73, pointed, having a taper or awlshap-
ed point, as Arundo Phragmites, t. 401, and Scirpus
maritimus, t. 542.(70)
Obtusum cum acumine,/. 74, blunt with a small point,
as Statice Limonium, t. 102.(71)
Mucronatum or Cuspidatmn,/. 75, sharppointed, tipped
with a rigid spine, as in the Thistles, t. 107, jf. 386,
&c., Ruscus aculeatus, t. 560, and Melaleuca nodosa,
Exot. Bot. t. 55.
Cirrosum., f. 76, cirrose, tipped with a tendril, as in
Gloriosa superba, Andr. Repos. t. 129.
6. The different Margins of Leaves are characterized
as follows.
Folium integerrimum,/. 39, an entire leaf, as in the Or-
chis and Lily tribe, as well as Polygala vulgaris,
Engl. Bot. t. 76, Daphne Laureola, t. U9, &c.
(70) [Common Reed, and Sea Club Rush ; both natives.]
[71] Marsh Rosemary.
S
i3« MARGINS OF LEAVES.
This term is opposed to all kinds of teetii, notches^
or incisions. It regards solely the margin of a leaf i
whereas integrum, p. 131, respects its whole shape,
and has nothing to do with the margin. English
writers who translate the one entire, and the other
vert/ entire, are therefore incorrect.
Spinosu?n, f. 77, spinous, beset with prickles, as Car-
duus lanceolatus, t. 107, and Eryn^iurn campestre, t.
57. The veins are spinous in Solanum Pyracantha^
Exot. Bot. t. 64, &G.
Jnerme.f. 71, unarmed, is opposed to spinous.
Ciliatum, f. 78, fringed, bordered with soft parallel
hairs, as Galium cruciatum, Engl. Bot. t. 143.
Cortilagineum, canilaginous, hard and horny, as Saxi-
frag a callosa, Dicks. Dr. PL n. 63.
Dentatum, f. 79, toothed, beset with projecting, hori-
zontal, rather distant teeth of its own substance, as
Atriplex laciniata, Engl. Bot. t. 165, Hypocheeris
macnlata, t. 225, and the lower leaves of Centaurea
Cyaniis, t. 277 ; also Nymphcea Lotus, Curt. Mag.
t. 797.(71)
Serratum.f. 80, serrated, when the teeth are sharp, and
resemble those of a saw, pointing towards the extrem-
ity of the leaf. Examples of this are frequent, as
Urtica, (72) ^ 1 8 and 1236, Rosa, t. 992, &c., Coma-
rum palustre,{TS) t.\12, and Seneciopaludosiis,t.&50-y
also Dillenia indica, Exot. Bot. t. 2. Some leaves
are doubly serrated, duplicato-serrata, having a se-
ries of smaller serratures intermixed with the larger,
(71) [And Arrow wood, Viburnum dentatumT^
{7z) [Nettie.! (73) [Marsh Cinquefoil, native,]
lilARGWS 61^ LEAVES. 13^
BS Mespilns grandijlora, t. 18, and Campanula Tra-
chelium^ EngL Bot. t. 12.
Serrulatum, f. 63, minutely serrated, is used when the
teeth are very fine, as in Polygonum amphibtum^ t.
436, and Empleurum serrulatiim, Exot. Bot. t. 63.
Crenatum, f. SI, notched, or crenate, when the teeth
are rounded, and not directed towards either end of
the leaf, as in Ground- Ivy, Gtechonta hederacea^ t,
853, Chrysosplenium, t. 54 and 90, and Sibthorpid
curopoea, t. 649o In Saxifraga Geum, t. 1561, the
leaves are sharply crenate. In the two British spe-
cies of Salvia, t. 153 and 154, the radical leaves are
doubly crenate, y^ 82.
Erosum, f. 83, jagged, irregularly cut or notched, es-
pecially when otherwise divided besides, as in Sehe-
cio squalidus, t. 600.
Repandum, f. 84, wavy, bordered with nufncrous mi-
nute angles, and small segments of circles alternatclv,
as Menyanthes nymphaoides^ t. 217, and Inula dysen-
terica, t. 1115*
Glandulosum, glandular, as Hypericum monfanum, t.
371 and the Bay-leaved Willow, Salix pentandra.
Jlevolutum, revolute, when the mar,e;iii is lurned or rol-
led backwards, as Androineda poiifolia, t. 713, and
Tetratheca glandulosa, Exot. Bot. t. 21.
Linnasus seems originally ta have applied this term
to the rolling of the whole leaf backwards, as in Soli-
dago Firgaurea, Engl. Bot. t. 301, meaning to use
the expression margine revolutum when the margin'
was intended ; but this latter case being extremely
frequent and the other very rare, he fell into the prac^
tree of using revolutum simply for the margin.
^^^ auUFACE OF LEAVES.
Involutum, involute, the reverse of the preceding, as m
Pinguicida, t. 70 and 145.
Conduplicatum, folded, when the margins are brought
together in a parallel direction, as in Roscoea purpurea,
Exot. Bot. t. 108.
7. Terms expressive^of different kinds of surface, apply-
ing equally to the leaf and to the stem, have been al-
ready explained, //.111. To these may be added the
following, chiefly appropriated to leaves.
Punctatum, dotted ; either superficially as in Rhododen-
drum punctatum, Andr. Repos. t. 36, and Melaleuca
linarifolia, Exot. Bot. t. 56 ; or through the sub-
stance, as in Hypericum perforatum^ (74) Engl. Bert.
t. 295, and the whole natural order to which the Or-
ange and Lemon belong,
Rugosum, rugged, when the veins are tighter than the
surface between them, causing the latter to swell in-
to little inequalities, as in various species of Sage,
Salvia. See Flora Gr^ca ; also Teucrium Scorodo-
nia^ Engl. Bot. t. 1543.
Bullatum, blistery, is only a greater degree of the last.
as in the Garden Cabbage, Brassica oleracea.
Plicatum,/. ^5, plaited, when the disk of the leaf, es-
pecially towards the margin, is acutely folded up and
down, as in Mallows, and Alchemilla vulgaris, Engl.
Bot. t. 597, where, however, the character is but ob-
scurely expressed.
Undulatum,/. 86, undulated, when the disk near the
margin is waved obtusely up and down, as Reseda
(74) [Common St. John's wort.|
VEINS AND RIBS OF LEAVES. 141
lutea, t, 321, and Ixia crispa (more properly undu-
lata*) Curt, Mag. t. 599. ^
Crispum, f. 87, curled, when the border of the leaf be-
comes more expanded than the disk, so as to grow
elegantly curled and twisted, which Linnasus consid-
ers as a disease. Malva crispa^ Ger. em. 931, is an
example of it, and may probably be a variety of M.
verticillata, Jacq. Hort. Find. v. I. t. 40.
Concavum, hollow, depressed in the middle, owing to a
tightness in the border, as Cyamus jYelumbo, Exot.
Bot. t. 32.
Venosum^ Jl 8S, veiny, when the vessels by which the
leaf is nourished are branched, subdivided, and more
or less prominent, forming a network over either or
both its surfaces, as Crat^gus, or rather Fyrus, tor-
minalis, Engl. Bot, t. 298, and Verhascum Lychnitis,
t. 58.
Neroosiim^f. 89, or costatum, ribbed, when they extend
in simple lines from the base to the point, as in Cyp-
ripediiim Calceoliis, t. 1, the Convallaria, t. 279 and
280, Stratiotes alismoides, Exot. Bot. t, 15, and
Roxburghia viridijlora, t. 57. The greater clusters
of vessels are generally called nej-vi or cost/^^ nerves
or ribs, and the smaller veiiis, veins, whether they are
branched and reticulated, or simple and parallel.
Avenium, veinless, and enerve, ribless, are opposed to
the former.
Trinerve^ f. 90, three-ribbed, is applied to a leaf that
has three ribs all distinct from the very base, as well
as unconnected with the margin, in the manner of
* Salinb. Hort, o7
>-4J VEINS AND RIBS OF LEAVES.
those many-ribbed leaves just cited, as Blakea tririefj
vis^. Curt, Mag. t, 451.
Basi trinerve^ f- ^^i three-ribbed at the base, is when
the base is cut away close to the lateral ribs, as in
Burdock, Arctium Lappa. Engl. Bot. t. 1228, Tussi-
lagOy t. 430 and 431, and the Great Annual Sunfiovv.
er.
Triplinerve, f. 92, triply- ribbed, when a pair of large
ribs branch off from the main one above the base,
which is the case in many species of Sunflower or
HelianthuSy Laurus Cinnamomum and Camphora^ as
well as Blakea triplmerv/s^ Aublet Guian. t. 2 10.
Coloratum, coloured, expresses any colour in a leaf be-
sides green, as in Arum bicolor^ Curt. Mag. t. 820,
Amaranthus tricolor^ and others of that tJ|;enus, Jus-'
ticia picta, Hedysarum pictum, Jacq. Ic. Bar. t. 5.>7j
Tradescantia discolor, Sm. Ic. Pict. t. 10, Pulmona-
ria officinalis, Engl. Bot. t, 118»
Variegatuniy variegated, is applied to a sort of variety or
disease, by which leaves become irregularly blotched
with white or yellow, like those of Striped Grass,
Arundo colorata, Fl. Brit. ; as also the Elder, the
Mentha rotundifolia, Engl. Bot. t. 446, and the .Alt-
Cuba japonica, which last is not known in our gardens
in its natural green state.
Nudum, naked, implies that a leaf is destitute of all kinds
of clothing or hairiness, as in the genus Orchis. JVu.
dus applied to a stem means that it bears no leaves,
and to a flower that it has no calyx,
* Authors incessantly use the termination trinervius, triner-^
via, &c. for the more classical trinervts, trinervcj enervie,
(nerve.
SUBSTANCE, &.c. OF LEAVES. 143
§, The following terms express the substance, peculiar
configuration, or any other remaining circumstances
of leaves, not already explained.
J'eres.f. 93, cylindrical, as those of Conchium gibbosum^
White's Voyage^ t. 22. y^ 2 >• see Cavanllles Icones^
t. 533, and 534.
Semicylindmceum^ f. 94, semicylindrical, fiat on one
side, as Salsola fruticosa, Engl. Bot. t. 635, and
Chenopodium maritimufn, t. 633.
Sabulatum^f. 95, awlshaped, tapering from a thickish
base to a point, as Saisola Kal'i^ t. 634. (75)
Tuhulosum^ tubular, hollow within, as Allium Cepa^ the
Common Onion. The leaf of Lobelia Dortmanna^
Engl. Bot. t. 140, is very peculiar in consisting of a
double tube,yi 96.
Carnosum, /.98, fleshy, of a thick pulpy substance, as in
all those called succulent plants, Crassula lactea, Exo.
Bot. t. 33, Aloe., Sediim., Mesembryantheraum, &c.
See, Semperviviim tectorum., Engl. Bot. t. 1320.
Gibbum., gibbous, swelling on one side or both, from
excessive abundance of pulp, as Aloe retusa, Curt.
Mag. t. i55.
Compressum, f. 98, compressed, flattened laterally, as
Mesembryanthemum uncinatum^ Dill. Elth. t. 198,
and acinaciforme^ t, 211.
Depressum, depressed, flattened vertically, as M. lingui-
forme, t. 183—185. See/>. 127.
Qanaliculatum, f. 97, channelled, having a longitudinal
furrow, as M. pugioniforme, t. 210, Plantago mari-
(75) [Saltwort.]
144 SUBSTANCE, he. OF LEAVES.
tima, (76) Engl. Bot. t. 175, and Narcissus poeticm,
t. 275.
Carmatum, keeled, when the back is longitudinally
prominent, as Narcissus bijlorus, t. 276.
Ensiforme^ sword-shaped, is a two-edged leaf, tapering,
to a point, slightly convex on both surfaces, neither of
which can properly be called upper or under, as in
most of the genus Iris. (77) See Curt. Mag. t. 671,
t. 9, &c., and FL Grcec. ?. 39 and 40.
Anceps^ two-edged, is much the same as the last.
Acinaciformc, scimitar-shaped, compressed, with one
thick and straight edge, the other thin and curved, as
Mesemhryanthemum acinaciforme above mentioned.
Dolahnforme^ f. 98, hatchet-shaped, compressed, with
a very prominent dilated keel, and a cylindrical base,
as M. dolabriforme. Dill. Elth. t. 191, Curt. Mag. t.
32.
These two last terms might well be spared, as they
seem contrived only for the plants in question, and in-
deed are not essentially distinct from each other.
Trigonum^f. 99, three-edged, having three longitudinal
sides and as many angles, like M. deltoides. Dill.
Elth. t. 195, Linn. Phil. Bot. t. \.f. 58. Linn^us
has erroneously referred to this figure to illustrate his
term deltoides ; misled, as it should seem, by the
name of the plant to which it belongs ; but his defi-
nition is foreign to the purpose, see/?. 133, and alludes
to the outline of a flat leaf.
Triquetrum differs from trigonum only in being used
by Linnaeus for a three-sided awl-shaped leaf, as M.
(76) [Sea Plantain, native.] (77) [Flag, or Flower dc luce.j
SUBSTANCE, kc. OF LEAVES. 145
emargmafu??i, Dill. Elth. t. 197, f. 250, and bicolor-
um, t. 202, also Saxtfroga burserlana,
Tetragonum, f. iOO, four-edged, having four prominent
angles, as Iris tuberosa^ FL Groec. t. Al.
Lingulatum, tongue-shaped, of a thick, oblong, blunt
figure, generally cartilaginous at the edges, as Mesem-
bryanthemum linguiforme, Dendrobiiivi lingiiiforme^
Exot. Bot. 1. 11, and several species of Saxijraga, as
S. miitata, Curt. Mag. t. 351, aS*. Cotyledon, &c,
Membranaceum, membranous, of a thin and pliable tex-
ture, as in Aristolochia Sipho, t. 534, Rubusodoratiis^
(78) t. 323, Magnolia purpurea, t. 390, &c,
Coriaceum^ leathery, thick, tough and somewhat rigid,
as Magnolia grandijiora,{19) and Hydrangea hortejisis,
Sm. Ic. Pict. t. 12, Curt, Mag. t. 438.
Sempervirens, evergreen, permanent through one, tvvo„
or more winters, so that the branches are never strip
ped, as the Ivy, the Fir, the Cherry Laurel, the Bay,&c.
Deciduum, deciduous, falling off at the approach of win-
ter, as in most European trees and shrubs!
Alienatum,f. 101, alienated, when the first leaves of a
plant give place to others totally different from them ,
and from the natural habit of the genus, as in many
Mimosts of New Holland ; see M. verticillata. Curt.
Mag. t. no, and myrtifolia, t. 302 / also Lathyrus
Nissolia, Engl. Bot. t. 112. The germination of this
last plant requires investigation, for if its first leaves
be pinnated, it is exactly a parallel case with the New
Holland Mimosce.
(78) [Flowering Raspberry, native, as also the preceding.]
(79) [Big Laurel of the Southern states.T
T
*^^ SUBSTANCE, &c. OF LEAVES.
Cticullatum,/. 102, hooded, when the edges meet in
^ the lower part, and expand in the upper, as those of
the curious genus Sarracenia. Curt. Mag. t, 780
and 849, and S. adunca, Exot. Bot. t. 53.(78)
Appendiculatum, f. 103, furnished with an additional
organ for some particular purpose not essential to a
leaf, as Dloncea miiscipula^ Curt. Mag. t. 785, cul-
tivated very successfully by Mr. Salisbury, at Bromp-
ton^ whose leaves each terminate in a pair of toothed
irritable lobes, that close over and imprison insects ;
or Nepenthes distillatoria^ Rurnph. Amboin. v. 5. t.
59, yi 2, the leaf of which bears a covered pitcher,
full of water. Aldrovanda vesicidosa^ and our Utricu-
larWy Engl. Bot. t. 253, 254, have numerous blad-
ders attached to the leaves, which seem to secrete air,
and float the plants.
Many of the preceding terms applied to leaves arc
occasionally combined to express a form between the
two, as ovato-lanceolatum^ lanceolate inclining to ovate,
or elliptico-lanceolatum^ as in the Privet, Engl. Bot. t.
764. When shape, or any other character, cannot ht
precisely defined, sub is prefixed to the term used, as
suhrotuiidum, roundish, subsessile, not quite destitute of
a footstalk, to which is equivalent subpetiolatum, ob-
scurely stalked. By the judicious use of such means,
all necessary precision is attained. It is to be wished
that authors were always uniform and consistent, at least
(7S) [A leaf is said to be hooded, whether the edges unite so
as to form a perfect cavity, as in Sarracenia, or Fivesaddle flow-
er ; or whether they simply meet without cohering, as in Viola
cucullata^
COMPOUND LEAVES. 147
with themselves, in the apphcation of terms ; but as
Linnaeus, the father of accurate botanical phraseology,
very frequently misapplies his own terms, it is perhaps
scarcely to be avoided. I have observed botanists most
critical in theory, to be altogether deficient in that char-
acteristic phraseology, that power of defining, which
bears the stamp of true genius, and which renders the
works of Linnaeus so luminous in despite of incidental
errors. Perhaps no mind, though ever so intent on the
subject, can retain all the possible terms of description
and their various combinations, for ready use at any giv-
en moment. There are few natural objects to vv'hich a varie-
ty of terms are not equally applicable in description, so
that no two writers would exactly agree in their use.
Neither is Nature herself so constant as not perpetually to
elude our most accurate research. Happy is that natur-
alist who can seize at a glance what is most charact^^^ris-
tic and permanent, and define all that is essential, with-
out trusting to fallacious, though ever so specious, dis-
tinctions !
9. Folia composita^ compound leaves, consist of two or
any greater number oifoliohy leaflets, connected by a
common footstalk.
Folium articulatum^f. 104, a jointed leaf, is when one
leaflet, or pair of leaflets, grows out of the summit of
another, Vv^ith a sort of joint, as in Fagara tragodes^
Jacq. Amer. t. 14.
Tiigitatum y f. 22, digitate or fingered, when several
leaflets proceed from the summit of a common foot» ^
148 COMPOUND LEWES.
Stalk, as Potentilla verna, Engl. Bot. t. 37, reptans,
(79) t. 862, and Alchemilla alpina, t. 244.
Sinaturriyf. 105, binate, is a fingered leaf consisting of
only two leaflets, as in Zijgophyllum, Curt. Mag. t.
372.
TcTrtatwn,/'. 106 ^ ternaXe J consists of three leaflets, as
Fagonia crctica^ t. 241, and the genus Trifolium
Trefoil. See E?igL Bot. t. 190, &c.
Qiiinatunij quinate, of five leaflets, as Pofe?itilla aiba, t.
1384, reptans., t. 862, Sec.
Fmnatum, pinnate, when several leaflets proceed laterally
from one footstalk, and imitate a pinnatifid leaf, />.
135. This is of several kinds.
cum imparl,/. 116, with an odd, or terminal, leaflet, as
in Roses, and Elder, also Polemomum coeruleum^
Engl. Bot. t. 14, and Hedysarum Onobrychis, t. 96.
mrrosum\f. 115, with a tendril, when furnished with a
tendril in place of the odd leaflet, as the Pea and Vetch
tribe ; Pisum }}iaritimum, t. 1046, Lathyrus palustris^
(80) t. 169, P^icia sativa, t. 334.
ahrupte^f. 10 i, abruptly, without either a terminal leaf-
lei oi a tendril, as Cassia Chamcecrista, (80) Curt.
Mag^ t. 107, and the genus Mimosa. See M. pudica^
the Common Sensitive-plant. This form of leaf is
much more uncommon than the imparipinnatum^^ndi
we have no perfect example of it among British plants.
The nearest approach to it is the genus Orobus,
whose leaves have only the rudinier;ts of a tendril.
A truly wonderful variety of the Orobi's sylvaticui.,
(79) \_Cinquefoil, or Fivefinger.]
fSu) [Both native.]
COMPOUND LEAVES. 149
Engl. Bot. t. 518, with large simple leaves, has been
found in Wales.
opposit), oppositely, when the leaflets are opposite, or in
pairs, as Saint-foin, t. 96, Roses, Slum angustifolmm^ .
t. 139, &c.
alternatim, alternately, when they are alternate, as Vicia
dumetorum fCracca sylvaticaj Riv. Pent, Irr. t. 51,
and occasionally in our ^. Sativa lutea^ &c.
interrupted/. 107, interruptedly, when the principal leaf-
lets are ranged alternately with an intermediate series
of smaller ones, as Spircea Filipendula, Engl. Bot. t.
284, S. Ulmaria, t. 960, and Potentilla anserina, f,
861. (81)
articulate, jointedly, with apparent joints in the common
footstalk, as JVeinmannia pinnata,
decursive^ decurrcntly, when the leaflets are decurrent,
as Eryngium compestre, Engl. Bot. t, 57 y and Paten-
tillajruticosa, t. 88.
lyrato^f. 108, in a lyrate manner, having the terminal
leaflet largest, and the rest gradually smaller, as they
approach the base, as Erysimum pnecox, t. 1129,
and, with intermediate smaller leaflets, Geum rivale,
(82) t. 106 ; also the Common Turnip. Such
leaves are usually denominated lyrate in common with
those properly so called (whose shape is simple, and
not formed of separate leaflets) ; nor is this from inac-
curacy in botanical writers. The reason is, that
these two kinds of leaves, however distinct in theory,
are of all leaves most liable to run into each other,
even on the same plant, examples of which are fre-
quent in the class Tetr adynamia.
'81) [Native] (82) [Native.].
150 COMPOUND LEA>T.S,
verticillato, f. 109, in a whorled manner, the leaflets cut
into fine divaricated segments, embracing the foot-
stalk, as Sium verticillatum^ Fl.Brit. Eng.Bot. t.o95,
Auriculatum^f. 110, an auricled leaf, is furnished at its
base with a pair of leaflets, properly distinct, but oc-
casionally liable to be joined with it, as Salvia triloba,
Fl. Grac. t. 17, and Dipsacus pilosus, Engl. Bot. t.
877. Linnaeus in the last example uses the term
appendiculatum, which is correct, but superfluous, and
I have therefore ventured to apply it somewhat differ-
ently,/>. 146.
Conjugatum.f. lOS, conjugate, or yoked, consists of
only a pair o^ pinnce ov leaflets, and is much the same
as b'matum. Instances of it are in the genus Zygo-
phjllum, whose name, equivalent to Yokeleaf, ex-
pressed this very character ; also in Lathyrus sylves-
tris, Engl Bot. t. 805, and latifoliiis, t. 1108. Biju-
gum, trijugum, quadrijugum^ multrijugum, &c., ex-
press particular numbers of pairs of leaflets, and are
used for that purpose where such discrimination is
requisite for specific characters, as in Mimosa.
The different degrees in which leaves are compounded
are thus distinguished, without any reference to the
mode.
Compositum,/. HI, simply compound, as in the above
instances.
Decompositiim, f. 112*, doubly compound, as Atha-
manta, Lihanotis, Engl. Bot. t 138, Mgopodium^ Po-
* Linnseus, in Phil. Bot. 47, i^ives an erroneous definition of
this term, which does not accord with liis own use of it. Pro-
fessor Martyn has rightly defined it.
COMPOUND LEAVES. 151
dao-raria, t. 940, and Fumaria claviculata^ t.
103.
Supradecompositwn.f, 113, thrice compound, or more,
as Caucal's Aiithriscus, t. 987, C. daiicoides t. 197,
and Bimium Jiexuosum., ?. 988. But
Bigeminatiim, twice paired, as Mimosa Unguis cati.
Plum. Ic. t. 4 ; and tergeminatum, thrice paired, as
M. terge7J2wa ; also
Biternatum.f. 112, twice ternate, as Mgopodium, Engl.
Bot. t. 940 ; triternatum, thrice ternate, as Fumaria
lutea^ t. 588 ; and
Bipinnatum, doubly pinnate, tripinnatum, triply pinnate,
of which examples have just been given : all apply
to the mode, as well as the degree, in which leaves
are compounded.
Pedatum.f. 114, pedate, is a peculiar kind of leaf, be-
ing ternate, with its lateral leaflets compounded in
their fore part, as Hellehorus fat'idus^ Engl. Bot. t.
613, and H. niger, Curt. Mag. t. 8. (83) There is
an affinity between a pedate leaf and those simple
ones which are three-ribbed at the base, p. 142. Sec
also the disposition of the lateral veins in Aristolochia
Clematitis, Engl. Bot. t. 398.
In compounding the foregoing terms we must take
care not to express a contradiction. Thus the leaves of
many Mimosce^ as the purpurea., Andr. Repos. t. 372,
and sensitiva, are conjiig-ata pinnata^ conJDgiite in the
first instance, pinnate in ihe ntxr, not covjuc'ato-p^nnata^
of an intermediate nature between conjugate and pin-
(83) [Also Viola pedata.']
i52 OOMPOUND LEAVES.
nate, which is impossible. Neither are the leaves of
Mimosa pudica digitato-pinnata, for there is no medium
between the two terms ; but they are digitate, or com-
posed of leaflets proceeding from the top of a common
foot-stalk, and those leaflets are pinnate. On the other
hand ovato-lanceolatum^ lanceolate approaching to ovate,
or elliptico-lanceolatumy approaching to elliptic, as in
the Privet, Engl. Bot. t. 764, already mentioned, whose
leaves often assume that shape, are easily understood.
t 153 ]
CHAPTER XVI,
OP THE FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES.
The knowledge of the functions of leaves, and their
- real use with regard to the plant, is a curious branch of
vegetable physiology, which made but a slow progress
long after the nature of many other parts had been deep-
ly scrutinized and thoroughly explained.
Caesalpinus {De Plantis, p. 6.) thought leaves merely
a clothing, or a protection against cold and heat. He
conceived that the rays of the sun, being moderated in
passing through them, were prevented from acting too
violently on the fruit and young buds, " Accordingly, '^
says he, *' many trees lose their leaves in autumn, when
their fruits are perfected, and their buds hardened, while
such as retain the fruit long, keep also their leaves ; even
till a new crop is produced, and longer, as in the Fir,
the Arbutus^ and the Bay. It is reported that in hot
climates, where there is almost perpetually a burning
sun, scarcely any trees lose their leaves, because they
require them for shade." Caesalpinus goes on to show
that leaves proceed from the bark, with some remarks
on the pith, (in which we may trace the origin of the
Linnean hypothesis of vegetation,) but which are now
superseded by more accurate inquiries.
The above is certainly a very small part of the use of
leaves. Yet the observations of this writer, the father of
botanical philosophy among the moderns, are so far CQr-
u
154 PERSPIRATION OF LEAVES.
rect, that if the leaves of a tree be stripped off, the fruit
comes to nothing, which is exempHfied every year in
Gooseberry bushes devoured by caterpillars ; and
though the fruit-trees of vi^arm climates, partly natural-
ized with us. Grapes and Peaches for instance, ripen
their fruit sooner perhaps if partially deprived of their
leaves, yet if that practice be carried too far, the fruit
perishes, as gardeners who tried it soon discovered. The
White Mulberry indeed, cultivated in the south of Eu-
rope for the food of silkworms only, bears wonderfully
the loss of its foliage three or four times a year. How
far the fruit is injured nobody thinks it worth while to
inquire, as it is never eaten, but it certainly does not
fall off prematurely.
That Leaves imbibe and give out moisture has been
long known, this being one of the most obvious facts
belonging to them. Dr. Hales thought they might
probably imbibe air ; but since his time more certain
discoveries have been made concerning this point, as
well as the effect of light upon leaves, which also did
not escape the consideration of that great philobopher.
All these subjects we shall mention in their turn.
That Leaves give out moisture, or are organs of in-
sensible perspiration, is proved by the simple experi-
ment of gathering the leafy branch of a tree, and imme-
diately stopping the wound at its base with mastick, wax,
or any other fit substance, to prevent the effusion of
moisture in that direction. In a very short time the
leaves droop, wither and are dried up. If the same
branch, pardy faded, though not dead, be placed in a
very damp cellar, or immersed in water, the leaves re-
PERSPIRATION OF LEAVES, 155
vive, by which their power of absorption is also proved.
Hence the use of a tin box to travelling botanists, for
the purpose of restraining the evaporation of plants, and
so preserving them fresh for some days till they can be
examined, as well as of reviving faded plants, if the in-
side of the box be moistened before they are shut up
in it.
Dr. Hales found that a plant of the Great Annual Sun-
flower, Helianthus annuus, lost 1 lb. 14 oz. weight in
the course of twelve hours in a hot dry day. In a dry
night it lost about 3 oz.; in a moist night scarcely any
alteration was observable, but in a rainy night it gained
2 or 3 oz. The surface of the plant compared with
that of its roots was, as nearly as could be calculated, in
the proportion of five to two ; therefore the roots must
have imbibed moisture from the earth of the pot in which
the plant grew, and which was all previously weighed,
in the same proportion of five to two, otherwise the
leaves would have faded. The same experiment was
made on the Vine, the Cabbage, &c., with various re-
sults as to the exact degree of perspiration, but all prov-
ing it to be considerable. Evergreens arc found to
perspire much less than other shrubs.
The state of the atmosphere has a great effect on the
rapidity of this perspiration. Practical botanists know
how much sooner plants fade, and haymakers experi-
ence how much faster their work is done, some days
than others, and those days are by no means always the
most sunny. In a hot dry day plants are often exhaust-
ed, so as to droop very much towards evening, especial-
ly in the dry unsheltered bed of a garden. Such as have
IS$ SENSIBLE PERSPIKATION.
fleshy roots, indeed have a singular power of resisting
drought, which hasakeady been explained p. 101. Suc-
culent plants, destined to inhabit sunny rocks, or sandy
deserts, imbibe with the greatest facility, and perspire
very sparingly. Evergreens are not generally very suc-
culent, but their cuticle appears to be constructed like
that of succulent plants, so as to allow of little evapora-
tion. The Cornelian Cherry, whose immense perspi-
ration we have recorded, p. 67 y has a thin dry leaf, ca-
pable of holding very little moisture.
The nature of the liquor perspired has been already
noticed, p. 67. In hot weather it has been observed by
Hales, Du Hamel and Guettard to partake occasionally
of the peculiar scent of the plant that yields it, but in
general the odorous matter is of too oily a nature to be
combined with it.
The sensible perspiration of plants is of various kinds.
When watery, it can be considered only as a condensa-
tion of their insensible evaporation, perhaps from some
sudden change in the atmosphere. Groves of Poplar
or Willow exhibit this phoenomenon, even in England,
in hot calm v/eather, Vv^hen drops of clear water trickle
from their leaves like a slight shovver of rain. Some-
times it is of a saccharine nature, as De la Hire observ-
ed in Orange trees ; Du Hamel Arb. v. 1. 150. It is
more glutinous in the Tiiia or Lime-tree, more resin-
ous in Poplars, as well as in Cistus creticus, from which
last the resin called Labdanu?n is collected, by beating
the shrub with leather thongs. See Tournefort's Voyage^
29. In the Fraxinella, Dictamus albus, it is a highly
inflammable vapour, Ovid has made an elegant use of
ABSORPTION OP LEAVES. 157
the resinous exudation of Lombardy Poplars, Populus
dilatata. Ait. Hort. Keiv. v. 3. 406, which he supposes
to be the tears of Phaeton's sisters, who were transform-
ed into those trees. Such exudations must be consid-
ered as effusions of the peculiar secretions ; for it has
been observed that Manna may be scraped from the
leaves of Fraxinus OrnuSy Fl. Grcec. t. 4, as well as
procured by incision from its stem. They are often
perhaps a sign of unhealthiness in the plant ; at least
such appears to be the nature of one kind of honey-dew,
to which the Beech in particular is subject, and which,
in consequence of an unfavourable wind, covers its
leaves in the form of a sweet exudation, similar in fla-
vour to the liquor obtained from its trunk. So likewise
the Hop, according to Linnseus, Faun-. Suec. SOS, is af-
fected with the honey-dew, and its flowers rendered
abortive, in consequence of the attacks of the caterpillar
of the Ghost Moth, Phalcena Humuli^ upon its roots. In
such case the saccharine exudation must decidedly be
of a morbid nature*. That wax is also an exudation
from the leaves of plants, appears from the experiments
recorded by Dr. Thomson in his Chemistry^ v. 4. 298,
and it has been long ago asserted that wax may easily
be gathered from the leaves of Rosemary. On this sub-
ject I have not made any experiments to satisfy myself.
With respect to the absorbing power of leaves, the
best observations that have been made are those of Bon
* I do not mean to dispute the accuracy of Mr. Curtis's excel-
lent paper, TV. of Linn. Soc. v. 6, written to prove honey-dew
to be the dung of Afihides. I only contend that there are more
than, one kind of honev-dew.
"13a ABSOHPTIONT OF LEAVES.
net, recorded in die beginning of his Recherches sur
VUsagedes FeuiUes. His aim was, by laying leaves of
various plants upon the top of a jar of water, some with
their upper, and others of the same species with their
under, surfaces applied to the water, to discover in
which situation leaves of each plant continued longest
in health and vigour, and also how far different species
differed from each other in this respect. The results
were in many instances highly curious.
Of fourteen herbaceous plants tried by this philoso-
pher, six lived nearly as long with one surface applied to
the water as with the other ; these were the common
Arum maculatum^ the French Bean, the Sun-flower,
Cabbage, Spinach and the Small Mallow. By the last I
presume is meant Malva rotundifolia., Erigl. Bot. t.
1092. Six others, Plantain, White Mullein, the Great
Mallow (probably M. sylvestris., t. 671), the Nettle,
Cock's-comb, and Purple leaved Amaranth (probably
Amaranthus hypochondnacus\ lived longest with their
upper surface laid upon the water. The Nettle lived
but three weeks with its under surface on the water, and
about two months in a contrary position. The Mullein
scarcely survived five or six days, and the Amaranth
not a week, in the first-mentioned posture, while the
leaves of the former remained in vigour about five
weeks, and of the latter three months, when their upper
surfaces imbibed the water. Marvel of Peru and Balm,
the two remaining plants of the fourteen on which the
experiment was made, had also an evident advantage in
receiving that fluid by their upper surfaces. The leaves
of some of the above species were found to thrive bet*
ABSORPTIOX OF LEAVES. 159
tcr when their stalks only were immersed in water, than
when either of their sides was s'upplied with it, and the
reverse was observable in several others ; but the White
Mullein, the Plantain and the Amaranth survived lon-
ger when they received the water by their stalk than by
their under surface, though not so long as when it was
applied to their upper sides.
Of sixteen trees tried by Bonnet, the Lilac and the
Aspen, Populus tremula, were the only leaves that
seemed to imbibe water equally well by either surface,
whilst all the others evidently succeeded best with their
under sides laid upon the water being in that respect
the reverse of herbaceous plants. Of these the White
Mulberry leaf was the most remarkable, not living more
than five days when supplied by the upper surface,
while such as floated on their backs continued in per-
fection near six months. The Vine, the Poplar (prob-
ably Populus nigra), and the Walnut, were no less re-
markable, for fading almost as soon, when fed by their
upper surface, as when left without any water at all.
Many of the other trees imbibed water as well, or bet-
ter, by their foot-stalks as by their upper surfaces. Ha-
zel-nut and Rose leaves, when laid with their backs up-
on the water, imbibe sufficiently to nourish other leaves
on the same branch ; so will one leaflet of a French bean
supply its neighbour that does not touch the water.
Those who wish to repeat these experiments should
be careful to choose full-grown healthy leaves, all as
nearly as possible of the same age and vigour. It is
also desirable that the precise species of plant should be
recorded by its scientific name. For want of thisjBonnet,
who despised method and nomenclature, has left us in
260 OP AQUATIC PLANTS.
uncertainty concerning several of the plants he examin-
ed. We ought to have been accurately informed w^hat
species of Poplar differed so remarkably in its power of
absorption from the Aspen, another of the same genus.
We ought likewise to have been told what Sun-flower,
what Nettle, Amaranth and Mallows were examined ;
for want of which information the authority of such ex-
periments is much impaired.
From the foregoing observations we learn the impor-
tance of shading and watering plants newly removed,
cuttings, grafts, &c. and on the other hand the benefit
of heat and air to promote due perspiration and evapora-
tion.
The perspiration of aquatic plants seems to be re-
markably copious. Of these some grow constantly im-
mersed in the water, as most species of Potamogeto7i^
Pond- weed, Engl. Bot. t. 168, 297, 376, &c. Their
leaves are peculiarly vascular, and dry very quickly in
the air, withering in a very few minutes after exposure
to it. Their absorbing power seems equally great, so
that they appear to be continually, in their natural situa-
tion, imbibing and giving out a quantity of water much
greater than has been observed in land plants. Other
aquatics, as the Nympheece^ EngL Bot. t. 159, 160,
float with only the upper surface of their leaves exposed
to the air, which surface is so contrived that water will
scarcely remain upon it. These leaves, though extreme-
ly juicy, dry with great rapidity, as does every part of
the plants when gathered. It is probable that they im-
bibe copiously by their under sides, and perspire by the
upper.
SARRACENIA. ^^^
The economy of the Sarracenia, an American ge=^
nils of which we now know four'tpecies,and of the East
Indian Nepenthes distillatoria, deserve particular men^
tion. Both grow in bogs, though not absolutely in the
water. The former genus has tubular leaves which
catch the rain like a funnel and retain it ; at least such is
the nature of S. purpurea. Curt. Mag. t. 849, whose
margin seems dilated expressly for this purpose, while
the orifice of the tubular part just below is contracted to
restrain evaporation. Linnaeus conceived this plant to
be allied in constitution to Nymphxa, and consequently
to require a more than ordinary supply of water, which
its leaves w^ere calculated to catch and to retain, so as to
enable it to live without being immersed in a river, or
pond. But the consideration of some other species ren-
ders this hypothesis very doubtful, S. Jlava, t.780, and
more especially S. adunca, Exot. Bot. t, 53, are so con^
structed that rain is nearly excluded from the hollow of
their leaves, and yet that part contains water, which
seems to be secreted by the base of each leaf. What
then is the purpose of the unusual contrivance ? An
observation communicated to me two years ago, in the
botanic garden at Liverpool, seems to unravel the mys-
tery. An insect of the Sphex or Ichneumon kind, as far
as I could learn from description, was seen by one of
the gardeners to drag several large flies to the Sarracenia
adunca, and^ with some difficulty forcing them under the,
lid or cover of its leaf, to deposit them in the tubular
part, which was half filled with water. All the leaves,
on being examined, were found crammed with dead or
drowning tiies. The S. purpurea is usually observed
IS^ NEPENTHES.
to be Stored with putrefying insects, whose scent is
perceptible as we pass the plant in a garden ; for the
margin of its leaves is beset with inverted hairs, which^
like the wires of a mousetrap, render it very difficult for
any unfortunate fly, that has fallen into the watery tube,
to crawl out again. Probably the air evolved by these
dead flies may be beneficial to vegetation, and, as far as
the plant is concerned, its curious construction may be
( designed to entrap them, while the water is provided to
tempt as well i^s to retain them. The Sphex or Ichneu-
mon, an insect of prey, stores them up unquestionably for
the food of itself or its progeny, probably depositing its
eggs in their carcases, as others of the sam© t|branes not naturally designed to admit it.
We must also recollect that a plant, cut even for a short
time, begins to lose its vital principle, after which no
just judgment can be formed, by any experiments, con-
cerning the movements of its fluids in life and vigour^
See Chapter 1, These experiments of Dr. Hales there-
fore prove no more than that the vegetable body is per-
vious in various directions ; and perhaps the only point
they correctly establish is, that air is imbibed through
tfii- baik, a part known to be full of air-vessels. But
tilt L^eventh chapter of the Vegetable staticks contains
EFFECTS' ©F AIR ON LEAVES. 165
some remarks much more to our purpose. Dr. Hales
there clearly anticipates by conjecture, what succeeding
philosophers, more enlightened chemists, have ascer-
tained. His words are remarkable :
" We may therefore reasonably conclude, that one
great use of leaves is what has been long suspected by
many, viz. to perform in some measure the same office
for the support of the vegetable life, that the lungs of
animals do, for the support of the animal life ; plants
very probably drawing through their leaves some part of
their nourishment from the air." p. 326. A little further
on he adds, " And may not light also, by freely entering
the expanded surfaces of leaves and flowers, contribute
much to the ennobling the principles of vegetables ?"
/>. 328. (84)
(84) [The surfaces of most leaves contain a large number of
small whitish points, scarcely apparent to the naked eye, but ea-
sily distinguished with a glass. These points were called cor-
tical glands^ by Saussure, and evafiorating fioresf by Hedwig. On
examination, they are found to consist of small fissures, sur-
rounded by areas. According to M. Jurine, a microscopic anat-
omist of Geneva, almost all leaves are penetrated with a great
number of these apertures. Their size varies in different plants.
Thus in the Orchis and Lily kind, they are very large ; in the
Jessamine and Oak, they are very small. Leaves are unequally
provided with them ; some having pores on both surfaces, others
only on one, while some are even destitute of them. These
pores which contain air only, are surrounded by a pair of cells,
which Jurine denominates conjugate utricles, and which contam
a greenish fluid, in common with the other cells of the leaf.
Through these pores and utricles, the communication appears to
be kept up between the external air and the juices of the leaf.]
166
PURIFICATION OP AIR
Next in order of time to those of Hales follow the ex-
periments of Bonnet. We have already detailed his ob-
servations on the power of leaves to imbibe moisture ;
whence it is ascertained that plants are furnished with a
system of cuticular absorbents, which carr}- fluids into
their sap-vessels, so as to enable them in some degree to
dispense with supplies from the root. With respect to
the effects of air upon leaves, this ingenious philosopher
has not been equally successful. He is recorded as the
discoverer of the expiration of plants, but it appears from
his work that he merely observed the bubbles of air
which cling to leaves, dead as well as living, and indeed
to any other body, when immersed in water and exposed
to the light of the sun. He found these bubbles disap-
peared in the evening, and returned again when the sun
shone, and he faithfully reports that by their attachment
to the surfaces of leaves, the latter were rendered more
buoyant, and rose in the water ; a sure proof that the
air had not previously existed, in the same volume at
least, in the substance of those leaves. Accordingly,
Bonnet concluded that the latter, in imbibing the sur-
rounding water, left the air which had been contained in
the water, and that this liberated air became visible from
being warmed and rarefied by the sun. This was as
near the truth as Bonnet could come, it not being then
known that light has a power of separating air of a pecu-
liar kind, carbonic acid gas, from water. I find no indi-
cations in his work of his having had any idea of leaves
absorbing air and giving it out again ; still less of their
affecting any change in its properties.
BY LEAVES. IQT
Dr. Priestley was the first who suggested this last-
mentioned quality in vegetables. He ascertained their
r)ower of absorbing carbonic acid gas, denominated by
him fixed air, and giving out oxygen gas, or pure re-
spirable air. It was also his opinion that leaves imbib-
ed the former by their upper, and gave out the latter
by their under surface. He found some aquatic or
marsh plants extremely powerful in this respect, es-
pecially the Willow-herb or Epilobium, and the Confer-
va, a minute branching cotton-like vegetable which
grows in putrid water, and the production of which, in
water become foul from long keeping on ship- board,
Dr. Priestley judged to operate principally in restoring
that fluid to a state fit for use.
Dr. Ingenhousz, pursuing Dr. Priestley's inquiries,
found light to be necessary to these functions, and that,
in the dark, leaves gave out a bad air. He observed
moreover that fruits and flowers almost invariably gave
out a bad, or carbonic, air, but more especially in the
dark. He probably carries his ideas of the deleterious
eflfects of this air on animal life, too far ; for no mischief
has ever happened, as far as common experience goes,
to persons sleeping in apple or olive chambers, neither do
the inhabitants of the confined huts inCovent-garden mar-
ket apparently suffer, from living day and night among
heaps of drying herbs. Mischiefs have unquestionably
arisen from flowers in a bed-room, or any other confined
apartment, but that is to be attributed to their perfumed
effluvia. So the bad effects, observed by Jacqnin, of Lobe-
lia longijiora on the air of a hot-house, the danger incur-
red by those who sleep under the Manchineel-tree, Hip-
168 EFFECT OF LIGHT UPON PLANTS.
pomane Mancinella^ or, as it is commonly believed, under
a Walnut-tree, are probably to be attributed as much to
poisonous secretions as to the air those plants evolve.
Dr. Ingenhousz introduced leaves into glass jars filled
with water, which he inverted in a tub of the same water,
and placed the whole together in the sun-shine. From
their under sides came streams or bubbles of air, which
collected in the inverted bottom of each jar. The air
thus procured proved oxygen gas, more or less pure.
The Nymph(sa alba, Engl. Bot. t. 160, affords an ex-
traordinary abundance of it. Dr. Ingenhousz observed
plants to be very various in their mode of emitting these
bubbles, but it was always uniform in the same species.
Air collected from water placed in similar circumstances
without plants, proved not oxygen, but much worse
than common air, viz. carbonic acid gas, which follow-
ing chemists have confirmed, and which we have already
mentioned. Ingenhousz also found the air collected
from plants under water in the dark worse than common
air, especially that from walnut-leaves ; which confirms
the common opinion, above alluded to, respecting this
tree.
