^/^

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PHYSIOLOGICAL and SYSTEMATICAL

BOTANY.

BY

JAMES EDWARD SMITH, M.D. F.R.S.

Ssc. 8sc,

PRESIDENT OF THE LINN^AN SOCIETY.

'CONSIDER THE LILIES OF THE FIELD, HOW THEY GROW,

SECOND EDITION.

LIBRARY

""^ NEW YORK

aOTANlCAl,

Hontion : aAKuew.

PRINTED FOR

LONGMAN, HURST, REES, AND ORME, PATERNOSTER ROW;

AND J. WHITE, FLEET-STREET.

1809.

r^

Printm ky Richard Taylor and Co. Shoe-Lane.

TO
THE HONOURABLE AND RIGHT REVEREND

S H U T E,

LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM.

My Lord,

The circumstances which induce me
to solicit 1/our Lordship's protection for the
follorving pages are such, that L trust they
tiill ensure pardon for myself, and more in-
dulgence for my performance than I might
expect, even from your Tjordship's usual
goodness towards me.

The contents of these pages were, in a very
unfinished state, honoured with the approba-
tion and encouragement of an excellent and
lamented lady, to whom they loere destined to
he offeftd in their present less umvorthy con-
dition. I should have been proud to have
^ sheltered them under her patronage, because
^ I have always found the most intelligent cri-
'^ tics the most indidsyent. Their general ten-
:^ dency at least, as calculated to render an

a 2

IV DEDICATION.

interesting and useful science accessible, and
in every point eligible, to the more accoru'
plished and refined of her ownjex, could not
fail to have been approved by her, who knezsj
and exemplified so well the value and im-
portance of such pursuits, and their inesti-
mable effects upon the mind. These hopes,
which my late honoured friend and patroness
had, zmth her usual benignity, encouraged,
are now most unhappily defeated, and I
have no resource but in your Lordship, who
is no stranger to my pretensions, nor to my
sentiments, and in whom I have not now for
the first time to seek an able and enlightened
patron. I remain,

with the profoundest respect,
my Lord,
your Lordship's most obliged
and obedient servant,

J. E. SMITH.

Norwich,
Nov. 15, 1807.

PREFACE.

After the many elementary works on
Botany which have appeared in various
languages, any new attempt of the same
kind may, at first sight, seem unnecessar3%
But when we consider the rapid progress
of the science within a few years, in the
acquisition and determination of new
plants, and especially the discoveries and
improvements in vegetable physiology:
when we reflect on the views with which
those fundamental works of Linnaeus, the
basis of all following ones, were com-
posed, and to whom they were addressed,
we must be aware of their unfitness for
purposes of general and popular utility,

Ti PREFACE.

and that something else is wanting. If
we examine the mass of introductory
books on botany in this light, we shall
find them in some cases too elaborate and
intricate, in others too obscure and im-
perfect : they are also deficient in that
very pleasing and instructive part of bo-
tany the anatomy and physiology of
plants. There are indeed works, such as
Rose s Elements of Botany, and Darwin's
Fhytologia, with which no such faults can
be found. The former is a compendium
of Linnsean learning, the latter a store of
ingenious philosophy ; but they were de-
signed for philosophers, and are not cal-
culated for every reader. Linnaeus and
his scholars have generally written in La-
tin. They addressed themselves to phy-
sicians, to anatomists, to philosophers,
little thinking that their science would
ever be the amusing i)ursuit of the young,
the elegant and the refineil, or they would

PREFACE. VU

have treated the subject differently. It
appears to me, therefore, that an intro-
ductory pubHcation is still desirable in
this country, on an original plan, easy,
comprehensive, and fit for general use,
and such were the reasons which first
prompted me to the undertaking.

When, however, I had proceeded a con-
siderable way in its execution, I found
that such a work might not only serve to
teach the first outlines of the science, but
that it might prove a vehicle for many ob-
servations, criticisms, and communications,
scarcely to be brought together on any
other plan; nor did it appear any objection
to the general use of the book, that, be-
sides its primary intention, it might be ca-
pable of leading into the depths of bota-
nical philosophy, whether physiological,
systematical, or critical, any student who
should be desirous of proceeding so far.
A volume of this size can indeed be but

Vlll PREFACE.

elementary on subjects so extensive ; but
if it be clear and intelligible as far as it
goes, serving to indicate the scope of the
science of botany, and how any of its
branches may be cultivated further, mj
purpose is answered. The subject has na-
turally led me to a particular criticism
of the Linna^an system of arrangement,
which the public, it seems, has expected
from me. Without wasting any words on
those speculative and fanciful changes,
which the most ignorant may easily make,
in an artificial system; and without enter-
ing into controversy with the very few
competent writers who have proposed any
alterations ; I have simply stated the re-
sult of my own practical observations,
wishing by the light of experience to cor-
rect and to confirm what has been found
useful, rather than rashly to overthrow
what perhaps cannot on the whole be in>
proved.

PREFACE. IX

As the discriminating characters of the
Linnaean system are founded in nature
and fact, and depend upon parts essential
to every species of plant when in perfec-
tion ; and as the application of them to
practice is, above all other systems, easy
and intelligible ; I conceive nothing more
useful can be done than to perfect, upon
its own principles, any parts of this sy-
stem that experience may show to have
been originally defective. This is all I
presume to do. Speculative alterations
"in an artificial system are endless, and
scarcely answer any more useful purpose
than changing the order of letters in an
alphabet. The philosophy of botanical
arrangement, or the study of the natural
affinities of plants, is quite another mat-
ter. But it would be as idle, while we
pursue this last-mentioned subject, so
deep and so intricate that its most able
cultivators are only learners, to lay aside

X PREFACE.

the continual use of the Linnacan system,
as it Avould be for philologists and logi-
cians to slight the convenience, and in-
deed necessity, of the alphabet, and to
substitute^ the Chinese character in its
stead. If the following pages be found
to elucidate and to confirm this compa-
rison, I Avish the student to keep it ever
in view.

The illustration of the Linnaean system
of classification, though essential to my
purpose, is however but a small part of
my aim. To explain and apply to prac-*
tice those beautiful principles of method,
arranirement and discrimination, which
render botany not merely an amusement,
a motive for taking air and exercise, or an
assistance to many other arts and sciences;
but a school for the mental powers, an
alluring incitement for the young mind to
try its growing strength, and a confirma-
tion of the most enlightened understand-

PREFACE. Xi

rng in some of its sublimest most im^
portant truths. That every path tendino- to
ends so desirable may be accessible, I
have not confined myself to systematical
subjects, wide and various as they are,
but I have introduced the anatomy and
physiology of plants to the botanical stu-
dent, wishing to combine all these several
objects ; so far at least that those who do
not cultivate them all, may be sensible of
the value of each in itself, and that no
disgraceful rivalship or contempt, the
offspring of ignorance, may be felt by
the pursuers of any to the prejudice of
the rest.

I have treated of physiological and
anatomical subjects in the first place, be-
cause a true knowledge of the structure
and parts of plants seems necessary to the
right understanding of botanical arrange-
ment; and I trust the most superficial
reader will here find enough for that pur-

Xn PREFACE*

pose, even though he should not be led to
pursue these subjects further by himself.
I have every where aimed at familiar il-
lustrations and examples^ referring, as
much as possible, to plants of easy ac-
quisition. In the explanation of bota-
nical terms and characters, I have, be-
sides furnishing a new set of plates with
references to the body of the work, al-
ways cited a plant for my purpose by its
scientific name, with a reference to some
good and sufficient figure. For this end
I have generally used either my own
works English and Eaotic Botany, all the
plates of which, as well as of the present
volume, are the performance of the same
excellent botanist as well as artist ; or
Curtis s Magazine, much of which also
was drawn by Mr. Sowerby. I have
chosen these as the most comprehensive
and popular books, quoting others only
when these failed me, or when I had some

PREFACE. Xlll

particular end in view. If this treatise
should be adopted for general use in
schools or families, the teacher at least
will probably be furnished with those
works, and will accommodate their con-
tents to the use of the pupils. I am
aware of the want of a systematical En-
glish description of British plants, on the
principles of this Introduction ; but that
deficiency I hope as soon as possible to
supply. In the mean while Dr. Wither-
ing's work niay serve the desired purpose,
attention being paid only to his original
descriptions, or to those quoted from
English writers. His index will atone
for the changes I cannot approve in his
system. Wherever my book may be found
deficient in the explanation of his or any
other terms, as I profess to retain only
what are necessary, or in some shape
useful, the Language of Botany^ by Pro-

XIV PREFACE.

fessor Martjn, will prove extremely ser-
viceable.

Having thus explained the use and in-
tention of the present work, perhaps a
few remarks on the recommendations of
the study of Botany, besides what have
already been suggested, may not here be
misplaced.

I shall not labour to prove how delight-
ful and instructive it is to

'^ Look through Nature up to Nature's God.'*

Neither, surely, need I demonstrate,
that if any judicious or improved use is to
be made of the natural bodies around us,
it must be expected from those who dis-
criminate their kinds and study their pro-
perties. Of the benefits of natural sci-
ence in the improvement of many arts,
no one doubts. Our food, our physic,
our luxuries are improved by it. By the
inquiries of the curious new acquisitions

PREFACE. XV

are made in remote countries, and onr re-
sources of various kinds are augmented.
The skill of Linnneus b}^ the most simple
observation, founded however on scien-
tific principles, taught his countrymen to
destroy an insect, the Cantharis navalis,
which had cost the Swedish government
many thousand pounds a year by its ra-
vages on the timber of one dockyard only.
After its metamorphoses, and the season
when the fly laid its eggs, were known,
all its ravages were sto])ped bv immersino-
the timber in water during that period.
The same great observer, by his botanical
knowledge, detected the cause of a dread-
ful disease among the horned cattle of the
north of Lapland, which had previously
been thought equally unaccountable and
irremediable, and of which ho has given
an exquisite account in his Lapland tour,
as well as under Ciciita vlrosct, Engl. Bot.
t. 479? in his Flora Lapponica. Ona man

XVI PREFACE.

in our days, by his scientific skill alone,
has given the bread-fruit to the AVest-
Indies, and his country justly honours his
character and pursuits. All this is ac-
knowledged. We are no longer in the in-
fancy of science, in which its utility, not
having been proved, might be doubted,
nor is it for this that I contend. I would
recommend botany for its own sake. I
have often alluded to its benefits as a
mental exercise, nor can any study exceed
it in raising curiosity, gratifying a taste for
beauty and ingenuity of contrivance, or
sharpening the powers of discrimination.
What then can be better adapted for
young persons ? The chief use of a great
part of our education is no other than
what I have just mentioned. The lan-
guages and the mathematics, however
valuable in themselves when acquired,
are even more so as they train the youth-
ful mind to thought and observation. In

PREFACE. XVll

Sweden Natural History is the study of
the schools, by which men rise to prcfer-
liieiit; and there are no people with more
acute or better regulated minds than the
Swedes.

To those whose minds and- understand-
ings are already formed, this study may
be recommended, independently of all
other considerations, as a rich source cf
innocent pleasure. Some people are ever
inquiring " what is the use" of any par-
ticular plant, by which they mean " what
food or phj^sic, or what materials for the
painter or dyer does it aiford ?" They look
on a beautiful flowery meadow with ad-
miration, only in proportion as it affords
nauseous drugs or salves. Others con&ider
a botanist with respect only as he may be
able to teach them some profitable im-
provement in tanning, or dyeing, by
which they may quickly grow rich, and
be then perhaps no longer of any use to

b

XVlll PEEFACE,

mankind or to themselves. They ^vould
permit their children to study botany,
only because it might possibly lead to
professorships, or other lucrative prefer-
ment.

These views are not blameable, but
they are not the sole end of human ex-
istence. Is it not desirable to call the
soul from the feverish agitation of Avorldly
pursuits, to the contemplation of Divine
Wisdom in the beautiful a3Conomy of
Nature ? Is it not a privilege to walk with
God in the garden of creation, and hold
converse with his providence? If such ele-
vated feelings do not lead to the study of
Nature, it cannot far be pursued without
rewarding the student by exciting them.

Rousseau, a great judge of the human
heart and observer of human manners,
has remarked, that " when science is
transplanted from the mountains and
woods into cities and worldly society, it

PREFACE. XIX

loses its genuine charms, and becomes a
source of env}^ jealousy and rivalsbip/'
Thk is still more true if it be cultivated
as a mere source of emolument. Ikit the
man who loves botany for its own sake
knows no such feelings, nor is he depen-
dent for happiness on situations or scenes
that favour their growth. He would find
himself neither solitary nor desolate, had
he no other companion than a " moun-
tain daisy," that " modest crimson-tipped
flower,*' so sweetly sung by one of Na-
ture's own poets. The humblest weed or
moss will ever afford him something to
examine or to illustrate, and a great deal
to admire. Introduce him to the magni-
ficence of a tropical forest, the enamelled
meadows of the Alps, or the wonders of
"NTew Holland, and his thoughts will not
dv/ell much upon riches or literary ho-
Dours, things that
'• Play round the head, but come not near the heart."
b 2

XX PUEFACE.

One idea is indeed worthy to mix in the
pure contemplation of Nature, the anti-
cipation of the pleasure we may have to
bestow on kindred minds with our own,
in sharing with them our discoveries and
our acquisitions. This is truly an object
worthy of a good man, the pleasure of
commur.icating virtuous disinterested
pleasure to tliose who have the same tastes
with ourselves; or of guiding young inge-
nuous minds to worthy pursuits, and facili-
tating their acquisition of what we have
already obtained. If honours and re-
spectful consideration reward such mo-
tives, they flow from a pure source. The
giver and the receiver are alike invulne-
rable, as well as inaccessible, to " envy,
jealousy or rivalship/' and may pardon
their attacks v/ithout an effort.

'1 he natural history of animals, in man}'
respects even more interesting than botany
to man as an anhiiated beino-, and move

PREFACE. XXI

striking in some of the plisenomena which
it displays, is in other points less pleasing
to a tender and delicate mind. In botany
all is elegance and delight. No painful,
disgusting, unhealthy experiments or in-
quiries are to be made. Its pleasures
spring up under our feet, and, as we pur-
sue them, reward us with health and
serene satisfaction. None but the most
foolish or depraved could derive any
thing from it but what is beautiful, or
pollute its lovely scenery with unamiable
or unhallowed images. 1'hose who do so,
either from corrupt taste or malicious de-
sign, can be compared only to the fiend
entering into the garden of Eden.

Let us turn from this odious picture
to the contemplation of Nature, ever new,
ever abundant in inexhaustible variety.
A\ hether we scrutinize the damp recesses
of woods in the wintry months, when the
numerous tribes of mosses are displaying

SXll PRETACE.

their minute, but highly interesting struc-
ture; whether we walk forth in the early
spring, when the ruby tips of the haw-
Ihorn-bush give the first sign of its ap-
proaching vegetation, or a little after,
when the violet welcomes us with its scent
and the primrose with its beauty; whether
we contemplate in succession all the pro-
fuse flowery treasures of the summer, or
the more hidden secrets of Nature at the
season when fruits and seeds are forming ;
the most familiar objects, like old friends,
will always afford us something to study
and to admire in their characters, while
new discoveries will awaken a train of new
ideas. The yellow blossoms of the morn-
ing, that fold up their delicate leaves as
the day advances; others that court and
sustain the full blaze of noon ; and the
pale night-scented tribe, which expand,
and diffuse their very sweet fragrance,
towards evening, will all please in their
3

PREFACE. XXlll

turn. Though spring is the season of
hope and novelty, to a naturalist more
especially, yet the wise provisions and
abundant resources of Nature, in the
close of the year, will yield an observing
mind no less pleasure, than the rich variety
of her autumnal tints affords to the ad-
mirers of her external charms. The more
Ave study the works of the Creator, the
more wisdom, beauty and harmony be-
come manifest, even to our limited ap-
prehensions ; and while we admire, it is
impossible not to adore.

" Soft roll your incense, herbs, and fruits, and flowers.
In mingled clouds, to Him, whose sun exalts.
Whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints ! "

INTRODUCTION

TO

PHYSIOLOGICAL and SYSTEMATICAL

* BOTANY.

CHAPTER L

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS, VE-
GETABLES, AND FOSSILS. ON THE

VITAL PR,INCIPLE ESSENTIAL TO THE
TWO FORMER.

Those Vvho with a philosophical eye have
contemplated the productions of Nature,
have all, by common consent, divided them
into three great classes, called the Animal,
the Vegetable, and the Mineral or Fossil
Kingdoms. These terms are still in gene-
ral use, and the most superficial observer

B

2 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS

must be struck with their propriety. The
application of then seems at first sight per-
fectly easy, and in general it is so. Difficul-
ties occur to those only who look very deeply
into the subject.

Animals ha\e an ' organized structui^
which regularly unfolds itself, and is noi?'
rished and supported by air and food ; they
consequently possess life, and are subject
to death ; they are moreover endowed with
sensation, and with spontaneous, as well as
voluntary, motion.

Vegetables are organized, supported by
air and food, endowed with life and subject
to death as well as animals. They have in
some instances spontaneous, though we know
pot that they have voluntary, motion. They
are sensible to the action of nourishment, air,
and lisht, and eitlier thrive or lanH;uish ncr
cording to the wholesome or hurtful applica-
tion of these stimulants. This is evident to all
who have ever seen a plant growing in a cli-
mate, soil, oH situation, not suitable to it.
Those who have ever gathered a rose, know
but too well how soon it withers ; and the

AND VEGETABLES.

familiar application of its fate to lluit of
human life and beauty is not more striking
to the imagination than pliiiosophically and
literally true. The sensitive plant is a more
astonishing example of the capability of
vegetables to be acted upon as living bodies.
Other instances of the same kind we shall
hereafter have occasion to mention.

The spontaneous movements of plants are
almost as readily to be observed as their
living principle. The general direction of
their branches, and especially of the upper
surface of their leaves, though repeatedly
disturbed, to the light; the unfolding and
closing of their flowers at stated times, or
according to favourable or unfavourable cir-
cumstances, with some still more curious
particulars to be explained in the sequel of
this work, are actions undoubtedly depending
on their vital principle, and are performed
with the greater facility in proportion as that
principle is in its greatest vigour. Hence
arises a question whether Vegetables are
endowed with sensation. As they possess
hfe, irritability and motion, spontaneously
directing theii^ organs to what is natural and

E 2

4 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS

beneficial to them, and flourishing accordinf^
to their success in satisfvino^ their wants,
may not the exercise of their vital functions
be attended with some cl^gree of sensation,
however low, and some consequent share of
happiness? Such a supposition accords with
all the best ideas w^e can form of the Divine
Creator ; nor could the consequent uneasiness
which plants must suifer, no doubt in a very
Jow degree likewise, from the depredations
of animals, bear any comparison with their
enjoyment on the whole. How^ever tliis may
be, the want of sensation is most certainly
not to be proved with regard to Vegetables,
and therefore of no use as a practical means
of distinguishing them, in doubtful cases,
from Animals.

Some philosophers* have made a loco-
motive power peculiarly characteristic of Ani-
mals, not being av;are of the true nature of
those half-animated beings called Corals and
Corallines, which are fixed, as immoveably
as any plants, to the bottom of the sea, while
indeed many living vegetables swim around

* Jungius, Bofrh'aavc, Ludvvig and many , others.

AND VEGETABLES.

them, unattached to the soil, and nourished
by the \rater in which they float. Some'--
have characterized Animals as nourished by
their internal, and Vegetables by their exter-
nal surface, the latter ha\'ing no such thing as
an internal Stomach. This is ingenious and
tolerably correct ; but the proofs of it must
fail with respect to those minute and simply-
constructed animals the Polypes, and the
lower tribes of Worms, whose feelers, put
forth into the water, seem scarcely different
from roots seeking their food in the earth,
and some of which may be turned inside out,
like a glove, without any disturbance of their
ordinary functions. The most satisfactory
remark I have for a long time met with on
this difficult subject is that of M. Mirbel,
in his Traits d'Anatomie et de Flii/siologie
VSgStaks-j', a work I shall often have occasion
to quote. He observes, vol, I. p. 19> " that
plants alone have a power of deriving nou-
rishment, though not indeed exclusively, from

* Dr. Alston, formerly professor of botany at Edin-
burgh.

t Published at Paris two or three years since, in two
vols. 8vo.

MINERAL KINGDOM.

inorganic matter, mere earths, salts or airs,
substances certainly incapable of serving as
food for any animals, the latter only feeding
on what is or has been organized matter,
either of a vegetable or ammal nature. So
that it should seem to be the ofSce of vege-.
table life alone to transform dead matter
into organized living bodies/' This idea ap-
pears to me so just, that I have in vain sought
for any exception to it.

Let lis however descend from these philo-
sophical speculations to purposes of practical
utility. It is sufficient for the young student
of Natural History to know, that in every
case in which he can be m doubt whether
he has found a plant or one of the lower orders
of animals, the simple experiment of burning
will decide the question. The smell of a
burnt bone, coralline, or other animal sub-
stance, is so peculiar that it can never be mis-
taken, nor does any known vegetable give
out the same odour.

The Mineral Kmgdom can never be con-=
founded with the other two. Fossils are
masses of mere dead unorganized matter,
subject to the laws of chemistry alone ; grow-

ON THE VITAL PRINCIPLE.

ing indeed, or increasing by the mechanical
addition of extraneous sulwtances, or by the
laws of chemical attraction, but not fed by
nourishment taken into an organized struc-
ture. Their curious crystallization bears some
resemblance to organization, but perfornis
none of its functions, nor is any thing hke a
vital principle to be found in this department
of Nature.

If it be asked what is this vital principle, so
essential to animals and vegetables, but of
which fossils are destitute, we must own our
complete ignorance. We know it, as we know
its Omnipotent Author, by its effects.

Perhaps in the fossil kingdom heat may
be equivalent to a vital principle; but heat is
not the vital principle of organized bodies,
though probably a consequence of that prin-
ciple.

Living bodies of animals and plants produce
heat; and this phenomenon has not, I think,
been entirely explained on an;/ chemical
principles, though in fossils the production of
heat IS in most cases tolerably well accounted
for. In animals it seems to have the closest pos-
sible connexion with the vital energy, But the

ON THE VITAL PRINCIPLE.

effects of this vital energy are still more stu-
pendous in the operations constantly going on in
every organized body, from our own elaborate
frame to the humblest moss or fungus. Those
different fluids, so fine and transparent, sepa-
rated from each other by membranes as fine,
which compose the eye, all retain their pro-
per situations (though each fluid individually
is perpetually removed and renewed) for sixty,
eighty, or a hundred years, or more, while life
remains. So do the infinitely small vessels of
an almost invisible insect, the fine and pellucid
tubes of a plant, all hold their destined fluids,
conveying or changing them according to
fixed laws, but never permitting them to run
into confusion, so long as the vital principle
animates their various forms. But no sooner
does death happen, than, without any alte-
ration of structure, any apparent change in
their material configuration, all is reversed.
The eye loses its form and brightness; its
membranes let go their contents, which mix in
confusion, and thenceforth yield to the laws of
chemistry alone. Just so it happens, sooner
or later, to the other parts of the animal as
well as vegetable frame. Chemical changes,

ON THE VITAL PRINCIPLE.

putrefaction and destruction, immediately
follow the total privation of life, the import-
ance of which becomes instantly evident when
it is no more. I humbly conceive therefore,
that if the human understand mg can in any
case flatter itself with obtaining, in the
natural world, a glimpse of the immediate
agency of the Deity, it is in the contempla-
tion of this vital principle, which seems inde-
pendent of material organization, and an
impulse of his own divine energy.

10

CHAPTER II.

DEFINITION or NATURAL HISTORY, AND
PARTICULARLY BOTANY. — OF THE GE-
NERAL TEXTURE OF PLANTS.

Natural History properly signifies that
study by which we learn to distinguish from
one another the natural bodies, whether Ani-
mal, Vegetable or Mineral, around us; to dis-
cover as much as possible their nature and pro-^
perties, and especially their natural depen-
dence on each other in the general scale of
beings. In a more extensive sense it may
be said to teach their secondary properties,
or the various uses to which they have been,
or may be, converted, in the service of man-
kind or of other animals ; inasmuch as an ac-r
quaintance with their natural qualities is our
only sure guide to a knowledge of their arti-
ficial uses. But as this definition would in-

DKFINITION OF BOTANY. 11

elude many arts and sciences, each of them
sufficient to occupy any common mind, as
Agriculture, Dietetics, Medicine, and many
others, it is sufficient for a philosophical na-
turalist to be acquainted with the general
principles upon which such arts and sciences
are founded.

That part of Natural History which con-
cerns plants is called Botany, from BoTo^.yyiy the
Greek word for a herb or grass. It may be
divided into three branches ; 1st, The phy-
siology of plants, or a knowledge of the struc-
ture and functions of their different parts ;2dly.
The systematical arrangement and denomina-
tion of their several kinds ; and 3dly, Their
ceconomical or medical properties. Ail these
objects should be kept in view by an intelli-
gent botanist. The two first are of essential
service to each other, and the last is only to
be pursued, with any certamty, by such as
are versed in the other two. The present
publication is intended to explain the funda-
mental principles of them all, with as much
practical illustration as may be necessary for
those who wish to become well acquainted
with this delightful science. Botany has one

It GENERAL TiXTURE OF PLANTS,

advantage over many other useful and neccs-
^ry studies, that even its first beginnings are
pleasing and profitable, though pursued to
ever so small an extent; the objects with
which it is conversant are in themselves
charming, and they become doubly so to
those who contemplate them with the addi-
tional sense, as it were, which science gives ;
the pursuit of these objects is an exercise no
less healthful to the body, than the observa-
tion of their laws and characters is to the
mind.

In studying the functions of the Vegetable
frame, we must constantly remember that it is
not merely a collection of tubes or vessels
holding different fluids, but that it is endowed
with life, and consequently able not only to
imbibe particular fluids, but to alter their
nature according to certain laws, that is, to
fonn peculiar secretions. This is the exclusive
property of a living being. Animals secrete
milk and fat from food which has no resem-
blance to those substances ; so Vegetables
secrete gum, sugar, and various resinous sub-
stances from the uniform juices of the earth,
or perhaps from mere water and air. Tiie

GENERAL TEXTURE OF PLANTS, J 3

most different and discordant fluids, sepa-
rated only by the finest film or membrane,
are, as we have already observed, kept per-
fectly distinct, while life remains ; but no
tsooner does the vital principle depart, than
secretion, as well as the due preservation of
what has been secreted, are both at an end,
and the principle of dissolution reigns abso-
lute.

Before we can examine the physiology of
veo-etables, it is necessary to acquire some
idea of their structure.

Much light has been thrown upon the
general texture of Vegetables by the micro-
scopic figures of Grew, Malpighi and others,
Tepeated by Dr. Thornton in his Illustration
of the Linnaean System, but more especially
by the recent observations and highly mag-
nified dissections of M. Mirbel. See his
Table of Vegetable Anatomy in the work
already mentioned. From preceding v*riters
we had learned the general tubular or vas-
cular structure of the vegetable body, and
the existence of some peculiar spirally-coated
vessels in many plants. On these slender
foundations physiologists have, at their plea-

14 GENERAL TEXTURE OF PLANTS.

sure, constructed various theories, relative
to the motion of the sap, respiration and other
functions, presumed to be analogous to those
of animals. The anatomical observations of
Alirbel go further than those of Grew, &c.,
and it is necessary to give a short account of
his discoveries.

He finds, by the help of the highest mag-
nifying powers, that the vegetable body is a
continued mass of tubes and cells; the former
extended indefinitely, the latter frequently
and regularly interrupted by transverse par-
titions. These partitions being ranged alter-
nately in the corresponding cells, and each
cell increasing somewhat in diameter after its
first formation, except where restrained by
the transverse partitions, seems to account
for their hexagonal figure*. See Tab. \. f. a.
The membranous sides of all these cells and
tubes are very thin, more or less transparent,
often porous, variously perforated or torn.
Of the tubes, some are w ithout an}- lateral per-
forations, f. b, at least for a considerable ex-
tent ; others pierced with holes ranged in a

* In microscopic figures they are generally drawn
like circles intersecting each other.

GENERAL TEXTURE OF PLANTS, 15

close spiral line, /. c ; in others several of
these holes run together, as it were, into
interrupted spiral clefts, f, d ; and in some
those clefts are continued, so that the whole
tube, more or less, is cut into a spiral line,
f. e ; which, in some young branches and ten-
der leaves, will unroll to a great extent, when
they are gently torn asunder. The cellular
texture especially is extended to every part
of the vegetable body, even into the thin
skin, called the cuticle, v/hich covers every
external part, and into the fine hairs or down,
which, in some instances, clothe the cuticle
itself

Before we offer any thing upon the sup-
posed functions of these different organs,
we shall take a general view of the Vegetable
body, beginning at the external part and
proceeding iowards.

16

CHAPTER III,

OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS.

JCiVERY part of a living plant is covered
with a skin or membrane called the cuticle,
which same denomination has been given
bj anatomists to the scarf skin that covers
the animal body, protecting it from the
injuries of the air, and allowing of due absorp-
tion and perspiration through its pores.

Tliere is the most striking analogy between
the animal and the vegetable cuticle. In the
former, it varies in thickness from the exqui-
sitely delicate film which covers the eye, to
the hard skin of the hand or foot, or the far
coarser covering of a Tortoise or Rhinoceros ;
in the latter it is equally delicate on the parts
of a flower, and scarcely less hard on the
leaves of the Pearly Aloe, or coarse on the
trunk of a Plane tree. In the numerous layers

OF THE CUTICLB OR EPIDERMIS. 17

of this membrane continually peeling off from
tlic Birch, we see a resemblance to the
scales which separate from the shell of a
Tortoise. By maceration, boiling, or putre-*
faction, this part is separable from the plant
as well as from the animal, being, if not ab-
solutely incorruptible, much less prone to
decomposition than the parts it covers. The
vital principle, as far as wa can judge, seems
to be extinct in it.

The cuticle admits of the passage of fluids
from Wiihin as well as from without, but in
a due and defmite proportion in every plant :
consequently it must be porous ; and the mi-
croscope shows, what reason would teach us
to expect, that its pores are ditlerent in dif-
ferent kinds of plants. In very succulent
plants, as Aloes, a leaf of which being cut
off will lie for many weeks in the sun without
drying entirely, and yet when partly dry
will become plump again in a few hours if
plunged into water, the cuticle must be very
curiously constructed, so as to admit of ready
absorption, and very tardy perspiration. Such
plants are accordingly designed to inhabit
hot sandy countries, where they are long

c

1§ OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS.

exposed to a burning sun, with very rare
supplies of rain.

This part allows also of the passage of air,
as is proved by experiments on the functions
of leaves. Light probably acts through it,
as the cuticle is a colourless membrane. We
know the eifects of light to be very important
in the vegetable oeconomy.

But though this fine membrane admits
extraneous substances, so as to have their
due effect upon the vegetable constitution,
according to fixed laws, it no less powerfully
excludes all that would be injurious to the
plant, either in kind or proportion. Against
heat or cold it proves, in general, but a fee-
ble defence ; but when clothed with hair or
wool, it becomes a very powerful one. Against
the undue action of the atmosphere it is so
important a guard, that, when any tender
growing part is deprived of it, the greatest
mischiefs ensue. It forms in the Vegetable,
as wdl as the Animal, a fine but essential
barrier between life and destruction.

Some have imagined that the cuticle gave
form to the vegetable bod}^, because it some-
times being over tight causes contractions oa

OF THK CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS. 99

the stem of a tree, as in the phim or cherry,
and because it is found to be cracked wherever
an unnatural excrescence is produced on the
bark. No doubt the cuticle is formed so ay
to accommodate itself only to the natural
growth of the plant, not to any monstrosities,
and those lumps cause it to burst ; just as it
happens to ripe fruits in very wet seasons.
Their cuticle is constructed suitably to their
usual size or plumpness, but not to aiiy im-
moderate increase from too great absorption
of wet. If the cuticle be removed from any
part, no swelhng follows, as it would if this
membrane only kept the tree in shape.

The extension of the cuticle is astonishino-,
if we consider that it is formed, as Grew well
observes, on the tenderest embryo, and only
extended during the growth of the plant, and
that it appears not to have any connexion
with the vascular or living part of the ves^e-
table body. But though so accommodating
in those parts where it is wanted, on the old
trunks of most trees it cracks in every direc-
tion, and in many is entirely obliterated, tho
old dead layers of their bark performing all
the requisite offices of a cuticle.

c 2

fO or THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS,

M. Mirbel indeed, though he admits the
importance of this part in the several ways
above mentioned, contends that it is not a
distinct organ hke the cuticle of animals,
but merely formed of the cellular parts of the
plant dilated and multiplied, and changed
by their new situation. This is very true ;
but upon the same principle the human
cuticle can scarcely be called a distinct organ.
Its texture is continually scaling off exter-
nally, and it is supplied with new layers from
within. Just so does the cuticle of the Birch
peel off in scales, separable, almost without
end, into smaller ones.

Examples of different kinds of cuticle may
be seen in the following plants.

On the Currant tree it is smooth, and scales
off in large entire flakes, both from the young
branches and old stem» The same may be
observed in the Elder.

The fruit of the Peach and the leaf of the
Mullein have a cuticle covered with dense
and rather harsh wool, such as is found on
many Mexican plants, and on more Cretan
ones. The latter we know grow in open
places under a burning sun.

OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS. 21

The leaf of the White Willow is clothed
with a fine silky or satiny cuticle.

The cuticle of the Betony, and of many
other plants, is extended into rigid hairs or
bristles, which in the Nettle are perforated
and contain a venomous fluid.

On the fruit of the Plum, and on many
leaves, we find a blueish dry powder covering
the cuticle, which is a resinous exudation, and
it is difiicult to wet the surface of these plants.
Rain trickles over them in large drops.

In the Cork tree, the Common Maple, and
even the Dutch Elm, the cuticle is covered
with a fungous substance most extraordinary
in its nature, though familiar to us as cork.

In grasses and some other plants the inge-
nious Mr. Davy has found a flinty substance
in the cuticle.

What seems to be the cuticle on the trunk
of the Plane, the Fir, and a kind of Willow
called Salix triandra, rather consists of
scales of bark, which having performed their
functions and become dead matter, are re-
jected by the increasing bark beneath them ;
and this accords with M. Mirbel's idea of

22 OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS.

the cuticle. The old layers of bark in the
Chesnut, Oak, and many other trees, though
not cast off, are of the same nature ; and
these under the microscope exhibit the same
cellular texture as the real cuticle,

S3

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE CELLULAR INTEGUMENT.

Immediately under the Cuticle we find a
succulent cellular substance, for the most
part of a green colour, at least in the leaves
and branches, which is called by Du Haniel
the Enveloppe cellulaire, and by Mirbel the
Tissu herbacL This is in general the seat
of colour, and in that respect analogous to
the rete mucosum, or pulpy substance situated
under the human cuticle, which is pale in the
European, and black in the Negro ; but we
must carry the analogy no further, for these
two parts perform no functions in common.
Du Hamel supposed this pulp to form the
cuticle ; but this is improbable, as his cxpe*
riments show, when that membrane is re-
moved, that the Cellular Integument ex-
foliates, at least in trees, or is thrown off in
consequence ©f the injury it has sustained,

24 OF THE CELLULAR INTEGUMEKT.

and a new cuticle, covering a rew layer of
the same succulent matter, is formed under
the old one. Annual stems or branches have
not the same power, any more than leaves.

But little attention has been paid to this
organ till lately, though it is very universal,
even, as Mirbel observes, in Mosses and
Ferns. The same writer remarks that *' leaves
" consist almost entirely of a plate of this
" substance, covered on each side by the
" cuticle. The stems and branches of both
♦' annual and perennial plants are invested
" with it ; but in woody parts it is dried up
*' and reproduced continually, such parts
" only having that reproductive power. The
♦* old layers remain, are pushed outward
♦* by the new ones, and form at length the
*' rugged dry dead covering of the old trunks
^* of trees.''

When we come to consider the curious
functions of leaves, we shall find this part
to be of the very first importance. In it
the principal changes operated upon the juices
of plants by light and air, and the conse-
quent elaboration of all their peculiar secre-*
tions, take place.

S5

CHAPTER V.

OF THE BARK.

UxDER the Cellular Integument we find the
Bark, consisting of but one layer in plants or
branches only one year old, and often not
distinguishable from the wood. In the older
branches and trunks of trees, it consists of as
many layers as they are years old, the in-
nermost being called the liber ; and it is in
this layer only that the essential vital func-
tions are carried on for the time being,
after which it is pushed outwards with the
Cellular Integument, and becomes like that
a lifeless crust. These older layers, however,
are for some time reservoirs of the peculiar
secreted juices of the plant, which perhaps
they may help to perfect.

In some roots the bark, though only of
annual duration, is very thick; as in the

OF THE BARK.

Carrot, the red part of which is all bark.
In the Parsnep, though not distinctly colour*
ed, it is no less evident. In the Turnip it is
jnuch thinner, though equally distinct from
the wood or body of the root.

The Bark contains a great number of
woody fibres, running for the most part lon-
gitudinally, which give it tenacity, and in
which it differs very essentially from the parts
already described. These woody fibres when
separated by maceration exhibit in general
a kind of net- work, and in many instances
great regularity and beauty of structure. In
a family of plants to which the Mezereon be^
longs, the fibres of the inner bark have a
beautiful white shining appearance like silk.
In one of this tribe, a native of Jamaica, and
called Lace Bark, that part may be separated
by lateral extension into an elegant kind of
lace.

In the old bark of the Fir tribe, on the
contrary, nothing of this kmd is discernible.
The bark of the Cluster Pine, Pinus Fmastei\
some inches in thickness, is separable into
thin porous layers, each of them the produce
tion of one season, which do really seem to

OP THE BARK» f7

be, ,^cording to M. Mirbel's theory, hard^
ened and dried Cellular Integument ; but
they are rather perhaps that vascular part of
the Bark which once contained the secreted
jiluid, or turpentine, so abundant in this tree.
The bark of Oak trees twenty or thirty
years old, if cut and long exposed to the
weather, separates into many hne thin layers,
of a similar, tl>ough less delicate, texture
to the Lace Bark of Jamaica. All these
layers, in a living state, are closely connected
with each other by the cellular texture which
pervades the vegetable body in general, as
well as by transverse vessels necessaiy for the
performance of several functions hereafter to
be mentioned.

' In the bark the peculiar virtues or qualities
of particular pknts chiefly reside, and more
especially in several of its internal layers
nearest to the wood. Here we find in appro-
priate vessels the resin of the Fir ajid Juniper,
the astringent principle of the Oak and Wil-
low, on which their tanning property depends,
jthe fine and valuable bitter of the Peruvian
Bark, and the exquisitely aromatic oil of the
Cinnamon. The same secretions do indeed,

28 OF THE BABK.

more or less, pervade the wood and other parts
of these plants, but usually in a less concen-
trated form.

When a portion of the bark of a tree is
removed, the remainder has a power of ex-
tending itself laterally, though very gradu-
ally, till the wound is closed. This is accom-
plished by each new layer, added to the
bark internally, spreading a little beyond the
edge of the preceding layer. The operation
of closing the wound goes on the more slowly,
as the wood underneath, from exposure to
the air, has become dead, and frequently
rotten, proving an incumbrance, which though
the living principle cannot in this instance free
itself from, it has no power of turning to any
good account. If, however, this dead wood
be carefully removed, and the wound pro-
tected from the injuries of the atmosphere,
the new bark is found to spread much more
rapidly ; and as every new layer of bark forms,
as will be proved in the next chapter, a new
layer of wood, the whole cavity, whatever it
may be, is in process of time filled up.

This operation of Nature was turned to
great advantage by the late Mr. Forsyth of

jQP THE BARK. 29

Kensington gardens, the history of whose ex-
periments is before the pul>hc. Under his
management many timber trees, become en-
tirely hollow, were filled with new wood, and
made to produce fresh and vigorous branches;
and pear-trees planted in the time of King
William, and become so decayed and knotty
as to bear no fruit worth gathering, were by
gradual paring away of the old wood and
bark, and the application of a composition
judiciously contrived to stick close and keep
out air and wet, restored to such health and
strength as to cover the garden walls with
new branches bearing a profusion of fine fruit.
These experiments have passed under my
own actual observation, and I am happy to
bear testimony to the merits of a real lover of
useful science, and one of the most honest
and disinterested men I evep knew.

$0

CHAPTER Vt

OF TH:e WOOD.

When" the bark is removed, we come to
the substance of the wood, which makes the
principal bulk of the trunk or branch of a
tree or shrub. When cut across, it is found
to consist of numerous concentric layers,
very distinct in the Fir, and other European
trees in generaL Each of these circular
layers is externally most hard and solid.
They differ however among themselves in
this respect, as well as in their breadth on
the whole. It often happens that all the
layers' are broadest towards one side of the
tree, so that their common centre is thrown
very much out of the actual centre of the
trunk.

The wood owes its strength and tenacity
to innumerable woody fibres, and consists

OP THE tVOOl)* 31

of various vessels running for the most part
longitudinally ; some having a spiral coat,
others not. Of these vessels, some in their
youngest state convey the sap from the root
to the extremities of the branches and leaves;
others contain the various peculiar or secreted
juices ; others perhaps contain air. The whole
are joined together by the cellular substance
already described.

Linnaeus and most writers believe that one
of the abovementioned circular layers of
wood is formed every year, the hard exter-
nal part being caused by the cold of winter ;
consequently, that the exact age of a sound
tree when felled may be known by counting
these rings. It has even been asserted that
the date of peculiarly severe winters may
be 'found in the harder more condensed rings
formed at those periods ; and moreover, that
the north side of a tree may always be known
by the narrowness and density of the rings
on that side. All this is controverted by
Mirbel, chiefly on the authority of Du Hamel,
who nevertheless scarcely says enough to inva-
lidate the ancient opinion on the whole. It
is very true that there may be occasional inter-

32 OF THE WOOD.

ruptlons in the formation of the wood from cold
or fickle seasons, and that in some trees the>
thin intermediate layers, hardly discernible
in general, Avhich unite to form the principal
or annual ones, may, from such fluctuation
of seasons, become more distinct than is
natural to them. Such intermediate layers
are even found more numerous in some
trees of the same species and age than in
others. But as there is always a most mate-
rial difference between summer and winter,
so I believe will there always be a clear di-
stinction between the annual rings of such
trees as show them at all. Trees of hot
countries indeed, as Mahogany, and ever-
greens in general, have them but indistinctly
marked ; yet even in these they are to be
seen. With regard to their greater com-
pactness on the north side of a tree, Du
Hamel justly explodes this idea. In fact,
there is most wood formed, and consequently
these circles are broadest, on the side most
favourable to vegetation, and where there
are most branches and leaves. This in a
solitary tree is generally towards the south ;
but it is easy to perceive the occasional varia-

OP THE WOOD. 33

tions which must arise from local exposure,
soil, moisture, and other causes.

In some trees, a number of the outermost
rings difler greatly in colour from the inner-
most, and are called by workmen the sap.
In the Laburnum the former are yellow, the
latter brown. In the Oak and many other
trees a similar difference, though less striking,
is perceptible, and in most the external rings
are much less firm, compact, and durable
than the rest, retaining more vital principle,
and more of the peculiar juices of the plant.
Such rings are all comprehended by Du Hamel
under the name of Aiibier, alburnum; and
he rightly observes that this difference often
extends to a greater number of rings on one
side of a tree than on another. It seems
that the more vigour there is in a tree, or
side of a tree, the sooner is its alburnum
made perfect wood. By this term, however,
is properly understood only the layer of new
unhardened wood of the present year. When
the word alburnum is used in the following
pages, it applies to this part only.

Physiologists have long differed and do
still differ about the origin of the wood.

of THE WOOiy.

Malpighi and Grew thought it was fonned
bj the bark, and the best observations have
confirmed their opinion. Hales supposed the
wood added a new layer to itself externally
every year. Linneeus had a peculiar notion,
that a new layer of wood was secreted annu-
ally from the pith, and added internally to
tlie former ones. Truth obliges us to confess
that the latter theory is most devoid of any
kind of proof or probability.

Du Hamel, by many experiments, proved
the V. ood to be secreted or deposited from
the innermost part of the bark or liber. He
introduced plates of tinfoil under the barks
of growing trees, carefull}^ binding up their
wounds, and, after some years, on cutting
them across, he found the layers of new wood
oil the outside of the tm. His original spe-
cimeric \ h;rve examined in the public mu-
seum at Pans.

Dr. Hope, the latn worthy Professor of
Botany at Edinburgh, instituted an experi-
ment, if possible mare decisive, upon a branch
of Willow three or four j-ears old. The bark
was care I ally cut throucrh lonoitudinaliy on
one side for the leno'th of several inches, so

OF THE WOOD. 35

that it might be slipped aside from the Vvood
in the form of a hollow cylinder, the two
ends being undisturbed. The edges of the
bark were then united as carefully as possible,
the wood covered from the air, and the whxole
bound up to secure it from external injury.
After a few years, the branch was cut through
transversely. The cylinder of bark was found
lined with layers of new wood, whose number
added to those in the wood from w^hich it had
been stripped, made up the number of rings
in the branch above and below the experi-
ment. For an account of this experiment
I am indebted to Dr. Thomas Hope, the pre-
sent Chemical Professor at Edinburgh.

Du Hamcl engrafted a portion of the bark
of a Peach-tree upon a Plum. After some
time he found a layer of new w^ood under
the engrafted bark, white like that of the
Peach, and evidently different from the
red wood of the Plum. Moreover, in this
and other experiments made with the same
intention, he found the layers of new wood
always connected with the bark, and not
united to the old wood. See his Physique
des Arhresy vol. 2. 29, <&c. It deserves

D ^

36 OF THE WOOD.

also to be mentioned, that by performing this
experiment of engrafting a portion of bark at
different periods through the spring and sum-
mer, the same accurate observer found a
great difference in the thickness of the layer
of new wood produced under it, which was
always less in proportion as the operation
was performed later in the season.

That the bark or liber produces wood
seems therefore proved beyond dispute, but
some experiments persuaded Du Hamel that
in certain circumstances the wood was capa-
ble of producing a new bark. This never
happened in cuiy case but when the whole
trunk of a tree was stripped of its bark.
A Cherry-tree treated in this manner exuded
from the whole surface of its wood in little
points a gelatinous matter, which gradually
extended over the whole and became a new
bark, under which a layer of new wood was
speedily formed. Hence Mirhel concludes,
vol. 1. 176, that the alburnum and the
wood are really the origin of the new layers
of wood, by producing first this gelatinous
substance, or matter of organization, which
he and Du Hamel call cambium, and which

t
OF THE WOOD. 37

Mirbel supposes to produce the liber or
young bark, and at the same time, by a
pecuUar arrangement of the vascular parts,
the alburnum or new wood. His opmion is
strengthened by the observation of a tribe
of plants to be explained hereafter. Palms,
Grasses, Sec. in which there is no real bark,
and in which he finds that the woody fibres
do actually produce the cambium. Dr. Hope's
experiment will scarcely invalidate this opi-
nion, because it may be said the cambium
had already in that case formed the liber.

This matter will be better understood when
we come to speak of Mr. Knight's experiments
on the course of the sap.

33

CHAPTER VII.

OF THE MEDULLA OR PITH.

The centre or heart of the vegetable bodjj
within the wood, contains the Medulla or
Pith. This, in parts most endued with hfe,
as roots, and young growing stems or
branches, is a tolerably firm juicy substance,
of an uniform texture, and commonly a pale
green- or yellowish colour, Such is its ap-
pearance in the young shoots of Elder in the
spring 'y but in the very same branches, fully
grown, the pith becomes dry, snow-white,
highly cellular, and extremely light, capable
of being compressed to almost nothing. So
it appears likewise in the common Red or
White Currant, and numerous other plants.
In many annual stems the pith, abundant
and very juicy while they are growing, be-
comes little more than a web, lining the hol-
low of the complete stem, as in some This«

or THE MEDULLA Oil PITH. 39

ties. ]\Iany grasses and umbelliferous plants,
as Conium maculatum or Hemlock, have
always hollow stems, lined only with a thin
smooth coating of pith, exquisitely delicate
and brilliant in its appearance.

Concerning the nature and functions of
this part various opinions have been held.

Du Hamel considered it as merely cellular
substance, connected with what is diffused
through the v.hole plant, combining its vari-
ous parts, but not performing any remarkable
office in the veo;etable oeconomv.

Linnaius, on the contrary, thought it the
seat of hfe and source of veuetation : that its
vigour was the main cause of the propulsion
of the branches, and that the seeds were
more especially formed from it. This latter
hypothesis is not better founded than his idea,
already mentioned, of the pith adding new
layers internally to the wood. In fact the
pith is soon obliterated in the trunks of many
trees, which nevertheless keep increasing,
for a long series of years, by layers of wood
added every year from the bark, even after
the heart of the tree is become hollow from
decay.

40 •F THE MEDULLA OR PITH.

Some considerations have led me to hold
a medium opinion between these two ex-
tremes. There is, in certain respects, an
analogy between the medulla of plants and
the nervous system of animals. It is no less
assiduously protected than the spinal marrow
or principal nerve. It is branched off and
diffused through the plant, as nen-es are
through the animal. Hence it is not absurd
to presume that it may, in like manner,
give life and vigour to the whole, though by
no means, any more than nerves, the organ
or source of nourishment. It is certainly
most vigorous and abundant in young and
growing branches, and must be supposed to
be subservient, in some way or other, to their
increase. Mr. Lindsay of Jamaica, in a pa-
per read long ago to the Royal Society, but
not published, thought he demonstrated the
medulla in the leaf-stalk of the Mimosa
pudica^ or Sensitive Plant, to be the seat of
irritability, nor can I see any thing to invali-
date this opinion.

Mr. Knight, in the Philosophical Transac-
tions for 1801, p. 348, supposes the medulla
may be a reservoir of moisture, to supply

OP THE MEDULLA OR PITH* 41

the leaves whenever an excess of perspiration
renders such assistance necessary, ^and he
has actually traced a direct communication
hy vessels between it and the leaf. " Plants,"
says that ingenious writer, " seem to require
some such reservoir ; for their young leaves
are excessively tender, and they perspire
much, and cannot, like animals, fly to the
shade and the brook."

This idea of Mr. Knight*s may derive con-
siderable support from the consideration of.
bulbous-rooted grasses. The Common Cats-
tail, PJileum pratense^ Engl. Bof, t. 1076,
when growing in pastures that are uniformly
moist, has a fibrous root, but in dry situa-
tions, or such as are only occasionally wet,
it acquires a bulbous one, whose inner sub-
stance is moist and fleshy, like the pith of
young branches of trees. This is evidently
a provision of Nature to guard the plant
against too sudden a privation of moisture
from the soil.

But, on the other hand, all the moisture
in the medulla of a whole branch is, in some
cases, too little to supply one hour's perspi-
ration of a single leaf. Neither can 1 find

AS OP THE MEDULLA OR PITH.

that the moisture of the medulla varies, let
the leaves be ever so flaccid. I cannot but
incline therefore to the opinion that the
medulla is rather a reservoir of vital energy,
^ven in these bulbous grasses.

Mr. Knight has shown that the part in
question may be removed without any great
injury to a branch, or at least without im-
mediate injury, but I have had no oppor^
tunity of making any experiments on thi§
particular subject,

43

CHAPTER VIIL

OF THE SAP-VESSELS, AND COURSE OF

THE sap; with Mil. knight's theory

OF VEGETATION*

jVlucii contrariety of opinion has existed
among physiologists concerning the vascular
system of plants, and the nature of the pro-
pulsion of the sap through their stems and
branches. Indeed it is a subject upon which,
till lately, very erroneous ideas have pre-
vailed.

That the whole vegetable body is an as-
semblage of tubes and vessels is evident to
the most careless observer; and those who arc
conversant with the microscope, and books
relating to it, have frequent opportunities of
observing how curiously these vessels are ar-
):anged, and how different species of plants,

44 OF THE SAP-VESSELS.

especially trees, differ from each other in the
structure and disposition of them. Such ob-
servations, however, if pursued no further,
lead but a little way towards a knowledge of
the wonderful physiology of vegetables.

In our 2d chapter, mention is made of the
general cellular and vascular texture of plants;
we must now be a little more particular in our
inquiries.

That plants contain various substances, as
sugar, gum, acids, odoriferous fluids and
others, to which their various flavours and
qualities are owing, is familiar to every one ;
and a little reflection will satisfy us that such
substances must each be lodged in proper
cells and vessels to be kept distinct from each
other. They are extracted, or secreted, from
the common juice of the plant, and called its
peculiar or secreted fluids. Various experi-
ments and observations, to be hereafter en-
larged upon, prove also that air exists in the
vegetable body, and must likewise be con-
tained in appropriate vessels. Besides these,
we know that plants are nourished and invir
gorated by water, which they readily absorb,
and which is quickly conveyed through their

OP THE SAP- VESSELS. 45

stalks and leaves, no doubt by tubes or ves-
sels on purpose. Finally, it is observable that
all plants, as far as any experiment has been
made, contain a common fluid, which at cer-
tain seasons of the year is to be obtained in
great quantity, as from vine branches by
wounding them in the spring before the leaves
appear, and this is properly called the sap.
It is really the blood of the plant, by which
its whole body is nourished, and from which
the peculiar secretions are made.

The great difficulty has been to ascertain
the vessels in which the sap runs. Two of
the most distinguished inquirers into the sub-
ject, Malpighi and Grew, believed the woody
fibres, which make so large a part of the ve-
getable body, and give it consistence and
strength, to be the sap- vessels, analogous to-
the blood-vessels of animals, and their opi-
nion was adopted by Du Hamel. In support
of this theory it was justly observed that these
fibres are very numerous and strong, running*
longitudinally, often situated with great uni-
formity (an argument for their great import-
ance), and found in all parts of a plant, al-
.tko-ugh in some they are so delicate as to be

ifd OF THE SAP-VESSELS.

scarcely discernible. But philosophers Sought
in vahi for any perforation, any thing like a
tubular struct ure^ in the woody fibres to
countenance this liypothesis, for they are di-
visible almost without end, like the muscular
fibre. This difficulty was overlooked, because
of the necessity of beheving the existence of
sap-vessels somewhere ; for it is evident that
the nutrimental fluids of a plant must be car-
ried with force to .\ ards certain parts and in
certain directions, and that this can be accom-
phshed by regular vessels only, not, as Tourne-
fort supposed, by capillary attraction through
a simple spongy or cottony substance.

I received the first hint of what I now be-
lieve to be the true sap-vessels from the 2d
section of Dr. J)-<iY\\'ms Fhi/tologia, where it
is suffo-ested hat what have been taken for
air-vessels are really absorbents destined to
nourish the plant, or, in other words, sap-
vessels. The same idea has been adopted, con-
firmed by experiments, and carried to much
greater perfection by i\Ir. Knight, whose pa-
pers in the Philosophical Transactions for
1801, 1804 and 180.5 throw the most brilliant
light upon it, and, I think, establish no less

OF THE SAr-VESSELS. / 4/

than an entirely new theory of vegetation, by
which the real use and functions of the prin-
cipal orij;ans of plants are now for the iirst
time satisfactorily explained.

In a young branch of a tree or shrub, or in
the stem of an herbaceous plant, are Tound,
ranged round the cen rj or pih, a number of
longitudinal tubns or vessels, of a much more
firm texture than the adj ;cent parts, and when
examined minutely, these vessels often appear
to be constructed with a spiral coat. This may
be seen in the }o?ng twigs and leaf s'alks of
Elder, Syringa, and many other shrubs, as well
as in numerous herbaceous plants, as the Peo-
ny, and more especially many of the Lily tribe.
If a branch or stalk of any of these plants be
partly cut through or gently broken, and its
divided portions slowly drawn asunder, the
spiral coats of their vessels will unroll, exhi-
biting a curious spectacle even to the naked
eye. In other cases, though the spiral struc-
ture exists, its convolutions are scarcely se-
parable at all, or so indeterminate as to be
only marked by an interrupted line of perfo-
rations or slits, as shown by M. Mirbel.
Indeed the very same branches which exhibit

48 OP THE SAP-VESSELS.

these spiral vessels when young, show no signs
of them at a more advanced period of growth,
when their parts are become more woody,
firm, and rigid. No such spiral-coated vessels
have been detected in the bark at any period
of its growth.

Malpighi asserts that these vessels are al-
ways found to contain air only, no other fluid ;
while Grew reports that he sometimes met
with a quantity of moisture in them. Both
judged them to be air-vessels, or, as it were,
the lungs of plants, communicating, as these
philosophers presumed, with certain vessels of
the leaves and flowers, of an oval or globular
form, but destitute of a spiral coat. These
latter do really contain air, but it rather ap-
pears from experiment that they have no di-
rect communication with the former. Thus
the tubes in question have always been called
air-vessels, till Darwin suggested their real
nature and use*. He is perhaps too decisive
when he asserts that none of them are air-
vessels because they exist in the root, which is

* Du Hamel, indeed, once suspected that they con-
tained ** highly rarefied sap/' but did not pursue the
idea.

DR. Darwin's r.xrEniMKNTS. 49

not exposed to the atmosphere. We know
that air acts upon the plant under ground,
because seeds will not vegetate in earth un-
der the exhausted receiver of an air-pump.
Thil. Trans, No. 23. I do not however
mean to contend that any of these spiral ves-
sels are air-vessels, nor do I see reason to
believe that plants have any system of longi-
tudinal air-vessels at all, though they must
be presumed to abound in such as are trans-
verse or horizontal.

Dr. Darwin and Mr. Knight have, by the
most simple and satisfactory exp. riment,
proved these spiral vessels to be the channel
throuiih which the sap is conve^•ed. The
formerplacedleaiy twigs of a common Fig-tree
about an inch deep in a decoction of maddc^r,
and others in one of logwood. Alter some
hours, on cutting the branches across, the
coloured liquors v/ere found to have ascended
into each branch by these vessels, which ex-
hibited a circle of red dvOts round the pith,
surrounded by an external circle of vessels
containing the white milky juice, or secreted
fluid, so remarkable in the iig-tree. Tvlr.
Knight, in a similar manner, inserted the

E

^0 inn. knight's EXPEniMJiN-fA.,

lower ends of some cattings of the Applotretf
and Horse-chesnut into an infusion of the skina
ot a very black grape in water, an excellent
liquor for tiie purpose. Tlie result was simi-
lar. But Mr. Knight pursued his observations
much further than Dr. Darwin had done; for
he traced the coloured liquid even into the
leaves, " but it had neither coloured the bark
nor the sap between it and the wood ; and the
medulla was not affected, or at most was very
slightly tinged at its edges." VJiil. Trans,
for 1801, p,335.

The result of all Mr. Knight's experiments
and remarks s^eems to be, that the fluids des-
tined to nourish a plant, being absorbed by
the root and become sap, are carried up into
the leaves by these vessels, called by him cen-
tral vessels, from their situation near the pith.
A particular set of them, appropriated to each
leaf, branches oft^, a few inches below the leaf
to which they belong, from the main channels
that j>ass along ihe alburnum, and extend
from the fibres of the root to the extremity
of each annual shoot of the plant. As -they
approach the leaf to which they are destined,
the central vessels become move numerous,

PROrULSION OF THE SAP, 51

or subdividecl. " To these vessels/' says Mr.
Knight, " the spiral tubes are every where
appendages." p. 3S6. By this expresj>ion,
and by a passage in the following page*, 337,
this writer might seem to consider the spiral
line, which forms the coats of these vessels,
as itself a pervious tube, or else that he was
speaking of other tubes with a spiral coat,
companions of the sap-vessels ; but the plate
which accompanies his dissertation, and the
perspicuous mode in which he treats the sub-
ject throughout, prevent our mistaking him
on the last point. In order to conceive how
the sap can be so powerfully convevcd as it
is thron2:h the vessels in which it flows, from
the root of a tall tree to its highest branches,
we must take into consideration the action of
heat. We all know that this is necessary to
the growth and heallh of plants ; and that it
requires to be nicely adjusted in degree, in

* ''The whole of the fluid, which passes from the wood
to tliC leaf, seems to mc evidently to be convcytd through
a single kind of vessel ; for the spiral tubes will ncillKr
carry coloured infusions, nor in the smallest degree re-
tard the withering of the leaf, when the central vessels
arc divided." Kn'/ghf.

52 PllOPLLSION' OF THE 55 A5',

order to suit tlu^ constitutions oi tlifK;rcnt
tribes of plants destined for ditferent parts of
the p-lobo. It cannot but act as a stimulus
to the living principle, and is one of the most
powerful agents of Nature upon the vegetable
as well as animal constitution. Besides this,
however, various mechanical causes maj be
supposed to have their eflect; as the frequently
spiral or screw-like form of the vessels, in
some of which, ^^'\\vn separated from the plant,
jMalpighi tells us he once saw a very beauti-
ful undulating motion that appeared sponta-
neous. This indeed has not been seen by any
other person, nor c:m it be supposed that
parts so delicate can, in general, be removed
from their natural situation, without the de-
struction of that fine irritability on which such
a motion must depend. ^,Ve may also take
into consideration the agilation of the vege-
table body by 'svind'^, which is known by ex-
perii>nce lo b(^ so w liolesome to it*, and must
serve powerfully to propt^l the llnids of lofty
trees; the passage, and evolution perhaps, of

* Sec Mr. Knight's experiments hi confirmation of this
in the Phil. Tnvis. for 1S03, p. 250.

ACTION OF THE SILVER GRAIN. 53

air in other parts or vessels, surrounding and
compressing these ; and lastly the action, so
ingeniously supposed by Mr. Knight, of those
thui shining plates called the sili'O' grain,
visible in oak wood, wliich pressing upon the
sap-vessels, and being apparently susceptible
of quick changes from variations in heat or
other causes, may have a powerful effect.
" Their restless temper,'' says Mr. Knight,
" after the tree has ceased to live, inchnes
me to believe that they are not made to be
idle whilst it continues alive." PhiL Trails,
for 1801, p. 344. These plates are presumed
by the author just quoted to be peculiarly
useful in assisting the ascent of the sap
through the alburnum of the trunk or chief
branches, where indeed the spiral coats of
the vessels a^'e either wanting, or less elastic
than in the leaf-stalks and summits of the
more tender shoots.

How^ever its conveyance may be accom-
plished, it is certain that the sap does reach
the parts above mentioned, and there can
surely be now^ as little doubt of the vessels
in which it runs. That these vessels ha^e
been thought to contain air onlv, is well ac-

54 COURSE OF THE SAP.

counted for by Dr. Darwin, on the principle
of their not collapsing when emptied of then''
sap ; which is owing to their rigidity, and the
elastic nature of their coats. When a portion
of a stem or branch is cut off, the sap soon
exhales from it, or rather is pushed out by the
action of the vessels themselves : hence they
are found empty ; and for the same reason
the arteries of animals were formerly thought
to contain air only. When the sap-vessels
have parted with their natural contents, air
and even quicksilver will readily pass through
them, as is shown by various expermients.
Arguments in support of any theory must be
\ery cautiously deduced from such experi-
ments, or from any other observations not
made on vea'etables in their most natural state
and condition ; and, above all, that great
agent the vital principle must abvays be kept
in view^, in preference to mere mechanical coi>
siderations.

These to which I give the common name
of sup- vessels, comprehending the common
tubes of the alburnum, and the central ves-
sels, of Mr. Knight, may be considered as
analogous to the arteries of animals ; or rather

COURSE OF THE SAP.

tliey are the stomach, lactcals and arteries all
in one, lor I conceive it to be a great error in
Dr. Darwin to call by this name the vessels
wliicli contain ilic peculiar secretions of the
plant*. These sap-\ essels, no doubt, absorb
the nutritious fluids afforded by the soil, in
ivhich possibly, as they pass through the root,
some change analogous to digestion may take
place; for there is evidently a great difference,
in many cases, between the fluids of the root,
at least the secreted ones, and those of the rest
of the plant ; and this leads us to presume that
some considerable alteration may be wrou2;ht
in the sap in its course through that impor-
tant organ. The stem, uhich it next enters,,
i^ by no means an essential part, for we see
many plants whose leaves and flowers grow
directlj' from tiie foot.

Part of the sap is co-uveyed into the flowers
and fruit, where various fine and essential se-
cretions are madxj from it, of which we shall
speak hereafter. By far the greater portion
X)f the sap is carried into the leaves, of the
great importance and utility of wifich to the
pjant itself Mr. Pvnight's theory is the only um..

^ Phijtologin, ^cct. Q,

^" COURSE OF THE SAP'.

that gives us any adequate or satisfactory no-
tion. In ihose orii^-ans the sap is exposed to
the action of hirht, air and moisture, three
povrerful agents, by which it is enabled to
form various secretions, at the same time that
much vSuperfluous matter passes off by per-
spiration. These secretions not only give pe-
cuhar flavours and qualities to the leaf itself,
but are returned by another set of vessels, as
Mr. Knight has demonstrated, into the new-
layer of bark, which they nourish and bring
to perfection, and which they enable in its
turn to secrete matter for a new layer of al-
burnum the ensuing year. It is presumed
that one set of the returning vessels of trees
mav probably be more particularly destined
to this latter office, and another to the secre-
tion of peculiar fluids in the bark. See VML
Trmis. for 1801, p. 337- In the bark princi-
pally, if I mistake not, the peculiar secretions
of the plant are perfected, as gum, resin, &c.,
each undoubtedly in an appropriate set of
vessels. From what has just been said of the
office of leaves, we readily perceive why all
the part of a branch above a leaf or leaf-bud
dies when cut, as each portion receives nou-

GROWTH OF MOXOCOTYLEDONES. 57

rishment, and the means of increase, from
the leaf above it.

Bv the above view of the vejretable cecono-
my, it appears that the vascular sj'stem of
plants is strictly annual. This, of course, is
admitted in herbaceous plants, the existence
of whose stems, and often of the whole in-
dividual, is limited to one season; but it is
no less true with regard to trees. The layer
of alburnum on the one hand is added to the
wood, and the I'lb^r, or inner layer of the
bark, is on the other annexed to the layers
formed in preceding seasons, and neither have
any share in the process of vegetation for the
year ensuing. Still, as they continue for a
long time to be living bodies, and help to
perfect, if not to form, secretions, they must
receive some portion of nourishment fro.m
those more active parts which have taken up
their late functions.

There is a tribe of plants called monocoty-'
ledones^ having only one lobe to the seed*,
whose growth rec^uires particular mention.
To these belongs the natural order of
Palms, which being the most lofty, and,

* Or rather no true cotvlcdon at all.

iB GROWTH OF MONOCOTYLEDONES.

in some instances, the most long-lived of
plants, have justly acquired the name of
trees. Yet, paradoxical as it may seem, they
are rather perennial herbaceous plants, having
nothing in common with the growth of trees
in general. Their nature has been learnedly
explained by M. Desfontaincs, a celebrated
French botanist, and by M. Mirbel in his
Trait t cV Anatomic et cle Phi/siologie Vegctales,
'Vol. 1. p, 209, and Linneeus has long ago made
remarks to the same purpose. The Palms are
formed of successive circular crowns of leav'CS,
which spring directly from the root. These
leaves and their footstalks are furnished with
bundles of large sap-vessels and returning vesr-
eels, like the leaves of our trees. When
one circle of them has performed its office,
another is formed within it, which being con-
fmed below, necessarily rises a little above
the former. Thus successive circles grow one
above the other, by which the vertical in-
crease of the plant is almost without end,
Each circle of leaves is independent of its pre-
'decessor, and has its own clusters of vessels,
so that there can be no aggregation of woody
circles ; and yet in some of this Vi'ibc the

OP REVERSED PLANTS, 59

spurious kind of stem, formed in the manner
just described, when cut across shows some-
thino; of a circular arranoement of fibres,
arising from the original disposition of the
leaves. The common orange \i\y, Lilhim hul-
biferum. Curt. Mag. t. 36", and white lily,
L. candidicm, t. 278, which belong to the same
natural iamily called f/ionocofjledones, serve to
elucidate this subject. Their stems, though
of only annual duration, are formed nearly
on the same principle as that of a Palm, and
are rciUv cono-eries of leaves risino^ one above
another, and united by their bases into an
apparent stem. In these the spiral coats of
the sap-vessels are very easily discernible.

To conclude this subject of the propulsion
of the sap, it is necessary to say a few words
on the power which the vessels of plants are
reported to possess of conveying their appro-
priate fluids equally well in either direction ;
or, m other words, that it is indifferent whe"
ther a cutting of any kind be planted with its
upper or low^er end in the ground. On this
/subject also Mr. Knight has afforded us new^
information, by observing that, in cuttings so
treated, the returning vessels retain so much

6(t. OF REVERSED PLANTS.

of their original nature as to deposit new wood
above the leaf-buds ; that is, in the part of the
cutting which, if planted in its natural posi-
tion, would have been below them. It ap-
pears, however, that the sap-vessels must ab-
sorb and transmit their sap in a du'ection con-
trary to what is natural; and it is highly pro-
bable, that after some revolving seasons new
returning vessels would be formed in that part
of the stem which is now below the buds. I
presume there can be no doubt that successive
new branches would deposit their wood in the
usual position. It is nevertheless by no means
common for such inverted cuttings to succeed
at all. An experiment to a similar purpose is
recorded by Dr. Hales, Vegetable Staticks,
p. 132, t. 11, of engrafting together three trees
standing in a row^, and then cutting oft' the
communication between the central one and
the earth, so that it became suspended in the
air, and was nourished merely through its late-
ral branches. The same experiment was success-
fully practised by the late Dr. Hope at Edin-
burgh upon three Willows, and in the j^ears
1781, 2, and 3, I repeatedly witnessed their
health and vigour. It was observed that the

OF REVERSED PLANTS. Cl

central tree was several days later in comlno;
into leaf than its supporters, but I know not
that any other clifterence was to be perceived
between them. The tree which wanted the
support of the ground was, some years after,
blown down, so that we have now no oppor-
tunity of examining the course of its vessels,
or the mode in which successive layers of
wood were deposited in its branches; but the
experiment is easily repeated.

In the weeping variety of the Common Ash,
now so frequent in gardens, the branches are
completely inverted as to position, yet the
returning fluids appear to run exactly in their
natural direction, depositing new v^ood, as
they are situated above the buds or leaves ;
and if the end of any branch be cut, all be-
yond (or beloTx;) the next buddies; so that in
this case gravitation, to which Mr. Knight
attributes considerable power over the return-
ing fluids, Phil, Trans, for 1804, does not
counteract the ordinary course of nature.

02

CHAPTER IX.

OF THE SAP, AXD IXSEXSIBLE PERSPI-
RATIOX.

JL HE sap of trees, as has been mentioned in
the last chapter, may be obtained by wound-
ing a stem or branch in spring, just before
the buds open, or in the end of autumn,
though less copiously, after a slight frost;
yet not during the frost. In the Palm-trees
of hot countries, it is said to flow from a
wound at any tune of the year. It has al-
ways been observed to flow from the young
wood or alburnum of our trees, not from
the bark ; which agrees with Mr. Knight's
theory.

A common branch of the Vine cut through

o

will yield about a pint of this fluid in the course
of twenty-four hours. The Birch, Betula
alba, aflbrds plenty of sap ; some other trees
yield but a small quantity. It flows equally

OF THE SAP, AND INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION. 63

Upward and downward from a wound, at least
proportional)] V to the quantity of stem or
branch in either direction to supply it. Some
authors have asserted that in the heat of tho
day it flows most from the lower part of a
wound, and in the cool of the eveninp: from
the upper ; lience they concluded it was
ascending during the first period, and de-
scending in the latter. If the fact be true,
some other solution must be sought; nor
would it be difficult to invent a theory upon
this subject : but we rather prefer the investi-
gation of truth on more solid foundations.

Tliis great motion, called the flomng, of
the sap, which is to be detected principally in
the spring, and slightly in the autumn, is
therefore totally distinct from that constant
propulsion of it going on in every growinj.'-
plant, about which so much has been said in
the preceding chapter, and which is proved
by taking an entire herb of any kind that has
been gathered and suffered to l^egin lo fade,
and immersing its root in water. By absorp-
tion through the sap-vessels it presently re-
vives, for those vessels require a constant sup-
ply from the root.

64 OF THE SAP,

This flowing of tlie sap lias been tliouglit
to demonstrate a circulation, because, there
being no leaves to carry it off by perspiration,
it is evident that, if it were at these periods
running up the sap-vessels with such velocity,
it must run down -again by other channels.
As soon as the leaves expand, its motion is
no lonsrer to be detected. The effusion of
sap from plants, when cut or w^ounded, is,
during the greater part of the year, compa-
ratively very small. Their secreted fluids run
much more abundantly.

