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AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

ENTOMOLOGY:

ELEMENTS

OF THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS

WITH PLATES.

By WILLIAM KIRBY, M.A. F.R. and L.S.

AECXOR OF BARHAM,
AND

WILLIAM SPENCE, Esq. F.L.S.

VOL. IV.

LONDON:

FRIMIED FOR

LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN,
PATERNOSTER ROW.

1826.

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CONTENTS OF VOL. IV.

Letter. Page.

XXXVII. Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects. Sensation 1 — 33

XXXVIII. Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects continued. Respiration . . 34>— 79

XXXIX. Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects continued. Circulation. . . . 80 — 95

XL. Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects continued Digestion .... 96 — 120

XLI. Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects continued. Secretion .... 121—145

XLII. Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects continued. Reproduction. . 146 — 166

XLIII. Internal Anatomy and Physiology of

Insects concluded. Motion 167 — 196

XLIV. Diseases of Insects 197—232

XLV. Senses of Insects 233—256

XL VI. Orismology, or Explanation of Terms 257 — 354

XL VII. System of Insects 355—418

XL VIII. History of Entomology 419—473

XLIX. Geographical Distribution of Insects;
their Stations and Haunts ; Seasons ;
Times of Action and Repose 474 — 514

IV

CONTENTS.

Letter. Page.
L. On Entomological Instruments ; and
the best Methods of collecting,

breeding, and preserving Insects. . 515 — 546

LI. Investigation of Insects 547—560

Appendix 561—572

Authors quoted 573—589

Explanation of the Plates 590—602

Indexes 603—634

ERRATA.

Page. Line. Text.

58 12, fvr Semblis read. Sialis.
78 antepenult, for Casei read putris.
97 21, imt a comma after longitudinally, and dele that after

transversely.
107 2, after crop insert and.

289 23, after Menelaus insert Plate XIV. Fio. 1. a,

590 .3, for d. The Bronchiae connected with the Trachea, read
d. The Nerves &c.

Page. Note. Notes.

10 k, dele 1.

20 '', for c read b.

37 *, for A' read A".

44 ^ dele n".

97 •", after Fig. add S.

149 =, after 109 add Plate XXX. Fio. 12. a.

\ dele Plate XXX. Fig. 12. a.

176 ^, for a read a.

;>TM'7T>fo:i

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

ENTOMOLOGY.

LETTER XXXVIL

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS.

SENSATION.

Having given you this full account of the external
parts of insects, and their most remarkable variations ;
I must next direct your attention to such discoveries as
have been made with regard to their Internal Anatomy
and Physiology : a subject still more fertile, if possible,
than the former in wonderful manifestations of the
POWER, WISDOM and goodness of the Creator.

The vital system of these little creatures, in all its
great features, is perfectly analogous to that of the ver-
tebrate animals. Sensation and perception are by the
means of nerves and a common sensorium ; the respiration
of air is evident, being received and expelled by a par-

VOL. IV. B

2 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ticular apparatus ; nutrition is effected through a stomach
and intestijies ; the analogue of tlie blood prepared by
these organs pervades every part of the body, and from
it are secreted various pecuhar substances; generation
takes place, and an intercourse between the sexes, by
means of appropriate organs ; and lastly, motion is the
result of the action of muscles. Some of these functions
are, however, exercised in a mode apparently so dissimi-
lar from what obtains in the higher animals, that upon a
first view we are inclined to pronounce them the effect of
processes altogether peculiar. Thus, though insects re-
spire a/r, they do not receive it by i\\e month, but through
little orifices in the sides of the body ; and instead of
lungs, they are furnished with a system of air vessels,
ramified ad infinitum, and penetrating to every part and
organ of their frame ; and though they are nourished by a
fluid prepared from the food received into the stomach,
this fluid, unlike the blood of vertebrate animals, is white,
and the mode in which it is distributed to the different
parts of the system, except in the case of the true Arach-
nida, in which a circulation in the ordinary way has been
detected, is altogether obscure.

In order that you may more clearly understand the
variations that occur in insects, and in what respects
they differ amongst themselves, and from the higher ani-
mals, in the vital functions and their organs, I shall con-
sider them as to their organs of sensation, respiration, cir-
culation, nutrition, generation, secretion, and muscxdar
motion.

Organs of Sensation. — The nervous system of animals
is one of the most wonderful and mysterious works of

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 3

the Creator. Its pulpy substance is the visible medium
by which the governing principle* transmits its com-
mands to the various organs of the body, and they move
instantaneously — yet this appears to be but the conduct-
or of some higher principle, which can be more imme-
diately acted upon by the mind and by the will. This
principle, however, whatever it be, whether we call it the
nervous Jliud, or the nervous power^, has not been de-
tected, and is known only by its effects. The system of
which we are speaking may therefore be deemed the
foundation and root of tlie animal, the centre from which
emanate all its powers and functions.

Comparative anatomists have considered the nervous
system of animals as formed upon three primary types,
which may be called the inolecular, the ganglionic, and
cerebrospinal'^. The Jirst is where invisible nervous
molecules are dispersed m a gelatinous body, the exist-
ence of which has only been ascertained by the n.ervous
irritability of such bodies, their fine sense of touch, their
perceiving the movements of tlie waters in which they
reside, and from tlieir perfect sense of the degrees of
light and heaf*. Of this description are the infusory
animals, the Polypi, the star-fish and sea-urchins. The
nervous molecules in these are conjectured to constitute
so many ganglions, or centers of sensation and vitality '^.
The second, the ganglionic, is where the nervous system

* To HysfioviKov.

^ See Hooper's Medical Dictionary, under Nervous Fluid, and
Mr. Sandwith's useful Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology, 83.

•= N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 305- .

'' Cuv. Anat. Covq}. ii. 3G2. Compare MacUeay Hor. Entomolog.
215 — . '■ N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. ubi supr.

B 2

4 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

consists of a series of ganglions connected by nervous
threads or a medullary chord, placed, except the first
ganglion, below the intestines, from which proceed nerves
to the various parts of the body^. This prevails in the
Classes Insecta, Crustacea, Arachnida, Mollusca, Annelida^
&c. In the third, the cerebro-spinal, the nervous tree
may be said to be double, or to consist of two systems —
the first takmg its origin m a brain formed of two hemi-
spheres contained in the cavity of the head, from which
posteriorly proceeds a spinal marrow, included in a dor-
sal vertebral column. These send forth numerous nerves
to the organs of the senses and the muscles of the limbs.
The second consists of two principal ventral chords, which
by their ganglions, but without any direct communica-
tion, anastomose with the spinal nerves and some of
those of the brain, and run one on each side from the
base of the skull to the extremity of the sacrwn. This
system consists of an assemblage of nervous filaments
bearing numerous ganglions, from which nervous threads
are distributed to the organs of nutrition and reproduc-
tion^. Its chords are called the great symjpatJietic, the
intercostal, or trisplanchnic nerves'^. While the first of
these two systems is the messenger of the will, by means
of the organs of the senses connects us with the external
world, and is subject to have its agency interrupted by
sleep or disease ** ; the latter is altogether independent of

a N. Bid. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 306.

•» Ibid. 307. The great sympathetic nerves in fishes arc said to
have no ganglions. Cuv. nbi supr. 297.

'^ They are called trisplanchnic because they render to the three
cavities of the viscera : — viz. the thoracic, the abdominal and the
pelvic. N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxii. 524. 527-

'' In Hemiplegia, &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 5

the will and of the mtellect, is confined to the internal oroa-
nic life, its agency continues uninterrupted during sleep,
and is subject to no paralysis. While the former is the
seat of the intellectual powers, the latter has no relation
to them, but is the focus from whence instincts exclu-
sively emanate : from it proceed spontaneous impulses
and sympathies, and those passions and affections that
excite the agent to acts in which the will and the judge-
ment have no concern^.

It is probable, though the above appear to exhibit
the primary types of nervous systems, that others ex-
ist of an intermediate nature, with which future investi-
gators may render us better acquainted^ : but as our bu-
siness is solely with that upon which insects in this re-
spect have been modelled, without expatiating further in
this interesting field, I shall therefore now confine myself
to them.

We have before seen '^ that the nervous system of in-
sects belongs to the ganglionic type : but it requires a
more full description, and this is the place for it. It ori-
ginates in a small brain placed in the head, and consist-
ing almost universally of two lobes, sometimes extremely
distinct. It is placed over or upon the oesophagus or gul-
let, and fi'om its posterior part proceeds a double ner-
vous chord, which embracing that organ as a collar dips
below the intestines, and proceeds towards the anus, form-
ing knots or ganglions at intervals, in many cases cor-

^ iV^. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xvi, 307.

*• Thus in the Mollusccs there must be a great difference in this
respect, since in some of these the brain or cerebral ganglion has
been cut off with the head, and another reproduced. Ibid. xvi. 306.
Comp. V. 391. ' Vol,. III. p. 20.

6 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

responding in number with the segments of tlie body,
and sending forth nerves in pairs, the ramifications of
which are distributed to every part of the frame. This
may be considered more particularly with respect to its
substance and colour ; its Umics ; and parts.

I. Substance and Colour, — The nervous apparatus of
insects is stated by those who have examined it most nar-
rowly, though consisting of a cortical and medullary part,
the latter more delicate and transparent than the former,
to be less tender and less easy to separate than the hu-
man brain ^. It has a degree of tenacity, and does not
break without considerable tension ; in general, it i^
clammy and flabby, and under a microscope a number
of minute grains are discoverable in it, and when left to
dry upon glass, it appears to contain a good deal of oil,
which does not dry with the rest''. That of the gan-
glions differs from the substance of the rest of the spinal
chord, in being filled with very fine aerial vessels, which
are not discoverable in the latter ^. With regard to co-
lour, Lyonnet states that the chords of the spinal mar-
row in the larva of the great goat-moth are of a blueish
gray, and have some transparence'' ; Malpighi and Swam-
merdam observed that the cortical part of the ganglions of
that of the silk- worm and the hive-bee had a reddish hue,

» Lyonnet Anatom. 100, ^ Ibid. 101.

'^ Ibid. 100. In man and the vertebrate animals, the medullary pulp
is every where homogeneous ; under the microscojje it appears to con-
sist of a number of minute conglomerated globules. M. Vauquelin has
analysed it, and found it to contain, of water 80 parts, of albumen
in a state of demicoagiilation 7'0; of phosphorus 1*50; of osmazone
1 12; of a white and transparent oily matter 4*53; of a similar red
do. 0'75; of a little sulphur and some salts 5-1 5. N. Diet. d'Hist.
Nat. xxii. 531—. ^ Amt. 99.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 7

while the medullax'y part was white* ; Cuvier relates that
the brain and the third ganglion in Hypogymna dispar,
with us a scarce moth, differed in colour from all the
rest, being quite white, while the others were more or
less tinted, and examined under a lens appeared varie-
gated by reddish sinuous markings, resembling blood-
vessels as they are seen in injected glands^.

II. Tunics. — The coats that mclose the various branches
of the nervous system in insects seem analogous to those
of vertebrate animals. The first thing that strikes the
eye, when these parts hi a recent subject are submitted
to a microscope, is a tissue of very delicate vessels, which
ramify beyond the reach of the assisted sight ; these are
merely air-vessels or hronchi<£ derived originally from the
trachecc of the animal : but besides these is an exterior
and an interior tunic ; the first corresponding with the
dura mater of anatomists ; and the other, which is the
most delicate and incloses the cortical and medullary
parts, with \\\Q.pia mater ^.

III. Parts. — The nervous system of insects consists
of the brain ,• the spinal marrcm and its ganglions ; and
the nerves.

i. Braiii^. Linne denied the existence of a braifi in
insects, and most modern physiologists seem to be of the
same opinion. A part however, analogous to this impor-
tant organ — at least in its situation, and in its emission of
nerves to the principal organs of the senses, in which re-
spect it certainly differs very materially from the upper

^ Malpigh. de £ombt/c.'20. Swamni. BibL Nat. i. 224. a.
^ Anat. Cump. ii. .348.

c Lyonnet Anat. 100. t. iv. /. 6. Sandwith Introd, 59—.
•^ Plate XXI. Fjg. 1. 7. «. «.

8 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

cervical ganglion, which Dr. Virey regards as its ana-
logue ^ — is certainly to be found in them ; and as Messrs.
Cuvier and Lamarck distinguish this part by the name
of brahi, we may continue to call it by that name with-
out impropriety. The brain of insects, then, is distin-
guished from the succeeding ganglions of the spinal chord
by its situatio7i in the head, the middle of the internal
cavity of which it occupies, and by being the only gan-
glion above the cesophagus. It is usually small, though
in some cases larger than they are''. It consists of two
lobes, more or less distinct and generally of a spherical
form. In Oryctes nasicornis and Pieris Brassicce the
lobes are separated both before and behind '^ ; while in the
\arvaof lyt/tiscus marginalis, but not in the imago, in which
there are two large hemispheres separated by a furrow,
the brain is undivided''. Cuvier mentions the larva of
a Tenthredo L. in which this part is formed oifour nearly
equal spherical bulbs*: in the Scorpion (to judge by the
figure of Treviranus^) the two lobes represent an equi-
lateral triangle, the exterior angle of which terminates
in several lesser spherical bulbs ; in Acrida viridissima,
Nepa cinerea, Clubiona atrox, and the common Louse, the
lobes are pear-shaped s.

ii. The spinal marronx) and its ganglions^. From the
posterior' part of the brain of insects, but in Carabus and
Dytisais L. from its sides below ', issue two chords which

» N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxii. 527. " Hid. v. 591.

•^ Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 318. Swamm. JSibl. Nat. t. xxix./. 7- He-
rold Schmetterl. t. ii./. 1— 10. «. '' Cuv. Ibid. 322. 337.

e Ibid. 324. ' Arachnid, t. If. 13. 7n.vi.

^ Cuv. ubi supr. 343. 346. Treviranus Arachnid, t. v. /. 45. a.
PtATE XXI. Fig. 8. a. " Ibid. Fig. 1. h.b. ' Cuv. vM supr. 337.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 9

diverging embrace the cesojjhagus, and dipping below it
and the intestines, — a situation they maintain to the end
of their course, — and in their further progress uniting at
intervals and dilating into several knots or ganglions,
compose their spinal marrow. This part is so named,
from a supposed analogy to the spinal marrow of verte-
brate animals, which however admits of some degree of
doubt; yet, since it mixes the functions of that organ
with those of the great sympathetic nerves, the denomi-
nation is not wholly improper, and may be retained.
Though this chord is usually double when it first pro-
ceeds from the brain, and surrounds the cesophagus like
a collar, yet in some insects it may be called a single
chord. This is the case with that of the common louse,
in which Swammerdam could perceive no opening for
the transmission of the part just named * ; if he was not
mistaken in this, the brain, as well as the rest of the spi-
nal marrow in that animal, would be below the intestines ;
from the figures of Treviranus it should seem that the
spiders, at least Cluhiona atrox, are similarly circum-
stanced^; in the cheese-maggot, which turns to a two-
winged fly {Tyrophaga piitris K.), the chord is also sin-
gle, but it has a small orifice through which the gullet
passes '^. At the union of the chords in other cases be-
low that organ, a knot or ganglion is usually formed, and
an alternate succession of internodes and ganglions com-
monly follows to the end. The internodes also may ge-
nerally be stated to consist of a double chord, though
in many cases the two chords unite and become one, or

* Plate XXI. Fig. 8. Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 36. b.

" Arachnid, t. v./. 45. ^ Swamm. ubi supr. t. xliii,/. 7.

10 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

are distinguished only by a longitudinal furrow, and even
where they are really distinct and separable, in the body
of the insect they lie close together*. In Oryctes nasi-
cornis and Acrida viridissima &c. all the internodes con-
sist of a double chord ^ ; but in many other insects nume-
rous variations in this respect occur. — Thus in the stag-
beetle the last internode is single *^ ; in the caterpillar of
the cabbage butterfly {Pieris Brassiccs) the Jive Jirst are
double, and the six last single'* ; in that of the great goat-
moth [Cossus lignipcrda) the three first only are double,
but the others terminate in a fork ^ ; in the cock-roaches
{Blatta) the Jour first, in Hydrojyhilus jiiceiis the three
first, and in Elojohilus tenax the tvoo first only are double,
the rest being all single^. A singular variation takes
place in Hypogymna dispar ; all the internodes are single,
except the second, the chords of which at first are sepa-
rate, and afterwards united^ ; and, to name no more, in
Clubiona atrox there is only one internode, which is sin-
gle, with a longitudinal furrow *". In some, as in the louse,
the grub of Oryctes nasicor7iiSi and the cheese-maggot,
there -are no internodes, the spinal marrow being formed
of knots separated only by slight or deep constrictions '.
I must next say something of the ganglions ^. Lyon-
net has observed that, in the caterpillar of the great goat-

° Swamm. ubi supr. 112. a.
*" Cuv. Anat. Com2). ii. 337. 343— .

"^ Ibid.ZZQ. '' Herold Schmclterl.t.u.f. I.

^ Lyonnet Anat. 98.

^ Cuv. ubi supr. 342. Gaede N. Act. Acad. Cces. XL. ii. 323. Cuv.
Ibid. 351. e Jbid. 348.

•> Treviranus Arachnid, t. v./. 45.

' Plate XXI. Fig. 7- 8. Swamra. BibL Nat. t. xliii./. 7.
' Plate XXI. Fig. 1. 7. 8. c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 11

moth, these in one respect differ remarkably from the
chords that connect them ; in the latter the air-vessels or
bronchiae only cover the otitside of the tunic, while in the
former they enter the substance of the ganglion, which
is quite filled with their delicate and numberless branches".
Every ganglion may be regarded in some degree as a cen-
tre of vitality or little brain ^, and in many cases, as well
as the brain, they are formed of two lobes *^. I shall now
consider them more particularly as to their station, num-
ber, and shape.

1. With regard to the first head, their station, they
are most commonly divided between the trunk and ab-
domen ; but in some cases, as in Hydrophilus j^icetis and
Acj'ida viridissima, the Jirst ganglion is in the head^ ; in
others, as in the louse, the water-scorpion, and the grub
of the rhinoceros-beetle [Oryctes nasicortiis), they are
confined to the trunk, their functions in the abdomen be-
ing supplied by numerous radiating nerves^; in others
again, as in the scorpion, they are all abdominal. The
ganglions vary also in their situation with respect to each
other. Thus in some, as in the larva of the Chamaeleon-
fly [Stratyomis Chamcjeleon), they are so near as to appear
like a string of beads ^ ; in that of the ant-lion [Myi'ine-
leon) the two ganglions of the trunk are separated by an
interval from those of the abdomen, which are so conti-

=* Lyonnet Anat. 100. ^ N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxii. 522—.

•^ Lyonnet ubi sujjr. t. ix._/. 1 — 4.

'I Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 339. 343. * Plate XXI. Fig. 7.

f Swamm. ubi siqn: t. xl. /. 5. Cuvier (ii. 33,'2.) accuses Swam-
merdam of representing the spinal marrow in this grub as producing
nerves only on one side ; whereas he expressly states (ii. 50. b.) that a
considerable number spring on each side from the eleven ganglions,
but that to avoid confusion he had omitted some.

12 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

guGUS as to resemble the rattle of the rattle-snake^. In
others the internodes are longer, and the ganglions occur
at nearly equal intervals, as in the larva of the Eplie-
mercs^ ; but in the majority they are unequal in length :
thus in the scorpion the three first ganglions are the most
distant *=; in the hive-bee the third and fourth"*; and in
the spider the last^.

2. The ganglions also in different species, and often
in the same insect in its different states, vary in their
number. Thus in the grub of the rhinoceros-beetle the
whole spinal marrov*^ appears like a single ganglion di-
vided only by transverse furrows ^ ; in the water scorpion
there are two^ ; in the louse there are tht-ee^ ; in the rhi-
noceros-beetle there are four ' ; Jive in the stag-beetle ^ ;
seven in the hive-bee and some Lepidoptera ' ; eight in the
grub of the stag-beetle™; nine in the great Hydrophilus^ •
ten in Dj/tiscus° ; eleven in the grub of the great Hydro-
philusP ; twelve in the grub oi Dytiscus and the caterpil-
lars of Lepidoptera^ ; thirteen in the larva of jEshna'' ;
and twenty-four in Scolopendra morsitans^. You must
observe that, generally speaking, the number of ganglions

* Cuv. ubi supr, 325. "^ Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xv.f. 6.
c Treviran. Arachnid, t. l.f. 13. 1 — 4.

^ Swamm. ubi supr. t. xxii.y. 7.

* Treviran. tihi supr. t. v./. 45. f Plate XXI. Fig. 7.
5 Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 346. " Plate XXI. Fig. 8.

Cuv. ubi supr. 337- ^ Ibid. 335-. • Ibid. 348.

™ Ibid. 320 -. " Ibid. 340—. " Ibid. 338 — .

P Gaede ubi supr.

q Cuv. ubi supr. 323—. 327—. Mr. Bauer (Phil. Trans. 1824, t.\i.
f. 1.) has figured only seven, excluding the brain, in that of the silk-
worm, and Malpighi (De Bombyc. t. vi. /. 2.) ten, — Swammerdara
{Bibl. Nat. t. xxviii./. 3.) however has twelve.

'■ Ibid. 326. * Ibid. 352.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 13

is less in the imago than in the lai'va. With regard to
the distribution of these knots to the different primary
parts of the body, the following table will exhibit it, as
far as I am acquainted with it, at one view. I omit those
in which the ganglions are only in one of these parts.

Head. Trunk. Abdomen.

Acrida viridissima 1 3 6*

HydropJiilus piceus 1 6 2

Clubiona atrox 0 2 1

Gri/llofalpa vulgaris .... 0 2 1^

Myrmeleon Larva 0 2 8"=

ElopJiilus tenax 0 3 2"*

Apis domestica 0 3 4

Ephemera Larva 0 3 7

JEshna Larva 0 6 7

3. I am next to say a few words upon the shape of the
ganglions. Most commonly it approaches to a spherical
figure, but in many instances, as I said before, they, as
well as the brain, consist of two lobes : they are, however,
seldom all precisely of the same shape. In the Dytisci^
and Carabi, the last is marked with a transverse furrow,
which seems to indicate the reunion of two ^ ; in the stag-
beetle, the first ganglion is oval or elliptical, the second
hexagonal ; the third and fourth shaped like a crescent,
and the last like an olive ^ ; in the caterpillar of the great
goat-moth the first is oblong and constricted in the mid-
dle, and the seven last are rhomboidal^ ; in the great
Hydrophilus the second, and in the silk-worm all the gan-

* Cuv. ubi supr. 343—

" Ibid. 345.

« Ibid. 325—.

•^ Ibid. 351.

^ Ibid.Z^Q.

f Ibid. 335—.

s Lyonnet Anat. 190.

I* INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

glions are quadrangular * ; in Hypogymna dispar the
third is heart-shaped'' ; the great ganglion which forms
the spinal marrow of the cheese-maggot is pear-shaped <= ;
that of the grub of the rhinoceros-beetle is fusiform '' ;
and in the scorpion all the ganglions are lenticular*'.
But the most remarkable in this respect are those of a
spider [Clubiona atrox) : in this insect the brain sits u})on
a bilobed ganglion of the ordinary form, which is imme-
diately followed without any internode by another bi-
lobed one, terminating on each side in four pear-shaped
processes or fingers, which give it a very singular ap-
pearance ^.

iii. The nerves^ of insects, as of other animals, are white
filaments running from the brain and spinal marrow to
every part of the body which they are destined to ani-
mate; and their numerous ramifications, when delineated,
form no unpleasing picture''. In the caterpillar of Cos-
sus ligniperda the accurate Lyonnet counted forty-five
pairs of them, and txsoo single ones, making in all ninety-
two nerves ; whereas in the human body anatomists
count only seventy-eight \ From the brain issue several
pairs, which go to the eyes, antcnncc, palpi, and other
parts of the mouth : sometimes those that render to the
mandibles issue from the first ganglion, as in the larva
of Dytiscus marginalis, the stag-beetle, &c. ^ ; those both

' Cuv. Anat. Comp. iu 340. Malpigh. de Bomhyc. t. vi./. 2.

^ Cuv. lUd. 348. = Swamm. BU. Nat. t. xlviii./. 7.

'I Cuv. Ibid. 319. ^ N. Diet. d'Hist. Ned. xxx. 420.

f Treviran. Arachnicl. t. v.f. 45. ni.

e Plate XXI. Fig. 1. 7. 8. d.

*• Lyonnet ubi suj))-. t. x./. 5. G. ' Ibid. 192.

^ Cuv. ubi su]))-. 323. 335.

INTETINAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 15

of mandibles and palpi in the great Hydrophihis^ ; nncl
in Blatta some which act also upon the anteniKB^. •

The optic are usually the most conspicuous and re-
markable of the nerves. In some insects with large eyes,
as many Neuroptera, Hymenoptera^ and Diptera, their
size is considerable ; in the hive-bee they present the ap-
pearance of a pair of kidney-shaped lobes, larger than
the brain '^ ; in the dragon-flies, whose brain consists of
two very minute lobes, these nerves dilate into two large
plates of a similar shape, which line all the inner surface
of the eyes'' ; in the stag-beetle they are pear-shaped, and
terminate in a bulb, from which issue an infinity of mi-
nute nerves ^ ; it is probable that this takes place in all
cases, and that a separate nei've renders to every separate
lens in a compound eye ^ ; the optic nerve in Di/tisais and
Carahus is pyramidal, with the base of the pyramid at the
eye and the summit at the brain ^ ; in Elophilus tenax
it is very large, cylindrical, and of a diameter equal to
the length of the last-mentioned part, upon the side of
which it is supported ; it terminates in a very large bulb
corresponding to the eye'' ; in Scolopcndra morsitans the
optic nerves divide into four branches long before they
arrive at the eyes, and in this insect the nerves which
render to the antennae are so thick as to appear portions
of the brain, which they equal in diameter'. Swammer-
dam discovered in the grub of the rhinoceros-beetle and
in the caterpillar of the silk-worm, a pair of nerves which

■» Cuv. Anat. Comp. ii. 339. '' Ibid. 342.

•■ Swamm. Bibl. Xat. t. xxii./. 6. m.m.

«' Cuv. uhi supr. 3.j0. " Ibid. 335.

f Vol. Ill, p. 497. Lyonnet Anat. 581.

"^ Cuv. ulA sujir. .337. ' H>>d. 351. ' Ibid. 352.

1^ INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

he regarded as analogous to the recwrent nerves in the
human subject, and therefore he distinguishes them by
the same name*: they issue from the lower surface of the
brain, or that which rests on the oesophagus, and at first
go towards the mouth, but afterwards turn back, and
uniting form a small ganglion; this produces a single
nerve, which passing below the brain follows the oesopha-
gus to the stomach, where it swells into another gan-
glion, from which issue some small nerves that render to
the stomach, and one more considerable which accom-
panies the intestinal canal, producing at intervals lateral
filaments which lose themselves in the tunics of that tube"*.
Lyonnet afterwards discovered these nerves in the cater-
pillar of the goat-moth *=, and Cuvier in other insects'*.

The other nei'ves which issue from the brain exhibit
no remarkable features. Those which originate in the
spinal marrow are mostly derived from the ganglions, and
are sometimes interwoven with the muscles, as the woof
with the warp in a piece of cloth ^ ; those from the
three or four first commonly rendering to the muscles of
the legs, wings, and other parts of the ti'unk, and those
from the remainder to the abdomen. After their origin
they often divide and subdivide, and termmate in nume-
rous ramifications that connect every part of the body
with the sensoriiim commune. A pair of nerves is the
most usual number that proceeds from each side of a
ganglion ^ ; but this is by no means constant, since in

* Cuvier {ubi sup?: 319.)?eems not to have been aware that Swam-
merdam was the first discoverer of these nerves, since he attributes
theii' name to Lyonnet.

b Bibl. Nat. i. 138. b. t. xjiviii./. 2. a, b, c.f. 3. g.

c Ubi supr. 578. " Ubi supr. 320. 339, &c.

* Cuv ubi sujir. 349. f Lyonnet Anat. t. ix. x.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 17

the louse, the hive-bee, and several other insects, only a
singlenerye thus proceeds * ; and ui the larva of Ephemera,
while two pairs issue from the six first ganglions, only a
single one is emitted by the,/w last ^. In the spinal mar-
row of the rhinoceros-beetle, both larva and imago, the
nerves consist of simple filaments which diverge like rays
in all directions "= : the same circumstance distinguishes the
cheese-maggot, only some of the nerves appear to branch
at the end'' : in the louse, the last ganglion sends forth pos-
teriorly three pairs of nerves which render to the abdo-
men^. Sometimes, though rarely, nerves originate in
the internodes of the spinal marrow. Cuvier indeed has
asserted that in invertebrate animals all the nerves spring
from the ganglions, and never immediately from the spi-
nal marrow ; but Swammerdam, in describing those of
the silk-worm, mentions and figures four pairs as pro-
ceeding from the four anterior internodes, excluding the
first *^ ; and at the same time he gives it as his opinion,
that all the nerves in insects really originate from the
marrow itself, and not from the ganglions, which he as-
serts are of a different substance, and are inclosed in the

» Plate XXI. Fig. 8. Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xxii./. 6.

^ Ibid. t. XV. /. 6. <= Plate XXI. Fig. 7.

•^ Swamm. ubisiipr. t. xliii.y. 7. fi, h,

^ Plate XXI. Fig. 8.

f In Mr. Bauer's figure (PMo5. 7Va?w. 1824. t.\\.f. 1.) no less than
eighteen pairs of nerves are represented as issuing from the inter-
nodes; but it should seem as if in the specimen from which his figure
\'"as taken, several of the ganglions, perhaps from some injury received
in the dissection, had become obliterated, while their nerves remain-
ed : yet still, even making allowance for these, many pairs will appear
to take their origin from the spinal chord.

VOL. IV. C

18 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

marrow for the sake of giving it greater firmness*. In
this opinion, however, he seems singular''. Those re-
markable nerves described by Lyonnet under the name
o{ spinal bridle {bride epiniere) also take their origin, not
from the ganglions, but from a bifurcation of the spinal
marrow. Of these, in the caterpillar of the goat-moth
there are ten, the first issuing from the bifurcation of
the internode between the fourth and fifth ganglions, and
the remainder from the succeeding ones. After approach-
ing the succeeding ganglion, these nerves form a pair of
branches that diverge nearly at right angles from the
bridle, and producing several lesser branches, lose them-
selves in the sides of the animal <=. Besides the nerves
above-mentioned, two generally issue from the poste-
rior part of the last ganglion, diverging in opposite and
oblique directions : some of these render to the parts of
generation ; and in the silk-worm, and probably other
species, the innermost pair is perforated for the passage
of the vasa deferential.

After duly considering this general outline of the ner-
vous system of insects, the question will continually oc-
cur to you, — is then what you have called the hrain the
sensorium commune of these animals, in the same manner
as it is in those with warm blood ? To this query a ne-
gative must be returned. In the latter, the brain is the
common centre to which, by means of the nerves and

» Comp. Cuv. Anat. Conip. ii. 102—123.; with Swamm, Expl. of
Plates xxxii. t. xxviii./. .3. k.

'' Malpighi seems, however, to agree with him. Z)e Bombyc. t. vi.
/. 1. ■■ Lyonnet ubi supr. 201. t. ix./. 1, 2. n. 1, 2. &c.

'^ Swamm. vbi supr. 1. 13P. a. t. xxviii./. 3. s,s.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. , 19

spinal marrow, all the sensations of the animal are con-
veyed, and in which all its perceptions terminate. The
nerves and spinal marrow are merely the roads by which
the sensations travel; and if their communication with
the brain, by any means be cut off at the neck, the whole
trunk of the animal becomes paralytic, evidently proving
that the organ by which it feels is the brain. This, how-
ever, is so far from being the case in insects, that in them,
if the head be cut off, the remainder of the body will con-
tinue to give proofs of life and sensation longer than the
head : both portions will live after the separation, some-
times for a considerable period ; but the largest will sur-
vive the longest, and will move, walk, "and occasionally
even JIt/, at first almost as actively without the head, as
Avhen united to it. Lyonnet informs us, that he has seen
motion in the body of a wasp three days after it had been
separated from the head ; and that a caterpillar even
•walked some days after that operation; and when touched,
the headless animal made the same movements as when
intire*. Dr. Shaw has observed — an observation con-
firmed in Unzer's Klcme Schreiften, — that if Scolopendra
electrica [Geophilus Leach) be cut in two, the halves will
live and appear vigorous even for a, fortnight afterwards ;
and what is more remarkable, that the tail part always sur-
vives the head two or three days'*. The sensorium cow?-
mz^w^ of insects, therefore, does not, as in the warm-blooded
animals, reside in the brain alone, but in the spinal mar-
row also. It was on this account probably that Linne

* In Lesser Insecto-theol. ii. 84. note *.

'' Lin7i. Tram. ii. 8. Aristotle had observed this \'itality of insects,
and that that of the myriapods is greatest. Hist. Animal. I. iv. c. 7.
De Respiratione, c. 3. Reptiles have also this faculty. K. Dict^
d'Hist. Nat. xxix. 161.

c 2

20 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

denied the existence of a brain in insects, regarding it
merely as the first ganglion of the spine.

Cuvier and other modern physiologists, from the gan-
glionic structure of this organ, are of opinion that it is
not the analogue of the cerebrospinal system of verte-
brate animals, but rather oiihexr great sympathetic nerves.
Indeed, considering solely the external structure of the
nervous system of insects, a great resemblance strikes us
between it and these nerves ; for besides its general gan-
glionic structure, there is also in them an tipper ganglion
in the neck, seemingly corresponding with what we have
named the brain of insects, from which the nervous chord
dips to the lower part of the neck, where it forms a se-
cond ganglion, which appears to correspond with what
we have considered as their second ganglion*. We may
observe, however, that at least in one respect there is
even an external resemblance between the brain of in-
sects and that of vertebrate animals : — it most commonly
consists, as has been stated, like them, of two lobes, often
very distinct ; a circumstance which not unfrequently di-
stinguishes the other ganglions'', and is not borrowed
from the ganglions of the great sympathetics. With re-
spect to the internal structure of the ganglions and spinal
marrow of insects, we know little to build any theory
upon, except that the internal substance of the former is
filled with air-vessels ; at least so Lyonnet, as has been
already observed, found in the Cossus, while only the
tunics of the latter are covered by them, — a circumstance
which I shall ao^ain have occasion to advert to. Takino-

=^ Ciiv. Anal. Comp. ii. 283 — . These are named " the upper and
lower cervical ganglions."

" Lyonnet Anat. t. ix. x. Plate XXT. Fig. l.a.c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 21

the above resemblance to the brain of vertebrates into
consideration, there appears ground for thinking that
the nervous system of insects, hke some of their arti-
culations ^, is of a mixed kind, combining in it both the ce-
rebro-spinal and the ganglionic systems; and this will
appear further if we consider itsjimctions.

That learned and acute physiologist Dr. Virey, assum-
ing as an hypothesis, that the structure of the system in
question is simply ganglionic, and merely analogous to
the sympathetic system of vertebrate animals, has built
a theory upon the assumption, which appears evidently
contradicted by facts. Because, as he conceives after
Cuvier, insects are not gifted with a real brain and spinal
marrow, he would make it a necessary consequence that
they have no degree of intellect^ no memory, judgement
or free will ; but are guided in every respect by instinct
and spontaneous impulses, — that they are incapable of
instruction, and can superadd no acquired habits to those
which are instinctive and inbred''. This consequence
would certainly necessarily follow, was their nervous
system perfectly analogous to the sympathetic of warm-
blooded animals. But when we come to take into conside-
ration the functions that in insects this system confessedly
discharges, we are led to doubt very strongly the correct-
ness of the assumption. Now in these animals the system
in question not only renders to the nutritive and repro-
ductive organs, which is the principal function of the great
sympathetic nerves in the vertebrates ; but by the com-
mon organs maintains a connexion with the external

^ Vol. Ill, p. 664. 671.

b N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. ii. 47—. v. 592. xvi. 308—.

22 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

world, and acquires ideas of things without, which in
them is a function of the cerebral system : from the same
centre also issue those powers which at the bidding of
the will put the limbs in action, which also belongs to
the cerebral system. That insects have memory, and
consequently a real brain, has been before largely proved,
as also that they have that degree of intellect and judge-
ment which enables them to profit by the notices fur-
nished by their senses*. What can be the use of eyes, —
of the senses of hearing, smelling, feeling &c. if they are
not instructed by them what to choose and what to avoid?
And if they «/t' thus instructed — they must have sufficient
intellect to apprehend it, and a portion of free will to en-
able them to act according to it. With regard to the
assertion that they are incapable of instruction, or of ac-
quiring new habits; few or no experiments have been tried
with the express purpose of ascertaining this point : but
some well authenticated facts are related, from which it
seems to result that insects may be taught some things,
and acquire habits not instinctive. They could scarcely
be brought from their wild state, and domesticated, as
bees have been so universally, and both ants and wasps
occasionally^, without some departure from the habits of
their wild state ; and the fact of the corsair-bees, that ac-
quire predatory habits before described ^, shows this more
evidently : but one of the most remarkable stories to our
purpose upon record, is that of M. Pelisson, who, when
he was confined in the Bastile, tamed a spider, and taught
it to come for food at the sound of an mstrument. A

* Vol.. II. p. 525—, 513— .

'' Huber Founnis, 260 — . Reauin. vi. 172 — .

'^ Vol.. 11. p. 207.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 23

manufacturer also in Paris, fed 800 sj)iders in an apart-
ment, which became so tame tliat whenever he entered
it, which he usually did bringing a dish filled with flies
but not always, they immediately came down to him to
receive their food*.

All these circumstances having their due consideration
and weight, it seems, I think, most probable, that as
insects have their communication with the external world
by means of certain organs in connexion with their ner-
vous system, and appear to have some degree of intellect,
memory, and free will, all of which in the higher animals
are functions of a cerebral system, and at the same time
in other respects manifest those which are peculiar to
the sympathetic system, — it is most probable, I say, as was
above hinted, that in their system both are united.

I must bespeak your attention to a circumstance con-
nected with the subject of this letter, which merits parti-
cular consideration : I mean the gradual change that
takes place in the nervous system when insects undergo
their metamorphoses ; so that, except in the OrtJioptera,
Hemiptera, and Nenroptera Orders, in which no change
is imdergone, the number of ganglions of the spinal chord
is less in the imago than in the larva. There seems an
exception indeed to this rule in the case of the rhinoceros-
beetle {Oryctes nasiconiis), in the larva of which there is
only one ganglion, while in the imago there arejbur^.
But as this one ganglion occupies the whole spinal mar-
row, it is really of greater extent than the four of the
imago ; so that even in this case there is a concentration

» N. Did. d'HisL Nat. it. 279—.
•' Cuv. Anal. Comp. ii. 319, 337.

S4 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

of the cerebral pulp. In some cases, as in Dijtiscus mar-
ginalis, and Hydrophilus piceiis'^ the imago has only owe
ganglion less than the larva, but more generally it loses
four ox Jive. Dr. Herolcl has traced the gradual changes
that take place in the spinal marrow of the common cab-
bao-e-butterfly {Pieris Brassicce\ from the time that it has
attained its full size to its assumption of the imago. Of
these I shall now give you some account.

In the full-grown caterpillar, besides the brain there
are eleven ganglions, the chords of the four first inter-
nodes being double, and the rest single : from each gan-
glion proceed two pairs of nerves, one from each side.
In this the lobes of the brain form an angle with each
other ^ In two days the double chords mutually recede,
so as to diminish the interval between the ganglions, and
the single ones have become curved : thus the length of
the spinal marrow is shortened about a fourth., and the
fourth and fifth ganglions have made an approach to each
other *=. Gn the eighth day, when the insect has assumed
the pupa but remains still in the skin of the caterpillar,
the flexure of the internodes is much increased ; the first
ganglion is now united to the brain, and the fourth and
fifth have joined each other, though they are still distinct ;
the spinal marrow has now lost considerably more than
a third of its length**. On the fourteenth day, the in-
ternodes, except the double ones, have become nearly
straight again ; the fourth and fifth ganglions have coa-
lesced so as to form one, and the sixth and seventh have
each lost their pairs of nerves ^. Shortly after this, these

' Cuv. Anal. Comp. ii. 322, 323— j 338. 339—-

*• Plate XXX. Fig. ]. ^ Ibid. Fig. 2.

'' Ibid. Fig. 3. * Herold SchmclU t. ii./. 6.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 25

last ganglions have nearly disappeared, and the chords
of the three first internodes have again approached each
other ^. The next change exhibited is the absorption of
the first ganglion by the brain, the union of the chords
of the first internode, which is now straight, the approxi-
mation of the second and third ganglions, and the en-
largement of the one formed by the union of the fourth
and fifth, at the expense perhaps of the sixth and seventh,
which have now entirely disappeared, and in their place
is a very long internode. These united ganglions retain
the pairs of nerves they had when separate^. Just be-
fore the assumption of the imago, the direction of the
lobes of the brain becomes horizontal, the second and
third ganglions vmite, and the internode between the
third and fourth is shortened '^. Lastly, when the animal
is become a butterfly, the second and third ganglions
have coalesced, and are joined to that formed by the union
of the fourth and fifth ; a short isthmus or rather constric-
tion, with an orifice, being their only separation ; each
of these united ganglions send forth laterally four pairs
of nerves'*. In his figure. Dr. Herold has not repre-
sented the orifice for the passage of the gullet, but doubt-
less one exists, which for an animal that imbibes only
fluid food is probably very minute. In Hypogymna dis-
imr, we learn from Cuvier, this orifice is of that descrip-
tion, and of a triangular shape ^.

It can admit of no reasonable doubt that one of the
principal intentions of these changes is to accommo-
date the nervous system to the altered functions of the

=■ Herold Schmett. t. ii. /. 7- " Plate XXX. Fig. 4.

f Ibid. Fig. 5. " Ibid. Fig. 6.

• Anat. Comp. ii. 348.

VOL. IV.

26 INTERNAL ANATQMY OF INSECTS.

animal ^its; new stage of existence, in which the an-
tennsu, eyes, and other organs ot" the senses, as well as
the limbs and muscles moving them, and the sexual or-
gans, being very diiFerent from those of the larva, and if
not wholly new, yet expanded from minute germs to their
full size, may well demand corresponding changes in the
structure of the nervous system by which they are acted
upon.

But are these changes also concerned, as Dr. Virey
conjectures, in producing that remarkable alteration
which usually takes place between the mstincts of the
il^rv^,and imago? In order to answer this question, it
will be requisite first to quote the ingenious illustration
with which this able physiologist elucidates his ideas on
this point. " The more readily," he observes, " to com-
prehend the action of instinct, let us compare the insect
to one of those hand-organs in which a revolving cylin-
der presents different tunes noted at its surface, and
pressing the keys of the pipes of the organ, gives birth to
aU the tones of a song : if the tune is to be changed, the
cylinder must be pulled out or pushed in one or more
notches, to present other notes to the keys. In the same
manner let us suppose that nature has impre§seid or en-
graved certain determinations or notes of action, fixed in
a determinate series in the nervous system and the gan-
glions of the caterpillar, by which alone she lives, she
will act according to a certain sequence pi" operations ;
and, so to speak, she will sing the air engraven within her.
When she undergoes her metamorphosis into a butterfly,
her nervous system being, if I may so express myself,
pulled out a notch, like the cylinder, will present the
notes of another tune, another series of instinctive ope-

Ilrt'E'AflAL AN^H'bAlfy or IfJSEdTS. sf

rations ; and the animal will even find itself as perfectly
instructed and as capable of employing its new organs, as
it was to use the old ones. The relations will be the
same; it will always be the play of the instrument *'/'*'M

This illustration is doubtless at the first glance very
striking and plausible : but a closer examination will. I
think, show, that, as in so many other instances in meta-
physical reasoning, when fanciful analogies are substi-
tuted for a rigid adherence to stubborn facts, it is satis-
factory only on a superficial view, and will not stand the
test of investigation ; and as this is a question intimately
connected with what I have advanced on the stibj6Ct*Wf
instinct in a former letter, I must be permitted to' ^
somewhat into detail in considering it. ' "

To prove his position, Dr. Virey ought at least to be
able to show that, whenever a change takes place in tlie
instincts of insects in their different states of larva arid
imago, a corresponding change takes place in the extei*-
nal sti'ucture of the nervous chord. But what are thfe
facts ?"^ lii iiiired whole orders, viz. Orthoptera, Hemi-
ptera, and Neitroptera, as mentioned above ^, the struc-
mre of the nervous chord is not changed ; and yet we
know that many tribes of these orders acquire instinc'fs
ih' their imago state altogether different from those which
directed them in their state of larvae. A perfect Locust,
for instance, acquires the new instincts of using its wlngJi;
of undertaking those distant migrations of which so raariy
■ remarkable instances were laid before you in a former
*lett6lP*^;" ^n<l, if a female, of depositing its eggs in an

SfAi ine»i^y'i'T !•'' n < .:.r,

' N.Dict. d'Hist, Nat. xvi. 313. Comp. i. 420.
-9qo P ,, gpg g^^yp^ p_ 23 c y^j^ J 4f|^ YA. 220-.

28 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

appropriate situation. But if such striking changes in
the instinct of these tribes can be eifected without any
perceptible alteration in the structure of the nervous
chord, it is contrary to the received rules of philosophi-
cal induction to refer to this alteration the changes in the
instincts of other tribes where it is found. Is it not far
more probable that this alteration has in fact no con-
nexion with the changes of instinct, but is solely cou-i
cerned with those remarkable changes in the organs of
sense and motion, which occur in the larva and imago
states of the orders in which it is observed ? In a com-
mon caterpillar, the form of the body, the legs, the eyes,
and other organs of the senses, all strikingly differ from
those of the imago; whereas, with the exception of the
acquisition of new wings, a perfect locust differs little
from its larva: so that we may reasonably expect a
corresponding change, such as we find it, in the structure
of the nervous chord of the lepidopterous insect, not
called for in that of the neuropterous species, in which
accordingly it does not take place.

This reasoning, in opposition to Dr. Virey's theory,
that the changes of instinct depend on the altered struc-
ture of the nervous system, becomes greatly strengthened
when we advert to the higher classes of animals, which
surely in any investigation of the nature of instinct ought
to be closely kept in view ; for the faculty, though often
less perfect in them than in insects, is still of the same
kind, and may consequently be expected to follow the
same general laws. In a young swallow, for example,
all its instincts are not developed at once any more than
in an insect. The instinct which leads it to migrate
does not appear for some months after its birth, and that

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 29

of building a nest still later. But we have not the -
slio-htest ground for believing that these new instincts are' i
preceded by any change in the structure of the great
sympathetic nerve, or of any other portion of the nervous
system : and the same may be said as to the sexual in-
stincts developed in quadrupeds some years subsequent
to their birth. If, then, these remarkable changes in the •
instinct of the higher classes of animals can take place f
independently of any visible change in the nerves, what =
substantial reason can be assigned why they maynot^
also in the class of insects? ^aiei?

On the whole, I think you will agree with mej thatr?
there is nothing in Dr. Virey's hypothesis which should"»
lead me to alter the opinion I have already so strongly '
expressed in a former letter ^, as to the insufficiency of
the mechanical theories of instinct hitherto promulgated,
adequately to explain all the phenomena ; and unless
they do this they ai'e evidently of small value. Such
theories as I have there adverted to may often seem to
be supported by a few insulated facts, but with others, far
more numerous, they are utterly at variance; and, to
omit many other instances, I am strongly inclined to
doubt the possibility of satisfactorily explaining the va-
riety of instincts exercised by a bee*^, or the extraordi-»
nary development of new ones in particular circum«'
stances only*^, on any merely mechanical grounds. i

And after all, even suppose it could be demonstratively
shown that eveyy instinct is as clearly dependent on se-**
condary causes, as I have formerly admitted that some
doubtless seem to be, yet what would this teach us as
to the essential nature of instinct ? We have advanced

* Vol. ir. 4th Ed. p. 467. " Ibid. p. 490. ^ Ibid. p. .=')09.

30 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

indeed a step ; but still, as I have before observed in re-
ferring to the theories of Brown and Tucker, we have
only placed the world upon the tortoise, and instinct, as
to its essence, which is what we want to detect, is as my-
sterious as ever: just as, though we can clearly prove that
the mind is acted upon by the senses, yet this throws no
light upon the essential nature of the mind, which we are
forced to admit is inscrutable, as if to teach us humility,
and prevent our vainly fancying, that though allowed to
discover some of the arcana of nature, we shall ever be
able to penetrate into her inmost sanctuaries.

That Dr. Virey should regard instinct in insects as
purely mechanical was the natural consequence of his
denying them any portion of intellect; but his opinion
cannot 1 think be consistently assented to, if it be the
fact, as I have just shown ^, that they are not wholly de-
void of the intellectual principle. Whatever is merely
mechanical, must, under similar circumstances, always act
precisely in the same way. An automaton once con-
structed, whilst its machinery remains in order, will in-
variably perform the same actions ; and Des Cartes, when
he had constructed his celebrated female automaton,
imagined that he had irrefragably proved his principle,
that brutes are mere machines. But if, instead of losing
himself in the wilds of metaphysical speculation, he had
soberly attended to facts, he would have seen that the
instinct of animals can be modified and counteracted by
tlieir intellect, and consequently cannot be regarded as
suiiply mechanical. Though the instinctive impulse of an
empty stomach powerfully impel a dog to gratify his ap-
petite, yet, if he be well tutored, the fear of correction
" See above, p. 21.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 31

will make him abstain from the most tempting dainties :
and in like manner a bee will quit the nectary of a flower,
however amply replenished with sweets, if alarmed by
any interruption. The ants on which Buonaparte amused
himself with experiments at St. Helena, though they
stormed his sugar-bason when defended by a fosse of
water, controlled their instinct and desisted when it wa?
surrounded with vinegar =^: and in the remarkable inj-
stance communicated to Dr. Leach by Sir Joseph Banks,
the instinct of a crippled spider so completely changed,
that from a sedentary web- weaver it became a hunter''.
There is evidently, therefore, no analogy between ac-
tions strictly mechanical and instincts, which, though
they may often seem to be excited by mechanical causes,
are liable to be restrained or modified by the connexion
of the instinctive and intellectual faculties •= ; and while
we are ignorant how this connexion takes place, it is ob-
viously impossible to reason logically on the subject.

In thus denying that any existing mechanical theory of
instinct is satisfactory, I by no means intend to assert that
instinct is purely intellectual. I have already given you
my opinion^, that it is not the effect of any immediate
agency of the Deity ; nor am I prepared to assent to the
doctrine of a writer, who has in some respects written
ably on the subject in question, who says, that *' the
Divine Energy does in reality act not immediately^ but
mediately^ or through the medium of moral and intellec"
tual i?i/luences upon the nature or consciousness of the
creature, in the production of the various, and in many
instances truly wonderful, actions which they perform *=,"

'» Antommarchi's Last Dai/s of Napokon.

» Linn. Trans, xi. 393. / ' Vol, II. 4th Ed. p. 515.

<• Ibid. p. 469. • Zoological Journal, n". i. 5.

32 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The same objection applies to this as to so many other
metaphysical theories, that it is not adequately supported
hy facts; and all theories not so supported are injurious
to science in proportion as their plausibility is greater, by
leading the student to relax in that observation of nature
and attentive study of the instincts of animals, on which
alone sound hypothesis on this subject can be ulti-
mately founded.

I shall conclude these remarks on the nature of in-
stinct with a few observations as to the circumstances in
which insects may be supposed to be guided by this fa-
culty, and those in which intellect seems to direct them.
The bee, when it takes its flight to a field where flowers
abound, is governed by intellect in the use of its senses ;
for these are given to it as guides : and when it arrives
there, they direct it to the flowers, and enable it to as-
certain which contains the treasures it is in search of;
but having made this discovery, its instinct teaches it to
imbibe the nectar and load its hind legs with pollen. —
Again : its senses, aided by memory, enable it to retrace
its way to the hive, where mstinct once more impels
it in its various operations. So that when we ascribe
a certain deoree of intellect to these animals, we do
not place them upon a par with man; since all the
most wonderful parts of their economy, and those ma-
nipulations that exceed all our powers, we admit not
to be the contrivance of the animals themselves, but
the necessary results of faculties implanted in their
constitution at the first creation by their Maker. I
may further repeat, that the mere fact of being en-
dowed with the external organs of sense, proves a cer-
tain degree of intellect in insects. For if in all their
actions they Avere directed merely by their instinct,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 33

they miglit do as well without sight, hearing, smell, touch,
&c. but having these senses and their organs, it seems to
me a necessary consequence, that they must have a suf-
ficient degree of intellect, memory, and judgement, to en-
able them advantageously to employ them.

There is this difference between intellect in man, and
the rest of the animal creation. Their intellect teaches
them to follow the lead of their senses, and make such
use of the external world as their appetites or instincts
incline them to, — and this is their msdom ; while the in-
tellect of man, being associated with an immortal princi-
ple, and being in connexion with a world above that
which his senses reveal to him, can, by aid derived from
heaven, control those senses, and bring under his instinc-
tive appetites, so as to render them obedient to the to ijys-
[ji,QviKov, or governing power of his nature : and this is

HIS W'ISDOM.

I am, &c.
alsqim s'xoiK &«£k> J v

*am dfcofk bn«i .

^U^ iiluinj (V.' tj)--i

VOL. IV.. • ^.^ . r D-

LETTER XXXVIII.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS CONTINUED.

RESPIRATION.

" Life and flame have this in common," says Cuvier,
" that neithei' the one nor the other can subsist without
air ; all living beings, from man to the most minute ve-
getable, perish when they are utterly deprived of that
fluid ^." The ancients, however, not perceiving insects
to be furnished with any thing resembling lungs, took it
for granted that they did not hreathe ; though Pliny
seems to hesitate on the subject''. But the microscopic
and anatomical observations of Malpighi, Swammerdam
and Lyonnet, and the experiments of more modern phy
siologists, have incontestably proved that insects are jiro-
vided with respiratory organs, and that the respiration
of air is as necessary to them as to other animals. They
can exist indeed for a time in irrespirable air ; and im-
mersion in hydrogen or carbonic acid gases is not, as I
have often ascertained, so instantly fatal to them as it
would be to vertebrate animals ; but like them, they

* Anat, Compar. iv. 296.

•• Plin. Hist. Nat. I. xi. c. 3. Even Aristotle seems to have given
into the common opinion. De Respirat. c. 3, 9. &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 35

speedily perish in air altogether deprived of its oxygen,
or placed in situations to which all access to this essential
element is excluded. Their respiration too of atmo-
spheric air produces the same change in it with that of
the vertebrate animals, the oxygen disappearing, and
carbonic acid gas being produced in its place. Bayle
had long since ascertained, that when bees, flies, and
other insects were placed under an exhausted receiver,
they often perished* : and the same effect was even ob-
served by the ancients to ensue, when their bodies were
by any means covered with oil or grease, which necessa-
rily closed the orifices of their respiratory organs''.

But for the first series of experiments ascertaining the
necessity of a supply of air to insects, and their conver-
sion of it into carbonic acid, we are indebted to the illus-
trious Scheele'^ ; and his experiments have been repeated
and confirmed by Spallanzani, Vauquelin, and other
chemists. The former found, that when caterpillars and
maggots were confined in vessels containing only about
eleven cubic inches of atmospheric air, though furnished
with sufficient food, they soon died, and sooner when the
space was more confined'*. He ascertained too, that a
larva weighing only a few grains consumed, in a given
time, as much oxygen as an amphibious animal a thou-
sand times as voluminous ^. A male grasshopper [Acrida
viridissima K.) in six cubic inches of oxygen lived but
eighteen hours, and the female placed in eight cubic
inches of atmospheric air, only thirty-six hours. The

» Philos. Trans, v. 2011. Works, 4to. i. 79, 112.

•^ Aristot. Hist. Animal. I. viii. c. 27.

c On Air and Fire, 148, 155. '* Tracts, 208.

''Mem. on Respirat. 75.

D 2

36 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

usual tests in both instances detected the conversion of
the oxygen present into carbonic acid^. Precisely the
same result was obtained by Sorg and Ellis, who, having
placed a number of flies in nine cubic inches of atmo-
spheric air, found them all dead by the third day, the
oxygen entirely vanished, and a quantity of carbonic acid
nearly equal in bulk produced''.

It is ascertained too, that insects like other animals
require in the process of respiration not merely oxygen,
but such a mixture of it with nitrogen or azote as com-
poses atmospheric air : for Vauquelin found that a grass-
hopper placed in six cubic inches of oxygen lived only
half as long (eighteen hours) as another placed in eight
inches of atmospheric air ; its breathing was much more
laborious, and it died when not more than one-twentieth
of the oxygen had been converted into cai'bonic acid*^.
That a large quantity of oxygen penetrates all parts of
insects, is evident also from the acid prevalent in the
fluids of most of them, as likewise from the wonderful
power of their muscles. That azote is also received,
seems probable from the ammonia which has been ex-
tracted from the fluids of many, and from the rapid pu-
trescence of these animals'^.

The mode, however, in which the respiration of insects
is carried on, differs greatly from that which obtains in
the higher animals. They have no lungs, no organs
confined to a particular part of the body, by means of
which the whole of the blood is regularly exposed to the

^ Ann. dc Chimie, xii. 273.

'' F. L. A. Sorg, Rer.pirat. Insect, et Verm. Ellis, Inquire/ into
Chang, prod, on Atmosph. Air by Respirat. &c. 69.

•^ Ann. de Chimie, xii. 273. '' Sprengel, Commentar. &c. 27 — .

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. S7

action of the inspired air. They do not breathe through
themouih, but through numerous orifices called spiracles,
and the respiratory vessels connected with these are con-
ducted to every part of the body. In some indeed, that
we have included under the denomination of insects, as
the Arachnida, an approach is made to the branchial
respiration of fishes.

The respiratory apparatus of insects may be consi-
dered under two principal heads : — viz. the orifices or
spiracles, and other external organs by which the air is
alternately received and expelled ; and the internal ones,
by which it is distributed. Each of these is well worthy
of your attention.

I. The external respiratory organs of insects may be
divitled into three kinds. Spiracles ,- Respiratory plates ;
and hranchiform and other pneumatic appendages.

i. Spiracles^ (iS^zVacw/a), or breathing pores, are small
orifices in the trunk or abdomen of insects, opening into
the trachece, by which the air enters the body, or is ex-
pelled from it^. They may be considered principally as
to their composition and substance; shape ; colour; magr-
nitude ; situation; and number.

1. Composition and substance. Perhaps you may not
be aware that the structure of these minute apertures is
not so simple as at the first view it may seem ; but when
you recollect that by them the insect breathes, you will
suspect that provision may be made for their opening
and shutting. A spiracle therefore, speaking analogi-

= Plate XXIII. Fig. 2. and Plates VIII, IX. XVI. XXIX. c, K' ,
m", A , D" .

'■ Moldenhawers {Anat. de Vftanz. 314 — .) affirms that the spira-
cles of most insects are quite closed : but Sprengel {Commentar. § S.)
has satisfactorily refuted that opinion.

38 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

cally, may be regarded in numerous cases as a mouth
closed by lips. In caterpillars and many other insects,
the substance of the crust where it surrounds the spiracle,
is elevated so as to form a ring round it. The lips, pro-
perly speaking, are formed of a single cartilaginous piece
or platform, with a central longitudinal cleft or opening,
when closed often extending the whole length of the
piece*; but in some appearing always open and circu-
lar : of the former description are those covered by the
elytra in the common cockchafer ; and of the latter, those
that are not so covered : in some, as in the antepectoral
pair of the mole-cricket, there appear to be no lips, the
orifice being merely closed with hairs''. Though the
aperture is usually in the middle of the platform, in the
female of Dytisais morginalis, it is nearer the posterior
side, the anterior or upper lip being the longest. In the
majority, the mouth or cleft is nearly as long as the spi-
racle; yet m the puss-moth [Cerwa Vinula) it is shorter*^.
Some spiracles, however, are unilabiate, or have only one
lip. This is the case with Gonyleptes K. and perhaps
others'*. The lips are usually horizontal, but sometimes
they dip so as to make the spiracle appear open.

With regard to the substance of these organs, it is more
or less cartilaginous, and probably elastic ; the surface
frequently appears to be corrugate or plaited ; this is very
distinctly seen in the stag-beetle and the cockchafer : in
the last insect, under a powerful magnifier, we are told
that the lips appear to consist of parallel cartilaginous
processes, separated by a cellular web ^. In some species

* Plate XXIII. Fig. 2. •> Sprengel, Comvientar. § 7.
' Ibid. t. iii./. 30. -< Plate XXIX. Fig. 2.3.

• I6id. 8.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 39

of Copris the corrugations form a perplexed labyrinth;
in the caterpillar of the puss-moth the plaits are so nar-
row as to look like rays * ; and in some Dynastidce the
lips approach to a lamellated structure. Again, in Hy-
drophilus caraboides the upper lip, and in Dytiscus cir-
aimflexus, both lips seem formed of elegant plumes^ : a
similar ornament distinguishes the inner edge of the lips
in the caterpillar of the great goat-moth [Cossus lig-
niperda) and others *=. In the grub of the rhinoceros-
beetle {Oryctes nasicornis) the margin of the lower or in-
ner lip is decorated by pinnated rays, which enter the
cellular membrane that covers the upper lip^ : in this
. larva, and that likewise of the cockchafer, the two lips
are formed of different substances ; in the last the upper
or outer one consists of a perforated cellular membrane,
through which the air can pass, while the lower or inner
one is a cartilaginous valve that closes the orifice ^ : in
the former this valve is surmounted by a boss ^. In the
pupa of Smerinthus Populi, a hawk-moth not uncommon,
and of some dragon-flies [Libellula depressa), the margin
of the two lips is crenated, probably with notches which
alternate, that the mouth of the spiracle may shut more
accurately^. The substance is unusually thick in the
spinose caterpillars of butterflies ; and in the pupa of one,
Hesperia Proteus, it is villose.

Under the present head I may observe, that in some
cases, as in the puss-moth, and the larva of the common

» Sprengel, 7. t. m.f. 30. >> Ibid. t. ii./. 22. i iii./. 29

, = Plate XXIX. Fig. 29.

" Ibid. Fig. 16. Sprengel, Ibid. 9. t. \.f. 4-6.

' Ibid. 9. t. If. 9. t Plate XXIX. Fig. 16. a.

f Sprengel, Ibid, t, m.f. 27.

4-0 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

water-beetle {Dt/iiscus marginalis)^ the spiracles are closed
by a semifluid substance, which however, according to
Sprengel, is permeable to the air^. The animal, where
these (organs are furnished with lips, has doubtless, by
means of a muscular apparatus, the power of opening and
shnttmg them : this is done, we are told, by elevating and
depressing, or rather by contracting and relaxing them.
Sorg counted in one case ( Oryctes nasicornis) t'wenty^ and
in another {Acrida viridissima) Jifty, of these motions to
take place in little more than two minutes'' : but the
quickness and force of this motion is not always uniform ;
for the same physiologist observed, that in Carabus au-
ratus, when feeding or moving its body rapidly, the con-
traction of the spiracles took place at very short intervals ;
but when it was fasting, and its motions were slow, the
intervals were longer •= : it is probable also, that the tem-
perature may accelerate or retard the motion. In the
summer I examined a specimen of WIelolontha hirticola^
that had indeed been somewhat injured, with this view :
the pulses of the abdomen, which alternately rose and fell,
were at about the rate of the pulse of a man in health,
sixty in a minute, and the spiracles appeared to me to
keep pace with this motion : later in the year, when the
temperature was lower, as I was walking, I took a spe-
cimen of some grasshopper [Locusta Leach). Upon

■^ Sprengel, Commcninr. 7 — •

'• Sprengel, from whom I have borrowed this quotation, expresses
the time by " scripido horcz." This word is of uncertain meaning,
being scarcely ever applied to time ; but as it means the twenty-fourth
part of an ounce, Faber conjectures it may mean the same portion
of an hour.

'' Sorg, Disquisit. circa respirat. insect. 27, 46, 66. Sprengel ubi
supr. 11 — .

INTKRNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 41

viewing it under a lens, I observed one of the convex pec-
toral spiracles open and shut, and the interval between
two breathings appeared nearly half a minute.

2. With regard to their shape^ spiracles vary consi-
derably. In general we may observe that the abdomi-
nal ones are usually flat, while those of the trunk are
often convex*. Sometimes they are very narrow and
nearly linear, as in many pupae of Lepidoptera, and those
in the metathorax of the sandwasps [AmmopJiila K.) and
affinities; at others they are wider and nearly elliptical,
as in Lucanus and many Lamellicorn beetles : again, in
Copris they are circular ; in Calandra Palmarum ovate ;
in Dytiscus oblong^; in Staphylinus olens\\mu[&X.e', in
Gonyleptes nearly of the shape of a horse-shoe'^ ; and
probably many other forms might be traced, if a thorough
investigation with this view were undertaken.

3. The colour of spiracles will not detain us long. In
the caterpillars of Lepidoptera this is often so contrasted
with that of the rest of the body, as to produce a strik-
ing aiyl pleasing effect. Thus when the body is of a
dark colour, they are usually of a pale one'' ; or if the
body is pale^ they are dark ^, or surrounded with a dark
ring ^. This contrast is often rendered more striking by
their position with regard to the partial colours that
often ornament caterpillars : in those whose sides are
decorated by a longitudinal stripe, the spiracles are
often planted in it^ ; or just above it ^ ; or between two ' :

" Chabrier sur le Vol des Ins. c. 1 . 454.

»> Plate XXIX. Fig. 28. A'. ^ Ibid. Fig. 23.

d Sepp. I. iv. t. ii./. 3. « Ibid. t. xiv./. 3.

f Ibid. t. v./. 6, 7. • ^ Ibid. t. '\.f. 7, 8.

■> Ibid. t. x.f. 6, 7. ' Ibid. v. t. \.f. 3.

42 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in some hawkmoths the intermediate ones are set in
white or pale spots, which gives great life to the animal.
In general, in perfect insects the most prevalent colour
is buff, or reddish-yellow. In the larva of the great wa-
ter-beetle (D_ytiscus marginalis) these organs resemble
the iris of the eye, being circular with concentric rings,
alternately pale and dark'^.

4. The size of spiracles varies considerably. Those
in the larva last mentioned are so minute as to be scarcely
visible except under a lens, while those behind the fore-
legs in Gryllotalpa are a full line in length, and those in
the pleura of Macroptis accentifer^ a Brazilian Capricorn
beetle, are more than twice as long. In the same species
they are often found of different sizes ; — thus the anal
pairs in the Dytiscus lately alluded to, I mean in the per-
fect insect, are much larger than the rest^, probably that
the animal may imbibe a larger quantity of air when it
rises to the surface of the water, where it suspends itself
by the tail. In those Lamellicorn beetles in which the
terminal part of the abdomen is not protected Jjy the
elytra, the covered spiracles are the largest.

5. Under the next head, the situation of spiracles, I
shall not only consider the part of the body in which
they are situated, but likewise their position in the crust ;
to which last, as it will not detain us long, I shall first
call your attention. Their position in this respect is
most commonly oblique ; but in the abdomen of the above
Dytiscus they are transverse, and in a larva I possess, pro-
bably of an Elater, they are longitudinal. In spinose

* Sphinx Ijdbr%Lsc(B Merian Surinam. 34.
" Plate XXIX. Fig. 28. A".

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 43

caterpillars these organs are generally planted between
two spines, one being above and the other below. The
lateral line of the body most commonly marks their si-
tuation ; but in many cases they become ventral^ and in
others dorsal. The most important circumstance, how-
ever, connected with the present head is their appropria-
tion to particular segments or parts of the body, for, like
the ganglions of the spinal marrow, they are distributed
to almost every segment. Let us take a summary view
of their arrangement in this respect.

No insect has any spiracle in the head ; but in cater-
pillars and many other larvce there is a pair in the first
segment of the trunk. This is also to be found in the other
states, but is not easily detected in the 'pupce of Lepidop-
tera : in the Coleoptera order, in the grub of the Lamel-
licorn beetles, it is extremely conspicuous, and planted in
the side of the first segment*; in other Coleopterous grubs
it is not so readily found, but probably its station is some-
where behind the base of the arms, where it is very visi-
ble in that of Staphi/lifius. In the imago of insects o
this order, this antepectoral spiracle has been overlooked,
and indeed is not soon discovered : to see it clearly, the
manitrunk should be separated from the alitrunk ; and
then if you examine the loxver side of the cavity, you will
see a pair of, usually, large spiracles planted just above
the arms, in the ligament that unites these two parts of the
trunk to each other : in the common rove-beetle, however,
{Stapkijlinus olens) you may easily see it without dissec-
tion''. In the Orthoptera it is situated behind the arms,

* Swammerd. Bibl. Nat. t. xxvii./. 5. Compare Sturm Dcutsch.
Fji. i. t. v./. r.

" Plate XXiX. Fig- 12. c'.

4'1> INTERNAL ANATOiMY OF INt^ECTS.

as in Gryllotalpa : or between them and the pothorax,
as in Blatta : in the HemijHera and Neuroptera proba-
bly the situation is not very different. In the Lepidop-
tera this pair of spiracles is planted just before the base
of the upper or primary wings ^ : a similar situation, I
suspect, is appropriated to it in the Trichopitera, but co-
vered by a tubercle or scale. Something similar has
been noticed by M. Chabrier, in the same situation and
circumstances, in the collar of Hymenoptera^ . In nu-
merous Diptera this breathing pore is planted on each
side between the collar and the dorsolum above the
arms'^, and in Hippobosca in the collar itself'^.

In Lepidopterous, Coleopterous^ and some other larvae,
the two segments of the body corresponding with the
alitrunk in the perfect insect, are without spiracles, nei-
ther have they in this state, though pneumatic organs
have been discovered % any real ones in that piirt : but
not so the remaining orders, all of which have these or-
gans in that section of the trunk. To begin with the
OrtJwptera :—\n Blatta there seems to be a long narrow
one behind the intermediate leg ; in the Gryllotalpa there
is one in the posterior part of the pleura ,- and in Lo~
custa Leach, above both the intermediate and hind legs K
It is probable, that in general those that have 7io spira-
cles in the manitrunk have four in the alitrunk, which
seems the natural number belonffin<T to the trunk. In
many of the Heteropterous Hemiptera in the parapleura

» De Geer, i. 81. ^. v./. 10./. " Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 459.

<= Reauin. iv. 246. t. xix.f. 8. s.

^ In this tribe, which I forgot to remark before (see Vol. III.
p. 351 — .) there seems both prot/io?-ax and collar.
*= Vol. Ill, p. 552, 562. &c.
f Plate VIII. Fig. 14. h",n".

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS, 45

there is an open spiracle without lips^, to which, as in
that beautiful bug SaUcllera Stockeri, a channel some-
times leads. The space in which this spiracle is planted
in other genera of bugs [Pentatoma &c.) is covered with
a kind of membranous skin, often much corrugated ^. In
the aquatic insects of this section, and many terrestrial
ones, as Rediivms, &c. this spiracle is obsolete. There
is another circumstance, possibly connected with their
respiration, relating to many of the bugs, which may be
mentioned here. If you examine Pentatoma riiftpes, a
very common one, you will find between the scapula and
parapleura a long orifice or chink; this upon a closer
inspection, under a good magnifier, you will see com-
pletely filled with minute stiff hairs or bristles, which
fringe the posterior margin of the scapula'^. In a Bra-
zilian species o^ Lygceiis L. {sexmaculatus K. M.S.) with
incrassated posterior thighs, these hairs are replaced by
lamellae which have the aspect o{ gills. A red, vertical,
convex spiracle, with its orifice towards the head, and
terminating posteriorly in a kind of conical sac, is situated
towards the hinder part of the pleura in the giant water-
scorpion [Belostovia grandis^) ', this seems analogous to
one lately mentioned in the mole cricket. In the other
section of this Order it is not easy to decypher the parts
of the under side of the alitrunk. In Fulgora^ Tettigonia,
and many others of its genera, there appears to be more
than one opening into the chest ; but whether they are of
a pneumatic nature or not, can only be ascertained by an
inspection of the living animal. There is a very visible

" Plate XXIX. Fig. 14, 15. m". " Ibid. Fig. 15. a.