Plants purify air very quickly. A vine-leaf in an
ounce phial of carbonic acid gas, that immediately extin-
guished a candle, placed in the sun, without water,
changed it to pure respirable air in an hour and half.
Dr. Priestley found plants to alter even unmixed inflam-
mable air, or hydrogefi, especially the Epilobium hirsu-
tum, if I mistake not, and Polygonum Hydropiper.
Succulent plants are found to afford most air, in con-
sequence of the abundance of their Cellular Integument,
EFFECT OF LIGHT UPON PLANTS. Iig9
or Parenchyma., in which, as I have hinted in the fourth
chapter, the chemical operations of the leaves are per>-
formed.
That Light has a very powerful effect upon plants,
has long been known, independent of the remarks of
Hales or Ingenhousz. The green colour of the leaves is
owing to it, inrsomuch that plants raised in darkness are
of a sickly white. It has even been observed that when
-light is admitted to the leaves through different glasses,
each tinged of a different prismatic colour, the plant is
paler in proportion as the glass approaches nearer to vio-
let. The common practice of blanching Celery in gar-
dens, by covering it up from the light, is an experiment
under the eyes of every one. This blanching of plants
is called by the French etiolation, and our chemists
have adopted the term, though I tliink they err in de-
riving it from Ho'xle^ a star. When blanched plants are
brought into the light, they soon acquire their natural
green colour, and even in the dark they are gieen, if
exposed to the action of hydrogen gas. Tulip and
Crocus flowers have long ago been observed by Scnne-
bier to be coloured even in the dark, apparently be-
cause their colour depends on a different principle from
the green of leaves.
Light acts beneficially upon the upper surface of
leaves, and hurtfully upon the under side ; hence the
former is always turned towards the light, in whatever
situation the plant may happen to be placed. Trees
nailed against a north wall turn their leaves from the
Wall, though it be towards the ngrth, and in direct oppo-
170 TURNING OF LEAVES TO THE LIGHT.
sition to those on a southern wall over against them.
Plants in a hot-house all present the fronts of their leaves,
and this influences even the posture of the branches to
the side where there is most light, but neither to the
quarter where most air is admitted, nor to the flue in
search of heat. If the branches of a trained fruit-tree
in full leaf be disturbed in their position, the leaves re-
sume their original direction in the course of a day or
two. The brighter the day, the more quickly is this
accomplished. If the experiment be often repeated,
they continue to turn, but more weakly, and are much
injured by the exertion. Black spots appear about the
veins on their under sides, and the cuticle scales off".
Succulent leaves, though so thick and firm as many of
them are, have been observed to be peculiarly sensible
to light, while other plants, as Mallows, according to
Bonnet, are much less so. The Miseltoe, Fiscum al-
bum, Em-L Bot. t. 1470, the two sides of whose leaves
are alike in appearance, and both equally, in general,
presented to the light, are not found to turn upon any
change in the posture of the branch. Neither do up-
right sword-shaped leaves alter their position, because in
them both sides must be presumed to perform the same
functions with respect to light as well as air.
Mr. Calandrini found vine-leaves turned to the light
when separated from the stem and suspended by a
thread. Of this any one may be easily satisfied, provid-
ed the experiment be made with sufficient care and del-
icacy. It is important, as demonstrating the turning to
be accomplished by an impression made on the leaf it-
self, and not upon its footstalk.
TURNING OF FLOWERS TO THE LIGHT. in
Nor is this effect of light peculiar to leaves alone.
Many flowers are equally sensible to it, especially the
compound radiated ones, as the Daisy, Sun-flower, Mar-
igold, &c. Ii> their forms Nature seems to have de-
lis-hted to imitate the radiant luminary to which they are
apparently dedicated, and in the absence of whose beams
many of them do not expand their blossoms at all. The
stately Annual Sun-flower, HeUanthus anmms, displays
this phoenomenon more conspicuously on account of its
size, but many of the tribe have greater sensibility to
light. Its stem is compressed in some degree, to facili-
tate the movement of the flower, which, after following
the sun all day, returns after sun-set to the east, by its
natural elasticity, to meet his beams in the morning.
Dr. Hales thought the heat of the sun, by contracting the
stem on one side, occasioned the flower to incline that
way ; but if so, it would scarcely return completely at
night. There can be no doubt, from the observation of
other similar flowers, that the impression is made on
their radiated florets, which act as wings, and seem con-
trived chiefly for that purpose, being frequently destitute
of any other use. A great number of leaves likeuise
follow the sun in its course ; a clover-field is a familiar
instance of this.
Of all leaves those of pinnated leguminous plants are
found most affected by light, insomuch that it appears,
in several cases, the sole cause of their expansion, for
when it is withdrawn they fold over each other, or
droop, as if dying ; and this is called by Linnasus the
Sleep of Plants, who has a dissertation on the subject in
his Ammnitates Academic^e. The term Sleep may not
11^ SLEEP OF PLANTS,
really be so hyperbolical as at first sight it seems, for the
cessation of the stimulus of light, and of the consequent
restrained position of the leaves, may be useful to the
vegetable constitution, as real sleep is -to the animaU
A iother purpose is answered by the nocturnal folding
of some le ives, that they shelter their flowers from the
dew, the advantage of which we shall explain hereafter.
Some pinnated leaves display a more extraordinary
sensibility, not merely to light, but to the touch of any
extrune(uis bodv, or to anv sudden concussion, as those
of Mimosa sfr?s'fiva, c\v.(\ pitdicn ; Oxal/s sensitiva, and<
Sinithia sensitiva. Ait Hori. Kew. v. 3,f. 13. An im-
pre.-,bion niacle even in the most gentle manner, upon one
of thtir leaflets, is communicated in succession to all of
them, evincing an exquisite initability, for it is in vain
to attempt any mechanica' solution of this phoenomenon.
One of this tribe, Hedysarum gyrcins, has a spontaneous
motion in its leaves, inde()endent of any external stimu-
ius, even of light, and only requiring a very warm still
atmosphere to l)e performed in perfection. Each leaf is
ternate, and the sn)all lateral leaflets are frequently mov-
ing up and down, either equably or by jerks, without
any unilornsity or cooperation among themselves. It is
difl[icult to guess at the purpose which this singular ac-
tion is designed to answer to the plant itself; its effect
on a tational bfchf>lder cannot be indiiferent.
The chemical actions of light, heat, and the compo-
nent parts of the atmospheric air, upon leaves, and,
where the latter are wanting, on the green stems of
pi \nts, are now, as far as concerns all plants in common,
tokiably wcii uiiaersiood. The observations and ex-
ACTION OF L"»=:ATES ON THE ATMOSPHERE. 1?3
periments of Piiestley and Ingenhousz have been con-
firmed, extended in a variety of ways, or explained on
the {principles of improved chemistry, by Dr. Percival
and Mr. Henry in England, Dr. Woodhouse in Ameri-
ca, and M. Sennebier and M. Tl eodore de Saussure, as
well as various other philosophers, on the continent of
Europe. It is agreed that in the day-time plants imbibe
from the atmosphere carbonic acid gas, (which was for-
merly called fixed air, and is an union of oxygen and
carbon), that they decompose it, absorb the carbon as
matter of nourishment which is added to the sap, and
emit the oxygen. So they absorb the same gas from
water, when it is separated from that fluid by the action
of light. The burning of a candle, or the breathing of
animals, in confined air, produces so much of this gaSj
that neither of these operations can go on beyond a cer-
tain time, but the air so contaminated, serves as food for
vegetables, whose leaves, assisted by light, soon restore
the oxygen, or, in other words, purify the air again.
This beautiful discovery, for the main principles of
which we are indebted to the celebrated Dr. Pnestley,
shows a mutual dependance of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms on each other, which had never been suspected
before his time. Compar.itive experiments upon the
lower tribes of these kingdoms have not yet been made,
but they would probably afford us a new test for distin-
guishing them. The air so copiously purified by a Con-
ferva, one of the most inferior in the scale of plants,
may be very extensively useful to the innumerable tribes
of animated beings which inhabit the same watere. The
abundant air- bubbles which have long ago given even a
174 CHEMICAL ACTIO >r 01"
botanical name to one supposed species, Conferva bulh-
sa, are probably a source of life and health to whole na-
tions of aquatic insects, worms and polypes, whenever
the sun shines.
In the dark, plants give out carbon and absorl) oxy-
gen : but the proportion of the latter is small, compared
to what they exhale by day, as must likewise be the pro-
portion of carbon given out ; else the quantity of tlie lat-
ter added to their substance would be but trifling, es-
pecially in those climates where the proportion of day to
night is nearly equal, and which, notwithstanding, we
know to be excessively luxuriant in vegetation. Plants
also give out azotic gas : but M. de Saussure is of
©pinion that this proceeds from their internal substance ;
and it appears by his experiments to be father a sign of
disease or approaching decay, than a regular chemical
production of their constitution when in health ; for
Sennebier found the quantity of oxygen emitted was in
proportion to the thickness of the leaf, or quantity of
parenchyma. Yet the parenchyma must be in its orig-
inal organized state, for when bruised its functions are
destroyed.
Possibly such an alternation in the functions of vege-
tables between day and night may afford a necessary
repose to their vital principle, whose share in them we
know to be of primary importance. Whatever may
happen to plants in the dark, there can be no doubt of
their principal business in the oeconomy of nature being
what we have described. The most luminous and com-
pendious view of the whole subject is given by Dr.
Thomson of Edinburgh in the fourth vol. of his Chetn-
LEAVES ON THE ATAIOSPHERE. * 175
I
istry^ which is well worth the attention of those who
wish to enter more deeply into ail the various chemical
examinations respecting it than suits our purpose. It is
onlv necessary to add a short view of Dr. Darwin's hy-
pothesis which Dr. Thomson has not mentioned, proba-
bly on account of its insufficiency. That lively writer
thought the watery perspiration of leaves, acted upon by
light, gave out oxygen for the use of the plant itself,
such oxygen being immediately absorbed by the air-
vessels. This is by no means adequate to explainanyof
the phoenomena, but rather contradictory to most of
them, and is totally superseded by the observations and
experiments of other writers. (85)
(85) [Some late inquiries, by Mr. Ellis of Edinburgh, go to
prove that vegetating plants at all times, both by day and
night consume oxygen from the atmosphere, and produce car-
bonic acid in its stead. This carbonic acid appears to be the
product of carbon, afforded by the vegetable, and oxygen, con-
tributed by the air. Oxygen is also given out in considerable
quantities, by plants vegetating in the sunshine ; but this pro-
duction, Mr. Ellis considers to be not the result of any vegeta-
tive function, but only a subordinate operation accomplished by
the direct agency of the sun's rays. The disengagement of ox-
ygen by the solar sight, is attended with the production of the
green colour in plants. It takes place only from leaves, and
other parts, which acquire this colour. Flowers, fruits, roots,
See. whether in the sunshine or in the shade, afford nothing but
carbonic acid.
Mr. Ellis believes that the production of oxygen from plants,
is more than balanced by its consumption, and the formation of
carbonic acid; and thus that growing vegetables deteriorate the
atmosphere, in a degr^^e which greatly surpasses their power to
ameliorate and improve it.J
179 yntiMIUAL. AC; 1 1^!^ Ult'
There can be no question of the general purpose an-
swered to the vegetable constitution by these functions
of leaves. They confirm Mr. Knight's theory of vege-
tation, who has proved that very little alburnum or new
wood is secreted when light is kept from the leaves.
They also help us to understand how essential oils may
be produced, which are known, as well as sugar, to be
composed of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon in different
proportions. We can now have a general idea how
the nutritious sap, acted upon by all the agents above
mentioned during its stay in the cellular substance of the
leaf, and returned from thence impregnated with them
into the bark, may prove the source of increase, and of
peculiar secretions, in the vegetable frame. That por-
tion of sap sent to the flower and fruit undergoes no less
remarkable changes, for purposes to whicii those curi-
ous organs are devoted ; nor is it returned from thence,
as from the leaves, to answer any further end. The
existence of those organs is still more temporary, and
more absolutely limited to their own purposes, than
even that of the leaves, from whose secretions theirs are
very distinct.
But when we attempt to consider how the particular
secretions of different species and tribes of plants are
formed ; how the same soil, the same atmosphere,
should in a leaf of the vine or sorrel produce a whole-
some acid, and in that of a spurge or machined a most
virulent poison ; how sweet and nutritious herbage
should grow among the acrid crowfoot and aconite, we
find ourselves totally unable to comprehend the exist-
ence of such wonderful powers in so small and seeming-
LEAVES ON THE ATMOSPHERE. 177
iy simple an organ as the leaf of a plant. The agency
of the vital principle alone can account for these won-
ders, though it cannot, to our understanding, explain
them. " The thickest veil," says Dr. Thomson at the
end of his chapter on vegetation, " covers the whole of
these processes ; and so far have philosophers hitherto
been from removing this veil, that they have not even
been able to approach it. All these operations indeed,
are evidently chemical decompositions and combina-
tions ; but we neither know what these decompositions
and combinations are, nor the instruments in which they
take place, nor the agents by which they are regulated."
The vain Buffon caused his own statue to be inscrib-
ed " a genius equal to the majesty of nature," but a
blade of grass was sufficient to confound iiis pretensions^
i;'8
CHAPTER XVll.
OF 1 HE SEVERAL KINDS OF FULCRA, OR APPENDAGES TO
A PLANT.
The word Fulcrum^ whose proper meaning is a prop
or support, has been applied by Linnceus not only to
those organs of vegetables correctly so denominated,
such as tendrils, but also to various other appendages
to the herbage of a plant, none of which are universal, or
esscntial,nor is there any one plant furnished with them all.
I prefer the English term Appendages for these organs in
general, to Props^ because the latter applies only to one
of them. Seven kinds of these are distinguished by
Linuccus, nor do I find it necessary to enlarge that num-
ber.
1. Stipula. The Stipula, a leafy appendage to the
proper leaves or to their footstalks. It is commonly
situated at the base of the latter, in pairs, and is ex-
tremely different in shape in different plants.
The most natural and usual situation of the Stipu-
las is in pairs, one stipula on each side of the base of
the footstalk, as in Lathijriis latifolius, Engl. Bot. t.
1108, whose stipulas are half arrow-shaped, y^ 115 ;
also in Willows, as Salix stipularis, t. 1214, and S.
aiirita, t. 1487. In Bosa PotentiUa, and many gene-
ra allied to them, the stipulas are united laterally to
the footstalk, / 116. See Potent'illa alha, t. 1384.
In all these cases they are extrafoliacece^ external with
respect to the leaf or footstalk ; in others they are in-
OF THE FLl.CRA. 179
trafolice^, internal, and are then generally simple, as
those of Polygonum, t. 1382, 756, &c. In a large
natural order, called Bubiacecs, these internal stipulas
in some cases embrace the stem in an undivided tube
above the insertion of the footstalks, like those of Po-
lygonum just mentioned : in others, as the Coftec,
Coffea arabica, and the Hamellia patens, Efigl. Bot. t.
2 ' , they are separate leaves between the footstalks,
but meeting just above their insertion. The Euro-
pean Rubiacece have whorled leaves, as Asperula Ga-
lium, Rubia, &c. ; but Asperula cynanchica, Engl.
Bot. t. 33, has sometimes two of its four leaves so
small as to look like stipulas, seeming to form an in-
termediate link between such as have whorled leat'es
and such as have opposite ones with stipulas. The
next step from Asperula is Diodia, and then Sperma-
cQce* In the two last the bases of the stipulas and
footstalks are united into a common tube.
Some stipulas fall oif almost as soon as the leaves
are expanded, which is the case with the Tulip-tree,
Liriondendron tulipifera ; in general they last as long-
as the leaves.
The absence or presence of these organs, though
generally an indication that plants belong to the same
natural order and even genus, is not invariably so.
Some species of Cistus have stipulas, others none,
which is nearly the same with grasses. The stipula
in this, one of the most distinct of all natural orders,
is peculiar, consisting of an internal white membrane
crowning the sheath of their leaf, and clasping the
culm. See Phalaris canariensis^ Engl, Bot. t. 13 10^
im OF THE FULCUA,
and Lagurus ovatusy t. 1334. In Aria asrulea, t:
750, a few minute hairs supply its place, while Sesie-
ria aerulea, t. 1613, and some maritime grasses, have
scarcely more than the rudiment of a stipula. Old
writers call this organ in grasses by a peculiar name
Ugula, and others denominate it membrana foliorum:,
but both terms are superfluous, A curious instance
of stipulas supplying the place of leaves is observable
in Lathyrus Aphaca, t, 1167, which has only one or
two pair of real leaves on the seedling plants, and
those soon disappear, serving chiefly to prove, if any-
proof were wanted, that the rest are true stipulas.
Remarkably scariose or dry membraneous stipulas
are seen in lUecebrum Paronychia^ J^l. Grac, t. ^46,
and in the genus Pinus,
2. Bract ea. The floral leaf, a leafy appendage to the
flower or its stalk. It is of a variety of forms, and
someiimes green, sometimes coloured. The Lime-
trees, Tilia europtea, f. Ill , t, 610, and parvifo^
lia, t. 1705,havea very peculiar oblong pale floral leaf,
attached to the flower-stalk. (86) The Lavenders,/
118, see Curt. Mag, t. 400 and 401, have coloured
bracteas, and the Purple-topped Clary, Salvia Hor-
minum, FL Gnec. t, 20, exhibits a gradation from
the proper leaves to green bracteas, and from them to
coloi' cd ones, which last are barren, or unaccompa-
nied by flowers. Hence I am induced to believe this
' "No* less remarkable in the l^iliaJmericana, Lime tree,
OR APPENDAGES OF PLANTS. 181
plant a mere variety of S. viridis, t. 19, all whose
bracteas are green and fertile. Bartsia, alpina, Engl,
Bot, t. 361, and Melampyrum arvense, t. 53, display
an elegant transition from leaves to coloured bracteas.
The Orchis tribe have green leafy bracteas, different
in size in different species. A most beautiful large
and coloured bractea is produced in Musscetida Jron-
dosa, Hort. Mai, v. 2, t. 18, from one of the teeth of
the calyx, also in M. glabra of Willdenow, and two
new species brought from America by Mr. John Fra-
ser. Spinous bracteas of a curious construction guard
the calyx in Atractylis cancellata^ f. 119. Linnaeus
observes that no bracteas are to be found in the class
Tetradynamia.
The ochrea of Rottboll, Willdenow's Principles of
Botany^ 50, which enfolds the flower-stalks in Cype-
rus, see Engl. Bot. t. 1309, seems to me a species of
bractea.
3. Spina, f. 120. A Thorn. This proceeds from the
wood itself, and is either terminal like Hlppophae
rhamnoides, Engl. Bot. t. 425, Rhamnus catharticuSy
t. 1629 ; or lateral as Crattsgus (or Mespilus) Crus-
galli, (87) tomentosa, parvijblia, &c.
Linnaeus observes that this sometimes disappears
by culture, as in the Pear-tree, Pyrus sativus which
when wild has strong thorns ; hence he denominates
such cultivated plants tamed, or deprived of their nat-
ural ferocity. Professor Willdenow, Principles of
(87) f A very common species of thorn .]
1S2 OF THE FULCRA,
Bot. t. 270, considers thorns as abortive buds, and
thence very ingeniously and satisfactorily accounts for
their disappearance whenever the tree receives more
nourishment.
The permanent footstalks of the Gum Tragacanth
shrub, Astragalus Tragacantha^ are hardened into
real spines, as are the flower-stalks in Pisonia, as well
as the stipulas of Xanthhim spinosum and the Mimoscs.
— Linn. Mss.
4. Aculeus,/, 121, a Prickle, arises from the bark only,
and comes off with it, having no connection with the
wood, as in Rosa, Riibus (the Bramble Raspberry,
t^c.),-An^Zizyphus, mild. Sp. PL v. 1, 1102.
This is not liable to disappear by culture, being
very distinct in nature from the last.
5. Cirrus, t. 9,/ 122. A Tendril. This is indeed
properlv called 'a fulcrum or support, being intended
solely to sustain weak and climbing stems upon more
firm and sturdy ones. By its means such climbers
often reach, in tropical forests, to the summits of lofty
trees which they crown with adventitious blossoms.
Tendrils or claspers when young are usually put forth
in a straight direction ; but they presently become
spiral, making several circumvolutions, by which
they take hold of any thing in their way, and then as-
sume a firmer texture. After accomplishing a cer-
tain number of turns in one direction, some tendrils
have a power of twining subsequently the contrary
way ; many of them moreover are branched or com.
OR APPENDAGES OF PLANTS. 183
pound, SO that the chances of their meeting with a
support are multiplied. (88) The Vine, Fitis v'mifera^
the various species of Passion-flower, and the Pea or
Vetch tribe afford good examples of spiral tendrils^
The Virginian Creeper Hedera^ or, as it ought to be
called, Vitis quinquefolia, has branched tendrils, whose
extremities adhere to the smoothest flint, like the
fibres of Ivy. Gloriosa superba^f. 76, Andr. Repos.
t. 129, and Flagellaria indica^ have a simple spiraj
tendril at the end of each leaf ; for they belong to the
Monocotyledones, the structure of whose whole her-
bage is generally of the most simple and compendious
(88) [This is commonly the case with such tendrils as fasten
their extremities, and then contract tliemselves into a spiral
Gdil, thus drawing the plant nearer to the supporting object'
The circumstance of the turns being made in opposite direc-
tions, is clearly a provision to obviate the twisting of the tendrils
which would otherVvise take place.
Mr. Knight has published, in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1812, some experiments, which go to illustrate the laws of
the motions of tendrils. A number of trials, made with terjdrils
of the Vine, Ivy, 8cc. shewed that these organs recede from the
light, and tend toward shady or opake bodies in their neigh-
bourhood. A plant of the Amfielofisis quinqurfolia which was pla-
ced in the middle of a greenhouse, pointed its tendrils toward
the north or back wall. Another plant of the same species be-
ing placed at the east end of the house, presented its tendrils to-
ward the west or centre of the house. Being transferred to the
west end and exposed to the evening sun, the tendrils turned
round, and pointed again to the centre of the house. In another
case the tendrils were sensibly attracted by a piece of dark col-
oured paper placed near them, while a pane of glass did not pro-
duce on them the least effect.]
IS-t OF THE FULCRA,
kind. (89) The flower-stalks of Cardiospermum HaUca-
cahum bear tendrils ; but a most singular kind of ten-
dril, if it may so be called, which certainly has a right
to the name o^ fulcrum, is found in the Arinona hex-
apetala, Linn. SuppL 270. The flower-stalk of this
tree forms a hook, and grasps the neighbouring branch,
serving to suspend the fruit, which is very heavy, re-
sembling a bunch of grapes, and indicates the plant in
question to be either a Michelia or an Uvaria,
6. Glanduk, a Gland, is defined by Linneus as a little
tumour discharging a fluid. Such are abundant on
the stalk and calyx of a Moss Rose,/ 123, Curt.
Ma^. t. 69, and between the serratures of the leaf of
SalLv pentandra. Bay -leaved Willow ; also on the
footstalks of Viburnum Opulus, (90) Engl Bot. t.
332, and various species of Passion-flower. The
liquor discharged is in the first-mentioned instances
resinous and fragrant, in the latter a sort of honey.
7. Pilus,/. 124. A Hair. This, according to the Lin-
nean definition, is an excretory duct of a bristle-like
form. Such it undoubtedly is in the Nettle, Urtica,
Engl. Bot. t. 148, and t. 1236, whose bristles are tu-
bular and pervious, having each a bag of poison at its
base, like the fang of a serpent ; as well as in numerous
(89) [The Clematis Firgima?ia, Virgin's Bower, or Trav-
eller's Joy, climbs by means of its leaf stalks, which twine like
tendrils round their supporters.]
(90) [Guelder Rose, or Snow ball. Several species of
Cassia have large glands on the leaf stalks. Ribes Floridum has
both surfaces of the leaf covered with them.]
OR APPENDAGES OP PLASTTS. l8iV
plants whose hairy coats exude a viscid moisture*
But the hairs which clothe many plants are merely a
protection against cold, heat, or insects. Sometimes
they are hooked, sometimes branched and entangled^
as in Mullein, Verhascum^ t. 549, &Cd In Croton, So-
lanum, and Lavatera, they have often a starry figure^
Very generally they are found, under a microscope, to
be curiously jointed. Some Begonia bear on their*
leaves flat little straps called by their authors ramentct
shavings, instead of cylindrical hairs ; but I know not
that they at all differ in nature from the usual pubes-
cence, nor do they merit to be particularly distinguish--
ed. Some of the natural order of asperifolice, as
Echiiwiy t. 181, and Lycopsis, t. 938, especially
some exotic species of this order, are clothed with
curious hard tubercles from which their bristles pro-
ceed. Echium pyrenaciiim^ Desfont. Atlant. v. 1.
164, is an instance of this,yi 125.
The pubescence of plants varies greatly in degree
according to differences of soil or exposure ; several
kinds, as Mentha hirsuta^ t. 447, 448, naturally hairy^
being occasionally found smooth, but if transplanted
they soon resume their proper habit. Yet the direc=
tion of the hairs or bristles proves a very sure means
of distinguishing species, especially in the genus
Mmtea, the hairs about whose calyx and flower-stalk
point differently in different species, and I have found
it the only infallible distinction between one Mint and
another. See Trans, of Limi. Soc. v. 5. 171. The
accurate Dr. Roth has lately applied the same test t0
z
186 OF THE FULCRA-
the species of Mijosotis, which all botanists before him
had either confounded under M. scorpioides, Engl.
Bot. t. 480, or else separated upon vague principles.
Some species of Galium are admirably characterized
by the bristles of their leaves, or of parts of their
leaves, being hooked backward or forward. We
therefore accept the 272d maxim of Linnaeus's Philo-
Sophia Botanica with that limitation which he himself
has allowed in his commentary upon it. " The Pu-
bescence," says he, " is a ridiculous distinction, be-
ing for the most part effaced by culture." After quo-
ting examples, he concludes : " We are therefore not
to have recourse to the hairiness or spines of plants
but in case of absolute necessity." Such necessity
every botanist will allow to have existed in the Men-
thcc and in Myosotis scorpioides ; and though the de-
gree of pubescence varies from culture, and even its
structure be changeable, as in Hedypnois hispida^
Engl. Bot. t. 554, and hirta^ t. 555, its direction is I
believe as little liable to exception as any character
that vegetables present.
[ 1^7 J
CHAPTER XVIII.
OF THE INFLORESCENCE, OR MODE OF FLOWERING, AND ITS
VARIOUS FORMS.
Inflorescence, injlorescentia, is used by Linnaeus
to express the particular manner in which flowers are sit-
uated upon a plant, denominated by preceding writers
the modus florendi, or mamier of flowering. Of this the
several kinds are distinguished as folio wso
Verticulus,/ 126. A Whorl. In this the flowers
surround the stem in a sort of ring ; though they
may not perhaps be inserted on all sides of it, but
merely on two opposite ones, as in Dead Nettle, La-
bium, Engl. Bot. t. 768 — 770, Mentha Rubra, t.
1413, and Clinopodium vulgare, t. 1401 ; or even on
one side only, as Rwnex maritwjus, t. 725.(91) The
flowers of Hippuris vulgaris, t. 763, are truly inserted
in a ring round the stem, f. 127 ; but they are not
whorled independent of the leaves, and are therefore
more properly, with a reference to the leaves, denomi-
nated axillary and solitary,
Racemus,/! 128, a Cluster, or Raceme, consists of
numerous rather distant flowers, each on its own prop-
er stalk, and all connected by one common stalk, as a
bunch of Currants, Ribes rubrum^ Engl. Bot. t.
1289, nigrum t. 1291, and Orobus sylvaticus, t. 518^
(91) [And many other species of Rumex or Dock.j
l^H OF THE INFLOUESGENCE.
A cluster is most generally drooping or pendulous,
and the flowers are all expanded nearly at the same
time.
A compound racemiis occurs in Solarium Dulca-
mara, t. 565, and an aggregate one, several being
gathered together, in Jct^ea racemosa, (92) Dill. Elth.
t, 67 ; but the example of a bunch ot Grapes, quoted
by LinuKUS for a racemus, appears to me a true
thyrsus ; see below.
Spica,/ 129, a Spike, bears numerous flowers ranged
along one common stalk, without any partial stalks,
as in SatTjrhun hircinum, Engl. Bot. t. 34, Orchis hi-
folia, t. 22, Phmtago major. (93) t. 1558, and media,
t. 1559, Potamogeton heterophyllum, t. 1285, and/z/-
itans,t. 1286 ; but liiis is so seldom the case, that a
little latitude is allowed, Feronica spicata, t. 2,
therefore,/ 130, and Ril>es Spcafum, t. 1290, as well
as the Common Livendcr, iMiumdula Spica, are sufii-
cientU' good examples of a bpikc, though none of
them has entirely sessile flowers ; and Linnteus uses
the term in numerous instances where it is still less
correctly applicable. A spike generally grows erect.
Its mode of exp insion is mifch more progressive than
that of the raceme, so that a long period elapses be-
tween the folding of the low<.st flowers and the open-
ing of the upper ones. Tlie flowers are commonly
all crowded close together, or if otherwise, they form
separate groups, perhaps whorls, when the spike is
(92) [C.'.llt-rl in the United States, BlacI: Snake Root.]
(93j [Greater Planttiiii.l
OF THE IXFLOllESCBNCE. 189
said to be either interrupted, or vvhorled ; as in some
Mints. In Saiiguisorba officinalis the spike begins
flowering at the top. See Capitulum below.
A compound spike is seen in Lavandula vinnata,
Curt. Mag. t. 401, and L. abrotanoides of Willdenow.
Spica secunda, a spike whose flowers lean all to one
side, occurs in Nardus stricta, Engl. Bot. t. 290.
Spicula^ f. 131, a Spikelet, is applied exclusively
to grasses that have many florets in one calyx, such
florets, ranged on a little stalk, constituting the spike-
let, which is therefore a part of the flower itself, and
not of the inflorescence ; see Poa aquatica^ t. 1315,
jluitans^ t, 1520, Briza mi?2or, t. 1316, See.
CoRYMBUs,y. 132, a Corymb, is a spike whose partial
flower- stalks are gradually longer as they stand lower
on the common stalk, so that all the flowers are nearly
on a level, of which Spircea opulifolia^ a common
shrub in gardens, is an excellent specimen. The Lin-
nasan class Z(??rrtr/z/7?«;?2?a exemplifies this less perfect-
ly, as Cardamine pratensis^ Engl. Bot. t. 776, Cheiran-
t/ius sinuatus, t. 462, and tie common Cabbage, Bras-
sica oleracea, t. 637, in which the corymbus of flowers
becomes a racemus of fruit, as happens also in that sec-
tion of the Feronicce, entitled by Linnaeus corymboso-
racemosiS. The flowers of Yarrow, yi 133, Achillea^ t.
757, and 758, and several others of the compound class,
as well as the Mountain-Ash, t. 537, grow in a corym-
bose manner, though theii inflorescence may not come
exactly under the above definition. It is worthy of re-
mark that Linnaeus in that definition uses the v.^ord spica^
not racemus, nor has he corrected it in his own copy
190 OF THE INFLOUESCENCE.
oi Phil. Bot.p. 41, though he has properly altered a
slip of the pen in the same \mQ.,petiolis^ to pedunculis.*
This shows he did not restrain his idea of a spike
absolutely to sessile flowers, but admitted that ex-
tended signification which nature justifies. M.iny
plants acquire partial stalks as the fruit advances to-
wards maturity.
Fasciculus, Jl 134, a Fascicle, is applied to flowers
on little stalks, variously inserted and subdivided,
collected into a close bundle, level at the top, as the
Sweet William, Dianthus barhatus. Curt, Mag. t,
207, and D. Armeria, Engl. Bot. t. 317.(94)
CAPiTULUM,y^ 135, a Head or Tuft, bears the flowers
sessile in a globular form, as Statice Armeria, t. 226,
Adoxa Moschatellina^ t. 453, and Gomphrena glohosa^
the Globe Amaranthus of the gardens.
Perhaps the inflorescence of Sanguisorha officina-
lis., t. 1312, might be esteemed a capitiilum^ because
its upper flowers come first to perfection, as in
Adoxa, which seems contrary to the nature of a spike ;
but it does not appear that all capitate flowers expand
in the same way, and Sanguisorha canadensis has a
real spike, flowering in the usual manner, from the
bottom upwards. So Allium descendens, Curt. Mag.
t. 251, opens its upper, or central, flowers first, con-
* It might be expected from the numerous learned editors
and copiers of this and other works of Linnseus, that they should
correct such manifest errors as the above, which any tyro might
perceive.
(94) [The Dianthus Armeria is a native.]
OF THE INFLORESCENCE. 191
trary to the usual order in its genus ; both which in-
stances prove such a diversity to be of small moment.
Umbella, an Umbel, for which some authors retain the
obsolete old English name of Rundle. In this seve-
ral flower-stalks, or rays, nearly equal in length,
spread from one common centre, their summits form-
ing a level, convex, or even globose surface, more
rarely a concave one. When each ray is simple and
single-flowered, it is called a simple umbel, y^ 136, as
those of Allium ursinum, Engl. Bot. t. 122, Ivy, t.
1267, Primula veris, t. 5, Jarinosa, t. 6, elatior, t.
513, and Eucabjptus r&sinifera, Exot. Bot. t. 84.(95)
In a compound umbel each ray or stalk mostly bears
an umbellula, or partial umbel, as Athamanta Libano-
tis, Engl. Bot. t. 138. This is usually the case in
the very natural order of plants called unbelliferous,
f. 138, to which the last- mentioned, as well as the
common Carrot, Parsnep, Parsley, Hemlock, &c. be-
longs.
A {qw only of this order have simple umbels, as
Hydrocotyle vulgaris, t. 751, and the curious ^^/rcn-
ti<£, f. 137, and Eriocalia^ Exot. Bot. t. 76 — 79. In
Euphorbia the umbel is difieiently compounded, con-
sisiing of 3, 4, 5 or numerous rays, each of which is
repeatedly hubdivided, either in a threefold or forked
manner. See Engl. Bot. t. 883, 959, &c.(96)
(95) [Fine examples of the Simple Umbel occur in the Silk-
weeds, AHclefiiaa Syriaca, fiur/iurascens., tuberosa. Sec]
(96) '^Ai' Um'iel is said to be radiate, when the outer petals
of tiie external flowers are larger and longer than the rest ; it is
l&iJ OF THE INFLORESCENCE.
CyMA,y; 139, a Cyme, has the general appearance of an
umbel, and agrees with it so far that its common
stalks all spring from one centre, but differs in having
those stalks variously and alternately subdivided.
Examples are found in Viburnum^ Engl. Bot. t. 331,
332, and the common Laurustinus, as also in Sam-
bucus. Elder, t. 475, 476. This mode of inflores-
cence agrees with a corymbus also in general aspect,
but in the latter the primary stalks have no common
centre, though the partial ones may sometimes be um-
bellate, which last case is precisely the reverse of a
cyma.
PaniculajJ^ 140, a Panicle, bears the flowers in a sort
of loose subdivided bunch or cluster, without any or-^
der. When the stalks are distant, it is called diffusUy
a lax or spreading panicle, as in Saxifraga umbrosa^
t. 663, so frequent in gardens under the name of Lon-
don Pride, and S. Geum^ t. 1561, but particularly in
many grasses, as the common cultivated Oat, and
Avena strigosa, t. 1266 ; in this tribe the branches of
the panicle are mostly semiverticillate ; see Air a
aquatica, t. 1557. A divaricated panicle is still
more spreading, like those of Prenanthes muralis, t.
457, and Spergula arvensis, t. 1535 ; the last being
dichotomous or forked. A dense or crowded panicle,
coarctata, is observable in Milium lendigerum, t. 1107,
and Agrostis sfolonifera, t. 1532, but still more re-
markably in Phelum paniculatum^ t, 1077, whose in-
Jloscular, when the flowers are alike in size. See Aggregate
Flowers.]
OF THE INFLORESCENCE. IS"^
florescence looks, at first sight, like a cylindrical spike,
but when bent to either side, it separates into branch-
ed lobes, constituting a real panicle. (97)
Thyrsus,/ 141, a Bunch, is a dense or close panicle,
more or less of an ovate figure, of which the Lilac,
Syringia vulgaris, Curt. Mag. ^ 183, Tussilago hijb-
rida and Petasites, Engl. Bot. t. 430, 431, arc exam-
pies cited by Linnaeus. I presume likewise to con-
sider a bunch of grapes, Vitis vinifera, as a true thyr^
sus, to the characters and appearance of which it cor-
recdv answers. Its ultimate terminations are some^
times obscurely umbellate, especially while in blos-
som, which is no objection here, but can never be the
case in a racemus, whether simple or compound. See
Iiace??ius.
Of simple flower-stalks, whether solitary or cluster-
ed, radical or cauline, axillary, lateral or terminal, we
have already spoken.
Linnzeus remarks that the most elegant specific
characters are taken from the inflorescence. Thus
the Apple, Efigl. Bot. t, 179, and the Pear, form two
species of Fyrus, so far at least a most natural genus,
the former of which bears an umbel, the latter a co-
rymb. Pyrola uriifiora, t. 146, secumla, t. 517, and
umbellata, Curt. Mag. t. 778, are admirably distin^
g-uished bv their several forms of inflorescence.
(97) [A Panicle leaning one way, Panicula secunda, is foiinel
in Dactylis glomsrata^ or Orchard Grass.]
AA
L ly* 3
CHAPTER XIX.
OF THE FLOWER AND FRUIT.
Haviiii^ examined the general structure and external
form of plants, we now come to more important and
even essential, though more transitory organs — the flow-
er and fruit, or parts of fructification. By these each spe-
cies is perpetually renewed without limits, so far at least
as the observation of mankind has reached ; while, as
we have already mentioned, all other modes of propaga-
tion are but the extension of an individual, and sooner or
later terminate in its total extinction.
Nothing can be more happy than the Linnaean defini-
tion of these organs ; Ph'iL Bot.52. " The fructifica-
tion is a temporary part of vegetables, destined for the
reproduction of the species, terminating the old individ-
ual and beginning the new."
Pliny had long ago beautifully said, that " blossoms
are the joy of trees, in bearing which they assume a new
aspect, vicing with each other in the luxuriance and va-
riety of their colours." Linnaeus has justly applied this
to plants in general, and, improving upon the idea, he
considers their herbage as only a mask or clothing, by no
means indicative of their true nature or chiracter, which
can be learned from the flower and fruit alone.
Mr. Knight has traced his central vessels, by which
the sap is conveyed from the root, in the flower and
fruit. On the returning sap into the bark of these parts
he has not been able to make any distinct observation ;
OF THE FLOWER AND FRUIT. 1^5
but he has determined that no matter of increase is fur-
nished from the flowers or their stalks, as from leaves, to
the part of the branch below them, nor indeed to any
other part, Phil. Trans, for 1801, p. 340. There can
be no doubt that certain parts of the flower, which wc
shall presently describe, perform functions respecting
air and light analogous to those of leaves, but entirely
subservient to the benefit of the flower and fruit. Their
secretions, formed from the returning sap, are confined
to their own purposes. As soon as these are accomplish-
ed, a decided separation of vessels takes place, and the
ripe fruit, accompanied perhaps by its stalk, falls from
the tree. Dr. Hales tried in vain to give any flavour to
fruit by the most penetrating and volatile fluids conveyed
through the sap- vessels ; for the laws of secretion are
absolute in the organs of the flower, and their various re-
sults are, if possible, more strikingly distinct than even
those we have contemplated in the leaves.
It is scarcely necessary to repeat that the fructification
is essential to vegetables. A plant may be destitute of
stem, leaves, or even roots, because if one of these parts
be wanting, the others may perform its functions, but it
can never be destitute of those organs by which its spe-
cies is propagated. Hence, though many individual
plants may be long without blossoms, there are none, so
far as nature has been thoroughly investigated, that are
not capable, in favourable circumstances, of producing
them, as well as seeds ; to whose perfection the blos-
soms themselves are altogether subservient.
Linnasus distinguishes seven parts of fructification,
some of which are essential to the very nature of a flow-
I'jb UP THE PARTS OF FHUCTIFICATION.
er or fruit, others not so indispensably necessary, and
thtrefore not universal.
I. Cali/Xy the Calyx or Flower-cup, generally resem
bling the leaves in texture and colour, and forming
the outermost part of a flower. This is not essential,
and is often absent,
II. Corolla, the Corolla, or more delicate coloured inter-
nal leaf or leaves, properly petals, of a flower, likewise
not essential,
III. Stamen, or Stamina, the Stamen or Stamens, com-
nu)nly of a slender or thread-like form, bearing some
kind of knob or cellular body, and ranged internally
with respect to the Corolla, These are essential.
IV. Pistillum, or Pisfilla, the Pistil, or Pistils, in the
centre ol the flower, consisting of the rudiments of the
-^ fruit, with one or more oigans attached to them, and^
of course, essential,
V. Pencarpmm, the Seed-vessel, of a pnlpy, woody, or
leatiiery texture, enclosing the seeds, but wanting in
many parts,
YI. Semen, the Seed, the perfecting of which is the sole
end of all the other plants,
VII. Receptaculum, the Receptacle, basis or point of
connection. This must necessarily be present in
some form or other.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CALYX. 19!7
I. Calyx. The Flower-cup, or more correctly the
external covering of the flower, when present, was
originally divided by Linnaeus into seven kinds, some
of which are mpre justly so denominated than the oth-
ers, and I have ventured to make an alteration in his
list.
1. Pe?'ianfhium,f. 14>2. Calyx, properly and common-
ly so called, when it is contiguous to and makes a
part of the flower, as the five green leaves which en-
compass a Rose, including their urn-shaped base ; the
two green bristly ones which enfold the bud in Giau-
eium luteum, FL Brit. Engl. Bot. t. 8 ; the tubular
• part, comprehending the scales at its base, in the
Pinks, ?. 61, 62, or the globular scaly cup, in Centan^
rea, t. 56. The Tulip, t. ^o^ is a naked flower,
having no calyx at all. (98)
(98) [Some of the most remarkable forms of the calyx are
Ventricosus, inflated, when it appears swelled or distended, as
in Cucubalus Behen., or Campion.
Prismaticus, prismatic, with sharp, somewhat parallel angles,
as in Alimulus, or Monkey Flower.
Imbricatwn or Squamosum^ imbricated or scaly.
Squarrosiim, Squarrose, when the leaflets which compose it,
are bent back at the points.
Scariosum, Scaiiose, when the leaflets are hard, thin, and dry,
Ciliatum, fringed with hairs or bristles on the margin.
Muricatiim. Mui'icated, set with short stiff prickles.
S/iinosum, thorny, each leaflet tipped with a thorn, as in thistles.
Turbinatum, turbinate, having the figure of a top.
Calyciilatunu calyculatcd or doubled, when -one calyx appears
£o be enclosed at its base hv another.l
198 OF THE INVOLUCUUM.
This part is of an infinite variety of forms in differ-
ent ^e'wc'm, bcine^ cither simple or compound, divided
or undivided, regular or irregular. In some instances
it is permanent till the fruit is ripe, in others it falls
even before the flower is well expanded.
Some genera have a double perianthium, as Malva^
t. 671, or even a triple one, as Scabiosa, t. 1311.
2. Involucrum, f. 143, Involucre of Professor Martyn ;
but I generally retain the Latin termination. This is
remote from the flower, and can scarcely be distin-
guished clearly from a Bractea. The term was first
adopted by Linnasus, at the suggestion of his friend
Artedi, in order to distinguish \he genera of umbellif-
erous plants, for which purpose the latter deemed the
part in question very important. But according to
the laws which Linnaeus had laid down, the parts of
the flower and fruit alone were to aflford generic char-
acters, and the most sound botanists have ever since
kept to this rule, with infinite advantage over less cor-
rect ones, however ready to derive ideas respecting
the natural habit, and secondary characters, of a ge-
nus, not only from the inflorescence and bracteas, but
even from the leaves, stipulas, or other parts. Lin-
n^us and Artedi, therefore, were obliged to consider
the involucra and involucella, the former accompany-
ing the general and the latter the partial nnibels, as a
sort of calyx, and the umbel altogether as one aggre-
gate flower, composed of florets united by a common
radiated receptacle. Consequently a cyme must be
considered in the same light ; nor are reasons wanting
in support of this hypothesis, which we shall consider
OF THE INVOLUCRUM. I99
after having first explained all the parts of fructifica-
tion.
In Euphorbia, however, the term bractea would
surely be more proper than involucrum or involucel
liim, as is evident from a consideration of the inflores-
cence of the whole genus, so very different in different,
species. In E. Peplis, and many otiiers, the flowers
are solitary and axillary ; in others again, as E.
amygdaloides, Engl. Bot. t. 256, and Characias, t.