I conceive therefore that xKis flowing is no-
thing more than a facility in the sap to run,
owing to the peculiar irritability of the ve-
getable body at the times above mentioned ;
and that it runs only ^hen a wound is made,
being naturally at rest till the leaves open,
and adniit of its proper and regular convey-
ance. Accordingly^ ligatures made at this
period, which show so plainly the course of
the blood in an animal body, have never
been found to throw any light upon the vege-
table circulation. This great facility in the
sap to run is the first step towards the revi-
val of vegetation from the torpor of winter ;

AND INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION. 65

and its exciting cause is heat, most unques-
tionably by the action of the latter on the
vital principle, and scarcely by any mechani-
cal operation, or expansive power upon the
fluids. The eflfect of heat is in proportion to
the degree of cold to which the plant has been
accustomed. In forced plants the irritabi-
lity, or, to use the words of a late ingenious
author*, who has applied this principle very
happily to the elucidation of the animal ceco-
novay , excitability , IS exhausted, as Mr. Knight
well remarks, and they require a stronger sti-
mulus to grow with vigour. See p. 91. Hence
vegetation goes on better in the increasing
heat of spring than in the decreasing heat of
autumn. And here I cannot but offer, by
way of illustration, a remark on the theory
advanced by La Cepede, the able continua-
tor of Buffon, relative to serpents. That in-
genious writer mentions, very truly, that
these reptiles awake from their torpid state m
the spring, while a much less degree of heat
exists in the atmosphere than is perceptible

* Dr. John Brown, formerly of Edinburgh. See the
14th Section of Dr. Darwin's PhytoLogia on this sub-
ject.

P

66 Of THE SA^,

in the autumn, when, seemingly from the in-
creasing cold, they become benumbed ; and
he explains it by supposing a greater degree
of electricity in the air at the former season.
Dr. Brown's hypothesis, of their irritability
beino- as it were accumulated during winter,
offers a much better solution, either with re-
spect to the animal or vegetable constitution.
For the same reason, it is necessary to apply
warmth very slowly and carefully to persons
frozen, or even chilled only, by a more than
usual degree of cold, which renders them
more susceptible of heat, and a temperate
diet and very moderate stimulants are most
safe and useful to the unexhausted constitu-
tions of children. The same principle ac-
counts for the occ?ii>'ioiyd\ flowing of the sap in
autumn after a slight frost. Such a prema-
ture cold increases the sensibility of the plant
to any warmth that may follow, and produces,
in a degree, the same state of its constitution
as exists after the longer and severer cold of
winter. Let me be allowed a further illustra-
tion from the animal kingdom. Every body
conversant with labouring c^fttle must have
observed how much sooner they are exhaust-

AN-£> INSENSIBLE PF.RSPlRATIONt CJ

cd by the warm clays of autamn, when tlie
nights are cold, than in much hotter weather
in summer, and this is surely from the same
t:ause as the autumnal flowing of the vegetable
sap.

The sap, or lymph, of mbst plants when
Collectt;d in the spring as above mentioned,
appears to the sight and taste little elsti than
water, but it jK)on undergoes fermentation
and putrefaction. Even that of the Vine is
scarcely acid, though it can hardly be ob-
tained without some of the secreted juices,
which in that plant are extremely acid and
astringent. The sap of the Sugar Maple^
Acer saccharinum^ has no taste, though ac*
cording to Du Hamel every 200lb. of it will
afford lOlb. of sugar. Probably, as he re-
marks, it is not collected without an adraix^
ture of secreted fluids*

As soon as the leaves expand, insensible
perspiration takes place very copiously, chief-
ly from those organs, but also in some degree
from the bark of the young stem or branches.
The liquor perspired becomes sensible to us
by being collected from a branch introduced
into any sufiiciently capacious glass vessel,

68 OF THE SA.P, AND INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION.

and proves, for the most part, a clear watery
^ liquor like the sap, and subject to similar
chemical changes. It is observed to be uni-
form in all plants, or nearly so, as well as the
sap, except where odorous secretions transude
along with it. Still there must be a very es-
sential difference between the original sap of
any plant and its perspiration, the latter no
longer retaining the rudiments of those fine
secretions which are elaborated from the for-
mer ; but that difference eludes our senses as
well as our chemistry. The perspiration of
some plants is prodigiously great. The large
Annual Sunflower, TIelianthus annuus, Ger-
arde Emac. 751. f. 1, according to Dr. Hales,
perspires about 17 times as fast as the ordi-
nary insensible perspiration of the human skin.
But of all plants upon record 1 think the Cor-
nelian Cherry, Corniis masculo, is most ex-
cessive in this respect. The quantity of fluid
which evaporates from its leaves in the course
of 24 hours, is said to be nearly equal to twice
the weight of the whole shrub. Du Hamcl
Fhys, des Arbres, v. 1. 145.

69

CHAPTER X.

OP THE SECRETED FLUIDS OF PLANTS.
GRAFTING. HEAT OF THE VEGETABLE
BODY.

The srip in its passage through the leaves
and burk becomes quite a new fluid, possess-
ing the peculiar flavour and qualities of the
plant, and not only yielding woody matter
for the increase of the vegetable body, but
famishing various secreted substances, more
or less numerous and different among them-
selves. These accordingly are chiefly found
in the bark ; and the vessels containing them
often prove upon dissection very large and
conspicuous, as the turpentine-cells of the
Fir tribe. In herbaceous plants, whose stems'
are only of annual duration, the perennial
roots frequently contain these fluids in the
most perfect state, nor are they, in such,
•confined to the bark, but deposited through^

yO SECnETED FLUIDS.

out the substance or wood of the root, as in
Rhubarb, Rhewn pabnatm/i, TJnn. fil. Fasc.
t. 4, and Gentian, Gentiana lutca and pur"
purea, Ger. emac. 432,/. 1, 2. In the wood
of the Fir indeed copious depositions of tur-
pentine are made, and in that of every tree
more or less of a gummy, resinous, or sac-,
charine ma|:ter is found. Such must be
formed by branches of those returning ves-
sels that deposit the new alburnum. These
juices appear to be matured, or brought to
greater perfection, in layers of wood or bark
that have no longer any principal share in the
circulation of the sap.

The most distinct secretions of vegetables
require to be enumerated under several dif-
ferent heads.

Gum or mucilage, a viscid substance of
little flavour or smell, soluble in water, is
very general. When superabundant it ex-
udes from many trees in the form of large
drops or lumps, as in Plum, Cherry, and
Peach-trees, and different species of Mimosa
or Sensitive plants, one of which yields the
Gum Arabic, others the Gum Senegal, &c.
Jlesin is a substance soluble in spirits, arid

HESIKOUS SEOnr.TIONS.

much more various in different plant -, thnri
the preceding, as the Turpentine of the Fir
and Juniper, the Red Guiti of New 3outh
Wales, produced by one or more species of
Eucahipiun, BoL of I^.IIolL f, 13, and the
fragrant Yellow Gum of the same country,
see IVliitts Voyage, 23,5, which exudes spon-
taneously from the Xanthorrhcca Hastile.
Most vegetable exudations partake of a na*'
ture between these two, being partly soluble
in water, partly in spirits, and are therefore
called Gum-resins. The milky juice of the
Fig, Spurge, <Scc., which Dr. Darwin has
shown, and which every body may see, to be
quite distinct from the sap, is, like animal
milk, an emulsmi, or combination- of a wa-»
tery fluid with oil or resin. Accordingly,
when suffered to evaporate irt the air, such
fluids become renins- or gum-resins, as the Gum
Euphorbimn. In the Celandine, Ckelidoni^
um mnjiis, Engl. Bat. t. 1581, and st>mc
plants allied to it, the emulsion is orange-co^
loured.

The more refined and volatile secretions of
a resinous nature are called Essential Oils,
and are often highly aromatic and odoriferous.

7-2 BITTER SECRETION.

One of the most exquisite of these is afforded
by the Cinnamon bark. They exist in the
highest perfection in the perfumed effluvia of
flowers, some of which, capable of combi-
nation with spirituous fluids, are obtainable
by distillation, as that of the Lavender and
Rose ; while the essential oil of the Jasmine
is best procured by immersing the flowers in
expressed oil which imbibes and retains their
fragrance. Such Expressed or Gross Oils, as
they are called, to distinguish them from es-
sential oils obtained by distillation, are chief-
ly found in the seeds of plants. In the pulp
of the Olive indeed they occur in the form
of an emulsion, mixed with watery and
bitter fluids, from which the oil easily sepa-
rates by its superior lightness. These ex-
pressed oils are not soluble in spirits or water,
though by certain intermediate substances
they may be rendered capable of uniting
with both.

The Bitter secretion of many plants does
not seem exactly to accord with any of the
foregoing. Some facts would seem to prove
it of a resinous nature, but it is often per-
fectly soluble in water. Remarkable instances

ACID AND ALKALINE SECRETIONS. 73

of tills secretion are in the C'uidiona cffi^
c'malis or Peruvian l)ark, Lambert Cincho?ia,
t. 1, and every species, more or less, of
Gentian.

Acid secretions are well known to be very
general in plants. Formerl) one uniform vege-
table or acetous acid was supposed common
to all plants ; but the refinements of modern
chemistry have detected in some a peculiar
kind, as the OxaUc acid, obtained from Oxalis
or Wood Sorrel, and several others. The
astringent principle should seem to be a sort of
acid, of which there are many different forms
or kinds, and among them the tanning prin-
ciple of tl/e Oak, Willow, &c.

On the other hand, two kinds of Alkali
are furnished by vegetables, of which the
most general is the Vegetable Alkali, pro-
perly so called, known by the name of Salt
of Tartar, or Salt of Wormwood, or more cor-
rectly by the Arabic term Kali. The Fossil
Alkah, or Soda^ is most remarkable in cer-
tain succulent plants that grow near the sea,
belonging to the genera Chenopodium, Sal-
sola, iScc. When these plants are cultivated
in a common soil, they secrete Soda tis copi-

74 SUGAR.

ously, provided their health be good, as in
their natural maritime places of growth.

Sugar, more or less pure, is very generally
found in plants. It is not only the seasoning
of most eatable fruits, but abounds in various
roots, as the Carrot, Beet and Parsnip, and
n many plants of the grass or cane kind be-
sides the famous Sugar Cane Saccliarum offi-
cinarwn. There is great reason to suppose
Sugar not so properly an original secretion, as
the result of a chemical change in secretions
already formed, either of an acid or mucila-
jt'inous nature, or possibly a mixture of both.
In ripening fruits this change is most striking,
and takes place very speedily, seeming to be
greatly promoted by heat and light. By the
action of frost, as Dr. Darwin observes, a dif-
ferent change is wrought in the mucilage of
the vegetable body, and it becomes starch.

A fme red liquor is afforded by some plants,
as the Bloody Dock or Rumtx sanguineus^
Enal Bot. t. 1533, the Red Cabbage and
Red Beet, which appears only to mark a va-
riety in all these plants, and not to constitute
a specific difference. It is however perpe-
tuated by seed.

VAnil.TlES OF SECRETIONS. 75

It is curious to observe, not only the vari-
ous secretions of different plants, or tanuiies
of plants, by which they ditier from each
other in taste, smell, qualities and medical
virtues, but also their great number, and
striking difference, frequently in the same
plant. Of this the Peach-tree offers a fdmiliar
example. The gum of this tree is mild and
mucilaginous. The bark, leaves and flowers
abound with a bitter secretion of a purgative
and rather dangerous quality, than which no-
thing can be more distinct from the gum.
The fruit is replete, not onl}^ with acid, mu*
cilage and sugar, but with its ov/n peculiar
aromatic and highly volatile secretion, elabo-
rated within itself, on which its fine flavour
depends. How far are we still from under-
standing the whole anatomy of the vegetable
body, which can create and keep separate
sucb distinct and discordant substances !

Nothing is more astonishing than the se-
cretion of flinty earth by plants, which, though
never suspected till within a few years, appears
to me well ascertained. A substance is found
in the hollow stem of the Bamboo, (ylrundo
Bambos of Linnapus, Castas of Tiieophrastus,)

76 FLIMTY SKCRIiTION.

called Tabaxir or Tabasheer, which is suppo-
sed in the East Indies (probably because it is"
rare and difficult of acquisition, like the ima-
ginary stone in the head of a toad) to be en-
dowed vvith extraordinary virtues. Some of
it, brought to England, underwent a che-
mical examination, and proved, as nearly as
possible, pure fiint. See Dr. Russell's and
Mr. Macie's papers on the subject in the Fhil.
Trans, for V(^Oand 1791- It is even found
occasionally in- the Bamboo cultivated in our
hot-houses. But we need not search exotic
plants for flinty earth. I have already, in
speaking of the Cuticle, chapter 3d, alluded
to the discoveries of Mr. Davy, Professor of

Chemistry at the Royal Institution, on this

x/ ■J '

subject. That able chemist has detected pure
flint in the cuticle of various plants of the fa-
mily of Grasses, in the Cane (a kind of Palm)
and in the Rough Horsetail, Eqinsetum hy-
ernale, Engl. Bot. t, 9^5, . In the latter it is
very copious, and so disposed as to make a
natural tile, which renders this plant useful
in various manufactures, for even brass can-
not resist its action. Common Wheat straw,
when burnt, is found to contain a portion of

ODOUR OF PLANTS. 77

flinty enrth in the form of a most exquisite
powder, and this accounts for the utihty of
burnt straw in giving the last pohsh to mar-
ble. How great is the contrast between this
production, if it be a secretion, of the tender
vegetable frame, and tho.'^e exhalations which
constitute the perfume of flowers! One is
among the most permanent substances in
Nature, an ingredient in the primaeval moun-
tains of the globe ; the other the invisible un-
tangible breath of a moment !

The odour of plants is unquestionably of a
resinous nature, a volatile essential oil and
several pha^nomena attending it well deserve
our attentive consideration. Its general na-
ture is evinced hy its ready union with spirits
©r oil, not with water ; yet the moisture of
the atmosphere seems, in many instances,
powerfully to favour its diffusion. This I ap-
prehend to arise more from the favourable ac-
tion of such moisture upon the health and vi-
gour of the plant itself, thus occasionally pro-
moting its odorous secretions, than from the
fitness of the atmosphere, so circumstanced,
to convey them. Both causes however may
operate* A number of flowers which have no

78 NlOUT-SCfeNtEB FLOWERS.

scent in the course of the day, smell power-
fully in an evening, whether the air be moist
or dry, or whether they happen to be exposed
to it or not. This is the property of some
Avhich Linnaeus has elegantly called^ores tris-
ies, melancholy flowers, belonging to various
tribes as discordant as possible, agreeing only
in their nocturnal fragrance, which is peculiar,
very similar and exquisitely delicious in all of
them, and in the pale yellow^ish, greenish, or
brownish tint of their flowers. Among these
are Mtsembrnanthenmm iioctiflorum, DHL
Elth. t. 206, Pelargonium triste^ Cormit,
Cannd. 110, and several species akin to it^
Hespcris tristis. Curt, Mag. t. 730, Chci-
ranthus tristis, t. 729, Daphne poutica, An-
dre7:'ss Repos. t. 73, Crassula odoratissima,
t* 26, and many others*. A few more, greatly
resembling these in the green hue of their

* These flowers afford the poet a new imagCj which
is introduced into the following imitation of Martialj and
offered here solely for its novelty :

Go mingle Arabia's gums

With the spices all India yields.
Go crop each young flower as it blooms.

Go ransack the gardens and fields.

SMELL OF NEW HAY. 79

blossoms, exhale, in the evening chiefly, a
most powerful lemon-like scent, as Epidcn-
drum emifot'nun, Sm. SpiciL t 24, and
Chloranflius inconspicuus, Phil. Trans, for
1787j f* 14, ;jreat favourites of the Chniese,
who seem peculiarly fond of this scent. There
are other instances of odorous and aromatic
secretions, similar among themselves, pro-
duced by very different plants, as Camphor.
The sweet smell of new hay is found not only
in Antho.vanthum odGrattim, Etigl. Bof. t. 647,
and some other grasses, but in Woodruff or
Asperula odoraia, f. 755, Melilot or Trifo-
Hum officinale, t, 1340, and all the varieties,
by some deemed species, of Orchis militarise

Let Paestum's all-flowery grove*

Their roses profusely bestow.
Go catch the light zephyr that roves

Where the wild thyme and marjoram grow.

Let every pale night-scented flower.

Sad emblem of passion forlorn.
Resign its appropriate hoar,

To enhance the rich breath of the morn.

All that art or that nature can find,
Not half so delightful would prove.

Nor their sweets all together con)bined,
Half so sweet as the breath of my love.

so BITTER-ALMOND FLAVOUR.

1. 16 and t. 1873, plants widely different from
each other in botanical characters, as well as in
colour and every particular except smell. Their
odour has one peculiarity, that it is not at all
perceptible while the plants are growing, nor
till they begin to dry. It proceeds from their
whole herbage, and should seem to escape
from the orifices of its containing cells, only
when the surrounding vessels, by growing less
turgid, withdraw their pressure from such opi-
iices. When this scent of upav hay is vehement,
it becomes the flavour of bitter almonds. The
taste of syrup of capillaire, given by an infu-
sion of Orange flowers, is found in the her-
bao-e of Gaultheria procumhens, Anch\ Be-
pos. f. 1 16, and Spircca Vlmaria, Engl Bot.
t. 960, two very different plants.

Some of the above examples show an evi-
dent.analogy between the sniell and colours of
flowers, nor are they all that might be pointed
out. A variety of the Chrysanthemum incli^
cum with orano-e-coloured flowers has been
lately procured ixom China by Lady Amelia
Hume. These faintly agree in scent, as they
do in colour, with the Wali-fiower, Chciran-
thus Cheiri ; whereas the common purple

ACRIMONY OP THK ARUM, 81

variey of the same Chrysantlienmm has a
totally diiferent and much stronger odour.

There is, of course, still more analogy be-
tween the smell of plants in general and their
impression on the palate, insomuch that we
are frequently unable to discriminate between
the two. The taste is commonly more per-
manent than the smell, but now and then
less so. The root of the Arum maculatum,
Engl. Bot. t. 1998, for instance, has, when
fresh, a most acrid taste and irritating qua-
lity, totally lost by drying, when the root
becomes simply farinaceous, tasteless and
inert; so that well might learned physi-
cians contrive the " Compound Powder of
Arum,'' to excuse the continuance of its use
in medicine, unless they had always prescri-
bed the recent plant. — Many curious remarks
are to be found in Grew relative to the tastes
of plants, and their diiferent modes of affecting
our organs. Anatomy of Plants, p. 279 —
292.

To all the foregoing secretions of vegeta-
bles may be added those on which their vari-
ous colours depend. We can but imperfectly
account for the green so universal in their

G

83 COLOURS OP PLANTS,

herbage, but we may gratefully acknowledge
the beneficence of the Creator in clothinir the

o

earth with a colour the most pleasing and the
least fatiguing to our ey^s. We may be daz-
zled with the brilhancy of a flower-garden,
but we repose at leisure on the verdure of a
grove or meadow. Of all greens the most
delicate and beautiful perhaps is displayed by
several umbelliferous plants under our hedges
in the spring.

Some of Nature's richest tints and most
elegant combinations of colour are reserved
for the petals of flowers, the most transient
of created beings; and even during the short
existence of the parts they decorate, the co-
lours themselves are often undergoing remark-
able variations. In the pretty little weed call-
ed Scorpion-grass, Myosotis scorpioi(Ies,EngI.
Bot. tASO, and several of its natural order, the
flower-buds are of the most delicate rose-
colour, which turns to a bright blue as they
open. Many 3'ellow flowers under the influ-
ence of light become white. Numbers of
red, purple or blue ones are liable, from some
unknown cause in the plant to which the}' be-
long, to vary to white. Such varieties are

COLOURS OF PLANTS. 83

sometimes propagated by seed, and are al-
most invariably permanent if tlie plants be pro-
pagated by roots, cuttings or grafting. Plants
of an acid or astringent nature often become
very red in their foliatre by the action of lio-ht,
as in RumcT, Foli/gomnn, Epilohium and
Berberis ; and it is remarkable that American
plants in general, as well as such European
ones as are particularly^ related to them, are
distinguished for assuming various rich tints
in their foliage of red, yellow, white or even
blue, at the decline of the year, witness the
Guelder-rose, the Cornel, the Vine, the Su-
mach, the Azalea pontica. Curt. Mag. t, 433,
and others. Fruits for the most part incline
to a red colour, apparently from the acid they
contain. I have been assured by a fn-st-rate
chemist that the colouring principle of the
Raspberry is a fine blue, turned red by the
acid in the fruit. The juices of some Fungi,
as Boletus bovlnus and Agarkus deliciosus,
Sowerb. Fungi, t. 202, change almost instan-
taneously on exposure to the air, from yellow
to dark blue or green.

These are a few hints only on a subject
which opens a wide field of inquiry, and which,

G 2

84 USES OF THE

in professedly chemical works, is carried to a
greater length than I have thought necessary
in a physiological one. See Thomson s Che-
mistry^ v. 4, and Willdenozvs Principles of
Botany^ 229. We must ever keep in mind,
as we explore it, that our anatomical instru-
ments are not more inadequate to dissect the
organs of a scarcely distinguishable insect,
than our experiments are to investigate the
fine chemistry of Nature, over which the
living principle presides.

Before we take leave of the secreted fluids
of vegetables, a few more remarks upon their
direct utility to the plants themselves may
not be superfluous. Malpighi first suggested
that these secretions might nourish the plant,
and our latest inquiries confirm the sugges-
tion. Du Hamel compares them to the
blood of animals, and so does Darwin. But
the analogy seems more plain between the
sap, as being nearly uniform in all plants,
and the ammal blood, as in that particular
they accord, while the secreted fluids are so
very various. Mr. Knight's theory confirms
this analogy, at the same time that it esta-
bhshes the opinion of Malpighi. The sup

SECRETED FLUIDS. S5

returning from the leaf, where it has been
acted upon by the air and hght, forming
new \Tood, is clearly the cause of the increase
of the vegetable body. But it is not so clear
hoNv the resinous, gummy or other secretions,
laid aside, as it were, in vessels, out of the
great line of circulation, can directly mini-
ster to the growth of the tree. I conceive
they may be in this respect analogous to ani-
mal fdt, a reservoir of nourishment whenever
its ordinary supplies are interrupted, as in
the winter, or ill seasons of great drought,
or of unusual cold. In such circumstances
the mucilaginous or saccharine secretions
especially, perhaps the most general of all,
may be absorbed into the vegetable constitu-
tion; just as fat is into the animal one, du-
ring the existence of any disease that inter-
rupts the ordinary supplies of food, or »
interferes with its due appropriation. It is
well known that such animals as sleep through
the winter, grow fat in the autumn and
awake very lean in the spring. Perhaps the
more recent layers of wood in a Plum- or
Cherry-tree, if they could be accurately exa-
mined, might be found to contain a greatei^

80 USES OF THE

proportion of iinicilage at the end of autumn
than in the early spring. If these substances
do not nourish the plant, they seem to be
of no use to it, whatever secondary purposes
they may answer in the schemes of Provi-
dence. The direct end, with respect to the
plant, of the finer secreted fluids of its fruit
can very well be perceived, as tempting the
appetite of animals, and occasioning, through
their means, the dispersion of the seeds ; and
the perfume of flowers may attract insects,
and so promote the fertilization of the seed,
as will be explained hereafter.

After what has been said we need not waste
much time in considering the hypothesis,
advanced by some philosophers, that the
sap-vessels are veins and the returning ves-
sels arteries. This is so far correct, that, as
the chyle prepared by the digestive organs,
poured into the veins and mixed with the
blood, is, through the medium of the heart,
sent into the lungs to be acted upon by the
air; so the nutrimental juices of plants, taken
up from the earth, which has been called their
stomach, are carried by the sap-vessels into
the leaves, for similar purposes alread}" men-

SECRETED FLUIDS. 87

tioned. The improved sap, like the vivid
arterial blood, then proceeds to nourish and
invigorate the whole frame, I verv much
doubt, however, if those who suggested the
above hypothesis, could have given so satis-
factory an explanation of it.

That the secretions of plants are wonder-
fully constant appears from the operation of
grafting. This consists in uniting the branches
of two or more separate trees, as Dr. Hope's
Willows, seep. GO, and a whole row of Lime-
trees in the garden of New College, Oxibrd,
whose branches thus make a network. This is
called grafting by approach. A more com-
mon practice, called budding, or inoculat-
ing, is to insert a bud of one tree, accom-
panied by a portion of its bark, into the bark
of another, and the tree which is thus engraft-
ed upon is called the stock. By tliis mode
different kinds of fruits, as apples, pears,
plums, <Scc., each of which is only a variety
accidentally raised from seed, but no further
perpetuated in the same manner, are multi-
plied, buds of the kind wanted to be propa-
gatied being engrafted on so many stocks
of a wild nature. The mechanical part of

88 GRAFTING.

this practice is detailed in Dii Hamel, Miller,
and moht gardening books. It is of primary
importance that the liber, or young bark, of
the bud, and that of the stock, should be
accurately united by their edges. The air
and wet must of course be excluded.

It is requisite for the success of this opera-
tion that the plants should be nearly akin.
Thus the Chionanthus virghiica. Fringe-tree,
succeeds well on the Common Ash, FraT-
imis e.Tcehlor, by which means it is propa-
a^ated m our jrardens. Varieties of the same
species succeed best of all ; but Apples and
pears, two different species of the same genus,,
may be grafted on one stock. The story of
a Black Rose being produced by grafting a
common rose, it is not worth inquiring which,
on a black currant stock, is, as far as I can
learn, without any foundation, and is indeed
at the first sight absurd. I have known the
experiment tried to no purpose. The rose
vulgarly reported to be so produced is merely
a dark Double Velvet Rose, a variet}^, as we
presume, of Rom centifolia. Another report
of the same kind has been raised concerning
the Maltese Oranges, whose red juice has

HEAT OF VEGETABLES. 89

been nt^tributed to their being budded on a
Pomegranate stoek, of which I have never
been able to obtain the smallest confirma-
tion.

Heat can scarcely be denominated a secre-
tion, and yet is undoubtedly a production,
of the vegetable as well as animal body,
thouirh in a much lower detjree in the former
than the latter. The heat of plants is evinced
by the more speedy melting of snow when
in contact with their leaves or stems, com-
pared with what is lodged upon dead sub-
stances, provided the preceding frost has
been sufificiently permanent to cool those sub-
stances thoroughly. Mr. Hunter appears to
have detected this heat by a thermometer
applied in frosty weather to the internal parts
of vegetables newly opened. It is evident
that a certain appropriate portion of heat is a
necessary stimulus to the constitution of every
plant, without which its living principle is
destroyed. Most tropical plants are as effec-
tually killed by a freezing degree of cold, as
by a boiling heat, and have nearly the same ap-
pearance; which is exemplified every autumn
in the Garden Nasturtium, Tropceolum ma-

QO FORCING OF PLANTS.

jus. The vegetables of cold climates, on the
contrary, support a much greater degree cf
cold without injury, at least while in a tor-
pid state ; for w^ien their buds begin to ex-
pand they become vastly more sensible, as
is but too frequently experienced in the fickle
spring of our climate. Nor is this owing,
as vulgarly supposed, merely to the greater
power of the cold to penetrate through their
opening buds. It must penetrate equally
through them in the course of long and
severe winter frosts, which are never known
to injure them. The extremely pernicious
effects therefore of cold on opening buds can
only be attributed to the increased suscepti-
bility of the vital principle, after it has been
revived by the warmth of spring.

The vegetation of most plants may be
accelerated by artificial heat, which is called
farcing them, and others may, by the same
means, be kept in tolerable health, under a
colder sky than is natural to them. But
many alpine plants, naturally buried for
months under a deep snow, are not only ex-
tremely impatient of sharp frosts, but will not
bear the least portion of artifi«nal heat The

HEAT OF THE ARUM. 91

pretty Frimula marginata. Curt. Mag. M91.
if brought into a room \\\i\\ a fire when
beginning to blossom, never opens another
bud ; while the American Cowshp, Dodt^
catheon Meadia, t. 12, one of the most hardy
of plants with respect to cold, bears forcing
admirably \vell.

Mr. Knight very satisflictonly shows, Fhil,
Trans, for 1801, 343, that plants acquire
habits with regard to heat which prove their
vitality, and that a forced Peach-tree will
in the following season expand its buds pre-
niatuFoly in the open air, so as to expose them
• to inevitable destruction. Seep. 65» A thou-
sand parallel instances may be observed, by
the sagacious gardener, of plants retaining the
habits of their native climates, which very
often proves one of the greatest impediments
to their successful cultivation.

The most remarkable account that has
fallen in my w^ay concerning the production
of heat in plants, is that given by Lamarck in
his Flore Francoise, v. 3. 538, of the Common
Arum maculatum^ Engl. Bot. t. 1298, (the
white-veined variety,) the flower of which,
at a certain period of its grov.th, he as-^

93 HEAT OF THE ARUM.

serts to be, for a few hours, " so hot as to
seem burning." The learned M. Senebier
of Geneva, examining into this fact, disco-
vered that the heat began when the sheath
was about to open, and the cyhndrical body
within just peeping forth : and that it was
perceptible from about three or four o'clock
in the afternoon till eleven or twelve at
night. Its greatest degree was seven of Reau-
mur's scale above the heat of the air, which
at the time of his observation was about
fourteen or fifteen of that thermometer.
Such is the account with which I have been
favoured l}y Dr. Bostock of Liverpool, from-
a letter of M. Senebier*, dated Nov. 28,
1796, to M. De la Rive. I have not hitherto
been successful in observing the pha?no-
menon in question, which however is well
worthy of attention, and may probably not
be confined to this species ot Arum,

* It is now published in his Physiologie Vegetale^
V. 3. ai4, where nevertheless this ingenious philosopher
has declared his opinion to be rather against the exist-
ence of a spontaneous heat in vegetables, and he ex-
plains even the above striking phienomenon upon che-
mical principles, which seem to me very inadequate.

93

CHAPTER XL

THE PROCESS OF VEGETATION. USE OF
THE COTYLEDONS.

When a seed is committed to the ground
it swells by the moisture v/hich its vessels
soon absorb, and which, in conjunction with-
some degree of heat, stimulates its vital prin-
ciple. Atmospherical air is also necessary to
incipient vegetation, for sseds in general will
not grow under water, except those of aquatic
plants, nor under an exhausted receiver; and
modern chemists have determined oxygen
gas, which is always an ingredient in our at-
mosphere, to be absorbed by seeds in vege-
tation. An experiment is recorded in the
Philosophical Transactions, No. 23, of sow-
ing Lettuce-seed in two separate pots, one of
which was placed in the common air, the
other in the vacuum of an air-pump. In the

94 FROCESt OP VEGETATION-.

f rmer the young plants rose to the height
of two inches, or more, in a week's time ; in
the other none appeared, till after the pot
had been removed for a similar period into
the air again. Seeds buried in the ground
to a greater depth than is natural to them
do not vegetate, but they often retain their
power of vegetation for an unlimited period.
Earth taken from a considerable depth will,
when exposed to the air, be soon covered with
young plants, especially of Thistles, or of the
Cress or Mustard kind, though no seeds have
been allowed to have access to it. If the
ground in old estabhshed botanic gardens be
dug much deeper than ordinary, it frequently
happens that species which have been long
lost are recovered, from their seeds being
latent in the soil, as I have been assured by
Mr. Fairbairn of Chelsea garden, and others.
The integuments of the seed, having ful-
filled their destined office of protection, burst
and decay. The young root is the first part
of the infant plant that comes forth, and by
an unerrino; law of Nature it is sent down-
wards, to seek out nourishment as well as to
fix the plant to the ground. In sea-weed s»

PROCESS OF VEGF.TATIOX. 95

Fuel, IjhcB and Conferva^ it seems merely
to answer the latter purpose. In the Dodder,
Cifscuta, a parasitical plant, the on<;inal root
lasts only till the stems have established them-
selves on some vegetable, on whose juices they
teed by means of otlier roots or fibres, and
then withers away.

The descent of the root, and the ascent of
the leaf-bud in a contrarv direction, are ino-e-
niously explained by Dr. Darwin, Fhi/lologia
Sect. 9- 3, on the principle of "the former
being stimulated by moisture, and the latter
by air, whence each elongates itself where it
is most excited. This is perhaps more satis-
tkctory than any mechanical h^-pothesis. In
whatever position seeds happen to lie in the
earth, the root makes more or less of a curve
in order to shoot downwards. Mr. Hunter
sowed a number of seeds in a basket of earth
placed on an axis, by which their position was
a httle altered exery day. After the basket
had thus made two or tiiree circumvolutions,
the young roots were found to have formed
as many turns in attempting to attain their
natural perpendicular direction. J\Ir. Knight
has asccrlainctl, Phil, Ti-am^.fQr 1806', that

9G COTYLEDONS.

a Strong rentrifugal force applied to vegeta-
ting seeds will considerably divert the root
from this direction outwards, while the stem
seems to have a centripetal inclination.

The young root, if it grew in a soil
which afforded no inequality of resistance,
would probably in every case be perfectly
straight, like the radical fibres of bulbous
roots in water ; but as scarcely any soil is so
perfectly homogeneous, the root acquires an
uneven or zio-zao; figure. It is elongated
chiefly at its extremity*, and has always, at
that part especially, more or less of a conical
or tapering figure.

When the young root has made some pro-
gress, the two lobes, commonly of a hemisphe-
rical figure, which compose the chief bulk of
the seed, swell and expand, and are raised
out of the ground by the ascending stem.
These are called the Cotyledons,/. 4. Between
them is seated the Emhrijo or germ of the
plant, called by Linnaeus Corculum or little
heart, in allusion to the heart of the walnut.

* As may be seen by marking the fibres of Hyacinth
roots in water, or the roots of Peas made to vegetate in
wei cotton wool.

OF TirlK COTYLEDONS. '97

Mr. Knight denominates it the germen, but
that term is appropriated to a very diflerent
part, the rudiment of the fruit. The expand-
ing Embn/o, resemblino; a httle feather, has
been for that reason named by Linnaeus Flu-
mula ; it soon becomes a tuft of young leaves,
with which the young stem, if there be any,
ascends. Till the leaves unfold, and some-
times after, the cotyledons, assuming their
green colour, perforni their functions ; then
the latter generally v/ither. This may be
seen in the Radish, Lupine, Garden Bean,
and various umbelliferous plants, in all vhich
the expanded cotyledons are remarkably dif-
ferent from the true leaves. Such is the ge-
neral course of vegetation in plants furnished
with two cotyledons, or dicotyledones ; but I
have already mentioned a very distinct tribe
called tnonocotyledones ; see p. 57- These
are the Grass and Corn tribe. Palms, the
beautiful Orchis family, and many others.
In these the body of the seed does not ascend
out of the ground, and tliey are rather
to be considered as having no cotyledon
at all. See Mr. Salisbury's paper in the
Transactions of the Linnean Society, v. 7j

H

98 OP THE COTYLEDONS.

on tlie o-ermination of the Orchis tribe. We
reserve more particular remarks on this sub-
ject till we examine the structure of seeds.

Some plants are reckoned by Linnaeus to
have many cotyledons, as the Fir and Cy-
press. But the germination of these differs
in no respect from that of the generality of
dlcotyledones. Mr. Lambert, in his splendid
history of the genus FijiuSy has illustrated
this peculiarity of structure in the Swiss
F. Cembra; see our fab. 1, fig- 2. In the
Dombejfa, or Norfolk Island Pine, the cotjde-
dons are very distinctly four : see fig. 3.

The preservation of the vital principle in
seeds is one of those wonders of Nature which
pass unregarded, from being every day under
our notice. Some lose their vegetative power
by being kept out of the ground ever so little
a ^vhile after they are ripe, and in order to
succeed must sow themselves in their own
way, and at their own time. Others may
be sent round the world through ever}'^ vicis-
situde of climate, or buried for ages deep in
the ground, till favourable circumstances
cause them to vegetate. Great degrees of
heat, short of boiling, do not impair the vc-

OF THE COTVLEDONS. g§

getative power of seeds, nor do we know any
degree of cold that has such an effect. Those
who convey seeds from distant countries,
should be instructed to keep them dry ; for
if they receive any damp sufficient to cause
an attempt at vegetation, they necessarily die,
because the process cannot, as they are situ-
ated, go on. If, therefore, they are not ex-
posed to so great an artificial heat as mic^ht
change the nature of their oily juices, they
can scarcely, according to the experience of
Mr. Salisbury, be kept in too warm a place.
By the preservation of many seeds so lono-
under ground, it seems that long-continued
moisture is not in itself fatal to their livino-

o

powers ; neither does it cause their premature
germmation, unless accompanied by some
action of the air.

It is usual with gardeners to keep Melon
and Cucumber seeds for a few years, in order
that the future plants may grow less luxuri-
antly, and be more abundant in blossoms and
fruit. Dr. Darwin accounts for this from the
damage which the cotyledons may receive
from keeping, by which their power of nou-
rishing the infant plant, at its first germina-

n 2

100 OP THE COTYLEDONS.

tion, is lessened, and it becomes stunted and
dwarfish through its whole duration.

Dr. Thomson of Edinburgh, in his System
of Chemistry, vol. 4, 374, has pubhshed a
very satisfactory explanation of one part cf
the functions of the cotyledons* Several phi-
losophers have discovered that very soon after
the seed begins to imbibe moisture, it gives
out a quantity of carbonic acid gas, even
though no oxygen gas be present. In this
case the process stops here, and no germma-
tion takes place. But if oxygen gas be pre-
sent, it is gradually absorbed in the same
proportion. At the same time the farina of
the cotyledons becomes sweet, being convert-
ed into sugar. " Hence, it is evident,'' says
this intelligent writer, " that the farina is
changed into sugar, by diminishing its car-
bon, and of course by augmenting the pro-
portion of its hydrogen and oxygen*. Tliis
is precisely the process of malting, during
which it is well known tliat there is a con-
siderable heat evolved. We may conclude
from this, that during the germination of

* This is also the opinion of M. de Saussure, Re-
cJierchcs jChi'miqiU'S sur la Frgclation, p. iG.

OF THE COTYLEDONS. 101

ficecls ill the earth there is also an evolu-
tion of a considerable portion of heat.
This indeed might have been expected, as
it usually happens when oxygen gas is ab-
sorbed. So far seems to l)e the work of che-
mistry alone ; at lea^t we have no right to con-
clude that any other ajrent interferes ; since
hay^ w^hen it happens to imbibe moisture,
exhibits nearly the same processes."

I conceive the evolution of this heat may
powerfully further the progress of vegetation
by stimulating the vital principle of the em-
bryo, till its leaves unfold and assume their
functions. It is necessary to observe, that
the above process equally takes place, whe-
ther the farinaceous particles be lodged in
the bulk of the cotyledons themselves, or
compose a separate body called by authors
the albumen, as in grasses and corn.

103

CHAPTER XIL

OF THE ROOT, AND ITS DIFFEREXT
KINDS.

We begin the description of the completely
formed vegetable by its Root, as being the
basis of all the rest, as well as the first part
produced from the seed. Its use in general
is two-fold ; to fix the plant to a commodious
situation, and to derive nourishment for its
support. This part is therefore commonly
plunged deeply into the ground, having, as
we have already shown, a natural tendency
to grow downwards. In some cases however,
when plants grow on the stems or branches
of others, as the Dodder or Ciiscuta, several
Ferns, and a portion of the Orchis tribe,
the root is closely attached to the bark, from
which it draws nourishment, by the under
side only, the upper behig bare.

The Root consists of two parts, Caudex

OF THE ROOT, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 103

die body of the Root, and Badicula the
fibre. The latter only is esstnlial, beino; tlie
part which imbibes nourishment.

Root.s are either of annual, biennial or
perennial duration. The first belono- to plants
which live only one year, or rather one sum-
mer, as Barley ; the second to such as are
produced one season, and, living through the
ensuing winter, produce flowers and fruit
the following summer, as Wheat ; and the
third to those which live and blossom
through many succeeding seasons to an in-
tlefinite period, as trees, and many herbaceous
plants. The term biennial is applied to any
plant that is produced one year and flowers
another, provided it flowers but once, whe-
ther that event takes place the second year,
as usual, or whether, from unfavourable cir-
cumstances, it may happen to be deferred to
any future time. This is often the case with
the Lavatcra arhorca, Tree Mallow, Engl.
Bot, 1. 1841, and some other plants, especially
Avhen o-rowino; out of their natural soil or sta-
tion. Linnaeus justly observes that however
hardy with respect to cold such plants may
prove before tliey blossom, they perish at tlic

104 OF THE ROOT,

first approach of the succeeding winter, nor
can any artificial heat preserve them. This is,
no doubt, to be attributed to the exhausiion
of their vital energy by flowering. Several
plants of hot climates, naturally perennial
and even shrubby, become annual in our
gardens, as the Tropceolum, Garden Nastur-
tium.

In the Turnip, and sometimes the Carrot,
Parsnep, &c., the Caudex or body of the
root is above-ground and bare, becoming as
it were a stem. linnssus indeed calls the
stems of trees " roots above-ground ;" but
this seems paradoxical and scarcely correct.
Perhaps it would be more accurate to say
the caudex is a subterraneous stem ; but we
rather presume it has functions distinct from
the stem, analogous, as has been hinted
p. 55, to digestion, at least in those plants
whose stems are annual though their roots
are perennial.

The fibres of the root, particularly those
extremities of them which imbibe nourish-
ment from the earth, are in every case stnctly
annual. During the winter, or torpid season
of the year, the powers of roots lie dor^

AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 105

mant, whuh season therefore is proper for
their transplantation. After they have begun
to throw out new fibres, it is more or less
dano-erous, or even fatal, to remove them.
Very young annual plants, as they form
new fibres with great facility, survive tran.s-
plantation tolerably well, provided they re-
ceive abundant supplies of water ])y the
leaves till the root has recovered itself.

Botanists distinouish several different kinds
of roots, which are necessary to be known,
not only for botanical purposes, bivt as being
of great importance in agriculture and gar-
dening. The generality of roots may be
arrano'ed under the followin"- he^ads.

.^^^. ^...v.»v.x C..^ .v...^.,...^

1. Radivjibrosa, Jig. 5. A Fibrous Root. The
most simple in its nature of all, consisting
only of fibres, either branched or undivided,
v.hich convey nourishment directly to the
basis of the stem or leaves. Many grasses,
as Voa annua, Engl. Bof, t. 1141, and the
greater part of annual herbs, have this kind
of root. The radical fibres of grasses that
crow in loose sand are remarkably downv,
possibly tor the purpose cf fixing them moj-e

106 OF THE ROOT,

securely to so slippery a support, or to mul-
tiply the surface or points of absorption in
so meagre a source of nutriment. The fibres
of some parasitical plants already alluded to,
chiefly of the beautiful genus Epidendrum,
are peculiarly thick and fleshy, not only for
the purpose of imbibing the more nourish-
ment, but also to bind them, so strongly to
the branches of trees, as to defy the force
of winds upon their large and rigid leaves.

2. Kxtdix repcnsy f. 6. A Creeping Root, as
in Mint, Mentha, A kind of subterraneous
stem, creeping and branching off horizon-
tally, and throwing out fibres as it goes.
This kind of root is extremely tenacious of
life, for any portion of it will grow. Hence
weeds furnished vvith it are among the
most troublesome, as the different sorts of
Couch-grass, Triticum rcpens, Engl. Bot.
t. 909, Holcus moUis, t. 1170,&c.; while, on
the other hand, many sea-side grasses, hav-
ing such a root, prove of the most impor-
tant service in binding down loose blowing
sand, and so Resisting the encroachments of
the ocean. These are principally Carex are-

AND ITS DlfFERENT KINDS. 107

naria, Engl. Bot. t. 928, Arundo arenaria,
t. 520, and Eli/mus arenariiis, i, 1672.

3. Radivfnsiformis^f.J' A Spindle-shaped or
Tapering Root. Of this the Carrot, Parsnep
and Radish are famiUar examples. Such a
root is formed, on the principle of a wedge,
for penetrating perpendicularly into the
ground. It is common in biennial plants,
l)ut not peculiar to them. The caudex,
which is the spindle-shaped part, abounds
with the proper secreted juices of the plant,
and throws out numerous fibres or radicles,
which are in fact the real roots, as they
alone imbibe nourishment.

4. Badiv pra?7iorsa, f. S. An Abrupt Root,

is naturally inchned to the last-mentioned

form, but from some decay or interruption

in its descending point, it becomes abrupt,

or as it were bitten off. Scahiom sttccisa,

Devirs-bit Scabious, Engl. Bot. t. 878,

Hedypnois hlrta, t. 555, and some other

Hawkweeds, have this kind of root, the old

opinion concernmg which cannot be better

described than in Gerarde's Herbal, under

the plant first named, p. 726'.

108 OF TH£ ROOT,

" The great part of the root seemeth to
be bitten away : old fantasticke charmers
report, that the divel did bite it for envie,
because it is an herbe that hath so many
good vertues, and is so beneficial to man-

kinde/' The malice of the devil has

unhappily been' so successful that no virtues
can now be found in the remainder of the
root or herb.

5. li.adix tuberosa,f.9' A Tuberous or Knob-
bed Root, is of many different kinds. The
most genuine consists of fleshy knobs,
various in form, connected by common
stalks or fibres, as in the Potatoe, Solaniuib
iicberosum, and Jerusalem Artichoke*,
llclianthiis tuber osus J acq. Hort. Vind,
f. 161. ' These knobs are reservoirs of nou^
rishment, moisture, and vital energy. Se-
veral of the Vetch or Pea kind are furnished
with them on a smaller scale ; see Vicia
lathyroides, Engl. Bof. f» 30, and several

* A corruption, as I presume, of the Italian name
Girasole yirticiccco, sun-flower Artichoke, as the plant
was first brought from Peru to Italy, and thence propa-
gated throughout Europe.

AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS, 10§

species of TrifoUum^ either annuals, as
glomeratum^ f. lOGS, or perennials, as
fragifenim, t, IOjO. — The knobs ia
these instances are only of annual dura-
tion ; in the Pcconia, Pseonv, t. 1513, and
Spiraa FiUptfidula, Dropwort, t. 284,
they are perennial. — In the Orchidece of
Europe they are mostly biennial. The
root in many of the latter consists either
of a pair of globular or oval bodies, f. 10,
as in Satyrium Inrcinum, EngL Bof, f. 34,
Ophrys arajiifera, t, 65, and apifcra,
t. 383 ; or are palmate, that is, shaped
somewhat like the human hand, /*. 11, as in
Orchis moculata, t. 6o2. Of these glo-
bular or palmate knobs or bulbs one pro-
duces the herb and flowers of the present
year, withering away towards autumn,
and the other is reserved for the following
season, while in the mean time a third is
produced to succeed the latter. The knobs
of Ophrys spiralis, t, 541, are formed
three or four years before they flower, and
their flowering appears to be occasion-
ally deferred to a more distant period. The
r-oot oi Satyrium alhidum, t. 505, consists

no OF THE ROOT,

of three pairs of tapering knobs or bulbs,
f, 12, Avhich flower in succession. On the
contrary, Ophri/s Dionorchls, (^. 71> forms
its new bulb so late that it is not perfected
till the autumn immediately preceding its
flowering, and the plant seems to have but
one bulb. OpJiri/s Nidus avis, t. 48, has
clusters of cylindrical knobs, which are
formed, and also wither away, in parcels,
each parcel being equivalent to one of the
above-mentioned bulbs.

Such of the Orchis tribe as have bien-
nial bulbs are supposed to be very diffi-
cult of cultivation ; but according to the
experience of my excellent friend the late
Mr. Crowe, in whose garden I have seen
them many successive years, they are best
removed when in full flower, the earth
being cleared completely away from the
roots, wliich are then to be replanted in
their natural soil previously dried and
sifted. Afterwards they must be well
watered. The bulb for the following year
has not at the flowering period begun to
throw out its fibres, for after that. happens
it will not bear removal. Satyrium albidum

AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. Ill

having, as mentioned above, so many pairs
of roots, the growth of some of which is
always going on, lias hitherto not been
ioLind to survive transplantation at all.

Iristuberosa, Sm. Fl. GrcEc, Sibth. t, 41,
has a root very analogous to tliese just
described, but I.florcntina and /. germa-
nica, t, 39 and 40 of the same work, have
more properly creeping roots, though so
thick and fleshy in their substance, and
so slow in their progress, that they are
generally denominated tuberous.

6. Radiv hulhosa. A Bulbous Root, properly
so called, is either solid,/. 13, as in Crocus,
Lria, Gladiolus, Sec; tunicate, ^1 14, tuni-
ca t a, composed of concentric layers enve-
loping one another as in Allium, the Onion
tribe; or scaly,/. 15, consisting of fleshy
scales connected only at their base, as in
Lilium, the White or Orange Lily. The two
latter kinds have the closest analogy with
leaf-buds. They are reservoirs of the vital
powers of the plant during the season when
those powers are torpid or latent, and in
or<ler to perform the functions of roots, they
jirst produce fibres, \vhich are the actual

112 OF THE ROOT,

roots. The strict affinity between bulbs and
buds appears from the scaiy buds formed
on the stem of the Orange Lil}', LiUiim
bulhiferiun^ which fall to the ground, and,
throwing out fibres from their base, be-
come bulbous roots*. The same thing
happens in Dentaria bidbifera, Engl. Bot.
t,309, and Saaifraga cerniia, t. 664.

These two last-mentioned plants however
liave scaly roots, like the Toolhwort, IjG-
thraa Squamnriaj t. 50, which seem bulbs
lengthened out. Whether they would, in
the torpid season of the year, bear removal,
like bulbs, we have no information. If
disturbed at other times they are immedi-
ately killed. Many plants with solid bulbs
are provided by Nature to inhabit sandy
countries, over the face of which, in the dry
season succeeding]: their flowerino-, they are
scattered bv the winds to a o-reat distance,
as happens to our own Poa bulbosa, Engl.

* I have had scaly buds form even on the flower-
stalk of Lachenalia tricolor, Curt. Mag. t. S2j whilst
lying for many weeks between papers to dry, whichj
on being put into the ground, have become perfect
plants, though of slow grov.th.

AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 113

Bot. t. 1071, as well as to numerous beau-
tiful productions of the Cape of Good
Hope. '

7. Radix articulata^ or gramdaia, f. l6, A
Jointed or Granulated Root agrees very
much with those described in the last sec-
tion. The Oralis Acetosella, Wood Sorrel,
Engl. Bot. t. 762, and Saxifraga granu-
lata, White Saxifrage, t. 500, are instances
qf it. The former has most affinity with
scaly bulbs, the latter with solid ones.

It is evident that fleshy roots, whether of
a tuberous or bulbous nature, must, at all
times, powerfully resist drought. We have
already mentioned, p. 41, the acquisition of
a bulb in Phleiim pratensCy E?igL Bot,
t. 1076, whenever that grass is situated in a
fluctuating soil, by which its vital powers are
supported while the fibrous roots are deprived
of their usual supplies. In this state it be-
comes the Phlcum nodosum of authors ; but
on being removed to a thoroughly wet soil,
it resumes the entirely fibrous root, and luxu-
riant growth, of Bh. prateme. I have also
found Alopecurus geniculatus, t, 1250, (an

I

114 OF THE ROOT,

tiqimtic grass, whose root is naturally fibrous
and creeping,) growing with an ovate juicy
bulb on the top of a dry wall. This variety

has been taken for the true A. hidhosus,
t. 1249? which has always bulbs even in
its native marshes. We see the wisdom of
this provision of Nature in the grasses above
mentioned, nor may the cause be totally
inexplicable. When a tree happens to grow
from seed on a w^all, it has been observed,
on arriving at a certain size, to stop for a
while, and send down a root to the ground.
As soon as this root was established in the
soil, the tree continued increasing tO a large
magnitude*. Here the vital powers of the
tree not being adequate, from scanty nou-
rishment, to the usual annual degree of in-
crease in the branches, were accumulated in
the root, which therefore was excited to an
extraordinary exertion, in its own natural
direction, downward. There is no occasion
then to suppose, as some have done, that the
ti'ee had any information of the store of food

* A .particular fact of this kind concerning an ash
way communicated to me by the late Bev. Dr. Walker
of Edinburgh. See also Trans, of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 26S.

AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 115

at the foundation of the wall, and volun-
tarily sent down its root to o]jt4nn it; nor is
it wonderful that the Author of life should
provide for it as efTectually as it could for
itself, had it really been a reflecting being.
So in the case of the grasses in question, I
presume the herb being in the first instance
starved, by a failure of the nutrimental fluids
hitherto conveyed by the water of the soil,
its growth would be checked, and wh n
checked, the same growth could not, as ^^e
know by observation on vegetation in g-neral,
be instantaneously renewed. A sudden fresh
supply of food would therefore cause an accu-
mulation of vital energy in the root, which
would consequently assume a degree of vi-
gour and a luxuriant mode of growth not
natural to it, and become bulbous. Thus it
acquires a resource against such checks in
future, and the herb is preserved alive, though
in a very far less luxuriant state than \\\h n
regularly and uniformly supplied with its
requisite nourishment. These are not so-
litary instances. It is well worthy the atten-
tion of an intelligent cultivator to seek them
out, and turn tliem to his advantage.

i2

116

CHAPTER XIII.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF STEMS AND
STALKS OF PLANTS.

LiNNiEUS enumerates seven kinds of Trunks,
Stems, or Stalks of Vegetables. These are
necessary to be known, for botanical di-
stinctions, though some are more important
than others, both in that respect and in a
physiological point of view,

1. Caulis. a Stem properly so called, which
bears, or elevates from the root, the leaves
as well as flowers. The trunks and branches
of all trees and shrubs come under this de-
nomination, as well as of a great propor-
tion of herbaceous plants, especially an-
nuals.

The Stem is either simple, as in the
White Lily, or branched, as in most
instances. When it is regularly and re-
peatedly divided, and a flower springs

OP THE STEM. 117

from each division, it is called caiiUs di-
chotomus,f. 17, a forked stem, as in Chlora
pej'foliata, Engl. Bot. t. 60, as well as
the common Mouse-ear Chickweeds, Ce-
rasiiurn vulgatiim, t. 789, and viscosimi,
t. 790.

Though generally leafy, a Stem may
be partially naked, or even entirely so in
plants destitute of leaves altogether, as
the Creeping Cereus, CactiisJlageUiformis^
Curt. Mag. t. 17, various exotic species
of Euphorbia or Spurge, and the whole
genus of Stapelia. In Orobanche, it is
scaly, f. 18, sqiiamosus.

With respect to mode of growth, the
Stem is

Erectus, upright, as in Yellow Loosestrife,
Lysimachia vulgaris. Engl. Bot. t. 76l.

Frocitmbe72Sy procumbent, Wood Loosestrife,
L. nemorum, t. 527'

Repens, creeping. Creeping Loosestrife, L,
Nufnnmlaria, t. 528, and Creeping Crow-
foot, Ranunculus repens, t. 51 6.

Adscendejis, ascending obliquely without sup-
port, as Panicum sanguinak, t. 849-

Rrostratus, prostrate, or Depreasus, de-
pressed, when it lies remarkably flat,

113 OF THE DIFFERENT

spreading horizontally over the ground,
as in Coldenia procumhens; also Coro-
7iopus Ruellii, Swine Vcress. Engl. Bot.
t. 1660.

Reclinotus, reclining, curved towards the
ground, as in Ficus, the Fig, Riibus, the
Bramble, &c.

Radicans,f. 19, clinging to any other body
for support, by means of fibres, which do
not imbibe nourishment, as Ivy, Triedera
Helir, Engl Bot. t. 1 l6l, Vitis qinn-
quefoUa^ Sm. Insects of Georgia^ t. 30.
Bignoma radicans, Curt. Mag. t. 485.
— Linnaeus, Philosophia Botanica 39,
has expressed this by the term repensy
but has corrected it in his own copy.
Still he does not distinguish between
these plants, and those whose stems throw
out real roots, which last only are justly
called creeping^ whether they grow on
the ground, like those above mentioned,
or on other plants like Ciiscuta, Dodder,
Engl. Bot. t. 5b and 378. See p. 95.
Scaridens, climbing ; either with spiral
tendrils for its support, as the Vine, Vitis^
the various species of Passion-flower,
Fassijiora ccEvuka^ Curt. Mag. t, 28,

KINDS OF STEMS. IIQ

alafo, t. 66, Sec. and Bryonia dioica,
Ked-berried Bryony, EngL Bot.t. 439 ;
or by adhesive fibres, as in the preced-
ing paragraph.

Volubills, twining round other plants by its
own spiral form, either from left to right,
/. 20, supposing the observer in the cen-
tre, (or in other words, accordhig to the
apparent motion of the sun,) as the Black
Bryony, Tamus communis, Engl. Bot.
t. 91, the Honeysuckles, Lonicera Ca-
prifoUum, t. 799, and Periclymeniim,
t. 800, and the Polygonum Convolvulus,
t. 941 ; or from right to left, /. 21, con-
trary to the sun, as the Great Bindv/eed,
Convolvulus sepium, t. 313, the French
Bean, Phaseolm vulgaris, Gcr. em.
1212, Jig. 1, .&c.— Figures of plants be-
ing sometimes reversed by the engraver,
in that case give a wrong representation
of the circumstance in 'question, wit-
ness Lonicera Periclymenum in Curtis's
Flora Londiiiensis, fasc. 1. 1. 1 5,2Lndm<iny
instances might be pointed out of its not
being attended to at all.

Flagelliformi^ long and pliant, like the

HO OP THE DIFFERENT

Common Jasmine, Jasminum officinale^
Curt. Mag. t. 31, or Blue Box-thorn,
Lyciiun harbarum,

Sarmentosus, trailing. A creeping stem,
barren of flowers, thrown out from the
root for the purpose of increase, is
called sarmentum ox flagellum, a runner,
f. 22, as in the Strawberry, Fragoria
vesca, Engl. Bot. t. 1524. When leafy
it is generally denominated stolo, a
sucker or scyon, as in Bugle, yijuga
reptans^ t. 489> ^md Viola odorata, the
Sweet Violet, /. 6*19. When the stole
has taken root, it sometimes flowers
the first year, see Curt. LoncL fasc. 1.
t. 63, but generally not till the follow*
ing season.

'Rectus, straight, as in Lilium, the dif-
ferent species of garden Lily.

Strictus, expresses only a more absolute
degree of straightness.

Laxus or Diffusus, loosely spreading, has
a contrary meaning, as in Bu?iias Ca-
Jciky Sea Rocket, Engl. Bot. t. 231, and
Sedum acre. Biting Stone-crop, t. 839*

Flencosus, zigzag, forming angles alter-

KINDS OF STEMS. 121

nately from right to left and from left to
right, as in Sniila.v aspera, Gcr. em,
859, 3nd many of that genus, also 67a-
tice reticulata^ Matted Sea Lavender,
Engl Bot, t. 328. In a less degree it is
not unfrequent. See Atriplex jjcduncU"
lata, t. 232.

Alt erne ramosaSy alternately branched, as
Foli/gonum minus, t. 1043, Dianihus
deltoides, t. 6l, &c.

Distichus, two-ranked, when the branches
spread in two horizontal directions, as in
the Silver Fir, Finns picca, Duhamel,
Alb. V. 1. t. 1.

Brachiatus, brachiate, or four-ranked,
when they spread in four directions,
crossing each other alternately in pairs ;
a very common mode of growth in
shrubs that have opposite leaves, as the
Common Lilac, Si/ringa vulgaris.

Ttamosissimus, much branched, is applied to
a stem repeatedly subdivided into a great
many branches without order, as that of
an Apple- or Pear-tree, or Gooseberry-
bush.
Frolifcr, proliferous, shooting out new

122 OF THE DIFFERENT

' branches from the summits of the for-
mer ones*, as in the Scotch Fir, Finifs
Sf/lveatris, Lambert's Pinus, f. 1. and Ly-
copodium annoiinum, EiigL Bof. t, 1727-
This is obsolete, and seldom used.

Deferminatl' ramosus, f, 23, abruptly
branched, when each branchy after termi-
nating in flowers, produces a number of
fresh shoots in a circular order from just
below the origin of those flowers. This
term occurs frequently in the later publi-
cations of Linnieus, particularly the
second Mantissa, but I know not that he
has any w^here explained its meaning. It
is exemplified in Azalea nudiflora. Curt,
Mag. t, ISO," Erica Tetrali.v, Engl
Bot. t. 1014, many Cape Heaths, and
other shrubs of the same Natural Order,

Ariiculatus, jointed, as in Samphire, Sa-
licornia anniia^ Engl. Bot. ^.415, and
more remarkably in the Indian Figs, _
Cactns Tuna, &c.

In shape the Stem is

Teres, f. 32, round, as in Ti^ollius europccus,

* Limi. Phil. Bot. sect, 82. 28.

KINDS 0» STEMS. Igj^

Bngl. But. f. 28, and Ili/dra/igfa hor"
tcnsis, Sm. Ic. Fict.'t.V2,

Anctps, two-edged, as Sisi/tinchjum sfria-
turn, Sm. Ic. Fid. t. 9. S. gramineiun^
Curt. Mag. t. 464, and some of the
genus Lathynis.

TrigonuSf or Triangularis^ triangular or

- three-edged, as Cactus triangularis^
Vhikenet, t. 29- /. 3.

Triqucter, three-sided, is apjD^ied to a stem
with 3 flat sides.

Tetrogonusy or Quaclra?igularis, square,
as Lamium album, White Dead-nettle,
Engl. Bof. t, 768, and a multitude of
other plants.

Fentagonus, or Quinquangularis, five-
sided, as Asparagus horridus, Cavanil-
ks Ic. t. 136, where however the cha-
racter is not well expressed.

When the number of ano-les is either
variable, or more than five, it is usual
merely to describe the stem as angu-
losus, angular, except where the precise
number makes a specific difference, as
in the genus Cactus.

Alatus, f. 36, winged, when the angles are
extended into flat leafy borders, as Fassi^

I2i OP THE SURFACE

flora alaia. Curt. Mag. t. 66, Lathyrus
latifolius, E7igL Bof. t. 1 108, and many
others of the Pea kind, besides several
Thistles, as Carduus acanthoides, t. 973,
palustris, t, 974, and Centaurea solsti-
tialis, t. 243.

The Surface of the Stem is

Glaber, smooth, opposed to all kinds of
hairiness or pubescence, as in Petty
3purge, Eiipliorhia Pepkis, Engl. Bot.
t' 959i and numerous plants be-
sides.

Lavis, smooth and even, opposed to all
roughness and inequality \yhatever, as

/ in the last example, and also Eiioitymus
europcEiis, t. 362.

Nitidus, polished, smooth and shining, as
ChcBrophyllum sylvestre, t. 752.

Viscidus, viscid, covered with a clammy
juice, as Lychnis Viscaria, t. 788.

Verrucosus, warty, like Euonymus ver-
rucosus, J acq* Fl. Austriaca, t, 49,
and Malpighia volubilisy Curt, Mag,
t. 809.

Papillosus, papillose, covered with soft
tubercles, as the Ice plant, Mescni'

or THE STEM. 135

Iryaiithemum crystaltinum. Dili. Elth,
t. ISO.

Scaher, rough to the touch from any little
rigid inequalities, opposed to Icexis, as
Caucalis Aiithriscus, Engl. Bof. t. 987j
Centaiirca nigra, t. 278, and Stellar ia
holosteay t. oil.

Hispidus, bristly, as Borage, Borago offici-
nalis, t. 36, and Chara hispida, f. 463,

Jlirtus, or Pilosiis, hairy, as Salvia pra-
tensis, t. 153, and Cerastium alpimim,
t. ^T2.

Tomentosus, downy, as Geranium rotundi-
folium, t, 157, very soft to the touch.

Villosus, shaggy, as Cineraria intcgrifolia,
t, 152.

Lanatus, woolly, as Verhascum pulvent-
lentum, t. 487, V, Thapsus, t. 549, and
Santolina maritima^ t, 141.

Incanus, hoary, as Wormwood, Artemisia
Ahsinthium, t. 1230, and Atripkx
portulacoides, t. 261 , in the former case
from close silky hairs, in the latter from
a kind of scaly mealiness.

Glaucus, clothed with iine sea-green meali-
ness which easily rubs off, as Chlora
o

1S($ or STEMS.

perjoJiatay t. 60, and Pulmonaria ma-
ritlma, t. 368.

Striatus, striated, marked with fine Tpa.-
YnWiiWines^ a&OenantheJistulosai t» 363.

StdcatiiSy furrowed, witU deeper lines, as
Smyrnium Olusairum, t, 230.

Macidaius, spotted, as Hemlock, Conium
maculatiun^ t. 1191-

The spines and prickles of the stem will be
explained hereafter.

Internally the stem is either solidiis, solid,
as that oi Inula crithmoides, t, 68, and nume-
rous others ; or cavus, hollow, as in Cineraria
palustris, t. 151, as well as Hemlock, and
many umbelliferous plants besides.

Plants destitute of a stem are called acaules,
stemless, as Neotiia acaidis, E.iot, Bof, 1. 105,
and Carduus acauUsy Engl. Bot, t. l6l.
Such plants, when they belong to a genus
or family generally furnished with stems, as
in these instances and Car Una a caul is, Camer.
Epit. 428, are liable from occasional luxu-
riance to acquire some degree of stem, but
seldom otherwise. Pinguicula, Engl BoL
t 70 and 145, is a genus invariably stemless,
while Primida, f. 4, 5, 6 and 513, is much

OF THE CULM. :\2J

less truly so. The term acauUs however
must never be too rigidly understood, for
logical precision is rarely applicable to natu-
ral productions.

CaidisfascicidatiiSy a clustered stem, is a
disease or accident, in v/hich several
branches or stems are united longitudi-
nally into a fiat broad figure, crowded
with leaves or flowers at the extremity.
It occurs in the Ash, several species of
Daphne, Ranunculus, Antirrhinum, Sec.
In a kind of Tisum, called the Top-knot
Pea, it is a permanent variety propa-
gated by seed.

2. Culm us. A Straw or Culm, is the
peculiar Stem of the Grasses, Rushes,
_ and plants nearly allied to them. It
bears both leaves and flowers, and its
nature is more easily understood than
defined. Many botanists have thought
this term superfluous.

The Culm is occasionally

Enodis, without joints, as in our common

Rushes, JuncHs conglomeratus, Engl.

Bot. t, 835, and effusus, t. 836 ;
1

128 OF THE STALK.

Jrticulatus, jointed, as in Agrodh alba,

U 1189, Airacanescens, t. lldO, Avena

strigosa, t, 1266, and most other

grasses ;

Geiiiculatus, bent like the knee, as Alope-

curus geniculatus, t. 1250.
It is either soUd or hollow, round or trian-
gular, rough or smooth, sometimes hairy or
downy, scarcely woolly. I know of no in-
stance of such a scaly culm as Linnaeus has
figured in his Fhilosophia Botanica, t. 4i,
f. 111, nor can I conceive what he had in
view.

3. ScAPUS. A Stalk, springs from the Root,
and bears the flowers and fruit, but not
the leaves. Frimula vulgaris, the Prim-
rose, E?igL Bot. L 4, and P. I'eris, the
Cowslip, t. 5, are examples of it. In
the former the stalk is simple and single-
flowered ; in the latter subdivided and
man3^-flowered. It is either naked, as in
Narcissus, Engl, Bot. t. 17, or scaly, as
in Tussilago Farfara, t. 429. In others
of this last genus, t, 450 and 431, the

OP THE FLOWER-STALK. 129

scales become leafy, and render tlie Sea-
pus a proper Caidis.

The Stalk is spiral in Cyclamen, Engl.
Bot. i. 548, and Valimaia spiralis, a won-
derful plant, VI hose history will be detailed
hereafter.

Linnir^us believed * that a plant could
not be increased by its Scapifs, which in ge^
neral is correct, but we have already re-
cor((ed an exception, p, 112, m Lachenalia
tricolor. The same great author has ob-
served-j- that " a Sat pus is only a species of
Fedunculus."' The term might therefore be
spared, were it not found very commodious
in constructino; neat suecitic definitions of
plants. If abolished, Fediincnlus radicalism,
a radical fiower-stalk, should be substituted
in its room.

4. Peduxculus, the Flower-stalk, springs
from the stem, and bears the flowers and
fruit, not the leaves. Fedicellus, a par-
tial flower-stalk, is the ultimate subdivision
of a general one, as in the Cowslip, and
Saiijraga umbrosa, Engh Bot. t. 663.

* MSS. in Phil. Bot. 40. + Ibid.

K

130 OF THE FLOWER-STALK.

The Flower-stalk is

CatiUnuSy cauliiie, when it grows immedi-
ately out of the main stem, especially
of a tree, as in Averrhoa Ijilimbi,
Riimph. Amhoin. v. 1. i. 36, the Indian
substitute for our green gooseberries.

RaiJieus, growing out of a main branch,
as in Averrhoa Carambola, ibid. t. 35,
and Eugenia inalaccensis^ Eiot. Bot
i. 61.

Axillaris, axillary, growing either from
the bosom of a leaf, that is, between it
and the stem, as Anchusa sempervirens,
Engl. Bot. t. 4.5, and Campanula
Trachelium, t. Y2 ; or between a branch
and the stem, as Ruppia maritima,
t. 136.

Oppositifolius, opposite to a leaf, as Ge-
ranium pyrenaieiim, t. 405, G. molle,
t. 778, and Simn angustifoliion,
i. 139.

Internodis, proceeding from the interme-
diate part of a branch between two
leaves, as in Ehretia internodis, L'He-
ritier Stirp. t. 24, Solanum carolineiise,
DHL Hort. Elth. t, 2j9, and indicum,
3

OF THE FLOWER- STALK* 13]

t. 260 ; but this mode of insertion is

rare.
Gemmaccus, growing out of a leaf-bud,

as the Barberry, Bcrberis vulgaris,

EugL Bot t. 49.
Terminalio, terminal, when it terminates

a stem or branch, as TuUpa syhestris,

t. 6.'3, and Cenlaurea Scabiosa, t. 56.
Lateralis, lateral, when situated on the

side of a stem or branch, as Erica

vagans, t. 3.
Soli t arias, solitary, either single on a plant,

as in llubus Chamamoras, t. 716, or

only one in the same place, as in An-

tirrliinum spuria??}, t. 69I, and many

common plants.
Aggregati PeduncuU, clustered flower-
stalks, when several grow together, as in

Verbasciwi ?iigrui?i, t. o9'
Sparsi, scattered, dispersed irregularly

over the plant or branches, as Li?iui?i

pere?uie, t. 40, and Ra?iu?iculus scele-

rat as, t. 681.
U?iijiori^ biflori, trifiori, &c. bearing one,

two, three, or more flowers, of which

examples are needless.

133 OP THift PtOWER-STALit.

MitUiflori, manj-flowered, as Daphne

Laureola, t. 1 19-
When there is tib Flower-stalk, the flowers
^re said to be ScssileSy sessile, as in
Centaurea Calcitrapa, t. 125, and the
Dodders, t» 55 and 37S,
The subject of inflorescence, or particular
modes of flowering, will be explained in a
future chapter.

5. Petiolus. The Footstalk, or Leaf-
stalk. This term is applied exclusively
to the stalk of a leaf, which is either
simple, as in lianunculus pai'vijioriis^
Engl. But. t. 120, Shim august [foU urn ^
t. 139, and all simple leaves; or com-
pound, as Coriundrum sativum^ t. 67, and
Fumaria clavicalata, t. 103. In the lat-
ter the footstalks end in tendrils, and ar6
called Fetioli cirrif'eri.
This part is commonly channelled on the

upper side. Sometimes it is greatly dilated

and concave at the base, as in Angelica syl-

vesti'is, t. 1128.

The Footstalk bears the Flower-stalk in

Turner a ulmifolla, Li?m. Horf. Cliff. /. 10,

OF THE FRONP. }g$

Menifcmthcs indica, Curt. Mag. t. 658, and
perhaps Epimedium ^Ipi/ium, Bngl. Bot.
t. 4:i8.