« Ibid. Fig. 14, 15. b. <» Ibid. Fig. 25. k".

46 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

spiracle over each of the four last legs of the Libellulina^y
but in the remainder of the Neuroptera Order they have
eluded my search. In the Hymenoptera and Diptefa
they are nearly in the same situation, being placed be-
hind the wings on each side of the metathwax ,- in the
latter Order with the poiser near them on the inner side ^ :
in this also, the spiracles of the trunk are without lips.^
except in the larvae, but are often merely an orifice,
sometimes fringed with hairs ; this is particularly con-
spicuous in Syrphus, in which these orifices are very
large, and in some species closed by an elegant double
fringe of white hairs. This is doubtless to prevent the
entrance of any particles of dust or the like.

We are next to consider the situation of the spiracles
of the abdomen : these which are supposed to be appro-
priated exclusively to inspiration^ are usually more nu-
merous than those of the trunk, by which it is probable
that expiration is performed, and have principally at-
tracted the notice of Entomologists : they are either dor-
sal, lateral, or ventral. In Dj/tiscus, Copris, &c. amongst
the beetles, all the spiracles are dorsal ; in the larvae of
Coleoptera and Lepidopteia they are lateral ,• and in the
Heteropterous Hemiptera they are usually ventral : in
Dynastes M'^L. they are commonly found of all three de-
scriptions ; — the three first being dorsal, the two next la-
teral, and the last pair ventral'^. In some instances, as
in Perga Kirbii Leach, and probably other Hymenoptera,
these organs are planted in that portion of the dorsal
segments which turns under, as was observed in a former

* Chabrier sur le Vol des Ins. c. iii. t. vi./. 4. Sa, Sp.
^ Plate IX. Fig. 21. m".
^ Plate VIII. Fig. 9.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 47

letter', and becomes ventral. Generally there is a, pair
of spiracles to each segment, and in those insects that
have a hypochondriack joint'' tliere is often a spiracle in
it. The last segment of the abdomen is always without
these orifices, as is the basal one in Velia^ Ranatra, and
some other bugs. A singular anomaly distinguishes the
Libellulina : they appear to have no abdominal spiracles *=,
yet I have seen the abdomen of Libellula depressa when
reposing, contract and dilate alternately, from whence it
follows that this part is concerned in respiration. Spren-
gel says that the larvae in this tribe have seven or nine
on each side'', and Reaumur speaks of them as disco-
verable in the pupa*. I have carefully examined the
pupa-skin of most of the genera of Libellulina^ under a
powerful magnifier, but have not succeeded in discover-
ing any thing like these organs in the abdomen. The
Ephemera and probably the other Neicroptera have ab-
dominal spiracles ^. M. Latreille observed one on each
side of the base of the scale on the footstalk of the abdo-
men in ants^. Generally the abdominal spiracles may
be described as planted in the crust of the insect ; but in
many cases their station is in the membranous folds,
which I have therefore named the pidmo7iarium, that some-
times separate the dorsal from the ventral segments : these
folds allow of a considerable distention of the abdomen,
which is probably necessary when all the air-vessels are
full. In a gravid Ichneumon I once saw it enlarged to
more than twice its natural size by means of this mem-
brane, through which the eggs were distinctly visible. —

" Vol. Iir. p. 706—. " Ibid. p. 709.

"^ Sprengel, Comment. 3. '' Ibid.

" vi. 398. f De Geer, ii. 635. ^ Fourmis, 22.

48 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Before I bid adieu to this subject, I must say a few words
upon the situation of the organs in question in the my-
riapods. In lulus, in each segment is a pair of orifices
which have usually been regarded as spiracles, but M. Savi
found that these orifices opened into vesicles containing
a fetid fluid, and upon a very close examination he dis-
covered the real spiracles above the base of the legs, in
connexion with trachea'^. In some of the larger species
of Scolopeiidra large open spiracles in the same situation
are extremely visible''. Scuiigera Lam. [Cermatia Illig.)
presents a singular anomaly : — a single series of spiracles
of the usual form, each planted in a cleft of the posterior
margin of the dorsal scuta, runs along the back of the
animal*^ : unless we may suppose that, like the seeming
spiracles of lulus just mentioned, these are merely ori-
fices by which it covers itself with some secretion.

6. A few words upon the number of spiracles. — If you
examine the common dog-tick {Ixodes Ricinus), you will
find only one of these organs on each side of the abdo-
men*^ ; the Libelluli7ia, as we have seen, have on\y four,
all in the trunk ; in the Dynastidcc, Melolontha, and the
larva of Dytiscus, there are fourteen ; sixteen in the Co-
pridce ; eighteen in Dytiscus, and probably the majority
of Coleoptera, both larva and imago, and Lepidoptera ,•
and a pair to each segment except the last, in the My-
riapods,

ii. Respiratory plates {Respiratoria). The nearest ap-

^ Os&ervaz. Sfc.sullo lulus fcetid. 14 — .

*> Theyare particularly visiblein an undescribed East Indian species,
(/. alternata K. M.S.) with scuta alternately black and yellow.
■ Plate XXIX. Fig. 20. A". " De Geer, vii. /. vi./. 3.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. '1<9

preach to spiracles is made by those remarkable plates
that are found in such larvae of Diptera^ as in that state
inhabit substances that might impede or altogether stop
the entrance or exit of the air by the ordinary spiracles,
such as dead or living flesh, dung, or the like. The
Creator therefore, as he has seen it good for wise rea-
sons* to commission certain insects to feed on unclean
food, has fitted them for the offices that devolve upon,
them, and has placed their orifices for breathing in plates
at each extremity of the body. There are usually two
of these plates at the head, and two at the tail. In the
grub of the common flesh-fly [Musca carnaria), at the
junction of the first segment of the body with the second,
two of these plates are planted, which are concave and
circular, with a denticulated margin ; in the cavity near
the lower side is a round spiracle. These plates the
animal can withdraw within the body, so as to prevent
this spiracle from being stopped up by any greasy sub-
stance''. The posterior extremity of this grub is trun-
cated, and has a large and deep cavity surrounded by
several fleshy prominences : at the bottom of this are
two oval brown plates, in each of which are three oval
spiracles, placed obliquely : by the contraction of the
fleshy prominences, this cavity also can be closed at the
will of the animal '^. In some cases, several stiff" rays or
spines replace the prominences''. In Echinomyia grossa
and others the anal plates appear not to be perforated,
being surmounted only by a central boss ^ ; but this,

■^ Vol. I. p. 251—. ^ De Geer vi. 07- 1. iii./. 10. ss. 14.

' Ibid. 66. t. iii./. 13. <• Plate XIX. Fig. 11. a.

" Reaurn. iv. 375 — . /. xxvi./. 7, 8.

VOL. IV. E

50 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

most probably, as in the case of (Estrus Ovis^, is a valve
that closes the respiratory orifices. In the gad-fly of
the ox {(E. Bovis) there are no plates at the anterior ex-
tremity of the body ; but those planted in the other end
are very remarkable, and demand particular attention.
Each is separated by a curved line into two unequal por-
tions ; the smallest of which is contiguous to the convex
belly, and the largest to the concave back of the animal.
Tliis last is distinguished by two hard, brown, kidney-
shaped pieces, a little elevated with the concave sides
turned towards each other : in this sinus is a single^ small,
white spot, which appears to be a spiracle : in the smallest
portion are eight minute circular orifices, arranged in a
line''. As the only communication which this grub has
with the atmosphere is at its a?ial extremity, it has no
occasion for respiratory organs at the other. The gad-
fly of the horse {CE. Equi, &c.) which has no communi-
cation at all with external air, breathing that which is
received into the stomach, has these plates at both ends
of the body.

iii. Respiratory Appendages^. These may be divided
into two kinds ; those by which tlie animal has iminediate
communication with the atmosphere, and those by which
it extracts air from xoatcr.

1 . To begin with xhajirst. These are often found in in-
sects which, during their two first states, live in the water.
No better example, nor one more easy to be examined,

' Reauni. iv. 555. /. xxxv./. 10. ss.

b Ibid. 519—. /. xxxvii./. 3, 4.

' PLATrs XVI. Fig. 9. a b. XIX. Fig. 9, 10, 12, 13. a. XXIX.

Fig 3-7.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 51

of this structure, can be selected, than the gnat [Culex L.).
You must have occasionally observed in tubs of rain-
water, numerous little wriggling worm-like animals, which
frequently ascend to the surface ; there remain a while,
and then bending their head under the body rapidly
sink to the bottom again. These are the larvae of some
species of the genus just named ; and if you take one out
of the water and examine it, you will perceive that it is
furnished near the end of its body with a singular organ,
which varies in length according to the species, and forms
an angle with the last segment but one^. The mouth of
this organ is tunnel-shaped, and terminates in five points
like a star ; and by this it is usually suspended at the sur-
face of the water, and preserves its communication with
the atmosphere : in its interior is a tube which is c('n-
nected with the trachece^ and terminates in several open-
ings, visible under a microscope, at the mouth of the or-
gan. The points or rays of the mouth when the animal
is disposed to sink in the water, are used to close it, and
cut off its communication with the atmosphere. When
the animal is immersed, a globule of air remains at-
tached to the end of the tube, so that it is in fact of less
specific gravity than that element, and it is not without
some effort that it descends to the bottom ; but when it
wishes to rise again, it has only to unclose the tube,
and it rises without an effort to the surface, and remains
suspended for any length of time. Its anal extremity is
clothed with bunches of hairs, which are furnished with
some repellent material which prevents their becoming
wet'' : it is this repellent quality that probably causes a

» Plate XfX. Fig. 9. a. " Ibid. b.

E 2

52 INTERNAI. ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dimple or depression of the surface, which if you look
narrowly you will discover round the mouth of the tube^.

When the gnat undergoes its first change and assumes
the pupa, instead of a single respiratory appendage it is
furnished with a pair, each in shape resembling a cor-
nucopia, and, what is remarkable, placed near the oppo-
site extremity of the body, for they proceed from the up-
per side of the trunk''. By these tubular horns, which
Reaumur compares to asses' ears *=, they respire, and are
suspended at the surface.

Other respiratory tubes or horns are more complex.
The rat-tailed grub of a fly [Elophihis pendulus) like the
gnat breathes b}'^ a tube : but as if the Creator willed
to show those whose delight it is to investigate his works,
by how many varying processes he can accomplish the
same end, this respiratory organ is of a construction to-
tally different from that we have been considering. It
is not fixed to the side of the tail, but is a continuation
of the tail itself, and is composed of two tubes, the inner
one, like the tube of a telescope, being retractile within
the other''. The extremity, which is very slender, and
through which the air finds admission by a pair of spi-
racles, terminates in five diverging hairs or rays, which
probably maintain it in equilibrio at its station at the
surface^. As these larvae seek their food amongst the
mud at the bottom of shallow pools, in which they are
constantly employed, they require an apparatus capable
of being lengthened or shortened, to suit the depth of

Compare Swamm. Bibl. Kat. i. 154. /. xxxi. /. 5. Reaiim. iv.
601—. t. xliii. De Geer vi. 317—. t. xvii./. 2—8.
*> Swamm. Ibid. t. xxxi./ 7, 8. <" Reaum. iv. G07.

" Plate XIX. Fig. 12. a. " Reaum, iv. t. xxxii./. 2. e.

INTEllNxVL ANATOMY OF I N SECTS. 53

the water, that they may maintain their necessary com-
munication with the atmosphere ; and for this purpose a
single tube would not have been sufficient: therefore
Providence has furnished them with tiw^ and both are
extremely elastic, consisting of annular fibres, so as to
admit their being stretched to an extraordinary length.
Reaumur found that these animals could extend their
tails to near twelve times their own length. The me-
chanism by which the terminal piece is pushed forth or
retracted, is very curious, though extremely simple. Two
large parallel trachece^ the direction of which is from the
head of the grub to its tail, occupy a considerable por-
tion of its interior: near the origin of the tail, where
they are very ample, they suddenly grow very small, so
as to form a pair of very slender tubes, but so long that,
in order to find room in a very contracted space, they
form numerous zigzag folds attached to the terminal
tube ; when this issues from the outer tube they conse-
quently begin to unfold, and when it is entirely disen-
gaged, they are become quite straight and parallel to each
other. Reaumur has figured them as being united at
the base of the inner tube^ ; most probably, however,
they do not here stop short, but, as in other instances,
proceed to the end, and terminate in the two spiracles
mentioned above : he conjectures that when the animal
has occasion to push forth its respiratory apparatus, it
injects into these vessels part of the air contained in the
body of the trachecE, which of course would cause them
to unfold and push forth the tube''. When this insect
assumes the pupa, instead of its anal respiratory or-

" Reaum. iv. t. xxx./. 10. " loid. 447—.

54 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

gan it has four respiratory horns in the trunk near the
head*.

The larva of the chamseleon-fly [Stratyomis Chamceleon)
is furnished with a respiratory organ of a still different
and more elegant structure, exhibiting some resemblance
to the tentacula of what are called sea anemonies. In
this larva the last joint of the body is extremely long,
and terminates in an orifice to receive the air, which is
surrounded by a circle of about thirty diverging rays,
consisting of beautifully feathered hairs or plumes^. This
apparatus serves the same purpose with that above de-
scribed of the larva of the gnat. The feathery hairs are
so prepared as to repel the water, and thus to suspend
the animal by its tail at the surface, and preserve a con-
stant access of air. When it has occasion to sink, it
turns these hairs in and shuts the orifice, carrying down
with it an air-bubble that shines like quicksilver, and
which Swammerdam conjectures enables it again to be-
come buoyant when it wants to breathe*^.

In the red aquatic larva of a small gnat [Chironomiis
pliimosns) there are ixoo anal respiratory subcylindrical
horns, with the orifice fringed with hairs ^ ; and in an-
other gnat ( Tipula annulata L. ) Reaumur discoveredyb?^/- ^.
The larva of Tanypus, maadatus^ whose remarkable legs
I formerly noticed*^, exhibits in the interior of its trunk
two long, oval, opaque bodies, which De Geer conjec-
tures may be air-reservoirs ; these, when the animal as-
sumes the pupa, according to every appearance become
external^ and are placed on the back, precisely where the

' Reainn. iv. 456. /. xxxi./. 1—7. ^ Plate XIX. Fig. l.'J. a.

c Bihl. Nat. ii. 44. •' Plate XIX. Fio. 10. a.

^ Reaiini. iv. t. iv.f. G. s, u. ' Vol. II. p. 278 — .

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 55

respiratory horns of aquatic pupee are usually situated, —
they appear to terminate in a transparent point*. The
pupa of a Tipula observed by Reaumur, instead of two
has only one of these respiratory organs, in the form of a
very fine hair proceeding from the anterior end of the
trunk, and considerably longer than the animal itself*.

It is observable that aquatic insects that come to the
surface of the water for air, receive it at the anus, often
carrying it down with them as a brilliant bubble of quick-
silver. This is generally done by means of spiracles in
perfect insects, but in the water-scorpion tribe in that
state respiration is by means of a long hollow tube, con-
sisting of two concavo-convex pieces which apply exactly
to each other. This is found in both sexes, and there-
fore cannot be an ovipositor, as some have thought"^.

These respiratory organs, however, are not invariably
confined to aquatic larvae and pupa?, for those of some
aphidivorous flies have anal ones, and the pupa of Doli-
chopus nobilitatus, or a fly nearly related to it, which is
terrestrial, has likewise a pair of long sigmoidal ones on
the back of the trunk''. The pupa also of the rat-tailed
larvae just noticed as having Jour horns, resides under
the earthy the insect being only aquatic in its grub state.

2. I am next to consider those respiratory appendages
by which aquatic insects, since they do not come to the
surface for that purpose, appear to extract air for respi-
ration from the "joater,- so that they may be looked upon
in some degree as analogous to the gills of fishes : there
is, however, this difference between them — in fishes, the

» De Geer vi. 395—. i. xx'iv.f. 16, IH. rf. ^ v. /. vi./. 1, S.

<■ De Geer iii. 36/. /. xviii./. 1, :;?, 9.
^ Idid. vi. 36. 194-. /, ii./. 2, .">. s.

56 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

blood is conveyed in minute ramifications of the arteries
to the surface of the branchial laminae, through the mem-
branes of which they abstract the air combined with the
water ; but as insects have no circulation, the process in
them must be different, and their branchiform appen-
dages may be regarded as presenting some analogy
rather than any affinity to those of fishes. The first ap-
proach to this structure is exhibited by the pupa of a
gnat lately mentioned [Chu-onomus plumosus); for on each
side of the trunk this animal has a pencil consisting of
five hairs elegantly feathered, which, when they diverge,
form a beautiful star ; its anus also is furnished with a
fan-shaped pencil of diverging hairs ^.

On most of the abdominal segments of the larvae and
pupae of the TricJioptera [Phryganea L.) are a number
of white membranous floating threads, arranged in bun-
dles, four on each segment, two above and two below,
and traversed longitudinally by several air-vessels or
hronchice, which run in a serpentine direction, growing
more slender as they approach the extremity, and in some
places sending forth very fine ramifications, — these are
their respiratory organs''. The caterpillar also of a little
aquatic moth [Botys stratiotalis) at first sight appears to
be covered on each side with hairs, but which examined
under a microscope are found to be branching flattish
filaments, each furnished with tubes from the trachea.
These caterpillars have also the semblance of spiracles,
but apparently found in the usual situation^. The larva
of a little beetle often mentioned in my letters [Gyrinus

" Plate XVI. Fig. 9. a. b.

" De Geer ii. 539—. /. xi./. 12, 16, &c.

' Ibid. i. 526—. /. xxxvii./. 2—6.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 57

Natator), is furnished on each side of every abdominal
segment with a long, hairy, slender, acute, conical pro-
cess, of the substance of the segment, through each of
which an air-tube meanders ; the last segment but one
has yo2/r of these processes, longer than the resf*.

Laminose or foliaceous respiratory appendages distin-
guish the sides of the abdomen of the larvae and pupae of
the Ephemerce, whose history you found so interesting^.
In them these organs wear much the appearance of gills.
In the different species they vary both in their number
and structure. With regard to their number, some have
only six pair of them, while others have seven. In their
structure the variations are more numerous, and some-
times present to the admiring physiologist very beautiful
forms '^. They usually consist of two branches, but occa-
sionally are single, with one part folding over the other,
as in one figured by Reaumur, which precisely resembles
the leaf of some plant, the air-vessels or bronchice in con-
nexion with the tracliecE branching and traversing: it in
all directions, like the veins of leaves '*. The double ones
differ in form. In the larva and pupa oi EpJiemera vul-
gata there are six of these double false gills on each side
of the abdomen, the three last segments being without
them; each branch consists of a long fusiform piece, ra-
ther tumid and terminating in a point, which is fringed
on each side with a number of flattish filaments, blunt
at the end. An air-vessel from the trachea enters the
gill at its base ; is first divided into two larger branches,

•* De Geer iv. 3(33—. t. xiii./. 16—19.

b Vol,. I. p. 279—. II. 369—.

« See Reaum. vi. t. xlii.— xlvi. and Plate XXIX. Fig. 3 — 5.

•i Reaum. Ibid. t. xlv./, 2.

58 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

each of which enters a branch of the false gill. These
branches send forth on each side numerous lesser rami-
fications, one of which enters each of the filaments *. In
another species {E. vcspertina) each false gill presents
the appearance of a pair of ovate leaves with a long
acumen, and the air-vessels represent the midrib of the
leaf, with veins branching from it on each side ^ ; and, to
name no more, in E. fusco-grisca, one branch represents
the leaf of a Begonia^ the sides not being symmetrical,
with its veins, while the other consists only of numerous
branching filaments'^. In other aquatic larva?, as in that
of the common May-fly [Semblis lutaria Latr.), these ap-
pendages consist of several joints'*.

By. the above apparatus these aquatic animals are en-
abled to separate the air from the water, as the fish by
their gills ; but how this separation is made has not been
precisely explained. The false gills in many species are
kept in continual and intense agitation. When they
move briskly to one side, Reaumur conjectures they may
receive the air, and when they return back they may
emit it <=. This brisk motion probably disengages it from
the water. In many species, when in repose, they are
laid upon the back of the animal ^, but in others they are
nots.

The larvae of the Agrionidee appear to respire like
those of the Ephemera:, &c. by means of long foliaceous

« Plate XXIX. ¥ig. .5. De Gecr ii. 624—.

•- Plate XXIX. Fig. 4. De Geer Ibid. 647—.

•= Plate XXIX. Fig. .3. De Gccr Ibid. 653—.

'' Plate XXIX. Fig. 6. Dc Gccr Ibid. 727—.

* Reaiim. vi. 465. f Ibid. (. xlii./. 4, 5. De Geer fi. 623.

« Ibid. 648. /. xvii./; 11, 12.

INTERNAL ANATOMY Or INSECTS. 59

laminae or false gills filled with air-vessels ; but instead
of being ventral, they proceed from the anus. They are
three in number, one dorsal and two lateral, perpendi-
cular to the horizon, of a lanceolate shape, beautifully
veined, Vf'Wh a longitudinal middle nervure, from which
others diverge towards the margin, which are probably
hronchice. They are used by the animal, which swims
like a fish, as fins, but it does not appear to imbibe the
water like the other Lihellulincc, nor to propel itself by
ejecting it, — a circumstance which furnishes an additional
argument for the more received opinion, that this action
in them is for the purpose of respiration as much as
for motion^.

The larvae and pupae of the Libellulimc, receive the
water and air that they respire by a large anal aperture,
which is closed at the will of the animal by five hard,
moveable, triangular, concavo-convex pieces, all very
acute and fringed with hairs. These pieces are placed
so that there is one above, which is the largest of all ;
one on each side, w^hich are the smallest, and two below ;
^vhen these are closed, theyform together a conical point''.
Sometimes only three of these pieces are conspicuous •= :
three other cartilaginous pieces, resembling the valve
of a bivalve shell, close the passage within the pointed
pieces'*. At this orifice the water is received ; and when,
by an internal process to be described afterwards, it has
parted with its oxygen, is again expelled.

Under this head I shall mention a fact which may be
connected with respiration of the insects concerned. In

» Vol. III. p. 154. De Geer ii. 697—. t. wi.f. i, 5, 12.
'' De Gecr Ibid. GG6— . t. xix./. 6.
" Reauni. vi. ;$93. /. xxxvi./. 8, 9. /, t.
t 31(1. 3l)o. f. xxxvi./. S~!). c. c.

60 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dissecthiff a species of Noctua related to N. Proimba,
but I do not recollect the particular species, — at the base
of the abdomen of the male I discovered two bunches
of long fawn-coloured parallel hairs, planted each in an
oval plate, plane above, but below convex and fleshy ;
while the plates remained attached to the insect, they
appeared to have a distinct pulsation. The hairs, which
are about half an inch long, diverge a little, and form a
tuft not very unlike a shaving-brush^. I have not
since met with this species, but I have preserved the
brush and scale. Somewhere in Bonnet's works, but I
do not recollect where, I have since found mention of a
similar fact in another moth.

II. Having considered the external respiratory organs
of insects, by which the air is received, we are next to
consider the internal ones, by which it is distributed.
These are gills ; tracheae and bronchice ; and sacs or
pouches^.

i. G\]\s {Branchia;'^.) Having lately described what
may be denominated false gills, or branchiform ap-
pendages, I shall now call your attention to what may
be denominated tnie ones, which are peculiar to the
Arachnida Class : but what is remarkable, the animals
that breathe by them are very rarely inhabitants of the
water, so that their functions cannot be perfectly analo-
gous to those of fishes.

In the Scorpion, on each side of the four first ventral
segments a spiracle may be discovered, which has no

» Plate XXIX. Fig. 21. " Marcel de Serres {Mem.

du Mus. 1819. 137, &c.) calls the tuhvlar trachecs. that receive the
air, arier'utl trachea:, and the vesicular ones, which act as reservoirs^
pulmonary tracheae. " Plate XXIX. Fig. 1. 2.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 61

lip as in other insects, but is merely a circular orifice.
These orifices do not lead to trachece or vesicles, but to
true gills, which are situated below a muscular web which
clothes the internal surface of the crust. Each gill con-
sists of many semicircular very thin plates, of a dead
milky white, which are connected together at the dorsal
end like the leaves of a book. There appear to be more
than hvefiti/ of these leaves, which when strongly mag-
nified look transparent and destitute of any vessels.
Each gill is fastened at the back to the spiracle ^. In the
spiders also, gills are discoverable, but differently cir-
cumstanced. On the under side of the abdomen, near
the base, is a transverse depression, on each side of which
is a longitudinal opening leading to a cavity, which is
covered from above by a cartilaginous plate. In this
cavity is situated a true gill, which is white, triangular,
and covered with a fine skin ; the leaves of this gill are
far more numerous and much finer and softer than those
of the gills of the scorpion. On account of their softness
they have often the appearance of a slimy skin ; but their
laminated structure shows itself very clearly in old spe-
cimens, and in such as have been immersed in boiling-
water^.

ii. Trachece and BrojicJiice'^. Parallel with each side
of the body of most ijisects and extending its whole length,
run two cylindrical tubes, which communicate with the
spiracles'^, and from which issue, at points opposite to
those organs, other tubes which ramify ad irifinitiim, and

^ Treviranus Arachnid. 7 — . <. 1. /. 1. r. /. 10. Comp. K. Diet,
d^ Hist. Nat. xxx. 419, Latreille calls these gills Pneumobranches.
" Treviranus Ibid. 24. Plate XXIX. Fig. 1.
^- Plate XXI. Fig. 3. a 6. '^ Ibid. a.

62 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSFXTS.

are distributed to ever}^ part of the body^. The first of
these tubes are called the trachece and the latter the
bronchice. This structure appears, however, not to be
universal: it is to be foinid in caterpillars and many
Dipterous larvae ; but in that of the rhinoceros-beetle
{On/ctes nasicornis) and other Lamellicorns, the bi'oncMcs
branch directly/ from the spiracle, the bottom or interior
mouth of which is lined by a membrane from which they
proceed'' : something similar has been observed to take
place in many insects in other states, as the common
cockchafer •= ; the pupa of Smerinthus Populi^ ; in the
Cicada^; in the Locust tribe ^; and many others. In
the Cossus, or larva of the great goat-moth, the trachea
commences with the first spiracle, and finishes a little
beyond the last, after which it diminishes considerably
in diameter, and terminates in several branches or bron-
chia, which proceed to the anal extremity of the body ^.
The bronchicB which originate from the tracheae in the
vicinity of each spiracle, may be considered as consisting
in general of three packets ; — dorsal ones, which are dis-
tributed to the back and sides of the animal ; visceral
ones, which enter the cavity of the body, and are lost
amongst the viscera and the caul; and gastric ones,
which dipping from the trachea overrun the lower part
of the sides and belly''.

The tracheae and branchiae consist of three tunics ' : the

" Plate XXI. Fig. 3. b. ^ Sprengel Commentar. t. \.f. 1.

<: Ibid.f. 10. d Ibid. t. ii./. 1.5.

' Malpigh. Be Bombyc. t.m.f. 3, ^ Ibid. t. w.f. 1,

^ Lyonnet Anat. 101. •> Ibid.

' Sprengel {ubi supr. 16.) says that he never found more than tivo;
but 39 Lyonnet affirms that he has very often separated them (102),
his accuracy cannot be questioned.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS- 63

^first orijxternal one is a' tliickish membrane, strength-
ened by a vast number of fibres or vessels, which form
round it a number of irregular circles ; the second is a
membrane more thin and transparent, without a vascu-
lar covering * ; the thii-d is formed of a cartilaginous
thread running in a spiral direction, which may be easily
unwound^. This structure gives a great elasticity to
these organs, so that they are capable of considerable
tension, after which they return to their usual length •=.
The Brojichia; are cylindrical or slightly conical, insen-
sibly diminishing in size as they leave the trunk, in which
they originate. In larvae, after losing their spiral fibre,
they appear to terminate in membrane, but in perfect
insects they pass into vesicles '^. In the Cossus the trachea
is flattened, and in every segment, except the first and
two last, is bound by a fleshy cord four or five times as
thick as its threads. Where this occurs, there is a slight
constriction, — probably here is a sphincter, by the con-
traction of which Lyonnet supposes the trachea may be
shut when it is necessary to stop the passage of the air,
and direct it to any particular point ^. The structure
here described is admirably adapted for the purpose it is
intended to serve ; for had these vessels been composed
of membrane, they could not possibly have been prevented
from collapsing; but by the intervention of a spiral cartila-
ginous thread this accident is effectually guarded against,
and the necessary tension of the tubes provided for.
However violent the contortions of the insect, however

» Lyonnet Anat. 103.

* Ibid. Cuv. Anat. Com]), iv. 438. This author says that the i?i-
termedif/te tunic is the spiral thread (437). " Lyonnet 103.

'' Ibid. 104. Sprengel Commentar. 17- * Lyonnet Ihid.

64 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

small the diameter of these vessels, they are sure to re-
main constantly open, and pervious to the air. And by
this circumstance they may be always distinguished from
the other organs of the animal, and likewise by their
pearly or silvery hue, for from being constantly filled
with air, these tubes, when viewed under a powerful mi-
croscope in a recently dissected insect, present a most
beautiful and brilliant appearance, resembling a branch-
ing tree of highly polished silver or pearl : — though
sometimes they are blue, or of a lead colour, and some-
times assume a tint of gold. In the dead insect the larger
tubes soon turn brown, but the finer ones preserve their
lustre several weeks ^. The ramifications of the tracheal
tree may be seen without dissection through the trans-
parent skin of the common louse'' and most of the thin-
skinned larvae.

You will not expect to view in this way the minuter
ramifications of the hronchics, when I have mentioned
their number and incredible smallness. Nothing but the
scalpel of a Lyonnet and the most powerful lenses are
adequate to trace the extremities of these vessels ; and
even with every help, they at last become so inconceiva-
bly slender as to elude the most piercing sight. That
illustrious anatomist found that the two trachece of the
larva of the Cossus gave birth to 236 bronchial tubes, and
that these ramify into no less than 1336 smaller tubes,
to which, if 232, the number of the detached bronchia?,
be added, the whole will amount to 1804 branches *=.
Surprising as this number may appear, it is not greater

» Lyonnet 102. Malpigh. Be Bombyc. 12. Reaum. i. 130.
'' Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. \\,f. 7. " Lyonnet 411.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 65

than we may readily conceive to be necessary for com-
municating with so many different parts. For, like the
arterial and venous trees, wliich convey and return the
blood to and from every part of the body in vertebrate
animals, the bronchia! are not only carried along the in-
testines and spinal marrow, each ganglion of which they
penetrate and fill, but they are distributed also to the
skin and every organ of the body, entering and travers-
ing the legs and wings, the eyes, antennae, and palpi, and
accompanying the most minute nerves through their
whole course. How essential to the existence of the
animal must the element be that is thus anxiously con-
veyed by a thousand channels, so exquisitely formed, to
every minute part and portion of it ! Upon considering
this wonderful apparatus we may well exclaim. This hath
God 'wrought^ and this is the work of his hands.

Though in general there is only a pair of tracheae^ yet
in some larvae a larger number have been discovered.
In those of the Libelhdince there are six. According to
M. Cuvier, Reaumur, who mentions only^owr, overlooked
the two lateral ones that are connected with the spira-
cles*. The reason of this and other parts of their in-
ternal structure I shall explain under the next head.
In the grub of the gad-flies of the horse {CEstri gastri-
colcE Clark), Mr. B. Clark discovered eight longitudinal
tracheae.^ — six arranged in a circle and txw minute ones,
which appeared to him to terminate in a pair of exter-
nal nipples (spiracles) in the neck of the animal ''. This

' N. Did. d'Hist. Nat. xvii. 541. Reaum. vi. 397. Plate XXIX.
Fig. 8. shows three of them at a.

'^ Essmj on the Bots, Sfc. 23. /. If. 7, 32, &c.
VOL. IV. F

66 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

is a singular anomaly, as the other CEstridce have only
a pair of trachea *.

iii. Respiratory Sacs or Pouches. Besides their tracheae
and bronchicE^ many insects are furnished with a kind of
reservoir for the air, under the form of sacs, pouches, or
vesicles. These are commonly formed by the bronchial
tubes being dilated at intervals, especially in the abdo-
men, into oblong inflated vesicles ; from which other
bronchial tubes diverge, and again at intervals expand
into smaller vesicles, so as to exhibit no unapt resem-
blance— as Swammerdam has observed with respect to
those of the rhinoceros-beetle — to a specimen of Fucus
vesiculosus. Cuvier compares them in the Lamellicorn
beetles in general to a tree very thickly laden with leaves**;
and Chabrier observes that they particularly occur in the
intestinal canal '^. This structure of the pulmonary or-
gans may be seen also in the common hive-bee, and other
Hymenoptera ,• but the vesicles are less numerous, and
those at the base of the abdomen much larger than the
rest^. These vesicles, by a very rough dissection, may
be distinctly seen in Uie abdomen of the cockchafer, which
appears to be almost filled with them. Not being com-
posed of cartilaginous rings like the air-tubes, but of
mere membrane, if a pin pierces one, the air that inflates
it escapes, and it collapses. In the larva of a little gnat
[Corethra culiciformis) the trachece appear to proceed from

* Essay on the Bots, S^c. 49. Valisnieri i. 101. t. vi./. 4. &c.
b Bibl. Nat. i. 149. a. t. xxix. /. a. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 439.
Malpigh. De Bombyc. t. iii./. 2.

" Sur le Vol des Ins. c. ii. 336. note 1.

'' Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xvii./. 9. Cuvier Ibid. 440.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 6i

a pair of oblong vesicles of considerable size* in the trunk,
and towards the anus they form two other smaller ones'*,
— upon piercing the former, De Geer observed a consi-
derable quantity of air to make its escape '^. Another spe-
cies, probably of the same genus, described by Reaumur,
exhibits something similar**.

But one of the most remarkable structures, in this re-
spect, is to be seen in the larva and pupa of the dragon-
flies (Libellulina). I have before noticed the number of
their trachece, but I shall here describe their whole in-
ternal respiratory apparatus. I must observe that Reau-
mur, Cuvier, and most modern writers on the physiolo-
gical department of Entomology, have affirmed that they
respire the nvater, and that they receive it for that pur-
pose at their anal extremity: but M. Sprengel, from
having observed in the larvae abdominal spiracles, is un-
unwiliing to admit this as a fact ^ ; and De Geer also
seems to hesitate upon it, especially as he discovered that
the animal seemed to absorb the water to aid it in its
motions ^. But when we consider that it is by the action
of a ptietmiatic apparatus that the absorption and ex-
pulsion of the water takes place, and that the animal
when it has been taken out of that element, upon being
restored to it, immediately has eager recourse to this ac-
tion s, we shall feel inclined rather to adopt the opinion
of those great physiologists Reaumur, Lyonnet, and
Cuvier, and admit that it absorbs water for the pui'pose
of respiration. I shall now explain how this takes place.

* Plate XXIX. Fig. 10. a. '' Ibid. b.

' De Geer vi. 374. ^ Reaum. v. 40. t. vi./. 4, 7-

* Sprengel Comment. 4. '' De Geer ii, 667, 675.
s Reaum. vi. 394 — .

r2

G8 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The pieces both internal and external that close the anal
orifice have been before tlescribed ; the others employed
in the admission and expulsion of the water are evidently
respiratory organs. When this orifice is opened, the
parts that are above it are drawn back in an opposite di-
rection, so that the five last segments of the abdomen be-
come entirely empty, and form a chamber to receive the
water that enters by it. When the water is to be ex-
pelled, the whole mass of air-vessels which had receded
towards the trunk, is pushed forwards, and forms a pis-
ton that again expels the water in a jet. It consists of
an infinite number oihronchicjc^ entangled with each other,
which proceed from the middle and posterior end of the
trachece. M. Cuvier in the interior of the rectum of
the larva discovered twelve longitudinal rows of little
black spots, in pairs, which exhibited the resemblance of
six pinnated leaves. These are minute conical tubes, of
the spiral structure of trachea^ which decompose the wa-
ter, and absorb the air contained in it. He also disco-
vered that each of these tubes gave birth to another out-
side the rectum^ which connected itself with one of the six
great longitudinal trachece ,- two of which are of enor-
mous size, and appear to serve as reservoirs, since they
furnish air by transverse branches to two other tubes ;
they have each a recurrent branch, which follows the
course of the intestinal canal, and furnishes it with an
infinity of brotichice^. These trachea; are found in the
perfect insect. The principal ones in some send forth
many branches, terminating in vesicles, which in shape

•' Reaum. vi. 394—. Cuv. Auaf. Comp. iv. 440 — . ^V. Did.
trilid. Xat. xvii. 540—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 69

resemble the seed-vessels of some species of Thlaspi,
while others appear to form a file of oblong ones'.
Near each of their spiracles also is a vesicle which ap-
pears to be a reservoir''.

But this kind of structure is not confined to insects
strictly aquatic. Even such species of terrestrial ones as
live upon aquatic plants, and are, consequently, necessa-
rily or accidentally often a considerable time under wa-
ter, are furnished with some apparatus by means of
which they can exist in this element for a considerable
period. For example, most of the Weevils [Curculio L.)
die in a short time if immersed in water ; yet the species
of the genera Tanysjphyrus Germ. Bagous Germ., and
that to which C. pericarpius L. belongs, and which feed
on aquatic plants, can exist for days under watei', as I
have ascertained by experiment. C. leucogaster Marsh,
and another of the same tribe, swims like a Hydrophilus,
and will live a long time in a bottle filled with water and
corked tight. Other insects also, that are not at all aquatic,
have pneumatic pouches. A striated or channeled ve-
sicle I have found under the lateral angles of the collar
in the humble-bee, where Chabrier supposes the vocal
spiracles are situate ; and also at the mouth of the spira-
cles of the metathorax in Vespa, &c.' In Sphinx Li-
gustri the hroncliice terminate in oblong vesiculoso-cel-
lular bodies, almost like lungs '^ ; in Smerinthus Tilice
these are preceded by a simple vesicle bound with spiral
fibres*. M. Chabrier thinks that these air-bladders of

' Plate XXIX. Fig. 9. a, b. Reaiini. vi. 418—. 450.

" Cuv. Anat. Coiup. iv. 441. ' Vol. III. p. 585.

•* Sprengel Comment. 17. t. ni.f. 34. " Ibid, t. If. 11.

70 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

insects, amongst other functions, give more fixity and
force to the muscles for flight*.

Many physiologists have seen an analogy between the
spiral vessels of j^^^nts and the trachecc of insects; and
some of great name, as Comparetti, Decandolle, and
Kieser, have thought that in some instances they termi-
nated in the oscula or cortical pores : but Sprengel con-
tends that they are not accurate in this opinion''. In
fact, the principal analogy seems to be in the spiral
structure of both these vessels.

Having considered the different organs of respiration
both external and internal, I shall make a few further
observations upon this function. We know little more
respecting the mode in which insects respire, except that
they breathe out the air by the same kind of organs by
which they receive it, — namely, the spiracles, or their re-
presentatives. This has been satisfactorily proved by
Bonnet, who showed that the experiments by which
Reaumur thought it established that insects inspire by
their spiracles, but exspire through the mouth, anus, or
pores of the skin, are founded on an eiToneous assump-
tion. This physiologist, having observed on the surface
of submerged insects numerous bubbles of air, concluded
that they had passed through the above orifices ^ : but
Bonnet found by various experiments carefully conduct-
ed, that this appearance was caused by air which ad-
hered to the skin and its hairs, and that when the access

■' Sur le Vol des Ins. c. ii, 336. note 1.

'' Sprengel Comment. 13 — . These oscula or pores in the straw
of Triticiim hyhernum, as figured by Mr, Bauer's admirable pencil,
(Sir J. Banks On the Blight, ^c. t. ii./. 3.) exactly resemble the spi-
racles of insects. *= Reaum. i. 13fc>.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 71

of this was precluded by carefully moistening the skin
with water previously to immersion, this accumulation
of air-bubbles on its surface did not take place*. And
in a variety of instances he observed large ones issue
from all the spiracles, especially the anterior ones. These
bubbles sometimes were alternately emitted and absorbed
without quitting the spiracle"^, and at others were darted
with force to the surface of the water, where they ap-
peared to burst with noise '^. This author is of opinion
that the^r^^ and last pair of these organs are of most im-
portance to respiration''. Reaumur subsequently owned
that Bonnet's arguments had shaken his opinion ^ ; and
some observations of his own, with respect to the respi-
ration of the hot of the ox, go to prove that expiration
and inspiration are not hy^hesarne spiracles ; for he found
that the air in this animal was expired by the eight little
lower orifices before mentioned ^, from which he clearly
saw the air-bubbles issue — the upper one he conjectures
receives the airS. As the only communication that this
grub has with the atmosphere is by its posterior extre-
mity, it follows, reasoning from analogy, that the ante-
rior respiratory plates of Dipterous larvae, which may be
regarded as representing the spiracles of the trunk in in-
sects in general, are destined for the escape of the air,
after it has parted with its oxygen, received by the anal
ones'". So that there seems very good ground for

=' Bonnet (Eiwr. iii. 39—. '' Ibid. 43. <= Ibid. 50.

1 Ibid.m. " DeGeerii. 117.

f See above, p. 50. ^ Reaum. iv. 520.

" Mr. B. Clark thinks that he has discovered spiracles in this
larva in the usual situation, (Essa^ on the Bots, Sfc. 48. /. W.f. 3.)
but they are probably analogous to the spiraculiform tubercles of
CE. Ovis. Reaum. iv. 566. /. xxxv. 17 — 19. t- Vallisnieri {Esperieuz.
Sfc. 136) notices them.

72 INTERNAL ANATOiMY OF INSECTS.

M. Chabrier's opinion that inspiration is ordinarily by
the abdominal spiracles, and expiration by those of the
tru7ik of insects^. He seems to have been led to the adop-
tion of this opinion, not so much by experiments similar
to that of Reaumur just stated, but by observing that in
many instances these two sets of spiracles differ from each
other, the latter having a convex and the former a con-
cave mouth or bed''. In some cases, however, — for in-
stance duringflight, — he supposes the spiracles of the trunk
may receive as well as emit the air '^ : he likewise is of opi-
nion, and it seems not improbable, that by means of these
openings in the trunk, from the rush of the superfluous
air through them, insects produce those sounds for which
they are remarkable, — as the humming of bees and flies.
In the former he thinks the sound is produced by the
pneumatic apparatus covered by the ends of the collar;
while in the latter he attributes it to the spiracles in the
metathorax behind the wings attended by a poiser''. I
incline, however, to M. Dufour's opinion ^, — that the vocal
spiracles in the Hymenoptera^ as well as in the Diptera,
are those behind the wings. Peihaps both theories may
be right ; for if you take any common humble-bee, you
will find that, in the hand, it produces one kind of sound
when its wings are motionless, and another more com-
plex and intense when they vibrate. In numerous in-
stances, however, there is no very striking exter-nal dif-
ference between the spiracles of the trunk and those of
the abdomen : this observation applies more particularly
to the caterpillars of Lepidoptera ,- but whether these re-
ceive the air by those of the abdomen, and return it by

* Stir le Vol lies Ins, c. i. 423.

•^ Jbld. 454. and c, iv (jQ. note 1. " Ibid. c. i. 453.

-< Ibid. 459, 456. ' Ibid. 459.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 73

those of the tiunk, has not yet been ascertained ; and
indeed, too little is at present known upon the subject,
and too few facts have been collected, to admit of dog-
matizing.

The external signs of respiration in insects are not uni-
versally to be discovered. The alternate contraction and
expansion of the abdomen is, however, very visible in
some beetles, bees, the larger dragon-flies, and grass-
hoppers. In one of the latter, Acrida viridissima K.,
Vauquelin observed that the inspirations were from fifty to
fifty-five times in a minute in atmospheric air, and from
sixty to sixty-five when in oxygen gas ^. But M. Chabrier
has given the most satisfactory account of these signs :
The abdomen, says he, is the principal organ of inspi-
ration ; it can dilate and contract, lengthen and shorten,
elevate and depress itself. In flight, in elevating its ex-
tremity at the same time with the wings, it contracts it-
self, pushes the air into the trunk, and diminishes the
weight of the body by the centrifugal ascending force ^.
In the majority of insects perhaps the dilatation of the
abdomen takes place by the recession of the segments
from each other by means of the elastic ligaments that
connect them ; in others, as the Dyyiastidce, Solpuga, &c.
by the longitudinal folded membrane that unites the dor-
sal and ventral segments — in the Libellulmce by similar
ventral folds ; and in Cimbex by membranous pieces in
the first dorsal segment, which De Geer observed was
elevated and depressed at the will of the animal *=.

Air is as essential to insects in their pupa as in their

^ Annal. de Chim. xii.

" Sur le Vol des Lis. c. I 423, 454, c. iii. 344. c. iv. 66.

<= De Geer ii. 946—.

74 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

larva or perfect states. Lyonnet, however, Musschen-
broek, Martinet, and some other physiologists, have
doubted whether quiescent pupae breathed * ; but Reau-
mur and De Geer seem to have proved that they do'':
and if thrown into water, the same proof of respiration,
by the emission and retraction of a bubble of air takes
place, as in the larvae ; and De Geer found that if one
be transferred under water from one spiracle to another,
it will be absorbed by if^. Indeed, unless these pupae
had breathed, where would have been the necessity for
the spiracles with which all are flirnished? It is remark-
able, however, that all these spiracles do not seem of
equal importance m this respect. Reaumur found that
if the posterior spiracles only were closed with oil, the
insect suffered no injury ; but that if the anterior ones
were similarly treated, it infallibly died''. The respira-
tion however of pupae seems more perfect in those that
have recently assumed that state, than in those that are
more advanced towards the imago; in which at first, from
Reaumur's experiments % it appears that the posterior
spiracles were stopped ; and in others still older, from
Musschenbroek's ^, even the anterior ones. Those quies-
cent pupae that during that state remain submerged^ re-
spire air. De Geer has given an interesting record of
this, in the case of Botys stratiolaris. This insect spins
a double cocoon, the outer one thin, and the inner one
of a close texture. In the pupa there are three pair of
conspicuous spiracles on the second, third, and fourth
segments of the abdomen, which are placed on cylindri-

* Lesser, L. i. 124. note *. Lyonnet Anatom. pref. xii. De Geer ii.
132. " Reaum. i. 399—. De Geer i. 37—.

" Ibid. 40. ^ Reaum. i. 400. " Jbid. f De Geer ii. 129.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 75

. cal tubes, and they appear to have no other air-vessels.
The resph'atory gills of the larva having vanished, like
some others of the same genus, they know how to sur-
round themselves with an atmosphere of air in the midst
of the water, so that the interior of their inner cocoon is
impervious to the latter element — how they renew the
air has not been ascertained. Though they respire air,
water is equally necessary, for the animal died when kept
out of water ^.

The great majority of insects respire in much the same
manner in all their states, particularly as to their external
organs ; for when the larva breathes by the lateral spira-
cles, the pupa and imago usually do the same. The con-
verse of this, however, by no means holds ; for it not un-
frequently happens that the two latter breathe by means
of, lateral spiracles, though they received the air in their
larva state by an apparatus altogether different. Thus
the larvae of many Diptera breathe by an anal tube, while
the pupa and imago follow the general system. Some-
times a tribe of insects breathe by an apparatus quite
different in all their states, as we have seen to be the case
with the common gnat'', which has an anal respiratory
tube in its first state, thoracic respiratory liorns in its se-
cond, and the ordinary lateral spiracles in its third.

Changes also take place in their internal organs. In
the larvae the respiratory apparatus, especially the tra-
cheal tubes, is often much larger and more ramified than
in the imago ; and as the former is the ^xmcv^oS. feeding
state, there seems good ground for Mr. B. Clark's opi-

^ De Geer i. 531—. t. xxxvii./. 13. s. Compare Reaum. ii. 396—.
'' See above, p. 51 — .

76 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

nion — that the respiration is intimately connected with
the conversion of the food'. In the imago, there ap-
pears to be more provision for storing up the air in vesi-
cular reservoirs, than in the larva. Wonderful is the
mode m which some of the changes in the internal struc-
ture, which these variations indicate, must necessarily
take place. They are, however, probably not more sin-
gular than those which less obviously occur in the air-
vessels of all insects in their great change out of the larva
into the pupa state. But having before enlarged on this
subject, I need not repeat my observations ^

The access of air is as necessary to insects even in
their egg state % and in many cases its presence seems
provided for with equal care, by means as beautiful as
those Messrs. Home and Davy have shown to occur in
the oxygenation of the eggs and foetuses of vertebrate
animals'*. It is only necessary to view the admirable
net-work of air-vessels which Swammerdam discovered
spread over the surface of the eggs of the hive-bee while
in the ovaries ^, — a provision which, from analogy, we
may conclude obtains generally ; from the importance
which nature has attached to the oxygenation of the germ
while in the matrix. And judging from analogy, we may
infer that the access of this element is as carefully secured
after the egg is laid, as before. The eggs of most insects
being of a porous texture, often attached to the leaves of

* In Linn. Trans, iii. 302. " Vol. III. p. 196 .

" Spallanzani found that the eggs of insects placed under the ex-
hausted receiver of an air-pump, or in any small closed vessels, did
not hatch, though every other condition for their developement was
present. Opusc. de Phys. i. 141. <i Philos. Trans. 1820. 213.

« £U>1. Nat. i. 204. b. /. xix./. 5,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 77

plants, and some of them embedded in the very substance
of a leaf or twig', are in a situation for the abundant
absorption of oxygen : and the pouch of silk in which
the eggs of spiders and Hydrophili are deposited, may
probably, from Count Rumford's experiments, be of uti-
lity in the same point of view. In the case of the Tri-
choptera and other insects^ whose eggs are dropped into
the water enveloped in a mass of jelly, this substance per-
haps serves for aerating the included embryo, in the same
way with the jelly surrounding the eggs of the frog, dog-
fish, &c. It would be desirable to ascertain whether the
former jelly be of the same nature as the experiments of
Mr. Brande have shown the latter to be *^. It is not im-
probable that the singular rays that terminate the eggs
oi^ Nepa^ may in some way be connected with the aera-
tion of the egg.

To what I have before remarked with regard to the
viial heat of insects % I may under this head very pro-
perly add a few further observations. I there stated, that
the temperature of these animals is usually that of the me-
dium they inhabit, but that bees, and perhaps other gre-
garious ones, fiirnish an exception to this rule ^. A con-
firmation of this remark is afforded by Inch, a German
writer, who, upon putting a thermometer into a bee-hive
in winter, found it stand 27° higher than in the open air;
in an anthill, he found it 6° or 7° higher ; in a vessel
containing many blister-beetles, {Cantkaris vesicatwia
Latr.) 4° or 5° higher. A thermometer, standing in the
air at 14° R., put into a glass vessel with Acrida viridis-

« Vol. I. p. 449—. III. p. 76. " Ibid. 68—.

-^ Pkilos, Trans. 1820. 218. '' Vol. III. p. 94,

•= Vol. II. p. 229—. f Ibid. p. 214.

78 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

sima, in nine minutes rose to 17°, and a similar result
was observed with respect to other insects^. Dr. Mar-
tine says that caterpillars have but two degrees of heat
above that of the air they live in''. Coleopterous insects
are said to move slowly and with difficulty when the
thermometer sinks to 36°, to become torpid at S^°, and
to lose muscular irritability at a lower degree •=. I have
before observed that some insects will bear to be frozen
into an icicle, and yet survive'' : they share this power
with reptiles, fishes, and amphibia. But, however small
the excess of it in some insects above that of the medium
they inhabit, it proves that they possess the power o^ gene-
rating heat. Whether, like the warm-blooded animals,
they generally possess that of resisting heat by perspira-
tion, &c. is not so clear. Yet the heat to which some
can bear to be exposed, basking at noon, as Dr. Clarke
informs us% on rocky and sandy places, exposed to the
full action of the sun, appears sufficient, if not resisted
by some principle of counteraction, to roast them to a
cinder. That bees perspire is well known, but probably
not singly.

When the respiration of insects is suspended by im-
mersion in any fluid, it is often resumed, even when it
has been long and they are apparently dead, if they be
brought into contact with the atmosphere. Reaumur
found this to be the case with bees ^ ; and Swammerdam
tells us that the maggot of the cheese-fly ( Tyrophaga Casei
K.) lived six or seven days in rain-water s : he found it

* Inch, c. iv. Idee7i zu Einer Zoochemie, 6*8 — .

" On Thermom. 141. <= Carlisle in Phtlos. Tram. 1805. 25.

" Vol. II. p. 231. ^ Travels ii, 482.

f Reauin. v. 540. ^ Swamm. Bihl. Xat. ii. C5. a.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 79

SO difficult to kill the larva of Stratyomis Chameleon,
which he first immersed twenty-four hours in spirits of
wine, and then put them several days in water, without
killing them, — that he lost his patience, and dissected
them alive. He tried to drown them also in vinegar, in
which they held out more than two days =*.

That the suspended animation and subsequent death
of most terrestrial insects when thrown into water is
caused by the want of air, is evident from this, — that the
same effect ensues if the spiracles be covered with any
oily or fatty matter. In this case too, their vital powers
soon become suspended : they revive, if the suffocat-
ing matter be soon removed ; and if this be not done, in-
fallibly perish. This fact was known to the ancients,
for Pliny observes that bees die if dipped in oil or ho-
ney''. One exception to this law has been before men-
tioned ^ : a similar contrivance secures the cheese maggot
from having its respiration interrupted by its moist and
greasy food; the grub also of Muscacarnaria, and of other
Muscida probably, has its posterior spiracles placed in a
plate at the bottom of a kind of fleshy pouch, which has
the shape of a hollow, truncated, and reversed cone.
This pouch the grub can close whenever it pleases, so
as to cover its spiracles'*. And numerous other larvae,
both of Diptera and Coleoptera that devour unclean and
oily food, have doubtless some protection of this kind for
their spiracles and respiratory plates.

' Swatnm. Bihl. Nat. u. 48, a. •> Hist. Nat. I. xi. c. 19.

^ Swamm. Bibl. Nat. ii. 64. a.

'' Reaum. iv. 428. t. xxix./. 2. c, s.

LETTER XXXIX.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTSy CONTINUED.

CIRCULATION.

W^E learn from the highest authority, that the blood is
the life of the animal^ : every object of creation, there-
fore, that is gifted with animal life, we may conclude, in
some sense, has blood, which in this large sense may be
defined — Thejluid that visits and nourishes every part of
a living hody°. But the Great Author of nature has
varied the machinery by which this nutritive fluid is
formed and distributed, gradually proceeding fi'om the
most simple to the most complex structure ; in which he
seems to have seen it fit to invert the process observable in
the systems of sensation and respiration, where the ascent
is from the most complex, to the most simple structure.
In the lowest members of the animal creation, the blood
seems the portion they imbibe of the fluid medium in which
they reside, which when chylified, distributes new mole-
cules to all parts of their frame '^. In others, as in insects,
it is formed by the chyle that transpires through the intes-

» Genes, ix. 4. " N. Diet. iVHist. Nat, xxx. 130.

' Cuv. Anat. Comj). iv. 16/.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OV INSECTS. 81

tinal canal into the general cavity of the body, where it
receives oxygen from the air-vessels, and is fitted for
nutrition^. In these animals it is accompanied by a long
dorsal vessel, the first step towards a heart, which alter-
nately contracts and dilates with an irregular systole and
diastole, but appears to have no vascular system con-
nected with it. Again : in others, as the Tubicoles, An-
nelida, &c., a real circulation has been discovered ; that
is to say, a system of veins and arteries, but unaccom-
panied by a muscular heart ^. In the Arachnida and
Branchiopod Crustacea the long dorsal vessel is also
found; but in these it is connected with an arterial and
venous system, which receives, distributes, and returns
the blood '^. It has therefore now become a true heart,
and there is a regular circulation ,- and in the Decapod
Crustacea the dorsal vessel is contracted into an oval
form, and placed nearly in the centre of the trunk"^. In
the great majority of invertebrate animals the blood is
'white, but in the Annelida, to which CJass the common
dew-worm belongs, a curious anomaly takes place — for
it is red^. Thus a gradual ascent is made to the circu-
lating system of the vertebrate and red-blooded animals.
In all, however, the hlood is the principal instrument of
nutrition and accretion ; and is on that account properly
so denominated, though not connected with a circulating
system.

Having given you this general outline of the means by
which the blood is distributed in the different Classes of
animals, I shall now confine myself to the case of insects

* Herold Schmetterl. 25. note *. Vol. III. p. 53.
" N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. vii. 313. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 41 1 .
<•- Ibid. 419, 407. " IbJd. * nid. 410.

VOL. IV. G

82 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

and Arachnida, beginning with the former. As their nu-
tritive fluid and their dorsal vessel have not been disco-
vered to be connected, I shall consider them separately :
but I must first observe, — that the term Circulation, with
which this letter is headed, though not strictly applicable
to insects, is perfectly proper when used with respect to
Arachnida ; you will not therefore stumble at the thresh-
old, and object to my employing it.

I. If you examine attentively the back of any smooth
caterpillar with a transparent skin, you will perceive in
that part an evident pulsation, as though a fluid were
pushed at regular intervals towards the head, along a
narrow tube which seems to run the whole length of the
body. Accurate dissections have proved that this ap-
pearance is real, that there is actually present in the
back of most insects, placed immediately under the skin
and furnished with numerous air-vessels, a longitudinal
vessel^ originating in the head near the mouth ^, running
parallel with the alimentary canal nearly to the anus,
containing a fluid which is propelled in regular pulsa-
tions of from 20 to 100 per minute, more or less as the
weather is colder or warmer '^, causing a sensible alter-
nate systole and diastole from the anal extremity to-
wards the head. In the Cossus these pulses were ob-
served by Lyonnet to begin in the eleventh segment, from
which they passed from segment to segment, till they
arrived at the fourth, where they terminated'*. This ves-
sel is what Malpighi, who first discovered it, termed a
heart, or rather series of hearts^; but which Reaumur,

^ Plate XXH. Fig. 15. ^ Lyonnet A7iat. 105. -^ Ibid. 425.
<' Ibid. 105—. •^ De Bomhyc. 15—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 83

who injected it, regarded as a simple artet'y without strik-
ing contractions * : but to steer clear of any hypothesis,
I shall merely call it the dorsal vessel [Pseiidocardia),
When carefully taken out of the body it is found to be
a membranous tube elosed at each end'', in many larvae
of equal diameter every where, but in perfect insects
usually widest at the anal extremity'^, and attenuated into
a very slender filament towards the head. In some in-
sects, however, as in the larva of the chamaeleon-fly
[Stratyomis C1iamcEleon\ it is attenuated at hoth ends, and
in the Ephemera is alternately constricted and dilated as
Malpighi describes that of the silk-worm '^, a dilated por-
tion belonging to each segment^. In the Cossus, and
probably others, after the third segment, it is furnished
with nine pair, the three posterior pair being the largest,
of triangular transverse bundles of muscular fibres, which
Lyonnet denominates its ivings ^, the action of which pro-
duces its systole and diastole, and their propagation from
the tail towards the head s. Under the last pair of these
wings it is strengthened by a large number of circular
muscular fibres''. I have stated it, with most writers,
to be closed at each extremity ; but from Lyonnet's words
it should seem that, in the Cosstis, he considered it as
open and expanded at its anterior end'. He seems also
to suspect, that, by means of what he calls the frontal
ganglions, a fluid is derived from the dorsal vessel to the

* Reaum. i. 160—. '' Ciiv. Atint. Comp. iv. 418,

f Marcel de Serres Mem. du Mus. 1819. 69.
■' Svvamni. Bibl. Nat. t. xl./. 4. t. xv./. 4.

" De Bombyc. t. Hi./. 4. ^ Ubi s'upr. 414. *= Ibid. 425—.

" Ibid. 419. ' Ibid. 412.

G 2

84- INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

spinal marrow. He likewise describes a large nerve as
passing through it and becoming recurrent*.

The Jlmd which this vessel contains is very abundant ;
in the animal it appears colourless and transparent like
water, but when collected in drops it becomes more or
less yellow, and even orange'^. Examined under the
microscope it appears filled with a prodigious number of
transparent globules, of incredible minuteness •=. When
mixed with water, which it does readily, its globules lose
all their transparency, and coagulate into small clammy
masses. After evaporation it becomes hard, and cracks
like gum, as blood does also. This gummy substance is
so abundant, that the fluid contained in the dorsal vessel
of the caterpillar of the Cossus yields a mass of it of the
size of a grey pea "^.

From the situation of this dorsal vessel, which is pre-
cisely the same with that of the heart in Arachnida and
the Branchiopod Crustacea, and from the systole and
diastole which keep its fluid contents in constant motion,
who can wonder that the physiologists who first disco-
vered it, maintained that it was a true heart ? And even
now, our knowledge of this organ is so very circumscribed
that, till insects have been more widely examined with
this view, and its real functions are ascertained, it seems
to savour of temerity to assert, that in no respect it can
answer the purpose of a heart. Before I advert to those
arguments that at present may be regarded as proving
that it is not a heart, I will notice those upon which the
upholders of the original opinion have founded their

» Lyonnet Annt. 413. '' Ibid. 426. Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 419.

° Lyonnet says (426), " au-dela de trois millions de fois plus petits
qu'un grain de sable " ! ! " Ibid.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. SB

judgement. No one will deny that the argument from
analogy is strongly in favour of the old theory : I shall
not therefore dwell uponO^, but proceed to others. Swam-
merdam, to whose exactness in observing, and scrupulous
accuracy, every reader of his immortal work will bear
testimony, expressly asserts that he has seen vessels is-
suing from the dorsal vessel in the silk-worm, and even
succeeded in injecting them with a coloured fluid*. Now
it seems extremely improbable that so practised and ex-
pert an anatomist should have been deceived, especially
upon a point which would naturally excite his most earn-
est and undivided attention. Without this recorded ex-
periment, perhaps, it might be thought, though this was
very unlikely, that he had mistaken bronchice for veins
and arteries : but how could they have been mjected from.
the supposed heart? Another great physiologist, Reau-
mur, in the caterpillar of the saw-fly of the rose [Hylo-
toma Rosce, Lat.) observed, besides the dorsal vessel, a
ventral one of similar form, in which also was a pulsa-
tion, but slower than that of the other. This he sup-
poses may be the principal trunk of the veins ^. Bonnet
thought he discovered a similar vessel in a large cater-
pillar, but with all his attention could perceive no mo-
tion in it*^. Reaumur also, thought he perceived in the

» His words are— " In silk-worms I have clearly seen various small
vessels spring from and approaching to the heart, which I have even
filled with a coloured liquid. But whether they were veins or ar-
teries I cannot yet affirm." i. 112. a. 176. a. According to Cuvier
{Aiiat. Comp.'w. 418), but I cannot find the passage, Swammerdam
also mentions having seen a red fluid issue from small vessels in grass-
hoppers. •> Reaum. v. 103.

^ Bonnet ii. 309. Perhaps in both cases the alimentary canal was
the organ seen.

86 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

grub of Musca vomitaria, in which he in vain looked for
the dorsal vessel, a fleshy part which exhibited alternate
pulsations ; and when with a pair of scissors he made a
lateral incision in the insect, amongst other parts that
came out, there was one that had movements of contrac-
tion and dilatation for several minutes, — this experiment
was repeated with the same result upon several grubs ^.
De Geer, whose love of truth and accuracy no one will
call in question, saw the appearance of blood-vessels in
the leg of the larva of a Phryganea L. (as Lyonnet did in
those of a flea^); and in the transparent thigh of Orni-
thomia avicularia-he discovered a pulse like that of an
artery"^. Baker, whose only object was to record what
he saw, speaks of the current of the blood being remark-
ably visible in the legs of some small bugs"^ : what he
meant by that term is uncertain, but they could not be
spiders, which he had just distinguished. This author
has likewise seen a green fluid passing through the ves-
sels of the wings of grass-hoppers ^ ; and M. Chabrier is
of opinion that insects possess the power of propelling a
fluid into the nervures of their wings and withdrawing it
at pleasure, as they are elevated or depressed ^ : but these
two last facts must be accounted for on other principles,
as there is clearly no circulation.

But though these arguments, which I have stated in
their full force, appear strong, and at first sight conclu-
sive, those which may be urged for the more modern opi-
nion— that no circulation exists in insects, properly so
called, — appear to me to have by far the greatest weight.

* Reaum. iv. 171 — . "* Lesser L. ii. 84. note.

" De Geer ii. 505—. vi. 287. "^ O71 the Microscope, i. 130.

^ Ibid. f Sur le Vol des Im. .336—.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 81

Lyonnet, whose piercing eye and skilful hand traced the
course of so many hundred nerves and bro)ic/iia long
after they became invisible to the unassisted eye, and
which were a thousand times smaller than the princi-
pal blood-vessels, opening into so large an organ as
the supposed heart of insects, might be expected to be,
could never discover any thing like them. His most
painful researches, and repeated attempts to inject them
with coloured liquors, were unable to detect the most
minute opening in the dorsal vessel, or the slightest
trace of any artery or vein proceeding from or commu-
nicating with it^. And Cuvier, whose unrivalled skill
in Comparative Anatomy peculiarly qualified him for
the investigation, repeated these inquiries, and tried all
the known modes of injection, with equal want of success ;
and is thus led to the conclusion, that insects have no
circulation, that their dorsal vessel is no heart, and there-
fore ought not to be called by that name : that it is ra-
ther a secretory vessel, like many others of that kind in
those animals. As to the nature of the fluid that it se-
cretes, and its use, he thinks it impossible, from our present
information on the subject, to, form any satisfactory con-
clusion^. Marcel de Serres informs us — which further
proves that it can be no real heart — that this vessel may
be totally removed without causing the immediate death
of the insect •=. This opinion receives further confirma-
tion from the mode in which respiratio7i is performed in
insects. In those animals that have a circulation, this
takes place by means oHungs ov gills ; — thus we find, even

"^ Lyonnet Anat. 4t3^ — . ^^ Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 418 — .

<= Mem. du Mus. 1819. 71.

88 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the Crustacea and Arachnida so nearly related to in-
sects, that the organs of this function are true gills ;
•whereas in insects, though in some of their states their
respiratory tubes are branchiform, yet they are not gills,
and the respiration is by tubes and spiracles. And these
tubes, as you have seen, are so numerous and so infinitely
ramified and dispersed, as to occupy the place of arteries
and veins, and to imitate their distribution, — and thus to
oxygenate v^^hat may be deemed the real analogue of the
blood, vv^hich bathes every internal part of the body of an
insect. Those animals likewise that have a circulation
are furnished with a livei\ as is the case with the Arach-
nida and even many aggregate animals that have a heart ;
but in insects there are only hepatic ducts. M. Cuvier
has also proved that the conglomerate glands, which ex-
■ ist in all animals that have a heart and blood-vessels, do
not exist in insects, in which they are replaced by long
slender secretory tubes, which without being united float
in the interior of the body : from this circumstance, he
is led to conclude that their nutrition is by imbibition or
immediate absorption, as in the Poliipi and other zoo-
phytes, the chyle transpiring through the alimentary ca-
nal, and running uniformly to all parts of the body ^.

But although it be granted that no circulation of the
blood takes place in insects, yet, reasoning from analogy,
the dorsal vessel should in some degree and in some re-
spects represent the heart, and its pulsations be in some
measure for a similar purpose ; but what that purpose is,
has not yet been ascertained : and on the whole, in the
present state of our knowledge, it seems the most prudent

• .V. Diet. d'HisL Xat. xvi. 208.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 89

course to leave this matter for the investigation of ftiture
physiologists*.

' Since writing the above, I have been favoured with a sight of
Marcel de Serres' Observations on the Dorsal Vessel of Insects ', in
which his object is to prove that the principal use of that vessel is
the more perfect animalization of the chyle that, transuding through
the pores of the intestinal canal, is imbibed by it. In insects, he ob-
serves, that undergo metamorphoses, in which the growth or develop-
ment of parts is often very rapid, it is requisite that a considerable
portion of the chyle should be in reserve for this purpose. On this
account it is that the Ej)iploon or adipose tissue is so abundant in
larvae to what it is in the perfect insect. That the importance also of
this part to insects is proved by the circumstance, that all their in-
tei'ior parts conununicate by fibrils with this tissue, and that proba-
bly their various organs derive the nutriment from it by their means.
He then asks by which of the viscera is the fat elaborated, or by what
means does the chyle which transudes from the intestinal canal pass
to the state of fat ? Facts seem to indicate, says he, that the func-
tion of the dorsal vessel is to pump up the chyle, and to cause it
then to transude through the meshes of the adipose tissue, where it
finishes by elaborating that mass of fat so abundant in larvae and
certain perfect insects, which are thus enabled to sustain the effects
of a long fast. So that this vessel is only a secretory organ, analo-
gous to so many others that exist in insects ; but the secretion which
it has to produce is the most important of all, since the support of
the vital powers depends upon it : it is, in effect, that vessel which
completes the function i)f animalization, and which itself prepares the
nutritive fluid-. He observes, amongst other reasons he brino-s to
support his theory, that the colour of the fluid which it contains is
always analogous to that of the adipose tissue that surrounds it and
that the colour of that tissue never changes without that of the fluid
imdergoing a corresponding alteration, — that when, as in many per-
fect insects, the quantity of fat diminishes, the dorsal vessel also di-
minishes in size, and that the same reagents which coagulate the fat
coagulate equally the fluid in the dorsal vessel, which seems to indi-
cate an identity between them^.

The only circumstance that strikes me as militating against this
hypothesis, is the analysis which Lyonnet has given of the fluid con-
tained in the dorsal vessel of the Cosstcs*, which seems to prove that

' Mem. du Mies. 1819. 2 /^j^, Qg_^

' Ibid. 69-. + See above, p. 84.

90 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Whatever be the functions of the dorsal vessel, this
seems the most proper place to state to you what further
is known respecting it. Its construction is nearly alike
in insects in all their states, except that in the imago it
is shorter and narrower. Reaumur has affirmed, and
before him Malpighi made a similar observation, that in
chrysalises newly disclosed from the larva, and yet trans-
parent, the motion of the included fluid is the reverse of
what it has been in that state, it being propelled from
the head to the tail, which he found to be the case also
in the imago ^. If this be true, and there is no reason to
doubt his accuracy, when they are more advanced, it re-
sumes its old course, as Lyonnet observed, from the tail
to the head^. But probably it is not always uniformly
in the same direction, since Malpighi states that a very
slight cause will change its course, and that the pulsa-
tions differ in quickness in different portions of the heart "=.
If its course were really always the same, and in one di-

it is more analogous to gum or varnish. He saw indeed a few
globules, which appeared ten times as big as the others, which swam
upon the water, but which he did not regard as component parts of
the fluid, but as little drops of grease extravasated by dissection. The
fluid of the vessel itself easily mixed with water, and appeared to sink
in it to the bottom'. These circumstances seem to indicate that it
is not of a fatty or oleaginous nature. Further experiments however
seem necessary to ascertain the nature of the fluid and its object:
but I think it is a fair and reasonable conjecture, that as the vessel
in question is in many respects analogous to the real heart in Arach-
mda and some Crustacea, it so far performs the functions of a heart
as to produce an important effect in the nutrition of the animal. A
more satisfactory elucidation of the uses of this vessel may be ex-
pected from the able pen of Mr. W- S. MacLeay.
' Lyonnet Anat. 426—.