442, some flower-stalks are umbellate, some scatter
ed ; and the subdivisions of the umbel in all are ulti-
mately forked, that is, of a nature between umbellate
and scattered. This genus has, moreover, a proper
calyx or penanthlum of a most distinct and peculiar
nature. Some species o{ Anemone, a genus destitute
of a perianthium, are said by Linnaeus to have an invo-
lucrum, as A. Pulsatilla, t. S\, for which the name of
bractea would be vastly more correct, thouo-h in A.
Hepatica, Curt. Mag. t. 10, it is placed so near the
flower as to seem a part of it, which, however, is real-
ly not the case.
The name of Involucrum is applied by Gleditsch
to the membrane covering the fructification of ferns,
/ 144, 145 ; nor have I, in studying this part with pe-
culiar attention, in order to reform the genera of these
plants, see Tracts relating to Natural History, p. 215,
found reason to contrive any new appellation. My
learned friends Willdenow and Svvartz have judged
otherwise, calling this membrane the indusium, or
covering; which seems to me altogether superfluous.
See its various forms in Engl. Bot. t. 1458 60
1150, 1159, 1160, &:c.
200 OF THE AMENTUM.
3. Amentum, f. 146. Catkin, denominated by authors
before Linnaeus ytt/w^, nucamentum^ or catulus ; con-
sists of a common receptacle of a cylindrical form be-
set with numerous scales, each of which is accompa-
nied by one or more stamens or pistils, so that the
whole forms an aggregate flower. (99) The recepta-
cle itself and the bases of the scales are firmly united,
and the whole catkin falls off entire, except that in
some instances the upper part of each scale withers
away, as in the Willow genus, Salix, Engl. Bot. t.
1388—90, 1402— 4, &c., the seed-vessels in that
genus being quite distinct from the scales. In others,
the whole scale remains, enlarges, hardens, and pro-
tects the seed, as in Pinus, the Fir tribe. Such is the
case with catkins of fertile flowers, which are necessa-
rily permanent till the seed is ripe ; barren ones fall
as soon as the stamens have performed their office.
Every catkin consists generally of either one kind of
flower or the other. There are few certain and inva-
riable instances of stamens and pistils in the same cat-
kin, that circumstance occurring chiefly in a few spe
cies of Salix and Carex ; nor is Ti/pha, t. 1455 — 7,
an exception to this. Examples of barren-flowered
catkins are seen, not only in Salix and Pimis, but in
several plants whose fertile or fruit-bearing flowers
are not catkins, such as the Walnut, and, unless I am
much mistaken, the Hasel-nut, t. 723. Each nut or
seed of the latter has a permanent coriaceous calyx of
(99) [The jiment or Catkin is the most common inflorescence
of our Forest trees ; as the Oak, Walnut, Chesnut, Birch, Alder,
Sec]
• OF THE SPATHA AND GLUME. 201
its own, inadvertently called by Gsertner an involu-
crum, though he considers the whole as an amentum^
which this very calyx proves it not to be.* Humu-
lus, the Hop, t. 427, has a catkin for the fertile flower
# only.
4. Spatha,f. 147. Sheath, a covering which bursts
longitudinally, and is more or less remote from the
flower. This is exemplified in the Snow-drop, Ga-
lanthiis nivalis^ t. 167, the various species of Narcis-
sus, t. 17, 275 and 276, and the Arum, (100) 1. 1298.
The Spatha of the latter encloses a Spadix, or elon-
gated receptacle, common to many flowers, according
to the genuine Linnasan idea of this kind of calyx,
taken from Palm-trees. In these the Spadix is
branched. (101)
5. Gluma,f. 148. Husk, the popular calyx of Grass-
es and Grass-like plants, of a chaffy texture. These
husks are usually compressed, embracing each other
at the base, as in Phleum pratense, t. 1076. Some-
times they are depressed, flattened vertically, as in
Brizoj t. 540 and 1316. To the husk belongs the
* It appears moreover thai Carfiinus, the Hornbeam, has hith-
erto erroneously been supposed to have an amentum for the fer-
tile flower. The true hature of the covering of the seed, as well
as of the common stalk, proves it otherwise.
(100) [The spatha of ^?-M/H trifilnjllum is inflected at the top,
and often elegantly striped within That of PAhos fatida ap-
pears with its spadix before the leaves ]
(I j1) [The receptacle of Acorus gr Sweet Flag, is a Spadix?
destitute of a Spatha.]
BB
i02 OF THE PERICHJETIUM
Arista^/. 149, Beard or Awn, a bristle -shaped appen-
dage, usually spiral, and possessing the property of
an hygrometer. This, however, is not always pres-
ent, even in different individuals of the same species.
" Unfortunately for the science,
On the awn there's no reliance."
So says, or rather sings, with more truth than sub-
limity, the ingenious author of the Flora Loiidmensisj
fasc. 6, ?. 8.
The spiral kind of awn is most frequently attached
to the Coroll of grasses, which is precisely of the same
husky nature as their calyx, and is, by some bota-
nists, considered as such. Specimens o? glumce muti-
cce^ beardless husks, are seen in Phalaris canariensis,
Engl. Bot. t. 1310, and glumes aristatcs^ awned ones,
in Lagurus ovatuSy t, 1334, and Stipa pennata^ t,
1356.
6. Perichcetium, f. 150. A scaly Sheath, investing the
fertile flower, and consequently the base of the fruit-
stalk, in some Mosses. In the genus Hypnum it is
of great consequence, not only by its presence, con-
stituting a part of the generic character, but by its
differences in shape, proportion, and structure, serving
frequently to discriminate species. See Engl. Bot. t.
1037 — 9, 1182, 1445 — 8, &:c. ; see also the same
part in Neckera, t. 1443, 4. Linnaeus appears by his
manuscripts to have intended adding this to the different
kinds of calyx, though it is not one of the seven enu-
merated in his printed works. Nor is he, surely, cor-
rect in allowing it to the genus Jungermannia. The
AND VOLVA. 203
membranous part which he there calls perichatium is
strictly analagous indeed to the calyptra^f. 151, 152 b,
or veil of real mosses, esteemed by him a kind of ca-
lyx ; but as I presume with Schrebcr, to reckon it
rather a corolla, and Hedwig once thought the same,
and as Jungermannia has more or less of a real calyx
besides,y: 152 a, see EngL Bot. t. 771, &c., I would
no longer apply the term perich^tium to this genus at
all.
The part called calyptra being removed from tte
list, as being a corolla, the penchatmm takes its
place among the seven kinds of calyx. We lay less
stress upon this coincidence than Linnseus might
have done, when, according to the fashion of the
times, he condescended to distribute his immortal
Philosophia Botaniea into 12 chapters and 365 sec-
tions, and reckoned seven parts of fructification as
well as seven species of calyx,
7. Volva, f. 153. Wrapper, or covering of the Fungus
tribe, of a membranous texture, concealing their
parts of fructification, and in due time bursting all
round, forming a ring upon the stalk, as in Jgaricus
procerus, Soxuerb. Fung. t. 190, and A. campestris,
the Common Mushroom, t. 305 ; such at least is the
original meaning of this term, as explained in the Phil.
Bot. ; but it has become more generally used, even
by Linnseus himself, for the more fleshy external cov-
ering of some other Fungi, which is scarcely raised
out of the ground, and enfolds the whole plant when
young, / 154. See Agarieus volvaceus, t. 1, and
20* ORIGIN OF THE CALYX.
Lycoperdon fomicatum, t. 198 ; also the very curious
L. phalloides, t. 390, now made a distinct genus by
the learned Persoon, under the name of Batarrea
phalloides.
Linnasus adopted from Caesalpinus the opinion that
the Calyx proceeded from the bark, like the leaves, be-
cause of its similarity in colour and texture to those
orgaris. He even refined upon the original idea, and
supposed this part to proceed from the outer bark, while
the more delicate corolla oria'inated in the liber. What
is now known of the physiology of the bark, as explain-
ed in several of our preceding chapters, renders this hy-
pothesis totally inadmissible.
The knowledge of the real use of leaves, see chapter
16, may however throw some light upon that of the
calyx. Besides protection of the flower from external
injuries, which is one evident use of this part, it ap-
pears highly probable that it may often contribute to the
growth and strength of the stalk which supports it, as
the leaves do to that portion of branch below them. The
stalk often swells considerably during the growth of the
flower, especially just below the calyx, becoming more
woody, an alteration frequently necessary for the support
of the ripening fruit. When the calyx falls very early,
as in the Poppy tribe, Papaver and Glaiicium^ I cannot
find that the fiower=stalk is subsequently enlarged, nor
in any manner altered ; while in genera without num-
ber, whose calyx is permanent, the stalk becomes not
only more woody, but often considerably thickened.
II, Corolla. The Corolla, vulgarly called the leaves
of the fiowerj consists of those more delicate and dila
OF THE CORGLLA. 206
ted, generally more coloured leaves, which are always
internal with respect to the calyx, and constitute the
chief beauty of a flower. In the Rose the Corolla is
red and fragrant ; in the Violet purple ; in the Prim-
rose yellow.
This term includes two parts, the Petal, Petalum^
and the Nectary, Nectarmm, The former is either
simple, as in the Primrose, in which case the Corolla
is said to be monopetalous, of one petal ; or com-
pound, as in the Rose, in which it is pol} petalous,
of several. The Nectary is sometimes a part of the
petal, sometimes separate from it.
A monopetalous Corolla consists of two parts ; the
tube, tubus, the cylhidrical part enclosed in the calyx
of the Primrose, and the limb, limbus, which is the
horizontal spreading portion of the same flower, f,.
155. The analogous parts of a polypetalous Corol-
la, as in the Wall-flower or Stock, yi 156, are named
the claw, un^uis^f. 157 a, and the border, lamina^ b.
The Corolla is infinitely diversified in form in dif-
ferent genera^ whence Tournefort and Rivinus deriv-
ed their methods of arrangement. It is called regular
when its general figure is uniform, as in the Rose, the
Pink, the Columbine, Aquilegia^ vulgaris^ Engl. Bot.
t. 297, and Gentiana Pneumonanthe, t. 20 ; irregular
when otherwise, as the Violet, t. 619, 620, Dead-net-
tle, t. 768, and Lathijrus, t. 805 and 1108. An
equal Corolla,, /I 156, is not only regular, but all its
divisions are of one size, like those of the Primrose,
t. 5, Campanula, t, 12, or Saxifraga, t. 9 ; an une-
qual one.yi 158, is when some segments are alternate-
-206 FORMS OF THE COROLLA.
\y smaller than the others, as in Biitomiis^ t, 651, or
otherwise different, as in Aquilegia. t. 297. It is by
no means always necessary, in defining characters of
genera, to use these last terms, it being sufficient in
general to say that a Corolla is regular in opposition
to one that is irregular ; more especially as some
species of a genus may possibly have an equal corolla,
others an unequal one.
The most usual shapes of a monopetalous corolla
arc
campanulata^f. 159, bell-shaped, as in Campanula, 1. 12.
infundibuliformis, f. 160, funnel-shaped, (102) Pulmo-
naria, t. 118.
kypocrateriformis, f. 155, salver-shaped, (103) Pri-
mula, t. 4.
rotata, wheel-shaped, that is salver-shaped with scarce-
ly any tube, Borago, if. 36.
ringens, f. 161, ringent, irregular and gaping like tlie
mouth of an animal, Lamium, t. 768 ; called by for-
mer botanists /a6?a?«, lipped. (104)
personata,/. 162, personate, irregular and closed by a
kind of palate, Antirrhinum, t. 129. Those of a
polypetalous one are
cruciformis, f. 156, cruciform, regular and like a cross,
Bentaria, t. 309, and Cheiranthus, t. 462.
(102) [Tubular at bottom, but gradually expanding toward the
top, as Thorn Apple, Daturar\^
(103) [Tubular for nnost of its length, but suddenly expanding
into a flat border at top.]
(104) [The upper lip of a ringent coroUais commonly smaller,
and has the stamens projecting from beneath it. The lower lip
is larger and more expanded. When this order is changed, the
corolla is said to be reversed.']
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COROLLA. 207
rosacea, rosaceous, spreading like a rose, Dryas, ?. 451.
papilionacea,f. 163, papilionaceous, irregi.ilar and spread-
ing, somewhat like a butterfly, Lathyi'us, t. 1108.
The various petals which compose such a flower arc
distinguished by appropriate names, as vexillum^j\
164, standard, the large one at the back ; alcs^f. 165,
wings, the two side petals ; and carina, f. 166, the
keel, consisting of two petals, united or separate, em •
bracing the internal organs, yi 167. In Trifoliiim all
the petals are sometimes united into one at the lower
part.
incompleta, incomplete, when parts, which analogy would
lead us to expect, are deficient, as in Amorpha, a pa-
pilionaceous flower apparently, but consisting of the
vex'illum only ; or Rittera of Schreber,yi 168, a ro-
saceous one with a single lateral petal, seeming as if
four others had been stripped off".
It is remarkable that irregular flowers sometimes vary to
regular ones in the very same plant, as in B'g7ionia
radicans. Curt. Mag, ?. 485 ; and Antirrhinum Lina-
ria.f. 169, Engl. ^ot. t. 658 and 260.
Linnagus was of opinion that the Corolla originated
from the Liber or inner bark, as the Cdlyx from the out-
er, but this cannot be defended now the real physiolo^-y
of the bark is better imderstood.
The whole use and physiology of the Corolla have not
yet been fully explained. As a protection to the tender
and important parts within, especially from wet, its use
in many cases is obvious, but by no means in ail. Lin-
n^us imagined i* to serve as wings, to waft the flower
up and dovv^n in the air, and so to promote the functions
208 PHYSIOLOGY OF
of the Stamens and Pistils, as will hereafter be describ-
ed ; nor is this opinion unfounded.
Sprengel has ingeniously demonstrated, in some hun-
dreds of instances, how the Corolla serves as an attraction
to insects, indicating by various marks, sometimes per-
haps by its scent, where they may find honey, and ac-
commodating them with a convenient resting-place or
shelter while they extract it. This elegant and ingen-
ious theory receives confirmation from almost every
flower we examine. Proud man is disposed to think
that
« Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,",
because he has not deigned to explore it ; but we find
that even the beauties of the most sequestered wilder-
ness are not made in vain. They have myriads of ad-
mirers, attracted by their charms, and rewarded with
their treasures, which very treasures would be as use-
less as the gold of a miser to the plant itself, were they
not thus the means of bringing insects about it. The
services rendered by such visitants will be understood
when we have described all the parts of a flower.
Besides the above purposes, I have always conceived
the Corolla to fulfil some important oflice to the essen-
tial parts of the flower with respect to air, and especially
light. (105) It not only presents itself in a remarkable
(105) [The ingenious, but often visionary St. Pierre supposes
the corolla to regulate the sun's influence on the fructification
of the plant, by reverberating the solar rays upon the anthers and
stigma ; or in some instances by sheltering them from too intense
heat.]
THE COROLLA. 20»
«
manner to the sun-beams, frequently closing or drooping
when they are withdrawn, but it is so peculiarly distin-
guished by beauty or brilliancy of colour, that one can-
not but think its functions somewhat different from
those of the leaves, even with regard to light itself. Dr,
Darwin calls the Corolla the lungs of the stamens and
pistils, and with great probability, for they abound in
air- vessels. (106) But when we consider the elaborate
and peculiar secretions of a flower, the elastic and in-
flammable polleji, the honey, and the exquisitely volatile
perfume, as we know from the curious discoveries of
modern chemistry how great a share light has in the pro-,
duction of such, we cannot but conclude that the petals
must be of primary importance with respect to their
secretion by its means.
Sometimes the Corolla is very short-lived ; sometimes
very lasting, even till the fruit is perfected, though most-
ly in a faded condition. In double flowers I have ob-
served it to be much more durable than in single ones
of the same species, as Anemones and Poppies, because,
as I conceive, of its not having performed its natural
functions, the stamens and pistils of such flowers being
obliterated, or changed to petals ; hence the vital princi-
ple of their corolla is not so soon exhausted as usual.
Phil. Trans, for 178S, p. 165.'
The Corolla, as already observed, is not essential.
Whatever its functions may be, they can be occasionally
(106) [Flowers uniformly deteriorate the air according to the
experiments of Priestley, Ingenhousz, and De Saussure. They
consume oxygen, and produce carbonic si^id, both in the sun-
shine and in the shade.]
CO
210 PISILNCTIONS BETWEEN
performed by the Calyx perhaps, or even by the Fila-
ments of the Stamens ; as those of leaves are, in leafless
plants, by the stems. When a flower has only one cov-
ering, it is not always easy to say whether that be a Ca-
lyx or Corolla. When green and coarse in texture like
the former, we call it so, as in Chenopodium, Engl. Bot. t.
1033, and 1721 — 4, and the natural relationship of this
genus to Polygonum^ t. 1044, 989, 756, &c., leads us to
reckon the same part in the latter a coloured calyx.
On the other hand, when the part present is delicate and
finely coloured, like the generality of Corollas, we de-
nominate it such ; more especially if the plant to which
it belongs be allied to others that have a Calyx besides,
as in Tulipa^ t. 63, allied to Leucojiim^ t. 621, which
has a Spatha. The great Jussieu denominates this part
in the Tulip and other liliaceous plants, however beauti-
ful, a Calyx. His definition of a Corolla is " that cov-
ering of a flower which is invested with the calyx, being
very rarely naked ; a continuation of the inner bark of
the flower-stalk, not of its cuticle ; not permanent, Lut
mostly falling off" with the stamens ; surrounding or
crowning the fruit, but never growing united with it ;
and having its parts or segments for the most part alter-
nate with the stamens, which are equal to them in num-
ber." By this rule the tube and six segments of a Nar-
cissus, t. 17, 275 and 276, constitute the Calyx, and then
surely what Jussieu calls a Crown, yi 1476, and Linnae-
us a Nectary, must be allowed the n i m of Corolla.
On the other hand, the Spatha becomes a Bractea. Con-
sequently the whole order of Liliaceous flowers in gene-
ral have a coloured Calyx only, which seems hardly ad-
COROLLA AND CALYX. 211
missible ; and yet I cannot conceal a recent discovery
which strongly confirms the opinion of my acute and
candid friend. Two species of a new genus*, found by
Mr. Menzies on the West coast of North America,
have beautiful liliaceous flowers like an Agapanthus, with
three internal petals besides ! Tulbaghia is a similar
instance. I must however protest against the idea of
the Corolla originating exclusively from the inner bark,
as well as of the cuticle not being continued over it, for
reasons sufficiently apparent from the former part of this
work.
It is a Linnsean rule that the Stamens should be oppo.
site to the segments of the Calyx, and alternate with the
parts of the Corolla. Its author nevertheless seems of
opinion that no absolute means of distinction between
these two parts can be pointed out, except colour ; of
the insufficiency of which he is aware. If however the
Corolla performs functions with respect to light which
the Calyx does not, and those functions are indicated by
its colour, a distinction founded on such a principle is
both correct and philosophical. We must then con-
clude that in most liliaceous plants, not in c//, the two
organs are united into one, and indeed the outside is of-
ten s:reen and coarse like a Calvx, the inner coloured and
delicate ; witness Ornithogaium, t. 21, 130 and 499,
.Yarthecium, t. 535, kc. Linnseus has the same idea
respecting Z)«/j/2nc', t. 119 and 1361, and the analogy
is confirmed by Gmdia, which is a Daphne with petals.
In Troliius, t. 28, and Hellehorus, t. 200 and 613, Lin-
* I have lately, in a paper to the Linnaean Society, named this
genus Brodi^a^, in honour of James Broclie, Esq. F. L. S.
212 OF TUB NECTARY
naeus considers as petals what Jussieu, following Vail-
lant, thinks a Calyx. Of these plants we shall soon have
occasion to speak again.
I cannot but consider as a sort of Corolla the Calyp-
tra or Veil of Mosses, which Linnaeus reckoned a Ca-
l}x. Schreber, very deep and critical in his inquiries
concerning these plants, and Hcdwig, so famous for his
discoveries among them, were both of this opinion,
though the latter seems to have relinquished it. The
organ in question is a membranous hood, covering the
unripe fruit of these diminutive vegetables, like an ex-
tinguisher,y^ 151 ; butspon torn from its base, and ele-
vated along with the ) ipening capsule. See Engl. Bot.
t. 558, &c. The great peculiarity of this part, whatev-
er it be called, consists in its summit performing the of-
fice of a siigma, as Hedwig first remarked. In Junger-
mannia,/. 152, t. 771, &c., the very same part, differing
only in usually bursting at ihe top to let the fruit pass,
is named b} Linnzeus a perich<£tium^ but very incorrect-
1} , as we have already hinted.
Whatever office the Petals may perform with respect
to air and light, it is probable that the oblong summit of
the Spadix in Jrum, t. 1298, answers the same pur-
pose. When this part has been for a short time expos-
ed to the light, it assumes a purplish brown hue, which
M. Srnebier seems to attribute to the same cause which
he thinks produces the great heat observed in this flow-
er, the rapid combination of ox}gen gas with the carbon
of the plant : an hypothesis hardly adequate to explain
either.
Nectarium, the Nectary, may be defined as that part
of ihe Corolla which contains or which secretes honey.
AND HONEY. 213
it is perhaps in effect nearly universal, as hardly a flow-
er can. be found that has not more or less honey, though
that liquor is far from being universally, or even gene-
rally, formed by any apparatus separate from the Petals.
In monopetalous flowers, as Lamium alburn^ the Dead
Nettle, t. 768, the tube of the corolla contains, and
probably secretes the honey, without any evident Necta-
ry. Sometimes the part under consideration is a pro-
duction or elongation of the Corolla, as in Violets ;
sometimes indeed of the Calyx, as in the Garden Nastur-
tium, Tropieolum, Curt. Mag. t. 23 and 98, whose col-
oured Calyx, y! 170, partakes much of the nature of the
petals. Sometimes it is distinct from both, either re -
sembling the petals, as in Aqmlegia^f. 171, Engl. Bot.
t. 297, or more different, as in Epimedium.f. 172, 173,
t. 438, Hellehorus, t. 200 and 613, Aconitum, the Com-
mon Monkshood, and Delphinium^ the Larkspur. Such
at least is the mode in which Linnaeus and his followers
understand the four last-mentioned flowers ; but we
have already hinted that Jussieu is of a different opinion,
and he even calls the decided Nectary of Epimedium an
internal petal ! Difficulties attend both theories. It
seems paradoxical to call petals those singular bodies in
Aconitum, f. 174, like a pair of little birds, which are
manifestly formed only to hold the hone} , and not situa-
ted nor constructed so as to perform the proper functions
of petals ; but on the other hand Ranunculus^ t. 100,
515 and 516, one of the same natural order, has evident
calyx and petals, which latter have a honey-bearing pore ■
in their claw, evincing their identity with the less petal-
like Nectaries just described. Other instances indeed
214 OF THE NECTARY
of Nectaries in the claws of petals are found in the
Crown Imperial and Lily ; which only confirms more
strongly the compendious construction of the Lily tribe,
the leaves of their flowers in these examples being Calyx,
Petals and Nectaries all in one.
The most indubitable of all Nectaries, as actually se-
creting honey, are those of a glandular kind. In the
natural order of Cruciform plants, composing the Lin-
naean class Tetradynamia^ these are generally four green
glands at the base of the Stamens. See Dentaria, Engl.
Bot. t. 309, Sisymbrium, t. 525, and Brassica, t. 637.
In SaliXy t. 1488, and Geranium^ t. 322, 75, &c., similar
glands are observable ; whilst in Pelargonium^ the Afri-
can Geranium, the Nectary is a tube running down one
side of the flower- stalk.
The elegant Parnassia, t. 82, of which we are now
acquainted with two new American species, has a most
elaborate apparatus called by Linnaeus Nectaries, y^ 175,
but which the cautious Jussieu names Scales only. Lin-
naeus usually called every supernumerary part of a flow-
er Nectary, from analogy only, though he might not in ev-
ery case be able to prove that such parts produced hon-
ey. This is convenient enough for botanical distinc-
tions, though perhaps not always right in physiology ;
yet there is nothing for which he has been more severely
and contemptuously censured. He was too wise to an-
swer illiberal criticism, or he might have required his
adversaries to prove that such parts were not Nectaries.
Sometimes possibly he may seem to err, like L'Heritierj
in calling abortive stamens by this name. Yet who
knows that their filaments do not secrete honey as well
AND HONEY. 215
as the tubes of numerous flowers ? And though abortive
as to Antheras, the Filament, continuing strong and vig-
orous, may do its office.
Honey is not absolutely confined to the flower. The
glands on the footstalks of Passion-flowers yield it, and it
exudes from the flower-stalks of some liliaceous plants.
The sweet viscid liquor in question has given rise to
much diversity of opinion respecting its use. Pontede-
ra thought it was absorbed by the seeds for their nour-
ishment while forming, as the yolk of the egg by the
chick. But Linnaeus observes in reply, that barren
flowers produce it as well as fertile ones, witness Urtica
and Sallx. In some instances the fertile flowers only are
observed to bear honey, as Phyllanthus and Tamus^ but
such cases are rare. Even Darwin says the honey
is the food of the stamens and pistils, not recollecting
that it is often lodged in spurs or cells quite out of their
reach.
There can be no doubt ihat the sole use of the honey
with respect to the plant is to tempt insects, who in
procuring it fertilize the flower, by disturbing the dust of
the Stamens, and even carry that substance from the bar-
ren to the fertile blossoms.
3. Stamina. The Stamens, formerly called Chives,
are various in number in different flowers, from one to
some hundreds. Their situation is internal v/irh re-
spect to the parts we have been describnig ; external
to the Pistils, at least in simple flowers.
These organs are essential, there being no plant
hitherto discovered, after the most careful research,
216 OF THE STAMENS
»
that is destitute of them, either in the same flower
with the pistils, or a separate one of the same species.
/ A Stamen,y^ 176, commonly consists of twopartSy
/the Filament, a, Filamentum^ and Anther, b*, Anthe-
ra^ the former being merely what supports the latter,
which is the only essential part. Various forms and
proporttions of Filaments may be seen in the Tulip,
where they are six in number, thick and short, Engl,
Bot. t. 63 ; the Pink, where they arc ten, much more
slender, and answering to the idea of a filament or
thread, t. 62 ; and Anemone; t. 51, where they are
numerous. They are commonly smooth, but some-
times, as in Ferbascu?n, t. 58, 59, bearded. In Melal-
euca^ Exot. Bot. t. 36 and 50, they are branched ;
and in Prunella, Engl. Bot. t. 961, forked, one point
only bearing an Anther. In Aristolochia, t. 398, they
are wanting, and nearly so in Potamogeton^ t. 376,
&c. (107)
* I submit to the opinion of Professor Martyn in adopting
this word, for the reasons given in his Language of Botany^
more especially as general practice seems to favour its use.
(107) [From the direction of their filaments, Stamens are said
to be
Cojiniv ejitia, zonnlsQnx, when they approach each other at their
points.
Incurva, incurved, when they are bent like a bow, as in
J'richoiitc77ia.
Dedinata, declined, when th"ey tend towards the upper or un-
der side of the flower, as in Rhododendron.
Exserta, exserted, when they project out of the flower.
Inculsa, included, when they are contained within the flower.]
AND ANTHERS. 2lf
The Anther is the only essential part of a Stamen^
It is generally of a membranous texture, consisting
of two cells or cavities, bursting longitudinally at their
outer edges, as in the Tulip. In Erica, t. 101 3- — 15,
it opens by pores near the summit, as in the Potatoe-
blossom. Very /rarely the Anther has four cells, as
Tetratheca, Bot. of N. Holl. t. 5, and Exot. Bot. t.
20* — 22. Sometimes it is ornamented with a crest,
as in many Ericie, and the genus Pinus. See Mr.
Lambert's splendid work.
The Pollen, or Dust, is contained in the Anther,
from which it is thrown out chiefly in wurni dry
' weather, when the coat of the latter contracts and
bursts. The Pollen, though to the naked eye a fine
powder, and light enough to be wafted along by the
air, is so curiously formed, and so various in different:
plants, as to be an interesting and popular object for'
the microscope. Each grain of it is commonly a
membranous bag, round or angular, rough or smooth,
which remains entire till it meets with any moisture,
being contrary in this respect to the nature of the An-
ther ; then it bursts with great force, discharging a
most subtile vapour. In the Orchis family, and some
other plants, the pollen is of a glutinous nature, very
different from its usual aspect. See remarks on Mi-
rabilis longijlora, Exot. Bot. v. I. 44,
The Stamens are changed to petals in double flow-
ers, and rendered uselesso They are often obliterated
* In this plate the engraver has by mistake expressed the sec^
tion of the anther so as to look more like a germen, though tl>©
original drawing was correct.
UD
218 OF THE PISTILS.
by excessive nourishment, or when the plant increas-
es much by root, as in the Fiery Lily, or true Lilium
bulbiferum. (108)
4. Pi ST ILL A. The Pistils, no less essential than the
Sumieiis, stand within them in the centre of the flow-
er, and are generally fewer. When in a different
llovver, on the same or a different plant, they are not
always central. Linuceus conceived them to originate
from the pith, and th^ stamens from the wood, and
hence constructed an ingenious hypothesis, relative to
the propagation of vegetables, which is not destitute
of observations and analogies to support it, but not
countenanced by the anatomy and physiology of the
parts alluded to.
Each Pistil, y! 177, consists of three parts. 1, the
Germen^ a, or rudiment of the young fruit and seed,
which of course is essential ; 2, the Stylus, b, style,
various in length and thickness, sometimes altogether
wanting, and when present serving merely to elevate
the third part. Stigma, c» This last is indispensable.
ks shape is various, either simple, scarcely more than
a point, or capitate, forming a little round head, or va-
rio isly lobed. Sometimes hollow, and gaping more
especially when the flower is in its highest perfection ;
very generally downy, and always more or less moist
with a peculiar viscid fluid, which in some plants is so
copious as to form a large drop, though never big
(108) [Stamens change to petals in the Pink, Daffodil, Tulip,
Sec. They arc obliterated by cultivation, in the Guelder RosCv
Viburvum 0/iulus.~^
OF THE GERMEN. 2^^
enough to fall to the ground. The moisture is de-
sis:ned for the reception of the pollen, which explodes
on meeting; with it, and hence the seeds are rendered
capable of ripening, which, though in many plants ful^
ly formed, thev would not otherwise be.
* The Germen appears under a variety of shapes and
sizes. It is of great moment for botanical distmc-
tions'to observe whether it be superior, that is, above
the bases of the calyx and corolla, as in the Strawber-
ry and Raspberry, or inferior, below them, as m the
Apple and Pear. Very rarely indeed the Germen is
supposed to be betwixt the calyx and corolla, ol
which Sangmsorba, Engl. BoU t. 1312, is reckoned
bv Linn^us an example ; but the corolla there has
really a tube, closely embracing the Germen. In
Acloxa, t. 453, the calyx is half-inferior, the corolla
superior. When in botanical language we say ger-
men superior, it is equivalent Xojiower inferior ; but
it is sometimes more convenient and proper, for the
sake of analogy or uniformity, to use one mode of ex»
pression than the other.
Pistils are sometimes obliterated, though oftener
chaneed to petals, in double flowers, as well as the
stamens ; but I have met with a much more remark-
able change in the Double Cherry, of the pistil into a
real leaf, exactlv conformable to the proper leaves of
the tree,' only smaller. By this we may trace a sort of
round in the vegetable constitution. Beginnmg at
the herbage or leaves, we proceed insensibly to brac-
teas in many species of Salvia, or to both calyx and
<^orolla in the Garden Tulip, which frequently has a
220 THE SEED-VESSEL AND ITS KINDS
leaf half green half eolonred, either in the flower or on
the stalk just below it. Jlnemone alpina produces occa-
sionally a petal among^ the segnunts of its involucrum
or bractea. Geum rivale^ Engl. Bot. t. 106, when
cultivated in dry gravelly ground, exhibits such trans-
formations in abundance. Between petals and sta-
mens there is evidently more connection, as to their
nature and functions, than between any other organs,
and they commonly flourish and fall together. Yet
only one instance is known of petals changing to sta-
mens, which Dr. Withering has commemorated, in
the Black Currant, Rihes nigrum. On the other hand,
nothing is more frequent than the alteration of stamens
to petals. Here then the metamorphosis begins to be
retrograde, and it is still more so in the Cherry above
mentioned, by which we return to the herbage again.
— The line of distinction seems to be most absolute
between stamens and pistils, which never change into
each other ; on the contrary, pistils, as we see, rather
turn into petals, or even into leaves.
5. Pericarpium. The seed vessel, extremely various
in diflferent plants, is formed of the germen enlarged.
It is not an essential part, the seeds being frequently
naked, and guarded only by the calyx, as in the first
oid».^rofthe Linn an class Didynamia, of which Lai-
miuin Engl. Bot. t. 768, and Galeopsis, t. 667, are
examples ; also in the great class of compound flow-
ers Syngenesa, as well as in Ihimex, t. 724, PolygOf^
num, t. 989, the Umbelliferous tribe, numerous
Grasses, &,c.
THE CAPSULE AND ITS KINDS. 221
The use of the Seed-vessel is to protect the seeds
till ripe, and then in some way or other to promote
their dispersion, either scattering them by its elastic
power, or servinij; for the food of animals in whose
dung the seeds vei^etate, or promoting the same end
by various other means. The same organ which re-
miiins closed so long as it is juicy or moist, splits and
flics asunder when dry, thus scattering the seeds in
weather most favourable for their success. By an
extraordinary provision of Nature, however, in some
ansiual species of Mesembryanthemum, / 178, na-
tives of sandy deserts in Africa, the seed-vessel opens
only in rainy weather ; otherwise the seeds might, in
that country, He long exposed before they met with
sufficient moisture to vegetate.
1. Capsula, a Capsule, is a dry seed-vessel of a woody,
coriaceous or membranous texture, generally split-
tiiia- into several valves ; more rarely discharging its .
contents bv orifices or pores, as m Campanula and Pa-
paver ; or falling off entire with the seed. Internally
it consists either of one cell or several ; in the latter
case the parts which separate the cells are called dis-
sepimenta, partitions. The central column to which
the seeds are usually attached is named columella.
See Datura Stramonium, f. 179, Engl Bot, t. 1288.
Gaertner, a v/riter of primary authority on fruits and
seeds, reckon^ several peculiar kinds of Capsules, be-
sides what are generally understood as such ; these
are
Utriculus, a Little Bladder, which varies in thick-
ness, never opens by any valves, and falls off with the
i22 THE CAl'SULE AND ITS KINDS.
«eed. I believe it never contains more than one seed,
of which it is most commodiously, in botanical lan-
guage, called an external coat, rather than a Capsule.
Gsertner applies it to Chenopodmm^ as well as to Cle-
matis^ &c. In the former it seems a Pellicula, in the
latter a Testa^ as we shall hereafter explain.
Samara is indeed a species of Capsule, of a com-
pressed form and dry coriaceous texture, with one or
two cells, never bursting, but falling off entire, and
dilated into a kind of wing at the summit or sides. It
is seen in the Elm, the Maple, the Ash, Engl. Bot.
t. 1692, and some other plants. This term however
may well be dispensed with, especially as it is the
name of a genus in Linnseus ; an objection to which
Cotyledon too is liable.
Folliculus^ a Follicle or Bag, reckoned by Linnaeus
a separate kind of seed-vessel from the Capsule, ought
perhaps rather to be esteemed a form of the latter, as
Gaertner reckons it. This is of one valve and one
cell, bursting lengthwise, and bearing the seeds on or
near its edges, or on a receptacle parallel therewith.
Instances are found in Vinca^ t. 514, Paonia, t. 1513,
and Embothrium, Bot. of New Holland, (109) t. 7 —
10.
Cocciim of Gaertner, separated by him from cap-
sules, is a dry seed-vessel, more or less aggregate, not
solitary, whose sides are elastic, projecting the seeds
with great force, as in Euphorbia ; also Boronia,
Tracts on Nat. History, t. 4 — 7. This seems by no
(108) [The seeds of ./^sc^p/iz'as and Jjionjnum are contained in
Follicles.]
THE SILIQUA AND LEGUMEN. 223
means necessary to be esteemed otherwise than a sort
of capsule.
2. Siliqua^f. 180, a Pod, is a long dry solitary seed-ves-
sel of two valves, separated by a linear receptacle,
along each of whose edges the seeds are ranged alter-
nately, as in the class Tetradynamia. See Cherian-
thus, Engl. Bot. t. 462, and Cardamine^ t. 80 ; also
Bignonia eclmiata, figured by Gaertner, t. 52, f. 1,
which, though cautiously called by him a capsula slli-
quosa only, is as true a Sil'qua^ according to his own
definition, and every body's ideas, as possible ; so is
also that of Chelidonium, He justly indeed names the
fruit of Paonia capsula legiiminosa^ a follicle with him
being a single-valved capsule, with the seeds marginal
as in a legume.
Silicula^f. 181, a Pouch, is only a Pod of a short
or rounded figure, like Draba vernUj Engl, Bot. t.
586. (110)
3.' Legumen^f. 182, a Legumje, is the peculiar solitary
fruit of the Pea kind, formed of two oblong valves,
wiihout any logitudinal partition, and bearing the
seeds along one of its margins only. See Engl. Bot.
t. 1046, 805, &c. The Tamarind is a Legume filled
with pulp, in which the seeds are lodged. The Cap-
sules of Helleborus and some other plants allied there-
to, justly indicated by Gsertner as approaching very
nearly to the definition of Legumes, differ essentially
(110) [The Radish and Mustard are familiar examples of the
Siligua, the Thlas/ii, or Shepherd's Purse, of the Silicula.']
224 THK LEGUMi:>J AND DKUPA.
in not being solitary, and in consisting each but of one
valve. Some Larkspurs indeed bear such capsules
solitary, but analogy teaches us their true nature.
When a Legume is divided into several cells, it is
either by transverse constrictions, or by inflexion of
the valves ; never by a separate longitudinal partition ;
see Dolichos purpiireus, Exot. Bot. t. 74. (HI)
Sometimes this kind of ti uit lodges but one seed,
as in many species of Tr'ifolmm ; see Engl. Bot. t.
1048, also Viminaria denudata, Exot. Bot. t. 27. It
is only by analogy that such are known to be Le-
gumes.
4. Drupa, f. 183, a Stone-fruit, has a fleshy coat, not
separating into valves, containing a single hard and
bony Nut, to v/hich it is closely attached ; as in the
Peach, Plum, Cherry, &c. ; see Engl. Bot. t. 706
and 1383. The Coco'U-nut is a Drupa with a less
juicy coat.
Sometimes the Nut, though not separating into
distinct valves, contains more than one cell, and conse-
quently several seeds. Instances are found in Cor-
nus, t. 249, Gcsrtner, t. 26, and Olea^ the Olive, FL
Grac. t. 3, though one cell of die latter is commonly
abortive.
It
(\\\) j^The term Lomentum or Loment expresses an elongated
principle consisting of two valves, externally forming sutureB,
but never bursting like the legume. Internally it is divided in-
to cells by small transverse partitions. It occurs in Cassia, He-
dysarum, &c.l
THE POMUM AND BACCA. 225
5. Pomum^f. 184, an Apple, has a fleshy coat like the
Drupa, but containing a Capsule with several seeds ;
as ill common Apples and Pears ; see Pyrus domesti-
ca, t. 350.
This is comprehended by Gsertner under the dif-
ferent kinds of Bacca, it being sometimes scarcely
possible to draw the line between them ; witness the
Liniiean genus Sorbus.
6. Bacca^f. 185, a Berry, is fleshy, without valves, con-
taining one or more Seeds, enveloped with pulp. It
becomes more juicy internally as it advances to mitu-
rity, quite contrary to the nature of a Capsule, though
the difference between these two unripe fruits may
not be discernible, and though some true Berries
when fully ripe, finally become of a dry and spongy-
texture ; but they never open by valves or any regu-
lar orifice. Examples of a Bacca are seen in Atropa
Belladonna^ Engl. Bot. t. 592, and Ribes, t. 1289 —
92. The same ^SLVi'm Hedera.t. 1267, is of a more
• mealy substance.^ In Cucubalus^ t. 1577 , the coat on-
ly is pulpy. In Trientalis, t. 15, the coat becomes
very dry and brittle, as soon as ripe, and the cavity
of the fruit is nearly filled by a globular columella.
See Gasrtner, t. 50.
Bacca composita^f. 186, a Compound Berry, con-
sists of several single ones, each containing a seed,
united together, as in Rubus^ the Raspberry, Bramble,
&c., Engl. Bot. t. 715, 716, 826, 827. Each of the
separate parts is denominated an Acinus^ or Grain,
EE
226 Spurious kinds of baccje. /
which term Gasrtner extends to the simple many-
seeded berries of the Vine, Gooseberry, &c.
The Orange and Lemon are true Berries, with a
thick coat. The Melon and Cucumber tribe have a
pecuhar sort of Berry for which Gaertner uses the
name of Pepo^ Gourd ; and he defines it a Berry
whose cells, together with the seeds, are remote from
the axis or centre, the seeds being inserted into the
sides of the fruit. Passijlora, suherosa^f. 187, Exot,
Bot. t. 28, shows this insertion, being nearly allied to
the same tribe ; but in this genus the pulp invests
each seed separatel}^ forming Acini within the com-
mon cavity.
Some fruits ranged by Linnaeus as Drupa; with
many seeds, on account of the hardness of the shells
of those seeds, are best perhaps, on account of their
number, considered by Gasrtner as Baccce. Among
these are Mespilus, the Medlar.
There are several spurious kinds of berries, whose
pulp is not properly a part of the fruit, but originates
from some other organ. Thus, in the Mulberry, as
well as the Strawberry Spinach, Blitinn, Curt. Mag.
t. 276, the Calyx after flowering becomes coloured
and very juicy, investing the seed, like a genuine ber-
ry. The Corolla of Commelina Zannonia undergoes
a similar change, forming a black very juicy coat to
the capsule, being totally altered both in shape and
substance from its appearance in the flower. In the
Juniper, Engl. Bot, t. 1100, a few scales of the fertile
catkin become succulent and coalesce into a globular
SPURIOUS KINDS OF BACCJE. 227
berry with three or more seeds, to which Gaertner ap-
plies the term galbidus, the classical name of the
Cypress fruit, which last however is as true a strobilus
or cone as that of the Fir. In the Yew, t. 746, some
have thought it a calyx, others a peculiar kind of le-
ceptacle, which becomes red and pulpy, embracing
the seed. Lamarck has in his Encyclopklie, v. 3,
228, considered this fruit as a real bacca or drupa^
with the idea or definition of cither of which it cannot
by any means be made to accord, being open at the
top, and having no connection with the stigma, which
crowns the seed itself. The same writer mistakes for
a calyx the scales which analogy shows to be bracte-
as ; and I cannot think Jussieu and Gsertner more
correct in their ideas of this singular fruit, when
they call the pulpy part in question a receptacle,
though the term calyx seems less paradoxical, and is
perhaps still more just.* We do not know enough of
Taxus nuajera to draw any conclusions from thence.
See Grertner, t.9\. In the Strawberry, Engl. Bot.
t. 1524, what is commonly called the berry is a pulpy
receptable, studded with naked seeds. In the Fig,
Gcertner, t. 91, the whole fruit is a juicy calyx, or
rather common receptacle, containing in its cavity in-
numerable florets, each of which has a proper calyx
of its own, that becomes pulpy and invests the seed,
as in its near relation the Mulberry. The Paper
* Hernandia, Gcertn. t. 40, has a similar, though not succu-
lent, calyx, and the green cup of the Hazel-nut is equivalent to
it.
§2$ THE STUOBTLUS AND SEEDS.
Mulberry of China is indeed an intermediate genus
between the two, being as it were a Fig laid open,
but withont any p ilp in the common receptacle.
7. Strohilus.f. 188, a Cone, is a Catkin hardened and
eniurgt d into a Seed-vessel, as in Finus^ the Fir.
In the most perfect examples of this kind of fruit
the Seeds are closely sheltered by the scales as by a
capsule, of which the Fir, Cypress, Sec. are instances.
In the Birch and Alder they have a kind of capsule
besides, and in the Willow and Poplar a stalked bi-
valve capsule, snll more separate from the scales. The
Plane-tree, Platanus, the Liquidambar and the Comp-
foma, (112) have globular catkins, in which bristles
or tubercles supply the place of scales. See Gartner,
t. 90.
6. Semi N A. The Seeds are the sole " end and aim"
of all the organs of fructification. Every other part
is, in some manner, subservient to the forming, per-
fecting, or dispersing of these. A seed consists of
several parts, some of which are more essential than
others, and of these I shall speak first.
Embryo,/. 2, 4, the Embryo, or Germ, is the most
essential of all, to which the rest are wholly subservi-
ent, and withont which no seed is perfect, or capable
of vegetation, however complete in external appear-
ance. Linn us, after Csesalpinus, names it the Cor-
aulum, or Little Heart, and it is the point whence the
en 2) [Sweet Fern.]