6. Froxs. a Frond. In this the stem,
leaf and fructification are united, or, in
other words, the flowers and fruit are
produced from the leaf itself, ss in the
Fern tribe, Scolopendrium vulgarCy Engl.
Bof. t. 1150, Bolypodium vulgare, t. 1149,
jUpidium, t. 1458 — 14(31, Osrjiunda re-
g(tlis, f. 209, &c. It is also applied to
the Lichen tribe, and others, in which
the whole pkuit is either a crustaceous or
a leafy substance, from which the fructifi-
cation immediately proceeds. Linnaeus
considered Palm-trees as fronds, so far
correctly as that they have not the proper
stem of a tree, see p. 58 ; but they are
rather perhaps herbs whose stalks bear the -
Iructlflcation. It must however be ob-
served that the deposition of wood in ferns,
takes place exactly as in palms.

The term frond is now used in the class
Crj/p t ogam ia o nl v .

13-1 OF THE STIPE.

7. Stipes, Stipe*, is the stem of a frond,
which in ferns is commonly scaly. See
the plates cited in the last section. The
tenii is likewise applied to the stalk oF a
Funaus, as the Common Mushroom,
Agariciis cajnpestris, Sowerhys Fwigiy
t. 305.

* Martyn, Language of Botany.

)33

CHAPTER XIV.

OF BUDS.

vjTEMMA, a Bud, contains the rudiments of
u plant, or of part of a plant, for a while in
a latent state, till the time of the year and
other circumstances favour their evolution.
In the bud therefore the vital principle is
dormant, and its excitability is accumulated.
The closest analogy exists between buds and
bulbs; and indeed the Dentaria bitlbifej-a,
Engl. Bot. t. 309, Lilium bidbiferiitn, Jacq.
Fl. Aiistr. t. 226, and Geravde emac. 193,
with other similar plants, as mentioned
p. Ill, almost prove their identity.

Buds of trees or shrubs, destined for cold
countries, are formed in the course of the
summer in the bosoms of their leaves, and
are generally solitary ; but in the Blue-ber-
ried Honeysuckle, Lou ice r a cccrulea, J acq.

136 OF BUDS.

FL Austr. append, t, 17, they grow one un-
der another for three successive seasons, /*. 24.
The buds of the Plane-tree, Flafanhs, Du
Hamel Jrb. v. 2. 17 i, are concealed in the
footstalk, which must be' removed before they
can be seen, and which they force otr by their
increase ; so that no plant can have more
truly and, necessarily deciduous leaves than
the Plane. ShrLd)s in general have no buds,
neither have the trees of hot climates. Lin-
nffius once thought the presence of buds might
distingui.sh a tree from a shrub, but he was
soon convinced of tb.ere being no real limits
between them.

The situation of buds is necessarily like
that of the leaves, alte^rnate, opposite, &c.
Trees with opposite leo-ves have three buds,
those with alternate ones a solitary bud, at
the top of each branch. Du liamd.

Buds are various in their forms, but very
uniform in the same species or even genus,
They consist of scales closely enveloping each
other, and enfolding the embryo plant or
branch. Externally they have often an ad-
ditional guard, of gum, resin or woohiness»
aaainst wet and cold. The Horse Chesnut,

OF BUDS. !37

Mscidus Ilippocastanum, now so common
with us, though, as I have learnt from Mr.
Hawkins*, a native of Mount Piudus in
Arcadia, is a fine example of large and well-
formed buds, /'. 25 ; and some of the Ameri-
can Walnuts are still more remarkable.

It has bcei-^ already remarked, p. 90, that
buds resist cold only till they begin to grow :
hence, according to the nature and earhness
of their buds, plants differ in their powers of
bearing a severe or variable climate.

Grevv is elaborate on the forms of buds,
and the arrangement of the spots apparent
within them when cut transversely, which
indicate the number and situation of their
vessels. It V\"as the character of this excel-
lent man to observe every thing, without re-
ference to any theory, and his book is a
storehouse of facts relating to vegetation.
Loefling,' a favourite pupil of Linna?us, wrote,
under the e^^e of his great teacher, an essay
on this subject, published in the jlniooni fates
Acacieiniccf, v. 2, in which the various forms
of buds, and the diherent disposition of the

* See a note on tlils subject, which Mr. K. P. Knight
has honoured with a place in the second edition of his
goem on Landscape.

138 OF BUI>3.

leaves within them, arc ilhislrated by nume-
rous examples. The Abbe de Ramatuelle
had taken up tiiis subject with great zeal at
Paris, about twenty years ago, but the result
of his inquiries has not reached me.

Dr. Darwin, FJri/fologia, sect, 9, has many
acute observations on the phvsiolojiv of buds,
but he appears to draw^ the analogy too closely
between them and the embryo of a seed, or
the chick in the L'^g. By buds indeed, as we
well know, plants are propagated, and in that
sense each bud is a separate being, or a
young plant in itself; but such propagation
is only the extension of an individual, and
not a reproduction of the species as by seed.
Accordingly, all plants increased by buds,
cuttings, layers or roots, retain precisely the.
peculiar qualities of the individual to which
they owe their origin. If those qualities dif-
fer from what are common to the species,
sufficiently to constitute what is called a va-
riety,, that variety is perpetuated through all
the progeny thus obtamed. This fact is ex-
emplified in a thousand instances, none more
notorious than the different kinds of Apples,
all which are varieties of the common Crab,

OF BUDS. 139

Vijrus MaluSy Engl. But. f. 179; and I
connot hut assent to i\Ir. Knight's opinion,
that each inchvidual thus propagated has only
a deterniin-ite existence, in some cases longer,
in others shorter ; from uhich cause nrany
valuable varieties of apples and pears, known
in former times, are now worn out, and others
are dwindling av/ay before our eyes. New-
varieties of Cape Geraniums, raised from seed
in our 2:reenhouses, are of still shorter dura-
tion, and can be preserved by cuttings for a
few successive seasons only ; yet several of
these stand in our botanic w orks, with all the
importance of reed species. Gardeners know
liow many of the most hardy perennial herbs
rec|uire to be frequently renewed from seed
to exist in lull vigour ; and though others ap-
pear, to our confined experience, unlimited in
that respect, we have many reasons to be-
lieve they are not so. Propagation by seeds
is therefore the only true reproduction of
plants, by which each species rem.ains di-
stinct, and all variations are effaced ; for
thou ah new varieties may arise amono; a
great number of seedling plants, it does not
yppcar that such varieties owe their pecu-

140 OF BUDS.

liaritles to any that may have existed in the
parent plants. How propagation by seed is
accomphshed will be explained in a future
chapter, as well as the causes of some va-
rieties produced by that means.

Mr. Knight, in the FhilosGphical Transac-
tions for 1805, has shown that buds origi-
nate from the alburnum, as might indeed be
expected. Tiie trunks and branches of trees,
and the knobs of genuine tuberous roots, like
the potatoe, are studded with them ; in which
respect, as Professor Willdenow judiciously
observes, Principles of Botany/, p. 15, such
roots essentially differ from bulbous ones,
which last are themselves simple buds, and
produce their shoots, as well as their offsets,
either from the centre or from the base.

The contents of buds are different, even
in different species of the same genus, as
Willows. The buds of some produce leaves
only, others flowers ; while in other species
the same bud bears both leaves and iiowers.
Different causes, depending on the soil or
situation, seem in one case to generate leat-
buds, in another flower-buds. Thus the
Solandra grandijlora, Tr. of Linn. Soc, v. 6.

OF BUDS. Mi

99. t. 6', a Jamaica sbjub, was for a luiniber
of years cultivated in the English stoves, and
propagated extensively by cuttings, each
plant growing many feet in length every sea-
son, from abundance of moisture and nourish-
ment, without showing any signs of fructifi-
cation. At length a pot of the Solandra was
accidentally left without water in the dry
stove at Kew ; and in consequence of this
unintentional neglect, the luxuriant growth
of its branches was greatly checked, and a
flower came forth at the extremity of each.
By a similar mode of treatment the same
effect has since frequently been produced.
Several plants, especially with bulbous roots,
which blossom abundantly in their native
soils, have hitherto defied all the art of our
gardeners to produce this desirable effect ;
yet future experience may possibly place it
within our reach by some very simple means.
In general, whatever' checks the luxuriant
production of leaf-buds, favours the forma-
tion of flowers and seeds. That variety, or
perhaps species, of the Orange Lily, Lilium
hulbiferum, which is most prolific in buds»
seldom forms seeds^ or even those organs

112 OF HUBS.

of llie flower nece^ssary to their pcrrection.
So likewise the seeds of Mints, a tribe of
plants which increuse excessively by roots,
have liardly been detected by any botanist ;
and it is asserted by Doody in Ray's Sijnopsls^
that when the elegant little Ornithopus pcr^
pu.silhis, Engl. Bot, t, 36.Q, does not pro-
duce pods, it propagates itself by the grains
or tubercles of its root, though in general
the root is annuah

143

CHAPTEIl XV.

OF LEAVES, THEIR SITUATIONS, IX-
SEliTIOXS, SURFACES, AXD VARIOUS
FORMS.

-TOEIUM, the Leaf, is a very general, but
not universal, organ of vegetables, of an ex-
panded form, presenting a much greater
surface to the atmosphere than all the other
parts of the plant together. Its colour is
almost universally green, its internal sub-
stance pulpy and vascular, sometimes very
succulent, and its upper and under surfaces
commonly diiler in hue, as well as in kind or
degree of roughness.

Leaves are eminently ornamental to plants
from their pleasing colour, and the infinite va-
riety as woU as elegance of their forms.
Their many ccconomical uses to mankind,
and the importance ilwy hold in the scale of

144 SITUATION AKD POSITION OP LEAVES.

nature as furnishing food to the brute crea-
tion, are subjects foreign to our present pur-
pose, and need not here be insisted upon.
Their essential importance to the plant which
bears them, and the curious functions by
which they contribute to its health and in-
crease, will presently be detailed at length.
We shall tirst explain their different situa-
tions, insertions, forms, and surfaces, which
are of the greatest possible use in systemati-
cal botany.

The leaves are wanting in many plantSj
called for that reason plant ce aph/llce, as
Salicornia, Engl Bot. t. 415, and I69I,
Stapelia variegata, Curt. Mag. t. 26, glaii-
dulijiora, Exot. Bot. t. 71, and all the spe-
eies of that genus. In such cases the surface
of the stem must perform all their n^.cessary
functions.

1. With respect to Situation and Position,
Folia radicalia, radical leaves, are such as
spring from the root, like those of the
Cowslip, Engl Bot. t. 5, and Ajiemohe
Pulsatilla, t. 51.

. Caulina, stem-leaves, grow or^ the stem

■SITUATION AND POSITION OF* LEAVES. I4'5

as in Paj'is qitadrifoHa, t. 7? Folcmoniiim
cceruleutn, t. 14, &c.

Rameay branch-leaves, sometimes differ
from those of the main stem, ami then
require to be distinguished from them,
a» Melampyruni arvense, t. 53.

Alt€rna,f.^\, alternate leaves, stand soli-
tarily on the stem or branches, spreading
in different directions, as those of Borage,
t. 36, and innumerable other plants.

Sparsa, f. 19, scattered irregularly, as in
Genista tinctoria, ^ 44, Lilimn chal-
cecionicum. Curt, 31ag. t. 30, and hulbi^
ftrum, t. 36.

Opposita, opposite to each other, as Saii-
fraga oppositifolia, Engl. Bot. t. 9j
Ballota nigra, t, 46, &c.

Conferfa, clustered, or crowded together,
as those of Trientalis europcea, t, 15.

JMuQi only two upon a plant or stem, as
in the Snowdrop, Galanthiis nivalis,
t. 19, Scilla bifolia, t. 24, and Con-
vallaria mnjalis, t. 1035.

Terna, three together, as Verbena tri-
pliiflla, Curt. Mag. t. 367. Tlie plants
of Chili and i'eru seem particularly dis-
posed to this arrangement of their leaves.

L

J46 SITUATION AND POSITION OF LEAVES.

Quaterna,quina^ &c. when 4, 5, or more
are so situated, as in various species of
Heath, Erica.

Verticillata, whorled, is used to express
several leaves growing in a circle round
the stem, without a reference to their
precise number, as in Asperula ajnaji-
chica, Engl. Bot. t. 33, and odoratay
t. 755, which with the genus Galium,
and some others, are for this reason called
stellatce, star-leaved plants. Whorled
leaves are also found in Ilippuris vul-
gans, t, 763, and many besides.

Fasciciilata, f. 26, tufted, as in the
Larch, PinuSf LarLr, Lamb. Pin. t. 35,
the Cedar, and some others of that
genus.

Imbricata^f. 57, imbricated, like tiles upon
a house, as in the common Ling, Erica
vulgaris, Engl. Bot. t. 1013, and Eu-
phorbia paralla, t. 19.5-

Decussata,f. 28, decussated, in pairs alter-
nately crossing each other, as Veronica
(kcussata. Curt. Mag. t. 24C, and Me-
laleuca thymifolia, Edvf. Bot. t. 36.

DisticJia, f. 29, two-ranked, spreading in
two directions, and yet not regularly op-

SITUATION AND POSITION OF LEAVES. 147

posite at their insertion, as Plnus
canadensis, Lamb. Pin. t. 32, and
the Yew, Tains baccala, Engl. Bof.
t. 74G.

Secunda, f. 30, unilateral, or leaning all
towards one side, as Convallaria multi-
flora, t. 279-

Adpressa, close-pressed to the stem, as
Xeranthcmum sesamoides, Curt. Mag.
t. 425.

Verticalia, perpendicular, both sides at
right angles with the horizon, as
Lactuca Scariola, Engl, Bot. t. 268.

Erecta, upright, forming a very acute an-
gle with the stem, as J uncus articulatus,
t. 238.

Pa^ew^/a, spreading, forming a moderately
acute angle with the stem or branch, as
Atriplex portulacoides, t. 261.

Horizontalia, horizontal, or patentissima,
spreading in the greatest possible de-
gree, as Gcntiana campestris^ t, 237.

Beclinata, inclining downward, as Leo-
nurus Cardiaca, t. 286.

B.ecurva, or refle.ia, curved backward, as
Erica retorta. Curt. Mag. f. 362.
L 2

■J48 .HtUATlOll AND POSITION OF LEAVES,

J.ncnrva^ or inficxa^ curved inward, a,"?
Jliricaempefrifolia, f. 447.

ObUqua, twisted, so that one part of each
leaf is vertical, the other horizontal, as
Fritillaria obliqua, t. 857? '«ind some of
the large Frotea;.

Ixcsupinata, reversed, when the upper
surface is turned downward, as Phurus
kiti/olius, Broziiies Jamaica^ t. 38.
Linn. Mss., and Ahiraemeria pelegrinay
Curt. Mag. t. 139.

DepressGf radical leaves pressed close to
the ground, as Vlantago mcdh, Engl.
Bot. t. 1559, 'dud P. Coronopifs, t. 892.
The same term applied to stem-leaves,
expresses their shape only, as being
vertically flattened, in opposition to
co?npres.s(i.

'Natantia^ floating, on the surface of the
water, as Nympiuea hi tea, t, lo9> and
Ma, t. 1 60, and Fotainogeton natansy
and many water plants.

Dcmersa, iminersa, or suhmcrsa, plunged
under water, as Potamogeton perfulia-
tmn, t. 1()8, llottonia palustris, t. 364,
LoheUa Dortmanna, t, 140, _ and the

INfEHTlON OF X.r.AVT.S, Hg

lower leavos of l^ailinicnha^ aquatU'ti^,
t. 101, wliile its upper htg J'olia natantia.
Efficrsd, raised above the water, as the
upper leaves, accompanying the flowers,
' of Mi/riophyl/njfi verticillatu/rty i. 218,
while its lower ones are demersa.

2. By Insertion is meant the mode in Mhieh
one part of a plant is connected with an-
other.

Folia pcfiolafa, leaves on footstalks, are
such as are furnished with that organ,
whether long or short, simple or coin-
pound, as Verhascum Jiigru/n, EngL
Bof. t, .59? Thalictrum rnimin, t. 11,
alphniw, f. 26'2, &c.
Pelfata,/. 3 1 , })eltate, when the footstalk is
inserted into the middle of the leaf, like
the arm of a man holding a .shield, as in
the Common Nasturtium, Tropaohnn
majiis. Curt. Mug. t, 23, Drosera pel'
f(tta, Exot, Bot. t.4l, Cotijkdon Um-
hilicust EngL Bot. t. 325, Ihfdrocotijlc
vulgaris, t.'Y5l, and the noble C?/i<'//////.s'
Nchimbo, Exot. Bot. L 31, 32. -
SessUia, sessile, are such as spriiig imme-

150 INSERTION OP LEAVES.

diately from the stem, branch or root,
without any footstalk, as in Anclinsa
sempervirens, Engl. Bot. t. 45, and
Finguicula vulgaris, t. 70.
Ampkxicuulia.f.S^i, clasping the stem with
their base, as the upper leaves of Glau-
cium luteiim, t. 8, Gentiana campestris,
t. 237) and Hiimea elegans, Exot. Bot.

t. 1.

Cojmata,f. 17> connate, united at their base,
as Chlora perfoUala, Engl. Bot. t. 60,
whose leaves are connato-per'foUata.

PerfoUata,f. 33, perfoliate, when the stem
runs through the leaf, as Bupleurum
rotundifollum, t. 99j and the Uvularice,
Exot, Bot. t. 49, 50, 51.

Vaginantia,f. 34, sheathing the stem or each
other, as in most grasses ; see F /ileum
alpinum, Engl. Bot. t. 519? and Arundo
arenaria, t. 520. The same character
is found in many of the Orchis tribe, as
Satyrium albidum, t. 505.

^quitantia,f. 3d, equitant, disposed in two
opposite rows and clasping each other by
their compressed base, as in Narthecium
ossifragum, t. 535, and the genus Iris ]

7

FORMS OP LEAVES. 151

tilso JVitsenia coryjnhosa, Exot. Hot.
t. 68, and Dilatris eovi/nibosa, t. 16.

Deciirrentia, f. 36, decurrent, running-
down the stem or branch in a leafy bor-
der or wing, as Onopordum yicanthiinu,
EngL Bot. t. 977, Carduus iemtijlorus,
t. 412, and many other Thistles, also
tlie Great Mullein, J^erbascum Thapsiis,
t. 549, and Comfrey, Si/mphytimi offici'
7iale, f. 817-

Floj-ifcra, /'. 37, flower-bearing, when
flowers grow out of the disk or margin of
any leaf, as in Riisciis aculeatus, I. o60,
Xijlophylla hit [folia ^ and X. falcafa,
Andr. Bepos. t. 331. This is equivalent
to a frond in the class Cri/ptogamia ;
see p. 133.

3. With regard to form. Leaves are either
simpUeUiy simple, like those of Grasses,
Orchises, Lilies, and many other plants,
as Ballot a nigra, EngL Bot. t. 46, and
Berbcris vulgaris, t. 49 ; or compoaita,
compound, as in most Umbelliferous
plants, Parsley, Hemlock, Sec. ; also
Roses, EngL Bot. t. 990—992.

153 ^ORMS OF LEAVES.

In compourKl leaves the footstalk is ei-
ther si«Tple, as in the instances last
quotedj and Sium angusti folium, t. 139;
or compoiind, as those of Stlinum pa-
lustre,, t, 229, and Thalictrum majus,
t. 611. — In simple leaves the footstalk,
if present, must of course be simple,
while in compound ones it must al\vay.s
be present, though not always sub-
divided.

Simple Leaves are either integra, undi-
vided, as those of Grasses and Orchises ;
or lohata, lobed, like the Vine, the
Thistle, most kinds of Cranesbill, as Ge-
ranium pratense, Engl. Bof, t. 404, Szc.

Leaves are frequently undivided and lobed
on the same plant, as the Hop, Engl.
Bot. t. 427.

4. The following; are the most remarkable
forms of Simple Leaves, considering their
outhne only.

Orbkukttum^ f. 38, a circular or orbicular
leaf, whose length and breadth are equal,
and the circumference an even circular
line. Precise examples of this are

FORMS OP LEAVES. 133

scarcely to be found. Some species ol
Fipei' approach it, and the k^af of
Ilcdysarum sfi/racifoiium is perfectly
orbicular, except a notch at the base.

Subvotundum, /'. 39, roundish, as Pi/rola,
Engl.Bott. 146, 158 and 213, and
many other plants.

Ovatum,f\ 40, ovate, of the shape of an egg
cut lengthwise, the base being rounded
and broader than the extremity, a very
common form of leaves, as Urtica pila-
lifera, t, 148, and Vinca major, /. 514.

Ohovaium^ f. 41, obovate, of the same
figure with the broader end uppermost,
as those of the Primrose, t. 4, and the
Daisy, t, 424. Linnaeus at first used
the words obverse ovatum.

Ellipticum,/. 42, or ovale, elliptical or oval,
of a snnilar form to the foregoing, but of
equal breadth at each end, as in the
Lily of the Valley, and other Conval-
larkc, t, 1035, 279 and 280.

Oblongum, oblong, three or four times
longer than broad. This term is used
with great latitude, and. serves chiefly
in a specific character to contrast a leaf

154 FORMS OF LEAVES.

which has a variable, or not vcrv dc-
cid€=d, form, with others that arc pre-
cisely round, ovate, hnear, Sec.

Spaiulatmn,f. 4Sj spatulate, of a roundish
figure tapering into an oblong base, as
m Silene Olites, Fl. Brit. Engl. Bot. t. 85.

Ciineiforme^ f. 44, wedge-shaped, broad
and abrupt at the summit, and tapering
down to the base, as in Saiifraga cu-
ve if oil a.

Lanceolatum,f. 45, lanceolate, of a narrow
oblong form, tapering towards each end,
very common, as Tulipa si/hestris, Engl.
Bof. f. 63, Liihosperynum purpuro-
ccErideum, t. 117, Fiantago lanceolafa,
t. 507, many WiilowSj &c.

Lineare,f. 46, linear, narrow with parallel
sides, as those of most Grasses ; also
Gentiana Pncumonanthe, t. 20, and
Narcissus Fseudo-?iarcissuSj t. 17.

Acerosum, f. 47? needle-shaped, linear and
evergreen, generally acute and rigid, as
in the Fir, Finns, Juniper, Juniperus
communis, t. 1100, and Yew, Taxusbac-
caia, t. 746. Linnaeus observes, FhiL
Bot.2\9, that this kind of leaf has, for

FORMS OF LEAVES. 154

the most part, a joint at its union with
the branch.
Triaufrularc^f, 48, triangular, having three
prominent angles, without any reference
to their measurement or direction, as
in the genus Chcnopodiuni, Coclikaria
donka, t. 696, and some leaves of the
Ivy.
Qaadrangularc, f. 49, ^vith four angles,
as the Tulip-tree, Liriodendriim tulipi-
fera, Sm. I/is. of Georgia, f. 102. Ciut,
Alog. t. 215,
QuinquanQ:ularc,f, 19, Vvith five angles, as

some Ivy leaves, &:c.
Deltoides, f. 50, trowel-shaped or deltoid,
having; three angles, of which the termmal
one is much further from tlie base than
the lateral ones, as Clicnopodium Boniis-
Henricus. Engl. Bot. t. 1033, and some
leaves of Coclikaria danica. A wrong
figure is quoted for this in P/iilosophia
Botanica, which has caused much con-
fusion.
Bhombeum, f. 51, rhomboid, or diamond-
shaped, approaching to a square, as
Chenopodium olidiun^ f. 1034, Trapa

.15& FORMS OF LEAVES.

vaians, Camer. Epil, 715, and TriUium
erechnn. Curt. AJag. t. 4-70.

Rcnifor?iie,f. 52, kidney-shaped, a sliort,
broad, roundish leaf, whose base i^^hollow-
ed out, ?isAsai'um eiiropccum, Engl. Bot.
1. 1083, and Sibthorpia europcea, t. 649.

Cordatum, /*. 53, heart-shaped, accordnig
to the vulgar idea of a heart; that is,
ovate hollowed out at the base, as TamuH
communis, t. 91-

ii^7/w/fl^w7«,y'. 54, crescent-shaped, like a
half-moon, whether the points are di-
rected towards the stalk, or from it,' as
Tassiflora lunata, S?n. Ic. Pici. f. 1.

Sagittatum,j'. 55, arrow-shaped, triangular,
hollowed out very much at the base, as
Sagittaria ^agitiifoUa^ En'gl. Bot. t. 84,
and liumex Aceiosa, t. 127.

Sometimes the posterior angles are cut
off, as in Convolvulus sepium, t. 3,13.

llastatum,f. 56, halberd-shaped, triangu-
lar, hollowed out at the base and sides,
but with spreading lobes, as Ihnnex
Acetosella, t. 1674, Antirrltmum Eln-
tine, t. 692, and the upper leaves of
Solan uni Dulcamara, t. 565,

FORMS OF lEAVKS. 15?

PdtiduriformCyf.jl, fidclle-shapod, oblong,
broad at tlie two extremities and con-
tracted in the middle, as the Fiddle Dock,
1\ urn ex p u Ich er, t . 1 576.

l\u)icin(ttum,j\ 58, runciniite, or lion-tooth*
ed, cut into several transverse, acute seg-
ments, pointing backwards, as the Dan-
delion, Leoiitodon Taraxacum, t. 510.

L}/ratuJ7i,f. 59 i ly rate, or lyre-shaped, cm
into se\ eral transverse segments, gradu-
ally larger towards the extremity ot" tiiS
leaf, which is rounded, as Eri/simum
Bai'harea^ I. 443.

Fissufu^f. 6Q, cloven, when the margins of the
fissures and sesrments are straight, as in
the Gingko-tree, Salhhuria adiantifolia,
Bifidum, trifidum, multijidum, Sec. ex-
press the number of the segments.

Lohatum^f. 61, lobed, when the margins of
the segments are rounded, as in Anemone
Jlepatica, Curt. Mag, t. 10.
Bilobum, trilobum, &;c., according to the
number of the lobes.
Sinnatw7i,f. 62, sinuated, cut into rounded
or wide openings, as SYr7f/cc sinuafa,f.7l,
and Virgilia hdiQidcs., Exot. Bot. f, 37-

138 FORMS OP LEAVES.

Fcrrtitum,/. 63^ deeply divided, nearly to
the base, as IlcUeborus viridis, Engl.
Bof, t. 200.

Bipartitwn, iripartitum^ multipartitumy
according to the number of the divisions.

Lacimatum^f, 64, laciniated, cut into nu-
merous n'rcgular portions, as Ranunculus
parvijlorus, 1. 120, and Geranium cohau-
Oinum, t. 2o9»

Incisum, and Dmectuniy cut, are nearly
synonymous with the last.

It is remarked by Linnteus that aqua-
tic plants have their lower, and moun-
tainous ones their upper, leaves most
divided, by which they better resist the
action oi the stream in one case, and of
wind in the other. Probably these ac-
tions are in some measure the causes of
such configurations.

Palmatum^ f. Q5, palmate, cut into several
oblong, nearly equal segments, about half
way, or rather more, towards the base,
leaving an entire space like the palm of
the hand, as Fassijiora ccerulea^ Curt.
Mag. t. 28.

Finnatlfidum, /, 66, pinnatifid, cut trans-

TERMINATIONS OP LEAVES. ]59

vdrsely into several oblong parallel seg-
ments, as in Ipo?nopsis, Exot, But, t, 13,
34, Biniias Cakile, Engl Bot, ^1231, Le-
pklium (lich/iniimy t, 2AS, pctrceum, Mil,
and Mi/riop/ijjllum vcrticillatum, t. 218.

Bipinnatijidum, f, Gj? doubly pinnatifid, as
FapavcrAroeinone, ^.6'43, and Eriocalla
major, EioL Bot. t. 78.

Vectinatum^f. 68, pectinate, is a pinnatifid
leaf, whose segments are remarkably nar-
row and parallel, like the teeth of a comb,
as the lower leaves of Myrloplnjlhifn
verticillatum, and those of Hottcrua
palustris, Engl. Bot, t. 36"4.

Imtqualc^f. 6'9, unequal, sometimes called
oblique, when the two halves of the leaf
are unequal in dimensions, and their
bases not parallel, as in Eucalyptus
rcsinifera, E:iot. Bot, t. 84, and most
of that srenus, as well as of Bc^j-onia.

The Terminations of Leaves are various.

Folium truncatum,f, 49, an abnipt leaf, has
the extremity cut off, as it v.ere, bv a
tj^ansverse line, as Liriodcndrum tulipi-
fera. Curt. Mag. t. 275.

160 .TERMINATIONS OF LEAVES,

Pramorsion^ f. 70, jaggecl-pointetl, vay
blunt, with various irregular notches, as
in Dr. Swartz^s genus Aeridts, compre-
hended under the Epidendrum of Lin-
iiccus. See E, tessellattim, lloxb. PL
of Coromandel, t. 42, and prceniorsum^
^43.

lxetusum,f.1l\, retuse, ending in a broad
shallow notch, as Kumex digi/nus, Engl.
Bot. t. 910.

Emarginatum^f. 72, emarginate, or nicked,
having a small acute notch at the summit,
as the Bladder Senna, Coluiea arbores-
cens, Curt. Mag. t. SI.

Obtusum,f. 39, blunt, terminating in a seg-
ment of a circle, as the Primrose, Engl.
Bot. t, 4, Snowdrop, t. 19, Hijpericuni
qu.adrangulumy t. 370, and Linuni
cathorticum, t^ 382.

Acutum, f. 51, sharp, ending in an acute
angle, which is common to a great variety
of plants, as Ladies' Slipper, t. 1, Campa-
nidu Trachellim, t. 12, and Linimi
angustifoUum\ f. 381.
Acumi7iatum,f. 73, pointed, having a taper
or awlshaped point, as Arundo Fhrag"

1»1ARGINS OF LEAVES. l(Jl

mites, f. 401, and Scirpus ?7iaritimi(s,
t. 543.

ObtuHum cum acumine, f. 74, blunt with
a small point, as Statice Limoiiiiimy
t. 102.

Mucronatum or Cuspiclatmn,/. 75, sharp-
pointed, tipped with a rigid spine, as in
the Thistles, t. 107, t. 386, &c., Rm-
cus aculeatus, t. 560, and Melaleuca
nodosa, E.iot. Bot. i. 35.

Cirrosum, f. 76, cirrose, tipped with a ten-
dril, as in Gloriosa superha, Aiidr.
Repos. t. 129.

6. The different Margins of Leaves are cha-
racterized as follows.
Folium integerrimum, f. 39, an entire leaf,
as in the Orchis and Lily tribe, as well as
Roll/gala vulga7-is, Engl. Bot. t. 76,
Daphne Laureola, t. 119? &c.

This term is opposed to all kinds of
teeth, notches, or incisions. It regards
solely the margin of a leaf; whereas in-
tegrum^ p. 152, respects its whole shape,
and has nothing to do with the margin.
English writers who translate the one
entire, and the other very entire, are
therefore incorrect.

M

102 MARGINS OP LEAVES.

Spinosiun,f. 77 J spinous, beset v/ith prickles,
as Carduus lanceoiatus, t, 107, and
Eryngiiim cajnpesire^ t. 57- The veins
are spinous in Solanum Vyracantha,
Exot. Bot. t. 64, &c.

liierme^ f. 71, unarmed, is oi)posed to
spinous.

Ciliatum,/. 78, fringed, bordered with soft
parallel hairs, as GaliinJi cruciatuniy
Engl. Bot, t. 143.

Cariilagmeum, cartilaginous, hard and
horny, as Saxifrnga callosa, Dicks.
Dr. PL ??. 63.

Dentatiim,/. 79> toothed, beset with pro-
jecting, horizontal, rather distant teeth
of its own substance, as A triplex laciniafa,
Etigl. Bot. t, 165, Hypocharis macidata,
t. 225, and the lower leaves oiCcntaiirca
Cyamis, t. 277 ; also Nymphcsa Lotus^
Curt. Mag. t. 797.

Serrutu?n,f. SO, serrated, when the teeth
af e sharp, and resemble those of a saw,
pointing towards the extremity of the
leaf. Examples of this are frequent, as
Urtica, t. 148 and .1236, Rosa, L 992,
&c., Comarum palustre, 1. 172, and «SV-
)U'cio paludosus, t, 6.50 ; also Dillenia
indica, Exot. Bot. t. 2. Some leave?^

MARGINS OF LEAVES. 103

are doubl}' serrated, dupUcato-serrafa,
having a series of smaller serratures in-
termixed with the lai'ger, as Mespilus
grajicli flora, t. 18, and Campanula Tra-
cheliian, Engl. Bot. f. 12.

SoTulatiuUff.GS, minutely serrated, is used
when the teeth are very fine, as in Poly^
gomun ampliiblum, t. 436, and Em-
pleurum scrrulatian, Exot. Bot. t. 63.

Crenatum, f. 81, notched, or crenate, when
the teeth are rounded, andnot directed to-
wards either end of the leaf, as in Ground-
Ivy, Glechoma hcdcracea, t. 853, Chnj-
sosplenium, t. 54 and 490, and Sib-
thorpia europcca, t. 649- In Saxifraga
Gemn, t, 1561, the leaves are sharply
crenate. In the two British species of
Salvia^ t. 153 and 154, the radical leaves
are doubly crenate, f. 82.

Erosum, f, 83, jagged, irregularly cut or
notched, especially when otherwise divid-
ed besides, as inScnecio squalidus, t.dOO.

Kepandum,f. 84, wavy, bordered with nu-
merous minute angles, and smallsegments
of circles alternately, as Menyanthes
nyinphccoides, t. 217> and Inula dysen-
terica, t. 1115.

ivi 2

164 SURFACE OF LEAVES.

Glandidosian, glandular, as Jhipericum
montamnn, t. 371, and the Bay-leaved
Willow, Sallx pentandra.
Revohitum, revolute, when the margin is
turned or rolled backwards, as Andro-
7jieda polffoUa, ^.713, and Tetratheca
glandulosa, Eaot, Bot. t, 21.

Linnaeus seems originally to have ap-
plied this term to the rolling of the
whole leaf backwards, as in Solidago
FiJ'gam'ea, Engl. Bof. ^.301, meaning
to use the expression margine revoliitinn
when the margin was intended ; but
this latter case being extremely frequent
and the other very rare, he fell into the
practice of using rcvolutum simply for
the margin.
Involutuni, involute, the reverse of the pre-
ceding, as in Pingiiicula, t. 70 and
145.
CondupUcatum, folded, when the margins
are brought together in a parallel di-
rection, as in Roscoea purpurea, Exot.
Bot. t. 108.
7. Terms expressive of different kinds of sur-
face, applying equally to the leaf and to
the stem, have been already explained,

SURFACE OF LEAVES. 1(J5

p. 124. • To these may be added the fol-
lowing, chiefly appropriated to leaves.
Punctafutn, dotted; either superficially as
in Tihododendnim punctatum^ Andr.
Rtpos. t. 36, and Melaleuca Unari-
folia, Exot. Bot. t. oG ; or through the
substance, as in Hypericum perforatum^
EngL Bot. t. 295, and the whole na-
tural order to which the Orange and
Lemon belong:.
Kugosu??i, rugged, when the veins are
tighter than the surface between them,
causino; the latter to swell into little
inequalities, as in various species of
Sage, Salvia. See Flora Grceca ; also
Teucrium Scorodouia^ Engl. Bot. 1. 1543.
Bullafum, blistery, is only a greater de-
gree of the last, as in the Garden Cab-
bage, Brassica oleracea,
Plicatufn^f. 85, plaited, when the disk of
the leaf, especially towards the margin, is
acutely folded up and down, as in Mal-
lows, nnd Alchemilla vulgaris, Engl. Bot.
f- 597» where, however, the character
is but obscurely expressed.
Undulatu?n,f.^6, undulated, when the disk
near the margin is waved obtusely up and

lG6 VEINS AND BII5S OP LEAVES.

down, as Reseda lutea, f, 321, and
Lvia crispa (more properly undulata^)
Curt. Mag. t. 599.
Crispum,/, 87, curled, when the border of
the leaf becomes more expanded than the
disk, so as to grow elegantly curled and
twisted, which Linnaeus considers as a
disease. Malva crispa, Ger. cm. 931,
is an example of it, and may probably
be a variety of M. verticillata, Jacq,
Hort. Vind, v.l. t. 40.
Coneavimi, hollow, depressed in the middle,
owing to a tightness in the border, as
Cyamus Nehwibo, Exot. Bof. t. 32.
Vcnosffm,f. 88, veiny, v\^hen the vessels by
which the leaf is nourished are branched,
subdivided, and more or less prominent,
forming a network over either or both
its surfaces, as Cratagiis, or rather
Pyrus, torminalis, Engl. Bof. t. 298,
and Verhascum Lychnitis, t. 58.
Nervosum,/. 89? or costatum, ribbed, when
they extend in simple lines from the base
to the point, as mCypripedium Calccolus,
t. 1, the Convallarice, t. 279 and 280,
Straiiotes alismoides, EaoL Bot, t. 15,

* SaM'. Hort. 37-

VEINS AND RIBS OF LEAVES. 167

and Roxburghia liridijlora, t. 57. The
greater clusters of vessels are generally
called nervi or costce, nerves or ribs, and
the smaller vencE, veins, whether they
are branched and reticulated, or simple
and parallel.

Aveniiim, veinless, and eiierve, ribless, are
opposed to the former.

Tri/icrve,/. 90, three-ribbed, is applied to a
leaf that has three ribs all distinct from
the very base, as well as unconnected
with the maro-in, in the manner of those
many-ribbed leaves just cited, as Blake a
trinerv'is^'. Curt. Mag. t. 451.

Basi ti'iuerve, /. 91, three-ribl>ed at the
base, is when the base is cut away close to
the lateral ribs, as in Burdock, Arctium
Lappa, Engl Bot. t. 1228, Tussilago^
t. 430 and 431, and the Great Annual
Sunflower.

Triplinerve,f,9'i, triply-ribbed, when a pair
of laro-e ribs branch off from the main
one above the base, which is the case in

* Authors incorrectly use the termination trinervius,
trinervla, Sec. for the more classical trinervis, (ririervCf
e/ierviSf enerve.

168 VEINS AKD RIBS OF LEAVES.

many species of Sunflower or HcHaii-
thus, haurus Cinnamomum and Cam-
phora, as well as Blakea triplinervisy
Auhlet Guian. t, 210.

Coloratumy coloured, expresses any colour
in a leaf besides green, as in Arum bi-
coloi\ Curt. !\fag. t. 820, Amaratithus
tricolor, and others of that genus, Jus-
ticia picta, Htdysarum pictum, Jacq.
Ic. II ar. t, 567, Tradescaniia discolor,
Sm. Ic. Fict. t. 10, Fulmonaria offici-
nalis, Engl. Bot. t. 118.

Variegatum, variegated, is applied to a
sort of variety or disease, by which
leaves become irregularly blotched with
white or yellow, like those of Striped
Grass, Arundo colorata, Fl. Brit. ; as
also the Elder, the Mentha rotundifolia,
E?igl. Bot. t. 446, and the Aucuha ja-
ponica, which Inst is not known in our
p-ardens in its natural p'reen state.

^udum, naked, implies that a leaf is desti-
tute of all kinds of clothins: or hairiness,
as in the genus Orchis. Nudus applied
to a stem means that it bears no leaves,
and to a flower that it has no calyx.

SUBSTANCE, 8cC. OF LEAVKS. 160

8. The foUowino; terms express the substance,
peculiiir cond^uration, • or any other re-
maining circumstances of leaves, not al-
ready explained.

Tf/T.v,/'. 9% cylindrical, as thoseofCowc/?/w??2
gibbosum^ IVIuic's Voyage, t. 22. f. 2 ;

see Cavanilks Iconcs, f, 533, and

534.
Seuiicylindraceum, f. 94-, semicylindrical,

flat on one side, as Saisola frnticosa,

Engl. Bot. t. 635, and Ckcnopodlum

mar'itimuni, t, 633.
Subula/um,f.95, awlshaped, tapering from

a thickish base to a point, as Sahola Kuli^

U 634. '
Tubiilosum, tubular, hollow within, as yil-

Hum Cepa, the Common Onion. The

leaf of Lobelia Dorf manna, Engl. Bot.

t. 140, is very peculiar in consisting of

a double tube, f. 96.
Carnosam, f.9Q, fleshy, of a thick pulpy

substance, as in all those called succulent

plants, Crassula laciea, Exot. Bot. t. 33,

Aloe, Sedum, Mesembryanthemum, &;c.

See Sempervlvum tectoriun, Engl. Bot.

t. 1320.
Gibbum, gibbous, swelling on one side or

170 SUBSTANCE, &C. OF LEAVES,

both, from excessive abundance of pulp,
as Aloe retma. Curt. Mag, t. 455.
Compressum^f, 9B, compressed, flattened
laterally, as Mtsemhryanthemnm iinclna-
tiim^ Dill. Elth. t, 193, #and acinaci-
forme, t. 211.
Depressum, depressed, flattened vertically,
asil/. linguiforme^t.lSS—lSoSeep. 148.
Canaliculatum^f. 97? channelled, having a
longitudinal farrow, as M.pugiomforme,
t. 210, Vlantago maritlma^ Engl. Bot,
f. 175, and Narcisms poeticus, t. 275.
Carinatum, keeled, when tlie back is lon-
gitudinally prominent, as Narcissus hi-
florus, t. 276.
Ensiforme, sword-shaped, is a two-edged
leaf, tapering to a point, slightly convex
on both surfaces, neither of which can
properly be called upper or under, as in
most of the genus Iris. See Curt. Mag.
f. 671, ^. 9,&c., and FL Grcec, t.39
and 40.
Anceps, two-edged, is much the same as

the last.
Acinaciforme^ scimitar-shaped, compress-
ed, with one thick and straigiit edge,
the other thin and curved, as Mcsem^

SUBSTANCE, SiC. OF LF.AVES. I7I

hnfanthemiim acinaciformc above men-
tioned.
DolabriJ'orme, f. 98, hatchet-shaped, com-
pressed, Mith a very prominent cUlated
keel, and a cyhndrical base, as M, dola^
briforme. Dill. Elih. ^ IQl, Curt, Mag.
U 32.
These two last terms might well be spared,
as they seem contrived only for the plants in
question, and indeed are Hot essentially di-
stinct from each other."

Trip^onum^f. 99? three-edged, having three
longitudinal sideS and as many anoles,
hke il/. deltoides, Bill. Eltli. t. 195,
Linn.Fhil. Bot. i, 1, f. 58. Linnaeus
has erroneously referred to this flsrure to
illustrate his term deltoides ; misled, as
rt should seem, by the name of the plant
to which it belongs ; but his definition
is foreign to the purpose, see p. 155,
and alludes to the outline of a flat leaf.
Triquetntm differs from triiionum only in
being used by Linnicus for a three-sided
awl-shaped leaf, as M, emargi?iafum.
Dill. Eltli. t. 197, f. '250,midbicolonim,
t. 202, also Sen if ruga burseriana.
Tctragonum,/, 100, four-cdgetl, having four

172 SUBSTANCE, &C, OF LEAVES.

prominent angles, as Iris tuberosa, FL
Grcec. t. Al.

Lingidatmn, longue-sb^ped, of a thick,
oblong, blunt figure, generally cartila-
ginous at the edges, as Mesemhrijan-
themum Unguiforme, Dendrohium lin-
giiiforme, Exot. Bot. f. 11, and several
species o{ Saxifraga, as S. ?nutata,Curf.
Mag. t. 351, S. Cotyledon, Sec.

Memhranaceiirn, membranous, of a thin
and pliable texture, as in Aristolochia
Siplio, t. 534, Rubits odoratiis, t. 323,
Magnolia purpurea, t. 390, kc.

Coriaccum, leathery, thick, tough and
somewhat rigid, as Magnolia grandi-
Jlora, and Hydrangea liortenm, Sm. Ic.
Pict. t. 12, Curt. Mag. t. 438.

Sempervij'ens,evergreen, permanent through
one, two, or more winters, so that the
branches are never stripped, as the Ivy,
the Fir, the Cherry Laurel, the Bay, &c.

Deciduutn, deciduous, falling off at the
approach of winter, as in most European
trees and shrubs.

JUenutum,f. 101 , alienated, when the first
leaves of a plant give place to others
totally different from them and from the

SUBSTANCE, &C. OF LEAVES. 173

natural habit of the genus, as in many
MimoscE of New Holland; see M. vtr-
tlciIlata,Curt. Mag. t. 110, and myr-
tlfolia, t. 302 ; also Lathjrus Nissolia,
Engl. Bot. t. 112. The germination
of this last plant requires investigation,
for if its first leaves be pinnated, it is
exactly a parallel case with the New
Holland Mitnosce'*.
Cucullatum,/. 102, hooded, when the edges
meet in the lower part, and expand in the
upper, as those of the curious genus
Sarracenia. See Curt. Mag. t, 780 and
849, and *S. adunca, Exot. Bot. t. 5S,
Appendlcidatiun,/. 103, furnished with an
additional organ for some particular pur-
pose not essential to a leaf, as Dioiiaa
muscipula. Curt. Mrto-. f. 780, cultivated
very successfully by Mr. Salisbury, at
BromptoJi, whose leaves each terminate
in a pair of toothed irritable lobes, that
close over and imprison insects ; or Ne-
penthes distillatoria, liwnph. Amhoitu
V. 5. t. 59, /. 2, the leaf of which bears
a covered pitcher, full of water. Aldro-

* See p. 516, Note.

1lf4 SUBSTANCE, ScC, OP LEAVES,

vanda vcaicalosa^ and our UtricidaricB^
Engl. Bot. t. 253, 254, have numerous
bladders attached to the leaves, which
seem to secrete air, and float the plants.
Many of the preceding terms applied to
leaves are occasionally combined to express a
form between the two, as ovato-lanceolatum^
lanceolate inclining to ovate, or elUpiico-lan-
ceolatiun, as in the Privet, Engl. Bot. t. 764.
When shape, or any other character, cannot be
precisely defined, suh is prefixed to the term
used, as siibrotundnm, roundish, suhsessiUy
not quite destitute of a footstalk, to which is
equivalent subpctiolahim, obscurely stalked.
By the judicious use of such means, all ne-
cessary precision is attained. It is to be
wished that authors were always uniform and
consistent, at least with themselves, in the
application of terms ; but as Linnaeus, the
father of accurate botanical phraseology, very
frequently misapplies his own terms, it is
perhaps scarcely to be avoided. I have ob-
served botanists most critical in theory, to
be altogether deficient in that characteristic
phraseology, that power of defining, which
bears the stamp of true genius, and which
6

COMPOUND LEAVES* 173

rentiers the works of Linnaeus so luminous in
despite of incidental errors. Perhaps no
mind, though ever so intent on the subject,
can retain all the possible terms of descri|)-
tion and their various -combinations, for ready
use at any given moment. There are few
natural objects to m hich a variety of terms
are not equally applicable in description, so
that no two writers would exactly ac-ree in
their use. Neither is Nature herself so con-
stant as not perpetually to elude our most
accurate research. Happy is that naturalist
who can seize at a glance what is most cha-
racteristic and permanent, and define all that
is essential, without trusting to fallacious,
though ever so specious, distinctions !

9. Folia composita, compound leaves, consist

of two or any greater number of fol'wla,

leaflets, connected by a common footstalk.

Folium art kulat urn, f. 104, a jointed leaf,

is when one leadet, or pair of leaflets,

grows out of the summit of another, with

a sort of joint, as in Fagara tragod^s^

Jacq» Am.ci\ t. 14.

176 COMPOUND LEAVES.

DigifafiWi, f. 22, digitate or fingered, M'ben
several leaflets proceed from the summit
of a commion footstalk, as Potentilla
venifi, EiigL Bof. t. 37, reptans, t. B62,
and Alchcmilla alpi?ia, t. 244.

JMnaiiim, f. 105, biiiate, is a fingered leaf
consisting of only two leaflets, as in
Zygopliylium, Curt. Mag. t. 372.

Ternatum^f. 106, ternate, consists of three
leaflets, as Fagonia creticc!, t. 24 1 , and
the genus Trifoliumy Trefoil. See EngL
Bot. t. 190, &c.

Quinaium, quinate, of five leaflets, as
Potentilla alba, t, 1384, reptans,
t, 862, &c.

Phinatum, pinnate, when several leafletsf
proceed laterally from one footstalk,
and imitate a pinnatifid leaf, p. 158.
This is of several kinds.

cum imparl,/. 11 6, with an odd, or termi-
nal, leaflet, as in Roses, and Elder, also
. Pohmoniiim cceriileum,EngL Bet. t. 14,
and Iledjjsarum Onohrychis, t. 96.

cirrosum,f. 1 15, with a tendril, whenfurnish-
ed with a tendril in place of the odd leaf-

COMPOUND LEAVES. 17f

let, as the Pea and Vetch tribe ; Visum
maritimum, t. 104(), Lathyi^us pedant ris,
t. 169, Vicia sativa, t. 334.

ahriipte, f. 101, abruptly, without either a
terminal leaflet or a tendiil, as Cassia
Chamcecrista^ Curt. Mag. 1. 107, and the
genus Mimosa. See M. pndica, the Com-
mon Sensitive-plant. This form of leaf is
much more uncommon than the imparl-
piimatum, and we have no perfect ex-
ample of it among British plants. The
nearest approach to it is the genus
Orobus, whose leaves have only the ru-
diments of a tendril. A truly wonder-
ful variety of the Orobus syhaticus^
Engl, Bot. t. 518, with large simple
leaves, has been found in Wales.

opposite, oppositely, when the leaflets are
opposite, or in pairs, as Saint-foin, t. 96,
Roses, Slum a?igustifolium, t. 139? &c.

alternatim, alternately, when they are
alternate, as Vicia dumetorum (Cracca
sylvatica) Riv, Fent. Irr. t. 51, and
occasionally in our V. sativa, Ijutea, Sec.

interrupte^f. 107j interruptedly, when the
principal leaflets are ranged alternately
n

178 COMPOUND LEAVES.

with an intermediate series of smallef
ones, as Spircea Filipendula^ Engl. Bof,
t, 284, S. Ulmaria, t. £K50, and Fotentilla
anserlna, t, 86l.

articulate, jointedly, with apparent joints
in the common footstalk, as Weinmannia
'pinnata.

decursive, decurrently, when the leaflets
are decurrent, as Eri/ngiiim campestre,
Engl. Bot. t. 57, and Potent ilia fruti*
cosa, t. 88.

lyrato, jT. 108, in a ly rate manner, having
the terminal leaflet largest, and the rest
gradually smaller as they approach the
base, as Erysimum pr<]ecox, t. 1139,
and, with intermediate smaller leaflets,
Geum rivale, t. 106 ; also the Common
Turnip. Such leaves are usually denomi-
nated lyrate in common with those pro-
perly so called (whose shape is simple, and
not formed of separate leaflets) ; nor is
this from inaccuracy in botanical w^ riters.
The reason is, that these two kinds of
leaves, however distinct in theory, are
of all leaves most liable to run into each
other, even on the same plant, exam-

<30MPOUNb LEAVES. Iff)

pies of which are frequent in the class
Tetradynamia.
verticillato, j\ 109» in a whorled manner,
the leaflets cut into fine divaricated seg-
ments embracino* the footstalk, as Slum
'verticillatimi, FL Brit* Engl. Bot. t. 395.
Auriculatum,f, 110, an auricled leaf, is fur-
nished at its base with a pair of leaflets,
properly distinct, but occasionally liable
to be joined with it, as Salvia triloba,
FL GrcEc. t, 17, and Dipsacus pdlosus,
Engl. Bot, t. 877» Linnaeus in the last
example uses the term appendiculatum,
which is correct, but superfluous, and I
have therefore ventured to apply it
somewhat difFerentlj^ p. 173.
Conjugatum, f. 105, conjugate, or yoked,
consists of only a pair ofpinncB or leaflets,
and is much the same as hinatum. In-
stances of it are in the genus Zygophyl-
lum, whose name, equivalent to Yoke-
leaf, expresses this very character; also
in Lathyriis sylvestris, Engl. Bot. t. 805,
and latifolius, t. 1108. Bijugiun, tri-
jugum, quadrijtigum, multijuguni. Sec,
express particular numbers of pairs

28© COMPOUND LEAVES.

of leaflets, and are used for that pur-
p' se where such discrimination is requi-
site for specific characters, as in \Ji7nosce,

The different degrees in which leaves are
compounded are thus distinguished,
without any reference to the mode.

Compositum, f. Ill, simply compound, as
in the above instances.

T)econipositum^f. 112*, doubly compound,
as Athomanta Libanotis, Engl. Bot.
t, 138, Mgopodium Podagraria, ^.9-40,
and Fumaria claviculata, f. 103.
^ Supradecompositum^ f, 113, thrice com-
pound, or more, ^sCaucalis AntJiriscuSf
t. 987, C daucoides, t. 197> and BiiniiDn
flexiiosum, t, 988. Buft

Bige??imat2im, twice paired, as Mimosa
Unguis cati, Plum. Ic, t. 4 ; and terge-
minatiim^ thrice paired, as M. terge-
mina ; also

Biternatum,f. 112, twice ternate, as /Ego-
podium, Engl. Bot. f. 940 ; triterriatum,
thrice ternate, as Fumaria hitca, t, 583;
and

* Linnasiis, mPhil. Bot. 47, gives an erroneous defi-
nition of this term, which does not accord wiih hisown
use of it. Professor Martyn has rightly defined it.

COMWDUND LEAVES. 181

Bipinnnfum, doubly pinnate, tripinna-
turn, triply pinnate, of which examples
have just been given : all apply to the
mofle, as well as the degree, in which
lcav^s are compounded.

Fedatiim, f. 114, pedate, is a peculiar kind
of leaf, being ternate, with its lateral
leaflets compounded in their fore part, as
HeUcbovusfoctidus, Engl. Bot. f. Gl3,
and H.nifyer, Curt. Mag. t.S. There
is an affinity between a pedate leaf and
those simple ones which are three-ribbed
at the base, p. I67. See also the dis-
position of the lateral veins in Aristolo-
chia Clematitis, Engl. Bot, t. 398.

In compounding the foregoing terms we
must take care not to express a contradiction.
Thus the leaves of many Mimosce, as the
purpurea, Andr. Rcpos. t. 372, and seiisi-
tiva, are conjugata jjinnata, conjugate in
the first instance, pinnate in the next, not
conjugato-piunata, of an intermediate nature
between conjugate and pinnate, which is im-
possible. Neither are the leaves of Mimosa

182 COMPOUND LEAVES.

pitdica digitato-pinnata, for there is no me^
dium between the two terms ; but they are
digitate, or composed of leaflets proceeding
fri)m the top of a common foot-stalk, and'
those leaflets are pinnate. On the other hand
ovato-lanceolatum, lanceolate approaching to
o\ate, or eUiptico-lanceolatum, approaching
to elliptic, as in the Privet, Engl. Bot. t. 7^4,
already mentioned, whose leaves often assume
that shape, are easily understoqd,

]£3

CHAPTER XVI.

OF THE FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES.

The knowledge of the functions of leaves,
and their real use with regard to the plant, is a
curious branch of vegetable physiology, which
made but a slow progress long after the na-
ture of many other parts had been deeply
scrutinized and thoroughly explained.

Caesalpinus {De Plant is, p. 6.) thought
leaves merely a clothing, or a protection
against cold and heat. He conceived that
the rays of the sun, being moderated in
passing through them, were prevented from
acting too violently on the fruit and young
buds. " Accordingly," says he, " many
trees lose their leaves in autumn, when
their fruits are perfected, and their buds
hardened, while such as retain the fruit
long, keep also their leaves ; even till a new

184 PERSPIRATION OF LEAVES.

crop is produced, and longer, as in the Fir,
the Arbutus, and the Bay. It is reported
that in hot chmates, where there is ahnost
perpctuallj a burning sun, scarcely any
trees lose their leaves, because they require
them for shade/' Caesalpinus goes on to
show that leavQs proceed from the bark, with
some remarks on the pith, (in which we may
trace the origin of the Linna^an In^pothesis
, of vegetation,) but which are now superseded
by more accurate inquiries.

The ab6ve is certainly a very small part of
the use of leaves. Yet the observations of
this writer, the father of botanical philosophy
among the moderns, are so far correct, that
if the leaves of a tree be stripped off, the
fruit comes to nothing, which is exemplified
every year in Gooseberry bushes devoured by
caterpillars ; and though the fruit-trees of
warm climates, partly naturalized with us,
Grapes and Peaches for instance, ripen their
fruit sooner perhaps if partially deprived of
their leaves, yet if that practice be carried
too far, the fruit perishes, as gardeners who
tried it soon discovered. The White Mul-
berry indeed, cultivated in the ,^outh of Ea-

/

PERSPIRATION OF LEAVES, IBS

rope for the food of silkworms only, bears
wonderfully the loss of its foliage three or
four times a year. How far the fruit is in-
jured nobody thinks it worth while to in-
quire, as it is never eaten, but it certainly
does not fall oft" prematurely.

That Leaves imbibe and give out moisture
has been long known, this being one of the
most obvious facts belonging to them. Dr.
Hales thought they might probably imbibe
air ; but since his time more certain disco-
veries have been made concerning this point,
as well as the effects of light upon leaves,
which also did not escape the consideration
of that great philosopher. All these subjects
we shall mention in their turn.

That Leaves give out moisture, or are or-
gans of insensible perspiration, is proved by
th,e simple experiment of gathering the leafy
branch of a tree, and immediately stopping
the w^ound at its base with mastick, wax, or
any other fit substance, to prevent the ef-
fusion of moisture in that direction. In a
very short time the leaves drooj), wither and
are dried up. If the same branch, partly
faded, though not dead, be placed in a very

180 FERSPIRATION OF LEAVES.

damp cellar, or immersed in water, the leaves
revive, by which their power of absorption is
also proved. Hence the use of a tin box to
travelling botanists, for the purpose of re-
{?training the evaporation of plants, and so
preserving them fresh for some days till they
can be examined, as well as of reviving faded
plants, if the inside of the box be moistened
before they are shut up in it.

Dr. Hales found that a plant of the Great
Annual Sunflower, Helianthus aimuus, lost
1 lb. 14 oz, weight in the course of twelve
hours in a hot dry day. In a dry night it
lost about 3 oz.; in a moist night scarcely
any alteration was observable, but in a rainy
night it gained 2 or 3 oz. The surface of
the plant compared with that of its roots
was, as nearly as could be calculated, in the
proportion of five to two ; therefore the roots
must have imbibed moisture from the earth
of the pot in which the plant grew, and which
was all previously weighed, in the same pro-
portion of five to two, otherwise the leaves
would have faded. The same experiment
was made on the Vine, the Cabbage, &c.,
with various results as to the exact degree of
3

PERSPIRATION OF LEAVES. 18/

perspiration, but all proving it to be con-
siderable. Evrirgreens are found to perspire
much less tliua other shrubs.

The state of the atmosphere has a great
effect on tlie ra])iditj of this perspiration.
Practical botanists know how much sooner
plants fade, and haymakers experience how
much faster their work is done, some days
than others, and those daj^s are by no means
always the most sunny. In a hot dry day
plants are often exhausted, so as to droop
very much towards evening, especially in the
dry unsheltered bed of a garden. Such a3
have fleshy roots, indeed, have a singular
power of resisting drought, which has already
been explained j). 113. Succulent plants,
destined to inhabit sunny rocks, or sandy
deserts, imbibe with the greatest facility,
and perspire very sparingly. Evergreens are
not generally very succulent, but their cuti-
cle appears to be constructed like that of
succulent plants, so as to allow of little eva-
poration. The Cornelian Cherry, whose im^
mense perspiration we have recorded, p. 6'8,
has a thin dry leaf, capable of holding very
little moisture.

188 SENSIBLE PERSPIRATION.

The nature of the liquor perspired has been
ah'eady noticed, p. 68. In hot weather it
has been observed by Hales, Du Hamel and
Guettard to partake occasionally of the pe-
culiar scent of the plant that yields it, but in
general the odorous matter is of too oily d
nature to be combined with it.

The sensible perspiration of plants is of
various kinds. When watery, it can be con*
sidered only as a condensation of their in-
sensible evaporation, perhaps from some sud-^
den change in the atmosphere. Groves of
Poplar or Willo v exhibit this phaenomenon,
even in England, in hot calm weather, when
drops of clear water trickle from their leaves
like a sliirht shower of rain. Sometimes it is
of a ^. ccharin nature, as De la Hire ob-
served in Orano^e trees ; Du Hamel Arh.
v. ]. 3 50. It is more glutinous in the Tilia
or LimcT-tree, more resinous in Poplars, as
well as in Cis us crei'tcus, from v hich last the
resin called Labdaniim is collected, by beat-
ing the shrub with leather thongs. See
Tournefort's Voi/age, 29- In the Fraxinella,
Diciamnus alhus, it is a highly inflammable
vapour. Ovid has made an elegant use of the
8

SENSIBLE PERSPIRATION. 189

resirous e>udation of Lonibarcly Poplars,
Populus dilatata, Ait.llort. Kcw. t'. 3. 406,
which he supposes to be the tears of Phaeton s
sisters, who were transformed into those trees*
Such exudations must be consi 'ered as effu-
sions of the pecuhar secretions ; for it has
been observed that Manna may be scraped
from tlie leaves of FraxhuisOriiiis, FL GrcBc.
t. 4, as well as procured b}^ incision from its
stem. They are often perhaps a sign of un-
healthiness in the plant; at least such ap-
pears to be the nature of one kind of honey-
dew, to which the Beech in particular is sub-
ject, and which, in consequence of an un-
favourable wind, covers its leaves in the form
of a sweet exudation, similar in flavour to
the liquor obtained from its trunk. So like-
wise the Hop, according to Linnaeus, Fmiii.
Slice. 305, is affected with the honey-dew,
and its flowers rendered abortive, in conse-
quence of the attacks of the caterpillar of the
Ghost Moth, Fhalccna Hiimuli, upon its
roots. In such case the saccharine exudation
must decidedly be of a morbid nature *.

* T do not mean to dispute the accuracy of Mr, Cur-
tis's excellent paper, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6, written to

That wax is also an exudation from the leaveSI
of plants, appears from the experiments re-»
corded by Di". Thomson in his Chemistry,
V. 4. ^298, and it has been long ago asserted
that wax may easily be gathered from the
leaves of Rosemary. On this subject I have
not made any experiments to satisfy my-
self.

With respect to the absorbing power of
leaves, the host observations that have been
made are those of Bonnet, recorded in the
beirinnino: of his Rcchei'ches sur VUsa^e cles
Feuilles. His aim was, by laying leaves of
various plants upon the top of a jar of water,
some with their upper, and others of the
same species with their under, surfaces ap-
plied to the water, to discover in which situa-
tion the leaves of each plant continued longest
in health and vipour, and also how far dif-
ferent species differed from each other in this
respect. The results were in many instances
highly curious.

Of fourteen herbaceous plants tried by this

prove honev-dew to be the dung of Jph'ides. I only
contend that there are more ihaa one kind of honey-
dew.

ABSORPTION OP LEAVES. igl

philosopher, six hved nearly as long uith
one surface applied to the water as with the
other; these were the common Ariun macu^
latum, the French Bean, the Sun-flower,
Cabbage, Spinach and the Small Mallows
By the last I presume is meant Malva ro-
tuncUfoUa, Engl. Bof. t. 109'^. Six others.
Plantain, White Mullein, the Great Mallow
(iprohMy M.ST/Ivestr is, t.67l), the Nettle,
Cock's-comb, and Purple-leaved Amaranth
(probably Amaranthus hypochondriacus),
lived longest with their upper surface laid
upon the water. The Nettle lived but three
"weeks with its under surface on the water,
and about two months in a contrary position.
The Mullein scarcely survived five or six
days, and the Amaranth not a week, in the
first-mentioned posture, while the leaves of
the former remained in vigour about five
Aveeks, and of the latter three months, when
their upper surfaces imbibed the water.
Marvel of Peru and Balm, the two remain-
ing plants of the fourteen on w hicli the ex-
periment was made, had also an evident ad-
vantage in receiving that fluid by their upper
surfaces. The leaves of some of the above

192 ABSaRPTION OF LEAVES.

species were found to thrive better when theif
stalks only were immersed in water, than
when either of their sides was supphed with
it, and the reverse was observable in several
others ; but the White Mullein, the Plantain
and the Amaranth survived longer when they
received the water by their stalk than by
their under surface, though not so long as
when it was applied to their upper sides^

Of sixteen trees tried by Bonnet, the Lilac
and the Aspen, Fopulus tremula, were the
only leaves that seemed to imbibe water
equally well by either surface, whilst all the
others evidently succeeded best with their
under sides laid upon the water, being in
that respect the reverse of herbaceous plants-
Of these the White Mulberry leaf was the
most remarkable, not living more than five
days when supplied by the upper surface,
while such as floated on their backs continued
in perfection near six months. The Vine, the
Poplar (probably Fopulus Jiigra), and the
Walnut, were no less remarkable, for fading
almost as soon, when fed by their upper sur-
face, as when left without any water at all.
Man}^ of the other trees imbibed water as

ABSORPTION OP LEAVES. 193

well, or better, l)y their foot-stalks as by
their upper surfaces. Hazel-nut and Rose
leaves, when laid with their backs upon the
water, imbibe sufliciently to nourish other
leaves on the same branch ; so will one leaflet
of a French bean supply its neighbour that
does not touch the water.

Those who wish to repeat these experi-
ments should be careful to choose fuU-^rown
healthy leaves, all as nearly as possible of
the same age and vigour. It is also desn*able
that the precise species of plant should be
recorded by its scientific name. For want of
this, Bonnet, who despised method and no-
menclature, has left us in uncertainty con-
cerning several of the plants he examii ed.
We ought to have been accurately informed
what species of Poplar differed so remarkably
in its power of absorption from the Aspen,
another of the same genus. We ought like-
wise to have been told what Sun-flower, what
Nettle, Amaranth and Mallows were exa-
mined ; for want of which information the
authority of such experiments is much im-
paired.

From the foregoing observations we learn
o

194 OF AQUATIC PLANTS.

the importance of shading and watering plants
newly removed, cuttings, grafts, &c. and on
the other hand the benefit of heat and air to
promote due perspiration and evaporation.

The perspiration of aquatic plants seems to
be remarkably copious. Of these some grow
constantly immersed in the water, as most
species of Potamogetou, Pond-weed, E?igl.
Bot. t. 168, 297, 376, &c. Their leaves
are peculiarly vascular, and dry very quickly
in the air, withering in a very few minutes
after exposure to it. Their absorbing power
seems equally great, so that they appear to
be continually, in their natural situation, im-
bibing and giving out a quantity of water
much greater than has been observed in land
plants. Other aquatics, as the Nymphcece,
Engl. Bot. t.\59, 160, float with only the
upper surface of their leaves exposed to the
air, which surface is so contrived that water
will scarcely remain upon it. These leaves,
though extremely juicy, dry with great ra-
pidity, as does every part of the plants when
gathered. It is probable that they imbibe
copiously by their under sides, and perspire
by the upper.

SARRACENIA. 1 95

Tiie oeconomy of the Sarraccnia, an Amc-
Tican genus of \vhich we now know four spe-
cies, and of the East Indian Nepenthes di-
stillatoria, deserves particular mention. Both
grow in bogs, though not absohitely in the
water. The former genus has tubular leaves
which catch the rain like a funnel and re-
tain it ; at least such is the nature of S. pur-
purea, Curt. Mag. t. 849, whose margin
seems dilated expressly for this purpose, while
the orifice of the tubular part just below is
contracted to restrain evaporation. Linnaeus
conceived this plant to be allied in constitu-
tion to NymplKEctf and consequently to re-
quire a more than ordinary supply of water,
which its leaves were calculated to catch and
to retain, so as to enable it to live without
being immersed in a river or pond. But the
consideration of some other species renders
this hypothesis very doubtful, S,Jiava, t. 780,
and more especially *S'. adunca, Exot. But.
t. 53, are so constructed that rain is nearly
exchided from the hollow of their leaves, and
yet that part contains water, which seems to
be secreted by the base of each leaf. What
then is the purpose of this unusual contri-
o 2

196 SARRACENIA.

vance? An observation comnmmcated tome
two years ago, in the botanic garden at Liver-
pool, seems to unravel the mystery. An in-
sect of the Sphex or Iclineumon kind, as far
as I could learn from description, was seen
by one of the gardeners to drag several large
liies to the Sarracenia adunca, and, Avith
some difficulty forcing them under the lid or
cover of its leaf, to deposit them in the tu-
bular part, which was half filled with water.
Ail the leaves, on being examined, were
found crammed with dead or drowning flies.
The S. purpurea is usually observed to be
stored with putrefying insects, whose scent is
perceptible as we pass the plant in a garden;
for the marpin of its leaves is beset with in-
verted hairs, which, like the wires of a mouse-
trap,' render it very difficult for any unfor-
tunate fly, that has fallen into the watery
tube, to crawl out again. Probably the air
evolved by these dead flies may be beneficial
to vegetation, and, as far as the plant is con-
cerned, its curious construction may be de-
signed to entrap them, while the water is
provided to tempt as well as to retain them.
The Sphcv or Ichneumon, an insect of prey,

NEPENTHES. 197

stores them up unquestionably for the food
of itself or its progeny, probably depositing
its eg-oi in their carcases, as others of the
same tribe liv their eggs in various cater-
pillars, which they sometimes bury after-
wards in the ground. Thus a double pur-
pose is answered ; nor is it the least curious
circumstance of the whole, that an Europaean
insect should find out an American plant in a
hot-house, in order to falfd that purpose.

If the above explanation of the Sarracenia
be admitted, that of the Neptnthes will not
be difficult. Each leaf of this plant terminates
in a sort of close-shut tube, like a tankard,
holding an ounce or two of water, certainly
secreted through the footstalk of the leaf,
whose spiral-coated vessels are uncommonly
large and numerous. The lid of this tube
either opens spontaneously, or is easily lifted
up by insects and small worms, who are sup-
posed to resort to these leaves in search of a
purer beverage than the surrounding swamps
afford. Rumphius, who has described and
figured the plant, says " various little worms'
and insects crawl inLo the orifice, and die
in the tube, except a certain small sqiiilla

15)8 AIR-VESSELS OF THE LEAVES.

or shrimp, with a protuberant back, some-
times met with, which hves there/' — I
have no doubt that this shrimp feeds on the
other insects and worms, and that the same
ptirposes are answered in this instance as in
the Sarracenice. Probably the leaves of
Dioncea jniiscipula, as w^ell as of the Drosercc,
Engl. Bot. t. 867 — 869, catch insects for a
similar reason.

I proceed to consider the effects ofAir and
Light upon vegetables.

Dr. Grew, by the assistance of the micro-
scope, detected a quantity of vesicles full of
air in the leaves of plants, as also the spiral-
coated vessels of their stems, which last he
and all other physiologists, till very lately,
considered as air-vessels likewise. Malpighi
made the same observations about the same
time ; and as these two acute and laborious
philosophers pursued their inquiries without
any mutual communication, their discoveries
strenothen and confirm each other. Their
books have long served as magazines of facts
for less original writers to work with. From
their remarks physiologists have theoretically
supposed that leaves imbibed air, which the

AIR-VESSELS OP THE LEAVES. 199

spiral vessels were believed to convey all
through the plant, in order that it might act
on the sap as it does on the animal blood.
The analogy thus understood was not correct,
because air is conveyed no further than the
lunirs of animals ; but without this hypothesis
no use could be found for the supposed longi-
tudinal air-vessels.