» Reaum. i. 409, 643—. Malpigh. De Bovibyc. 38.
*- Lesser L. ii. 87 note *. * Ubi supra.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 1)1

rection, without any reflux, it would seem to follow that
the fluid must be absorbed at one end, and, if there was
no outlet, transpire at the other, which would be a kind
of circulation. In SyrpJms Pyrastri and other aphidi-
vorous flies, this dorsal vessel, instead of the usual form
which it had in the larva, assumes a very peculiar ap-
pearance. If, taking one of these flies by the head and
wings and holding it up to the light, you survey under a
lens the base of the lower part of its abdomen, you will
see through its transparent skin, which exactly forms
such a window as physicians have sometimes wished for
in order to view the interior of their patients, a flask-
shaped vessel having its long end directed towards the
trunk, in which there is a manifest pulsation and trans-
mission of some fluid. This vessel extends in length
from the junction of the trunk with the abdomen to
about the termination of the second seament. The in-
eluded fluid does not run in the dorsal vessel in a regu-
lar course, but is propelled at intervals by drops, as if
from a syringe, first from the wide end towards the trunk,
and then in the contrary direction, forming a very in-
teresting and agreeable spectacle. One circumstance led
Reaumur to conjecture that the neck of this vessel, which
he at first regarded as simple, is in fact composed of two
or more approximated tubes, and that the blood is con-
veyed forward by the outward ones, and backward by the
intermediate one ^ : he even thinks that he saw a kind
of secondary heart, at the extremity next the trunk, for
the purpose of causing the reflux. This illustrious au-
thor observed the above remarliiible structure not only

* Reaumur iv. 264.

92 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the Si/rphi, but in many of their affinities, and thinks
that it is also widely diffused amongst the Muscidce^.

I must now say something upon what I conceive to be
the real blood of insects ; for I think no one will object
to that name being given to their nutritive fluid, though
it does not circulate by means of a vascular system. The
chyle that is produced in the intestines of animals from
the food, is that fluid substance from which their blood
is formed : in insects it is not absorbed by the lacteals,
but transpires through the pores of the intestinal canal
into the general cavity of the body, where, being exposed
to the influence of the oxygen in the air-vessels, it becomes,
though retaining its colour, a different fluid from what
it was before, and analogous to blood in its use and office"^;
only that in these animals, as Cuvier has observed, the
blood, for want of a circulating system, not being able
to seek the air, the air goes to seek the blood '^. The
dispersion of this fluid appears to be universal, so that
all the parts and organs contain it in a greater or less
degree*^. In many insects, if you break only an antenna
or a leg, a drop of fluid flows out at the wound. In larvae,
the fluid which bathes all the internal parts and organs
is not only sufficient for their nutriment, but a large

» Reaumur iv. 260—. ^ Herold Sckmetterl. 24.

« Anat. Comp. iv. 165. "» Marcel de Serres (p. 67).

speaks of this fluid as being, after it has transuded through the in-
testinal canal, a fluid in repose, which seems to indicate that it is per-
fectly x^flgHorn^ ; but when we consider that it is not only incessantly
entering the body and making its way to every part, but is also, by
means of the various secretory organs, constantly converted into new
products, and so going out again in many cases, it will appear evi-
dent that it cannot be considered as a stagnant fluid, since there must
be a constant though probably slow motion towards the points of
absorption or imbibition.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 93

quantity of seemingly superfluous blood remains that is
not wanted for this purpose. This is expended in the
production of the caul or epiploon {Corps graisseux
Reaum.), which laps over and defends all the viscera of
the animal, and goes principally to the formation of the
imago*. I have said that Cuvier conceives nutrition in
insects to take place by imbibition or immediate absorp-
tion ; that is, I suppose, the different parts and organs
thus constantly bathed in the blood, imbibe from it the
particles necessary for their constant accretion. M. Cha-
brier seems to think that it is the compression and dila-
tation of the trunk that duly distributes the nutritive
fluid '^; Lyonnet compares the nutrition of insects by
their fibres from this fluid, when formed into the corps
graisseuXf to that of plants that draw their support by
their roots from the earth "=. Much obscurity, however,
at present rests upon this subject — much for future inves-
tigation to explore ; but in all the works of the Most
High there is always something inscrutable, something
beyond the reach of our senses and faculties, which
teaches us humbly to adore his infinite perfections.

II. The circulation of the AracJmida is next to be
considered ; and the term applied to these becomes
strictly proper. Two great tribes, in our view of the
subject, constitute this Class, — the spiders [Araneidce)
and scorpions [Scotpionidce) : 1 shall give 3'ou some ac-
count of the circulating vessels of each. — In spiders, the
heart in general is a long dorsal vessel as in insects, but
supposed to be confined to the abdo7Jien, growing slen-

» Cuv. Anfri, Comp. iv, 158. Herolcl Schnettcrl. 28.

'' Sur le Vol des Itis. c. iv. 88. note 1. "^ An/tt. 42H.

94 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

derer towards each extremity, particularly the anal. In
some also, as in Arafiea domestica, like that of insects, it
has lateral muscular appendages ; but in others, as in
Clubiona atrox, it is without them *. It exhibits a pair of
vessels that appear to connect with the gills, by which
the oxygenation of the blood takes place, and a number
of others that ramify minutely and are lost in the ana-
logue of the epiploon^ supposed to be their liver^. Whe-
ther these last are to be regarded merely as veins, has
not been ascertained ; they seem rather to convey the
blood outwards, than to return it back to the heart : but
this question must be left for future investigation. I may
observe, however, that though the heart of the spider
has been traced only in the abdomen, it may probably ex-
tend into the trunk.

The heart of the scmpion has been examined both by
Treviranus and Marcel de Serres ; but as the descrip-
tion of the latter is most clear and intelligible, I shall
principally confine myself to that. The heart, then, of
these animals is elongated, almost cylindrical, but atte-
nuated at each end ; it is extended from the head to the
extremity of the tail, and iippears to have four pairs of
lateral muscles. On each side are four pairs of principal
vessels, which go to the pulmonary pouches, and there
ramify. These may be assimilated to veins. Besides
these, there are four other vessels that cross them, form-
ing with them an acute angle, and which, with four
branches of smaller size, receive the blood from the pul-
monary pouches, and distribute it to the different parts

^ Treviranus Arachnid. 28. t. iii./. 28, 39.
" Ibid 29. t.m.f. 30,31.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 95

of the body, — these are the arteries. Before it enters
the tail, the heart throws out two vascular branches
which do not go to the gills, but distributing the blood
to different parts, ought to be considered as arteries*.
Treviranus mentions bunches of reticulated vessels, con-
cerning the use and origin of which he seems uncertain'' ;
but as they approach the gills, they are probably the
branching extremities of what M. de Serres considers
as the veins.

'^ N. Diet. (V Hist. Nat. XXX. 420. Comp. Treviran. Arachnid. 10—.
«> Ibid. 9—.

LETTER XL.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

DIGESTION.

1 HE immense Class of insects," says the immortal
Cuvier, " in the structure of its ahmentary canal exhibits
as many variations as those of all the vertebrate animals
together : there are not only the differences that strike
us in going from family to family and from species to
species ; but one and the same individual has often a ca-
nal quite different, according as we examine it in its
larva or imago state ; and all these variations have rela-
tions very exact, often easily estimable, with the tempo-
rary or constant mode of life of the animals in which it
is observable. Thus the voracious larvae of the Scar-a-
hcei and butterflies have intestines ten times as large as
the winged and sober insects — if I may use such an ex-
pression—to which they give birth ^."

In the natural families of these creatures, the same
analogy takes place with respect to this part that is ob-
servable in the rest of the Animal Kingdom ; the length
and complication of the intestines are here, as in the
other Classes, often an index of a less substantial kind

' Anal, Comp. iv. 12.9.

INTERNAL ANATOMY Ol INSFCTS. 97

of nutriment ; while their shortness and slenderness in-
dicate that the insect lives by prey'.

In considering therefore the parts connected with the
digestive functions of the insect world, it will not be amiss
to have reference to their Jbod, and their mode of taking
it; but first it will be proper to state and define the parts
of this important organ.

In general the alimentary canal ** is composed of the
same essential tnnicks as that of the vertebrate animals,
consisting of an interior epidermis, a papillary and cellu-
lar tunick, and an exterior muscular one"^. The first is
usually tender, smooth, and transparent ; but not always
discoverable, probably on account of its tender sub-
stance'^. Ramdohr does not notice the papillary and
cellular tunicks ; they are probably synonymous with what
he denominates — the Jlocky layer [Diejlockige lage), and
which he describes, when highly magnified, as appear-
ing to consist of very minute globules or dark points, and
as being of a cellular structure^. The exterior tunick is
thicker and stronger than the interior, and composed of
muscular fibres, running either longitudinally or trans-
versely, so as to form rings round the canal. This tu-
nick mostly begins at the mouth, and goes to the anus,
changing its conformation in different parts of the
above intestine. Sometimes however it originates only
at the beginning of the stomach ^. With respect to its
general disposition, that canal — in its relative length, in
the size of its different parts, in the number and form of
its dilatations, and particularly of its stomachs and its

' Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 129. " Plate XXI. Fig. c, d, e, is the
intestinal canal of the larva of the Cossm. " Cuv. Ibid. 112.

'' Ramdohr Anat. der Ins. 6. " Ihid. 25. f Ibid. fi.
VOL, IV. M

98 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

coecums, and in the folds of its interior — exhibits varia-
tions akogether analogous to those of vertebrate animals,
and which produce similar effects ^. As to hs j^aits, it
may be considered as consisting of two larger portions,
between which the biliary or hepatic vessels form the
point of separation. In the first, the most universal parts
are the gullet and the stomach ; and in the second, the
small intestine and the large intestine^.

1. The g7illet ((Esophagus'^) is that portion of the in-
testinal canal which, receiving the food from the pharynx,
or immediately from the mouth, conveys it to the sto-
mach. Though it often ends just behind the head^, it
is usually continued through the trunk, and sometimes
even extends into the middle of the abdomen^ ; it there-
fore seldom much exceeds in length half the body. It
is constantly long when the head is connected with
the trunk by a narrow canal — as in the Hymenoptera,
Neui-opiera, Lepidoptera, &c. ; but is frequently short
when these parts are more intimately united ^. It often
ends in a kind of sac analogous to the crop of birds.
Under this head I must mention a part discovered by
Ramdohr, which he calls the food-bag [Speisesack), pe-
culiar to, as he thinks, Dipteral. From the mouth in
these proceeds a narrow tube into the abdomen, where
it expands into a blind sac having no connexion with
the stomach ; so that the fluid food, as blood, &c. stored
in it, must be regurgitated into the mouth before it can

=" Cuv. uhi supr. 113. '' Comp. Ramdohr Amt. 7.

"^ Plate XXI. Fig. 3. c. '' Tencbrio Ramdohr, uhi supr. 9.

t.iv.f.l. ^ Agrion. Unci. t. xv./. A. a, b '' Ibid.

^ Many other insects that live by suction liave something similar,
as the honey-bag of butterflies, Plate XXX. Fig. 10, 11. a. Ram-
dohr t. xviii./. 2. with t, xix./. 1 — 3. and xxi. 1. 3, &c.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 99

pass into that organ ^. Thus these animals, besides their
stomach, have a reservoir in which to store up their food ;
the product therefore of a single meal will require seve-
ral days to digest it.

2. The stomach {Vetitriculus^) is that part of the in-
testinal canal immediately above the bile-vessels, which
receives the food from the gullet for digestion, and trans-
mits it when digested to the lower intestines*^. By its
admixture with the gastric juice, the food acquires in the
stomach a quite different colour from what it had in the
gullet. In herbivorous iiisecfs it contains no acid, but,
Hke the gastric juice of herbivorous qitadrupeds, is of an
alkaline nature''. The chyle is forced through this or-
gan, probably in part by the pressure of the muscular
fibres during the peristaltic motion ; and being pressed
through the imier skin, is first collected in the interme-
diate cellular part, and ultimately forced through the
outer skin^. At its posterior end it terminates in the
pylorus, a fleshy ring or sphincter formed of annular mus-
cular fibres ^. The stomach often consists of two or more
successive divisions, which are separated from each other,
and are often of an entirely different conformation and
shaped. In the Orthoptera, Predaceous Coleoptera, and
several other insects, an organ of this kind precedes the
ordinary stomach, which from its structure Cuvier deno-
minates a second stomach or gizzard^' ; Posselt impro-
perly calls it Cardia ' ; and by Ramdohr it is named the

' Ramdohr Anat. 11—. •> Plate XXI. Fig. 3. d.

" Ramdohr Ibid. 28—. •' Herold {Schmetterl 24)

says that Ramdolir is mistaken here, and denies the existence of this
juice in insects; but as Ranidohr's researches were so widely extended,
he is most likely to be right. * Ramdohr Ibid. 39.

f Ibid. 31. s Ibid. 28.

** Anat. Comp. iv. 135. ' Ramdohr, nbi supr. 15,

H 2

100 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF IXSF.CTS.

plaited-stomach [Falten-magen^). It is a short fleshy
part, consisting of two skins, placed above the opening
of the stomach, and perhaps rather belongs to the gullet.
The inner skin is formed into longitudinal folds, and
sometimes armed with horns, teeth, or bristles. Its ca-
vity is very small and compressed, so as to admit only
small masses of food, and yet present them to a wide sur-
face for the action of the teeth or bristles ; — in this sto-
mach therefore, as in the gizzard of birds, to which it
seems clearly analogous'', the food is more effectually
comminuted and rendered fit for digestion. The mus-
cles, by which its action upon the food is supported, in
some species amount to many thousands'^. Rudiments
of a gizzard are sometimes found concealed in the gullet
of many insects '^. The idea of Swammerdam, Cuvier, &c.
that grasshoppers and other insects that have this kind
of stomach, chew the cud^, Ramdohr affirms is entirely
erroneous ^. Besides its divisions, the stomach has other
ajypendages that require notice. In most Orthoptera, a
pair or more of blind intestines or coeca may be found at
the point of union of the gizzard with the stomach?, which
have been regarded as forming a third stomach : they
also begin the stomach in the louse ^ ; they form a coro-
net round the apex of that organ, in the grub of the cock-
chafer ' ; and in that of the rose-beetle, there is one at the
apex, one in the middle, and a third at the base''. Be-
sides these appendages, which are formed of the skin of

' Ramdohr Aiiat. 15. ^ Ibid. 18. -^ Ibid. "^ Ibid.

* Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 94, b. Ciiv. Anat. Comp. iv. 134.

f Ubi siipr. 18. ^ Ibid. t. \.f. 1. e. 5. c. 9. g, h.

" Ibid. t. xxv./. 4. bb. ' Ibid. t. viii,/. 3. cc.

^ Ibid. I. \\\.f. 2.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSKCTS. 101

the Stomach, there are others that are not so. In the Pre-
daceous and some other beetles, the whole external sur-
face of this organ is covered with small blind appendages
opening into the space between its two skins, which cause
it to resemble a shaggy cloth ; these Ramdohr calls shags
{zotte^), and Cuvier, hairs^ (villi). These appendages
the latter author seems to regard as organs that secrete
the gastric juice and render it to the stomach*^ ; but the
former thinks their use uncertain*^.

3. The small intestities {Intestina parva) are the por-
tion of intestines next the stomach, and consist often of
three distinct canals ; — the first is supposed to be analo-
gous to the duodenum ; it is found only in the Coleopterous
genera Silpha L. and Lampyris L., and is distinguished
from the succeeding intestine by being perfectly smooth *.
Next follows the thin intestine [Dunndarm Ram.), which
in the above insects is wrinkled ; it most commonly imme-
diately follows the stomach. Sometimes it is wholly want-
ing, as in Agrion, the Hemiptera *, &c. Ramdohr conjec-
tures that it is not solely destined for conveying the ex-
crement, but that probably some juices are separated in it
from the food especially for the nutrition of the gall-
vessels, as their principal convolutions are mostly near
this intestine s ; which perhaps may in some cases be re-
garded as analogous to the jejujium in vertebrate ani-
mals. The third pair of the small intestines, which per-
haps represents the iletim, Ramdohr distinguishes by the
name of club-shaped {Keulformigen Darm^). It may ge-

' Ibid. 20. " Anat. Comp. iv. 132.

•= Ibid, and 136. "» Ubi supr. 30.

* Ibid. 31. t. iv./ 2. c. t. v.f. l.d.f. 4. D. f Ibid. 32.

K Ibid. 34. •• Ibid. 35.

102 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

nerally be regarded as only a continuation of the former
thickened at the end so as to resemble a club reversed.
It is however sometimes separated from the thin intes-
tine, as in Callichroma moschatum^.

4. The large intestines [Intestina magna) consist some-
times of two portions. The thick intestine [Dicken-darm\
which may be regarded as a kind of ccecum, is found only
in the larvae of the Lamellicorn beetles, but never in the
perfect insect. In shape it is oval and folded ; whence
it is thicker than the rest of the intestinal canal, and is
constantly filled with excrement''. The second portion
of these intestines is the rectum [Mastdarm), which ter-
minates in the anal passage. This part is scarcely ever
wanting, except when the insect evacuates no excrement,
which is the case with the grubs of bees, wasps, and the
antlion [Myrmeleon). In the imago of TelepJwrus, at
least in T.fuscus, it is also obsolete'^ : in most cases, how-
ever; it is very distinct from the preceding intestine.
Sometimes it consists of only one tunick composed of
muscular fibres'*. When the gullet is wide, the rectum
is usually so likewise; but when it follows a club-shaped
or thick intestine, it is narrow^. It generally may be
termed short^. When wide, it often contains a great
quantity of excrement, as the gullet does of undigested
food; but when narrow, the excrement seldom remains
lonff in it. This intestine also in a few cases has a lateral
enlargement or ccecum {Blind-da7-m),hemg a continuation
of the same skin ; but perhaps this enlargement is really

» Ramdohr Aiiat. t. xxiv./. 1. F.

^ Ibid. 36. /. vii./. 2. kk. t. viii./. 3. g, hh.

" Ibid. t. xii./. 1. /. xvii./. 1. /, vii./. 5. ^ Ibid. 37.

* Ibid. 38. f Ibid.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 103

analogous to what Ramdohr calls the thicJc intestine,
though in these cases he regards it as an appendage of
the rectum*.

I must now call your attention to the bile-vessels of in-
sects. These, by Malpighi ^ and the earlier physiologists,
who regarded theni as a kind of lacteals, were denomi-
nated varicose vessels : but Cuvier — and his opinion after
some hesitation has been adopted by Ramdohr — consi-
ders them as vessels for the secretion of bile, and as ana-
logous to the liver of animals that have a circulation*^.
As the want of blood-vessels prevents insects from hav-
ing any gland, the bile is produced with them, as all
their other secretions, by slender vessels that float in
their nutritive fluid, and from thence secrete the elements
proper to form that important product, which usually
tinges them with its own yellow hue ; though in the La-
mellicorns and Capricorns they are of an opaque white,
and in the Dytisci of a deep brown colour''. Their bitter
taste further proves that they contain the bile ^. They are
long, slender, filiform, tortuous or convoluted, and mostly
simple vessels ; sometimes gradually smaller toward the
base*^, at others, towards the apex?. In some, screw-
shaped'': in one larva, with hemispherical elevations ' :
in the cockchafer, part of them are fringed on each side
with an infinity of short, blind, minute, setiform tubes,
while the rest ai'e naked "^^ ; they are composed of a single,
thin, transparent membrane, according to Ramdohr ' ; but

^ Ibid. 40. " De Bombyc. 18—. <= Anat. Conij). iv. 153.
•^ Ibid. ^ Ibid.

f Ramdohr 43. Cicindela campestris, t. m.f. 1. K.
^ Phrygnnea grandis. Ibid. t. xvi./. 2. '' Kotonecta glauca.

Ibid. t. xxiii./. 5. ' O? Musca vomitoria. Ibid. t. xix./. 5.

"■ Ibid. t. viii./. 1. H. and G./. 2. ' Ibid. 50.

104 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Cuvier thinks their texture is spongy*. They appear
to contain a number of small, irregular, dark granules,
which float in a peculiar fluid, with which, however, they
are not always filled throughout, nor are they constantly
permeable from one end to the other. Thus, in the meal-
worm beetle [Tenebrio Molit&t^\ the common trunk by
which they are attached to the intestinal canal is com-
posed of gelatinous granules''. The place of their in-
sertion is generally a little below the pylorus, but in the
common cockroach they are inserted into the stomach
just above that part*^. Usually each vessel opens singly
into the intestinal canal, which the whole number sur-
round at an equal distance from each other '^. Some-
times, however, they are connected with it by a common
tube in which they all unite, as in the asparagus-beetle
{Lema Asparagi^)', in the house-fly (M/zsca domestica), and
other Miiscidce, each pair unites so as to form a single
branch on each side of the canal previously to their in-
sertion^ ; in the field-cricket {Gryllus campestris) they are
all inserted in one spot ^ ; and when numerous, they are ge-
nerally attached singly though irregularlj^ ''. These ves-
sels at their base do not open into the cavity of the in-
testinal canal, but merely into the space between its outer
and inner tunicks, the last being constantly imperforate'.
With regard to their apex, the bile-vessels are some-
\Xmes Jixed singly or connectedly to the intestine merely by
a few muscular fibres ; for they do not enter it, their ends
having no orifice. This structure is mostly to be met

» Ubi supr. *' Ramdohr, ubi supr. " Ibid. 44, t. \.f, 9.
■» Ibid. ' Ibid. t. vi./. 5. H.

' Ibid. f. xix /. 1 . .V, .V, 0,/. 2. P, P, 0. ^ Ibid. 1. 1./. 1. kkk.

" Ibid. t. xiii. f. 1—3. ' Ibid. 44.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 105

w ith in the Coleoptera *. In caterpillars, the tops of these
vessels perforate the outer skin of the rectum, and pro-
ceeding in dense convolutions to the anus, become at last
so fine that their terminations cannot be discovered''.
In other cases, the extremities of a pair of these vessels
Jinite so as to form a double one : this may be seen in
those of Staphylinus politus'^, and probably other rove-
beetles : and lastly, in others the bile-vessels axefree,
hanging down by the intestinal canal, without being at-
tached to it or to each other. This structure is con-
stantly found in the Orthoptera and Hymenoptera Or-
ders, &C.''.

With regard to their number, the bile-vessels vary from
two to upwards of one hundred and fifty, yet so that
their whole amount is constantly the product of the num-
ber two, — at least as far as they have been counted : and
even when those on one side are not alike, a similar va-
riation takes place in the other, as may be seen in Gal-
leruca Vitelline, where on each side are two long ones
and one shorter^ ; the most usual numbers are, Jour —
six — or many, that is, more than twenty —

7\i'o bile-vessels are found in the larva of Cetonia aurata ^.
Fmir most Coleoptera, Diptera,

and Hemiptera^.
Six Lepidoptera, some Coleo^

ptera^, &c.

» Ibid. 45. ^ Ibid. 45. Plate XXI. Fig. 3././.

•■ Ramdohr, Ibid. t. iii./. 6. E.

d Ibid. t. If. 1. 5 9. t. xiv.f. 1—3. * Ibid. 46. t. vi. /, 3.

f Ibid. t. vii./. 2. « Ibid. t. ii. iii. &c. /. xx./. 1,:2. G.

t. xxii./. 1—5, &c. *> Ibid. t. xviii./. 1.5./. iv./. 1. See

also t. vi,/. 1. 3.

106 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

^/g-/i^ bile-vessels are found in Myrmeleon, Hemerohius^.

Fourteen Formica rufa^.

Twenty larva of Tentliredo Ame-

7-ince'^.
Many Libellulina, Orthoptera,

and Miimenoptera^ .

The bile-vessels vary considerably in length : in many
cases where they are Jree they are short ^ ; they are often
very long, and perhaps those that are^xed may be gene-
rally stated as the longest. In the Lamellicorn beetles
they are remarkable for their great length''.

Having given you this general account of the intesti-
nal canal and its parts and appendages, I shall now state
some of the peculiarities that in this respect distinguish
particular tribes and families.

The Coleoptera alone, exhibit as many variations in
the structure of the alimentary tube as all the other Or-
ders of insects together : — to particvdarize these would
occupy too large a portion of this letter, I shall therefore
only notice a few of the most remarkable. In general
they may be stated as having universally a stomach, a
small intestine and rectum, and not more than three pairs
oljixed or united bile-vessels. In the Predaceous beetles,
the gullet mostly widens at the base into a considerable
crop.^ followed by a gizzard, a shaggy stomach, and two
pairs of united bile- vessels. The whole alimentary canal
in these, is never less than double, and sometimes treble
the length of the bodys. In the carnivorous beetles, at

a Ramdohr Anat. t. xvii./. 1, 2, 6. ^ Ibid. t. xiv./. 3.

" Ibid. t. xiii./. 4, '' Ibid. t. xv./. 3, 4. t. 1./. 1. 5, 9. t. xii.

/. 4, 5, 6, &c. ^ Ibid. t. xlf. 4. t. xii./. 4—6. /. xiii./. 2—4, &c.
f Ibid. t. vii./. 1. t. viii./. 1, &c. ^ Ibid. t. ii. iii. xxv.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 107

least the Staphylinidce and Silphida:, there is little or no
crop the gizzard is hidden : in tlie former, the whole
length of the intestinal canal is not twice, while in the
latter it is more ihun Jour times that of the body^. In
these also the intermediate portion of the large intestine
is singularly annulated*^. In the LamelHco7-iis the sto-
mach is usually longer than all the rest of the intestines
together, and often convoluted : in the cockchafer the
whole intestinal canal is nearly^u^ times the length of the
hody, four parts of which is occupied by the stomach*^.
In the grub the canal scarcely exceeds the length of the
animal'*. In Lampyris the stomach exhibits a remark-
able appearance, having on each side a series of spheri-
cal yoWs or vesicles^. Have these any thing to do with
the secretion of its phosphoric matter? Tenehrio has a
gizzard armed internally with calluses, and a shaggy sto-
mach, and Blaps does not differ materially; their entire
canal is more than twice the length of the body ^. In the
W57"c«^o?;y beetles {Cantharis, Mcloe, &c.) there is no giz-
zard, and the canal is less than twice the length of the
body ^. Little is known with regard to the alimentary canal
of the beetles distinguished by a rostrum {Curculio L.).
In the only two that appear to have been examined, Atte-
labus Betideti and CryptorhyncJms Lapathi, that canal is
moderately long, the stomach partially shaggy, and the
small intestine inversely claviform ; but in other respects
they differ materially''. In the former there is no crop
or gizzard, the stomach is fringed on each side, except
at its upper extremity, with a series of small cceca or
shags, and there are three pairs of bile-vessels ' ; M'hile

^ Ihid. t. iii./. 6. t. IV. f. 2. l.v.fA. ^ Ibid.f. I.e./. 3.

•= Ibid. 123. d /ijrf, 123. « Ibid. t. v./. 4. B. f Ibid. 94.
^ Ihid. 9G-. ■* Ibid. t. x./. 1.8. ' Ibid.f. 8. b c.

108 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the latter the gullet is dilated into a crop which in-
cludes a gizzard in which the skill of a Divine artist
is singularly conspicuous : — though so minute as scarcely
to exceed a large pin's head in size, it is stated to be
armed internally with more than 400 pairs of teeth,
moved by an infinitely greater number of muscles^. A
transverse section of this gizzard represents two concen-
tric stars, with nine rays each** : the object of this struc-
ture is, the comminution of the timber w^hich this beetle
has to perforate and probably devour '^. The stomach
is very slender, but dilates in the middle into a spherical
vesicle'', and there are only two pairs of bile-vessels'.
In the Capricorn beetles, the part we are considering
varies much : in general we may observe that it is more
than double the length of the body, that the stomach is
long and slender, and usually naked, that the gullet ter-
minates in a crop without a distinct gizzard, and that
there are three pairs of bile-vessels^. In the Herbivo-
rous beetles [Chrysomela L. Cassida L.) the canal is more
than double the length of the body, and in some much
longer^, the stomach is long, and commonly naked ; but
in Chrysomela violacea it is covered with hemispherical
prominences '', and in Chrysomela Populi it is shaggy';
in the insect last named and Galleruca Vitelline the rec-
tum consists of two pieces ''. In this tribe the intestines
of the larva resemble those of the perfect insect ^

In the Orthoptera the alimentary canal, which conti-

* Ramdohr 98. t. x.f. 2 — 4, From Ramdohr's figure, compared
with the size of the insect, it appears that the gizzard could scarcely
have been of greater diameter. '' Ibid.f. 2.

<^ See Curtis in Linn. Trans, i. 88. "^ Ramdohr t. x.f. 1. d.

« Ibid. 1 1. < Ibid. t. ix,/. 1, 2. t. xi./. 3. t. xxiv./. 1, 2.

6 Ibid. 103. " Ibid. 104. t. vi./. 4. D. ' Ibid.f. 2. B.

* Ibid. t. vi./. 3. E. ' Ibid. 101.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 109

nues the same in every state, is short, or only moderately
long ; the gullet has one or two lateral pouches or crops *,
and terminates in a gizzard of curious construction, with
singular folds and teeth'' ; then follows a short stomach,
usually with a pair or more of cceca at its upper extre-
mity "= ; the lower intestines are not distinct, and the bile-
vessels numerous, short and free'^.

In the Neuroptera^ many of the genera are distin-
guished by the remarkable length of the gullet, and by
the lower intestines forming one short piece ^. In the Li-
bellulina the bile- vessels are numerous, short, and free,
as in the Orthoptera ^. In Hemerobius and Myrmeleon
there is a gizzards, and just above it a ccecum^ in the for-
mer very remarkable, is connected with the gullet''.

The Hymenoptera appear all to be distinguished by a
long slender gullet, terminating in a dilated crop form-
ing the honey-bag ; their stomach is variable, their small
intestine slender, and the rectum dilated ; — their bile-ves-
sels, like those of the two preceding Orders, are nume-
rous, short, and free'. In the ants and ichneumons there
is an approach to a gizzard ''. In the wasp and humble-
bee the stomach is very long, with muscular rings sur-
rounding it'. In this Order the larvae at first have no
lower intestines and void no excrement"', but as they ap-
proach to the pupa state one begins to appear".

•• Ramdohr t. If. 1. 5. 9. ^ Ibid.f. 2, 3, 4. 7, S. 12.

<• Ibid./. I. e,f. 5. c.f. 9. g h. •" Ibid.f. 1.9. k.

' Ibid. t. XV. f 3, 4. t. xvii./. 2. 6. f Ibid. t. xv.f 3, 4./.

"! Ibid. t. xvii./. 2. c.f. 6. d. " Ibid.f. 2. b.f. G. c.

i Ibid. t. xii./. 6. //. t. xiii./. 1./. " Ibid. t. xiv./. 2, 3, C.

' Ibid. t. xii./. 6. D. t. xiii./. 1. ^. "" Ibid. 133. t. xii./. 1 -3.
" Ibid. f. 4.

110 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The next insects whose alimentary canal we are to
consider, are those which, taking their food by mction,
have no occasion for masticating organs : this may in
part be predicated of the preceding Order, in which
most of the tribes in their perfect state imbibe fluid food,
and use the ordinary organs of mastication principally in
operations connected with their economy; and their crop,
in which the honey in many is stored up for regurgita-
tion, may be regarded in some degree as analogous to the
food-bag of the Diptera and other suctorious insects.

The two sections of the Hemiptera Order differ widely
in the canal we are considering, and I shall therefore
give a separate account of each. In the Heteropterous
section, appended to the gullet by a long convoluted ca-
pillary tube, besides the usual saliva-reservoirs there is
often a double vessel, which Ramdohr regards as dis-
charging the same function, but which in many respects
seems rather analogous to the food -reservoir of the Z)/-
ptera^. As I have had no opportunity of examining this,
vessel, I shall content myself with stating this idea, and
describe the vessel more fully hereafter. The gullet, in
these, usually terminates in an ample crop consisting of
many folds'', followed by a long, slender, cylindrical
tube, dilated at its base into a spherical tumour ; these
two may be said to form the first stomach : to this suc-
ceeds a second'^, which Ramdohr denominates the bug-
stomach ( Wanzen-magen)^ which varies in its figure, and
in Pentatoma consists of four demi-tubes, so as to form a

» Comp. Ramdohr /, xxii./. 3. M. Fig. 4. 3. with t. xxi./. 1. /.
" Ibid. t. xxii./. 1. c./. 3, 4. B—. ' Ibid.f. 1. D E.f. 3. CD.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. Ill

quadrangular canal*. In the Homopterous section of
this Order Ran%dohr seems to have examined but few;
Chermes however and Aphis exhibit one remarkable fea-
ture ; they have no bile-vessels^ at least he could discover
no trace of these organs''. Their intestinal canal is very
simple, their stomach very long, widest above, and some-
what convoluted, with a very slender gullet '^. In Ce-
reopis spumaria the structure is more complex, and ex-
tremely singular. It has tiw or rather three stomachs ;
the two first of a Jiorny substance, and the last a slen-
der somewhat convoluted membranous tube, which be-
coming reversed, is attached by what should be deemed
its lower extremity to the first stomach, from the other
side of which emerge the lower intestines, terminating in
a thick pear-shaped rectum. At the same point of the
first stomach the four bile-vessels are attached, they
grow gradually thicker for about a third of their length,
when they become twisted like a cord, and taper towards
the rectum, to which also they are attached'*. From
this structure it should seem that the food has to pass
twice through the first stomach, before the process of
digestion is complete, and it is rejected at the anus.

The next suctorious Order is the Lepidoptera : in
these the gullet is long and slender, surrounded at the
beginning with a loose transparent skin, and at the base
furnished with a pair of lateral sacs, forming the honey-
stomach, and probably analogous to the food-reservoirs
of the Diptera, which when blown up are of an oval
form ; the stomach, as in the bugs, consists of iivo por-

* Ramdolir t. xxii./. 1. 1), E.f. 3, C, D.f. 4. C. " Ibid. 198.
" Ibid. t. xxvi./ 2. 4. ^ Ibid. t. xxxiii./. 3.

112 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

tions, the first being the longest*. There are three J}-ee
bile-vessels on each side, proceeding* from a single
branch^. It will not be uninteresting here to abstract
from Herold the progressive changes which take place
in the intestinal canal in this Order, during the transition
of the animal from the larva to the imago state. In the
larva, the gullet, the small intestine, and the rectum, are
short and thick •=, there ai'e a pair of silk reservoirs (5^-
ricteria\ as well as vessels for the secretion of saliva
[sialisteria) : if you examine it two days after its first
change, you will find the gullet and the small intestine
much lengthened and become xery slender ; the stomach
contracted both in length and size ; the rectum also
changed, and the silk vessels contracted"^. These in a
jnipa eight days old have wholly disappeared ; the gullet
is become still longer, its base is dilated into a crop or
food-reservoir ; the stomach is still more contracted, and
instead of a cylinder represents a spindle ; the small in-
testine also is lengthened ^ : at a still more advanced pe-
riod, when it is near appearing under its last form, the
gullet and small intestine are still more drawn out ; and
the honey-bag, though very minute, has become a lateral
appendage of the gullet ^ ; and lastly, in the butterfly it
appears as a large vesicle^; the small intestine is grown
very long'' ; and the rectum has changed its form and ac-
quired a coecum '. When we consider the adaptation of
all these changes of form, the loss of old organs and the
acquisition of new ones, to the new functions and mode

^ Ramdohr /. xviii./. \. F,G. '' Ibid. L, K.

" Plate XXX. Fig. 7. " Ibid. Fig. 8. *= Ibid. Fig. 9.

f Ibid. Fig. 10. « Ibid. Fig. 11. «. " Ibid, c

' Ibid. d.

INTEUNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 113

of life of the animal, we see evidently the all-powerful
hand of that Almighty Being who created the universe,
upholding by his providence, and the law that he has
given to every creature, the system that he at first brought
into existence.

We now come to the Diptera. These have a very slen-
der gullet, to which is attached on one side a long fili-
form tube, terminating in the food-reservoir, which in
some instances is simple*, but most generally consists of
two or more vessels'', collapsing when empty, but vary-
ing in shape and size when inflated with food : the mouth
of the stomach in many cases is dilated into a kind o£
ring '^; sometimes there is on each side a blind appendage
or ccecwn opening into it, in Bombylius covered with
shags, which though not connected with the mouth by a
tube, Ramdohr regards as saliva-rreservoirs''; in Musca
vomitoria the beginning of this organ below the mouth
is covered with hemispherical prominences, and in Ti^
-pula it is dilated and marked with transverse folds. There
are usually txm pairs of bile-vessels; in the Muscid(B
pedunculate mM\frce^; in Tipula, Bombylius^ and Rhagio,
sessile and imite(V ; and in Tabamis sessile anCiJixed^^
It is remarkable that in some of this Order — the reverse
of what usually happens — the alimentary canal appears to
be much longer in the larva than it is in the imago ; in
Musca vomitoria^ its length in the former is two inciies
and a quarter, while in the latter it is only one inch an4

^ Ranulohr, Ibid. t. xx./. 1. E.f. 6. C.

" Ibid. t. xix./. 2. C'./. 3. CCD. t. xx./. 2. B.

^ Ibid. t. xix./. 2. D.

'I Ibid. t. XX. f. 2. FF.f. 6. DD. 184. 180.—

• Ibid. t. xix./. 1. ON.f. 2. OP.f. 3. F. t. xxviii./. 1, 2. p. (j.

' Ibid. t. w.f. 1. G.f. 2, 3. /.. ■= Ibid. t. xxi./. 1 T),

vol,. JV. I

114 INTEHNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

one third*. A singular organ distinguishes the imago
of this species, the use of which appears not to be disco-
vered. It succeeds tlie rectum^ and has on each side
two short ckib-shaped appendages, open at the end, which
receive trachece., and terminate in a short piece that opens
into the anus**.

In Hippobosca and its affinities the canal in question
differs from that of other Diptera, in having no food-re-
servoir; in other respects it resembles if^.

From the above statement it appears that the princi-
pal character which distinguishes those that take their
food by suction, from those that masticate it, is the faculty
with which they are furnished by means of an ample
crop, honey-stomach, or food-resei'voir, of regurgitating
the food they may have stored up. Another distinction
still more striking, which will appear more evidently here-
after, is to be seen in the saliva^secretors with which the
suctorious tribes are furnished, to be found in very few
masticators^ by which they are enabled to render the
juices more fluid and fit for suction.

The only insect amongst the Aptera whose alimentary
canal I shall notice, is- the common harvest-man {Pha-
langium Opilio) : in this, though the stomach and lower
intestine are remarkably simple, yet their coecal appen-
dages are numerous and singular; the former, which
has no distinct gullet, is pear-shaped '* ; and the latter,
tapering downwards, and truncated at the end^; con-

" Ramdohr, Ibid. 172. " Ibid. f. xix./ 2. K L. This

organ soems analogous to that with four retractile fleshy horns, ob-
served by Reaumur and Dc Geer in other species of Muscidu.
Reaum. iv. t. xxviii./. 13. a, s. Dc (xecr vi. /. 'ni.f. 18. c, d.

<• Ramdohr, /. xxi./. b'. '' Ibid. I. xxix./. I*. A.

' lb\d. and/. ?K B, I).

INTICIIN'AI, ANATOiVlV OV INSFC'IS. 115

nectecl with it above are no less than twenty-three corca
or blind appendages, ol" various forms and dimensions ;
the last pair bnt one of which is very remarkable, being-
bent like a bow, and furnished externally with four short
clavate processes *. It is probable that some of these or-
gans are analogous to the bile-vessels of other insects.

When the Creator in his wisdom fixed the limits of
the various tribes of animals, he united them all into one
harmonious system by means of certain intermediate
forms, exhibiting characters taken some from those that
were to precede, and others from those that were to fol-
low them, and this not only in their external structure,
but likev/ise in their internal organization ; so that we are
not to wonder if in the same individual we meet with
organs that belong to two distinct tribes, or if, remaining
nearly the sajne in their prima Jacie appearance, they be-
gin to exercise new functions. An instance of this we
have seen in the dorsal vessel of insects, which in the
Arachnida, though not materially different in situation
or general form, by the addition of a small apparatus of
arteries and veins becomes the centre and fountain of a
regular system of circulation*^. From the circumstances
here alluded to, physiologists have been led to entertain
very different sentiments with regard to the structure of
the alimentai'y organs of the Class we are now to enter
upon, the Arachnida : what some regard as a real liver^
others look upon as an epiploon or caul ; and what the last
denominate izY^-vessels are by some of the former consi-
dered as appropriated to the secretion of chyle'^. Yet

" Ibid.f. 2, :i. 5. &c. '' See above, p. 93—,

' Treviramis and Ramdohr are of the former opinion ; and Meckel,
Cuvier, Marcel de Serres, and Leon du Fonr, of the latter.

I 2

116 INTKKKAL ANATOAIV OF INSKCTS.

both these opinions have some roundation in nature.
When, in the Arachnida, we discover a lobular substance
consisting of granules filling the whole cavity of the body
and wrapped round the intestines, every one will see in
it no small analogy to the epiploon which in insects per-
forms the same functioji : but when, upon a further exa-
mination, we detect certain vessels communicating with
this substance and the intestinal canal =", the idea that
these may be hepatic ducts, and this substance analogous
to the liver, immediately strikes us as not improbable.
Again : when we discover pairs of other capillary and
tortuous vessels connecting with the intestinal canal either
at the pylorus^ or below if^, v^hich in appearance strik-
ingly resemble the bile-vessels which we so constantly
find in insects, we seem warranted in concluding that they
are of the same nature and use : but when a nearer in-
spection enables us to detect the hepatic ducts just men-
tioned in the scorpion, and we find that these capillary
vessels in the spider are in a very different situation from
those in insects which we suppose them to represent, it
occurs to us as not unlikely, that iheir J}mctionn\?iy\iQ dif-
ferent.

Let us now consider how the intestinal canal is cir-
cumstanced in the two sections into which the Class
Arachnida is divided ; the Scoipiojiidce, and Araneidce.
In the Scorpions, this organ proceeds from the moutli
to the anus; without any flexure or convolution, so that
its length is scarcely equal to that of the body''; it is
slender, and its diameter, with the exception of an irre-
gular dilatation here and there, is nearlv the same in
its whole extent ; the gullet is short ; the stomach long,
■• Trcviran Arnclinhl. t, \.f. G. v, ^ Ibid. n.

^ Ibid. t. ii. /: -.'4. a. " ■' Ibid./. (I. li n.

INTEliNAL ANATOMV Ol' IN'SKCTSi 117

and nearly cylindrical ; the duodenum shorter and
thicker than the stomach, from which, as well as from
the rectum^ it is separated by a valve ; the latter is cy-
lindrical, and opens at the anus above the insertion of
the vesicle that secretes the poison'. With regard to
the biliary system and its organs : The liver is ot a
pulpy granular consistence and of a brownish colour,
fills the whole cavity of the trunk and abdomen, and
serves as a bed for the other intestinesi It is divided
longitudinally into two portions, by the channel in which
the heart reposes — its anterior part is formed into many
irregular lobes, by the sinuosities of the trunk ; at the
other extremity it terminates in two acute ends, which
enter the first joint of the tail ; its surface presents a reti-
cular appearance, the result of the approximation of poly-
gonous lohuli ,- its interior is a tissue of infinitely minute
glands : in Scorpio occitanus there are about forty pyra-
midal lohuli detached from each other, the summits of
which, by their union, form bunches that have their ex-
cretory canals, varying in number in different species,
which convey the bile to the alimentary tube ; in the
above insect there are six pairs three in the trunk and
three in the abdomen, and in S. Europteus a smaller num-
ber''; these vessels run transversely from the liver, or ag-
gregation of conglomerate glands, to the intestinal canal "^ ;
the bunches consist of an infinite number of spherical
glands, generally filled with a brown thick fluid'* : be-
sides the transverse vessels, from the base of the stomach

" N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 423 — . Comp. Treviranus, Arachnid.
'• !•/• 0'. '' Treviranus, Ibid. v.

" N. Diet, d'llist. Xat. xxx. 421—. Comp. Treviran. Ibid.
* N. Diet. d'Hixt. Xat. Ibid.

118 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

there issue two pairs of very slender tortuous ones, seem-
ingly analogous to the common bile-vessels ; one pair of
which runs upwards, one on each side that organ to-
wards the mouth, forming here and there some ramifi-
cations which enter the liver ; and the other runs nearly
transversely to it^. As the fluid contained in these ves-
sels is diffei'ent from that contained in the glands of the
liver, M. Marcel de Serres supposes they may be chyli-
ferous''.

In the Araneida also the alimentary canal is nearly
straight, and scarcely exceeds the length of the body :
the gullet is rather thick and cylindrical"^ : the stomach
is distinguished anteriorly by two pairs of sacs, the
upper pair being much the largest and nearly triangu-
lar, the lower linear ^ ; from these sacs a narrow tube
runs towards the rectum, but which is so entangled witli
the liver, muscles, &c., as not to be easily made out ^ ; the
rectum is rather tumid, and has a lateral ccecum ^. The
disposition of the liver or conglomerate glands is stated
to be similar to that of the scorpion ^ ; it is usually white,
but in some species it is j'ellowish or reddish, and its
lower surface has sometimes regular excavations'"; no
transverse hepatic ducts connecting it with the alimentary
canal, as in the scorpion, appear to have been at present
discovered : two pairs of capillary Ji-ee vessels are at-
tached to the base of the rectum on one side, which, ex-
cept in their situation, seem analogous to the bile-vessels
of insects '.

» Treviran. Ibid. t. i./. G. it, c c. *> N. Bid. (THisl. Kat. Ibid.

" Treviran. Ibid. t. W.f. 24. a. "^ Ibid, r, b.

<• Ihid.c,d,f. f Ibid.g,n. ^ N. Diet, d' Hist. Nat. Ibid.

" Treviran. Tbid. ->8. ' ' Ibid. i. n.f. 24. /3.

INTERNAL ANATOMY Ol' INSECTS, 119

From the above detailed account of the alimentary
canal of the animals wliose internal anatomy we are con-
sidering, it appears that M. Cuvier's observation — that
the length and complication of the intestines indicate a
less substantial kind of nutriment — does not hold univer-
sally: thus, in NecropJiorus and Silpha, carnivorous insects,
the intestinal canal in its length and convolutions exceeds
those of most herbivorous ones, and in Cassida viridis and
some others of the latter tribe are not longer than those
of the predaceous beetles. In herbivorous larva also, in
general, the length of the alimentary canal does not ex-
ceed that of the body, but in those of some ^^^A-flies
(Musca voynitoria) it very greatly exceeds it^. So true
is the observation — that there is no general rule without
exceptions.

In this letter it may not be out of place to say a few
words upon the excrements of insects ; which, strange as
the observation may seem, but it is no less true than
strange, are sometimes pleasing to the eye, from their
symmetry, and to the taste, from their sweetness. In
those that masticate their food they are solid, and in
those that take it by suction, fluid or semi-fluid. In the
caterpillars of Lepidoptera they are of the former de-
scription, and every grain wears some resemblance to an
insect's egg : as the passage in many of these consists of
six fleshy parts separated by channels, so the excrement
represents six little prisms separated by six channels^.
The Aphides all secrete a fluid excrement as sweet as
honey, of which the ants are so fondS which is ejected
not only at the anal passage, but, in many, by two little

* Ramdohr, t. xix./. 1. ^ Reaum. i. 143 /. v./. i).

^ Vol. II. p. 88—.

120 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

biphonets also above it*. A semi-fluid excrement is, pro-
duced by some species of Chermes, as that which inhabits
the Box, which often comes from the animal in long con-
voluted strings resembling vermicelli. Reaumur says its
taste is agreeable, much more so than that of manna ''.
Under this head should be included the abundant spume
with which the larva of Cercopis spumaria envelopes it-
self^.

* De Geer iii. 26. '' Rcaum. iii. 357. t. xxix./. 6—10.

^ Vol. II. p. 328.

LETTER XLI.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

SECRETION.

Having given you so full an account of the system of
digestion in insects, I am now to say something concern-
ing their secretions, and the organs by which they are
elaborated. Though no individual amongst them per-
haps secretes so many different substances as the warm-
blooded animals ; yet in general the Class abounds in
secretions perhaps as numerous and extraordinary as in
the last-mentioned tribes, to some of which a few of them
are analogous, while others are altogether peculiar. We
know little or nothing of the mode in which the process
of secretion in insects is accomplished ; in most cases we
cannot even discover, except in general, whence the se-
creted substance originates ; and in others, though we are
able to trace the vessels that contain it, we are often in
the dark as to their structure. — Cuvier, as has been be-
fore hinted, from not being able to detect any thing in
them like glands, and from their being constantly bathed
in the blood or nutritive fluid, conceives that they sepa-
rate the peculiar substances they contain, by imbibition

122 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

or infiltration, through the pores of the skin " ; a cir-
cumstance which seems to indicate a certain conforma-
tion of the pores both as to size and figure, so as to en-
able them to admit only one peculiar product.

In treating on this subject, I shall first consider the
organs of secretion, and next their products.

I. Orgcnis of Secretion. In general, these are mem-
branous vessels that float in the blood or nutritive fluid,
and secrete from it a peculiar substance. They may be
denominated according to their products — Silk-secretors,
Saliva-secretorj., Va7-nish-secretor, Jelly or Glute?i-secre~
tor, Poison-secretar, and Scentsecretors.

i. Silk-secretors (Sericteria). These organs are most
remarkable in the caterpillars of the 7iocturnal Lepido-
ptera or moths, especially in that tribe called Bombyces,
to which the silk-worm belongs : but this faculty is not
confined to these insects, but is shared by many other
larvce in different Orders ; and in one instance at least, by
the imago. In general, the outlet of the silk-secretors is
at the mouth ; sometimes, however, as in the larva of
Myrmeleon and the imago of Hydrophilus, its exit is at
the anus. The first is the organ which in the silk-worm
provides for us that beautiful substance from which the
animal takes its name. There are always two of these
vessels, which are long floating tubes, growing slender
towards the head of the insect, where they unite to form
the spinneret {fusvlus) before described '', which renders
the silk. Their lower extremity also is commonly more
slender than the middle, and is closed at the end. These
organs are usually very much convoluted and twisted '^.

» Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. 163—. •> Vol. III. p. 124—.

" Malpigh. De Bombt/c. t. v./, 2. Swamm. t. xxxiv./. .5. Lyon-
net, t.\.f.\.

INTERNAL ANATORIY OF INSECTS. 123

According to Ramdohr^*, they consist of two trans-
parent membranes, between which is found a yellow or
transparent jelly. The greater the quantity of silk em-
ployed by the caterpillar in the construction of its co-
coon, &c., the longer are the silk-secretors. Those of
the silk-worm are afoot long^, v.'hile those of the larva
of the coat-moth are little more than three i?ickes'^.

Other insects spin silk with the posterior extremity
of their body. In the great water-beetle {Hi/drop/iilus
piccus) the anus is furnished with two spinnerets, with
which it spins its egg-pouch "^ ; these are in connexion,
probabl}^, with the five long and large vessels containing
a green fluid, described by Cuvier ^, which surround the
base of each branch of the ovaries. The larva of My7--
meleon, which also spins a cocoon with its anus, differs
remarkably in this respect from other insects, since its
reservoir for the matter of silk is the rectum; this is con-
nected with a horny tube, which the animal can pro-
trude, and thus agglutinate the silk and grains of sand
that compose its cocoon ^.

The iveb of spiders is also a kind of silk remarkable
for its lightness and extreme tenuity. It is spun from
four anal spinnerets, which never vary in number : two
longer organs peculiar to some species have been mis-
taken for additional ones, but Treviranus affirms that
they are merely a kind of anal feeler. Their structure,
as far as known, has been before described ?. The web
is secreted in vessels varying in form. In some {Clubiona
atrox) they consist of two larger and two smaller ones,

=> Anat. der Ins. 59. '' Ibid. 60. Malpigh. 20.

" Lyonnet Anat. 111. •' iV. Diet, d' Hist. Xat. xv. 483.

" Anat. Comp. v. 198. ^ Ramdohr, 60. t. wi'i.f. 1./, g, /', r.

' Vol. I. p. 101 — . Trcviran. Arachnid. 42.

124 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

at the base of which lie many still more minute*. The
four larger vessels are wide in the middle, branching at
top, and below terminating in a narrow canal leading to
the spinnerets''. Treviranus thinks the fluid contained
in the lower minute vessels different from that furnished
by the larger ones — but for what purpose it is employed
lias not been ascertained.

ii. Saliva-secretors (Sialisteria). These are organs,
rendering a fluid to the mouth or stomach, that are found
in many insects, especially those that take their food by
suction, as the Hemiptera, Lepidopteta, and Diptera,
though they are not confined to the perfect insect, being
also in some cases visible in the larva. Swammerdara
was one of the first that discovered them, and he suspects
that they may be salival vessels ; though he, as well as
Ramdohr, thinks they are the same with the silk vessels
of the caterpillar ^ ; an opinion which Herold has suffi-
ciently disproved, by showing that at one period of the
insect's life they co-exist '', and Lyonnet discovered a very
conspicuous pair in the caterpillar of the Cossus, co-ex-
istent with the silk-secretors \ But the physiologist who
has given the fullest account of these organs is Ramdohr :
— I shall therefore extract chiefly from him what I have
further to communicate with respect to them.

They are variously constructed blind vessels, that are
present in almost all insects that take their food by suc-
tion, but are mostly wanting in those that masticate it.
They have been found, however, in Cryptorhynchus La-
pathi, Hemerobius Perla, and Julns terrestris. The most

» Treviran, Arachnid. 43. t. iv.f. 42. o. ^;. 9. ^ Ibid. », y.

" Swamm. ii. 21. a. t. xxxvi./. 1. ahcd. Ramdohr, 58.

" Schmel. i. iii./. 1. " Lyonnet-. 112. /. v./. 1. P, Q, B, S.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 125

usual number of the saliva-secretors is txw^ ; but some-
times, as in the first of tlic last-named insects, there is
only one^ ; in others (Fentatoma Baccarum) there are
three, the exterior one consisting of a pair of reservoirs
connecting with the gullet by a single capillary tube ^ ; in
Pentatoma prasina there appear to \:>e four^ \ in l<!epa
cinerea, even six — the exterior double pair in this insect,
under a powerful lens, is found to consist of spherical
vesicles, resembling somewhat a bunch of currants"; and
in Syryhus arcuatus they are covered withybzo- rows of
similar ones*^. In the flea they consist of two pair of
spherical reservoirs, each of which is connected with a
short tube, which uniting with that of the other forms a
common capillary one connecting with the mouth or
gullet s : these organs sometimes terminate below in
slender vessels ; — thus, in Nepa, the inner pair terminates
in a single vessel of this description'', and in Tahamis and
Hemerohius apparently in many'. It admits of a doubt
however, as was lately observed, whether in the Hemi-
jO/fr«, which have usually more than a^^zr of these organs,
some are not rather food-resenmrs as in the Diptera.

The saliva-secretors open either into the instruments
of sucfiofi themselves [Tahamis, Musca); or into the en-
trance of the gullet [Pentatoma, &c.) ; or, lastly, into that
o'l the stomach [Si/rphns, Bomhi/lius). Those which lie at
the entrance of the stomach consist only of a blind uni-
form tuhe^; but there is commonly to be distinguished in

=■ Ranidohr Anat. t. xviii./. 1. M.f. 5. F. ^ Ibid. t. x.f. 1. m.

■^ Ibid. t. xxii. /. 3. ML. Ramdohr regards the double one as a
pair ; but as they terminate in a single tube, they ought to be reckoned
as one. " Ibid.f. 4. "^ Ibid.f. 2. K, L, M, N. t. xxiii./. G.

' Ibid. \11. t. xxi./. 3. F. F. ^ Ibid.f. 2. G, H.

" Ibid. t. xxii./. 2. L. ' Ibid. t. xxi,/. 1, (). t. xvii./. 0. n.

*• Ibid. t.w. /: (). D.

126 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

those that open into the vtouth, a reservoh'^ varying in
shape in different species, and terminating in a capiHary
tube, or tubes, at one or both extremities^. In Bugs,
two pair of these vessels are often present, one of which
opens into the stomach {Reduvius)y or gullet {Pentatoma),
but the other into the instruments of suction^. In the
Dq)tera they open into the stomach when the insect feeds
only upon the nectar of flowers [SyrpJms), and into the
proboscis when it feeds upon both animal and vegetable
juices (Tabanus, Musca). The function of the fluid se-
creted by these organs is to moisten or dilute the food
before it is received by the instruments of suction and
])assed to the stomach "^. When a common house-fly ap-
plies its proboscis to a piece of sugar, it is easy to see
that it moistens and dissolves it by some fluid.

iii. Varnish-sccretor (Colleteriuiu). In butterflies,
moths, and several other insects, one or more vessels
called blind vessels open into the oviduct, concerning
the use of which, physiologists are not agreed. In the
cabbage butterfly there is a pair of ovate ones, or rather
a bilobed one, each lobe of which externally terminates
in long perplexed convolutions, not easily traced, filled
with a yellow fluid, which Reaumur and Herold think
is used for varnishing or gumming the eggs, so that they
may adhere to the leaves on which they are deposited :
it may probably serve likewise for other uses'*. Another
vessel is also to be found in the above butterfly, which
enters the oviduct above this, filled with a thick white
fluid, the function of which is, probably, to lubricate the

» Ramdolir Anat. t. xxii./. 1. K, L.f. 2. I, K, L.
'■ 7i(W./. :i, 4, 5. '//«./. 57— . " Reaum. ii. 81. He

rold K.rpl. of Plates, x, Malpiiih. De Bom/ri/r. :\7. Plate XXX.

KiG. \2.r.'

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 127

passage*. A similar organ is found in Phryganea gran-

iv. Jelly-secretor [Corysterimn). This is a remarkable
organ, related to the preceding, which secretes the jelly
of Trichoptera, some Diptera^ &c. ; this organ in the for-
mer, at least in Phryganea gr-andis^ is of an irregular
shape, with four horns or processes'^.

Poison-sectrtor [loterhim). This organ, which is most
conspicuous in the Hymenoptera Order, has not received
much notice, except in the case of the Hive-bee and the
ScoUa : in the former, it is an elliptical membranous
vesicle or reservoir, furnished at its lower extremity with
a tube which renders to the sting, and at the other by a
blind, long, filiform, secrctorj^, vessel, which according to
Swammerdam divides into txjoo terminal blind branches'^,
though Reaumur could detect but one^; in this vessel the
poison is secreted and stored up. In Scolia there are
two secretory vessels, which enter the reservoir in the
middle on each side ^ In the Scorpiouy we learn from
Marcel de Serres that the poison-secretor is clothed ex-
ternally with a horny thickish membrane, containing
two yellowish glands, composed of an infinity of spheri-
cal glandules, terminating in a canal, enlarged towards
its base so as to form a reservoir, and leading to the ex-
tremity of the sting ?. Connected by a slender tube widi
each mandible in spiders is a vessel with spiral folds,
which seems properly to belong to this head — though

* Heroic! Ibid. x. i!,iv. /. 1. ^j, u, i/. Marcel ile Serres Mem. du

Mm. 1819. 141. ' I' Gaede Aunt. t. If. 3. d.

' I6id. 17. t. If. 4. " lildL Nat. I. xix./. 3. /3.

' Reaum. v. 3/7. /. xxix./. 7. s. f N. Diet. d'Hist. Xaf. xxx.

388, e I6id. 427— .

128 INTERNAL ANATOMY OV INSECTS.

Treviranus calls it a saliva-vessel ^ — since in the Mygale
avicularia and other spiders, the effect of the bite is said
to be so venomous as to occasion considerable inflamma-
tion, and sometimes death''.

V. Scent-secretors {Osmateria). Amongst other means
with which insects are gifted for the annoyance of their
foes and pursuers, are the powerful scents which many of
them emit when alarmed and in danger. Concerning
the intet-nal organs by which these effluvia are secreted
we possess but little information, but more notice has
been taken of the external ones by which they are emit^
ted. We may conclude in general, that the secretory
organs are membranous sacs or vesicles, perhaps termi-
nating in longer or shorter blind filiform vessels, some-
times secreting a fetid fluid, and at others a fetid gaseous
effluvium. The Jididce, at leastlulus and Porcellio'^, cover
themselves, when alarmed, with njluid of this kind, or emit
one, for this faculty is not peculiar to the species noticed by
Savi. I observed early in the year, when I handled Iidiis
terrestris, that it was covered with a slimy secretion, of a
powerful scent, which stained my fingers of an orange
colour. The spiraculiform pores that mark the sides of
the animal are the outlets by which this fluid is emitted,
and not spiracles as has been supposed : each of these
orifices, as we learn from Savi, terminates internally in
a black vesicle, which is the reservoir of the fluid'*. The
most remarkable insect tor its powers of annoyance in
this way, is one on that account called the bombardier

^ Arachnid. :n. t. ii./. :21. p. 9. '' .V. Diet. d'HisL Nat. xxii,

114, 117. comp. Vol.. I. p. 127. ' X. Diet. d'Hid, xxviii. 6.

'' Osservaziaiii, Sic. 1. *?■--,

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSKC'IS. 129

{Brachinus crepita7is), which can fire numerous volleys
of stinking vapour at its assailants before its ammuni-
tion is exhausted^. M. Dufour has given a very parti-
cular account of the organ that secretes this vapour ; — it
consists of a double apparatus, one on each side, in the
cavity of the abdomen, both formed of two distinct ves-
sels. The Jirst, which is the innermost, presents itself
under two different aspects, according as it is contracted
or dilated : in the former case it is a whitish, irregularly
rounded, soft body, apparently glandular, placed under
the last abdominal segments ; communicating at one end
with the reservoir, and terminating constantly at the
other in a very long and slender filament : in the second
case, or when it is dilated, it resembles an oblong, mem-
branous, diaphanous sac, filled with air, then occupying
the whole length of the abdomen, and appearing free
except where it communicates with the reservoir. The
second vessel or reservoir is a small, spherical, brown or
reddish body, constant in its form, internally hollow,
placed under the last dorsal segment, precisely above the
rectum^ and opening by a small pore into the anus^ : so
that the tail of this little beetle may be regarded as a
battery mounted with two pieces of cannon, which our
alert bombardier fires alternately without intermission
till all his ammunition is expended. The Carabi L. in
general have a pair of these anal scent-secretors, which
discharge an acrid and caustic fluid, and sometimes a vo-
latile one*^. The external organ of the scent-secretors in
Gj/rhms consists of two minute hairy cylindrical retractile
lubes, of a red colour''. Numerous insects of other tribes

- Vol. II. p. 246. .V. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. iv. 308. " Ibid. iv. .309.
^- Ibid. V. 252. •' De Geer iv, .358. t. xiii /. 9. ni.

VOL. IV, !-L

130 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSF.CTS.

aial genera emit scents from their anus, and from various
other parts of the body, of which having before given you
a very full account^, I shall proceed to the considei'ation
of the secretions themselves : but first I must observe,
that in many cases, as in some of the cottony and pow-
dery Aphides^ Chermes, &c., the substance secreted ap-
pears to be a transpiration through the pores of the body,
a kind of excretion from the superabundance of its fluid
contents''. In many, however, this secretion transpires
through appropriate orifices : thus in Aphis AhietiSi
which produces those curious galls resembling the cone
of a fir ^, the flocoons of seeming cotton that cover it pro-
ceed from little oval concavities on its back, four of which
are arranged in a transverse line on each dorsal segment
of the abdomen : these concavities have minute tubercles
probably terminating in a pore'*. In Aphis Fagi the
cottony fiocoons are almost an inch long^

The secretions of insects may be considered under the
following heads — Silk; Saliva; Varnish or Gum; Jelly ;
Oils; Milk; Honey; JVa^; Poisons and Acids ; Odorous
Jluids and Vapours; and Luminous matter.

i. Silk. This valuable product of insects, while in the
silk-secretor, assumes in the Lepidoptera the appearance
of a viscid gum, but the moment it is exposed to the air
it hardens into a silken thread. It is remarkable for the
following qualities : — it dries the instant it comes in con-
tact with the air ; it is then insoluble not only in water
but in the n^.ost active solvents, and even heat has no ef-

» Vol.. IF. p. 241—. III. p. 148—. *' De Geer iii. 41.

* Vol.. I. p. 4.">4, where by mistake it is represented as the work
of J. Vm'i. '' Dc (iVt-i iii. 11 L " Rcaun). iii, /. xxvi. f. 4—6.

INTERNAL ANATOMY 01 INSECTS. 131

feet upon it to melt or soften it : indeed, without these
quahties it would be of no use to us^. As soon as it
leaves the spinneret it becomes the thread we call silk,
which being drawn through two orifices is necessarily
double through its whole length. This thread varies consi-
derably in colour and texture, as has been before stated **,
and sometimes resembles cotton or wool rather than silk.
In spiders it is of a much softer and more tender texture
than that of other spinning insects ; and Mr. Murray
seems to have proved that it is imbued, in the case of
the gossamer, with negative electricity: mihesericterium
the fluid that produces it is sometimes white or grey,
and at others yellow *=. A remarkable gnat {Ceroplatus
tipuloides\ living on an agaric, carpets its station of
repose and its paths with something between silk and
varnish, which it spins, not in a thread, but in a broad
riband **.

ii. Saliva. Many insects have the power of discharg-
ing from their mouth a fluid which seems in some degree
analogous to the saliva of larger animals. Thus many,
as Lepidoptera, Hemiptera^ Dipteral &c., can dilute
their food, and render it fitter for deglutition. I have
seen a common fly when not employed in eating, emit a
globule of fluid as big as a grain of mustard-seed from
its proboscis, and retract it again. On a former occa-
sion I observed to you that many predaceous, carnivorous,

* N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. vi. 305. " Vol. III. p. 221—.

•= Treviran. Arachnid. 44. In Paraguay a spider is found which
makes spherical cocoons of yellow silk, which are spun because of
the permanence of the colour. This operation occasions a flow of
water from the eyes and nose of the spinners. Azara Voyag. 213.
See also Murray in Werner. Tram. 1823. 8 — . *■ Reaum. v. .24.

K 2

132 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS

and some herbivorous beetles, when alarmed emit a drop
of coloured acrid fluid from the mouth *. That this is not
secreted in any of the ordinary salival vessels is evident
from Ramdohr's dissections of those beetles^, who, had
there been such an organ, would doubtless have disco-
vered it : but as the stomach of all of them is distinguished
by those minute coeca or blind-vessels, which he denomi-
nates shags [zotten) ^, perhaps these may be the secretors
of this fluid, probably analogous to the gastric juice''; in
which case its primary office would be the digestion of
the food. We are not however warranted in consider-
ing every fluid effused from the mouth as saliva. The
glutinous material with which wasps cement the woody
fibres for their paper edifices "^ ; that with which some
sand-wasps moisten the sand which they scrape away,
of which they form the singular tubes that lead to their
nests ^ ', and that with which the aphidivorous larvae fix
themselves previously to their becoming pupae s, — may be
a secretion distinct from saliva ; possibly intermediate be-
tween it and gum or the matter of silk, and secreted by
peculiar organs. In the wasp, however, Ramdohr dis-
covered nothing of the kind ^ ; and in Syrp/ms, as before
observed, the saliva-secretors are very peculiar in their
structure, as if appropriated to the secretion of a peculiar
fluid'. Something similar has been observed by Reau-

* Vol. II. p. 247 — . '' Ramdohr Atiat. t. ii.— vi.

* I6id,2(i. See above, p. 101. As some o? the Sirt/ixteria render
to the stomach (see above, p. 125), there seems no small uflRnity be-
tween these shags and those organs.

" Cuv. Anat. Comp. iv. i;}2, 136.

* Reaiini. vi. Pre!', xxviii. 177 — • ^ H>id. 253 — .

e //;/,/, iii, .37.J •> Anat. t. xii./. fi. ' Ihid. xxi./. 3. / /

INTERNAL ANATOMY Ol' INSKCTS. 133

mur with regard to the larva of Crioceris merdigera^
which forms its cocoon with a kind of froth produced
from the mouth ^.

iii. Varnish or Gum. The eggs of various insects, when
they leave the oviduct, are covered with a kind of var-
nish or gum by which they adhere to the substances
that the young larvae are to feed upon, or are placed in a
proper position for their hatching in an appropriate sta-
tion. Several instances of this have been already men-
tioned ^ ; I shall thei'efore not enlarge further upon the
subject. With regard to the secretion itself, little has
been recorded except its colour^ which has been before
noticed. Some Lepidoptera also, as we learn from
Reaumur and Bonnet '^j use a varnish in the construction
of their cocoons.

iv. Jelly or Gluten. This secretion is particularly con-
spicuous in the Trichoptera and some Diptera^ serving
as a bed or nidus for those eggs that are committed to
the water, — upon which I have nothing to add to what
has been before said'^. Under this head also may be
noticed the fluid, secreted in peculiar vesicles, that lubri-
cates the oviduct and the passages of the sexual or-
gans ^.

v. Oils. Oily substances are sometimes produced by
insects. The common oil-beetle {Meloe Proscarabceus)
when touched sends forth a drop of this kind of fluid, of
an orange colour, from each joint of its legs ^ : something
similar I have observed in Coccinella bipunctata : Ray

* Reaum. iii. 230. " Vol. III. p. 78—.

<■ Reaum. iii. 215. Bonnet ix. 182. <* Vol. III. p. 68—

" Marcel de Serres Mem. du Mus. 1819. 133, 141.
^ De Geer, v. 6.

134' INTERNAL ANATOMV OF INSECTS.

mentions a locust taken in Spain which emits a yellow
oleaginous fluid from between the claws of its fore legs ^ ;
but the precise nature of these substances has not been
ascertained, nor whether they are secreted by peculiar
organs.

vi. Milk. A milky fluid is produced by the larva of
Chrj/somela Populi. Willughby observed a similar effu-
sion from pores in the upper surface of the body of Act-
lius cinereus; and otiier insects emit it from other parts
of their body''.

vii. Honey. It is certain that honey is not an animal
secretion ; yet the saccharine matter coJlected from the
nectaries of flowers, from which it is derived, seems to
undergo some alteration in the stomach ; for the consist-
ence of honey is greater than that of any vegetable nec-
tar, and its taste does not vary greatly, while that of the
nectar in diff*erent plants is probably not the same.
Reaumur also has observed, that each honey-cell in a
bee-hive is always covered by a cream-like layer of a
thicker consistence than the rest, which apparently serves
to prevent the more liquid honey, which from time to
time is introduced under it, from running out*^. Now
if honey were the unaltered nectar of plants, it is difficult
to conceive how this cream could be collected in proper
proportions. The last-mentioned naturalist likewise as-
certained, that if bees, in a season in which the fields af-
ford a scarcity of food, be supplied with sugar, they will
from this substance fill their cells with honey which dif-
fers in no respect from the common sort, except that its
flavour is a little heightened'' : — a similar argument may

' Rai. Hist. Ins. 62. * Vol. II. p. 345, 251. Rai. Hist.

Ins. 94, 382. '^ Rcaum. v. 448. " Ibid. v. 722.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 135

be deduced from the circumstance of the bees imbibing
the juices ofjiuiis of various kinds as they are well known
to do^. It seems therefore evident that the honey col-
lected by bees undergoes some modification in their ho-
ney-stomach before it is regurgitated into the cells, and
therefore may be regarded in some degree as a peculiai
secretion.

Huber says that he has ascertained by a great num-
ber of observations that electricity is singularly favour-
able to the secretion of the substance of which honey is
formed by flowers ; the bees never collect it in greater
abundance, nor is the formation of wax ever more active,
than when the wind is in the south, the air humid and
warm, and a storm gathering''.

viii. JVaa: generally transpires through the pores of
the skin of those insects that produce it, either partially
or generally, and it is secreted from honey or other sac-
charine substances taken into the stomach. In the hive-
bee, as has been before stated, it is produced partially %
but in many other insects it is a general transudation of
the body. This is particularly the case with a large
number of the Honiopterous Hemiptera ; and those flo-
coons that look like cotton, and cover the body of seve-
ral Chermes and Aphides^ if closely examined will be
found of the nature of wax : this I have particularly no-
ticed with respect to Chermes Fagi^ in which the cotton-
like flocoons are often so long as to cause the insect to
look like a feather, and a leaf covered by them exhibits a
very singular appearance, as if clothed with the fine down
of a swan''. Probably the white powder or threads that

" Vol. I. p. 194. II. p. 179. '■ Encydoi). Biitan. viii. 205.

from Jour, de Phys. '^ Vol. II. p. 178.