TfTR EMBRYO AND rOTYLEDONS. 219
life and organization of the future plant originate, as
we have already explained, p. 88. In some seeds it
is much more conspicuous than in others. The Wal-
nu*, t le Bean, Pea, Lupine, &c., show the Embryo
in netft'Ction. I* s internal structure, before it begins
to vegetate, is observed by Gaetner to be remarkably
siiuple, consisting of an uniform medullary substance,
enclosed in its appropriate bark or skin. Vessels are
formed as soon as the vital principle is excited to ac-
tion, and parts are then developed which seemed not
previously to exist, just as in the egg of a bird. In
position, the Embryo is, with respect to the base of
the whole flower or fruit, either erect, as in the Dan-
delion and other compound flowers, reversed as in the
Umbelliferous tribe, or horizontal as in the Date
Palm, f. 199 b, Gcertner, t. 9. In situation it is
most commonly within the substance of the seed,
and either central as in Umbelliferous plants, or ex-
centric, out of the centre, as in Coffee ; in Grasses
however it is external. Its direction is either straight,
curved, or even spiral, in various instances. The
Embryo of seeds that have a single cotyledon, or none
at all, is peculiarly simple, without any notch or lobe,
and is named by Gasrtner Embryo monocotyledoneus.
Cotyledones, the Cotyledons or Seed-lobes, are im-
mediately attached to the Embryo, of which they
form, properly speaking, a part. They are commonly
two in number, f. 7 ; but in Pinus, and Dombeya,
ihe Norfolk Island Pine, they are more, y^ 3, as al-
ready mentioned, p. 90. When the seed has suffi-
ciently established its root, these generally rise out of
330 OF TriB ALBUMEN,
the ground, and become a kind of leaves. Sucli
is the true idea of the organs in question, but
the same name is commonly given to the body
of the seed in the Grass and Corn tribe, the
Palms, and several other plants, thence denominated
monocotyledones, because the supposed Cotyledon is
single. The nature of this part we shall presently
explain. It neither rises out of the ground, nor per-
forms the proper functions of a Cotyledon^ for what
these plants produce is, from the first, a real leaf ; or,
if the plant has no leaves, the rudiment of a stem, as
in Cuscuta. In either case, the part produced is soli-
tary, never in pairs ; hence Gartner was misled to
reckon Cyamus Nelumho, Exot. Bot. t. 31, 32,
among the monocotyledonous plants, the body of its
seed remaining in the earth, and the leaves springing
one at a time from the Embryo, just as in the Date
Palm, Wheat, Barley, Sec.
The Seed-lobes of Mosses, according to the ob-
servations of Hedwig, Fund, part 2, t. 6, are above
all others numerous and subdivided, f. 195, 196, as
well as most distinct from the proper leaves ; so that
these plants are very improperly placed by authors
among such as have no Cotyledons, a measure origi-
nating probably in theory and analogical reasoning
rather than observation.
Albumen^ the White, is a farinaceous, fleshy, or
horny substance, which makes up the chief bulk of
some seeds, as Grasses, Corn, Palms, Lilies, never
rising out of the ground nor assuming the office of
OR WHITE. 231
leaves, being destined solely to nourish the germina-
ting embryo, till its roots can perform their office. In
the Date TAvn, f. 199, Gartner^ t. 9, this part is
nearly as hard as a stone ; in Mirahilis^ Exot. Bot. t.
23, it is like wheat flour. It is wanting in several
tribes of plants, as those with compound, or with
cruciform flowers, and the Cucumber or Gourd kind,
according to Ga^rtncr. Some few leguminous plants
have it, and a great number of others which, like
them, have cotyledons besides. We are not however
to suppose that so important an organ is altogether
wanting, even in the above-mentioned plants. The
farinaceous matter, destined to nourish their embryos,
is unquestionably lodged in their cotyledons, whose
sweet taste as they begin to germinate often evinces
its presence, and that it has undergone the same chem-
ical change as in Barley. The Albumen of the Nut-
meg is remarkable for its eroded variegated appear-
ance, and aromatic quality ; the cotyledons of this
seed are very small.
Vitellus, the Yolk, first named and fully illustrated
by Qjertner, is less general than any of the parts al-
ready mentioned. He characterizes it as very firmly
and inseparably connected with the Embryo, yet nev-
er rising out of the integuments of the seed in germi-
nation, but absorbed, like the Albumen, for the nour-
ishment of the Embryo. If the Albumen be present,
the Vitellus is always situated between it and the Em-
bryo, and yet is constantly distinct from the former.
The Fitellus is esteemed by Gasrtner to compose the
bulk of the seed in Fuei, Mosses and Ferns, as well
232 THK VITBLLUS, Oil YOI.K.
•
as in the genus Zamia.f. 200, closely allied to the
latter, see his t. 3, and even in Ruppia^ Engl. Bot. t.
136, and Cyamus. In the natural oidcr ol" Grasses
the part under consideiation forms a scale between the
Embryo and the Albumen.
I cannot but think that the true use of the Vitellus
may be to perform the functions of a Coiyled n wih
regard to air if not to light, till a real leaf can be sent
forth, and the " subterraneous Cotyledons" ofGoert-
nerin the Horse Chesnut and Garden Nasturtium are,
as he seems to indicate in his Introduction, p. 151,
rather of the nature of a Vitellus. It does not appear
that any plant with genuine ascending Cotyledons is
likewise furnished^ with this organ ; on the oth:."r
hand, it commonly belongs to such as have the most
copious Albumen^ and therefore should seem to answer
some other end than mere nutriment, which is suppli-
ed by the latter.
We learn from the above inquiries, that the old dis-
tinction between plants with one CotyUdon and those
with several may still be relied on, though in the for-
mer the part which has commonly been so denomina-
ted is the Albumen, as in Corn, the real Cotyledon of
which is the scale or Vitellus, which last organ howev-
er seems wanting in Palms, Lilies, &c., such having
really no Cotyledon at all, nor any thing that can
perform its office, except the stalk of their Embryo.*
In the Horse Chesnut, Oak and Walnut possibly,
whose seed-lobes do not ascend, the functions of a
* This may answer the purpose of a Cotyledon, just as the
3tems of many plants fulfil the office of leaves.
TESTA, THE SKIN. 233
real Cotyledon, as far as air is concerned, and
those of the Albumen may be united in these lobes, as
is the case with most Leguminous plants ; which is
rendered more probable, as several of the latter have
the corresponding parts likewise remaininsj under
ground. Hence the divided ^i^c/Zw^ of the Cyamus is
to be considered as a pair of subterraneous Cotyle-
dons, and the plant consequently ranges near its natu^
ral allies the Poppy-tribe, as Mr. Salisbury, without
the aid of physiology, has shown in the Annals of
Botany, v. 2,/>. 70, 75.
Testa,/. 4, the Skin, contains all the parts of a seed
above described, giving them their due shape ; for
the skin is perfectly formed, while they are but a ho=
mogcneous liquid. This coat differs in thickness and
texture in different plants. It is sometimes single,
but more frequently lined with a finer and very deli-
cate film, called by Gaertner Membrana, as may be
seen in a Walnut, and the kernel of a Peach, Almond^
or Plum. In the Jasmine a quantity of pulp is lodged
between the Membrana and the Testa, constituting a
pulpy seed, semen baccatum, which is distinct from
the Acinus, or grain of a compound berry in the Rasp-
berry, the seed of the latter having its proper double
covering within the pulp. The Testa bursts irregu-
larly, and only from the swelling of its contents m
germination.
Hilum, the Scar, is the point by which the seed i&
attached to its seed-vessel or receptacle, and through
FF
2S4 OF THE MILUM, PELLICULA,
which alone life and nourishment are conveyed for the
perfecting its internal parts. Consequently all those
parts must be intimately connected with the inner
surface of this scar, and they are all found to meet
there, and to divide or divaricate from that point,
more or less immediately. In describing the form or
various external portions of any seed, the Hilum is al-
ways to be considered as the base. When the seed is
quite ripe, the communication through this channel is
interrupted ; it separates from the parent plant with>
out injury, a Scar being formed on each. Yet the
Hilum is so far capable of resuming its former nature,
that the juices of the earth are imbibed through it
previous to germination.
There are various accessory parts, or appendages,
to seeds, which come under the following denomina-
tions.
Fellicula, the Pellicle, called by Gasrtner Epider-
mis^ closely adheres to the outside of some seeds, so
as to conceal the proper colour and surface of their
skin, and is either membranous, and often downy,
as in Convolvulus^ or mucilaginous, not perceptible till
the seed is moistened, as in Salvia verbenaca^ Engl.
Bot. t. 154. Perhaps the covering of the seed in
Chenopodiumy called by Gaertner Utriculus^ is merely
a Pellicula.
Ardlus, the Tunic, is either a complete or partial
covering of a seed, fixed to its base only, and more or
less loosely or closely enveloping its other parts. Of
this nature is the pulpy orai ge-coloured cout in Eu-
onymus, t. 362, the beautiful scarlet cup in Afzelia,
AND AKILLUS. 235
f. 203, and the double membranous coat in Hip-
poph'ds^ t. 425, which last invests the seed within the
pulp of the berry. The outer of these coats only is
described by Gaertner, as a peculiar membrane lining
the cell of the berry ; his " integumenfum duplex^'' re-
fers to the testa, which I mention only to prevent mis-
apprehension. The Mace which envelops the Nut-
meg is a partial Jrillus, beautifully drawn in Geert-
ner, t. 41. Narthecium, Engl. Bot. t. 535, has a
complete membranous tunic, elongated beyond the
seed at each end, as in many of the Orchis tribe ; and
such seeds, acquiring thence a light and chaffy ap-
pearance, have been denominated scob'iformia, whence
Bergius was perhaps led, very unscientifically, to call
the seeds of ferns literally scobs or sawdust ! An elas-
tic pouch-like Arillus, serving to project the seeds
with considerable force, occurs in Oxalis, t. 762 and
1726. In the natural order of Rutacece, the same
part, shaped also like a pouch lining each cell of the
capsule, is very rigid or horny ; see Dictamnus albus^
or Fraxinella ; Gcertn. t. 69, and Boronia, Tracts on
jSfat. Hist. t. 4 — 7. Besides this coincidence, there
are many common points of affinity between these
plants and Oxalis, concerning colour, flavour, habit
and structure. Fagonia and its allies form the con-
necting link between them, Vhich Gasrtner and Jus-
sieu did not overlook. We have pointed out this
affinity in English Botany, p. 762, and it is confirmed
by the curious circumstance of Jacquin's Oxalis ros-
trata, Oxal t. 22, having the very api>endages to its
236 OF rriL AniLLtJ!&
filaments which make a peculiar part of the character
oi Borofiia.
It is not easy to say whether the various, and fre-
quently elaborate coat of the seed among the rough-
leaved plants, Borago, Anchusa^ Lithospermum^ Cyn-
oglosum,/. 201, Engl. Bot. t. 921, Sec, should be es-
teemed an Arillus or a Testa ; but the latter seems
most correct, each seed having only a simple and very
thin membranous internal skin besides. Gasrtner
therefore justly uses the term Nut for the seeds
in question. The same may be observed of Ranun-
culuSy Myosurus, see Engl. Bot. t. 435, Clematis, Ane-
mone., &:c., whose external coats are no less various
and elaborate ; yet such seeds are as truly naked as
those of the Didynamia class, figured in Gseituer, t.
66, each having a double skin and no more, which is
one covering less than even the genuine nut of the
stone fruit, or of the Corylus. In Geranium., Malva^
8cc., what has often been called AriUus, is rather a
kind of Capsule, not only because their seeds have a
double or even triple skin, quite unconnected with
this outer cover, but because the latter is analogous to
other CapsuleSo
The loose husky covering of the seed in Car ex., f.
202, is surely an Arillus. Sec Engl. Bot. also the
Rev. Mr. Wood's observations on this genus in Dr.
Ree's Cyclopcedia., and Gcertner, v. 1. 13. This seed
has besides a double Testa., though most of the true
Grasses have but one, which in ground Corn consti-
tutes the bran, the husks of the blossom being the
chafl;
AND PAPPUb
Pappus, the Seed-down, is restrained by Gaertnei
to the chaffy, feathery, or bristly crown of many seeds
that have no Pericarpium^ and which originates from a
partial calyx crooning the summit of each of those
seeds, and remaining after the flower is fallen. In.
stances of this are the feathery appendages to the seedti
of Dandelion, Engl. Bot. t. 510, and Goat's-beard, t.
434, in which the part in quistion is elevated on a
footstalk, (113) / 204. In Carduus, t. 973 — 6, it is
sessile, though stili feather\ ; but in Chicorium, t.
539, it consists of mere chaffy teeth, more clearly
evincing its affinity to a Calyx. In Scabiosa it is
double. \n Bidens, t. 1113, 1114, the Pappus is
formed of 2, 3, or 4 rigid barbed bristles. The
use of this organ is evidently to transport seeds to a
distance from their native spot, either by resigning
thejn to the power of the wind, or by attaching them
to the shaggy coats of animals. In due time the
feathery crown separates, and leaves the seed behind
it, which happens sooner with the Thistle than most
other plants. Hence the vacant down of that genus is
frequently seen wafted in light masses over a whole
country ; which has not escaped the notice of poets.
The same term is used by the generality of botanists
for the feathery crown of seeds furnished with a cap-
sule, as Epilobium, t. 1177, Asclepias Cynanchum,
&c., Gartn. t. 117, as well as for a similar appendage
to the base or sides of any seeds, as Salix, Engl. Bot.
t. 183, 1403, Eriophorum, t. 873, &c., neither oi
1^113) [And hence denominated atipitate or /ledicelled.']
238 CAUDA, ROSTRUM, ETC.
which can orig-inate from a Calvx. For the former
of these Gasrtncr adopts the term Coma, for the latter
Pubes, which last also serves for any downiness or
wool about the Testa of a seed, as in the Cotton plant,
and Blandfordia nobilis, Exot. Bot. t. 4.
Cauda, f. 205, a Tail, is an elongated, generally
feathery, appendage to some Seeds, formed from the
permanent style, as in Clematis, Engl. Bot. t. 612,
Dryas, t. 451, Geum, t. 1400. (114)
nostrum, a Beak, mostly applies to some elongation
of a Seed-vessel, originating likewise from the per-
manent style, as in Geranium, t. 272, Helleborus, t.
200, though it is also used for naked seeds, as Scan-
dix,f. 206, t. 1397.
Ala,f. 207, a Wing, is a dilated membranous ap-
pendage to Seeds, as in Embothrium, Bot. of N.
Holl. t. 7, Banksia Couchium, Bignojiia echinatOy
(115) Gtiertn. t. 52, Rhinanthus, Engl. Bot. t. 657,
serving to waft them along in the air. Gasrtner
wished to confine this term to a membranous expan-
sion of the top or upper edge of a Seed or Seed-vessel,
using margo membranaceus for one that surrounds the
whole, but he has not adhered to it in practice. Cap-
sules are sometimes furnished with one wing, as the
Ash, oftener with several, as Halesia, Acer, Begonia,
(114) [Sufficiently evident, as in Clematis Virginiana, and Ge-
iun rivale, natives of the United States.]
(115) [In Bignonia echinata, the wings of the seed are very
large. In others of the genus they aie not less observable^
though smaller, for instance, the Catalpa Tree, and Trumpe-
Flowers.]
APPENDAGES TO SEEDS. 239
&c. In Seeds, the Wing is commonly solitary, ex-
cept some Umbelliferous plants, as Thapsia, Gcertn.
r. 21.
Seeds are occasionally furnished with Spines,
Hooks, Scales, Crested appendages, particularly a
little gland-like part near the Scar, sometimes denom-
inated Strophiolum, as in Asariim, G^rtn. t. 14, Bos-
si(sa, Ventenat, Jard. de Cels. t. 7, Platylobium, Bot.
of N. Holl. t. 6, Ulex, Spartium, &c. In general
however smoothness is characteristic of a seed, by
which it best makes its way into the soft earth,
though sometimes it is barbed, or at least its cover-
ing, as in Stipa^ Engl. Bot. 1356, that it may not easi-
ly be withdrawn again by the powerful feathery ap-
pendage of that plant, which after having by its cir-
cumvolutions forced the seed deeper and deeper,
breaks off a joint, and flies away.
The viuious modes by which seeds are dispersed
cannot fail to strike an observing mind with admira-
tion. Who has not listened in a calm and sunny day
to the crackling of Furze buohes, caused by the ex-
plosion of their little elastic pods ; nor watched the
down of innumerable seeds floating on the summer
breeze, till they are overtaken by a shower, which
moistening their wings stops their further flight, and
at the same time accompHihes its final purpose, by
immediately promoting tht germination of each seed
in the moist earth ? Hjw little are children aw^, as
they blow away the seeds of Djndelion, or stick Burs
in sport upon each other's clothes, that they are fulfil-
ling one of the great ends of Nature ! Sometimes
';4U THE UECKPrACLK.
the Calyx, beset with hooks, forms the bur, as in
Arctium^ Lappa^ Engl. Bot. t, 1228 ; sometimes
hooks encompass the fruit itself, as in Xanthi-
um, and some species of Galium, particularly G.
Apa7-ine^ t. 816. Plants thus furnished are observed
by Linuceus to thrive best in a rank manured soil,
with which, by beini^ conveyed to the dens of wild
animals, they are most likely to meet. The Awns of
grasses answer the same end. Paipy fruits serve
quadrupeds and birds as food, while their seeds, of-
ten small, hard, and indii^estible, pass uninjured
through the intestines, and are deposited far from
their original place of growth, in a condition peculiar-
ly fit for vegetation. Even such seeds as are them-
selves eaten, like the various sorts of nuts, are hoarded
up in the ground and occasionally forgotten, or carried
to a distance, and in part only devoured. Even the
ocean itself serves to waft the larger kinds from their
native soil to far-distant shores.
7. Receptaculum. The Receptacle is the common
base or point of connexion of the other parts of fruc-
tification. It is not always distinguishable by any par-
ticular figure, except in compound flowers constit^u-
ting the Linnsean class Syngenesia^ in which it is
very remarkable and important. In the Daisy, f.
208, Engl. Bot; t. 424, it is conical ; in Chrysanthe-
mum^ t. 601, convex ; in others flat, or slightly con-
cave. Picris, t. 972, has it naked, that is destitute of
any hairs or scales between the florets or seeds ; Car-
duus, t. 675^ hairy ; Anthemisy t, 602, scaly ; and
VARIOUS KINDS OF FLOWERS. 241
Onopordum, f. 977, cellular like a honey-comb, /
209. On this and the seed-down are founded the
most solid generic characters of these plants, admira-
bly illustrated by -the -iniiftitabi© Gcertner.
The term Receptacle is sometimes extended by
Linnjeus to express the base of a flower, or even its
internal part between the stamens and pistils, provid-
ed there be any thing remarkable in such parts, with^
out reference to the foundation of the whole fructifi^
cation. It also expresses the part to which the seeds
are attached in a seed-vessel.
Having thus explained the various organs of fructifi-
cation, we shall add a few remarks concerning flowers in
general, reserving the functions of the Stamens and Pis-
tils, with tl>e Linnajan experiments and inquiries relative
to that curious subject, for the next chapter.
A flower furnished with both calyx and corolla is cal-
ledjlos completus, a complete fiov.'er ; when the latter is
wanting, incompletus ; and when the corolla is present
without the calyx, nudusj naked. When the stamens
and pistils are both, as usual, in one flower, that flower
is called perfect, or united ; when they are situated in
difierent flowers of the same species, such I would call
separated flowers ; that which has the stamens being
named the barren flower, as producing no fruit in itself,
and that with pistils the fertile one, as bearing the seed.
If this separation extends no further than to different sit-
uations on the same individual plant, Linnseus calls
GCr
242 COMPOUND FLOWERS-
such flowers monoid, monoecious, as confined to one
house or dwelling ; if the barren and fertile flowers
grow from two separate roots, they are said to be dioici,
dioecious. Some plants have united flowers and separa-
ted ones in the same species, either from one, two or
three roots, and such are called polygamous, as making
a sort of compound household.
A Compound flower consists of numerous florets,^oy-
culi, all sessile on a common undivided Receptacle, and
enclosed in one contiguous Calyx or Perianthium. It is
also essential to this kind of flower that the Anthers should
be united into a cylinder, to which only the genus Tus-
silago affords one or two exceptions, and KiiJmia anoth-
er ; and moreover, that the stamens should be 5 to each
floret, Sigesbeckia Jiosculosa of L'Heritier, Stirp, Nov.
t. 19, alone having but 3. The florets are always mo-
nopetalous and superior, each standing on a solitary na-
ked seed, or at least the rudiments of one, though not al-
ways perfected. Some Compound flowers consist of
very few florets, as Humea elegans, Exot. Bot. t. 1,
Prenanthes muralis, Engl. Bot. t. 457 ; others of many,
as the Thistle, Daisy, Sunflower, &c. The florets them-
selves are of two kinds, Ugiilati, ligulate, shaped like a
strap or ribband,/ 210, with 3 or 5 teeth, as in Trago-
pogon, t. 434, and the Dandelion ; or tubulosi, tubular,
cylindrical and 5-cleft, as in Cardials, t. 107, and Tana-
cetum, t. 1229. The marginal white florets of the
Daisy,/ 211, are of the former description, and com-
pose its radius, or rays, and its yellow central ones come
under the latter denomination,/ 212, constituting its
discus, or disk. The disk of such flowers is most fre.
AGGREGATE FLOWERS. 243
quently yellow, the rays yellow, white, red, or blue.
No instance is known of yellow rays with a white, red,
or blue disk.
An Aggregate flower has a common undivided Recep-
tacle, the Anthers all separate and distant, Jasione only,
Engl. Bot. t. 882, having them united at the base, but
not into a cylinder, and the florets commonly stand on
stalks, each having a single or double partial calyx.
Such flowers have rarely any inclination to yellow, but
are blue, purple, or white. Instances are found in Sea-
biosa, t. 659, and 1311, Dipsacus, t. 1032 and 877, and
the beautiful Cape genus Protea.
Such is the true idea of an Aggregate flower, but Lin-
nasus enumerates, under that denomination, 7 kinds, his
favourite number ; these are,
1. The Aggregate flower properly so called, as just
mentioned.
2. The Compound flower previously described.
3. The Amentaceous flower, or Catkin, of which we
have spoken, p. 200.
4. The Glumose, or Chaffy flower, peculiar to the
Grasses, see/?. 201.
5. The Sheathed flower, whose common receptacle
springs from a Sheath, as in Arum.
6. The Umbellate ; and
7. The Cymose flowers, concerning which two last -ji
iQW observations are necessary.
Linneeus and his friend Artedi thought the great nat-
ural un;beUiferous order could not be divided into a:ood
244 AGS REG ATE AND
and distinct genera by the seeds or parts of the flower,
without taking into consideration the general and partial
involucral leaves, which they therefore chose to consider
as a part of the fructification, and defined as a calyx re-
mote from the fiower. The rays of the umbel, of
course, became the subdivisions of a branched recepta-
cle, and the whole umbel was considered as one aggre-
gate flower. It necessarily followed that a Cyme, see
p. 192, must be considered in the same light, nor did
the sagacity of Linnjeus overlook the arguments in fa-
vour of this hypothesis. Many of the umbelliferous
tribe, as Heracleum^ t. 939, Caucalis, Coriandnwi, Sec,
have their marginal flowers dilated, radiant, and more or
less inclined to be imperfect or abortive, thus evincing
an analogy with real compound flowers like the Sunflow-
er, which analogy is still more striking between Oe-
nanthe, t. 363, 347, 348, and the Marigold, Calendula.
So the cymose plants, as Viburnum Opulus, t. 332, bear
dilated and abortive marginal flowers, and Hydrangea
hortensis, Sm. Ic. Pict. t. 12, has scarcely any others.
, Cornus sanguinea, Engl. Bot. t. 249, has a naked cyme,
^Sueci. 121, the two modes
by which plants are multiplied, and have shown the im-
portant difference between them. Propagation by seed
is the only genuine reproduction of the species, and it
now remains to prove that the essential organs of the
flower are indispensably requisite for the perfecting of
the seed.
Every one must have observed that the flower of a
plant always precedes its fruit. To this the Meadow
Saffron, Engl. Bot. t. 133, seems an objection, the fruit
and leaves being perfected in the spring, the blossoms
not appearing till autumn ; but a due examination will
readily ascertain that the seed-bud formed in autumn is
the very same which comes to maturity in the following
spring. A Pine-apple was once very unexpectedly ci-
ted to me as an instance of fruit being formed before the
flower, because the green fruit in that instance, as in
many others, is almost fully grown before the flowers ex-
STAMENS AND PISTILS. 2.^9
pand. The seeds however, the essence of the fruit, are
only in embryo at this period, just as in the germen of an
Apple blossom.
It was very soon ascertained that flowers are invaria-
bly furnished with Stamens and Pistils, either in the
same individual, or two of the same species, however
defective they may be in other parts ; of which Hippu-
ris, Engl. Bot. t. 763, the most simple of all blossoms,
is a remarkable example. Few botanists indeed had
detected them in the Lemma or Duck-weed, so abun-
dant on the surface of still waters, and Valisneri alone for
a long time engrossed the honour of having seen them.
In our days however they rewarded the researches of
the indefatigable Ehrhart in Germany, and on being
sought with equal acuteness, were found in England.
Three species have been delineated in Engl. Bot. t.
926, 1095, and 1233, from the discoveries of Mr. Tur-
nerand Mr. W. Borrer. The flowers of Mosses, long-
neglected and afterwards mistaken, were faithfully de-
lineated by Micheli, carefully examined and properly
understood by Linnseus as he rambled over the wilds of
Lapland*, and at length fully illustrated and placed out
of all uncertainty by the justly celebrated Hedwig.
These parts indeed are still unknown in ferns, or at
least no satisfactory explanation of them has reached mc,
though the seeds and seed-vessels arc sufficiently obvi-
ous.
The existence of the parts under consideration is so
incontrovertible in every flower around us, that Ponte-
* This hitherto unknown fact will appear in his Tour through
that country, now preparing for the press in English.
HIi
230 I UxNCTlONS 01
dera was reduced to seek plants without stamens among
the figures of the Hortus Malabariciis, but the plates in
which he confided are now known to be fiuilty in that
very particular.
Plants indeed have occasionally abortive stamens in
one flower and barren pistils in another, and the Plan-
tain-tree, Musa, is described by Linnasus as having five
out of its six stamens perfected in such blossoms as ri-
pen no fruit, while those with a fertile germen contain
only a single ripe stamen, five being ineffective. This
only shows the resources, the wisdom, and the infinite
variety of the creation. When the roots are luxuriantly
prolific, the flowers are in some measure defective, Na-
ture, relaxing as it were from her usual solicitude, and
allowing her children to repose, and indulge in the abund-
ance of good things about them. But when want
threatens, she instantly takes the alarm ; all her energies
are exerted to secure the future progeny, even at the
hazard of the parent stock, and to send them abroad to
colonise more favourable situations.
Most generally the access of the pollen is not trusted
to any accidental modes of conveyance, however nume-
rous, elaborate, and, ifv/e may so express it, ingenious,
such modes may be ; but the Siamens are for greater
security lodged in the same flower, under the protection
of the same silken veils, or more substantial guards,
which shelter their appropriate pistils. This is the case
with die majority of our herbs and shrubs, and even
with the trees of hot countries, whose leaves being al-
ways present might impede the passage of the pollen.
On the contrary, the trees of cold climates have general-
STAMEN'S AND PISTILS. 251
Iv separated flowers, blossoming before the leaves come
forth, and in a windy season of the year ; while those
which blossom later, as the Oak, are either peculiarly
frequented by insects, or, like the numerous kinds of
Fir, have leaves so little in the way, and pollen so exces-
sively abundant, that impregnation can scarcely ftul.
The pollen and the stigma are always in perfection at
the same time, the latter commonly withering and falling
offa little after the anthers, though the style may remain
to become an useful appendage to the fruit. The Viola
tricolor or Pansy, the Gratiola, the Martynia, and many
plants besides, have been observed to be furnibhed with
a stigma gaping only at the time the pollen is ripe. The
beautiful Jacobean Lily, Amaryllis for mosmsima. Curt,
Mag. t. 47, is justly described by Linn^us as provided
with a drop of clear liquid, which protrudes every morn-
ing from the stigma, and about noon seems almost
ready to fall to the ground. It is however re-absorbed in
the afternoon, having received the pollen whose vapour
renders it turbid, and whose minute husks afterwards
remain upon the stigma. The same phoenomenon takes
place several successive days.
In opposition to similar facts, proving the synchro-
nous operation of these organs, Pontedera has, with
more observation than usual, remarked that in the um-
belliferous tribe the style frequently does not appear till
the anthers are fallen. But he ought to have perceived
that the stigma is previously perfected, and that tlie style
seems to grow out afterwards, in a recurved and divari-
cated form, for the purpose of providing hooks to the
ieeds. It is also observable that in this family the se'>'-
252 KUNCTIOXS OV
eral organs are sometimes brought to perfection in differ-
ent flowers at different times, so that the anthers of one
may impregnate the stigmas of another, whose stamens
were abortive, or long since withered. The same thing;
happens in oilier instances. Linnaeus mentions the Ja-
tropha wens as producing flowers with stamens some
weeks in general before or after the others. Hence he
obtained no seed till he preserved the pollen a month or
more in paper, and scattered it on a few stigmas then in
perfection. There can be no do bt that, in a wild state,
some or other of the two kinds of blobsoms are ripe to-
gether, throughout the flowering season, on different
trees.
A similar experiment to that just mentioned was made
in 1749 upon a Ptim-tiee at Berlin, which for want of
pollen had never brought any fruit to perfection. A
branch of barren flowers was sent by the post from Leip-
sic, twenty German miles distant, and suspended over the
pistils. Consequently abundance of fruit was ripened,
and many young plants raised from the seeds.*
* What species of Palm was the subject of this experiment
does not clearly appear. In the original communication to Dr.
Watson, printed in the preface of Lee's Introduction ta Botany,
it is called Palma major foliis fab elliformibus^ which seems ap-
propriate to Rafihis flabellifjrmis, Jit. Hort. Keiv. i>. 3. 473 ; yet
Linnaeus, in his dissertation on this subject, expressly calls it
P.cenix dactylifera, the Date Palm, and says he had in his gar-
den many vigorous plants raised from a portion of the seeds
above mentioned. The great success of the experiment, and
the « fan shaped" leaves, makes me rather take it for the Rhti
fiis,a. plant not well known to Linnaeus.
STAMENS AND PISTILS. 253
Tournefort and Pontcdera supposed the pollen to be
of an excrementitioLis nature, and thrown oft'as superflu-
ous. But its being so curiously and distinctly organiz-
ed in every plant, and producing a peculiar vapour on
the accession of moisture, shows, beyond contradiction,
that it has functions to perform after it has left the anther.
The same writers conceived that the stamens might
possibly secrete something to circulate from them to the
young seeds ; an hypothesis totally subverted by every
flower with separated organs, whose stamens could circu-
late nothing to germens on a different branch or root ; a
difficulty which the judicious Tournefort perceived,
and was candid enough to allow.
Both the conjectures just mentioned vanish before •
one luminous experiment of Linnaeus, of all others the
most easy to repeat and to understand. He removed
the anthers from a flower of Glaiicium phceniceum ;
Engl. Bot. t. 1433, stripping off the rest of that day's
blossoms. Another morning he repeated the same prac-
tice, only sprinkling the stigma of that blossom, which
he had last deprived of its own stamens, with the pollen
from another. The flower first mutilated produced no
fruit, but the second afforded very perfect seed. " My
design," says Linnaeus, " was to prevent any one in fu-
ture from believing that the removal of the anthers from
a flower was in itself capable of rendering the germen
abortive."
The usual proportion and situation of stamens with
respect to pistils is well worthy of notice. The former
ire generally shortest in drooping flowers, longest in
254: FUNCTIONS OF STAMENS AND glSTILS.
erect ones. The barren blossoms stand above the
fertile ones in Carex, Coix, Arum, &c., that the
pollen may fall on the stigmas. This is the more re-
markable, as the usual order of Nature seems in such
plants, as well indeed as in compound, and even um-
belliferous flowers, to be reversed, for the pistils are
invariably central, or internal, in every simple flower,
and would therefore, if drawn out into a monoeciou s
spike, be above the stamens.
Many curious contrivances of Nature serve to bring
the anthers and stigmas together. In Gloriosa, Andr,
Repos. t. 129, the style is bent, at a right angle from the
very base, for this evident purpose. In Saxifraga, and
• Parnassia, Engl. Bot. t. 82, the stamens lean one or
two at a time over the stigma, retiring after they have
shed their pollen, and giving place to others ; which
wonderful oeconomy is very striking in the garden Rue,
Rutagraveolens, whose stout and firm filaments cannot
be disturbed from the posture in which they may happen
to be, and evince a spontaneous movement unaflfected by
external causes. The five filaments of the Celosia,
Cock's-comb, are connected at their lower part by a
membranous web, which in moist weather is relaxed,
and the stamens spread for shelter under the concave
lobes of the corolla. When the air is dry, the contrac-
tion of the membrane brings them together, to scatter
their pollen in the centre of the flower. The elastic fila-
ments of Parietaria, Engl. Bot. t. 879, for a while re-
IRRITABLE PARTS OF FLOWERS. 25J
Strained by the calyx, as those of the lovely Kahnia,{n6)
Curt. Mag. t. 175, 177, are by the minute pouches in
the corolla, relieve themselves by an elastic spring, which
in both instances serves to dash the pollen with great
force upon the stigma. The same end is accomplished
by the curved germen of Medicagofalcata^ Engl. Bot. t'
1016, releasing itself by a spring from the closed keel of
the flower.
But of all flowers that of the Barberry-bush, t. 49, is
most worthy the attention of a curious physiologist. In
this the six stamens, spreading moderately, are sheltered
under the concave tips of the petals, till some extraneous
body, as the feet or trunk of an insect in search of honey,
touches the inner part of each filament near the bottom.,.
The irritability of that part is such, that the filament im-
mediately contracts there, and consequently strikes its
anther, full of pollen, against the stigma. Any other
part of the filament may be touched without this effect,
provided no concussion be given to the whole. After a
while the filament retires gradually, and may again be
stimulated ; and when each petal, with its annexed fila-
ment, is fallen to the ground, the h;tter on being touched
shows as much sensibility as ever. See Tracts on Nat.
History^ 165. I have never detected any sympathy be-
tween the filaments, nor is any thing ot Uie kind expres-
sed in the paper just mentioned, though Dr. Darwin,
from some unaccountable misapprehension, has quoted
(116) [The ten stamens of the Kalmias are bent outward, and
their anthers confined hi the same number of depressions in the
corolla, until liberated in the manner described.]
^5i5 OF THE BARBERRY.
me to that effect. It is still more wonderful that the
celebrated Bonnet, as mentioned in Senebier's Physiolo-
gie Vegetale, v. 5. 105, should have observed this phoe-
nomenon in the Barberry so very inaccurately as to com-
pare it to the relaxation of a spring, and that the ingen-
ious Senebier himself, in quoting me, p. 94, for having
ascertained the lower part only of each filament to be ir-
ritable, should express himself as follows : — " It has not
yet been proved that the movement of the stamens is at-
tended with the contraction of the filaments ; which
nevertheless was the first proof necessary to have been
given in order to ascertain their irritability ; it is not
even yet well known which is the irritable part of the
filaments, and whether it be only their base, as Smith
has had the address to discover." In answer to which I
need only request any one to read the above account, or
the more ample detail in my original paper, and, above
all> to examine a Barberry-blossom for himself ; and if
any doubts remain concerning the existence of vegetable
irritability, let him read Senebier's whole chapter intend-
ed to disprove it, where that candid philosopher, while
he expresses his own doubts, has brought together every
thing in its favour. Among the whole of his facts noth-
ing is more decisive than the remarks of Coulomb and
Van Marumonthe Euphorbia^ whose milky juices flow
so copiously from a wound, in consequence of the evi-
dent irritability of their vessels ; but when the life of
the plant is destroyed by electricity, all the flowing is at
an end. It is superfluous to add any thing on this sub-
ject, and I return to that of the impregnation of flowers.
PROTECTIOX OF THE POLLEN". ~ 257
i have already mentioned that any moisture causes the
pollen to explode, consequently its purpose is liable to
be frustrated by rain or heavy dews. Linnaeus observes
that husbandmen find their crops of rye to suffer more
from this cause than barley, because in the latter the an-
thers are more protected by the husks ; and the Juni-
per berries are sparingly, or not at all, produced in Sue-
den when the flowering season has been wet. The
same great observer also remarks, what yearly experi-
ence confirms, that Cherry-trees are more certainly fruit-
ful than Pear-treeSj because in the former the opening
of the anthers is, in each blossom, much more progres-
sive, so that a longer period elapses for the accomplish-
ment of the fertilization of the germen, and there is con-
sequently less chance of its being hindered by a few
showers.
To guard against the hurtful influence of nocturnal
dew^s or drenching rains, most flowers either fold their
petals together, or hang down their heads, when the sun
does not shine ; by which, their internal organs are
sheltered. In some which always droop, as the Snow-
drops Galanthus and Leucojum^ EngL Bot. t, \9 and
621, the Fritillary, t. 622, the Crown Imperial, various
species of Campanula, and others, while the over-shad-
owing corolla keeps off rain, the air has free access un-
derneath to blow the pollen to the stigma. Nor is this
drooping caused by the weight of the flowers, for the
fruit in most of them is much heavier, and yet stands
erect on the very same stalk. The papilionaceous flow=
ers in general spread their wings in fine weather, admit-
II
25* EXPERIMENTS ON HEMP.
ting the sun and air to the parts within ; whereas many
of them not only dose their petals at night, but also de-
five additional protection from the green leaves of the
plant folding closely about them. Convolvulus arve?!-
sis, t. 312, AnagalUs arvensis, t. 529, Calendula pluvi-
alis, and many others, are well known to shut up their
flowers against the approach of rain ; whence the
Anagallis has been called the Poor Man's Weather-
glass. It has been observed bv Linnaeus that flowers
lose this fine sensibility, either after the anthers have
performed their oflTicc, or when deprived of them arti-
ficially ; nor do I doubt the fact. I have had reason
to think that, during a long continuance of wet, the sen-
sibility of the Anagallis is sometimes exhausted ; and it
is evident that very sudden thunder-showers often take
such flo\vers by surprise, the previous state of the atmos-
phere not having been such as to give them due warning.
That parts of vegetables not only lose their irritabili-
ty, but even their vital principle, in consequence of hav-
ing accomplished the ends of their being, appears from
an experiment of Linnceus upon Hemp. This is a dioe-
cious plant, see/?. 241, and Linnaeus kept several fer-
tile-flowered individuals in separate apartments from tfie
barren ones, in order to try whether they could perfect
their seeds without the aid of pollen. Some few how-
ever remained with the barren-flowered plants, and these
ripened seed in due time, their stigmas having faded and
withered soon after they had received the pollen. On
the contrary, the stigmas which had been out of its
reach continued green and vigorous, as if in vain expec-
tation, nor did they begin to fade till they had thus last-
MELONS, CYC AS, &c. 259
ed for a very long while. Since I read the history of
this experiment, I have found it easy in many plants to
tell by the appearance of the stigma whether the seed be
fertilized or not. The above experiment is the more
important, as the abbe Spallanzani has recorded one
made by himself upon the same species of plant, with a
contrary result. But as he has said nothing of the ap-
pearance of the stigmas, his experiment must yield to
that of Linnaeus in point of accuracy ; and even if his
account be otherwise correct, the result is easily ex-
plained. Hemp, Spinach, some Nettles, he, naturally
dioecious, are occasionally not completely so, a few latent
barren or fertile flowers being frequently found among
those of the other sort, by which provision is made
against accidents, and the perfecting of a few seeds, at
any rate, secured.
In general, germens whose stigmas have not received
the pollen wither away without swelling at all, but some
grow to a considerable size, and in such the substance
of the seed, its skin, and even its cotyledons, are often to
be found, the embryo only being wanting. In a Melon
or Cucumber it is common to find, among numerous
perfect seeds, many mere unimpregnated husks. In
the magnificent Ci/cas revoluta, which bore fruit at the
bishop of Winchester's, and of which a history with
plates is given in the sixth volume of the Linnsean So-
ciety's Transactions, I found the drupa and all its con-
tents apparently perfect, except that there was only a
minute cavity where the embryo should have been, in
consequence of the want of another tree with stamens,
which was not to be found perhaps nearer than Japan.
260 (ECONOMY OF AQUATIC PLANTS.
Gardeners foimcrly attempted to assist Nature by strip-
ping oflfthe barren flowers of Melons and Cucumbers,
which, having no germcn, they found could not come to
fruit, and were, therefore, as they supposed, an unneces-
sary encumbrance to the constitution of the parent plant.
But finding they thus obtained no fruit at all, they soon
learned the wiser practice of admitting air as often as
possible to the flowering plants, for the purpose of
blowing the pollen from one blossom to the other, and
even to gather the barren kind and place it over that
destined to bear fruit.
The ceconomy of various aquatic plants throws great
light upon the subject before us. Different species of
Potamogeton, Engl. Bot. t. 168, 297, 376, &c., Ruppia
maritima, t. 136, and others, float entirely under water^
often at some considerable depth, till the flowering season
arrives, when they rise near the surface, and throw up
their flowering spikes above it, sinking afterwards to ri-
pen and sow their seeds at the bottom. Nymphcea alba^t.
160, is very truly described by Linnaeus in his Flo7-aSue-
cica, -ds cIosin^^ its flowers in the afternoon and laying them
down upon the surface of the water till morning, when it
raises and expands them, often, in a bright day, to seve-
ral inches above the water. To tliis I can speak from
my own knowledge, and it is confirmed by the history
given by Theophrastus of his Lotus, which, according
to ail appearance, is the Nymph^^a Lotus of Linnaeus.
" This," says he, " as well as the Cyamus^, bears its
fruit in a head. The flower is white, consisting of
* Exot. Lot. r, 31, 32.
OF THE NYMPH-EA. 261
many crowded leaves about as broad as those of a lily.
These leaves at sunset fold themselves together, cover-
ing the head (or seed-vessel). At sun-rise they expand,
and rise above the water. This they continue till the
head is perfected, and the flowers fall oftV So far
Theophrastus writes as of his own knowledge ; he con-
tinues as follows ; " It is reported that in the Euphrates
the head and flowers keep sinking till midnight, when
they are so deep in the water as to be out of reach of
the hand, but towards morning they return, and still
more as the day advances. At sun-rise they are already
above the surface, with the flower expanded ; afterwards
they rise high above the water." Pliny repeats the
same account ; and Prosper Alpinus, whose purpose is
to prove the Lotus of Theophrastus not different from
the common Nymplwa, in which, as far as genus is
concerned, he is correct, has the following remarkable
passage : " The celebrated stories of the Lotus turning
to the sun, closing its flowers and sinking under w-ater at
night, and rising again in the morning, are conformable
to what every body has observed in the Nymphcea.''''
I have been the more particular in the above quota-
tions,because ihe veracity of Theophrastus has lately been
somewhat rudely impeached, on very questionable au-
thority. For my own part, I think what we see of the
Nymphcea in England is sufficient to render the above ac-
count highly probable in a country where the sun has so
much more power, even if it did not come from the most
faithful and philosophical botanist of antiquity, and I have
always with confidence cited it on his authority. The
reader, ho\A'ever, will perceive that the only important
262 OF TUE. VALISNEKIA.
circumstance for our purpose is the closing of the flow-
ers at night, which is sufiiciently well established.
But the most memorable of aquatic plants is the Falis-
neria spi?'alis, well figured and described by Micheli,
Abu. Gen. t. 10, which grows at the bottoms of ditches
in Italy. In this the fertile flowers stand on long spiral
stalks, and these by uncoiling elevate them to the surface
of the water, where the calyx expands in the open air.
In the mean while plenty of barren flowers are produced
on a distinct root, on short straight stalks, from vvhich
they rise like little separate white bubbles, suddenly ex-
panding when they reach the surflice, and floating
about it in such abundance as to cover it entirely. Thus
their pollen is scattered over the stigmas of the first-
mentioned blossoms, whose stalks soon afterwards re-
sume their spiral figure, and the fruit comes to maturity
at the bottom of the water. All this Micheli has de-
scribed, without being aware of its final purpose ; so dif-
ferent is it to observe and to reason !
Some aquatic vegetables, which blossom under water,
seem to have a peculiar kind of glutinous pollen, des-
tined to perform its oflice in that situation, as Char a ^
Engl. Bot. t. 336, &c. ; as well as the Fuciis and Cow-
ferva tribe : but of the real nature of the fructification
of these last we can at present only form analogical con-
jectures.
The fertilization of the Fig is accomplished in a strik-
ing manner by insects, as is that of the real Sycamore,
Ficus Sycomorus. In this genus the green fruit is a hol-
low common calyx, or rather receptacle, lined with va-
rious flowers seldom both barren and fertile in the same
ASSISTANCE OF INSECTS IN IMPREGNATION. 26S
fig. This receptacle has only a very small orifice at the
summit. The seeds therefore would not in general be
perfected were it not for certain minute flies of the ge-
nus Cynips, continually fluttering from one fig to the
other, all covered with pollen, and depositing their eggs
within the cavity.