The observations of Dr. Hales come next
in order to those of Grew and Malpighi. By
means of the air-pump, an instrument much
in use in his time. Hales obtained abundance
of air from every part of the vegetable body,
as well as from recently extracted sap. Plants
were found to perish very soon in an ex-
hausted receiver. Some of this great man's
experiments, however, require to be received
with caution. He rightly remarked that air
was not only taken in by plants very copious-
ly along with their food, but also imbibed
by their bark ; see Veg. Staficks, chap. 5.
But when, from observing that it would
freely from the bark pervade the longitudi-
nal vessels of a branch, he concluded that
Malpighi and Grew were right in their ideas
of longitudinal air-vessels, he was misled by

200 AIR-VESSELS OF THE LEAVES.

appearances. We cannot but be aware that,
when a branch is gathered, the sap must soon
flow out of those spiral-coated tubes, which are
large, elastic, and, no doubt, irritable. Af-
ter they are emptied, air may unquestionably
pass through them, especially when the whole
weight of the atmosphere is acting, as in
Dr. Hales's experiments v/ith the air-pump,
upon so delicate a fabric as the internal
vascular structure of a plant, forcing its way
through pores or membranes not naturally
designed to admit it. We must also recol-
lect that a plant, cut even for a short time,
begins to lose its vital principle, after which
no just judgment can be formed, by any
experiments, concerning the movements of
its fluids in life and vigour. See Chapter 1.
These experiments of Dr. Hales therefore
prove no more than that the vegetable body
is pervious in various directions ; and per-
haps the only point they correctly establish
is, that air is imbibed through ^the bark, a
part known to be full of air-vessels. But the
seventh chapter of the Vegetable Staticks
contains some remarks much more to our
purpose. Dr. Hales there clearly anticipates

EFFECTS OF AIR ON LEAVES. tOl

by conjecture, what .succeed iiig [)l)ilo,soj>lier8,
more eiilijilitened chemists, have ascertained.
His words arc remarkable :

" We may therefore reasonably conclude,
that one great use of leaves is what has been
long suspected by many, viz. to perform in
some measure the same office for the support
of tlie vegetable life, that the lungs of ani-
mals do, for the support of the animal life ;
plants very probably drawing through their
leaves some part of their nourishment from
the air/' p. 326. A little further on he
adds, " And may not light also, by freely
entering the expanded surfaces of leaves and
flowers, contribute much to the ennobling the
principles of vegetables?" p. 328.

Next in order of time to those of Hales
follow the experiments of Bonnet. We have
already detailed his observations on the
power of leaves to imbibe moisture ; whence
it is ascertained that plants are furnished with
a system of cuticular absorbents, which carry
fluids into their sap- vessels, so as to enable
them in some degree to dispense with sup-
plies from the root. With respect to the
effects of air upon leaves, this ingeniou.**

202 PURIFICATION OF AIR

philosopher has not been equally successful/
He is recorded as the discoverer of the expi-
ration of plants, but it appears from his
work that he merely observed the bubbles
of air which cling to leaves, dead as well as
living, and indeed to any other body, when
immersed in ^^ater and exposed to the light
of the sun. He found these bubbles disap-
peared in the evenmg, and returned again
when the sun shone, and he faithfully reports
that by their attachment to the surfaces of
leaves, the latter were rendered more buoyant,
and rose in the water ; a sure proof that the
air had not previously existed, in the same
volume at least, in the substance of those
leaves. Accordingly, Bonnet concluded that
the latter, in imbibing the surrounding water,
left the air which had been contained in the
water, and that this liberated air became
visible from being warmed and rarefied by
the sun. This was as near the truth as Bon-
net could come, it not being then known
that light has a power of separating air of a
peculiar kind, carbonic acid gas, from water.
I find no indications in his work of his having
had any idea of leaves absorbing air and

BV LEAVES. S03

giving it out again ; still less of their aiVecting
any change in its properties.

Dr. Priestley was the iirst who suggested
this last-mentioned quality in vegetables. He
ascertained their power of absorbing carbonic
acid gas, denominated by him fixed air, and
giving out oxygen gas, or pure respirable
air. It was also his opinion that leaves im-
bibed the former by their upper, and gave
out the latter by their under surface. He
found some aquatic or marsli plants extremely
powerful in this respect, especially the Wil-
low-herb or Epi/ohuim, and the Conferva, a
minute branching cotton-like vegetable which
grows in putrid water, and the production of
which, in water become foul from long keep-
ing on ship-board, Dr. Priestley judged to
operate principally in restoring that fluid to
a state fit for use.

Dr. Ingenhousz, pursuing Dr. Priestley's
inquiries, found light to be necessary to
these functions, and that in the dark leaves
gave out a bad air. He observed moreover
that fruits and flowers almost invariably gave
out a bad, or carbonic, air, but more espe-
cially in the dark. He probably carries his

204 PURIFICATION OF AIR

ideas, of the deleterious effects of this air
on animal life, too far ; for no mischief has
ever happened, as far as conniion experience
goes, to persons sleeping in apple or olive
chambers, neither do the inhabitants of the
confined huts in Covent-garden market appa-
rently suffer, from living day and night
among heaps of drying herbs. Mischiefs
have unquestionably arisen from flowers in
a bed-room, or any other confined apartment,
but that is to be attributed to their perfumed
effluvia. So the bad effects, observed by
Jacquin, of Lobelia longiflora on the air of a
hot-house, the danger incurred by those who
sleep under the Manchineel-tree, Hippomane
Ma?icmclla, or, as it is commonly believed,
under a Walnut-tree, are probably to be at-
tributed as much to poisonous secretions as
to the air those plants evolve.

Dr. Inji-enhousz introduced leaves into plass
jars filled with water, which he inverted in a
tub of the same water, and placed the whole
together in the sun-shine. From their under
sides came streams or bubbles of air, which
collected in the inverted bottom of each jar.
The air thus procured proved oxygen gas,

a

3Y LEAVES. 205

more or less pure. The Nj/inpJiaa alba, Engl,
B'ft. t. KiO, aftbrds an extraordinary abun-
dance of it. Dr. Ingenhoiisz observed plants
to be verv various in their mode of emitting
these bubbles, but it was always uniform in
the same species. Air collected from water
placed in similar circumstances without plants,
proved not oxygen, but much worse than
common an-, viz. carbonic acid gas, which
following chemists have confirmed, and which
we have already mentioned. Ingenhousz also
found the air collected from plants under
water in the dark worse than common air,
especially that from v.alnut-leaves ; which
confirms the common opinion, above alluded
to, respecting this tree.

Plants purify air very quickly. A vine-
leaf in an ounce phial of carbonic acid gas,
that immediately extinguished a candle,
placed in the sun, without water, changed it
to pure respirable air in an hour and half.
Dr. Priestley found plants to alter even un-
mixed inflammable air, or hydrogen, espe-
cially the Epilohiiim hirsvtum, if I mistake
not, and Poli/gonnm Hijdropiper.

Succulent plants are found to afford most

206 EFFECT OF LIGHT UPON PLANTS.

air, in consequence of the abundance of their
Cellular Integument, or Parenchyina, in which,
as I have hinted in the fourth chapter, the
chemical operations of the leaves are performed.
That Light has a very powerful effect upon
plants has long been known, independent of
the remarks of Hales or Ingenhousz. The
green colour of the leaves is owing to it, in-
somuch that plants raised in darkness are of
a sickly white. It has even been observed
that when light is admitted to the leaves
through different glasses, each tinged of a
different prismatic colour, the plant is paler
in proportion as the glass approaches nearer
to violet. The common practice of blanch-
ing Celery in gardens, by covering it up
from the light, is an experiment under the
eyes of every one. This blanching of plants
is called by the French etiolation, and our
chemists have adopted the term, though I
think they err in deriving it from Stoile, a
star. When blanched plants are brought
into the light, they soon acquire their natu-
ral green colour, and even in the dark they
are green, if exposed to the action of hydro-
gen gas. Tulip and Crocus flowers have long

TURNING OF LEAVES TO THE LIGHT. 207

ago been observed by Sennebier to be co-
loured even in the dark, apparently because
their colour depends on a different principle
from the green of leaves.

Light acts beneficially upon the upper sur-
face of leaves, and hurtfully upon the under
side ; hence the former is always turned to-
Avards the light, in whatever situation the
plant may happen to be placed. Trees nailed
against a north wall turn their leaves from
the wall, though it be towards the north, and
in direct opposition to those on a southern
wall over against them. Plants in a hot-
house all present the fronts of their leaves,
and this influences even the posture of the
branches, to the side where there is most
light, but neither to the quarter where most
air is admitted, nor to the flue in search of
heat. If the branches of a trained fruit-tree
in full leaf be disturbed in their position, the
leaves resume their original direction in the
course of a day or two. The brighter the
day, the more quickly is this accomplished.
If the experiment be often repeated, they
continue to turn, but more wealdy, and are
much injured by the exertion. Black spots

208 TURNING OP FLOWERS TO THE LIGHT.

appear about the veins on their under sides,
and the cuticle scales off. Succulent leaves,
though so thick and firm as many of them
are, have been observed to be peculiarly sen-
sible to light, while other plants, as Mallows,
according to Bonnet, are much less so. The
Miseltoe, Viscum album, Engl. Bof. t. 1470,
the two sides of whose leaves are alike in ap-
pearance, and both equally, in general, pre-
sented to the light, are not found to turn
upon any change in the posture of the branch.
Neither do upright sword-shaped leaves alter
their position, because in them both sides
must be presumed to perform the same func-
tions with respect to light as well as air.

Mr. Calandrini found vine-leaves turned
to the light when separated from the stem
and suspended by a thread. Of this any
one may be easily satisfied, provided the ex-
periment be made with sufficient care and
delicacy. It is important, as demonstrating
the turning to be accomplished by an im-
pression made on the leaf itself, and not upon
its footstalk.

Nor is this effect of light pecuhar to leaves
alone. Many flowers are equally sensible to

TURNING OF FLOWERS TO THE LIGHT. <209

it, especiallv the compound radiated ones, as
the Daisy, Sun-flower, Marigold, See. In
their forms Nature seems to have dehghted
to imitate the rachant luminary to which they
are apparently dedicated, and in the absence
of whose beams many of them do not expand
their blossoms at all. The stately Annual
Sun-flower, IJcUantJuts aniiuuti, displays this
pha^nomenon more conspicuoush' on account
of its size, but many of the tribe have greater
sensibility to light. Its stem is compressed
in some degree, to facilitate the movement of
the flower, which, after foUovvino; the sun all
day, returns after sun-set to the east, by its
natural elasticity, to meet his beams in the
mornino;. Dr. Hales thouoht the heat of the
sun, by contracting the stem on one side, oc-
casioned the flower to nicline that way ; but
if so, it would scarcely return completely at
night. Their can be no doubt, from the ob-
servation of other similar flowers, that the
impression is made on their radiated florets,
which act as wings, and seem contrived chiefly
for that purpose, being frequently destitute
of an}'*' other use. A great number of leaves

210 SLEEP OF FLAM'S.

likewise follow the sun in its course; a clover-
field is a familiar instance of this.

Of all leaves those of pinnated leguminous
plants are found most affected by light, inso-
much that it appears, in several cases, the sole
cause of their expansion, for when it is with-
drawn they fold over each other, or droop,
as if dying; and this is called by Linnaeus the
Sleep of Plants, who has a dissertation on the
subject in his Amoenitates Academicce. The
term Sleep may not really be so hyperbolical
as at first sight it seems, for the cessation of
the stimulus of light, and of the consequent
restrained position, of the leaves, may be use-
ful to the vegetable constitution, as real sleep
is to the animal. Another purpose is answered
by the nocturnal folding of some leaves, that
they shelter their flowers from the dew, the
advantage of which we shall explain hereafter.

Some pinnated leaves display a more ex-
traordinary sensibility, not merely to light,
but to the touch of any extraneous body,
or to any sudden concussion, as those of
Mimosa sensitiva, and puclica, O.vaiis seii-
:iiJivci, and Sjnithuf scns/tiva^ Ad, Hori.

ACTION OF LEAVES ON THE ATMOSi'HRRE. 211

Kezo. V. 3. t. 13. An impression made even
in the most gentle manner, upon one of their
leanets, is commnnicated in succession to all
of them, evincing an exquisite irritability,
for It is in vain to attempt any mechanical
solution of this phenomenon. Oo.e of this
tribe, Hedijsarinn gyrans^ has a spontaneous
motion in its leaves, independent of any ex-
ternal stimulus, even of light, and only re-
quiring a very warm still atmosphere to be
performed in perfection. Each leaf is ter-
natc, and the small lateral leaflets are fre-
quently moving up and down, either equably
or by jerks, without any uniformity or co-
operation among themselves. It is difficult
to guess at the purpose which this singular
action is designed to answer to the plant it-
self; its effect on a rational beholder cannot
be indifferent.

The chemical actions of light, heat, and
the component parts of the atmospheric air,
upon leaves, and, where the latter are want-
ing, on the green stems of plants, are now,
as far as concerns all plants in common, tole-
rably well understood. The observations and
experiments of Priestley and Ingenhousz hsLve

p 2

212 CHEMICAL ACTION OF

been coiifJnrjer\ extended in a variety of
v.ays, or explained on the principles of nn-
proved chemistry, by Dr. Percival and Mr.
Henyr in England, Dr. Woodhouse in Ame-
rica, and M. Sennebier and M. Theodore de
SaussiirCj as v.ell as various other philoso-
phers, on the continent of Europe. It is
agreed that in the day-time plants imbibe
from the atmosphere carbonic acid gas,
(which was formerly called fixed air, and is
an union cf oxygen and carbon), that they
decompose it, absorb tiie carbon as matter of
nourishment which is added to the sap, and
emit the oxygen. So they absorb the same
gas from water, when it is separated from
that fluid by the action of light. The burn-
ing of a candle, or the breathing of animals,
in confined air, produces so much of this gas,
that neither of these operations can go on
beyond a certain time, but the air so conta-
minated serires as food for vegetables, whose
leaves, assisted by light, soon restore the oxy-
gen, or, in other words, purify the air agahi.
This beautiful discoverv, for the main prin-
ciples of which we are indebted to the cele-
brated Dr. Pricbtley, shoM s a nmtual depend-

LEAVES ON THE ATMOSPHERK. <2 1 3

ance of the animal and vegetable kingdoms
on each other, which had never been sus-
pected before his time. Comparative expe-
riments upon the lower tribes of these king-
doms have not yet been made, but they
Mould probably atFbrd us a new test for di-
stinguishing them. Ttie air so copiouslv pu-
rified by a Conferva, one of the most interior
in the scale of plants, may be very extensively
useful to the innumerable tribes of animated
beings which inhabit the same waters. The
abundant air-bubbles which have long ao-o
given even a botanical name to one supposed
species. Conferva huUasa, are probably a
source of life and health to whole nations of
aquatic insects, worms and polypes, whenever
the sun shines.

In the dark, plants give out carbcn and
absorb oxygen : but the proportion of the
latter is small, compared to what they exhale
by day, as must likewise be the proportion
of carbon given out ; else the quantity of
the latter added to their substance would be
but trifling, especially in those climates
where the proportion of day to night is nearly
equal, and which, notwithstanding, we kno\T

314 CHEMICAL ACTION OF

to be excessive V luxuriant in vesretation.
PluDts also give out azotic gas : but M. rle
Saussure is of opinion that this proceeds from
their internal substance ; and it appears by
his experiments to be rather a sign of disease
or approaching decay, than a regular che-
mical production of then' constitution when
in health ; for Sennebier found the quantity
of oxygen emitted was in proportion to the
thickness of the leaf, or quantity of paren-^
chyma. Yet the parenchyma must be in its
original organized state, for when bruised its
functions are destroyed.

Possibly such an alternation in the func-
tions of vegetables between day and night
may afford a necessary repose to their vital
principle, whose share in them we know to
be of primary importance. Whatever may
happen to plants in the dark, there can be
no doubt of their principal business in the
ceconomy of nature being what we have de-r
scribed. The most luminous and compen-
dious view of the whole suljject is given by
Dr. Thomson of Edinburgh in the fourth vol.
of his Chemuir?/^ which is well worth the
attention of those who wish to enter more

LEAVES ON THE ATMOSPHERE. 215

deeply into all the various chemical exaini-
aatioiiS respecting it than suits our purpose.
It is only necessary to add a short view of
Dr. Darwin's hypothesis which Dr. Thomson
has not mentioned, probahly on account of
its insufficiency. That lively writer thou2,ht
the watery perspiration of leaves, acted upon
by light, gave out oxygen for the use of the
plant itself, such oxygen being immediately
absorbed by the air-vessels. This is by no
means adequate to explain any of the phe-
nomena, but rather contradictory to most
of them, and is totally superseded by the ob-
servations and experiments of other writers.

There can be no question of the general
purpose ansv/ered to the vegetable constitu-
tion by these functions of leaves. They
confirm Mr. Knight's theory of vegetation,
who has proved that very little alburnum or
new v.'ood is secreted when light is kept from
the leaves. They also help us to understand
how essential oils may be produced, w\hch
are known, as weU as sugar, to be composed
of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon in different
proportions. We can now liave a general
idea how the nutritious sap, acted upon by

216 CHEMICAL ACTION OF

all the agents above mentioned during its stay
in the cellular substance of the leaf, and re-
turned from thence impregnated with them
into the bark, may prove the source of increase,
and of peculiar secretions, in the vegetable
frame. That portion of sap sent to the tlower
and fruit undergoes no less remarkable
changes, for purposes to which those curious
or^^-ans are devoted ; nor is it returned from
thence, as from the leaves, to answer any
further end. The existence of those organs
is still more temporary, and more absolutely
limited to their own purposes, than even that
of the leaves, from whose secretions theirs
are very distinct.

But when wo attempt to consider how the
particular secretions of different species and
tribes of plants are formed ; how the same
soil, the same atmosphere, should in a leaf
of the vine or sorrel produce a wholesome
acid, and in that of a spurge or manchineel a
most virulent poison ; how sweet and nutri-
tious herbage should grow among the acrid
crowfoot and aconite, we find ourselves to-
tally unable to comprehend the existence of
such wonderful powers in so small and seem-

LEAVES ON THK AlWiOSl^IEKE. €17

inMy simple an organ as the leaf of a plant.
The agency of the vital principle alone cnii
account for tliese wonders, though it cannot,
to our understanding, explain them. *' The
thickest veil," says Dr. Thomson at the end
of his chapter on vegetation, " covers the
whole of these processes ; and so far have
philosophers hitherto been from removing
this veil, that they have not even been able
to approach it. All these operations, indeed,
are evidently chemical decompositions and
combinations ; but we neither know what
these decompositions and combinations are,
nor the instruments in which they take
place, nor the agents by which they are re-
gulated.''

The vain Buffon caused his own statue to
be inscribed " a genius ecpaal to the majesty
of nature,'' but a blade of grass was sufHci^nt
to confound his pretensions.

218

CHAPTER XVll.

OF THE SEVERAL KIXDS OF TVLCTxA, OR
APPEXDAGES TO A PLANT.

J. HE word Fiilr}-uni, whose proper mean-
ing is a prop or support, has been appUed
by Linnaeus not only to those organs of
vegetables correetly so denomniated, such
as tendrils, but also to various other appen-
dages to. the herbage of a plant, none of
which are universal, or essential, nor is
there any one plant ilirnished with them
all. I prefer the English term Appendages
for these organs in general, to Props, because
the latter applies only to one of them. Seven
kinds of these are distinguished by Linnaeus,
nor do I fmd it necessary to enlarge thai
number.

1. Slipu/a. The Stipula, a leafy appendage
to the proper leaves or to their footstalks.

OF THE FULCRA. 219

It is commonly situated at the base of the
latter, in pairs, and is extremely diflerent
in shape in ditlerent plants.

The most natural and usual situation ot
the Stipnlas is in poirs, one stipuia on each
side ot the base of the footstalk, as^ in
Lathy }'us laiifoUus, Engl. Bot. t. 1108,
\v hose stipnlas are halfarrov.-.shaped. /. 1 i5;
also in Willows, as Salix stipiilaris, 1. 1214,
and S. aur'da^ t. 148?. In I?o.su', Potcii-
tilla, and many genera allied to them, the
stipulas arc united laterally to the footstall:,
f. 116'. See PotentUla alba, f. 1384. In
all these cases they are extrafoUacea:, ex-
ternal with respect to the leaf or footstalk;
in others they are intrafoliacecc, internal,
and are then generally simple, as those of
Folijgonwn, f. 1382, 7.06, &c. In a
large natural order, called Rubiacca', these
internal stipulas in some cases embrace the
stem in an undivided tube above the inser-
lion of the footstalks, like thse of Foh/-
gonum just mentioned ; in ethers, as the
Coffee, Coffea arabica, and the Hatnellia
patens, Estot. Bot. t, 24, tliey arc separate
kaves between tlie footst-dks, bat meeting;

220 ' OF TIIi: FL'LCKA,

. just above their insertion. The Enropeean
• Ritbiacece have whorled leaves, as Aspc-
villa, Galium^ Rubia, Sec; but Asperula
CT/itanchica, Engl. Bot, f . 33, has some-
times two of its four leaves so small as to
look like stipulas, seeming to form an inter-
mediate link between such as have whorled
leaves and such as have opposite ones with
stipulas. The next step from Asperula is
jyiodia, and then Spermacoce. In the two
last the bases of the stipulas and footstalks
are united into a common tube.

Some stipulas fall off almost as soon as
the leaves are expanded, which is the case
with the Tulip-tree, Liriodendron tuUpi-
fera ; in general they last as long as the
leaves.

The absence or presence of these organs,
though generally an indication that plants
beiono' to the same natural order and even
genus, is not invariably so. Some species
ot Cist us have stipulas, others none, which
is nearly the case with grasses. The
stipula in this, one of the most distinct
of all natural orders, is peculiar, consisting
of an internal white membrane crowning;

OR -VrPENDAGES OF PLANTS. 221

the sheath of their leaf, and cliisDmo; the
cuhn. See Ffialaris canavlensis^ EngL
But. t 1310, and Lagiinis ovafus, 1. 1334.
In Aria cctruka, t. 7«"'^^^ a few minute
hairs supply its place, uhilc Sesleria cceru-
lea^ t. 1013, and some maritime grasses,
have scarcely more tiian the rudiment of
a stipula. Old writers call this organ in
grasses hv a peculiar name Ugula, and
others denominate it mt^mbrana folioriun,
but both terms are superfluous. A curious
instance of stipulas supplying the place of
leaves is observable in hathyrus Aphaca,
t. 1 167, which has only one or two pair
of real leaves on the seedling plants, ajid
those soon disappear, serving chiefly to
prove, if any proof were wanted, tlia.t the
rest are true stipulas.

Remarkabl}' scariose, or dry membra-
nous stipulas are seen in Illeccbrum Pato-
iv/chia, FI. Grac. i. 246', and in the geiius
Piiins.

•J. Bractea. The floral leat^ a leafy appen-
dage to the flower or its stalk. It is of a
varietv of forms, and sometimes gYe^n,

522 OF THE FULCRA,

sometimes coloured. The Lime-trees, TiVia
europaa, f. 117, t. 6*10, and parvijoUa,
t. 1705, have a very pecuhar oblong pals-
floral leaf, attached to the flower-stalk.
The Lavenders, f. 1 1 8, sec Curt. Mas;.
f, 400 and 401, have coloured bracteas, and
the Purple-topped Clary, Salvia Hormimim^
Fl. Gmc, t. C'O, exhibits a o-radation from
the proper leaves to green bracteas, and
from them to coloured ones, which last
are barren, or unaccompanied by flowers.
Hence I am induced to believe this plant
a mere variety of S. virklh^ t. 19, all whose
bracteas are green and fertile. Bartsia
cJphiay EngL Bot. i. 361, and Melam-
pyrum arvense, t. .53, display an elegant
transition from leaves to coloured bracteas.
The Orchis tribe have green leafy bracteas,
difterent in size in diiFerent species. A
most beautiful large and coloured bractea
is produced in Musscenda frondosa, Horf*
Mai. V. 2. i. 18, from one of the teeth of
the calyx, also in ]\f. glahra of Willdenow,
and tAvo new species brought from Ame-
rica by Mr. John Fraser. Spinous bracteas
of a curious construction guard the' calyx

OR APPENDAGES OP PLAN'TS.

in Atractiflis cancclldta.,/. 1\[). Linnfeus
observes that no bracteas arc to be found
in the class Tctradjinamia.

The ochrea of Rotlboll, JVllldenorv's
Principles of llotanij, ,50, which enfolds
ihe^ flower-stalks in Ci/perus, see Frngl.
Bot. t. 1309, seems to me a species oF
brae tea.

;5. Spina,/. 120. A Thorn. This proceeds from
the wood itself, and is either terminal like
Ilippophae rhamnoidcs, Engl. Bot. t. 425,
IViannius catharticiis, t. l629; or late-
ral as Crataegus (or Mcspilus) Crus-galli,
tomentosa, parvifolia, &c.

Linnicus observes that this sometimes
disappears by cultare, as in the Pear-tree,
Byrus ^citiva, which when wild has strong
thorns ; hence he denominates such culti-
vated plants tamed, or deprived of their
natural ferocity. Professor Wilidenow^,
Frinciples of Bot. t. 270,,considers thorns as
abortive buds, and thence very ingeniously
and satisfactorily accounts for their disap-
peai'ance whenever the tree receives more
nourishment.

2241 OF THE FULCRA,

The permanent footstalks of the Gum
Tragacanth shrub, Astragalus Traga-
cant/ta, are hardened into real spines, as
are the flo\\'er-stalks in Fisonia, as well
as the stiprilas of Xanthium spinosum and
the Mimoace. — Luin. Mss.

^1-. Aculeus,f. 121, a Prickle, arises from the
bark only, and conies off with it, having no
connection with the wood, as in Rosay
Jlubus (the Bramble Raspberry, &c.), and
Zizi/phus, IVlllcL Sp. PL v. 1. 1102.

This is not liable to disap})ear by cul-
ture, being \c\'y distinct in nature from
the last.

5. Cirnis, t. 9. f. 122. A Tendril. This is in-
deed properly called nfiilo-um or support,
being intended solely to sustain weak and
climbmg stems upon more fn-m and sturdy
ones. By its means such climbers often
reach, in tropical forests, to the summits ot
lofty trees, which they crown with adventi-
tious blossoms. Tendrils or claspers when
yojing are usually put forth in a straight di-
rection; but they presently become spiral,
1

OR APPENDAGES OP PLANTS. 225

iTfiaking several circumvolutions, by which
they lake hold of any thing in their way,
and then assume a firmer texture. After
accomplishing a certain number of turns
in one direction, some tendrils have a
power of twining subsequently the contrary
way; many of them moreover are branched
or compound, so that the chances of their
meeting with a support are multiphed.
The Vine, Vitis vmifera, the various spe-
cies of Passion-flower, and the Pea or Vetch
tribe afford good examples of spiral ten-
drils. The Virginian Creeper Hedera, or,
as it ought to be called, Vitis, qidnquefolia,
has branched tendrils, whose extremities
adhere to the smoothest flint, like the fibres
of Ivy. Gloriosa superba,/. 76', Andr. Re-
pos. t. 129, and Flngdlaria indica, have
a simple spiral tendril at the end of each
leaf; for they belong to the Mojiocoty-
ledones, the structure of whose whole her-
bage is generally of the most simple and
compendious kind. The flower-stalks of
Cardiospermum Halicacabicm bear ten*
drils ; but a most singular kind of tendril,
if it may so be called, which certainly has
Q

226 Ot THE FULCRA,

a right to the name of fulcnim, is found
in the Annona heaapetala, Linn. SuppL
270. The tlower'Stalk of this tree forms a
hook, and grasps the neighbouring branch,
serving to suspend the fruit, which is very
heavy, resembhng a bunch of grapes, and
indicates the plant in question to be either
a Michelia or an Uvaria.

6. Glandula, a Gland, is defined by Lin-
naeus as a little tumour discharging a fluid.
Such are abundant on the stalk and calyx
of a Moss Rose,/. 123, Curt, Mag. t. 6.9,
and between the serratures of the leaf of
Salix j96'?i^a/?c/rfl. Bay-leaved Willow; also
on the footstalks of Viburnum Opulus,
Engl. Bot. t. SS9>^ and various species of
Passion-flower. The liquor discharged is
in the first-mentioned instances resinous and
fragrant, in the latter a sort of honey.

7. P?7ws, /*. 124. A Hair. This, according to
the Linnaean definition, is an excretory duct
of a bristle-like form. Such it undoubtedly
is in the Nettle, Urtica, Engl Bot. t. 148,
and t. 1236, whose bristles are tubular and

OU APPENDAGES OF PtANTS. 927

pel'vious, having each a bag of poison at its
base, hke the fang of a serpent ; as well
as in numerous plants whose hairy coats
exude a viscid moisture. But the hairs
which clothe many plants are merely a
protection against cold, heat, or insects.
Sometimes they are hooked, sometimes
branched and entangled, as in Mullein,
Verhascum^ t. 549, &c. In Crofon, Solanum^
and Lavafera, they have often a starry
Hgure. Very generally they are found,
under a microscope, to be curiously jointed.
Some Begonice bear on their leaves flat
little straps called by authors r anient a,
shavings, instead of cylindrical hairs ;
but I know not that they at all differ
ni nature from the usual pubescence, nor
do they merit to be particularly distin-
guished. Some of the natural order of
asperifolicE, as Echiurn, L 181, and Lt/-
^psis, t. 938, especially some exotic spe-
cies of this order, are clothed with curious
white hard tubercles from which their
bristles proceed. Echium jyrcnaicum,
" Desfont. Atlant. v, 1. 16'4, is an instance
Qf this,/. 125.

Q2

228 OF THE FULCRA,

The pubescence of plants varies greatly
in degree according to differences of soil or
exposure; several kinds, ^s Meiitha Mr-
siifa, t. 447, 448, naturally hairy, being
occasionally found smooth, but if trans-^
planted they soon resume their proper habit.
Yet the direction of the hairs or bristles
proves a very sure means of distinguishing
species, especially in the genus Mentha, the
hairs about whose calyx and flower-stalk
point differently in different species, and I
have found it the only infkllible distinction
l>et\veen one Mint and another. See Trans,
of Linn. Soe. v. 5. 171. The accurate
Dr. Roth has lately applied the same test
to the species of Myosotis^ which all bota-
nists before him had either confounded
under M. scorpioides, Engl. Bot. t. 480,
or else separated upon vague principles.
Some species of Galium are admirably
characterized by the bristles of their leaves,
or of parts of their leaves, being hooked
backward or forwards We therefore ac-
cept the 272d maxim of Linnrsus's Fhiloso-
, phia Botanica m ith that limitation which
he himself has allowed in his commentary

QR APPENDAGES OF PI-ANTS. 229

upon it. " The Pubescence/' says he, " is
a ridiculous distinction, being for the most
part effaced by culture/' After quoting
examples, he concludes : " We are there-
fore not to have recourse to the hairiness
or spines of plants but in case of absolute
necessity." Such necessity every botanist
will allow to have existed in the Mentlue
and in Myosotis scorpioides ; and though
the degree of pubescence varies from cul-
ture, and even its structure be changeable,
as in Hedypnois hispida, Engl. Bot. t. 554,
and liirta, t. 555, its direction is I believe
as little liable to exception as any character
{hat vegetables present.

230

CHAPTER XVIII.

OF THE INFLORERCEXCF, OR MODE O?
PLOWERING, AXD ITS VARIOUS FORMS.

INFLORESCENCE, uijloresccntia^ is used bj
Lmnaeus to express the particular manner in
which flowers are situated upon a plant, de-?
nominated by preceding writers the modus
jiorendi, or manner of flowering. Of this the
several kinds are distinguished as follows.

Verticillus, y. 126. A Whorl. In this the
flowers surround the stem in a sort of ring;
though they may not perhaps be inserted on
all sides of it, but merely on two opposite
ones, as in Dead Nettle, Lamium, Engl.
Bot. t. 768—770, Mentha rubra, L 1413,
and CriKopodium vulgare, t, 1401 ; or
even on one side only, as Jiumex mari-
timusj t. 725. The flowers of IJippuris

OF THE INFLORESCENCE. 231

-vulgaris, t. 7^3, are truly inserted in a ring
round the stem, /". 127 ; but they are not
wliorled independent of the leaves, and
are therefore more properly, with a refe-
rence to tlie leaves, denominated axillary
and solitary.

RxVCEMUs,y. r28, a Cluster, or Raceme, con-
sists of numerous rather distant flowers, each
on its own proper stalk, and all connected
by one common stalk, as a bunch of Cur-
rants, Rihe^ rubrum. Engl. But, t. 1289,
7iig}'um, t. 1291} and Orobus si/lvaticus,
f. 518. A cluster is most generally droop-
ing or pendulous, and the flowers are all
expanded nearly at the same time.

A compound racemus occurs in Solamim
Dulcamara^ t. 565, and an aggregate one,
se\eral being gathered together, in Actaa
racemosa. Dill. Elth. t. 6"7 ; but the ex-
ample of a bunch of Grapes, quoted by
Linnaeus for a racemus, appears to me a
true ihijj\^us ; see below.

Spica, f, 129, a Spike, bears numerous
flowers ranged along one common stalk,

233 OF THE INFLORESCENCE.

without any partial stalks, as in Sati/riinn
hirchuun, Engl. Bot. t. 34, Orchis blfolia,
t. $2, Plant ago major, t. 1.558, and me-'
dia, t. 10v59» Potamogeton Jicterophyllum,
t. 1285, and jiuiians, t. 1286 ; but this is
so seldom the case, that a little latitude is
allowed. J eronica spicata, t. 2, therefore,
f. 130, and lllbes spicatinu, t. 1290, as
well as the Common Lavender, Lavandula
Spica, are sufficiently good examples of a
spike, though none of them has entirely
sessile flowers ; and Linnaius uses the term
in numerous instances where it is still less
correctly applicable. A spike generally
<>TOws erect. Its mode of expansion is
much more progressive than that of the
raceme, so that a long period elapses be-
tween the fading of the lowest flowers and
the opening of the upper ones. The flowers
are commonly all crowded close together,
or if otherwise, they form separate groups,
perhaps whorls, when the spike is said to
be either interrupted, or whorled ; as in
some Mints. In Sangiiisorba officinalis
the spike begins flowering at the top. See
Capitidum below.

OP THE INFLORESCENCE. 233

A compound spike is seen in Lavandula
viimata. Curt. Mag. f, 401, and L. abru-
tanoides of Willdenovv.

Sp'ica accunda, a spike whose flowers
lean all to one side, occurs in Nardus
sfricta, Engl. But. f, 290.

Spicula, f. 131, a Spikelet, is applied
exclusively to grasses that have many
florets in one calyx, such florets, ranged
on a little stalk, constituting the spikelet,
which is therefore a part of the flower
itself, and not of the inflorescence ; see
Foa aqiiaiica, t, 131.5, fluifans, t. 1520,
Briza mi nor ^ f. 1316, &c.

CoRYMBUS, f. 132, a Corymb, is a spike
whose partial flower-stalks are graduall}''
longer as they stand lower on the common
stalk, so that all the flowers are nearly on a
level, of which Spircca opuU folia, a common
shrub in gardens, is an excellent speci-
men. The LinniEan class Tetradijnamia
exemplifies this less perfectly, as Car-
damine praiensis, Engl. Bof. t, 11^^
CImranthus sinuatus^ t. 46'2, and the com-
^lon Cabbage, Brassica oleracea, L 637,

•34 OP THE INFLORESCENCK.

in which the corymhus of flowers becomes
a racemus of fruit, as happens also in that
section of the Veronicce, entitled by Lin-
naeus co7'ymhor,o-racemosce. The flowers of
Yarrow,/. 133, Achillea^ t, 757 and 758,
and several others of the compound class,
as well as the Mountain Ash, t, 337, grow
in a corymbose manner, though their in-
florescence may not come exactly under
the above definition. It is worthy of re-
mark that Linnaeus in that definition uses
the word spica, not racemus, nor has he
corrected it in his own copy of Fit if. Boi.
p. 41, though he has properly altered a
slip of the pen in the same line, pctiolis,
to peduncuUs^. This shows he did not
restrain his idea of a spike absolutely to
sessile flowers, but admitted that extended
signification which nature justifies. Many
plants acquire partial stalks as the fruit
advances towards maturity.

* It might be expected from the numerous learned
editors and copiers of this and other works of Linnaeus,
that they should correct such manifest errors as the above,
which any tyro might perceive.

OF THE INFLORESCENCE. ^35

Fasciculus, /*. 134, a Fascicle, is applied to
flowers on little stalks, variously inserted
and subdivided, collected into a close bun-
dle, level at the top, as the Sweet William,
Bianthus harbatus, Curt. Mag. t. 207,
and D. Armeria, EngL Bat. t, 317 .

Gapitulum^ /. 135, a Head or Tuft, bears
the flowers sessile in a git>bular form, as
Statice Armeria, t. 226, Adoxa Moscha-
telUna, t. 453, and Gowphrena globosa,t\\Q
Globe Amarantbus of the gardens.

Perhaps the Inflorescence of Sanguhorha
officinalis, t. 1312, might be esteemed a
capitidum, because its upper flowers come
first to perfection, as in Adoxa . which
seems contrary to the nature of a spike ;
but it does not appear that all capitate
flowers expand in the same v/ay, and San-
guisorba canadensis has a real spike, flow-
ering in the usual manner, from the bottom
upwards. So Allium desccndens. Curt.
Mag. t. 251, opens its upper, or central,
flowers first, contrary to the usual order in
its genus; both which instances prove such
. a diversity to be of small momeut.

OF THE INFLORESCENCE.

Umbella, an Umbel, for which some au»
thors retain the obsolete old English name
of Rundle. In this several flower-stalks, or
rays, nearly equal in length, spread from
one common centre, their summits forming
a level, convex, or even globose surface,
more rarely a concave one. When each
ray is simple and single-flowered, it is called
a simple umbel,/". 136, as those of Allium
iirsinum, Engl Bot. t. 122, Ivy, t. 126?,
Fri?mda vevis, t, 5, fariiioso, t, 6, clatior,
i, 513, and Eucalyptm resinifera, Eiof,
Bot. i. 84. In a compound umbel each
ray or stalk mostly bears an ttmhellidai or
partial umbel, as Athamania Libanofis,
Engl. Bot. t. 138. This is usually the
case in the very natural order of plants
called umbelliferous, /. 138, to which the
last-mentioned, as well as the common
Carrot, Parsnep, Parsley, Hemlock, &c.
belongs.

A few only of this order have simple um-
bels, as Hijdrocotyle vulgaris^ f. 751, and
the curious A strantia.f. 1 37, and Eriocalia^
Eiot. Bot. t. 76 — 79. InEuphorhia the um-
bel is differently compounded, consisting i^

8

OF THE INFLORESCENCE. «37

3, 4, 5 or numerous rays, each of \vhich
is repeatedly subdivided, either in a three-
fold or forked manner. See Engl. Bof,
t. 883, 959, &c.

Cyma,/. 139j a Cyme, has the general appear-
ance of an umbel, and agrees with it so far
that its common stalks all spring from one
centre, but differs in having those stalks
variously and alternately subdivided. Ex-
amples are found in Viburnum^ Engl. Bot.
t. 331, 332, and the common Laurusti-
nus, as also in Samhiicus, Elder, t. 475,
476. This mode of inflorescence agrees
with a cori/fjibusolso in general aspect, but
in the latter the primary stalks have no
common centre, though the partial ones
may sometimes be umbellate, which last
case is precisely the reverse of a cyma.

Panicula, /. 140, a Panicle, bears the
flowers in a sort of loose subdivided bunch
or cluster, without any order. When the
stalks are distant, it is called diffusa, a
lax or spreading panicle, as in Saxifraga
iimbrosa, f. 663, so frequent in gardens
under the name of London Pride, and

S3S OP THE INPLORESGENCi.

S. Geum, t. 1561, but particularly in maiiy
grasses, as the common cultivated Oat, and
Avcna btrigosa, ^.1266; in this tribe the
branches of the panicle are mostly semi-
verticillate ; see Aira aquatica, t. 1557*
A divaricated panicle is still more spread-
ing, like those of Frenanthes ?nuralisy
t. 457, «nd Spergula a7've?isis, /. 1535 ;
the last beino; dichotomous or forked* A
dense or crowded panicle, coarciata, is
observable in Milium lendiger^mn^ t. 1107^
and Agrostis stolonifera, t* 1532, but still
more remarkably in Fhleum poniculatwn,
t. 10775 whose inflorescence looks, at iirst
sight, like a cylmdrical spike, but when
bent to either side, it separates into
branched • lobes, constituting a real pa-
nicle.

Thyrsus,/". 141, a Bunch, is a dense or close
panicle, more or less of an ovate figure, of
which the Lilac, Si/ringa vulgaris^ Curt.
Mag^ t, 183, Tiissilago hi/brida and
Petasites, Engl Bot. L 430, 431, are
examples cited by Linneeus. I presume

. likewise to consider a bunch of grape'^,

OF THE IxVFLOUESCENCE. 23^

litis vinlf'tra, as a true thymus, to the
characters and appearance of M'hich it cor-
rectly answers. Its ultnnate terminations
are sometimes obscurely umbellate, espe-
cially while in blossom, which is no ob-
jection here, but can never be the case in
a racetnus, whether simple or compound.
See Racemus.

Of simple flower-stalks, whether solitary
or clustered, radical or caulinc, axillary,
lateral or terminal, we have already spoken.

Linnaius remarks that the most elegant
specific characters are taken from the in-
florescence. Thus the Apple, Efigl. Bof.
t. 179? and the Pear, form two species of
Pyrus, so far at least a most natural genus,
the former of which beai's an umbel, the
latter a corymb. Pyrola uniflora, t. 146,
seciinda, t. 517, and nmbeUata^ Curt, Mag.
t. 778, are admirably distinguished by their
several forms of inflorescence.

S40

CHAPTER XIX.

or THE FLOWER AND FRUIT.

Having examined the general structurar
and external form of plants, we now come to
more important and even essential, though
more transitory organs— the flower and fruit,
or parts of fructification. By these each
species is perpetually renewed without limits^,
so far at least as the observation of mankind
has reached ; while, as we have already men*-
tioned, all other modes of propagation are
but the extension of an individual, and sooner
or later terminate in its total extinction.

Nothing can be more happy than the Lin-
na3an definition of these organs; Pliil. Bot.52.
" The fructification is a temporary part of
vegetables, destined for the reproduction of
the species, terminating the old individual
and beginning the new."

OP THK FLOWER AND FRUIT. 241

Pliny had long ago beautiiully said that
" blossoms are the jov of trees, in bearing
which they assume a new aspect, vyeing
with each other in the luxuriance and va-
riety of their colours." Linnaeus has justly
applied this to plants in generul, and, im-
proving upon the idea, he considers their
herbage as only a mask or clothing, by no
means indicative of their true nature or cha-
racter, which can be learned from tiie flower
and fruit alone.

Mr. Knight has traced his central vessels,
by which the sap is conveyed from the root,,
into the flower and fruit. On the returning
sap in the bark of these parts he has not been
able to make any distinct observation ; but
he has determined that no matter of increase
is furnished from the flowers or their stalks,
as from leaves, to the part of the branch be-
low them, nor indeed to any other part, PhiL
r/w?s. for 1801,2;. 340. There can be no doubt '
that certain parts of the flow^er, which we shall
presently describe, perform functions respect-
ing air and light analogous to those of leaves,
but entirely subservient to the benefit of the
flower and fruit. Their secretions, formed

R

24S OP THE PARTS

from the returning sap, are confined to their
own ptirposes. As soon as these are accom-
plished, a decided separation of vessels takes
place, and the ripe fruit, accon:panied per-
haps by its stalk, falls from the tree. Dr.
Hales tried in vain to give any flavour to
fruit by the most • penetrating and volatile
fluids conveyed through the sap-vessels ; for
the laws of secretion are absolute in the or-
gans of the flower, and their various results
are, if possible, more strikingly distinct than
even those we have contemplated in the leaves.
It is scarcely necessary to repeat that the
fructification is essential to vegetables. A
plant may be destitute of stem, leaves, or
even roots, because, if one of these parts be
wanting, the others may perform its func-
tions, but it can never be destitute of those
organs by which its species is propagated.
Hence, though many individual plants may
'be long without blossoms, there are none, so
far as nature has been thoroughly investi-
gated, that are not capable, in favourable
circumstances, of producing them, as well aa
seeds ; to whose perfection the blossoms them-
^Ivcs are altogether subservient.

OF FROCTIPICATION. S43

Linnsus distinguishes seven parts of fruc-
tification, some of which are essential to the
very nature of a flower or fruit, others not
so inJispensably necessary, and therefore not
universal.

L Cali/.v, the Calyx or Flower-cup, generally
resembling the leaves in texture and co-
lour, and forming the outermost part of a
flower. This is not essential, and is often
absent.

il. Corolla, the Corolla, or more delicate
coloured internal leaf or leaves, properly
petals, of a flower, likewise not essentiaL

III. Stamen, or Stamina, the Stamen or
Stamens, commonly of a slender or thread-
Hke form, bearing, some kind of knob or
cellular body, and ranged internally with
respect to the Corolla. These are es-
sential.

IV. Pistillum, or Pistilla, the Pistil, or Pistils,
in the centre of the flower, consisting of
the rudiments of the fruit, with one or

ti2

244 DIFFERENT KINDS OF CALYX.

more organs attached to them, and, of
course, essential.

V. Perlcarpmm, the Seed-vessel, of a pulpy,
woody, or leathery texture, enclosing the
seeds, but wanting in many plants.

VI. Semen, the Seed, the perfecting of which
is the sole end of all the other parts.

VII. ReceptacuJian, the Receptacle, basis or
point of connection. This must necessa-
rily be present in some form or other.

I. Calyx. The Flower-cup, or more cor-
rectly the external covering of the flower,
when present, was originally divided by
Linnaeus into seven kinds, some of which
are more justly so denominated than the
others, and I have ventured to make an
alteration in his list,

1. Teriant1iiuin,f» 142. Calyx, properly and
commonly so called, when it is contiguous
to and makes a part of the flower, as the five
green leaves which encompass a Rose, in-

DIFFERENT KINDS OF CALYX, 245

eluding their iirn-shapcd base ; the two
green bristly ones which enfold the bud
in Glauc'mm luteum, FL Brit, Engl, Bof,
t, 8 ; the tubular part, comprehending the
scales at its base, in the Pinks, ^.61, 62,
or the globular scaly cup in Centaurea^
t. 56. The Tulip, t. 63, is a naked flower,
having no calyx at all.

This part is of an infinite variety of
forms in different genera, being either
simple or compound, divided or undivided,
regular or irregular. In some instances it
is permanent till the fruit is ripe, in others
it falls even before the flower is well ex-
panded.

Some genera have a double periaJithiian,
as Malva, t.67l, or even a triple one, as
Scabiosa, t. 1311.

2. Tnvoliicrinn,/. 143. Involucre of Professor
Martyn ; but I generally retain the Latin
termination. This is remote from the flower,
and can scarcely be distinguished clearly
from a Bractea. The term was fint
adopted by Linnaeus, at the suggestion of
his friend Artedi, in order to distinguish

?48 or THB INVQLUCRUM.

the genera of umbelliferous plants, for
which purpose the latter deemed the part
in question very important. But accord-
ing to the laws which Linnaeus had laid
down, the parts of the flo-v^'er and fruit
alone were to afford generic .characters,
and the most sound botanists have ever
since kept to this rule, with infinite advan-
tage over less correct ones, however ready
to derive ideas respecting the natural habit,
and seconclary characters, of a genus, not
only from the inflorescence and bracteas,
but even from the leaves, stipulas, or other
parts. Linnseus and Artedi, therefore, were
obliged to consider the invohtcra and invo-
htcella, the former accompanying the ge-
neral and the latter the partial umbels, as
a sort of calyx, and the umbel altogether as
one aggregate flower, composed of florets
united by a common radiated receptacle.
Consequently a cyme must be considered
in the same light ; nor are reasons wanting
in support of this hypothesis, which we
shall consider after having first explained
all the carts of fructification.

In Euphorbia, however, the term hractea

OF THE INVOLUCRUM. 547

would surely be more proper than involu-
crum or involuceUum^ as is evident from
a consideration of the inflorescence of the
whole genus, so very different in different
species. In E. Peplis, and many others^
the flowers are solitary and axillary ; in
others again, as E. amygdaloides, Engl.
Hot. t. 256, and Characias, t. 44^, some
flower-stalks are umbellate, some scattered;
and the subdivisions of the umbel in all
are ultimately forked, that is, of a nature
betvreen umbellate and scattered. This
genus has, moreover, a proper calyx or
perianthium of a most distinct and pecu-
liar nature. Some species o^ Anemone^ a
genus destitute of a 'perianthium^ are said
by Linnaius to have an involucrum^ as
A. Pidsatilla, t. 51, for which the name
of hractea would be vastly more correct,
though in A, Hepatica, Curt. Mag. t. 10,
it is placed so near the flower as to seem a
part of it, which, however, is really not the
case.

The name of Invohicrum is applied by
Gleditsch to the membrane covering the
fructification of ferns,/. 144, 145 ; nor have I,
8

248 OF TiTE AMENTUM.

in studying this part with peculiar attention
in order to reform the genera of ilicse plants^
see Tracts relating to 'ISatural Historij,
p. 2i.>, found reason to contrive any new
appellation. My learned friends \Villdenow
and SwarLz have judged otherwise, calling
thismemhrane the induaiujn, or covering;
which seems to me altogether superfluous.
See its various forms in EtigL Bot. 1. 1458 — •
60, 1150, 1X59, 1160, &c.

3. Amentum,/. I AG. Catkin, denominated bj
authors before hmns^us julus, nuca?jientum,
or catulus; consists of a common recep-
tacle of a cylindrical form beset with nu-
merous scales, each of which is accom-
panied by one or more stamens or pistils,
so that the whole forms an aggregate
flower. The receptacle itself and the bases
of the scales are firmly united, and the
whole catkin falls ofl:^ entire, except that
in some instances the upper part of each
scale withers away, as in tiie \¥illow genus,
Salir, Engl Bot. U 1388—90, 1402—4,
&c., the seed-vessels in that genus being
quite distinct from the scales. In others.

OP THE AMENTUM, S49

the uhole scale remains, enlarges, hardens,
and protects the s<?ed, as in Finns, the Fir
tribe. Such is the case with* catkins of
fertile liowers, which arc necessarily per-
nicncnt till the seed is ripe; barren ones
fall as soon us the stamens have performed
their ofiice. Every catkin consists gene-
rally of either one kind of flower or the
other. There are few certain and invari-
able instances of stamens and pistils in
the same catkin, that circumstance oc-
curring chiefly in a few species of Salix
and Carex', nor is Tj/pJia, t. 14,55 — 7j
an exception to this. Examples of barren-
flowered catkins are seen, not only in Salix
and Vinus, but in several plants whose
fertile or fruit-bearing flowers are not cat-
kins, such as the Walnut, and, unless I am
much mistaken, the Hasel-nut, t, 7^3.
£,ach nut or seed of the latter has a per-
manent coriaceous calyx of its own, inad-
vertently called by Gsertner an involucrum^
thouirh he considers the whole as an amen-
turn, which this very calyx proves it not
to be*. Ilumuhis, the Hop, f. 427, has a
catkin for the fertile flower only.
f It appears moreover that Carpmus, the Hornbeam,

250 OF THE GLUME

4, Spatha,f» 147- Sheath, a covering which
bursts longitudinally, and is more or less
remote from the flower. This is exempli^
fied in the Snow-drop, Galaiithus nivalis,
t. 167, the various species of ^arcissuSi
t. 17, 27s and 276, and the Arum, 1. 1298.
The Spatha of the latter encloses a Spadix,
or elongated receptacle, common to many
flowers, according to the genuine Linnaean
idea of this kind of calyx, taken from Palm-
trees. In these the Spadix is branched.

5. Ghima,f. 148. Husk, the popular calyx of.
Grasses and Grass-like plants, of a chaffy
texture. These husks are usually com-
pressed, embracing each other at the base,
as in Phleum pratevse, t. IO76. Some-
times they are depressed, flattened verti^
cally, as in Brizay t. 540 and 1316. To
the husk belongs the Arista, /'. 149, Beard
or Awn, a bristle-shaped appendage, usually
spiral, and possessing the property of an
hygrometer. This, however, is not always

has hitherto erroneously been supposed to have an amen-
turn for the fertile flower. The true nature of the cover-
ing of the seedj as well as of the common stalk, proves
it otherwise.

4VD PERICH/ETIUMf S51

present, even in different individuals of
the same species.

*' Unfortunately for the science,
On the awn there 's no reliance."

So says, or rather sings, with more truth
than subUmity, the ingenious author of
the Flora Londinensh ; fasc. 6, t, 8.

The spiral kind of awn is most frequently
attached to the Corolla of grasses, which is
precisely of the same husky nature as their
calyx, and is, by some botanists, consider-
ed as such. Specimens oi glumce inutica,
beardless husks, are seen in Fhalaris ca-
7iariensis, Engl. Bot. t. 1310, and glumcK
aristatce, awned ones, in Lagurm ovatus,
t, 1334, and Stipa pennatay t. 1S56.

Q. TerichcBtium.f. 150. A scaly Sheath, invest-
ing the fertile flower, and consequently the
base of the fruit-stalk, in some Mosses. In
the genus Hypnum it is of great conse-
quence, not only by its presence, constituting
a part of the generic character, but by its
differences in shape, proportion, and s ruc-
ture, serving frequently to discriminate

?52 Of THE MBICH.STIUM

species. See EngL Bat. t, 1037—9, 1182,
1445 — 8, &c. ; see also the same part in
Neckera^ t, 1443, 4. Linnssus cippearsby
his manuscripts to have intended adding
this to the different kinds of calyx, though
it is not one of the seven enumerated in
his printed works. Nor is he, surely, cor-
rect in allowing it to the genus Jnnger-
mannia. The membranous part which he
there calls periclicetiuin' is strictly analo-
gous indeed to the calyptva^f. 151, 152 b,
or veil of real mosses, esteemed by him a
kind of calyx; but as I presume with Schre-
ber, to reckon it rather a corolla, and Hed-
wig once thought the same, and as Jiinger-
maiiJiia has more or less of a real calyx
besides, f. 152 a, see Engl. Bof, t. 77 1»
&c., I would no longer apply the term
perichcetiian to this genus at all.

The part called calyptra being removed
from the list, as being a corolla, the peri-
chaiium takes its place among the seven
kinds of calyx. We lay less stress upon
this coincidence than Linnaeus might have
done, when, according to the fashion of
the times, he condescended to distribute

AND YOLVA. 553

his immortal F/nlosophia Botaiiica into
12 chapters and36'5 sections, and reckoned
seven parts of fructification as well as seven
species of calyx.

7. Voha^f. 153. Wrapper, or covering of tho
Fungus tribe, of a membranous texture,
concealing their parts of fructification, and
in due time burstins; all round, forming; a
ring upon the stalk, as m Agaricus prO'
cents, Sowerh. Fung. t. IQO, and A, cam-
pestris, the Common Mushroom, f, 305 ;
such at least is the oris^inal meanino; of
this term, as explained in the Phtl. BoL ;
but it has become more generally used,
even by Linnaeus himself, for the more
fleshy external covermg of some other
Fungi, which is scarcely raised out of the
ground, and enfolds the whole plant when
young, f. 154. See Agaricus volvaceus,
t, 1, and Lycoperdon fomicatum, t. 198 ;
also the very curious L. phalloides, t. 390,
now made a distinct genus by the learned
Persoon, under the name of Batarrea
phalloides.

954: ORIGIN OP THE CALXXi^

Linn8eus adopted from Caesalpinus the opi-
nion that the Cnii/a proceeded from the bark,
hke the leaves, because of its similarity in
colour and texture to those organs. He even
refined upen the original idea, and supposed
this part to proceed from the outer bark, while
the more delicate corolla originated m the
liber. What is now known of the physiology
of the bark, as explained in several of our
preceding chapters, renders this hypothesis
totally inadmissible.

The knowledge of the real use of leaves^
see chapter 1 6, may however throw some light
upon that of the calyx. Besides protection
of the flower from external injuries, which is
one evident use of this part, it appears highly
probable that it may often contibute to the
growth and strength of the stalk which sup-
ports it, as the leaves do to that portion of
branch below them. The stalk often swells
considerably during the growth of the flower,
especially just below the calyx, becoming
more woody, an alteration frequently neces-
sary for the support of the ripening fruit.
When the calyx falls very early, as in the

OP THE COROLLA. ^55

Poppy tribe, Papaver and Glaiicium, I can-
not find that the flower-stalk is subsec^uently
enlarged, nor in any manner altered ; wiiile
in genera without number, whose calyx is
permanent, the stalk becomes not only more
woody, but often considerably thickened.

II. Corolla. The Corolla, vulgarly called
the leaves of the flower, consists of those
more delicate and dilated, generally more
coloured leaves, which are always internal
with respect to the calyx, and constitute
the chief beauty of a flower. In the
Rose the Corolla is red and fragrant;
in the Violet purple; in the Primrose
yellow.

This term includes two parts, the Petal,
Petakwif and the Nectary, Nectarium.
The former is either simple, as in the Prim-
rose, in which case the Corolla is said to
be monopetalous, of one petal ; or com-
pound, as in the Rose, in v/hich it is poly-
petalous, of several. The Nectary is some-
times a part of the petal, sometimes sepa-
rate from it.

A monopetalous Corolla consists of two
parts; the tube, tubus, the cyhndrical part

256 FORMS OF THE COROLLA*

enclosed in the calyx of the Primrose; and
the limb, limbiis, which is the horizontal
spreading portion of the same flower,/. 155.
Tiie aixalogous parts of a poljpetalous Co-
rollci, as in the Wall-flower or Stock,/. 156^
are n imed the claw, imgitis^ /. 157 a, and
the border, lamina, b.

The Corolla is infinitely diversified in
form in different genera, whence Tourne-
fort and Rivinus derived their methods of
arrangement. It is called regular when
its general figure is uniform, as in the Rose,
the Pink, the Columbine, Aquilegia vuU
garis, Engl. Bot, t. 297, and Gentiana
Fneumonanthe, t» 20 ; irregular when
otherwise, as the Violet, t, 6l9, 620, Dead-
nettle, f, 768, and Lathyrus, t. 805 and
" 1108. An equal Corolla, /. 156, is not
only regular, but all its divisions are of one
size, like those of the Primrose, t. 5, Cam"
pajiula, t. 12, or Saxifraga, t, 9; an un-
equal one,/. 158, is when some segments
are alternately smaller than the others, as
m-Butomus, /. 651, or otherwise different,
as in Aquilegia, t. 297- It is by no means
always necessary, in defining characters of
genera, to use these last terms, it being

FORMS OF THE COROLLA. 257

sufficient in general to say that a Corolla
is regular in opposition to one that is irre-
gular ; more especially as some species of a
genus may possibly have an equal corolla,
others an unequal one.

The most usual shapes of a monopetalous
corolla are
campanulata, f. 159, bell-shaped, as in

Campanula, t. 12.
mfmuUbuIifoDfus, f. l60, funnel-shaped,

Pulmonaria, t. 118.
hi/pocrateriformis, f. 155, salver-shaped,

Primula, t. 4.
rotata, wheel-shaped, that is, salver-shaped

with scarcely any tube, Borago, t, 36.
ringens,/. l6l, ringent, irregular and gap-
ing like the mouth of an animal, La-
7nium, t. 768 ; called by former bota-
nists labiata, lipped.
p€rso?iata,f. l62, personate, irregular and
closed by a kind o^ipBlate, Antirrhmu??i,
f* 129. Those of a polypetalous one are
criiciformis, f. 156, cruciform, regular and
like a cross, Dentaria, t. 309, and CAez-
ranthufi, t. 46'2.
rosacea, rosaceous, spreading like a rose.
Dry as, t. 451.

s

258 PHYSIOLOGY OF

papi!ionacea,f. l63, papilionaceous, irre-
gular and spreading, somewhat like a
butterfly, Lathi/n/s^L 1108. The vari-
ous petals which compose such a flower
are distinguished by appropriate names,
as vexillum^f. l64, standard, the large
one at the back ; alce,f. l6o, wings, the
two side petals ; and carina, f, 166, the
keel, consisting of two petals, united or
separate, embracing the internal organs,
f. 167. In TrifoUum all the petals are
sometimes united into one at the lower
part.

incompkta, incomplete, when parts, \\hich
analogy would lead us to expect, are
deficient, as in Amorpha, a papilionace-
ous flower apparently, but consisting of
the -cexillam only ; or Jlittej^a of Schre-
ber, /I 168, a rosaceous one with a single
lateral petal, seeming as if four others
had been stripped off.

It is remarkable that irregular flowers some-
times vary to regular ones in the very same
plant, as in Bignonia radlcans, Curt.
Mag. t. 485 ; and Antirrhinum Li-
naria, f, I69, Engl. Bot. t, 608 and
260.

THfi COROLLA. 25Q

Linnaeus was of opinion that the Corolla
originated from the LiOci' or inner bark, as
the Calyx from the outer, but this cannot be
defended now the real physiology of the bark
is better understood.

The whole use and physiology of the Co-
rolla have not yet been fully explained. As
a protection to the tender and important parts
within, especially from wet, its use in many
cases is obvious, but by no means in all.
Linnaeus imagined it to serve as wings, to
w^aft the flovA er up and down in the air, and
so to promote the functions of the Stamens
and Pistils, as will hereafter be described ;
nor is this opinion unfounded.

Sprengel has ingeniously demonstrated, in
some hundreds of instances, how the Corolla
serves as an attraction to insects, indicating
by various marks, sometimes perhaps by its
scent, where they may find honey, and ac-
commodating them with a convenient resting-
place or shelter while they extract it. This
elegant and ingenious theory receives con-
firmation from almost every flower we exa-
mine. Proud man is disposed to think that
"Full many a flower is horn to blush unseen/*
S 2

8(50 PHVSIOLOGY OF

because he has not deigned to explore it ;
but we find that even the beauties of the most
sequestered wilderness are not made in vain.
They have myriads of admirers, attracted
by their charms, and rewarded with their
treasures, which very treasures would be as
useless as the gold of a miser to the plant it-
self, were they not thus the means of bringing
insects about it. The services rendered by
such visitants will be understood when we
have described all the parts of a flower.

Besides the above purposes, I have always
conceived the Corolla to fulfil some important
ofi5ce to the essential parts of the flower with
respect to air, and especially light. It not
only presents itself in a remarkable manner
to the sun-beams, frequently closing or droop-
ing when they are withdrawn, but it is so
peculiarly distinguished by beauty or brilli-
ancy of colour, that one cannot but think its
functions somevvhat different from those of
the leaves, even with regard to light itself.
Dr. Darwin calls the Corolla the lungs of
the stamens and pistils, and with great pro-
bability, for they abound in air-vessels. But
when we consider the elaborate and peculiar

7

The coroh,a. 261

secretions of a flower, the elastic and inflam-
mable pollen, the honey, and the exquisitely
volatile perfume, as we know from the curious
discoveries of modern chemistry how great
a share light has in the production of such,
we cannot but conclude that the petals must
be of primary importance with respect to their
secretion by its means.

Sometimes the Corolla is xavy short-lived ;
somtimes very lasting, even till the fruit is
perfected, though mostly in a faded condi-
tion. In double flowers I have observed it
to be much more durable than in sin ole ones
of the same species, as Anemones and Pop-
pies, because, as I conceive, of its not having
performed its natural functions, the stamens
and pistils of such flowers being obliterated,
or changed to petals ; hence the vital prin-
ciple of their corolla is not so soon exhausted
as usual. Fhil. Trans, for 17S8, ;;. 16.5.

The Corolla, as already observed, is not
essential. Whatever its functions may be,
they can be occasionally performed by the
Calyx perhaps, or even by the Filaments of
the Stamens ; as those of leaves are, in leaf-
less plants, by the stems. When a flower
has only one covering, it is not always easy

262 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN

to say whether tliat be a Cal3^x or Corolla.
When green and coarse in texture like the
former, we call it so, as in Chenopodimn,
Engl Bot. t, 1033, and 1721—4, and the
natural relationship of this genus to Polygo-
mim, t. 1044, 989, 756, &c., leads us to
reckon the same part in the latter a coloured
calyx. On the other hand, when the part
present is delicate and finely coloured, like
the generality of Corollas, we denominate it
such ; more especially if the plant to which
it belonsrs be allied to others that have a
Calyx besides, as in Tidipo, I. 63, allied to
Lencojmn, t. 621, which has a Spatha. The
great Jussieu denominates this part in the
Tulip and other liliaceous plants, however
beautiful, a Calyx. His definition of a Corolla
is " that covering of a flower which is in-
vested with the calyx, being verj^ rarely
naked ; a continuation of the inner bark of
the flower-stalk, not of its cuticle ; not per-
manent, but mostly falhng off with the sta-
mens ; surrounding or crowning the fruit,
but never growing united with it; and having
its parts or segments for the most part alter-
nate with the stamens, which are equal to
them in number.'' By this rule the tube and

COROLLA AND CALYX. 263

six segments of a Nui'cissiis, t. 17, 275 and
576, constitute the Calyx, and then surely
what Jussieu calls a Crown,/. 1476, and Lin-
naeus a Nectary, must be allowed the name
of Corolla. On the other hand, the Spniha
becomes a Bractea. Consequently the whole
order of Liliaceous flowers in general have a
coloured Calyx only, which seems hardly
admissible ; and yet I cannot conceal a re-
cent discovery which strongly confirms the
opinion of my acute and candid friend. Two
species of a new genus *, found by Mr. Men-
zies on the West coast of North America,
have beautiful liliaceous flowers like an Aga-
panthus, vi'ith. three internal petals besides!
Tulbaghia is a similar instance. I must how-
ever protest against the idea of the Corolla
originating exclusively from the inner bark,
as well as of the cuticle not bing continued
over it, for reasons sufticiently apparent from
the former part of this work.

It is a Linnican rule that the Stamens
should be opposite to tlie segments of the
Calyx, and alternate with the parts of the

* [ have lately, in a paper to the LinnKati Society,
named this gcaus Brodicea in honour of James Brodie,
i:sq. F.L.S,

S6< DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN

Corolla. Its author nevertheless seems of
opinion that no absolute means of distinction
between these two parts can be pointed out,
except colour ; of the insufficiency of ^vhich
he is aware. If hovi^ever the Corolla performs
functions with respect to light which the Calyx
does not, and those functions are indicated
by its colour, a distinction founded on such
a principle is both correct and philosophical.
V/e must then conclude that mmoat liliaceous
plants, not in all, the two organs are united
into one, and indeed the outside is often
green and coarse like a Calyx, the inner co«.
loured and delicate ; witness Ornithogalum^
t. 21, 130 and 499, Narthecium, t. 535, &c.
Linnaeus has the same idea respecting Daphne^
t. 119 and 1381, and the analogy is con-
firmed by Gnidia, which is a Daphne with
petals. In Trollk/s, t. 28, and Helkhoriis^
i. 200 and 613, Linneeus considers as petals
what Jussieu, following Vaillant, thinks a
Calyx. Of these plants we shall soon have
occasion to speak again.

I cannot but consider as a sort of Corolla
the Cahjptra or Veil of Mosses, which Lin-
naeus reckoned a Calyx. Schreber, very
deep and critical in his inquiries concerning

COROLLA AND CALYX. 265

these plants, nnd Hedwig, so famous for his
discoveries among them, were both of this
opinion, though the latter seems to have re-
linquished \t. The organ in question is a
membranous hood, covering the unripe fruit
of these diminutive vegetables, like an ex-
tinguisher,yi 151 ; but soon torn from its base,
and elevated along with the ripening capsule.
See Engl. Bat. t. 558, <Scc. The great pe-
culiarity of this part, whatever it be called,
consists in its summit performing the office of
a stigma, as Hedwig first remarked. In
Jungermannia^f. 152, t. Ill, &c., the very
same part, differing only in usually bursting
at the top to let the fruit pass, is named by
Linnaeus a perichceiiutn, but very incorrectly,
as we have already hinted.

Whatever office the Petals may perform
with respect to air and light, it is probable that
the oblong summit of the Spadix in Arum,
t. 129B, answers the same purpose. When
this part has been for a short time exposed
to the light, it assumes a purplish brown
hue, which M. Senebier seems to attribute
to the same cause which he thinks produces
Ihe great heat observed in this flower, the

26(5 OF THE NECTARY

rapid combination of oxygen gas with the
carbon of the plant ; an liypothcsis hardly
adequate to explain either.

Nectnrium, the Nectary, may be defined
as that part of the Corolla which contains or
Avhich secretes honey. It is perhaps in effect
nearly universal, as hardly a flower can be
found that has not more or less honey, though
that liquor is far from being universally, or
even generally, formed by any apparatus
separate from the Petals. In monopetalous
flowers, as Lamium album the Dead Nettle,
t. 768, the tube of the corolla contains, and
probably secretes, the honey, without any
evident Nectary. Sometimes the part under
consideration is a production or elongation of
the Corolla, as in Violets ; sometimes indeed
of the Calyx, as in the Garden Nasturtium,
TropcBoliim, Curt. Mag. t. 23 and 98, whose
coloured Calyx, f. 1 70, partakes much of the
nature of the petals. Sometimes it is distinct
from both, either resembling the petals, as m
Jquilcgia,/. 171, E?>gL Bot. t. 291, or more
different, as in Epimedium^ f. 172, 173,
t. 438, Bdkhorus.t. 200 and GlS^Aconitum,
the Common Monkshood, and Bdpluulum,

AND IIOXEY. £Gj

the Larkspur. Such at least is the mode in
which Linnipus and his followers understand
the four last-mentioned flowers ; but we have
already hinted that Jussieu is of a different
opinion, and he even calls the decided Nec-
tary of Epinicdium an internal petal ! Diffi-
culties attend both theories. It seems para-
doxical to call petals those singular bodies in
Aconitum, f. 174, like a pair of little birds,
which are manifestly formed only to hold the
honey, and not situated nor constructed so as
to perform the proper functions of petals ;
but on the other hand Ranunvidiis^ L 100,
515 and 516, one of the same natural order,
has evident calyx and petals, which latter
have a honey-bearing pore in their claw,
evincing their identity with the less petal-like
Nectaries just described. Other instances
indeed of Nectaries in the claws of petals are
found in the Crown Imperial and Lily; which
only confirms more strongly the compendious
construction of the Lily tribe, the leaves of
their flowers in these examples being Calyx,
Petals and Nectaries all in one.

The most indubitable of all Nectaries, as
actually secreting honev, are those of a

S68 OF THE NECTARY

glandular kind. In the natural order of
Cruciform plants, composing the Linnaean
class Tetradi/naniia, these are generally four
green glands at the base of the Stamens. See
Dent aria, Engl. Bot. t. 309, Sisymhrium^
i. 525, and Brassica, t. 637. In Salix\
t. 1483, and Geranium, t. 322, 75, cScc,
similar glands are observable ; whilst in
J^elargonium, the African Geranium, the
Nectary is a tube running down one side of
the flower-stalk.

The elegant Parnassia, ' 82, of which we
are now acquainted with two new American
species, has a most elaborate apparatus called
by Linnaeus Nectaries,/. 175, but which the
cautious Jussieu names Scales only. Linnaeus
usually called every supernumerary part of a
flower Nectary, from analogy only, though
he might not in every case be able to prove
that such parts produced honey. This is
convenient enoua;h for botanical distinctions,
though perhaps not always right in physio-
logy; yet there is nothing for which ^ he has
been more severely and contemptuously cen-
sured. He was too wise to answer ilhberal
criticism, or he might have required his ad-

AND HONEV. QQ^

versaries to prove that such parts were not
Nectaries. Sometimes possibly he may seem
to err, like UHeritier, in calHng abortive
stamens by this name. Yet who knows that
their filaments do not secrete honey as well
as the tubes of numerous flowers? And though
abortive as to Antheras, the Filament, con-
tinuing strong and vigorous, may do its of-
fice.

Honey is not absolutely confined to the
flower. The glands on the footstalks of p£is-
sion-flowers yield it, and it exudes from the
flower-stalks of some liliaceous plants.

The sweet viscid liquor in question has
given rise to much diversity of opinion re-
specting its use. Pontedera thought it was
absorbed by the seeds for their nourishment
while forming, as the yolk of the egg by the
chick. But Linnseus observes in reply, that
barren flowers produce it as well as fertile
ones, witness Urtica and Saliv. In some
instances the fertile flowers only are observed
to bear honey, as Fhyllanthus and Tamils,
but such cases are rare. Even Darwin says
the honey is the food of the stamens and
pistils, not recollecting that it is often lodged
in spurs or cells quite out of their reacli.

ffgt. OF THE STAMEK3

There can be no doubt that the sole use of
the honey wilh respect to the plant is to
tempt insects, who in procuring it fertilize
the flower, by disturbing the dust of the Sta-
mens, and even carry that substance from
the barren to the fertile blossoms.

S. Stamina. The Stamens, formerly called
Chives, are various in number in different
flowers, from one to some hundreds. Their
situation is internal with respect to the
parts we have been describing ; eiternal
to the Pistils, at least in simple flowers.

These organs are essential, there being
no plant hitherto discovered, after the most
careful research, that is destitute of them,
either in the same flovv^er with the pistils,
or a separate one of the same species.