'" Reauiii. iii. 318—. t. xxvi./. 1—6.

136 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

appear to transpire through the skin of many other in-
sects is of a waxy nature. In the larva of a beetle de-
scribed by Reaumur, the flocoons are so arranged as to
give the animal some resemblance to a hedgehog, and
when rubbed off they are reproduced in twelve hours ^.
Gyllenhal, speaking of Pelt is Umbata^ observes, that when
alive it is covered with a white powder resembling mould,
which if rubbed off returns again as long as the animal
lives ''.

It will not be improper to include under this head
what further account I have to give of Lac, which though
regarded as a resin, since Cocci sometimes certainly pro-
duce wax'^f probably has some analogy with the latter
substance. When the females of this Coccus (C Lacca)
have fixed themselves to a part of the branch of the
trees on which they feed {Ficus religiosa and indica,
Bictca frondosa, and Rhamnus Jujnba'^), a pellucid and
glutinous substance begins to exude from the margins
of the body, and in the end covers the whole insect with
a cell of this substance, which when hardened by expo-
sure to the air becomes lac. So numerous are these in-
sects, and so closely crowded together, that they often
entirely cover a branch ; and the groups take different
shapes, as squares, hexagons, &c., according to the
space left round the insect which first began to form its
cell. Under these cells the females deposit their eggs,
which after a certain period are hatched, and the young
ones eat their way out. Though indisputably an animal
secretion, many of the properties of lac are not very
different from those of the juices of the trees on which

^ Reaum. iii. 31)6—. /. xxxi./. 20—29. '' Insect. Succ. i. 257.
' Vol. I. p. 326. " .V. Did. d'Hisl. ^at. xvii. 189.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 137

the animal feeds, and which therefore would seem to un-
dergo but little alteration.

Wax seems also to form a constituent part of some
insects which are not found to secrete it. The yellow
substance deposited in vessels containing sjnders in al-
cohol is said to be a true xi^ax^ and may be obtained from
these animals by gently heating them *.

ix. Poisons and Acids. The bite as well as the sti7ig
of many insects is followed by inflamed tumours, so that
the sialisteria of some bugs, Diptera, Aptera, and spiders,
may be regarded as producing a poisonous fluid ; but we
know nothing of the real nature of it, nor of that of other
venomous insects, except the ani — whose celebrated acid
may be considered under the present head, — the bee, the
"wasp, and the sco?piofi.

Contrary to the once received doctrine that no acid
was to be found in any animal, except as the effect of
disease in the alimentary canal, many insects secrete pe-
culiar and powerful ones, I have on a former occasion
related an instance in which an acid of this description,
secreted in its sialisteria, is employed by a moth to soften
its cocoon^ ; and Lister mentions a species o^ lulus which
produced one resembling that of ants *^ ; but this last is
the most powerful of all. The fact that blue flowers
when thrown into an ant-hill become tinged with red has
been long known ; but Mr. Fisher of Sheffield, about
1670, seems to have been the first who ascertained that
this effect is caused by an acid with which ants abound,
and which may be obtained from them by distillation or
infusion in water ''. Margraff" and other chemists con-

•■' Nicholson's Journ. i. .t'98-. •> Vol. III. 283.

*• P/iitos. Trans. 1670. " Ibid. Ray's Lett. 74.

138 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

firmed this discovery ^; and concludmg that this acid was
of a peculiar kind, they gave it the name of the Fmmic
acid. This name, how^ever, is now exploded ; the subse-
quent experiments of Deyeux, Fourcroy and Vauquelin
having ascertained that the acid of ants is not of a di-
stinct kind, but a mixture of the Acetic and Malic^.
These acids are in such considerable quantities, and so
concentrated in these animals, that, when a number of
Formica rufa are bruised in a mortar, the vapour is so
sharp that it is scarcely possible to endure it at a short di-
stance. It also transpires from them, for they leave traces
of it on the bodies which they traverse : and hence, ac-
cording to the experiments of Mr. Coleridge, the vulgar
notion that ants cannot pass over a line of chalk is cor-
rect ; the effervescence produced by the contact of the
acid and alkaline being so considerable, as in some de-
gree to burn their legs*^. The circumstance of much of
the food of ants being of a saccharine nature may ac-
count for this copious secretion of acid, the use of which
is probably to defend themselves and their habitations
from the attack and intrusion of their enemies : if a frog
be put into a nest oi Formica riifaihaX has been deranged,
it will be suffocated in five minutes '*. That which they
ejaculate from their anus when attacked, as formerly
stated % must be secreted in an ioterium; but their very
blood seems of an acid nature. It is very probable, as
Dr. Thomson has observed '^j that acids may be ob-
tained from many other insects, and that they are various
modifications of the acetic.

» Amorcux Ins, Venim, 236 — . ''' N. Diet, d' Hist. Nat. xii. 94.
<= Southey's Brazil, i. 645. '' i\^. Diet. d'Hisi. Nat. ubi supr.

*= Vol. II. p. 69. f Syst. of Chemist. 533.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 139

Frohi the circumstance that water is absorbed by
greasy moths, that crystals of a salt are occasionally
found adhering to them, that they change blue litmus
paper red, — it has been inferred that their supposed oili-
ness is in fact an acid or acid salt, having the property of
attracting moisture from the air, the infected moths be-
ing in fact not greasy, but wet ,- hence the application of
chalk and clay, usually recommended in this case, can
have only a temporary and superficial effect. The only
effectual remedy, is steeping the body in spirits of wine
till all the acid is extracted^. This acid is probably the
same as Chaussier obtained from silk-worms, since called
Bombic Acid^.

The poison of bees and "doasps, as to its chemical qua-
lities, is a transparent fluid, at first sweet to the taste,
but immediately afterwards hot and acrid like the milky
juice of the spurge'^ ; soluble in water, but not in alcohol;
and separable from the former in the state of white pow-
der, when the latter is added giving a slight red tinge to
paper stained with vegetable blue, and when dry and
chewed appearing tenacious, gummy and elastic. This
last property, as well as solubility in water and not in
alcohol, is common also to the poison of the viper, which
however differs in being tasteless, and not affecting ve-
getable blues. From hence Fontana concludes that this
fluid is united with an acid, but in a very small propor-
tion, and not with an alkali'^. The venom of bees is
extremely active ; a grain in weight, it is conjectured,
would kill a pigeon in a few seconds ^. It is remarkable,

■• Germar Mag, der Ent. 445—. '' Mem. Dijon 1783. ii. 70.
" Reaum. v. 354. "* On Poisons, i. 365—.

" Ihid.'im.

140 INTERNAL ANATOMY Ol' INSECTS.

however, that wliile in some constitutions the sting of a
single bee or wasp is sufficient sometimes to induce
alarming symptoms, in others numerous punctures will
]>roduce little or no pain or inflammation. That this
fluid, and not the puncture of the sting, is the sole cause
of the inflammation that usually follows the wound in-
flicted by one of these animals, is proved by the facts,
that if it be introduced into one made by a needle, the
same effect ensues, and that when the whole contents of
the poison-bag have been exhausted by the insect's sting-
ing three or four times in succession, its weapon then
becomes harmless =*.

The venom of scwpions, though much more potent,
probably resembles that of bees, &c., in many of its che-
mical qualities : it issues from two pores in the sting be-
fore described'', where, when the animal is irritated, it
accumulates under the form of two little drops of a
whitish colour; spread upon paper this fluid produces a
spot like what would be caused by oil or grease, and this
part of the paper becomes by desiccation firmer and
transparent*^.

X. Odorous Jluids and Vapours'^. The powerful scents
which different insects emit are extremely numerous,
much more so indeed than the generality of Entomolo-
gists have been aware, for there is scarcely a scent odious
or agreeable that may not be met with in the insect
world. This you will be convinced of, by following a
practice which I would recommend to you — thatof smell-

"" Reaum. ubi supr. " Vol. I. p. 124, III. p. 717—.

<= N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 427.

'' I use the term odorous, not in the same sense as odoriferous, but
to include both sweet and fetid scents.

INTERNAl- ANATOMY OF INSFXTS. l + l

ing the insects you take. Some of these scents are pe-
culiar to particular parts or organs, and some are ex-
haled generally by the whole body ; some are emitted
by a fluid secretion, and others are gaseous effluvia. On
a former occasion I gave you a rather full account of
these scents and their organs " ; I shall relate here only
what I there omitted. To begin with 570^6"/ odoui's. Many
beetles emit an agreeable scent. Tlie rose-scented Ca-
pricorn or musk- beetle [Callichroma moschatuvi) has long
been noted for the delicious scent of roses which it ex-
hales ; this is so powerful as to fill a whole apartment,
and the insect retains it long after its death. Captain
Hancock also informed me that another species of the
same genus, CalUchroma sericewn^ has in a high degree
a scent resembling that of the cedar ^ on which they feed.
Though most of the micropterous tribes {Staphylinus L.)
have a fetid smell, yet there are some exceptions to this
amongst them. One species [S. suaveolens K, M.S.) re-
lated to S. micans Grav., which I once took, smelt pre-
cisely like a fine high-scented ripe pear ; another, Oxy-^
telus morsifans^ like the water-lily ; a third, O. riigosus,
like water-cresses ; and lastly, a fourth [S.fuscipcs)^ like
saffron*^ : Trichius Erernita^ one of the Lamellicorns, is
stated to have the scent of Russia leather ; Geoinipes ver-
nalis, in spite of its stercorarious food, of lavender-wa-
ter''. Mr. Sheppard has observed that Di/tiscus margin
nail's when recently taken smells not unlike liquorice :
Bonnet mentions a caterpillar that had the scent of new

Vol. II. p. 241—. III. p. 148—.
*■ A Brazilian wood so called, hut differing from the common cedar.
" Dotharding- Insert. Co/cojif. Dmtic.
J Stnrni Dcntscli. Fii. i. 27.

14'2 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

hay. A little gall-fly {Cijnips Quercus Raviuli L.) has
the remarkable odour of Fraxinella : the larva of another
species of this genus (C. Rosce) has an odour which
seemed to Reaumur as attractive to cats as that of Ne-
peta catariaoY Teucrium Marum^x some Phalafigia smell
like walnut leaves'' ; and the various species of the ge-
nus Prosopis [Melitta * b. k.) have a very agreeable scent
o{ Dracoccphalum moldavicum^.

We next come to fetid odours. These in numerous
cases are known to be secreted and emitted by appro-
priate vessels and organs ; they are often exhaled from a
fluid secretion, of which, in the letter lately referred to,
I gave you almost all the known instances. Savi, in his
history of lulus fcetidissimus^ informs us that it emits a
yellow fetid fluid from its supposed spiracles, which if ap-
plied in sufficient quantity imparts a red colour to the
skin, to be removed neither by friction nor washing, but
only disappearing by time ; when removed from the black
vesicles in which it is stored, it shoots into very trans-
parent octoedral crystals '^.

I have before mentioned the coloured fluid which some
insects emit when they are disclosed from the pupa,
and that it probably exhales some powerful odour which
attracts the males'*.

The great Hydrophiltis^ in its larva state, when first
taken into the hand remains without motion ; in a mi-
nute afterwards it renders itself so flaccid as to appear
like a cast skin. Taken by the tail it contracts itself
considerably, it then agitates itself briskly, and ejaculates
with a slight noise a fetid and blackish fluid ^.

» Reaum. iii. 494, '' Mon. J p. Angl. i. 136.

« Oitservaz. sullo Iidu.i, ^r. 14. " V^ot.. III. p. 299.

« ,V, Diet. d'Hisf. Nat. xt 4^7.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 14S

In Other cases these odours are produced by gaseous
vapours. That of the Bombardiers {Brackimis) is the
most celebrated and remarkable. It is whitish, of a
powerful and stimulating odour, very like that exhaled
by nitrous acid. It is caustic, producing upon the skin
the sensation of burning, and forming instantly upon it
red spots which soon turn brown, and which, in spite of
frequent lotions, remain several days. It turns blue pa-
per red*. That amiable, intelligent, and imfortunate
traveller Mr. Ritchie, — whose premature death when at-
tempting to penetrate to the interior of Africa all lovers
of Natural History so deeply lamented, and whose ardour
in the pursuit of that science I had an opportunity of
witnessing, when, in company with him, Messrs, Savigny,
Du Fresne, and W. S. MacLeay in 1817, 1 visited the
forest of Fontainebleau, — in a letter to the last-mentioned
gentleman'', relates that his companion M. Dupont, near
Tripoli took a nest consisting of more than a thousand
of a species of this genus. " I am making a few experi-
ments," says he, " on the substance which they emit
when they crepitate, but do not know whether I can col-
lect enough to arrive at any conclusion. It made Du-
pont's fingers entirely black when he took them. It is
neither alkaline nor acid, and it is soluble in water and
in alcohol." From this we may conjecture that it formed
ci*ystals.

xi. Phosphorus. On this I'emarkable secretion I have
so fully enlarged on a former occasion '', that here I shall
merely add a few observations which Mr. Murray oblig-

* IhhL iv. 308.

b Dated Tripoli in the West, Jamiary JJl, 1819.

^ Vol.. II. p. 4-2.3—.

14.4 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ingly communicated to me. He remarks that in a box
in which o-low-worms were kept — five luminous specks
were found secreted by the animal, which seemed to glow
and were of a different tinge of light. One put into olive
oil at eleven p. m. continued to yield a steady and unin-
terrupted light until five o'clock the following morning,
and then seemed, like the stars, to be only absorbed by
superior effulgence. The luminous spherical matter of
the o-low-worm is evidently enveloped in a sac or capsule
perfectly diaphanous, which when ruptured discloses it
in a liquid form, of the consistency of cream. M. Ma-
caire he observes, in the Bibliotheque U7iiverselle, draws
the following conclusions fi'om experiments made on the
luminous matter of this animal ; — that a certain degree
of heat is necessary to their voluntary phosphorescence

that it is excited by a degree of heat superior to the

first, and inevitably destroyed by a higher— that bodies
which coagulate albumen take away the power — that
phosphorescence cannot take place but in a gas contain-
ino- no oxygen — that it is not excited by common elec-
tricity, but is so by the Vohaic pile— and lastly, that
the matter is chiefly composed of albumen.

xii. Fat. There is one product found in the body of in-
sects most copiously in their larva state, but more or less
also in the imago, which may be called the'wfat. In the
former it is a many-lobed mass, occupying the whole of
the interior, except the space that is required for the
muscles and the internal organs, which it wraps round
and protects. It is contained in floating membranes,
very numerous, which fill all the interstices, and assume
the appearance sometimes of small globules, and some-
times of a thickish mucilage, which easily melts and in-

INTERNAL ANATOMV OF IXSF.d.S. H.*;

flames ; in colour it is most commonly white, but some-
times yellow or green. It is imagined to be a kind of
epiploon or caul^ and is accumulated in the larva as a
store of nutriment for the growth and development of the
organs of the perfect insect while in the pupa state*.
The blood in which the different organs float that is
not required for their nutriment, is supposed to be ex-
pended in the formation of this substance. Marcel de
Serres is of opinion that it is secreted from the chyle by
passing through the pores of the dorsal vessel, formerly
called the heart of insects''.

Under this head I may mention what little is known with
regard to the perspiration of these animals '^. That a con-
siderable quantity of fluid passes off from them when in
the pupa state, is sufficiently proved by the loss of weight
which they undergo, and by the experiments of Reaumur,
who collected the fluid in closed glass tubes ; and that in
their perfect state they are constantly passing off per-
spirable matter by the pores of their skin or crust, is not
only rendered probable by the succulent nature of their
food and the absence of any urinary discharge, but is
proved by what takes place in a swarm of bees. These
insects, when crowded together in hot weather in a large
mass, become heated to such a degree, and perspire so
copiously, that those near the bottom are quite drenched
with the moisture it produces, which so relaxes their
wings that they are unable to fly'*.

* Reaum. i. 145. Lyonnet Anat. 106 — . N. Diet. (V Hist. Naty
xvi. i224. Plate XXI. Fig. 5. a. ^ See above, p. 89. note *,
<= See above, p. 78. '' Huber i. 273.

VOL. IV.

lettp:r xlit.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONTINUED.

REPRODUCTION.

1 HE reproductive organs of insects in their ^^«^ra/ de-
nominations and functions correspond with those of the
higher classes of animals ; but as to 7iumber, proportions,
and other particular details of their structure, they differ
from them very considerably. I shall not now, however,
enter at large upon this subject, but confine myself prin-
cipally to the consideration of those organs in the female
which are appropriated to the formation, fecundation,
maturation, exclusion and deposition of their eggs, and
other circumstances relating to that subject. The or-
gans connected with this function are the Sperm-reservoir ;
the Oviduct ; the Ovaries; and the Ovipositor.

I. The Sperm-reservoir [Spermatheca) is an organ con-
necting the vagina with the oviduct, which, according to
Harold, receives the male sperm as into a reservoir % and
fecundates the eggs in their transit through that passage.
This vessel, which consists of a double tunic, in the cab-
bage-butterfly terminates the vagina, and is connected

» Heroic! Schmettcrl, tab. expl, vii.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 147

with the oviduct by a lateral undulating tube : in shape
it is a rather irregular oblong, and is surmounted by a
small orbicular vesicle, connected by a short tubular foot-
stalk with the main reservoir*. A similar organ was dis-
covered by Malpighi in the imago of the silk-worm, who
denominates it the uterus ,- to which indeed it seems ana-
logous, and which he also regards as a reservoir for the
sperm for the gradual fecundation of the eggs''. But in
that fly the organ is of a rather different shape, and the
interior vessel terminates in several spherical vesicles'^.
It is not improbable that in those insects whose eggs are
gradually laid, this provision for their gradual fecunda-
tion, if carefully sought for, might be detected'*. Rif-
ferschweils is of opinion, that in these cases the eggs
are fertilized in their transit through the oviduct by
sperm adhering to the folds of the cloaca^ : but this
opinion seems less analogous to what takes place in other
cases, with regard to the due preparation of the eggs for
a safe and effectual transit^.

» Herold Schmetterl. t. iv.f. 1. j.\ &c. Plate XXX. Fig. 12. d.

b Be Bomhyc. 36, ' Ibid. t. xii./. 1. I. and/. 2. O. M.

f* Swammei'dam, in dissecting the female of Oryctes nasicornis, dis-
covered a blind-vessel opening into the vagina, and at the other or
inner extremity not terminated by any secretory tube, containing
a yellowish matter, that seems analogous to the organ mentioned
in the text ; and in the hive-bee he found a similar organ covered
with air-vessels, which he supposes to be connected with the CoUc'
terium (see above, p. 126.), and which he states to contain a slimy
matter. Bibl. Nat. i. 151. b. t. xxx. /. 10. g. 204. b. t. xxix./. 3. t.
Perhaps likewise the organ discovered by M. L. Dufour in ScoUa, —
which he imagines to belong to the poison-secretor, and which he
describes as a sac consisting of a double tunic, the exterior one mus-
cular and the interior membranous, and filled with a blueish-green
gelatinous matter {N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 388.) — maybe a sper-
viathcca. *^ De Insector. Genital, 17.

f I allude to those organs above described (p. 126.) for the secre-
1, 2

14S INTERNAL ANA'lO.An* OF IXSIXTS.

II. The Oviduct [Ovidtictus) is the canal, always se-
parate from the vagina, which receives the eggs from the
ovary, transmitting them, often by a peculiar and com-
plex instrument in which it terminates, to their proper
station. This canal sometimes opens into the anal pass-
age or cloaca, and at others, as in the cabbage-butterfly *,
is distinct, and lies between the sexual organ and the
the anus. In the Arachnida there are ttsoo oviducts'*.

III. The Ovaries [Ovaria) in insects are the viscera
in which the eggs are generated and grow till they ar-
rive at maturity, when they pass through the oviduct,
and are extruded or deposited in their appropriate sta-
tion. They vary considerably in their structure. In all
however, except the Iidida, in which there is only a
single oxary^, the oviduct at its upper or inner extremity
terminates in two branches, usually further subdivided
into a number of smaller conical ones, which several ra-
mifications constitute the ovaries, or egg-tubes as they
are sometimes called : these tubes generally consist of a
single membrane, and are joined to the oviduct by mem-
branous rugose cloaca^ : in the P//alangia, however,
there are /tuo tunics ; the outer one of a cellular substance,
and the inner one consisting of spiral fibres like trachece
— a kind of structure which renders them capable of great

tion of matter for varnishing the eggs or lubricating the oviduct. It
seems most probable, if the fecundation of the eggs takes place gra-
dually, that upon their passing into the oviduct, a special reservoir
should be appropriated to the reception of the male sperm, adapted to
maintaining in due acti\'ity the vivifying principle, or aura semiiialis.

* Herold Schmett. L iv.f. 2. m n.

" Treviran. Arachnid. 36. t. iv. /. .32. aa. Marcel de Serres in
Mem. du Mus. 1819. 89.

•= Marcel de Serres, Mer.i. du Mtis. 1819. 115.

^ Rifferschw. De Genital. Ins. 41.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 149

extension*. Rifferschweils considers the ovaries as formed
upon tixio primary types. — First^Jlagelliform ovaries, con-
sisting of conical tubes equal in length, and inserted at
the same place at the end of the primary branches as in
the Lepidoptera, the Bee, &c. Secondly, racemose ovaries,
consisting of short conical tubes, so proceeding from the
primary branches as to render the ovary racemose or
pinnated, as in certain Neuroptey^a, Coleopto-a, and Di-
pteral: but perhaps their structure will be better un-
derstood if they are divided into agglomerate ovaries
and branching ovaries : in the ^rs^ the egg-tubes form
tisoo bundles, in which the branches are not discernible,
as in the Ephemera, the chamaeleon-fly, and spiders '^ ;
and in the second the branches are distinct, as in the
Lepidoptera and the majority of insects.

The number of branches varies in different genera and
species. In jEc/i/nowj/m^ro^sa, a large fly, there are only the
two primary branches '^ ; in the common dung-beetle ( Geo-
triipes stercorariiis) these appear divided at their apex into
fingers^: in Scolia, a Hymenopterous genus, and the
butterfly of the nettle, there are three secondary branches
on each side ^ : in many other Lepidoptera and the hum-
ble-bee there are Jour S; in the common louse there are
^ve^ ; in the rhinoceros-beetle and the cockchafer, six' ;
in the wasp seven ^ ; eight in the cockroach ' ; twelve in

* Marcel de Serres in Mem. du Mus. 1819. 109.

•> Rifferschw. ubi supr. 23 — . Plate XXX. Fig. 12. a. Swamm.
Bibl. Nat. L xlii./. 8. a,f, g, h. " Ibid. i. 104. t. xv./. 3. ii. 62.

t. xn.f. 8. Treviran. Arachnid, t. iv.f. 32. ** Reaum. iv. 391.

' Posselt Anat. der Ins. t. \.f. 28, 29. f N. Diet. d'HisL

Nat. XXX. 387 — • Swamm. tibi supr. ii. 23. t. xxxv.y. 3,

8 Ibid. i. 203. " Plate XXII. Fig. 2.

' Swamm. ubi supr. i. 151. Gaede Anat. der Ins. t. ii.f. 3,

■^ Swamm. i. 203. ' Gaeile 20. i. If. 9.

150 INTEltNAL ANATOMY OF INStCTS.

the Carahi and the mealworm-beetle * ; thirty in the
large green grasshopper {Acrida viridissima^) ; thirty-
tmoo in the cheese-maggot-fly *^ ; and in the hive-bee
more than a hundred andjifty^.

The number of eggs also contained in the ovaries
Varies. In Echmomyia grossa there is only one egg in
each, and only two at once in the matrix ^ : in another
fly produced by the cheese-maggot there are four ^ ;
in the louse there avejive; in the cockchafer six^; in
the hive-bee sixteen or seventeen are visible at the same
time''; and in the silk- work moth sixty or seventy'^ Be-
sides the eggs, tlie tubes contain a pellucid mucus, and at
their upper extremity the eggs are lost in a granular
mucous mass, in which, however, they may still be dis-
covered with a microscope ^. With regard to the ter-
mination of the ovaries or egg-tubes internally, — in those
that have agglomerated ones it is not to be traced, the
whole appearing like an oblong obtuse or acute body ' :
but in the branching ones it is more easily traced ; at first
they converge in most cases to a point ; this is seen to
advantage in the caterpillar of some butterflies, when
near assuming the pupa, in which they are readily dis-
covered, and represent with great truth and elegance the
bud of some blossom™; but in time they diverge, and
sometimes become convoluted " ; they generally termi-
nate in a slender simple filament, but in the louse in a
fork° ; they are sometimes extremely long, as in the

* Gaede Anat. dcr Ins. 25, 28. t. ii./. 10. '' Idid. 32.

•^ Swamm. ii. 74. " Ibid. 203. t. xix./. 3.

' Reaum. iv. 391—. f Swaram. t. xliii./. 19. ^ Gaede 22.
h Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 203. ' Ibid. ^ Rifferschw. 1 1—.

' Swamm. t. xlii./. 8. Gaede. i. i.f. 3. cc.
"> Herold. Schmett. t. v./. 10, 12. " Plate XXX. Fig. 12.

" Plate XXII./. 2. b.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 151

wasp and Lepidoptera^ ; in the hive-bee they appear to
be shorter''.

I V. We are next to consider the Ovipositor^ or instru-
ment by which numerous insects are enabled to intro-
duce their eggs into their appropriate situations, and
where the new-born larva may immediately meet with
its destined food. As this instrument is one of the most
striking peculiarities with which the wisdom of the Cre-
ator has gifted these little animals, and in many cases is
extremely curious and wonderful, both in its structure
and modes of operation — though on a former occasion I
gave you a brief account of several kinds of them'^, I
shall now enter more at large into the subject, and de-
scribe these often complex machines, as they are exhi-
bited in most of the different Orders of insects.

With regard to the Coleoptera Order, there are doubt-
less numerous variations in the structure of this organ ;
but very few have been noticed, and those chiefly belong
to insects whose grubs feed on timber. In these it is
usually retractile one part within another, like the pieces
of a telescope : in Buprestis it consists of three long
and sharp lamina, the two lateral ones forming a sheath to
the intermediate one, which probably conveys the eggs'* :
in Elater it is a cylindrical organ, terminating in a pair
of conical joints, which seem to form a forceps, and in-
eluding a tube probably conveying the egg to the for-
ceps, which perhaps introduces it^. The Ovipositor of
Prionus coriarius differs from that of Callidium viola-
ceum, and many Capricorns before described '^t it consists
merely of a long bivalve piece ending in a kind of for-

" Swamm. t. xix./. 4. b. ^ Ibid.f. 3. " Vol. I. p. 353—.
" De Geer iv. 127. t. iv./. 17. " Ibid. 143. t. v. f. 15.

' Vol. I. p. 355.

152 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSKCl'S.

ceps, and hollowed above into a channel for the passage
of the eggs*.

In the 0)-thojptera the instrument of oviposition is more
simple ; in Locusta Leach, consisting merely of four ro-
bust three-sided pieces, two above and two below, the
former pair at the end curving upwards and the latter
downwards"', these pieces seem calculated when they
have entered the earth to enlarge the burrow, and the
animal appears able to separate them very widely from
each other '^. The ovipositor oi Acrida viridissima, which
like that of many Hymenopterous insects forms a kind
of appendage or tail to the body, has been described
both by De Geer and Latreille as consisting of two valves
only'' ; but in reality it consists of six, two upper and four
lower, as you may ascertain by means of a pin or the
point of a penknife, which will readily separate them.
This is confirmed by a figure of StoU's of a species which
seems to connect Conocephalus Thunb. with Gryllus
Latr. In this the ovipositor is considerably longer than
the body of the animal, and is composed of six distinct
pieces ; viz. t'isoo external ones stouter than the rest, and
within these ybwr others finer than a hair and convolute
at the apex^. There is a considerable variety in the
shape of the ovipositors of the Acridce and the cognate
genera : — thus in A. viridissima this organ is straight, in
A. verrucivora bent like a sabre, and in Pterophylla citri-
folia K. and some others, the whole machine is short
and boat-shaped ; in Scaphura Vigorsii K. it is also rough
with sharp little tubercles ^. I had an opportunity of

=» De Geer v. 62. t. iii./. 12. " Plate XV. Fig. 18.

•= StoU Sauterel. t. xxii. b./. 87, &c. " De Geer iii. 418. /. xjci.
/. 10, 11. Latr. Gen. Crust, et Ins. iii. 98.

* Stoll uU supr. t. xiii. a./. 51. ' This insect, which con-

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 153

observing, with respect to the first of these insects, that in
boring, as is the case with the Tettigonia; and saw-flies,
the motion of the valves was alternately backwards and
forwards. It appeared also to me that the two outer
pieces of each of the apparent valves were fixed in a
groove in the margin of the intermediate one. I saw this
clearly with respect to the upper pieces, and it is most
probable that the lower are similarly circumstanced. In
the cricket tribe {Grylliis Latr.) the ovipositor is as long
as the abdomen, very slender, terminating in a knob*.
It is apparently bivalve like that of Acrida, but I believe
is resolvable into the same number of pieces.

In the Homopterous Hemiptera there seems to be more
than one type on which the ovipositor is constructed. In
an insect very common with us, the froth froghopper(C^-
copis spumaria), some approach is made to the ovipositors
last described, at least the number of pieces is the same —
for it has a pair of external valves forming a sheath, which
includes three sharp lamiiKB resembling the blades of a
lancet, the middle one of which can be separated into
two ; this instrument De Geer had reason to think was
scored transversely like a file^. In the insects of this Or-
der so noted for their song*^ ( Tettigonia F.), there are only
Jive pieces ; namely, two valves forming the sheath, two
augers or borers, and an intermediate piece upon which
they slide, each being furnished with an internal groove
for that purpose, and the middle piece with a ridge to
fit ; a contrivance of Divine Wisdom, to prevent their

nects ConocephaluSy Acrida, &c. with Locusta Leach, is also distin*
guished by antennae at first filiform and then setaceous.

» De Geer ui. t. xxiv./. 1, 12. " Ibid. 176. i. xi./. 19.

" Vol. ir. p. 394.

IM INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

dislocation when employed in boring ; the augers ter-
minate in a knob which is externally toothed*. This
structure approaches that of the Hymetwjitera, especially
the saw-flies. With regard to the Heteropterous section
of this Order — as they usually do not introduce their eggs
into any substance, they have no call for any remarkable
ovipositor, and therefore are not so furnished. A re-
mark which will also apply to the Lepidoptera Order.

In the Lihellulina amongst the Neuroptera, an organ
of this kind is sometimes discoverable. In Agn'on, Reau-
mur noticed a part which he conjectured to be an ovi'
jyositor; it consists of four lamina or lancets, the interior
pair slender, the exterior wider, and all externally ser-
rated^.

The insects of the Hymenoptera Order have long been
celebrated for the organs we are describing, whether
used as saisos, augers, or darts. I formerly gave you a
very general account of the saws, — I shall now give you
a very interesting one in detail copied from an admi-
rable little essay of Professor Peck. " This instru-
ment," says he, " is a very curious object; and in order
to describe it it will be proper to compare it with the
tenon-saix) used by cabinet-makers, which being made
of a very thin plate of steel, is fitted with a back to pre-
vent its bending. The back is a piece of iron, in which
a narrow and deep groove is cut to receive the plate,
which is fixed : the saw of the Tenthredo is also furnished
with a back, but the groove is in the plate, and receives
a prominent ridge of the back, which is not fixed, but
permits the saw to slide forward and backward as it is

=" Reaum. v. 177~. " Ibid. vi. 435. t. xl./. 6, 7.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 155

thrown out or retracted. The saw of artificers is single,
but that of the Tenthredo is double, and consists of two
distinct saws with their backs : the insect in using them,
first throws out one, and wliile it is returning pushes for-
ward the other ; and this alternate motion is continued
till the incision is effected, when the two saws receding
from each othei', conduct the egg between them into
its place. In the artificial saw the teeth are alternately
bent toward the sides, or out of the right Ime, in or-
der that the fissure or kerf may be made sufficiently
wide for the blade to move easily. To answer this pur-
pose in some measure, in that of the Tenthredo the teeth
are a little twisted, so as to stand obliquely with respect
to the right line, and their point of course projects a little
beyond the plane of the blade, without being laterally
bent ; and all those in each blade thus project a little
outwards : but the kerf is more effectually made, and a
free range procured for the saws, by small teeth placed
on the outer side of each ; so that while their vertical
effect is that of a saiso, their lateral effect is that of a rasp.
In the artificial saw the teeth all point outward {towards
the end) and are simple ; but in the saw of the Tenthredo
they point inward, or toward the handle, and their outer
edge is beset with smaller teeth which point outwards (^o-
wards the end)^.'' Valisnieri, Reaumur, and De Geer de-
scribe the groove as being in the back ; but in Mr. Peck's
insect, if there is no error in his account, it is, as in the
Cicadce, in the saw itself^. In the genus Cimhex, be-
longing to the same tribe, the saw differs in shape, being

" Natural History of the Slug-worm, 12—./. 12, l.'J.

•" Valisn. Esperienz. &c. Musca de Rosai. Reauni. v. 100 — .
De Geer ii. 916 — . The last writer thought he saw in the back of
the saw itself a longitudinal cavity (918), which applied to the groove
would form an open canaK

156 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

somewhat sigmoidal or resembling the letter S, while in
that of other saw-flies it is cultriform with a concave edge :
other minor differences distinguish them, which need not
be particularized.

A similar structure, with regard to the organ in ques-
tion, obtains in the rest of the Hymenoptera, even those
that use it as a weapon of offence ; but the backs of the
saws in them, composed of a single piece, become a sheath
for the darts. The valves, however, vary. In most
of those with an exerted sting, as Pimpla F., they are
linear, exerted, and as long as the aculeus itself*. In
Proctotrupes Latr. they appear to be united so as to form
a tube for the ovipositor, and are produced by a pro-
longation of the last abdominal segment. The darts
usually run in two grooves of the sheath, and at their
apex are retroserrulate''. In some cases the sheath it-
self is serrated '^. The shanks of the darts are connected
with the valves ; so that when these open they are pushed
out : sometimes on their outer side they have a triangu-
lar plate towards the base, which prevents their being
pushed out too far^.

In Sirex and many ichneumons, in which the ovipo-
sitor is too long to be withdrawn within the abdomen, it
remains always exerted ; but in general it is retracted
within that part when unemployed. In the gall-fly (C^-
nips) this instrument is really as long as in Pimpla^ &c. ;
but as it is infinitely more slender, when in repose it is
rolled up spirally and concealed within the abdomen.
It is the puncture of this minute organ that produces the
curious galls formerly described to you''. But the most
anomalous ovipositor in this Order appears to be that

^ Plate XVI. Fig. 1. " Ibid.

' Reauni. v, 347. t. xlix,/. 10. d,f. ' See above. Vol. I. 450— .

INTERN'AI. AKATO]\rV OF INSF.CTS. 157

of Chjysis {C. ignita^ &c.), which is covered by several
demi-tubes or scales enveloping and sliding over each
other : vfhen these scales are removed, the true ovipositor
appears, which is of a structure similar to that of the rest
of the Order, but the valves are long and slender with
their summit generally visible without the anus^.

Though the ovipositor of the majority of Diptercnis in-
sects is a tube with retractile joints^, in the crane-flies
this organ is different, and, like that of Acrida above de-
scribed, consists of what at first sight appear two valves,
but each of which is formed of two pieces, the upper
ones sharp and longer, and the lower pair blunt. The
upper pair forms the auger that bores a hole in the
ground, and the lower conducts the eggs into it after it
is bored '^.

In the Aptera and Arachnida in general there seems
no remarkable instrument of this kind ; but Treviranus
has described one in spiders for extruding the eggs of a
singular construction. It is an oval plate lying between
the external genitals and spinning organs, and is com-
posed of a number of small screw-shaped cartilages, con-
nected together in the most wonderful manner. There
are few organs, he observes, in the animal kingdom
which for their artificial mechanism can be compared
with this. Each cartilage inosculates very closely in the
adjoining one, and all are besides bound together by a
strong skin**.

• De Geer ii. 835. t. xxviii./. 20, 21. Plate XV. Fig. 22. This
figure was drawn by a friend — the organ seems more exerted than in
De Geer's. I cannot make out the little appendage at the end.

" Plate XVF. Fi&. 2, 3. "= Reaiim. v. 19-. t. iii./. 3-6.

" Arachnid. 40.

I'flSr INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The manner in which the eggs of insects axe fecundated
by the male sperm is one of those mysteries of Nature
that are not yet fully elucidated and understood. We
can readily conceive that all the eggs may be fertilized
by a single intercourse in the case of insects which, like
the Ephemera and Trichoptera, exclude the whole mass at
once ; or like many moths and butterflies, in a very short
time afterwards ; but the subject becomes much more dif-
ficult to explain when we advert to the female of the hive-
bee, the whole number of whose eggs, deposited in t-doo
years, are, as Huber has demonstrated, in like manner
fertilized by a single act^ : — if you bear in mind, however,
what I have lately observed with regard to Malpighi's
discovery of a sperm-reservoir in insects, you will more
■readily comprehend how in this case a gradual fecunda-
tion may take place. The principal objection to this so-
lution of the difficulty in the case before us, is derived
from the very small size of the organ supposed to be des-
tined for this purpose — it being scarcely bigger than the
head of a pin^: it seems therefore incredible that it should
retain any portion of an extraneous fluid at the end o{
twelve or eighteen months, and still more unlikely that
the fluid should in the interval have sufficed for the
slightest moistening of not fewer than 30,000 or 40,000
eggs. The only hypothesis that seems at all to square
with this fact, is that of Dr. Haighton, — that impregna-
tion is the result not of any actual contact of the sperm
with the eggs, but of some unknown sympathetic in-
fluence*^, or rather perhaps of some penetrating effluvia

» Huber Nouvel. Ohserv. i. \ 06. '' Swnmni. Bxhl. Kal, t. xh.f. 2.
" PhUos. Tram. 1797. 80.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 159

or aura semhialis^ which, though small in quantity, it may
retain the power of emitting for a long period.

Certain female moths, of the species of that family
which, from the remarkable cases or sacs the larvae in-
habit, the Germans call sack — trager^ before noticed*,
have been supposed to have the faculty of producing fer-
tile eggs without any sexual intercourse; and various
observers, after taking great pains, appeared to have sa-
tisfactorily proved the fact ; so that some doubted whether
these insects produced any males at alP. The enigma
was at length explained by the accurate Von Scheven.
At first his experiments were attended with the same re-
sult as those of his predecessors ; but upon making them
more carefully, and separating what he conceived to be
the female from the male pupse, he ascertained not only
the existence of a female in the species he examined
{Psyche vestita), but that when thus secluded she laid
barren eggs ; evidently proving that in the contrary in-
stances above alluded to, an unperceived sexual inter-
course must have taken place ^. Though he thus ascer-
tained that these insects do not in this respect deviate
from the general rule, he remarked or confirmed several
facts in their economy sufficiently anomalous and strik-
ing ; — as that the female is not only without wings, but
with scarcely any feature of a moth^ much more closely
resembling a caterpillar ; and that in ordinary circum-
stances she never attempts to leave the pupa-case in
which she has been disclosed, but that being there im-
pregnated by the male, she there also, apparently after the

^ Vol. I. p. 4G4. '' Compare Reaum. iii. 153.

Pallas Act. Nat. Cur. 1767. iii. 4.30. Wkn. Verzeich. 292.
'• Nniiirfor St'=. xx. 59—.

160 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

manner of the female Cocci, deposits her eggs, which
hatching produce young larvae that make their way out
of the case, and thus seem to originate without maternal
interference *.

But the most remarkable fact bearing upon this head,
though as relating to a viviparous insect it does not
strictly belong to it, is the impregnation of the female
Aphides, or plant-lice, before alluded to^. If you take a
young female Aphis at the moment of its birth, and ri-
gorously seclude it from all intercourse with its kind,
only providing it with proper food, it will produce a
brood of young ones : and not only this ; but if one of
these be treated in the same way, a similar result will
ensue, and so on, at least to the Jifth generation ! ! to
which period Bonnet, w^ho first made an accurate series
of observations on this almost miraculous fact, success-
fully carried his experiments, till the approach of winter
and the want of proper food forced him to desist ^ ; and
Lyonnet extended it still further''. It is now generally
admitted as an incontestible fact, that female Aphides
have the faculty of giving birth to young ones without
having had any intercourse with the other sex. How
are we to explain this most extraordinary fact ? Are

• It does not appear to be clearly decided whether the eggs are ex-
truded from the female, or whether dying inimedir.tely after fecunda-
tion they are hatched within her body. As tlie young larvas cer-
tainly are hatched in the pupa (not merely within the exterior case
of bits of grass, &c., which includes it) which the body of the insect
must fill, it does not seem easy to conceive how she can find room
for oviposition ; and yet Von Scheven expressly says that one female
of Ps. vestita — which being kept from all access to the male actually
left the pupa-case and wandered about tlie glass which contained
them — laid unfruitful eggs. *' Vol. I. p. 32, 174.

■^ Bonnet i. U) — . *' RcLiTini. vi. 5.31.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 161

we to suppose with Bonnet that these insects are truly
androgynous, as strictly uniting both sexes in one ? Tliis
supposition, however, is completely overturned by the
circumstance, that there are actually inale as well as
female Aghides, and that these, as was first observed
by Lyonnet, are united towards the close of the sum-
mer in the usual manner^. The most likely supposi-
tion therefore is, that one conjunction of the sexes suf-
fices for the impregnation of all the females that in a
succession of generations spring from that union. It is
true that at the first view this supposition appears incre-
dible, contradicting the general laws and course of na-
ture in the production of animals. But the case of the
hive-bee, stated above, in which a single intei'course with
the male fertilizes all the eggs that are laid for the space
of two years, and in the case of a common spider men-
tioned by Audebert^, for many years, shows that the
sperm preserves its vivifying powers unimpaired for a
long period, indeed a longer period than is requisite for
the impregnation of all the broods that a female Aphis
can produce ; and if immediate contact with the fluid be
not necessary, who can say that this is impossible? It
is, however, one of those mysteries of the Creator that
human intellect cannot fully penetrate. But this anomaly
in nature is not wholly confined to the Aphides ; since Ju-
rine has ascertained that the same thing takes place with
Daphnia pennata Miill {Monoculus Pulex L.), one of
Branchiopod Crustacea "=. It is worth observing whether

=» Ibid. 552. •> N. Diet. d'HisL Nat. ii. 284.

^ Ibid. ix. 125. Bonnet and Jurine both found that the female
Aphides and Branchiopods that were fertile without the usual inter-
course of the sexes were less fruitful than their mother, and those

VOL. IV. M

162 INTERNAI, ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

the female Aphides in their natural state, I mean those
of the summer or viviparous broods, have intercourse
with the male. I think I have noticed males amongst
them ; but they seem to become most numerous in the
autumn, preparatory to the impregnation of the ovipa-
rous females. The object of this law of the Creator is
probably the more ready multiplication of the species'.

As to the period of gestation, most insects begin to lay
their eggs soon after fecundation has taken place : but in
some Arach?iida, as the Scorpion, which seems to be both
oviparous and ovo-viviparous, nearly a year intervenes,
and the eggs increase to four times the size which they had
attained at that period, before they are extruded''. The
time that is required to lay the whole they are to pro-
duce, varies also in insects. In this respect they may be
divided into two great classes : —those namely which de-
posit the whole at once, as Ephemerina, Trichoptera, &c.^,
and those which deposit them in succession, occupying in
this operation a longer or shorter period. Many in the
^rst class, as the Trichoptera {Phryganea L.) or case-
worm-flies, envelope their eggs in a gelatinous substance '^,
which renders their extrusion in a mass more easy. Of
the second class, which includes byfar the greater propor-
tion of insects, some exclude the whole number in a very
short period, others require two or three days or a week,
as the cockroach'' ; and others, as the queen-bee, not

of the last generation less so than the first. Latr. Hist. Nat. des
Crust, et Ins. xi. 292.

" See more on the subject of fecundation. Vol. II. p. 158 — .

" N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 426. ' Vol. III. p. HS.

"^ De Geer iii. 533.

^. p. i

JNTK.RNAt, ANA'I'O.MY OK fN'SlUTS. 16'J

less than two years. The eggs in the ovaries of the last
vary infinitely in size ; those that have entered the oviduct
have arrived at maturity, while the rest grow^ gradually
smaller as they approach the capillary extremity of the
tubes, wliere they become at length invisible to the highest
magnifier *. In many insects the eggs seem nearly to have
reached their full growth previously to the exclusion of the
female from the pupa ; and this exclusion and the im-
pregnation and laying of the eggs rapidly succeed each
other. One moth [Hypogynma dispar\ which is remark-
able for the number of eggs she contains, sometimes de-
posits them, even before they are fecundated, in the pupa-
case''. But in other cases the sexual union is not so im-
mediate, and some time, longer or shorter, is requisite
for the due expansion of the eggs ; and the ovaries of the
animal swell so much, as often to enlarge the abdomen
to an extraordinary bulk : this is seen in a very common
beetle {Chrysomela Pokjgoni) that feeds upon the knot-
grass ; but in no insect is it so striking as in the female of
the v^'hite ants, whose wonderful increase of size after im-
pregnation I have related to you on a former occasion *^.

I shall conclude this subject with a few observations
upon ovo-viviparojis insects ; supposed neuters^ and hybrids,
which, though they do not fall in regularly under any
of the foregoing heads, may very well have a place in this
letter.

1. It has already been observed that there are a few
ovo-viviparous insects'*, the young of which exist in the
ovaries at first as eggs, but are hatched within the body
of the mother, and come forth in the living form of a

^ Swamm. i. 203. b. t xix. f. X " Reaum. ii. 66.

■= Vol. II. p. 36. ' ' Voi.. III. p. 64—.

M 2

164 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

larva and sometimes even of a pupa. Of the first descrip-
tion are certain Diptcro, the Aphides^ and the Scorpion.

Reaumur has described two modes in which the lar-
vae of the first are arranged in the matrix of the mother.
In some they are heaped together w^ithout much ap-
pearance of order, being placed merely parallel to each
other ^; but in others they are arranged in a kind of ri-
band— the length of -the little animals, which are also
parallel, forming its thickness — rolled up like the main-
spring of a watch''. These larvae in general are not di-
vided into tivo masses corresponding with the pair of
ovaries in other insects, but form only a single one*=.
You must not suppose that these little fetuses lie naked
in the womb of the mother ; each has its own envelope
formed of the finest membrane, which, however, is not
entirely divided from that of those adjoining to it, but
appears to be one tube, which becomes extremely slen-
der between each individual, so as when drawn out to
look like a chain '^. Reaumur seems to have thought
that in these flies the larvae were never confined in any
other case or egg^; but De Geer sometimes found eggs
in the body of Musca carnaria, though most generally
larvae, from which he conjectures that it is really ovo-vi-
viparous, the eggs being hatched in the body of the mo-
ther ^ As these flies are all carnivorous, and their of-
fice is to remove putrescent flesh, you may see at one
glance the object of Providence in this law of nature —
that no time may be lost, and the animal exercise its
function as soon as it is disclosed from the matrix.
The Aphides, so fruitful m singular anomalies, are ovo-

^ Plate XXII. Fig. 4. »> Ibid. Fig. 3.

*■ Reaiim. iv. 414. '' Ibid. t. xxviii./. 14, 15.

* Ibhl. 404. ' De fieer \\. G3— ,

INI'EIINAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 165

viviparous, as I have before hinted % at one period of the
year, that is during the summer, but strictly oviparous
at the close of the year. From the experiments of De
Geer, however, upon Aphis Roscc, it would appear that
this faculty is not conferred upon the same individuals,
but only upon those of different generations of the same
species ; all the generations being ovo-viviparous except
the last, which is oviparous^ : nor does it appear, as has
been sometimes imagined, that it is common to the whole
genus. De Geer observed a species in the fii", which
makes curious galls resembling a fir cone {Aphis Abie-
tis), which appeared never to be ovo-viviparous •=.

With regard to scmpions, it does not seem clear that
they are always ovo-viviparous : M. Dufour twice found
in the midst of the eggs nearly mature, a young scorpion
which appeared to him at large in the cavity of the ab-
domen ; it was so large that it was difficult to compre-
hend how it could possibly be excluded from the animal,
without an extraordinary operation ''. The piipiparous
insects [Hippobosca, &c.) have been sufficiently noticed
before ^.

2. I have already in several of my former letters stated
to you what the modern doctrine of physiologists is with
respect to certain individuals, usually forming the most
numerous part of the community with insects living in
society, that were formerly supposed to be neuters, or as
to their sex neither male nor female — that they are in
almost every instance a kind of abortive females, fed with
a different and less stimulating food than that appropri-
ated to those whose ovaries are to be developed, and in

=• Vol. I. p. 174. " De Geer iii. 70—.

" Ibid. 128. " N. Diet. d'Hid. Nat. xxx. 426-.

" Vol. Iir. p. 64 — ,

166 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

consequence in n-ost instances incapable of conception*.
Upon these stirile females, you also heard, devolve in
general the principal labours of their respective colonies,
showing the beneficent design of Providence in exempt-
ing them from sexual cares and desires, and meriting for
them the more appropriate name, now generally used, of
imrkers. The differences in the structure of the female
bee and the workers were also then accounted for ; and
similar reasoning may be had recourse to with regard to
those of ants, in which the worker and the female differ
still more materially. My reason for introducing this
subject here, is to observe to you that I have some
grounds for thinking that this system extends further
than is usually supposed, and that to each species in
some Coleopterous and other genera there are certain
individuals intermediate between the male and female ;
this I seem to have observed more especially in Copris
and Onthophagus. For in almost every British species
in my cabinet of these genera I possess such an indivi-
dual, distinguished particularly by having a horn on the
head longer than that of the female, but much shorter
than that of the male. I once observed a pair of Pen-
tatoma oleiacea, a very pretty bug, in coitu^ both sexes
being ornamented with nsohite spots, and by them stood
a third distinguished from them by red ones. I do not,
however, build on this circumstance, though singular ;
but mention it merely that you may keep it in your eye.
It would be curious should it turn up, that, to answer
some particular end of Providence, in some tribes of
insects there are two kinds of males, as in the gregarious
ones two descriptions o^ females.

' Vol. If. p. 50, HI—, 118—, 127—, 134. The neuters of the
Termilcs, however, (p. 33.) seem to be a distinct sex, if I may so
speak — and to iiierit that name.

LETTER XLIII.

INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
OF INSECTS, CONCLUDED.

MOTION.

VV E have seen upon a former occasion the great variety
of movements that insects can perform, and of the ex-
ternal organs with which they perform them^ : but we
are now to consider the internal apparatus, by the im-
mediate action of which they take place — their system of
mtiscles. When we reflect upon the wonderful velocity,
their size considered, with which many insects move, and
the unparalleled degree of muscular force that many ex-
hibit'', we feel no small degree of curiosity to know
something of that part of their internal structure that
produces these almost incredible effects. I shall in the
present letter endeavour in some degree to gratify that
curiosity, and give you an account of the nmscles of these
little animals, — first considering them in general; and
then, as far as my information goes, adverting to those in
particular that move the different parts and organs of an
insect's body.

^ Vol. n. Letter XXII. Vol. III. Letters XXXIV.— XXXVL

" Vol. II. p. 283, 299. 310, 314—. &c.

168 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

I. The muscles of insects may be considered in gene-
ral as to their Orzgm ; Substance and Parts ; Shape; Co-
lour; Kinds; Attachment ; and Motions.

i. Origin, The origin of the muscular fibre in the
higher animals is from the blood, the globules of which,
by their coagulation in a series, appear to form it* ; and
in insects it is derived from the same universal source of
nutrition and accretion, but not till it has been concreted
into the adipose tissue or epiploon before noticed''. In
the pupa of the cabbage-buttei-fly, Herold observed that
this substance first assumed a fine flocky appearance and
a blue-green colour, and that from it so changed were
produced tender bundles of muscular fibres, extending
in various directions, the epiploon itself decreasing in
proportion as they were formed*^.

ii. Substance and Parts. The muscular fibre in ver-
tebrate animals appears to consist of globules arranged
in a series, and of no larger diameter than those of the
blood, — the mean diameter of which in the human sub-
ject, when measured under the microscope by a micro-
meter, is found to be about -5-0V0 P^^'t of an inch'^. When
Cuvier published his immortal work in 1 805, the powers
of any magnifier then constructed were not sufficient to
enable this great physiologist to arrive at the simple
fibre*; but Mr. Bauer, by the use of improved glasses,
amongst other discoveries that will immortalize his name
was the first to detect, under the directions of Sir E.
Home, the ultimate thread of which the muscular bun-
dles are composed ^. Chemists distinguish the substance

" Philos. Trans. 1818. 174. t. viii./. 4—6.
* See above, p. 144 — . '^ Schmetterl. 105.

<* Philos. Tram. 1819. 172, 174, 187. ^ Anat. Comp. i. 90.

' PhUos. Tram. 1819. 175.

INTERNAL ANATOMV OF INSECTS. 169

of which we are speaking, by the name o^Jibrine. By the
abundance of azote or nitrogen that enters into its com-
position, it possesses a character of animalization more
marked than any other animal substance ; and its ele-
ments are so approximated in the blood, that the slightest
stagnation causes them to coagulate : and the muscles
are without doubt, in the living subject, the only organs
that can separate this matter from the mass of blood
and appropriate it to themselves^. T^he primary hxxn-
dles of muscles are formed of the simple fibres, and
the secondary are the result of an aggregation of the
primary. The smaller bundles are not always exactly
parallel to each other, but must in many cases diverge
more or less, to produce those variations in shape ob-
servable in the muscles themselves : there are intervals
therefore between the bundles, which in some animals
are filled by a cellular substance^. Probably much of
this statement will apply in most instances to the mus-
cles of insects, but we may conclude that the globules
that form them are infinitely smaller •=. Lyonnet has
given some interesting observations with regard to those
of the caterpillar of the Cossus: he describes them as of
a soft transparent substance, capable of great extension
covered and filled by silver tubes of the hronchice, pene-
trated by the nerves, and containing oily particles. Each
muscle was enveloped in membrane, and was composed
of many parallel bands, consisting of bundles of fibres
enveloped likewise in separate membranes. The fibres
themselves, (but it is doubtful whether he arrived at the
ultimate term of muscular fibre,) in a favourable light

=• Cuv. iihi supr. 90—. ^ Cuv. Ibid. i. 89—.

•^ See above, p. 84.

170 INTERNAL ANATOMV OF INSECTS.

and under a good magnifier, appeared to be twisted
spirally'. In spiders the muscles seemed to him to
consist of two substances, the one soft and the other
hard, the last forming a kind of stiff twisted filament''.
A muscle thus composed of different bundles of fibres
maybe stated as to its parts, in insects, to consist of
base, middle, and apex : the base is that part by which
they are fixed to any given point of the internal sur-
face of the crust, or of one of its processes, which
serves as their fulcrum ; the apex is that part by which
they are fixed, either mediately or immediately, to the
organ to be moved ; and the middle is the remainder of
the muscle. We usually discover in them no inflation of
the middle corresponding with the belly of the muscles
in vertebrate animals ; they occasionally, however, ter-
minate in a tendon, as those of the thighs and legs ; but
these tendons are of a different nature from the fibrous
ones of warm-blooded animals ; for they are hard, elastic,
and without apparent fibres : the fleshy ones of the mus-
cle envelope them, and are inserted in their surface*^.

iii. Shape. The muscles of insects are usually linear,
with parallel sides ; some are cylindrical, as those of the
wings of the Libellulina'^ ; and others, as those that
move the legs in the caterpillar of the Cossus, are trian-
gular^. In the suctorious mandibles of the grub of a
common water-beetle^ they are pe?iniform, or shaped
like a feather ; and some in the Cossus are forked s. Un-

' Lyonnet Anat. t. iv.f. 3. " Ibid. 93—.

<: Cuv. Anat. Comp, i. 134.

<" Chabrier Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 445.

* Plate XXI. Fig. 6. a. ' De Geer iv. t. xv. /. 11. w n, op

^ Lyonnet Anat. 93.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 171

der this head I may also observe, that the muscles are
sometimes extremely slender threads, crossing each other,
and often curiously interwoven in various directions, so
as to resemble lace or fine gauze, as may be seen in the
alimentary canal of some caterpillars* ; sometimes also
they surround part of this organ, like a series of minute
riniis''.

iv. Colour. The most usual colour of the muscles of
insects is ivkite: those for flight however, according to
Chabrier, differ from the rest, by being of a deeper and
reddish colour "^ ; and I have observed likewise that those
in the head of the stag-beetle, when dried at least, are
red, and look something like the flesh of warm-blooded
animals.

V. Kinds and Denomination. In general, muscles may
be regarded as divided into 'primary and secondary — the
primary being the muscles by which the principal move-
ments of any organs are effected, and the secondary their
auxiliaries which are the cause of subordinate move-
ments**. Every muscle almost has its antagonist, the
action of which is in an opposite direction ; so that when
it is equal, the organ to which they are attached re-
mains without motion ; but when that of one prepon-
derates, a movement in proportion takes place ^. The
principal antagonist muscles that may be found in insects
are the followins. I. Levator muscles that raise an or-
gan, and Depressors that depress it. 2. Flexors that
bend an organ, and Extensors that unbejid or extend it.

•■ Lyonnet Anat. t. xiii./. 1, 2.

^ Ranidohr AnaL t. v./. I.e./. 3.

" Chabr. ubi supr. 440—. ^' Jbid. 442, &c.

^ N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxii. 80.

172 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

3. Abdtictors that draw an organ bad; and Adductors
that draw it Jbrwards. 4. Constrictors that contract an
opening, and Laxators that relax it. 5. Stipinators that
/z/rw the underside of an organ upwards, and Pronators
that return it to its natural situation. Some of these
muscles in insects, like some of their articulations and
their spinal chord ^, seem to exercise a double function, — ^.
thus the levators and depressors of the 'wings are con-
strictors and laxators of the trunk^. At first it may
seem that insects, not having the power of turning up
the hand, cannot have the Supinator and Pronator mus-
cles ; but some muscle of this kind must be in the Gryl-
lofalpa, and in those that have a versatile head'=.

V. Attachment and Insertioii. The attachment and in-
sertion of the muscles in insects in general is to the in-
terior of the crust, or to some of its internal processes
as a fulcrum, and to the organ to be moved. In some
cases, however, the muscles act upon the organ by the
intervention of other bodies. Thus, those that move the
wings are often attached to little bones, as Chabrier calls
them"*, which are connected with the base of the wings
by ligaments. In the Dynastidce and other Lamelli-
corns, and the Libellulina, &c., a remarkable provision
is made for giving a vast increment of force to the mus-
cles of the wings, by means of caps or cupules sur-
mounted by a tendon, which receive their extremity ; the
tendon terminating in a fine point attached to the wing,
and thus more muscles are brought to bear upon it^.

^ Vol, III. p. 664, 671. See above, p. 21.
b Chabrier Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 446. ' Vol. II T. p. 413.

<i Ubi supr. 437, 439. "= Plate XXII. Fig. 11, 12. c.

Chabrier vhi supr. c. iii. t. xi. viii./. 9. S. D. i, k. c. i. 440 — .

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 173

Chabrier seems to think that, in some cases, the hack
that intervenes between each pair of wings is the medium
by which the muscles act upon it*.

vi. Motions. Irritability is the universal distinction of
the muscular fibre, — when put in action by the will or
involuntarily, it causes it to contract or become shorter ;
and the intermediate agents of the will and other causes
are the nerves, which, as galvanic experiments seem in
some degree to prove, are the conductors of an invisible
fluid or power which immediately causes that action. If
a nerve is divided, the muscles to which it renders obey
it no longer, evidently proving that the nerves cause mus-
cular irritability ''. How this contraction is immediately
effected, — whether the fibre, as some suppose, undergoes
any crispation, or becomes zigzag*^ ; or whether there is
any sudden change in their chemical composition that ra-
pidly and strongly augments their cohesion, as Cuvier
hints '', cannot be clearly ascertained, unless a Bauer
could submit the living fibre to his glasses. All that we
know certainly on the subject is, that muscles alternately
contract and relax at the bidding of the will or involun-
tarily, and so occasion all the movements of animal bo-
dies.

II. Having considered the muscles of insects in getie-
ralf I must next make a few observations, as far as my
means of information will enable me, upon those that
move their different ^ar/5 and organs — at least the princi-
pal ones ; since to descend to minutiae would be an end-
less and unprofitable labour. As larvce, except those

" Ihid. I' Cuv. Anat. Comp. i, 94 — .

" N. Diet. d'Hisf. Nat. xxii. 80. '' Ubi svpr. 101—.

17^ INTERNAL AXATOMY OF INSECTS.

whose metamorphosis is semicomplete^, differ widely in
their system of muscles from perfect insects^ I shall be-
gin my observations with them.

We owe by far the most accurate and detailed ac-
count of the muscles of larvae to the illustrious Lyonnet,
who, with incredible labour and patience without ex-
ample, dissected the caterpillar of the Cossus, and has
described every air-vessel, every nerve, and every mus-
cle that could be detected by the microscope. Cuvier
also has given a description of the muscles not only of
caterpillars, but of the larvae of the Lamellicorn beetles,
the Hydrophili, and the Capricorn beetles''. From these
sources are derived what I have now to lay before you.
If you look at one of Lyonnet's plates '^, the layers of
longitudinal muscles look like so many parallel ribands,
others run in an oblique, and others again in a tranS'
verse direction''. He divides them into dorsal, ven-
tral, and lateral muscles ^, terms which sufficiently ex-
plain themselves. Of the longitudinal muscles there
are Jour principal rows ^, the others are more numerous.
The principal object of these muscles, which are flexors
and extensors, is to shorten or lengthen the body, or to
act on any particular segment as the circumstances of
the animal may require. I shall not here notice the
muscles of the head and legs, as they are not remarkable/
different from those of perfect insects. The prolegs are
moved by two muscles — the anterior one covering in
part the posterior — of a remarkable structure : one of
their points of attachment is by many branches or tails

' Vol. I. p. 67. " Anat. Comp. i. 432—.

" Aiiat. t. vii./. 2. left hand. •* Ibid, right hand.

* Ibid. 115 — . ^ Cuv. ubi supr.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. ^ 175

to the sole of the foot, and by several heads to the skin
of the animal ; so that they can draw the proleg within
the body or push it out, and perform other necessary
movements '.

I shall now call your attention to the muscles of the
perfect insect, as they move the head and its organs ; the
Trunk; the Abdomen; and the Viscera.

i. The Head. This part in insects moves upwards,
downwards, inwards, to right and left, is pushed forth
or drawn in, is often capable in part of a rotatory move-
ment, and is sometimes versatile, turning as it were upon
a pivot. All these movements are of course produced
by an appropriate apparatus of muscles^ which have their
attachment in the anterior part of the trunk, mostly in
the manitrunk, while their insertion is in the posterior
part of the head, in the margin of the occipital cavity.
To enumerate and describe them all would be tedious
and uninteresting — I shall only mention some of the
principal ones. The levators of the head are usually a
pair of muscles situated in the manitrunk, to the upper
side of which they are attached, and perhaps in Coleo-
ptera and some others to the phragma^ which probably
Cuvier means by the ante^'ior part of the scutellum^ ;
they are inserted in the posterior margin of the upper
part of the head, in Coleoptera in a, pair of notches {My-
oglyphides'^\ or a single one^. In Calandra Palmarum
these muscles as they approach the head, to judge from
the dead animal, divide into t^wo branches or a fork:
thus, as the muscle-notches are wide in this insect, the

» Vol. III. p. 135—. •' Anat. Comp. i. 447.

^ Vol. III. p. 367. Plate XXVII. Fig. 1, 4. n'.
«• Ibid. Fig. 3. n'.

176 INTERNAL ANATOJVIY OF INSECTS.

muscle acts upon each extremity of the sinus — these
branches appear to be tendinous^. The depressors of
the head are the antagonist muscles to the above, and
have their attachment to the antepectus and its antefurca^.
A circumstance distinguishes these muscles in many Co-
leoptera, that seems hitherto to have been overlooked.
If you take the common dung-beetle {Geoirupes sterco-
rarius), and carefully extract the head with its nmscles
from the trunk, you will see on each side of the depres-
sors a subovate corneous scale, of a pitch colour •=, which
is attached only to the muscle, and designed to strengthen
it : if you then examine the anterior cavity of the mani-
trunk, you will perceive on each side, just within the
lower margin, a minute triangular scale, of a similar sub-
stance ; these ligaments, like the pax-wax, or ligametita
nucJicE, in mammalia, though in a lower situation, are
doubtless intended to sustain the action of the muscles.

With regard to the moveable organs of the head — the
antennae, maxillcc, palpi, tongue, mandibidce, &c., have
each their appropriate apparatus of muscles: but I shall
only notice those of the last, ma7idibidce. These are
principally abductors and adductors to open and shut
them : from the work that the jaws of some insects have
to do, you may conjecture that, they must be furnished
with powerful muscles. In caterpillars and other larvae,
in which state the action of the mandibles is most in re-
quisition, the muscles are what Cuvier calh pen?iiform^,
and are attached on each side to a tendinous lamina or
cartilage. In the grub of Dytiscus the power and mag-

=> Plate XXVII. Fig. 1. a. " Vol. III. p. 368—, 543,

586. Plate XXII. Fig. 7. Ciiv. ubi supr. 448.

' Plate XXVII, Fig. 5. a. " Anat. Comp. i. 136.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 177

nitude of the adductor muscle is wonderful*. In the
Orthoptera this structure of the mandibularmuscles takes
place also in the imago^; but in the Coleoptera, at least
in the stag-beetle and some others that I have examined,
these muscles in this state have no cartilage or tendon.
Their attachment is always to the parietes of the head,
of the cavity of which the adductors, in some cases, oc-
cupy a considerable portion *=. As to their insertion —
these last, in some Orthopteia, enter more or less the in-
terior of the mandible'' ; but commonly they are inserted
at or near the interior angle of the mandibular basal ca-
vity, and the abductors at the exterior.

ii. The Trunk. We have little information with re-
gard to the muscles of the parts of the trunk itself, by
which, in some insects, the manitrunk is enabled to
move independently of the alitrunk : it is more probable
that the levators have in part at least their attachment
to the anterior surface of the prophragm ^, than that the
levators of the head should be there fixed, as Cuvier
seems to think ; since both the phragma and the ligament
that appears in many cases to close the cavity of the
manitrunk round the viscera '^, would prevent all com-
munication between those muscles and any part con-
nected with the scutellum : probably the depressors have
their attachment partly on the anterior face of the medi-
furca^. These points, however, must be left to future in-
vestigators.

With regard to the organs of the trunk, we have more

' De Geer iv. t. w.f. W. o, p. ^ Marcel de Serres, Com-

paraison, Sfc. 3 — . " Ibid. 4. " Ibid. 5.

■= Plate XXII. Fig. 11. A'. ' Vol. III. p. 582.

« Pi-Axr. XXII. Fig. 6. Vol. III. p. 587—.
VOL. IV. N

178 INTEKNAI, ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

certain and satisfactory information ; — the muscles of the
legs having been described by Lyonnet and Cuvier, and
those of the wings most particularly by Chabrier, In
caterpillars, the muscles are situated in the interior of
the articulations that form the legs : they consist of seve-
ral bundles appropriated to each, which have their at-
tachment in the parietes of the preceding joint, near the
margin, and are inserted in the margin of that they
move*. Lyonnet counted tioeiity-one Tawscles, in the leg
of the caterpillar of the Cossus; but eight of these were
appropriated to the claw, or rather formed a pair of se-
mipenniform muscles, having their insertion at the inner
angle of its base''. In perfect insects, according to Cu-
vier, each joint of the legs is furnished with a pair of
antagonist muscles — a flexor and extensor, the former
being \he lower, and the latter the iipper muscle ; and this
pair has its insertion in the joint it moves, and its attach-
ment usually in the preceding one : but those of the
coxae — which are rotators, causing it to turn backwards
or forwards — and the extensor of the thigh, have their at-
tachment in the parietes of the trunk, and to the endo~
sternum ; one of the rotators of the anterior' coxa, and the
extensor of the anterior thigh to the antefurca ; of the
intermediate pairs to the medifurca, and of the posterior
to the postfurca'^. Every joint of the tarsus has also its
flexor and extensor. In Dytiscus L., Carabus L., &c.,
whose posterior coxae are immoveable, the thigh includes
two pair of antagonist muscles'*. In extracting the pos-
terior leg of Necrophorus Vespillo I observed more than

^ Cuv. Anat. Comp. i. 436. Plate XXI. Fig. 6.
" Ibid, a, b. Lyonnet Anat. 37. "^ Cuv, ubi supr. 458 — .

Vol.. HI. p. 369, 379, 388. " Cuv. Ibid: i59.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 179

a single pair of muscles that had their attachment in the
coxa ; and probably many other variations in this respect
exist.

Little was known with respect to the most interesting
part of the muscular apparatus of insects, that by which
such wonderfully rapid and varied motions are imparted
to their organs of flight, till Chabrier undertook to elu-
cidate it ; which he has done in a manner that will con-
fer a lasting honour upon his name, as one of the most
able successors to Swammerdam and Lyonnet in their
peculiar department. He has given a most admirable
account of the internal anatomy of the trunk of insects
in general, as far as it relates to their flight ; particularly
of that of the cockchafer {Melolontha vulgaris)^ of one
of the Libellulina [j^lshna grandis), and of a humble-bee
(Bombus) ; and I believe he has thus illustrated insects of
some of the other Orders, but his memoirs on these I
have not had an opportunity of consulting. What I
have to say on this subject, therefore, will be principally
derived from what he has communicated with respect to
the above insects.

A considerable difference in the volume of the muscles
of the wings takes place in insects according to the force
of their flight. Where it is rapid and powerful, the ali-
trunk is nearly filled by them, and the alimentary canal
is much attenuated ; but in those whose flight is feeble,
they occupy less space, and the alimentary canal is
proportionally enlarged^. In the Lepidoptera, Hy-
menoptera^ and Diptera, the principal muscles of both
wings have their attachment in the anterior portion of
the alitrunk^ ; in the Coleoptera, in the posterior'^ ; and
'•' Chabr. Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 441. '• Ibid. 415. ' Ibid.

N 2

180 INTEUNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

in the Libellulina^ those of the anterior wings are con-
fined to the anterior portion, and those of the posterior
pair to the jposterior^. The muscles for flight in gene-
ral differ from others by their mass, length, and colour ;
the bundles of fibres are very distfnct, strong, and par-
allel ; their direction is uniform, according to the mo-
tion they are to produce ; their fibres are either attached
to the solid parts to be moved, or to cupules, but they
never terminate in a tendon ; the muscles are perfectly
independent of each other, and the wings can be moved
by them separately^. As to their denomination and
kind — the principal ones are the levators and depressors,
which with respect to the trnnJc, as was before observed,
are co?isfrictors and laxators. The levator muscles form
several distinct bundles in Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, &c. ;
in the Diptera there are three "= ; in the Libellulina they
seem to be single, are all environed with a blackish pel-
licle, with numerous aerial vesicles, symmetrically ar-
ranged, filling the interstices'*. The most common num-
ber is a levator to each wing ; thei'e are often, however,
as in the cockchafer and the dragon-fly, /wo depressors^:
but in the Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Tenthredo L., the
secondary wings have distinct levators, but not depress-
ors ^ ; the other Hymenoptera have only a pair of each &.
The other wing muscles are of a s^cowt^arj/ description, and
auxiliary to the above. Their office is to extend and close
the wings : so that though the denomination of extensor
will suit the former, that of Jlexor is not so proper for

^ Chabr. Sur le Vol des Ins. c. iii. 344, t. viii./. 8, 9.