A very curious observation is recorded by Schreber
and Willdenow concerning the Aristolochia Clematitis,
Engl. Bot. t. 398. The stamens and pistils of this flow-
er are enclosed in its globular base, the anthers being
under the stigma, and by no means commodiously situ-
ated for conveying their pollen to it. This therefore is
accomplished by an insect, the Tipula pemiicornis, which
enters the flower by the tubular part. But that part be-
ing thickly lined with inflexed hairs, though the fly en-
ters easily, its return is totally impeded, till the corolla
fades, when the hairs lie flat against the sides, and allow
the captive to escape. In the mean while the insect,
continually struggling for liberty, and pacing his prison
round and round, has brushed the pollen about the stig-
ma. I do not doubt the accuracy of this account,
though I have never caught the imprisoned Tipula. In-
deed I have never seen any fruit formed by this plant.
Probably for want of some insect adapted to the same
purpose in its own country, the American Aristolochia
Sipho^ though it flowers plentifully, rarely forms fruit in
our gardens. That it sometimes does, I have been in-
formed by Lady Amelia Hume, since the first edition of
this work was published.
The ways in which insects serve the same purpose
are innumerable. These active little beings are peculiarly
264 ASSISTANCE OF INSECTS IN IMintEGNATIOX.
busy about flowers in bright sunny weather, when every
blossom is expanded, the pollen in perfection, and all
the powers of vegetation in their greatest vigour. Then
we see the rough sides and legs of the bee, laden with
the golden dust which it shakes oif, and collects anew,
in its visits to the honeyed stores inviting it on every
side. All Nature is then alive, and a thousand wise
ends are accomplished by innumerable means that
" seeing we perceive not ;" for though in the abundance
of creation there seems to be a waste, yet in proportion
as we understand the subject, we find the more reason
to conclude that nothing is made in vain.
[ 265 ]
CHAPTER XXI.
ON' rilB DISEASES OP PLANTS, PARTICULARLY AS ILLUSTRA-
TIVE OF THEIR VITAL PRINCIPLE.
The diseases of Vegetables serve in many instances to
prove their vitality, and to illustrate the nature of their
constitution.
Plants are subject to Gangrene or Sphacelus, especial-
ly the more succulent kinds, of which a very curious ac-
count, concerning the Cactus coccinellifer^ Indian Fig,
or Nopal, extremely to our present purpose, is given by
M. Thiery de Menonville, in his work on the culture of
the Nopal as the food of the Cochineal insect. This
writer travelled about twenty years since, through the
Spanish settlements in South America, chiefly noted for
the cultivation of this precious insect, on purpose to
transport it clandestinely to some of the French islands.
Such were the supineness and ignorance of the Span-
iards, that he succeeded in conveying not only the liv-
ing insects, but the bulky plant necessary for their sus-
tenance, notwithstanding severe edicts to the contrary.
He had attended previously to the management of the
Nopal, and made his remarks crn the diseases to which it
is liable. Of these the Gangrene is extremely frequent
in the true Nopal of Mexico, beginning by a black spoty
which spreads till the whole leaf or branch rots off, or
the shrub dies. But the same kind of plant is often af-
fected with a much more serious disease, called by Thie-
KK
2^6 GANGRENE OF PLANTS.
ly " la dissolution.'' This seems to be a sudden decay
of the vital principle, like that produced in animals by
lightning or strong electricity. In an hour's time, from
some unknown cause, a joint, a whole branch, or some-
times an entire plant of the Nopal, changes from appar^
ent health to a state of putrefaction or dissolution. One
minute its surface is verdant and shining ; the next it
turns yellow, and all its brilliancy is gone. On cutting
into its substance, the inside is found to have lost all co-
hesion, being quite rotten. The only remedy in this
case is speedy amputation below the diseased part.
Sometimes the force of the vital principle makes a
btand, as it were, against the encroaching disease, and
throws off the infected joint or branch. Such is the ac-
count given by Thiery, which evinces a power in vege-
tables precisely adequate to that of the animal constitu-
tion, by which an injured or diseased part is, by an effort
of Nature, thrown oifto preserve the rest.
Nor need we travel to Mexico to find examples of
this. Every deciduous tree or shrub exhibits the very
same phoenonienon ; for the fall of their decaying foli-
age in autumn, leaving the branches and young buds
vigorous and healthy, can be explained in no other way.
Yet Du Hamel laboured in vain to account for the fall of
the leaf ;* nor is it wonderful that he or any body else,
who endeavours to explain the physiology of vegeta-
bles or of animals, according to one principle only,
whether it be mechanical or chemical, should entirely
iail. To consider the fall of leaves in autumn as a
ploughing, or casting off diseased and worn out parts^
* See his Phys. cies ,irbres, v. 1. 127.
FALL OF THE LEAF. 26r
seems so simple and evident, as to be hardly worth insist-
ing upon. Yet I find myself anticipated in this theory
by one physiologist only, named Vrolick, cited by
Willdenow in his Principles of Botany, p. 304, though
several learned speculations to no purpose are extant on
the subject. It is but just, however, that I should re-
late what led me to consider the matter with any atten-
tion. My observing friend Mr. Fairbairn of Chelsea
garden long ago remarked to me, that when he had oc-
casion to transplant any tree or shrub whilst in leaf, he
could soon judge of its success by the ease with which
its leaves were detached. The consequence of such
treatment is more or less injury to the health .of the
plant, as will first appear by the drooping of the leaves,
most of which will probably die, and the decay will
generally be extended to the younger more delicate
twigs. The exact progress of this decay may speedily
be known, bv the leaves of those branches which are ir-
recoverably dying or dead, remaining firmly attached, so
as not to be pulled off without a force sufficient to bring
away the bark or buds along with them : whereas the
leaves of parts that have received no material injury, and
where the vital energy acts with due power, either fall off
spontaneously, or are detached by the slighest touch.
Plants of hot countries, kept in our stoves, exhibit the
same phoenomenon when transplanted or otherwise in-
jured, even though not naturally deciduous.
So when fruits are thoroughly ripened, they become,
with respect to the parent plant, dead substances, and,
however strongly attached before, are then thrown off as
extraneous bodies. Their stalks fiide or wither, though
268 I'ALL OF RIPE FUUIT,
the life of the adjoining branch continues unimpaired,
and a line of separation is soon drawn. In a poor soil,
or unfavourable climate, a bunch or spike which should
naturally consist of a considerable number of flowers,
bears perhaps not half so many. Its uppec part very
early withers, the vital principle ceases to act at the point
beyond which it could not continue to act with eflfect,
and all its energy is directed to perfect what lies within
the compass of its resources. This is evident in Lathy-
rus odoratus, the Sweet Pea of our gardens, a native of
a very hot climate, at the sum.mits of whose flower-
stalks are generally found the rudiments of one or more
flowers, not attempted to be perfected. So also the first
Barley sown on the sandy heaths of Norfolk, and indeed
too nniny a following crop, bears very few grains in an
ear ; for ihe same meagre supply of nourishment, be-
stowed equally on a numerous spike of blossoms, would
infallibly starve them all. In like manner one seed only
is perfected in the best wild Arabian CoflPec, known by
its round form ; while the West Indian plantation Cof-
fee has two in each berry, both consequently flattened
on one side. The former grows in barren open places,
in situations sufficiently favourable for the impregna-
tion of its blossoms, but far less so for the perfecting
of much seed ; while the latter, well supplied with
manure and moisture, is enabled to bring every germ to
maturity.
Very strange effects are often produced upon plants
by the attacks of insects, whence the various kinds of
Galls derive their origin. These are occasioned by the
OF GALLS AND VARIOUS EXCRESCKNCES. 269
punctures of those little animals, chiefly of the Hymen-
optera order, and of the genus Cynips, in some vigorous
part of the plant, as the leaves, leaf-stalks, young stem or
branches, and sometimes the calyx or germen. The
parent insect deposits its egg there, which is soon hatch-
ed, and in consequence of the perpetual irritation occa-
sioned by the young maggot, feeding on the juices of
the plant, the part where it is lodged acquires a morbid
degree of luxuriance, frequently swelling to an immod-
erate size, and assuming the most extraordinary and
whimsical shapes. This often happens to the shrubby
species of Hawkweed, Hieraciiim sabaudiim^ Engl. Bot.
t. 349, and umhellatum, t. 1771, whose stems in conse-
quence swell into oval knots. Several different kinds of
Galls are borne by the Oak, as those light spongy bod-
ies, as big as walnuts, vulgarly named Oak apples ; a
red juicy berry-like excrescence on its leaves ; and the
very astringent Galls brought from the Levant, for the
purposes of dyeing and making ink, which last are pro-
duced by a different species of Qiiercus from either of
our own. The common Dog-rose, t. 992, frequently
bears large moss-like balls, in whose internal parts nume-
rous maggots are always to be found, till they become the
winged Cynips Rosce^ and eat their way out. Many of
our Willows bear round excrescences, (116) as large as
peas, on their leaves ; but I remember to have been very
much astonished in Provence with a fine branched pro-
duction on the Willows in winter, which appeared like a
(116) [^Very singular spongy or juicy excrescences are produ-
ced from some American shrubs of the genus Androvieda and
Azalea ; caused, no doubt, bv insects.']
2/0 KEMAUKABLE EXCRESCENCES.
tufted Lichen, but proved on examination a real Gall.
Indeed our Salix Helix, t. 1343, is called Rose Willow
from its bearing no less remarkable an excrescence, like
a rose, at the ends of some of its branches, in conse.
quence of the puncture of an insect, and these are in like
manner durable, though the proper leaves foil. The
Mastic-tree, Pistacia Le?itiscus, is often laden, in the
south of Europe, with large red hollow finger-like bod-
ies, swarming internally with small insects, the jiphis
Pisfacice of Linnaeus. The young shoots of Salvia po-
mifera, FL Grtec. t. 15, S. triloba, t. 17, and even ^S*.
officinalis, in consequence of the attacks probably of
some Cynips, swell into large juicy balls, very like ap.
pies, and even crowned with rudiments of leaves resem-
bling the calyx of that fruit. These are esteemed in the
Levant for their aromatic and acid fliivour, especially
when prepared with sugar.
It may be remarked that all the excrescences above
mentioned are generally more acid than the rest of the
plant that bears them, and also greatly inclined to turn
red. The acid they contahi is partly acetous, but more
of the astringent kind.
The diseases of the skin, to which many vegetables
are subject, are less easily understood than the forego-
ing. Besides one kind of Honey-dew, already mention-
ed,/). 157, something like leprosy may be observed in
Tragopogon major, Jacq. Austr. t. 29, which as I have
been informed by an accurate observer, does not injure
the seed, nor infect the progeny. The stem of Shep-
herd's Purse, Engl. Bot. t. 1485, is occasionally swel-
led, and a white cream-like crust, afterwards powdery,
OP THE BLIGHT AND SIMILAR DISEASES. 271
ensues. The White Garden Rose, Rosa alba, produ-
ces, in like manner, an orange- coloured powder. It
proves very difficult, in many cases, to judge whether
such appearances proceed from a primary disease in the
plant, arising from unseasonable cold or wet, or arc owing
to the baneful stimulus of parasitical y}^;2^f irritating the
vital principle, like the young progeny of insects as
above related. Sir Joseph Banks has, with great care
and sagacity, traced the progress of the Blight in Corn,
Uredo fumenti, Soxverb. Fung. t. 140, and given a com-
plete history of the minute fungus which causes that
appearance. See Annals of Botany, i;. 2. 51, t. o, 4.
Under the inspection of this eminent promoter of sci-
ence, Mr. Francis Bauer has made microscopical draw-
ings of many similar fungi infecting the herbage and
seeds of several plants, but has decided that the black
swelling of the seed of corn, called by the French Ergot,
though not well distinguished from other appearances by
the generality of our agricultural writers, is indubitably
a morbid swelling of the seed, and not in any way con-
nected with the growth of a fungus. The anthers of
certain plants often exhibit a similar disease, swelling,
and producing an inordinate quantity of dark purplish
powder, instead of true pollen, as happens in Silene in-
flata, Fl. Brit. Engl. Bot. t. 164, and the white Lych-
nis dioica, t. 1580, whose petals are, not uncommonly,
stained all over with this powder. Our knowledge on
all these subjects is yet in its infancy ; but it is to hoped,
now the pursuit of agriculture and of philosophical bot-
any begin to be, in some distinguished instances, united,
such examples will be followed, and science directed to
27:: OF TEIE BLIGHT AND SIMILAR DISEASES.
one of its best ends, that of improving useful arts. And
here I cannot but mention the experiments continually
going on under the inspection of the ingenious Mr.
Knight, of fertilizing the germen of one species or vari-
ety with the pollen of another nearly akin, as in apples,
garden peas, &c., by which, judiciously managed, the
advantages of different kinds are combined. By the
same means Linnzeus obtained intermediate species or
varieties of several plants : and if any thing were want-
ing to confirm his theory respecting the stamens and
pistils, this alone would place it out of all uncertainty.
I 273 3
CHAPTER XXII.
«F THE SYSTEMATICAL ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS. NATU-
RAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. GENERA, SPECIES, AND
VARIETIES. NOMENCLATURE.
The foregoing chapters have sufficiently explained
the parts of plants, and the leading differences in their
conformation, for us now to proceed to the Systematical
part of our subject. In this, when properly understood
and studied, there is no less exercise for the mind, no
less employment for its observation and admiration, than
in physiological or anatomical inquiries ; nor are the
organs of vegetables, when considered only as instru-
ments of classification and discrimination, less conspicu-
ous for beauty, fitness, and infinite variety of contri-
vance, than under any other point of view. The wis-
dom of an Infinite Superintending Mind is displayed
throughout Nature, in whatever way we contemplate
her productions.
When we take into consideration the multitude of
species which compose the vegetable kingdom, even in
any one country or climate, it is obvious that some ar-
rangement, some regular mode of naming and distin-
guishing them, must be very desirable, and even neces-
sary, for retaining them in our own memory, or for com-
municating to others any thing concerning them. Yet
the antients have scarcely used any further classification
of plants than the vague and superficial division into
LL
274 OF BOTANICAL ARRANGEMENT.
trees, shrubs and herbs, except a consideration of their
places of growth, and also of their qualities. The earli-
er botanists among the moderns almost inevitabl}' fell
into some rude arrangement of the objects of their
study, and distributed them under the heads of Grasses,
Bulbous plants. Medicinal or Eatable plants, &c., in
which their successors made several improvements, but
it is not worth while to contemplate them.
The science of Botanical Arrangement first assumed
a regular form under the auspices of Conrad Gesner and
Cassalpinus, who, independent of each other, without
any mutual communication, both conceived the idea of
a regular classification of plants, by means of the parts of
fructification alone, to which the very existence of Bota-
ny as a science is owing. The first of these has left us
scattered hints only, in various letters, communicated to
the world after his premature death in 1565 ; the latter
pubhshed a system, founded on the fruit, except the
primary division into trees and herbs, in a quarto vol-
ume printed at Florence in 1583. This work Linnaeus
studied with great care, as appears from the many notes
and marked passages in his own copy now before me.
Hence he adopted his ideas of the supposed origin of
the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, from the outer
bark, inner bark, wood and pith, which are now proved
to be erroneous. In his own Classes Plantarum he has
drawn out a regular plan of the System of Csesalpinus,
the chief principles of which are the following :
I . Whether the embryo be at the summit or base of
the seed.
METHODS OF C^SALPINUS, RTVINUS, &c. ^7!i
2. Whether the germen be superior or inferior,
3. Seeds, 1, 2, 3, 4, or numerous.
4. Seed-vessels, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.
The work of Caesalpinus, though full of information,
was too deep to be of common use, and excited but lit-
tle attention. A century afterwards Morison, Professor
of Botany at Oxford, improved somewhat upon the
ideas of the last- mentioned writer, but has been justly
blamed for passing over in silence the source of his own
information. Ray, the great English naturalist, formed
a considerably different system upon the fruit, as did
Hermann, Professor at Leyden, and the great Boerhaavc,
but in these last there is little originality.
Rivinus, Ruppius and Ludwig in Germany proposed
to arrange plants by the various forms of their Corolla,
as did Tournefort the illustrious French botanist, whose
system is by far the best of the kind ; and this having
been more celebrated than most others, I shall give a
sketch of its plan.
In the first place we meet with the old but highly un-
philosophical division into Herbs and Trees, each of
which sections is subdivided into those with a Corolla
and those without. The Trees with a Corolla are again
distributed into such as have one or many petals, and
th ose regular or irregular. — Herbs with a Corolla have
that part either compound (as the Dandelion, Thistle
and Daisy), or simple ; the latter being either of
one or many petals, and in either case regular or irregu-
lar. We come at last to the final sections, or classes, of
the Tournefprtian system. Herbs with a simple, mo-
2!^^ BIETHODS 0? tOURNEFORT,
nopetalous, regular corolla are either bell-shaped or fun=
nel-shaped ; those with an irregular one either anoma-
lous or labiate.
Herbs with a simple, polypetalous regular corolla are
either cruciform, rosaceous, umbellate, pink-like or lilia-
ceous ; those with an irregular one, papilionaceous or
anomalous. The subdivisions of the classes are found-
ed on the fruit.
It is easy to perceive that a system of this kind can
never provide for all the forms of corolla which may be
discovered after its first contrivance ; and therefore the
celebrated Dr. Garden, who studied by it, assured me
that when he attempted to reduce the American plants
to Tournefort's classes, he found them so untractable,
that, after attempting in vain to correct or augment the
system, he should probably have given up the science
in despair, had not the works of Linnaeus fallen in his
way.
Magnol, Professor at Montpellier, and even Linnaeus
himself, formed schemes of arranging plants by the ca-
lyx, which nobody has followed.
All preceding systems, and all controversies respect-
ing their superior merits, were laid aside, as soon as the
famous Linucean method of classification, founded on
the Stamens and Pistils, became known in the botanical
world. Linnaeus, after proving these organs to be the
most essential of all to the very being of a plant,first con-
ceived the fortunate idea of rendering them subservient
to the purposes of methodical arrangement, taking into
coHoideration their number, situation and proportion.
MAGNOL, AXD LlNN^US. 277
How these principles are applied, we shall presently ex-
plain ; but some previous observations are necessary.
Linnzeus first made a distinction between a natural
and an artificial method of botanical arrangement. His
predecessors probably conceived their own systems to
be each most consonant with the order of Nature, as
well as most commodious for use, and it was reserved
for him to perceive and to explain that these were two
very distinct things.
The most superficial observer must perceive some-
thing of the classification of Nature. The Grasses,
Umbelliferous plants, Mosses, Sea- weeds. Ferns, Lilia-'
ceous plants. Orchises, Compound flowers, each consti-
tute a family strikingly similar in form and qualities
among themselves, and no less evidently distinct from
all others. If the whole vegetable kingdom could with
equal facility be distributed into tribes or classes, the
study of Botany on such a plan would be no less easy
than satisfactory. But as we proceed in this path, we
soon find ourselves in a labyrinth. The natural orders
and families of plants, so far from being connected in a
regular series, approach one another by so many points,
as to bewilder instead of directing us. We may seize
some striking combinations and analogies ; but the fur-
ther we proceed, the more we become sensible that, even
if we had the whole vegetable world before us at one
view, our knowledge must be imperfect, and that our
*' genius" is certainly not *' equal to the majesty of Na-
ture." Nevertheless Linnaeus, and all true philosophi-
cal botanists since the first mention of the natural affini-
ties of plants, have ever considered them as the most
278 NATURAL MODE OP CLASSIFICATION.
important and interesting branch, or rather the funda-
mental part, of systematical botany. Without them the
science is truly a study of words, contributing nothing to
enlarge, little worthy to exercise, a rational mind. Lin-
naeus therefore suggests a scheme which he modestly
calls Fragments of a Natural Method, which formed
the subject of his occasional contemplation ; but he dai-
ly and hourly studied the principles of natural affinities
among plants, conscious that no true knowledge of their
distinctions, any more than of their qualities, could be
obtained without ; of which important truth he was not
only the earliest, but even the most strenuous assertor.
In the mean while, however, Linnaeus, well aware
that a natural classification was scarcely ever to be com-
pletely discovered, and that if discovered it would prob-
ablv be too difficult for common use, contrived an artiji-
cial system, by which plants might conveniently be ar-
ranged, like words in a dictionary, so as to be most
readily found. If all the words of a language could be
disposed according to their abstract derivations, or gram-
matical affinities, such a performance might be very in-
structive to a philosopher, but would prove of little ser-
vice to a young scholar ; nor has it ever been mentioned
as any objection to the use of a dictionary, that words of
very different meanings, if formed of nearly the same let-
ters, often stand together. The method of Linnaeus
therefore is just such a dictionary in Botany, while his
Philosophia Botanica is the grammar, and his other
works contain the history, and even the poetry, of the
cience.
LINNiEAN ARTIFICIAL METHOD. 279
But before we give a detail of his artificial system, we
must first see how this grettt man fixed the fundamental
principles of botanical science. Nor are these princi-
ples confined to botanj^ though they originated in that
study. The Linnsean style of discriminating plants,
has been extended by himself and others to animals and
even fossils ; and his admirable principles of nomencla-
ture are applied with great advantage even to chemistry
itself, now become so vast and accurate a science.
Independently of all general methods of classification,
whether natural or artificial, plants, as well as animals,
are distinguished into Genera^% Species and Varieties,
By Species are understood so many individuals, or,
among the generality of animals, so many pairs, as are
presumed to have been formed at the creation, and have
been perpetuated ever since ; for though some animals
appear to have been exterminated, we have no reason
to suspect any new species has been produced ; neither
have we any cause to suppose any species of plant has
been lost, nor any new one permanently established,
since their first formation, notwithstanding the specula-
tions of some philosophers. We frequently indeed see
new Varieties, by which word is understood a variation
in an established species ; but such are imperfectly, or
for a limited time, if at all, perpetuated in the offspring.
A Genus comprehends one or more species, so es-
sentially different in formation, nature, and often many
* Our scientific language in English is not sufficiently perfect
to afford a plural for genus, and we are therefore obliged to
adopt the Laun one, genera, though it exposes us sometimes te
the horrors of hearing of « a new genera" of plants.
i>SO OF GENERA AND
adventitious qualities, from other plants, as to constitute
a distinct family or kind, no less permanent, and found-
ed in the immutable laws of the creation, than the dif-
ferent species of such a genus. Thus in the animal
kingdom, a horse, ass and zebra form three species of a
very distinct genus, marked, not only by its general
habit or aspect, its uses and qualities, but also by essen-
tial characters in its teeth, hoofs, and internal constitu-
tion. The lion, tiger, leopard, panther, lynx, cat, &c.,
also compose another sufficiently obvious and natural
genus, and the numerous herd of monkeys, apes and
baboons a third. The elephant is, as far as we know,
a solitary species of a most distinct and striking genus.
So among vegetables, the various species of rose com-
pose a beautiful genus, known to every one who ever
looked at a plant, merely by a certain combination of
ideas, but essentially distinguished, as we shall hereafter
find, by clear and decisive characters. The species of
Iris form also a numerous genus, and the Willows an-
other ; while the curious Epimedii{m alpinum^ Engl.
Bot. t. 438, is too singular and distinct to be associated
with any known plant besides, and constitutes a genus
by itself, as well as the Adoxa, t. 453, and Z.inn(^a,
t. 433.
The first great and successful attempt to define the
genera of plants was made by Tournefort, and in this
his transcendent merit will ever be conspicuous, though
his system of arrangement should be entirely forgotten.
Not that he has excelled in verbal definitions, nor built
all his genera on sure foundations ; but his figures, and
his enumerations of species under each genus^-shovv die
TUKlR CHARACTER^. SSI
clearness of his conceptions, and rank him as the father
of this branch of botany.
Linnaeus first insisted on generic characters being-
exclusively taken from the 7 parts of fructification, and
he demonstrated these to be sufficient, for all the plants
tliat can be discovered. He also laid it down as a max-
im, that all genera are as much founded in nature as the
species which compose them ; and hence follows one of
the most just and valuable of all his principles, that a ge-
nus should furnish a character^ not a character form &
genus ; or, in other words, that a certain coincidence of
structure, habit, and perhaps qualitieSj among a number
of plants, should strike the judgment of a botanist, before
he fixes on one or more technical characters, by which
to stamp and define such plants as one natural genus,
"JThus the Hemerocallis ccerulea, Andr. Repos. t. 6, and
albay t. 194, though hitherto referred by all botanists to
that genus, are so very different from the other species
in habit, that a discriminative character might with con-
fidence be expected in some part or other of their fructi-
fication, and sucli a character is accordingly found in
the winged seeds. Yet in the natural genera of Arena-
ria and Spergula, winged or bordered seeds are so far
from indicating a distinct genus, that it is doubtful
whether they are sufficient to constitute even a specific
character. Sec Engl. Bot. t. 958, 1535 and 1536. So
Blandfordia^ Exot. Bot. t. 4, is well distinguished from
Aletris, with which some botanists have confounded it,
by its hairy seeds ; but the same circumstance will not;
justify us in separating a few species from Convolvulm^
MM
202 CllAUACrERS
which are attached to that genus by stronger ties of an-
other kind. ^
Some genera are obvious and indubitable both in 1
habit and character, as Quercus, Rosa, Euphorbia, Be- fl
gonia, Exot. Bot. t, 101, and Sarracema^ t, 5^ \ others
are obvious, but their character extremely difficult to
define, as Valeriana. The greatest difficulty lies in dis-
tinguishing genera that belong to such very natural or-
ders as the Grasses and Umbelliferous plants ; and the
ablest botanists differ about the best guides in these two
particular cases. Yet other orders, equally natural,
sometimes afford very excellent generic differences, as
that to which Rosa, Rubiis, Fragaria, &c., belong ; and
even in the Papilionaceous plants with ten distinct sta-
mens, a tribe hitherto judged inextricable, a regular ex-
amination on scientific principles has led to the discovery
of very natural well defined genera. See Annals of
Botany, v. 1. 501. I have in a preceding chapter
hinted that the umbelliferous plants seem to me very
capable of being well discriminated by their seeds, and
other botanists have held the same opinion.
But though I feel convinced, as far as my experience
«"oes, that genera are really founded in nature, I am far
from asserting that Linnseus, or any other writer, has
succeeded in fixing all their just limits. This deep and
r important branch of natural science requires the union
of various talents. Many persons who can perceive a
l^enus cannot define it ; nor do acuteness of perception,
; soUdity of judgment, and perspicui^ of expression,
always meet in the same person. Those who excel in
this department are named by Linnceus, Phil. Bot. sect.
or GENERA. 283
152, theoretical botanists ; those who study only species
and varieties, practical ones.
In methodical arrangement, whether natural or artifi-
cial, every thing must give way to generic distinctions.
A natural system which should separate the species of a
good genus, would,by that very test alone, prove entirely
worthless ; and if such a defect be sometimes unavoid-
able in an artificial one, contrivances must be adopted to
remedy it ; of which Linnaeus has set us the example,
as will hereafter be explained.
Generic characters are reckoned by Linnssus of three
kinds, the factitious, the essential, and the natural nil
founded on the fructification alone, and not on the inflo-
rescence, nor any other part.
The first of these serves only to discriminate genera
that happen to come together in the same artificial or-
der or section ; the second to distinguish a particular
genus, by one striking mark, from all of the same natu-
ral order, and consequently from all other plants ; and
the third comprehends every possible mark common to
all the species of one genus.
The factitious character can never stand alone, but
may sometimes, commodiously enough, be added to
more essential distinctions, as the insertion of the petals
in Agrimonia, Engl. Bot. t. 1335, Indicating the natur-
al order to which the plant belongs, which character,
though essential to that order, here becomes factitious.
Linnaeus very much altered his notions of the essen-
tial character after he had published his Philosopliia Ho-
tanica, whence the above definitions are taken. Instead
of confining it to one mark or idea, he, in his Systema
284 OF ESSENTIAL
Vegetahilium, makes it comprehend all the distinctions
requisite to discriminate each genus from every other in
the system, only avoiding a repetition at every step of
the characters of the artificial class and order, which
stand at the top of each page, and are not always essen-
tial to tlie character of the genus. This is the kind of
generic character now universally adopted, and indeed
the only one in common use. The learned Jussieu has
given it the sanction of his approbation and adoption, as
far as its plan is concerned, throughout his immortal
work, subjoining in a different type such characters and
remarks as belong to the habit, or refer to other circum-
stances. For my own part, I profess to retain, not only
the plan, bu? the very words of Linnaeus, unless I find
them erroneous, copying notliing without examination,
but altering with a very sparing hand, and leaving much
for future examination. I cannot blame my predeces-
sors for implicitly copying the Linnean characters, nor
should I have been the first among English writers to
set a contrary example, had I not fortunately been fur-
nished with peculiar materials for the purpose.
The beauty and perfection of these essential generic
characters consist in perspicuity, and a clear concise
style of contrasting them with each other. All feeble-
ness, all superfluity, should be avoided by those who are
competent to the purpose, and those who are not should
decline the task. Comparative words, as long or shorty
without any scale of comparison, are among the grossn
est, though most common, fimlts in such compositions.
The natural character seems to have been, at one
time, what Linnaeus most esteemed. It is what he has
GENERrC CIIAUACTI'.RS. 285
used throughout his Genera Plantarum, a work now su-
perseded by the essential characters in his Systema Veg-
etahilium, and therefore in some measure laid aside.
The disadvantages of the natural character are, that it
does not particularly express, nor direct the mind to, the
most important marks, and that it can accord only with
such species of the genus as are known to the author,
being therefore necessarily imperfect. This kind of
character is, however, admirable for the illustration of
any difficult natural order. Mr. Gawler's elucidations
of the Ensatce, Sword-leaved plants, Jnnals of Botany,
V. 1. 219, and Curt. Mag. afford excellent specimens of
it, serving as a store of facts and observations for follow-
ing systematical writers.
Specific characters should be. constructed on similar
principles to the generic ones, as far as regards certainty,
clearness and conciseness. The genus being first well
defined, we are to seek for characters, not mentioned
among the generic marks, for distinguishing the species.
A specific difference for a solitary species of any genus,
is therefore an absurdity. Linnaeus at first intended his
specific definitions should be used as names ; but the in-
vention of trivial names happily set aside this inconve-
nient scheme. On this account however he limited
each to twelve words, a rule to which all philosophical
naturalists have adhered, except in cases of great neces-
sity. Nor is the admission of one or two words beyond
the allotted number reprehensible, provided the whole
sentence be so neatly and perspicuously constructed,
that the mind may comprehend it, and compare it with
others at one view ; but this can hardlv be done when
286 CONSTRUCTION OF SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.
the words much exceed twelve. This rule, of
course, can be strictly applied to Latin definitions
only, though it should be kept in view in any lan-
guage, as far as the genius of that language will
allow. Linnssus says, " Genuine specific distinc-
tions constitute the perfection of natural science ;"
which is strongly confirmed by the great inferiority of
most botanists, in this department, to that great man,
and especially by that tedious feebleness and insufficien-
cy displayed among those who court celebrity by despis-
ing his principles.
In constructing generic and specific characters, the
arrangement of the different parts on which they are
founded is to be considered. Such as are most impor-
tant in the natural order, or genus, are to stand first, and
the subordinate, or more peculiar marks of the object
before us, ought to close the sentence. On the
contrary, in drawing up natural characters of a ge-
nus, as well as full descriptions of particular plants, it is
proper to take, in the former instance, the calyx, corolla,
stamens, pistils, seed-vessel, seed and receptacle, and
in the latter, the root, stem, leaves, appendages, flower
and fruit, in the order in which they naturally occur.
Nomenclature is no less essential a branch of method-
ical science than characteristic definitions ; for, unless
some fixed laws, or, in other words, good sense and per-
spicuity, be attended to in this department, great confu-
sion and uncertainty must ensue.
The vague names of natural objects handed down to
us, in various languages, from all antiquity, could have
PRINCIPLES OF NOME^TCLATURE. 297
no uniformity of derivation or plan in any of those Ian-
guages. Their different origins may be imagined, but
cannot be traced. Many of these, furnished by the
Greek or Latin, are retained as generic names in scien-
tific botany, though neither their precise meaning, nor
even the plants to which they originally belonged, can
always be determined, as Rosa^ Ficus, Piper, he. It is
sufficient that those to which they are now, by common
consent, applied, should be defined and fixed. Bota-
nists of the Linnasan school, however, admit no such
generic names from any other language than the Greek
or Latin, all others being esteemed barbarous. With-
out this rule we should be overwhelmed, not only with
;i torrent of uncouth and unmanageable words, but we
should be puzzled where to fix our choice, as the same
plant may have fifty different original denominations in
different parts of the world, and we might happen to
choose one by which it is least known. Thus the cele-
brated Indian plant, now proved beyond all doubt to be
the Cyamiis of Theophrastus*, having been erroneouslv
reckoned by Linnjeus a Nymphaa, received from Gasrt-
ner, one of the first who well distinguished it as a genus,
the Ceylon name of Nelumho ; which being contrary to
all rules of science, literature or taste for a generic name,
has by others been made into bad Latin as Nelumbium.
But the universal Hindu name of the plant is Tamara,
* See Exot. Bot. v. I. 60, where the arguments in support
of this opinion are given, and Curt. Mag. t. 903, where some of
them are with much candour and ingenuity controverted, though
not so as to alter my sentiments ; nor can any thing justify the
use of jVehcmbium in a scientific work as a generic name.
U&& OF BARBAROUS NAMES,
which, independent of barbarism, ought to have been
preferred to the very confined one of Nelumbo. In hke
manner the Bamboo, Arundo Bambos of Linnaeus, prov-
ing a distinct genus, has received the appellation of
Bamhusa^ though Jussieu had already given it that of
Nastus^ from Dioscorides*^. Perhaps the barbarous
name of some very local plants, when they cannot pos-
sibly have been known previously by any other, and
when that name is harmonious and easily reconcileable
to the Latin tongue, may be admitted, as that of the Ja-
pan shrub Aitcuba ; but such a word as Ginkgo is in-
tolerable. The Roman writers, as Cesar, in describing
foreign countries, have occasionally latinized some
words or names that fell in their way, which may possi-
bly excuse our making Allanthus of Aylanto, or Pan-
danus of Pandang. Still I can only barely tolerate
such names out of deference to the botanical merits, not
the learning, of their contrivers ; and I highly honour
the zeal and correctness of Mr. Salisbury, who, in de-
fiance of all undue authority, has ever opposed them,
naminsT Aucuha, on account of its singular base or re-
ceptacle, Eiibasis. I know not how Pandanus escaped
his reforming hand especially as the plant has already a
p-ood characteristic Greek name in the classical Forster^
O
Athrodactylis.
* It is not indeed clear that thio name is so correctly applied
as that of Cya?nus, because JVastus originally belonged to " a
reed with a solid stem," perhaps a palm ; but not being wanted,
nor capable of being correctly used, for the latter, it may very
well serve for the Bamboo. There is no end of raking up old
uncertainties about classical names.
OF GltEEK OR LATIN NAMES. 289
Excellent ^reek or Latin names are such as indicate
■some striking peculiarity in the genus : as Glycyrrhiza,
a sweet root, for the Liquorice ; Amaranthiis, without
decay, for an everlasting flower : Helianthus^ a sunflow-
er ; Lithospermum^ a stony seed ; Eriocalia^, a flower
with a singularly woolly base or cup ; Origanum^ an
ornamental mountain plant ; Hemerocallis^ a beauty of a
day ; Aretiaria, a plant that inhabits sandy places ; and
Gypsophila^ one that loves a chalky soil. Such as mark
the botanical character of the genus, when they can be
obtained for a nondescript plant, are peculiarly desira^
ble : as Ceratopetalwji, from the branched hornlike pc
tals ; Lasiopetalum^ from the very singular woolly coroi •
la ; Calceolaria^ from the shoe-like figure of the same
part ; Conchium, from the exact resemblance of its fruit
to a bivalve shell.
In all ages it has been customary to dedicate certain
plants to the honour of distinguished persons. Thus
Euphorbia commemorates the physician of Juba a Moor
ish princcj and Ge?itiana immortalizes a king cf Illyria
The scientific botanists of modern times have adopted
the same mode of preserving the memory of benefactors
to their science ; and though the honour may have been
sometimes extended too far, that is no argument for its
total abrogation. Some uncouth names thus unavoida-
bly deform our botanical books ; but this is often effa-
* When I named this genus in Exotic Botany, I was no"
aware of its having previously been published by M. Billardiere
under the name of Actinotus ; a name however not tenable in
Botany, because it has long beeii pr^^sQupied in ]Mineral®£y,
NiV
290 GENERIC NAMES IN
ccd by the merit of their owners, and it is allowable to
model them into grace as much as possible. Tlius the
elegant Tournefort made Gundelia from Gundelschei-
mer ; which induced me to choose GoodeniUy for my
much honoured and valued friend Dr. Goodenough,
though it has, when too late, been suggested that Goode-
7iovia^ might have been preferable. Some difficulty has
arisen respecting French botanists on account of the ad-
ditional names by which their grandeur, or at least their
vanity, was displayed during the existence of the mon-
archy. Hence Pittojiia was applied to the plant conse-
crated to Pittoa de Tournefort ; but Linuceus preferred
the name by which alone he was known out of his own
country or in learned language, and called the same
genus Tournefortia. Thus we have a Fontainesia and
a Loidchea, after the excellent Louiche Desfontaines ;
but the latter proving a doubtful genus, or, if a good one,
being previously named Pteranthus, the former is es-
tablished. We have even in England, by a strange
oversight, both Stuartia and Butea after the famous
Earl of Bute ; but the former being long ago settled by
Linnaeus, the latter, since given by Koenig, is totally
inadmissible on any pretence whatever, and the genus
which bears it must have a new appellation. In like
manner my own Humea, Exot. Bot. t. 1, has been call*
ed in France Calomeria after the present Emperor, by
the help of a pun, though there has long been another
genus Bonapartca^ which last can possibly be admitted
only in honour of the Empress, and not of her consort,
who has no botanical pretensions. Our own beloved
HONOUR OF BOTANISTS. 291
sovereign could derive no glory from the Georgia'^ of
Ehrhart ; but the Strelitzia of Alton stands on the sure
basis of botanical knowledge and zeal, to which I can
bear ample and very disinterested testimony.
Linnaeus, in his entertaining book Critica Botmiica,
p. 79, has in several instances drawn a fiinciful analogy
between botanists and their appropriate plants, thus —
Bauhinia, after the two distinguished brothers John
and Caspar Bauhin, has a twolobed or twin leaf.
Scheuchzeria, a grassy alpine plant, commemorates
the two Scheuchzers, one of whom excelled in the
knowledge of alpine productions, the other in tliat of
grasses.
Dorstenia, with its obsolete flowers devoid of all beau-
ty, alludes to the antiquated and uncouth book of Dors=
tenius.
Hernandia, an American plant, the most beautiful of
all trees in its foliage, but furnished with trifling blos-
soms, bears the name of a botanist highly favoured by
fortune, and allowed an ample salary for the purpose of
investigating the natural history of the Western world,
but whose labours have not answered the expense. On
the contrary
Magnolia with its noble leaves and flowers, and
DiUenia with its beautiful blossoms and fruit, serve
lo immortalize two of the most meritorious among bot-
anists.
Linn^ea, " a depressed, abject, Lapland plant, long
overlooked, flowering at an early age, was named by
Gronovius after its prototype Linnasus."
* T->raiihis of Hechvig and Eri^l. Bu. t. 1020.
£92 liBMARKS ON
In pursuance of the same idea Dicksonia^ a beautiful
and curious fern, is well devoted to our great cryptoga-
jniist ; Knappia, a small and singular grass, to an author
celebrated for his minute and curious drawings of that
tribe ; Spi'engeliay to one distinguished for illustrating
the impregnation of plants, which the remarkable form
and union of its anthers serve to indicate ; while Smithia
sensiiiva, named by Mr. Dryandei-^^- in the Hortus Kew-
ensis of our mutual f; lend Alton, could at that time be
merited only by an original treatise on the Irritability of
Plantsf, to which the specific name happily alludes.
The generic name being fixed, the specific one is next
to be considered. With respect to this, Rivinus has
the merit of originality, having been the first to contrive
naming each plant in two words. But his names were
meant for specific definitions, for which they are totally
inadequate, Linnjeus, in constructing his more accu-
rate and full specific characters, intended the latter
should serve as names, and therefore called them nomina
speciHca. When he, most fortunately for the science
and for the popularity of his whole System of Nature,
invented the present simple specific names, he called
them nomina trivialia, trivial, or for common use ; but
that term is now superfluous.
Specific names should be formed on similar princi-
ples to the generic ones ; but some exceptions arc al-
lowed, not only without inconvenience, but with great
advantage. Such as express the essential specific char-
acter are unexceptionable, as Banksia serrata, integrifa.
» Salisb. Hort. 542. | Phil. TraJts.for 1788.
SPECIFIC NAMES'. 293
lia, dentata, &c. ; but perhaps those which express
something equally certain, but not comprehended in
that character, are still more useful, as conveying addi-
tional information, like Ixora alba and coccinea, Scle-
ranthus anniius and perennis, Aletrisfragrans, Saxlfraga
cernua, &c. ; for which reason it is often useful that
vernacular names should not be mere translations of the
Latin ones. Comparative appellations are very good, as
Banksia ericifolia, Andromeda salicifolia^^ Saxifraga
Iryoides, Milium cimiciiium, Elymiis Hystrix^ Pedicula-
ris Sc€ptrum.{\\l) Names which express the local situa-
tions of different species are excellent,such asi1//am/z/rw;?i
* Some botanists write ericxfolia, salichfolia, linguaformis^ Sec,
instead of following the analogy of the Latin in forming adjectives
with an z, as fialmifcr from iialma^ v^^ foJ »-/^r77z«. ^^^Cr- <■ ?n.-/; ?«-^^?^^^
(118) [Names derived from the native countries of plants are
frequent, particularly those furnished by places foreign to Europe,
which have been formerly visited by botanists from that continent.
Among the most common are Jajwnica, Sihirica, Zeylanica^ fee.
A great portion of North American plants bear the names Vir-
ginica and Canader^is. Some names of this kind are far irom being
the most short or harmonious. Thus we have Astranthus Co-
r/n7ichinensis, Limonia 3Iadag-adCarie7isis, Liliutn ICaf7i.scaicc?ite,
SPECIFIC NAMES. 29^5
a plant is often commodiously expressed In its specific
name, as Brassica oleracea^ Papaver sommferum^ Ino-
carpus edulis ; so is likewise its time of flowering, as
Primula veris, Leucojum vemum, (sstivum and autwnna-
/, and Hellehorus hyemalis.
When a plant has been erroneously made into a new
genus, the name so applied to it may be retained for a
specific appellation, as Lathrcea Phelypcea and Bartsia
Gymnandra ; which may also be practised \vhen a plant
has been celebrated, either in botanical, medical, or any
other history, by a particular name, as Origanum Dic-
and Rosa Cherokeensie. If names of this sort have any advan-
tage, it is in preserving the history of a species by designating
its original habitat or place of growth. Thus Erigeron Carta-
dense has overrun the continent of Europe, and the Peach Tree,
jimijgdalus Persica is cultivated in most parts of the world. The
supposed origin of, both these, being preserved in their specific
meaning, will never be subject to mistake. Where we have ev-
idence that a plant or tree inhabited a country at a very remote
period, its local name becomes additionally interesting. Thus
the Citron or Lemon Tree, Citrus Meciica, according to the
Greek, botanical writers, is a native of Medea ; and from that
country it was brought into Italy after the time of Pliny. It is
the tree intended by Virgil in the lines
" Medea fert tristes succos tardumque saporem
Felicis mali," Sec.
The Weeping Willow, as it appears from the manuscripts of
P. CoUinson, Esq. was first introduced into England from the
banks of the Euphrates, some time before the year 1748 The.
elegant name Salix Babylonica instantly recals to the mind one of
the most beautiful and pathetic pieces of ancient poetry ; " By
the rivers of Babylon we sat down, yea we wept," Sec]
296 SPECIFIC NAMES.
tamnus, Artemisia DracunculuSy Laurus Cinnamomum^
Selinum Carvifolia, Carica Papai/a.{\\9) In either case
the specific name stands as a substantive, retaining its own
gender and termination, and must begin with a capital
letter ; which last circumstance should be observed if a
species be called after any botanist who has more par-
ticularly illustrated it, as Cortusa MatthioU, and C
Gmeh?ii, Durajita Flumierii, and Mutisii. The latter
genus suggests an improvement in such kind of names.
The genitive case is rightly used for "the person who
founded the genus, D. Plumerii ; D. Mutisiana might
serve to commemorate the finder of a species, while Z).
Ellisia implies the plant which bears it to have been
once called Ellisia.