A Stamen,/. 176*, commonly consists of
two parts, the Filament, 'a.,Tilamentum, and
Anther, b*, Anther a, the former being
merely what supports the latter, which is the
only essential part. Various forms and pro-

* I submit to the opinion of Professor Martyn in
adopting ihis word, for the reasons given in his Lan-
guage of Boia/iff, move especially as general practice
seems to favour its use.

AWD ANTHERS. 671

portions oF Filaments may be seen in the
Tulip, where they are six in number, thick
and short, Engl. Bot. t. 63 ; the Pink,
where they are ten, much more slender^
and answering to the idea of a filament or
thread, t. 62 ; and Anemone^ t. .51, where
they are numerous. Tliey are commonly
smooth, but sometimes, as in Verhasciim,
t. 58, 59? bearded. In Melaleuca^ Exot.
Bof. t. 36 and 50, they are branched :
and in Frunclla^ Engl. Bot, t. 96 1, forked,
one point only bearing an Anther. In
Arhtolochia, t. 398, they are wanting,
and nearly so in Fofamogeton, t. 376, &c.

The Anther is the only essential part of
a Stamen. It is generally of a membranous
texture, consisting of two cells or cavities,
burstino; lonsiitudinallv at their outer
edges, as in the Tulip. In Erica ^ t. 1013
— 15, it opens by pores near the summit,
as in the Potatoe-biossom. Very rarely
the Anther has four cells, as Tetrafi;cva,
Bof. of N. IIoll. t. 5, and Exot. Ihh
t. 20* — 22. Sometimes it is crnamentcd

* In this plate the engraver has by mistake expre-sied
the seclion of the anther so as to look more like a ger-
nien, though the original drawing was corr-ct.

872 OF THE POLLEN.

with a crest, as in many EriccEy and the
g«$nus Pinics. See Mr. Lambert's splendid
v/ork.

The Pollen, or Dust, is contained in
the Anther, from which it is thrown out
chiefly in warm dry weather, when the
coat of the latter contracts and bursts.
The Pollen, though to the naked ej'e a
fine powder, and light enough to be wafted
along by the air, is so curiously formed,
and so various in different plants, as to be
an interesting and popular object for the
microscope. Each grain of it is commonly
a membranous bag, round or angular,
rough or smooth, which remains entire till
it meets with any moisture, being con-
trary m this respect to the nature of the
Anther; then it bursts with great force,
discharging a most subtile vapour. In
the Orchis family, and some other plants,
the pollen is of a glutinous nature, very
different from its usual aspect. See re-
marks on MirahiUs longiflora^ E.vof. Bot,
V. 1.44.

The Stamens are changed to petals in
double flowers, and rendered useless. They
are often obliterated by excessive nourish-

OF THE PISTILS. 273

ment, or when the plant increases much
by root, as in the Fiery Lily, or true
Lil'ium bulb'iferum.

4. PisTiLLA. The Pistils, no less essential
than the Stamens, stand within them in
the centre of the flower, and are generally
fewer. When in a different flower, on the
same or a different plant, they are not al-
ways central. Linnaeus conceived them to
originate from the pith, and the stamens
from the wood, and hence constructed an
ingenious hypothesis, relative to the pro-
pagation of vegetables, which is not desti*
tute of observations and analogies to sup-
port it, but not countenanced by the ana-
tomy and physiology of the parts alluded
to.

Each Pistil,y.l77j consists of three parts.

1, the Gerfnen, a, or rudiment of the young
fruit and seed, which af couse is essential ;

2, the Sti/lu.s^ b, style, various in length and
thickness, sometimes altogether wanting,
and when present serving merely to elevate
the third part. Stigma, c. This last is in-
dispensable. Its shape is various, either

T

274 OF THE GERMEN.

simple, scarcely more than a point, or
capitate, forming a little round head, or
variously lobed. Sometimes hollow, and
gaping more especially when the floM^er is
in its highest perfection ; very generally
downy, and always more or less moist
with a peculiar viscid fluid, which in some
plants is so copious as to form a large
drop, though never big enough to fall
to the groilnd. The moisture is designed
for the reception of the pollen, which ex-
plodes on meeting with it ; and hence the
seeds are rendered capable of ripening,
which, though in many plants fully form-
ed, they would not otherwise be.

The Germen appears under a variety of
shapes and sizes. It is of great moment
for botanical distinctions to observe whe-
ther it be superior, that is, above the
bases of the calyx and corolla, as in the
Strawberry and Raspberry, or inferior,
below them, as in the Apple and Pear.
Very rarely indeed the Germen is supposed
to be betwixt the calyx and corolla, of
which Sangiiisorba, Engl. Bot. t. 1312, is
reckoned by Linnaeus an example; but

CHANGES IN THE PISTILS. 87*

the corolla there has really a tube, closely
embrachig the Germen. In Ado.va, t. 453,
tlie calyx is half-interior, the corolla su-
perior. When in botanical language we
say germen superior, it is equivalent to
flower inferior; but it is sometimes more
convenient and proper, for the sake of
analogy or uniformity, to use one mode of
expression than the other.

Pistils are sometimes obliterated, thousfh
oftener changed to petals, in double flowers,
as well as the stamens; but I have met with
a much more remarkable change in the
Double Cherry, of the pistil into a real
leaf, exactly conformable to the proper
leaves of the tree, only smaller. By this
we may trace a sort of round in the vege-
table constitution. Beginning at the her-
bage or leaves, we proceed insensibly to
bracteas in many species of Salvia^ or to
both calyx and corolla in the Garden Tu-
lip, which frequently has a leaf half greea
half coloured, either in the flower or on
the stalk just below it. Anemone alpina
produces occasionally a petal among the
segments of its involucrum or bractea.
T 2

276 OF THS SEED-VESSEL AND ITS KINDS,

Geum rivale, EiigL Bof, t. 1()6, when
cultivated in dry gravelly ground, exhibits
such transformations in abundance. Be-
tween petals and stamens there is evidently
more connection, as to their nature and
functions, than between any other organs,
and they commonly flourish and fall to-
gether. Yet only one instance is known
of petals changing to stamens, which Dr.
Withering has commemorated, in the
Black Currant, Kibes nigrum. On the
other hand, nothing is more frequent than
the alteration of stamens to petals. Here
then the metamorphosis begins to be re-
trograde, and it is still more so in the
Cherry above mentioned, by which we re-
turn to the herbage again. — The line of
distinction seems to be most absolute be-
tween stamens and pistils, which never
change into each other ; on the contrary,
pistils, as we see, rather turn into petals,
or even into leaves.

5. Pericarpium. The seed-vessel, ex-
tremely various in different plants, is
formed of the germen enlarged. It is not

OF THE SEED-VESSEL AND ITS KINDS. 277

an essential part, the seeds being frequently
naked, and guarded only by the calyx, as
in the first order of the Linna^an class
Didi/namia, of which Lamium, Engl.Bot.
t. 768, and Galeopsis, t. 667, are exam-
ples; also in the great class of compound
flowers, Sij agenesia, as well as in Riofiex,
t. 724, Fohjgonum, t. 989, the Umbelli-
ferous tribe, numerous Grasses, &c.

The use of the Seed-vessel is to protect
the seeds till ripe, and then in some way
or other to promote their dispersion, either
scattering them by its elastic power, or
serving for the food of animals in whose
dung the seeds vegetate, or promoting the
same end by various other means. The
same oro:an which remains closed so long;
as it is juicy or moist, splits and flies
asunder when dry, thus scattering the
seeds in weather most favourable for their
success. By an extraordinary provision of
Nature, however, in some annual species of
Mesemhri/aiit/iemum, f. 178, natives of
sandy deserts in Africa, the seed-vessel opens
only in rainy weather ; otherwise the seeds
might, in that country, lie long exposed

278 THE CAPSULE AND ITS KINDS.

before they met with sufficient moisture to^
vegetate.

1. Capsula^ a Capsule, is a dry seed-vessel
of a woody, coriaceous or membranous
texture, generidly sphtting into several
valves; more rarely discharging its con-
tents by orifices or pores, as in Campanula
and Papaver; or falling off entire with
the seed. Internally it consists either of
one cell or several ; in the latter case the
parts which separate the cells are called
dissepmenta, partitions. The central co-
lumn to which the seeds are usually at-
tached is named columella. See Datura
Stramonium, f. 179, Bngl. Bot. U 1288.

Gartner y a writer of primary authority
on fruits and seeds, reckons several pecu-
liar kinds of Capsules, besides what are
p-enerally understood as such ; these, are

TJtriculus, a Little Bladder, which va-
ries in thickness, never opens by any
valves, and falls off with the seed. I be-
lieve it never contains more than one seed,
of which it is most commodiously, in bo-
tanical language, called an external coa^,

THE CAPSULE AND ITS KINDS. 2*9

rather than a Capsule. Gaertner applies it
to C/ienopodium, as well as to Clematis,
Sec. In the former it seems a Tellicula^
in the latter a I'eata, as we shall hereafter
explain.

Samara is indeed a species of Capsule,
of a compressed form and dry coriace-
ous texture, with one or two cells, never
bursting, but falling off entire, and dilated
into a kind of wing at the summit or sides.
It is seen in the Elm, the Maple, the Ash,
EngL Bot. /. 1(j92, and some other plants.
This term however may well be dispensed
with, especially as it is the name of a genus
in Linnaeus; an objection to which Co-
ii/ledoii too is liable.

FoUicuhts, a Follicle or Bag, reckoned
by Linnaeus a separate kind of seed-vessel
from the Capsule, ought perhaps rather to
be esteemed a form of the latter, as Gjert-
ner reckons it. This is of one valve and
one cell, bursting lengthwise, and bearing
the seeds on or near its edo-es, or on a re-
ceptacle parallel therewith. Instances are
found in Vinco, t. 514, Paotiia, t 1.513,
and Embothrhim, Bot, of 'New Holland,
t. 7—10.

2.8D THE SILIQUA.

Coccum of Gaertner, separated by him
from capsules, is a dry seed-vessel, more
or less aggregate, not solitary, whose sides
are elastic, projecting the seeds with great
force, as in Eupliorbia ; also Boronia,
Tracts on Nat. History, t. 4 — 7. This
seems by no means necessary to be esteemed
otherwise than a sort of capsule.
*• Siliqua.f. 180, a Pod, is a long dry solitary
seed-vessel of two valves, separated by a
linear receptacle, along each of whose
edges the seeds are ranged alternately, as
in the class Tetradynamia. See Cheiran-
tlius, Engl. Bot. t. 462, and Cardamine^
t. 80; also Bignonia ecliinata, figured by
Gaertner, t. 52, f. 1, which, though cau-
tiously called by him a caj^sida siliquosa
only, is as true a Siliqua, according to his
own definition, and every body's ideas, as
possible ; so is also that of Chelidonium.
He justly indeed names the fmitofPceonia,
capsula leguminosa, a follicle with him
being a single-valved capsule, with the
seeds marginal as in a legume.

Silicula^f. 181, a Pouch, is only a Pod of
^ short or rounded figure, like Draba verna^
Engl. Bot. t. 586.

THE LEGUMEN, 28i

Legumc7i,f. 182, a Legume, is the peculiar
solitary iVuit of the Pea kind, formed of
two oblong valves, without any longitudinal
partition, and bearing the seeds along
one of its margins only. See Engl. But.
t. 1046, 80 J, Sec. Tlie Tamarind is a
Legume filled witli pulp, in which the
seeds are lodged. The Capsules oillelk-
borus and some other plants allied thereto,
justly indicated by Gsertner as approach-
ing very nearly to the definition of Le-
gumes, differ essentially in not being soli-
tary, and in consisting each but of one
valve. Some Larkspurs indeed bear such
capsules solitary, but analogy teaches us
their true nature.

When a Legume is divided into several
cells, it is either by transverse constrictions,
or by inflexion of the valves ; never by a
separate longitudinal partition ; see Doli-
chos purpureifs^ Eaot, Bot. t. 74.

Sometimes this kind of fruit lodges but
one seed, as in many species of Tri folium ;
see Engl. Bot.t. 1048, also Virninar'ia denu-
data, Edot. Bot. t. 27- It is only by analogy
fhat such are known to be Legumes.
\

98^ THE DHUPA, POMUM AND EACCA,

*• Drupa, f, 183, a Stone-fruit, has a ileshy
coat, not separating into valves, containing
a single hard and bony Nut, to which it is
closely attached ; as in the Peach, Plom
Cherry, &c, ; see £«»:/. ^ot. t, 706 and
13B3. The Cocoa-nut is a Dnipa with a
less juicy coat.

Sometimes the Nut, though not sepa-
rating into distinct valves, contains more
than one cell, and consequently several
seeds. Instances are found in Cormis,
t. 2A-9, Gcertner^ U 26, and Olea^ the
Olive, 17. Grcec, t. 3, though one ceil of
the latter is commonly abortive. *

5. Pomum.f. 184, an Apple, has a fleshy coat
like the Drupa, but containing a Capsule
with several seeds, as in common Apples and
Pears ; see Fyrus domesiica, t. 350.

This is comprehended by Gaertner un-
der the different kinds of Bacca, it being
sometimes scarcely possible to draw the
line between them ; witness the Linnaean
genus Sorbus.

6. Bacca, f. 185, a Berry, is fleshy, without

THE BACCA. 283

V/ilvcs, containing one or more Seeds, enve-
loped with pulp. It becomes more juicy in-
ternally as it advances to maturity, quite
contrary to the nature of a Capsule, though
the dilFerence between these two unripe
fruits may not be discernible, and though
some true Berries, Mhen fully ripe, finally
become of a dry and spongy texture ; but
they never open by valves or any regular
orifice. Examples of a Bacca are seen in
Atropa Belladonna^ Engl. Bot, t. 592,
and Ribes, t. 1289—92. The same part
in Heckra, f, 1267, is of a more mealy
substance. In Cuciibalus, t. 1577, the
coat only is pulpy. In TrientaUs^ t. 15,
the coat becomes very dry and brittle as
soon as ripe, and the cavity of the fruit is
nearly filled by a globular columella. See
Giertner, t, 50.

Bacca co?jiposita, f. 186, a Compound
Berry, consists of several single ones, each
containing a seed, united together, as in
Rt/hus, the Raspberry, Bramble, &c., Engl,
Bot. ^ 715, 716, 826, 827- Each of the
separate parts is denominated an Acinus^
pr Grain, which term Gaartner extends to,

284 SPURIOUS KINDS OF BACCM.

the simple many-seeded berries of the Vine,
Gooseberry, Sec.

The Orange and Lemon are true Ber-
ries, with a thick coat. The Melon and
Cucumber tribe have a peculiar sort of
Berry for which Gsertner uses the name of
Pepo, Gourd ; and he defines it a Berry
whose cells, together with the seeds, are
remote from the a.vis or centre, the seeds
being inserted into the sides of the fruit.
Passiflora suberosa.fAQl, Exot. Bot. t. 28,
shows this insertion, being nearly alhed to
the same tribe ; but in this genus the pulp
invests each seed separately, forming Acini
within the common cavity.

Some fruits ranged by Linnaeus as Driip^e
with many seeds, on account of the hard-
ness of the shells of those seeds, are best
perhaps, on account of their number, con-
sidered by Giertner as Bacca. Among
these are Mespilus, the Medlar.

There are several spurious kinds of ber-
ries, whose pulp is not properly a part of
the fruit, but originates from some other
organ. Thus, in the Mulberry, as well as
the Strawberry Spinach, Blitum, Curt.

SPURIOUS KINDS OF BACC^. ^85

Mag. t. 276, the Calyx after flowering
becomes coloured and very juicy, invest-
ing t^ie seed, like a genuine berry. The
Corolla of Commdina Zanonia undergoes
a similar change, forming a black very
juicy coat to the capsule, being totally al-
tered both in shape and substance from its
appearance in the flower. In the Juniper,
Engl. BoL t. 1100, a few scales of the
fertile catkin become succulent, and coalesce
into a globular berry with three or more
seeds, to which Gaerlner applies the term
galbiiliis, the classical name of the Cypress
fruit, which last however is as true a stro-
bilus or cone as that of the Fir. In the
Yew, t. 746, some have thought it a calyx,
others a peculiar kind of receptacle, which
becomes red and pulpy, embracing the
seed. Lamarck has, in his Fiiicy dope die,
v.S. 2^8, considered this fruit as a real
bacca or drupa, with the idea or definition
of either of w hich it cannot by any means
be made to accord, being open at the top,
and having no connection with the stigma,
which crowns the seed itself. The same
writer mistakes for a calyx the scales, which

280 THE STROEILUS.

analogy shows to be bracteas ; and I can-
not but think Jussieu and Ga^^rtner more
correct in their ideas of this singular fruit,
when they call the pulpy part in question
a receptacle, though the term calyx seems
less paradoxical, and is perhaps still more
just*. We do not know enough of Taxus
nucifcra to draw any conclusions from
thence. See Gartner^ t,^\. In the Straw-
berry, Engl. Bot. t. 1524, what is com-
monly called the berry is a pulpy recepta-
cle, studded with naked seeds. In the
Fig, Gcertner, t.^^, the whole fruit is a
juicy calyx, or rather common receptacle,
containing in its cavity innumerable florets,
each of which has a proper calyx of its
own, that becomes pulpy and invests the
seed, as in its near relation the Mulberry.
The Paper Mulberry of China is indeed an
intermediate genus between the two, be-
ing as it were a Fig laid open, but with-
out any pulp in the common receptacle.

^* Strobilus,f. 188, a Cone, is a Catkin hard-

* Hernaridia, Gcertn. t. 40, has a similar, though
not succulent, calyx, and the green cup of the Hazel-
nut is equivalent to it.

THE SEEDS. «97

ened and enlar^jed into a Seed-vessel, as In
Fin us, the Fir,

in the most perfect examples of this kind
of fruit tlie Seeds are closely sheltered by
the scales as by a capsule, of which the
Fir, Cypress, &c., are instances, la the
Birch and Alder they have a kind of cap-
sule besides, and in the Willow and Poplar
a stalked bivalve capsule, still more sepa-
rate from the scales. The Plane-tree, Pla-
tauus, the IJquidambar mid the Comptoma^
have globular catkins, in which bristles or
tubercles supply the place of scales. See
Goirtner, t. ^i).

€. Semi N A. The Seeds are the sole *' end
and aim" of all the organs of fructifi-
cation. Every other part is, in some man-
ner, subservient to the forming, perfect-
ing, or dispersing of these. A seed con-
sists of several parts, some of which are
more essential than others, and of these I
shall speak first.

Embryo,/. 2, 4, the Embryo, or Germ,
is the most essential of all, to which the rest
are wholly subservient, and without which

288 THE EMBRYO.

no seed is perfect, or capable of vegetation,
however complete in external appearance.
Linnaeus, after Caesalpinus, names it the
Corculum, or Little Heart, and it is the
point whence the life and organization of
the future plant originate, as we have al-
ready explained, p. 96. In some seeds it
is much more conspicuous than in others.
The Walnut, the Bean, Pea, Lupine, <&c.,
show the Embryo in perfection. Its inter-
nal structure, before it begins to vegetate,
is observed by Gaertner to be remarkably
simple, consisting of an uniform medullary
substance, enclosed in its appropriate bark
or skin. Vessels are formed as soon as the
vital principle is excited to action, and parts
are then developed which seemed not previ-
ously to exist, just as in the egg of a bird.
In position, the Embryo is, with respect
to the base of the whole flower or fruit, ei-
ther erect, as in the Dandelion and other
compound flowers, reversed as in the Um-
belliferous tribe, or horizontal as in the Date
Palm,/. 199 b, Gcertner, t. 9- In situation
it is most commonly within the substance
of the seed, and either central as in Um-

COTYi,EDONS. S89

belliferous plants, or exceiitric, out of the
centre, as in Coffee ; in Grasses however it
is external. Its direction is either straight,
curved, or even spiral, in various instances.
The Embryo of seeds that have a single
cotyledon, or none at all, is peculiarly
simple, without any notch or lobe, and is
named by Gaertner Embryo inonocotyh'
done us.

Cofi/Iedo72es, the Cotyledons or Seed-
lobes, are immediately attached to the
Embryo, of which they form, properly
speaking, a part. They are commonly two
in number,/. 7 ; but in Pi7»/5,and Dombeya,
the Norfolk Island Pine, they are more, /'. 3,
as already mentioned, p. 98. When the
seed has sufficiently established its root,
these generally rise out of the ground, and
become a kind of leaves. Such is the true
idea of the organs in question, but the
same name is commonly given to the body
of the seed in the Grass and Corn tribe,
the Palms, and several other plants, thence
denominated monocotijledones^ because the
supposed Cotyledon is single. The nature
of this part we shall presently explain. It
u

29& OF THE 4LBUMENj,

neither rises out of the ground, nor per-
forms the proper functions o^ ^Cotyledon,
for what these plants produce is, from the
first, a real leaf ; or, if the plant has no
leaves, the rudiment of a stem, as in Cus-
cuta. In either case, the part produced is
solitary, never in pairs ; hence Gsertner
was misled to reckon Cyamus Nelumbo,
Eaot, Bot. t.31, 32, among the monocotjle-
donous plants, the bod y of its seed remain-
ing in the earth, and the leaves springing
one at a time from the Embryo, just as in
the Date Palm, Wheat, Barley, &c.

The Seed-lobes of Mosses, according to
the observations of Hedwig, Fund, part 2.
t. 6, are above all others numerous and sub-
divided,/. 19«5j 196, as well as most distinct
froan the proper leaves; so that these plants
are very improperly placed by authors
among such as have no Cotyledons, a mea-
sure originating probably in theory and ana-
logical reasoning rather than observation.

Albumen, the White, is a farinaceous,
fieshy, or horny substance, which makes up
the chief bulk of some seeds, as Grassca^

OR WHITE. Sgl

Corn, Palms, Lilies, never rising out of the
ground nor assuming the office of leaves,
being destined solely, to nourish the germi-
natinii!; embryo, till its roots can perform
their office. In the Date Palm,/ 1 9.9, G^er^
71 cr, t. 9, this part is nearly as hard as a
stone ; in MirabiUs, E rot. Bot. t. 2.3, it is like
wheat flour. Jt is wanting in several tribes
of plants, as those with compound, or with
cruciform flowers, and the Cucumber or
Gourd kind, according to Gaertner. Some
few leguminous plants liaA'e it, and a great
number of others which, like them, 'have
cotyledons besides. We are not however
to suppose that so important an oro-an is
altogether wanting, even in the above-
mentioned plants. The farinaceous matter,
destined to nourish their embryos, is un-
questionably lodged in their cotyledons,
whose sweet taste as they beo-in to rermi-
nate often evinces its presence, and that it
has undero-one the same chemical chano-e
as in Barley. The Albumen of the Nut-
meg is remarkable for its eroded variegated
appearance, and aromatic quality ; the co-
tyiedon<5 of this seed are very^ small

OF THE VITELLUS,

Vitellus, tlie Yolk, first named and fully
illustrated by Gii^rtner, is less general than
any of the parts already mentioned. He
characterizes it as very firmly and insepa-
rably connected with the Embryo, yet
never rising out of the integuments of the
seqd in germination, but absorbed, like
the Albumen, for the nourishment of the
Embryo. If the Albumen be present, the
Fitellns is always situated between it and
the Embryo, and yet is constantly distinct
from the former. The V it dins is esteemed
by Gaertner to compose the bulk of the
seed in Fuci^ Mosses and Ferns, as well as
in the genus Zamia^f. 200, closely allied to
the latter, see his t. 3, and even in Ruppia^
Engl. BoL t, 136, and Cyamus, In the
natural order of Grasses the part under con-
sideration forms a scale between the jEwz-
bi'yo and the Albumen.

I cannot but think that the true use of
the Vitellus may be to perform the func-
tions of a Cotyledon with regard to air if
not to light, till a real leaf can be sent
forth, and that the " subterraneous Coty-
ledons" of Ga:rtncr in the Horse Chcsnut

OR YOLK. 999

and Garden Nasturtium are, as be seems to
indicate in his Introduction, p. 151, rather
of the nature of a Vitellus. It does not
appear tliat any plant with genuine ascend-
ing Cotyledons is likewise furnished with
this organ ; on the other hand, it com-
monly belongs to such as have the most
copious Albiune?!, and therefore should
seem to answer some other end than mere
nutriment, which is supplied by the latter.
We learn from the above inquiries, that
the old distinction between plants with one
Cotyledon and those with several may still
be relied on, though in the former the
part which has commonly been so deno-
minated is the Albumeiiy as in Corn, the
real Cotyledon of which is the scale or
Vitellus, which last organ however seems
wanting in Palms, Lilies, &:c., such ha^-ing
really no Cot^dedon at all, nor any thing
that can perform its ofhce, except the stalk
of their Embryo*. In the Horse Chesnut,
Oak and Walnut possibly, whose seed-lobes

* This may answer the purpose of a Cotyledon, j<istar,
the stems of many plants fulfil the office of leaves.

294 TESTA, THE SKIN.

do not ascend, the functions of a real Coty-
ledon, as far as air is concerned, and those
of the Albumen may be united in these
lobes, as is the case with most Leguminous
plants ; which is rendered more probable,
as several of the latter have the corre-
sponding parts likewise remaining under
ground. Hence the divided Vitellus of
the Cyanms is to be considered as a pair
of subterraneous Cotyledons, and the plant
consequenthr ranp;es near its natural allies
the Poppy tribe, as Mr. Salisbury, without
the aid of physiology, has shown in the
Annals of Botany , v. 2. p. 70, 75.

Testa, f. 4, the Skin, contains all the parts
of a seed above described, giving them their
due shape ; for the skin is perfectly formed,
while they are but a homogeneous liquid.
This coat differs in thickness and texture
in different plants. It is sometimes single,
but more frequently lined with a finer and
very delicate film, called by Gaertneril/e/w-
hrana, as may be seen in a Walnut, and
the kernel of a Peach, Almond, or Plum.
In the Jasmine a quantity of pulp is lodged

HILUM, THK SCAR. 29*

between the Membrana and the Testa,
constituting a pulpy seed, se?nen baccatum,
which is distinct from ihe Acinus, or grain
of a compound berry in the Raspberry,
the seed of the latter having its prorper
double covering within the pulp. The
Testa bursts irregularly, and only from the
^swelling of its contents in germination.

Hilum, the Scar, is the point by which
the seed is attached to its seed-vessel or
receptacle, and through which alone life
and nourishment are conveyed for the per-
fectiiig its internal parts. Consequently^
all tiiose parts must be intimately con-
nected with the inner surface of this scar,
and they are all found to meet there, and
to divide or divaricate from that foint,
more or less immediately. In describing
the form or various external portions of
any seed, the lillum is always to be con-
sidered as the base. When the seed is
quite ripe, the communication through this
channel is interrupted : it separates from
the parent plant without injury, a Scar
being formed on each. Yet the Jlihun is

296 OF THE PELLICULA

SO far capable of resuming its formtr na-
ture, that the juices of tlie earth are im-
bibed through it previous to germination.

There are various accessory parts, or
appendages, to seeds, which come under
the following denominations.

PeUicida, the Pelhcle, called by Ga^rtner
Epidennis, closely adheres to the outside of
some seeds, so as to conceal the proper co-
lour and surface of their skin, and is either
membranous, and often downy, as in Con-
volvulus, or mucilaginous, not perceptible
till the seed is moistened, as in Salvia ver-
henaca, Engl. Bat. t. 154. Perhaps the
covering of the seed in Chenop odium, called
by Gartner Utriculus, is merely a Felli-
cula.

Arillus, the Tunic, is either a complete or
partial covering of a seed, fixed to its base
only, and more or less loosely or closely
enveloping its other parts. Of this nature
is the pulpy orange-coloured coat in Euony-
mus, t. 362, the beautiful scarlet cup in
Jfzelia,/. 203, and the double membranous
coat in Hippophde, t. 425, which last in-
vests the seed within the pulp of the berry.

AND ARILLUS. iQj

The outer of these coats only is described
byGaertner, as a peculiar membrane lining
the cell of the berry ; his *' integumentum
duplex " refers to the testa, which I men-
tion only to prevent misapprehension. The
Mace which envelops the Nutmeg is a
partial Aril Ins, beautifully drawn in Gacrt-
ner, ^.41. Narthccium, Engl. Bot. t. 535,
has a complete membranous tunic, elon-
gated beyond the seed at each end, as in
many of the Orchis tribe ; and such seeds,
•acquiring thence a light and chatly appear-
ance, have been denominated scobifojuiia,
whence Bergius was perhaps led, very un-
scientifically, to call the seeds of ferns lite-
rally scobs or sawdust ! An elastic pouch-
like Arillus, serving to project the seeds
with considerable force, occurs in Oxalis,
t. 762 and 1726. In the natural order
of llutacece the same part, shaped also like
a pouch lining each cell of the capsule, is
very rigid or horny ; see Dictamniis albiis^
or Fraxinella, Gcertn. t, 69, and Boronia,
Tracts on Nat, Hist, t. 4 — 7- Besides
this coincidence, there are many common
points of affinity between these plants and

OF THE ARILLUS

Oardis, concerning colour, ilivour, habit
and structure. Fagonia and its allies form
the connecting link between them, which
Gaertner and Jussieu did not overlook.
We have pointed out this affinity in Eng-
Ihh Botany, p, 762, and it is confirmed by
the curious circumstance of Jacquin's Oa-
alls rostrata, Oxal. t. 22, having the very
appendages to its filaments which make a
peculiar part of the character of Boronia.

it is not ea^y to say whether the va-
rious, and frequently elaborate, coat of t^ie
seed among the rough-leaved plants, Bo-
rago, Anchusa, Liihospermiim, Cynoglos-
siimj: 201, Engl BoL t. 921, &c., should
be esteemed an Arillus or a Testa ; but the
latter seems most correct, each seed hav-
ing only a simple and very thin membra-
nous internal skin besides. Gsertner there-^
fore justly uses the term Nut for the seeds
in question. The same may be observed
of Ramincidus, Myosuriis, see Engl. Bot,
t. 435, Clematis, Anemone, Sec, whose
external coats are no less various and ela-
borate ; yet such seeds are as truly naked
^s those of the Didynamla class, figured

A.VD PAPPUS. J95

in Gsertncr, t. G(i, each having a double
skin and no more, which is onu covering
less than even the genuine nut jf the stone
fruit, or of the Cunjlus. In Gtraninm^
Maioa, iScc, what lias often l)een called
A-'illus, is rather a kind of Capsule, not
crAy oecause their seeds have a double or
even triple skin, qirtc unconnected with
this outer cover, but because the latter is
analogou- to other Capsules.

The loose husky covering of the seed in
Carex, f. 202, is surely an Arillus, See
Enrrl. Bot. also the Rev. Mr. Wood's obser-
Tations on this genus in Dr. Rees's Cyclo^
pacha, and Ga3rtner, v. 1. 13. This seed
has besides a double Testa, thouoh most of
the true Grasses have but one, which in
ground Corn constitutes the bran, the huskj
of the blossom being the chaff.

Pappus, the Seed-down, is restrained
by Ga:irtner to the cliaffy, feathery, or
bristly crown of many seeds that have no
Pericarpium^ and which originates from a
partial calyx crowning the summit of each
of those seeds, and remaining after the

300 OP THE PAPPUS,

flower is fallen. Instances of this are th«
feathery appendages to the seeds of Dan-
delion, EngL Bot.t.5lO, and GoatVbeard,
t. 434, in which the part in question is
elevated on a footstalk, /. 204. InCarduuSy
t' 973 — 6, it is sessile, though still feathery;
but in Cichorium^ t. 539, it consists of
mere chaffy teeth, more clearly evincing
its affinity to a Calyx. In Scabiosa it is
double. In Bidens, t. 1113, 1114, the
Fappus is formed of 2,3 or 4 rigid barbed
bristles. The use of this orofan is evi-
dently to transport seeds to a distance
from their native spot, either by resigning
them to the power of the wind, or by at-
taching them to the shaggy coats of ani-
mals. In due time the feathery crown
separates, and leaves the seed behind it,
which happens sooner with the Thistle
than most other plants. Hence the vacant
down of that genus is frequently seen
wafted in light masses over a whole coun-
try ; which has not escaped the notice of
poets.

The same term is used by the generality
of botanists for the feathery crown of

GAUDA, ROSTRUM, ETC. 301

seeds furnished with n capsule, as Epilo-
hium, f. Ill 7, Asckpiasy Cynanclnun^ &c.,
Gctrtiu t. 117, as well as for a similar
appendage to the base or sides of any
seeds, as Saliv, EngL Bot. t, 183, 1403,
Eriophoi'iu7i, t. 873, &c., neither of which
can originate from a Cal3x. For th»i
former of these Gartner adopts the term
Comay for the latter PubeSy w hich last also
serves for any downiness or wool about the
Testa of a seed, as in the Cotton plant,
and Blandfordia nobilisy Eaot. Bot, t, 4.

Caiidoy f. 205, a Tail, is an elongated,
generallyfeathery, appendage to some Seeds,
formed from the permanent style, as in Cle-
matisy EngL Bot. t. 6i2, Dri/as, t, 451,
Gewiiy t, 1400.

Bostruniy a Beak, mostly applies to some
elongation of a Seed-vessel, originating
likewise from the permanent style, as in
Geranium, t, 272, Hdhhorus, t. 200,
though it is also used for naked seeds, as
Scandixy f. 206, t. 1397.

Ala,f, 207, a Wing, is a dilated membra-

2

302 APPENDAGES

nous appendage to Seeds,as mJEmhotlnium,
Bot. of N. HolL t. 7> Banksia^Conchium,
JBignoiiia eckhiata, Gartn, t. 52, llJiuiaU'
thus, Engl. Bot* t. 657, serving to waft
them along in the air. Gartner wished to
confine this term to a membranous expan-
fiion of the top or upper edge of a Seed or
Seed-vessel, using 7nargo membranaceus
for one that surrounds the whole, but he
has not adhered to it in practice. Cap-
sules are sometimes furnished with one
wing, as the Ash, oftener v/ith several, as
llalesia, Acer, Begonia, &c. In Seeds
the Wing is commonly solitary, except
some Umbelliferous plants, as Thajjsia,
Gcrrtn. t.2}.

Seeds are occasionally furnished w^ith
Spines, Hooks, Scales, Crested appendages,
particularly a little gland-like part near
the Scar, sometimes denominated StrO'
pjiiolum, as in Asarum, Gcertn. t, 14,
Jyossiiea, J 'cut emit. Jai-d, dc Cels. t. 7,
Flatijlohiiun, Bot. of N. HolL i. 6, Ule.r,
Spartiian, &c. In general however smooth-
ness is characteristic of a seed, by which
it best makes its way into the soft earthy

TO SKliD:J. 303

though somethnes it is barbed, or at least
its covering, as in Stipa, EngL But. t. l3o(i,
that it may not easily be withdrawn again
by the poM-erful feathery appendage of that
^lant, which after having by its circumvo-
lutions forced the seed deeper and deeper,
breaks off at a joint, and flies away.

The various modes by which seeds are
dispersed cannot fail to stril.e an observing
mind with admiration. Who nas not list-
ened in a calm and sunny day to ths
crackling of Furze bushes, caused by the
explosion of tlivjir little elastic pods ; nor
watched the down or nniumerable seeds
floating on- the summer breeze, till they
are overtaken by a shower, which moisten-
ing their wings stops their further flight,
and at the same time accomplishes its final
purpose, by immediately promoting the
germination of each seed in the moist earth?
How little. are children aware, as they blow*
away the seeds of Dandelion, or stick
Burs in sport upon each other's clothes,
that they are fulfilling one of the great
ends of Nature ! Sometimes the Calyx,
beset with hooks, forms the- bur, as ia

30i THE RECEPTACLE.

Arctium Lappa, Engl. Boi. t. 1-28;
sometimes hooks encompass the fruit ilseU,
^s'm Xaiitluinu, and some species of Ga-
lliun, particularly G. jiparinc, t. 81 6.
Plants thus furnished are obsened by
Linnaeus to thrive best in a rank manured
soil, Avith which, by being conveyed to
the dens of wild animals, they are most
likely to meet. The A\vns of grasses an-
swer the same end. Pulpy fruits serve
quadrupeds and birds as food, while their
seeds, often small, hard and indigestible,
pass uninjured through the intestines, and
are deposited tar from their original place
of growth, in a condition peculiarly fit for
vegetation. Even such seeds as are them-
selves eaten, like the various sorts of nuts, ^
are hoarded up in the ground and occa-
sionally forgotten, or carried to a distance,
and in part only devoured. Even the
ocean itself serves to waft the larger kinds
from their native soil to far-distant shores.

7. Receptaculum. The Receptacle is the
common base or point of connexion of the
other parts of fructification. It is not al-

THE RECEPTACLE. 30$

ways distinguishable by any particular
figure, except in compound flowers con-
stituting the Linnaian class Sijngeiiesia, in
uhich it is very remarkable and important.
In the Daisy, /: 208, E//o/. Bof. t. 424, it
is conical; in C/wi/santheifUDU, t. 601, con-
vex; in others flat, or slightly concave.
VicriH, t. 972, has it naked, that is, destitute
of any hairs or scales between the florets or
seeds; Cardans, t. 675, hairy; AntheniUy
f. 602, scaly ; and Ofiopordum, f. 977? cel-
lular like a honey-comb,/*. 209- On this and
the seed-down are founded the most solid
generic characters of these plants, admira-
bly illustrated bv the inimitable Ga^rtner.

The term Receptacle is sometimes ex-
tended by Linnaeus to express the base of
a flower, or even its internal part between
the stamens and pistils, provided there be
any thing remarkable in such parts, with-
out reference to the foundation of the
whole fructification. It also expresses the
part to which the seeds are attached in a
seed-vessel.

300 VARIOUS KINDS OF FLOWERS.

Having thus explained the various organs
of fructification, we shall add a few remarks
concerning flowers in general, reserving the
functions of the Stamens and Pistils, with
the Linnasan experiments and inquiries re-
lative to that curious subject, for the next
chapter.

A flower furnished with both calyx and
corolla is called jios completua, a complete
flower ; when the latter is wanting, incom-
pletus ; and Avhen the corolla is present with-
out the calyx, nudus^ naked. When the
stamens and pistils are both, as usual, in one
flower, that flower is called perfect, or united ;
when- they are situated in diflerent flowers of
the same species, such I would call separated
flowers; that which has the stamens being
named the barren flower, as producing no
fruit in itself, and that with pistils tlie fertile
one, as bearing the seed. If this separation
extends no further than to different situa-
tions on the same individual plant, Linnaeus
calls such flowers monoid, monoecious, as
confined to one house or dwelling: if the
barren and fertile flov.ers grow from two se-
parate roots, they are said to be diokiy dice-

' COAfPOUND FLOWERS. 307

cious. Some plants have united flowers iind
sep'tirated ones in the same species, either
from one, two or three roots, and such are
called polygamous, as making a sort of com-
pound household.

A Compound flower consists of numerous
fiorets, Jiosciili, all sessile on a common undi-
vided Receptacle, and enclosed in one conti-
guous Calyx or VeriantJdum. It is also
essential to this kind of flower that the An-
thers should be united into a C3dinder, to
which only the genus Tussilago affords one or
two exceptions, and Kuhnia another ; and
moreover, that the stamens should be 5 to
each floret, Sigesbeckia floscidosa of L'Heri-
tier, Stirp. jVoi\ t. 19? alone having but 3.
The florets are always monopetalous and su-
perior, each standing on a solitary naked
seed, or at least the rudiments of one, though
not always perfected. Some Compound flow-
ers consist of very few florets, as Humeaele"
gans, E.tot. Bot. t. 1, Prenanthes muralis,
Engl, Bot. t. 4^7 ; others of manj-, as the
Thistle, Daisy, Sunflower, &c. The florets
themselves are of two kinds, Ugulati, ligulate,
shaped like a strap or ribband, f. 210, with 3

X 2

308 AGGREGATE FLOWERS.

or 5 teeth, as in Tragopogon.) f. 434, and the
Dandehon ; or iubulosi, tubular, cvhndrical
and 5-cleft, as inCardiius^ t. 107, and Tana-
cefiim, f. 1229. The marginal white florets of
the Daisy, /'. 2 1 1, are of the former description,
and compose its radius, or rays, and its yellow
central ones come under the latter denomina-
tion, f, 212, constituting its fliscits, or disk.
The disk of such flowers is most frequently
yellow, the rays yellow, Avhite, red, or blue.
No instance is known of yellow rav^ ^vith a
white, red, or blue disk.

An Aggregate flower has a common undi-
vided Receptacle, the Anthers all separate
and distant, Jasione only, Engl. Bot. t. 882,
having them united at the base, but not into
a cylinder, and the florets commonly stand
on stalks, each having a single or double par-
tial calyx. Such flowers have rarel}^ any in-
clination to yellow, but are blue, purple, or
white. Instances are found in Scahiosa, t. 6d^
and 1311, DipsacMS, t. 1032 and 877, and
the beautiful Cape genus Protea.

Such is tlie true idea of an Asrsrreoate
flower, but Linnaeus enumerates, under that

AGGREGATE ILOWKKS. 30^)

denomlntilion, 7 I'^inds, his tli\0Lirite number;
these are,

1. The Aga;regate ilower properly so called,
as just mentioned.

2. The Compound flower previously described.

3. The Amentaceous flower, or Catkin, oi"
which we have spoken p, 248.

4. The Glumose, or Chafly flower, peculiar
to the Grasses, see p. 250.

5. The Sheathed flower, whose common re-
ceptacle springs from a Sheath, as in Arum.

6. The Umbellate ; and

7- The Cymose flowers, concernmg which
two last a few observations are necessary.

Linnaeus and his friend Artedi thouo-ht
the great natural umbelliferous order could
not be divided into good and distinct ge-
nera by the seeds or parts of the flower,
M ithout takino- into consideration the general
and partial involucral leaves, which they
therefore chose to consider as a part of the
fructification, and defined as a calyx remote
from the fioiccr. The rays of the umbel,
of course, became the subdivisions of a

310 ilGGREGATE AXD

branched receptacle, and the \vhole umbel
was considered as one aggregate flower. It
necessarily followed that a Cyme, see p. 237>
must be considered in the same light, nor
did the sagacity of Linnaeus overlook the
arguments in favour of this hypothesis. Many
of the umbelliferous tribe, as HeracJeum,
t- 939, CaucaUs, Coriandrum^ (Sec, have their
marginal flowers dilated, radiant, and more
or less inclined to be imperfect or abortive,
thus evincing an analogy with real compound
flowers like the Sunflower, which analogy is
still more striking between OeiiantJie, t. 36'3,
347, 348, and the Marigold, Calendula. So
the cymose plants, as Viburnum Opulus^
f. 332, bear dilated and abortive marginal
flowers, and Hydrangea hortensis, Sm. Ic.
Pict. t. 12, has scarcely any others. Cornus.
sanguinea, EngL Bot. t. 249, has a naked
cyme, C, Suecica, t. 310, an umbel accom-
panied by coloured bracteas, or, as Linnieus
judged, a coloured ini'olucvum, proving the
close aflinit}^ between these two modes of in-
florescence.

Notwithstanding all this, I presume to dis-
sent from the above hypothesis, as oflering

COMPOUND ILOWKItS. 312

too grrat v'o'eace to Nature, and swerN ii)g
fro^ii that beautiful and philosophical Liii-
n-' au priiiciple, of characterizing genera by
the fructi .cation alone; a piinciple which
those who are competent to the subject at
all, will, I beheve, never find to fail. The
seeds and flowers of the umbelliferous family
are quite sufficient for our purpose, while the
involucrum is very precarious and change-
able ; often deficient, often immoderately .
luxuriant, in the same genus. In the cymose
plants every body knows the real parts of
fructification to be abundantly adequate, the
Involucrum being of small moment ; witness
that most natural genus Cum us. For all
these, and other reasons, to particularize
which would lead me too far, I have, p, 256,
reckoned the Umbel and Cvme modes of
flowering, and iiot themselves aggregate
flowers,

312

CHAPTER XX.

OF THE PECULIAR FUNCTIONS OF THE
STAMENS AND PISTILS, WITH THE EX-
PERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS OF
LINNiEUS AND OTHERS ON THAT SUB-
JECT.

JL HE real use of the Stamens of Plants was
lono' a subject of dispute among philosophers,
till Linnaeus, according to the general opi-
nion at present, explained it beyond a possi-
bility of dpubt. Still there arc not wanting
persons who from time to time start objec-
tions, prompted either by a philosophical
pursuit of truth, or an ambitious desire of
distinguishing themselves in controverting so
celebrated a doctrine, as some have written
against the circulation of the animal blood.
I propose to trace the history of this doc-
trine, and especially to review the facts and

FUNCTIONS OP STAMENS AND PISTILS. 313

cxperimenis upon wliicli Liimirus Ibundud
his opinion, as well as the objections it has
had to encounter. It would be endless, and
altogether superfluous, to bring forward new
facts in its support, nor shall I do so, except
where new ar^iuments may render such a
measure necessary.

The Stamens and Pistils of flowers have,
from the most remote antiquity, been con-
sidered as of great importance in perfecting
the fruit. The Date Palm, from time imme-
morial a primary object of cultivation in tlie
more temperate climates of the globe, bears
barren and fertile flowers on separate trees.
The ancient Greeks soon discovered that in
order to have abundant and well-flavoured
fruit, it was expedient to plant both trees
near together, or to brinir the barren bios-
soms to those which were to bear fruit ; and
in this chiefly consisted the culture of that
valuable plant. Tournefort tells us that
without such assistan^-e dates have no kernel,
and are not good food. The same has long
been practised, and is continued to this very
day in the Levant, upon the Pistac'ia, and
the Fig.

314 Fu^'CTIO^■s or

At the revival of learning botanists were
more occupied in determining the species,
and investigating the medical properties of
plants, than in studying their physiology ;
and when after a while the subject in ques-
tion was started, some of them, as Morison,
Tournefort and Pontedera, uniformly treated
with great contempt the lij^pothesis which
has since been established. We shall, as we
proceed, ad\ ert to some of their arguments.

About the year I676, Sir Thomas Milling-
ton, Savilian Professor at Oxford, is recorded
to have hinted to Dr. Grew that the use of
the Stamens was probably to perfect and
fertilize the seed. Grew adopted the idea,
and the great Ray approved it. Several other
botanists either followed them, or had pre-
viously conceived the same opinion, among
which R. J. Camerarius, Professor at Tu-
bin2:en towards the end of the seventeenth
century, was one of the most able and ori-
p'inal. Vaillant wrote an excellent oration on
the subject, which being hostile to the opi-
nions of Tournefort, lay in obscurit}' till pub-
lished by Boerhaave. Blair and Bradley as-
sented in England, and several continental

STAMENS AND PISTILS. 315

botanists imbibed the same sciilimcnts.
Pontedera, however, at Padua, an university
long famous, but then on the dechnc, and
consequently adverse to all new inquiry and
information, in 17-0 published iiis ^Inthu-
hgia, quite on the other side of the ques-
tion.

Linnseus, towards the year 1732, reviewed
all that had been done before him, and clearly
established the fact so long in dispute, in his
Fundamcnta and Fhilosophia Botcmica. He
determined the functions of the Stamens and
Pistils, proved these organs to be essential
to every plant, and thence conceived the
happy idea of using them for the purpose of
systematical arrangement. In the latter point .
his merit was altogether original ; in the former
he made use of the discoveries and remarks
of others, but set them in so new and clear
a light, as in a manner to render them his
own.

We have already mentioned, p, 138, the
two modes by which plants are multiplied,
and have shown the important difference be-
tween them. Propagation by ssed is the only
genuine reproduction of the species, and it

316 FUNCTIONS OF

now remains to prove that the essential or-
gans of tlie flower are indispensably requisite
for the perfecting of the seed.

Every one must have observed that the
flower of a plant always precedes its fruit.
To this the Meadow Saftron, Engl. Bot. 1. 133,
seems an objection, the fruit and leaves be-
ing perfected in the spring, the blossoms not
appearing till autumn ; but a due examina-
tion will readily ascertain that the seed-bud
formed in autumn is the very same which
comes to maturity in the following spring.
A Pine-apple was once very unexpectedly
cited to me as an instance of fruit being
formed before the flower, because the green
fruit in that instance, as in many others, is
almost fully grown before the flowers expand.
The seeds however, the essence of the fruit,
are only in embryo at this period, just as in
the germen of an Apple blossom.

It w^as very soon ascertained that flowers
are invariably furnished with Stamens and
Pistils, either in the same individual, or tM^o
of the same species, however defective they
may be in other parts ; of which Hippiiris,
Engl, Bot. t, 763, the most simple of bios-

STAMENS AND PISTILS. 317

soms, is a remarkable example. Few bota-
nists indeed had detected them in the Lcwfia
or Duck-weed, so abundant on the surface of
still waters, and Valisneri alone for a lono- time
engrossed the honour of havins: seen them.
In our days however they rewarded the re-
searches of the indefatigable Ehrhart in Ger-
many, and on being sought with equal acute-
ness, were found in England. Three species
have been delineated in Engl, Bof. t. 92(y^
1095 and V23S, from the discovries of Mr.
Turner and Mr, W. Borrer. The flowers
of Mosses, long neglected and afterwards
mistaken, were faithfully delineated by Ali-
cheli, carefully examined and properly un-
derstood by Linnaeus as he rambled over the
wilds of Lapland*, and at length fully illus-
trated and placed out of all uncertaint}^ by
the justly celebrated Hedwig. These parts
indeed are still unknown in ferns, or at least
no satisfactory explanation of them has
reached me, though the seeds and seed-
vessels are sutTiciently obvious.

* This hitherto unknown fact will appear in his Tour
through that country, nciw preparing for the press in
KnfirUsh.

3! 9 FUNCTIONS OF

The existence of the parts under considera-
tion is so incontrovertible in every flower
around us, that Pontedera uas reduced to
seek plants without stamens among the i\-
gures of the Hortus Malabai^icus, but the
plates ni which he confided are now known
to be faulty in that very particular.

Plants indeed have occasionally abortive
stamens in one flower and barren pistils in
another, and the Plantain-tree, Musa, is de-
scribed by Linnaeus as havmg five out of its
six stamens perfected in such blossoms as
ripen no fruit, while those wilh a fertile ger-
uien contain only a single ripe stamen, five
beino; ineffective. This only shows the re-
sources, the wisdom, and the infinite variety
of the creation. When the roots are luxuri-
antly prolific, the flowers are in some mea-
sure defective, Nature, relaxing as it were
from her usual solicitude, and allowing her
children to repose, and indulge in the abun-
dance of good things about them. But when
want threatens, she instantly takes the alarm';
all her eneroies are exerted to secure the fu-

o

ture progen}^ even at the hazard of the pa-
rent stock, and to send them abroad to co-
ionise more favourable situations.

STAMEN'S ASD PISTILS. 319

IMost geiiemlly the access of the pollen is
not trusted to any accidental modes of con-
vej-ance, however numerous, elaborate, and^
if we may so express it, ingenious, such modes
may be; but the Stamens are for o-reater se-
curity lodged in the same flower, under the
-protection of the same silken veils, or more
substantial guards, which shelter their ap-
propriate pistils. This is the case with the
majority of our herbs and shrubs, and even
with the trees of hot countries, whose leaves
being always present might impede the pas-
sage of the pollen. On the contrary, the
trees of cold climates have- generally sepa-
rated flowers, blossoming before the leaves
come forth, and in a windy season of the
year ; while those which blossom later, as the
Oak, are either peculiarly frequented by in-
sects, or, like the numerous kinds of Fir, have
leaves so httle in the way, and pollen so ex-
ccssivel}^ abundant, that impregnation can
scarcely fail.

The pollen and the stiirma are always in
perfection at the same time, the latter con;i-
monly withering and falling off a little after
the anthers, though the style may remain
to become an useful appendage to the fruit.

320 FUNCTIONS OF

The Viola tricolor or Pansy, the Gratiola,
the Marfipiia, and many plants besides, have
been observed to be furnished with a stigma
o-aping only at the time the pollen is ripe.
The beautiful Jacoba-an Lily, Amaryllis
for??20sissinia. Curt. Mag. t. 47, is justly de-
scribed bv Linnirus as provided with a drop
of clear liquid, which protrudes every morn-
ino- from the stigma, and about noon seems
almost ready to fall to the ground. It is
however reabsorbed in the afternoon, having
received the pollen whose vapour renders it
turbid, and whose minute husks afterwards
remain upon the stigma. The same pha^no-
menon takes place several successive days.

In opposition to similar facts, proving the
synchronous operation of these organs, Ponte-
dera has, ^vith more observation than usual*
remarked that in the umbelliferous tribe the
style frequently does not appear till the an-
thers are fallen. But he ought to have per-
ceived that the stigma is previously perfected,
and that the style seems to grow out after-
wards, in a recurved and divaricated form,
for the purpose of providing hooks to the
. seeds. It is also observable that in this fa-
mily the several organs are sometimes brought

STAMENS AND PISTILS. SS(t

to perfection in diflercnt flowers at different
times, so that the anthers of one may im-
pregnate the stigmas of another, whose sta-
mens were abortive, or long since withered.
The same thing happens in other instances.
Lmnaeus mentions the Jcttropha urcns as
producing flowers with stamens some weeks
in general before or after the others. Hence
he obtained no seed till he preserved the pol-
len a month or more in paper, and scattered
it on a few stigmas then in perfection. There
can be no doubt that, in a wild state, some
or other of the two kinds of blossoms are
ripe together, throughout the flowering sea-
son, on different trees.

A similar experiment to that just men-
tioned was made in 1749 upon a Palm-tree
at Berlin, which for want of pollen had never
brought any fruit to perfection. A branch
of barren flowers was sent bj the post from
Leipsic, twenty German miles distant, and
suspended over the pistils. Consequently
abundance of fruit was ripened, and many
young planl^ raised from the seeds*.

* What species of Palm was the subject of this er-
perimentdoes not clearly appear. In the original cora-

Y

322 fCKCTIONS OV

Tournefort and Pontedera supposed the
pollen to be of an excrementitious nature,
and thrown off as superfluous. But its being
so curiously and distmctly organized in every
plant, and producing a peculiar vapour on
the accession of moisture, shows, beyond
contradiction, that it has functions to per-
form after it has left the anther. The same
writers conceived that the stamens might
possibly secrete something to circulate from
them to the young seeds ; an hypothesis to-
tally subverted by every flower wdth sepa-
rated organs, whose stamens could circulate
nothing to germens on a different branch or
root ; a difficulty which the judicious Tourne-
fort perceived, and was candid enough to
allow*

munication to Dr. Watson, printed in the preface of
Lee's Introduction to Botany, it is called Palma major
foUisJlaheUiformilmii, which seems appropriate to Rhapis
flahelllformis, Alt. Hort. Kcw. v. 3. 473; yet Linnasus,
in his Dissertation on this subject, expressly calls it
Phcenix dactylifora, the Date Palm, and says he had in
his garden many vigorous plants raised from a portion
of the seeds above mentioned. The great success of the
experiment, and the " fan shaped" leaved, make me ra-
ther take it for the RhapiSy a plant not well known te
LinnEeus. .

STAMENS AND PISTILS. 5'Sfil

Both the conjectures just mentioned vanish
before one huninous experiment of Linnceus,
of all others the most easy to repeat and to
understand. He removed the anthers from
a flower of Glaucium phaniceum ,• Engl.Bot,
t. 1433, stripping off the rest of that day's
blossoms. Another morning he repeated the
same practice, only sprinkling the stigma of
that blossom, which he had last deprived of
its own stamens, with the pollen from an-
other. The flower first mutilated produced
no fruit, but the second afforded very perfect
seed. " My design," says Linnaeus, " was
to prevent any one in future from believing
that the removal of the anthers from a flower
was in itself capable of rendering the germen
abortive.'*

The usual proportion and situation of sta-
mens with respect to pistils is well worthy of
notice. The former are generally shortest in
drooping flowers, longest in erect ones. The
barren blossoms stand above the fertile
ones in Carex, Coiv, Arum, &c., that the
pollen may fall on the stigmas. This is the
more remarkable, as the usual order of Na-
ture seems in such plants, as well indeed

y2

324 FUNCTIONS OF STAMENS AND PISTILS.

as in compound, and even umbelliferous
flowers, to be reversed, for the pistils are in-
variably central, or internal, in every simple
flower, and would therefore, if drawn out
into a monoecious spike, be above the sta-
mens.

Many curious contrivances of Nature serve
to bring the anthers and stigmas together.
In Gloriosa, Andr. Repos. t. 129, the style
is bent, at a right angle from the very base,
for this evident purpose. In Saxifragay and
Fariiassia, Engl Bot. f, 82, the stamens
lean one or two at a time over the stigma,
retiring after they have shed their pollen, and
o-iving place to others ; which wonderful (Eco-
nomy is very striking in the garden Rue,
Ruta graveokns, whose stout and firm fila-
ments cannot be disturbed from the posture
in which they may happen to be, and evince
a spontaneous movement unaffected by ex-
ternal causes. The five filaments of the
Cclosia, Cock's-comb, are connected at their
lower part by a membranous web, which in
moist weather is relaxed, and the stamens
spread for shelter under the concave lobes of
the corolla. When the air is dry the con^

IRRITABLE PARTS OF ILOWERS. 325

traction of the membrane brings them toge-
ther, to scatter their pohen in the centre of
the flower. The elastic filaments of Farie-
iaria, Engl. Bot. t. 879, tor a while re-
strained by the calyx, as those of the lovely
Kalmice, Curt. Mag. t, 175, 177, are by
the minute pouches in the corolla, relieve
themselves by an elastic spring, which in
both instances serves to dash the pollen with
great force upon the stigma. The same end
is accomphshed by the curved germen of
Medicago falcata, Engl. Bot. t. 10 iG, re-
leasing itself by a spring from the closed
keel of the flower.

But of all flowers that of the Barberry-
bush, t. 49, is most worthy the attention ot
a curious physiologist. In this the six sta-
mens, spreading moderately, are sheltered
under the concave tips of the petals, till some
extraneous body, as the feet or trunk of an
insect in search of honey, touches the inner
part of each filament near the bottom. The
irritability of that part is such, that the fila-
ment immediately contracts there, and con-
sequently strikes its anther, full of pollen,
against the stigma. Any other part of the

325 OF THE BARBERRY.

filament may be touched without this effect,
provided no concussion be given to the whole.
After a while the filament retires gradually,
and may again be 'stimulated ; and when each
petal, with its annexed filament, is fallen to
the ground, the latter on being tbuched
shows as much sensibility as ever. See Tracts
on Nat. Hist or I/, l65. I have never de-
tected any sympathy between the filaments,
nor is any thing of the kind expressed in the
paper just mentioned, though Dr. Darwin,
from some unaccountable misapprehension,
has quoted me to that effect. It is still more
wonderfiil that the celebrated Bonnet, as
mentioned in Senebier's Physiologie Vegctale,
'V. 5. 105, should have observed this pheenome-
non in the Barberry so very inaccurately as to
compare it to the relaxation of a spring, and
that the ingenious Senebier himself, in quot^
ing me, p. 103, for having ascertained the
lov/er part only of each filament to be irrita-?
ble, should express himself as follows: — "It
has not yet been proved that the movement
of the stamens is attended with the contrac-
tion of the filaments; which nevertheless waa
the first proof necessary to have been given

OF THE BARBERUY. 3^7

in order to a'cortain i\vAr irritability ; it is
not even yet well known which is the irritable
part of the filaments, and whether it be only
their base, as Smith has had the addr^'ss to
(hscover/' In answer to which I need only
request any one to read the above account,
or the more ample detail in my orijL^inal pa-
per, and above all, to examine a Barberry-
blossom for himself; and if any doubts re-
main concerning the existence of vegetable
irritability, let him read Senebier's whole
chapter intended to disprove it, where that
candid philosopher, while he expresses his
own doubts, has brought together every thing
in its favour. Among the whole of his facts
nothing* is more decisive than the remarks of
Coulomb and Van Marum on the Euphorbia,
whose milky juices flow so copiously from a
■wound, in consequence of the evident irrita-
bility of their vessels ; but when the life of
the plant is destroyed by electricity, all the
flowing is at an end. It is superfluous to add
any thing on this subject, and I return to
that of the impregnation of flowers.

I l>ave already mentioned that any mois-
ture causes the polkn ^o explode, conse-

32S PROTECTION OF THE POLLEN.

qiiently its purpose is liable to be frustrated
by rain or heavy dews. Linnaeus observes
that husbandmen find their crops of rye to
.suffer more from this cause than barley, be-
cause in the latter the anthers are more pro^
tected by the husks; and the Juniper berries
are sparingly, or not at all, produced in Swe-
den when the flowering season has been wet.
The same great observer also remarks, what
yearly experience confirms, that Cherry-trees
are more certainly fruitful than Pear-trees,
because in the former the opening of the an-
thers is, in each blossom, much more pro-
gressive, so that a longer period elapses for
the accomplishment of the fertilization of the
germen, and there is consequently less chance
of its being hindered by a few showers.

To «:uard as-ainst the hurtful influence of
nocturnal dews or drenching rains, most
flowers either fold their petals together, or
hang dow^n their heads, when the sun does
not shine; by which, their internal organs
are sheltered. In some which always droop,
as the Snowdrops Galanthus and Leiicojumy
jE:«g/. Z3oif.M9and6"21,the Fritillary, j^. 622,
the Crown Imperial, various species of Ca??2-

PROTECTION OF THE POLLEN. 329

panula, and others, while the over-shadow-
ing corolla keeps oft' rain, the air has free ac-
cess underneath to blow the pollen to the
stigma. Nor is this drooping caused by the
wei<dit of the flowers, for the fruit in most
of them is much heavier, and yet stands
erect on the very same stalk. The papi-
honaceous flowers in general spread their
wings in fme weather, admitting the sun and
air to the parts within ; whereas many of
them not only close their petals at night, but
also derive additional protection from the
green leaves of the plant folding closely about
them. Convolvulus arveusix, t,Si'2, Ana-
gallis arvcnsis, t. 5'29, CakiuJula pluvlalls,
and many others, are well known to shut up
their flowers against the approach of rain;
whence the AnagalUs has been called the
Poor Man s Weather-glass. It has been ob-
served by Linna'us that flowers lose this fme
sensibility, either after the anthers have per-
formed their oflice, or when deprived of them
artilicially ; nor do I doubt the fact. I have
had reason to think that, during a long con-
tinuance of wet, the sensibility of the Ana-
galUs is sometimes exhausted ; and it is evi-

330 EXPERIMENTS O^' HEMF,

dent that very sudden thunder-showers oUcil
take such fiowers by surprise, the previous
state of the atmosphere not having been such
as to give them due warning.

That parts of vegetables not only lose
their irritabihty, but even their vital princi-
ple, in consequence of having accomplished
the ends of their being, appears from an ex-
periment of Linnseus upon Hemp. This is a
dioscious plant, see p. 306, and Linnaius kept
several fertile-flowered individuals in sepa-
rate apartments from the barren ones, in
order to try whether they con id perfect their
seeds without the aid of pollen. Some few
however remained ^vith the barren-flowered
plants, and these ripened seed in due time,
their stiaimas having faded and withered soon
after they bad received the pollen. On the
contrary, the stigmas which had been out of
its reach continued green and vigorous, as if
in vain expectation, nor did they begin to
iiide till they had thus lasted for a ver}^ long
while. Since I read the history of this expe-
riment, I have found it easy in many plants to
tell by the appearance of the stigma whether
the seed be fertilized or not. The above ex-

;; MELONS, CYCAS, &C. 331

periment is the move important, as the abb§
Spallanzaiii has recorded one xnade by him-
self upon the same species of plant, with a
contrary result. But as he has said nothing
of the appearance of the stigmas, his expe-
riment mu.^t yield to that of Linnaius in
point of accuracy ; and even if his account
be otherwise correct, the result is easily ex-
plained. Hemp, Spinach, some Nettles, 8cc.^
naturally dioecious, are occasionally not com-
pletely so, a few latent barren or fertile
flowers being frequently found amona^ those
of the other sort, by M'hich provision is made
against accidents, and the perfecting of afev?
seeds, at any rate, secured.

In general, germens whose stigmas have
not received the pollen wither away without
swelling at all, but some grow to a considera-
ble size, and in such the substance of the
seed, its skin, and even its cotyledons, are
often to be found, the embryo only being
wanting. In a Melon or Cucumber it is
common to find, among numerous perfect
seeds, many mere unimpregnated husks. In
the magniiicent Ci/cas revohita which bore
fruit at the bishop of Winchester's, and of

332 CBCONOMY OP AQUATIC PLANTS. J

:^vnich a history with plates is given in the
sixth volume of the Linnsean Society's Trans-
actions, I found the drupa and all its con-
tents apparently perfect, except that there
was only a minute cavity where the embryo
should have been, in consequence of the
want of another tree with stamens, which was
not to be found perhaps nearer than Japan.
Gardeners formerly attempted to assist Na-
ture by stripping off the barren flowers of
Melons and Cucumbers, which, having no
germen, they found could not come to fruit,
and were therefore, as they supposed, an un-
necessary encumbrance to the constitution of
the parent plant. But finding they thus ob-
tained no fruit at all, they soon learned the
wiser practice of admitting air as often as pos-
sible to the flowering plants, for the purpose of
blowing the pollen from one blossom to the
other, and even to gather the barren kind and
place it over that destined to bear fruit.

The oeconomy of various aquatic plants
throws great light upon the subject before us.
Different species of Potatnogeton, Engl. Bot.
t. 168, 297, 376, Sec, Ruppia maritime^
t, 136, and others, float entirely under wa-
8

OF THE NYMPH/EA. 335

ter, often at some considerable depth, till
the flowering season arrives, when they rise
near the surtace, and throw up their flower-
ing spikes above it, sinking afterwards to
ripen and sow their seeds at the bottom.
Ni/i?iphcea alba, t. 16"0, is very truly de-
scribed by Linnaeus in his Flora Succicay
as closing its flowers in the aftenioon and
laying them down upon the surface of the
water till morning, when it raises and ex-
pands them, often, in a bright day, to se-
veral inches above the water. To this I can
speak from my own knowledge, and it is
confirmed by the history given by Theo-
phrastus of his LotiLS, which, according to
all appearance, is the Nymphcca Lotus of
Linnaeus. " This," says he, " as well as the
Cyamus^", bears its fruit in a head. The
flower is white, consisting of many crowded
leaves about as broad as those of a lily.
These leaves at sunset fold themselves toge-
ther, covering the head (or seed-vessel). At
sun-rise they expand, and rise above the wa-
ter. This they continue till the head is per-
tected, and the flowers fall ofl'.'' So far

* Exot. Bot, t. 31, 32,

334 OF THE NYMPHiEA.

Theophrastus "writes as of his own kno-w*
ledge ; he continues as follows ; " It is re-
ported that in the Euphrates tiie head aixi
flowers keep sinking till midnight, when they
are so deep in the water as to be out of reach
of the hand, but towards morning they re-
turn, and still more as the day advances. At
gun-rise tiiey are already above the surface,
with the flower expanded ; afterwards they
rise high above the water." Pliny repeats
the same account ; and Prosper Alpinus, whose
purpose is to prove the Lotus of Theophrastus
not diiferent from the common Nymphcea, in
"which, as far as genus is concerned, he is
correct, has the following remarkable passage :
" The celebrated stories of the Lotus turning
to the suD, closing its flowers and sinking
under water at night, and rising again in the
morning, are conformable to what every body
has observed in the Ni/mphcea/'

I have been the more particular in the
above quotations, because the veracity of
Theophrastus has lately been somewhat rudely
impeached, on very questionable author! t}^
For my own part, I think what we see of the
Nt/mphcea m England is sufficient to render

OP THE VALISXERIA. 335

the above account highly probable in a coun-
try where the sun has so much more power,
even if it did nut comu iVom the most faith-
ful and philosophical botanist of antiquity,
and I have always w ith confidence cited it on
his authority. Tlie reader, however, will per-
ceive that the only imj)ortant circumstance
for our purpose is the closing of the flowers
at night, which is sufliciently well established.
But the most memorable of acpiatic plants
is the Valhueria spiralis, well figured and
described by Micheli, A'w. Gen. t. 10, which
grows ut the bottoms of ditches in Italy. In
this the fertile flowers stand on long spiral
stalks, and these by uncoiling elevate them
to the surface of the water, where the calyx
expands in the open air. In the mean while
plenty of barren flowsors are produced on a
distinct root, on short straight stalks, from
which they rise like little separate white bub-
bles, suddenly expanding when they reach
the surface, and floating about in such abun-
dance as to cover it entirely. Thus their pol-
len is scattered over the stigmas of the first-
mentioned blossoms, whose stalks soon after-
wards resume their spiral figure, and the

336 ASSISTAI^CE OP INSECTS IN IMPREGNATION.

fruit comes to maturity at the bottom of the
water. All this Micheli has described, with-
out being aware of its final purpose ; so dif-
ferent is it to observe and to reason !

Some aquatic vegetables, which blossom
under water, seem to have a peculiar kind of
glutinous pollen, destined to perform its of-
fice in that situation, as Chara, Engl. Bot.
t. 336, &c.; as well as the Fiicus and Con-
ferva tribe ; but of the real nature of the
fructification of these last we can at present
only form analogical conjectures.

The fertilization of the Fig is accomplished
in a striking manner by insects, as is that of
the real Sycamore, FicvH Sj/comonis. In this
genus the green fruit is a hollow common
calj^x, or rather receptacle, lined with vari-
ous flowers, seldom both barren and fertile
in the same fig. This receptacle has only
a very small orifice at the summit. The
seeds therefore would not in general be per-
fected, were it not for certain minute flies of
the genus Ci/nips, continually fluttering from
one fig to the other all co\ ered with pollen,
and depositing their eggs within the cavity.

A very curious observation is recorded by

ASSISTANCE OF ISSECTS IN IMPREGNATION. 337

Schreber andWilklcnow concerning the A r is-
tolochia Clematitis, EnglBof, /.398. The
stamens and pistils of this flower are enclosed
in its globular base, the anthers being under
the stigma, and by no means commodiously
situated for conveying their pollen .to it.
This therefore is accomplished by an insect,
the Tipula permicornis, which enters the
flower by the tubular part. But that part
beino; thickly hned with inflexed hairs, though
the fly enters easily, its return is totally in>
peded, till the corolla fades, when the hairs
lie flat against the sides, and allow the cap-
tive to escape. In the mean while the insect,
continually struggling for liberty, and pacing
his prison round and rounds has brushed the
pollen about the stigma. I do not doubt the
accuracy of this account, though I have ne-
ver caught the imprisoned Tipula. Indeed
I have never seen any fruit formed by this
plant. Probably for want of some insect
adapted to the same purpose in its own coun-
try, the American AristolocJiia Slpho, though
it flowers plentifully, rarely forms fruit in our
gardens. That it sometimes does, I have been

z

SSS ASSISTANCE OF INSECTS IN IMPRr.GNATlOITr

informed by Lady Amelia Hume since th^
first edition of this work was published.

The ways in M'hich insects serve the same
purpose are innumerable. These active little
beings are peculiarly busy about flowers in
bright sunny weather, when every blossom
is expanded, the pollen in perfection, and all
the powers of vegetation in their greatest
vigour. Then we see the rough sides and
legs of the bee, laden with the golden dust,
which it shakes off, and collects anew, in its
visits to the honeyed stores inviting it on
every side. All Nature is then alive, and a
thousand wise ends are accomplished by in-
numerable means Hhat " seeing we perceive
not ;" for thougb^in the abundance of crea-
tion there seems to be a waste, yet in pro-
portion as we understand the subject, we find
the more reason to conclude that nothing is
made in vain.

839

CHAPTER XXI.

ON THE DISEASES OF PLANTS, PARTICU-
LARLY AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THEIR
VITAL PRINCIPLE,

Ihe diseases of Vegetables serve in many
instances to prove their vitality, and to illus-
trate the nature of their constitution.