" Ibid. c. i. 440. " Ibid. 444. ^ Ibid. 445. c. iii. 359.

" Ibid. c. ii. 332. c. iii. 359. ' Ibid. c. i. 445.

' Ibid. c. iv. 78.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 181

their antagonists ; their office being not so much to
be7id, as to bring back the wing to its station of repose.
The folding of certain wings, as those of Coleopteray
Dermaptera^ the Vespidce, &c., seems more the function
of the abdomen than of the wing-muscles : this you may
easily see, as I have often done, if you attend to any Sta-
phyUnus, when after alighting from flight it proceeds to
fold up its wings under the elytra. Perhaps the term
retractor might not be inapplicable to the muscles in
question. Both these and the extensors are usually
small slender muscles, but sometimes numerous^. They
are larger in Coleoptera^ Lepidoptera, and Tenthredo L. *'.
The muscles that open and shut the elytra of Coleoptera,
and probably of Heteropterous Hemiptera^ and which
also aid their movements during flight, are very slender '^.
With regard to the attachment and insertion of the wing-
muscles, it is according to two very distinct types, one
of which appertains to insects in general, and the other
is peculiar to the Libelhdina. In insects in general, the
principal muscles for flight have not their insertion in
the wings, but act upon their bases by the intervention
of small long pieces. The depressors occupy the middle
and uppei: region of the alitrunk, and are inserted ante-
riorly and posteriorly upon the concave surfaces of two
transverse horny semi-partitions, adapted by their elas-
ticity to dilate the trunk — and thus acting the part of
both diaphragm and ribs^ : but in the Libellulina, as in
birds, these muscles are placed on each side of the point

=" Ibid, c, i. 415, 442. c. iv. 80. •> Ibid. c. i. 442.

c Ibid. 439—. " Chabrier Analyse, 28. The

latter part of this passage is copied from a M.S. note of the author's
in my copy.—W, K.

182 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

of support of the humerus*; the depressors being at-
tached immediately to the wings 'without it, and the leva-
tors iioithin it, with tliis sole difference, that they are con-
nected to the internal extremity of the base of the wing
by the intervention of a cupule terminating in a tendon ;
all are disposed jperpendicidaiiy to the arms of the levers
on which they act, and all incline more or less out-
•wards, the one to dilate, and the other to contract the
trunk''. It may be observed in general, that in insects
formed upon the^r^^ type, the great action of these mus-
cles is the dilatation and contraction of the alitrunk, the
main tendency of which is to depress and raise the wings *=.
I shall add here a few words upon the attachment of the

winff-muscles in the different Orders : but first I must re-
o

quest you to read what I have said on the partitions and
chambers of the alitrunk in a former letter^. In most
insects of the ^rst type, the depressors are longitudinal
dorsal muscles that have their posterior point of attach-
ment in the metaphragm {costale Chabr.); but the anterior
varies : — ^in those that have elytra, tegmina, or hemelytra,
the muscles for them seem to be contained in the cham-
ber, varying in size, that lies between the prophragm and
mesophragm ; and the anterior pointof attachment of their
depressor muscles is the mesophragm : they are also at-
tached in some to the metathorax or back of the poste-
rior portion of the alitrunk *^. The levator muscles in
Coleoptera, at least in the cockchafer, by a long tendon
have their posterior attachment in the lower part of the

» Chabrier Analt/se,2S. Surlc Voldeslns. c. i. 445. Vot. III. p. 61.9.
^ Analyse ubi supr. "^ Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 448. c. ii. 336.

-i Vol. III. p. 58'^—. ' Cliabr. Ibid. c. i. 443. ii. 316, 332.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 183

posterior coxae*, their anterior attachment to the solid
parts to be moved. In the Cockchafer and the Dyyias-
tidce, but 7iot in Geotrupes, on each side of the cavity of
the metathorax under the base of the wing is a large and
small cupule, Vvhich from their lateral situation one would
think must receive the levator muscles — apparently un-
noticed by M. Chabrier ; but as there is a pair of these
cupules on each side, there must have been also a /;a/r
of muscles attached to them, which does not agree with
his statement''. In the Hymenoptera and Diptera the
anterior attachment of the depressors is to the back of the
alitrunk and to the prophragm, and the levators to the
breast, and the sides of the back of the trunk *^. In the
Libelltdma the depressors and levators that terminate,
by a tendon surmounting a cupule, in the base of the
wings, have their posterior attachment in the breast.
These cylindrical muscles with their cupule and tendon
look like so many syringes'*.

Having thus described to you the powerful muscular
apparatus by which, either mediately or immediately, the
ivings of insects are moved, it will not be out of place if
I add a few words upon their Jlight itself. The great
object in this is to generate a centrifugal force which
may counteract the weight of the body. Its wings are
the external organs by which the insect as it were takes
hold of the air when they iall, and is impelled by it when
they rise ; its head makes way for it ; its abdomen, as a
rudder, steers it ; and by alternately increasing and dimi-

» Ibid. 333. " Ibid. 332. Platk XXII. Fig. 11, 12. c. A

cupuliform process is also observable at the side of the inetaphragiu.
Ibid. Fig. 10. a. -^ Chabr. Ibid. c. iv. L xi.— 4./. 14.

■' Ibid. c. i. 41.5. xi.- 8./. 8, 9.

184 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

nishing in volume, and rising and falling, enables it to
win an easy way through the fluctuations of the atmo-
spheric sea. The trunk by its elasticity admits the in-
ternal action of antagonist muscles, which by turns com-
press and dilate it ; an action promoting the elevation
and depression of the wings, and keeping up the elasti-
city of the internal air, which is thus now rarified and
now condensed : in the former state flowing like a tide,
accompanied by the blood, into the nervures of the
wings *, and thus increasing their tension and centrifugal
force ; — in the latter ebbing and receding to the trunk,
thus relaxing the one and diminishing the other. The
spiracles by which the air enters or is expelled, open
and shut at the animal's pleasure '' ; and besides, many
insects are furnished, as we have seen*^, with numerous
vesicles or reservoirs, which can give out a supply of in-
ternal air when wanted : and thus they can vary their
aerial motions, diminish or increase the counteracting
centrifugal force ; rise and fall, and move onwards and
in different directions, as their occasions demand*^.

iii. The Abdomen is perhaps capable of the greatest
variety of motions of the three primary sections of the
body. Even when the insect is reposing, a constant dila-
tation and constriction usually takes place in it ^ ; and
from its annular structure, its parts capable of separate
motion are numerous: — it expands and contracts; it rises
and falls ; it bends in various directions ; and its segments
can often be lengthened or retracted. Besides all this, its
spiracles open and shut, and its reproductive and other

^ Chabr. Sur le Vol des Ins. c. ii. ;536. note 1. Vol. III. p. 29.'?—.
*■ Chabr. Ibid. c. i. 447. ' ^ec above, p. 66 — .

'^ Vol.. III. p. '390. ' See above, p. 73 — .

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 185

anal organs have their appropriate motions. In nume-
rous Coleoptera^ however, and some Hemiptera^ the up'
per-side of the abdomen is almost the only part that is
moveable, especially near the trunk ; the under-side, hav-
ing its first segments soldered together, is only capable
of motion near the tail*. The muscles that produce the
various motions of this part must be entitled to all the
denominations stated above ^. I have on a former oc-
casion explained to you how, in insects that have a pe-
tiolate abdomen, that part is elevated and depressed*^.
In those with a sessile one the base is attached to the
metaphragm by strong ligaments^, and the muscles that
move the first piece act from one segment to another.
The partial movements of the segments of this part,
where they have place, are produced by muscular fibres
which extend from the whole anterior margin of one to
the whole posterior one of that which precedes it. If
those, for example, of the back contract, the abdomen be-
coming shorter above, bends upwards ; and if those of
the sides or belly, it bends sideways or downwards '^ : this
is a beautiful as well as simple contrivance.

The alternate rush of air fi-om the abdomen into the
alitrunk, and from the atmosphere into the abdomen, is
attended by the constriction or expansion of that part as
it rises or falls in flight '^, which seems to require the ac-
tion of constrictor and laxator muscles.

iv. The Viscera. Having before had occasion suffi-

* Chabrier Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. Addend. 298.
" See above, p. 171—. ' Vol. III. p. 701—.

•* Chabr. ubi supr. c. i. 422. * Cuv. Anat. Comp. i. 451.

f Chabr. Analyse 25. Sur le Vol des Ins. c. i. 423, 452. ^of-
f/e«rf. 301.

186 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ciently to notice the muscles by which the systole and
diastole of the dorsal vessel of insects is maintained*, I
shall now only mention those that are woven round their
alimentary canal, by which the peristaltic motion of that
organ, causing its contractions and the propulsion of
its contents, takes place. One would at first think that
a view of the intestines of any animal could under no
circumstances afford any very pleasing spectacle to the
eye of any but a scientific spectator ; but any lady who is
fond of going to Disons to be tempted with an exhibi-
tion of fine lace, would experience an unexpected grati-
fication could she be brought to examine those of a ca-
terpillar under a microscope : with wonder and delight
she would survey the innumerable muscular threads that
in various directions envelope the gullet, stomach, and
lower intestines of one of these little animals ; some run-
ning longitudinally, others transversely, others crossing
each other obliquely, so as to form a pattern of rhom-
boids or squares ; others again, surrounding the intestine
like so many rings, and almost all exhibiting the appear-
ance of being woven, and resembling fine lace, — one pat-
tern ornamenting one organ ; another, a second ; and
another, a third. This will suffice to give some idea of
this part of the muscular structure of these little ani-
mals''.

Lyonnet counted the muscles contained in the body
of the caterpillar of the Cossus. In the head he found
228; in the body, 1647; and enveloping the intestines,
no less than 2186; which, after deducting 20 that are
common to the gullet and the head, gives a total of 4061 *=.

» See above, p. 83. •' Lyonnet Anat. f. xiii./. 1, 2.

' Ibid. 188—, 584.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 187

In the human subject only 529 have been counted* : so
that this minute animal has 3532 muscles more than the
Lord of the creation !

The muscles of the Arachnida seem less numerous
than those of insects. In the Scorpionidce they appear
to be robust, formed of simple straight fibres, of a whitish
gray colour : a muscular web, rather strong, clothes the
parieteSf but rarely adheres to them, of the abdomen,
and envelopes the viscera^ with the exception of the lungs,
and probably of the heart. The dorsal part of this web
gives birth to seven pairs of filiform muscles, which tra-
verse the liver, and are attached to a muscular riband
which, passing above the limgs, runs the whole length of
the ventral parietes. These muscles when exposed to
view resemble extended cords. The abdominal segment
preceding the tail is filled with a powerful muscular mass
which moves that organ''. Treviranus discovered two
longitudinal muscles in Scorpio europaus, running from
the breast to the tail, which above and below each gill
were connected by another running transversely across
the heart, thus forming a quadrangular area in which
the gills are situate '^. The heart appears to be moved
by muscles not very dissimilar to those of the Cossics'^,
as is likewise that of the Araneidcs ; in Cluhiona atrox
the wider part of this organ is muscular, and incloses a
considerable cavity*. In this tribe the muscles of the
abdomen, the skin of which is soft and unfit to act as a
lever to them, are attached to a cartilage, and thus their
action is better sustained ^.

» Ihid. 189. " .V. Dkl. cCUisL Nat. xxx. 4i2].

■= Arachnid. 9. t.\.f.7- >: "^ Ibid. o. ' Ibid. 10.

' Ibid. 45. t. m.f. 31. m, n, q, r, t.

188 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Having thus laid before you all of importance that I
can collect with regard to the apparatus of muscles dis-
coverable in insects, I shall next say something upon a
few other points connected with that subject. When I
enlarged upon their motions, I related a few instances
of the extraordinary power of that apparatus^ in leaping
ones ; but this power is not confined to that circum-
stance. The Jlea, not more remarkable for its com-
pressed form, enabling it to glide between the hairs of
animals, and its elastic coat of mail, by which it can re-
sist the ordinary pressure of the fingers, than for its mus-
cular strength, has attracted notice on this account from
ancient times. MoufFet relates that an ing-enious En-
glish mechanic, named Mark, made a golden chain of
the length of a finger, with a lock and key, which was
dragged by a flea ; — he had heard of another that was
harnessed to a golden chariot, which it drew with the
greatest ease''. Another English workman made an
ivory coach with six horses, a coachman on the seat with
a dog between his legs, a postillion, four persons in the
coach, and four lacqueys behind — which also was dragged
by a single flea. At such a spectacle one would hardly
know which most to admire, the strength and agility of
the insect, or the patience of the workman. Latreille
mentions a flea of a moderate size drasfffino: a silver can-
non on wheels, that was twenty-four times its own weight,
which being charged with powder, was fired without the
flea appearing alarmed •=. Many caterpillars are accus-
tomed to extend their bodies from a twig, supported
merely by the four hind feet, in one fixed attitude, either

^ Vol. II. p. 314—. " Mouffet Theatr. '-Tib.

^ X. Did. (i'Hist. Nat, xxviii. 249.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 189

in an oblique, horizontal, or vertical direction, either up-
wards or downwards, and that for hours together. We
may conceive what prodigious muscular force must be
exerted upon this occasion, by reflecting that the most
expert rope-dancer, though endued with the power of
grasping with his feet like a bird with its claws, could
not maintain himself in a horizontal position even for an
instant. Bradley asserts that he has seen a stag-beetle
carry a wand half a yard long and half an inch thick,
and fly with it several yards*. Some insects have the
faculty of resisting pressure in a wonderful degree. If
you take a common dung-chafer (Geotrupes) in your
hand and press it with all your strength, you will find
with what wonderful force it resists you ; and that you
can scarcely overcome the counteraction, and retain the
insect in your hand : was it not for this quality, the grub
of the gad-fly must be crushed probably in passing-
through the anal sphincter of the horse''. But that
of Elophilus tenax affords a more surprising instance
of this power of counteraction : — an inhabitant of muddy
pools, it has occasionally been taken up with the water
used in paper-making, and strange to say, according to
Linne, has resisted without injury the immense pres-
sure given to the surrounding pulp "^ ; like leather-coat
Jack mentioned by Mr. Bell'', who, from a similar force
of muscle, could suffer carriages to drive over him without
receiving any injury. Almost as remarkable is the state of
extreme relaxation into which the muscles of some larvae
fall, when their animation is suspended ; and the revived

» Phil. Ace, of Works of Nat, 144.

^ Clark in L'mn. Trans, iii. 309. " Fn. Suec. 1799.

<* Anatomy of Expression in Painting. 170.

190 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

tension to which a subsequent resumption of the vital pow-
ers restores them. Bonnet having suspended the anima-
tion of the caterpillar of Sphinx Ligustri by keeping it
submerged, squeezed it between his fingers, until it had
wholly lost its cylindrical form and was as flat and sup-
ple as the empty finger of a glove ; yet in less than an
hour the very same caterpillar became as firm, as com-
pact, as cylindrical, and in short, as well, as though it
had never been submitted to treatment so rough*.

It is fortunate that animals of a large size, as has been
well remarked, especially noxious ones, have not been
endowed with a muscular power proportionable to that
of insects. A cockchafer, respect being had to their size,
would be six times stronger than a horse ; and if the ele-
phant, as Linne has observed, was strong in proportion
to the stag-beetle, it would be able to pull up rocks by
the root, and to level mountains*'. Were the lion and
the tiger as strong and as swift for their magnitude as the
Cicindela and the Carabus, nothing could have escaped
them by precaution, or withstood them by strength.
Could the viper and the rattlesnake move with a rapidity
and force equivalent to that of the lulus and Scdlopendra,
who could have avoided their venemous bite ? But the
Creator in these little creatures has manifested his Al-
mighty POWER, in showing what he could have done
had he so willed ; and his goodness in not creating the
higher animals endued with powers and velocity upon
the same scale with that of insects, which would proba-
bly have caused the early desolation of the world that
he has made. From this instance we may conjecture,

" Bonnet CEtivr. ii. 124. " N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxii. 81.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 191

that after the resurrection, our bodies by a change in
the structure and composition of their muscular fibre
— for we know that their locomotive powers and organs,
as far as the muscle is concerned, will then be of a very
different nature* — may become fitted for motions and a
potent agency of which we have now no conception.

This wonderful strength of insects is doubtless the re-
sult of something peculiar in the structure and arrange-
ment of their muscles, and principally their extraordi-
nary power of contraction, excited by the extent of their
respiration : for animals that respire but little, as the
foetus in the womb and the pullet in the egg, have very
little contractile muscular power ^. To get some idea
from facts of this extraordinary contractile power in in-
sects,— extract the sting of a bee or a wasp, with its mus-
cles, which appear to be attached to powerful cartilagi-
nous plates*^, and you will find it continue for a long
time to dart forth its spicula, almost as powerfully as
when moved by the will of the animal. A still more ex-
traordinary instance of irritability is exhibited by the
antlia^ or instrument of suction of the butterfly. If this
organ, which the insect can roll up spirally like a watch-
spring or extend in a straight direction, be cut off as
soon as the animal is disclosed from the chrysalis, it will
continue to roll up and unroll itself as if still attached
to its head : and if after having apparently ceased to
move for three or four hours it be merely touched, it
will again begin to move and resume the same action.
This surprising irritability and contractility of muscle

» 1 Cor. XV. 50—. " N. Diet. d'Hist. Kat. ubi supr.

" Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. xviii. /. 2. /, m, n, o. Reaum. v. t. xxix.

/. 7. m, n, 0, p, q.

192 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

doubtless depends upon the peculiar structure of the
antlia, which is composed of an infinite number of horny
rings, acted upon by muscles, more numerous probably
than those which move the trunk of the elephant. The
motion only ceases when the muscles become dry and
rigid.

I have already, under another head*, considered the an-
nual sleep, or winter state of torpidity of insects, during
which an intermission for the most part of muscular mo-
tion and action takes place. I shall now make a few obser-
vations with respect to their diurnal sleep, which may
very properly have its place in the present letter. That
insects, usually so incessantly busy and moving in every
direction, require their intervals of repose, seems to call
for no proof. We see some that appear only in the c?ay,
and others only in the night, others again only at cer-
tain hours ; which leads to the conclusion, that when
they withdraw from action and observation, it is to de-
vote themselves to rest and sleep. The cockchafer flies
only in the evening ; but if you chance to meet with it
roosting in a tree in the earlier part of the day, you will
find it perfectly still and motionless, with its antennae
folded and applied to the breast : — we cannot indeed say
that its eyes are shut; for as insects have lio eyelids, that
sign of sleep can never be found in them. Again, if a
Lepidopterist goes into the wood to capture moths in
the day-time, he finds them often perched on the lichens
that cover the north side of the trunk of a tree, with
their wings and antennae folded, and themselves without

» Vol. II. Letter XXVI.

INl'feUN'AL ANATOMY Ul" INSECTS. 193

motion, and insensible of his approach and their own
danger. Thus it was that I captured that rare insect the
lobster-moth [Stauropus Fagi) in the New Forest. Some,
however, have asserted that the caterpillar of the silk-
worm, except when they moult, never intermits feeding
day or night, and consequently does not sleep : but the
accuracy of this statement, both from analogy and obser-
vation, admits of great doubt. Malpighi informs us that
these caterpillars for an hour and more, twice a day, re-
main immoveable with their heads bent down as though
asleep, and even if disturbed, resume again the same
inactive posture"; and other larvae in great numbers
certainly seem to have regular intermissions from eating
of considerable duration : those called Geometers, for
hours together remain motionless projected from a twig,
to which they adhere by their posterior prolegs alone ;
and the processionary caterpillars make only nightly
sorties from their nests, passing the day in inaction and
repose^. Bees have been often seen by Huber, when
apparently wearied with exertion, even in the middle of
the day to insert the half of their bodies into an empty
cell, and remain there, as if taking a nap, without mo-
tion for half an hour or longer "^ ; and at night they regu-
larly muster in a state of sleep-like silence. Instances of
other bees that appear to sleep have before been mention-
ed*^. Mr. Brightwell once observed an individual living-
specimen of Haltica concinna^ which appeared to remain
motionless on the same spot of a wall for three successive
days.

* Be Bombyc. 5. ^' Reaiim. ii. 185 — .

" Vol. II. p. 189. ^ IbiJ. p. 283,

VOL. IV. O

194 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

Before concluding these remarks on the Internal Ana-
tomy and Physiology of Insects, I shall explain to you,
as you will probably feel inclined occasionally to pursue
the subject, the best mode of dissecting them. — By far
the most useful dissecting instruments for this purpose
are very fine-pointed and sharp scissors, as these will en-
able you to divide the integument and separate other
parts with much less risk of injuring their delicate struc-
ture than any knife. These scissors are what Swam-
merdam chiefly used ; and he had some so extremely
small and fine, that he was necessitated to employ a lens
when he sharpened them. If to these be added a shai*p
and fine-pointed knife or two, some needles fixed in han-
dles, also fine-pointed — (you will find them more conve-
nient than any other instrument for detaching minute
parts and fibres,) a pair of fine and accurately adjusted
pliers, and an assortment of camel' s-hair brushes, — you
will be nearly set up as an Entomological dissector. You
will still, however, require a small dissecting table, with
a projecting and moveable arm for lenses of various de-
scriptions, so as to admit both the hands to be employed
upon the subject under examination ; and for this pur-
pose probably no contrivance can be better adapted than
that of Lyonnet, of which the figure in Adams Ow the
Microscope will convey a better idea than any descrip-
tion^.

Previously to dissecting any insect, it must be killed
by plunging it into boiling water, which is recommended
by Lyonnet, or spirits of wine or of turpentine ; and it is
often useful to let larva remain a few days in the latter,

» /. vi./. 3.

INTKRNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 195

by which means the vessels become firmer and stronger.
The parts oi pupce become much more distinct if they are
boiled for a few minutes : and the same mode may be
adopted in the examination of spiders.

The most convenient mode of proceeding, which was
that also of Lyonnet, is to dissect the ijisect in water, or,
to avoid putridity, in diluted spirits, — if small, upon a
concave glass, to which it should be fastened by means
of a little melted wax ; if larger, in the bottom of a com-
mon chip box, surrounded with a border of wax to re-
tain the fluid. The integuments of the insect, being care-
fully divided longitudinally with scissors, should if flexi-
ble be turned back, and fixed by small pins stuck in by
a fine pair of pliers, while the skin at the same time is
stretched by another. After making such observations
as present themselves without further dissection, the vis-
cera must be cautiously extracted, washing away the fat
which surrounds them with spirits of turpentine, in which
it is soluble, applied by camel' s-hair pencils. After se-
paration they may conveniently be examined by putting
them into water, and gently shaking them so as to cause
the parts to unfold. If endowed with the patience of
Swammerdam, you may even arrive at injecting these
minute parts with wax or coloured fluids, conveyed by
delicate glass tubes having one end as fine as a hair,
which he also employed to fill the viscera with air ; and
afterwards drying them in the shade, and anointing them
with oil of spike in which a little resin had been dis-
solved, he succeeded in preserving them. If it is not
convenient to finish the dissection of an insect at once,
_it should be covered with spirits of wine. Swammerdam
found a mixture of spirits and distilled vinegar very use-

o '1

196 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

ful for keeping caterpillars previously to dissecting them^
as it consolidated the parts*.

And now having brought to a close my long vi'ander-
ings in this ample and intricate field, and having threaded,
as well as my slender powers and limited knowledge en-
abled me, the infinite turnings and convolutions of this
Daedalean labyrinth — the Anatomy and Physiology of in-
sects,— will you not own that the volume of wonders I
have laid before you proves irrefragably that, though these
minims of nature apparently rank so low in the scale of
being, yet in their structure, instead of being, as might
be expected, more simple, they are infinitely more com-
plex and highly wrought than those animals that are
placed the nearest to oui'selves ? the Creatok in the lat-
ter doing every thing by a beautiful simplicity ; while in
the former, the more to magnify his power and skill, be-
cause they afford no apparent space for it, by a won-
derfully curious and intricate multiplicity : and whether
we study the one or the other, we shall in both trace
the footsteps of that adorable Love which has shown
attention to the comfort and well-being of the lowest in-
sect, as well as of the highest of his creatures.

• These directions for dissecting are chiefly taken from Swammer*
dam. Life xiv.— and Lyonnet AnaL 7 — .

LETTER XLIV.

DISEASES OF INSECTS.

Having laid before you what observations I thought
might sufficiently explain all the principal features of the
Anatomy of insects both external and internal, you will
next expect to be informed whether, like the higher ani-
mals, they are subject to have the admirable order ob-
servable in their frame interrupted by Disease; and you
will perhaps imagine, from the multiplicity of their organs
and vessels, that they must be peculiarly exposed to de-
rangements of the vital and other functions. That they
have their diseases is certain ; but, except in the case of
their appropriate parasitic assailants, which is a part of
their economy, it does not appear that their maladies
are more numerous and frequent than those of other
animals. The same Almighty Power which endowed
them with so complex a structure, generally upholds
them in health dui'ing their destined career, until they
have fulfilled the purpose of their creation, when thet/ die
and return again to their dust^.

But perhaps I may seem to you as making too great
a parade about these little insignificant creatures if I as-
sign a separate letter to the consideration of their diseases i

" Ps. civ. 2,0.

198 DISEASES or INSECTS.

but when you recollect that Aristotle has a chapter on
this subject*, and that the learned Willdenow has de-
voted a distinct portion of his excellent introductory
work on Botany to the diseases of Plants'', — you will
perhaps be of a different mind : indeed, some facts I shall
have to communicate are so remarkable and interesting,
that I am sure, when you have read this letter, you will
not think the subject one that deserves to be slighted.

Insect diseases may, I think, be divided into two great
classes; those resulting, namely, from some accidental
extenial injury or internal derangement, and those pro-
duced by parasitic assailants.

I. Under the Jirst head we may begin with wounds,
fractures, mutilations, and other extraneous causes of dis-
ease. To these — insects are peculiarly subject ; and
though they are not, like the Crustacea and Arachnida'^
and some other invertebrate animals, endowed with the
power of reproducing a mutilated limb, yet their wounds
appear to heal very rapidly, and at the time they are in-
flicted to produce little pain'^. But if those important
members, their antennce, are mutilated, insects seem to
suffer a kind of derangement ; the great organ of their
communication with each other, and in various respects
wit'h the external world, being removed, all their instincts
at once fail them, I formerly related how the amputa-

" Hist. Animal. 1. viii. c. 27.

'' 7ke Prmciples of Botany and of Vegetable Pht/siologi/, ^31 0 — 353.

* Dr. Leach, from a communication of Sir Joseph Banks, has
given a very interesting history of a spider which, having lost five of
its legs, from a web-weaver had become a hunter; these legs it after-
wards reproduced, though shorter than the others. Linn. Trans, xi.
39;$. Comp. .Y. Did. d'Hist. Nat. ii. 282. " Vol. I. p. 55—.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 199

tion of these affects the queen-bee^. A similar result,
as Huber tells us**, follows, when the same experiment is
repeated on the isoorkers or drones : they immediately
become unable to take any further part in the labours of
the hive ; they can no longer guide themselves except in
the light ; if they petition one of their fellow citizens for
honey, they are unable to direct their tongue to its mouth
to receive it ; they remain near the entrance of the hive,
and when the light is intercepted they rush out of it to
return no more.

Insects occasionally are subject to tumours or a preter-
natural enlargement of their parts and organs. The an-
tennae of bees sometimes swell at their extremity so as
to resemble the bud of a flower ready to open, becoming
at the same time very yellow, as does the fore part of
the head "^ . I once saw a specimen of a Hydrophilus —
agreeing with H.. fuscipes in every other respect even
to the most minute punctum — which had a large tumour
on each side of the prothorax, evidently accidental, occa-
sioned probably by the stoppage of the pores by which
the superfluous moisture and air escape when it under-
goes its last change. The converse of this I have ob-
served to take place sometimes in the same part of Geo^
trapes foveatus, the ordinary lateral Jove^E becoming very
considerably enlarged ; — thi^ was the case with the spe-
cimen from which Mr. Marsham made his description
of that insect. The species is, however, very distinct in
other respects, and may always be known by its small
size. It happens now and then also, that these tumours
represent blisters. I saw one once on one elytrum of a

^ Vol. II. p. 169-. " Huber Abeilles ii. 409.

' N. Diet. d'Hkt. Xal. i. 42.

200 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

beetle and not on the other. Those of Serropalpjcs (as
Mr. MacLeay, on the authority of M. Clairville, informs
me) are particularly subject to this disease. But, of all
the organs, the wings are most exposed to derangements
of this kind. De Geer, in a specimen oi Pieris Cratcegi
just excluded from the chrysalis, observed that one of
these was distended by a considerable quantity of extra-
vasated green fluid — tvvo or three large drops following
an incision. This disease appeared to arise from the
lower membrane not adhering to the upper; so that the
nervures — which are rather longitudinal channels, being
open below, than tubes — were not closed to confine the
fluid to its proper course. The malady, which might
be called a dropsy of the wing, carried off the insect
the day after its exclusion^. Reaumur observed that
the wings of some flies were affected by an azV-dropsy,
as he calls it, which appeared to arise from the air escap-
ing from its natural channels, and thus separating the
two membranes that form the wing, and filling the ca-
vity produced by their separation^.

Sometimes also monstrosities are to be met with in
these animals, or variations from a symmetrical structure
in organs that are pairs. I have a beetle in which the
terminal joint of one of the maxillary palpi is short, ovate,
and acute ; and that of the other, long, semiovate, and
rather obtuse. A specimen of Blaps Mm-tisaga in my
cabinet, taken by Mr. Denny, besides the terminal mucro
of the elytra^ has a long diverging lateral one. Goeze
had the larva of a Semblis brought to him in which one
of the two fore-legs, though perfect in all its parts, was

' De Geer i. 72-. '^ Reaum. iv. 342.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 201

only half the length of the other* ; which he regarded as a
reproduction, but it seems rather a malformation. Miil-
ler mentions a most extraordinary fact of a Nocttia, which
when disclosed from the pupa retained the head of the
larva ^. One of the most remarkable instances of this kind
.that have fallen under my own observation, may be seen
in a specimen of Chrysomela hcemoptera in the cabinet of
our friend Curtis ; in which one of the thighs produces
a double tibia, but only one of these is furnished with a
tarsus.

The diseases of insects which arise from some internal
cause are not very numerous. The first that I shall
mention is a kind of vertigo. " Ants have also their
maladies," says M. P. Huber : "I have noticed one ex-
tremely singular ; the individuals attacked by it lose their
power of guiding themselves in a straight line, they can
walk only by turning round in a circle of small diameter
and always in the same direction. A virgin female shut
up in one of my glasses was seized on a sudden with this
distemper ; she described a circle of an inch in diameter,
and made about a thousand turns in an hour, or not
quite seventeen in a minute. She continued constantly
turning round for seven days, and when I visited her in
the night I found her still in motion. I gave her honey
— and I think that she ate some of it." He observed
that some workers were attacked by a similar disease :
one of these, however, had the power of walking from
time to time in a straight line ; when placed upon its head
it continued its gyrations '^. Similar motions of a little

■' yatiirf. xii. 224. t. v./. 8. * Ibid. xvi. t. iv./. 1—3.

"^ Huber Fourmis, 174. note 1,

S02 DISKASES OF INSKCTS.

moth, mentioned on a former occasion ^, may })erhaps have
been produced by the same cause. Bees are also sub*
ject to vertigo, which has been attributed to their eating
poisonous honey ^ — but may not this disease in all these
cases arise from some derangement of the nervous sy-
stem? One of the ants which was so affected had lost
one of its antennae; but as this was not the case with the
others, no great stress is to be laid upon the circumstance.
Huber does not inform us whether those attacked by
this disease recovered or not.

I have observed more than once, that \\\Q,Jicsh~jiy and
some others of the same tribe are subject in particular
seasons to a kind of convulsions. When thus attacked,
they kick and struggle, and seem unable to fly. Some-
times they lie upon their backs without motion, but if a
finger be placed near them their convulsive motions are
renewed. When thrown into the air, instead of flying,
they fall to the ground. Had this distemper occurred ear-
lier or later in the year I should have attributed it to the
benumbiny; eftects of cold ; but as my observations were
made one year (1816) in May^ and in another (1811) in
the latter end of June^ this could scarcely be the case.
In the year last mentioned I observed that many flies
died under its influence. In Met seasons this tribe is
subject to another disease, which proves fatal to many of
them, and indeed to other Diptera. A white crust ap-
pears to be formed upon the abdomen both above and
below, of a granular appearance, much resembling fine
moist sugar. On the back of that part this crust does

» Vol. II. p. 369. ^ N. Did. d'Hist. Nat. i. 42.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 20JJ

not cover the margins of the segments, which gives it
the appearance of white bands; so that deceived by it, I
have often at first flattered myself that I liad met with
some new species. The under-side of the abdomen is
wholly covered by it, divided in the middle into two lon-
gitudinal masses, the anal segment being bare. De Geer
has noticed this or a similar disease, which, when flies are
attacked by it, causes the abdomen to swell so as even
to burst, and the segments become dislocated. Upon
opening the abdomen it is found filled with a white unc-
tuous substance, which often accumulates (as above de-
scribed) on its external surface*. Dr. Host says that
in this disease when the animal is dead, the wings, which
were before incumbent, become extended, and its almost
invisible pubescence grows into long hairs ^. De Geer
seems to think that these flies are thus affected in conse-
quence of having eaten some poisonous food ^ ; but I ra-
ther suspect, as I have observed it become prevalent
chiefly in wet seasons, that it arises from a superabun-
dance of the nutritive fluid, or of the fat, so that it seems
to be a kind of j)lethora.

Mr. Sheppard once brought me a panicle of grass, the
glumes of which were rough with hairs, or small bristles,
to which several specimens of a fly related to Eumerus
pipiens Meig. adhered by their proboscis. At first 1
thought that having been entrapped by the bristles, and un-
able to extricate themselves, they had perished from want
of food ; but since when touched they readily dropped
from the glumes, some other cause, perhaps disease, pro-
bably occasioned this singular suspension of themselves.

" De Geer vi. 75. Latr. Hist. Nnt. xiv. 371.

'' Jaccjuin Collcctan. iii. t. xxiii. J'. 7. ^ Do Geer tiLi su2>r.

204 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

The maladies to which bees and silk-'vcorms are subject
are more interesting to us than those oi flies, on account
of their utiUty as cultivated insects. One of the worst
distempers which attacks the first of these animals is a
kind of looseness or dysenteyy : this happens early in the
year, when they are fed with too much honey without
any portion of bee-bread, and sometimes destroys whole
hives. Their excrements, instead of a yellowish red,
then become black, and the odour they emit is insupport-
able ; the bees no longer observe their usual neatness,
inducing them to leave the hive when they void their ex-
crements, but they defile it, their cells, and each other.
Several remedies have been prescribed for this disease.
To prevent it, a syrup made by an equal mixture of
good wine and honey is recommended ; and as a cure, to
place in the hive combs containing cells filled with bee-
bread^. But one of the worst maladies to which these
useful animals are subject, is that called by Schirach
Faua: Couvain. It originates with the larvae ; and is caused
either by their being fed with unwholesome food, or when
the queen, as sometimes happens, lays her eggs so that
the head of the grub is not in a proper position for
emerging from the cell when the period for its disclosure
is arrived : — the consequence is, that in both cases it dies
and becomes putrid, which sometimes produces a real
pestilence in a hive. The remedy for this evil is to cut
away the infected combs, and to make the bees undergo
a fast of two days''. The hive should be cleaned and
fumigated, by burning under it aromatic plants.

'^ Schirach Hist. &c. .54. Reaum. v. 713. N". Diet. d'Hist. Kat. i. 42.
»■ Ibid, and Schirach 56.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 205

The cultivators of the silk-worm in France have given
names to several diseases to which that animal is subject.
One is called La Rouge, and is supposed to be occasioned
either by too great heat, or by too sudden a transition from
cold to heat. It takes place when the caterpillar is first
hatched ; which lives perhaps, but in a very sickly state,
till it should spin its cocoon and assume the pupa, when it
expires. Another degree of the same disease is called Les
Harpiotis or Passis. A second distemper of this animal
is Des Vaches, Le Gras or La Saune: this is a mortal dis-
ease, supposed to be of a putrid nature, and produced
by mephitic air ; it shows itself after the second moult,
but rarely after the subsequent ones. When a catei'pil-
lar is first attacked, changing the air may prove a remedy ;
but when the disease has made progress, it is best to
burn or bury them, since if the poultry pick them up
they might be poisoned by them. A third disease of
silk-worms is called Les Marts Blancs, or Tripes, which
is also occasioned by impure air, when the leaves the
animal feeds upon are heaped so as to produce fermen-
tation. The caterpillars attacked by it die suddenly,
and preserve after their death the semblance of life and
health. Too great heat, whether artificial or natural,
occasions La Toivffe, another disease, which, when the
heat continues long, destroys all those that are arrived
at their last stage of existence in their larva state. Black
points scattered over different parts of the body, or livid
and blackish spots in the vicinity of the spiracles, fol-
lowed by a yellowish or rpddish tint, are symptoms of a
fourth malady, called La Muscardine. After this the ani-
mal soon dies, and becomes mouldy, but does not stink.

206 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

This disease is not contagious, and is thought to be
caused by a moist lieat, attended by pernicious exhala-
tions. La Liizette, Luisettc, or Clairhie^ is another ma-
lady, which shows itself most commonly after X\\efmirth
jmoult. It seems to arise from some original defect in
the egg. The caterpillars attacked by it may be known
by their clear red and afterwards dirty white colour ;
their body becomes transparent, and the matter of silk
exudes in drops from their spinnerets; consequently,
though as voracious as the rest, they are never able to
construct a cocoon, and should be destroyed. Les Dra-
gees is the name given to cocoons which include a larva
that never becomes a pupa. The cause of this disorder
has not been ascertained, and whole broods are some-
times subject to it, which, as in the last, seems to imply
some defect in the eggs. But as the caterpillar spins its
cocoon, and the silk is as good as usual, it is a malady
of no great importance. Lastly, sometimes the mulberry
leaves have a gummy rather acrid secretion, which
purges the silk-worms ; their excrement is no longer
solid ; they become weak and languid; and if the secre-
tion is abundant, their transpiration is impeded, and at
the time of moulting they are become so feeble as to be
unable to cast their skin^.

In the case of many caterpillars of Lepidoptera that
died. Bonnet found by dissection that the disease w^as
remotely occasioned by a diarrhoea^ which taking place
immediately before they became pupse, prevented the
inner membrane of their intestines from being rejected,

» Latr. Hiit. Nat. xiv. 1G3— . N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. iv, 134—.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 207

as it would have been if no extraordinary cause liad
prevented it, attached to the hard excrement. He found
this membrane converted into a jelly occupying great
part of the stomach, which he conjectured was the proxi-
mate cause of their death*.

To conclude this head — spiders are reputed to be sub-
ject to the stone : I do not say Calculus in Vesica ,- but
we are informed by Lesser that Dr. John Franck hav-
ing shut up fourteen spiders in a glass with some vale^
rian root, one of them voided an ash-coloured calculus
with small black dots ''.

II. I now come to that class of diseases which appears
to prevail almost universally amongst insects — I mean
those resulting from the attack of parasitic enemies.
Thus millions and millions annually perish before they
have arrived at their perfect state. Diseases of this kind
proceed either from vegetable or animal parasites. I shall
begin with the first, which will not occupy us long.

i. As insects pass often no small portion of their life
in a state of torpidity, in which they remain chiefly with-
out motion, it will not seem wonderful, should any par-
tial moisture accidentally accumulate upon them, that
it affords a seed plot for certain minute fungi to come up
and grow in. Persoon observes with regard to his ge-
nus Isaria, that onp species grows upon the larvce of in-
sects [I.truncata), and another upon pupa; (/. crassa'^): —
as he does not say upon dead larvae and pupae, as upon
a foi'mer occasion'', perhaps in these cases these plants
may constitute an insect disease ; but I lay no stress
upon it, and only mention the circumstance here as con-

* CEuvr. ii. 48-. ^ Lesser L. ii. 121.

'^ St/nops. Meth. Fung. GHj.g. C3. n. 1,2. '' Ibid. 4 g. 1. n. 4.

208 DISKASES OF INSECTS.

nected with the history of these animals. Mr. Dickson has
described a Sphceria under the name of entomorhiza that
grows upon dead larvae ; it has a slender long stipes and
spherical granulated head : on the pupa of a species
of Tettigonia in my cabinet, another kind of Sphirria,
with a twisted thickish stipes and oblong head, springs
up in the space between the eyes. I observed something
similar but longer, in the grub of some large beetle in
M. Du Fresne's museum at Paris ; and I have a memo-
randum of having noticed something of the kind on the
rostrum of a Calandra. Bees and humble-bees have
been sometimes thought to have some species of mucor or
other Fimgilli occasionally growing upon them; but
Mr. Brown is of opinion that stamina which they have
filched from flowers have been mistaken for these
Fungilli, since he has detected those of Orchidece in
some of this tribe, and upon a beetle shown to him by
Mr. MacLeay, one which he knew to be the stamen of
an Aristolochia. I once observed a bunch of what I mis-
took for a singular miicor that adorned the vertex of a
humble-bee, between the antennae, which doubtless were
of the same description ; and I even saw one upon its
wing. Upon a former occasion I mentioned a parallel
circumstance with respect to a species o^ Xylocopa^.

ii. The animal parasites that infest insects are either
themselves insects; or worms.

1. Their insect inkstQxs, as far as we know at present,
are confined to the Orders Strepsiptera, Hymenopiera,
Diptera, and Aptera: they attack them sometimes in their
egg state, most frequently when they are larvae, occasion-
ally when pupae, and very rarely in their perfect state.
* Vol.. Iir. p. 336-.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 2GJh

Upon many of these I have formerly enlarged ^, and I
shall now add such further circumstances as I then
omitted. The Sirepsiptera Order, as at present known,
consists only of two genera, Stylops and Xenos ; the first
being appropriated to the imago of Andrena F., a kind
of hee^ and the latter to that of the wasps. Their eggs
appear to be deposited in the abdomen of these insects in
which they feed, till having attained their full growth
they perforate the membrane that connects its segments ;
and at the proper time their pupa-case bursts, they emerge,
and take their flight. Sometimes four or five infest a
single bee. Whether the latter dies upon their quitting
it I have not been able to ascertain, but from their fly-
ing, when the little parasite is very near leaving them,
with their usual activity, it should seem that this disease
is not mortal ; but it probably prevents their breeding :
I do not recollect observing the exuviae of one in a male
bee".

The great body of insect parasites, however, belong
to the Hijmenoptcra Order, and chiefly to the Linnean
genus Ichneumon. The insects of this Order have been
denominated Pn'wc/p^5, because of the wonderful instincts
of ants, wasps, bees, and other gregarious tribes that be-
long to it ; and they merit a name of honour not less for
the benefits that they confer upon mankind, by keeping
within their proper limits the various insect-destroyers
of the produce of the globe. It deserves notice that
when these latter increase to a degree to occasion alarm,
their parasites are observed to increase in a much greater,
so as to prevent the great majority of them from breed-

" Vol. I. p.264— .

^ MoH. Ap. Aiigl. ii. 111. Linn. Trans, xi. 90—.
VOL. IV. V

210 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

ing*. Though these benefactors of the human race con-
stitute numerous genera, at present not well ascertained,
I shall speak of most of them under the common name
of Ichneumon.

The appearance of these little four- winged flies puzzled
much the earlier naturalists: — that a caterpillar usually
turning to a moth or butterfly should give birth to my-
riads oijiies^ was one of those deep mysteries of nature
which they knew not how to fathom ** : even the pene-
trating genius of our great Ray, though he ultimately
ascertained the real fact ^, was at one time here quite at
fault ; for he seems at first to have thought, when from
any defect or weakness nature could not bring a cater-
pillar to a butterfly, in order that her aim might not be
entirely defeated, that she stopped short, and formed
them into more imperfect animals'*.

Before I detail more particularly the proceedings of
Ichneumons, I shall make a few general remarks upon
them. The structure of the instrument by which they
are enabled to deposit their eggs in their appropriate
station has been before sufficiently described ^ ; it is long
or short according to the situation and circumstances of
the larva which receives them : if it lives in the open air,
and the access to it is easy, it is usually short and re-
tracted within the body ; but if it lies concealed in deep
holes or cavities, or shuns all approach, it is often very
long. Thus in Pimpla Manifestator, which commits its
eggs to the grub of a wild bee inhabiting the bottom of
deep holes bored in posts and rails, the ovipositor is

* Reaum. ii. 439. " Ibid. 415, Mouffet 57.
" Hist. Ins. Preef. xv. '' Cat. Cant. 137-

* See above, p. 154 — ,

DISEASES OT" INSECTS. 211

nearly an inch and half in length, and in some extra-
European species three inches. How the egg is pro-
pelled so as to pass in safety from the oviduct, along this
extended and very slender instrument to the grub for
which it is destined, has not been certainly ascertained ;
but from an observation of Reaumur's * it should seem
that it is aided in its passage by some fluid ejected at the
same time with it, or is so lubricated as to slide easily with-
out being displaced. The flies we are speaking of by
some authors are called Muscat vibi-antes, because when
searching for the destined nidus of their eggs their an-
tennae vibrate incessantly, and it is by the use of these
wonderful organs that they discover it wherever it lurks.
Bersman observed that Fceyius Jaculator searches for the
latent grub of certain bees and other Hymenoj)tera with
its antennae'': and from Mr. Marsham we learn that
Pimpla Mmiifestator^ before it inserts its ovipositor in the
nest of the grub of Chelostoma maxiUosa^ explores it first
with one antenna and then with the other, plunging
them all the while intensely quivering up to the very root '^.
With respect to their size^ Ichneumons vary greatly;
some being so extremely minute as to be invisible to the
naked eye, unless moving upon glass ; while others, as to
their length, emulate the giants amongst insects. The
former, unless appropriated to the eggs themselves, usu-
ally commit many eggs to a single larva, while the latter
are directed by their instinct to introduce into them only
one. Some of the former description are endowed with
the faculty of leaping'^. The food of Ichneumons, and

' Reaum. vi. 306. ^ Fn. Suec. 1626.

•^ Lhin. Trans, iii. 26. '' De Geer i. 608. Linne has

made a mistake with regard to the Ichneumon here alluded to, in
calling De Gear's saltatorious Ichneumon /. Muscarum, and referring

P 2

212 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

indeed of other internal parasites, is chiefly the epiploon
or fat of the larva, but they never touch any vital organ ;
so that it continues to feed, and probably more voraci-
ously, grow, cast its skin, and often it changes to a chry-
salis, although at the same time inhabited by an army of
these little devourers.

Ichneumons, as far as has been at present ascertained,
are parasitic upon other insects chiefly in their three first
states, a solitary instance only having been observed of
their inhabiting an imam; but from their first exclusion
as eggs from the ovary till their assumption of that state
they give them no rest. I shall therefore first treat of
those that infest the eggS; next those appropriated to
larvce ; and lastly those that devour pupce.

Vallisnieri appears to have been the first naturalist who
discovered that Ichneumons were appropriated to the
eggs of other insects. He observed one proceed from those
of the emperor-moth (Saturnia pavo7iia) : findingtwolioles
in each egg, one larger than the other, he conjectured
that one was made when it entered, and the other when
it emerged. In this case the esff of the Ichneumon must
be fixed on the outside of the egg it was to feed upon ;
though some appear to pierce it with their ovipositor,
and consequently introduce their egg within : for he says
afterwards ; " I have seen with my own eyes a certain
kind of wild flies deposit their eggs tipo?i other eggs, and
bore and pierce others with an aculeiis — by which they
have introduced the egg^," Count Zinanni, a corre-
spondent of Reaumur's, saw an Ichneumon pierce the

for it to t. xxxii,/. 19, 20 of that author j whereas the Ichneumon
that preys upon the aphidivorous flies does not jump, and is figured
by De Geer 605. /. xxxi\ ./. 26—29. The jumping one feeds on the
larva of a Cociinella. •' Vallisnieri Lettere, &c. 80.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 213

eggs with her ovipositor repeatedly ; which in about fif-
teen clays were filled with the pupa, and in six more pro-
duced the imago*. /. Ovulorum is the only hiov.vi species
of egg-devourers ; but most likely there are many, vary-
ing in size, according to the size of the egg they inhabit.
Probably /. Atoimis L., and I. Puuchim Shaw, are of this
description^. It is wonderful what a number these little
flies destroy : — out of a mass of more than sixty eggs
which was brought to De Geer, not one had escaped the
Ichneumon '^. But the most extraordinary thing is, that
even these little creatures we are told are destroyed by
another still more minute **.

Though the animals we are speaking of usually de-
stroy only a single egg, yet some appear not so to con-
fine themselves. Geoffrey informs us that the larva of '
one of the Ichneumons whose females are without wings
{Cry plus F.) devours the eggs of the nests of spiders, and
from its size — it is nearly a quarter of an inch long — it
must require several of them to bring it to maturity^. One
of those also which destroys the gnat infesting the wheat
(/. inserens K.) appears to devour them in their egg state,
and could not be brought to perfection by the food that
a single one would furnish ^.

The Ichneumons that are parasitic upon larvce are
the most numerous of all. Some of them are deposited
by the parent fly on the outside of their prey, and others
introduced into its interior. Ophion luteus F. is one of
the former tribe ; it plants its eggs in the skin of the ca-
terpillar of the puss-moth {Centra Vinula). Each egg is

^ Reaum. vi. 296 — . b Linne evidently has described

another species under /. Ovulorum, in Fn. Suec. 1044.

'■ De Geer i. 593—. i N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. vi. 10.

"= Geoffr. Hist. Ins. Par. ii. 361. f Linn. Trans, v. 102—.

214< DISEASES OF INSECTS.

furnished with a footstalk terminating in a bulb *, which
is so deeply and firmly fixed that it is impossible to ex-
tract it without detaching a portion of the animal with
it, and even when the caterpillar changes its skin it is not
displaced. After it is hatched, the grub, while feeding,
keeps its posterior extremity in the egg-shell, to which
it adheres so pertinaciously, that it is scarcely possible
to disengage it without crushing it. It fixes itself by its
mandibles to the skin of the caterpillar, and keeps con-
stantly sucking the contents of its body till it dies : some-
times nine or ten of these larvae inhabit a single caterpil-
lar''. Reaumur has given an account of other externallch-
neumons. Upon one caterpillar that he examined, they
were so numerous as to render the poor animal quite a
spectacle, and they underwent their metamorphosis at-
tached to it '^. One species of this description avenges the
cause of insects upon their most pitiless foes, the all-de-
vouring spider — for in the midst of her toils and lines of
circumvallation it makes her its prey. De Geer, meeting
one day with a young spider of a common kind, observed
with surprise, engaged in sucking it, a small white grub,
which was firmly attached to the abdomen near the trunk.
Putting it by in a glass, after some days he examined it
again ; when he observed that it had spun the outline of
a vertical web, had stretched threads from the top to the
bottom of the glass and from one side to the other, and
had also spun the radii that meet in the centre, and this
was all ; — but what was remarkable, the larva that had
fed upon it was suspended in the centre of this web,
where it was engaged in spinning its own cocoon, while

* Plate XX. Fig. 22. a. " Dc Geer ii. 850—.

^ Reaimi. ii. 444 —

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 215

the spider, exhausted by this last effort, had fallen dead
to the bottom of the glass. It cannot be asserted posi-
tively that this suspension of the larva of the Ichneumon
in the centre of the vv^eb alisoays takes place ; but if it does,
as seems most probable, it shows that this little parasite
is endowed with an instinct which causes it so to act upon
the spider as may induce it to spin a web so nicely timed
as to be sufficiently complete at the period of its death
and of the change of the Ichneumon, for the latter to cast
it down and assume its station^.

But the great bulk of the parasitic Hymenopterous de-
vourers of larvae have their assigned station xmthinthe, bo-
dy. As Entomologists in breeding insects have paid their
principal attention to Lepidoptera^ it necessarily follows
that their Ichneumon infestors must be most generally
known ; but doubtless the larvae of the other Orders are
not wholly liberated from this scourge : they also require
to be kept within due limits, and have their appropriate
parasites. Some, however, in most of them have been
detected ; of which I shall now proceed to state to you
the most interesting examples, beginning with the Co-
leoptera.

Alysia Manducator Latr. ^, remarkable for having man-
dibulae that do not close, and toothed at the end, usually
attends masses of dung, both of man and cattle, probably
for the purpose of depositing its eggs in some of the Co~
leopterous larvae that inhabit it. Mr. Stephens, one of the
most accurate observers as well as one of the best Ento-
mologists of the present day, informs me that he once
captured three specimens of Timarcha tenebricosa^ from

» De Geer ii. 863—. •■ Panzer Fn. Germ. Ink. Ixxii. 4.

216 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

each of whiph forty or fifty minute Ichneumons emerged.
An insect also of this Order, that is a great benefactor to
mankind, as a destroyer of the plant-lice, — I mean the la-
dy-bird (Coccinella), in its larva state is itself subject to the
attack, as we learn from De Geer, of one of these small
parasites ^. He detected them also in that of two species
of weevils {Curculio L.): and in the pupa of some large
grub of a beetle inhabiting the wood of the elm, perhaps
that of the stag-beetle, he found the pupa of one of those
Ichneumons that have an exserted ovipositor''. Doubt-
less, did we know their history, we should find that num-
berless species have their internal assailants belonging to
this tribe.

Orthopterous larvae seem not to have been yet an-
nounced as affording a pabulum to these animals : but
the late Dr. Arnold, whose tact for observation with re-
gard to the manners and economy of insects has rendered
his loss irreparable, discovered that the remarkable pa-
rasitic genus Evania F. was appropriated to the all-
devouring Blatta. Whether it attacked it in its egg or
larva state I have not been informed. This little bene-
factor is here extremely rare, at least in the country ; per-
haps in towns, where the cock-roach abounds, it may be
more common.

The observations of naturalists have chiefly been con-
fined to the Hemipterous genus Aphis ; but these early
attracted their notice. Leeuwenhoek has given a par-
ticular and entertaining account of the proceedings of
I. Aphidum L. As soon as the little flies approached
their prey, they bent their abdomen, which is rather
long, between their legs, so that the anus projected be-

» Dc Gccr. i. 583—. ii. 822- . 907. " Rcaum. vi. 312.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 217

yond the head ; then with their ovipositor they pierced
the body of the Aphis, at the same time carefully avoid-
ing all contact with it in every other part : whenever they
succeeded in their attempt, a tremulous motion of the
abdomen succeeded. Only a single egg is committed to
one Aphis: when hatched, the latter becomes very smooth
and appears swelled; it is, however, full of life, and moves
when touched. Those that are thus pricked separate
themselves from their sound companions, and take their
station on the underside of a leaf. After some days the
inclosed grub pierces the belly of the Aphis, and at-
taches the margin of the orifice to the leaf by silken
threads ; upon this it dies, becomes white, and resembles
a brilliant bead or pearl ^. De Geer observed also an
Ichneumon on the Coccus of the elm, /. Coccorum L''.

Amongst the Neuropterous tribes likewise, probably
the Ichneumonidcc commit their usual ravages ; but their
exploits, as far as I recollect, have met with no historian.
I have a small species related to Chelonns Jur., which a
memorandum made when I took it tells me was obtained
from J^slina viatica ; yet I do not remember ever tracing
that species to its final change, so that I must have taken
this Ichneumon from the perfect insect. It suffices, how-
ever, to prove that this tribe is also exposed to the attack
of these parasites. Where larvae and pupae are aquatic^
it seems probable, if any attack is made upon them, that
it must take place after they have quitted the water.

In the Hymenoptera Order itself, almost every genus
has been ascertained to have its Ichneumon parasites.
Not even the fortified habitations of the gall-flies {Cy-

» Leeuwenh. Epist. Oct. 6, 1700. De Geer ii.'869.
•> Ibid. i. 604.

218 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

nips S.) can escape them, almost every species becoming
their prey; a circumstance which puzzled not a little
some of the older naturalists, when they at one time saw
a fly not remarkable for its colours or brilliancy emerge
from the curious moss-like Bedeguar of the wild rose,
arid at another were struck by the appearance of one of
those splendid minims of nature which almost dazzle the
sight of the beholder*. Immunity, however, from this
pest seems to have been granted to the gregai'ious Hy-
menoptera; at least none has yet been discovered to at-
tack the ant, the wasp, the humble-bee, or the hive-bee ;
in which last, had there been one appropriated to it, it
could never have escaped the notice of the Reaumurs and
the Hubers. The solitary bees, however, as we have seen
above '^, do not escape; and Epipone spinipeSi a solitary
wasp which feeds its own young with a number of green
caterpillars *=, is itself, when a larva, though concealed in
a deep burrow, the prey of the grub of an Ichneumon,
which by means of a long ovipositor introduces its egg
into its body"*. Even these parasites, whose universal of-
fice it is in their first state to prey upon insects, are them-
selves subject to the same malady. Ichneumonidan de-
vourers are kept in check by other Ichneumonidan devour-
ers. These in some cases are so numerous as to destroy
the tithe of the kinds they attack ^. Thus an ever-watch-
ful Providence prevents these parasites from becoming
so numerous as to annihilate in any place the species ne-
cessary for the maintenance of the general economy and
proportion of animal and vegetable productions. Amongst

^ Rai. Hi&t. Ins. 259—. ^ See above, p. 209 ; and Vol. I. p. 354.
<^ Ibid. 346; -1 Reaum. vi. 303—.

^ Ibid. ii. 454—.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 219

the assailants of the Hymerioptera, none seem to have a
more laborious task assigned them than those that pierce
the various galls in which the larvae of the Cynips tribe
are inclosed. To look at an oak-apple, we should think
it a work of difficulty, requiring much sagacity and ad-
dress, for one of our little flies to discover the several
chambers lurking in its womb, and to direct their ovi-
positor to each of them. Its Creator, however, has
enabled it instinctively to discover this, and furnished it
with an appropriate elongated instrument, which will
open a way to the deep and hidden cells in which the
grubs reside, penetrate their bodies, and to each commit
an egg. When it prepares to perforate the gall, the Ich-
neumon begins by depressing this organ, that it may ex-
tricate it from its sheath ; it next elevates its body as high
as possible, and bending the instrument till it becomes
perpendicular to the body and to the gall, so as to touch
the latter with its point, it then gradually plunges it in,
till it is quite buried^. A veiy remarkable Hymenopte-
rous parasite [Leucospis), which when unemployed turns
its ovipositor over the back of its abdomen, so that its
end points to its head, is said to deposit its eggs in the
nest of the mason-bee, most probably in the larva : but
the curious observations that are stated to have been
made by M. Amedee Lepelletier upon its history have
not yet been given to the public''.

Dipterous insects, likewise, do not escape from these
pests of their Class : but few observations, however, have
been recorded as to the species assailed by them. We
learn from De Geer, that a gnat {Cecidomyia Juniperi\

^ De Geer. ii. 870—. '' N. Diet. d'Hisl. Nat. xvii. 513.

220 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

which forms galls upon the juniper is devoured by an ex-
ternal Ichneumon^ ; that which injures the wheat in the
ear, whose ravages I formerly mentioned to you'', af-
fords food to three of these parasites, — one I lately men-
tioned as probably devouring its eggs ; another pierces
the glumes of the floret, where its destined prey is con-
cealed ; and the third enters it. I once placed a number
of the larvae of the gnat upon a sheet of paper, at" no
great distance from each other, and then set down one
of these last Ichneumons in the midst of them. She be-
gan immediately to pace about, vibrating her antennae
very briskly: a larva was soon discovered, upon which
she fixed herself, the motion of her antennae increasing
intensely ; then bending her abdomen obliquely under
her breast, she inserted her ovipositor, and while the
egg was depositing these organs became perfectly mo-
tionless. The larva when pricked gave a violent wriggle.
This operation was repeated with all that had not al-
ready received an egg, for only one is committed to each
larva. I have often seen it mount one that was already
pricked, but it soon discovered its mistake, and quitted
it untouched*^. The only other Dipterous insects that I
liave seen mentioned as affording pabulum to an Ich-
neumon, are — one of the aphidivorous flies mentioned by
De Geer, who does not note the species, to the larva of
which the Ichneumon commits only a single egg, pro-
ducing a grub that entirely devours its interior '^; — and
two described by Scopoli, one, the larva of a^i/ frequent-

» De Geer vi. 411—. *> Vol. I. p. 170.

' Linn. Trans, iv. 236. ^ De Geer i. 605. This, as be-

fore observed, is not the 7. Mtiscarum of Linne ; but it ought to have
that name, and the other instead to be named I. CoccineUcE.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 221

ing hemp; and the other, which feeds on a Boletus, that
o^ ix. gnat^.

The Lepidoptera, however, is the Order over the larvae
of which the Ichneumons reign with undisputed sway ;
attacking all indiscriminately, from the minute one that
forms its labyrinth within the thickness of a leaf, to the
giant caterpillar of the hawk-moth. The most useful of
all, however, the silk-worm, appears, at least with us, ex-
empted from this scourge. De Geer, out of fifteen larvae
that were mining between the two cuticles of a rose-leaf,
belonging to the first tribe here alluded to, found that
fourteen were destroyed by one of these parasites, only
one coming forth to display itself in all its brilliancy and
miniature magnificence''. One of the most useful to us
is that which destroys the clothes-moth, which the same
writer also traced*^. Another, equally serviceable, takes
up its abode in the caterpillar that ravages our cabbages
and brocoli [Pier is Brassicce), which perish by hundreds
from its attacks. As this falls frequently under our no-
tice, it will not be uninteresting to give a fuller account
of it. Reaumur has traced and related its whole history.
One of these little flies that he observed, was so intent
upon the business in which she was engaged, that she
suffered him to watch her motions vnider a lens, without
being discomposed. She pursued nearly the same plan
of proceeding with that of the Ichneumon of the wheat-
gnat just described ; except that she repeated her opera-
tions frequently on the same caterpillar in different parts,
alternately plunging in and extracting her ovipositor.
She seemed to prefer the spot where the segments of the
body are united, particularly where the eighth meets the

"^ Ent. Cam. 7G0, 7G1. " De Geer i. 58/.

■^ Ibid. ii. 870 -.

222 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

ninth, and the ninth the tenth. When the fly had com-
pleted its work and quitted the caterpillar, Reaumur
gave it food, and it did not seem less lively and vigorous
than others of its kind : in less than a fortnight it as-
sumed the pupa ; and in four days, the whole of its inte-
rior being devoured, it died: but its parasites, perhaps
not finding a sufficient supply of nutriment in it, never
came to perfection*. Sometimes, however, these little
grubs arrive at maturity before the caterpillar has be-
come a chrysalis, when they pierce the skin and begin to
emerge. First appears a little white tubercle, which gra-
dually elevates itself in a direction perpendicular to the
body: while this is doing, a second appears in another
place ; and so on, till fifteen or sixteen are seen on each
side, giving the caterpillar a very grotesque appearance.
By the alternate contraction and relaxation of their bo-
dies the grubs effect their complete liberation, which takes
place, with respect to the whole, in less than half an hour.
When entirely disengaged, they place themselves close
to the sides of the caterpillar : even before this they be-
gin spinning, and draw unequal threads in different di-
rections, of which they form a cottony bed, which serves
as the base of the separate cocoon of each individual,
which they next construct of a beautiful silk thread of a
lovely yellow, which, if it could be unwound and in suffi-
cient quantit}^, would yield a silk unrivalled in lustre and
fineness^.

De Geer has recorded a very singular fact which de-
serves your notice. An Ichneumon, appropriated to one
of the Tortrices, had deposited its eggs in two of their
caterpillars; each produced a considerable number; but

' Reaum. ii. 417— ^ Il)id. 41&— .

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 223

those that emerged from one were aW females, and those
from the other, males *. He observed a similar fact take
place with Misocavipus Puparum ^. One might conjecture
from this circumstance, that as in the queen-bee •=, so in
these Ichneumons, the eggs producing the two sexes were
arranged separately in the ovaries. Reaumur has re-
lated, that in one instance three or four males were pro-
duced to one female ; and in another four or five females
to one male*^.

But though the great majority of insects are subject to
this Scolechiasis^ in their larva state, yet sometimes they
are not attacked by the Ichneumon till they have become
pupce. Of this kind is one just mentioned {M. Piipamm),
which commits its eggs to the chrysalis of the butterfly of
the nettle, Vanessa Urticcs: the moment this caterpillar
quits its skin to assume that state, while it is yet soft they
pierce it and confide to it their eggs*^. De Geer and
others have supposed that this same Ichneumon attacks
the Cocci and Coccinella^ ; but this probably is an erro-
neous supposition. Cryptus Compunctor F. also attacks
the pupae of butterflies ''.

If we consider the great purpose of Providence in
giving being to this tribe of destroyers — the keeping of
insects within their proper limits, — we may readily con-
ceive that this purpose is more effectually answered by
destroying them in their preparatory than in their ulti-
mate state, since at that time the laying of their eggs and
a future progeny could not so effectually be prevented ; —

•^ De Geer i. 583—. " Ihid. ii. 884.

c See above, p. 158. " Reaum. vi. 312.

® Vol. i. p. 99. ^ De Geer uhi supr.

s Ibid. 883. " Linn. Fn. Suec. 1G09.

224 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

this will account for there being few or no Ichneumons
appropriated to them in their latter state.

The next tribe of insect parasites are to be found in
the Diptera Order. The species that has been particu-
larly noticed as such is the Musca Larvarum L. ; its larva
is polyphagous, laying its eggs upo7i the bodies of cater-
pillars of different kinds. Sometimes a pair is placed on
the first segment, sometimes on the head itself, and some-
times near the anus. These eggs are very hard, convex,
of an oval figure, polished and shining like a mirror.
They are fixed so firmly that if you attempt to remove
them with a penknife the skin comes off with them.
When hatched, they enter the body and feed on the in-
terior, and, imdergoing their metamorphosis within it, do
not emerge till they enter their perfect state. The cater-
pillar thus attacked lives long enough to spin its cocoon,
when it dies*. Sometimes, however, these animals quit
their prey sooner. Reaumur saw a grub of one of the
Musciddo come out of a caterpillar, and then become a
pupa, which was so large that he wondered how it could
have been contained in the animal it had quitted^.

We have now done with those parasites that produce
in insects the disease I have called Scolechiasis'^ : the
rest, which belong to the Aptera Order, will afford us
examples both of Phtkiriasis and Acariasis^.

I begin with the ^rst. Mr. Sheppard once brought
me a specimen of a bird-louse [Nirmus) which he took
upon a butterfly ( Vanessa 16) : and should such a capture
be more than once repeated, it would afford a certain
instanceofthe^r^^ of these diseases amongst insects; — but

^ Reauni. ii. 443. De Geer i. 19G-, 550—. vi. 24,

b Reaura. ii. 440—. <-■ Vol. I. p. J)!). '' Ibid. 84, 97.

DISKASFS or INSF.CTS. 'iS/J

most probably the specimen in question had cho[)ped
from some bird upon the butterfly. The only remaining
animal belonging to the apterous hexapods that is })ara-
sitic on insects, is by many supposed to be the larva of a
giant beetle [Meloe Proscarabatis). I have before alluded
to this animal *, and shall now resume the subject, Goe-
dart, Frisch, and De Geer, observed that it deposited in
the earth one or two considerable masses, containing an
infinite number of very minute orange-coloured eggs
adhering to each other, which in about a month were
hatched, and produced a number of small hexapods dis-
tinguished by two pairs of anal setae and a proleg, by
means of which they could move readily upon glass, as I
have myself seen : these little animals precisely corre-
sponded with one found by the latter author xx^onSyrphus
intricaria ; and when that fly was placed amongst them,
they immediately attached themselves to it, so as to leave
no doubt of their identity''. A congenerous species had
been detected upon wild bees, and described by Linne
under the name of Pediculns Apis. De Geer is so
thoroughly to be depended upon for his veracity and ac-
curacy of observation, that we cannot suppose there is
any incorrectness in his statement. If the mass of eggs
be, as he represents it, of the size of a hazel-nut, it must
have been the product of a very large insect : in confir-
mation of this opinion it may be further observed, that
the larva of the kindred genus Cantharis Latr. agrees
with it in having anal setae, though it appears to differ
in having only two conspicuous segments in the trunk '^.
Those which infest wild bees make their first appearance

» Vol. T. p. 16:2. note ^ Vol.. III. p. 163. note ^
'' De Geer v. 8—, ^ Naturf. xxiii. t. i./.8.

VOL. IV. 2

226 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

upon acrid plants, which the Meloe likewise feeds upon ;
from whence with wonderful agility they leap upon the
Andrence, &c. that visit these flowers. Strong, however,
as all these facts appear, still we cannot help exclaiming
with the illustrious Swede last named, Who could ever
have imagined that the larva of this great beetle would
be found upon the body of Jiies, — and we may add, or
bees P Who could ever imagine that it would feed like
a bird-louse and resemble it so closely ? that in the in-
sertion of its palpi it should exhibit a character exclu-
sivelij belonging to that tribe ^ ? Another circumstance
seems to indicate that these hexapods at the time that
they take their station in bees or flies are perfect insects
— they do not vary in size, at least not materially. Where,
we may also ask, if they are to become large beetles,
where do they take their principal growth ? It cannot
be as parasites on the little bees or flies that they are
usually found upon ; they must soon desert them, and
like their kindred blister-beetles, as is most probable,
have recourse to vegetable food. W^hat an anomaly in
rerum natura ! It is much to be wished that some skil-
ful insect-anatomist would carefully dissect the Meloe ; or
perhaps by digging round the roots of the ranunculuses
and other acrid plants the larva of that beetle might be
discovered in a later stage of growth, and so this mystery
be cleared up. I should observe here, that Scopoli has
described three parasites as Pediculi; viz. P. rostratus,
coccineus, and Cerambycinus ; the first of which Fabricius
has adopted under the name of P. Gryllotalpcr, but which
are all evidently hexapod Acarina^.

^ N. Diet. d'Hixt. Nnt.w. 110—. " Ent. Crirn. 105^'— 4.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 227

Acariasis seems a disease almost as universal amongst
insects as Scolechiasis ; with this difference however, that
Acar ixwosi commonly take their station upon them in their
perfect state. You have doubtless often observed the com-
mon dung-beetles (Gd^o/rMjae^Latr.) covered on the under-
side of their body with small mites (Gamastcs Coleoj^trato-
rum Latr.) which look as if they were engaged in suction
— they are often so numerous that no part is uncovered ;
they also attack other beetles *, and are sometimes found
on humble-bees. They are easily disturbed, run witli
gi-eat swiftness, and may often be seen in hot-beds and
fermenting dung prowling in search of the stercora-
rious beetles. But the most remarkable insect of this
kind is the Uropoda vegetans: it derives its nutriment
fi-om the insects it assails not by its mouth, but by means
of a long anal pedicle by which it is attached to them.
De Geer found these in such numbers upon a species of
Leptura, that its whole body was almost covered with
them ; they hung from the legs and antennae in bunches,
and gave the animal a most hideous and disgusting ap-
pearance. Under this load of vermin it could scarcely
walk or move, and all its efforts to get rid of them were
in vain : many were attached to its body and to each
other by their anal pedicles, but others had cast them
off and were walking about. When put into a glass
with earth, they began to abandon their prey, so that
in a few days it was quite freed from its plagues. He
found that these parasites lived long in alcohol''.

If you inquire — How are these mites originally fixed by
their pedicles ? it seems most probable, that as the He-

•' //?><£■/• particularly. '■ De Geer vii. 126 — .