There is another sort of specific names in the geni-
itivc case, which are to me absolutely intolerable, though
contrived by Linnasus in his latter days. These are of
a comparative kind, as Lobelia Columnece^ meaning Co-
lumnees formis. We may allow a few such, already es-
tablished, to remain, but no judicious author will imitate
them. 4
Botanists occasionally adapt a specific name to some
historical fact belonging to the plant or to the person
whose name it bears, as Linncea borealis from the great
botanist of the north ; Murrtea exotica after one of his
favourite pupils, a foreigner ; Browallia demisa and ela-
ta, from a botanist of humble origin and character, who
(119) [The factitious word Theobroma^ food for the gods ; ap-
plied to the Cocoa or Chocolate Tree, is much better merited,
than the classical Ambrosiay which belongs to a common weed.]
CHANGES OF NAMES.
29"
Siftervvards became a lofty bisb.op, and in whose work
upon water I find the followmg quotation from Seneca
in the hand-writing of Linnaeus : " Many might attain
wisdom, if they did not suppose they had aheady reach»
?d it." In Hke manner Bufonia tenuifolia is well known
to be a satire on the slender botanical pretensions of the
great French zoologist, as the Hillia parasitica of Jac-
quin, though perhaps not meant, is an equally lust one
upon our pompous Sir John Hill. I mean not to approve
of such satires. They stain the purity of our lovely
science. If a botanist does not deserve commemora-
tion, let him sink peaceably into oblivion. It savours of
malignity to make his crown a crown of tliorns, and if
the application be unjust, it is truly diabolical
Before I conclude the subject of nomenclature, I beg
leave to offer a few reflections on changes of established
tiames. It is generally agreed among mankind that
names of countries, places, or things, sanctioned by gen-
eral use, should be sacred ; and the study of natural his^
tory is, from the multitude of objects with which it is
conversant, necessarily so enc^jmbered with names, that
students require every possible assistance to facilitate the
attainment of those names, and have a just right to com-
plain of every needless impediment. The grateful Hol-
landers named the island of Mauritius after the hero
who had established their liberty and prosperity ; and it
ill became the French, at that period dead to such feel-
ings, to change it, when in their power, to Isle de
France, by which we have in some late botanical works
the barbarous- Latin of Insula FrgnQW^ Ngr is it allow"
00
29S KIGHT OF OCCASIONALLY
able to alter such names, even for the better. Americo
Vespucci had no very great pretensions to give his own
name to a quarter of the world, yet it is scarcely probable
that Columbia will supersede America. In our science
the names established throughout the works of Linnaeus
arc become current coin, nor can they be altered without
great inconvenience. Perhaps, if he had foreseen the
future authority and popularity of his writings, he might
himself liave improved upon many which he adopted out
of deference to his predecessors, and it is in some cases
to be regretted that he has not sufficiently done so. In
like manner, the few great leaders in natural knowledge
must and will be allowed to ward off and to correct, from
time to time, all that may deform or enfeeble the prevail-
ing system. They must choose between names nearly
of the same date, and even between good and bad ones
of any date. A botanist, who, by the strength of his
own superior know ledge and authority, reforms and elu-
cidates a whole tribe of plants hitherto in confusion, as a
Hedwig in Mosses, or Acharius in Lichens, ought to
be unshackled in every point in which he can be of ser-
vice. His wisdom will be evinced by extreme caution
and reserve in using his liberty with respect to new
names, but more especially new terms ; and, after all,
he will be amenable to the general tribunal of botanists,
and the judgment of those who come after him. Few
indeed are illustrious enough to claim such privileges as
these. Those who alter names, often for the worse, ac-
cording to arbitrary rules of their own, or in order to
aim at consequence which they cannot otherwise attain,
3re best treated with silent neglect. The system should
CHANGING NAMES. 299
not be encumbered with such names, even as syno-
nyms.
When, however, solid discoveries and improvements
are made in the science ; when species or genera have
been confounded by Linnasus himself, and new ones
require to be separated from them, the latter must neces-
sarily receive appropriate appellations ; as also when a
totally wrong and absurd name has by mistake been
given, as Begonia capensis ; in such cases names must
give place to things, and alterations proceeding from
such causes must be submitted to. Thus I believe Mr.
Salisbury's Castalia is well separated from Nymph(ea.
See Amials of Botany^ v. 2. 71.
A great and just complaint has arisen in my time
among the cultivators of botany, who found the names
of many garden plants, with which they had long been
conversant, altered for others without any apparent
cause, and in many instances for the worse ; as Aristolo-
chia macrophylla, an excellent and expressive name, for
a very unappropriate one, A. Sipho. For this I am
obliged to censure my much regretted and very intelli-
gent friend L'Heritier. When he came to England to
reap the rich harvest of our undescribed plants, he paid
no respect to the generic or specific names by which Dr,
Solander or others had called them, because those names
were not printed ; but he indulged himself, and perhaps
thought he confirmed his own importance, by contriv-
ing new ones ; a factitious mode of gaining celebrity, to
which his talents ought to have been infinitely superior.
Nor would it have been easy to say how far this incon-
venient plan of innovation might have extended, had
30O GOMPOUNB
not the Hortus Kexvensis come forth to secure our re-
maining property.
I have only to add a few words respecting a kind of
generic names that has of late become more common
than Linn2eus probably would have approved, though
he has once or twice allowed it ; I allude to those com-
pounded either of two established names, or of one com-
bined with any other word. Of the former number is
Calamagrostis, formed of Calamus and Agrostis^ two
Linnaean names ; and this is no where sanctioned by
any good authority. Happily the genus to which it has
negligently been applied is an Arundo. Of the latter
sort is Cissampelos., formed of Cissiis, another established
genus, and Ampelos, a Vine ; the latter not among Lin-
naean names : also Elceagmis^ constructed of \.\\o old
Greek names, neither of which is now in botanical use
by itsejf. These are both expressly allowed by Lin-
n^us, nor indeed can there be any objection to the latter.
Cissampelos may certainly justify Ht/osci/amus, comiposed
of Cyamiis and a word denoting swine ; if not, this would
prove an objection to the reestablishment of CyamuSy
much more to the purpose than any that has been ad-
vanced ; for liyoscyamus having been so long and uni-
versally used in systematic botany, could scarcely give
place, even to its venerable prototype. On the same
ground only can several new generic names used in the
fern tribe, be admitted. These are formed out of Pte-
ris, the established generic appellation of a common
Brake, with some other Greek word prefixed ; as A?igi-
Gpteris, a Brake with a capsule, Tmesipteris^ a cloven
Brake, and Ccenoptem a neiu Brake. Whatever may
GENERIC NAMES. JOl
become of the former two, I must always protest against
the last, given by the celebrated Bergius to the Darea of
Jussieu; on account of its unexampled impropriety. As
well might any new genus, resembling a Rose, be called
Novarosa ; for though the Greek language may assist
us with regard to sounds it can never make amends for a
radical deficiency oi sense.
[ S02 ]
CHAPTER XXIII.
EXPLANATION'- OF THE LINN.=EA\ AKTIFICIAL SVSTEM.
The Linnaean System is, as I have already observed^
professedly artificial. Its sole aim is to help any one to
learn the name and history of an unknown plant in the
most easy and certain manner, by first determining its
Class and Order in this system ; after which its Genus
is to be made out by comparing the parts of fructifica-
tion with all the generic characters of that Order ; and
finally its Species, by examining all the Specific defini-
tions of the Genus. We thus ascertain the generic and
specific name of our plant in Linnaeus, and under those
we find an enumeration more or less ample, of its Syno-
nyms, or the different appellations it has received from
other writers, with a reference to figures in various
books ; and as Linnaeus always cites Bauhin's FinaXy
which is the common botanical catalogue, or index to all
previous works, we thus gain a clue to evcr}^ thing re-
corded concerning our plant. Of all this mass of infor-
mation and entertainment we shall find nothing more
concise, luminous, or engaging, either v/ith respect to
the distinctions, uses, or history of plants, than what is
diffused through the various publications of Linnaeus
himself ; and the same may, with at least equal truth,
be said of those of his works which illustrate the Animal
kingdom. His magic pen turns the wilds of Lapland
into fairy land. He has all the animals of Sweden as
much at his call, as our first parent while the terrestrial
OP THE LINNiEAN ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM. 30G
paradise was yet in primaeval tranquillity. No writer
whatever has rendered the natural productions of the
happiest and most luxurjiant climates of the globe half so
interesting or instructive as Linn^us has made those of
his own northern country.
The Classes of the Linnsean System are 24, and
their distinctions are founded on the num^ber, situation,
or proportion of the Stamens. The Orders are founded
either on the number of the Pistils, or on some circum-
stance equally easy, which we shall in due time explain.
The first eleven Classes are characterized solely by
the number of the Stamens, and distinguished by names,
of Greek derivation, expressive of these distinctions,
1. MoNANDRiA. Stamen 1.
A small Class.
2. DiANDRiA. Stamens 2.
3. Triandria 3.
4. Tetrandria 4.
5. Pentandria 5.
A numerous Class.
6. Hexandria 6.
7. Heptandria 7.
A very small class.
8. OcTANDRIA 8.
9. Enneandria 9.
A small Class.
10. Decandria 10.
11. Dodecandria — 12 to 19.
12. IcosANDRiA 20 or more Stamens, in-
•serted into the Calyx, Here we first find the situation
3D4 LINNJEAN CLxVSSES-
of the Stamens taken into consideration. They grow
out of the sides of the Calyx, often from a sort of
ring, as in the Strawberry. This is truly a natural
Class, as are several of the following ones ; so that
in these instances the Linneean method of arrange-
ment performs more than it promises. The character
of this Class is the more important, as such a mode of
insertion indicates the pulpy fruits which accompany
it to be infalliby wholesome, and this holds good, not
only when the stamens are numerous, but in all other
cases. Thus Ribes, the Currant and Goosberry ge-
nus, whose 5 stamens grow out of the calyx, stand in
the fifth class, a wholesome fruit, among many poison-
ous berries. No traveller in the most unknown
wilderness need scruple to eat any fruit whose stamens
are thus situated ; while on the other hand he will do
well to be cautious of feeding on any other parts of
the plant.
13. PoLYANDRiA. Stamcus numerous, commonly
more so than in the last Class, and inserted into the
Receptacle, or b^se of the flower, as in the Poppy,
Anemone, &:c. The plants of this fine and nume-
rous Class are very distinct in nature, as well as char-
acter, from those of the Icosandria,
14. Did YN AMI A. Stamens 2 long and 2 short. Here
proportion comes to our assistance. This is a natural
Class, and contains most of the labiate, ringent or
personate flowers as the Dead-nettle, Snap-dragon,
Fox-glove, &c.
LINNJEAN CLASSES, 305
15. Tetradynamia, Stamens 4 long and 2 short
A very natural Class, comprehending all the Cruciform
flowers, as the Wall-flower, Stock, Radish, Mustard,
&c. Cleome only does not properly belong to the
rest.
16. MoNADELPHiA. Stamcns united by their fila-
ments, more or less extensively, into one tube, as the
Mallow tribe, in which such union is very remarkable,
and the Geranium family, in which it is less evident.
17. DiADELPHiA. Stamens united into 2 parcels^
both sometimes cohering together at the base. This
Class consists of Papilinaceous flowers, and is there-
fore natural, except that some such genera having
distinct Stamens are excluded, and referred to the
tenth Class, in consideration of their number solely i
as some ringent flowers with only 2 Stamens are
necessarily placed, not in the 14th Class, but the 2d.
18. PoLYADELPHiA. Stamcus united into more than
2 parcels, as in St. John's- wort. A small Class, in
some points related to Icosajidria.
19. Syngenesia. Stamens united by their Anthers
into a tube, rarely by their Filaments also ; and the
flowers are Comjiound. A very natural and extremely
numerous ^lass. Examples of it are the Dandelion,
Daisy, Sunflov\er, &c.
20. Gynandria, Stamens united with, or growing
out of the Pistil j either proceeding from the Germen^,
pp
Si&a , LINNAIAN CLASSES.
as in Jristolochia, Engl. Bot. f. 398, or from the Style^
as in the Orchis family. The Passion-flower is
wrongly put by Linnaeus and others into this Class,
as its stamens merely grow out of an elongated re-
ceptacle or column supporting the Germen.
21. MoNOEciA. Stamens and Pistils in separate flow-
ers, but both growing on the same plant, or, as the
name expresses, dwelling in one house, as the Oak,
Hazle, and Fir.
22. DioEciA. Stamens and Pistils not only in separate
flowers, but those flowers situated on two separate
plants, as in the Willow, Hop, Yew, &c.
These two last Classes are natural when the barren
flowers have, besides the difference in their essential
organs, a difierent structure from the fertile ones in
other respects ; but not so when they have the same
structure, because then both organs are liable to meet
in the same flower. In some plants, as Rhodiola^
Erwl. Bot. t. 508, each flower has always the rudi-
ments of the other organ, though generally inefficient.
23. PoLYGAMiA. Stamens and Pistils separate in some
flowers, united in others, either on the same plant, or
on two or three different ones.
This Class is natural only when the several flowers
have a different structure, as those of Jtriplex ; but
in this genus the Pistil of the united flower scarcely
produces seed. If, w^ith Linnaeus, we admit into
Polygamia every plant on which some separated bar-
LINN^AN CLASSES. 307
ren or fertile flowers may be found among the united
ones, while all agree in general structure, the Class
will be overwhelmed, especially with Indian trees. I
have therefore proposed that regard should be had to
their general structure, which removes all such incon-
venience, and renders the Class much more natural.
24. Cryptogamia. Stamens and Pistils either not
well ascertained, or not to be numbered with any
certainty, insomuch that the plants cannot be referred
to any of the foregoing classes. Of this Ferns, Lich-
ens, Sea- weeds and Mushrooms are examples.
Appendix. PALMiE, Palm-trees, a magnificent
tribe of plants, chiefly tropical, whose flowers were
too little known when Linnaeus wrote, to serve the
purpose of classification ; but they are daily clearing
up, and the Palms are found generally to belong to
the Classes Monoeciay Dioecia, or Hexandria.
The Orders of the Linnaean System are, in the first
13 Classes, founded on the number of the Styles, or on
that of the Stigmas when the Styles are wanting, which
occurs in Viburnum. Such Orders are accordingly
named
MoNOGYNiA. Style, or sessile Stigma, L
DiGYNiA. Styles, or sessile Stigmas, 2.
Trig YN I A ■ ■^'
Tetragynia ^f
Pentagynia 5.
308 LINN-EAN ORDERS.
Hexagynia. Styles, or sessile Stigmas, 6,
of very rare occurrence.
Heptagynia 7 ,
still more unusual.
OCTAGYNIA • 8,
scarcely occurs at all.
Enneagynia. Styles, or sessile Stigmas, 9,
of which there is hardly an instance.
Decagynia 10.
DODECAGYNIA about 12.
Polygynia : many.
The 2 Orders of the 14th Class, D'ldynamia^ both
natural, are characterized by the fruit, as follows :
1. Gym N osPERMiA. Seeds naked, almost universally,4.
2. Angiospermia. Seeds in a capsule, numerous.
The 2 Order? of the 15th Class, Tetradynamia, both
very natural, are distinguished by the form of the fruit,
thus :
1. Siliculosa. Fruit a Silicula, Pouch, or roundish
Pod.
2. SiLiquosA. Fruit a Siligua, or long Pod.
The orders of the 16th, 17th and 18th Classes, Mona.
delpkia, Diadelphia and Polyadelphia, are founded on the
number of the Stamens, that is, on the characters of the
first 13 Classes,
The Orders of the great natural 19th Class, Syngen-
esia^ are marked by the united or separated, barren, fer-
tile, or abortive, nature of the florets.
LINNiEAN ORDERS. ^©^
1. PoLYGAMiA ^q,uALis. Florcts all perfect OF Uni-
ted, that is, each furnished with perfect Stamens, a
Pistil, and one Seed.
2. PoLYGAMiA SUPERFL0A. Florcts of the disk with
Stamens and Pistil ; those of the radius with Pistil
only, but each, of both kinds, forming perfect Seed.
3. PoLYGAMiA FRUSTRANEA. Florcts of thc disk as
in the last ; those of the radius with merely an abor-
tive Pistil, or with not even the rudiments of any.
This is a bad Order, for reasons hereafter to be ex-
plained.
4. PoLYGAMiA NECEssARiA. Florcts of the disk
with Stamens only, those of the radius with Pistils
only.
5. PoLYGAMiA sEGREGATA. Several flowers, either
simple or compound, but with united anthers, and
with a proper calyx, included in one common calyx.
Linnaeus has a 6th Order in this Class, named Mo-
iwgamia, consisting of simple flowers with united an-
thers ; but this I have presumed to disuse, because the
union of the anthers is not constant throughout the spe-
cies of each genus referred to it, witness Lobelia and
Fiola, while on the contrary several detached species in
other Classes have united anthers, as in Ge?itia7ia, Engl.
Jht. t. 20. These reasons, which show the connection
of the anthers of a simple flower to be neither important
in nature, nor constant as an artificial character, are con-
firmed by the plants of this whole Linuccan Order being
natural allies of others in the 5th Class, and totally dis-
310 L1NN.T:AN ORDliRS.
cordant, in every point, from the compound syngene^
sious flowers.
The Orders of the 20th, 21st and 22d Classes are
distinguished by the characters of some of the Classes
themselves which precede them, that is, almost entirely
by the number of their Stamens; for the union of the
anthers in some of them is, for the reasons just given, of
no moment.
The Orders of the 23d Class, Polygamia, are, accord-
ing to the beautiful uniformity of plan which runs
through this ingenious system, distinguished upon the
principles of the Classes immediately preceding.
1. Monde CI A has flowers with Stamens and Pistils on
the same plant with others that have only Pistils, or
only Stamens ; or perhaps all these three kinds of
blossoms occur ; but whatever the different kinds
may be, they are confined to one plant.
2. Dice CIA has the two or three kinds of flowers on
two separate plants.
3. Trioecia has them on three separate plants, of
which the Fig is the only real example, and in that
the structure of the flowers is alike in all.
The Orders of the 24th Class, Cryptogamia, are pro-
fessedly natural. They are 4 in Linnaeus, but we now
reckon 5.
1. FiLicES. Ferns, whose fauctification is obscure,
and grows either on the back, summit, or near the
base of the leaf, thence denominated a frond. See p.
117.
LINNiEAN OHlJKRS. 311
2. Muse I. Mosses, which have real separate leaves,
and often a stem ; a hood-like corolla, or calyptra,
bearing the style, and concealing the capsule, which
at length rises on a stalk with the calyptra, and opens
by a lid.
3. Hepatic^. Liverworts, whose herb is a frond,
being leaf and stem united, and whose capsules do not
open with a lid. Linnseus comprehends this Order
under the following.
4. Alg^e. Flags, whose herb is likewise a frond, and
whose seeds are imbedded, either in its very sub-
stance, or in the disk of some appropriate receptacle.
5. Fungi. Mushrooms, destitute of herbage, bearing
their fructification in a fleshy substance.
Such are ,the principles of the Linnasan Classes and
Orders, which have the advantage of all other systems in
facility, if not conformity to the arrangement of nature ;
the latter merit they do not claim. They are happily
founded on two organs, not only essential to a plant, but
both necessarily present at the same time ; for though
the Orders of the 14th and I5ih Classes are distinguish-
ed by the fruit, they can be clearly ascertained even in
the earliest state of the germen.*
* An instance apparently to the contrary occurs in the history
•f my Hastingia coccinea, Exot. Bol. t. 80, a plant most evident-
ly, both by character and natural affinity, belonging to the Didy-
namia Gymno?/iermia^ but as I could no where find it described
in that Order, I concluded it to be unpublished ; and was not a
little surprised to be told some time afterwards, that it was ex-
tant in the works of my friends Retzius and Willdenow, under
312 DIFFICULTIES IN THK
Tournefort founded his Orders on the fruit ; and his
countrynian Andanson is charmed with the propriety of
this measure, because the fruit comes after the flower,
and thus precedence is given to the nobler part which
distinguishes the primary divisions or Classes ! But
happily the laws of a drawing-room do not extend to
philosophy, and we are allowed to prefer parts which
we are sure to meet with at one and the same moment,
without waiting a month or two, after we have made out
the Class of a plant, before we can settle its Order.
The Linnasan System, however, like all human inven-
tions, has its imperfections and difficulties. If we meet
in gardens with double or monstrous flowers, whose es-
sential organs of fructification are deformed, multiplied,
or changed to petals ; or if we find a solitary barren or
fertile blossom only ; we must be at a loss, and in such
cases could only guess at a new plant from its natural
resemblance to some known one. But the principal
imperfection of the System in question consists, not
merely in what arises from variations in number or
structure among the parts of a flower, against which no
system could provide, but in the differences which some-
times occur between the number of Stamens, Styles,
Sec, in different plants of the same natural genus. Thus,
some species of Cerasthim have only 4, others 5, Sta-
mens, though the greater part have 10. Lychnis dioica
Didynamia Angiosfiermia^ by the name of Holmskioldia^ after a
meritorious botanist. This last name therefore, however unut-
terable, must remain ; and I wish the Linnaean system, as well
as myself, might be as free from blame in all other cases as in
this.
LINNJEAN SYSTEM, 513.
has the Stamens on one plant, the Pistils on anotherj
thouo-h the rest of the genus has them united in the same
flower ; and there are several similar instances ; for
number in the parts of fructification is no more invaria-
ble than other characters, and even more uncertain than
such as are founded on insertion, or the connexion of
one part with another. Against these inconveniences
the author of this System has provided an all-sufficient
remedy. At the head of every Class and Order, after
the genera which properly belong to them, he enume-
rates, in italics, all the anomalous species of genera sta-
tioned in other places, that, by their own peculiar num-
ber of Stamens or Styles, should belong to the Class or
Order in question, but which are thus easily found with
their brethren by means of the index.
It is further to be observed that Linnaeus, ever aware
of the importance of keeping the natural affinities of
plants in view, has in each of his artificial Orders, and
sections of those Orders, arranged the genera according
to those affinities ; while at the head of each Class, in
his Systema Vegetabilium^ he places the same genera
according to their technical characters ; thus combining,
as far as art can keep pace with nature, the merits of a
natural and an artificial system. His editors have sel-
dom been aware of this ; and Murray especially, in his
14th edition of the book just mentioned, has inserted
new plants without any regard to this original plan of
the work.
From the foregoing remarks it is easy to comprehend
what is the real and highly important use of the Genera
Plantarum of Jussieu arranged -in Natural Orders, the
QQ
ol4 NATURAL SYSTEM
most learned botanical work that has appeared since the
Speices Plantarum of Linnaeus, and the most useful to
those who study the philosophy of botanical arrange-
ment. The aim of this excellent author is to bring the
genera of plants together as much as possible according
to their natural affinities ; constructing his Classes and
Orders rather from an enlarged and general view of those
affinities, than from technical characters previously as-
sumed for each Class or Order ; except great and pri-
mary divisions, derived chiefly from the Cotyledons,
the Petals, and the insertion of the Stamens. But his
characters are so far from absolute, that at the end of
almost every Order we find a number of genera merely
related to it, and not properly belonging to it, and at the
end of the system a very large assemblage of genera in-
capable of being referred to any Order whatever. Nor
could a learner possibly use this system as a dictionary,
so as to find out any unknown plant. The characters
of the Orders are necessarily, in proportion as those Or-
ders are natural, so widely and loosely constructed, that
a student has no where to fix ; and in proportion as they
are here and there more defined, this, or any other sys-
tem, becomes artificial, and liable to the more excep-
tions. The way therefore to use this valuable work, so
as to ascertain an unknown plant, is, after turning to the
Order or Genus to which we conceive it most probably
allied, to read and study the characters and observations
there brought together, as well as all to which they may
allude. We shall find we learn more from the doubts
and queries of Jussieu than from the assertions of most
other writers. ' We shall readily ■ perceive whether our
OF JUSSIEU. 315
plant be known to him or not ; and if at the same time
we refer it, by its artificial characters, to the Linnaean
System, we can hardly fail to ascertain, even under the
most difficult circumstances, whether it be described by
either of these authors. A student may acquire a com-
petent knowledge of natural orders, with very great
pleasure to himself, by repeatedly turning over the work
of Jussicu with any known plants in his hand, and con-
templating their essential generic characters in the first
place, and then what regards their habit and affinities ;
proceeding afterwards to combine in his own mind their
several points of agreement, till he is competent to form
an idea of those assemblages which constitute natural
Classes and Orders. This will gradually extend his
ideas ; whereas a contrary mode would only contract
them, and his Jussieu would prove merely an artificial
guide, without^the advantages of facility or perspicuityo
[ 316 )
CHAPTER XXIV.
iLLUSTRATIONS OF THE LINxV^EAN CLASSES AND ORDERS,
I PROCEED to a compendious view of the LinnaeaR
Classes and Orders, which will serve to illustrate many
things in the preceding pages.
Class 1. Monandria. Stamen 1.
This contains only two Orders.
1, Monogynia. Style 1. Here wc find the beautiful
exotic natural order called Sc'itammece, consisting of
Cardamoms, Ginger, Turmerick, &c., hitherto a
chaos, till Mr. Roscoe, in a paper printed in the 8th
vol. of the JLmnaan Societifs Transactions, reduced
them to very natural and distinct genera by the form
of the filament. See Exot. Bot. t. 102, 103, 106
—8.
Salicornia, EngL Bot. r. 415 and 1691, and Hip-
puris, t. 763, are British examples oi Monandria Mo-
nogynia, (120)
Valeriana (Class S) has some species with one sta-
men.
2. Digynia. Styles 2. Contains Corispermiim, Fl. Grtsc.
t. 1, Blitum, Curt. Mag. t. 276, and a few plants be-
sides.
(120) [Salicornia or Glasswort, and Callitric/ie, or Water Star
Wort, are common American examples of the first class.]
DIANDRIA. TRIANDRIA. 317
Class 2. Diandria. Stamens 2. — Orders 3.
1. Monogyjiia. This, the most natural and numerous
Order, comprehends the elegant and fragrant Jasmi-
nes, the Jasmine, Lilac, Olive, &:c. (121) — also Vero-
jiica. Engl. Bot. t. 2, 1027, 623, 783, &:c.— andafew
labiate flowers with naked seeds, as Salvia, Engl, Bat.
t. 153, 154, Rosemary, .&c., natural allies of the 14th
class ; but having only two stamens, they are neces-
sarily ranged here in the artificial system. ( 122)
2. Digynia consists only of Anthoxanthum^ a grass,
Engl. Bot. t. 647, which for the reason just given is
separated from its natural family in the third class.
3. Trigynia — has only Piper, the Pepper, a large tropi-
cal genus.
Class 3. Triandria. Stamens 3. — Orders 3.
1. Monogynia. Valeriana, Engl. Bot. t. 698, 1591 and
1371, is placed here because most of its species have
three stamens. See Class 1. Here also we find the
sword-leaved plants, (123) so amply illustrated in Cur-
(121) [The Jasmine oe of Jussieu are trees or shrubs with
'generally opposite leaves and regular monopetalous corollas.
They correspond nearly to the Linnaean natural order Sepiarix.
The Privet Ligiistrum, and Fringe Tree, Chionanthus ,• are
American examples.]
(122) [Of Labiate flowers of the second class, we have Penny-
Royal, Cunila ; Oswego tea, Monarda ; Water Horehound, Ly-
cofius, &c. They are closely allied to the first order of class
XIV.]
(123) [The £n,9fl?^ constitute a very beautiful natural order,
".'ith sword shaoed leaves and liliaceous flowers.]
.318 TRIANDRIA.
tis's Magazine, /m, Gladiolus, Ixia, &c., also Crocus,
Engl. Bot. t. 343, 344,491, and numerous grass-like
plants, Schcenus, Cyperus, Scirpus, see FL Grac. v. 1,
and Engl. Bot. t, 950, 1309, 542, 873, &c.
2. Digynia. This important Order consists of the true
Grasses ; seep. 113. Their habit is more easily
perceived than defined ; their value, as furnishing
herbage for cattle, and grain for man, is sufficiently
obvious. No poisonous plant is found among them,
except the Loliiim temuleiitum, Engl, Bot. t. 1124,
said to be intoxicating and pernicious in bread.
Their genera are not easily defined. Linnaeus, Jus-
sieu, and most botanists pay regard to the number of
florets in each spikelet, but in Arundo this is of no
moment. Magnificent and valuable works on this
family have been published in Germany by the cele-
brated Schreber and by Dr. Host. The Fl. Gr^eca
also is rich in this department, to which the late Dr.
Sibthorp paid great attention. Much is to be ex-
pected from scientific agriculturists ; but Nature so
absolutely, in general, accommodates each grass to its
own soil, and station, that nothing is more difficult
than to overcome their habits, insomuch that few
grasses can be generally cultivated at pleasure.
3. Trigynia is chiefly composed of little pink-like
plants or Caryophyllecs^ as Holosteum, Engl. Bot.
t. 27.
TilUa 7niiscosa, t. 116, has the number proper to
this order, but the rest of the genus bears every part
of the fructification in fours. This in Linnsean Ian-
TETAN'DRIA. 319
guage is expressed by saying the flower of Tillcea ia
quadrijidus* y four cleft, and T. tmiscosa excludes, or
lavs aside, one fourth of the fructification.
Class 4. Tetrandria. Stamens 4. — Orders 3.
1. Monogynia. A very numerous and various Order,
of whichthe Proteacea make a conspicuous part, con-
sisting of Protea^ Banksia^ Lambertia, Embothrium^
&c. See Botany ofNexv Holland, t. 7 — 10. Scabiosa,
Engl. Bat. t. 659 ; (124) Plantago, t. 1558, 1559,
remarkable for its capsula circumscissa, a membra-
nous capsule, separating by a complete circular
fissure into two parts, as in the next genus, Cenfun-
eulus, t. 531 ; Ruh'ia, t. 851, and others of its natu-
ral order, of whose stipulation we have spoken p. 178,
are found here, (125) and t+ie curious Ep'imedium^ ?.
438.
2. DiGYNiA. Biiffonia, t. \o\3.
Cuscuta, placed here by Linnaeus, is best removed
to the next class. (126)
3. Tetragynia. Ilex, t. 496, a genus sometimes
furnished with a few barren flowers, and therefore
* See Linn. Sfi. PL 186, and Curt. Lond.fasc. 6. t. 31.
(124) [The Protex of Jussieu are splendid exotics. Many of
the Aggregata or Aggregate flowers belong to the fourth class.
Cefihalanthus or Button bush is an American example. This
however is included the Rubiacex.'^
(125) [The Riibiacex of Jussieu including the Stellate of Lin-
naeus have a regular corolla, four or five parted, wilii the same
number of stamens inserted in its tube. The fruit resembles
two naked seeds, or is a single capsule or berry. Leaves com-
monly opposite as in Houatonia, or whorled as in Guliuvi.~\^
(126) [^Cuscuta .itnericana, has always five stamens.]
320 PENTANDUIA.
removed by Hudson to the 23d class, of which ii
only serves to show the disadvantage ; Potamogeton,
t. 168, 376, and Riippia, t. 136, are examples of this
Order. They all have sessile stigmas.
Class 5. Pentandria. Stamens 5. A very large
class. — Orders 6.
1. Monogynia. One of the largest and most important
Orders of the whole system. The genera are enu-
merated first artificially, according to the corolla being
of one petal or more, or wanting ; inferior or superior ;
with naked or covered seeds ; but stand in the system
according to their affinities, and compose some
natural orders, as Asperifoli^e^ rough-leaved plants,
which have a monopetalous inferior corolla, and four
naked seeds, with always more or less of spinous
bristles or callous asperities on their foliage ; see
Borago,EngL Pot. t. 36, Lycopsis^ t. 938 and Echium^
t, 181. Next comes that most elegant tribe of spring
plants denominated Prec'ice by Linnaeus, Primula^ t. 4
— -6, Cyclaman, t. 548, the charming alpine Aretia,
and Atidrosace, Curt. Mag. t. 743. These are fol-
lowed by another Linnrerin order, nearly akin, called
Rotacecs, from the wheel- shaped corolla, Hottonia,
Engl. Pot. t. 364, Lysimachia^ t. 161.— Convolvulus
and Campajuda, two large well-known genera, come
afterwards ; then Lobelia, t. 140, Impatiejis, t. 937,
and Viola, t. 619, 620, brought hither from the abol-
ished Linnasan order Syngenesia Monogamia. The
Lurid
then follows some incomplete flowers, as Chtnopo-
dium, t. 1033, Beta, t. 285, and afterwards the fine
alpine genus of Gentiana, t. 20, 493, 895, famous
for its extreme bitterness and consequent stomachic
virtues.
The rest of the Order consists of the very natural
Umbelliferous family, characterized by having five
superior petals, and a pair of naked seeds, suspended
vertically when ripe from the summit of a slender
hair-like receptacle. Of the inflorescence of this
tribe, and the difficulties attending their generic dis-
tinctions, we have spoken p. 243. la Eryn^ium, t.
718, and 57, the umbel is condensed into i capitulum^
or conical scaly head, showing an app»o;ch tf)u..'d^
the compound flowers, and accompanied, as JussieU
RR
332 PENTANDRIA.
observes, by the habit of a Thistle. Lagoecia is
justly referred to this natural order by the same
writer, though it has only a solitary seed and style.
The Umbelliferce are mostly herbaceous ; the qual-
ities of such as grow on dry ground are aromatic,
while the aquatic species are among the most deadly
of poisons ; according to the remark of Linnaeus,
who detected the cause of a dreadful disorder among
horned cattle in Lapland, in their eating young leaves
of Cicuta virosciy Engl. Bot. t. 479, under water,
(127)
Botanists in general shrink from the study of the
Umhdliferce^ nor have these plants much beauty in
the eyes of amateurs ; but they will repay the trouble
.of a careful observation. The late M. Cusson of
Montpellier bestowed more pains upon them than
any other botanist has ever done ; but the world has,
as yet, been favoured with only a part of his remarks.
His labours met with a most ungrateful check, in the
unkindness, and still more mortifying stupidity, of his
wife, who, on his absence from home, is recorded to
have destroyed his whole herbarium, scraping off the
dried specimens, for the sake of the paper on which
they were pasted !
5. Trigijnia is illustrated by the Elder, the Sumach, or
Rhus, Viburnum, Uc, (128) also Corngiola, Engl.
(127; [To this general rule there are exceptions. The pois-
onous Hemlock, Conium maculatuni, grows in dry ground, while
several species of Angclica,\\\\izh. are aromatic and harmless,inhab-
it watery places.]
(128) [The S^nnach, Rhus ; Elder, Sambucus, and many simi-
lar shrubs with pithy stems and small flowers, constitute the Lm^
nsean order i)«?«os«,]
HEXANDRIA. 333
Bot. t. 669, and Tamarix, t. 1318, of which last one
species, germanica, has 10 stamens.
4. Tetragyjiia has only Evolvulus, nearly allied to Con-
volvulus, and the elegant and curious Parnassia, t. 82.
5. Pentagynia contains Statice, t. 226, 102, and 328,
a beautiful maritime genus, with a kind of everlasting
calix. The Flora Gneca has many fine species,
Linum or Flax follows : also the curious exotic Aldro-
vanda, Dicks. Dr. PL 30; Drosera, Engl Bot. t. 867
— 9 : the numerous succulent genus Crassula ; and
the alpine S'lbbaldia, t. 897, of the natural order of
Rosacea.
6. Polygynia. Myosuriis, t. 435, a remarkable instance
of few stamens (though they often exceed five) to a
multitude of pistils.
Class 6. Hexandria. Stamens 6. Orders 6.
1. Monogynia. This, as usual, is the most numerous.
The Liliaceous family, with or without a spatha, (129)
called by Linnaeus the nobles of the vegetable king-
dom, constitute its most splendid ornament. The
beautiful White Lily is commonly chosen by popular
writers to exemplify the stamens and pistils. The less
ostentatious genus of/w/2cw5orRush, which soon follows
is more nearly allied to the Lilies than a young bota-
nist would suppose. Near it stand several genera
which have little affinity to each other, and of these
Capwa is a mistake, having been made out of a
(129) [Called by Linn;£us Spalhaceo: and Coronarice, according
as the spathe is present or wanting.]
524 HEPTANDRIA.
specimen of Daphne indica, which chanced to have
but six stamens.
2. Digt/nia, has but few genera. The valuable Ort/za,
Rice, of which there now seems to be more than one
species, ts the most remarkable. It is a grass with
six stamens.
3. Trigynia. See Rumex, Eiigl Bot. t. 1535, 127, Scc.^
some species of which have separated flowers ; Toji-
eldia, t. 536 ; and Colchicum, t. 133 and 1432.
4. Tetragynia. Petiveria alliacea, a plant the number
of whose stamens is not very constant, and whose
specific name is supposed to allude, not only to its
garlic scent, but also to the caustic humour of the bo-
tanist whom it commemorates.
5. Hexagynia. An order in Schreber and Willdenow,
contains TVendlaiidla populifolia of the latter ; with
Damasonhim of the former, a p^enus consisting of the
Linnaean Stratiotes a/ismoides, Exot. Bot. t. \5.
6. Polygynia. Alisma only- — Engl. Bot. t. 837, 775^
Sec.
Class 7. Hepfandria. Stamens 7. Orders 4.
1. Monogynia. Trientalis, EngL Bof. t. 15, a favour-
ite plant of Linnaeus ; and Msctdus, the Horse Ches-
nut. Several genera are removed to this order by
late writers.
2. Digynia. Eimeumy an African genus, only,
3. Tetragynia. Sutinirus, a Virginian plant. Aponog-
eton, placed here by Linnjeus, is now properly re
OGTANDRIA. 325
moved to Dodecandria. It is an p:ast Indian and
Cape aquatic genus, bearing above the water white
fragrant flowers in a peculiar spike, which is either
sohtary or double.
4. H^Magynia. Septas, a Cape plant, very nearly akin
to Crassula, to which Thunberg refers it. If its char-
acterin Linnaus be constant with respect to number,
it is very remarkable, having the calyx in 7 deep seg-
ments, 7 petals, 7 germens, and consequently 7 cap-
sules.
Class 8. Octandria. Stamens 8. Orders 4.
i. Monogynia. A very various and rich order, consist-
ing of the well-known Tropcsolum or Nasturtium,
whose original Latin name, given from the flavour of
the plant, like Garden Cresses, is now become its
English one in every body's mouth. The elegant
and fanciful Linnsean appellation, equivalent to a tro-
phy plant, alludes to its use for decorating bowers,
and the resemblance of its peltate leaves to shields, as
well as of its flowers to golden helmets, pierced
through, and through, and stained with blood. See
Linn. Hort. Cliff. U5.—Epi labium, Eiigl. Bot. t-
838, 795, &c., with its allies, makes a beautiful part
of this order ; (130) but above all are conspicuous the
fovourite Fuchsia, the chiefly American genus Vac-
(130) [The natural order Ca/j/carzM
cious Nutmeg and the Tea are perhaps erroneously
placed here by Linnse'is, as well as the Clove ; while
on the gather hand Cleome more properly belongs to
this part of the system than to the 15th Class.
% D'lgynia has principally the Ptsonia, t. ISl'^, variable
in number of pistils, and Fothergilla alnifolia^ an
American shrub.
3. Trigynia. Ddphmnim the Larkspur, and Aconitum
the Monk's hood, two variable and uncertain genera
as to number of pistils,
(135) [The Poppy, Celandine, Blood Root, £cc. which have a
capsule or silique, and a caducous calyx belong- to the natural
order Rhceadex. Some other genera chiefly of the order Polygy-
nia, which have many pods, or many naked seeds, to one flower,
are placed in the natural order Multisitiquo.'. Such are Caltha.,
Aquilegia, Anemone^ Iia7iunctilus, Sec]
POLYANDRIA. 333
4. Tetragynia. Tetracera ought, by its name, to have
constantly four pistils, but the rest of this order are
very doubtful. Caryocar^ whose large rugged woody
nuts contain the most exquisite kernel ever brought to
our tables, and which is the same plant with Gsert-
ner's and Schreber's Rhizobolus, as the excellent
Willdenow rightly judged, is not certain in number ;
and still less the Cimicifuga ; whilst JFahlbomia is
probably a Tetracera : see Wiildenow,
5. Pentagynia contains chiefly Aquilegia the Colum-
bine, and Nigella — both strictly allied to genera in
the third order. Reaumuria indeed is here well pla-
ced. Some Nigellcs have ten styles.
6. Hexagynia consists of Stratiotes, Engl Bot. t, 379 ;
and Brasenia^ a new genus of Schreber's with which
I am not acquainted. (136)
I would recommend an union of the last five orders,
for the same reasons that influenced me in the preced-
ing class. They now only serve to keep natural gen-
era asunder, the species of which not only differ
among themselves as to number of pistils, but each
species is often variable besides. The genera are so
few that no inconvenience could arise on that account.
I conceive such reforms, founded in experience not
in theory, serve to strengthen the system, by greatly
facilitating its application to practice.
(136) [I presume it is the Hydropeltis of Michaux, the only-
species of which is a common North American aquatic ; both
ffom the similarity of their characters, and the application of the
name in Dr, Mnhlenburf^'s cataloo^ue. Ed.~\
334 DIDYNAMIA.
7. Polijgynia. An order for the most part natural, com-
prehending some fine exotic trees, as Dillenia, Exot.
Bot. t. 2, 3, 92 and 93 ; Liriodendron, the Tulip-
tree ; the noble Magfiolia, &c. ; a tribe concerning
whose genera our periodical writers are falling into
great mistakes. To these succeed a fiimily of plants,
cither herbaceous or climbing, of great elegance, but
of acrid and dangerous qualities, as Anemone, in a
single state the most lovely, in a double one the most
splendid, ornament of our parterres in the spring ;
Atragena and Clematis, so graceful. for bowers ; Tha-
lictrum, Adonis, Ranmiculus, Trollius, Helleborus and
Caltha, all conspicuous in our gardens or meadows,
which, with a few less familiar, close this class.
Nothing can be more injudicious than uniting these
two last classes, as some inexperienced authors have
done. They are immutably distinct in nature and
characters, whether we call the part which immedi-
ately bears the stamens in the Icosandria a calyx, with
most botanists, or a receptacle with Mr, Salisbury in
the 8th vol. of the Linnaean Society's Transactions,
where, among many things which I wish had been
omitted, are some good remarks concerning the dis-
tinction made between calyx and corolla. This the
writer in question considers as decided in doubtful
cases by the latter sometimes bearing the stamens,
which the former, in his opinion, never really does.
Class 14. Didynamia. Stamens 2 long and 2 short.
Orders 2, each on the whole very natural.
1. Gymnospermia. Seeds naked, in the bottora of the
calyx, 4, except in Phryma, which has a solitary
DYDINAMIA. 335
seed. — Corolla monopetalous and irregular, a little
inflated at the base, and holding honey, without any
particular nectary. Stamens in 2 pairs, incurved,
with the style between them, so that the impregnation
rarely fails.(137) The plants of this order are mostly
aromatic, and none, I believe, poisonous. The calyx
is either in 5 nearly equal segments, or 2 lipped.
Most of the genera afford excellent essential charac-
ters, taken frequently from the corolla, or from some
other part. Thus, Perilla has 2 styles, of which it
is an unique example in this class.
Mentha a corolla whose segments are nearly equal,
and spreading stamens. Engl. Bot. t. 446 — 8.
Lavandula the Lavender and TVestringia, Tracts on
Natural History, 277, t. 3, have a corolla resupinata^
reversed or laid on its back.
Teucrium a deeply divided upper lip, allowing the
stamens and style to project between its lobes. EngL
Bot. t. 680.
^juga scarcely any upper lip at all, t. 77 and 489.
Lamium has the mouth toothed on each side, t.
768.
Prunella^ t. 961, has forked filaments ; Cleonia 4
stigmas ; Prasium a pulpy coat to its seeds. These
(137) [Plants of this order, besides their 4 unequal stamens, rin-
gcnt corolla and naked seeds ; have their flowers commonly
avranged in whorls, their stems square and their leaves opposite.
Examples are common, as, the Mints, Germander, B;lm, Catmint,
Ground Ivy, &c. They form the natural order Vcrlicillata of
Linnaeus, and Labiatx of Jussieu. Some of the genera however
depart from the usual mode of inflorescence, as I'richostema and
others.]
S36 TETRADYNAMIA.
instances will suffice as clear examples of natural gen^
era, distinguished by an essential technical character,
in a most natural order.
2. Angiospennia. Seeds in a capsule, and generally
very numerous. (138) — The plants of this order have
the greatest possible affinity with some families in
Pentandria Monogynia. (139) Some species even
vary from one class to the other, as Bignonia radicanSf
Curt. Mag. t. 485, and Antirrhinum JLinaria, Engl.
Bot. t. 658, 260, in which the irregular corolla be-
comes regular, and the 4 unequal stamens are chang-
ed to 5 equal ones ; nor does this depend, as has
been asserted, on the action of any extraneous pollen
upon the stigmas of the parent plant, neither are the
seeds always abortive. No method of arrangement,
natural or artificial, could provide against such anom-
alies as these, and therefore imperfections must be ex>
pected in every system.