Plants are subject to Gangrene or Sphace-
las, especially the more succulent kinds, of
which a very curious account, concerning the
Cactus coccinellifer, Indian Fig, or Nopal,
extremely to our present purpose, is given by
M. Thiery de Menonville, in his work on the
culture of the Nopal as the food of the Cochi-
neal insect. This writer travelled, about 20
years since, through the Spanish settlements
in South America, chiefly noted for the culti-
vation of this precious insect, on purpose to
transport it clandestinely to some of the

z 2

340 GANGRENE OF PLANTS.

French islands. Such were the siiplnene.stt
and ignorance of the Spaniards, that he suc-
ceeded in conveying, not only the living in-
sects, but the bullvy plant necessary for their
sustenance, notwithstanding severe edicts to
the contrary. He had attended previously to
the management of the Nopal, and made his
•remarks on the diseases to which it is' liable.
Of these the Gangrene is extremely frequent
in the true Nopal of Mexico, beginning by a
black spot, which spreads till the whole leaf
or branch rots off, or the shrub dies. But
the same kind of plant is often affected with
a much more serious disease, called b}'^ Thiery
*' la dissolution." This seems to be a sudden
decay of the viteil principle, like that pro-
duced in animals by lightning or strong elec-
tricity. In an hour's time, from some un-
known cause, a joint, a whole branch, or
sometimes an entire plant of the Nopal,
changes from apparent health to a state of
putrefaction or dissolution. One minute its
surface is verdant and shinino' ; the next it
turns 3'ellow^, and all its brilliancy is gone.
On cutting into its substance, the inside is
f©und to have lost all cohesion, being quite

FALL OP THi: LEAF. ^l

rotten. The only remedy in this case is
speedy amputation below the diseased part.
Sometimes the force of the vital principle
makes a stand, as it were, against the en-
croaching disease, and throws off the infected
joint or branch. Such is the account given
by Tliiery, which evinces a power in vege-
tables precisely adequate to that of the ani-
mal constitution, by which an injured or dis-
eased part is, by an effort of Naiure, thrown
off to preserve the rest.

Nor need we travel to Mexico to fmd ex-
amples of this. Every deciduous tree or
ehrub exhibits the very same pha:nomenon ;
for the fall of their -decaying foliage in au-
tumn, leaving the branches and young buds
vigorous and healthy, can he explained in no
-other way. Yet Du Hamel laboured in vain
to account for the fall of the leaf* ; nor is it
wonderful that he or any body else, who en^
deavours to explain the physiology of vege-
tables or of animals accoi*<.ling to one prin-
ciple only, whether it be mechanical or che-
mical, should entirely fail. To consider the
^ill of leaves in autumn as a sloughing, or

* jSee hifi PIujs. des Arlr.es, v. 1. 1 27.

343 PAUL OF THE LEAF

casting off diseased or worn out parts, seems
so simple and evident, as to be hardly worth
insisting upon. Yet I find myself antici-
pated in this theory by one physiologist only,
named Vroiick, cited by Willdenow, in his
Frinciples of Botany/, p. S04, though several
learued speculations to no purpose are extant
on the subject. It is but just, however, that
I should relate what led me to consider the
matter with any attention. My observing
friend Mr. Fairbairn of Chelsea garden long
a2:o remarked to me, that when he had occa-
sion to transplant any tree or shrub whilst
in leaf, he could soon judge of its success by
the ease with which its leaves were detached.
The consequence of such treatment is more
or less injury to the health of the plant, as
will first appear by the drooping of the leaves,
most of which will probably die, and the de-
cay will generally be extended to the younger
more dehcate twigs. The exact progress of
this decay may speedily be known, by the
leaves of those branches which are irrecover-
ably dying or dead, remaining firmly at-
tached, so as not to be pulled off without a
force -sufficient to bring away the bark or

AND OF MPE PRUIT. 343

buds along with them : whereas the leaves
of parts that have received no material injury,
and where the vital energy acts with due
power, either fall off spontaneously, or are
detached by the slightest touch. Plants of
hot countries, kept in our stoves, exhibit the
same phenomenon when transplanted or
otherwise injured, even though not naturally
deciduous.

So when fruits are thoroughly ripened, they
become, with respect to the parent plant,
dead substances, and, however strongly at-
tached before, are then thrown off as extra-
neous bodies. Their stalks fade or wither,
though the life of the adjoining branch con-
tinues unimpaired, and a line of separation
is soon drawn. In a poor soil, or unfa-
vourable climate, a bunch or spike which
should naturally consist of a considerable
number of flowers, bears perhaps not half so
many. Its upper part very early withers,
the vital principle ceases to act at the point
beyond which it could not continue to act
with effect, and all its energy is directed to
perfect what lies within the compass of ils
resources. This is evident in Lathyrus odo-

344 OF GALLS AND

ratus, the Sweet Pea of our gardens, a native
of a very hot climate, at the summits of
whose flower-stalks are generally found the
rudiments of one or more flowei's, not at-
tempted to be perfected. So also the first
Barley sown on the sandy heaths of Norfolk,
and indeed too many a following crop, bears
very few grains in an ear ; for the same
meagre supply of nourishment, bestowed
equally on a numerous spike of blossoms,
would infallibly starve them all. In like
riianner one seed only is perfected in the
Ixjst wild Arabian Coffee, known by its round
form ; while the West Indian plantation Cof-
fee has two in each berry, both consequently
flattened on one side. The former grows in
barren open places, in situations sufficiently
favourable for the impregnation of its blos-
soms, but far less so for the perfecting of
much seed ; while the latter, well supplied
with manure and moisture, is enabled to
bring every germ to maturity.

Very strange effects are often produced
upon plants by the attacks of insects, whence
the various kinds of Galls derive their origm.
These are occasioned by the punctures of

VARIOUS EXCRESCENCES, 345

those little animals, chiefly of the llymenO'
pfera order, and of the genus Ci/nips, in
some vigorous part of the plant, as the leuvefi.
ieaf-stalks, young stem or branches, and
sometimes the calyx or germen. The parent
insect deposits its egg there, which is soon
hatched, and in consequence of the perpetaal
irritation occasioned by the vounir ma«-f»-ot,
feeding on the juices of the plant, the part
where it is lodged acquires a morbid deoree
of luxuriance, frequently swelling to an im-
moderate size, and assuming the most extra-
ordinary and whimsical shapes. This often
happens to the shrubby species of Hawkweed,
Hkrac'mm sahaudum, Engl. Bot. t. 349, and
umhellatum, t. 1771, whose stems in conse-
quence swell into oval knots. Several different
kmds of Galls are borne by the Oak, as those
light spongy bodies, as big as walnuts, vulgarly
named Oak apples ; a red juicy berry-like
excrescence on its leaves ; and the very as-
tringent Galls brought from the Levant, for
the purposes of dyeing and making ink, which
last are produced by a different species of
Quercus from either of our own. The com-
iiion Dog-rose, /, 99?, frequently bears large

$40 hemarkable excrescences*

inos.s-like balls, in whose internal parts nu-
merous maggots are always to be found, till
they become the winged Cynips Rosce, and
eat their way out. Many of our Willows
bear round excrescences, as large as peas, on
their leaves ; but I remember to have been
very much astoni.shed in Provence with a
fine branched production on the Willows in
•winter, which appeared like a tufted Lichen,
but proved on examination a real Gall. In-
deed our Salix Helix, t, 1343, is called Rose
Willow from its bearing no less remarkable
an excrescence, like a rose, at the ends of
some of its branches, in consequence of the
puncture of an insect, and these are in like
manner durable though the proper leaves fall.
The Mastic-tree, Pistacia Letitiscus, is often
laden, in the south of Europe, with large red
hollow linger-like bodies, swarming internally
^ith small insects, the Aphis PistacicB of
Linnajus. The young shoots of Salvia po'
mifera, FL Gncc. t. 15, S^ triloba, t. 17?
and even «S. officinalis, in consequence of the
attacks probably of some Cynips, swell into
Jarge juicy balls, very like apples, and even
crowned with rudiments of leaves resembling

DISEASES or THE SKJN. S^y

tlie caly.^ of that fruit. These aic esteemed
ill the Levant for their aromatic und acid
flavour, especially when prepared with sugar.

It may be remarked tiiat all the excres-
cences above mentioned are generally more
acid than the rest of the plant that bears
them, and also greatly inclined to -turn red.
The acid they contain is partly acetous, but
more of the astringent kind.

The diseases of the skin, to which many-
vegetables are subject, are less easily under-
stood than the foregoing. Besides one kind
o£ Honey-dew, already mentioned, p. 189,
something like leprosy may be observed in
Tragopogufi ?}wjor, J acq. Amtr. t. 2Q, which,
as I have been informed by an accurate ob-
server, does not injure the seed, nor infect
the progeny. The stem of Shepherd s Purse,
Engl. Bot, t. 1485, is occasionally swelled,
and a white cream-like crust, afterwards
powdery, ensues. The White Garden Rose,
Rosa alba, produces, in like manner, an
orange-coloured powder. It proves very dif-
ficult, in many cases, to judge whether such
appearances proceed from a primary disease
in the plant, arising from unseasonable cold

346 OF THE BLIGHT AND

or wet, or are owing to the baneful stimulus
of parasitical /zni^i irritating the vital prin-
ciple, like the young progeny of insects as
above related. Sir Joseph Banks has, with
great care and sagacity, traced the progress
of the Blight in Corn, Uredo frumenti,
Sowerh, Fung. t. 140, and given a complete
history of the minute fungus which causes
that appearance. See Annals of Botany^
V. 2. 51, t. 3, 4. Under the inspection of
this eminent promoter of science, Mr. Francis
Bauer has made microscopical drawings of
many similar fungi infecting the herbage
and seeds of several plants, but has decided
that the black swelling of the seed of corn,
called by the French Ergot, though not well
distinguished from other appearances by the
generality of our agricultural writers, is indu-
bitably a morbid swelling of the seed, and
not in any way connected with the growth of
a fungus. The anthers of certain plants often
exhibit a similar disease, swelling, and pro-
ducing an inordinate quantity of dark pur-
plish powder instead of true pollen, as hap-
pens in Sikne infata, FL Brit. Engl. Bot.
if.X64, and the white Lychnis diolca, t, l5Si\

SIMILAR DISEASES-. 349

whose petals are, not iiDconnnonly, stained
all over with this powder. Our knowledi»;e on
all these .subjects is j^etin its infancy; but it
is to be hoped, now the pursuit of agrirulture
and of philosophical botany begin to be, in
some distinguished instances, united, sucK
examples m411 be followed, and science di.
rected to one of its best ends, that of im-
proving useful arts. And here I cannot but
mention the experiments continually going on
\mder the inspection of the ingenious Mr.
Knight, of fertilizing the germeii of one spe-
cies or variety with the pollen of another
nearly akin, as in apples, garden peas, cScc.,
by which, judiciously managed, the advan-
tao'cs of different kinds are combined. Bv
the same means Linnaeus obtained intermi?-
diate species or varieties of several plants ;
and if any thing were wanting to confirm his
theory respecting the stamens and pistils, this
alone would place it out of all uncertainty.

350

CHAPTER XXII,

OF THE SYSTEMATICAL ARRANGEMENT
OF PLANTS. NATURAL AND ARTIFI-
CIAL METHODS. GENERAj SPECIES AND
VARIETIES. NOMENCLATURE.

JL HE foregoing chapters have sufficiently ex-
plained the parts of plants, and the leading
differences in their conformation, for us now
to proceed to the Systematical part of our
subject. In this, when properly understood
and studied, there is no less exercise for the
mind, no less employment for its observation
and admiration, than in physiological or ana-
tomical inquiries ; nor are the organs of ve-
getables, when considered only as instru-
ments of classification and discrimination, less
conspicuous for beauty, fitness, and infinite
■variety of contrivance, than under any other
point of view. The wisdom of an Infinite

OF BOTANICAL ARRANGEMENT. $51

Superintending Mind is dij^played throughout
Nature, in whatever way \vc contemplvite her
productions.

When we take into consideration the mul-
titude of species which compose the vegetable
kingdom, even in any one country or ohmate,
it is obvious that some arrangement, some
regular mode of naming and distinguisliing
them, must be very desirable, and even ne-
cessary, for retaining tliem in our own me-
mory, or for communicating to others any
thing concerning them. Yet the antients
have scarcely used any further classification
of plants than the vague and superficial divi-
sion into trees, shrubs and herbs, except a
consideration of their places of growth, and
also of their qualities. The earlier botanist-
among the moderns almost inevitably telf
into some ladc arrangement of the o}}jects of
their study, and distributed them under th.e
heads of Grasses, Bulbous plants, ^ledicinal
or Eatable plants, &c., in which their suc-
cessors made several improvements, but it is
not worth while to contemplate them.

The science of Botanical Arrangement fiftt
assumed a regular form under the auspices of
Conrad Gesner and Ca^salpinus, who, inde-

552 SlfeTHOC."^ OP C^SALPINCS,

pendent of each other, without any" mutual
communication, both conceived the idea oi' a
regular classification of plants, by means of
the parts of fructification alone, to which the
Tery existence of Botany as a science is
owing. The lirst of these has left us scat-
tered hints only, in various letters, commu*
nicated to the world after his premature death
in 1565; the latter published a system,
founded on the fruit, except the primary di-
vision into trees and herbs, in a quarto vo-
lume printed at Florence in 1583. This
■work Linneeus studied with great care, as ap-
pears from the many notes and marked pas-
sages in his own copy now before me. Hence
he adopted his ideas of the supposed origin
of the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils,
from the outer bark, inner bark, wood and
pith, which are now proved to be crroneofus.
In his own Classes Piantai^um he has drawn
out a regular plan of the System of Ca?salpinuSy
the chief principles of which ar« the ipUowing :

1. Whether the embryo be at the summit or
base of the seed.

2. Whether the germen be superior or in-
ferior.

RIVINUS, RUPPIUS, Sec. 353

S. Seeds 1, IJ, 3, 4, or numerous.
4. Seed-vessels 1, 2, 3, 4, cS:c.

The work of Ciusulpinus, though full of in-
formation, was too deep to be of common
use, and excited but httle attention. A cen-
tury afterwards Morison, Professor of Botany
at Oxford, improved somewhat upon the ideas
of the last-mentioned writer, but has been
justly blamed for passing over in silence the
source of his own information. Ray? the
great English naturalist, formed a consider-
ably different system upon the fruit, as did
Hermann, Professor at Leyden, and the great
Boerhaave, but in these last there is little,
orisiinalitv.

Rivinus, Ruppius and Ludwig in Germany
proposed to arrange plants by the various
forms of their Corolla, as did Toumefort the
illustrious French botanist, whose system is
by far the best of the kind ; and this having
been more celebrated than most others, I shall
give a sketch of its plan.

In the first place we meet with the old but
highly unphilosophical division into Herbs
and Trees, each of which sections is subdi-
2 A

354 METHODS OP TOURNEFORT^

vided into those v/hh a Corolla and those
without. The Trees with a Corolla are again
distributed into such as have one or many
petals, and those regular or irregular. — Herbs
with a Corolla have that part either com-
pound (as the Dandelion, Thistle and Daisy),
or simple ; the latter being either of one or
many petals, and in either case regular or
irregular. We come at last to the final sec-
tions, or classes, of the Tournefortian system.
Herbs with a simple, monopetalous, regular
corolla are either bell-shaped or funnel-
shaped ; those with an irregular one either
anomalous or labiate.

Herbs with a simple, polypetalous, regular
corolla are either cruciform, rosaceous, um-
bellate, pink-like or liliaceous ; those with an
irregular one, papilionaceous or anomalous.
The subdivisions of the classes are founded
on the fruit.

It is easy to perceive that a system of this
kind can never provide for all the forms of
corolla which may be discovered after its
first contrivance; and therefore the celebrated
Dr. Garden, who studied by it, assured me
that when he attempted to reduce the Ame-

MAONOL AKD LTNNAU9. 35S

rican plants to Tournefort's classes, he found
them so untractable, that, after attempting in
vain to correct or augment the system, he
should probably have given up the science
in despair, had not the works of Linnieus
fallen in his way.

Magnol, Professor at Montpellier, and even
JLinnaeus himself, formed sciiemes of arram^ino:
plants by the calyx, which nobody has followed.

All preceding systems, and all controver-
sies respecting their superior merits, were
laid aside, as soon as the famous Linnaean
method of classification, founded on the Sta-
mens and Pistils, became known in the bo-
tanical w^orld. Linnaeus, after proving these
organs to be the most essential of all to the
very being of a plant, first conceived the for-
tunate idea of rendering them subservient to
the purposes of methodical arrangement,
taking into consideration their number, situ-
ation and proportion. How these principles
are applied, we shall presently explain ; but
some previous observations are necessary.

Linnseus first made a distinction between
a natural and an artrftcial method of bo-
tanical arrangement. His predecessors pro-
2 A 2

356 OF A NATURAL MODK

bably conceived their own systems to bef
each most consonant with the order of Nature^
as well as mo^t commodious for use, and it
was reserved for him to perceive and to ex-
plain that these were two very distinct things.
The most superficial observer must per-
ceive something of the classification of Na-
ture. The Grasses, Umbelliferous plants.
Mosses, Sea-weeds, Ferns, Liliaceous plants.
Orchises, Compound flowers, each constitute
a family strikingly similar in form and quali-
ties among themselves, and no less evidently
distinct from all others. If the whole vege-
table kingdom could with equal facility be
distributed into tribes or classes, the study of
Botany on such a plan would be no less easy
than satisfactory. But as we praceed in this
path, we soon find ourselves in a labyrinth.
The natural orders and families of plants, so
f:U' from being connected in a regular series,
approach one another by so many points, as /
to bewilder instead of directing us. We may
seize some striking combinations and ana-
loo'ies ; but the further we proceed, the more
we become sensible that, even if we had the
whole vegetable world before us at one view.

OF CLASSIFICATION. 357

©lir knowledge must be imperfect, and that
our " genius" is certainly not " equal to the
Majesty of Nature." Nevertheless Linntcus,
and tdl true philosophical botanists since the
first mention of the natural afrinities of plants,
have ever considered them as the most im-
portant and interesting branch, or rather the
fundamental part, of systematical botany.
Without them the science is trul}' a study of
words, contributing nothing to enlarge, little
worthy to exercise, a rational mind. Lin-
naeus therefore suggests a scheme which he
modestly calls Fvugments uf a Natural Mc-
iJiod, which formed the subject of his occa-
sional contemplation ; but he daily and hourly
studied the prmciples of natural affinities
among plants, conscious that no true know-
ledge of their distinctions, any more tlian of
their qualities, could be obtained without; of
Mhich important truth he was not only, the
earliest, but ever the m.ost strenuous assertor.

In the mean while, however, Linnaeus, wel(i
aware that a ?/r/^//;v// classification was scarcely^
ever to be completely discovered, and that if
discovered it would probably be too ditlicult
for common use, contri\cd an artijicial i^y^

358 LINN^AN ARTIFICIAL METHOD.

stem, by which plants might conveniently be
arranged, like words in a dictionary, so as to
be most readily found. If all the words of a
langnnge could be disposed according to their
abstract derivations, or grammatical affinities,
such a performance might be very instructive
to a philosopher, but would prove of little
service to a young scholar ; nor has it evei
bee i mentioned as any objection to the use
of a dictionary, that words of very different
meanings, if formed of nearly the same letters^
often stand together. The Method of Lin-»
naeus therefore is just such a dictionary in
Botany, while his Fhiloaoplda Botanica i^
the grammar, and his other works contain
the history, and even the poetry, of the sci-
ence.

But before we give a detail of his artificial
system, we must first see how this great man
fixed the fundamental principles of botanical
science. Nor are these principles confined to
botany, though they originated in that study.
The Linnaean style of discriminating plants.
La been extended by himself and others to
animals and even fossils ; and his admirable
principles of nqmenclature are applied with

DEFINITION OF SPECIES. 359

great advantage even to chemistry itself, now
become so vast and accurate a science.

Independently of all general methods of
classiilcation, whether natural or artificial,
plants, as well as animals, are distinguished
into Genera*, Species, and Varieties.

By Species are understood so many indi-
viduals, or, among the generality of animals,
so many pairs, as are presumed to have been
formed at the creation, and have been perpe-
tuated ever since ; for though some animals
appear to have been exterminated, we have
no reason to suspect any new species has
been produced ; neither have we any cause
to suppose any species of plant has been lost,
nor any new one permanently established,
since their first formation, notwithstanding
the speculations of some philosophers. We
frequently indeed see new Varieties, by which
word is understood a variation in an esta-
blished species ; but such are imperfectly, or

* Our scientific language in English is not sufficiently
perfect to afford a plural for genus, and we are therefore
obliged to adopt the Latin one, genera, though it exposes
us sometimes to the horrors of hearing of " a new ge-
nera" of plants.

360 OP GENERA AND

for a limited lime, if at all, perpetuated in
the offspring.

A Genus comprehends one or more spe-
cies, so essentially different in formation, na-
ture, and often many adventitious qualities,
from other plants, as to constitute a distinct
family or kind, no less permanent, and founded
in the immutable laws of the creation, than
the different species of such a genus. Thus
in the animal kingdom, a horse, ass and zebra
form three species of a very distinct genus,
marked J not only by its general habit or
aspect, its uses and qualities, but also by es-
sential characters in its teeth, hoofs, and in-
ternal constitution. The lion, tiger, leopard,
panther, lynx, cat, &c., also compose another
sufficiently obvious and natural genus, and
the numerous herd of monkeys, apes and ba-
boons a third. The elephant is, as far as we
know, a solitary species of a most distinct
and striking genus.

So among vegetables, the various species of
rose compose a beautiful genus, known to
every one who ever looked at a plant, merely
by a certain combination of ideas, but essen-
tially distinguished, as we shall hereafter finds

THEIR CHARACTERS. 36l

by clear and decisive cliaraclers. The pp-
cies of /m form also a numerous genus, and
the Willows another ; while the curious Epi-
mediuni alpinuui, Engl, Eoi, f. 438, is toa
singular and distinct to be associated with
anv known plant besides, and constitutes a
genus by itself, as well as the Adoxa^ /.453,
and Linncea, t. 433.

The first great and successful attempt to
defme the genera of plants was made by
Tournefort, and in this his transcendent me-
rit will ever be conspicuous, though his sy-
stem of arrangement should be entirely for-

o'Otten, Not that he has excelled in verbal

id

definitions, nor built all his genera on sure
foundations ; but his figures, and his enumera-
tions of species under each genus, show the
clearness of his conceptions, and rank him as
the father of this branch- of botany.

Linnaeus first insisted on generic charac-
ters being exclusively taken from the 7 parts
of fructification, and he demonstrated these
to be sufTicient for all the plants that can be
discovered. He also laid it down as a maxim,
that all genera are as" mncii founded in na-
ture as the species which compose them ; and

9M CHARACTERS

hence follows one of the most just and valu-
able of all his principles, that a genus should
furimh a character, not a character form a
genus ; or, in other words, that a certain co-
incidence of structure, habit, and perhaps
qualities, among a number of plants, should
strike the judgment of a botanist, before he
iixes on one or more technical characters, . by
which to stamp and define such plants as one
natural genus. Thus the Hemerocallis ccrru-
lea, Andr. Repos. t, 6, and alba, t. 194,
though hitherto referred by all botanists to
that genus, are so very different from the
other species in habit, that a discriminative
character might with confidence be expected
in some part or other of their fructification,
and such a character is accordingly found in
the winged seeds. Yet in the natural genera
of Arenaria and Spergula, winged or bor-
dered seeds are so far from indicating a di-
stinct genus, that it is doubtful whether they
are sufficient to constitute even a specific
character. See Engl Bot. t. 958, 1535 and
1536. So Blandfordia, Exot. Bot. t. 4, is
well distinguished from Aletrls, with which
some botanists have confounded it, by it?

OP GENERA. SrS

hairy seeds ; but the saiTiie circumstance %vill
not justify us in separating a fe spe.ios from
Convolimlus, which are attached to that jie-
nus by stronger ties of another kind.

Some genera are obvious and indubitable
both in habit and character, as QuerciiSy
Ilosa, Euphorbia^ Begonia, Eiot, Dot. t. 101,
and Sarracenia, t. 53 ; others are obvious,
but their character extremely difficult to de-
fine, as Valeriana. The greatest difficulty
lies in distinguishing genera that belong to
guch very natural orders as the Grasses
and Umbelliferous plants ; and the ablest
botanists differ about the best guides in these
two particular cases. Yet other orders,
equally natural, sometimes afford very ex-
cellent generic differences, as that to which
Hoaa, Rubas, Fragaria, &;c., belong ; and
even in the Papilionaceous plants with ten
distinct stamens, a tribe hitherto iudired in-
extricable, a regular examination on scientific
principles has led to the discovery of very na^
tural well defined genera. See Annals of
Botany, t;. 1. 501. I have in a preceding
chapter hinted that the umbelliferous plants

864 CHARACTERS '

seem to me very capable of being well dis-
criminated by their seeds, and other botanists
have held the same opinion.

Bat though I feel convinced, as far as
my experience goes, that genera are really
founded in nature, I am far from asserting
that Linnaeus, or any other writer, has suc-
ceeded in fixing all their just limits. This
deep and important branch of natural science
requires the union of various talents. Many
persons who can perceive a genus cannot de-
fine it ; nor do acuteness of perception, so-
lidity of judgment, and perspicuity of ex-
pression, always meet in the same person.
Those who excel in this department are
named by Linnaeus, l^hil. Bot. sect. 152,
theoretical botanists ; those who study only
species and varieties, practical ones.

In methodical arrangement, whether na-
tural or artificial, every thing must give way
to generic distinctions. A natural system
which should separate the species of a good
genus, would, by that v^ry test alone, prove
entirely worthless ; and if such a defect be
sometimes unavoidable in an artificial one,
6

OP GENERA. 365

contrivances must be adopted to remedy it ;
of whicli Linnecus has set us the example, aa
will hereafter be explained.

Generic characters are reckoned by Lin-
naeus of three kinds, the factitious, the es-
sentiai, and the natural, all founded on the
fructification alone, and not on the inflores-
cence, nor any other part.

The first of these serves only to discrimi-
nate genera that happen to come together in
the same artificial owhr or section; the second
to distinguish a particular genus, by one
striking mark, from all of the same natural
order, and consequently from all other plants;
and the third comprehends every possible
mark common to all the species of one genus.
The factitious character can never stand
alone, but may sometimes, commodiously
enough, be added to more essential distinc-
tions, as the insertion of the petals in Agri-
monia, Engl. Bot. t. 1335, indicating xha
natural order to which the" plant belongs,
which characier, thou ah essential to that or-
der, here becomes factitious.

Linnaeus very much altered his notions of
the essential character after he had published

OF ESSENTIAL

his Philoaopbia Botanica^ whence the above
definitions are taken. Instead of confining
it to one mark or idea, he, in his Sydana
Vegetabiliiitn, makes it comprehend all the
distinctions requisite to discriminate each ge-
nus from every other in the system, only
avoiding a repetition at every step of the
characters of the artificial class and order,
which stand at the top of each page, and are
not always essential to the character of the
genus. This is the kind of generic character
now universally adopted, and indeed die only
one in common use. The learned Jussieu
has given it the sanction of his approbation
and adoption, as far as its plan is concerned,
throughout his immortal work, subjoining in
a different type such characters and remarks
as belong to the habit, or refer to other cir-
cumstances. For my own part I profess to
retain, not only the plan, but the very words
of Linnaeus, unless I find them erroneous,
copying nothing without examination, but
altering with a very sparing hand, and leav-
ing much for future examination. I cannot
blame my predecessors for implicitly copying
the Linna^an characters, nor should I have

GENERIC CHARACTERS. lOj

been the firat aiiiong English writers to set a
contrary example, had I not fortunately been
fiirniished with peculiar materials lor the pur-
pose.

The beauty and perfection of these essen-
tial generic characters consist in perspicuity,
and a clear concise style of contrastiui;- them
with each other. All feebleness, all super-
fluity, should be avoided by those who are
competent to the purpose, and those who are
not should decline the task. Comparative
Avords, as long or sJiort, without any scale of
comparison, are among the grossest, though
most common, faults in such compositions.

The natural character seems to have been,
at one time, what Linnaeus most esteemed.
It is what he has used throughout his Genera
Plujiiarufn, a work now superseded by the
essential character* in his Si/stema Vegeta-
bilium, and therefore in some measure laid
aside. The disadvantages of the natural cha-
racter are, that it does not particularly ex-
press, nor direct the mhid to, the most im-
portant marks, and that it can accord only
with such species of the genus as arc known
to the author, being therefore necessarily im-
8

366 Of ESSENTIAL

his Philosophia Botanica^ M4ience tlie above
definitions are taken. Instead of confining
it to one mark or idea, he, in his Syatcma
Vegetabilium, makes it comprehend all the
distinctions requisite to discriminate each ge^
nus from every other in the system, only
avoiding a repetition at every step of the
characters of the artificial class and order,
which stand at the top of each page, and are
not always essential to the character of the
genus. This is the kind of generic character
now universally adopted, and indeed die only
one in common use. The learned Jussieu
has given it the sanction of his approbation
and adoption, as far as its plan is concerned,
throughout his immortal work, subjoining in
a different type such characters and remarks
as belong to the habit, or refer to other cir-
cumstances. For my own part I profess to
retain, not only the plan, but the very words
of Linnaius, unless I find them erroneous,
copying nothing without examination, but
altering with a very sparing hand, and leav-
ing much for future examination. I cannot
blame my predecessors for implicitly copying
the Linna^an chai'acters, nor should I have

GENERIC CHARACTERS. 30/

been the first among English writers to set a
contrary example, had I not fortunately been
furnished with peculiar materials for the pur-
pose.

The beauty and perfection of these essen-
tial generic characters consist hi perspicuity,
and a clear concise style of contrastins: them
with each other. All feebleness, all super-
fluity, should be avoided by those who are
competent to the purpose, and those who are
not should decline the task. Comparative
w ords, as long or shorty without any scale of
comparison, are among the grossest, though
most common, faults in such compositions.

The natural character seems to have been,
at one time, what Linnaeus most esteemed.
It is what he has used throughout his Genera
Plajiiarum, a work now superseded by the
essential characters in his Systema Vegeta-
bUium, and therefore in some measure laid
aside. The disadvantages of the natural cha-
racter are, that it does not particularly ex-
press, nor direct the mind to, the most im-
portant marks, and that it can accord only
with such species of the genus as are known
to the author, being therefore necessarily im-
8

368 CONSTRUCTION OF

perfect. This kind of character is, however,
admirable for the illustration of any difficult
natural order, Mr. Gavvler's elucidations of
the Eiisata, Sword-leaved plants, Annals of
Bofanif, v.l. 219, and Curt, Mag. afford
excellent specimens of it, serving as a store of
facts and observations for following systema-
tical writers.

Specific characters should be constructed
on sniiiiar principles to the generic ones, as
far as regards certainty, clearness and con-
ciseness. The genus being first well defined,
we are to seek for characters, not mentioned
among the generic marks, for distinguishing
the species. A specific difiference for a soli-
tary species of any genus, is therefore an ab-
surdity. Linnaeus at first intended his spe-
cific definitions should be used as names ; but
the invention of trivial names happily set
aside this inconvenient scheme. On this ac-
count however he limited each to twelve
words, a rule to which ail philosophical na-
turahsts have adhered, except in cases of
great necessity. Nor is the admission of one
or two words beyond the allotted number re-
prehensible, provided the whole sentence be

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. «<59

go neatly and perspicuously constructed, that
the mmd may comprehend it, and compare
it with others, at one view ; but this can
hardly be done when the words much exceed
twelve. This ride, of course, can be strictly
applied to Lutin definitions only, though it
should be kept in view in any language, as
far as the genius of that language will allow.
Linnaeus says, " Genuine specific distinctions
cons»itute the perfection of natural science f
which is strongly confirmed by the great in-
feriority of most botanists, in this depart-
ment, to that great man, and especially by
the tedious feebleness and insufficiency dis-
played among those who court celebrity by
despising his principles.

In constructing g(^neric and specific cha-
racters, the arrangement of the different parts
on which they are founded is to be consider-
ed. Such as are most important in the na-
tural order, or genus, are to stand first, and
the subordinate, or more peculiar marks of
the object before us, ought to close the sen-
tence. On the contrary, in drawing up na-
tural characters of a genus, as well as full
descriptions of particular plants, it is proper

2 B

370 . PRINCIPLES

to take, in the former instance, the calyx^
corolla, stamens, pistils, seed-vessel, seed
and receptacle, and in the latter, the root,
stem, leaves, appendages, flower and fruit,
in the order in which they naturally occur.

Nomenclature is no less essential a branch
of methodical science than characteristic de-
finitions ; for, unless some fixed laws, or, in
other words, good sense and perspicuity, be
attended to in this department, great con-
fusion and uncertainty must ensue.

The vague names of natural objects handed
down to us, in various languages, from all
antiquity, could have no uniformity of de-
rivation or plan in any of those languages.
Their different origins may be imagined, but
cannot be traced. Many of these, furnished
by the Greek or Latin, are retained as ge-
peric names in scientific botany, though nei-
ther their precise meaning, nor even the
plants to which they originally belonged, caa
always be determined, as Rosa, Ficus, Pi-
per. Sec. It is sufficient that those to which
they are now, by common consent, applied,
should be defined and fixed. Botanists of
the Linnaean school, however, admit no such

OP NOMENCLATURE, 371

generic names from any other language than
the Greek or Latin, ail others beino; esteemed
barbarous. Without this rule we should be
overwhelmed, not only with a torrent of un-
couth and unmanageable words, but we should
be puzzled where to fix our choice, as the
same plant may have fifty different original
denominations in different parts of the world,
and we might happen to choose one by which
it is least known. Thus the celebrated In-
dian plant now proved beyond all doubt to
be the Cyamiis of Theophrastus*, having
been erroneously reckoned by Linnaeus a
ISli/inphcea^ received from Gccrtner, one of
the first who well distinguished it as a genus,
the Ceylon name of Nelumbo ; which beino*
contrary to all rules of science, literature or
taste for a generic name, has by others been
made into bad Latin as Nehwihium. But
the universal Hindu name of the plant is

* See Ea:o^ Bot.v.l. 60, where the arguments in
support of this opinion are given, and Curt. Mag. t. 903,
where some of them are with much candour and inge-
nuity controverted, though not so as to aher my senti-
ments ; nor can any thing justify the use of Nelumlhcni
in a scientific work as a generic name.

2 b2

37S OP BARBAROUS NAMES.

Tamardi which, independent of barbarisnij
ought to have been preferred to the very con-
iined one of Nelumbo. In Hke manner the
Bamboo, Arundo Bambos of Linnaeus, prov-
ing a distinct genus, has received the appella-
tion of Bambusa, though Jussieu had already
given it that of Nasfus from Dioscorides*.
Perhaps the barbarous name of some very
local plants, when they cannot possibly have
been known previously by any other, and
w^hen that name is harmonious and easily re-
concileable to the Latin tongue, may be ad-
mitted, as that of the Japan shrub Aucuha ;
but such a word as Ginkgo is intolerable.
The Roman w riters, as Caesar, in describing
foreign countries, have occasionally latinized
some words or names that fell in their way,
which may possibly excuse our making
Ailanthus of Aijlanto, or Fandamts of Pan-

* It is not indeed clear that this name is so correctly
applied as that of Cyamus, because IV<z5/m5 originally be-
longed to '"' a reed with a solid stem/* perhaps a palm ;
but not being wanted, nor capable of being correctly
used, for the latter, it may very well serve for the Bam-
boo. There is no end of raking up old uncertainties
about classical names.

CREEK on LATIW NAMRS. 373

dana;. Still I can only hnicly toleraio such
names out of cJ(;f'(^i:ence to the botiinicul me-
rits, not thf; kjirninir, of their contrivers;
and I highly honour the zeal and correctness
of Mr. Salisbury, who, in defiance of all
undue authority, has ever Ojjposed them^
naming Aucuha^ on account of its singular
base or receptacle, FjubaHu. I know not liovv
Pandanus escaped his reforminii, hand, espe-
cially as the plant has already a ^ood clia-
racteristic Greek name in the classical I'orstfT,
Alhrodactylis.

Excellent Greek or Latin names are such
as indicate some striking [)eculiarity in the
genus : as Glijajrrhizn, a sweet root, foj the
Liquorice; Amarantkua, without decay, for
an everlasting Hovver ; lltliantliuH, a sun-
flowf^r ; J/ithospertnum, a stony seed ; EriO'
calia^^ a flower with a smgiilarly woolly base
or cup ; Origanum, an ornamc^ntal mountain
plant ; IJemerocailis, a beauty of a day ;

* When I named this genui in Exotic Botany, f was
not aware of its having previously heen pubhshed by
M. Billardicre under the nam<j ot Actinotui ; a name
however not tenable in Botany, because it has long been
preoecupied in Mineralogy.

374 GENERIC NAMES IN

Arenaria, a plant that inhabits sandy places;
and Gi/psophila, one that loves a chalky soil.
Such as mark the botanical character of the
genus, when they can be obtained for a
nondescript plant, are peculiarly desirable :
as Ceratopetalum, from the branched horn-
like petals ; hasiopetalum, from the very sin-
gularly woolly corolla; Calceolaria^ from the
shoe-like figure of the same part ; Concilium,
from the exact resemblance of its fruit to a
bivalve shell.

In all ages it has been customary to dedi-
cate certain plants to the honour of distin-
guished persons. Thus Euphorbia comme-
morates the physician of Juba a Moorish
prince, and Gentiana immortalizes a king of
Illyria. The scientific botanists of modern
times have adopted the same mode of pre-
serving the memory of benefactors to their
science ; and though the honour may have
been sometimes extended too far, that is no
argument for its total abrogation. Some un-
couth names thus unavoidably deform our
botanical books ; but this is often effaced by
the merits of their owners, and it is allow-
able lo model them into o'race as much as

HONOUR OF nOTAMSTS. 375

possible. Thus the elegant Tournefort made
Gundelia from Guiidelscheimer ; which in-
duced me to choose Goodeiiia, for my much
honoured and valued friend Dr. Goodenough,
though it has, when too Lite, been suggested
that Goodcnovia might have been preferable.
Some diflicult}' has arisen respecting French
botanists on account of the additional names
by which their grandeur, or at least their
vanity, was displayed during the existence
of the monarchy. Hence Fittonia was ap-
plied to the plant consecrated to Pitton de
Tournefort ; but Linnccus preferred the name
by which alone he was known out of his ow n
country or in learned language, and called
the same genus Toumefortia. Thus w^e have
a Fontaincsia and a Louichea, after the ex-
cellent Louiche Desfontaines ; but the latter
proving a doubtful genus, or, if a good one,
being previously named Fterantlius, the
former is established. We have even in Eng-
land, by a strange oversight, both Stuartia
and Ihitca after the famous Earl of Bute ;
but the tormer beinsj loner aojo settled bv
Linnii:us, the latter, since given by Koenig,
is totally inadmissible on any pretence what-

376 GENERIC NAMES IN

ever, and the o;enus which bears it must have
a new appellation. In like manner my own
liumea^ E.rof. Bot. t. 1, has been called in
France Cdlomeria after the present Emperor,
by the help of a pun, though there has long
been another genus Bonapartea., which last
can possibly be admitted only in honour of
the Empress, and not of her consort, who
has no botanical pretensions. Our own be-
loved sovereign could derive no glory from
the Georgia * of Ehrhart; but the Sirelitzia
of Aiton stands on the sure basis of botani-
cal knowledge and zeal, to which I can bear
ample and very disinterested testimony.

Linnaeus, in his entertaining book Critica
Bofanica, p. 79? has in several instances
drawn a fancifiil analogy between botanists
and their appropriate plants, thus —

Bauhhiia, after the two distinguished bro-
thers John and Caspar Bauhin, has a two-
lobed or twin leaf.

Scheiichzeria, a grassy alpine plant, com-
memorates the two Scheuchzers, one of whom
excelled in the knowledge of alpine produc-
tions, the other in thi.t of grasses.

* Tetraph'is of Hedvvig and Engl. Bot t. 10-20.

IION'OUR OF BOTANISTS. 377

Dornfenin, with its obsolete flowers, devoid
of all beauty, alludes to the antiquated and
uncouth book of Dorstenius.

Hernandia, an American plant, the most
beautiful of all trees in its foliage, but fur-
nished with triflini^ blossouis, bears the name
of a botanist highly favoured by fortune, and
allowed an ample salary for the purpose of
investigating the natural history of the West-
ern world, but whose labours have not an-
swered the expense. On the contrary

Magnolia with its noble leaves and flowers,
and

Dillenia with its beautiful blossoms and
fruit, serve to immortalize two of the most
meritorious among botanists.

Liiinaa, "a depressed, abject, ^ apkuid
plant, long overlooked, flowering at an early
age, was named by Gronovius after its pro-
totype Linnaeus."

In pursuance of the same idea Dicksonia,
a beautiful and curious fern, is well devoted
to our great cryptogamist ; K/iappia, a small
and singular grass, to an author celebrated
for his minute and curious drawings of that
tribe ; Sjjrengelia, to one distinguished for
8

SrS REMARKS ON

illustrating the impregnation of plants, \vhich
the remarkable form and union of its anthers
serve to indicate ; while Smilhia scnsitiva,
named by Mr. Dryander^' in the Hortus
Kewcnsis of our mutual friend Aiton, could
at that time be merited only by an original
treatise on the Irritability of Plants)-, to
which the specific name happily alludes.

The generic name being fixed, the specific
one is next to be considered. With respect
to this, Rivinus has the merit of originality,
havinjv been the first to contrive namins: each
plant in two words. But his names were
meant for specific definitions, for \\ hich they
are totally inadequate. Linnaeus, in construct-
ing his more accurate and full specific cha-
racters, intended the latter should serve as
names, and therefore called them nomina
specijica* When he, most fortunately for
the science and for the popularity of his whole
System of Nature, invented the present sim-
ple specific names, he called them nomina
frivialia, trivial, or for common u.'^e ; but
that term is now superfluous.

* Salhl. HQrt.3A<2. f I'hll. Trans, for i:ss.

SPECIFIC NAMES. 379

Specific names should be formed on similar
principles to the generic ones ; but some ex-
ceptions are allowed, not only without incon-
venience, but with great advantage. Such
as express the essential specific character are
unexceptionable, as Bankaia sei'rafa, infc^
grifol'ta, (lenfafa, &c. ; but perhaps those
M'hich express something equally certain, but
not comprehended in that character, are still
more useful, as conveying additional informa-
tion, like Liora alba and coccinea, Sdcran-
thus annuus and pei'cnnis, Ahfris fragransy
Sax'ifraga cernua, &c. ; for which reason it is
often useful that vernacular names should
not be mere translations of the Latin ones.
Comparative appellations are very good, as
Banksia erlcij'olia, Andromeda salicifolia^,
Saaifraga bn/oides. Milium ci?nicinin?i, Elfj^
?nus Hystrix^ Pedicularis Sceptrum. Names
\vhich express the local situations of diflerent
species are excellent, such as Mdampijrum

* Some botanists write ericcpfoUa, sai'ichfoliay IbigucB"
form'is, &c., instead oF following the analogy of the La-
tin in forming adjectives with an i, as palm'ifer from
palma, ce ; haccifer, from lacca, cc ; harliger, from
licrba, cu ; Sec.

380 REMARKS ON

arvense^ pMtense, nemorosum and si/lvati'

cum, Carex arenaria^ uUginosa and sijlvatica,

as well as aquatica, maritima, rupestris, al-

pina, nivalis, used for many plants. But

names derived from particular countries or

districts are liable to much exception, few

plants being sufficiently local to justify their

use. Thus Ligusticum cornuhiense is found,

not only in Cornwall, but in Portugal, Italy

and Greece ; Schwenkia americana grows in

Guinea as well as in South America. Such

therefore, thou2;h suffered to remain on the

authority of Linnasus, will seldom or never

be imitated by any judicious writer, unless

TroUius europceus and asiaticus may justify

our naming the third species of that genus,

lately brought from America, americanus.

The use of a plant is often commodiously

expressed in its specific name, as Brassica

oleracea, Papaver somniferum, Inocarpiis

edulis; so is likewise its time of flowering,

as Primula veris, Leucojum vernum, cEstiviim

and autiimnale, and Hellehorus hyemalis.

When a plant has been erroneously made
into a new genus, the name so applied to it
may be retained for a specific appellation, as

SPECIFIG NAMES. 381

LathritaPhehjpcca, and Bartsia Gymnandra;
which may also be practised when a plant has
-been celebrated, either in botanical, medical,
or any other history, by a particular name,
as Origanum DictamnuSy Artemisia T)ra-
cunculus^ Lauriis Cinnamonium, Seliiium
Carvifolia, Carica Fapai/a. In either case
the specific name stands as a substantive, re-
taining its own gender and termination, and
must begin with a capital letter ; w hich last
circumstance should be observed if a species
be called after any botanist who has niore
particularly illustrated it, as Cortusa Mat-
thioli and C. Gmelini, Duranta Phtmierii,
and Mntisii. The latter jrenus su2:2:ests an
improvement in such kind of names. The
genitive case is rightly used for the person
who founded the genus, D. Flumierii ; D.
Mutisiana might serve to commemorate the
finder of a species, while jD. ElUsia implies
the plant which bears it to have been once
called Ellisia.

There is another sort of specific names in
the genitive case, which are to me absolutely
intolerable, though contrived by Linnaeus in
his latter days. These are of a comparative

3S2 SPECIFIC NAMES.

kind, as Lobelia- Columnecc, meaninc: Co-
lumne(Bformis. We may allow a few such,
already established, to remain, but no ju-
dicious author will imitate them.

Botanists occasionally adapt a specific name
to some historical fact belonging to the plant
or to the person whose name it bears, as Lin^
■ncca horcalis from the great botanist of the
north ; Miurcca eaotica after one of his fa-
vourite pupils, a foreigner; BronalUa de*
missa and data, from a botanist of humble
origin and character, who afterwards became
a lofty bishop, and in M'hose work upon wa-
ter I find the following quotation from Se-
neca in the hand-writing of Linnieus: " Many
might attain wisdom, if they did not sup-
pose they had already reached it." In like
manner Bujfonia teniiifolia is well known to
be a satire on the slender botanical pretensions
of the great French zoologist, as the Hi Ilia
parasitica of Jacquin, though perhaps not
meant, is an equally just one upon our pomp-
ous Sir John Hill. I mean not to approve of
such satires. They stain the purity of our
lovely science. If a botanist dot's not de-
serve commemoration, let him sink peaceably

CHANGES OF NAMES. 383

into obli\ion. It Scivoiir.s of nialignlly to
make his crown a crown ot thorns, and it' the
aj)phcation be unjust, it is truly diabohcal.

Before I conclude the subject of nomen-
clature, I beg leave to ofter a few reflections
on changes of estabhshed names. It is ge-
nerally agreed among mankind that names of
countries, places, or things, sanctioned by
general use, should be sacred ; and the study
of natural history is, from the nmltitude of
objects with which it is conversant, neces-
sarily so encumbered with names, that stu-
dents require every possible assistance to fa-
cilitate the attainment of those names, and
have a just right to complain of every need-*
less impediment. The grateful Hollanders
named the island of Mauritius after the hero
who had established their libertv and pro-
sperity ; and it ill became the French, at that
period dead to such feelings, to change it,
when in their power, to /.v/c cle France, by
which we have in some late botanical works
the barbarous Latin of Insula Franc'icc. Nor
is it allowable to alter such names, even for
the better. Americo Vespucci had no very
great pretensions to give his own name to u

384 RIGHT OP OCCASIONALLY

quarter of the world, yet it is scarcely pro-
bable that Columbia will supersede America.
In our science the names established throu^rh-
out the works of Linneeus are become cur-
Tent coin, nor can they be altered without
great inconvenience. Perhaps, if he had
foreseen the future authority and popularity.
of his writings, he might himself have im-
proved upon many which he adopted out of
deference to his predecessors, and it is in some
cases to be regretted that he has not suffi-
ciently done so. In like manner, the few great
leaders in natural knowledge must and will
be allowed to ward off and to correct, from
time to time, all that may deform or enfee-
ble the prevailing system. They must choose
between names nearly of the same date, and
even between good and bad ones of any date.
A botanist who, by the strength of his ow^i
superior knowledge and authority, reforms
and elucidates a whole tribe of plants hitherto
in confusion, as a Hed\yig in Mosses, or
Acharius in Lichens, ought to be unshackled
in every point in which he can be of service.
His wisdom will be evinced by extreme cau-
tion and reserve in using his liberty with re-

CHANOINO NAMES. S&J

spect to new itamcs, but more especially new
terms; and, after all, he will be amenable
to the general tribunal ot" botanists, and the
judgment of those who come after him. Few
indeed are illustrious enough to claim such
privileges as these. Those who alter names,
often for the worse, according to arbitrary
rules of their own, or in order to aim at con-
sequence which thoy cannot otherwise attain,
are best treated with silent neglect. The
system should not be encumbered with such
names, even as synonyms.

When, however, solid discoveries and im-
provements are made in the science ; when
species or genera have been confounded by
Linnaius himself, and new ones require to be
separated from them, the latter must neces-
sarily receive appropriate appellations ; as
also when a totally wrong and absurd name
has by mistake been given ^ as Begonia ca-
pensis; in such cases name^s must give place
to things, and alterations proceeding from
such causes must be submitted to. Thus I
believe Mr. Salisbury's Castalia is well sepa-
rated from Ni/mphcEG. See An?ials of Bo^
tany^ r. 2. 71-

2 c

S86 coni POUND

A great and just complaint has arisen" in
my time among the cultivators of botany,
who found the names of many garden plants-^
witli which they had long been- conversan-t,
altered for othcFS without any apparent cause,
and in many instances for the worse; as
Arktolochia macropliylla, an excellent and
expressive name, for a rery unappropriatc
oncy A, Sipho, For this I am obliged to^
censure my much regretted and very intelli-
gent friend L'Heritier. When he came ta
England to reap the rich harvest of our un-
described plants, he paid no respect to the
generic or specific names by which Dr. So-
lander or others had called them, because
those names were not printed ; but he in-
dulged himself, and perhaps thought he con-
firmed his own importance, by contriving
new ones ; a factitious mode of gaining eele^
brity, to which his taknts ought to have been
infinitely superior. Nor would it have been
easy to say how far this inconvenient plan
of innovation might have extended, had not
the Hortm Keweims come forth to secure
our remaining property..

I have only to add a few words respecting

GENERIC NAMES. 38?

i\ kind of generic names that has of late be-
come more common than Linnanis probably
would liave approved, though he has once or
twice allowed it ; I allude to those com-
pounded either of two cstabli.*;hed names, or
of one combmed Mith any other word. Of
the former number is Calajnagrotiiia, formed
of Calamus and Jgroafis, two Linnecan
names ; and this is no where sanctioned by
any good authority. Happily the genus to
which it has negligently been applied is an
Anuido. Of the latter sort is Cissampelos,
formed of Cissus^ another established genus,
and Ampelos^ a Vine ; the latter not among
Linnaian names : also EhidgnuSi constructed
of two old Greek names, neither of which is
now hi botanical use by itself. These are
both expressly allowed by Linnaeus, nor in-
deed can there be any objection to the latter.
Cissampelos may certainly justify Tlyoscya--'
mus, composed of Cijamus and a word de*
noting swine ; if not, this would prove an
objection to the reestablishment of Cyamus^
much more to the purpose than any that ha^
been advanced ; for Hyoscyamus having been
^o long and univerEally used in systematiq^
2 c 2

GOMPOUND NAMES.

botany, could scarcely give place, even to
its venerable prototype. On the same ground
only can several new generic names, used in
the fern tribe, be admitted. These are
formed out of Fteris, the established generic
appellation of a common Brake, with some
other Greek word prefixed; rs Angiopteris,
a Brake with a capsule, Tmesipterh, a cloven
Brake, and Canopteris a new Brake. What-
ever may become of the former two, I must
always protest against the last, given by the
celebrated Bergius to the Darea of Jussieu,
on account of its unexampled impropriety.
As well might any new genus, resembling a
Rose, be called Novarosa ; for though the
Greek language may assist us with regard to
sound, it can never make amends for a radi-
cal deficiency o^ sense.

389

CHAPTER XXIII.

EXPLANATION OF THE LIXNiEAN ARTI-
FICIAL SYSTEM.

The Linnaean System is, as I have already
observed, professedly artificial. Its sole aim
is to help any one to learn the name and his-
tory of an unknown plant in the most easy
and certain manner, by first determining its
Class and Order in this system ; after which
its Genus is to be made out by comparing
the parts of fructification with all the generic
characters of that Order ; and finally its Spe-
cies, by examining all the specific definitions
of the Genus. We thus ascertain the gene-
ric and specific name of our plant in Linnaeus,
and under those we find an enumeration,
more or less ample, of its Synonyms, or the
different appellations it has received from
other writers, with a reference to figures in

390 OF THE UNNJEAN

various books ; and as Linnaeus always cites
Bauhin's Vinax, M^hich is the common bo-
tanical catalogue, or index to all previous
works, we thus gain a clue to every thing
recorded concerning our plant. Of all this
mass of information and entertainment M'e
shall find nothing more concise, luminous, or
engaging, either with respect to the distinc-.
tions, uses, or history of plants, than what is
diffused through the various publications of
Linnaeus himself; and the same may, with
at least equal truth, be said of those of his
works which illustrate the Animal kingdom,
His magic pen turns the wilds of Lapland
into fairy land. He has all the animals of
Sweden as much at his call, as our first pa-=
rent while the terrestrial paradise was yet in
primssval tranquillity. No writer whatc ver has
rendered the natural productions of the hap-
piest and most luxuriant climates of the globe
half so interesting or instructive as Linnaeus
has made those of his own northern countr}^
The Classes of the Linna?an System are
24, and their distinctions are founded on the
number, situation, or proportion of the Sta-
mens, The Orders are founded either on the

AIITIPICIAL SYSTF.M.

301

number of the Pistils, or on some circumstance
equally easy, which ^vc shall in due lime ex-
plain.

The first eleven Classes are characterized
solely by the number of the Stamens, and
distinguished by names, of Greek derivation,
expressive of these distinction^..

L MoXANpRTA. Stamen
A small Class.

2. DiANDRiA. Stamens

3. TllIAXDRIA -- — ' "

4. Tetrandiiia •

5. Pkdjttanpria

A numerous Class.

6. Hexandria

7. Heptandria

1.

A very small Class.
3. Octandria — —
9. Enneaxdrja

A small Class.

10. Decandria

11. dopecanpria-
|2. icosaxpria

3.

4,
0.

G.

7.

8.
9.

- 10,

- 12 to 19.

- 20 or more

Stamens, inserted into the Cahp\ Here
■vj-e first iind the situation of the StaTucns

392 LINN^AN

taken into consideration. They grow out
of the sides of the Calyx, often from a sort
of ring, as in the ^Strawberry. This is
truly a natural Class, as are several of the
followino' ones ; so that in these instances
the Linnaean method of arrangement per-
forms more than it promises. The charac-
ter of this Class is the more important,
as such a mode of insertion indicates the
pulpy fruits which accompany it to be infal-
libly wholesome, and this holds good, not
only when the stamens are numerous, but
in all other cases. Thus JUbc^s, the Cur-
rant and Gooseberry genus, whose .5 sta-
mens grow out of the calj^x, stands in the
iifth class, a wholesome fruit, among many
poisonous berries. No traveller in the
most unknown wilderness need scruple to
eat any fruit whose stamens are tlius situ-
ated ; while on the other hand he will do
well to be cautious of feeding on any
other parts of the plant.

13. PoLYANDRiA. Stamcns numerous, com-
monly more so than in the last Class, and
inserted into the Receptacle, or base of

CLASSES. 99s

th flower, as in the Poppy, Anemone, Sec,
The plants of this fine and numerous Class
are ver, distinct in nature, as well as cha-
racter, trom those of the Icosandrta,

14-. Did YN AM I A. Stamens 2 long and 2
short. Here proportion comes to our as-
sistance. This is a natural Class, and con-
tains most of the labiate, ringeiit or per-
sonate flowers, as the Dead-nettle, Snap-
dragon, Fox-glove, Sic.

Ij. Tetr ADYNAMIA. Stamcus 4 long and
2 short. A very natural Class, compre^
bending all the Cruciform flowers, as the
Wall-flower, Stock, Radish, Mustard, See.
Ckome only does not properly belong to
the rest.

16. MoNADELPHiA. Stamens united by
their filaments, more or less extensively,
into one tube, as the Mallow tribe, in
which such union is very remarkable, and
the Geranium famil}^, in which it is less
evident.

17. DiADELPHiA. Stamens united into 3

parcels, both sometimes cohering together
at the base. This Class consists of Papi-
lionaceous flowers, and is therefore natural,
except that some such genera having (di-
stinct Stamens are excluded, and referred
to the tenth Class, ir^ consideration of their
number solely ; as some ringent flowers
■with only 2 Stamens are necessarily placed,
not in the X4th Glass, but the 2d.

18. Poly A DEL PHI A. Stamens united into
more than ^ parcels, as in St. John'*s-\yort.
A small Class, in some points related to
Icosandria.

49. Syngenesia. Stamens united by their
Anthers into a tube, rarely by their Fila-
ments also ; and the flowers arp Com-
pound. A very natural and extremely
numerous Class. Examples of it are the
Dandelion, Dajsy, Sunflo\yer, &c.

20. Gynandria. Stamens united with, or
growing out of the Pistil ; either proceed-
ing from the Germen, as in Aristolochia,
Pngl Bot. t. 398, or from the Style, as in

CLASSGS. 395

the Orchis family- The Passion-flower is
wroDorly put by Linnaeus and others into
this Class, as its stamens merely grow out
of an elongated receptacle or column sup-
porting the Germen.

21. MoNORCiA. Stamens and Pistils in se-r
parate flowers, but both growing on the
same plant, or, as the name expresses,
dwelling in one house, as the Oak, Hazle,
and Fir.

22. DioECiA. Stamens and Pistils not only
in separate flowers, but those flowers situ-
ated on two separate plants, as in the
Willow, Hop, Yew, &c.

These two last Classes are natural when
the barren flowers have, besides the dif-
ference in their essential organs, a different
structure from the fertile ones in other re-i
«pects ; but not so when they have the
same structure, because then both organs
are liable to meet in the same flow^er. In
some plants, as RJwdioIa, Engl. Bot. t. 508,
each flower has always the rudiments of
the other organ, though generally inefli-
cient.

39^ tlNN^AN CLASSES

23. PoLYGAMiA. Stamens and Pistils se-
parate in some flowers, united in others,
either on the same plant, or on two or
three different ones.

This Class is natural only when the se-
veral flowers have a different structure, as
those of Afriple.v ; but in this genus the
Pistil of the united flower scarcely pro-
duces seed. If, with Linnaeus, we admit
into Folugamia every plant on which
some separated barren or fertile flowers
may be found among the united ones,
while all a2:ree in o-eneral structure, the
Class will be overwhelmed, especially with
Indian trees. I have therefore proposed
that regard should be had to their general
structure, which removes all such incon-
venience, and renders the Class much more
natural.

24. Cryptogam I A. Stamens and Pistils
either not well ascertained, or not to be
numbered with any certainty, insomuch
that the plants cannot be referred to any
of the foregoing classes. Of this Ferns,
Lichens, Sea-weeds and Mushrooms are
examples.

AND OnDF.RS. 397

Appendix. PALMiTl, Palm-trees, a
magnificent tribe ot" plants, chiefly tropical,
whose flowers vrerc too little known, when
Linnaeus wrote, to serve the purposes of
classification ; but they are daily clearing
up, and the Palms are found generally
to belonir to the Classes Monoccia, Dioecla^
or Hcxandrich

The Orders of the Linna^an System arr,
in the first 13 Classes, founded on the num-
ber of the Styles, or on that of the Stigmas
when the Styles are wanting, which occurs in
Viburnum. Such Orders are accordingly
named

MoNOGYNiA. Style, or sessile Stigma, 1.
DiGYNiA. Styles, or sessile Stigmas, 2.

Tr I G Y N I A • 3.

Tetragyxia 4.

Pentagynia 5.

Hexagynia 6*,

of very rare occurrence.

Heptagynia " 7»

still more unusual.

O C T A G Y N I A 8,

scarcely occurs at all.

40O LINN^AN

Linnaeus has a 6th Order in this Cla.«s,
named Monogamia^ consisting of simple
flowers with united anthers; hut this I have
presumed to disuse, because the union of
the anthers is not constant throughout the
species of each genus referred to it, witness
Lobelia and Viola, while on the contrary
several detached species in other Classes
have united anthers, as in Gentiana, Engl.
Bot. t. 20. These reasons, which show
the connection of the anthers of a simple
flower to be neither important in nature,
nor constant as an artificial character, are
confirmed by the plants of this whole Lin-
mean Order bcinsr natural allies of others
in the 5th Class, and totally discordant,
in every point, from the compound sjaige-
nesious flowers.

The Orders of the 20th, 21st and 22d
Classes are distinguished by the characters of
some of the Classes themselves which precede
them, that is, almost entirely by the number
of their Stamens; for the union of the anthers
in some of them is, for the reasons just given,
of no moment.

TIhj Orders lA' tin; 2.'3(1 CIuh/j, Voliifj/itniu,
jirc, acrordJij;^ to llio l)cu(itiiiii uiiiiorniiiy of
plan wliii:li runs llirouj;^li this iii/;c/iioii» by-
.stem, distinguLslit'd upon the pruu.ijilcs of tho
Classfs nnrn'-fliatcly prercdin;:.

1, Mo.voi'Xi A has flowers with Stamens and
J'istils ofi lh«; same phint with otfiers that
})uvf; only j'istjls, or only Stamens; or
perha[)s all these three kinds of blossoins
oeciir ; hut. whatever the rjifli^re-nt kinds
may he, they arc r;onfinf;d to fjiie plant.

'2. \)i<)Ia:\.\ ha.'s the two or l ni«;<; i.,/i'J-. oi'
flowers on two sfpariitf plant-.

.'>. 'J'jMoj^ciA lias tiieru Oii {[n'int hejraratc
jiiants, oi' which the Ti^ i.s the only real
evairiple, and in that the structure of tli'i
flowers is alike i:i all.

The Orders of the 24th Class, Cnjpfona-
mia, are profes5^;dly natural, i'liey are 4 in
Linna'UH, but wc now reckon 5.

i. I'/i If i:s. Ferns, wliow* fructification is

obscure, and j^rows either on the hack,

ftunnnit, or near the liase of the leaf,

thence denominated a frond. See/;. 133.

2 D

402 LINTfAAlT

2. Mu&€i. Mosses, which Iiave real sepa-
rate leaves, and often a stem ; a hood-like
corolla, or calyptra^ bearing the style, and
concealing the capsule, which at length
rises on a stalk with the cahjptra^ and
opens by a lid.

3^. Hepatic.e. Liverworts, whose herb is
a frond, being leaf and stem united, and
:^hose capsules do not open with a lid.
Linnaeus comprehends this Order under
the following.

4. AlCx.^. Flags, whose herb is likewise a
frond, and whose seeds are imbedded,
cither in its very substance, or in the disk
of some appropriate receptacle.

5. Fungi. Mushrooms, destitute of herbage,
bearing their fructification in a fleshy sub-
stance.

Such are the principles of the Linnsean
Classes and Orders, which have the advan-
tage of all other systems in facilitj', if not
conformity to the arrangement of nature;
the latter merit they do not claim. They
are happily founded on two organs, not only
essential to a plant, but both necessarily pre-

ORDERS. 403

sent at the same time ; for though the Orders
of the 14th and loth Classes are distinguished
by the fruit, they can be clearly ascertained
even in the earliest state of the germen*.

Tournefort founded his Orders on the fruit ;
and his countryman Adanson is charmed with
the propriety of this measure, because the
fruit conies after the tlower, and thus prece-
dence is given to the nobler part which di-
stinguishes the primary di\ isions or Classes !
But happily the laws of a drawing-room do
not extend to philosophy, and we are allowed
to prefer parts which we are sure to meet
with at one and the same moment, without
waiting a month or two, after we have made

* An instance apparently to the contrary occurs in
the history of my Hastingia coccinca, Exot. Bot. t. SO,
a plant most evidently, both by character and natural
affinity, belonging to the Dldynamia Gyinnospermia, but
as I could no where find it described in that Order, I
concluded it to be unpublished; and was not a little sur-
prised to be told some time afterwards, that it was extant
in the works of my friends Retzius and Willdenow,
under Didijnamia Angiospermiaj by the name of Holms-
kioldiu, after a meritorious botanist. This last name
therefore, however unutterable, must remain ; and I
wish the Linnaean system, as well as myself, might bs
as free from blame in all other cases as in this.
2 d2

DIFFICULTIES IN THE

out the Class of a plant, before we can settle
its Order.

' The Linnaean System, however, like all hu-
man inventions, has its imperfections and dif-
ficulties. If we meet in gardens with double
or monstrous flowers, whose essential organs
of fructification are deformed, multiplied, or
changed to petals ; or if we find a solitary
barren or fertile blossom only ; we must be
at a loss, and in such cases could only guess
at a new- plant from its natural resemblance
to some known one. But the principal im-
perfection of the System in question consists,
not merely in what arises from variations in
number or structure among the parts of a
flower,, against which no system could provide,
but in the differences which sometimes occur
between the number of Stamens, Styks, &c.,
in different plants of the same natural genus.
Thus, some species of Cerastium have only 4,
others 5, Stamens, though the greater part
have 10. Lijc/niis dioica has the Stamens on
one plant, the Pistils on another, though the
rest of the sfcnus has them united in the same
flower; and there are several similar in-
stances ; for number in the parts of fructifica-

LINN^AN SYSTEM. 403

tion is no more invariable than other charac-
ters, and even more uncertain than such as
are founded on insertion, or the connexion of
one part with another. Against these incon-
veniences the author of this System has pro-
vided an all-suOicient remedy. At the head
of every Class and Order, after tlie genera
which properly belong to them, he enume-
rates, in italics, all the anomalous species of
genera stationed in other places, that, by
their own peculiar number of Stamens or
Styles, should belong to the Class or Order
in question, but which are thus easily found
with their brethren by means of the index.

It is further to be observed that Linnicus,
ever aware of the importance of keeping the
natural affinities of plants in view, has in each
of his artificial Orders, and sections of those
Orders, arranged the genera according to
those affinities ; while at the head of each
Class, in his Si/stema Vegetabilium, he places
the same genera accordins; to their technical
characters ; th.us combining, as far as art can
keep pace with nature, the merits of a natural
and an artificial system, liis editors have
seldom been aware of this ; and jMurrav

406 NATURAL SYSTEM

especially, in his 14lh edition of the hook
just mentioned, has inserted new plants with-
out any regard to this original plan of the
work.

From the foreooins: remarks it is easy to
comprehend what is the real and highly im-
portant use of the Genera Flanfarum of
Jussieu arranged in Natural Orders, the most
learned botanical work that has appeared
since the Species Tlantariim of Linnaeus,
and the most useful to those who study the
philosophy of botanical arrangement. The
aim of this excellent author is to bring the
genera of plants together as much as possible
according to their natural affinities ; con-
structing his Classes and Orders rather from
an enlarged and general view of those affini-
ties, than from technical characters previ-
ously assumed for each Class or Order ; ex-
cept great and primary divisions, derived
chiefly from the Cotyledons, the Petals, and
the insertion of the Stamens. But his cha-
racters are so far from absolute, that at the
end of almost every Order we find a number
of genera merely related to it, and not pro-
perly belonging to it, and at the end of the

OF JUSSIF.C. 407

system a very large asscmbliige of genera in-
capable of being referred to any Order what-
ever. Nor could a learner possibly use this
system as a dictionary, so as to find out any
unknown plant. The characters of the Or-
ders are necessarily, in proportion as those
Orders are natural, so widely and loosely
constructed, that a student has no where to
fix ; and in proportion as they are here and
there more defined, this, or any other system,
becomes artificial, and liable to the more ex-
ceptions. The way therefore to use this va-
luable work, so as to ascertain an unknown
plant, is, after turning to the Order or Genus
to which we conceive it most probably allied,
to r^ad and study the characters and obser-
vations there brought together, as well as all
to which they may allude. We shall find we
learn more from the doubts and queries of
Jussieu than from the assertions of most other
writers. We shall readily perceive whether
our plant be known to him or not ; and if at
the same time we refer it, by its artificial
characters, to the Linnajan System, we can
bardly fail to ascertain, even under the most
difhcult circumstances, whether it be de-

408 SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU.

scribed by either of these authors. A stu-
dent may acquire a competent knowledge of
natural orders, with very great pleasure to
himself, by repeatedly turning over the work
of Jussieu with any known plants in his
hand, and contemplating their essential ge-
neric characters in the first place, and then
what regards their habit and afiinities ; pro-
ceeding afterwards to combine in his own
rhind their several points of agreement, till he
is competent to form an idea of those assem-
blages which constitute natural Classes and
Orders. This will gradually extend his ideas ;
whereas a contrary mode would only con-
tract them, and his Jussieu \vould prove
merely an artificial guide, without the advan-,
tages of facility or perspicuity.

-lOi)

CHAPTER XXIV.

ILLUSTRATIOXS OF THK LIXNiEAN

CLASSES AND ORDERS.

1 PROCEED to Ji compendious view of the
Linnipan Classes and Orders, which will sei*ve
to illustrate many thing's in the preceding
pages.

Class 1. MQuandvia. Stamen X.

This contains only two Orders.
1. Monogi/nia. Style 1. Here we fmd the
beautiful exotic natural order called Sci-
taminecc, consisting of Cardamoms, Gin-
e;er, Turmerick, &c., hitherto a chaos, till
Mr. Roscoe, in a paper printed in the 8th
vol. of the Limuean Society's Transactions,
reduced them to very natural and distinct
genera by the form of the filament. See
Jt:xQt,Bot. t. 102, 103, 106—8.

X

410 MONANDRIA. DIANDRIA,

Salicorjiia, Engl Bot. t. 415 and ICQI,
and Ilippiiris, t. 763, are British examples
of Monandria Monogi/nia,

Valeriaua (Class 3) has some species
with one stamen.

2. Digipiia. Styles 2. Contains Corispermum^
11. GrcEc. 1. 1, Blittim, Curt. Mag. t, 276,
and a few plants besides.

Class 2. Dlandrla. Stamens 2.— Orders 3^.

1. Monogynia, This, the most natural and
numerous Order, comprehends the elegant
and fragrant Ja.vninece, the Jasmine, Lilac,
Olive, Sec, — also Veronica, Engl. Bot, t. 2,
3027, 623, 783, &c.— and a few labiate
flowers with naked seeds, as Salvia, Engl.
Bot. t. 153, 154, Rosemary, &c., natural
allies of the 14th class ; but having only
two stamens, they are necessarily ranged
here in the artificial system.

2. D igi/nia consists only oi Antlioxanthum,
a grass, Engl. Bot. t, 647, which for the
reason just given is separated from its na-
tural family in the third class.

3. Trigijnia — ^has only Viper, the Pepper, a
large tropical genus.

TRIANDRIA. 411

Class 3. Triamlria. Stamens 3. — Orders 3.

\. Moiwpjma. Valeriana, Efigl. Bof. f.G^Sy
1,591 «nd 1531, is placed here because
most of its species have three stamens.
See Class 1. Here also we find the sword-
leaved plants, so amply illustrated in Cur-
tis's Magazine, Iris, Gladiolus, Lria, (Sec,
also Crocus, Engl Bot. f. 343, 344, 491,
and nimierous grass-like plants, K>cJiKnus^
Cyperus, Scirpus, see FL Grccc. v. 1, and
EnglBot, ^.9.50, 1309, 54^2, 873, &c.

2. Digynia. This important Order consists
of the true Grasses; see p. Vll . Their
habit is more easily perceived than de-
fined ; their value, as furnishing herbage
for cattle, and grain for man, is suffi-
ciently obvious. No poisonous plant is
found among them, except the Loliu?7i
iemulentunij Engl. Bot. f. 1124, said tp
be intoxicating and pernicious in bread.
Their genera are not easily defined. Lin-
nseus, Jussieu, and most botanists pay re-
gard to the number of florets in each
spikclet, but in Arundo this is of no mo-

4lf TRIANDRIA.

ment. ^lagnificent and valuable works
on this family have been published in Ger-
many by the celebrated Schreber and by
Dr. Host. The 17. Grceca also is rich in
this department, to which the late Dr. Sib-
thorp paid great attention. Much is to be
expected from scientific agriculturists ; but
Nature so absolutely, in general, accom-
modates each grass to its own soil and sta-
tion, that nothing is more diflicult than to
overcome their habits, insomuch that few
grasses can be generally cultivated at plea-
sure.

3. Trigipua is chiefly composed of little
pink-like plants, or Cari/ophijllcce, as Ho-
losteum^ Engl. Bot, t. 27-

Tilhea muscosa, t. Il6, has the number
proper to this order, but the rest of the
genus bears every part of the fructification
in fours. This in Linna^an lansfuafre is ex-
pressed by saying the flower of Tillcca is
qnadrijidia^'% four-cleft, and T, muscosa
excludes, or lays aside, one fourth of the
fructification.