O 2

228 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

merohii, when they lay their eggs, know how to place
them upon a kind of footstalk, so the parent Uropoda
has the same power ; and this pedicle appears to act the
part of an umbilical chord, conveying nutriment to the
foetus not from a placenta, but from the body of the in-
sect to which it is attached ; till having thus attained a
certain maturity of growth and structure, it disengages
itself and becomes locomotive. Many eggs of the aqua-
tic Acarina [Hydrachia, &c.) are also furnished with a
short pedicle by which they are fixed to Dytisci and
other water insects. De Geer found some of this de-
scription on the underside of the water-scorpion, so
thickly set as to leave no void space : they were oval, of
a very bright red, and of different sizes on different indi-
viduals ; whence it was evident that they grow when thus
fixed : when hatched or released — for perhaps they may
be regarded as fcetuses in their amnios rather than eggs
— they cease to be parasitical. Let us admire on this
occasion, (piously observes this great Entomologist,) the
different and infinitely varied means by which the Au-
thor of Nature has endowed animals, particularly in-
sects, for their propagation and preservation : for it is a
most extraordinary sight to see eggs grow, and pump as
it were their nutriment from the body of another living
animal*. As these mites are fixed to the C7iist as well as
its inosculations, they must have some means of forcing
their nutriment through its pores.

Another insect, remarkable for its resemblance in some
respects to the scorpion — called in this country the book-
crab {Chelifer ca.ncroides\ from its being sometimes found

^ De Gccr vii. 144 — .

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 229

in books — occasionally is parasitic upon flies, especially
the common blue-bottle-fly [Musca xmnitoria). They
adhere to it very pertinaciously under the wings ; and if
you attempt to disturb them, they run backwards, for-
wards, or sideways, with equal facility.

2. We now come to a perfectly distinct tribe of in-
sect parasites, which belong to that section or order of
intestinal xwrms which Rudolph has denominated En-
fozoa 7iematoidea, and Lamarck Vers rigidules^. To
this tribe belong the Gordius of Linne and the Filaria
of modern zoologists, which from the experiments and
observations of DeGeer, Dr. Matthey,&c. appear to have
been too hastily separated, being really congenerous, and
living indifferently in water and in the intestines of in-
sects and other animals'*. To this genus belong the
guinea-worm [Gordius medinensis L.'^), the Furia infer-
nalis L., and several others that are found in various
vertebrate animals. These little worms have been dis-
covered in insects of almost every Order ; and their at-
tack generally produces the death of the animal, though
they appear not to devour those parts that are essential
to life'*. I once took a specimen of Harjmlus azureus,
and upon immersing it in boiling water I was surprised
to see what at first I mistook for an intestine, thrust itself
forth; but upon a nearer inspection, to my great sur-
prise I found it was one of these worms, thicker than a
horse-hair and of a brown colour. Mr. W. S. MacLeay

' Lsmaxck A7ihn. sans Vert. iii. 196.

'' De Geer ii. 554 — . Pictet Bibliotheq. Univers. num. ult.

' The existence of this animal has been satisfactorily ascertained
by M. de Blainville, who had a specimen, extracted from a human
body, sent him by M. Girard, a surgeon of Guadaloupe.

'' De Geer ii. 555,

230 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

also once found one in Abax striola. It still remains in
my specimen, making it appear as if it had a long tail.
De Geer long ago found these worms in grasshoppers * ;
but Dr. Matthey has given the fullest account of one
which infested Acrida viridissima. A friend of his no-
ticing one of these insects which had not strength enough
to leap and could scarcely even walk, being struck with
the circumstance, caught the animal, upon which its hind
legs were immediately detached from it. His surprise
was greatly increased when he saw issue from its body a
cylindrical worm about two feet and a half in length. Upon
being called. Dr. M. soon recognised it for a Gordius or
Filariu; and on his putting it into water, it moved in it
with great velocity, twisting its long and slender body in
all directions. Upon opening the body of the grass-
hopper, nothing appeared within it but the intestine
shrunk up to a thread. A few days after, another was
brought, which appeared in full vigour, but its abdomen
was enormously distended, and from it another worm was
extracted, which remained without motion rolled in a
spiral direction : intending to preserve this in spirits of
wine — as it had become flat he first immersed it in water,
that it might recover if possible its cylindrical form.
Upon immersion a movement took place m the animal,
and it gradually recovered its plumpness ; but it still re-
mained without motion, as if dead, for nearly five days,
when another living specimen being brought and placed
with it, as soon as water was poured on them, the seem-
ingly dead one began to show by a slight oscillation in
its extremities that life was not extinct in it. Fresh wa-

' De Geer ii. 555.

DISEASES OF INSECTS. 231

ter being poured upon it, at the end of the day it had
recovered all its strength and agility. He afterwards
often repeated the same experiment with a similar re-
sult*. From this account it appears that the Gordius or
Filaria has a property resembling that of the Vibrio Tri-
tici, so well described and so beautifully figured by
M. Bauer '', of apparently dying and being resuscitated
by immersion in water. How long it can retain this
property remains to be ascertamed.

De Geer states that he had seen them of the length of
two feet *= ; but they vary considerably in this respect. In
ants, in which Gould detected them, he states their
length to be not more than half an inch"^. In caterpil-
lars, which they sometimes infest, they are longer ; in
that of Bomiiyx Ziczac, De Geer found one three inches
and a half long ^; and Rosel three, of six inches, in that of
SjpJmixEuphorbice ^ ; and in Phalangium cornutum, accord-
ing to Latreille, they extend to more than seven inches s.
In the larva of a Phryganea L. the author first named
found one which was more than a foot long, correspond-
ing exactly with the Gordius aquaticus of Linne ; being
forked at one extremity, brown above, gray below, and
black at each end ''. These animals appear to die as soon as
they leave the body ' they have preyed upon; except this
happens in water, when their activity has no repose. In
this element they give their bodies every possible in-
flexion, often tying themselves in knots in various places,

* Matthey ubi supr. '' Philos. Trans. 1823. 8. t. i. ii.

" De Geer ii. 556. '' Gould Ants, 63.

" De Geer i. 551. f Rosel I. iii. 20.

'"^ Latr. Founnis, 373. •• De Geer ii. nhi supr. L xiv./. 12—14.

' Ibid. i. 553.

232 DISEASES OF INSECTS.

interlacing and twisting themselves in a hundred different
ways ; so that when confined in the body of an insect,
from their extreme suppleness and power of contortion
they find sufficient space wherein to pack their often
enormous length*. Linne makes one of their habitats
clay ; and Mr. W. S. MacLeay finds them very common
at Putney in clay at the bottom of pools.

Dr. Matthey asks — How does the Gordius get into
Locusta viridissima^l And De Geer — Why do they die
after having quitted a caterpillar? and where do they
perpetuate their species '^ ? These questions, without
further observations, cannot easily be answered. How-
ever, it may be supposed that carnivorous insects, such as
Harpali^ &c. may swallow them when found apparently
dead in clay, where the water has been evaporated, or
when they have been ejected by other insects ; and they
may revive in their bodies, as Dr. Matthey found them
to do in water. It is not difficult to conjecture that the
larvae of Phryganece may meet with them when young in
the water, and sometimes unluckily swallow them with
their food. Why they become as dead when they emerge
from their prey we cannot at pi'esent conjecture ; but no
doubt to answer some wise purpose; — in rainy seasons
they probably revive and get into little hollows full of
rain-water. Upon De Geer's last question — How they
perpetuate their species — at present I can offer no con-
jecture.

^ De Geer ii. 556. t. xiv./. 12, 13. " Uhi supra.

' De Geer i. 553.

LETTER XLV.

SENSES OF INSECTS.

At first one would think that the senses of insects
might be described in very few words, and scarcely af-
ford matter for a separate letter ; but when we find that
physiologists are scarcely yet agreed upon this subject,
and that the use of some of their organs, which appear
to be organs of sensation, has not yet been satisfactorily
ascertained — we shall not wonder that the subject requires
more discussion than at the first blush we were aware of.
In treating on this subject I shall first say something on
the senses in ge?ier-al, and then confine myself to those of
insects.

Touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight, I need not tell
you, is the usual enumeration of the senses : but as the
term includes every means of communication with the
external world, the list perhaps might be increased ;
and there is ground for thinking that the number seve?i,
so signalized as a sao'ed number*, may also here have
place. Dr. Virey, an eminent physiologist, whose sen-
timents on various subjects I have before noticed with
approbation'', appears to be of opinion that there are

•■ Vol. III. p. 15. note '. ^ Ibid. 58—. See above, p. 26.

234- SENSES OF INSECTS.

really seven senses ; which he divides into those that are
altogether physical, and those that are more connected
with the intellect. The first of these divisions contains
four senses, — touch, love, taste, and smell ; — the second
three, — hearing, sight, and the internal sense of thought,
or the brain ^. That he is right in adding love^ to the
list seems to me evident, because it is as distinct from
touch, as smelling and taste are. With regard to the
other, though it may be expected that there should be
a transitive sense connecting the intellect (if I may so
speak) with the external organ of sense, and as a medium
by which the former can receive the notices of the external
world furnished by the latter ; yet it seems improper to
make the entire brain itself a se)ise. We know that the
agent between the common sensory and the sense is the
consciousness or perception of the impression. " Seeing
we may see and not perceive, and hearing we may hear and
not understa^id" The picture may be painted upon the
retina of the eye, the sound may strike upon the tympa-
num of the ear ; but neither the one nor the other be re-
ceived by the intellect, unless the internal power or fa-
culty of perception be in action and mediate between
them. This is what I mean by the internal sense, which,
to use a term of Mr. W. S. MacLeay's ^, is osculant be-
tween intellect and sense, or forms the transit from one
group of powers to the other.

Of the ordinary senses, sight holds the first rank : it
can dart to the region of the stars, and convey by the

^ N. Diet. cVHist. Nat. xxx. 584.

h By love here is meant the physical act.

' Hor. Entomolog. 37.

SENSES or INSECTS. 23.5

perceiving sense, to the sensory, ideas of innumerable ob-
jects. Next in rank is hearing, which can receive sounds
from a great distance ; but the ideas it remits are confined
only to one object, the variations of tones. In the other
organs the sensitive power is much more confined. There
is another difference between the intellectual and physi-
cal senses: — the former are the only ones that receive
and convey sensations of the beautiful and sublime ; of
harmony and discord, — the latter, though they minister
more to our sensual enjoyments, add nothing to our
intellectual; and therefore too devoted an indulgence
in them debases our nature, and levels us with the brutes,
which use their eyes and ears only for information, not
for pleasure^.

In man the ordinary five senses are usually in their
greatest perfection, although in some animals particular
senses have a greater range. The Vertebrates in general
are also gifted with the same number, though there are
some exceptions. But in the Invertebrates they are sel-
dom to be met with all together in the same object. The
Cephalopods have no smell. Several Gasteropods can
neither hear nor see. The animals of bivalve shells have
neither eyes, nor ears, nor smell ; and the zoophytes and
the races below them have, it is affirmed, only the single
sense of touch, which in them is so extremely delicate as
to be acted upon even by light^.

Not so our insects. These, there is good reason to be-
lieve, possess all the ordinary senses. That they can
see, touch, taste, and smell, no one denies. Linne and

^ JV. Diet. d'Hist. Nal. xxx. 584-
'' Ciiv. Anal. Comp. ii. 362.

236 SENSES OF INSECTS.

Bonnet, however, thought them deprived of hearing* ;
but numerous observations prove the contrary. That
they hear in their larva state, is evident from facts stated
by the latter physiologist. He found that the sound of
his voice evidently affected some caterpillars ; which he
attributes, but surely without reason, to the delicacy of
their sense of touch : at another time, when some cater-
pillars of a different species were moving swiftly, he rang a
small bell ; upon which they instantly stopped and moved
the anterior part of their body very briskly''. That
they possess this faculty in their imago state is confirmed
still more strongly by facts. I once was observing the
motions of an Apion under a pocket microscope : on see-
ing me it receded. Upon my making a slight but di-
stinct noise, its antennae started : I repeated the noise
several times, and invariably with the same effect. A
Harpalus, which I was holding in my hand, answered
the sound in the same manner repeatedly. Flies, I have
observed, at brisk and distinct sounds move all their
legs ; and spiders will quit their prey and retire to their
hiding places. Insects that live in society give notice
of intended movements, or assemble their citizens for
emigration by a certain huin ^. But the most satisfactory
proof of the hearing of these animals is to be had from
those Orthoptera and Memiptera whose males are vocal.
Brunelli kept and fed several males o^Acrida viridissima
(a grasshopper with us not uncommon) in a closet, which
were very merry, and continued singing all the day ; but
a rap at the door would stop them instantly. By prac-
tice he learned to imitate their chirping : when he did

* Syst. Nat. i. 535. Bonnet CEuvr. ii. 36. " Ibid.

' Vol. II. p. 163.

SENSES OF INSECTS. '237

this at the door, at first a few would answer him in a
low note, and then the whole party would take up the
tune and sing with all their might. He once shut up
a male in his garden, and gave the female her liberty ;
but as soon as she heard the male chirp, she flew to him
immediately^.

But although physiologibts are for the most part agreed
that insects have the ordinary five senses of vertebrate
animals, yet a great variety of opinions has obtained as
to their external organs ; so that it has been matter of
doubt, for instance, whether the antenna are for smell,
touch, or hearing ; and thepalpi for smell, taste, or touch.
Nor has the question, as it appears to me, been satisfac-
torily decided : for though it is now the most general
opinion that the primary use of antennae is to ea:plo7-e as
tactors, yet by the most strenuous advocates of this opi-
nion they are owned not to be universally so employed ;
so that granting this to be one of their principal functions,
yet it seems to follow that there may be another common
to them all, which of course would be their primary func-
tion. We are warned, however, not to lay any stress
upon the argument to be drawn from analogy ; and told
that we might as well dispute about the identity of the
nose of a man, the proboscis of the elephant, the horn of
the rhinoceros, the crest of the cock, or the beak of the
toucan ^. But this is merely casting dust in our eyes : for
though three of these are nasal organs, bearing nostrils,-
the two others have no relation to the question, the horn
of the rhinoceros and the crest of the cock being merely
appendages, and have no more analogy to the nose and

* Lehmann De Sens. Ex-tern. Animal. Exsang. 2i2 — .
'' Ibid. Dc Anlenn. Imect. ii. 7^^.

238 SENSES OF INSECTS.

nostrils, which co-exist with them, than they have to the
eyes or ears. I have on a former occasion observed, that
a gradual change sometimes takes place in the functions
of particular organs ; but still, generally speaking, this
observation regards secondary functions — the primaiy
usually remaining untouched. We may say, for instance,
with regard to the primary use of the legs of animals,
that it is locomotion ; while the secondary is either walk-
ing, running, jumping, flying, or swimming, according
to the circumstances and nature of the animal. Thus
the fore-legs of the Mmmnalia, in birds become isoings,
and both pair in Jisk are changed to Jins. Again, the
primary use of the heart of animals is the elaboration of
the nutritive fluid ; its secondary, to be the organ of a
system of circulation, by which that fluid may alternately
receive and part with oxygen : but in the dorsal vessel
of insects which is analogous to the heart, the circulation
ceases, the oxygenation of the blood being effected by
other means; but still its primary function, the prepara*-
tion of the nutritive fluid, as there is reason to think, is
discharged by it*. So that it seems a law to which Na-
ture in most cases adheres. Observe, I do not say always
and invariably, but in most cases, — that analogous parts
have analogous uses, at least as far as primary uses are
concerned. When, therefore, we cannot have demon-
strative evidence concerning the function of an organ
discoverable in any animal, we may often derive satis-
factory probable arguments from the analogies observa-
ble in their structure compared with that of other animals,
concerning the nature of whose organs we have no doubt.

" See above, p. 88, 90, note "^ ; comp. p. 115.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 239

In Tact, the chief evidence we have with regard to the of-
fice of the organs of sense in the animals immediately be-
low ourselves, is that of analogy ; — because ive see with
our eyes, hear with our ears, &c., we conclude, with rea-
son, that thei/ do the same.

In inquiring therefore into what may be the most ge-
neral use of the antennae of insects, I shall endeavour to
discover whether there is any part in the higher animals
to which they may be deemed to exhibit any analogy.
And here I must refer you to what I have said on a for-
mer occasion upon the present subject ; where I made it
evident, I hope, that the great bulk of the parts and or-
gans of insects, in this particular differing from the ma-
jority of Invertebrates, are, some in one respect, some in
another, and some in many, really analogous to those of
the higher animals^ ; and that a great many of them,
though varying in their structure, have the same func-
tions. Thus the analogues of the ei/es of Vertebrates
are for seeing; of the Jaws for masticating ; of the lips
for closing the mouth ; of the legs for 'walkings &c. We
have seen also very recently, that a similar analogy, more
or less strongly marked, holds also in their internal or-
gans*' ; so that it may be safely affirmed, that if all the
invertebrate insects, though gifted with numerous pe-
culiarities, present the most striking picture of those ani-
mals that have an internal skeleton, and more particular-
1}' of the Mammalia^ — we may assume it as a probability,
the above circumstances being allowed their due weight,
that where facts do not prove the contrary, the function
of analogous organs is more or less synonymous, though

» Vol, III. p. 43 — . i" See above, p. 1 — .

240 SENSES OF INSEC'l'S.

perhaps the structure and modus operandi may be dif-
ferent.

In the letter lately referred to, I observed that the an-
tennae of insects are analogous to ears in Vertebrates'.
Their number corresponds ; they also stand out from the
head ; and what has weighed most with me, unless they
are allowed as such, no other organ can have any preten-
sion to be considered as representing the ear. If we re-
flect, that in every other part and organ, the head of in-
sects has an analogy to that of Ma7nmalia, we must re-
gard it as improbable that these prominent organs should
not also have their representative. Admitting then that
they are the analogues of ears, it will follow, not as de-
monstratively certain, but as probable, that their primary
function may be something related to hearing. I do not
say direct hearings or that the vibrations of sound are
communicated to the sensorium by a complex structure
analogous to that of the internal ear in Mammalia — but
something related to hearing. I conceive that antennae,
by a peculiar structure, may collect notices from the at-
mosphere, receive pulses or vibrations, and communicate
them to the sensorium, which, though not precisely to be
called hearing, may answer the same purpose. From
the compound eyes that most of them have, the sense of
seeing in insects must be very different from what it is in
vertebrate animals ; and yet we do not hesitate to call it
sight: but since antennae, as we shall see, apparently
convey a mixed sensation, I shall have no objection, ad-
mitting it as their primary function, to call it after Leh-
mann Aeroscepsy^. I lately related some instances of

Vol. III. p. 46, '' De Antejin. Insect, ii. H5 — ,

SENSES OF INSECTS. 241

sound producing an effect on the antcnnce of insects : I
will now mention another tiiat I observed, still more re-
markable. A little moth was reposing upon my window ;
I made a quiet, not loud, but distinct noise : the antenna
nearest to me immediately moved towards me. I re-
peated the noise at least a dozen times, and it was fol-
lowed every time by the san:ie motion of that organ; till
at lenoth the insect being alarmed became more agitated
and violent in its motions. In this instance it could not
be touch; since the antenna was not applied to a surface,
but directed towards the quarter from which the sound
came, as if to listen. Bonsdoi'f made similar observa-
tions, to which Lehmann seems not disposed to allow
their proper weight^. It has been used as an argument
to prove that antennae are primarily tactors, or instru-
ments of touch., that Fcenus Jaculator, before it inserts its
ovipositor, plunges its antenna into the hole forming
the nidus of the bee, to the grub of which it commits its
ego-^. But had those who used this argument vieasured
the antennae and the ovipositor of this ichneumon, they
would have discovered that the latter is thrice the length
of the former : and as these insects generally insert it so
that even part of the abdomen enters the hole, it is clear
that the antenna cannot touch the larva ; its object there-
fore cannot be to explore by that sense. Others suppose
that by these organs it scents out the destined nidus for
its eggs ; but Lehmann has satisfactorily proved that
they are not olfactory organs. We can therefore only
suppose, either that by means of its antennae it hears a,
slight noise produced by the latent grub, perhaps by

" Ibid.A'i. '- Ibid. 26,

VOL. IV. R

24-2 SENSES OF INSECTS.

the action of its mandibles ; or else that by its motions it
generates a motion in the atmosphere of its habitation,
which striking upon the antennae of the Fcerms, are by
them communicated to its sensory. A similar dispropor-
tion is observable between the antennae and ovipositor of
Pimpla Manifestator, before signalized ^. Bees, when col-
lecting honey and pollen, first insert the organs in ques-
tion into the flowers which they visit ; but, as I have more
than once observed, they merely insert the tip of them. If
anthers are bursting, or the nectar is exuding, these pro-
cesses probably are attended by a slight noise, or motion
of the air within the blossom, which, as in the last case,
affects, without immediate contact, the exploring organs.
If the structure of antennae be taken into considera-
tion, it will furnish us with additional reasons in favour of
the above hypothesis, with regard to their primary func-
tion. We shall find that these organs, in most of those
insects which take their food by suction, are usually less
gifted with powers of motion, than they are in the man-
dibulate tribes ; so that in the majority of the Homo-
pterous Hemiptera and Diptera, as is generally acknow-
ledged, they cannot be used for touch. Under this view,
they may be divided into active antennae and passive an-
tennae : of the former, the most active and versatile are
those of the Hymenoptera. By means of them, as was
before observed'', their gregarious tribes hold converse,
and make inquiiy — frequently without contact — in the
pursuit and discharge, if I may so speak, of the various
duties devolved upon them by Providence. Amongst
active antennae, some are much more complex in their

» See above, p. 211. " Vol. II. p. 62, 201—.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 243

Structure than otliers — a circumstance which is often cha-
racteristic of the male insect^ : but if we examine such
antennae, we shall find that their most sensitive parts can-
not come in contact with the earth or other bodies for
exploring their way ; but having thus a greater surface
exposed to the action of the atmosphere, they have more
points to receive vibrations, or any pulses or other no-
tices communicated to it. It is thus, probably, that in
their flights, when they approach within a certain di-
stance, they discover the station of the other sex. Even
the plumose antennas of male gnats may in some re-
spects thus be acted upon. In the Lamellicorn beetles,
the knob of these organs in both sexes consists of laminae,
the external ones on their outside, of a corneous sub-
stance; while their internal surface, and the inner laminae
— which are included between Ihem, as an oyster between
the valves of its shell — are covered with nervous pa-
pillae. If you examine the proceedings of one of these
little animals, you will find before it moves from a state
of repose that its antennas emerge, and the laminae di-
verge from each other ; but that it does not apply them
to surfaces to explore its way, but merely keeps them
open to receive notices from the atmosphere. Even sim-
ple antennae are often employed in this way, as well as
for touch. I once noticed a species of Phryganea L.,
(one of those with these organs very long,) that was perch-
ed upon a blade of grass ; its antennae vibrated, and it
kept moving them from side to side in the air, as if thus
by aeroscepsy it was inquiring what was passing around
it. Dr. Wollaston has an observation bearing so pre-

=> Vol. III. p. 320—.
R 2

24f4t SENSES OP INSECTS.

cisely upon this question, and in general so extremely simi-
lar to what is here advanced, that I must copy it for your
consideration. " Since there is nothing in the constitution
of the atmosphere," says he, " to prevent vibrations much
more frequent than any of w^hich we are conscious, we may
imagine that animals like the Grylli, whose powers ap-
pear to commence nearly where ours terminate, may have
the faculty of hearing still sharper sounds, which at pre-
sent we do not know to exist ; and that there may be
other insects, hearing nothing in common with us, but
endued with a power of exciting, and a sense that per-
ceives, vibrations indeed of the same nature as those
which constitute our ordinary sounds, but so remote, that
the animals who perceive them may be said to possess
another sense, agreeing with our own solely i^i the medium
by which it is excited, and possibly wholly unaifected by
these slower vibrations of which we are sensible *." That
insects, however, hear nothing in common with us, is
contrary to fact; at least with respect to numbers of them.
They hear our sounds, and we theirs ; but their hearing
or analogous sense is much nicer than ours, collecting
the slightest vibratiuncle imparted by other insects, &c.
to the air. In inquiring how this is done, it may be asked
— How know we that every joint of some antennae is not
an acoustic organ, in a certain sense distinct from the
rest? We see that the eyes of insects are usually com-
pound, and consist of numerous distinct lenses ; — why
may not their external ears or their analogues be also
multiplied, so as to enable them with more certainty to
collect those fine vibrations that we know reach their

" PMlox. Trans. 18.20. tilA.

SENSES OF INSECTS. '24f5

sensory, though they produce no effect upon our grosser
organs ? I propose this merely as conjecture, that you
may think it over, and reject or adopt it, in proportion as
it appears to you reasonable or the contrary ; and in the
hope that some anatomist of insects, who, to the sagacity
and depth of a Cuvier and a Savigny adds the hand and
eye of a Lyonnet, may give to the world the results
of a more minute dissection and fuller investigation of
the antennae of these animals, than has yet been under-
taken.

But besides receiving notices from the atmosphere, of
sounds, and of the approach or proximity of other in-
sects, &c., the antennae are probably the organs by which
insects can discover alterations in its state, and foretel
by certain prognostics when a change of weather is ap-
proaching. Bees possess this faculty to an admirable de-
gree. When engaged in their daily labours, if a shower
is approaching, though we can discern no signs of it,
they foresee it, and return suddenly to their hives. If
they wander far from home, and do not return till late
in the evenmg, it is a prognostic to be depended upon,
that the following day will be fine : but if they remain
near their habitations, and are seen frequently going and
returning, although no other indication of wet should be
discoverable, clouds will soon arise and rain come on.
Ants also are observed to be excellently gifted in this re-
spect : though they daily bring out their larvae to sun
them, they are never overtaken by sudden showers^.
Previously to rain, as you well know, numberless insects
seek the house ; then the Conors calcitrans, leaving more

^ Lehmauii Dc Usu Antenn. ii. 66 — ,

246 SENSES OF INSECTS.

ignoble prey, attacks us in our apartments, and inter-
rupts our studies and meditations^. The insects of prey
also foresee the approach of this weather, and the access
of flies, &c. to places of shelter. Then the spiders issue
from their lurking-places, and the Uarpalidce in the even-
ins run about our houses. Passive antennae, which are
usually furnished with a terminal or lateral bristle, and
plumose and pectinated ones, seem calculated for the ac-
tion of the electric and other fluids dispersed in the atmo-
sphere, which in certain states and proportions may cer-
tainly indicate the approach of a tempest, or of showers,
or a rainy season, and may so affect these organs as to ena-
ble the insect to make a sure prognostic of any approach-
ing change : and we know of no other organ that is so
likely to have this power. I say electric fluid, because when
the atmosphere is in a highly electrified state, and a tem-
pest is approaching, is the time when insects are usually
most abundant in the air, especially towards the evening ;
and many species may then be taken, which are not at
other times to be met with : but before the storm comes
on, all disappear, and you will scarcely see a single indi-
vidual upon the wing. This seems to indicate that in-
sects are particularly excited by electricity''. — But upon
this head I wish to make no positive assertion, I only
suggest the probability of the opinion *^.

From all that has been said, 1 think you will be dis-
posed to admit that the primary and most universal func-
tion of the antennae is to be the organs of a sense, if not
the same, at least analogous to hearing, and answering

» Vol. I. p. 48, 110.

*• Compare what is said above (p. 135) with respect to bees.

*■ See, for further arguments, Lehmann ubi supr. c. ix.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 247

the same end ; something perhaps between it and touch.
In some, however, as has been found in the Crustacea^
an organ of hearing, in the ordinary sense, may exist at
the base of the antennae, which may act the part in some
measure of the external ear, and collect and transmit
the sound to such organ *.

That numerous antenn£E, as a secondmy function, ex-
plore by touch, is admitted on all hands, and therefore I
need not enlarge further upon this point ; but shall pro-
ceed to inquire whether insects do not possess some other
peculiar organs that are particularly appropriated to this
sense. First, however, I must make some general ob-
servations upon it. Of all our senses, touch is the only
one that is not cojtfined to particular organs, but dispersed
over the whole body : insects, however, from the indu-
rated crust with which they are often covered, feel sen-
sibly, it is probable, only in those parts where the nerves
are exposed, by being covered with a thinner epidermis,
to external action. Not that they cannot feel at all in
their covered parts ; for as we feel sufficiently for walk-
ing, though our feet are covered by the thick sole of a
boot or shoe, so insects feel sufficiently through the crust
of their legs for all purposes of motion. Besides, the
points that are covered by a thinner cuticle are often nu-
merous ; so that touch, at least in a passive sense, may be
pretty generally dispersed over their bodies ; but active
or exploring touch is confined to a few organs, as the
antennce, the palpi, and the ar7}is. The two last I shall
now discuss. ,

Marcel de Serres thinks he has discovered an organ of hearing
in most insects, but he does not state its situation. Me7n, du Mus.
1819. 99.

248 SENSES OF INSECTS.

Various opinions have been started concerning the use
of the palpi. Bonsdorf thought that they were organs of
smell; Knoch, that this sense was confined tothemaxillaiy
ones, and that the labial ones were appropriated to taste ^ :
but the most early idea, and that from which they derive
their present name of palpi [Jeelers), is, that they are or-
gans of active totcck ; and this seems to me the most cor-
rect and likely opinion. Cuvier, himself a host, has em-
braced this side of the question '', and Lehmann also ad-
mits if^. The following observations tend to confirm
this opinion. The palpi of numerous insects when they
walk, are frequently, or rather without intermission, ap-
plied to the surface on which they are moving — this you
may easily see by placing one upon your hand ; which
seems to indicate that they ^xe feelers. In the Araneidce
they are used as legs ; and by the males at least, as exci-
ting if they be not really genital organs ''. In the Sco7--
pionidcB they answer the purpose of hands : besides being
usually much shorter than antennae, they are better cal-
culated to assist an insect in threading the dark and tor-
tuous labyrinths through which it has often to grope
its way, and where antenna? cannot be employed. I
have noticed that Hydrophili — in which genus the palpi
are longer than the antennae — when they swim, have their
antennae folded; while the palpi are stretched out in front,
as exploring before them. As the palpi are attached to
the undei'-jaws and under-lip, we may suppose they are

3 Lehmann T)e Sens. Extern. Anim. E.vsang. De Olfactu.

'' Ciiv. Anat. Comp. ii. 675. "^ Ubi sujjr.

<• Marcel de Serres says they are connected with testes seated in
the trunk, (Alem. die Mus. 1819. 95); but Treviran us denies this
{Arachnid. 36—. t. iv./. 33).

SENSES OF INSECTS. 249

particularly useful to insects in taking their food ; and
upon this occasion I have often observed that they are
remarkably active. I have seen Byturus tomcntosus, a
beetle vi^hich feeds upon pollen, employ them in opening
antherfe ; and the maxillary pair appear to me to assist
the maxillae in holding the food, while the mandibles are
at work upon it.

The arms or fore-legs of some insects are also organs
of active touch, being used, as we have seen, for cleaning
the head, digging, repairing their dwellings, and the
like*. By the EpJiemercE, which have very short an-
tennae, the fore-legs, when they fly, are extended before
the head, parallel with each other and quite united — pro-
bably to assist in cutting the air. The Trichoptera use
their antennae for the same purpose.

Another sense of which the organ seems uncertain is
that of smelling^ and various and conflicting opinions
have been circulated concerning it. Christian thought
that insects smell distant objects with their antennae, and
7iear ones with their palpi^. Comparetti has a most sin-
gular opinion. He supposes in different tribes of insects
that different parts are organs of smell : in the Lamelli-
conis he conjectures the seat of this sense to reside in the
k?iob of the antennce; in the Lepidoptera in the antlia;
and in some Diptera and Orthopter'a in certain frontal
cells'^. At first sight, one of the most reasonable opi-
nions seems to be that of Baster, adopted by Lehmann,
and which has received the sanction of Cuvier'', — that

» Vol. ir. p. 365—. III. p. 546 -. '' Lehmann De Sens.

Extern. S(c. De Olfactu. '' Lehmann ubi supr. &c. 27.

'i Jdid. and De Usu Antenn. ii. 24 — . Cuv. Anal. CoDiji.ii. 675.

250 SENSES OF INSECTS.

the spiracles are organs of smell as well as of respiration.
Lehmann has adduced several arguments hi support of
this opinion. Because we both respire and smell with
our nostrils, he concludes that neither the antenna? nor
any other part of the head of insects can serve for smell,
since they are not the seat also of respiration ; and that
there can be no smell where the air is not inspired^.
Again, because nerves from the ganglions of the spinal
chord terminate in bronchiae near the spiracles, they
must be for receiving scents from those openings. Though
it was necessary, in the higher animals, that the organ of
scent should be near the mouth, because they are larger
than their food ; yet the reverse of this being the case
with insects, which often even reside in what they eat, it
is to them of no importance where their sense of smelling
resides^. By exposing antennae, by means of an orifice
m a glass vessel, to the action of stimulant odours, they
appeared quite insensible to it : but he does not name
the result of any experiment in which he exposed the
mouth to this action ; nor at all distinctly how the insect
was affected when the spiracles were exposed to if^.

But though some of these arguments appear weighty,
there are others, I think, that will more than counterba-
lance them, making it probable that the seat of this sense
is in the head, either in its ordinary station at the extre-
mity of what 1 call the nose, between it and the upper-lip,
or under those parts. That the nose corresponds with
the so-named part in Mammalia, both from its situation
and often from its form, must be evident to every one
who looks at an insect^ ; and when we further consider

" Lehmann De Usu Antenn. ii. 28. *• Ibid. 31.

' Ibid. 35-. " Vol. III. p. 175—.

SENSES OF INSECTS. 251

the connexion that obtains between the senses of smell and
taste, how necessary it is that the seat of the one should
be near that of the other, and that it really is so in all
animals in which we certainly know its organ* ; we shall
feel convinced that the argument from analogy is wholly
in favour of the nose, and may thence consider it as pro-
bable that the sense in question does reside there. Leh-
mann seems to be of opinion, because an insect is usually
smaller than what it feeds upon, that it makes no differ-
ence whether it smells with its head or with its tail: but
one would think that ajlying insect would be more rea-
dily directed to its object by smelling with the anterior
part of the body than with the posterior ; and that b, feed-
ing one would also find it more convenient in selecting its
food. As to the argument, — that smell must be the ?ieces-
sary concomitant of the respiratory openings, and that
there can be no smell where the air is not inspired, —
this seems asserting more than our knowledge of these
animals will warrant : for the organs of the other senses,
though the senses themselves seem analogous, are so
different in their structure, and often in the mode in
which they receive the impressions from external objects,
that analogy would lead us to expect a difference of this
kind also in the sense of smell. Besides, smell does not
invariably accompany respiratory organs even in the
higher animals, — for we breathe with our mouths, but do
not smell with them. Cuvier says that the internal mem-
brane of the tracheae being soft and moist, appears cal-
culated to receive scents''. But here his memory failed
him ; for it is the external membrane alone that answers

^ iV. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxiii, 210. " Ubi supr.

252 SENSES OF INSKCTS.

this description ; the ijiternal consisting of a spiral elastic
thread, and seeming not at all fitted to receive impressions,
but merely to convey the air*. That nerves penetrate
to the bronchiae, does not necessarily imply that they are
connected with the sense in question, since this may be
to act upon the muscles which are every where distri-
buted.

I shall now state some facts that seem to prove that
scents are received by some organ in the vicinity of the
mouth, and probably connected with the nose. M. P. Hu-
ber, desirous of ascertaining the seat of smell in bees,
tried the following experiments with that view. These
animals, of all ill scents, abominate most that of the oil
of turpentine. He presented successively to all the
points of a bee's body, a hair-pencil saturated with it : but
whether he presented it to the abdomen, the trunk, or
the head, the animal equally disregarded it. Next,
using a very fine hair-pencil, while the bee had extended
its proboscis, he presented the pencil to it, to the eyes
and antennae, without producing any effect ; but when he
pointed it 7iear the cavity of the viouth, above the insertion
of the proboscis, the creature started back in an instant,
quitted its food, clapped its wings, and walked about in
great agitation, and would have taken flight if the pencil
had not been removed. On this, it began to eat again ;
but on the experiment being repeated, showed similar
signs of discomposure : oil of marjoi'am produced the
same effect, but more promptly and certainly. Bees not
engaged in j^£?rf/«o- appeared more sensible of the impres-
sion of this odour, and at a greater distance ; but those

* See above, p. 62. Sprengel Cummentar. 14 — .

SENSES OE INSECTS. 253

engaged in absorbing honey might be touched in every
other part without being disturbed. He seized several
of them, forced them to unfokl their proboscis, and then
stopped their mouth with paste. When this was become
sufficiently dry to prevent their getting rid of it, he re-
stored to them their Hberty : they appeared not incom-
moded by being thus gagged, but moved and respired
as readily as their companions. He then tempted them
with honey, and presented to them near the mouth, oil
of turpentine, and other odours that they usually have
an aversion to ; but all produced no sensible effect upon
them, and they even walked upon the pencils saturated
with them^.

These experiments incontestibly prove that the organ of
scent in bees — and there is no reason to think that other
insects do not follow the same law — is in or near the
mouthy and above the proboscis. It remains, therefore,
that we endeavour to discover its precise situation : and
as insects cannot tell us, nor can we perceive by their
actions, in what precise part the sense in question resides,
the only modes to which we can have recourse to form
any probable conjecture, are analogy and dissection. At
first, the opinion noticed above, that the palpi are its or-
gans, seems not altogether unreasonable ; but as the ar-
gument from analogy, except as to their situation near
the mouth, is not in favour of them, and there seems no
call, were smell their function, for the numerous variations
observable in their structure, I think we must consider
them, as I have endeavoured to prove, rather as instru-
ments of touch. Let us now inquire, whether there be

^ Huber Aheille.s ii. 375-.

254 SENSES OF INSECTS.

not discoverable upon dissection, in the interior of the
head of any insects, some organ that may be deemed,
from its situation, under what we have called the nose
and nostrils, the seat of the sense we are treating of.
The common burying-beetle {Necrophorus Vespillo) is
an insect remarkable for its acuteness of smell, which
enables it to scent out and bury, as was formerly related
to you*, the carcases of small animals. Take one of
these insects, and kill it as formerly directed, — examine
first its nose : in the middle of the anterior part you will
see a subtrapezoidal space, as it were cut out and filled
with a paler piece of a softer and more membranous tex-
ture. Next divide the head horizontally ; and under the
nose, and partly under this space, which I call the rhi-
nariimi or nostril-piece'', you will find a pair of circular
pulpy cushions, covered by a membrane transversely
striated with beautifully fine sti'iae. These are what I
take to be the organs of smell, and they still remain dis-
tinctly visible in a specimen I have had by me more
than fifteen years. A similar organ may be discovered
in the common water-beetle [Dytiscus 7nargmalis\ but
with this peculiarity, that it is furnished with a pair of
nipples. I have before described an analogous part co-
vered with papillae, in ^shna viatica, and you will find
it in other insects '^. Perhaps at first this part may seem
merely a continuation of the palate ; but if you consider
the peculiarities in its structure just noticed, it is evi-
dently a sensiferous organ ; and as the sense of smell ap-
pears to reside in the head, this is its most probable seat.
But by what channel scents act upon it, — whether they

^ Vol. I. p. 350—. " Vol. III. p. 481—.

' Ibid. p. 455—.

SENSES OP INSECTS. 2B$

are transmitted through the pores of the part represent-
ing the nostrils, or received by the mouth, — I will not
venture to assert positively : but from the circumstance
of their being membranous in some insects remarkable
for acute scent, as in Necrophoms, Staphylinus, &c., there
seems some ground for ihe former opinion. As the sense
of smell in these little beings is extremely acute, as well
as their hearing, the perception of odours may reach their
sensory through these pores ; and even those in the hard
rhinarium of an Anoplognathus may receive and trans-
mit them ; and besides the upper-lip and nose are often
united by membranes which may facilitate such trans-
mission.

That insects taste, no one hesitates to believe, though
some have supposed the palpi to be the organ of that
sense ; but as they have a tongue, as we have shown, we
may with Cuvier conclude, thai, one of its primary func-
tions is to taste their food^. I shall not therefore launch
out further upon this head.

I have now placed before you a picture, or rather
sketch, of the insect world. And whether we regard their
general history and economy, their singular metamor-
phoses, the infinite varieties and multiplicity of their
structure both external and internal, and their diversi-
fied organs both of sense and motion — I think you will
be disppsed to own, that in no part of his works is the
hand of an Almighty and All-wise Creator more vi-
sibly displayed, than in these minutiae of creation ; that
they are equally worthy of the attention and study of the

» Cuv. Anut. Comp. ii. 682—.

254 SENSES OF INSECTS.

not discoverable upon dissection, in the interior of the
head of any insects, some organ that may be deemed,
from its situation, under what we have called the nose
and nostrils, the seat of the sense we are treating of.
The common burying-beetle [Necrophorus Vespillo) is
an insect remarkable for its acuteness of smell, which
enables it to scent out and bury, as was formerly related
to you^, the carcases of small animals. Take one of
these insects, and kill it as formerly directed, — examine
first its nose : in the middle of the anterior part you will
see a subtrapezoidal space, as it were cut out and filled
with a paler piece of a softer and moi-e membranous tex-
ture. Next divide the head horizontally ; and under the
nose, and partly under this space, which I call the rhi-
narium or nostril-piece^, you will find a pair of circular
pulpy cushions, covered by a membrane transversely
striated with beautifully fine striae. These are what I
take to be the organs of smell, and they still remain dis-
tinctly visible in a specimen I have had by me more
than fifteen years. A similar organ may be discovered
in the common water-beetle {Dytiscus marginalis), but
with this peculiarity, that it is furnished with a pair of
nipples. I have before described an analogous part co-
vered with papillae, in ^slina viatica, and you will find
it in other insects *=. Perhaps at first this part may seem
merely a continuation of the palate ; but if you consider
the peculiarities in its structure just noticed, it is evi-
dently a sensiferous organ ; and as the sense of smell ap-
pears to reside in the head, this is its most probable seat.
But by what channel scents act upon it, — whether they

=> Vol. I. p. 350—. » Vol. Ill, p. 481—.

"= Ibid. p. 455—.

SENSES OF INSECTS.

are transmitted through the pores of the part represent-
ing the nostrils, or received by the mouth, — I will not
venture to assert positively : but from the circumstance
of their being membranous in some insects remarkable
for acute scent, as in Necrophorus, Staphylimis, &c., there
seems some ground for ihe former opinion. As the sense
of smell in these little beings is extremely acute, as well
as their hearing, the perception of odours may reach their
sensory through these pores ; and even those in the hard
rhinarium of an Anoplognathus may receive and trans-
mit them ; and besides the upper-lip and nose are often
united by membranes which may facilitate such trans-
mission.

That insects taste, no one hesitates to believe, though
some have supposed the palpi to be the organ of th^t
sense ; but as they have a tongue, as we have shown, we
may with Cuvier conclude, that, one of its primary func-
tions is to taste their food ^. I shall not therefore launch
out further upon this head.

I have now placed before you a picture, or rather
sketch, of the insect world. And whether we regard their
general history and economy, their singular metamor-
phoses, the infinite varieties and multiplicity of their
structure both external and internal, and their diversi-
fied organs both of sense and motion — I think you will
be disppsed to own, that in no part of his works is the
hand of an Almighty and All- wise Creator more vi-
sibly displayed, than in these minutiae of creation ; that
they are equally worthy of the attention and study of the

^ Cuv. Amt. Coinp. ii. 682—.

258 ORISMOLOGY.

A. GENERAL ORISMOLOGY.
I. SUBSTANCE.

1. Membranous {Membranacea). A fine, thin, trans-

parent substance. A Membrane. Ex. Wings of
Hymenoptei'a and Diptera.

2. Pergameneous {Pergamenea). A thin, tough, and

less transparent substance, somewhat resembHng
parchment. Ex. The Tegmina of the Orthoptera^.

3. Coriaceous [Coriacea). A thicker, flexible sub-

stance, resembling leather. Ex. Elyti-a of 2'ele~
phonis and the Malacodermi Latr.

4. Corneous (Cornea). A hard inflexible substance

resembling horn. Ex. Elytra of Lxicanus Cervus
and many other Coleoptera.

5. Crustaceous (Crustacea). A rigid calcareous sub-

stance. Ex. The Shell of a Lobster or Crab.

6. Callous [Callosa). A substance without pores,

harder than the surrounding matter, and usually
elevated above it, Ex. Elevated parts of the Collar
in Nomad a F. (Mon. Ap. Angl. Apis * b.)'' Spots on
the elytra q{ Stenocorus bimacidatus and affinities.

7. Cartjlagineous [Cartilaginea). A gristly substance

between bone and ligament. Ex. The Tongue of
many Hymenoptera.

8. Subereous [Suberea). A soft elastic substance

somewhat resembling cork'^. The galls of some

" The elytra of this Order in general differ so niaterially both
from membrane and corimn, that it was requisite to invent a term
to distinguish them. ^ Alon. Ap. Angl. \. t. y.f. 8. b, c.

••' We use this term because siiberosa is employed in a quite differ-
ent sense.

ORISMOLOGY. 259-

species of Cyiiips when mature approach to this
substance.
9. Spongiose {Spongiosa). A soft clastic substance re-
sembling sponge. Ex. The Pulvilli of Thanasi'
mus, Buprestis, &c.

10. Ligneous [Lignosa). A hard unelastic substance

like wood. Ex. Galls of some species of Cyiiips.

11. Carnose (Carnosa). A soft, jlesliy substance.

Ex. Caterpillars and Grubs.

12. TuBULosE (Tubulosa). When the interior is hol-

low or empty.

13. Solid [Solifia). When the interior I'nfull.

II. RESISTANCE.

1. Rigid [Jiigida). Hard, which does not bend or yield

to pressure. Ex. Curcidio L.

2. Flexile {Flexilis). Which easily bends, or yields to

pressure without breaking. Yiyi. Elytra o^Telephor us.
S. Soft [Mollis). Flexile and retaining the marks of
pressure. Ex. Elytra of Meloe.

III. DENSITY.

1. FoLiACEOUS [Eoliacea). Very thin and depressed,

scarcely thicker than a leaf. Ex. Aradus corticalis
and Coreus paradoxus.

2. Depressed [Depressa). When the vertical section

is shorter than the trarisvet'se. Ex. Trogosita mau-
ritanica.

3. Compressed [Compressa). When the transverse

section is shorter than the vertical. Ex. Centrotus
cornutiis : Abdoryien in Cynips.
H 2

260 ' ORISMOLOGY.

4. Plump {Pinguis). Naturally and proportionably

plump. Ex. The Brachyrini ovati Latr. {Curcu-
lio L.). Most of the Tettigonice.

5. Obese (Obesa). Unnaturally enlarged and distended,

as if from disease or too much food. Ex. Chryso-
mela Polygoni ? , Galeruca Tanaceti ? , Brachy-
ce7'us.

6. Venteicose ^Ventricosa). Bellying out as if filled

with air. Ex. Pneumora.

IV. PROPORTION.

1 . Thick (Crassa). Disproportionably thick through-

out. Ex. Copris F.

2. Incrassate [Incrassata). Disproportionably thick

in part. Ex. Base of the Abdomen of uEshna and
many Libellulina. Plate IX. Fig. 9.

3. Slender ( Tenuis ). Disproportionably slender

throughout. Ex. Lixus paraplecticus.

4. Attenuate {Attenuata). Disproportionably slen-

der in part. Ex. Tail of Scorpio, Ilaphidia(S,
&c.

5. Broad {Lata). Disproportionably broad through-

out.

6. DiLATATE (Dilafata). Disproportionably broad in

part. 'Ex. Elytra of LycusJasciatuSi&iC, Plate XIII.
Fig. 20.

7. Narrow ( Angusta ). Disproportionably narrow

throughout. Ex. Abdomen of Agrioti F.

8. Angustate (Angustata). Disproportionably nar-

row in part. Ex. Elytra of Sitaris humeralis.
Plate XIII. Fig. 19.

ORISMOLOGY. 261

9. Long {Longa). Disproportionably long throughout.
Ex. Scolopendra.

10. Elongate {Elofigata). Disproportionably long in

part. Ex. Abdomen of Libellulina.

11. Short (Brm5). Disproportionably short through-

out. Ex. Copris.

12. Abbreviate {Abbreviata). Disproportionably short

in part. Ex. Elytra of StaphylinidcBy Atracto-
cerus, &c.

V. FIGURE*.

1. Circular (Cz>cM/«m). Having the diameter every

way equal. Plate XXIX. Fig. 16, 17.

2. RoTUNDATE [Rotundato). Rounded at the angles

or sides. Plate XXIX. Fig. 19.

3. Oval [Ovalis). Having the longitudinal diameter

ttxiice the length of the transverse, and the ends
circumscribed by equal segments of a circle.
Plate XX. Fig. 6.

4. Elliptic (Elliptica). Oval, but having the longi-

tudinal diameter more than twice the length of the
transverse. Plate XX. Fig. 19.

5. Oblong [Oblonga). Having the longitudinal dia-

meter more than fwice the length of the transverse^
and the ends varying, or rounded. Plate XX.
Fig. 3, 9.

6. Ovate (Oua^a). Oval, but having the ends circum-

scribed by unequal segments of circles. Plate XX.
Fig. 12, 13.

7. Cordate (Corrfaiftt). Heart-shaped. Ovate or sub-

• We restrict the term Figure, to the shape of a superficies.

263 ORISMOLOGY.

ovate and hollowed out at the base, without pos-
terior angles. Plate IX. Fig. 22.

8. Sagittate {Sagittata). Arrow-shaped. Triangu-

lar, hollowed out at the base with posterior angles.
Plate XXVII. Fig. 41. w".

9. Hastate {Hastata). Halberd-shaped. Triangu-

lar, hollowed out at the base and sides with the
posterior angles spreading. Ex. Horn of the pro-
thorax of Dynastes h.astatus. Postfurca in many
Coleoptera. Plate XXII. Fig. 5. b f.

10. Triangular ; Quadrangular ; Quinquangu-

LAR ; Sexangular {Ti'iangula; Qiiadrangida ;
Qiiinqicajigula ; Sexangula). Having three, four.
Jive, or six angles.

11. Turbinate {Turbinata). Top-shaped, triangular

with curved sides. Plate XXV. Fig. 18.

12. Ensate (Ensata). Gradually tapering till it ends

in a point. Ex. Ovipositor oi' Acrid a viridissima K.
Plate XV. Fig. 19.

13. Lanceolate [Lanceolata). Oblong and gradually

tapering towards each extremity. Ex. The Cerci
in Blatta. Plate XV. Fig. 23. Q'.

14. SiGMOiDAL {Sigtnoidea). S-shaped. Lanceolate

and concave on one side at the base, and on the
other at the apex. Ex. Ovipositor of Cimbex.
Plate XV. Fig. 21. H".

15. Cuneate {Cuneata). Wedge-shaped. Having the

lo7igitudinal diameter exceeding the transverse,
and narrowing gradually downwards. Plate X.
Fig. 11.

16. Acinacicate (yfmiac/cfl/a). Falchion-shaped. Curv-

ed with the apex truncate, and growing gradually

OBISMOLOGY. 263'

wider towards the end. Ex. Abdomen of OpJiioUy
FcetmSy and otlier Ichneumonidce^.

17. LuNULATE {Lunulata). Crescent-shaped. Curved

with both ends acute, Hke the moon in her first
quarter. Ex. Last joint of the labial falpi of
Oxyporus. Plate XIII. Fig. 4. a.

18. Falcate {Falcata). Sickle-shaped. Curved with

the apex acute. Ex. Ovipositor of Acrida varia K.
Antejincc oi Atractocenis. Pi- ate XI. Fig. 8.

19. Linear [Linearis). Narrow and of the same width

throughout. Ex. Witigs of Plerojjhorus monodac-
tyhis.

20. Arcuate [Arcuata). Linear and bent lilie a bow.

Ex. Rostrum o'^ Balaninus Nuciim. Plate XIII.
Fig. 12.

21. Cultrate (Cw/^ra/a). Coulter-shaped. Straight on

one side and curved on the other. Ex. Ovipositor
of some Tenthredos. Under-'wing of many Ich-
neumonidoe.

22. Spatulate {Spatidata). Spatula-shaped. Broader

and rounded at the apex\ linear and narrow at
the base. Ex. Abdomen of Ichneumon amicforius
Panz.

23. Clavate (Clavata). Club-shaped. Linear at the

base, but towards the opex growing gradually
broader. Plate XI. Fig. 4.

24. Quadrate (Quadrata). Square. Quadrilateral

with the sides eqtial and the angles right angles.

"" The term falcate has usually been applied to signify this figure,
as well as that to which we have restricted it ; but as the truncate
and shai'p extremity forms a striking diiference, we thought it best
to invent a new term.

264 ORISMOLOGY.

25. Rhomboid {Rhomhoidea). Quadrilateral with the
sides equal, but with two opposite angles acute, and
two obtuse. Plate XXVII. Fig. 62. /".
'26. Trapezate {Trapezata). Quadrilateral with the
four sides unequal, and none of them perfectly pa-
rallel. Plate XIV. Fig. 4.

27. Trapezoid (7V-«p^2;o?c?m). Quadrilateral, with ^wo

sides unequal and parallel*. Plate XXVI.
Fig. 34. b'.

28. Pat^allelogramical [Parallelogrdmica). Qua-

drilateral, with all the angles right angles, and all
the sides parallel, but two longer than the others.

VI. FORM^

1. Spherical (,S/»/i(^nc«). Theshapeof a^ZoZie. A body

whose diameter every way is equal. Plate XX.
Fig. 5.

2. Orbiculate (Orbiculata). A depressed globe,

whose Jiorizontal section is circular, and vertical
ovah Plate XX. Fig. 10, 11.

3. Lenticular [Lenticularis). Lens-shaped. Whose

horizontal section is circular, and vertical lanceo-
late. Ex, Abdomen of Cynips aptera.

4. Ov aliform (OuaZ//orww). ^^Yvose longitudinal sec-

tion is oval, and transverse circular. Plate XX.
Fig. 6.

5. Ellipsoid {Ellipioidea). Whose longitudinal sec-

* We have departed from the more usual definition of trapezoid,
*' An irregular figure whose four sides are not parallel," because the
above is best suited to forms in insects.

'' We use this term to denote the shape of solid bodies.

ORISMOLOGY. 265

tion is elliptical, and transverse circular. Plate XX.
Fig. 19.

6. Oviform [Oviformis). Whose lojigitudinal section

is ovate, and transverse circular. Plate XX.
Fig. 12, 13.

7. CucuMiFORM [Cucumiformis). Cucurrber-shaped.

Whose longitudinal section is oblong, and trans-
verse circular. Plate XX. Fig. 18, excluding
the neck.

8. CoRDiFOiiM {Cordiformis). Oviform and hol-

lowed out at the base without posterior angles.
Plate IX. Fig. 22.

9. Conical (Conica). Whose vertical section is trian-

gular, and horizontal circular. Ex. Abdomen of
Ccelioxys conica Latr. [Apis * * b. K.). Plate XX.
Fig. 7.

10. TuRBiNiFORM {Turbiniformis). Whose vertical

section is turbinate, and horizontal circular. Ex.
Antenna of Aleochara socialis Grav., and many
others of that genus.

11. Vyramidai. (Pi/ramidalis). Whose Ufr^zVa/ section

is triangular, and horizontal quadrangular.

12. Cuneiform (Cwwez/orww). Whose u^r^/cflfZ section

is cuneate, and horizontal parallelogramical.

13. Triquetrous (Tng^z/^^ra). Whose /zon'zowte/ sec-

tions are equilateral triangles. Plate XI. Fig. 6.

14. Ensiform (^wsz/brw/^). Whose ^or/zow^aZ sections

are acw^e-angled triangles gradually diminishing
in diameter from the base to the apex, and propa-
gated in a straight line. Plate XI. Fig. 7.

15. Acinaciform [Acinaciformis). Whose horizontal

sections are acute-angied triangles gradually in-

266 ORISMOLOGY.

creasing in diameter from the base to the apex, and
propagated in a curved line.

16. CvLTniFOUM {Cultriformzs). Whose horizontal seC'

tions are equal acute-angled triangles, or a three-
sided body with two equal sides large and the
third small.

17. Deltoid {Deltoidea). Short with the horizontal

section triangular and decreasing in diameter to-
wards the base. Ex. Apex of the j^osterior tibia
in Copris lunaris.

18. Trigonal; Tetragonal; Pentagonal; Hexa-

gonal ; Polygonal ( Trigona ,- Tetragona ; Pe7i-
tagojia: Hexagona; Polygona). Whose horizon-
tal section is triangular ; quadrangular ; quin-
quangular ; sexangular ; multiangular.

19. Triedral; Tetraedral ; Pentaedral; Hexa-

edral ; Polyedral ( Triedra ; Tetraedra ,- Pe?i-
taedra; Hexaedra; Polyedra). That hath th-ee
sides ; four sides ; Jive sides ; six sides ; manij sides.

20. Prismoidal [Prismoidalis). Having more than

four sides and whose horizontal section is a poly-
gon ^ Plate VI. Fig. 13. a, h, d'.

21. Trapeziform {Trapeziformis). Whose horizontal

section is a Trapezium.

22. Trapezoidiform (Z'/«pczoiV///orwi/s). Whose /ion-

zontal section is trapezoid.

23. Rhombiform [Rhombiformis). Whose horizontal

section is rhomboidal. Plate VIII. Fig. 11.

^ The word employed in Botany to denote a Polygon isjmsmati-
cal ; but since, properly defined, this term is synonymous with trique-
trous, we thought it best to use an adjective derived from prismoid,
which implies a body that approaches to jnismatical.

OIUSMOtOGY, 2615

24. Two-edged (Ancejjs). Whose ^w/zow/a/ section is

lanceolate.

25. Cylindrical [Cylindrica). Whose horizpntal sec-

tions are all equal circles. Plate XXI. Fig. 4.

26. Fusiform {Fusiformis). Spindle-shaped. Whose

vertical section is lanceolate or lineari-lanceolate,
and horizontal circular. Plate XXIII. Fig. 12.

27. Columnar ( Teres). Whose vertical section is cw-

neate, and hm'izontal circular. Plate XVI. Fig.
2, 3.

28. Claviform [Claviformis), Whose vertical section

is clavate, and horizontal circular. Plate XL
XII. Fig. 4.

29. Cubical (Cubica). Sir-sided, with sides quadrate.

30. Parallelopipedous {Parallelopipeda). &.r-sided,

with four parallelogramical and t'voo quadrate
sides.

31. Pyriform {Pyriformis). Pear-shaped. Whose

vertical section is spatulate, and horizontal circu-
lar. Ex. Apion, Brachyrimis, &c.

32. Infundibuliform (Inftmdibuliformis). Funnel-

shaped. Whose horizontal sections are circular,
at first equal and then progressively larger and
larger. Plate XXII. Fig. 12. c.

33. Fornicate {Fornicata). Concave above and con-

vex beneath. Plate XIII. Fig. 18. a.

34. Coarctate {Coarctata). When the diameter of

the middle is less than that of the ends. Ex. Pos-
terior thigh o^ Locust a. Plate XIV. Fig. 5.

35. Calceoliform [Calceoliformis). Oblong, and some-

what coarctate in the middle. Ex. Abdomen of
Chelonus F.

$68 ORISMOLOGY.

36. Lageniform {Lageniformis), Bellying out and

then ending in a narrow neck, something like a
bottle. Ex. Sperm-reservoir attached to the oviduct
in Pieris. Plate XXX. Fig. 12. d.

37. Constrict (Constricta). Suddenly and dispro-

portionably smaller at one end. Plate XXII.
Fig. 15.

38. LuNiFORM [Luniformis). Whose longitudinal sec-

tion is lunate. Plate XIII. Fig. 4.

39. Nodose {Nodosa). Having one or more knobs or

swellings. Plate XII. Fig. 5.

40. Geniculate [Geniculata). Bent so as to form -a

knee or angle. Plate XII. Fig. 7.

VII. SUPERFICIES.

i. PARTS.

1. Disk [Discus). The middle of a surface.

2. Limb [Limhis). The circumference.

3. Margin {Margo). The extreme sides.

4. Apex {Apex). The summit.

5. Base {Basis). The bottom.

6. Supine Surface {Pagina superior). The upper

surface.

7. Prone Surface {Pagina inferior). The under sur-

face.

ii. ELEVATION and DEPRESSION.

1. Navicular {Navicularis). When two sides meet
and form an angle like the outer bottom of a boat.
Ex. Notonecta glauca.

ORISMOLOGY. 26ft

2. Convex (Convexa). An elevation the arc of which

is the segment of a circle. Ex. Upper Surface of
the body of most Coleoptera.

3. Gibbous [Gibba). An elevation the arc of which

is not the segment of a circle*. Ex. Shoulders of
the elytra of Prionus coriarius, and of many other
Coleoptera.

4. Plane [Plana). Flat. When the disk is not higher

than the limb, nor the limb than the disk.

5. Concave (Concava). A depression the arc of which

is the segment of a circle.

6. Excavate {Excavata). A depression the arc of

which is not the segment of a circle. Ex. Protho-
rax of Sinodendrwm cylindricum.

iil. SCULPTURE.

1. Equate'' {JEquata). Without larger partial eleva-

tions or depressions.

2. Smooth (Lccvis). Without smaller partial elevations

or depressions.

3. Levigate (Z/^euz^ate). Without awj/ partial eleva-

tions or depressions.

4. Pore [Poms). A minute impression that perforates

the substance.

* This term in Anatomy denotes any unnatural protuberance or
convexity of the body, as a person hunched- or hump-backed. In
Astronomy it is used in reference to the enlightened parts of the
moon, whilst she is moving from the first quarter to the full, and
from the full to the last quarter ; for all that time the dark part ap-
pears horned or falcated, and the light one hunched out, convex or
gibbous.

■* We employ the term cequatus instead of cequalis commonly used
in this sense, because cequalis is also applied to magnitude, to which
we would restrict it.

ORISMOLOGY.

5. PoROSE (Porosa). Beset with many pores. Ex.

Elytra of most Apions.

6. A Point [Punctum). A minute impression upon

the surface, but not perforating it.

7. Punctate [Punctata). Beset with many points.

Ex. Impression on the Head and Prothorax of Me-
lolontha Horticola, &c.

8. Variole [Variola). A shallow impression like a

mark of the small-pox.

9. Variolous [Variolosa). Beset with many varioles.

Ex. Scarabaus xmriolosns M'^L.

10. Umbilicate [Umbilicata). When a variole, tuber-

cle, granule, &c. has a depression in its centre.
Ex. Thorax of Pachygaster scabrosus.

11. FovEOLET [Foveola). A roundish and rathei- deep

depression, larger than a variole.

12. FovEOLATE [Foveolata). Having one or more fo-

veolets. Ex. Prothorax of Geotrupes stercora-
rius Latr.

13. Y OSSVJ.ET [Fossula). A somewhat long and narrow

depression.

14. FossuLATE [Fossulata). Having one or more fos-

sulets. Ex. Oxytclus riigosus F., &c.

15. Unequal [Incequalis). Having very slight and in-

determinate excavations. Ex. Prothorax of Silpha
thoracica, CaUichroma moschatnm, &c.

16. Lacunose [Lacunosa). Having a few scattered, ir-

regular, broadish but shallow excavations. Ex.
Elytra of Donacia vittata, Sagittarice., &c.

17. RiMOSE [Riniosa). Chinky, resembling the bark of

a tree. Having numerous minute, narrow and
nearly parallel excavations, which run into each

OHISMOLOGY^ 271

Other. Ex. Elytra of Dytiscm collaris ? , and
Rceselii.

18. Undose {Undosa). Having undulating nearly pa-

rallel broader depressions which run into each
other, and resemble the sand of the sea-shore
when left by the tide. Ex. Cyphus^ F undosus K.
M.S.

19. Vermiculate {Vermiculata). Havuig tortuous ex-

cavations as if eaten by worms. Ex. Prothorax
of Dytiscus parapleurus E. B., D. transvet^alis Pk.

20. K'E.TicvLOSTS. {Retiadosa). Having a number of mi-

nute impressed lines which intersect each other in
various directions like the meshes of a net. Ex.
Prothorax of Dytiscus Rceselii.

21. AcuDUCTED [Acuducta). Scratched across very

finely as if with the point of a needle or pin. Ex.
Dytiscus acuductus E. B.

22. Striate {Striata). Having rather slightly impressed

longitudinal parallel lines. Ex. Carabus ceneus, &c.

23. SuLCATE (SMZcate). Having f/e^er impressed lon-

gitudinal parallel lines. Ex. Dytiscus margi-
fialis $ .

24. Clathrose {Clathrosa). When strias or furrows

cross each other at right angles. Ex. Abdomen of
Mic7-opeplus porcatus.

25. RivoSE (Rivosa). When furrows do not run in a

parallel direction and are rather sinuate. Ex.
Prothorax of Elophorus stagnalis, &c.

26. Interstice [Interstitium). The space between ele-

vations and depressions running in lines.

* I am not certain that the insect here mentioned is a Cyphus
Germ.; but it Comes near that genus, and is common in Brazil.

272 ORISMOI.OCiV.

27. Interval [hitervallum). The space between irre-

gular and scattered elevations and depressions.

28. CoMPLANATE (CowzpZawate). A convex or irregular

surface having a plane slight depression. Ex.
Sides of the Prothorax of Prionus cervico7-nis.

29. Canaliculate [Canalicidata). Having a longitu-

dinal impressed line or channel. Ex. Prothorax
of Geotrupes Latr. Broscus cephalotes, &c.

30. Carinate (Ca)-i?iata). Having a longitudinal ele-

vated line. Ex. Rostrum of Curculio nebulosus
E. B. BicarinatCy Tricarinate, &c., having two or
three such lines. Ex. Elytra of Silpha recta.

31. Cristate (Cristata). Having one or two very ele-

vated lines usually crenate. Ex. Prothorax of
Locusta laurtfolia F.

32. PoRCATE (Porcata). Having several parallel ele-

vated longitudinal ridges. Ex. Onthophilus stri-
atus Leach {Hister L.).

33. Cost ATE (Cos/ate). Having several broad elevated

lines. Ex. Brachinus himaculatus, &c.

34. Clathrate [Clathrata). Having several elevated

lines which cross each other at right angles. Ex.
Abdomen of Micropeplus porcatus.

35. Reticulate (Reticulata). Having many small

elevated lines which intersect each other in various
directions like the meshes of a net. Ex. Lycus
reticulatus F. Wings of the Lihellulidae.

36. Rugose (Rugosa). Wrinkled. Intricate with ap-

proximating elevations and depressions whose di-
rection is indeterminate. Ex. Elytra of Prionus
coriarius.

37. Cicatricose (Cicatricosa). Having elevated spots

ORISMOLOGY. 273

of a different colour from the rest of the surface,
resembling scars. Ex. Elvira of Silpha lachrymosa.
Linn. Trans.

38. Embossed [Calata). Having several plane tracts

of a different shape higher than the rest of the sur-
face. Ex. Prothorax of Priomcs damicornis, viaxil-
losus, &c.

39. GiBBOSE (Gibbosa). Having one or more large

elevations. Ex. Sides of the Prothorax of Bra-
chycerus barbarus.

40. 1lVbts.kcl,y. {Tuberaduin). A pimple-like knob.

41. TuBERCULATE {Tuberadafa). Having several tu-

bercles. Ex. Attelabus gemmatus F. Base of Pro-
thorax of Callichroma moschatiim.

42. Verruca. A small flattish vi^art-like prominence.

43. Verrucose [Verrucosa). Having several verruc(E.

Ex. Pimelia muricata.

44. Muricate [Muricata). Armed with sharp thick,

but not close, elevated points like a Murex. Ex.
Brojichus Tribtdus, quadridens Germ., &c.

45. Echinate {Echinata). Armed with sharp spines

like a hedgehog or Echinus. Ex. Hispa atra.

46. Rugged (Salebrosa). When a surface is rough

with mucros, spines and tubercles intermixed.
Ex. Numerous species of Bronchus Germ. ^

47. Granule {Granulum). A very minute elevation.

48. Granulate (Gramdata). Beset with many gra-

nules like shagreen. Ex. Pachygaster sidcatus Germ.
Prothorax of Copris Molossiis.

49. Scabrous {Scabra). Rough to the touch from gra-

* Insect. SiJec. Nov. 332—. To this geiuis Curndio T/ibuliis and
ijuadridens F. appear to belong.
VOL. IV. T

a?* ORISArOLOGY.

nules scarcely visible. Ex. Elytra of Pachygaster
Ligustici.

50. Papjllule (Papillida). A tubercle or variole with

an elevation in its centre.

51. Papillulate [Papillidata). Beset with many pa-

pillules. Ex. Elytra of Dynastes Hercules ? .

52. Catenulate [Catenulata). Having a series of ele-

vated oblong tubercles resembling a chain. Ex.
Carahus catenulatus E. B.

53. Spherulate [Sphcerulata). Having one or more

rows of minute tubercles. Ex. Trox lutosus,
Elmis tuberculatus.

54. CoNSUTE (Consuta). Having very minute elevations

in a series at some distance from each other, of a
different colour from the rest of the surface, and
somewhat resembling stitching. Ex. Elytra of
Oryctes? Sylvanns.

55. Intricate {Intricata). When depressions or ele-

vations so run into each other as to be difficult to
trace. Ex. Elytra of Carahus intricatus E. B.

56. Corrugate (Corrz/^ate). When a surface rises and

falls in parallel angles more or less acute. Ex.
Front of Nothiophilus aquaticus.

57. Obliterate {Ohliterata). Applied to impressions

and elevations when almost effaced.

iv. CLOTHING.

a. GENERAL.

1. Scutate {Scutata). Covered with large flat scales.

Ex. Lepisma polypoda.

2. SgUAMOSE (Squamosa). Covered with minute scales.

Ex. Lepidoptera.

ORISMOLOGY. 275

3. Pulverulent {Pulverulenta). Covered with very

minute powder-like scales. Ex. Cryptorliynclms

Sisymbrii.
4<. PoLLiNOSE {Pollinosa). Covered with a loose mealy

and often yellow powder resembling the 'pollen of

flowers. Ex. Lixiis paraplecticus.

5. Farinose {Farinosa). Covered with a fixed mealy

powder resembling^oz/r. Ex. Spots on the Elytra
of Cetonia aurata^ variegata^ Sec.

6. LuTOSE (Ltitosa). Covered with a powdery sub-

stance resembling mud or dirt, which easily rubs
off. Ex. Troa: lutosus.

7. RoRULENT {Rorulenta). Covered like a plum with

a bloom which may be rubbed off. Ex. Pelth

limbata Illiff.
8» Stupeous (Stupea). Covered with long loose scales

resembling tow. Ex. The Palpi of Lepidoptera.

Aiifcnnce of some Diptera. Plate XII. Fig. 23.
9. Pilose {Pilosa). Covered with long distinct flexi-
ble hairs. Ex. Thorax of Vespa Crabro L.
10. ViLLosE (Villosa). Covered with soft flexible hairs

thickly set. Ex. Protlwrax of Melolontha solsti-

tialis F.
II.- Lanate {Lanata). Covered with fine, very long,

flexible and rather curlmg hairs like wool. Ex.

Melolontha lanigera F.

12. Lanuginose {Lanuginosa). Covered with longish

very soft fine down. Ex. Prothorax of Trichius
fasciatus F. Thorax and base of the Abdomen of
Apis circumcincta K.

13. Hirsute (Hirsuta). Covered with long stiffish

hairs very thickly set. Ex. Apes Bombinatrices L.
t 2

276 ORISMOLOGY.

14. Plumulose (Plumulosa). When the hairs branch

out laterally like feathers. Ex. Hair on the base
of the Maxilla o{ Eucera [Apis ** d. 1. K.).

15. Hairy {Hirta). Covered with short stiffish sub-

distinct hairs. Ex. Genus Lagria F.

1 6. ToMENTOSE ( Tomentosa). Covered with short in-

terwoven inconspicuous hairs. Ex. Lamia ^dilis.

17. Pubescent (Pubescens). Covered with very fine

decumbent short hairs. Ex. Harpalus rijfico}'-
nis, &c.