Class 15. Tetradynamia. Stamens 4 long and 2
short. Orders 2, perfectly natural. Flowers cruci-
form.
1. SHiculosa. Fruit a roundish pod, or pouch. In
some genera it is entire, as Draba, Engl. Bot. t. 586,
and the Honesty or Satin flower Lunaria : in others
(138) [The Personatee or masked flowers are chiefly found here,
as Antirrhinum, Chelone, Mimulus, &c.]
(139) [Some genera of this order have the rudiment of a fifth
stamen ; as Chelone, Pentstemon^ 8cc. while many plants of the
fifth class have an irregular monopetalous corolla, resembling
those of this order.]
TETRADYNAMIA, 32?
notched, as ThlaspU ^ 1659, and Iheris, t. 52 ; which
last genus is unique in its natural order in having un-
equal petals. Crambe^ t. 924 ; Isatis. t. 97 ; and
Bunias, t. 231 ; certainly belong to this Order,
though placed by Linnaeus in the next.
2. Siliquosa. Fruit a very long pod. Some genera
have a calyx clausus, its leaves slightly cohering by
their sides, as Raphamis, t. 856 ; Cheiranthus, t. 462 ;
Hesperis, ^. 731 ; Brassica, t. 637, &:c. Others have
a spreading or gaping calyx, as Cardamine^ t. 1000 ;
Sisymbrium, t, 855 ; and especially Sinapis, t. 969
and t, 1677.
Cleome is a very irregular genus, allied in habit,
and even in the number of stamens of several species,
to the Polyandria Momgynia, Its fruit, moreover,
is a capsule of one cell, not the real two-celled pod of
this Order. Most of its species are foetid and very
poisonous, whereas scarcely any plants properly be-
longing to this Class are remarkably noxious, \yy. I
have great doubts concerning the disease called Ra^
j&Aawza, attributed by Liniiceus to the seeds of i?a-
phanus Raphanistrum.
The Cruciform plants are vulgarly called antiscor-
butic, and supposed to be of an alkalescent nature.
Their essential oil, which is generally obtainable iii
very small qualities by distillation, smells like volatile
alkali, and is of a very acrid quality. Hence the foetid
scent of water in which cabbages, or other plants wf
tliis tribe, have been boiled.
TT
338 MOiVADELPIIIA.
Class 16. Monadelphia. Stamens united by their
filaments into one tube. Orders 8, distinguished by
the number of their stamens.
1. Triandria is exemplified by Sisyrinchium, Ic. Pict. t.
9, and Ferraria^ Curt. Mag. t. 144, 532, both erro-
neously placed by Linnceus in Gt/nandria. Also the
singular Cape plant Aphyteia, consisting of a large
flower and succulent fruit, springing immediately
from the root, without stem or leaves. On this plant
Linnaeus published a dissertation in 1775. Tama-
rindns has lately been removed hither from the third
Class, perhaps justly.
2. Pentandria. Erodium, Engl. Bot. t. 902, separated^
with great propriety, from Geranium by L'Heritier j
Hcrmannia^ a pretty Cape genus, Curt. Mag. t. 307 ;
and a few other plants, more or less akin to the Mal-
low tribe, compose this Ordded an ' parallel forming a surface nearly flat ^
or exactly conical. Their colour is most generally
yellow, in some cases, pink. Satifolina, t. 141 ; and
Bidens, t, 1113, 1114, are genuine examples of this
section : Eiipatorium, t. 428, and the exotic Staheli-
nay Dicks. Dr. PL 13, approach to the preceding
one. There is however the most absolute difference
between these two sections, collectively, and the first ;
while, on the other hand, they have considerable af-
finity with some of the following Orders, as will be
hereafter explained-
2. Polygamia superflua. Florets of the disk perfect
or united ; those (jf the margin furnished with pistils
only ; but all producing perfect seed,
* Discoid, the florets of the margin being obsolete or
inconspicuous, from the smallness or peculiar form
of the corolla ; as Artemisia^ Engl. Bot. t. 338, 978,
1230; Tanacetiim, t. 1229 ; Conyza, t. 1195 ; and
Gnaphalium, t. 267, 1157, In the last the marginal
florets are mostly 5-cleft and tubular like the rest, on-
ly warning stamens. Caution is requisite to detect
the difference between this section and the preceding
Order.
SYNGENESIA. 349
-** Ligulate, 2-Upped^ of which Perdiciumy a rare
exotic genus, is the only instance.
*** Radiant^ the marginal florets ligulate, form-
ing spreading conspicuous rays ; as Bellis the Daisy,
t. 424 ; Aster^ t. 87, a very numerous genus in
America; Chrysanthemum, t. 60 i, 540; Inula, t.
1546, &c. This section seems at first sight, a com-
bination of the first and third sections of the former
Order, but this is chiefly in the form of its corollas.
It is rather an approach of that third section towards
what is equivalent to becoming double in other tribes.
Accordingly, the Chamomile, Anthemis nobilis, t. 980;
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, t. 601 ; and some
others, occasionally have their whole disk changed to
ligulate white florets, destitute of stamens, and con-
sequendy abortive. Such are called double flowers
in this Class, and very properly^ Many exotic spe-
cies so circumstanced are met with in gardens. A
few very strange anomalies occur in this section, as
already mentioned, p. 341, one Sigesbeckia having
but 3 stamens, instead of 5, the otherwise universal
number in the Class : and Tussilago hybrida, t. 430,
as well as paradoxa of Retzius, having distinct an-
thers. Nature therefore, even in this most natural
Class, it is not without exceptions.
3. Polygaiuia frustranea. Florets of the disk, as in the
preceding, perfect or united ; those of the margin
neuter, or destitute of pistils as well as of stamens ;
only some few genera having die rudiments of pistils
in their radiant florets.
550 SYNGENESIA.
This Order is, still more evidently than the last,
analogous to double flowers of other Classes. Ac-
cordingly, Coreopsis lii ihe very same genus SisBidens,
only furnished with unproductive radiant florets. C.
bidens of Linnaeus is the same species as in B. cer-
nua ; C corojmta is his B. frondosa ; and C. leucan-
tha^ B. pilosa. Some species of Coreopsis indeed
have nev^er been found without rays. Linnaeus ex-
presses his difficulties on this subject in Phil. Bof.
sect. 209, but seems inclined to unite the two genera.
A similar ambiguity occurs between Gorteria and
Atractylis, Relhania (of the last Order) and Athana-
sia, and in some degree between Centaurea^ Engl
Bat. t. 278, 1678, 56, 8cc., and Cardmis, or Serra-
tula ; only the scales of the calyx of Centaurea gen.
crally keep that genus distinct.
I should be much inclined to abolish this Order.
Those of its genera which have rudiments of pistils in
their radiant florets, as Rudbeckia and Helianthus^
would very commodiously range with their near rela-
tions in Polygamia superjiua, nor are we sure that
such radiant florets are in all circumstances abortive,
neither can a student often know whether they are so
or not. It does not follow, from what has just been
observed, that the presence of radiant florets, whether
abortive or not, can never aflford a generic character,
provided there be no corresponding genus without
them. This must be determined by experience and
observation. They are indeed to be considered as a
verv secondary mark, the most essential in this Class
being derived from the receptacle, crown of the seed,
SYNGENTESIA. 351
and calyx. These Gasrtner has illustrated with the
greatest accuracy and skill, but even these must not
be blindly followed to the destruction of natural gen-
era.
4. Polygamia necessaria. Florets of the disk furnished
with stamens only, those of the margin, or radius,
only with pistils ; so that both aie necessary to each
other. This is .well seen in the common Garden Ma-
rigold, Calendula^ in whose calyx, when ripening seed,
the naked and barren disk is conspicuous. Othonna^
Curt. Mag. t, 306, 768, Arctotis^ Osteospermiim and
Silphium^ not rare in gardens, are further examples of
this Order, which I believe is constant and founded
in nature. We have no British specimens either of it
or the fellovving. Filago^ at least as far as our Flora
is concerned, belongs to Gnaphalium. See . Engl.
Bot. t. 946, 1193, &:c.
5. Polygamia segregata. Several flowers, either simple
or compound, but with united tubular anthers, and
with a partial calyx, all included in one general calyx.
Of these the Globe-thistle, Echinops, and Stoebe^ with
Serlphium cxnd Corymbiumy (which two last require to
be removed hither from the abolished Linnjean Order
Syngenesia Mojiogamia,) have only 1 floret in each
partial calyx ; Jungia has 3, Elephanfopits 4, others
more. In every case the partial calyx is distinguished
from the chaffy seed-crown observable in several gen-
era of the other Orders, (though the latter is indeed
analogous to a calyx,) either by being inferior, or by
the presence of a seed- crown, or feathery down, be-
, 052 GYNANDRIA.
sides. See Lamarck^ t. 718 — 723, where the plants
in question are well represented.
Class 20. Gyiiandria. Stamens inserted either upon
the style or germen. Orders 9 in Linnseus, but some
alterations concerning them are necessary.
This is one of those Classes abolished by the celebra-
ted Thunberg, and by several less intelligent writers who
have followed him. The reasons which led to this
measure appear to have been that Linnaeus has errone-
ously placed in Gynandria several plants which have not
the requisite character ; hence that character itself has
been judged ambiguous, or not founded in nature, and
the system has been supposed to be simplified by over-
looking it. This appears to me a great mistake. The
character of the Class, taken as above, is as evident,
constant and genuine as that of any other in the system.
No doubt can arise, if we be careful to observe that the
stamens actually grow out of the germen or style, and
not merely out of any part that supports the germen ; as
will appear by examples*
1. Monandria. Stamen, or sessile Anther, 1 only.
This contains all the beautiful and curious natural
family of the Orchidea, or Orchis tribe, except only
Cypnpedium^ which belongs to the next Order. I
am induced to consider the bulk of this family as mo-
nandrous^ upon a careful review of Professor Swartz's
representation of the subject, in his excellent treatise,
just come to my hands in English. See Tracts rela-
tive to Botany translated from different Languages
&YNANDRL4.. ^$^
(by Mr. Konig,) printed for Phillips and Fardoiij
1805. I have already, p. 217, mentioned the glutin-
ous nature of the pollen of these plants. This forme
yellow elastic masses, often stalked, in each cell of the
anther, and the cells are either parallel and close to-
gether, or removed from each other to the opposite
sides of the style : which serves to connect them^
just as the filament does in many Scitamineous plantS;
alike therefore decided to be monandrous. Such a
decision with regard to those also is justified by the
•analogy of other species, whose cells being approxi-
mated or conjoined, properly constitute but one art-
ther. The grand and absolute subdivision of the
Orchideis is justly founded by Dr. Swartz, after Hal-
ler, on the structure of the anther, whether it be, as
just described, parallel^ like that of Orchis, Efigl. Bot.
t. 22 ; Ophrys, t. 65 / and Diuris^ Exot. Bot. t. 9,
&c. ; or vertical, consisting of a moveable lid on the
top of the style, like Dejidrobiiim, t. 10— -12 ; ov Ma-
laxis, Engl. Bot. t. 72. The style of the Orchidc^s
has been called a column, but I think that term now
altogether superfluous. It is really a style, and the
stigma is a moist shining space, generally concave,
and situated, for the most part, in front of the style
beneath the anther. In Orchis bifolia, t. 22, and
others, it is just above the orifice of the spur. Con-
cerning the nectary of these plants there has been
much diversity of opinion. The calcar^ spur, in Or-
this^ and some other genera, is acknowledged to be
such, and holds abundance of honey. This spur is
judged by Swartz, as well as Linnaeus^ a decisive;
WW
o54 GYNANDKIA.
generic mark of distinction, and it commonly is so ;
but some Indian species brought by Dr. Buchanan
prove it not to be absolute. The remarkable and
often highly ornamented lip, considered by Svvartz as
the only corolla, for he takes all the other leaves of the
flower for a calyx, has, by Linnaeus and others, been
thought, either a part of the nectary, or, where no
spur is present, the only nectary. Nor is this opin-
ion so ill-founded as many botanists suppose ; for the
front of the lip evidently secretes honey in Ophrys (or
Epipactis) ovata^ t. 1548, and probably in others not
yet attended to. Nevertheless, this lip might, like
the petals of lilies, be deemed a nectariferous corolla,
were it certain that all the other leaves were truly a
calyx. But the 2 inner are so remarkably different
from the 3 outer ones in Ophrys, t. 64, 65, 71, 383,
and above all, in Stelis, Exot. Bot. t. 75, that I am
most inclined to take the former for the corolla, the
latter being, according to all appearance, a calyx.
An insensible c-radation from one to the other, of
which we have pointed out other instances in treating
of this subject already, occurs in Diur'is^ ?. 8, 9 ;
while in some Orchidecs the leaves all partake more
of the habit of a calyx, and in others of a corolla.
Even the lip in Thelymitra^ t. 29. assumes the exact
form, colour, and texture, of the rest of the flower ;
which proves that a dissimilarity between any of these
parts is not always to be expected in the family under
consideration. Vahl appears by the preface to his
Enumeratio Plantarttm to have removed the Scitami-
nece to Gynandria^ because the stamen of Canna ad-
GYNANDRIA 35o
heres to the style. This, if constant, could only con-
cern that genus, for the rest of the Order are in no
sense gynandrous.
2. Diandria. To this Order Cypripediiim, Engl. Bot. t,
1, must be referred, having a pair of very distinct
double-celled anthers. See Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 1.
2, 3. Here we find Forstera, so well illustrated by
Professor Swartz in Sims and Konig's Annals of Bot-
any, r. 1. 291, ?. 6 ; of which genus Phyllachme, t.
5 of the same volume, is justly there reckoned a spe-
cies. Of the same natural order with Forstera is Sty-
lidium, but that having I think, 4 anthers, belongs to
the fourth Order of the present Class. Gunnera, plac-
ed by Linnaeus in Gynandria Diandria, is not yet
sufficiently well understood.
3. Triandria. Salacia, if Linnasus's description be
right, is properly placed here ; but Jussieu doubts
it, nor does my dried specimen serve to remove the
uncertainty. Stilago proves to be merely the barren
plants o{ Antidesma alexiteria, and belongs to Dioecia ;
as Sisyrhichiwn and Ferraria do to Monadelphia, the
tubular united stamens of the two last having been
mistaken for a solid style. Rhopium of Schreber {Me-
borea oiAublet, t. 323,) seems therefore the only cer-
tain genus of the Order under consideration ; unless
Lamarck be right in referring to it Jacquin's Strump-
fa, upon whicli I have not materials to form any opin-
ion. The original discoverer attributes to this plant
5 stamens with united anthers ; hence it found a place
in the Syngenesia Monogamia of Linnaeus. Lamarck
356 &YNANDRIA.
merits attention, as he appears to have had an authen-
tic specimen. See his t. 731.
4, Tetrandria. Nepenthes^ of whose extraordinary
kind of leaf mention is made/?. 162, is the only genus
of this Order in Linnseus, but very erroneously plac-
ed here, for it belon gs to Dioecia Monadelphia. The
Order hovvever must be retained for the sake of StylU
dium^ a New Holland genus, related, as above men-
tioned, to Forstera. This is ni) Ventenatia, Exot.
Bot. t. 66, 67 ; but another genus having previously,
without my knowledge, received the latter denomina-
tion, that oi Stylidium, under which I had, some time
ago, communicated this genus to the French botan-
ists*, and which they have adopted, becomes estab-
lished. See La Billardiere's excellent work on New
Holland plants, where several species of it are figured.
5, Pentandria. The original genera of this Order,
Ayenia, Gluta^ and Passijlora, Exot. Bot. t. 28, most
unquestionably have nothing to do with it, their sta-
mens beine inserted below the cjcrmen, merely on a
columnar receptacle. The learned Schreber there-
fore removed them to the 5th Class.
But this Older may receive a reinforcement from,
the Linnaean Pentandria Digynia, Several of the
* I was not aware of Loureiro's Stylidium., a plant, according
to his description, of the 7th Class ; Fl. Cochinch. i). 1. 221 ; but
this can scarcely interfere with ours, bcine probably, as it grows
about Canton, some well-known shrub that happened to have a
7-clefi flower. It should seem to belong to the Rubiacece, not-
v/ithstanding some points in the description.
GYNANDRIA 357
ContorU have long been thought to belong to Gynan^
dria ; see Pergiilaria, Ic. Pict. t. 16, and Ajider. Re-
pos. t. 184. In this genus, as well as Cynanchum
and Asclepias, the pollen is borne in 5 pair of glutin-
ous masses, exactly like the pollen of Orchide^, by 5
glands upon the stigma. Some obscurity arises from
each mass of pollen being received into a bag or cell,
formed by a peculiar valvular apparatus that encircles
the organs of impregnation, and bears a great resem-
blance to stamens. The pollen however is, in the
above genera, not attached to these cells or valves, but
to the 5 glands, each of which is double, and all of
them seated on that thick abrupt angular body which
acts as a stigma*. Nor is it worth while to dispute
whether this whole body be a stigma or not, with re-
gard to the question under consideration, for it is
borne by the styles, above the germen, and itself bears
the anthers. I humbly conceive, however, with Lin-
nreusand Jacquin, that as part of it, at least, receives
the pollen, stigma is full as good a name for this body
as Haller's term dolium, a tub ! Still less is it worth
while to controvert with Kolreuter the propriety of
the term pollen, because the substance in question is
not actually a dry powder, any more than in the Or^
chis tribe, or in Mirabilis, Exot. Bot. t. 23. That
term is technically used for the matter which renders
the seeds fertile, including its vehicle, whether the
* Mr. R. Bi-own believes the cells secrete the pollen, and pro-
ject it on the stigma, as the pollen of some Orchidex stick to
any part of the plant. If so, these plants must remain in Pen-
J3S GYNANDRIA.
latter be capsular or glutinous, in short, whatever the
appearance or texture of the whole may be. Anoth-
er question remains, more immediately to our present
purpose, whether these plants have 5 stamens or 10 ?
Jacquin, who has well illustrated several of them in
his Miscell. Austr. v. \. t. 1 — 4, and Rottboll in a
dissertation on the subject, contend for the latter.
Rottboll wrote to Haller, that " finding Linn^us deaf
to all that had been said, he sent him his treatise, to
see whether he would persist in falsifying nature."
Thus sordid underlings foment the animosities and
flatter the failings of their superiors ! Linnasus judi-
ciously suspended his opinion, and, after all, proves
to be most correct. The annalogies of the Orchidece
and Scitamineie very clearly decide that the 2 cells,
or the double masses of naked pollen, can only be
considered as one anther of 2 lobes. Even Penploca
gra;ca^ though not gynandrous, confirms this. Each
lobe of its anthers stands, as in many Scitamineie, on
the outermost edge of the filament ; thus meeting
that on the adjoining filament, and in appearance con-
stituting with it a 2-lobed anther, as the lobe of the Sci-
taminecG^whtvG. there is but one filament, meets its cor-
responding lobe by embracing the style.
6. Hexandria. Aristolochia, Engl Bot. t. 398, a curi-
ous genus, of which there are many exotic species, is
the only example of this, Pistia being removed to
Monadelphia Octandria.
7. Octandria. The Scopolia of Linnasus, whicli origi-
nally constituted this Order, proves to be a Daphne ..
GYNANDRIA. 359
3ee Plant. Ic. ex Herb. Linn. t. 34. Cy turns how-
ever, Cavan. Ic. t. 171, a singular parasitical plant on
the roots of Cistus in the south of Europe, has pro-
perly been brought hither from the Order Dodecan-
dria, of which it originally formed the only example.
The observations of Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Ferd.
Bauer confirms those of other botanists, that the an-
thers are 8, not 16, and that they are truly inserted
upon the style.
8. Decaridria is now abolished. Of the two genera
which constituted it, Kleinhovia belongs to the Class
Dodecandr'ia^ having 15 stamens, see Cavan. Mona-
delph. t. 146 ; and Helicteres to Decandria Mono-
gynia. ■
9. Dodecandria is likewise abolished.
10. Polyandria is in a similar predicament, for I am
not aware of any genus that can be admitted into it.
Xylopia goes with the greatest propriety to its natural
allies in Polyandria Polygynia, ^nnona, Sec, its short
stamens being inserted into the receptacle below the
germen. Grexvia, as well as Schreber's Microcos if
a good genus, belong to Polyandria Monogynia^ the
organs of impregnation being merely elevated on a
common stalk, like those of Passijiora and Ayenia.
Ambrosinia^ Arum, and Calla^ are all justly removed
by Schreber to Monoecia, though I think, for reasons
hereafter given, they are more commodiously and
naturally placed in the Order Polyandria of that Class,
360 MONOECIA.
than in the Order Monandria. Dracontiiim and Po
those of the same natural fomily, having perfect or uni
ted flowers, the former with 7 stamens to each, the latter
with 4, are undoubtedly to be referred to their cor
responding Classes, Heptandna and Tetrandria<
Zostera, the only remaining genus of Gynandria
Polyandria in Linnaeus, I have long ago ventured to
remove to Monandria Monogynia ; see £ngl. Bat. t.
467.
Class 21. Monoecia. Stamens and Pistils in sepa
rate flowers, but both growing on the same individual
plant. Orders 9 or 10.
Several reformers of the Linnsean system have also
abolished this Class and the two following, by way of
rendering that system more simple. Ten years' ad-
ditional experience since the preface to the 7th vol-
ume of English Botany was written, have but con-
firmed my opinion on this subject. If any plants
ought to be removed from these Classes, they must
be such as have the structure of all the accessory
parts of the flower exactly alike, (the essential parts,
or stamens and pistils only, differing,) in both barren
and fertile flowers ; and especially such as have in
one flower perfect organs of one kind, accompanied
by rudiments of the other kind, for these rudiments
are liable occasionally to become perfect. By this
means dioecious species of a genus, as in Lychnis^
Valeriana, Rumex, &c., would no longer be a re-
proach or inconvenience to the system. But, on the
other hand, some difficulty would occasionally arise
MONOECIA. U^*-.
to a Student, in deciding whether there were any real
difference of structure between these accessory parts
or not, and it might puzzle an adept to determine the
question. For instance, whether the nectary in Salix^
different in the barren and fertile flowers of some spe-
cies, should lead us to keep that genus in Dioecia,
though in other species the nectary is precisely alike
in both the kinds, and occasionally an abortive ger-
mcn occurs in the barren flowers, as stamens do,
more rarely, in some fertile ones. Considering all
this, I should refer Salix to Diandria Monogynia.
With respect to those Monoecious or Dioecious
genera whose barren flowers are decidedly unlike the
fertile ones, the former being in a catkin, the latter
not, as Corylus^ Quercus, &c., 1 conceive nothing more
pernicious or troublesome can be attempted than t©
remove them to the Classes of united flowers. They
meet with no allies there, but, on the contrary, form
so natural an assemblage by themselves, as to be
unanimously kept separate by the authors of every
natural system that has appeared. But even if this
were not the case, there is a most important reason
for keeping them as they are, which regards the
artificial system more particularly, and of which its
author was well aware ; they are of all plants most
uncertain in the number of their stanjens. Now this
uncertainty is of little moment, when we have them
primarily distinguished and set apart from other plants
by their Monoecious or Dioecious character ; because
the genera being few, and the Orders constructed
widely as to number of Stamens, we find little diffi-
XX
Sm MONOECIA.
culty in determining any genus, which would be by
no means the case if we had them confounded with
the mass of the system. Even the species of the
same genus, as well as individuals of each species,
differ among themselves. How unwise and unscier-
tific then is it, to take as a primary mark of discrim-
ination, what nature has evidently made of less conse-
quence here than in any other case ! It is somewhat
like attempting a natural system, and founding its
primary divisions on the artificial circumstance of
number of stamens.
I proceed to give some illustrations of the Orders
in Monoecia.
1. Monandi'ia. Zanjiichellia^ Mill. Illustr. t. 77, and
Aegopricon, Plant, Ic. ex Herb. Linn. t. 42, are gen-
uine examples of this Class and Order, having a dif-
ferent structure in the accessory parts of their barren
and fertile flowers. Artocarpus, the celebrated Bread-
fruit, may likewise be esteemed so on account of a
partial calyx in the barren flower. The other amen-
taceous genera may most intelligibly perhaps be re-
ferred to the Order, Polyandria. Chara is now re-
moved to the first Class in the system ; see Eng. Bot.
t. o^&,
2. Diamlria. Anguria can remain here only till the pro-
posed reformation takes place, having no difference of
structure in its flowers. Lemna, so imperfectly known
when Linmeus wrote, is now well understood, and,
having frequently united flowers, belongs to the sec-
ond Class ; see Engl Bot. t. 926, 1095, 1233.
MONOECIA. 365
3. Triandria* The great genus of Carex, t. 1051, 928,
993 — 995, Sec, and some other grassy plants, are
found here. Typha, t. 1455 — 1457, is less clear in
its structure ; Spargamum^ t. 744, 745, 273 is suffi-
ciently so. Tragia^ Hernandia and Phyllanthus are
properly placed in this Class and Order.
4. Tetrandria. Littorella^ t. 468 ; the valuable genera
Bctula, t. 1508, and Biixus, t. 1341; also the Net-
tle Urtica, t. 1236; are good examples of this. Mo-
rus the Mulberry, of the same natural order as the
Nettle, has scarcely any difference of structure in the
accessory organs of the flowers. This tree however is
remarkable for being often inclined to become even
dioecious in its constitution, one individual bearing
most fruit when occompanied by another whose barren
flowers are more effective than its own. Empleurum^
Exot. Bot. t. 63, is one of those ambiguous genera
which are but imperfectly rnonpecious,
5. Pentandria. Xanthiu7n, Ambrosia^ Nephellum^ Par-
thenium^ Iva and Clihadium all partake, more or less
accurately, of the nature of compound flowers, but
their anthers not being united, they could not be re-
ferred to the Class Syngenesia ; particularly Xanthi-
um and Nephelium^ whose fertile flowers have no re-
semblance to that Class, Amaranthiis^ an extensive
dunghill genus in warm countries, analogous to our
Chenopodhim^ follows next. Leea is the same with
Aquilicia, and belongs to Pentandria Monogijnia, the
former name being retained for the sake of the highly
rneritorious botanist and cultivator whom it commem-
364. MONOECIA.
orates. The Gourd tribe, (142) Cucurbita, Cucumis^
Bryonia^ Engl. Bot. t. 439, might be brought hither
from the aboUshed Order Syngenesia^ unless it should
• be thought better to consider them as polyadelphous,
to which I am most inclined.
6. Hexandria. Zizania, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. t. \Zi
and Phartis^ Browne's Jamaica, t. 38, both grasses,
compose this Order, to which Schreber has added
Epibaterium aod Pometia of Forster, as well as the
splendid Guettarda, Hort. Mai. v. 4. t. 48. The
latter varies from 6 to 9 in the parts of the flower j,
and constitutes the Order Heptandria in Linnaeus,,
according to his usual principle, of placing such ir-
regular plants, as much as possible, in small Classes
or Orders, that they might be the more easily found.
T. Polyandria. Stamens more than 7. Ceratophyllum,
Engl. Bot. t. 947, 679 ; Myriophyllum, t. 83, 218 ;
and the handsome Sagittaria, t. 84, stands here at
present, but the accessory parts in their two kinds of
flowers are alike. Begonia, Exot. Bot. t. 101, has
the number of its petals, though various in several
species, always sufficiently different in the barren and
fertile flowers to fix it here. — The most indubitable
plintsofthis Order are amentaceous, (143) Quercus^
Engl. Bot. t. 1342 ; Fagus, t. 886 ; Corylus, t. 723 ;
(142) [The Cucurbitaced', or Gourd tribe of Linnaeus, include
the Melon, Cucumber, Pumpkin, and others of similar fruit.
The Passion Flower is referred to this natural order.]
(143) [The Ainentacets are a natural order, whose fruit is an
anient or catkin, as the Oak, Walnut, Poplar, Willow, Alder, &c.]
MONOKCIA. 2X15
Carpinus, Juglans, Platanus, &c. — Arum, t. 1298,
Calla and Ambrosinia, all brought hither from the
20th Class, seem to me perfectly intelligible as simple
monoecious flowers, the barren one, with many sta-^
mens, being superior or interior with respect to the
fertile, like the generality of monoecious as well as all
compound flowers, and not inferior^ or, as in every
simple one, exterior,
%. Monodelphia. The Fir, Pinus, ( 144) so magnificently
illustrated by Mr. Lambert, is very distinct in its two
kinds of flowers. Each barren one consists of n
naked tuft of monadelphous stamens, accompanied
only by a few bracteas at the base. The fertile ones
arc catkins, with similar bracteas, each scale bearing
on its upper side a pair of winged seeds, and on its
under a leaf-like style and acute stigmas ; asJussicu
first, rightly I believe, suggested, though some bot-
anists have understood these parts otherwise. Aca-
. lypha, Croton, Jatropha, Ricinus and several others
of the natural order of Euphorbia, acrid milky plants,
form a conspicuous and legitimate part of Monoecia
Monadelphia. Omphalea is justly associated with them
by Schreber, though placed by Linnaeus in the Order
Triajidria, and this alteration is the more fortunate,
as one of its species is diandrous. Sterculia is best
removed to the llih Class, ntxt to Kleinhovia,
9. Polydelphia. If the system should be preserved in
its present state, without regard to agreement or dif-
(144) [The Pine, Cypress, Larch, and others, whose fruit is a
cone or strobilus^ from their natural order Coniferx.~\^
366 DIOECIA.
ference in the accessory parts of the barren and fer-
tile flowers, I conceive this order might be established
for the reception of the Gourd tribe, as already hinted
under the 5th Order. Their filaments are united, in
3 sets, a character much mere intelligible and con-
stant than the casual and irregular connexion of their
anthers, which led Linnaius to reckon them syngen-
csious ; for they only afford an additional proof that
union of anthers is, in simple flowers, neither a good
natural nor artificial guide. If the monoecious and
dioecious classes, be reformed according to the plan
to which I have so often adverted, these plants should
go to the Class Polyadelphia,
10. Gynandria is scarcely tenable, being paradoxical in
its character, and the two Linnxan genera which
compose it, Andrachne and Agyneia, seem most
properly, even as the system stands at present, to be-
long to the 8th Order, to great part of which they
are, moreover, naturally related.
Class 22. Dioecia. Stamens and Pistils in separate
flowers, situated on two separate plants. Orders 8.
The foregoing remarks on the Orders of Monoecia
apply also to those of this Class. I shall therefore
only briefly mention some genera properly illustrative
of each Order, more particularly specifying such as
require to be placed elsewhere.
1, Monandria. Brosimwn of Swartz, and Ascarina of
Forster, seem, by their descriptions, to be well placed
here. Pandanus {Athrodactylis of Forster) is more
DIOECIA. 367
doubtful, not having any partial calyx or corolla to
divide the stamens into separate blossoms, so that the
whole may be taken either for a polyandrous or a mo-
nadelphous flower, as well as for an assemblage of
monandrous ones. Najas is a good and immutable
example of this Order. Of Thunberg's Phclypcea I
have not materials to form a judgment.
2. Diandria. The wonderful ^alis?iena, already de-
scribed/?. 262, is a decisive example of this. Cecro-
pia also seems unexceptionable. Of Saiix, see Engl.
Bot.v.20 and 21, Sec, I have already spoken,/?.
361. The scales of its barren and fertile catkins are
alike ; its nectaries various.
3. Triandria, Eleg'ia and Restio, hard rushy plants
chiefl}' of the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland,
appear to be without any difference in the accessory
parts of their flowers, which is certainly the case with
Empetrutn, Ejigl. Bot. t. 526, Ruscus, t. 560,
brought hither from Dioecia Syngenesia^ Osyris, Ex-
oxcaria and Maba ; Caturus only seeming diff*erently
constructed in this particular ; but I have not been
able to examine the three last.
4. Tetrandria. Trophis^ JBatis, and Hippophae, t. 425,
are good examples of this, though Mr. Viborg is re-
corded by Schreber to have occasionally found united
flowers intermixed with the barren ones in the last-
mentioned genus. If this be usual, H;ppophae must
be removed to Polygarnia Dioecia. The rest of the
Order appear to have the accessory parts alike in both
flowers, as Fiscum, t. 1470.
368 DIOECIA.
5. Pentandria. Hamulus, t. 427, is almost the only
certain instance here. Spinccia, Acnida and Cannabis
would be unexceptionable, but they are less absolute-
ly dioecious, being sometimes monoecious ; see p.
259. The rest of the Order is at best doubtful ;
nor can the pretended amentum of the barren-flowered
Pistac'ia entitle it to a permanent place in this Class,
for its fructification is truly a panicle. Clutia, more
properly Cluytia, may possibly remain here. It has
no business in the Order Gynandria.
6. Hexandria. No difference of structure is discernible
between the barren and fertile flowers of any genus in
this Order ; witness Tamus, t. 91, though something
to the contrary is mentioned in the Genera Plantarum
of Linnaeus.
7. Polyandria. Under this Order I would certainly
comprehend all dioecious plants that have from 8 to
any greater number of stamens, according to the ex-
ample set by Linnseus himself in the last Class. The
genera are exceedingly variable in this respect ; and
if all those the accessory parts of whose flowers are
uniform were taken away, ^e remainder would be so
few, that it is hard to say whether any would remain
at all. Instances of the O'der as it now stands are
Populus, ^.1618,1619; Hydrocharis, t. 808 ; Mercu-
rialis, t. 559. The fertile flowers of the latter have, in
some cases, a nectary or corolla of two slender leaves,
not found in the barren ones, which may entide it to
a permanent place here. Carica will also probably
remain. Rhodiola can scarcely be kept distinct from
POLYGAMIA. 3g.S»-
Sedum. Coriaria and Ailanthus, having often united
flowers, are best in the 10th Class, as Euclea in the
11th. I find no genera truly icosandrous here^
though Schreber esteems Flacourtia and Hedycarya
to be so.
3. Monadelphia. 7gx?/5. ?. 74 ^^ and perhaps /«mj&erw5's
t. 1100, albO the exotic Ephedra^ are legitinriate ex-
amples of this Older. Spurious ones are Nepenthes,
Myristica the Nutmeg, and Schrcber's Xanthe, all
placed by him in the now abolished Order Syngenesia^
and which can only take shelter here while the Class
remains as it is, for they have no difference of struc-
ture in the accessory parts of their flowers.
Class 23. Polygamia. Stainens and Pistils separate
in some flowers, united in others, either on the same?
plant or on two or three distinct ones ; such differ-
ence in the essential organs being moreover accom-
panied with a diversity in the accessory parts of the
flowers. Orders 3,
1. Monoecia. United flowers accompanied with barren
or fertile, or both, all on one plant, Atr'iplex, EngL
Bot. t. 261, 232, &c., is an instance of this, havino^
the barren flowers of 5 regular spreading segments,
the united ones of 2 compressed valves, which, be-
coming greatly enlarged, protect the seed. In sever-
al species however the flowers are none of them unit-
ed, each having only stamens or only pistilso
Throughout the rest of the Order, as it stands in Lin=
ii^us and Schreber, I can find no genus that has the
YY
270 POLYGAMIA.
requisite character. Some of the grasses indeed have
awns to one kind of flower only, but that part is too
uncertain to establish a character upon ; and this
family is so natural in itself, ai:d so liable to variations
in the perfecting of its flowers or florets, that there
can be no doubt of the propriety of classing its gene-
ra simply by the number of their stamens and styles,
which are very constant.
2. Dioecia. The different flowers on two different
plants. I can scarcely find a certain instance of this,
except Hippophae^ already mentioned under Monoecia
Tetrandria.
3. Trioecia. Of the only two genera which have ever
been placed here, Ceratonia, Cavan. Ic. t. 1 13, be-
longs to Pentandria Monogynia. Ficus is so cele-
brated for the diversity of its flowers, as connected
with the history of vegetable impregnation, see /?.262,
that we are glad to take advantage of a trifling differ-
ence in the calyx of the two florets, (die barren one
being most frequently three-cleft, the fertile five-cleft,)
to keep it here.
All things being considered, this Class may be
ihought scarcely worth retaining. Yet as we know
two or three genera entitled to a place in it, upon
principles which the analogy of the two preceding
Classes shews to be sound, we cannot tell but others
may exist in the unexplored parts of the globe. For
this reason, and for the uniformity of the system, I
would venture to preserve it. If the 2 1st and 22d Clas-
ses should hereafter be reformed by some judicious
CRYPTOGAMIA. 3^1
and experienced hand, according to the principle I
have suggested, of retaining in them such genera only
as have a permanent difference in the accessory as
well as the essential parts of their flowers, their bulk
being by such a reformation much diminished, it
migt be advisable to reduce them to one Class, in
which the slender remains of Polygamia might com-
modiously be included, and the title of such a Class
should be Diclinia^ expressing the two distinct seats
or stations of the organs of fructification.
Class 24. Cryptogamia. Stamens and Pistils either
not well ascertained, or not to be numbered with any
certainty. Orders 5.
1. Fllices. Ferns. The parts of their flowers are al-
most entirely unknown. The fructification, taken
collectively, and proved to be such by the production
of prolific seeds, grows either on the back, summit,
or near the base of the frond. Some are called annu-
latce, annulatcd, their capsules being bound with an
elastic transverse ring ; others thecatce^ or more prop-
erly exanmdatiS^ from the wantof such an appendage,
of which some of the latter have nevertheless a spu-
rious vestige. All the former, and some of the lat-
ter, are dorsiferous, bearing fruit on the back of the
frond, and of these the fructification is either naked,
or else covered with a membranous involucrum.
The genera are distinguished by Linnasus according
to the shape and situation of the spots, or assemblages
of capsules, besides which I have first found it nec-
essary to take into consideration the absence or
8f^ jJilYPTOGAMlA.
presence of the involucrum, and especially the direc-
tion in which it bursts. See Tracts relating to Nat^
Hist. 215, t. L
Poly podium^ Engl. Bot. t. 1139, has no involu-
crum ; Aspidium, t. 1458 — -146 i, has a single, and
Scolopeiidriiim, t. 1150, a double one. Osmunda, t.
209, has been remarked by Professor Swaitz to
have a spurious rin^^. It is one of those ferns the
lobes of whose frond are metamorphosed, as it were,
into spikes of capsules. Botrychium of Swartz, more
distinctly spiked, and having no vestige of a ring, is
separated by him from Osmunda. See one species of
it in Engl Bat. t. 318. Ophioglossum, t, 108, and
Equisetum^ t. 915, 929, are other examples of spiked
ferns. Each seed of the latter is embraced by 4 fila-
ments, judged by Hedwig to be the t.tamens. Sup-
posed ferns with radical fructifications arc Pilularia^ t,
521, and Isoetes, t. 1084 ; but the foimer might pos-
sibly be referred to Monoeaa Polyandria, and latter to
Monoecia Monandna, as the system at present stands.
Lycopodium^ t. 224, 1148, &c., is a fern, at least in
my opinion, with axillary fructification.
% Musci. Mosses. These are really herbs* with dis^
tinct leaves and frequently as distinct a stem. Their
conical membranous corolla is called a calyptra.f. 151,
or veil, its summit being the stigma. This veil clothes
the capsule, which, before the seed ripens, is elevated
on a fruit-stalk. The capsule is of oiie cell and one
* Hedwig's term musci f rondo si is incorrect
CRYPTOGAMIA 35,3
valve, opening by a vertical lid,/ 213t. Seeds very
numerous and minute. The barren flowers of mosses
consist of an indefinite number of nearly cylindrical
almost sessile anthers, / 190 ; the fertile flowers of
one, rarely more, perfect pistils, accompanied by sev-
eral barren pistils,/ 192. Both stamens and pistils
are intermixed with numerous succulent jointed
threads, / 191, which perhaps answer the purpose
of a calyx or corolla, as far as protection is concerned.
Some few species of moss have the stamens and pis-
tils associated in the same flower, but they are gen-
erally separate. Hypniim, Engl. Bot. t. 1424, 1425,
has a scaly sheath, or perich^tium,/. 150, at the base
of Its fruit-stalk, composed of leaves very different
from the foliage of the plant. This is considered as
a sort of calyx, see/>. 202, and as such is allowed to
enter into the generic character ; but there is some
reason to esteem it rather of the nature of bracteas.
The capsule of Splachnum, Engl. Bot. t. 144, &c.,
stands on a peculiar fleshy base, called apophysis,/,
189 a.
Micheli in his Genera Plantarum, published in
1729, tab. 59, has well represented the parts above
described, though he mistook their use, being quite
ignorant of the fecundation of plants. Dillenius took
the one flower precisely for the other, and yet absurd-
ly called capstila what he believed to be anthera. Lin-
nasus, who had previously formed just ideas on the
subject, as appears from his manuscript Tour to Lap-
t This part in Phascum only does not separate from the cap-
sule.
374( CUYPTOGAMIA.
land, too implicitly submitted his own judgment to
that of Dillenius, and udoptt^d his hypoihtsis, at the
same time correcting, as he thought, his phraseology.
Hence the whole glare of the blunder of Dilienius has
fallen on Linnaeus ; for while we read in the Linntean
definitions of mosses every where the word anthera^
and in those of Dilienius, usually accompanying them,
eapsula ; few persons, who have lately been instruct-
ed by Hedwig that the part in question is really a
capsule, take the trouble to recollect that Dilienius so
grossly misused that word. Various ideas have been
started on this subject by Haller, Necker, and others,
which could only claim attention while it remained in
great obscurity. The excellent Hedwig has entire-
ly the merit of an original discoverer in this branch of
) physiology. He examined all that had been done be-
fore his time, detected the truth, raised mosses from
seed,/ 193 — 196, and established their characters on
the principles we have already explained.
The Linnaean genera of Mosses are chiefly found-
ed on the situation of the capsule, whether lateral or
terminal, with some other circumstances. They arc
too few, and not strictly natural. Hedwig first
brought into notice the structure of the fringe, peris-
tomium, winch in most mosses borders the orifice of
the capsule. This is cither simple, f. 189 b, or
double, / 213, 214, and consists either of separate
teeth, or of a plaited and jagged membrane. The
external fringe is mostly of the former kind, the in-
ner, when present, of the latter. The number of teeth,
remarkably constant in each genus and species, is
CRYPTOGAMIA. 375
either 4, 8, 16, 32 or 64. On these therefore Hed-
wig and his followers huve placed great dependence,
only perhaps going into too great refinements relative
to the internal fringe, which is more difScult to exam-
ine, and less certain, than the outer. Tiieir great er-
ror has been laying down certain principles as absolute
in forming genera, without observing whether aii such
genera were natural. Such mistakes are very excus-
able in persons not conversant with botany on a gen-
eral scale, and whose minute and indefatigable atten-
tion to the detail of their subject, more than compen-
sates the want of what is easily supplied by more
experienced systematics. Thus Barbula of Hedwig
is separated from Tortida, Engl. Bot. t. 1663, and
Fissidens from Dicranum^ t. 1272, 1273, on account
of a diiference of form or situation in the barren flow-
ers, which is evidently of no moment, and merely di-
vides genera that ought to be united. The same may
be said of genera founded on the union of the stamens
and pistils in one flower. On this subject J have
been more diffuse in a paper on Mnhim, in TV. of
Lhin^ Soc. V. 7, 254, to which I beg leave to refer
those who are desirous to study it further. Various
and abundant specimens of this tribe of plants, show-
ing the various structure of the fiingc, lid and other
parts, may be seen in the latter volumes of English
Botany more especially.
Mosses are found in the hottest and coldest cli-
mates. They are extremely tenacious of life, and,
after being long dried, easily recover their health and
vigour by moisture. Their beautiful structure can-
mB CRYPIOGAMIA.
not be too much admired. Their species are nume=
rous, and in some cases difficult to determine, partic-
ularly in the genera Tortula and Orthotrichum ; nor
is the generic character of the latter so easy or certain
as most others. Schreber, Dickson, Swartz, Bridel,
Weber, Mohr and Turner are great names in this
department of Botany, besides those of v/hom we
have already spoken.
3, HepaticiV. Liverworts. Of these the herbage is
commonly frondose, the fructification originating from
what is at the same time both leaf and stem. This
character, however, proves less absolute than one
founded on their capsules, which differ essentially
from those of the preceding Order in having nothing
like a lid or operculum. The corolla or veil of some
of the genera is like that of Mosses, but usually bursts
at the top. The barren flowers are unlike the organ-
ized stamens of the last- mentioned plants, being
either undefined powdery heads, as in Jimgermarmia^
see Hedvvig's Theoria^ t. 15, or of some peculiar con-
formation, as in Marchantia^ Efigl. Bat. t, 210, when-
they are imbedded in a disk like the seeds of Lichens,
in a manner so contrary to all analogy, that botanists
can scarcely agree which are the barren and which
the fertile flowers of this genus. The four-valved
capsule of Jungermamiia, with the veil bursting at
its summit to let the fruit-stalk pass, may be seen in
Engl. Bot. t. 185, 186, which are both frondose spe-
cies, like /. epiphylla^ t. 771, whose calyx as well as
corolla are evident ; and t. 605 — 608, which have
CRYPTOnAMIA.