* 3ec Unn. Sp, PI, 186, and Curt. Lond.fasc. G.t. 31.

TETRANDRIA* 413

Class 4. Tefraiulria, Stamens 4. — Orders 3.

1. Monogij)iiiu A vcny numerous and vari-
ous Order, of \vliich the Proteaccce make
a conspicuous part, consisting of Proica,
Banks/a, Latnhcrfiu, Emhothruim, cS:c.
See Botanji of ]^ew Holland, t. 7 — 10.
Scahio.sa, Engl. Jjof. t. 6.39 ; Plant ago,
t. 1558, 1539, remarkable for its capaiila
c'n'cumscissa, a membranous capsule, se-
parating by a complete circular fissure into
two parts, as in the next genus, Ctnitnn-
cnlus, t. 531 ; Rubia, t. 851, and others
of its natural order, of whose stipulation
we have spoken p. 219, are found here,
and the curious Epimcdium^ f. 438.

J. DiGYNiA. Buffonia, t. 1313.

Ciiscuta, placed liere by Linnaeus, is
best removed to the next class.

3. Tetragyxia. Ilex, t. 496', a genus
sometimes furnished with a few barren
flo\vers, and therefore removed by Hudson
to tli^ ^ISd class, of which it only serves
to show the disadvantage ; Potamogeton,
t. 168, 376, and Ruppia, i. 136, are ex-

4H VENTANDRIA,

amples of this Order. They all have sessile

stigmas.

Class 5. Tentandria. Stamens 5. A ver}^
large class. — Orders 6.

2. Monogijnia, One of the largest and most
important Orders of the whole system.
The genera are enumerated first artificiallj,
according to the corolla being of one petal
or more, or wanting ; inferior or superior ;
with naked or covered seeds ; but stand
in the system according to their affinities,
and compose some natural orders ; as
Ai>perifoU(E, rough-leaved plants, which
have a monopetalous inferior corolla, and
four naked seeds, with always more or less
of spinous bristles or callous asperities on
their foliage; see Borago^ Engl. Bot, t. 3G,
Lycopsis, t, 938, and Echiu?n, t. 181.
Next comes that most elegant tribe of
spring plants denominated Pre cue by Lin-
naeus, Frimula, t, 4 — 6, Cydanien, t. 548,
the charming alpine J ret^/<7, and Androsace,
Curt, Mag. t. 743. These are followed
by another Linnaean order, neaity akin,
called Bofacece, from the wheel-shaped
corolla, Hoftonia, Evgl. Bot t, 364, Lysi"

fnachia, t. 76 1. — Convolvulus and Cuni-'
panula, two large well-known genera, come
afterwards ; then Lobelia, t. 140, Jmpa-
ticfis, f.937, and Viola, f.6*19, 6'20, brought
hither from the abolished Linn-ciean order
Sijngeficaia Monogamia. The Lurid^e fol-
loM', so called fuom their fretjuently dark,
gloomy aspect, indicative of their narcotic
and very dangerous qualities ; as Datura,
f, 1288, llyosci/amus, t. 591, Alropa,
t. 592, and Nicotiajia, or Tobacco. In a
subsequent part we meet with the Vine,
Currant and Ivy, and the Order finishes
with some of the natural family of Con-
torts, so called from their oblique or
twisted corolla, and which are many of
them very fine plants, as Vinca, i. ol4,
<)17. They often abound with milky juice,
generally highly acrid ; l)ut Dr. Afzelius
met with a shrub of this order at Sierra
Leone, the milk of whose fruit was so
sweet, as well as copious, as to be used
instead of cream for tea. This is certainly
what no one could have guessed from ana-
logy. Gardenia is erroneously reckoned
a contort a by Linnaeus.

416 PBNTANDRIA.

2. Digtpiia begins with the remainder of
the Contorted ; then follow some incomplete
flowers, as Chenopodimn, t. 1033, Beta,
t, 285, and afterwards the fine alpine ge-
nus of Gentiana, t. 20, 493, 896, famous
for its extreme bitterness and consequent
stomachic virtues.

The rest of the Order consists of the very
natural Umbelliferous family, characterized
by haAing five superior petals, and a pair
of naked seeds, suspended vertically when
ripe from the summit of a slender hair-iike
receptacle. Of the infiorescence of this
tribe, and the dilhculties attending their
generic distinctions, we have spoken j;. 309.
In En/ngiiim, f. 718 and 57, the umbel
is condensed into a capitidum, or conical
scaly head, showing an approach towards
the compound flowers, and accompanied,
as Jussieu observes, by the habit of a
Thistle. Lagoecia is justly referred to
this natural order by the same writer,
though it has only a solitary seed and style.
The UmbelUferce are mostly herbaceous;
the qualities of such as grov/ on dry ground
are aromatic, while the aquatic species are

vnsr/iSDP.iA. H7

'dinoti'^ i\u'. inost tU'/ddly oi' [/iidouH', artcord-
iii^ U) tlic WAunrk oi' LiiiiiaM4«, wlio dcUrct<;d
tlic (:}iiJH<; oj' a dnju'lful dwor(i<ir anion;;
lioriw'd caitl'; in LaplanH, //i tlicjr tiHUw^
yonwr htiiM'H of Ckiila virom, lltif^l. l*oL
t. 47f>>, nndor waOfr.

liolanihts in j[;(;ncral HlirniklVoni the hludy
of llj'i UnihcHJj'rrd', nor have fhcw; planifj
rn iirh bf'-aiily in the (!y(:H()i' umnUturn ; ])ul
they will n-pay tlie trouble of a carefnl ol>-
Hfffvation. Tfie late M. CiiHfum of Mo/jt-
pe'llier hestowed more pain« upon th<'m tliun
any othr?r f)otaniMt has ever done ; but the
world has, a«yet, been favoured with only
a part of \m rciriark«. Mi^ labour h met
with a moit un<^rat/;fid che'ck, la the un-
kindne««, and «till more mortif^ying «tu-
pirlitVjofhi^i wife, wIjo, on Inn absence from*
home, i» recorded l>o tjavc destroyed hi«
whole herbarium, w;raping off tlie dried
H\)tU''itufm% for ttie Jsake of the {/a per oa
whieh tliey were [>a«t/;d !
3. Triiiyjua i« illu«tral>;'i by the KIder, the
Sumarrh or H/iua, Vihurnum, tic, aUo
(lorriiiiola, Kn'jL Jiot. t. b^JH, and Ta-
rnarii, t. 13 IH, of which la»t one •*f)ecle«,
gf.rmanica, tia* 10 ntamtma,
2 L

418 HEXANDRIA.

4. Tetragynia has only Evolvulus, nearly
allied to Convolvulus^ and the elegant and
curious Paniassia, t. 82.

5. Pentagynia contains Staticc, t. 226, 102,
and 328, a beautiful maritime genus, with
a kind of everlasting calyx. The Flora
Gneca has many fine species. Linum or
Flax follows ; also the curious exotic Ahlro-
vanda, Dicks. Dr. PL 30; Drosera, Engl.
Bot. t. 867 — 9 J the numerous succulent
genus Crassula ; and the alpine Sibbaldia^
t. 897> of the natural order of Rosacece.

6. Polijgynia. Alyosurus, t.ASo, ^Lremark-
able instance of few stamens (though they
often exceed five) to a multitude of pistils.

Class 6. He.rcmdria. Stamens 6. Orders 6.

1. Wlonogynia. This, as usual, is the most
numerous. The Liliaceous family, with
or without a spatha, called by Linnseus
the nobles of the vegetable kingdom, con-
stitute its most splendid ornament. The
beautiful White Lily is commonly chosen
by popular writers to exemplify the sta-
mens and pistils. The less ostentatious ge-
nus ofjwicus or Rush, which soon follows,

hEXANDRlA. 41^

is more nearly allied to the I.ilies than a
young botanist would suppose. Near it
stand several o-enera which have little af-
finity to each other, and of these Capiira
is a mistake, havino; bt^en made out of a
specimen of Daphne indica, which chanced
to have but six stamens.

2. Digi/?ua has but few genera. The va-
luable Ori/za, Rice, of which there now
seems to be more than one species, is the
most remarkable. It is a grass with six
stamens.

3. Trigynia, See Humex, Engl, Bot. t, 1533,
127, &c., some species of which have se-
parated flowers ; Tojieldia, t, 556 ; and
Colchicim, t. 133 and 1432.

4. Tetragijnia. Fetiveria alliacea, a plant
the number of whose stamens is not very
constant, and whose specific name is sup-
posed to allude, not only to its gavlic scent,
but also to the caustic humour of the bo-
tanist whom it commemorates.

5. Hexagynia. An order in Schreber and
Willdenow, contains TVendlandia populi-

2 E 2

j420 HEPTANDRIA.

j/oUa of the latter; with Damasonium of
the former, a genus consisting of the Lin-
na^an Stratiotes alismoidesy Eaot. Bot.
t, 15.
6. Foh/fijpua. Alhma only — Engl. Bot.
t. 837, 775, &c.

C L A $ s 7. Ilcptandna. Stamens 7- Orders 4.

1. Mo]Wgi/nia. 'TrioitaUs, Engl. Bot. t.l5,
a favourite plant of Linnaeus ; and A'lscu-
liis, the Horse Chesnut. Several genera
arc removed to this order by late writers.

2. l^igijnia, Limeum^ an African genus,
only.

3. Tetragynia. Saururus^ a Virginian plant.
Jpoiwgeton, placed here by Linnaeus, is
now properly removed to Dodecandria, It
is an East Indian and Cape aquatic genus,
bcarino: above the water white fragrant"
flowers in a peculiar spike, which is either
solitary or double.

4>,IIeptagi/nia. Sepias, a Cape plant, very

nearly akin to Crassida, to which Thunberg

refers it. If its character in Linnaeus be

■ constant with respect to number, it is very

OCTANDRIA. 421

remarkable, having the calyx in 7 dct'p
segments, 7 petals, 7 germens, and con-
sequently 7 capsules.

Class 8. Octandt'ia. Stamens 8. Orders 4-

1, Mono^iin'ui. A w.xy various and rich or-
der, consisting of the wcll-lviioun Tropav-
liint or Nasturtium, whose original Latin
name, given trom the flavour ot" the plant,
like Garden Cresses, is now become its
English one in every body's moiitli. The
elegant and fanciful Linntcan appellation,
equivalent to a fropliy plant, alludes to its
use for decorating bowers, and the re-
semblance of its peltate leaves to shields,
as well as of its flowers to golden helmets,,
pierced through and ihrough, and stained
with blood. See Linn, llort. Ciiff, 143. —
Epilobium, Engl. Bot, t. 858,' 79.3, c^c,
with its allies, makes a beautiful part of this
order; but above all are conspicuous the
favourite Fuchsia^ the chiefly American
genus Faccinium, t. 456, 319, &c.; the
immense and most elegant genus Erica,
60 abundant in southern Africa, but not
known in America; and the fragrant

422 ENNEANDRIA.

Daphne, t. 1381, of which last the Levant
possesses many charming species. • Acer,
the Maple, is removed hither in FL Brit.
from the 23d class.

2. Digynia has a few plants, but little
known ; among them are Galenla africana^
and Moehringia muscosa.

3. Trigynia. Polygonum, t. 436, 509, 941,
is a genus whose species differ in the num-
ber of their stamens and styles, and yet
none can be more natural. Here there-
fore the Linnsean system claims our indul-
gence. FaidUniad^ndCardiospermum are
more constant.

4. Tetragynia, Here we find the curious
Paris, t. 7, and Adoaa, t, 453. Of the
former I have lately received a new species,
gathered by my liberal friend Buchanan
among the mountains of Nepal.

Class 9* Fnncandria. Stm-nens^. Orders 3.

1. Mojiogynia. Of this the precious genus
Zjuirus, including the Cinnamon, Bay,
Sassafras, Camphor, and many other noble
plants, is an example.

DECANDRM. 423

j2. Trigijnla lias only RheiuN, the Rhubarb,
nearly related to Rumex,

3. Hexasiynia. Butomus ^imhellatus, Engl.
But. /. 6j1, a great ornament to our rivers
and pools.

Class 10. Dccandria, Stamens 10.
Orders 5.

1. Monogyuia. A numerous and fine as-
semblage, beginnhig with a tribe of flowers
more or less correctly papilionaceous and
leguminous, which differ very materially
from the rest of that natural order in hav-
ing ten stout, firm, separate stamens. See
Cassia, Curt. Mag. t. 107, 6^S, and
Sophora, t. 167 ; also Eiot. Bof. t, 25 —
27, and Annals of Botany, v. 1. 501.

The Rata, Rue, and its allies, now be-
come very numerous, follow. See Tracts
on Nat. Hist. 287. Dictamnus, vulgarly
called Fraxinella, is one of them. Dioncea
Muscipula, see p. 174, stands in this arti-
ficial order, as do the beautiful Kalmia,
Rhododendron, Andromeda, Arbutus and
Fyrola, Engl. Bot. t. 213, &c.

4,24 DECANDIII.4.

2. Digynia. Saiifraga, remarkable for hav-
ing the germen inferior, half inferior, and
superior, in different species, a very rare
example. See Engl. Bot. t. iGj, 440,
665, 1009, 500, 501. Bianthus, the
Pink or Carnation tribe, and some of its

, very distinct natural order, Caryopliyllece,
conclude the Decandria Digynicu

3. Trigynia. The CaryopliyUece are here
continued, as Cucubaiiis, t. 1577) Sikney
t.465, 1398, Arenarki, t. 189, 512, very
prolific and intricate genera in the Levant.
Malpighia and Banisteria, beautiful plants
of the ]\laple family, which next occur,
have no afiinity to the foregoing.

4. Bentagynia. Abounds in more Caryo-
phyllece, QsLycJmis, t. 573, and Cerastium^
t 789, 790. Cotyledon, t. 325, Sediun,
t. 1319, and Oxalis, t. 762, are placed
here. Some of the last genus have the
filaments united at their base, and there-
fore should belong to the l6"th class,'— an^
other defect in the artificial system.

5. Decagynia. Consists of only Newada^
>vith Fl/ytolacca; the latter an irregular

DODECANDRIA. 425

genus as to stamens and styles, ^vllich
therefore atlbrd good murks to discriiniiiale
the spc:cies.

Class 11. Dudccandria. Stamens 12 to 19«
Orders 0".

1. Monogijjua. A rather numerous and verj
various order, with scarcely any natural a!-.
finity between the genera. Some of them
have twelve, others fifteen or more stamens,
which should be mentioned in their cha-
racters. Asarufji, Engl. Bot. t. 1083, and
the handsome Lytlwum Salicaria, t. 1061,
also the American Snow-drop-trec, Halesia,
not rare in our gardens, may serve as ex-
amples of this order. StercuUa is very
properly removed hither from Gynandria
by Schreber and Willdenow, as its sta-
mens are not inserted above the germen.

2. Digi/iiia consists of HeJiocarpus, a very
rare American tree with a singularly fringed
or radiated fruit ; and Agrimonia, Engl,
Bot. t. 1335. The latter might as well
have been placed in the next class, with
"vvhich it agrees in qatural order.

426 ICOSANDRIA,

3. Trigynia is chiefly occupied by Reseda,
the Mignonette, t. 320, 321, and Euphor-
bia, t. 256, 883, &c., one of the most
well defined and natural genera, of which
the pimicea, Ic. Fict. t. 3, is a splendid
exotic species.

4. Tetragi/uia, in Schreber and Willdenow^
consists, of Calligoji urn, a genus illustrated
by L'Heritier in the Transactions of Linn,
Sociefi/, V. 1 ; and Aponogeton, already
mentioned p. 420.

5. Penfagi/nia has Glinus, an insignilicant
genus ; and Blackwellia, a doubtfid one,

6. Dodecagynia is exemplified in Semper^
viviim, the Houselcek, [Engl. Bof. t. 1320,
whose styles vary from 12 to 18 or 20.
Seinperviviun sediforme, J acq. Horf. Vind,
f. 81, is a Sedum with a superabundance
of parts in the fructification. Linnaeus
confounded it with >S'. rupestre.

Class 12. Icosandria. Stamens 20 or more,
inserted into the Calyx. Orders 3.

1. Monogynia consists of fine trees, beai-ing
for the most part stone fruits, as the Peachy

ICOSANDRIA. 427

Plum, Cherry, &c., though the leaves and
other parts are bitter, acrid, and, as we
have already mentioned, sometimes very-
dangerous, owing to a peculiar essential
oil, known by its bitter-almond flavour.
See specimens of this family in Engl. Bot.
t 1383, 70G, 841, 842. The Myrtle tribe
is another natural order, comprehended
chiefly under Icosandria Monogynia, a-
bounding in a fragrant and wholesome
aromatic oil. These are plentiful in New
Holland. See Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 255,
also Ejcot. Bot. t.42, 59, and 84. Cari/o-
pliijllus aromaticus, the Clove, should on
every account be removed hither.

2. Pentagi/nia. In this order it is most con-
venient to include* such plants as have
from two to five styles, and occasionally,
from accidental luxuriance only, one or
two more. An example of it is the very
natural family of the Fomacca\ as Fi/riis,
the Apple, Pear, Sec. Engl. Bot. 1. 179,
350, 337 ; and JiJespilus, t. 1523, .Exot.
Bot. t. 18, 85. In this family some spe-
cies of the same genus have five, others
three, two, or only one style, and a corre-

••SS ICOSANDRIA.

spending number of seeds. Sprrcea, nearly
allied to it, stands here, most of its species
having five styles, though some have a
much greater number; see Engl. Bof,
t. 284, 96'0. Mesemhrijanthemum^ a vast
and brilliant exotic genus, of a succulent
liabit, abounding in alkaline salt, and a
few genera naturally allied to it, make up
the rest of the order.

3- Tohjgijma. An entirely natural order of
genuine Rosaceous flowers, except possibly
CaJjicantlius, Here we find llosa, EngL
Bot. t. 187,990—2; Ruhus, ^.826,827,
716; Fragaria, t, 1524; Pofentilla, f. 88,
89,862; Tormeiitilla, t. 863,864'; Geim,
f. 106; Dn/as, t, 451 ; and Comarum,
t. 172 : all elegant plants, agreeing in the
astringent qualities of their roots, bark and
foliage, and in their generally eatable,
always innocent, fruit. The vegetable
kingdom does not afford a more satisfac-
tory example of a natural order, composed
of natural genera, than this; and Linnaeus
lias well illustrated it in the Flora Lap-
ponica. His genus Tormentilla, differing
from Fotentilla in number of petals and

POLYANDRIA. 429

segments of the calyx, though re tamed by
Jussieu, may perhaps be scarcely distinct ;
vet there is a difFerence in their habit,
which has induced me to leave it for
further consideration. Haller united them
both with Frcii^arfa and Comarum^ which
the character and habit of the latter totally
forbid, and Giertner has well suggested a
mark from the smoothness of the Seeds in
Tragaria, (as well as Comnrinn,) to
strengthen that of its pulpy receptacle.
Whate^ er dilliculties may attend these ge-
nera, how admirably does the fruit serve
us in Rosa, Rubu,s, JDnjas and Gciim, to
discriminate those whose leaves, flowers,
and habit all stamp them as distinct! A
student cannot do better than to study
this order and these genera, as an intro-
duction to the knowledge of more obscure
ones; and the beautiful plants which com-
pose it, mostly familiar to every body, are
easily obtained.

Class 13. Volyandria. Stamens numerous,
inserted into the Receptacle. Orders 7-

i. Monogi/uia, The genera of this order are

<30 POLYANDRIA.

artificially distributed according to the
number of their petals, but not so arranged
in the body of the system. They form a
numerous and various assemblage of hand-
some plants, but many are of a suspected
quality. Among them are the Popp\^, the
Caper-shrub, the Sangiiinaria canadensis.
Curt. Mag. t. 162, remarkable for its
orange juice, like our Celandine, Engl.
Bof. t. 1.381 ; also the beautiful jrenus
Cistus with its copious but short-lived
flowers, some of which {Engl. Bof. M321)
have irritable stamens ; the splendid aqua-
tic tribe of A^?/W2;?^^a, Sec, t.\59, l6'0.
But the precious Nutmeg and the Tea
are perhaps erroneously placed here by
Linnaeus, as well as the Clove ; while on
the other hand Cleome more properly be-
longs to this part of the system than to the
15th Class.

2. Digynia has principally the Pceonia,
^.1513, variable in number of pistils, and
Fofhergilla alnifoUa, an American shrub.

3. Trigynia. Delphhuinn the Larkspur, and
Aconitum the Monk's hood, tv>o variable

POLYANURIA. 431

-and uncertain genera as to number of
pistils.

4. Tetrugijnia. Tctvaccra ought, by its
name, to have constantly four pistils, but
the rest of this order arc very ioubtful.
Cari/ocar, whose large rugged woidy nuts
contain the most exquisite kerrtl ever
brought to our tables, and whicli is the
same plant with Gasrtner's and Scllreber's
lllilzoholus, as the excellent Willrlenow
rightly judged, is not certain in nuiiber ;
and still less the Cimicifuga ; Whilst
IValilbomia is probably a Tctracera \ see
Willdenow.

]

5. Pentagynia contams chiefly Aqnihiria

the Columbine, and Nigeila — l)oth strictly
allied to genera in the third order. Reau'
??iitria indeed is here well placed. Some
^igellce have ten styles.

6. TJexagijnia consists of Stratiotes^ ^kg^-
Bot. t. 379 ; ^nd Brascuiciy a new genus of
Schreber's with w hich I am not acquainied.

I would recommend an union of the
last iive orders, for the same reason tfiat

432 POLYAICDEIA,

inffLi(?nced me in the preceding class. Tlicy
now only serve to keep natural genera
asuntler, the species of which not only
diffqr among themselves as to number of
pistils, but each species is often - variable
besides. The genera are so few that no
inconvenience could arise on that account.
I coiceive such reforms, founded in expe-
rience not in theory, serve to strengthen
the system, by greatly facilitating its ap-
plic-Xtion to practice.

7. Tdygijnia. An order for the most part
naiXiral, comprehending some fine exotic
trees, as Dillenia, Exot. Bot. t. 3, 3, 92
ar.d 93 ; Liriodcndron, the Tulip-tree; the
noble Magnolia, (Sic; a tribe concerning
wlaose genera our periodical writers are
fajling into great mistakes. To these suc-
ceed a family of plants, either herbaceous
GH climbing, of great elegance, but of acrid
and dangerous qualities, us Anemone, in a
smgle state the most lovel}^, in a double
one the most splendid, ornament of our
parterres in the spring; Atragcne and
Clematis, so graceful for bowers ; Tliolic"

mOYNAMlA. 43*

frnm, Adonis, Rcuuinculus, Trollius, Htl*
h'bonis and Caltha, all conspicuous in our
^^ardens or meadows, mIiIcIi, with a few
less familiar, close this class.

Nothing can be more injudicious than
uniting these two last classes, as some in-
experienced authors have done. They are
immutably distinct in nature and charac-
ters, whether we ctdi the part which imme-
diately bears the stamens in the Icosandria
a calyx, with most botanists, or a recep-
tacle, M ith Mr. Salisbury in the 8th vol.
of the Linna3an Society's Transactions,
where, among many things which I wish
had been omitted, are some good remarks
concerning the distinction between calyx
and corolla. This the writer in question
considers as decided in doubtful cases bv
the latter sometimes bearing the stamens,
which the former, in his opinion, never
really does.

Class 14. T)idifnamia. Stamens 2 long and
2 short. Orders 2, each on the v.hole
very naturaL

1. Gymnospcrmia* Seeds naked, in the hot-
2 r

431 DIDVKAMIA.

torn of the cah'x, 4, except in Phnjma,
which has a sohtarj seed. — Corolla moiio-
petalous and irregular, a little inflated at
the base, and holding honey, without any
particular nectary. Stamens in 2 pairs,
incurred, with the stjle between them, so
that the impregnation rarely fails. The
plants of this order are mostly aromatic,
and none, I believe, poisonous. The cal)'X
is either m 5 nearly equal segments, or 2-
hpped. Most of the genera aftord excel-
lent essential characters, taken frequently
from the corolla, or from some other part.
Thus, Pcrilla has 2 styles, of \\hich it is
an unique example in this class.

Mentha a corolla whose segments ara
nearly equal, and spreading stamens. Engl,
Bot. t. 446—8.

Lavandula the Lavender, and WeS'
tringia. Tracts on Natural Histoii/, 277,
t, 3, have a corolla resupinata, reversed
or laid on its back.

Teucrium a deeply divided upper lip,
allowing the stamens and style to project
between its lobes. Engl. Bot. t, 680.

yljnga scarcely any upper lip at all,
t. 77 and 489-

DIDYNAMIA. ^5

lAimium has the mouth toothed on each
aide, f. 7C8.

Pritncllay t. 9^1, has forked filaments;
Clconia 4 stigmas; Prasium a pulpy coat
to its seed:>. These instances will sufhce
as clear examples of natural genera, di-
stinguished by an essential technical cha-
racter, in a most natural order.

2. Angiospermia. Seeds in a capiule, and
generally very numerous. — The plants of
this order have the greatest possible affinity
with some families in Pentandria Monogy-
Ilia, Some species even vary from one
class to the other, as Bignonia radicaus.
Curt. Mag. t. 485, and Antirrliinum
Linaria, Engl. Bot. t. 658, 260, in which
the irregular corolla becomes regular, and
the 4 unequal stamens are changed to 5
equal ones ; nor does this' depend, as has
been asserted, on the action of any extrane-
ous pollen upon the stigmas of the parent
plant, neither are the seeds always abortive.
No method of arranc^ement, natural or ar-
tificial, could provide against such ano-
malies as these, and therefore imperfections
must be expected in every system.
2 F 2

/

436 TETUADTNAMIA.

Class 15. Tetrachjnamia. Stamens 4 long
and 2 short. Orders 2, perfectly natural-
Flowers cruclfornu

1. SiUciilosa. Fruit a roundi^li potl, or pouch.
In some genera it is errtire, as Draba,
Engl. Bot. t. 5S6, and the Honesty or
Satin flower Lunaria i in others notched,
as Thlaspi, t. 1659, and J/;cm, t. 52 ;
"which last genus is unique in its natural
order in having unequal petals. CramhCy
^.924; Isatis, t. 97; and Bimias, t. 231 ;
certainly belong to this Order, though-
placed by Linnieus in the next.

2. SiUqiiosai Fruit a xay long pod. Some
genera have a califx clausus,. its leaves
slightly cohering by their sides, as Kapha-
mis, t. 856' ; CheivantJius, t. 462 ; Ilcs-
peris, t. 731 ; Brassica^ t^ 637, <^c.
Others have a spreading or gaping calyx,
2i^Cardamw€yt. 1000; Sisyinhrium, t.S55'r
and especially Sinapis, t. 969 and 1. 1677-

Cleome is a very irregular genus, allied
in habit, and even in the number of sta-
mens of several species, to the Foli/andria
Monogynia. Its fruit, moreover, is a cap-
>sule of one cell, not tlie real Iwo-celled

MONADELPHIA. 437

pod of this Order. Most of its spcicics are
foetid and \cry poisonous, whereas scarcely
any plants properly belonging to this Class
are remarkably noxious, lor I have great
doubts concerning the disease called Ra-
phanht, attributed by Linna*,us to the seeds
oi Rnp/ifUNis liaphanhtrum.

The Cruciform plants are vulgarl}^ called
antiscorbutic, and supposed to be of an
alkalescent nature. Their essential oil,
which is generally obtainable in very small
quantities by distillation, smells like vola-
tile alkali, and is of a very acrid quality.
Hence the foetid scent of water in which
cabbages, or other plants of this tribe,
have been boiled.

Class 16. Moiiadelpliia. Stamens united
by their filaments into one tube- Orders S,
distinguished by the number of their sta-
mens.

i. Tricuirlria is exemphfied hy Shi/ri.nchi{(ir?,
Ic. Fid. t. 9, '<.'^y\^ Ferrarku Ciwt, Maa\
1. 144, 532, both erroneously placed bV
Linnaeus in Gynandrla. Also the sin-ular
Cape plant Aplnjteia^ consisting of a larjio

438 ^ MONADELPHIA.

flower and succulent fruit, springing im-
mediately from the root, without stem or
leaves. On this plant Lmna:'us published
a dissertation in 1775. Tamariadus has
lately been removed hither f^*om the third
Class, perhaps justly.

2. Tentandria. Erodiutji, Engl. Bof. t. 902,
separated, with great propriety, from Ge-
raniiim by UHeritier ; Harmannia, a
pretty Cape genus, Curt. Mag. t. 307 ;
and a few other plants, more or less akin
to the Mallow tribe, compose this Order ;
to v.hich also strictly belong some species
of Linum, Geranium, Sec. Tassijiora,
removed from Gynandria, belongs most
unquestionably to Fentandria Trigijnia,
and by no means to this Class,

3. Heptandria consists onl}^ of Pelargonium
of L'Heritier, an excelleut genus, compri-
sing most of the Cape Geraniums, and
marked by its irregular flower, 7 stamens,
and tubular nectar}- .

4. Ocfondria contains Aitonia, Curt^ Mag.
t. 173, named in honour of the excellent
and universally respected author of the

MONADELPHIA. 439

JTortus Kt'xcensh. Fistia is, I btTK-vr justly,
placed here by Schreber luul Willdciiow.

5. Dccandria. G t'/v/ ///*/////, proprcly socallrd,
Engl. But, t. 404, 405, 272, eS:c., i^ the
principal genus here. The late Professor
Cavanilles, however, in his Disstrtationts
Bota/iic(e, referred to this Order a vast
number of genera, never before suspected
lo belong to il, as Banimteria, Malpighiaj
Turned, Mclia, kc, on account of some
fancied union of their filaments, perhaps
throuiih the medium of a tubular nectary ;
which principle, is absolutely inadmissible ;
for \ve might just as well refer to Alona-
ddphia every plant whose filaments are
connected by insertion into a tubular co-
rolla. Some species of Oralis, see p. 424,
belong to this Order; as do several pa-
pilionaceous genera, of which we shall
speak under the next Class.

6. Bndccandria contains only the splendid
South-American genus Bro:.-nca, the num-
ber of whose stamens is dilTerent in difler-
ent species.

7. DodecaiuJria, Stamens mostly 1 5, is com-

440 DIADELPHIA.

posed of some fine plants allied to the
Mallows, as Fftrospermum, t, 620, Feji^
tapcfes, Sec.

8. Foli/andrla, a ver)^ numerous and mag-
nificent Order, comprises, among other
things, the true Columnifenc or Malvacece,
as ]\falva, Engl. Bot. t. 6'71, 754, Althcca,
1. 147, Hibi.scus, Spicil Bot. t. 8, Gossij-
pium, the Cotton-tree, Alcea the HoU}'-
hock, &c. Stately and heautiful plants of
this Order, though not Malvacece, are
CaroUnea, whose angular seeds are sold in
our shops by the name of Brasil nuts;
Gtistavia, named after the late King of
Sweden, a great patron of botaay and of
Linnaeus; Camellia, Curt. Mag. t, 42,
whose splendid varieties have of late be-
come favourites with collectors ; Stiiartia,
Exot. Bot. t. 110; and Barrmgfoiua, the
original Commersonia, Sonnerat Voy. ci la
Noiiv. Guinee, t. 8, 9-

Class 17. DiacJclphia. Stamens united by
their filaments into 2 parcels, boih some-
times cohering at the base. Orders 4,
distinguished by the number of their Sta-

DIADELPHIA. 441

mens. — Flowers almost universallv papU
lionaceous.

1, PcntaiHh'Ui. Tlic only i;onus in this Or-
der is Mojiuicria, Latjiarck, t. of)6', n raro
little South American plant, whose n..tural
pnL'r is uncertam. It has a ringent co-
rolla, ternate leaves, a simple bristly pu-
bescence, and is bcsprmkled with resinous
dots.

2. llexandi'ia. Sciraca^ in this Order, is as
little known as the Monnieria, exceot that
it undoubtedly belongs to the leguminous
family. It seems most allied to Brownea,
Jonesia, Jfzelia, Sec, Fumaria, tlie only
genus besides, is remarkable tor the great
variety of forms in its seed-vessel, whence
botanists who make genera from technical
characters, without regard to natural prin-
ciples, have injudiciously subdivided it.
See EugL Bot. t, 588—590,943, 1471.

3. Octandvia. Foli/gala, t. 76'? is th.e prin-
cipal genus here. America and the Cape
of Good Hope abound in beautiful species
of It, and New Holland affords some new
genera, long confounded with this. IJal^

442 DIADELPHIA.

bergia is perhaps as well placed in the next
Order.

4. Decandria is by far the niost numerous,
as well as natural, Order of this Class,
consequently the genera are difficult to
characterize. They compose the family of
proper Papiliojiacece or Leguminosce, the
Pea, Vetch, Broom, &c. Their stamens
are most usuall}- 9 in one set, with a single
one separate.

Tlie genera are arranged in sections va-
riously characterized.

* Stamens all imited, that is, all in one
set. The plants of this section are really not
diadelphous but monadelplious. See Spartium,
Engl. Bof, t. 1339. Some of them, as Lu-
pijius, and Uk^, t. 742, 743, have indeed
the tenth stamen evidently distinguished from
the rest, though incorporated with them by
its lower part. Others have a longitudinal
slit in the upper side of the tube, or the lat-
ter easily separates there, as Ononis, t. 682,
without any indication of a separate stamen.
Here therefore the Linnaean System swerves
from its strict artificial laws, in compliancy

DIADELPniA. 443

\^Uh the decisive natural ciiaractcr Mhich
marks the plants in question. \\\^ easily per-
ceive that .character, and have only to ascer-
tain whether any papilionaceous plant we may
have to examine has 10 stamens, all aUke se-
parate and distinct, in which case it belongs
to the 10th Class, or whether they are in any
way combined, which refers it to the 17tli.

** Stigma (Joziinj, without the character
of the preceding section, for this and all the
following are truly diadelphous. Very nice,
but accurate, marks distinguish the genera,
which are suOiciently natural. The style
and stia'i"na afford the discriminative charac-
teristics of Orohus, t. 1153 ; Pisiivi, t. 1046;
Laihifnis,t.6lO, 1108; Vicia, ^ 334, 481 —
483 ; and no less decisively in lirvu?rt^ f. 970,
1223, which last genus, notwithstanding the
remark in Jussieu 360, *' .stjs-ma non barba^
tiuu" (taken probably from no genuine spe-
cies,) most evidently belongs to this section,
as was first remarked in the Flora Britanmca ;
and it is clearly distinguished from all the
other genera of the section by the copiiafc
stigma hain/ all o-cer ; nor is an}^ genus iri
the whole Class more naturjl, wlicn the hi-

444 PIADELPHIA.

therto mistaken species are removed to their
proper places. See FL Brit.

*;;5* f^rryj^jjie imperfect Iif divided into two
ccj'::, always, as in all the following, without
thechafapter of the preceding: sections. This
js composed of the singular E/serrz/ /a, known
by its dcabh^ serrated fruit, of which there
is only one species ; the FJiaca^ Jacq. Ic,
Har. t. 151 ; and the vast gepus of yistra-
galtfs, Engl. Bot. f. 274, &c., lately illus-
trated in a splendid work by .an able French
botanist, Decandolle.

**** Legume icith scarcelij more than one
seed. OF this P5or«/ea, CaivI. Mag. t. (^Grt;
the curious Stijlosanthes of vSwartz; the Hallia
of Thunberg; and our own Trifolinm, Engl.
Bot. t. 1770, 1048—1050, are examples.
The last genus, one of the most natural as
to habit and qualities, is extremely untracta-
ble with respect to botanical characters. Some
species, t. 1047? 1340, 17®? have many
seeds in each pod ; some have not even the
capitate inflorescence made a part of the ge-
neric definition. The difficulty is lessened by
establishing Meliloiu^ as a genus, with Ju^-

Dt/VDELPniA. 41*

sieu : bat the whole reqiiires to be well iy»-
considered : for, if possible, so <;reat u hixity
of definition, \vith such glaring exceptions,
should not disgrace any system.

***** Legume composed of ^ini^le-vaiced
Jointg, ::'!iich arc riirclij aoUtanj. licdij^a-
riim, t, 90» is the most hnportant genus of
this section, and is known by its obtuse or
rectangular keel. IJipiJOO-epis, t. 31; 0/v^/-
thopiis, t, 369 ; and Scorpiiirus, known in
gardens by the name of Caterpillar, from it>
worm-like pod, are further examples. Smiilila^
Ait. Hart. Ken. t. 13, is remarkable for
having the joints of the legume connected by
means of the style, as by a thread ; the sta-
mens in 2 equal divisions, with 5 antliers to
each ; and a two-lipped calyx. Hedi/mriim
vcspertilionis, Jacq. Ic. Hay. L 566', in some
points approaches this genus, and more cer"
tain species are possibly latent among the
numerous unsettled papilionaceous plants of
India.

^^^^■'^'-^ Lcipime of one cell, i.ith several
Steeds. To this belong; the "enus ]\Je Hiatus.
if separated from Trifoliurn : the Indii^oferfi,

446 DIADELPHIA.

several species of which are so valuable for
dyeing blue ; the handsome l\obiniu, Curt,
Mag. t. 311; Cytisus, t, ^76, &c.; and Cli-
toria^, Ins. of Georgia, t. 18: also Lotus,
Engl. Bot. t. 9^25, and Medicago, t. 16"16;
which last is justly transferred by Wiildenov/
from the foregoing section to this.

Papilionaceous plants are rarely noxious to
the larger tribes of animals, though s.ome
species of Galcga intoxicate fish. The seeds
of Ci/fisus Lahurnunilvdve of late been found
violently emetic, and those of Latliyrus sa-
tivus have been supposed at Florence to soften
the bones, and cause death ; we know of no
other similar instances in this Class, which is
one of the most abundant in valuable escu-
lent plants. The negroes have a notion that
the beautiful little scarlet and black seeds of
Ahrus precaioriits, so frequently used for
necklaces, are extremely poisonous, insomuch
that half of one is sufficient to kill a man.
This is totally incredible. Linnaeus however
asserts rather too absolutely, that "among
all the leguminous or papilionaceous tribe
there is no deleterious plant to be found/^

* From xXsfw, to close or shut up, in allusion to the
situation of the witiccs ami keel.

POLYADELnilA. 447

Class 18. Polijaclclphia. Stamens united
by their filaments into more than 2 parcels.
Orders 3, distinguished by the ninnbcr or
insertion of their stamens, which last par-
ticular Linnaeus here overlooked.

No part of the Linnxan system has been
less accurately defined or understood than
the Orders of the 18th Class. WiUdenow,
aware of this, has made some improve-
ments, but they appear to me not suffi-
cient, and I venture to propose the fbllow-
ino; arrantremcnt.

1. Dodecandria. Stamens, or rather Anthers,
from 12 to 20, or 25, their filaments un-
connected with the calyx. Of this the first
example that presents itself is Tlieohromay
the Chocolate tree, Merian. Surin. t. 26",
CS, Lamarck EncijcL L 635. The flowers
have not been seen fresh in Europe, and
we only know them from drawings made
in the West Indies, one of which, pre.'^erved
in the Linneean herbarium, is my authority
for the following descriptions. The fila-
ments are inserted between the long taper-
ing segments of a 5-cleft nectary, on its

448 3?0LYADELP»IA.

outside, and each bears at its summit 4*
sessile, obtuse, spreading anthers. Aublet'»
figure of this genus, which Schreber and
Wilklcnow seem to have followed, repre-
sents but 2. The fruit is perhitps most
properly a berry with a hard coat, vihose
seeds, when roasted, make chocolate,.
Bubroma of Schreber, Guazwna Lamarck,
t. 637, confounded by Linnaeus with the
preceding genus, has similar filaments, but
each bears 5 anthers ; Jussieu and Cava-
niilcs say 3. The fruit is a woody capsule,
with 10 rows of perforations. Abromo,
J acq. Tlort. Vind, v. 3. f. 1. Miller lllustr,
t. Go, has 5 parcels of anthers, nearly
sessile on the outside of the nectary, be-
tween its obtuse, reflexed, notched lobes.
It is difficult to say liow many anthers
compose each parcel, for the different ac-
counts on record are totally irreconcileable.
We have found 3 ; the drawing sent to
Linnaeus represents 6; and Miller has a
much greater number. Perhaps they may
Vary. In this uncertainty the genus in
question is best placed with its natural al-
lies in this order, with a reference to it in
italics at the end of Foli/acklphia Polijan'-

tOLYADEtPHIA. 449

(Irin. Its fruit is a membranous winged
capsule, opening at the top. JMonsoiiia,
Curt. Mag. t, 73, Lamarck, t. i}"5^, re-
moved by Schreber and Wilklenovv to
Monack'fpliia, rather, I think, belongs to
this class M'here Linnaeus placed it. The
5 iilaments, bearing each 3 long-stalked
anthers, "are merely inserted into a short
membranous cup, or nectary, for so the
analogy of the 3 preceding genera mduccs
us to call it ; and if we refer Monsonia to
Monadelphia, we fall into the error of Ca-
vanilles mentioned p. 439- Lastly, Citrus,
the Orange, Lemon, &c., Lamarck., t. G39j
most unquestionably belongs to this Order.
Its stamens are about 19 or 20, combined
variously and unequally in several distinct
parcels; but those parcels are inserted into
a proper receptacle, by no means into the
calyx, as the character of the Class Icosan-
dria indispensably requires. Even the
number of the anthers of Citrus accords
better with most plants in Dodecandria
than in Icosandria, notwithstanding the
title of the latter.

2, Icosandria, Stamens numerous, their
2 Q

450 SYNGENESIA,

filaments inserted (In several parcels) into
the calyx. — To this Order Professor Will-
denow properly refers Melaleuca, Eaot.
Bot. t. 34 — 36, 55, 56, which had previ-
ously stood in Poh/andria, botanists hav-
ing only considered 7iumber and not in-
sertion in the Orders of Folyadelpkia,
whence a double mistake has arisen, con-
cerning Citrus on the one hand, and Me-
laleuca on the other.

3. Tolyandria. Stamens very numerous, un-
connected with the calyx. This Order
consists of several genera. The most re-
markable is Hypericum, Engl. Bot. t. 109,
12^25 — 1227, Sec, whose stamensare united
into 3 or o parcels, corresponding with the
number of its styles. Munchhausia is a
Logerstromia, nor does it appear to be
polyadelphous at all. Linnseus seems to
have intended bringing Thea into this
Order.

Class 19- Syngenesia. Anthers united into
a tube. Flowers compound. Orders 5.

This being truly a natural Class, its Or-
ders are most of them equally so, though

SYNGENESIA. 431

some are liable to exceptions, as will pre-
sently be explained.

1. Vohfgamia cequalis. In this each floret,
taken separately, is perfect or united, be-
ing furnished with its own perfect stamens
and pistil, and capable of bringing its seed
to maturity without the assistance of any
other floret. The Order consists of 3 sec-
tions.

* Florets all liirulate, or strap-shaped,
called by Tournefort semiflosculous. These
flowers are generally yellow, sometimes blue,
very rarely reddish. They expand in a morn-
ing, and close towards noon or in cloudy
weather. Their herbage is commonly milkj^
and bitter. Leontodon, Engl. Bot. t. 510;
Tragopogon, f. 434, 638 ; Hicracium, t. 349,
&c.; and Cichorium, t. 539, exemphfy this
very natural section.

** Flowers globose, generally imifor)?i and

regular, their florets all tubular, 5-cleft, and

spreading. Cardans, t. i()7, 675, 973 —

976; Onopordum, t. 977; and Arctium,

t. 1228, well exemplify this. Carlina, t. 1144,

2g2

452 SYNGENESIA.

does not so exactly agree with the above de-
finition, having a flat disk ; but its affinity
to the other genera is indubitable. Its flat-
tened disk and radiating coloured calyx seem
contrived to imitate the radiated flowers of
the following Order.

*** Tlowers discoid, their florets all tu-
bular, regular, crowded and parallel, form-
ing a surface nearly flat, or exactly conical.
Their colour is most generally yellow, in some
cases |>ink. Santolina, t. 141 ; and Bidens,
t. 1113, 1114, are genuine examples of this
section : Eupatorium, t. 428, and the exotic
Stcehelina, Dicks. Dr. PL 13, approach to
the preceding one. There is however the
most absolute difference between these two
sections, collectively, and the first; while, on
the other hand, they have considerable af-
finity with some of the following Orders, as
will be hereafter explained.

2. Tohigannasuperflua. Florets of the disk
perfect or united ; those of the margin
furnished with pistils only ;. but all pro-
ducing perfect seed.

SVNGENESIA. 453

* Discoid, the florets of the marc'in bcino^
obsolete or inconspicuous, from the smaUncss
or pccuhar form of the corolla ; as Arttwisia^
Engl. Bot. L 338,978, 1230; Tamicctum,
f.1'220; Co;?^:y/, f. 1195 ; and GiiaphaliiDJi,
t. 267, llo7- In the last the marginal flo-
rets are mostly o-cleft and tubular like the
rest, only wanting stamens. Caution is re-
quisite to detect the difference between this
section and the preceding Order.

** Ligidatc, 2-lippccI, of which Perdiciiim,
a rare exotic genus, is the only Distance.

*** Radicuif, the marginal florets ligulate,
forming spreading conspicuous rays; as Bel-
lis the Daisy, t. 424; Jster, t. 87, a very
numerous genus in America ; Chri/santhemiun,
f, 601, 540; Inula, t. 1546, &c. This sec-
tion seems, at first sight, a combination of
the first and third sections of the former Or-
der, but this is chiefly in the form of its co-
rollas. It is rather an approach of that third
section towards M'hat is equivalent to becom-
ing double in other tribes. Accordingly, the
Chamomile, Anthemis nohilis, t. 980 ; Chrij-
santhcmiwi Leucanthemum, t. 601 ; and

434 SYNGENESIA.

some others, occasionally have their whole
disk changed to ligulate white florets, desti--
tute of stamens, and consequently abortive.
Such are actually called double flowers in this
Class, and very properly. Many exotic spe-
cies so circumstanced are met with in gardens.
A few very strange anomalies occur in this
section, as already mentioned, p. :)06, one
Sigesbeckia having but 3 stamens, instead of
5, the otherwise universal number in the
Class ; and Tiissilago hi/brida, t. 430, as well
as paradoxa of Retzius, having distinct an-
thers. Nature therefore, even in this most
natural Class, is not quite without exceptions.

5. Tolygamin frustranea. Florets of th^
disk, as in the preceding, perfect or united ;
those of the margin neuter, or destitute of
pistils as well as of stamens ; only some
few genera having the rudiments of pistils
in their radiant florets.

This Order is, still more evidently than
the last, analogous to double flowers of
other Classes. Accordingly, Coreopsis is
the very same genus as Bidens, only fur-
nished with unproductive radiant florets.
C. bidens of Linnaeus is the same species

SVNGENESIA. 45i

as his B. cernuci) C. coronata is his B.
frondosa ; and C kucantlta, B. pilusu.
Some species of Coreopsis indeed have
never been found without rays. Linnaeus
expresses his diflicuhies on this subject in
P/iil. Bot. sect. 209, but seems inclined
to unite the two genera. A similar am-
bii^uity occurs between Goi'tefia and
Atnictylh, Relhnnia (of the last Order)
and Athanasia^ and in some degree be-
tween Centaurea, Engl Bot. L 278, 1678,
56, &c., and Carduus. ov Serratuhi ', only
the scales of the calyx of Centaurea ge-
nerally keep that genus distinct.

I should be much inclined to abolish
this Order. Those of its genera which
have rudiments of pistils in their radiant
florets, as Rudheckia and lleUanthus,
would very conimodiously range with their
near relations in Polijgamia superjina, nor
are we sure that such radiant florets are in
all circumstances abortive, neither can a
student often know whether they are so
or not. It does not follow, from what has
just been observed, that the presence ot
radiant florets, whether abortive or notj

456 SYNG5KESIA.

can never afford a generic character, pro-
vided there be no corresponding genus
without them. This must be determined
by experience and observation. They are
indeed to be considered as a very secondary
mark, the most essential in this Class be-
ing derived from the receptacle, crown of
the ^ed, and calyx. These Gsertner has
illustrated with the greatest accuracy and
skill, but even these must not be blindly
followed to the destruction of natural
genera.

4. Poli/gamia neccssaria. Florets of the
disk furnished with stamens only, those of
the margin, or radius, only with pistils; so
that both are necessary to each other. This
is w^ell seen in the common Garden Mari-
gold, Calendula, in whose calyx, when
ripening seed, the naked and barren disk
is conspicuous. Othonna, Curt, Mag.
t. 306, 76'8, Arctolis, Osteospermum and
SilpMum, not rare in gardens, are further
examples of this Order, which I believe is
constant and founded in nature. We have
no British specimens either of it or the
following. Filago, at least as far as our

OYNANDRIA. 457

Floi'a is concerned, belongs to GnaphaUiini.
See Engl. But. L 946", 1193, cS:c.

i. PoIi/s;a}}iia segrcgata. Several flowers,
either simple or coni^jound, but with united
tubular anthers, and with a partial calyx,
all included in one general calyx. Oi' these
the Globe-thistle, Echiiiops, and Sfoehe^
Avith Seriphium and Corijinhium, (which
two last require to be removed hither from
the abolished Linncean Order Sijugencsia
Monogamia,) have only 1 floret in each
partial calyx ; Jimgia has 3, Ekp/iantopus
4, others more. In every case the partial
calyx is distinguished from the chaff'y seed-
crown observable in several genera of the
other Orders, (though the latter is indeed
analogous to a calyx,) either by being in-
ferior, or by the presence of a seed-crow n,
or feathery down, besides. See Lamarck,
t, "(X^h — 723, where the plants in question
are well represented.

Class 20. Gi/nandria. Stamens inserted
either upon the style or germcn. Orders 9
in Linna-us, but some alterations concern-
ing them are necessary.

458 <JYNANDRIA.

This is one of those Classes abolished by
the celebrated Thunberg, and by several less
intellisrent writers who have followed him.
The reasons which led to this measure appear
to have been that Linnaeus has erroneously
placed in Gynandna several plants which
have not the requisite character ; hence that
character itself has been judged ambiguous,
or not founded in nature, and the system has
been supposed to be simplified by overlooking
it. This appears to me a great mistake. The
character of the Class, taken as above, is as
evident, constant and genuine as that of any
other in the system. No doubt can arise, if
we be careful to observe that the stamens
actually grow out of the germen or style, and
not merely out of 'any part that supports the
germen ; as will appear by examples.

1. Monandria. Stamen, or sessile Anther,
1 only. This contains all the beautiful and
curious natural family of the Orchklea, or
Orchis tribe, except only Cypripedium,
which belongs to the next Order. I am
induced to consider the bulk of this family
?is T^ionandrous, upon a careful review of

OTNANDRIA. 450

Professor Swartz's representation of tlie
subject, in his excellent treatise, just come
to my hands in Enghsh. See Tracts rda*
the to Botunij translated from different
Languages (by Mr. Kbnio), printtd for
Phillips and P^ardon, 1805. I have al-
ready, /;. 272, mentioned the glutinous
nature of the pollen of these plants. This
forms yellow elastic masses, oft-'u stalked,
in each cell of the anther, and the cells are
either parallel and close together, or re-
moved from each other to the opposite
sides of the style : which serves to connect
them, just as the filament does in many
Scitamineous plants, alike therefore decided
to be monandrous. Such a decision uith
regard to those also is justified bv the ana-
logy of other species, whose cells being
approximated or conjoined, properly con-
stitute but one anther. The grand an4
absolute subdivision of the Orchidece is
justly founded by Dr. Swartz, after Hailer,
on the structure of the anther, whether it
be, as just described, /;«ro//t7, like that of
Orchh, Engl. Bot. t. 22 ; Ophri/s, t. 65 ;
jilid Diuris, Exot, Bot, t. 9? <^c. ; or rer-

^tO GYNANDRIA.

iical, consisting of a moveable lid on the
top of the style, like Deiidrohium^ i. 10 —
12 ; or Malaiis, Engl. Bot. t. 72. The
style of the Orchidece has been called a
column, but I think that term now alto-
gether superfluous. It is really a style,
and the stigma is a moist shining space,
generally concave, and situated, for the
most part, in front of the style beneath the
anther. In Orchis bifolia, t. 22, and others,
it is just above the orifice of the spur.
Concerning the nectary of these plants there
has been much diversity of opinion. The
calcar, spur, in Orchis, and some other
genera, is acknowledged to be such, and
holds abundance of honey. This spur is
judged by Swartz, as well as Linnaeus, a
decisive generic mark of distinction, and it
commonly is so ; but some Indian species
brought by Dr. Buchanan prove it not to
be absolute. The remarkable and often
highly ornamented lip, considered by
Swartz as the only corolla, for he takes all
the other leaves of the flower for a calyx,
has, by Linmeus and others, been thought,
either a part of the nectary, or, where no

GYNANDRIA. 461

spur is present, the only nectary. Nor is
this opinion so ill-lbunded as many bota-
nists suppose ; for the front of the hp evi-
dently secretes honey in Ophri/s (or Epi^
pactis) ovafa, t. 1.548, and probably in
others not yet attended to. Nevertheless,
this lip might, like the petals of lilies, be.
deemed a nectariferons corolla, were it
certain that all the other leaves were truly
a calyx. But the 2 inner are so remark-
ably different from the 3 outer ones in
Ophri/s, t. 64, 65, 71, 383, and above all,
in Siclis, Exot. Bof. f. 7«5, that I am most
inclined to take the former for the corolla,
the latter being, according to all appear-
ance, a calyx. An insensible gradation
from one to the other, of which we have
pointed out other instances in treating of
this subject already, occurs in Diuris, t. 8,
9 ; while in some Orchidecc the leaves all
partake more of the habit of a calyx, and
in others of a corolla. Even the lip in
T/ieii/mitra, t. 29, assumes the exact form,
colour, and texture, of the rest of the
flower ; which proves that a dissimilarity
between any of these parts is not always to

462 GYNANDRIA.

be expected in the family under considera*
tion. Vahl appears by the preface to his
Uniimeratlo Plant arum to have removed
the, Sciiaminece to Gi/nnndria, because the
stamen of Carina adheres to the style.
This, if constant, could only concern that
genus, for the rest of the Order are in no
sense gynandrous.

2. Diandria. To this Order Cypr'ipedium^
Engl. Bot. t. 1, must be referred, having
a pair of very distinct double-celled anthers.
See Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. I. f. 2, 3. Here
we find Forstera, so well illustrated by
Professor Swartz in Sims and Konig s An-
nals of Botany, v. 1. '291, t. 6; of which
genus Bhyllachne, t. 5 of the same volume,
is justly there reckoned a species. Of the
same natural order with For at era is Styll-
dium, but that having, I think, 4 anthers,
belongs to the fourth Order of the present
Class. Gunner a, placed by Linnaeus in
Gynandria Diandria^ is not yet sufficiently
well understood.

3. Triandria. Salacia, if Linnoeus's descrip-

OYNANDRTA. 463

tion be riglit, is properly placed here ; but
Jussieu doubts it, nor does my dried spe-
cimen serve to remove the uncertainty,
Stilago proves to be merely the barren
plant of Antidesma alexiteria^ and belongs
to Dioecia ; as Sisi/rinchlufn and Ferrarla
do to Mo7iadelp/iia, the tubular united sta-
mens of the two last having been mistaken
for a solid style. R/iopium of Schreber
(Meborea of Aublet, t. 323,) seems there-
fore the only certain genus of the Order
under consideration ; unless Lamarck be
right in referring to it Jacquin^s Strumpjia,
upon which I have not materials to form
any opinion. The original discoverer at-
tributes to this plant 5 stamens with united
anthers ; hence it found a place in the
Syngencsia Monogamia of Linn-ccus. La-
marck merits attention, as he appears to
have had an authentic specimen. See his
/. 73L

A. Tetrandria. Nepenthes, of whose extra-
ordinary kind of leaf mention is made
p. 197j is the only genus of this Order in
Linnaeus, but very erroneously placed here.

46^ GYJ7ANDRIA.

*

for it belongs to Dioecia Monadelpliia*
Tlie Order however must be retained for
the sake of Stylidiuin^ a New Holland
genus, related, as above mentioned, to
Forstera. This is my Ventenatia, Uxot.
Dot. t. 66, 67 ; but another genus having
previously, without my knowledge, re-
ceived the latter denomination, that of
Stylidium^ under which I had, some time
ago, communicated this genus to the French
botanists*, and which they have adopted,
becomes established. See La Biilardiere's
excellent work on New Holland plants,
where several species of it are figured.

5. Ventandria. The original genera of this
Order, Aycn'ta, Glut a, and PassiJIoray
Escot. Bot. t»28, most unquestionably have
nothing to do with it, their stamens being
inserted below the germen, merely on a

* I was not aware of Lonreiro's Stylid'mmy a plant,
accordiiig to his description, of the 7th Class j FL
Coch'mch. v. 1. 221 ; but this can scarcely interfere with
ours, being probably, as it grows about Canton, some
well-known shrub ihat happened to have a 7-cleft flower.
It should seem to belong to the Rulnacece, notv/ithbtand-
ing some points iu the description.

o
O

GYNANDRIAk 465

columnar receptacle. The learned Schreber
therefore removed them to the 5th Class. .

But this Order may receive a reinforce-
ment from the Linnanin Pentandria Digy-
7iia. Several of the ContortcE have long-
been thought to belong to G;/7fr7/?r//7<7; see
Fergularia, Ic. Pict. t. 10", and yindr.
Repos. t. 184. In this genus, as well as
Cynanchum and Asclepias, the pollen is
borne in 5 pair of glutinous masses, ex-
actly like the pollen of Orc/ndece, by 5
glands upon the stigma. Some obscurity
arises from each mass of pollen being re-
ceived into a bag or cell, formed by a pe-
culiar valvular apparatus that encircles the
organs of impregnation, and bears a great
resemblance to stamens. The pollen how-
ever is, in the above genera, not attached
to these cells or valves, but to the 5
glands, each of which is double, and all of
them seated on that thick abrupt angular
body which acts as a stigma*. Nor is

* Mr. R. Brown believes the cells s-ecrete the pollen,
and project it on the stigma, as the pollen of some
Orchidecc sticks to any part of the plant. If so, these
plants must remain in Peniandria.
2 H

466 GY^ANDRIA.

it worth while to dispute whether this tvhoTe
body be a stigma or not, with regard to
the question under consideration, for it is
borne by the styles, above the germen, and
itself bears the anthers. I humbly con-
ceive, however, with Linnaeus and Jacquin,
that as part of it, at least, receives the
pollen, stigma is full as good a name for
this body as Haller's term dolium, a tub !
Still less is it worth while to controvert with
Kolreuter the propriety of the term pollen,
because the substance in question is not
actually a dry powder, any more than in
the Orchis tribe, or in MirahUis, Eiot.
Bot. t. 23. That tern; is technically used
for the matter which renders the seeds fer-
tile, mcludmg its vehicle, whether the
latter be capsular or glutinous, in short,
whatever the appearance or texture of the
whole mav be. Another quesUon remains,
more immediately to our present purpose,
whether these plants have 5 stamens or lOr
Jacquin, mIio has well illustrated several of
them in his Miscell. Atistr. v,\. t. 1 — 4,
and RottboU in a dissertation on the subject,
contend for the latter. Rottbbll wrote to

OTNANDRTA. 407

Haller, that " finding Linnaeus deaf to all
that had been said, he sent him his treatise,
to see whether he would persist in falsify-
ing nature/' Thus sordid underlings fo-
ment the animosities and flatter the failino^s
of their superiors ! Linnajus judiciously
suspended his opinion, and, after ail, proves
to be most correct. The analos^ies of the
Orcliidece and Scitaminece very clearly de-
cide that the 2 cells, or the double masses
of naked pollen, can only be considered
as one anther of 2 lobes. Even Periploca
grceca, though not gynandrous, confirms
this. Each lobe of its anthers stands, as
in many Scitamhiea:, on the outermost
edge of the filament ; thus meeting that on
the adjoining filament, and in appearance
constituting with it a 2-lobed anther, as
the lobe of the Scitaminece, where there is
but one filament, meets its corresponding
lobe by embracing the style.

6. Hexandria. Aristohcliia, Efigl. Bot,
t. 398, a curious genus, of which there are
many exotic species, is the only example
e H 2

458 GTNANDRW,

of this, Fistla being removed to Mona*
delphia Octandria.

7. Octandria. The ScopoUa of Linnaeus,
which originally constituted this Order,
proves to be a Daphne ; see Plant. Ic. ex
Herb* Linn. f. 34. Cytinus however, Ca-
^mn. Ic. t. 171, a singular parasitical plant
on the roots of Cistns in the south of Eu-
rope, has properly been brought hither
from the Order Dodecandria, of which it
originally formed the only example. The
observations of Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Ferd,
Bauer confirm those of other botanists, that
the anthers are 8, not I6, and that they
are truly inserted upon the style.

S. Decandria is nov/ abolished. Of the two
genera \vhich constituted it, Klcinlwvia be-
longs to the Class Dodecandria, having 15
stamens, see Cavan. Monadelph, t. 146 ;
and llelicteres to Decandria Monogynia^

9. Dodecandria is likewise abolished .-

10. Folyandria is in a similar predicament,
for I am not a^^'are of any genus that caB

CYNANDRIA. itlQ

be admitted into it. Xyhpia goes with
the greatest propriety to its natural alUes
in Vohjundria Poh/gi/niat Annona, &c.,
its short stamens being inserted into the
receptacle below the gernien. Grew! a,
as well as Schreber's Microcos if a good
genus, belong to Folijandriu Monogi/nia,
the organs of impregnation being merely
elevated on a common stalk, like those of
Passiflora and Ayenia. Ambrosinia, At'twi,
and Calla, are all justly removed by Schre-
ber to Monoccia, though I think, for rea-
sons hereafter given, they are more com-
modiously and naturally placed in the Or-
der Folyandria of that Class, than in the
Order Monandria, Draconthim and Fo-
thos, of the same natural family, having
perfect or united flov/ers, the former with
7 stamens to each, the latter with 4, are
undoubtedly to be referred to their corre-
sponding Classes, Ileptandria and Tetraii"
dria, Zostera, the only remaining genus
of Gynandria Fohjandria in Linnaeus, I
have long ago ventured to remove to Mo-
naiidria Monogynia ; see FiiigL Bof,
t, 467.

470 MONOECIA.

Class 21. Monoecia. Stamens and Pistils
in separate flowers, but both growing on
the same individual plant. Orders 9 or 10.

Several reformers of the Linnaean system
have also abolished this Class and the two
following, by way of rendering that system
more simple. Ten years' additional ex-^
perience since the preface to the 7th vo-
lume of JLngUah Botany was written, have
but confirmed my opinion on this subject.
If any plants ought to be removed fronx
these Classes, they must be such as have
the structure of all the accessory parts of
the flower exactly alike, (the essential
parts, or stamens and pistils only, differ-,
ing,) in both barren and fertile flow^ers;
and especially such as have in one flower
perfect organs of one kind, accompanied
by rudiments of the other kind, for these
rudiments are liable occasionally to be-*
come perfect. By this means dioecious
species of a genius, as in Lychnis^ Valeri-
ana^ Humex, &c., would no longer be a
reproach or inconvenience to the system,
But, on the other hand, some difficulty
would occasionally arise to a student, in

MONOECIA. 471

deciding whether there were any real dif-
ference of structure between these acces-
sory parts or not, and it might puzzle an
adept to determine the question. For in-
stance, whether the nectary in Sali.r, dif-
ferent in the barren and fertile flowers of
some species, should lead us to keep that
genus in Dioecia, though in other species
the nectary is precisely alike in both the
kinds, and occasionally an abortive germen
occurs in the barren flowers, as stamens
do, more rarely, in some fertile ones.
Considering all this, I should refer Salix
to Diandria Monogynia.

With respect to those Monoecious or
Dioecious genera whose barren flowers are
decidedly unlike the fertile ones, the former
being in a catkin, the latter not, as Cory'
his, Q.uercus, Sec, I conceive nothing more
pernicious or troublesome can be attempt-
ed than to remove them to the Classes of
united flowers. They meet with no allies
there, but, on the contrary, form so na-
tural an assemblage by themselves, as to
be unanimously kept separate by the au-
thors of every natural system that has ap-

47f MONOECIA.

peared. But even if this were not the
case, there is a most important reason for
keeping them as they are, which regards
the artificial system more particularly, and
of which its author was well aware ; they
are of all plants most uncertain in the
number of their stamens. Now this un-
certainty is of little moment, when we
have them primarily distinguished and set
apart from other plants by their Monoe-
cious or Dioecious character ; because the
genera being few, and the Orders con-
structed widely as to number of Stamens,
we find little difficulty in determining any
genus, which would be by no means the
case if we had them confounded with the
mass of the system. Even the species of
the same genus, as well as individuals of
each species, differ among themselves.
How unwise and unscientific then is it, to
take as a primary mark of discrimination,
what nature has evidently made of less con-
sequence here than in any other case ! It is
somewhat like attempting a natural system,
and founding its primary divisions on the
artificial circumstance ofnumber of stamens,

MONOECIA. 473

J proceed to give some illustrations of
the Orders in Monoccia.

1. Monandria. Zannichellia, Mill. Illiistr.
t. Ti,^nd Aegopricon, Plant. Ic. ex Herb.
Z'inn. t. 42, are genuine examples of this
Class and Order, having a different struc-
ture in the accessory parts of their barren
and fertile flowers. Ai^iocarpus, the ce-
lebrated Bread-fruit, may likewise be
esteemed so on account of a partial calyx
in the barren flowers. The other amenta-
ceous genera may most intelligibly perhaps
be referred to the Order Fo/ijandria,
Cliara is now removed to the first Class in
the System ; see Engl. Bot, t, 336".

2. Diandria. Anguria can remain here only
till the proposed reformation takes place,
having no difference of structure in its
flowers. Lemna, so imperfectly known
when Linneeus wrote, is now well under-
stood, and, having frequently united
flowers, belongs to the second Class ; see
Engl. BoL t. 926, 3095, V233.

474 MONOECIA,

3. Triandria. The great genus of Car ex,
t. 1051, 928, 99S—995, &c., and some
other grassy plants, are found here. Ti/pha,
f. 1455 — 1457, is less clear in its struc-
ture; Sparganimn, t. 744, 745, 273, is
sufficiently so. Tragia^ Hernandia and
Thyllanthus are properly placed in this
Class and Order,

4, Tetrandria, iz7/ore//rt, ^.468; the valua-
ble genera Bctuia, f. 1508, and Bilxus^
t. 1341; also the Nettle Urtica^t. 1236;
are good examples of this. Morus the
Mulberry, of the same natural order as
the Nettle, has scarcely any difference of
structure in the accessory organs of the
flowers. This tree however is remarkable
for being often inchned to become even
dioecious in its constitution, one individual
bearing most fruit when accompanied by
another whose barren flowers are more ef-
fective than its own. Emplturum^ Exot.
Bot. t. 63, is one of those ambi^ruous g-e-
nera which are but imperfectly monoe*
pious,

MONOECIA, *7i

5. Tentandrla. XautJditm, Ambrosia, Xe-
phelium, Varthcnium, Iva and Cllbadlum
-all partake, more or^less accurately, of the
nature of compound flowers, but their an-
thers not beinp; united, they could not be
referred to the Class Sijnge)iesia ; particu-
larly Xanlhium and Ncphclium, whose
fertile flowers have no resemblance to that
Class. Amarantlius, an extensive dung-
hill genus in warm countries, analogous to
our Chenopodium, follows next* Leea is
the same with Aquilicia, and belongs to
Tentandria Monogynia, the former name
being retained for the sake of the highly
meritorious botanist and cultivator whom
it commemorates. The Gourd tribe, Cu-
curbita, Cucumis, Bri/ojiia, Engl. Bot.
t. 439, might be brought hither from the
abolished Order Syngenesia^ unless it
should be thought better to consider them
as polyadelphous, to which I am most in-
clined,

6. Hexandria. Zizania, Tr. of Limu Sec,
V. 7. t. 13; and Pharus, Brozmes Ja^
viaica, /, 38, both grasses, compose this

476 MONOECIA.

Order, to which Schreber has added Epi*
baterium and Fotnetia of Forster, as well
as the splendid Giiettarda, Horf. MaL
v. 4. t, 48. The latter varies from 6 to 9
in the parts of the flower, and constitutes
the Order Ileptandria in Linnaeus, accord-
ing to his usual principle, of placing such
irregular plants, as much as possible, in
small Classes or Orders, that they might
be the more easily found.

7. Tohjandria. Stamens more than 7- Cera-
tophjllim, Engl Bot. t. 947, 679; Mi/-
riophyllum-i t. 83, 218 ; and the handsome
Sagittaria^ t. 84, stand here at present,
but the accessory parts in their two kinds
of flowers are alike. Begonia^ Exot, Bot.
1. 101, has the number of its petals, though
various in several species, always suffi-
ciently diflerent in the barren and fertile
flowers to fix it here. — The most indubita-
ble plants of this Order are amentaceous,
Querciis, Engl. Bot. t. 1342 ; Fagiis,
t. 886; Cori/lus, t. 723; Carpinus, Ju-
glaiis, Blatanus, Sec. — Arum, t. 1298,
Calla and Ambrosinia, all brought hither

MOKOECIA. 477

from the 20th Class, seem to me perfectly
intelligible as simple monoecious flowers,
the barren one, with many stamens, being
superior or interior with respect to the
fertile, like the generality of monoecious
as well as all compound flowers, and not
inferior, or, as in every simple one, ex-
terior.

8. Monadelphia. The Fir, Pinus, so mag-
nificently illustrated by Mr. Lambert, is
very distinct in its two kinds of flowers.
Each barren one consists of a naked tuft
of monadelphous stamens, accompanied
only by a few bracteas at the base. The
fertile ones are catkins, \\ ith similar brac-
teas, each scale bearing on its upper side
a pair of winged seeds, and on its under a '
leaf-like style and acute stigma; as Jussieu
first, rightly I believe, suggested, though
some botanists have understood these parts
otherwise. Acali/pha, Croion, Jatropha,
Ricinus, and several others of the natural
order of Euphorbia, acrid milky plants,
form a conspicuous and legitiiiiate part of
Monoecia Monadelphia. Omphaka i<

47* MONOECIA.

justly associated with them by Schreber,
though placed by Linnaeus in the Order
Triandria, and this alteration is the more
fortunate, as one of its species is diandrous.
StercuUa is best removed to the 11th Class,
next to Kkinhovia,

9' Poli/adelpliia. If the system should be
preserved in its present state, without re-
gard to agreement or difference in the ac*
cessory parts of the barren and fertile
flowers, I conceive this Order might be
established for the reception of the Gourd
tribe, as already hinted under the 5th Or-
der, Their filaments are united, m 3 sets,
a character much more intelligible and
constant than the casual and irregular con-
nexion of their anthers, which led Linnteus
to reckon them syngenesious ; for they
only afford an additional proof that union
ot anthers is, in simple flowers, neither a
good natural nor artificial guide. If the
monoecious and dioecious Classes be re-
formed according to the plan to which I
have so often adverted, these plants should
go to the Class Fohjadelphia.

DIORCTA. 479

10. Gynandria is scarcely tenable, being pa-
radoxical in its character, and the two
Linniean genera which compose it, An-
drachne and Agijneia, seem morst properly,
even as the system stands at present, to
belong to the 8th Order, to great part of
which they are, moreover, naturally re-
lated.

Class 22. Dioecia. Stamens and Pistils in
separate flowers, situated on two separate
plants. Orders 8.

The fore2:oino; remarks on the Orders of
Monoecla apply also to those of this Class.
I shall therefore only briefly mention some
genera properly illustrative of each Order,
more particularly specifying such as re-
quire to be placed elsewhere.

1. Monandria, Bro6imum of Swartz, and
Ascarina of Forster, seem, by their de-
scriptions, to be well placed here. Fonda-
nus {Atlirodact}jUs of Forster) is more
doubtful, not having any partial calyx 01
corolla to divide the stamens into separate
blossoms, so ihut the whole inav be taken

460 DldfiClJU

either for a polyandrous or a monadelphous
flower, as well as for an assemblage of
monandrous ones. Najas is a good and
immutable example of this Order. Of
Thunberg's Phelypaa I have not materials
to form a judgment.