18. Stupulose {Stupulosa). Covered with coarse de-

cumbent hairs. Ex. Elytra of Melolontha vul-
garis.

19. Velutinous {Velutina). Covered with very thick-

set upright short hairs or pile, resembling velvet.
Ex. Trombidium holosericeum. Scutellum of Sta-
phyliniis hybridus E. B.

20. Holosericeous {Holosericea). Covered with thick-

set shining short decumbent hairs, resembling
satin ^. Ex. Under side of the body of Elophorus
stagnalis, Aranea aquatica, &c.

21. Setose (iS^^osfl;). Bristly. Sprinkled with stiff scat-

tered hairs like bristles. Ex. Musca grossa L.

22i Setulose [Setulosa). Setose with the bristles trun-
cated. Ex. Curculio setosus E. B.

23. Hispid (Hispida). Rough from minute spines, or
very stiff rigid bristles. Ex. Hispa atra. Phoberus
horridus M<=L., &c.

* This kind of pubescence has usually been denominated sericeous
(sericea) ; but it certainly does not resemble silk, and is very different
from the proper sericeous splendour, exhibited by Cri/ptocephalus
sericeus E.B.

ORISMOLOGY. 277

24. Rough {Aspera). Rough from pubescence in ge-

neral.

25. Bald (Calva). A part of a surface with little or no

hair, when the rest of it is very hairy. Ex. Ver-
tex of Melitta and Apis Kirby.

26. Glabrous [Glabra). Without any hair or pubes-

cence.

27. Lubricous (Lubrica). Slippery as if lubricated.

Ex. Dynastes Centaurus.

b. PARTIAL.

1. Cirrus {Cirrus). A lock of curling hair.

2. CiRROSE {Cirrosa). Having one or more cirri.

Ex. Antenncs of Lamia araneiformis.

3. Fascicule {Fasciculus). A bundle of thick-set hairs

often converging at the apex. Plate XIX.
Fig. 6. c.

4. Fasciculate {Fasciculata). Having one or more

fascicules. Ex. Catenulated lines in the Elytra of
Trox arenosus. Buprestisjascicularis.

5. Penicil {Penicillus). A small bundle of diverging

hairs. Plate XIX. Fig. 6. a.

6. Penicillate {Penicillata). Having one or more

penicils. Ex. Larva of Bombyx antiqua F.

7. Verricule {Verriculum). A thick-set tuft of pa-

rallel hairs. Plate XIX. Fig. 6. b.

8. Verriculate {Verriculata). Having one or more

verricules. Ex. Larva of Bombyx piidibunda F.
Under side of Abdojnen of Megachile ? . Latr.
{Apis ** c. 2. a. K.).

9. Barbate {Barbata). When any part is clothed

with longer hairs, resembling a beard. Ex. Anus of

278 ORISMOLOrxY.

Macroglossa slellatariim. Antennce of Cerajnbyx
Ammiralis. Plate XII. Fig. 26.

10. CiLiATE {Ciliata). When the margin is fringed

with a row, of parallel hairs. Ex. The base and
apex of the Prothorax of Lzicanus Cervus L.

11. Fimbhiate [Ftmbriata). When a part is terminated

by hairs or bristles that are not parallel. Ex. Anus
of many Andrence Latr.* {Melitta **. c. K.).

12. CoMATE [Comata), When very long flexible hairs

thickly cover a space in the upper surface.

13. Crinite [Crinita). When very long hairs thinly

cover any space.

14. JuBATE {Juhata). Having long pendent hairs in

a continued series. Ex. Intermediate Legs of Po-
dalirius pilipes {Apis **. d. 2. «. K.).

15. Furred (Pellita). When shorter decumbent hairs

thickly cover any space, as in the Bomhyces dorso
cristato L.

V. COLOUR.

1. Niveous {Niveus). The pure unblended white of

snow. Ex. Arctia chrysorhea.

2. White (Albus). White less intense than niveous.

The colour of chalk. Ex. Arctia me?idica $ .

3. Lacteous [Lacteus). White with a slight tint of

blue. The colour of milk. Ex. Geometra lac-
tearia.

4. Cream-coloured {Lactijloreus). White with a

proportion of yellow. Ex. Pale part of the Pri-
mary 'wifigs of Callimorpha Caja.

^ Mon. Ap. Angl. 1. /. iv, ** c. /". 1. a.

ORISMOLOGY. 279

5. Flesh-coloured {Carneus). White tinted with

red. The colour of young and healthy Jlesh,
Ex. Secondat-y "wings of Sphinx Ligustri.

6. Hoary [Incanus). White with a small proportion

of black. The colour of a grai/ head. N.B. This
term is usuallij coiifined to pubescence. Ex. Cur-
culio sulcirostris.

7. Cinereous (Cinereus). White with a shade of

brown. Ex. Brachyrhinus diffinis^ Laria pudi-
bunda.

8. Griseous (Griseus). White mottled with black

or brown. Ex. Curcidio nebulosus.

9. Yellow (Flavus). Pure yellow. Ex. Bands on the

Abdomen of Nomada [Apis *. b. K.). Crabro.

10. Straw-coloured {Stramineus). Pale yellow with

a very faint tint of blue. Ex. Phalcena cratcegata.

11. Sulphureous {Sidphureus). Yellow with a tint of

green. The colour of brimstone. Ex. Pieris
Rhamni S -

12. LuTEOUs {Luteus). Deep yellow with a tint of red.

The colour of the yolk of an egg. Ex. Primary
wings of Colias Edusa.

13. Orange {Aurantius). Equal parts of red and yel-

low. Ex. Apex of Wings of Pieris Cardamines.

14. Saffron-coloured (Croceus). The colour of sqf-

fron. Ex. Yellow in the Elytra of Trichius fasci-
atus.

15. MiNiATous {Miniatus). The colour of red lead.

Ex. Secondary witigs of Callimorpha Caja.

16. FuLGiD (Fulgidus). A bright fiery red. Ex. Ly^

ccena Virgaiireae and dispar.

S80 ORISMOLOGY.

17. Rufous (Rtifus). A pale red. Ex. Apionfrumeri'

tarium.

18. Testaceous [Testaceus). The colour of a tile, a

dull red. Ex. Chrysomela Populi.

19. Scarlet [Coccineus). A bright pale red. Ex. Ely'

tra of Pyrochroa coccinea.

20. Red {Ruber). Pure red. Ex. Under Wings of

Noctua Dominula.

21. Sanguineous {Sanguineus). Red Avith a tint of

black. The colour of blood. Ex. Spots in Chi-
locorus Cacti Leach, and Prothorax of Locusta
morbillosa.

22. Rose-coloured (Roseus). Colour of the rose. Ex.

Parts of the Wings and ^ot??/ of Sphinx Elpe?ior.

23. Crimson {Puniceus). A bright red with a tint of

blue. Ex. Base of ths Under Wings of Noctua
Sponsa.

24. Purple (Purpureus). Equal parts of blue and red.

Ex. Sagra purpurea. Vitta on the Elytra of De-
naciafasciata.

25. Violet ( Violqceus). Blue with some red. The colour

of Viola odorata. Ex. Chrysomela Goettingensis,
Abdomen of Geotrupes vernalis.

26. Lilac {Lilacinus). Colour of the flowers of the

lilac. Ex. Part of the Iris of the Ocellus, in the
Wincfs of Vanessa lo.

27. Blue [Cyaneus). Pure blue. Colour of Centaurea

Cyanus. Ex. Disk oi the Wings of Papilio Ulysses.
Callidium violaceum.

28. Azure {Azureus). A paler and more brilliant blue.

Ex. Wings of Morpho Menelaus, Telemachus, &c.

ORISMOLOGY. 281

29. Sky-blue (Ccsruleus). A paler blue. The colour of

the ski/. Ex. Lyccena Adonis.

30. CiESious (CcBsius). Very pale blue with a little

black. The colour of blue eyes. Ex. Under side
of the Wings of Lyccena Argiolus.

31. Green [Viridis). Equal parts of blue and yellow.

Ex. Cicindela campestris.

32. jEruginous (JEmgitiosus). Green with a blue

tint. The colour of the rnst of copper^ verdigris.
Ex. JBrac/iyrhinus Cnides.

33. Prasinous {Prasijius). Green with a mixture of

yellow. The colour of the leaves of leeks or
onions. Ex. Pentatoma prasina. Under side of
Wings of Theca Rubi.

34. Glaucous (G/fl!2<cM5). Pale blueish green. Sea green.

Ex. Elytra of Dynastes Hercules, Alcides, Tifyus,
&c.

35. Mouse-coloured (Murinus). Black with a small

proportion of yellow. The colour of the common
mouse. Ex. Base of the abdominal segmefits of
Cossus Ligniperda.

36. Lurid {Luridus). Yellow with some mixture of

brown. Dirty yellow. Ex. Elytra of Aphodius
luridus and nigrosulcatus.

37. Livid (Lividus). A pale purplish brown. The co-

lour of a bruise. Ex. Hydi-ophilus lur^idus.

38. Tawny {Fidvus). A pale dirty orange. Ex. The

pale parts of the Wings of Hipparchia Pamphilus.

39. - Fawn-coloured [Cervinus). A reddish brown.
Ex. Lasiocampa Itid)i.

40. Olive {Olivacetis). A brownish green. The co-
lour of olives. Ex. Dytiscus matginalis.

282 ORISMOLOGY.

41. Fvscous {Fuscus). A dull brown, ^x. Hipparchia

Semele. Prionus scahricornis.

42. Ferruginous (Ferrugmens). A yellowish brown

with some red. The colour of the rust of iron.
Ex. Base of Under Wings of Smerinthm Populi.
Gastrophaca quercifolia.

43. Cinnamon-coloured (Cmwa^wowi^-fw). A yellowish

brown. The colour of cinnamon. Ex. Prio7ius
cinnamomeus.

44. Brown (Bnmneus). Pure brown. Ex. Dai'k parts

in the Primary Wings of Callimorpha Caja.

45. Bay {Badius). Bright red brown of the chestnut,

Ex. Elytra of Melolontha vulgaris when the hairs
are rubbed off.

46. Chestnut (Ca5^aw^?/5). Colour of the ^a?-^ part of

the chestnut. Ex. Elytra of Luca?ius Cervus.

47. PiCEOus (Piceus). Shining reddish black. The co-

lour of pitch. Ex. Prionus coriarivs.

48. Fuliginous {Fuliginosus). The opaque black of

soot. Ex. Wings of Lithosia rubricollis.

49. Black (Niger). A dull black with some brown.

Ex. Brachyrinus niger.

50. Atrous (Afer). Pure black of the deepest tint.

Ex. Liparus anglicanus.

vi. SPLENDOUR.

a. GEMMEOUS.

1. Margaritaceous {Margaritaceus). Glossy white
with changeable tints of purple, green, and blue.
The splendour of pearls. Ex. The drums in Tet-
tigonia capensis.

ORISMOLOGY. 28S

2 Opaline [Opalmus). A blueish white reflecting
the prismatic colours. The splendour of the opal.
Ex. Wifigs of Not07iecta glauca and some Nepce.

3. Crystalline {Crystallirius). The white splendour

of crystal or glass. Ex. Stemmata of many Hy-
menoptera, &c.

4. ToPAZiNE {Topazinus). The yellow splendour of

the topaz. Ex. Many Stemmata of Hymenoptera,
and £j/^5 of Spiders.

5. RuBiNEous (Mubineus). The red splendour of the

6. Smaragdtne {Smaragdinus). The green splendour

of the emerald.

7. Amethystine {Amethystinus). The purple splen-

dour of the amethyst.

b. metallic.

1. AB.GY.iiii (Argenteus). The splendour of s/Zu^r. Ex.

The spots on the under side of the Wings in Argyn-
nis LatJionia, &c.

2. Golden {Aureus). The splendour of gold. Ex. ^n-

^m?^5 imperialis Germ. »Spo^ in the Wings of ^of-
ifMa Festucce.

3. Orichalceous {Orichalceiis). A splendour inter-

mediate between that of gold and ^ra^^. Ex. Up-
per Wings of Noctua Chysitis.
4-. ^neous (vSw««). The splendour of 6ra55. Ex.
Elytra of Carabus clathratus.

5. CvFRBovs {Cupreus). The reddening splendour of

copper. Ex. Carabus nitens.

6. Chalybeous {Chalybeus). The blue splendour of

5/fc^ case-hardened, or of the mainspring of a

284 ORISMOLOGY.

watch. Ex. Helops chalybeus. Legs of Lithosia
Qiiadra.

7. Plumbeous [Plumbeus). The colour of lead. Ex.

ProtJiorax of Clytra dentata F

8. Inaurate [Inauratus). When striae or other im-

pressed parts have a metalHc splendour. Ex. Mar-
gin oi Prothorax and P,lytra of Carabus violaceus.
Stria oi Elytra &c. oi Phanceus Mimas M'^L.

9. Deaurate (Deatiratiis). A metallic hue which

looks as if the gilding was worn off. Ex. Do-
nacia cenea^ &c.

c. bombycine.

1. Sericeous (<Smc^M5). The splendour of 5z7^. Ex.

Cryptocephalus sericeiis.

2. Tramosericeous (Tramosericeus). The splendour

of satin. Ex. Chlamys Bacca, tnonstrosa, &c.

d. reflected.

1. Resplendent (iS^^Z^wrfews). Reflecting the light in-

tensely. Ex. The Head and Thorax of Staphylinus
splendens, cefieus, politus, &c.

2. Shining (Nitidus). Reflecting the light, but less

intensely. Ex. Dytisciis marginalis.

3. Pruinose {Prui7iosus). When the splendour of the

surface is somewhat obscured by the appearance
of a bloom upon it like that of a plum, but which
cannot be detached. Ex. Elytra of Serica ruricola
and brunnea M<=L. {Meloloiitha F.)

4. Obscure (Obscurus). A surface which reflects the

light but little. Ex. Pcelobiiis Hermanni.

5. Opaque {Opacus). A surface which does not re-

ORISMOLOGY. 285

fleet the light at all. Ex. Trox sahdosus, arena-
rius. Silpha opaca.

vli. TRANSPARENCE.

1. Hyaline [Hyalina). The clear transparency of

glass. Ex. The Wings of many Neuroptera^ Hy-
vienoptera^ and Diptera.

2. Diaphanous [Diaphana). Transparent, but less

purely than hyaline. Semitransparent. Ex. The
Wings of many Coleoptera.

3. Adiaphanous {Adiaphana). Which does not trans-

mit the light at all. Ex. Elytra of Coleoptera.

viii. PAINTING.

1. Atom {Atoimis). A very minute dot.

2. Irrorate {Irrorata). Sprinkled with atoms, as the

earth with dew. Ex. OnthopJiagus Vacca. Pa-
pilio Paris.

3. Gutta [Gutta^). A roundish dot, intermediate in

size between an atom and a macula.

4. GuTTATE [Guttata). Sprinkled with guttce. Ex,

Coccinella L.

5. 'M ACMi. A [Macida). A larger indeterminately shaped

spot.
^6. Maculate (Maadata). Painted with such spots.
Ex. Phalcena grossidariata.

7. Litura [Litura). An indeterminate spot growing

paler at one end, as if daubed or blotted.

8. Liturate [Liturata). A surface painted with one

or more such spots. Ex. Aphodius confiagratus.

* Linne in Coccinella has employed the term Gutta for a white or
yellow spot in a darker ground, and Pustula for a red spot in a black
ground. We thought one term sufficient to express spots bigger
than atoms.

286 ORISMOLOGY.

9. Plaga [Plaga). A long and large spot. Ex. Apho-
dius plagiatus.

10. Islet (Insula). A spot of a different colour, included

in a plaga or macula. Ex. The Ocelli in the Pri-
mary Wings of Hipparchia Semele. A spot in the
middlefascia of the under side of the Primary Wing
in Papilio Podalirius.

11. Ckepera {Crepera). A gleam of paler colour upon

a dark ground. Ex. Elytra ofDytiscus marginalis.

1 2. Shadow ( Utnbra). A slight shade, not easily per-

ceptible upon a paler ground. Ex. Elytra of La-
mia jEdilis. Wi?igs of Tinea asperella.

13. Signatures {Signature). Markings upon a sur-

face resemblinnr in some degree 'letters and cha-
racters.

14. SiGNATE (Signatus). Marked with signatures.

Ex. Elytra of Macropus longimanus.

15. INSCRIBED [Liscriptus). When the surface is marked

with the resemblance of a letter of any language.
Ex. Noctua Gamma. Vanessa C. album.

16. liii:.ROGL.YPHic [Hieroglyphiciis). Painted with cha-

racters somewhat resembling hieroglyphics. Ex.
Macropus longimanus. Cetonia Australasice.

17. Annulet [Annulus). A ring-shaped spot. Ex.

Phalcena omicronaria^ &c. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. o.

18. Lunulet (Lunula). A small crescent-shaped spot.

Ex. Marginal spots above and below the Secondary
Wings in Argynnis Artemis, &c.

19. Reniculus (Reniculus). A small kidney-shaped

spot. Ex. Upper Wings of Noctua Persicaria.

20. Ocellus {Ocellus). An eye-like spot in the Wings

of many Lepidoptera, consisting of annuli of dif-
ferent colours, inclosing a central spot or pupil.

ORISMOLOGY. 287

a. Pupil (Pupilla). The central spot of the ocellus.
Plate XIV. Fig. 1. /. An ocellus is called bipu-
pillate, tripupillate, &c., when there are two,
three, &c. of these spots. Ex. Primary Wing of
HipparcJiia Pilosellce, &c. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. p.

a. Hastate Pupil [Pupilla hastata). When the pu-

pil is a halbert-shaped spot. Ex. Pupil of Ocellus
oi Attacus Tau. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. k.

b. SuFFULTED PupiL (Pupilla siifftdta). When the

pupil shades into another colour. Ex. Primary
Wing of Vanessa lo.

b. Iris {Iris). The circle which incloses the pupil.

Plate XIV. Fig. 1. u.

c. Atmosphere (Atmosphara). The exterior circle

of the ocellus. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. v.

21. Blind Ocellus (Ocellus ccecus). An ocellus with-

out the pupil. Ex. Hipparchia Davus.

22. Spurious Ocellus [Ocellus spurius). A circular

spot without any defined iris or pupil. Ex. Spot
in the DisJc of the Primaiy Wings of Pieris Helice.

23. Simple Ocellus {Ocellus simplex). When the

ocellus consists only of iris and pupil. Ex. Ocelli
on the underside o^ Primary Wings o^ HipparcJiia
Semele. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. t, n, u.

24. Compound Ocellus {Ocellus complexus). When

the ocellus consists of three or more circles. Ex.
Saturnia Pavonia. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. I.

'25. 'NicTiTANT OCE1.I.VS {Ocelltis nictitans). When the
ocellus includes a lunular spot of a different co-
lour. Ex. Under side of Wings of Morpho Perseus.
Plate XIV. Fig. 1. m.

26. Fenestrate Ocellus {Ocellus fenestratus). When

288 ORISMOLOGY.

an ocellus has a transparent spot. Ex. Attacus
Paphia and Cytherea.

27. 'Dio'PTRA.T-E Oc^iA.vs {Ocellus dioptratus). A fenes-

trate ocellus divided by a transverse line. Ex.
Attacus Polyphemus.

28. TiovBi.^ Ocv.1jL\]S [Ocellus geminatus). When two

ocelli are included in the same circle or spot. Ex.
Under side of Secondary Wing of Morpho Perseus.
Plate XIV. Fig. 1. r, v.

29. Twin Ocellus {Ocellus didymus). When such

ocelli join each other. Ex. Under side oi Secondary
Wing of Hipparchia HyperantJms.

30. SESguiALTEROUS OcELLUS {Ocellus sesquialtcrus).

An ocellus with a smaller near it, called also Ses-
quiocellus. Ex. Under side of Secondary Wing of
Pieris Edusa. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. q.
SI. Superciltum {Super cilium). An arched line re-
sembling an eyebrow, which sometimes surmounts
an eyelet. Ex. Under side of Seco?idary Wing of
Morpho Achilles. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. i.

32. Nebulose {Nebulosus). Painted with colour irre-

gularly darker and lighter, so as to exhibit some
resemblance of clouds. Ex. Curculio sulcirostris,
jiebtdosiis ; Noctua mipta.

33. Testudinarious (Tif^^wcZmfl'nws). Painted with red,

black, and yellow, like tortoise-shell. Ex. Elytra
of Aphodius testudinarius.

34. Consperse {Conspersus). Thickly sprinkled with

minute irregular dots often confluent. Ex. Geo-
metra Betularia.

35. Achatine {Achafinus). Painted with various con-

centric, curved, or parallel lines, resembling the

ORISMOLOGY. 289

veining of an agate. Ex. Cossus lahyrinthiciis
Donov. Centra vinula.

36. UsTULATE (Ustulafa). So marked with brown as

to have the appearance of being scorched. Ex.
Wings qS. Phalccna dolabraria.

37. Marmorate [Marmorata). So painted with streaks,

veins, and clouds, as to resemble marble. Ex. Un-
der side of the Wings of Vanessa lo. Cetonia mar~
viorata.

38. Tesseli-ate ( Tessellata). Painted in checquer-work.

YiTi.. Abdomen of Musca carnaria and macidata.

39. Fascia [Fascia). A bi'oad transverse band.

a. Vykxmxqatv:. ¥ ASCI A [Fascia pyramidata). A band

which juts out into an angle on one side. Ex. Wing
oiApatura Iris. Argynnis Paphia. Plate XIV.
Fig. 1. //.

b. Macular Fascia [Fascia macularis). A band con-

sisting of distinct spots. Ex. Wings of Geometra
grossidariata. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. b.

c. Articulate Fascia [Fascia articidata). A band

consisting of contiguous spots. Ex. Under side of
Wings of Argynnis Dictynna. Upper side of Pri-
mary Wing o^ Papilio Menelaiis.

d. Dimidiate Fascia [Fascia di?nidiata). A band

traversing only half the wing. Ex. Primary Wing
o{ Papilio Txirnus. Plate XIV. Fig. \.f.

e. Abbreviate Fascia [Fascia abbreviata). A band

traversing less than half the wing. Ex. Primary
Wing of Papilio Podalirius, Ajax, &c. Plate
XIV. Fig. 1*. g.
f. Sesouialterous Fascia ( Fascia sesquialtera ).
When both wings are ti-aversed by a continued

VOL. IV. u

290 ORISMOLOGY.

band, and either the primary or secondary by an-
other. Ex. Endro7nis versicolor. Plate XIV.
Fig. I. d, c.
g. SESQVirERTiovs FASCiA{Fascia sesguiterHa). When
both wings are traversed by a continued band, and
more than half of either the primary or secondary
by another ; or, when a wing or elytrum contains
a band and the third of a band. Ex. Pyralis Avel-
lana. Plate XIV. Fig. \. d^ e.

40. Striga (Striga). A narrow transverse streak.

41. Strigose {Strigosa). Painted with several such

streaks. Ex. Phalcena jirunaria.

42. Line {Linea). A narrow longitudinal stripe.

43. Lineate (Lineata). Painted with several such

stripes. N.B. If with two, we say bilineata, with
three, trilineata^ &c. Ex. Elater lineatics.

44. Vitta ( Vitta). A broad longitudinal stripe.

45. ViTTATE [Vittata). Painted with several such

stripes. Ex. Chrysomelafastuosa, cerealis^ &c.

46. Undulate ( Undidata). When fasciae, strigae, lines,

&c. curve into alternate sinuses resembling the
rise and fall of waves.

47. Sinuato-Undulate (Sinuato-Undulata). When

the sinuses are obtuse. Ex. Phalcena repandaria.

48. Anguloso-Undulate (^wgz</o5o- ?/;///?(;/«/<?). When

they go in a zigzag direction, or with alternate
acute sinuses. Ex. Phalcena imdidaria.

49. Radiate [Radiata). When a dot, spot, &c. appear

to send forth rays. Ex. The large blue area com-
mon to all the Wings o{ Papilio Ulysses.

50. Venose ( Venosa). Painted with lines that branch

like veins. Ex. Under side of Wings of Pieris Napi.

^ ORISMOLOGY. 291

51. Cancellate {Cancellata). Painted with transverse

lines crossing longitudinal ones at right angles.
Ex. Phalccna clathrata.

52. A REG LATE (Areolata). Painted with lines which

intersect each other in various directions, so as to
exhibit the appearance of net-work. Ex. Wings
of Phasia marginata and Cossus ligniperda.

53. LiMBATE {Lhnbata). When the disk is surrounded

by a margin of a different colour. Ex. Dytiscus
marginaljs.

54. Armillate {Armillata). When a leg, antenna, &c.

is surrounded by a bt-oad ring of a different colour.
Ex. Posterior Tibia of Prosopis annulafa (Melitta *
b. K.).

55. Annulate (Amiulata). When a leg, antenna, &c.

is surrounded by a nart'ow ring of a different co-
lour. Ex. Ayitennce of many Ichneumons.

56. Cingulate (Cingulata). When the abdomen or

the trunk is wholly surrounded by one or more
belts of a different colour. Ex. Abdomen of many
Nomadce {Apis *. b. K.).

57. Decolorate (Z)^cr;/or). When the colour appears

to be discharged from any part. Ex. Margin of
the Abdo7ninal segments in Stelis punctulatissima
Latr. {Apis ** c, 1. /3 K.).

58. Unicolorate {Unicolar). When a surface is of

one colour.

59. Concolorate (Cowco/or). Of the same colour with

another part. If speaking of Lepidoptera, when
the upper and under sides of the wings are of the
same colour. Ex. Hesperia Linea, Paniscus.

60. Discolorate (Z)/5co/or). Of a different colour from

u 2

292 ORISMOLOGY.

another part. When the upper and under sides
of the wings of Lepidojotera are of a different co-
lour. Ex. Lyccena Corydon^ Argiolus, &c.

61. Versicolorate {Versicolor). When a surface

changes its colour as the light varies. Ex. Apa-
tura Iris S •

62. Iridescent {Tricolor). When a surface reflects the

colours of the rainbow. Ex. Mesothorax of Xylo-
copa tricolor. JVi?igs of Hymenoptera, &c.

63. Infuscate {Infuscata). WTien a colour is darkened

by the superind action of a brownish shade or
cloud. Ex. Ap)ex of the Upper Wings of Cossm
ligniperda.

ix. DISTINCTION.

1. Distinct {Distincta). When spots, puncta, gra-

nules, &c. do not touch or run into each other, but
are completely separate. Ex. Under side of JVi7igs
of Lyccena dispar.

2. Ordinate {Ordinata). When spots, puncta, &c.

are placed in rows. Thus we say ordinato-punc-
tate, ordinato-maculate, &c. Ex. Spots on the
Abdomen of Arctia lubricipeda^ erminea, &c.

3. Contiguous {Contigiia). When spots, &c. are so

near that they almost or altogether touch each
other. Ex. Spots in the margin of the Wings of
Argyfinis Aglaia.

4. Confluent (Co«/?M^W5). When spots, &c. run into

each other. Ex. Apex of the Primary Wings and
Under side of the Secondary in Pieris Daplidice.

5. Obliterate {Ohliterata). When the borders of

spots fade into the general ground-colour ; and

ORISMOLOGY. 293

when elevations and depressions, &c. are so little
raised or sunk from the general surface, as to be
almost erased. Ex. Streak in the Wings of Geo-
metra papilioiiaria, &c. Strice in the Elytra of
Sphodriis leucopthalmus.

6. Obsolete [Ohsoleta). When a spot, tubercle,

punctum, &c. is scarcely discoverable. Ex. Ly-
cceyia dispar J" and ? . — N.B. This term is often em-
ployed "isohere one sex, Jcindred species, or genera,
isoant, or nearly so, a character "which is conspiaious
in the other sex, or in the species or genus to which
they are most closely allied.

7. Geminous [Gemina). When there is a pair of

spots, tubercles, puncta, &c. Ex. Head of one
sex of Lucanus parallelopipedus. Upper Wings of
Odenesis potatoria.

8. DiDYMOUs (Didyma), When this pair of spots, &c.

touch or are confluent. Ex. Spots in Elytra of
Stenocorus quadrimaculatus.

9. CoN'siXEiiT {Connivens). The meeting of two lines

so as to form an angle. Ex. Streaks on the Under
side of Secondary Wings of Thecla Pruni.
10. Common [Communis). Common to two. When a
spot for instance is partly on one elytrum and partly
on the other. Ex. Coccinella septempunctata.

X. MARGIN.

1. Crisp (Cn'spa). When the Z/m5 is disproportion-

ably larger than the Dislc, so as to render the mar-
gin uneven with irregular rises and falls.

2. Undulate ( f7nrM«ifa). When the surface rises and

falls obtusely, not in angles. Ex. Margin of Wings
o^ Hipparchia Semcle.

294 ORISMOLOGY.

3. CoRKUGATE ( Corrugato). When the surface rises and

falls acutely in angles. Ex. Vkalcena luteata, &c.

4. Plicate [Plicata). Longitudinally or transversely

folded ; or so impressed with striaj as to have that
appearance. Ex. Abdomen of Staphylinus.

5. DiLATATE {Dilatata). Dilated disproportionably

with respect to the Disk. Ex. Protliorax of ^e-
crophoriis.

6. FiLATE [Filata). When the edge is separated by a

channel, often producing a very slender threadlike
margin. Ex. Elt/tra of Choleva.

7. Incrassate [Incmssata). When the margin is dis-

proportionably thick. Ex. Mr. Marsham's Family
of Chrysomela " thorace utrinque incrassato."

8. Entire [hitegra). When the margin has neither

teeth, serratures, nor other incisions.

9. Channel (Canalis). An impressed line more or

less wide, which attends the edges, and is usually
produced by its reflexion.
10. Edge [Acies), The extreme teimination of the
margin.

xi. TERMINATION.

1. Summit [Fastigium). The tip or extreme termina-

tion of the upper part.

2. Apex {Apex). The top or upper termination of any

part.

3. Bottom {Fundus). The extreme termination of the

lower part.

4. Base {Basis). The lower termination of any part.

5. Acute {Acuta). Terminating in an acute angle.

Plate XV. Fig. 17.

6. Obtuse (0^/i<5a). Terminating bluntly, but within

the seoment of a circle. Plate XIV. Fig. 1 . f.

ORISMOLOGY. 295

7. RoTUNDATE {RotuTidata). Terminating in the seg-

ment of a circle. Plate VI. Fig. 1. e.

8. Truncate [Tmncata). Terminating in a trans-

verse line. Plate XIII. Fig. 5. a'".

9. Premorse {Prcemorsa). Terminating in an irre-

gular truncate apex, as if bitten off. Ex. Elytra
oi Lehia, Dromia^ Ijomechusa, &c.

10. Retuse (Retiisa). Terminating in an obtuse sinus.

Ex. Back part of the Head in Cimbex.

11. Emarginate [Emargiiiata). When the end has

an obtuse notch taken out. Ex. Nose of Pedinns
arenosus.

12. Exscinded (Excisa). When the end has an angu-

lar notch taken out. Ex. Nose of Opatrum sa-
bidosiim.

13. Producted [Producta). Disproportionably long.

14. MucRONATE {Miicronata). Terminating suddenly

in a strong point. Ex. Elytra of Lixus paraplec-
ticus. Abdomen of Sirex Gigas ? .

15. AcvsM.i'SA.'T'E {Acuminata). Terminating gradually in

a sharp point. Ex. Abdomen of Sirex Jiwe?icus ? .

16. Apiculate (Apiculata). Terminating suddenly in

a small filiform truncate apex. Ex. Abdomen of
Thelyphonus.

17. Cuspidate (Cw5/7Z6?ato). Terminating in a long se-

tiform point. Ex. Tail of Scorpio.

x'ii. INCISION.

1. Incised [Incisa). Cut into equal marginal seg-

ments.

2. Cleft (Fissa). Cut into equal and deep segments,

but not reaching the base. Plate XIV. Fig. 3. a.

296 OIIISMOLOGY.

a. Bifid {Bifida). Cut into two segments,

b. Trifid (TrZ/ftZa). Cnt mio three.

c. QuADFtiFiD [Qiiadrijida). Cut mio four.

d. MuLTiFiD [Multifida). Cut into viore i\\a.n four.

3. Laciniate [Laciniata). Cut into unequal, irregu-

lar, and deep segments.

4. SgUARRosE {Sqiiarrosa). Cut into laciniae that are

elevated above the plane of the surface.

5. Partite [Partita). Divided to the base. Plate

XIV. Fig. 3. h.

a. Bipartite [Bipartita). Divided thus into txsco

parts.

b. Tripartite (T^vJDflr/zVa). Divided into //zree parts.

c. QxjAvm.wx'R.'vi'YY.^Qtiadripartita). Divided into ybwr

parts.

d. Multipartite (Multipartita). Divided into more

than four parts.

6. LoBATE [Lobata). Divided to the middle into parts

with convex margins, which recede from each
other. Ex. Acanthia paradoxa. Bilobate, with
two lobes. Trilobate, with three lobes, &c.

7. Cruciate [Cruciata). Divided to the middle into

four opposite arms, the angles being either four
right ones, or two obtuse and two acute. Ex. Pro-
thorax of many Locust ce Leach.

8. Sinuate [Sinuata). Having large curved breaks

in the margin resembling bays. Plate XIV.
Fig. 1.

9. Erose {Erosa). Sinuate, with the sinuses cut out

into smaller irregular notches as if gnawed. Ex.
Wings of Vanessa C. album.
10. Crenate {Crenata). Cut into segments of small
circles.

* ORISMOLOGY. 297

11. Serrate {Seirata). Cut into teeth like a saw, with

teeth wliose sides are unequal. Ex. External mar-
gin near the Apex of the Elytra of many species of
Buprcstis.

12. Dentate [Dentata). Cut into teeth, with teeth

whose sides are equal or nearly so. Ex. The
Wings of many Butterjiies.

13. Repand {Ilepanda'). Cut into very slight sinua-

tions, so as to run in a serpentine direction. Plate
XXII. Fig. 11. 5.

xiii. RAMIFICATION.

1. Dichotomous {DicJiotoma). Dividing regularly in

pairs.

2. Furcate {Furcata). Dividing into two. Plate

XVIII. Fig. 11.

3. Ramose (JRamosa). Furnished with lateral branches.

Plate XI. Fig. 18.

4. Decussate {Decussata). Sending forth lateral

branches which alternately cross each other.

5. Divaricate [Divaricata). Standing out very wide.

xiv. DIVISION.

1. Segment [Segmcntum). The great inosculating

joints of the body.

2. Joint [Articulus). The joints of a limb or member.

3. Incisure {Incisura). A deep incision between the

segments, when they recede from each other.

4. Suture [Siitura). The line of separation of any

two parts of a crust which are connected only by
membrane or ligament, but do not inosculate,
a. Spurious Suture {Sutura sjmria). An impressed

298 ORlSMOLOttY.

line in any part of a body, which resembles a su-
ture, but does not really divide the crust.

XV. DIRECTION.

1. Longitudinal {Longitudinalis). Running length-

wise.

2. Transverse ( Transversa). Running across : when

the longitudinal line is cut through at right angles.

3. Oblique [Ohliqua). Running sideways. When

the longitudinal line is cut through at acute angles.
^. Horizontal [Horizojitalis). Parallel with the ho-
rizon.

5. Erect (Erecta). Nearly perpendicular.

6. Vertical (Verticalis). Perpendicular.

7. Sloping [Declivls). A gentle descent.

8. Descending (Descendens). A steeper descent.

9. Acclivous {Acclixns). A gentle ascent.

10. Ascending {Ascendens). A steeper ascent.

11. 'Ry.clii^'ed [Reclinata). Leaning towards any thing

as if to repose upon it.

12. Recumbent [Recumbens). Leaning or reposing

upon any thing.

13. Reflexed {Rejlexa).- Bent back or upwards.

14. Inflexed {Infiexa). Bent inwards.

15. Recurved [Reciirva). Curving outwards.

16. Incurved [Inciirva). Curving inwards.

17. Revolute {Revoluta). Rolled outwards.

18. Involute (Involuta). Rolled inwards.

19. Forwards {Antrorsim).

20. Backwards {Retrorsiim).

21. Upwards (Sursum).

22. Downwards {Deorsu?n).

OUISMOLOGY. 299

23. Outwards {Extrorswn).

24. Inwards {Introrsum)^\

25. Straight [Recta).

26. PoRRECT (Porrecta). Reaching forth horizon talJy

as if to meet something advancing.

27. Broken (Fracfa). Bent with an elbow, as if broken.

28. CoNVERCiiNG {Cojivergens). Tending to one point

from different parts.

29. Diverging (Z)/z;<?;'^6?w5). Tending to different parts

from one point.

xvi. SITUATION.

1. Obverse (Obversa). When an object is viewed

with its head towards you.

2. Reverse (Reversa). When an object is viewed

with its anus towards you.

3. Resupine [Resitpina). When an object lies upon

its back.
4). Prone (Prona). When an object lies upon its belly.

xvii. CONNEXION.

1. Colligate (Colligata). Adhering, or so fixed to

any part as to have no separate motion of its own.

2. Free (Libera). Having a motion independent of

that of the part to which it is affixed.

3. Connate (Comiata). When parts that are usually

separated, are, as it were, soldered together,
though distinguished by a suture. Ex. Elytra of
Gibhium.
4'. Coalite [Coalita). When parts usually separate
are distinguished neither by incisure, segment, nor
suture. Ex. TrunJc in Mutilla.

300 ORISMOLOGY.

5. Distinct (Distmcta). When parts are separated

from each other by a svJiure. Ex. Parts of the
Trunk in Coleoptera, &c.

6. Distant [Distmis). When they are separated by

an incisure. Ex. Head., Trunk, and Abdomen, in
Hymenoptera.

7. Inosculating (Inoscidans). When one part is in-

serted into the cavity of another. Ex. Head in
Bupresiis.

8. Suspended [Suspensa). When one part is joined

to another by a hgature, without being inserted in
it. Ex. Legs of Orthoptera.

xviii. ARMS.

1. Tooth {Dens). A short flattish process, somewhat

resembhng a tooth.

2. Horn (Cornu). A longer process, resembhng a

ho7-}i.

a. Laminate Horn {Cornu laminatum). A horn di-

lated at its base into a flat plate. Ex. Onthopha-
gus nutans.

b. Nodding Horn (Cornu nutaiis). When a horn

bends forwards. Ex. Onthophagus nutans.

3. Spine {Spina). A fine, long, rigid, pointed process.

Ex. Those on Elytra of many Hispce, and the
Vosterior Tibia of Locusta Leach.

4. MucRO [Mticro). A short, stout, sharp-pointed

process. Ex. Elytra of Lixus paraplecticus.

5. Spur [Calcar). A spine that is not a process of the

crust, but is implanted in it. Ex. Those on the
lower side of the Tibicc of Acrida K.

ORISMOLOGY. 301

xix. APPENDAGES.

1. Auricle {Auricula). An appendage resembling

an ear. Ex. Thorax of Lcdra aurita.

2. Caruncle (C(an<«c2/Za). Having fleshy excrescences

somewhat resembling the caruncles of birds. Ex.
Prothorax of Malachites F.

XX. MOTION.

1. Vertical [Verticalis). When it is up and down.

2. Horizontal [Horizontalis). When it is from side

to side.

3. Compound (Composita). When a part is capable

of both vertical and horizontal motion.

4. Versatile {Versatilis). When it moves partly

round as if upon a pivot. Ex. Head of Hymeno-
ptera and Diptera.

5. ViBRATiLE [Vibratilis). When there is a constant

oscillation of any part. Ex. Antennae of Ichneu-
mones viimiti L. Legs of Tipula when reposing.

6. Rotatory {Rotatoria). When a body or a part of

it turns wholly round, or describes a circle. Ex.
Ants and Moths in a certain disease^.

xxi. SCENT.

1. Acid {Acidns). A pungent acid scent. Ex. Many

Formicce.

2. Moschate {Moschatus). A scent of musk.

3. Alliaceous {Alliaceus). A scent of garlic, tx.

Some AndrencB Latr.

4. Cimicine {Cimicinus). A scent like that of the

Bed-bug. Ex. Cimex L.

' See above, p. 209 — .

302 ORISMOLOGY.

5. RosACEOVS {Rosaceus). A scent of roses. Ex. Calli-

chroma moschatum.

6. Aromatic [Aromaticus). A pungent scent of spices.

Ex. Oxytelus rugosus.

7. Balm-scented [Melissceus). Ex. Species ofProsopis

Latr. {Aj)is *. b. K.)

8. Sweet-scented {Odoraius). An undefined sweet

scent. Ex. Staphylinus odoratus K.

9. Fetid {Fcetidus). A disagreeable scent. Ex. Sta-
phylinus oleiis. Hemerohius Perla.

GENERAL RULES.
In the above tables no notice is taken of diminutives,
compounds, and similar terms, because it seemed best,
with respect to these, to lay down only some general
rules which may include the whole.

Rule I.

Terms in English ending in cle, ule, or let, and which
in Latin add lus, la, or luni, to a word, dimmish its sense.
As, T)enticle, a little tooth ; Setule, a little bristle ; Eylet,
a small eye : Denticu/?/5, a little dens ; Guttu/a, a little
gutta ; Punctu/w/w, a little punctum. N.B. Where length
or breadth are concerned, the diminutive implies a di-
minution in the length of the predicate. As, Lineo/ar,
L,meolet, a short line ; Strio/a, Stviolet, a short stria ;
FascioZa, Fasciolet, a short fascia.

Rule II.

The preposition sub prefixed to any word reduces the
sense of it. As, Subpunctate, not fully punctate ; Subhiv'
sute, not fully hirsute, &c.

OIllSMOLOGY. 308

Rule III.

The termination cuius in Latin words added to a com-
parative implies the state of the object comparatively.
As, Convexius«</?/5, rather convex than not ; Majuscz/-
lus, rather large than not. This is usually denoted in
English by the termination /s/z, or the adverb rather ;
as, largzVz, rather large, &c.

Rule IV.

The participle present used instead of the adjective
implies a tendency to the quality expressed by it. As,
Cinerascens, cinerascent, tending to cinereous, &c.

Rule V.
The preposition ob prefixed to a term reverses it.
As, Oiconical, O^cordate, a conical or heart-shaped
body, of vv^hich the narrow^est part is the base.

Rule VI.
In compound terms the last member indicates the
ineponderating character. For instance, when it is said
of a body that it is 7iigro-(sneous, it means that the aeneous
tint prevails : but if, vice versa, it is termed esneo-tiigrouSf
the black tint is predominant. N.B. In Sculpture the
terms punctato-striate, or punctato-sulcate, signify that
striae or furrows are drawn with puncta in them.

Exception 1.
Some compound terms only indicate the union of two
characters in one subject. As, when we say of wings that
they are cruciato-incumbent, we mean both that they
cross each other and are incumbent upon the body.

Exception 2.
Compound terms are sometimes employed very con-

so* OKISMOLOGY.

veniently to restrict the application of a character to par-
ticular circumstances. As, when we say hirsuto-ci-
nereous, we mean that the hirsuties only of a body is

cinereous.

Rule VII.

When the term ordinary [orditiarius) is added either
to terms expressing impressed puncta, lines, spots, &c.,
it signifies that such puncta, lines, or spots are common
to a particular section in any genus or tribe. As, the
impressed lateral puncta on the thorax of ScarabtridcB
M'^L. ; the lateral furrows and dorsal channel in Harpa-
luSi &c. ; and the spots in the primary wings of Nochia
Polyodon and affinities^.

SYMBOLS.

Male c?. Female ? . Neuter ? . Egg 5, Larva®. Pupa D .

Imago O. Head A. Trunk D. Abdomen v ''•

B. PARTIAL ORISMOLOGY.

I. BODY {Corpus).

1. Disjunct [Disjimctum). When head, trunk, and

abdomen are separated by a deep incisure. Ex.
Hymenoptera, Diptera. Plate IV. Fig. 2, 3, 5.

2. Compact {Compactum). When head, trunk, and

abdomen are not separated by a deep incisure, but
inosculate in each other. Ex. Buprestis, Elater,

* As this work is intended for general readers as well as for the
learned, the above rules, &c., it is hoped will not be deemed with-
out use.

'' These symbols are inserted here, because they may be very con-
veniently adopted in a correspondence on the subject of Entomology.

ORISMOLOGY. 30S

and many other Coleoptcra, Orthoptera^ and He-
miptera.

3. Bisect {Bisect um). When the head and trunk are
not separated by a suture, so that the insect con-
sists only of two pieces. Ex. Aranea L. Plate V.
Fig. 4.

4-. Coalite (Coalitum). When neither head, trunk,
nor abdomen are separated by any incisure or su-
ture. Ex. Many Acari L., Phalangium^ &c.

5. Multisect {Mnltisectum). When an insect appears

to have no distinct trunk and abdomen, but is di-
vided into numerous segments. Ex. Scolopendra ;
lulus, &c. Plate V. Fig. 6.

6. Cymbiform {Cymhiforme) . When the margin of

the thorax and elyti*a are recurved so as to give a
body the resemblance of tlie inside of a boat. Ex.
Helccus, Cossyjohus.

II. HEAD {Caput).

i. DIRECTION.

1. Prominent {Promijiens). When the head is in the

horizontal line, and forms no angle with the trunk.
Ex. Carabus L. Plate I. Fig. I.

2. Porrected {Porrectum). When the head is pro-

minent and elongate. Ex. Cychrus.

3. Nutant {Nutans). When the head forms down-

wards an obtuse angle with the horizontal line, or
trunk. Ex. Harpalus.

4. Cernuous {Cernuum). When the head forms

downwards a right angle with the trunk. Ex.
Most Grylli L.

VOL. TV. X

306 ORISMOLOGY.

5. Inflexed {hifexum). When the head forms in-

wards an actUe angle with the trunk. Ex. Blatta.
Plate II. Fig. 3.

6. TuRRETED {Turritum). When the head is pro-

ducted into a kind of columnar recurved turret or
rostrum, in the sides of which, towards the end,
the eyes are fixed. Ex. Truxalis.

ii. INSERTION.

1 . Retracted [Retractum). When the head is wholly

withdrawn within the trunk. Ex. Parnus.

2. Intruded {Intrimm). When the head is nearly

withdrawn within the trunk. Ex. Melasis.

3. Inserted {Insertum). When the head is partly

withdrawn within the trunk. Ex. Buprestis.

4. Exserted {Exsertiim). When the head is quite

disengaged from the trunk. Ex. Tenebrio, Blaps.

5. Amplected {Amplexum). When the head is re-

ceived into a sinus of the thorax. Ex. Hister.

6. Recondite {Iteconditum). When the head is ^wholly

covered and sheltered by the shield of the thorax.
Ex. Cassida, Lampyris.

7. Semirecondite [Semireconditiim). When the head

is half covered by the shield of the thorax. Ex.
Silpha, Cyphon.

8. Retractile [Retractile). When an insect can at

pleasure exsert its head, or withdraw it within the
trunk. Ex. Hister, Larva of Lampyris.

9. Versatile [Versatile). When the head can turn

nearly round. Ex. Hymenoptera, Diptera.
10. Pedunculate [Peduncidatum). When the head is

ORISMOLOGY, 307

constricted behind into a distinct neck. Ex. Apo-
derus Coryli, &c.
11. Sessile (Sessile). When the head does not move
in the socket of the trunk, but is attached to it by
a kind of hgament. Ex. Ut/menoptera, Diptera.

iii. TERMINATION.

1. Clypeate iClypeatum), When the Nasus, GencE,

&c. are dilated so as to shelter and overshadow
the mouth. Ex. Scarabceus M'^L. Coprts, &c.
Plate XIII. Fig. 14.

2. Capistrate (Capistratum). When the anterior

part of the head is attenuated and subelongated
into a kind o^ Jiat rostrum or muzzle. Ex. l^iti-
dula. Plate XIII. Fig. 13.

3. Rostrate {Rostratum). When the anterior part

of the head is elongated and attenuated into a cy-
lindrical or majiy-sided rostrum or beak. Ex. Cu7--
culio L. Plate XIII. Fig. 1 2.

4. BuccATE [Bticcatum). When the Nasus and ante-

rior part of the head are inflated. Ex. Conops and
other Diptera. Plate XIII. Fig. 16.

iv. APPENDAGES.

1. Umbraculate (Umbractdatum). When there is

upon the head an umbrella-shaped process. Ex.
Acheta umbraculata.

2. Lychnidiate [Lychnidiatum). When the Vertex,

Frons, and Postnasus are porrected so as to form a
kind of rostnm which gives light in the night.
Ex. Fulgora. Plate XIII, Fig, 15.
x 2

308 ORISMOLOGY.

V. MOUTH (0.S).

1. Terminal [Terminale). When the mouth termi-

nates the head. Ex. Coleoptera, &c.

2. Prone {Pro7ium). Wlien the mouth is wholly un-

der the head. Ex. Tnixalis, Proscopia.

3. Perfect [Perfectwn). When the mouth is furnished

with all the Trophi. Viz. Labrum,; Labium;
MandibulcB ; MaxillcE ; Maxillary and Labial
Palpi; and Tongue. Ya^l. ^he Masticating Orders.

a. Feeders retracted ( Trophi retracti). When, in

a perfect mouth, the Trophi are not capable of be-
ing much pushed out or drawn in. Ex. Most Co-
leoptera, Orthoptera^ &c.

b. Feeders RETRACTILE (Trop/fi r^^rac^iVe^). When,

in a perfect mouth, the Trophi can be considerably
pushed forth or drawn in. Ex. Stetitis, Apis, &c.

4. Imperfect [Imperfectum). When the mouth wants

any of the Trophi, or they exist in it only as rudi-
ments. Ex. The Suctorious Orders.

5. Elabrate [Elabratum). When an imperfect mouth

has Mandibulce, Maxillce, Labium, and Maxillary
Palpi, or what perform their office, but no Labrum.
Ex. Araneidcs.

6. Emandibulate (Emandibulatum). When an im-

perfect mouth has all the TropJii but the Mandi-
bulcE. Ex. Trichoptera Kirby.

7. Bipalpate {Bipalpatum). W^hen an imperfect

mouth has only either Labial or Maxillary Palpi.
Ex. Tabanus, &c.

8. ExPALPATE (Expalpatum). When an imperfect

mouth has no Palpi. Ex. Hemiptera.

QRISMOLOGY. 309

9. Stomapodous {Stomapodum). When the Legs and
Sternum act the part of Maxilhe, Labium^ and
Palpi. Ex. Araneidce^ Scolopendra, &c.

a. UPPER LIP {Labrum).

1. Whiskered {Mystacinum). When the upper Hp
is furnished with whiskers (Mt/stax), or bearded.
Ex. Creophilus hirtus K. Plate XXVI. Fig. 30.

b. UPPER JAWS {Majidibula).

1. Chelate {Chelatce). When the upper jaws are fur-

nished at the end with a chela or thumb. Ex. Scor-
pio, Phalangiiim.

2. Unguiculate {(Jnguiculafce). When they are

armed with a moveable claw. Ex. Araneidce.
Plate VII. Fig. 10. c'.

3. Buried {Sepidtce). When they are covered and

quite concealed by the upper lip. Ex. Collyuris.

4. Open (Apertcc). When they are tiot quite concealed

by the upper lip. Ex. Most Colcoptera.

5. Toothless {Edentidce). When they are not armed

with teeth. Ex. Apogonia gemellata K. Plate
XXVI. Fig. 22.

6. Toothed {Dentatce). When they are armed with

teeth. Ex. Cicindela. Plate XXVI. Fig. 19.

7. Suctorious (Suctorice). When they have an ori-

fice by which they imbibe their food. Ex. Larva
of Dytiscus, Myrmeleon, &c. Plate XIII. Fig. 6.

c. under jaws {Maxillce).

1. Simple {Si7nplices). When the under jaws have but
one lobe. Ex. Hymenoptera. Plate VII. Fig. 2,
3. d'.

310 OIIISMOLOGY.

2. Compound (Composite). When tbey have more

than one lobe. Ex. Staphylinus and many other
Coleoptera. Plate XXVI. Fig. 9, 10. d"'. e"'.

3. Adnate {Adnata;). When they adhere to the lower

lip through their whole length. Ex. Trichoptera.
Plate VII. Fig. 1. d'.

4. Adherent [Adhcerejites). When they adhere to it

only at their base. Ex. Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,
&c. Plate VI, VII. Fig. 3. d'.

5. Spinose (Spinosa). When they are armed at the

apex with spines. Ex. Libellulma. Plate VI.
Fig. 12. f".

6. Dentate (Detitatce). When they are armed with

teeth. Ex. Melolontkidce. Plate XXVI. Fig.
5.g.

7. Pectunculate (Pectunculata). When the stipes

below the feeler has a row of minute spines set
like the teeth of a comb. Ex. Apis ^.

8. Disengaged [Liberce). When they do not adhere

to it at all, or are only connected by membrane or
ligaments. Ex. Apis, &c. Plate VII. Fig. 3. d'.

9. Mandibuliform {Mandibidifonnes). When they

are hard and horny , and shaped like the upper
jaws. Ex. Melolo7ithidce, Anopolognatliid(B, &c.
Plate XXVI. Fig. 13, 15.
10. Unguiculate {Unguicidata). When they termi-
nate in a moveable claw. Ex. Cicindela.

d. feelers [Palpi).
1. Maniform (Maniformes). When they are chelate

" Mo7i. Ap. A?igl. i. t. xii. **. e. 1. neiU.f. 6. c. and t. x. **, d, 1.
fig. 1. c.

ORISMOLOGYb 311

or furnished with a finger and thumb. Ex. Scor-
pio, Chelifer. Plate XV. Fig. 7.

2. Pediform (Pediformes). When they resemble the

legs either in structure or use. Ex. Ara?ieidce,
Acaridcc. Plate VII. Fig. 10. h".

3. Antenniform {Ante7mifor)nes). M^hen they are

very long resembling antenna. Ex. Hydrophilus,
Bryaxis, Culex S •

4. Unguiculate ( Unguiculati). When they are armed

with a claw at the end. Ex. Gonyleptes K. Plate
XIII. Fig. 1.

5. Securiform (Securiformes). When the last joint of

the feeler is triangular, and the preceding joint is
connected with the vertex of the triangle. Ex.
Cleridce. Plate XIII. Fig. 2. a.

6. Lunulate [Lumdati). When the last joint is

shaped like a half moon or crescent. Ex. Oxy-
porus. Plate XIII. Fig. 4. a.

7. Fasciculate {Fasciculati), When the feeler ter-

minates m a bunch of very slender lamina. Ex.
Lymexylonjlavipes. Plate XXVI. Fig. 3.

8. Lamellate {Lamellati}. When the last joint is

divided into transverse lamellae. Ex. Atractocerus,
Plate XXVI. Fig. 1.

9. Inflated {Injiati). When the last joint of the

feeler is verv large and tumid. Ex. Araneidce $ ,
Plate XIII. Fig. 3.

10. Appendiculate [Appendiculati). When from one

of the joints there issues an accessory joint or ap-
pendage. Ex. Atractocerus, Tromhidium. Plate
XXVI. Fig. 1. a, Plate XXIII. Fig. 13. a.

11. Mammillate {Mammillati). When the last joint

312 ORISMOLOGY.

is very short, snmllei' than the preceding one, and
retractile within it. Ex. Pcederus"^.

12. iiuBVLhTTi, {Subulati). When the last joint is short,

and vastly smaller than the preceding one. Ex.
Bemhidium, Aleochara. Plate XXVI. Fig. 7.

13. YvsiTOYiM {Fusifor7nes). When the two last joints are

conical, and the base of the cones forms the point
of union. Ex. Trec/ms. Plate XXVI. Fig. 8.

14. Hetehomoufuovs {Heteromor-p/ii). When the two

intermediate joints are vastly larger than the first
and the last. Ex. CerocomaS- Plate XXVI.
Fig. 2.

e. tongue {Lingua).

1. LiNGUiFORM [Linguiformis). When the tongue is

quite distinct from the labium, usually retracted
within the mouth, short and shaped something
like a vertebrate tongue. Ex. Grijllus L. Lihelbi-
lina. Plate VI. Fig. 6, 12. e'.

2. LiGULiFORM {Liguli/brmis). When it emerges

from the labium, is short, flat, and not concealed
within the mouth. Ex. Vespa and many Hymeno-
jjtera. Plate VII. Fig. 2. e'.

3. Tubulose ( Tubidosa). When it emerges from the

labium, is long and tubular, and capable of infla-
tion. Ex. Apis. Plate VII. Fig. 3. e'.

4. Setiform [Setiformis). A short minute sharp tongue

discoverable between the scalpclla of a promuscis.
Ex. Cimex L. Plate VII. Fig. 14. e'.

5. Palatiform [Palatiformis). When the tongue

forms the inner surface of the Labium.^ but is not
separate from it. Ex. Most Coleoptera.
» Oliv. Ins. N°. -11, Fcederns. i. i. /. 1. e.

OUISMOLOGY. 315

vi. NOSE {Naws).

1. Included {Inclusus). When the nose is included

between the two sides of the Posttiasus which run
towards the upper lip. Ex. Cimex L.

2. Vaulted {Foniicatus). When the nose is elevated,

convex and hollow underneath. Ex. Vespa.

vii. CANTHUS.

1. Entering {Intrans). When the Canthus takes a

little angle or sinus out of the eye. Ex. Ceram-
byx L. MylaMs F. Plate VI. Fig. 1. h'.

2. Cleaving {Findens). When the Canthus cleaves the

eye half through or more. Ex. The Lamellicarfis.

3. Dividing {Dividens). When the Canthus. passes

right through the eye and divides it into two.
Ex. Gyrinus. Tetraopes Dalm. ^ Plate XXVI.
Fig. 36.

4. Septiform {Septiformis). When the Canthushvmsa.n

elevated ridge or septum. Ex. Many Lamellicorns,

viii. EYES {OcULi).

1. Simple (Simplices). Eyes which do not consist of
an aggregate of hexagonal lenses. Ex. Araneidce.
Scorpio, Phalangium. Plate VII. Fig. 9. h.

a. Scattered {Sparsi). W^hen simple eyes are sepa-

rate from each other and not arranged in a certain
order. Ex. Eyes of Caterpillars and some Scolo-
•pendrce.

b. Ordinate (Ordinati). When simple eyes are ar-

ranged in a certain order. Ex. Araneidce, Plate
XXVI. Fig. 37.

* Germ. LisecL Spec, 486 — .

314 ORISMOLOGY.

c. Conglomerate {Conglomerati). When a number

of simple eyes are collected together so as to exhi-
bit the appearance of a compound one. Ex. luliis.
Plate XIII. Fig. 11.

d. Dorsal (Dorsales). When they are placed on the

back. Ex. Phalangium. Plate XXVI. Fig. 43. h.

2. Compound {Compositi), Eyes which consist of an
aggregate of hexagonal lenses. Ex. All the TViftged
Orders. Plate XIII. Fig. 10. and XXVI. Fig.
38—4-2 h.

a. Sessile (Sessiles). Eyes that do not sit upon a
footstalk. Ex. Most insects. Plate XXVI.
Fig. 40, 41.

a. Superior {Stqjeriores). When they are placed in
the tipper part of the head. Ex. Libelhdina.

/3. Lateral [Laterales). When they are placed in
the side of the head. Ex. Apis L.

y. Inferior {hiferiores). When they are placed in
the lower side of the head. Ex. The loisoer pair in
Gyrinm.

I, Posterior [Posteriores). When placed in the pos-
terior part of the head. Ex. Locusta Leach.
s. Anterior (Anteriores). When placed in the ante-
rior part of the head. Ex. Crabro F. Staphylinus
olens, &c.

^. Medial [Medii). When placed in the middle part
of the head. Ex. Harpalus, &c.

>j. Belting {Cinge7ites). When the eyes nearly meet
both above and below the head, so as to form a
kind of belt round it. Ex. Culex pipiens, Cala7i-
dra Palmarum.

9. Immersed [Immersi). When they are quite im-
bedded in the head. Ex. Tenebrio L.

ORISMOLOGY. 315

I. Prominent [Prominuli). When they stand out
from the head. Ex. Cicindcla.

b. Columnar {Cohmnares). When they sit upon a

short footstalk or pillar. Ex. Strepsiptera K.
Ephemera S' Plate XXVI. Fig. 38, 39. h.

c. Pedunculate [Pedimculati). When they sit upon

a lon<T footstalk which also bears the antennae.
Ex. Diopsis. Plate XIII. Fig. 9.

d. Operculate {Operculati). When the eyes are co-

vered by an opercidum. Ex. Noctua conspicil-
laris^.

e. C11.1ATE {Ciliati). When the margin of the socket

of the eye is fringed with hairs, so as to resemble
an eyelash. Ex. Apion vernale and Malvamm.

ix. STEMMATA.

1. Vertical {Verticalia). When they are placed in

the Vei'tex. Ex, Reduviiis personahis. Plate
XXVI. Fig. 40. i.

2. Frontal [Frontalia). When placed in the Frons.

Ex. Hymenoptera, Plate VII. Fig. 2. i.

3. Intraocular [Intraocularia). When placed in the

space hePiXieen the eyes. Ex. Cercopis, Ledra, &c.
Plate XXVI. Fig. 42. i.

4. SuBOCULAR (Subocnlaria). When placed in the

space below the eyes. Ex. Fulgora Laternaria.
Plate XXVI. Fig. 41. i.

5. Spurious [Spuria). A flat subdiaphanous space

above the base of the antennae, which seems to re-
present them. Ex. Blatta, Acheta F.

* Fn. Suec. 1183. Fabricius has not admitted this moth among
his Nocluce, I know not why.

316 ORISMOLOGY.

X. ANTENNAE.

a. NUMBER.

1. DicEROVS (Dicera), Insects that have /wo antennae.

Ex. Insects in general.

2. AcEROus {Acera). Insects that have no antennae.

Ex. Acarus, &c.

b. SITUATION.

1. Preocular [Prceoculares). When antennae are

inserted before the eyes. Ex. Ch-ysis.

2. Interocular [Interoculares). When mserted any

where between the eyes. Ex. Leptura^ Haliplus.

3. Inocular (Lioculares). When inserted in the Ca7i-

thus of the eyes. Ex. Cerambyx L.

4. Subocular {Suhoculares). When inserted imder

the eyes. Ex. Fnlgora, Nepa. Plate XXVI.
Fig. 41. k.

5. Extraocular (Extraoculares). When inserted

without the eyes. Ex. Notonecta, Delphax.

6. Rostral (Rostrales). When seated on a rostrum.

Ex. Curculio L.

7. Superior (Superiores). When inserted in the upper

surface of the head. Ex. Most i?isects.

8. Inferior {Liferiores). When inserted tender the

head. Ex. Copris, &c.

c. approximation.

1. Distant (Distantes). When rernote at their base.

Ex. Buj)restis rustica.

2. Approximate [Approximata:). When they ap-

proach each other at their base. Ex. Donacia,
Galeruca.

ORISMOLOGY. 317

3. Contiguous {Contiguce). When they nearly oi-

altogether touch each other at their base. Ex.
Imatidium MacLeayamim.

4. Connate (Connaice). When untied at their base.

Ex. Ceria. Plate XII. Fig. 13.

d. PROPORTION.

1. Very Short {Brevissimce). When shorter than

the head. Ex. Musca L.

2. Short (Breves). When as long as the head. Ex.

Hister.

3. Shorter [Breviores). When longer than the head

and shorter than the body. Ex. Dytisciis.

4. Mediocral (M^'r/Zocr^s). When of the length of the

body. Ex. Callidium violaceum.

5. Longer [Lojigiores). When longer than the body.

Ex. Lamia Sutor.

6. Very Long (Longissimce). When much longer

than the body. Ex. Lamia (cdilis.

e. DIRECTION.

1. Entire {hitegrce). When they have no elbow or

angle. Ex. Antennce of most Coleoptera.

2. Broken [Fracta). When the Clavola forms an

angle with the Scapus. Ex. Curadio, Apis, &c.
Plate XXV. Fig. 15.

3. Geniculate {Geniculate). When they form an

elbow in the middle but not with the Scapus. Ex.
Meloe. Plate XII. Fig. 7.

4. Straight [Rectce). When they are without any

angle, convolution, or curvature. Plate XI.
Fig. 5.

5. Porrect (Porrecffp). When they are placed paral-

318- ORISMOLOGY.

lei with each other, and in the same line with the
body. Ex. Trichoptera in flight.

6. ExcuRVED [Excurvce). When they curve outwards.

7. Incurved [Incurvce). When they curve inwards.

8. Decurved [Decurvce). When they curve down-

wards.

9. Recurved [Recurva;). When they curve upwards.

10. Reflexed [Reflexce). When they are bent back

over the body.

11. Deflexed {Dejiexce). When they are bent down-

wards.

12. Convolute (Cojzw/M/f^). When they roll inwards.

Plate XII. Fig. 6.

13. Revolute (Revoltifa). When they roll outwards.

14. Spiral [Spirales). When they are convoluted spi-

rally. Plate XXV. Fig. 31.

15. Rigid {Rigida:). When they are very stiff and in-

flexible. Ex. Libellulina, Fulgm-a. Plate XII.
Fig. 12, 15.

f. REPOSITION.

1. Hidden (Receptee). Antennae which when the ani-

mal reposes, are hidden under the head or trunk.
Ex. The Lamellicorns. Elater. Belostoma.

2. Exposed [Apertce). Antennae which when the ani-

mal reposes are not concealed. Ex. Ceramhyx L.

g. figure and size.

1. Setaceous [Setacece). Long flexile antennae which

taper somewhat from the base to the apex. Plate
XL Fig. 1.

2. Setiform {Setiformes). Short rigid antennae which

ORISINfOLOGY. 319

taper from the base to the apex hke a bristle.
Plate XII. Fig. 14—16.

3. Capillary ( Capillares). Antennae nearly as slender

as a hair. Platp: XI. Fig. 2.

4. Filiform {Filiformes). Antennae every where of an

equal thickness. Plate XI. Fig. 3.

5. Thick [Crasscc). Antennae disproportionably thick.

Plate XII. Fig. 29.

6. Incrassate [Licrassatce). Antennae disproportion-

ably thick in any part : at the base, middle, or apex.
Plate XXV. Fig. 34, 19, 7.

a. Gradually 1^cb.xssxt^ {Se^isimlncrassata:). When

they grow gradually thicker from the base to the
apex. Plate XXV. Fig. 10.

b. Suddenly Incrassate [Suhito Incrassatce). When

they grow suddenly thicker in any part. Plate
XXV. Fig. 18, 19, 24.
"T. Broad {Lata:). Antennae disproportionably mde.
Plate XXV. Fig. 24.

8. Dilated (Dilatatce). When they are dispropor-

tionably wide in any part ; base, middle, or ajjex.
Plate XXV. Fig. 12. Plate XII. Fig. 1,20.

9. Slender ( Tenues). When they are disproportion-

ably slender. Plate XI. Fjg. 2.
10. Attenuate {Attenuate). Antennae disproportion-
ably slender in any part ; base, middle, or apex.
Plate XXV. Fig. 8, 21, 34.

a. GiiADUAUuY Attenuate (Sensim Attenuate). When

they grow gradually more slender from the base
to the apex. Plate XL Fig. 7.

b. Suddenly Attenuate {Subito Attenuatce). When

320 ORISMOLOGY.

they grow suddenly slender in any part. Plate
XII. Fig. 1. Plate XXV. Fig. 18, 34.

11. Fusiform [Fusiformes). Antennae thickest in the

middle and tapering more or less towards each
extremity. Plate XI. Fig. 5. Plate XXV.
Fig. 8.

12. Prismatic (Pi'tsmaticales). Antennae with three

nearly equal sides, Plate XI. Fig. 6.

13. Knsifoiim {E7isiformes). Antennae compressed and

three-sided, with one side much narrower than
either of the others. Plate XI. Fig. 7.

14. F AiuCiFOUM {Falayormes). Wlien the CZaw/a of the

Antennce grows gradually narrower towards the
apex, and is arcuate or incurved so as to resem-
ble a sickle. Plate XI. Fig. 8.

15. Nodose {Nodosa). When antennae have one, two,

or more joints larger than those which precede or
follow them. Plate XII. Fig. 5.

16. Moniliform [Moniliformes). Antennae consisting

of oval or globular joints so as to resemble a neck-
lace of beads. Plate XI. Fig. 9.

17. Dentate {Dentatce). Toothed with teeth whose

sides are equal. Plate XI. Fig. 10.

18. Serrate [Serratce). Toothed with teeth whose sides

are unequal like those of a saw. Plate XI. Fig.
11. Plate XXV. Fig. 8.

19. Biserrate {Biset-ratcB). So toothed on each side.

Plate XXV. Fig. 18.

20. iMBmcATF. {Imhricata). When the summit of each

joint is incumbent upon the base of that which
precedes it. Plate XI. Fig. 12.

ORISMOLOGY. 321

21. Distichous {Distichce). When the joints in ge-

neral terminate in afmlc. Plate XL Fig. 13.

22. CiRRATE [Cirrata;). When the joints terminate in

a pair of curling hairy branches resembling teti-
drils. Plate XXV. Fig. 4.

23. Flabellate {Flabellatce). When the antennae on

one side send forth from the joints, except those
at the base, long flat flexile branches, which open
and shut like the sticks of a fan. Plate XI.
Fig. 17.

24. Biflabellate {BifiahellatcB). When they are fla-

bellate on both sides. Plate XXV. Fig. 11.

25. Pectinate (P^c^ma^<^). Antennae furnished on one

side with a number of parallel stiff" branches, re-
sembling somewhat the teeth of a comh. Plate
XXV. Fig. 25. Plate XI. Fig. 14.

26. BiPECTiNATE [BijpectinatcB). Pectinate on both

sides. Plate XXV. Fig. 22.

27. Duplicato-pectinate {Duplicato-pectinatce). Bi-

pectinate with the branches on each side alternately
long and short. Plate XI. Fig. 15.

28. Ramose {^Ramoscs). Antennae furnished on one

side with two or three irregular longish branches.
Plate XL Fig. 18.

29. Furcate {Furcatce). Antennae divided at the end

into two prongs or branches. Plate XL Fig. 19.
Plate V, Fig. 3.

30. Bipartite {Bipartitce). When they are divided to

the base into two nearly equal branches. Plate
XXV. Fig. 20.

31. Palmate {Palmatce). Very short antennae which

send forth externally a few long finger-shaped

VOL. IV. Y

S22 ORISMOLOGY.

branches, giving them some resemblance of a hand.
Plate XL Fig. 24
32. Irregular [Irregulares). When the joints of the
antennae vary so much in size and shape that they
cannot well be defined. Plate XI. Fig. 22.

h. termination.

U. VERSATILE ANTENNA.

1 . Subulate {Subulatce). When they terminate in a

minute joint, much slenderer than the preceding
one. Plate XII. Fig. 16.

2. Setigerous (Setigera). When they terminate in a

bristle. Plate XIL Fig. 14, 15. Plate XXV.
Fig. 29.

3. Capillaceous (Ca;??7/ac^^). When they terminate

in a fine capillary joint. Plate XII. Fig. 1.

4. MucRONATE [Mucronatce). When they terminate

in a short point or mucro. Plate XII. Fig. 2.

5. Uncinate {Uncinate). When their apex is in-

curved so as to form a kind of hook. Plate XII.
Fig. 3.

6. Unguiculate (Unguiculatce). Wlien they termi-

nate in a hard horny incurved sharp claw resem-
bling those of the tarsi of insects. Plate XXV.
Fig. 16. a.

7. Clavate {Clavatae). When their apex grows gra-

dually thicker. Plate XII. Fig. 4. Plate XXV.
Fig. 7, 14.