377
apparenfly distinct leaves, like Mosses. Anfhoceros^
t. 1537, 1538, is a cuiious genus of the Hepatkce.
Liiiuas'ib comprehended this Order under the follow-
ini^ one, to which it is, most assuredly, far less akin
than to the foregoing.
4. Algcs, Flags. In this Order the herbage is fron-
dose, sometimes a mere crust, sometimes of a leathe-
ry or gelatinous texture. The seeds are imbedded,
either in the frond itself, or in some peculiar recepta-
cle. The barren flowers are but imi>erfectly known.
Here we find that great natural Order, comprehended
by Linnreus under one genus by the name of Lichen,
the fructification of which, for the most part, consists
of a smoodi round disk,/ 198, flit, convex, or con-
cave, with or without an adventitious border, in the
substance of which disk the seeds are lodged. In
some others they are placed in powdery warts, or in
fibrous receptacles. The barren flowers arc supposed
to be powdery also,/ 197, very much like those of
Jungermannia. See Eiigl. Bot. t. 126, and various
other parts of that work, where a great number of
species are figured. The whole tribe has been much
investigated, and attempted to be divided into natural
genera Ibunded on habit, by Dr. Hoffmann of Goct^
tingen, whose figures are perfect in their kind. But a
more complete scheme for reducing this family ta
systematic order has been recently made known to
the world by Dr. Acharius, a learned Swede, who in
hib Prodomus, and Methodus Lkhcnum, h.as divided
It iiio genera ibunded oii the receptacle of tlie seeds-
37S CRYPTOGAMIA.
alone. Hence those genera, though more technicaT,
are less natural than Hoffmann's ; but they will, most
likely, prove the foundation of all that can in future
be done on the subject, and the works of Acharius
form a new jera in cryptogamic botany. It is only
perhaps to be regretted that he has been somewhat
too prodigal of new terms, which when not wanted
are always a burthen to science, and rather obscure
than illustrate it. Thus Hedwig used the term spo-
rangium iov . 106.
f. 20. Twining from left to right, in Lonicera ;f.2l:
from right to left, in Co?ivolvulus, p. 107. f. 22.
Sarmentum^ a Runner, in the Strawberry, p. 108.
f. 23. Caulis determinate ramosus, as in the Azalea,
family, p. 122. y: 24. Three pair of Buds, in Loni-
cera ccerulea, f. 25, Bud of the Horse Ciiesnut,
p. 137.
Tab. 4. Leaves, f, 26. Tufted leaves,/;, 126./ 27=
Imbricated : f. 28, Decussated : f. 29. Two-ranked,
Yew : / 30. Unilateral,/;. 147. / 31. Peltate,- Nas-
turtium,/;. 149. f. 32. Clasping the stem, p. 150.
/. 33. Perfoliate : / 34. Sheathing :/ 35. Equitant :
/ 36. Decurrent, p. 130, and spinous, p. 162. / 37.
Flower-bearing, Ruscus aculeatus^ p. 130.
Tab. 5. f. 38. Orbicular, Hedysarum sfyrac'folium^ p,
131. / 39. Roundish, Pyrola : f. 40. Ovate : / 41.
Obovate : /42. Elfiptical or oval : / 43. Spatulate,
p. 154./ 44. Wedge-shaped : / 45. Lanceolate :
/ 46. Linear : / 47. Needle-shaped : / 48. Trian-
gular,/;. 155. / 49. Quadrangular, (also abrupt, /;.
159), Tulip-tree : / 30. Deltoid : / 51. Rhomboid :
/52. Kidney-shaped,/;. 133. / 53. Heart-shaped :
/ 54. Crescent- shaped : / 5S. Arrow-shaped : / 56.
Halberd-shaped, (also acute,/;. 137), / 57. Fiddle-
shaped, (also obtuse, p, 137), Rumex pulcher^ p. 157.
/ 58. Runcinate : / 59. Lyrate : / 60. Cloven : /
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 391
61. Three-lobed, y!nemone Hepatica : f. 62. Sinna-
ted, Oak : f, 63. Deeply divided, Helleborus, p. 135.
f. 64. Laciniated :
Tab. 6. / 65. Palmate : / 66. Pinnatifid : f, 67.
Doubly pinnatifid,/;. i36. / 68. Pectinate :/ 69.
Uaequal, Begonia : f. 70. Jagged-pointed, p. 160.
f.l\. Retuse, Rumex digynus : f. 72, Emarginate :
f. 73. Pointed : f. 74. Blunt with a small point, p.
161. /. 75. Sharp pointed, Ruscus aculeatus \ f'
76. Cirrose : / 77. Spinous, p. 138. / 78. Frin-
ged : / 79. Toothed : / 80. Serrated : / 81.
Crenate, p. i2>9.
Tab. 7. f. 82. Doubly as well as sharply crenate, ap-
proaching to / 80. : / 83. Jagged : / 84. Wavy,
Menyanthes nymphceoides : f. 85. Plaited, p. 165.
/ 86. Undulated ;/ 87. Curled, />. 141./ 88. Veiny :
/ 89. Ribbed :'/ 90. Three-ribbed, p. l^l.f, 91.^
Three-ribbed at the base : f. 92. Triply-ribbed '•
/ 93. Cylindrical, Cotichium, p. 142. / 94, Semicy-
lindrical : / 95. Avvl-shaped :/ 96. Doubly tubular,
Lobelia Bortmanna : f. 97. Channelled, />. 143./ 98.
Hatchet-shaped, p.\l\. f. 99. Three-edged, Mes-
embryanthemum deltoides : / 100. Four-edged :
Tab. 8. / 101. Alienated, Mimosa virticUlata, p.
145.* / 102. Hooded, A/rracew/a,/?. 146. / 103.
* I have found by recent experiment, that the first leaf of
Kathyrus Mssoliu is like the I'est, not pinnated, but simple and
sessile. See /j. 173.
392 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Furnished with an appendage, Dloncca musdpula : J,
104. Jointed, Fagara tragodes, p. 149. f. 105. Bin-
ate,/;. 148. / 106. Ternate:/ 107. Interruptedly
Pinnate, p. 148. f. 108. Pinnate in a lyrate form, p,
149. y! 109. Pinnate in a vvhorled manner, p. 150.
/. 110. Auricled : / HI. Compound,/;. 150. /
149. Doubly compound, or Twice ternate: / 113.
Thrice compound, or Thrice ternate :/ 114. Pedate,
Helleborus, p. 151.
Tab. 9. Appendages. / 115. Stipulas of Lathyrus
latifolius, p. 178 ; a(so an abruptly pinnated leaf, end-
ing in a tendril, p. 176. /. 116. Stipulas united to
the footstalk, in Rosa, p. 178 ; also a pinnated leaf
with a terminal leaflet, /?. 148. / 117. Floral leaf of
Tilia, p. 180. /. 118. Coloured floral leaves, Lavan-
dula Stoechas : /T 119. Spinous ones, AtractyUs can-
tellata : f. 120. Thorns, Hippophae rhamnoides^ p.
223. / 121. Prickles, p. 182. / 122. Tendril,
Lathyrus lat'ifolms : f. 123. Glands of the Moss
Rose, p. 226. /, 124. Hairs : /. 125. Bristles of
Echium pyrenaicum^ p. 185.
Tab. 10. Inflorescence./ 126. Whorl, in Lamium,
p. 188./ 127. Whorled leaves, and axillary flowers,
of Wppuris vulgaris, p. 188./ 128. Cluster, Ribes :
f. 129. Spike, Opiirys spiralis : f. 130. Less correct
Spike, Veronica spicata, p. 180. / 131. Spikelet,
Bromus, p. 189. / 132. Corymb : / 133. Corym-
bose fascicle, Achillea, p. 190. / 134. Fascicle,
Dianthus Armeria, p. 190. / 135. Head or Tuft,
EXPLANATIO>f OF THE PLATES. 39^5
Trifolmm : f. 136. Simple Umbel, Eucalyptus pi-
perita, p. 191. f. \S7. Simple Umbel in the natural
order of Umbellatce, Jstrantia majors with the Involu-
crum, a :
Tab. 11. f, 138. Compound- Umbel, Laserpitiwn
simplex, with its general Invokicriim, a, and partial
one, 6, p. 198. / 139. Cyme, Laurustinus, p. 192.
/ 140. Panicle, Oat,/?. 192. / 141. Bunch, Com^
mon Vine, p. 193.
Calyx. Jl 142. Periantkium, or Calyx properly
so called, Dianthus deltoides, p. 197. / 143. Involu-
crum, so called, in Anemone, p. 198. f. 144. Invo-
lucrum or Indusium of Ferns, p. 199. f. 145. One
of the same separate, with a capsule and its ring. f.
146. Catkin of the Hasel-nut p. 200.
Tab. 12. Calyx and corolla, with Nectary, f. 147,
Sheath of the Narcissus ; c, the Petals, called by
Jussieu, Calyx; b, the Crown or Nectary, see j&. 212.
/ 148. /Husk of Grasses,/?. 201. / 149. Awns.
. yi 150. Scaly Sheath, Pterogonium Smithii, p. 201.
/ 151. Veil of the same, p. 203. / 152. Jun-
germannia epiphylla, showing a, the Calyx, p. 201 ;
6, the Veil or Corolla, p. 203 ; and c, the uno-
pened Capsule. /. 153. Wrapper, Agaricus : f.
154. Radical Wrapper,/?, 203./ 155. Monopetalous
Salver-shaped Corolla, p. 206. / 156. Poly pet-
alous Cruciform Corolla : / 157. A separate Petal
:BTiB
jy* EXFLAXATION OF THE PLATES.
of the same ; , Claw ; b, Border ; f. 158. Unecjual
Corolla, ButomuSf p. 206.
Tab. 13. / 159. Bdl-shaped Corolla : / 160. Fun-
nel shaped : f. 161. Ri igent : /. 162. Personate,
Antirrhinum reticulatum^ p. 207. j^ 163. Papiliona-
ceous, Lathyrus ; f. 164. Standard of the same ;
/ 165. Oaeof -.he Winsrs ; / 166. Keel ; / 167.
Stamens, style &c, : f. 168, Incomplete Corolla, Rit-
tcra. f. 169. Peloria, or regular-flowered variety of
Antirrhinum Linaria, p. 207. f. 170. Nectary in the
Cai\ X of Tropxolum : f- Vl\, Nectary of Aquilegia^
p. 266. J. 172, 173. The same part in Epimedi-
um : . f. 174. P;iir of Nectaries in Acon'ttum, p. 214.
f. 175. Fringed Nectaries in Parnassia, p. 214.
Tab. 14. Sramens, Pistils and Fruit, f. 176. A Sta-
men : a, filament ; Z>, anther, p. 217. /. 177»
Pistils : a, ^^ermen ; b, style; ^, stigma, />. 218. f.
178. Capsule of an dnnaaiM^esembri/anthemum, open
and shut,/;. .;21. f. 179. Transverse section of the
capsule oi Datura, p. 221, showing the partitions and
cohinielliS. f. 180. Siliqua, or Pod : f. 181. Silicula^
or Pouch, />. 222. / 132. Legume, />. 223./ 183.
Stone-fruit,/?. 282. / ;84. Apple : / 185. Berry :
/ 186. Compound Berr>, p. 225. / 187. Berry of
Passijiora suberosa, p. 284. f. 188. Cone, Larch, />.
227. / 189. Capsule of a Moss, Splachnum, with
its fleshy base, or apophysis^ a, and fringe, by p.
374.
EXPLANATION OF TFIK PLATES. S95
Tab. 15./ 190. Barren flower of a Moss, much mag-
nified, after Hedvvig : / 191. Stamens, with the Pol-
len coming forth, and the jointed filaments, p. 275.
f. 192. Fertile flower of a Moss, consisting of num-
erous pistils, only one of which in general comes to
perfection. They are also accompanied by jointed
filaments : / 193. A germinating seed of Gyninos-
tomum pyriforme, from Hedvvig likewise, showing its
expanding embryo: / 194. The same more advan^
ced : f. 195. The same much further advanced, and
become a young plant,showing its leaves and branched
cotyledon*;, p. 274. / 19 . Young plant of Funaria
hygrometrica, exhibiting the same parts, p. 276. y.
197. Powdery wart of a Lichen, presumed to be its
barren flower : / 198. Perpendicular section, magni-
fied, of the shield or fruit of a Z?c/?e/?, showing the seeds
imbedded in its disk, p. 377. / 199. Section of the
seed of a Date, Phanix clactylifera, from Gaertner, the
bulk of which is a h2i'Ci\ Albumen, p. 230, having a lateral
cell in which is lodged the liorizontal embryo, «,/>. 229.
f. 200. Section of the Vitellus in Zamia, from the same
author, with its embryo a, with which it is, like a co-
tyledon, closely connected, />. 231. f. 201. Rough
coats of the seeds in Cynoglossum, p. 298. fi 202.
Arillus of a Carex, p. 235. / 203. Seed of Afzelia,
with its cup-shaped Arillus. p. 235./ 204. Pappus, or
seed-down, of Tragopogon, p. 237. / 205. Toil of
the seed in Dryas : / 206. Beaked fruit of Scandix,
with its seeds separating from their base, p. 238.
/ 207. Winged seed of Embothrium, p, 238. /
896 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES
208. Section of the conical Receptacle of the Daisy,
with its calyx : /. 209. Cellular Receptacle of Ono-
pordum^ p. 241. j^ 210. Ligulate floret with both
stamens and pistil, in a Dandelion, p.2A2.f. 211.
Ligulate floret with only a pistil, in the radius of a
Daisy, p. 242. / 2 12. Tubular floret from the disk
of the same, having stamens and a fertile pistil, p. 242,
f. 213. Capsule of a Moss with a double fringe, the
lid shown apart, p. 373. f. 214. A portion of the
same fringe magnified, p, 374.
M7 3
INDEX I.
INDEX OP REMARKABLE PLANTS, OR THOSE OF WHICH ANY
PARTICULAR MENTION, OR ANY CHANGE IN THEIR CLASSL
FICATION, IS MADE.
Abroma, 345
Abrus Precatorius, 344
Acer, 326
saccharinum, 67
jEscuIus Hippocastanum, 120
Agrimonia, 283
Ailanthus, 369
Alga, 377
Alopecurus bulboijjs, 102
Amaranthus, 363
Amaryllis formosissima, 251
Ambrosinia, 365
Anagallis, 258
Angiopteris, 300
Annona hexapetala, 184
Aponogeton, 324
Aquilicia, 363
Arenaria, 261
Aristolochia Clematitis, 263
Sipho, 263
Arum, 85
Ash, 62
Asperifolise, 320
Athrodactylis, 366
Atriplex, 369
Aucuba, 288
Bamboo, 73
Barberry, 255
Bauhinia, 291
Black rose, 82
Blandfordia, 281
Bonapartea, 270
Brodisea, 211
Browallia, 297
Bryonia, 297
Bubroma, 345
BufTonia, 297
Cactus coccinellifer, 265
Caenopteris, 300
Calamagrostis, 300
Calceolaria, 289
Calla, 359
Canna, 354.
Cannabis,
398
■lNDE"X 1.
Capura, 323
Carpinus Betulus, 201
Caryocar, 3o7
Caryophyllus, 330
Celosij, 254
Ceratonia, 370
Ceratopelatum,
C.hara, 361.
Cherry, double-blossomed, 219
Chrysanthemum indicum, 77
Cistus creticus, 156
Citrus, 346
Cleome, 337
Climbing plants, 107.
Cluytia, 368
Coffee, 268
Coluraniferse, 339
Conchium, 29 1
Conferva bullosa, 173
Contorts, 321
Coriaria, 369
Cornus mascula, 156
Corymbium, 349
Cucumis, 364
Cucurbita, 364
Cuscuta, 319
Cyamus Nelumbo, 287
Cycas revoluta, 259
Cytinus, 358
Darea, 302
Devil's-bit, 97
Dicksonia, 292
Dictamnus albus, 156
Dillenia, 291
Dionxa muscipula, 146
Dodecatheon Meadia, 35
Dog-rose, 250
Dombeya, 9 1
Dorstenia, 291
Dracontiiim, 360
Epimediiim alpinum, 28d
Eriocalia, 371
Ervuni, 347
Euclea, 370
Euphorbia, 365
Ferns, 371
Ficus, 262, 376
Filices, 371
Flores tristes, 78
Fontainesia, 290
Fraximus Ornus, 157
Fungi, 380
Gentiana, 289^^
Glaucium pi oeniciura, 253
Glycyrrhiza, 289
Goodenia, 290
Gogrd tribe, 364
Grasses, 318
Grewia, 359
Guettarda,364
Gundelia, 290
Gypsophila, 289
Ha«tingia coccinea, 31 1
Hedysarum gyrans, 172
Helianthus annuus, 171, \5J-
INDEX I.
3S9
Heiiantiius tuoerosus, 98
Helicttres, 366
Hemerocallisj 289
Hemp, 258
Hepalicx, 376
Hernandia, 29 1
Hillia, 297
Hippomane Mancinella, 167
Hippophae rhamnoides, 367'
tlippuris, 349
Holmskioldia, 31 1
Hop, 157
Hoi'se-chesnut, 120
Humea, 290
Jatropha urens, 251
Jerusalem artichoke, 98
JungeriBaniiia, 376
Kalmia, 255
Klcinliovia, 359
Knappia, 292 ^
Lace-bark, 38
Lachenalia trico'or, 101
Lasiopetalum, 289
LathyruB Apliaca, 180
Lavatera arborea, 95
Leea, 363
Lemna, 344, 361
Lichen, 377
Liliaceaj, 323
Lilium bulljiferum, 61,
Liiinaea, 29 1
lathospcrmumj 289
Liverworts, 376
Lobelia longiflora, 167
Lonicera CDErulca, 118
Luridx, 320
Magnolia, 291, 323
Maltese oranges, 82
Malvacece, 339
Marchantia, 376
Meadow Saffron, 349
Melaleuca, 346
Mentha, 335
Mimosa pudica, 210
sensitiva, 172
Mirabilis, 357
MonocotyledoneSj 60
Mwnbonia, 346
Morus, 364
Mosses, 372
MuriXct, 296
Musa, 250
Musci, 372
Mussxnda, 181
Mysosotis, 187
Myristica, 365
Myrti, 330
Nandina domestica, 387
Na:>tUa, 73
Nelumbium, 287
Nepenthes disiiilatoria, 356
146
Nopal, 265
Nojfolk island, pine of, 91
Nymphsa, 260, 168
Omphalea, 365
Orchideae, 352
Origanum, 289
Ornithopuspeipusillus, 121
Orobus sylvaticus, 130
Oxalis sensitiva, 172
Palmx, 382
Pandanus, 366, 288
Papiiionacese, 341
Passiflora, 338
Peripioca ^raeca, 357
PiiJeum pratense, 102
Phyllachne, 352
Pine-apple, 348
Pinus, 365
Pistacia Lentiscus, 270
Pistia, 339
Plane-tree, its buds, 119
PomaceJe, 330
Populus dilatata, 157
Potamogeton, 260
Pothos, 360
Precise, 320
Primula marginata, 85
Pteris, 300
Rhapis, 251
Rhodiola, 368
Rivularia, 376
Rosaces, 330
RotaceJe, 320
Rubiaceae, 319, 219
Rumex sanguineus, 72
Kutacese, 235
INDEX I.
Ruta graveolens, 254
Salix, 361
Salvia pomifera, 270
Sarracenia, 146, 161
Scheuchzeria. 291
Scitamiiieae, 316
Scopoiia, 358
Seriphium, 349
Silene inflata, 271
Sisyrinchium, 344
Smithia sensitiva, 343, 292
Solandra grandiflora, 123
Spergula, 281
Sprengelia, 292
Sterculia, 328
Stilago, 355
Strelitzia, 291
Strumpfia, 354
Stuartia, 90
Stylidium, 369
Tabasheer, 75
Taraarindus, 344
Taxus nucifera, 227
Thea, 347
Theobroma, 345
Tmesipteris, 300
Tournefortia, 290
Tragopogon major, 27(J
Tropaeolum, 326
Tulbaghia, 2 1 1
Umbelliferae, 32 1
Uredofrumcnti, 271
INDEX J
40i
V^alisneria spiralis, 252
Vaucheria, 380
Ventenatia, 355
Viscum albunij 170
Willows, 156
Xanthe, 369
Xylopia, 359
Yew, 227
Zostera, 360
ccc
t 408 ]
INDEX II.
INDEX TO THE EXPLANATIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF
TECHNICAL TERMS, 8ic.
Abrupt leaves, 136
Abruptly pinnate leaves, 148
Abrupt root, 97
Absorption, 157
Acaules plantar, 1 13
Acerosum folium, 132"
Acid secretions, 71
Acinaciforme folium, 144
Acinus, 224
Acrimony, 77
Aculeus, 182
Acuminate leaf, 137
Acuminatum folium, 137
Acute leaf, 137
Acutum folium, 137
Adpressa folia, 127
Adscendens caulis, 106
-Equalis polygamia, 309, 347
Aggregate flowers, 243
Aggregati pedunculi, 116
Air vessels, 164
Ala, 238, 207
Alatus caulis, 1 1©.
Alatus petiolus, 1 17
Albumen, 230
Alburnum, 43
Algse, 377
Alienatum folium, 145
Alkaline secretions, 72
Alterna folia, 125
Alterne ramosus caulis, 108
Alterne pinnatum foliumj 14?
Ament, 200
Amentacex, 364
Amentum, 200
Amplexicaulia folia, 129
Anceps caulis, 1 10
Anceps folium, 144
Angiocarpi fungi, 381
Angiospermia, 308, 336
Angulosus caulis, 1 10
Annual roots, 94
Anther, 217
Anthera, 217
Aphylls plants, 124
Apophysis, 373
INDEX n.
40.'^
Apothecium, 378
Appendiculatum folium, 146
Appendages of plants, 178
Apple, 223
Arillus, 234
Arista, 202
Arrow shaped leaf, 134
Articulatus caulis, 110
Articulatum folium, 147
Articulatus culmus, 114
Articulata radix, 101
Articulate pinnatum folium,
149
Artificial system, 279
Asperifoliae, 320
Atmosphere, 173
Astringent principle, 7 1
Auriculatum folium, 150
Avenium fol. 141
Awl shaped leaf, 143
Awn, 202
Axillaris pedunculus, 115
Bacca, 225
Bacillum, 378
Bark, 38
Barren flowers, 241
Basi trinerve fol. 142
Beak, 23 3
Beard, 202
Bell shaped corolla, 206
Berry, 225
Bicornes, 327
Biennial roots, 94
Bifid leaf, 134
Biflori pednuculi, 1 1,6
Bigeminatum fol. 151
Bijugum fol. 1 50
Bilobum fol. 133
Bina folia, 125
Binatum folium, 148
Bipinnatifidium fol. 136
Bipinnatum foi, 151
Biternatum fol. 1 5 1
Bitter secretion, 71
Blistery leaf, 140
Blunt leaf, 137
Border, 205
Brachiate stem, 109
Brachiatus caulis, 109
Bracte, 180
Bractea, 180
Buds, 119
Bulbiferous stem, 100
Bulbosa radix, 100
Bulbous root, 100
BuUatum fol. 140
Bunch, 193
Caducous, (falling early,) 179,
332
Calycanthems, 325
Galyculatus calyx, 197
Calyptra, 203
Calyx 194— -197
Cambium, 45
Campanulata corolla, 206
Canaliculatum fol. 143
Capitulum, 190
Capsule, 221
Capsula, 22 1
Carina, 207
404
INDEX If.
Carinatum folium, 144
CdrtifitgiiKum fol, 138
Caryophylles, 327
Catkin, 200
Catuius, 200
Cauda, 238
Caudex, 95
Caulina folia, 125
Caulinus pedunculus, 115
Caulis, 105
Cellular integument, 36
Central vessels, 54
Channelled leaf, 143
Characters, 283
Ciliatum folium, 158
Cilialum periantliium, 19f
Cirrhifer petiolus, 117
Cirrhosum folium, 137
Cirrhose pinnatum, fol. 148
Cirrhus, 182
Classes, 303
Clasping leaves, 129
Clavus (Ergot) 271
Climbing stems, 107
Climbing petioles, 117
Cloven leaf, 134
Cluster, 187
Corcum, 222
Coloratum folium, 142
Coiumniferae, 339
Coloured leaf, 142
Colours, 79
Coma, 238
Complctus flos, 241
Composite folia, 150
Compound flowers, 342
Compressum folium, 143
Compressed leaf, 143
Compressus petiolus, 117
Concavum folium, 141
Concave leaf, 141
Conduplicatum folium, 140
Cone, 228
Conferta folia, 125
Coniferae. 365
Conjugatum folium, 150
Conjugate leaf, 150
Connata folia, 129
Connate leaves, 129
Conniventia stamina, 2le
Contortae, 321
Corculum, 228
Cordate leaf, 133
Cordatum folium, 133
Coriaceum folium, 145
Coriaceous leaf, 145
Corolla, 205
Coronarix, 323
Cortex, 38
Cortical glands, 165
Corymb, 189
Corymbus, 189
Costatum folium, 141
Cotyledons, 90, 229
Creeping root, 96
Creeping stem, 106
Crenatum folium, 139
Crenate leaf, 139
Crescent sliaped leaf, 134
Crispuni folium, 141
Cruciformis corolla, 206
"'rucilbrm flowers, 336
iNDEX H
40.i
Cryptogatnia, 307, 371
Cucullatum foiium, 146
Cucurbitacea;, 364
Culmus, 1 13
Culm, 113
Cuneiforme folium, 132
Cuneiform leaf, 132
Cup of the flower, 194
Curled leaf, 141
Cuspidatum folium, 137
Cuticle, 21
Cylindrical leaf, 143
Cyme, 192
Cyma, 192
Cyphella, 378
Decandria, 327
Deciduum folium, 145
Deciduous leaf, 145
Declinata stamina, 216
Declined stamens, 216
Decompositum folium, 150
Decompound leaf, 150
Decurrentia folia, 13^
Decurrent leaves, 130
Decussata folia, 126
Decursive pinnatum folium,
Deltoides folium. 133
Deltoid leaf, 133
Demersa folia, 128
Dentatum folium, 133
Dentate leaf, 138
Depressa folia, 127
Depressum folium, 143
Determinate ramosus caulis
Diadelphia, 305, 340
Diamond shaped leaf, 133
Diandria, 317
Dichotomus caulis, 105
Dichotomous stem, 105
Dicotyledones, 90
Didynamia, 354, 334
Diffusus caulis, 108
Digitatum folium, 147
Digitate leaf, 147
Digynia, 307
Dioecia, 306, 366
Dioecious flowers, 242
Dioici flores, 242
Discoid flowers, 348
Discus, 242
Disk, 242
Dissecium folium, 135
Dissepimentum, 221
DissepimenC, 221
Disticha folia, 126
Distichus caulis, 108
Divaricate stem, 109
Divaricatus caulis, 109
Dodecandria, 328
Dolabriforme foiium, 144
Down of the seed,
149 237
Drupa, 220
Drupe, 224
DumosJe, 322
Dust of the anther, 217
Elliptic leaf, 132
Ellipticum folium, 132
109 Emarginate leaf, 137
Emarginatum folium, 137
406
INDEX H.
Embryo, 22*
Emersum folium, 128
Enerve folium, 141
Enneandria, 326
Enodis culmus, 1 1 3
Ensatse, 317
Ensiforme folium, 1 44
Ensiform leaf, 144
Entire leaf, 131
Epidermis, 31
Equitantia folia, 130
Erecta folia, 127
Erectus caulis, 106
Ergot, 271
Eroded leaf, 139
Erosum folium, 139
Essemial character, 283
Essential oils, 70
Evaporating pores, 165
Excitability, 65
Exserta stamina, 946 2/1*
Exserted stamens,-S+^Zi'»
Factitious character, 283
Fall of the leaf, 266
Fasciculatus caulis, 113
Fasciculus, 190
Fascicle, 190
Ferns, 37 1
Fertile flowers, 241
Fibrosa radix, 95
Fibrous root, 96
Fiddle shaped leaf, 134
Filament, 216
Filanfientura, 216
Filices, S71
Fingered leaf, 147
Fissum folium, 134
Fistulous stem, 112
Flagelliformis caulis, 107
Fleshy leaf, 143
Flexuosus caulis, 108
Flexuous stem, 108
Floral leaf, 180
Flores tristes, 75
Florets, 242
Florifera folia, 139
Flosculi, 242
Floscular umbel, 191
Flowing of the sap, 63 — 67
Folium, 124
Follicle, 222
Folliculus, 222
Forcing, 84
Forked stem, 105
Fringe of mosses, 374
Fringed leaf, 138
Frond, 117
Frons, 1 1 7
Fructification, 194
Fructus, 220
Fruit, 220
Frustranea polygamia, 309, 349
Fulcrum, 178
Functions of stamens and pistils,
246
Fungi, 380
Funnel formed corolla, 306
Furrowed stem, 112
Fusiformis radix, 97
INDEX II.
4or
Fuaform root, 97
Galbulus, 2£7
Galls, 268
Gangrene, 265
Gemma, 1 19
Gemmaceus pe^unculus,
Genera, 279
Generic names, 287
Geniculatus culmus, 114
Genus, 279
Germ, 218,219
Germination, 82
Gibbum folium, 143
Gibbous leaf, 143
Girdling trees, 58
Glaber, glabrous, 1 1 1
Gland, 284
Glandula, 184
Glandulosum folium, 139
Glaucous, 112
Gluma, 201
Glume, 201
Grafting, 82
Gramina, 318
Granulata radix, 101
Grasses, 31 8
Gruinales, 339
Gymnocarpi 381
Gymnospermia, 308, 334
Gynandria, 305, 352
Hairs of planis, 184
Halberd shaped leaf, 1 34
Hastatum folium, 134
Hastate leaf, 134
Hatchet shaped leaf, 1 44
Head, 190
Heart shaped leaf, 1 33
Heat of plants, 83
Hepatica:, 376
Heptandria, 324
116 Herbarium, 383
Hesperides, 330-
Hexandria, 323
Hilum, 233
Hirius, 1 1 1
Hispidus, 1 1 1
Hollow leaf, 141
Honey, 212
Honey dew, 189
Hood, 203
Hooded leaf, 146
Horizontalia folia, 127
Horizontal leaf, 127
Husk, 201
Hypocrateriformis corolla, 206
Hypocrateriform, 206
Icosandria, 529, 303
Imbricata folia, 126
Imbricate leaves, 126
Imbricate calyx, 197
Imparl pinnatum folium.
148
Inanis caulis, 112
Incanus, 1 12
Incisum folium, 135
Inclusa stamina, 216
Included stamens, 21b
Incompleta corolla, 20r
Incompletus flos, 241
INDEX II.
Incomplete flowers, 241
Incurva folia, 127
Incurva stamina, 216
Incurved leaves, 127
Incurved stamens, 216
Indusium, 199
Inequale folium, 136
Inerme folium, 188
Inferior germ, 219
Inferior Sower, 219
Inflated calyx, 197
Inflexa folia, 127
Inflorescentia, 187
Inflorescence, 187
Infundibuliformis corolla, 206
Integerrimum folium, 137
Integrum folium, 130
Internodis pedunculus, 116
Interrupte pinnatum folium, 149
Involucellum, 198
Involucre, 198
Involucrum, 198
Involutum folium, 140
Involute leaf, 140
Irregular corolla, 205
lulus, 200
Jagged leaf, 139
Jagged pointed leaf, 136
Jointed leaf, 150
Jointed culm, 1 1 4
Jointed stems, 110
Jussieu, system of, 313
Keel, 207
Keeled leaf, 144
Kidney shaped leaf, 133
Labellum, (Hji) 354
Labia tse, 335
Labiate flowers, 206
Laciniatum folium, 135
Lactescent (milky) plants, 69
Lxvis, 1 1 1
Lamellae, 381
Lamina, 205
Lanatus, 112J
Lanceolate leaf, 132
Lanceolatum folium, 132
Lateralis pedunculus, 1 16
Lateral footstalk, 1 16
Laxus caulis, 108
Leathery leaf, 145
Legumen, 223
Leguminous plants, 341
Liber, 38
Light, effect of, 170
Lignum, (ivood) 41
Ligula, 180
Ligulate florets, 242
Ligulati flosculi, 242
Liliaceous flowers, 323
Limb, 205
Limbus, 205
Lineare folium, 132
Linear leaf, 132
Lingulatum folium, 145
Linnai systema, 302
Lion toothed leaf, 134
Lip, 354
INDEX U.
409
Lirella, 378
I.iver^roris, 376
Lobatum folium, 130, 134
Lobedleaf, 130, 134
Loment, 224
Lomentum, 224
Lunulatum folium, 134
Luridx, 320
Lyrate leaf, 134
Lyratum folium, 134
Lyrate pinnatum folium, 149
Maculalus, 110
MalvacesE; 339
Margin, 205
Medulla, 46
Membrana, 233
Membranaceum folium, 145
Membranous leaf, 145
Monadelphia, 305, 338
Monandria, 316
Monocotyledones, 60, 90
Monoecia, 306, 360
Monoecious flowers, 242
Monoici flores, 242
Monogamia syngenesia, 309
Monogynia, 307
Monopetalous corolla, 205
Mosses, 372
Mucilage, 69
Mucronatum folium, 137
Mucronate leaf, 137
Multiflori pedunculi, 116
Multisiliqua:, 332
Muricatus calyx, 197
Muricated calyx, 197
Musci, 372 "^
Mutica gluma, 202
Naked flower, 241
Natantia folia, 128
Natural system, 313, 278
Necessaria polygamia, 309,351
Nectariferous glands, 214
Nectariferous pores, 213
Nectariferous scales, 2 IS
Nectarium, 212
Nectary, 212
Needle shaped leu^' 132
Nervosum folium, 141
Nerved leaf, 141
Nerveless leaf, 141
Nicked leaf, 142
Night scented flowers,
Nitidus, 1 1 1
Nomenclature, 286
Notched leaf, 1 37
Nucamentum, 200
Nudun» folium, 142
Nudusflos, 241
Nut, 224
Oblique leaf, 127
Oblong leaf, 132
Oblongum folium, 132
Obovate leaf, 131
Obovatum folium, 131
Obtuse leaf, 1 j7
Obtusum fohum, 137
Obtusum c^am acumine, 137
I)DD
411
»vi>Et n.
Ochrea, 181
OctancIrici,325
Odour of plants, 75
Oil, 70
Operculum, 374
Opposita folia, 125
Opposite leaves, 125
Opposite pinnata folia, 149
Orbicular leaf, i31
Oibiculatiim folium, 131
Orders, 307
Oval leaf, J 32
Ovale folium, 131
Ovate leaf, ISt^^^
Ov&tum folium, 131
Palate, 205
Palms, 307,382
Palmaium folium, 135
Palmate leaf, 135
Panduriforme folium, 134
Panicle, 192
Paiiicula, 192
Papilionacea corolla, 207
Papilionaceous _ 2o7
Papilionaceous flowers, 341
Papillosus, 11 1
Pappus, 237
Partial involucre, 198
Partial flower stalk, Il5
Pattitum folium, 135
Pateniia folia, 127
Pectinate leaf, 136
Pectinatum folium, 136
Pedateleaf, 151
Pedatum folium, 151
Pedicellus, II5
Pedicelled down, 237
Peduncle, II 5
Pedunculus, 115
Pellicula, 234
Peltate leaf, 128
Peltatum folium, 128
Pent.gonuscaulis, 110
Pei.tandiia, 320
Pepo, 226
Perennial roots, 94
Perfect flowers, 241
Perfoliata folia, 1 29
Perfoliate leaves, 129
Perianthium, 197
Pericarp,'220
Pericarpium, 220
Perichaetium. 2u2
PericJium,381
Peristomium, 374
Personata corolla, 206
Personatie, 336
Perspiration ofleaves, !54
Petal, 205
Petalum,205
Peliolata folia, 128
Petioled leaf, 128
Petiole, 117
Petiolus, 117
Pileus, 382
Pilosus, 1 1 1
Pilus, 184
Pinnaiifidum folium, 135
Pianatifid leaf, 135
INDEX II.
4P
Pinnatum folium, 148
Pinnate leaf, 148
Pistil, 218
Pistillum, 218
Pith, 46
Plaited leaf, 140
Plicatum folium, 140
Plumula, 90
Pod. 223
Podetium, 378
Pointed leaf, 137
Poiien, 217
Polyadelphia, 305, 344
Polyandm, 332
Poiygamia, 306, 369
Polygynia, 307
Poiypetalous corolla, 206
Pomacex, 330
Pomum, 223
Pores, 165
Pouch, 223
Pixmorsa radix, 97
Precise, 320
Prickle, 182
Prismaticum periantiuum, 197
Procumbens caulis, 106
Procumbent stem, 106
Prolifer caulis, 109
Proliferous stem, 109
Prostrate stem, 106
Prostratus caulis, 106
Pubescence. 184 — 5
Punctalum folium, 140
Quadrangular leaf, 133
Quadrangular stem, 1 10
Quadrangularis caulis, 1 10
Quadrangulare folium, 133
Quaterna folia, 126
Quina folia, 126
Quinate leaves, 126, 148
Quinatum folium, 148
Quinquangularc folium, 133
Quinquangularis caulis, 110
Raceme, 187
Racemus, 187
Radiate flowers, 349
Radiate umbel, 19 I
Radical leaves, 125
Radicalia folia, 125
Radicans caulis, 106
Radicula, 94
Radix, 94
Ramea folia, 125
Rameus pedunculus, 115
Ramosus caulis, 109
Ramosssimus caulis, 109
Rays, 191
Receptacle, 240
Receptaculum, 240
Reclinatum folium, 187
Reclinatus caulis, 106
Rectus caulis, 108
Recurva folia, 127
Recurved leaves, 127
Rcflexa folia, 127
Reflexed leaves, 127
Reniforme folium, 133
Reniform leaf, 133
412
INDEX It.
Repan j'lm folium, 139
Repand leaf, 139
Repens caiilis, 106
Repens radix, 96
Rcsijpinata folia, 127
Resiu, 69
Retubu-n folium, 136
Rtvoluiurn roiiinn, 139
RevohUe leaf, 139
Rf vt I bed rnrolla, 206
Ri.oe.!d(ae, 3.32
Rhombeum ioliuin, 13S
Riiomboidal leaf, 133
Rihbed leaf. Ul
Ril)less leaf, 141
Ringens coiolld, 206
Riiiir^nt 206
Root, 94
Rosactous corolla, 207
Rostrum, 238
Rotartae. 320
Rotata corolla, 206
Rotate corolla, 206
Rut(ged leaf, 140
Rubiaceae, 319
Rugosum folium, 140
Runcinate leaf, 134
Runcinatum folium, 134
Salver shaped corolla, 206
Saggitatum folium, 134
Samara, 222
Sap, 56, 63
Sap vessels, 49
Sramentosus caulis, 108
Scaber, 1 1 1
Scaly roots, 100
Scandens caulis, 107
Scandens petiolus, 117
Scape, 1 14
Scapus, 114
Scar of the seed, 233
Scariosum perianthium, 197
Scimetar shaped leaf, 144
Scitamineac, 316
Secretions of plants, 68
Secunda folia, 126
Secunda panicula, 193
Secuncia spica, 189
Seeds, 228
Seed vessel, 220
Segregata polygamia, 309, 351
Semina, 228
Semicylindraceum folium, 143
Semiflosculosi, 347
Seminal leaves, 90
Semitere? caulis, 1 10
Semiteres petiolus, 1 17
SenticosJe, 33 ij
Sepiariae, 317
Separated flowers, 351
Serrate leaf, 138
Serratum folium, 138
Serrulatum folium, 139
Sessile flowers, 1 16
Sessile leaves, 129
Sessiles flores, 116
Sessilia folia, 129
Sharp leaf, 137
Sheath, 129, 201
INDEX II.
41.1
Sheathing leaf, 129
Silicle, 223
Silicula, 223
Siliculosa, 308, 335
Siliqua, 223
Silique, 223
Siliquosa, 308, 337
Silver grain, 55
Simple leaves, 130
Simple stem, 105
Simplicia folia, 130
Sinuate leaf, 135
Sinuatum folium, 135
Sleep of plants, 172
Solid bulb, 100
Solitarius pedunculus, 116
Spadix, 201
Sparsa folia, 125
Sparsi pedunculi, 116
Spathe, 201
Spatha, 201
Sputhacex, 323
Spatulate leaf, 132
Sputulatum folium, 132
Species of plants, 279
Specific characters, 285
Spica, 188
Spicula, 189
Spike, 188
Spikelet, 189
Spina, 181
Spinosum folium, 138
Spiral vessels, 52
Spiral stalk, 1 14
Spora:, 378
Sporangium, 378
Spur, 2 53
Squamosum perianthium, 197
Squarrosum perianthium, 197
Squarrose calyx, 197
Stamen, 214
Stamina, 214
Standard, 207
StellatK, 319
Stem, 105
Stigma, 218
Slipes, 118
Siipitatedown, 537
Stipula, 178
Stone fruit, 224
Striatus caulis, 1 12
Striate stem, 1 12
Strictus caulis, 108
Strobilus, 228
Sirophistum, 239
Stylus, 218
Style, 218
Submersum folium, 128
Subrotundum folium, 131
Subsessile folium, 146
Subulatum folium, 143
Subulate leaf, 143
Sugar, 72
Sulcatus, 112
Superflua polygamia, 309, 34S
Superior flower, 219
Superior germ, 219
Suprsedecompositum folium, 1 5 1
Sword shaped leaf, 144
Syngenesia, 305, 347
414
INDEX H.
Tail of a seed, 238
Tanning principle, 71
Tendrils, 182 •
Teres caulis, 1 10
Teres folium, 143
Teres petiolus, 117
Terminal footstalk, 116
Terminalis pedunculus, 116
Terna folia, 125
Ternatum folium, 148
Ternate leaf, 148
Testa, 233
Tetradynamia, 305, 336
TetragoBum folium, 145
Tetragonus caulis, 110
Tetragynia, 307
Tetrandria, 319
Thallus, 378
Thorn, 191
Thyrsus, 193
Tomentosus, 112
Tongue shaped leaf, 145
Toothed leaf, 138
Triandria, 317
Triangulare folium, 133
Triangularis caulis, 1 10
TricJe, 378
Trigonum folium, 144
Trigonus caulis, 110
Trigynia, 307
Trilobum folium, 135
Trinerva folium, 141
Tricecia, 870
Triplincrve folium, 142
Triqueter caulis, 110
Triquetrum folium, 144
Trivial names, 292
Trowel shaped leaf, 133
Truncatum folium, 13G
Truncate leaf, 136
Tuberosa radix, 98
Tuberous root, 98
Tubular leaf, 143
Tubulosa floscula, 242
Tubular florets, 242
Tubulosum folium, 143
Tubus, 205
Tubes, 5 1
Tuft, 190
Tunic, 234
Tunicaled bulb, 100
Turbinatum perianthium, 191
Two edged stem, 1 10
Umbel, 191
Uinbella, 191
Umbelliferx, 322
Undivided leaf, 130
Undulatum folium, 140
Unequal leaf, 136
Unguis, 205
Uniflori pedunculi, 116
United flowers, 242
Utriculi, 221
Utricles, 165
Vaginantia folia, 129
Variegatum folium, 142
Variegated leaf, 1 42
Varieties, 279
INDEX II.
415
Vegetation, 87
Veil, 208
Veinless leaf, 141
Veiny leaf, 1 4 1
Veiiosum folium, 141
Ventricosum perianthium, 197
Verrucosus, 111'
Venicalia folia, 127
Vertical leaves, 127
Verticillata folia, 126
Verticillaix. 335
Verticillatus caulis, 109
Verticillus, 187
Vexillum, 207
Villosus, 112
Villous, 112
ViscifUis, 111
Viscid, 111
Vitellus, 231
Volubilis caulis, 108
Volva, 203
Wart)', 1 1 1
Wax, 70
Wavy, 139, 140
Wedge shaped leaf, 132
Wheel shaped corolla, 206
Wnorl, 187
Whorled leaves, 126
Wing, 238, 207
Winged stem, 110
Wood, 41
Wrapper, 203
Yoked leaf, 160
Yolk, 231
ERRATA.
Page 7t, line 13th from bottom, for " Crinita," read, crinita ; et paria passim
„ 13 i, bottom line, for " dlnisolia," read, Alnifolia.
„ 146, I. 3fl from b.it. for " .yarracennia," read, Sarracenia ; for " Fivesad-
dle," read, Sidesaddle.
„ 139, 1. 4th for " yinnata,'"' read, pinnata.
„ 198, I. I4th from bot for " Ventricosus," read, Ventricosum ; 1. 12, for
" Prismaticus,*' read, Prismaticum,
„ 224, 1. 4th, from bot. for •« principle," read, pericarp,
„ 895, 1. 15th from bot. for " meaning"," read, names.
I^d>hfJud by J.finly FhUadr A- Bradford d' Bead. Boston March 1814.
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