2. DiaJidria, The wonderful VaUsfieria,
already described p. 335^ is a decisive ex-
ample of this. Cecropia also seems un-
exceptionable. Of SalLv, see Engl. Bof,
V. 20 and !21, &c., I have already spoken,
p. 471. The scales of its barren and fertile
catkins are alike ; its nectaries various.

o. Tnandria. Elegia and Restio, hard
rushy plants chiefly of the Cape of Good
Hope and New Holland, appear to be
without any difference in the accessory
parts of their flowers, which is certainly the
case with Empetruin, Engl. Bot. t. 526,
Rnscus, t. 560, brought hither from Dioe-
cia Si/ngenesia, Ost/ris, Excxcaria and
Maha ; Catunis only seeming differently
constructed in this particular ; but I have
not been able to examine the three last.

DIOF.CIA. 481

4. Tttrandria. Trophia, Batis, and Hip-
pophae, t. 425, are good examples of this,
though Mr. Viborg is recorded by Schre-
ber to have occasionally found united
flowers intermixed with the barren ones in
the last-mentioned genus. If this be usual,
Hippophae must be removed to Folygamia
Dioec'ia. The rest of the Order appear to
have tlie accessory parts alike m both
flowers, as Visciim^ t. 1470.

5. Pentandria, Humtdus, t. 427, is almost
the only certain ine^tancc here. Spinacia,
Acnkla and Cannabis would be unexcep-
tionable, but they are less absolutely dioe-
cious, being sometimes monoecious; see
p. 331. The rest of the Order is at best
doubtful; nor can the pretended amentum
of the barren-flowered Fisiacia entitle it
to a permanent place in this Class, for its
fructification is truly a panicle. Clutia,
more properly Cluj/tia, may possibly re-
main here. It has no business in the Or-
der Gynandria.

6. Hexandria. No difference of structure is

^ I

4§2 DIOECIA.

discernible between the barren and fertile
flowers of any genus in this Order ; witness
Tamils^ t.9^^ though something to the
contrary is mentioned in the Genera Ptan-
iariini of Linn?eus.

7. Volyandria. Under this Order I would
certainly comprehend all dioecious plants
that have from 8 to any greater number of
stamens, according to the example set by
Linnaeus himself in the last Class. The
genera are exceedingly variable in this re-
spect ; and if all those the accessory parts
of whose flowers are uniform were taken
away, the remainder would be so few, that
it is hard to say whether any would re-
main at all. Instances of the Order as it
now stands are Fopuhis, t, I6I 8, I619 ;
Iljidrocharis, t. 808 ; Mercurialis, t. 559-
The fertile flowers of the latter have, in some
cases, a nectary or corolla of two slender
leaves, not found in the barren ones, which

- may entitle it to a- permanent place here.
Carica will also probably remain. Rho-
diola can scarcely be kept distinct from
■Sediim. Qo-vmria and Ailanthiis, having

I'OLYGAMIA. 483

oft(M) united flowers, are liest in the 10th
Class, as Enclea in the 11th. I lind no
genoru truly icosandrous h^'re, though
■ Schrfher esteems Flacourtiu and lledif-
ciiri/a to he so.

8. Monadi'lphid. Td.vus, t. 746, and per-
haps Junipcrus, t. J 100, also the exotic
Ephedra, are legitimate examples of tliis
Order. Spurious ones are Nepenthes,
Miiristica the Nutmeg, and Schreber's
Xanl/ie, all placed by him in the now
abohshed Order Si/ngenesia. and which
can only take shelter here while the Class
remains as it is, for they have no difference
of structure in the accessory parts of their
flowers.

Classes. Folygamia. Stamens and Pistils
separate in some flowers, united in others,
either on the same plant or on two or three
distinct onces ; such difference in the es-
sential organs being moreover accompanied
with a diversity in the accessory parts of
the flowers. Orders 3.
2 i2

484 POLYGAMIA.

1. Monoecia. United flowers accompanied
with barren or fertile, or both, all on one
plant. Atriplex, Engl. Bot. t. 261, 232,
&c., is an instance of this, having the bar-
ren flowers of 5 regular spreading seg-
ments, the united ones of 2 compressed
valves, which, becoming greatly enlarged,
protect the seed. In several species how-
ever the flowers are none of them united,
each having only stamens or only pistils.
Throughout the rest of the Order, as it
stands m Linnaeus and Schreber, I can
find no genus that has the requisite charac-
ter. Some of the grasses indeed have awns
to one kind of flower only, but that part is
too uncertain to establish a character upon ;
and this family is so natural in itself, and
so liable to variations in the perfecting of
its flowers or florets, that there can be no
doubt of the propriety of classing its genera
simply by the number of their stamens and
styles, which are very constant.

2. Dioecia. The different flowers on two
different plants. I can scarcely find a cer-

POLTOAMIA. 433

tain instance of this, except H'lppophae,
already mentioned under Monotcia Te-
tramh'ia.

3. Trioecia. Of the only two genera which
have ever been placed here, Ceratonia,
Cavcnu Ic. t. 113, belongs to Ptmtandrla
Moiioiiynia. Ficiis is so celebrated for the
diversity of its flowers, as connected with
the history of vegetable impregnation, see
p. 336, that we are glad to take advantage
of a tritiini>: ditference in the calyx of the
two florets, (the barren one being most fre-
quently three-cleft, the fertile five^cleft,)
to keep it here.

All things being considered, this Class
may be thought scarcely worth retaining.
Yet as we know two or three genera entitled
to a place in it, upon principles which the
analogy of the two preceding Classes shows
to be sound, we cannot tell but others may
exist in the unexplored parts of the globe.
For this reason, and for the uniformity of
the system, I would venture to preserve it.
If the 21st and 22d Classes should hereafter
be reformed by some judicious and experi-

486 CRYPTOGAMli.

enced hand, according to the principle I
• have suggested, of retaining in them sucji
genera only as have a permanent difference
in the accessory as well as the essential
parts of their flowers, their bulk being by
such a reformation much diminished, it
mi2:ht be advisable to reduce them to one
• Class, in which the slender remains ofFohj-
mimia mipht commodiously be included,
and the title of such a Class should be Di-
clinia, expressing the two distinct seats or
stations of the organs of fructification.

Class 24. Crijpiogamia. Stamens and Pis-
tils either not well ascertained, or not to
be numbered with any certainty. Orders 5.

1. Filices. Ferns. The parts of their flowers
are almost entirely unknown. The fructi-
fication, taken collectively, and proved to
be such by the production of prolific seeds,
grows either on the back, summit, or near
the base of the frond. Some are called
anmdatLC, annulated, their capsules being
bound with an elastic transverse ring ;
others thecdtce, or more properly eTannu-
latcc^ from the want of such an appendage,

C»YPTOOAM-lA\ 4S7

of which some of the latter liave neverthe-
less a spurious vestige. All the former,
and some of the latter, are dorsiferous,
bearing fruit on the back of the frond, mid
of these the fructification is eitlier naked,
or else covered with a membranous invo-
lucriun. The genera are distinguished
by Linnaeus according to the shape and
situation of the spots, or assemblages of
capsules, besides which I have first found
it necessary to take into consideration the
absence or presence of the involucrum, and
especially the direction in which it bursts.
See Tracts re/dting to Nat. Hist. 215, t. 1.
Poh/podiiim, Efig/, Bot. t. 1149? has
no involucrum; Aspidhini, t. 1458 — 1461,
has a single, and Scolopendrium, t. 1150,
a double one. Osmiindd, t. 209, has been
remarked by Professor Swartz to have a
spurious ring. It is one of those ferns the
lobes of whose frond are metamorphosed,
as it were, into spikes of capsules. Botri/-
chiam of Swartz, more distinctly spiked,
and having no vestige of a ring, is sepa-
rated by him from Osmunda. See one spe-
cies of it in Engl. Bot. t. 318. Ophioglos-

488 GRYPTOGAMIA.

sum^ t. 108, and Equisetum, t. 915, 9^9,
are other examples of spiked ferns. Each
seed of the latter is embraced by 4 fila-
ments, judged by Hedwig to be the sta-
mens. Supposed ferns with radical fructi-
fications are Filularia, t. 521, and Isoeies,
t. 1084; but the former might possibly be
referred to Monoecia Pohjandria^ and the
latter to Monoecia Mojiandria, as the
system at present stands. Lycopodiwn,
t. 224, 1148, &c., is a fern, at least in
my opinion, with axillary fructification.

3. Miisci. Mosses. These are really herbs*
with distinct leaves and frequently as di-
stinct a stem. Their conical membranous
corolla is called a cahjptra^f. 151, or veil, its
summit being the stigma. This veil clothes
the capsule, which, before the seed ripens,
is elevated on a fruit-stalk. The capsule is
of one cell and one valve, opening by a ver-
tical lid,y. 213-^-. Seeds very numerous and
minute. The barren flowers of mosses

* Hedwig's term musci frondosi is incorrect,
t This part in Phascum only does not separate from
the capsule.

CRYPTOGAMIA. 419

ponsist of an indefinite number of nearly
cylindrical, almost sessile anthers, /I 19O;
the fertile llowers of one, rarely more, per-
fect pistils, accompanied by several barren
pistils, f. 192. Both stamens and pistils are
intermixed with numerous succulent jointed
threads,/. 1J)1? ^vhich perhaps answer the
purpose of a calyx or corolla, as far as pro-
tection is concerned. Some few species of
moss have the stamens and pistils associated
in the same flower, but they are generally
separate. Hypnum, Fmgl. Boi. t. 14'i4,
1425, has a scaly sheath, or perichcciium,
f. 150, at the base of its fruit-stalk, com-
posed of leaves very different from the
foliage of the plant. This is considered as
a sort of calyx, see p, 251, and as such is
allowed to enter into the generic charac-
ter ; but there is some reason to esteem it
rather of the nature of bracteas. The
capsule 0^ Splachnum, Eugl. Bot. t, 144,
&c., stands on a peculiar fleshy base, called
apopJii/siSif. 189 a.

Micheli m his Genera Plant annn, pub-
lished in 1729, tab. 69, has well repre-
sented the parts above described, though

490 CRYPTOGAMIA.

he mistook their use, being quite. ignorant
of the fecundation of plants. Diiienius
took the one flower precisely for the other,
and yet absurdly called capsula what he
believed to be anthera. Linnaeus, who
had previously formed just ideas on the
subject, as appears from his manuscript
Tour to Lapland, too implicitly submitted
his own judgment to that of Diiienius, and
adopted his hypothesis, at the same time
correcting, as he thought, his phraseology.
Hence the whole glare of the blunder of
Diiienius has fallen on Linnaeus ; for while
we read in the Linnaean definitions of
mosses every where the word anthera, and
in those of Diiienius, usually accompany-
ing them, capsula ; few persons, who have
lately been instructed by HeJwig that the
part in question is really a capsule, take
the trouble to recollect that Diiienius so
grossly misused that word. Various ideas
have been started on this subject by Haller,
Necker, and others,which could only claim
attention while it remained in great ob-
scurity. The excellent Hedwig has entirely
the merit of an original discoverer in this

CnVPTOGAMIA. 491

branch of physiology- He examiaed all that
had Ix'en done bi'fore his tiine,,det(3cted
the truth, raised mosses from aeed, /'. 193 —
39*>->\ tuid f.stahiished tlieir characters on the
principles we havfe^ already explained.

The Linnaian genera of jMosses are chiefly
founded on the situation of the capsule,
whether lateral or terminal, with some other
cu'cuinstances. They are too few, and not
strictly natural. Heclwig first brought into
notice the structure of the fringe, perkto-
inium, which in most mosses borders the
orifice of the capsule. This is either simple,
/. 189 b, or double, /: UVo, 214, and con-
sists either of separate teeth, or of a plaited
and jagged membrane. The external fringe
is mostly of the former kind, the inner,
when present, of the latter. The number
of teeth, remarkably constant in each ge-
nus and species, is either 4, 8, 10, 32 or
64. On these therefore Hedwig and his
followers have placed great dependence,
only perhaps going into too great refine-
ments relative to the internal fringe, \\hH'h
is more difhcult to examine, and less cer-
tain, than the outer. Their great error

492 CRYPTOGAMIA.

has been la3nng down certain principles as
absolute in forming genera, without ob-
serving whether all such genera were na-
tural. Such mistakes are very excusable
in persons not conversant with botany on
a general scale, and whose minute and in-
defatigable attention to the detail of their
subject, more than compensates the want
of what is easily supplied by more experi-
enced systematics. Thus Barhula of Hed-
wig is separated from Tortilla, EngL Bot.
t. 1663, and Fissidens from Dicranum^
t. 1272, 1273, on account of a difference,
of form or situation in the barren flowers,
which is evidently of no moment, and
merely divides genera that ought to be
united. The same may be said of genera ,
founded on the union of the stamens and
pistils in one flower. On this subject I
have been more diffuse in a paper on
Mrnitm, in 7V. of Linn. Soc. v. 7. 254,
to which I beg leave to refer those who
are desirous to study it further. Various
and abundant specimens of this tribe of
plants, showing the various structure of
the fringe, lid and other parts, may be

CRYPTOGAMIA. 4^3

^seen in the latter volumes of English
Botany more especially.

Mosses are tbund in the hottest and
coldest climates. They are extremely
tenacious of life, and, after being long
dried, easily recover their health and vi-
gour by moisture. Their beautiful struc-
ture cannot be too much admired. Their
species are numerous, and in some cases
difficult to determine, particularly in the
genera Tortula and Orfhoirichum ; nor is
the generic character of the latter so easy
or certain as most others. Schreber, Dick-
son, Svvartz, Bridel, Weber, Mohr and
Turner are great names in this department
of Botany, besides those of whom we have
already spoken.

3. Hepatica, Liverworts. Of these the herb-
age is commonly frondose, the fructification
originating from what is at the same time
both leaf and stem. This character, how-
ever, proves less absolute than one founded
on their capsules, which differ essentially
from those of tlie preceding Order in hav-
ing nothing like a lid or operculum. The

421 CRYPTOGAMIA,

corolla or veil of some of the genera is like
that of Mosses, but usually bursts at the
top. The barren flowers are unlike the
organized stamens of the last-mentioned
plants, being either undefined powdery
heads, as in Juriger-mannia, see Hedwig^'s
Thtor'ia^ t. 15, or of some peculiar con-
formation, as in Marchantia^ Engl. Bot.
t. 2J0, where they are imbedded in a disk
like the seeds of Lichens, in a manner so
contrary to all analogy, that botanists can
scarcely agree which are the barren and
which the fertile fiov/ers of this o'enus. The
four-valved capsule o^ Jimgerniannia^vjixh.
the veil bursting at its summit to let the
fruit-stalk pass^ may be seen in Engl. Bot,
t. 1 85, 1 86, w hich are both frondose spe-
cies, like J. epiphylla, t. 11\, whose calyx
as well as corolla are evident; and t. 6Vi5 —
608, which have apparently distinct leaves,
like Mosses. Jnthoceros, f. 1537, 1538,
is a curious genus of the HepaticcE.
Linnaeus comprehended this Order under
the following one, to which it is, most
.assuredly, far less akin than to the fore-
going.

CRYPTOGAMrA. 4^5

AlscC' Flaos. In this Order the berbaire
is frondose, sometimes a mere crust, some-
times of a leathery or gelatinous texture.
The seeds are imbedded, either in the frond
itself, or in some peculiar receptacle. The
barren Howers are but imperfectly known.
Here we find that great natural Order,
comprehended by Linnicus under one ge-
nus by the name of Lichen^ the fructifica-
tion of which, for the most part, consists of
a smooth round disk, /. lf)8, flat, convex,
or concave, M-ith or without an adventitious
border, in the substance of which disk the
seeds are lodged. In some others they
are placed in powdery warts, or in fibrous
receptacles. The barren flowers are sup-
posed to be powdery also,/. 197, very much
like those of Jungermannia. See Engl.
Bot. t. 126, and various other parts of that
work, where a great number of species are
fio^ured. The whole tribe has been much
investigated, and attempted to be divided
into natural genera founded on habit, by
Dr. Hoffmann of Goettingen, -whose figures
are perfect in their kind. But a more
complete scheme for reducing this -femily

8

49$ fcRYPTOGAMI/.

to systematic order lias been recently
made known to the world by Dr. Acbarius,
a learned Swede^ who in his Frodromus,
and Metliodus Lichen um, has divided it
into genera founded on the receptacle of
the seeds alone. Hence those genera,
though more technical, are less natural
than Hoffmann's ; but they will, most likely,
prove the foundation of ail that can in fu-
ture be done on the subject, and the works
of Acharius form a new lera in cryptogamic
botany. It is only perhaps to be regretted
that he has been somewhat too prodigal of
new terms, which when not wanted are
always a burthen to science, and rather
obscure than illustrate it. Thus Hedwig
used the term sporangium for a seed-ves-
sel, pericarpiiim, in which the learner
would seek in vain for any distinction, or
new idea. A student might very justly
complain if, in a science necessarily so
overburthened with words, he were re-
quired to call the same part by a different
name in every different family. I would
gladly tlierefore retain the word frons in
preference to the thallus of Acharius, re-

CRYPTOGAMIA. 497

ccptaculnm for his apotliecium, pcdicdhis
tor his hac'iUum or podetiiim, and scmina
for his sporcBy because I see no improve-
ment in the cliange. When this or any
other writer strikes out new ideas, and
discriminates parts hitherto mistaken or
unknown, we thankfully receive from him
new terms to express his discoveries. Thus
the a/phclla of Acharius is a peculiar sort
of pit or pore on the under side of the frond
in that section of Lichens called Sticta, see
Engl.Bot.t. 1103, 1104; his Urdla are
the black letter-like receptacles of the ge-
nus Opegrapha, t. 1753 — 1756 ; his triccB
the analogous parts, resembling a coiled
horse-hair, in Gyrophora, the Umhilicarna
of Hoffmann, t. 522. These terms are
necessary and instructive, and are chosen
with that accuracy and taste for which
Dr. Acharius is conspicuous.

The aquatic or submersed Algaiorva a
distinct and peculiar tribe. Some of these
abound in fresh water, others in the sea,
whence the latter are commonly denomi-
nated sea-weeds. The chief genera are
Viva, L 419, 420, 1276, well defined by
2 K

•193 CRYPTOGAMIA.

its seeds being dispersed under the cuticle
tliroughout the membranous or gelatinous
substance of the frond ; Fiiciis, f. 1066 —
106.9, &c., whose seeds are collected to-
gether in tubercles or swellings, of various
forms and sizes ; and Conferva, of which
the 24th and 2.5th volumes of Biisxl. Bot.,
more especially, show various specimens.
This last genus is commonly known by its
capillary, and, for the most part, jointed
frond. The seeds of some species are
lodged m external capsules or tubercles ;
of others in the joints of the frond ;• and
hence the ingenious Dr. Roth has formed
a genus of the former, called Ceramium.
His Rivularia, Engl. Bot. t. 1797—1799,
is perhaps more satisfactorily separated
from Conferva, as we trust is Vaucheria,
t.1765, 1766, a fresh-water genus named
after M. Vaucher of Geneva, who has pub-
lished an elaborate and faithful microsco-
pical work on Fresh- water Confervas. The
submersed Alga in general are merely
fixed by the roots, their nourishment be-
ing imbibed by their surface. Many of
them float without being attached to any

CRYPTOGAMIA. 499

thing. The genus Facus lias received
more bolaiiical attention than the rest of
this tribe, and the works of Gniehn, Esper,
Stackhouse and Vellcy have ascertained
many species, which tiie labours of Dr.
Goodenough, Mr. Woodward and Mr.
Turner have reduced to systematic order.
Still a more perfect combination of the
skill of the painter and the botanist is to
be desired, relative to the genus in question,
and this is about to be supplied by the
Historia Fuconim of the writer last men-
tioned, and his friend Mr. \y. J. Hooker.

5. Fungi, Mushrooms. These cannot pro-
perly be said to have any herbage. Their
substance is fleshy, generally of quick
grow^th and short duration, differing in
firmness, from a watery pulp to a leathery
or even woody texture. By some na-
turalists they have been thought of aii
animal nature, chiefly because of their
foetid scent in decay, and because little
white bodies like eoos are found in them
at that period. But these are truly the
eggs of flies, laid there by the parent in-
2 K 2

500 CRYPTOGAMIA.

sect, and destined to produce a brood of
maggots, to feed on the decaying fioig us,
as on a dead carcase. Ellis's beautiful
discoveries, relative to corals and their in-
habiting polypes, led to the strange ana-
logical h3^pothesis that these insects formed
the fuugiis, Avhich Munchausen and others
have asserted. Some have thought y«/?gi
were composed of the sap of corrupted
wood, transmuted into a new sort of being,
an idea as unphilosophical as the former,
and unsupported by any semblance of
truth.

Dryander, Schaeflfer and Hedvvig have,
on much better grounds, asserted their
vegetable nature, detected their seeds, and
in many cases explained their parts of
fructification. In fact, they propagate
their species as regularly as any other or-
ganized beings, though, like others, sub-
ject to varieties. Their sequestered and
obscure habitations, their short duration,
their mutability of form and substance,
render them indeed more difficult of in-
vestigation than common plants, but there
is no reason lo suppose them less perfect,

CRYPTOGAMIA. 501

or less accurately defined. Splendid and
accurate works, illustrative of this Order,
have been given to the world by Schaiffer,
Bulliard and Sowerbv, which are the more
useful as the generality of fungi cannot
Mell be preserved. The most distinguished
writer upon them, indeed the only good
systematic one, is Persoon, who has more-
over supplied us with some exquisite figures.
His Synopsis Mtthodica Fnngorum helps
us to the following arrangement.

1. Augiocarpi, such as bear seeds in-
ternally. These are either hard, like
Spharia, Sonerb, Fung, t. 159, l60 ; or
membranous, tough and leathery, like
Lijcoperdon, t. 331, 332; Ci/athus (M-
dularia) t. 28, 29; or Batarrca {Lyco-
pcrdon) t. 390.

2. Gynmocarpi, such as bear seeds im-
bedded in an appropriate, dilated, exposed
membrane, denominated hymenium, like
llelvella, t. 39, in which that part is
smooth and even; Boletus, t. 34,87, 134,
in which it is porous ; and the vast genus
Agaricus, t. 1,2, cS:c., in which it consists
of parallel plates called lamelUc, or gills.

502 PALM^.

Persoon has been commendably sparing
of new terms. Besides hymenium above
explained, he has scarcely introduced any
other than peridium, for the round mem-
branous dry case of the seeds in some of
the 1st section. The term pileus, a hat,
is used by all authors for the head of those
fungi that compose the 2d section.

Appendix. Pabna. The natural order
of Palms was so little understood when Lin-
jiaeus formed his systematical arrangement of
plants, and so few of their flowers had been
scientifically examined, that he was under
the necessity of leaving this order as an ap-
pendix to his system, till it could be better
investigated. To its peculiar habit and phy-
siology we hcive adverted in several of the
foregoing pages, see p. 57 — 59, 62, 133, &c.

Late observations show Palms to have for
the most part 6 stamens, rarely 3 or 9, with
3 or 6 petals, and 1 or 3 styles ; which last
are sometimes in the same flower with the
stamens, sometimes in a separate one, but
both flowers always agree in general struc-
ture. Their fruit is generally a dn/pa. They

PALM.«. 503

are akin to the liliaceous tribe, and LinnaMis
happily terms them the princes of the vege-
table kino-dom. His most numerous remarks
coneerniui;' them occur in his Vralvdiones
in Ordincs Nafuralcs Plauianun, published
by Professor Giseke at Hamburgh in 179-j
from private lectures and con\ersations of Lin-
nseus. This work liowever is necessarily tuU ot
errors and mistakes, not only from its mode
* of compilation and die intricacy of the sub-
ject, but because Linnycus had only partially
studied certain parts of that subject, and was
undecided in his sentiments upon thot-:e parts.
It was a sinsjular instance of indulsrent libe-
rality in him to allow his disciples Fabricius
and Giseke to make notes, for their own use,
of Mhat he considered himself as scarcely
competent to lay in a finished form before
the public. We arc obliged to the editor
for preserving these valuable though crude
materials, and he has shown ability in di-
gesting and elucidating them, I should
scarcely, for my own pju't, have thought it
right to furnish still more crude a/id imper-
fect guesses and opinions, from manuscripts
ivhich their illustrious author had purposely,

504 USE OF AN

as it appears, withheld from his auditors, lest
he should lead them into error. This will
explain a note in Professor Giseke*s preface,
p, 1.9, which however was printed before his
request came to my knowledge ; for two very
intellisient friends, tlirou£:h whom it was meant
to be conveyed, judged it unreasonable to be
made, as well as improper to be complied
with, and therefore suppressed the message.

I have only to add a few practical remarks
on the preparation and use of an Herharmm
or Hortus Siccus. The advantages of pre-
serving specimens of plants, as far as it can
be done, for examination at all times and
seasons, is abundantly obvious. Notwith-
standing the multitude of books filled with
descriptions and figures of plants, and how-
ever ample or perfect such may be, they cau
teach no more than their authors observed ;
. but v.'hen we have the works of Nature before
us, we can investigate them for oui'selves,
pursuing any train of inquiry to its utmost
extent, nor are we liable to be misled bv the

HERBARIUM. 505

errors or misconccpUons of* otlicrs. A f^ood
practical botanist must be educated among
the wild scenes of nature, -while a finished
tlieoretical one requires the additional assist-
ance of gardens and books, to which nmst
be superadded the frequent use of a good
herbarium. When plants are well dried, the
original forms and positions of even their mi-
nutest parts, though not their colours, may
at any time be restored by immersion in hot
water. By this means the productions of the
most distant and various countries, such as
no garden could possibly supply, are brought
together at once under our eyes, at any sea-
son of the year. If these be assisted with
drawings and descriptions, nothing less than
an actual survey of the whole vegetable world,
in a state of nature, could excell such a
store of information.

Some persons recommend the preservation
of specimens in weak spirits of wine, and this
mode is by far the most eligible for such as
lire very juicy. But it totally destroys their
colours, and often renders their parts less fit
for examination than the above-mentioned
mode. It is besides incommodious for fre-

50-6 OF MAKING AN

quent study, and a very expensive and bulky
way of making an herbarium.

The greater part of plants dry with facility
between the leaves of books, or other paper,
the smoother the better. If there be plenty
of paper, they often dry best without shift-
ing ; but if the specimens are crowded, they
must be taken out frequently, and the paper
dried before they are replaced. The great
point to be attended to is that the process
should meet with no check. Several vesreta-
bles are so tenacious of their vital principle,
that they will grow between papers, the con-
sequence of which is a destruction of their
proper habit and colours. It is necessaiy to
destroy the life of such, either by immersion
in boiling water, or by the application of a
hot iron, such as is used for linen, after which
they are easily dried. I cannot however ap-
prove of the practice of applying such an iron,
as some persons do, with great labour and
perseverance, till the plants are quite dry,
and all their parts ineorporated into a smooth
flat mass. This renders them unfit for sub-
sequent examination, and destroys their na-
tural habit, the most important thing to be

HERBARIUM. rj07

preserved. \L\cn in spreadin;; plants between
papers, wu .should rclVani iVoni that precise
and arlilici-al disposition of their branches,
leaves, aud other parts, which takes away
from th( ir natural aspect, except Tor the [)ur-
pose of displaying the internal parts of some
one or two of their ilowers, for ready ob-
servaiion.

After all we can do, jilants dry \ery varl-
ouslv. I'he blue colours of their flowers <ie-
neraily fade, nor are reds always permanent.
Yellows are much more so, but wry few-
white flowers retain their natural aspect. The
Snowdrop and Paniassia, if well dried, con-
tinue white. So.'iie greens are much more
permanent than others ; for there are some
natural families whose leaves as well as tlo^vers
turn aimosi black by drying, as Mtlampj)-
ruf/iy jiarhid, and their allies, several V/il-
lovvs, and most of the Orcliidec^. The Heaths
and Firs in general cast off their leaves be-
tween papers, which appears to be an effort
of the living principle, for it is prevented by
immersion of the fresh specimen in boil-
jng^ water. J^'andina clow est ica, a Japanese
^hrub, lately introduced among us b^' L^f^y

i08 PRESERVATION OF

A . Hume and Mr. Evans of Stepney, is very re-
markable in this respect. Every leaflet of its
very compound leaves separates from its stalk
in drying, and even those stalks ail fall to
pieces at their joints.

Dried specimens are best preserved by be-
ing fastened, with Aveak carpenter's glue, to
paper, so that they may be turned over
without damage. Thick and heavy stalks re-
quire the additional support of a few trans-
verse strips of paper, to bind them more
firmly down. A half sheet, of a convenient
folio size, should be allotted to each species,
and all the species of a genus may be placed
in one or more whole sheets. On the latter
the name of the genus should externally be
written, while the name of every species,
with its place of growth, time of gathering,
the finder's name, or any other concise piece
of information, may be inscribed on its ap-
propriate paper. This is the plan of the Lin-
na^an Herbarium, in which every species,
which its original possessor had before him
when he wrote his great work the Species
Plantarwn, is numbered both in pencil and
in ink,. as well as named, the former kind of

AN lIRRiMRICM. SOg

numbers having been temporary till tlic book
to which they refer was printed, after which
they were confirmed \\lth a pen, and a copy
of the book, now also in my hands, was
marked in reference to thejn. Here there-
fore we do nci depend on the opinion merely,
even of Llnna^u-^, for we have always before
our eyes the very object w hlcli was under his
inspection. We have similar indications of
the plants described in his subsequent works,
the herbarium being most defective in those
of his 2d Mantis.sa, his least accurate pub-
lication. We often finrl remarks there, made
from specimens acquired after the Species
FUDitanuji was published. Tliese the her-
barium orcasionallv shows to be of a different
species from the original one, and it thu^
enables us to correct such errors.

The specimens thus pasted, are conveni-
ently kept in lockers, or on the shelves of a
proper cabinet. Linnaeus in the Philosophia
Botanica exhibits a ligure of one, divided
into appropriate spaces for each class, which
lie supposed would hold lus whole collection.
But he lived to fill two more of equal size,
and his herbarium has been perhaps doubled

510 PRESERVATION OF

since liis de^ith by the acquisitions of his son
and of its present possessor.

One great and mortifying impediment to
the perfect preservation of an herbarium
arises from the attacks of insects. A httle
beetle called Ftinns Fur is, more especially,
the pest of collectors, laying its eggs in the
germens or receptacles of flowers, and others
of the more solid parts, which are speedily
devoured by the maggots when hatched,
and by their devastations paper and plants
are alike involved in ruin. The most bitter
and acrid tribes, as Euphovhia, Gentiana,
Pr Wilis, the Syngenesious class, and espe-
cially Willows, are preferred by these ver-
min. The last-mentioned family can scarcely
be thoroughly dried before it is devoured.
Ferns are scarcely ever attacked, and grasses
but seldom. — To remedy this inconvenience
I have found a solution of corrosive sublimate
of mercury in rectified spirits of wine, about
two drams to a pint, with a little camphor,
perfectly efficacious. It is easily applied with
a camel-hair pencil when the specimens are
perfectly dry, not before ; and if they are
not too tender, it is best done before they

AN HERBARIUM. oil

are pasted, as the spirit extracts a yellow dye
from many plants, and stains the paper. A
few drops of this solution should be mixed
with the glue used for pasting. This apph-
cation not only destroys or keeps off all ver-
min, but it greatly revives the colours of
most plants, giving the collection a most
pleasing air of freshness and neatness. After
several years' experience, I can find no in-
convenience from it whatever, nor do I see
that any dried plants can long be preserved
without it.

The herbarium is best kept in a dry room
without a constant tire. Linni^us had a stone
building for his museum, remote from his
dwelling-house, into which, I have been told,
neither fire nor candle was ever admitted,
yet nothing can be more free than his collec-
tion from the injuries of dampness, or other
causes of decav.

512

EXPLANATION of the PLATES.

Tab. 1. fig. 1. Anatomy ot' wood, after
Mirbel. Seep. 14. f. 2. Embryo of P/-
nus Cembra^ shown in a section of the
seed, then separate, and magnified, from
Mr. Lambert's work. See p. 98, 287 —
289- f- 3. Seedling plant of the Dom-
hey a, or Norfolk Island Pine, with its 4 co-
tyledons, and young leafy branches, of the
natural size, j?. 98. /*. 4. A garden bean,
Vicia Faba, laid open, showing its 2 co-
tyledons, p. 96 ; f the radicle, or young
root, p. 94 ; g the germ or corculum,p. 96.
Above is a bean which has made some pro-
gress in vegetation, showing the descend-
ing root, the ascending plumida, p. QJ,
and the skin of the seed bursting irregu-
larly, p. 295.

Tab. 2. Roots. f. 5. Fibrous, in Grass,
p. 105. /. 6. Creeping, Mint, p. IO6,
f. 7. Spindle-shaped, Radish, accompanied
by its cotyledons and young leaves,^. 107-

tXPLANATIOxV OP THE PLATES. Sl3

f. 8. Abrupt, Scahiosa succisa : f. 9- Tu-
- beroiis, Potatoe, }). 108. f. 10. Oval

knobs of some OrchidecE : /• 1 1. Palmate
ones of others: /. 1^. Several pairs
of knobs in Sati/rium alhidum : p. 109-
/ ] 3. Solid Bulb in Crocus : f. 14. Tuni-
cate Bulb in Allium : f. 15. Scaly one in
Lilium : p. 111. /. l6\ Granulated Root
of Saxifraga grajiulata, p. 1 13.

Tab. 3. Stems and Buds. /. 17- Forked
Stem, in Clilora pe7]foliata, p. 111. J-l^-
Scaly, mOrobanche : /. 19- Radicana, or
Clinging, in Ivy, p. 118. /. 20. Twining
from left to right, in Lonicera ; /. 21:
from right to left, in Convolvulus, p. 119-

• f. 22. Scwmenfum, a Runner, in the
Strawberry, p, 120. /. 23. CauU de-

terminate ramosas, as in the Azalea fa-
mily, p. 122. /. 24. Three pair of Buds,
in Lonicera C(srulea^ p. 135. /. 25. Bud
of the Horse Chesnut, p. 137-

Tab. 4. Leaves. /. 26. Tufted Leaves, p. 146.
/. 27. Imbricated :/. 2 8. Decussated: /. 29.
Two-ranked, Yew: /. 30. Unilateral, p. 147.
2 L

5H EXPLANATION

/. 51 . Peltate, Nasturtium, p. 149. /■ 32.
Clasping the stem, p, 150. f, 33. Perfo-
liate : f. 34. Sheathing : f. 3.5. Equitant:
J'. 36*. Decurrent, p. 151, and iipinous,
p. 1(52. f. 37' Flower-bearing, Rnscus^
aculeafuSf p. 151.

Ta b . 5. /. 38>. Orbicular, Hedr/sctnim stijra-
cifoUum^ p. 153. /'. 39- Roundish, Pj/rola:
f. 40. Ovate: /. 41. Obovare: /. 42. El-
liptical or oval : f\ 43. Spatulate, p. 154.
/'. 44. Wetlge-shaped : /'. 45. Lanceolate :
f. 46. Linear : , f. 47- Needle-shaped :
/. 48. Triangular, p. 155. /. 49- Quadran-
gular, (also- abrupt, p. 150), Tulip-tree:
/. 50. Deltoid: /. 51. Rhomboifl- : /'. 52.
Kidney-shaped, p» 156. f. 55. Heart-

shaped : /*. 54. Crescent-shaped : /'. 55. Ar-
row-shaped : f..5i5. Halbx^rt-shaped, (also,
acute, p. l60), f. .57. Fiddle-shaped, (also^
obtuse, p, 160), llume.v pulcher, p. 15?.
f. 58. Runcinate : ./: 59. Lyrate : / 60.
Cloven: /. 6l. Three-lobed, Anemone
Hcpafka : f. ()2. Sinuated, Oak : f. 6^.
Deeply divided, ilcUeboruSyp. 15S, /. 64^
L&ciniated : •

OP THE PLATES. 515

Tad. 6. /. 65. Palmate: /. 66. Pinnatlfid :
/. 67. Doubly pinnatifid, p. 159. /. 68.
Pectinate : /I 6'9. Unequal, Begonia :
f. 70. Ja,o;ged-pointed, p. I6O. f. 7 1 . Re-
tuse, Humex digynus: f-T^- Emavgi-
nate : f. 73. Pointed : f. 74. Blunt \vith
a small point, p. 161. f» 75. Sharp-point-
ed, Ruscus aciileatus : f. 76. Cirrose :
/. 77. Spinous, p, 162. / 78. Fringed :
f. 79. Toothed : /. 80. Serrated : /. 81.
Crenate, p. l63.

Tab. 7- ./• 82. Doubly as well as sharply cre-
nate, approaching iof. 80 : f. 83. Jagged :
f. 84. Wavy, Menyanihes nymph^eoides :
/. 85. Plaited, p. 165. f. 86. Undulated :
/. 87. Curled, p. I66. /. 88. Veiily :
/.89. Ribbed : /. 90. Three-ribbed, /?.l 67.
/. 91. Three-ribbed at the base : /* 92.
Triply^ribbed : f. 93. Cylindrical, Con^
chium, p* 169' /• 94. Semicyliiidrical :
/. 95. Awl-shaped : /. 96. Doubly tubu-
lar, Lobelia Dortmanna : f. 97- Chan-
nelled, p. 170. /. 98. Hatchet-shaped,
p. 171. y*. 99- Three*edged, Mesembry-

. anthemum deltoides : f. 100. Four-edged :
2 L 2

515 EXPLANATION'

Tab. 8. f. lOl. Alienated, Mitnosaverticit-
. lata, p. 172.* /. 102. Hooded, Sarra^
cenia, p. 173. f. 103. Furnished with an
appendage, Dioncea muscipida : f. 104.
Jointed, Fagara tragodes, p. 175. f. 105.
Binate,p. I76. / IO6. Ternate: /. 107-
Interruptedly Pinnate, p, I77. /. 108.
. Pinnate in a lyrate form, p, 178.
f» 109. Pinnate in a whorled manner,
, i^. 179. /. 110. Auricled: /. 111. Com-
pound, p. 180. /. 112. Doubly com-
pound, or Twice ternate : f. 113. Thrice
compound, or Thrice ternate : f. 114. Pe-
date, HellehGrus, p. 181.

Tab. 9- Appendages. /*. 115. Stipulas of
Lathjvus latifolms^ p, 9' 19 ; also an ab-
ruptly pinnated leaf, ending in a tendril^
p. 176.. /. 116. Stipulas united to the

. footstalk, in Rosa, p. 219; also a pinnated
leaf with a terminal leaflet, p. 1 76. /. 1 17.
Floral leaf of Tilia, p, 222. f. 118. Co-
loured floral leaves, Lavajulula Sioechas :

* I liavc found by recent experiment, that the first
leaf of Laihyrus Nissolia is like the rest, not pinnated,
but simple and sessile. Seep. 173.

OP THE PLATES. il7

f. 119. Spinous ones, Alvactijlis caned-
lata : /". 120. Thorns, Hippophac rham-
7ioi(lcs,p.2'23. f. 121. Prickles, p. 224.
f. 122. TeiiclriJ, Lat/ri/rus latifoUus :
f. 123. Glands of the Moss Rose, p. 220\
f. 124. Hairs: f. 125. Bristles of Echiiun
pi/renaiciim, p. 227.

Tab. 10. Inflorescence. f. 126*. Whorl, in
Lamium^ p. 230. f. 127- Whorled leaves,
and axillary flowers, of Ilippuris vulgaris^
p. 231. / 128. Cluster, J^i^es: / 129.
Spike, Ophrys spiralis : f. 130. Less cor-
rect Spike, Veronica spicata, p, 232.
/. 131. Spikelet, Bromus, p. 233. /. 132.
Corj'-mb : /'. 133. Corymbose fascicle,
Achillea, p. 234'. /. 134. Fascicle, Dian-
thus Armeria, p. 235. /. 135. Head or
Tuft, Trifoliiim : f. 136. Simple Umbel,
Eucalyptus piperita, p. 23(5. f.l37. Sim-
ple Umbel in the natural order of Umbel-
latcs, Astraniia major^ with the Involu-
crum, a :

Tab. 11. /. 138. Compound Umbel, La-
serpitium simpler, with its general Invo-

518 EXPLANATION

lucrum, a^ and partial one, h, p. 246.
/'. 139. Cynic, Laurustinus, p. 1237.
y; 140. Panicle, Oat, ;;. 238. /. 141.

Bunch, Common Vme, p. 239-

Calyx, f, 142, Feriantluum, of Calyx
properly so called, Diantlius dcUoides,
p. 245. f. 143. Involucrum, so called, in
Anemone^ p. 247. f- 144. Involucrum or
Indusium of Ferns, p, 248. f. 145. One
of the same separate, with a capsule and
its ring. /'. 146\ Catkin of the HaseUnut
p. 249.

Tab. 12. Calyx and Corolla, with Nectary.

f. 147. Sheath of the Narcissus ; a, the

Petals, called by Jussieu, Calyx ; b^ the

Crown or Nectary, see p. 26'3. /, 148.

Husk of Grasses, p. 250, /. 149- Awns.

f. 150. Scaly Sheath, PterogoniuTH Smifhii^

p. 251. f. 151. Veil of the same, p, 252,

264. f. 152. Jungermannia cpiphylla,

showing a, the Calyx, p. 252 ; />, the

Veil or Corolla, p, 252, 265 ; and c, the

unopened Capsule. /, l.bS. Wrapper,

Agaricm : /'. 154. Radical Wrapper,

p. 253, /, 15^.MonopetalousSalver^shaped

OP THE PLATES. S\9

Corolla, jy. ^56, 257- /• lv>6. Polypetalous

Crucitbrra Corolla: /'. 157- A separate

Petal of the same ; a. Claw ; /;, Border ;

f. 158. Unequal Corolla, Butomus, p. 256.

Tar. 13. /• 159- Bell-shaped Corolla:
f. 1 6*0. Funnel-shaped : /'. iGl. Ringent :
f. 16*2. Personate, Antirrhinum reticular
turnip. 257- f' l63. Papihonaceeus, La-
thyrus ; /. 164. Standard of the same ;
/. 165. One of the Wings ; /. l66. Keel ;
j\ 167. Stamens, style, &c. : /'. I68, In-
complete Corolla, Rittera. /, 169- Peloria,
or regular-tiowered variety of Antirrhinum
Lifiaria, p. 258. f. 170. Nectary in the
Calyx of TropcEolum : f. 17 1. Nectary
ofAqiiilegia,p.266. /. 172, 173. The
same part in Epi medium : f. 174. Pair
of Nectaries in Aconitmn^p. 267. f- 175-
Fringed Nectaries in Farnassia, p, 268.

Tab. 14. Stamens, Pistils and Fruit, f. 176-
A Stamen : a, filament ; b, anther, p. 270,
271. /. 177. Pistil: a, germen; 6, style;
c, stigma, p. 273. f, 178. Capsule of
an annual Mescmbryanthemum, open and

520 EXPLANATION

shut, p. 277. /. 179- Transverse section
of the capsule oi' Datura, p. 278, showing
the partitions and colinnellce, f. 180,
Siliqua, or Pod: /. 181. Sihculo, or
Pouch, jo.280. /. 182. Legume, p. 281,
• /. 183. Stone-fruit, p. 282. /. 184. Apr.
pie: /. 185. Berry: /. 186. Compound
Berry, p. 283. /, i.87. Berry of Fassi-
flora suberosa, p. 284. /*. 188. Cone,
Larch, p. 286, /, 189. Capsule of a Moss,
Splachiiim^ with its fleshy base, or apo-^
phijsis, a, and fringe, b, p. 489, 491-

Tab, 15. /. I90. Barren flower of a Moss,
much magnified, after Hedwig : f. I9I,
Stamens, with the Pollen coming forth,
and the jointed filaments, p, 489- f. 192.

. Fertile flower of a Moss, consisting of nu-
merous pistils, only one of which in gene-
ral comes to perfection. They are also
accompanied by jointed filaments : f. 193.
A germinating seed of Gymnostomiim pyri-.
forme, from Hedwig likewise, showing its
expanding embryo : /'. 194. The saftie

more advanced.: y. 195. The same much
further advanced, and become a young

OF TUB PLATES. 521

. plant, showing its leaves and branched
cotyledons,/). 290. f. 19<3. Young plant
of Funarla hiiL^rometrica, exhil)itini); tlio
same parts, p. 491. /. 197- Powdery wart
of a Lichen^ presumed to be its barren
flower: f. 198. Perpendicular section,
magnified, of the shield or fruit of a Liclien,
showing the seeds imbedded in its disk,
p, 495. f. 199- Section of the seed of a
Date, Phoenix clactylifcra, from Gaertner,
the bulk of which is a hurd Albumen, p. 291,
havinff a lateral cell in which is lodoed the

O O

horizontal emb.-yo, a, p, 288. f. 200.

Section of the Vitellus in Zamioy from the

same author, with its embryo a, with which

it is, like a cotyledon, closely connected,

p, 292. f. 201. Rough coats of the seeds

in Ci/noglossum, p, 298. f. 202. Arillm

of a Carex, p. 299- / 203. Seed of J/V^-

lia, with its cup-shaped Jrilhis, p. 296',

f. 204. Pappus, or Seed-down, of Trago^

jjogoji, p. 300. f. 205. Tail of the seed

in Dn/as : f. 206. Beaked fruit of Scan-

di.v, with its seeds separating from their

base, /;. 301. f, 20?. Winged seed of Em-

hthrium, p. 302. /. 208. Section of the

&22 EXPLANATION OP THE PLATES.

conical Receptacle of the Daisy, with its
calyx : f. 209- Cellular Pleceptacle of
Onopordum, p. 305. f. 210. Ligulate
floret with both stamens and pistil, in a
Dandelion, p. 308. /. 211. Ligulate floret
with only a pistil, in the radius of a Daisy,
p. 307. /. 212. Tubular floret from
the disk of the same, having stamens and
a fertile pistil, p, 308. /. 213. Capsule
of a Moss with a double fringe, the lid
shown apart, p, 488. /. 214. A portion
ef the same fringe magnified, p. 491'

/>M,.l,,l M/ /.,.„,,,„„„ /t,,.

h,/-/tshH hi, l.,wi.m;l,i Hrr^ -t ''

i

j^Uitt^ iy I.vn0maK VScc t CT

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AW.A .7 ^1/ r,',.':l,i I Hr,-.. i /"

1^5

l\Mth;lh;.h;i:n„m R.tf H\

J\tHijh'd hy it'n^rnum JifM X- /".'

l-ublUh3 /';. /.■I„;,uj, A^r,

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TO

fuhluhil bii l.onaman Ktrj X <T

523

I. Index of remarkable Plants, or those of which
any particular Mention, or any Change in their
Classification, is maJe,

iTLBROMA, 448
Abru-i prccatoriuSf 446
^er, 422

— — saccharir.um, 67
yEsailus HippocastuTmm, 137
Jlgrimonia, 365, 423
Ailantlnis, 372, 482
Algce, 495— r499
Alopeciirus I'vlLusus, 1 1 4
AtnaranlkiiSt 373
ArnarijiLis formosisninat 320
Ambro<;inia,460f 476
Anagatlis, 329
Afiglopteris^ 3b8
Annona hexapelala, 25G
Apnnogetofi, 420, 426
Aquilicia, 475
Arennria, 362, 374 ^
Arislolochia Clematifii, 337

? Sipho, :-<37, ^^8i)

^n^m, 81,91, i?n5, 469, 476
Ash, 61, 114, 127
Asptrifoli^, 414
Athrodaciylh^ 373, 479
AtripleXj 4»>4
Aucuba, 372

Bamboo, 75, 372
Barberry, 325
.Bauhinia, 37 G
Black rose, 88
Blandfordia, 362
Bonapartcay 376

Broditva, 263
Broicallia, 381
Bryonia, 475
Bubrcnna, 448
Buffonia, 382

Cactus cocci iicllifcr, 33 fa
Cccfioptori'iy 388
Calamagrostis, 38 1
Calceolaria, 374
Ca//a, 469, 476
Ca/ma, 462
Cannabis, 330, 481
Cdpuro, 4 1 9
Curpinui BetiduSy 249
Canjocar, 43 1
Caryopluj/lus, 427
Cflosia, 324
Ceratonia, 485
Ceratopciolum, 374-
Ckara, 473
Cherry, double-blossomed,

275
Chrysanthemnm indicumy 6fl
Cis'us cri-licus, \ bS
Ci^-?/.?, 449
Cle>me, 430, 436
Cliaibiiig platiLs, 11 J)

Coffee, 3 14
Coiunviiferec, 440
Conchium, 3 74
Conferva bulloia, 213

5?4

JNDliX I.

Contorfce, 415, 465

Coriariay^4B2

Cormos ma^cula^ 6Qj 1S7

Cori/inbiu7n, 457

Cucur/iis, 475

Cvcurhita, 475

Omula, 95, 102

Cyamus Nelumbo, ;0O, 294,

371, 387
Ci/cas revoluid, 331
CytiniiSj 469

J) area, 388
Pev'irr/-hit, 107
JDicksonia, 377
IXietaniJitis albus, 188
JDillenia, 377

Diona'd iniiscipida, 173, I98
JDodccaiheon Meadia, 9\
IDog-rosc, 34G
Dond'cya, 9S, 289
jDorstenia, 377
Draconiiiim, 409

Epimcd'wm alp'inum, 361
Mrioculiu^ 373
JLrviim,- 44 3
JLwc/efl, 483
Eupkorbia, 327, 374, 477

I'>rnSj 4S6
Ficus, 336, 485
JPi//Ve9, 486
i'Yores iristcs, 78
I'mlahiesia, 375
Fraxi/ms Ormts, 189
Fw?/gi, 499 — 502

GeiUimju, 374
Gluucii/vi phcvnicium, 323
Glycyrrluza, 373
Goodenia, 375

Gourd tribe, 475^ 47*
Gratises, 411,,475j 484
CreiVia, 469 '
Guc'f tarda, 476
Giindctia, 375
Gypsopkila, 374

Hasl'tngia coccinea, 403
HeUysarum gyrans, 2 1 1
Helianihici annuus^ 68, 186,

509, 373

■ tuberosuSy lOiS

lldktcrci, 468
HemerocaUiSy 362, 373
Hcinp, 330
Hepat'iccey 493
Hcrnandia, 377
/://;//?■«, 389

Hippomane Ma7idneUa, 204
H'lppophiie rhamnoidesy 296,

481
JHippuris, 3 1 6
hlolmskloldiuy 403
Hop, 189

Morse- che?nut, 136
Hiirneay 376

Jatropha urciis, 321
Jerusalem artichoke, 109
Juvgermanmay 252, 265.,
494, 495

Kalmia, 325
Kichihovia, 468
Knuppla^ 377

Lace -bark, 26
Lachcnalia Iricolor, 1 1 S
lAisiopetalinn, 374
Laffnjrns Aph/ica, 221
Luvatcra arboreUj 103
Lcca, 475

IN'DEX I.

Hf

T.emna, 3l7j 473
Lichen, 495 — 497
Lillacece, 4 1 8

LiUufn L'lUbtf'erumy 141, 273
LinnceUy ^77, 382
JLhhospermuiriy 373
Liverworts, 493
Loielia tonifijlora, S04
Lviikera cccndtu, \o5
LuriJce, 415

Magnolia, 377
Maltese oranijes, 88
Malvacecc, 4 10
Marchaniia^ 494
Meadow Saftrtm, 316
Melaleuca, 450
Mentha, 228
Mimosa pudica, 40, 210

sensitiva, 210

MirabiUs., 466

Monocotyledones, 37, 59

Monson:a, 449

Alonis, 4 74

Mosses, 251, 264, 290, 317,

488 — 493
Miirrcea, 382
il/z/sa, 318
Musci, 488 — 493
MusscBnda, 222
Myosotis, 228
Alyristica, 483
Myrti, 427

Nandlna domesiica, 507
Nastus, 372
Ntltufdium, 3*1
Nepeiiihes dl^tiilaloria, ' 73,
197, 463, 4&3

Nopal, 3:- 9

Is'oilolk iaiaad, pine of, 98,
289

3

Nymhhcea, 191, ^3^ 333^
385

Omphalea, 477
Orchiilece, lOy, 4 53 — 4C''
467 ''

Ongaiium, 373
Omitliopiis perpusillui. Hi
Oral' us sylvuticuSy 177
Oxalis sensij^iva, 2 1 0

Talmce, 57—59, 62, J 33,

313, 321, 502—504
Pandanus, 372, 479
Papilionacece, 423, •142--446
Passijiora, 438
Periploca grceca, 467
Phleiim pratense, 41, 113
Phyllachne, 462
Pine-a;)ple, 316
PiiiUs, 477

Pistacia LentisatSy 346
P/9//t/, 439,468
Plane-tree, its buds, 136
Pomacece, 427
Popiilus dilalata, I8<i
Potamogiton, 194
PoMo5,"4 69
Prccice, 4 1 4
Prirmila marginata, 91
Pteris, 3S8

Phaph, 322
RhodJoh, 395
Rivularia, 498
Roiacpcc, 418, 428
Polacecc, 414
Ri/lnaccci', 2 1 9
Rinncx sanguineus, 74
Rufaccce, 297
/il/</a grarcolcns, 324

52(5

INDEX I.

Salix, 471

Salvia pom'if era i M6
Sarractnia^ 195, 363
Scheuchzeria, 376
Scitaminece, 409, 462, 467
Scopolia, 468
Seriph'mm, 457
Silene hiflata, 348
Sisi/rinc/iium, 437
Smithiasensitivay2\0, 378,

445
Solandra grandtflora, 140
Spergula, 362
SprengeliUi 377
Sterculia, 425, 478
Stilago, 463
Strelitzia, 376
Strumpfia, 463
Stuartia, 375
Stylidiunij 462, 464

Tabaaheer, 76
Tamarindus, 433
Taxus niicijerai 286
T-^ea, 450

Theolroma^ 417
Tmesipttris, 388
Tournefortia. 375
Tragopogon major ^ 347
Tropceo/wn, 421
Tullaghia, 263

UmhellifercB, 41 6
Uredojrumentij 348

Palhneria spiralis, 535, 480
Voiicheria, 498
Fente7iatia, 464
Viscum alburn, 208

Willows, 34, 60, 1S8, 346,
471

Xanthe, 483
Xylopia, 469

Yew, 285

Zosfera, 469

527

II; Index to the Explanations and Illu3tratIous of
technical Terms;

Abrupt leaves, 139, 177
Acaules^ plantce, 126
Acerosum, folium, 1.54
AcinaciJonne,J'ol. 170
Acinus, 283, 295
Aaileus, 224

Aaimrnut 11711, foliumy 1 So
Acutum,Jol. 160
Adpressa, folia, 147
Adscendens, cnulis, \ 1 7
Ajrs^reffate flowers, 308
A^gregati , pt'uuncutiy 131
-^'/a, 258, 301
Alatus, caulis, 1 23
Alhnnen, 290 — 294
Alburnum, 33
Alienatum, folium, 172
AUerna,foiia, 145, 177
Alicrnt ramosus, caulis, 121
Amentum, 248, 249, 309
AmplexicauUa, folia, 150
Anceps, caulis, 123

,foiiu7n, 170

An giocarp i, . fungi y 501
Anther a, 271
Aphi/lUe, plantce, 144
Apophjsis, 489
Apothecium, 497
Appendages, 218

of the «:eed, 302

Appendicnlalum, fol. 173,

197
Apple, 282
Arillus, 296 — 299

Arista, 250

Arrow-shaped leaf, 1 '16
Articulata, radix, 113
Articulatum, folium , 175^

178
Articulatusy caulis, 120

, cnbnus, 128

Artificial systems, 355— 35Pj

38^
Auriculatum, folium, 1 79
Avcnium, fol. 167
Awl shaped leaf, 169
Awn, 250
Axillaris, pedunadus, 1 3^

^acca, 262—286
BaciUum, 497
Barren flowers, 3()6
i/r/ii trinerve, folium, 162
Beak, 301
Beard, 250
Berry, 282— 2S6
Biflori, pedujiculi, 131
Bigemi na turn , folium , I St*^
Biloium, fol. 157
5/ay;, /■/:</, 141
Biiviu n, folium, 1 76
Bipinnatifidum , fol . 1 59
BipinnQlum,f)f. 181
Biternalum, fol. 1 SO
Blistery leaf, 165
Blunt leaf, 160
Botany, 1 1
Brachialu<!, caiilii. 12 i

52»

innk^t It.

Bractca, 221 — 223, 246
Bulboia, radix 11 1
BuUatumy folium^ 1 65
Bunch, 238

Cahjptra, 1b<2; t;64, 4 88
Calyx, 243 — 2b3

Ccnnl'ium, 36

Campanidota, corolla^ 257

Caiialkulatum.. folium ^ 170

Cupitvliim, 235

Cafmda, 278 — 280

Carina, 258

Carinatuni, folium, 1 70

CnrTio.\u>n, fol. 169

CartilaginemnyJ'ol. 162

Catkin, 248, 249,286,309

Catulus, 248

Cauda, 301

Candex, 102, 104

Cfmlina, folia, 144

Caulinu';, pedimculus, 130

Caulis, 1 1 6

Cellular integument, 23
Central vessels, 50
Channelled leaf, 1 70
Characters of plants, 365 —

370, 434
Cil/aium, folium, 1 62
Ciraimscissa, capsida, 413
Cirrosi/m, foliwn, 1 6 1 , 176
Cirrus, 224 — 226
Climbing stems, I IQ
Cloven leaf, 15 7
Cluster, 231
Coarcfat'a, panicula, 238
Caecum, 280
Coloraium,foVnnn, 16S
Coloured leaf, 163
Columella, 278
Co?wt/, 301
Com p lotus. Jl'OS, 30S

Compos ita, folia, 151, 175— •

181
Compound flowers, 307,
450 — 457

leaves, 151, 175

—181
Compresswn, folium, 170
C'jncavum, jol. 1 66
Conduplicatum, fol. \6lt
Cone, 286
Co?iferta, folia, 145
Conjugatum, folium, 1 79
ConnrUa; folia, 150
Corculum, 06, 288
Cordatum, folium, 156
Coriaceum,fol. 172
Corolla, 243, 255 — 270j

353
Coryjnlms, 233
Coslatiim, folium, 1 66
Cotyledons. 96, 289 — 2gi
Crenaium, folium, 1 o3
Crescent-shaped leaf, 156
Crispum., folium , 166
Cruciformis, corolla, 257,

436, 437
Cucullatum, folium, I73,

195
Culmus, 127
Cuneif or me, folium, 1 54
Cupof the Flower, 243 — 255
Curled leaf, 166
Cuspidatum, folium, 1 6 1
Cuticle, 16
Cylindrical leaf, 169
C?/wr/, 23 7, 246, 309—311
Cyphella, AQ^

Deciduum , folium, 1 7 2
Dccompositum, fol. 180
Decurrcntia, folia, 151, 178
DeniSsata,foL 146

iNDi X ir. 529

i^'lloiJes, folin})), ]').i r'llrn^a, rcidir, ]n.;

JDctnosa. folia, 148 I'lddk-.-liiind leaf, i'./

DenldiMuu fdmm, in-2 I'l/amcnlifm, <270

De/mr'isn, J'ol/ti, lis Fiiignvd leaf, I7(i

jDtpress7jm, foliuw, 1 70 /ivv^/w, /o/////w, 1.^7

Delermiualt' rawosi/s, cunlis-y FlaiiiU'ijhnn'K^ catilh^ 1 1 y

122 Fleshy loaf, Uig

Dianioiid-shapcd K-aF, 155 i'ltxunsin^ ('inlia, I -jO

Dirohjhdnnts, (J7 Florai kaf, 2-; I — -Jj.?

D'lfftna, panic Ilia, 237 7-'A>;-m lri^lp<;, ;s

Diffiis^js, cat///s, ] -JO i''i()ri'ts, .so?

Dig'taium, folium, 1 7^ F/nrifrra, folia, 1 5 I

Dioici, Jioies, 3u0, 3(j5 F/osca/i, St./

Discus, 308 Folit/in, 143

jyisscctum, foliiim, 158 FoUiciilus, ^'Q

Dis^cpiuitiilum, C7S Forcing, f)0

Disticitu, J'olia, \ IQ Fringe ot nios'^e^. lyi

Disfic/iiiSf caalis, 121 Fringed IcaF, IG^;

Dnlulrijorme, folium, 17 1 Fron^, 133

Down oF the beed, 21)9 — 301 Fulatim, £ I B

Drupa, 2S2, 264 Fu^ijonius, ludix, 107
Dust oF the anther, 2GS

Cialhiihis, C85

EUipLicum, foliifii, 153 Gali-J, 344 — 347

Emarginulum. fol. IGO Geutmn, 135

Embryo, QG, 287 — :2Si> G(onmuccus,pcdunciilus, 131

Ejnerm, folia, I4P Gcniculalus, culniui, 128

Fliwrve, folium, IG7 G'-t-z/wv, genera, 350 — 3Gi

Knodis-, culnv/s, 127 Gern), 'Jb7

Enuforwc, fdium, 1 70 Gcrmeu, 273, 271-

f^niirc k-aF, iCf Gihhivi, fhitum, IG-)

Fpideriuis, IG Glah-r, 12i

l-jfjuiluutia. folio, 150 " Gland, 22G

Jlrecia, foUa^ 117 (Jlaudula, ^226

Frec/us, canlii, II7 Glaudtilosvyn, folium, !(]l

Krosum, folium, 1 63 Glaur.us, 125

P'vergrccn k^ive,'', 172 Gtumn, 250, 309

Exeiiabiiiiy, G5 GrjFiing, 87

Granul-ala, rudlx, I 1 3

Fall of I he leaf, 3 i 1 Gijmuiiairpi, fungi, :,0\
Fasciculata, folia ^ 1-lG

Fuscirulafus, caulia, 127 J] lirs of plants, 22G— 229

Fasrirulus, 235 j]alr.trd-t.liaped le.if, 15G

Fertile flowers, 3CG Uaslptitw, foliam, 15G

2 M

530

INDEX II.

Hatchet-shaped leaf, 17 1
Heart-shaped leaf, 156
Her bar rum, 504 — 51 I
Bll.urn., 295
Hirfus, 125
Btspidus, 125
Hollow leaf, 166
Honey, 259, 2C6 — 270
Honey dew, 1&9
Hooded leaf, 173, 195
JHorizontalia, J'oLia, 147
Husk, 250
Hymenium, 501
Hypocrateriformis^corol.ib'J

Imlnicata, Jhlia, 146
■ Imnicrsa, Jblia, 148
IncavuSj 125
III chii VI , folium ,158
Incomplcta, corolla, 258
Incompletus, fios, 306
Inciirvu, folia, 148
Jndusivm, 248
Ivcquale, folium, 159
Lierme, foVuan, IQO.
Ivflexa, folia, 148
Infloresceritia, 230
Infundlburformis, corol. '257
I/!fegciri.mum, folium, 16I
Jutegnmi, fol. 152, 161
lutervodis, pediniculns, 130
Involucellum, 246, 24 7
Involucrum, 245—248, 310
Involutum. folium, 164
J?</z/.s-, 248

Jagged leaves, 163
Jaeged- pointed leaves, 160
Jointed "leaf, 1/5, 178

Keel, 25 S
Keeled leaf, 1 70
Kidnt y-slii-tp.'J leaf, 156
Lacinialum, foliicm, 158

Lcpvii, 124
Lamellce, 501
Lamina, corollcs, 256
Laiiatus, 125

Lavceolatum, folium, 1 54
Lateralis, pedunculus, 13 J
Laxus, caulis, 120
Leathery leaf, 172
Legumen, 281
Liher, 25

Ligulati, floscvli, 307
Livihui, corollce, 256
Line are, folium., 154
lAiigulatiim, folium, 172
Lion -toothed leaf, 157
Lirclla, 497

Loh at zim, folium, 152, 157
Lobed leaf, 152, 157
Limulalum, folium, 1 56
LyraiU7n, fcl. 157, 178

Maailatus, 126

Medulla, 38

Meinlrana, 294

Me7nhr an ace2im, folium, 1 7^3

Monocotyledones, planice^

57, 59, 97, 225, 289
Monoid, fores, 306, 395
Mucronatum, jvliuni, I6I
Multifori, peduncuU, 132
Muiica, gluma, 251

Naked flowers, 306

leaf, 168

Nata?iti.a, J alia, 148
Natural systems, 355 — 359,

406
Neciarium, 2 55, 266 — 27O
Necdleshr.ped leaf, 154
Kcrvosum, folium, I66
Nicked leaf, 160
Kifubi^:, 124
Noineuv,lature, 370 — 388
Notched leaf, 163

Index li.

531

jSfitcamejitum, 248
Nudum, folium, lG8
Nudus, JloSj 306

Nut, 282

Olliqua, Jhlia, 148
Oblique leaf, aithcbase, 159
Oi'loiigum, foinim, 153
Obovatumy folhiiti, 153
Ohtumm, f(dhim, 160
C//W acumine,

Idl
Ochreay 223

Opposita, Jhlia, 145, 177
Oppontifolius, pedunculus,

130
Orbiadatum, folium, 152
Ovale, folium, 153
Ouaiuin, folium, 1 53

Palmaium, folium, 153
Fanduriforme, folium, 157
Paniciiia, 237
Papiliotwcea, corolla, 258
Pupillosiis, 124
Pappus, 299— -301
Par tit um , folium ,158
Paientia, folia, 1 t?
Pec/ inatum, foliii m, 139
Pedalum, folium, 1 S 1
pedicellus, 129

Pedunculus, 129

Pellicula, 296

Peltata, folia, 14 9

Pt.ntagonus, caulis, 123

Pepo, 284

Perfect flowers, 306

Per foliata, folia, 150

Perianthium, 244

Pericarpium, 244, 276 — 2S7

Periclicetium, 251 — 253

Peridium, 502

Peristomium, 491

Personata^ corolla, 257

Pet alum, 243, 255
Pctiolnta, folia, 149
Pcliolus, 132
Pileus, 502
Pilosus, 1 23
P/7/^J, 226—229
Pimiul if idum, folium, 1 53
Pinnatum,fol. 176 — 179
Pistillum, 243, 273—276
I'laited leaf, 165
P U cat um^ folium^ 165
Plumula, 97
Pod, 280
Podetium, 497
Pointed leaf, 160
PyZ/e«, 272
Pomum, 282
Pouch, 280
Pnemorsa, radix, 107
Prcjemorsum, folium, i60
Prickle, 224
Procumbens, caulis, 117
Prolifer, caul. 121
Prostratus, caul. 117
Pubcs, semi7iis, 301
Pubescence, 2i6 — 229
Punctatum, folium, 165

Quadrangnlare, folium, 155
Quadrangularis, caulis, 123
Qua I em a, folia, 146
Quina, folia, 146
Quivatum, folium, 176
Quinqua)igulare,fol. 1 55
Quinquaugularis, caulis. If 3

Bacemus, 231
Radicalia, folia, 144
Padicaiif, caulis, 113
Radicula, 103
Ra>Hus, 303
R'lTuea, folia, 145
Rameu<i,pedmiaUus, 130
Ramosisnmus, caulis, 121
2 Z 2

532

INDEX II.

Eays, 308

Mecpptaculum, 241, 301,305
Reclined a, folia, J -17
lie dh talus, caidls, 1 1 8
RectiiS) cmil'is, V2()
Recurva, folia, J 47
Rsjiexa, folia, 147
Rejiifornie, folium , 15(3
Repaiidmnffoliur.i, 1 03
Repens, caulis, 1 1 7

, radix, 106

Resvp inata , folia, 1 4 8
Retusum, folium, 16()
/?ei'o ' 11 turn, folium, 1 0 i
i?// i9 ;» /'6-7/w? , foUujyif 155
Ribbed leaf, lC6
Eibless leaf, 167
Ringcns, corolla, 257
Rosacea, corolla, 257
Rostrum, scvwiis, 301
Roiata, roroUa, 2d7
Rugged leat", 1 63
Rugosuvi,foliu)/7, 1 65
Ru7icinaturn,folmin, 1 5 7

Sagiliaiuni , fulium, 1 5 G
Samara^ 279
Sarmcnfosui, caulis, 120
Scaler, 125
Scaly voois, 1 12
Scandens, caulis, 1 1 8
Sea pus, 128
Scar of the seed, 295
Scimitar-shaped leaf, 170
Sec7/uda,fol-ia, 147
Seed, 24-1, 287 — 304
Seed-vessel^ 244, 270 — 287
Semen, 244, 287 — 304
Semicylmdrace7ir)2,foL 1 69
Sempervirms, folium, 172
S 'parated flowers, 306
Scrra ' u vi , folium, 1 6 2
6'e?'^7if 'atum, folium, J 63
Sessilas^ fiores, 1 3 2

Sess'iUa, fdia, 14(J

Sharp leaf, 160

Sheath, 250, 251, 309-

Sheathing leaves, 150

Shrubs, 136

Silicula, 280

Silicjua, 280

Silver grain, 53

Siviplicia, folia, 1 5 1

Sinuaturn, foinnn , 1 57

Solilarius, pedunculus, 131

Spadix, 250, 265

Sparsa, folia, 145

Sparsi, pedunculi, 131

Spatha, ^50

S p at ulatwn, folium, 154

Species of plants, 359 — 370

5y;fco, 231—233

Spicida, 233

Spike, 231 — 233

Spikcict, 233

Spina, 223

Spiuoyum, folium , 1 62

Spiral vessels, 47

Sporce, 497

Sporangium, 490

Stamen, 243, 270 — 273

Standard, 258

Stigma, 273

Stipes, 134

Siipula, 218 — 221

Stone fruit, 282

Striatus, 126

Str ictus, caulis, 120

Slrolilus, 286

Strophiolum, 302

Sly I us, 273

&i /; 7?z e r J a , /b //a .148

Sul rotunda m , folium, 153

Suhsessile, fdiiLJti , 1 74

Subulat urn, folium, 1 69

SuLcatus, 126

Siipradeco7npoiitum,fol. 1 80

Sword-shaped leaf, 17O

INDLX II.

533

Tail of a seed, 301

Tendril, 2'24 — 2-2()

Teres, cauliSy 122
■, folium, 169

TeiminaUs, pcdunculus, 131

Terna, folia, 145

Ter fia t u m , foiui ni, 1/6

Tesla, 294

Tetragonum, folium, Mi

Telragomis, caulisj 123

Thallus, 496

Thorn, 223

Thyrsus, 238

Tomentosus, 125

Tongue-shaped leaf, 172

Toothed leaf, 1(>2

Triangular e, folium, 155

Triangularis, caulis, 1 23

Tricce, 497

Trigonum, folium , 1 7 1

Trigojius, caulis, 123

Trilobum, folium ,157
Trinervc, folia m, 167
TripUnerve, folium, 1 07
Triquetcr, caulis, 123
Triquelrum, foimm , 1 7 1
Trowel-shaped leaf, 155
Truncatum, folium, 1 59'
T^cherosa, radix, 108
Tubular leaf, 1 69
Tuhulosi, flasculi, 303
7^uhulosu7n, folium, IG9
Tubus, 255
Tuft, 235
Tunic, 29G — 299

Umlclla, 23G, 216, 309-311
Undivided leaf, 152
Z7//(/w /(■/ / // /« ,foLi.u m , 1 63
Unequal leaf, 159
Unguis, 256

Uuiflori, pcdunculi, ISI J
United flowers, 30G
Uiriculus, 278

Vaginantia,fiHn, 150
Fariegatum, folium^ \6%
Varieties, 138, 359
Veil, 264, 488
Vein less leaf, IG7
Veiny leaf, 166
Vc7iosuJ7iy folium, 160
/'er/ /cG//a , J'olja, 1 1 7
J'erticillatu, folui, IAS
Ferticillus, 230
Vexillum, 258
Fillosus, 125
Viscidus, 124
Vitellus, 292—294
FolubUis, caulis, 1 19
Fo/ra, 253

Wavv, 163

Whc'rl, 230
Whorled, 1 16, 179
Wing, 301
Wrapper, 253

Yoked leaf, 179
Yolk. 292— ':9<

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GLEANINGS throiighWALES, HOLLAND,
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CHRONICLE of the CID, Rodrigo Diaz

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THE TRAVELS OF BERTRANDON DE

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LECTURES on DIET and REGIMEN ; be-

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THE PHARMACOP(EIA of the ROYAL

COLLEUEOF PHYSICLINSOF LONDON, translated int(»

DniNITV.

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