8. Capitate [CapitatcB). When they terminate sud-

denly in a larger knob of one or more joints.
Plate XII. Fig. 8—10, and XXV. 1—3, 5, 6.
a. Fissile Knob [Capitulum ^sile). When it is di-

ORISMOLOGY. 323

vided into several lamincE which the insect can
open and shut. Plate XXV. Fig. 1 — 3, 5.

b. Tunicate Knob {Capitulum tunicatum). When

the laminae, at least on one side, appear to inoscu-
late or to be imbedded in each other. Plate XII.
Fro. 8. Plate XXV. Fig. 5, 6.

c. Perfoliate Knob [Capitulum perfoliatum). When

the joints of the knob are connected by a pedicle,
which has the appearance of passing through them.
Plate XII. Fig. 10.

d. Solid Knob [Capitulum solidum). When the knob

consists of a single joint, or if of more, exhibits
very faint traces of their separation. Plate XII.
Fig. 9. Plate XXV. Fig. 33.

e. Inflated Knob [Capitulum inflatum). When the

knob is disproportionably large, and looks as if
blown out. Plate XII. Fig. 28. Plate XXV.
Fig. 9.

/3. INVERSATILE ANTENN^?;.

1. Setigerous [Setigerce). Antennae furnished with

a terminal bristle. Plate XII. Fig. 14 — 16, 21,
22. Plate XXV. Fig. 29.

a. Globi FERGUS [Glohiferce). When the setigerous
joint is larger than the preceding one, and globose.
Plate XII. Fig. 12.

h. Angustate [Angustatcs). When the setigerous
joint is not conspicuously larger than the preced-
ing one. Plate XII. Fig. 14, 15.

2. Aristate [Aristatce). Antennae terminated by a va-

riously shaped flat joint longer and usually larger
than the preceding one, laterally setigerous.
Plate XII. Fig. 21, 22.
Y 2

324 * ORISMOLOGY.

a. Setarious (Setaria). When the awn or bristle is

naked. Plate XII. Fig. 21. a.
6. Plumate (Plumatce). When the awn is feathered.

Plate XII. Fig. 22. a.
3. FiLATE {JBilatcB). When inversatile antennae have

neither a terminal nor a lateral bristle. Plate

XII. Fig. 17—20.

a. Simple [Simplices). When the last joint is exarti-

culate. Plate XII. Fig. 17, 18, 20.

b. Compound {Composite). When the last joint is it-

self ohsoletely Jointed. Plate XII. Fig. 19. a.

i. pubescence.

1. Verticillate {Verticillata). Antennae beset with

hair in whorls. Plate XII. Fig. 27.

2. Plumose {Plumosce). Antennae feathered on all

sides with fine long hair. Plate XII. Fig. 24.

3. CiLiATE (Ciliatce). Antennae fringed with parallel

hairs on each side. Plate XI. Fig. 16.

4. Fimbriate {Fimbriatce). Antennae fringed with

parallel hairs on one side.

5. Barbate (Barbatce). Antennae hairy on one side.

Plate XII. Fig. 26.

6. Fasciculate {Fasciculata:). Antennae having seve-

ral bundles of hah-. Plate XXV. Fig. 32.

7. Scopiferous (Scopiferce). When they are furnished

with one or more dense brushes of hair. Plate
XII. Fig. 25. a. Plate XXV. Fig. 17.

k. articulation.

1. 'ExAUTicvLATT. {Exarticulatce). Without visible ar-
ticulations.

ORISMOLOGY. 325

2. BiARTicuLATE {Biarticulatcc). Consisting of fwo

joints.

3. Triarticulate {Triarticulatce). Consisting of

three joints.

4. QuADRiARTicuLATE {Qtiadriarticulatce). Consist-

ing of Jour joints.

5. MuLTiARTicuLATE {Multiarticiilatce). Consisting

of mam/ joints.

1. JOINTS.

1. Campanulate {Campanulatce). Bell-shaped. When

the joints are obconical, with the vertex of the cone
rounded.

2. Pateriform {Pateriformes). When the joints

are somewhat dilated and very short, shaped some-
thing like a shallow bowl.

3. Patellate {Patellat(e). When the whole joint is

dilated and shaped something like a patella or
platter. Ex. Prosopis dilatata [Melitta *. b. K.)
Plate XXV. Fig. 12. a.

4. Lobate {Lobatce). When they are expanded at

the tip into a lobe. Ex. Belostoma. Cerocoma.
Plate XL Fig. 21, 22.

5. ToRULOSE ( Torulosce). When they are a little tu-

mid.

m. appendages.

1. Auriculate [Auriculatce). When they have an

ear-like process at their base. Ex. Gyrinus. Par-
nus. Plate XII. Fig. 29. a. Plate XXV.
Fig. 28. a.

2. Appej^ DicxjL ATE {Appendiculatce). When they have

326 ORISMOLOGY.

one or two antenniform processes at their base.
Ex. Otiocerus K. Plate XXV. Fig. 29. b.

III. TRUNK {Truncus).

1. MoNOMEROUs {Monomej'us). When the trunk has

no suture or segment. Ex. Aranea L.

2. Dimerous [Dimerus). When the trunk consists of

two greater segments. Ex. Coleoptera, &c.

3. Trimerous ( Trimeriis). When the trunk consists

of th7-ee greater segments. Ex. Neuroptera, &c.

4. IsTHMiATE [Isthmiatus). When an isthmus is formed

between the ProtJiorax and Elytra^ either in con-
sequence of the former being constricted behind
so as to form a neck, or the scutellum not being
interposed between the elytra at their base, or the
chief part of the mesothorax not being covered by
the prothorax. Ex. Clerus, Passalus, and Sjpon-
dylis,

i. MANITRUNK {Manitrvncus).
a. prothorax.

1. Clypeiform {Clypeiformis). When the prothorax

by its magnitude and distinct separation forms one
of the most conspicuous pieces of the upper side of
the trunk, so as nearly to represent the whole
thorax; the mesothorax and metathorax being
mostly hidden by the elytra and other organs for
flight. Ex. Coleoptera, Orthoptera, &c. Plate
VIII. Fig. 1, 10.

2. Colli FORM (Collifoi'mis). When the prothorax is

short and narrow, and not so conspicuous as the

ORISMOLOGY. 327

other pieces of the trunk. Ex. Libellulina.
Plate IX. Fig. 6.

3. Cerviculate (Cerviculatus). When the prothorax

is elongate, attenuate, and distinguished from the
Antepectus by no suture ; so as to form a distinct
and usually long neck. Plate III. Fig. 6.

4. Evanescent (Evanescens). When no distinct pro-

thorax is discoverable or it is only represented by
membrane. Ex. Most Hymenoptera, Tiiptera^ &c.

5. Margin ate {Marginatus). When an impressed

line or channel separates the edge of the protho-
rax from the rest of its surface, and so forms a
margin. Ex. Harpalus Latr. &c.

6. Immarginate [Immargijiatus). When it has no

such margin. Ex. Curculio L.

7. Explanate {Explanatus). When its sides are so

depressed and dilated as to form a broad margin.
Ex. Necrophorus. Silpha.

8. Emarginate [Emarginatus). When a segment of

a circle is taken out of its anterior part for the re-
ception of the head.

9. Ambient [Ambiens). When this sinus is so large

as to receive the ixhole head. Ex. Chilocorus
Leach.

10. Circumambient {Circumambiens). When its sides

are elongated anteriorly and curve inwards, their
ends lapping over each other and the head, so as
to form a circle round the posterior part of the
latter, and leave a space open for the eyes to see
objects above them. Ex. Helceus.

11. Clypeate {Clypeatus). When it quite covers and

overshadows the head. Ex. Lampyris. Cassida.
Cossyphus.

328 ORISMOLOGY.

12. CucuuLATE {Cucidlatics). When it is elevated into

a kind of ventricose coisol or hood which receives
the head. Ex. Tingis cucullatus. Plate XIII.
Fig. 18. a.

13. Alate {Alatus). When its sides are expanded into

a kind of 'wing. Ex. Tingis cucullatus.

14. Auriculate [Auriculatus). When it expands on

each side into tv^^o processes resembUng ears. Ex.
Ledra aurita.

15. Angulate (Angulatus). When its sides or base

jut out into one or more angles. Ex. Copris.

16. Cruciate {Cruciatiis). When it has two elevated

longitudinal obtusangular lines, the angles of which
approach each other in its middle, so as nearly to
form a St. Andrew's cross. Ex. Locusta Leach.
Plate XIII. Fig. 17.

17. Obvolving [Obvolveiis). When there are neither

ora nor suture to separate it from the antepectus.
Ex. Stenus, Curculio L.

18. Pulvinate [Pulvinatus). When in consequence

of being depressed in one place, it seems to puff
out in another. Ex. Aleochara canaliculata,
picta, &c.

19. Producted {Productus). WTien behind it termi-

nates in a long scutelliform process which covers
the Mesothorax, Metathorax, and great part of the
Abdomen. Ex, Acrydium F. Centrotus.

b. antepectus.

1. Trachelate (T'/flfc/i^/a/^^wi). When of itself it forms

a neck, the prothorax being represented only by
membrane. Ex. Xiphydria.

ORISMOLOGY. 329

2. Unarmed {Inerme). When it has no prosternum.

Ex. Curculio L.

3. Armed {Armahcin). When it has a prosternum.

N.B. These ttao last terms may be extended also to
the Medipectus and Postpectus. And also to the
whole together. Thus, if there 'was no Sternum at
all, it should be called Pectus inerme ; and if 07ie
existed in all these divisions of the breast, it would
be Pectus armatura.

c. ARM (Brachium).

ec. CUBIT (Cubitus).

1. Clypeate {Clypeatus). When a concavo-convex

plate is affixed to the outside of the cubit. Ex. Cra-
bro clypeatus, scutatus, &c. S • Plate XV. Fig.
3. a.

2. Palmate {Palmatus). When towards the apex the

cubit is armed laterally with several divaricate
spiniform teeth. Ex. Scarites, Clivina. Plate
XV. Fig. 5.

3. Digitate (Digitatus). When the apex of the cu-

bit is divided into several long teeth or fingers.
Ex. Gryllotalpa. Plate XV. Fig. 6.

4. DoLABRATE [Dolabratus). When the apex of the

cubit is dilated and shaped something like the
head of a hatchet. Plate XV. Fig. 4.

/3. HAND (Manm).
1. F ATELi, ATE (Patellata). When several joints of the
hand are dilated so as to form an orbicular patella
furnished underneath either with suckers, or a
dense brush of hairs. Ex. Dytiscus S • Staphyli-
nus. Plate XV. Fig. 9.

330 ORISMOLOGY.

2. Scutate {Scutata). When a single joint of the

hand is dilated into a broad scutiform plate. Ex.
Hydrophilus piceus S • Plate XV. Fig. 8.

3. Strigilate {Strigilata). When on the inner side

of the first joint of the hand or palm the segment
of a circle is taken out at the base opposite to the
spur, the sinus being often pectinated with spines.
Ex. Apis^. Plate XXVII. Fig. 36. a.

4. Auriculate (Auriculata). When any of the joints

are externally dilated into an auriform process.
Ex. Gryllotalpa. Plate XV. Fig. 6. t".

ii. ALITRUNK (Alitruncus).

1. Buried (Sepultus). When its upper surface is wholly

or nearly covered and hidden by the thorax, elytra
or other organs of flight''. Ex. Coleoptera, Ortho-
ptera.

2. Revealed (Revelatus). When it is not so covered,

but is equally conspicuous with the Prothorax^ or
even more so. Ex. Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
Diptera. Ati'actocerus in Coleoptera.

3. Coalite (Coalitus). When it is not separable into

two segments, the Medipectus and the Postpectus
forming one piece. Ex. Cimex L.

4. Bisected [Bisectus). When it is separable into

two segments. Ex. LamelUcorn beetles.

a. mesothorax.

«. COLLAR {Collare).

1. Uncovered {Aperium). When it is 7iot concealed

« Monogr. Ap. Angl. i. 97- 1. xii. Apis. **. e. 1. Neut./. 21. d.

^ This term may be applied to the Mesothorax in heteropterous
Hemiptera, in which that part lies buried under the Prothomx.
Plate VIII. Fig. 20. i, k.

ORISMOLOGY. 331

by the shield of the prothorax. Ex. Hymeno-
ptera,

2. Covered {Tectum). When it is quite concealed by

the prothorax.

3. Areate [Areatum). When it is larger than the

prothorax, and terminates towards the wings in
two oblique areas, inclosed by a ridge often crown-
ed anteriorly with little teeth. Ex. Libellulina.
Plate IX. Fig. 7. g'i a. N.B. The space between
these areas is Jitted isoith a membrane capable of ten-
sion and relaxation^ vohich in flight causes them to
approach to and recede from each other.

4. Amplectent (Amplectetis). When posteriorly it is

so curved as to form a large sinus which embraces
the Dorsolum. Ex. Vespa L. Plate IX. Fig.
11. g-.

5. Phonetic (Phoneticum). When its posterior an-

gles, approaching the wings, cover the vocal spira-
cles*. Ex. Hymenoptera.

/3. DORSOLUM. -

1. Thoraciform (7%or«cz/orwe). When it forms the
principal part of the upper surface of the trunk.
Ex. BombuSi Apis, Vespa L., &c. Plate IX.
Fig. 11. f.

y. SCUTELLUM.

1. Distinct {Distinctum). When it is separated from

the dorsolum by a suture. Ex. Hymenoptera,
Diptera. Plate IX. Fig. 11, 19, &c. JcK

2. Coalite (Coalitum). When it is not separated

* Chabrier ^k;- le Vol des Imectes. Mem. du Miis. t. viii. 55.

332 ORISMOLOfiY.

from the Dorsolum by a suture. Ex. Colcoptera,
&c. Plate VIII. Fig. 3. k'.

3. ScuTELLATE {Insectum scutellatum). An insect hav-

ing a visible Scutellum. Ex. Melolontka.

a. Rejected {Rejectum). When, though visible, it

does not intervene between the elytra at their base.
Ex. Passalus.

b. Received {Receptum). When it intervenes between

the elytra at their base. Ex. Most scutellate Co-
leoptera.

4. ExscuTELLATE (Insectum exscutellatum). When an

insect has no visible scutellum, it being wholly co-
vered by the Protliorax. Ex. Copris.

5. Ascending (Ascendens) When it curves upwards

from the dorsolum. Ex. Sagra.

6. Tabular [Tahulare). When it is elevated on a

footstalk above the dorsolum, and forms a tabular
or flat surface. Ex. Elater.

7. OBVWBTXA.YiT {Obumbrans). When it overhangs the

metathorax. Ex. Musca. Plate IX. Fig. 19. k'.

8. BASE-COVERS (TegulcB).

1. CoNCHiFORM {Conchiformes). When they are a se-

micircular concavo-convex scale something resem-
bling the valve of a bivalve shell. Ex. Hymeno-
ptera. Plate IX. Fig. II, 12.^".

2. Laciniform [Laciniformes). When they are long,

of an irregular shape, and appear like lappets on

each side of the trunk. Ex. Lithosia, &c. Plate

IX. Fig. 5.^

'In many moths, particularly Arctia ocularia, and affinities, the
insect looks as if its neck was ornamented with a beautiful tippci
formed by the Patagia, and its shoulders by these lappets.

ORISMOLOGY. 333

1. Base (Basis). The part next the Protho7'ax.

2. Apex (Apex). The part next the Anus.

3. Humeral Angle [Angulus Humeralis). The exte-

ri&r basal angle.

4. ScuTELLAR Angle [Atigulus Scutellaris). The in-

terior basal angle.

5. CoLEOPTRA (Coleoptra). The two elytra spoken of

together.

6. Spinigerous (Spinigera). When the Coleoptra

have a spine common to them both. Ex. Cassida
bidens,

7. AuRicuLATE [Auriculata). When the Elytra have

an elongate process at the shoulders. Ex. Cassida
bicornis, Taurus, &c.

8. Entire [Integra). When they have neither abbre-

viations nor incisions.

9. Fastigiate (Fastigiata). When of equal or greater

length than the abdomen, and transverse at the end.

10. Truncate (Truncata). When they are shorter

than the abdomen and transverse at the end.

11. Abbreviate {Abbreviata). When they are shorter

than the abdomen, but cover more than half its
length. Plate I. Fig. 4.

12. Dimidiate {Dimidiata). When they are about

halfihe length of the abdomen. Plate I. Fig. 5.

13. Very Short [Brevissima). When they are not

half the length of the abdomen. Plate I. Fig.
2, 3, 7.

14. Mutilate (Mutilata). When they appear unna-

turally short or curtailed as if mutilated. Ex.
Acrydium F.

334- ORISMOLOGY.

15. Subulate (Subulata). When they are attenuated

towards the end. Ex. Sitarh humeralis Latr.

16. Elongate (JS/ow^aiffl). When they extend beyond

the anus. Ex. Trox. . ais?/

17. Obvo'lw^g {Obvolventia). ^Yi&n. \he\v EpipleurcE

cover a considerable portion of the sides of the
alitrunk. Plate XXVIII. Fig. 7.

18. Complicant [Complicantia). When they lie a little

over each other. Ex. Meloe. Plate I. Fig. 6.

19. Dehiscent {Dehiscentia). When they diverge a

little at the apex. Ex. Pyrochroa.

20. Ampliate [Ampliata). When they are dispropor-

tionably wide at the end. Ex. Lycus fasciatus.
Plate XIII. Fig. 20.

21. Plicate [Plicata). When they have two or three

contiguous abbreviated furrows which exhibit the
appearance of folds. Ex. Pselaphida.

22. Perforate {Perforata). When a little hole ap-

pears drilled through them. Ex. Cassida perfo-
rata.
N.B. Many of the above terms mill apply to Tegmina,
Heraelytra, Wings, &c.

A * Side-covers {Epipleurce).

1. Marginal [Marginales). When they are only an

inflexed continuation of the margin. Ex. Bu-
prestis.

2. DiscoiDAL [Discoidales). When they are a pro-

cess from the disk of the under surface of the ely-
tra. Ex. Lampyris^ Cossyphus^ Cassida, Notoclea^.

» Neither Chrysomela nor Tmatidium have a discoidal Epipleura ;
which furnishes a further proof that Notoclea is distinct from Chry-
somela, and Jmatidium from Cassida.

ORISMOLOGY. 335

^. TEGMINA.

1. Feni^stHf.li.x {Fenestrella). A transparent eye-like

spot in the A?ial Area of the Tegmina of Acrida

K. c?^

2. Convolve NT (Coww/u^n^m). 'When \he Anal Area

is horizontal, incumbent on the back of the insect,
and forms a right angle with the rest of the tegmen,
which is vertical and covers the sides. Ex. Lo-
custa Leach. N.B. Li this case the Anal Area of
one Tegmen covers that of the other.

3. Aliform {Alifo7'mia). When their substance ap-

proaches to membrane, and they nearly resemble
Wings. Ex. Most Homopterous Hemiptera.

Yl. HEMELYTRA.

1. Obtected (Obtecta). When the Hemelytra are

covered by a scutelliform mesothorax. Ex. Scu-
tellera.

2. Detected (Detecta). When they are not so co-

vered. Ex. Most Heteropterous Hemiptera.

6. WINGS (Alee).
A. Denomination.
1. Anterior (Anticce). The fore or upper wings.

a. SupERioii [Superiores). The anterior wings are so

denominated if when at rest they are placed upon
the posterior wings. Ex. Hymenoptera.

b. Primary {Primores). The anterior wings are so

" For the reason of this change of the name of Locusta ¥., see
Zool. Journ. N° iv.

An Acrida with this spot is figured by Professer Lichtenstein.
Linn. Ti-ans. iv. t. v. A.

336 ORISMOLOGY.

denominated if when at rest they are not placed
upon the posterior. Ex. Lepidoptera diurna,
Lihellulina.

2. Posterior [Posticce). The hind or lower wings.

a. Inferior {Inferiores). The posterior wings are so

denominated if the anterior wings, when at rest,
are placed upon them.

b. Secondary {Secundarice). The posterior wings are

so denominated if the superior wings, when at rest,
are not placed upon them.

B. Magnitude.

3. EgUAL {jEquales). When the four wings are of

equal length. Ex. Lihellulina.
4: UnEQV Ai. (Inaquales). When they are wo^ of equal
length. Ex. Hymenoptera.

C. Complication.

5. Plane {Planes). Flat wings, that are neither plica-

tile nor tumid. Ex. Apis.

6. Tumid {Tumidce). When the membrane between

the nervures that form an areolet is bigger than
the areolet, which gives it convexity. Ex. Ten-
ihrcdo L. N. B. The object of this structure is to
expose a larger surface to the action of the air.

7. Plicatile (Plicatiles). When the wings at rest are

folded in one or more longitudinal plaits. Ex.
Vespa L.

8. DuPLicATiLE [Duplicatee). When they are folded

transversely. Ex. Coleoptera.

9. Convolute {Convolutce). When the wings so en-

velope the body as to give it a cylindrical form.
Ex. Crambus.

ORTSMOLOGV. 337

10. Incumbent {Incumbentes). Wings which when at

rest cover the back of the insect. Ex. Noctua.
Geometra.

11. Cruciato-complicate [CriiciatO'Complicata;).

Wings crossed and folded. Ex. Pentatoma, &c.

12. CiiuciATO-iNCUMBENT ( Cruciato-incumhentcs ).

Wings crossed but not folded, and covering the
back. Ex. Aph.

13. Extended {'Extemce). Wings that when at rest do

not lie upon the body. Ex. Libellula, JEshna^ &c.

a. Expanded {Patentes). Wings that when at rest are

horizontally extended and do not cover each other.
Ex. Libellula, &c.

b. Horizontal (Horizotifales). Very narrow wings

which when at rest are extended horizo7itally form-
ing a right angle with the body, and covering the
posterior wings. Ex. Pterodactylus^ .

c. Erect {Erectce). Wings which when at rest are

extended vertically. Ex. Vanessa. Agrion.

d. Erecto-patent {Erecto-patentes). When the pri-

mary wings at rest are erect and the secondary
horizontal. Ex. Hesperia.

e. Conn I VENT {Conniventes). When erect wings are

so closely applied to each other that the corre-
sponding margins touch. Ex. Vajiessa.

f. Divaricate (Divai-icatic). When wings at rest are

somewhat erect but diverge from each other,
l*. Patulous (Patidce). When wings at rest partly

cover each other.
15. Applicant {Applicantes). When wings at rest are

parallel with the abdomen. Ex. Tipula.

' Reaum. i. t. xx./. 12—15.
VOL. IV. z

338 oniSMOi.ooy.

16. DiyERGrEur {Divefgetiies). When wings at rest re-

cede from the abdomen.

17. Deflexed [Deflexce). When wings at rest cover-

ing each other are so bent downwards as to imi-
tate a roof, of which their interior margin forms
the ridge. Ex. Homopterous Hemiptera.

18. Reversed [Reverses). When wings at rest are de-

flexed, but so that the anterior margin of the infe-
rior projects beyond the anterior margin of the
superior. Ex. Gatrophaca quercifolia. Plate
XIV. Fig. 2.

1 9. Broad {Latce). When the interior margin is shorter

than the posterior. Ex. Papilio.

20. Narrow [Angustce). When the posterior margin

is shorter than the interior. Ex. Heliconius.

D. Shape.

1. Falcate [Falcatce). Wings having their posterior

margin concave, and the posterior angle acute and
curved. Ex. Attaciis Atlas. Plate XIV. Fig. 4.

2. Digitate [Digitata;). Wings cleft to the base into

several subdivisions. Ex. Pterodactylus. Plate
XIV. Fig. 3.
a. Radius [Radius). A single subdivision of a digitate
wing.

3. Caudate [Caudatce). When wings terminate in a

tail-like process. Ex. Papilio Machaon. Plate
XIV. Fig. 1. s.
a. Bi CAUDATE [Bicaudatce). Having two such tails.
Tricaudatce, having three, &c.

. E. Surface.
1. Squamate [Squamat(p). Wings covered witli mi-

ORISMOI.OGY. 339

nute scales. Ex. Lepidoptera. Plate XXII.
Fig. 16. a, b, c, d, &c.

2. Den UD ATE {Dermdatcc). When the wings of Le-

pidoptera appear more or less as if the scales had
been rubbed off, either partially or generally. Ex.
Heliconius, Sesia, Zygayia^ Nudatia.

3. Fenestrate {Fenestrate). When one or two de-

finite spaces in a Lepidopterous wing are denuded
of scales. Ex. Attacus Atlas, &c.

4. Bare (Nndce). When wings have neither percep-

tible hairs nor scales. Ex. Coleoptera.

F. Margin.

1. Anterior or Exterior {Antei^ior or Exterior).

The outer margin of the wing, or ihoX. from the
body. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. a.

2. Interior (/?ito7'or). The m?zer margin of the wing,

or that next the body. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. b.

3. Posterior {Posterior). The terminal margin of

the wing, or apex. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. c.
4'. Plectrum {Plectrum). A marginal bristle stronger
than the rest, observable about the middle of the
costa and standing out from it. Ex. Many Mus-
cidce.

G. Angles.

1. Humeral {Muma-alis). Basal angle next the head.

Plate XIV. Fig. 1. d.

2. Scutellar {Scutellaris). Basal angle next the scu-

tellum or its region. Plate XIV. Fig. 1. e.

3. Posterior {Posterior). Outer apical angle. Plate

XIV. Fig. l.f.

z 2

340 ORISMOLOGY.

4.. Anal {Analis). Inner apical angle. Plate XIV.
Fig. 1. g.

H. Nervures.

1. Nervulet (Nerxmltis). A little nervure diverging

obliquely from the costal into the disk of the wing

towards the apex.
a. Simple [Simplex). When the nervulet does not

terminate in a round punctum. Ex. Eulophus

GeofFr.
h. Coronate {Caronatum). "When it terminates in a

round pinictum. Ex. Jchneimon penetrans K.*

2. Neurose (Neuroscc). Wings that have nervures

besides the marginal ones.

3. Aneurose [Aneurosce). Wings that have no ner-

vures besides the marginal ones. Ex. Psilns,

4. CiRCUMSEPTED {Circumseptee). Wings whose mar-

gin is every where strengthened by a nervure^
Ex. Tabanus.

5. W ARicosE {Varicosis). When the nervures are dis-

proportionably swelled in any part. Ex. Forfi-
cula anricularia. Plate X. Fig. 5.

6. Serpentine [Serpentines). Nervures that run in a

serpentine direction. Ex. Dynastes Aloeus.. Plate
X. Fig. 4.

7. Insulate (Insulata). Discoidal nervures that are

entirely unconnected with any others, or with the
base of the wing. Ex. Dy^iastes Atoeus. Plate
X. Fig. 4. a, b.

• Linn. Trans, v. t. iv.f. 10, 11. From my specimens, which are
not in a very good state, J cannot ascertain whether this belongs to
any of the modern genera into which the Ichneumones mhiuti of
t-jnne are now divided.

ORISMOLOGY. 341

8. Uncinate (Vncinata'). Nervures, that after run-

ning fi'om the base towards the apex, turn back,
and running a little towards the base, form a hook.
Ex. Di/nastcs Aloeus. Plate X. Fig. 4. i .

9. Recurrent {Reairrentes). When a nervure, or a

branch of it, after running towards the apex of the
wing, turns back and runs towards the base. Ex.
Ih/nastes Aloeus^ &c. Plate X. Fig. 4. /'.
10. Connecting {Connectentes). Nervures that run-
ning transversely or obliquely connect the longi-
tudinal ones, and so form the ai*eolets.

/. Areolets.

1. Radiated {Radiatce). When the areolets are chiefly

formed by radiating longitudinal nervures. Ex.
Forficula. Psychoda Latr. Plate X. Fig. 5, 13.

2. Areate {Areata:). Radiated with a large basal

area. Ex. Papilio and many other Lepidoptera *.
Plate X. Fig. 6.

3. Areolate {Areolake). When the surface of the

wing is divided into various areolets. Ex. Diptera,
Hymenoptera, and most Neuroptera. Plate X.
Fig. 7—14.

4. Reticulate [ReticulatcB). When the areolets are

extremely small and infinitely numerous. Ex. Li-
bellulina. Plate III. Fig. 5.

5. Open {Apertce). Areolets that terminate in the

margin of the wing, or that are not surrounded on
all sides by nervures.
a. Marginal (Marginales). Open areolets that ter-

* Jones. Linn. Trans, ii. t. \ni.J'. 1, 3— 0, 8.

342 ORISMOLOGY.

minate in the margin. Ex. Tenthredo. Plate X.
Fig. 8.
b. Incomplete (Incomplete). Open areolets that ter-
minate short of the margin. Ex. Apis.

6. B'A.BiANT (Radmns). When a small romidish areo-

let is a centre from which several long: ones di-
•f verge. Ex. Stratyoynis. Plate X. Fig. 15.

7. Petiolate [Petiolatce). When an areolet is con-

nected with another by a stem like a footstalk*.
Plate X. Fig. 8.

8. Ramulose (Ramulosce). When an areolet sends

forth a little unconnected branch. Ex. Pompiltis,
Sphex, hc.^

9. Angular [Angidatce). When an areolet juts out

on one side into an angle from which no nervure
proceeds, to form another areolet. Ex. Elophilus
Latr. Cerceris Latr. "^ Plate X. Fig. 14,

10. DiDYMOUS [Didymce). When areolets are nearly

divided into two by a nervure. Ex. Cyclo-
stoma K.

11. Sesquialterous (Sesquialterce). When a minute

areolet is appended to a large one. Ex. Postcos-
tal areolet of Hylotoma Latr. ^

* Areolets of the Costal Area.

1. Costal {Costales). Areolets, one or more, belo'iV

the stigma. Plate X. Fig. 14, 15. a, b.

2. PosTCOSTAL [Postcostales). Areolets, one or more,

above the stigma. Plate X. Fig. 8, 9. a, b.

• Jurine Hymenopt. t. \.f. 3, b. *> Ibid. t. iii. Gen. 4, 5.

' Ibid. t. X. Gen. 23, 24. ■• Ibid. t. vi. Gen. 2.

O R 1 SM OLOGY. 343-

** Areolets of the Intermediate Area.

1. F ROTOMESAL, {P?'oto?nesce). First series of the mid-

dle areolets [Arcolcc media), often consisting of
three, and then divided into upper, middle, and
lower areolets. Plate X. Fig. 8, 9. a.

2. Deuteromesal [Deuteromesce). Second series of

the same, often consisting of two, and then divided
into tipper and lower. Ibid. b.

3. T'R.iTOMTLS.A'L [Tritomesce). Third series of the same.

Ibid. c.

K. Stigma.

1. Blind (Ca?«<wz). When the sifz^wa is wholly opaque,

and neither begins nor terminates in a minute
areolet. Ex. Most Hymenoptera.

2. Fenestrate {Fenestratum). When the stigma be-

gins or terminates in a minute areolet. Plate X.
Fig, 1 1 . m'".

L. Number.

1. Apterous {Aptera). Having no wings.

2. Dipterous (Diptera). Having two wings.

3. Tetrapterous ( Tetraptera). Having_yowr wings.

/. LEGS {Pedes).
A. Number.

1. Tetrapod [Tetrapus). An insect having only Jour

perfect legs. Ex. Vanessa.

2. Hexapod [Hexapus). An insect having six legs.

Ex. Insects Proper in general.

3. OcTOPOD {Octopus). Having eight legs. Ex. Ara-

neida.

544 ORISJIOLOGY.

4. PoLYPOD {Polypus). Having more than eight legs

but under y^j/. Ex. Glomeris. Scutigera,

5. Ce^tiv:et>e {Centipes). Having wor^ than y^T/ legs

but under two hundred. Ex. Scolopendra.

6. Myriapod {Myriapus). Having two hundred legs^

or more. Ex. Itdus.

B. Situatfon.

1. Antepectoral {Antepectorales). The forelegs, or

arms, affixed to the Antepectus.

2. Medi PECTORAL {Medipect07'ales). The mid-legs,

affixed to the Medipectus.

3. PosTPECTORAL {JPostpcctoroles). The hind-legs, af-

fixed to the Postpectus.

4. Distant {Distantes). When the pairs of legs are

remote from each other at their base. Ex. Inter-
mediate legs of Copris Geoffir.

5. Approximate {Approximati). When they are near

each other at the base. Ex. Posterior legs of Co-
pris Geoffi'.

6. l^Qvs\Jiis'rA.^T {jEquidistantes). When all the three

pair are equally distant at the base. Ex. Cassida.

C. Duration.

1. Persistent (Persistentes). Legs which the insect

has in all its states. Ex. The legs attached to the
trunk. N.B. TTiese are called Legs {Pedes).
Plate XVIIL Fig. 11. a.

2. Deciduous {Decidui). Legs which the insect has

not in all its states. Ex. Membranous legs of Ca-
terpillars. Plate XVIIL Fig. 11. /a N.B. These
are called Prolegs {Propcdes).

OUISMOLOGY. 345

3. Acj^uiRED {Acquisiti). Legs which the insect has
not in lis Jirst state, but which it acquires subse-
quently. Ex. Abdominal legs in Scolopetidra, lu-
lus, &c.

D. Denomination.

1. FoKE-LEGS [Antici). lihe Jirst pair. Taken by

themselves called Anns {Brachia).

2. K^T'E.Rio'R {Anteriores). The ^wo^/,s^ pair of legs.

3. Mid-legs [Intermedii). The middle pair of legs.

4. Hind-legs (Posfici). The last pair of legs.

5. Posterior (Pos/mo;r5). The too last pair of legs.

6. Abbreviate {Abbreviati). Legs with an imperfect

tarsus. Ex. Vanessa.

7. Ambulatory {Ambalatorii). When the tarsi have

a spongy sole. Ex. Chrysomela L., Curculio L.

8. Cursorious {Cursorii). When the fore tarsi of some

males excepted, they have not a spongy sole. Ex,
Carabiis L., Cicindela L. Plate XIV. Fig. 7.

9. Saltatorious (Saltatorii). When the hind legs

have strong incrassated thighs formed for leaping,
Ex. Haltica, Orchestes, the G)-yllin(S. Plate
XIV. Fig. 5.

10. Natatorious (iViar^a^o/iV). When the legs are com-

pressed or ciliated, and formed for swimming. Ex.
Dytiscus, Gn/rinus, Notonecta. Plate XIV. Fig. 6.

11. MoTATORious (Motatorii). Legs, which when the

insect is at rest, are in a perpetual vibratory mo-
tion. Ex. Tipula Latr.

12. FossoRious (Fossorii). Leg with either palmate or

digitate tibiae. Ex. Scarites, Clivina, Gryllotalpa.
Plate XV. Fig. 5, 6.

13. Raptorious (Raptorii). When the strong por-

34-6 ORISMOLOGY.

reeled thighs, usually of the fore-leg, have a chan-
nel for the reception of the tibiie, which are in-
flexed, and both others armed with a double series
of spurs. Ex. Mantis, Nepa.
14. VKEH^^somxis {Prehensorii). When the thighs of
the hind-legs converge and the tibiae diverge so as
to form an angle which is armed with spines. Ex.
Gonyleptes K. Plate XIV. Fig. 8^

E. Hip {Coxa).

1. Fixed (2^/.r<^). When they are 7io^ moveable. Ex.

Dytiscus, Gonyleptes.

2. Free [Libera:). When they are moveable. Ex.

Hymeiioptera, most Colcoptera.

3. Laminate [Laminnta:). When the posterior coxae

form a broad thin plate which covers the trochanter
and the base of the thighs. Ex. Haliplus. Plate
XV. Fig. l.p".
\. Flocculate [Flocculatce). When the posterior
coxae are distinguished by a curling lock of hair
[Flocculus). Ex. Andrena Latr.''

F. Trochanter (Trochanter).

1. Fulcrant [Fulcrans). When the trochanter merely

props the thigh below at the base, \)\xi does not
at all intervene between it and the coxa. Ex. Ca-
rahus L.

2. Intercepting [Intercipiens). When the trochanter

intervenes between the thigh and the coxa, so as
entirely to separate them. Ex. Scarahmis L., Cur-
culio L., Hymenoptera.

' See Kirby in Linn. Trans, xii. 450 — . /. xxii,/. 16.
'' Mo7i, Ap. Angl. i. /. iv. Melitla **. c.f. 10. a.

ORISMOLOGY. 347

3. MoNOMElious (Monomerus). When it consists of

only one joint. Ex. Coleoptera, &c.

4. Dimerous {Dimerus). When it consists of tisoo

joints. Ex. Ichneumon.

G. Thigh {Femur).

1. Simple {Simplex). When it is no where particu-

larly thick.

2. Incrassate {Incrassatum). When it is very thick,

either partially or generally, and formed for leajv
ing. Ex. Haltica, &c.

3. Loricate (Zyor/ca^z^w). When the disk of the thigh

appears covered with a double sei'ies of oblique
scales like a coat of mail. Ex. Locusta. Plate
XIV. Fig. 5.

H. Shank {Tibia).

1. Alate {Alata). When the posterior tibia on each

side is furnished with a dilated process which pro-
bably assists it in flight. Ex. Lygceiis phyllopus,
&c. Plate XV. Fig. 2. a.

2. Foliaceous [Foliacea). When the tibia is late-

rally dilated into a thin plate for carrying pollen.
Ex. Euglossa cordata^ &c.

3. Corbiculate [Cm-hiculata). When it is fringed

with incurved hairs calculated for carrying knead-
ed pollen. Ex. Apis, Bombus^.

4. Scopate {Scopata). When it is is quite covered

with a brush of hairs with which it brushes off the

* Mon. Ap. Arigl. i. t. xii./. 19. a, b.

348 OUISMOLOGY.

gross pollen, and in which it carries it. Ex. An-
drena Latr. *

5. Calcarate [Calcarata). When it is armed with

one or more spurs {Calcaria), Ex. The majority
of insects.

6. ExcALCARATE (Excalcarata). When it has no such

spurs. Ex. Apion.

I. Foot {Tarsus).
1. ScoPULATE (Scopulatus). When the first joint on
the under side is covered with a dense brush of
rigid hairs. Ex. Apis^ Andrena^ &C.''

b. METATHORAX.

1. Simulant (Simulans). When the mesothorax is
covered by theprothorax, and the Metathorax only
is visible, under the form of an elongated or en-
larged scutellum. Ex. Cimex L. Plate XXVIII.
Fig. 12.

U, POSTDORSOLUM.

1. Latent (Latens). When it is covered by the me-

sothorax ; it is then usually a mere membrane.
Ex. Most Coleoptera.

2. Exposed {Apertus). When it is not so covered.

Ex. Atractocerus, Uj/menoptera, &c.

/3. POSTSCUTELLUM.

1. Di srijn CT (Distinctum). When the postscutellum is
distinct from the postdorsolum. Ex. Locusta Leach.
Plate VIII. Fig. 12. u.

=• Mon. Ap. Angl. t. iv. **. c./. 14-*. a./. 12.
»- Ibid. t. xii./. 20.

ORISMOLOGY. S49

2. Coalite [Coalitum). When it is not distinct. Ex.

Blatta.

3. ScuTELLiFORM {ScutelUforme). When it^is a trian-

gular elevated prominence resembling a scutellum.
Ex. Locust a Leach.

4. Canaliform {Canaliforme). When it is a deepish

elongate channel running from the postdorsolum
to the abdomen. Ex. Coleoptera. Plate VIIL
Fig. 3. u'. XXVIII. Fig. 10. u'.

5. Obliterate [Ohliteratiim). When this channel is

nearly or altogether obliterated. Ex. Hymeno-
ptera,

y. POSTFR^VUM.

1. Tabulate (labulatum). When it forms a broad

pannel or table on each side the postscutellum.
Ex. Most Coleoptera.

2. FvsicvLATE {Funiculatum). When it forms a nar-

row ridge. Ex. Pentatoma^ Fulgora^ Libelhdina.
Plate XXVIII. Fig. 11, 12. v.

3. Cruciate [Cruciatum). When there are two funi-

cular ridges diverging on each side, which inclos-
ing a pannel form together a St. Andrew's cross,
and are connected with the base of the win^s.
Ex. Libellulina^. Plate IX. Fig. 7. ?/.

4-. Adnate (Adnatum). When a funicular Postfra:-
num is closely adjacent to the sides of the meta-
thorax till it nearly reaches the wings. Ex. Pen-
tatoma. Plate XXVIII. Fig. 12. t/.

5. Transcurrent ( Transcurrens). When a postfrae-

Chabrler Sur Ic Vol des Tnsectes. Ann. du Mm. xiv. t, viii./. 1..

K. M.

350 ORISMOLOGY.

num is at first adnate to the sides ot" the postscu-
tellum, and then diverges across the pannel to the
base of the wings. Ex. Belostoma Gigas.

IV. ABDOMEN.

1. Coalite [Coalitum). When the abdomen is not

divided into segments. Ex. Araneidce, Chelonus.

a. Plicate (Plicatum). When it consists of transverse

folds. Ex. Gonyleptes. The Cancriform Spiders.
Plate XV. Fig. 11.

b. Tense {Tensum). When it is not folded. Ex.

Most Arayieidce.

2. Insected {Sectum). When it is divided into seg-

ments. Ex. Most insects.

3. Sessile (Sessile). When it has no footstalk, but is

closely united to the trunk. Ex. Coleoptera.

4. Petiolate [Petiolatum). W^hen the first segment,

or more, is longer and much narrovv^er than the
subsequent ones, so as to form a footstalk. Ex.
The Sphecidce. Ichneumon.

5. Adjoined (Adjunctum). When it is connected with

the trunk by a very short petiole. Ex. Vespa L.,
Apis L.

6. SuPERiMPOsiTED {Supevimpositum). When the foot-

stalk of the abdomen is inserted in the upper part
of the postscutellum, so as to leave a considerable
space between it and the postpectus. Ex. Evania.
Plate IV. Fig. 2.

7. Retracted {Retractum). When it is nearly with-

drawn within the trunk. Ex. Gonyleptes. Plate
XV. Fig. 11.

ORISMOLOGY. 5Si

8. Obumbrate {■Obiimbratum). When it is oversha-

dowed by the trunk and concealed under it. Ex.
The Cancrifonn Spiders. Plate XV. Fig. 10.

9. Saltatorious [Saltatorhim). When the ventral

segments or the anus are furnished with elastic
processes which enable the animal to leap. Ex.
Machilis, Podura. Plate XV. Fig. 14.
10. Natatorious (2V«te/orzMm). When the abdomen is
terminated by flat foliaceous appendages, or the
tail is ciliated on each side with dense parallel
hairs, which assist the insect in smimming. Ex.
Larva of Agrion, and Dytiscus.

\. CAUDA.

1. Uncinate [Uncinata). Wlien the tail is inflected

so as to form a kind of hook. Ex. DoUchopus $ .

2. Aduncous {Adunca). When it is ci'ooked. Ex.

Chelostoma maxillosa ($ . [Apis **. c. 2. y. K.).

3. Distinct [Distincta). When it is distinct from the

abdomen. Ex. Scorpio.

4. Cheliferous [Chelifera). When it is terminated

by a very thick forceps somewhat resembling a
lobster's claw. Y,x. Patiorpa ^ . Plate XV. Fig.
12.

5. Papilliferous [PapilUfera). When at the last

segment but one the tail exerts two soft fleshy or-
gans, which secrete a milky fluid and yield a power-
ful scent. Ex. Staphylinus.

ii. OVIPOSITOR.

1. Ensate [Ensatus). When it is long, compressed,
and shaped like a s-ooord. Ex. Acrida K.

J52 OUISMOLOGY.

2. Navicular {Navicularis). When it is shaped like

a boat. Ex. Teftigonia F., Scaphura K.

3. Telescopiform {Telescopiformis). When it con-

sists of several tubes retractile within each other
like the pieces of a telescope. Plate XVI. Fig.
2, 3.
-t. AcuLEiFORM [Acideiformis). The ovipositors of
Hymenopterous insects, which consist of the same
parts, wnth the exception of the poison- bag [lote-
rium\ whether used as weapons or merely in ovi-
position.

a. Exerted (^j:^?/7^5). When the vagina unemployed

is partly out of the body. Ex. Cleptes.

b. Extricated [Extricatus). When the valves and

vagina unemployed are rvholly out of the body.
Ex. Pimpla. Plate XVI. Fig. 1.

c. Relexed [Reflexus). When the ovipositor is turned

up and lies upon the back of the abdomen. Ex,
Leucospis.

APPENDIX.

Terms particularly applicable to Larv^ and Pupje.
LARVM.

1. Spinneret {Fusulus). The organ which spins the

silk. Plate XXI. Fig. 9.

2. FoRCiPATE Ltp [Labium Forcipatum). Mask of

larvae and pupae of Libdlulina^. Plate XVI.
Fig. 5. a.

• Vol. III. p. 125—.

ORISMOLOGY. 353

a. Unguiform Mandibles [Mandibulce wiguiformes).
The parallel claw-shaped mandibles of many Di-
pt era. Plate XX. Fig. 1, 2. c'.

4-. Prop [Ereisma). A bipartite retractile glutinous or-
gan exerted from between the legs of the genus
Smiyithintis Latr., and employed by the animal
to support itself when its legs lail it*.

5. Fecifork [F(Ccifurca). The anal fork on which

the larva of Cassidcc, &c. carry their feces. Plate
XVIII. Fig. 2. a.

6. Mastigia (Mastigia). Two anal organs in the

larvae of Cerura Vinula, exerting from their apex
a retractile flexible threail, with which they en-
deavour, by lashing their sides, to drive away the
Ichneumons. Plate XIX. Fig. 2. a.

7. Syringes {Syringia). Organs situated in various

parts of larvae, from which they ejaculate a watery
fluid to annoy or drive away their enemies''.

8. RuMULEs [RumultE). Teat-like fleshy protube-

rances observable on the bodies of various larvae ^.

9. Ai:rii)Vcts (Aeriducttis). Respiratory organs often

foliaceous, with which the sides of the abdomen,
the tail, and sometimes the trunk of aquatic larvae
and pupffi are often furnished. Plate XXIX.
Fig. 3—7.
1 0. PitoLEGS [Propedes). Fleshy exarticulate pediform
often retractile organs, which assist various larvae
in walking and other motions, but which disap-
pear in the perfect insect. Plate XVIII. Fig.
11, 12. b.

" De Geer vii. 38—. /. iii./. 10. rr. " Vol. II. p. 251—.

" De Geei- ii. .i07. /. xi./. IG. m. n.
VOL. IV. 2 A

354 ORTSMOLOGY.

a. Coronate Prolegs [Propedes coponati). Prolegs

that have an entire coronet of crotchets. Plate
XXIII. Fig. 1.

b. Semicoronate Prolegs [Propedes semicoronati),.

Prolegs that have a semieoronct of crotchets.
c Unarmed {hiermcs). Prolegs that have no crotchets.
d. Stilt Prolegs {Propedes grabati). Prolegs that

are unnaturally long, and elevate the animal.

Plate XXIII. Fig. I.o,
a. Coalite Stilt Froi^egs. {Propedes grahafi coaliti).

When stilt prolegs unite so as to form only one

leg bifid at its apex. Plate XXIII. Fig. 7. f>.

PUP/E.

1. At)Mii^}cula {Admim'cula). Semicoronets of minute
teeth which arm the back of the abdomen of sub-
terraneous pupa?, by which they are enabled to
emerge from under the earth. Plate XVI. Fig.
13. e.

^. Cremastr.e {Cremastra). The anal hooks by
which many pupae suspend themselves. Plate
XXIII. FtG. 8. a.

f3. Cocoon {FoUiadus). The silken case in which tlie
pupae of many insects are inclosed. Plate XVII.
Fig. 5— S.

N.B. Other terms ibr pupae are explained Vol. III.
p. 249.

LETTER XLVIL

SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Having considered insects as to their History, Ana-
tomy and Physiology, we must next enter a new and
ample field, in which, like most of our predecessors, we
shall often be perplexed and bewildered by the infinite
variety of devious paths which traverse it, and by the
mazy labyrinths in which the more we wander the less
ground we seem to gain. — You will easily perceive I am
speaking of the System of Insects. System is a subject
which has engaged the attention of Naturalists from the
time of Aristotle to the present day ; and even now that
it has been so much and so ably discussed, they are far
from being agreed concerning it. In our own country
a clue has, however, of late been furnished, which upon
the whole seems better calculated to enable us to thread
the intricate labyrinth of nature, than any thing previ-
ously excogitated.

There ai'e two words relating to this subject concern-
ing which Naturalists seem not to have very precise ideas
— Method and Systein. They have often been confounded
and used indifferently to signify the same thing. Thus
we hear of a Natural Method and a Natural System.
Linne seems to have regarded the former of these terms

2 A 2

356 SYSTEM OF IN'SECTS.

as representing the actual disposition of objects in na-
tures while by System he understands their classifica-
tion and arrangement by Naturalists''. But if we con-
sider their real meaning,— a Method should signify an
Artificial, and a System a Natural arrangement of ob-
jects ■=. As many systematists, however, have aimed at
giving a iiatia-al arrangement, though with various suc-
cess,— some, as the French school, (to which we are
principally indebted for the progress already made,) ap-
proximating nearer to the true idea than others, — and
none having a petfect conception of it, of which probably
in our present state, our minds, from its intricacy, are in-
capable,— it might perhaps be as well to call every ar-
rangement whose object is confessedly artificial, a Me-
thod; and that which aims at the plan of nature, a Sy-
stem. Under this view system-makers would be divided
into two classes, — the Methodists and Systematists.

The system of nature, which we are now to consider,
may be viewed under a double aspect ; for with regard
to all created objects there is a System o^ Distribution,
and a System of Correlation, which appear to be quite
independent of each other. The former will best fall un-
der our notice when we are treating of the Geography o{
insects : I shall therefore now confine myself to the latter.

When the Almighty Creator willed to bring into
existence this mundane system, he formed it according

" Fhilcs. Botan. 9/. n. 153. '' Ibid 98. n. 155, «&c.

* Mf^oSoc is rendered " An arUJicial and compendious mode of do-
ing any thing ; a mode oi teaching ar learning :" Mi6oofva is " To over-
come bs' artifice." Iv^ni^ee. applied to music is " ^fu'.l and harmonious
assemblage of tones." So that in fact, Si/stem should express the ac-
itial dij^iiosition of olijects, or a -Vrt/;4^fl/ arrangement ; and ]\folhod,
Hii Arl'i/ici/il one.

SYSTEM or INSECTS. 357

to a preconcerted plan, with all its parts beautifully link-
ed together and mutually corresponding. All things
were ordered in measure, and number, and "weight^.
There was nothing deficient, nothing superfluous ; but
the whole in the strictest sense " was very good**," and
calculated in the highest degree to answer the purpose
of its Great Authou. I call it a system of Correlation^
because there is discernible in it, in the first place, a con-
catenation of its parts, by which, as to their forms and
uses, objects are linked together in groups by a chain of
affinities ; so that we pass from one to the other by gen-
tle gradations, without having to overleap any tioide in-
terval. We see also a gradual ascent from low to high,
from less to more excellent. And this leads us to an-
other kind of relationship between natural objects, by
which, though placed in distinct groups or in a different
series, they in some sort represent and symbolize each
other. Examples of this relationship by analogy are to
be found in every kingdom of nature, and often form an
ascending series from the lowest to the highest ; for, as
we shall see hereafter, these resemblances appear to
maintain a certain correspondence with each other as to
tlieir relative situations ; so that, for instance, in the ani-
mal kingdom they ascend step by step, without being
linked by affinity or having any real juxtaposition, from
the lowest groups, towards man, who stands alone at the
head, or in the centre of all. I shall say something on
each of these kinds of relationship.

I. The relation of affinity may be considered as to its
series and groups. A series, of course, consists of parts

* ^^■isclom. xi, SO. " Genes, i. 31.

358 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

either concatenated like a chain, or placed separately at
small intervals from each other. It may run either in a
right line, or deviate from it in various ways. It appears
to be the opinion of most modern Physiologists, that the
series of affinities in nature is a concatenated or con-
tinuous series ; and that though an hiatus is here and
there observable, this has been caused either by the an-
nihilation of some original group or species in conse-
quence of some great convulsion of nature, or that the
objects required to fill it up are still in existence but
have not yet been discovered * : and this opinion is found-
ed on a dictum of Linne, Natitra...saltus nonfacit^. If
this dictum be liberally interpreted, according to the
evident meaning of the word saltus, few will be disposed
to object to it ; since both observation and analogy com-
bine to prove that there must be a regular approxima-
tion of things to each other in the works of God ; and
that could we see the whole according to his original
plan, we should find no violent interval to break up that
approximation: but if it be contended, that in this plan
there is no difference in the juxtaposition of the nearest
groups or individuals, and never any intei-val between
them, I think we are going further than either observa-
tion or analogy will warrant. Were this really and
strictly the case, it seems to follow that every group or
individual species must on one side borrow half its cha-
racters from the preceding group or species, and on the
other impart half to the succeeding'^ , But one of the

* W. S. MacLcay in Linn. Tram. xiv. 64.

'' Linn. Syst. Xitt. i. 11. "^ Qu. Whether every real

species or group has not some one or more peculiar characters whici)
it neither derive^ from its predecessor nor imparts to its successor in

SYSTEM OF INSIXTS. 359

most evident laws of creation is variety; and if we survey
all the works of the Most High, we shall no where dis-
cover that kind of order and symmetry that this strict
interpretation implies. The general niarcli of nature
therefore seems to say, that there must be varying though
not violent intervals in the series of beings : or in other
words, some contermincnis species or groups have more
characters in common than others.

It was the opinion of Bonnet (in this field himself a
host) and many other Naturalists, that the series of be-
ings was not only continuous^ but undeviaiing, ascending
in a direct line from the lowest to the highest =*. Others,
finding that this theory could not be made to accord
with the actual state of things in nature, thought that a
scale of the kingdoms of nature must represent a map or
7iet^; thus abandoning a continuous series: and Lamarck,
as was before observed *^, for the solution of the difficulty,
arranged Invertebrate animals in a double subramose
one. Mr. W. S. MacLeay and (without consultation
nearly at the same time) Professor Agardh, Mr. Fries,
&c. have given to the learned world an opinion which
approximates more nearly to what we see in nature : viz.
That the arrangement of objects is indeed in a contin,u*
ous series, but which in its progress forms various con-
volutions, each of which may be represented by a circle^
or a series that returns into itself''. According to this
opinion, — which seems the most consistent of any yet ad-
vanced, and which reconciles facts which upon no other
plan can be reconciled, — the series of beings is involved

* (Euvrcs vii. 51—. '' N. Did. (TH'ul. Nat. xx. 185.

•-Vol. III. p. 11— , d W. S. MacLeay. Hor.Enio-

moh'^. passim; and in Linn. Tian;i. v\hi supr. o3 — .

360 SySTE3I OF INSECTS.

in the highest degree, rolling wheel within wheel ad in-
^finitum^ and revolving, if I may so speak, round its cen-
tre and summit — man ^ : who, though not including in
himself all that distinguishes them, is still the great type
in which they terminate, and from which they degrade
on all sides.

It is by this convolving series that the various groups
into which the kingdoms of nature seem resolvable are
formed. We are instructed by the highest authority
that every thing was created " after its kind ;" and the
common sense of mankind in all ages has imposed classic,
generic, and other names injplying sections, as well as
specific ones, upon natural objects : and though many
modern Physiologists have asserted that species form the
only absolute division in nature ; yet as all seem to allow
that there are groups^ and many that these are repre-
sented by a circle or group returning into itself'', the
most absolute division in nature, we will not contend
for a term *^. We now come to consider these groups
themselves, and may notice them under various denomi-
nations.

It is customary to consider all the substances of which
our globe consists as divided into three kingdoms, — the

' N. Diet. cCHist. Xat. xx. 485. •• The idea of a conti-

nuous series militates somewhat against that of a circle returning
into itself. The progression of t!ie series may be in a circle ; but at
the point of contact where the second circle meets the first, the lines
must cut each other; and at this point of intersection of the two cir-
cles are of course the osculant groups constituting the first and the
last of each circle, which in their intervention come in contact with
each other, or rather forming transition groups. If each circle is re-
garded as absolute, the series is broken, though the osculant groups
connect the circular ones. ' Mr. MacF/eay almost ad-

mits that there arc natural Rcncra. Hor. Ent. 492,

SYSTl'.M or INSLCT.S^ 361

Mineral^ Vegetable, and Animal ; but strictly speaking
the jprimarif division is into organized and inorganized
matter ; the former resolving itself into the two king-
doms last mentioned. These, like England and Scot-
land of old, have their " Land Debateable ;" occupied
by those Productions moyenncs, (to use a term of Bon-
net's',) which are as it were partly animal and partly
vegetable. From this territory common to both, the two
kingdoms are extended in a nearly parallel direction till
tliey reach their extreme limits, without any incursion from
either side upon their mutual boundaries, but each show-
ing its kindred with the other by certain resemblances
observable between opposite points ; so that valley cor-
responds with valley, mountain with mountain, river
with river, sea with sea"^ ; not, however, so as to form an
exact counterpart, but only in some general features.
But to leave metaphor ; — as the vegetable kingdom is dis-
tinguished from the mineral b}' its organization and life,
by its circulation of sap, and by its powers of reproduc-
tion by seed or otherwise ; so is the animal from the ve-
getable by its powers of volition and locomotion '^, by its
nervous system and organs of sensation, and the senses
to which they minister, by its muscular irritability, and
by its instinctive endowments.

Having made these observations with regard to the pri-
mary' division of natural objects in general, — what I have
further to say will be confined to the animal kingdom,
and ultimately to the branch of which we are treating.

^ (Euvr. vii. 52. b .V. Diet. d'Hist. Kat. ii. 34—.

Even those animals that like tiie SpongicB and Alcyonia arc ag-
gregate, and fixed by a common base, have a partial degree of vo-
luntary locomotion in their cells.

362 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

i. Lamarck divided the animal kingdom into two pro-
vi?ices, or subkuLgdoms as they are now called ; the one con-
'sistinir of all those animals whose skeleton is internal and
built upon a vertebral column, which are denominated
Vertebrates; and the second, of those whose skeleton or
its representative is for the most part external, including
the muscles, — these are called Invertebrates'^ . Though
this distinction is so marked as in general to form a most
striking characteristic, yet when these two provinces ap-
proach each other, it begins to disappear. Thus the ver-
tebral column, forming one piece with the shelP, becomes
external in the Chelonian reptiles, or tortoises and tur-
tles, and almost disappears in the cyclostomous fishes ;
and there is the beginning of an internal one in the Ce-
pJialopoda, or cuttle-fish belonging to the Invertebrates.
Dr. Virey, assuming the nervous system as his basis,
long since divided the animal kingdom, without assign-
ing names to them, into three subkingdoms ^ ; M. Cuvier
has Jour — Vertebrata; Mollusca; Articidata; Radiata'^-.
and Mr. MacLeay, finding^'i;<? variations of that system,
divides animals intoj'^y^ provinces or subkingdoms, of
which I formerly gave you some account^ ; — viz. Verte-
brata, in which the iiervous system has only one princi-
pal centre; A)muIosa, in which it is ganglionic, with the
ganglions arranged in a series, with a double spinal
chord ; Mollusca, in which it is ganglionic, with the gan-
glions dispei'sed irregularly but connected by nervous
threads; Badiata, in which it \s Jilamentons, with the
nervous threads radiating from the mouth ; and Acrita,

» Vol. III. p. 10. ^ Ciiv. Ami. Comp. i. 17^.

' X. Diet. (VHist. Nal. ii. ^b. Ibid. 26—.

• Vol. Ilf. p. 13—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 363

in which this system is molecular^. And to tliis division
of the kingdom, as founded on a satisfactory basis, I
should recommend you to adhere : but in popular lan-
guage we may speak of vertebrate and invertebrate ani-
mals, as forming the first subdivision of them, taken from
a character obvious to every one who sees them.

If you inquiie into the rank of each of these subking-
doms, of course you will assign the principal station to
the Vertebrates^ which are the most jierfectly organized,
to which man belongs, and over which he immediately
presides. If we form the scale according to the nervous
system of each province, that in which the organ of
sensation and intellect is most concentrated will stand
first ; and in proportion as this organ is multiplied and
dispersed will be the station of the rest, which will place
them in the order in which I have mentioned them ; aiid
the Afumlosa, to which insects belong, will precede the
Mollusca, which Cuvier and Lamarck had placed before
them on account of their system of circulation. But
when we reflect that a heart and circidation occur in some
of the conglomerate Polijpi^, animals that approach the
vegetable kingdom ; that some of the acephalous Mollusca
have no visible organs of sense, except that of taste,
whose substance is little better than a homogeneous gela-
tinous pulp, and who seem from their inert nature to

' llor. Entomolog. 200 — . When id}' account of three primary
types of Nervous Systems (see above, p. 3—.) was written, Mr. Mac-
Leay's system did not occur to my recollection, or I should have no-
ticed it with due honour. To the other types there mentioned
should be added -a fourth, the filamoiloiLs, or that of the Badiata ;
the gangliGnio beiti;: stated as resolvable into two.

"" Savigny JMcin, sur Ics Anim, sans Vcrlchr. 11. i. 3.

364 SYSTEM or insects.

have very slight powers of voluntary motion*, we shall
be convinced that a heart and circulation alone, unaccom-
panied b}' a more concentrated nervous system and more
perfect structure, cannot place an animal above those
which in every other respect so obviously excel them.
With regard to insects particularly, we may further ask —
Who that considers how man employs his powers and
organs even in his most degraded state, or that contem-
plates the wonderful works that he is enabled to accom-
plish when his faculties receive their due cultivation and
direction, can avoid regarding him as superior to the rest
of the animal creation? And what unsophisticated
mind, not entangled in the trammels of system, when it
surveys the industry, the various proceedings, and almost
miraculous works that have been laid before you, the
waxen palaces of the bee, — the paper cottages of the
wasp and hornet, — the crowded metropolis of the white
ants, — the arts, the manufactui'es, and stratagems of
other insects, — the associations and labours for the com-
mon good of those that are gregarious ; — will not at once
conclude that they must be a superior race to the slug,
the snail, and others, which live only to eat and propa-
gate their kind ?

Or who, that considers the wonderful structure of
the apimals whose cause I advocate, — the analogy that
exists between their organs of manducation, of motion,
and of sensation, and between various other parts of it**,
Avith those of the higher animals, — the acuteness of their
senses, their wonderful strength of muscle "=, and powers

» MacLeay Hor. Ent. 204.

" Vol. III. p. 46— Sec above, p. 339.

■^ See abevc, p. 188 — .

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 9G5

of locomotion ^, — but will think them superior to the head-
less and almost inanimate oyster or muscle, or the con-
glomerate Alcyonia, though they have a heart and circu-
lation?

Who again, that observes that in proportion as pe-
date animals approach to the human type, their motions
are accomplished by fewer organs, — that man walks ore
sublimi upon two legs ; the majority of quadrujjeds upon
Jour ; insects upon six ; the AracJmida apparently upon
eight; most Crustacea upon te?i ; and the Mi/riapods and
others upon many^ — but will thence conclude that insects
must precede the Arachnida and Crustacea ?

Who, once more, that reflects that if any of the supe-
rior animals are deprived of a limb it can never be re-
produced, and that in insects the same circumstance oc-
curs ; while spiders and Crustacea if they lose a leg have
the power of reproducing it, and the Molhisca if they are
decapitated can gain a new head, — will consent to their
being placed after any of these animals^?

JL,astIy, who that recollects that the Molhisca are her-
maphrodites, like most plants, bearing both male and
female organs in the same body,— but will allow that in-
sects, in which the sexes are separate as in the Verte-
brates, must be more perfect, and of a higher grade '^?

ii. We now come to the Classes into which the A7mulosa
are divided. This term appears first to have been em-
ployed by Tournefort, and was adopted by Linne*^. As
the nervous system of animals furnishes the most promi-

* Vol. II. p. 310 — . '' In thia respect insects excel many

reptiles, which can reproduce some of their parts.
' See MacLeay Hor. Eyitomolog. 20.3, 20G— . 298—.
•^ Linn. Phllo.^. Botfin. n. I.m, 160.

366 SYSTEISf OF INSECTS.

nent tlistinction of a subkingilom, so the circulation of
their fluids, and their respirafion necessarily connected
with it, seems best to point out the classes into which it
may next be resolved. But having fully explained my
ideas on this subject in a former letter, I need not here
repeat what I then said*.

iii. As we have subkingdonis, so we may also have sub-
classes, or such large divisions of a class — not founded up-
on internal organization or any of the primary vital func-
tions, but upon different modes of taking their food, or
such other secondary characters — as include more than
one Order. To this description Ciairville's Mandihulata
and Haustellata appear to me to belong, which I think
are by no means entitled to the rank of Classes; for
whoever compares these two tribes together will at the
first glance be convinced, by the numerous characters
they possess in common, notwithstanding the different
mode in which they take their food, that they form one
connected primary group. This circumstance, therefore,
only furnishes a clue for their further subdivision into
two secondary groups, separated by distinctions certainly
of a lower value than those which separate the Crustacea
and AracJmida from Insecta. This is further confirmed
by the variations that take place in their mmle of feed-
ing in their different states ; some from masticators be-
coming suctorious {Lepidoptcra\ and others from being
suctorious becoming masticators {Mip^meleori, Dytiscus.,
&c.), — which shows that this character does not enter the
essential idea of the animal.

» Vol.. III. Letter XXVJII.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 367

iv. Next to Classes and Subclasses we are to consider
those groups of insects that are denominated Orders.
The characters of these at first were taken principally
from the instruments of flight or the absence of them ;
and the name appropriated to each Order by Linnc, after
Aristotle, had reference to this circumstance. But this
alone does not afford characters sufficiently discrimina-
ting: for though to an accurate observer a difference in
these organs appears to be characteristic of most of the
Orders, yet in some it is not easily detected or defined.
In the Neuroptera there are as many different types of
winos as there are of tribes or suborders. So that it
seems not possible so to construct the definition of every
Order, as to take its character from the organs of flight
alone. Linne was sensible of this, and was compelled
to have recourse to subsidiary characters in the majority
of his : his observation therefore with regard to Genera^
—that the character does not give the genus, but the
genus the character*, — applies equally to Orders ; and the
characters included in the definition of an Order, sliould
be the result of a careful examination of its component
groups.

On a former occasion I named to you the Orders into
which it appeared to me the Class Insecta might be di-
vided'^r they were these. Coleoptera ; Strepsiptera ;
Dermaptera ; Orthoptera ; Hemiptera ; TricJioptera i
Lepidoptera ,• Neuroptera ; Hymenoptera -, Diptera ,-
Aphanipta-a ; Aptera. I then briefly explained them

* Scias Charactcreiii non constituere Genus, sed Genu8 Charac-
terem ; Charaeterem fliiere e Generc, non Genus e Charactere ; Cha-
raeterein non cs^ ut Genus fiat, scd nt Genus uoscatur. PhUox.
Botan. n. Ir59. " ^'oL. I. p. 60. note '.

368 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

merely for the sake of illustration, and that you might
know what description of insects were intended when
these Orders were mentioned in my letters, without in-
tending to affirm that I had arranged them in a natural
series, or that all of them were perfectly natural. I shall
now consider them separately, and conclude with giving
my sentiments as to which should be placed (irst.

* Orders in xdiich the ordinary Tropin all ocair^ ur the
Mouth is perfect^.
1. Coi.T.ov'VE.nK^ [Elentherata ¥.). Aristode may be
called the founder of this Order, since he both named
and defined it*^. Both his name and definition were
adopted by Linne ; and the former (with the exception
of Fabricius and his school) by all succeeding Entomo-
logists. To his definition JVings in a sheath"^, other
characters have been added ; as the folding of the wings,
and the straight suture by which the elytra are united ^.
Aristotle's character, though to be found in the great
majorit}' of the Order, is not universal, since there are
some beetles that have neither wings nor sheath, as the
female glow-worm ; and many that though they have the
sheath have no wings, as Meloe, many Carabi, Si.c. To
the transverse folding of the wings there are also excep-
tions ; as in Buprestis^ Molorchis^ &c. The straight su-
ture by which one elytrum exactly coincides with the
other without lapping over, fails in Meloe : so that no one
of these characters can be called universal in the Order ;

* Vol. III. p. 4ly. '' Derived from ko'aio;, a sheath, and

wTfjo!/, a whig. "■'■ Hist. Autwal. 1. iv. c. 7. 1- v. c. 20.

'' ' Ooec ro vrt^av f^fi (v yjj'Kiu. ' Latr. Gen. Crust, et

Iit.i. i. 169. Oliv. 7;?.?. i. Introd. v.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 369

but as an exception or two does not invalidate a rule,
and these are sufficiently universal for the purpose of
pointing it out, they may be retained. Perhaps it will
be an improvement to add the kind of the metamm^phosis,
which, as far as known, prevails universally. •

Def. Metamorphosis incomplete*.

Legs inosculating, posterior coxa? usually trans-
verse.

Elytra corneous or coriaceous, without veins,
united by a straight suture, so as mostly to
cover the wings completely^.

Wings longitudinally and transvei'sely folded "^ :
neuration simple'^.

2. Strepsiptera^ K. {Rhiphiptera Latr.) The cha-
racters of this Order were first given in the Liniiean
Transactions^ and it has been adopted by Latreille, who
however, without sufficient reason, has changed the name
originally imposed to Rhiphiptera^ . Rossi, who was tlje
first that discovered an insect of this Order, concluded
that because it was parasitic it must be Hymenopterous ;
and it is certainly more nearly related to that Order than
to the Diptera, amongst which M. Lamarck has arranged
it, and with which it has no character in common, ex-
cept having two wings. This is one of those Orders,
consisting of few genera and species, which, from their
connecting two circles, Mr. MacLeay has called oscu-

■•' Vol. I. p. 65. ^ In some genera, as Molorchus,

&c., they do not completely cover the wings. Plate X. Fig. 1.
Plate I. Fig. 4, 5. <-' In Buprestis, Molorchus, &c.,

they are only longitudinally folded. '' Plate X. Fig. 4.

•^ From i-^sipi;, a turning or twisting, and ^tsjov.

f Vol. III. p. 501. note \
VOL. IV. 2 B

370 SYSTEM OF INSlCCTS.

lant, who places it between the Hymenoptera and Coleo-
ptera^.

Def. Metammphosis subincomplete''?

Pseudelytra twisted, attached to the anterior

leg^
Wings not covered by the elytra, longitudinally

folded, forming nearly the quadrant of a

circle"* : neuration simple.
Anus styliferous ^.

3. Dermaptera^ ( Ulonota F. Orthoptera Oliv.). This
is another osculant Order, evidently connecting the Co-
leoptera with the Orthoptera. The elytra are of a cori-
aceous substance, have a straight suture, and are not
veined, and the wings are folded longitudinally as well as
transversely, — circumstances which connect it with the
former Order, — while the shape of its wings, its oral or-
gans, and its metamorphosis, show its affinity to the latter.
It was established at the same time and in the same
work with the preceding Order, in pursuance of a sug-
gestion of Dr. Leach, and consists solely of the Linnean
genus Forjiciila.

Def. Metamorphosis semicomplete.

Elytra coriaceous, without veins, united by a
straight suture, so as partly to cover the wings.

Wings longitudinally and transversely folded,
each forming nearly the quadrant of a circle :
neuration radiating s. •

' Hor. Entomolog. 371 — . ^ Linn. Trans, xi. 96—.

•^ Ibid. t. ix.f. 1. d. •< Plate II. Fig. 1.

^ Linn. Trans Ibid./. 15. b. ^ From h^ftei, a skin.

« Plate X. Fig. 5.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 371

4-. OuTHOPTERA^ [Ulojiota F.). This Order, which
Liniie at first regarded as belonging to the Coleoptera^,
and afterwards improperly added to the suctorious He-
miptera^ was very judiciously separated from both by
De Geer, under the name of Dermaptera^ a name not
improper, and which ought to have been retained. Its
present name was, I believe, assigned to it by Olivier;
and as this is generally in use, I shall not attempt to dis-
turb it. Dr. Leach divided the Order into two, sepa-
rating the Blattina M'^L. from it, under the name of
Dictyoptera *^. He was led to this by the tcgmina decus-
sating or lapping obliquely over each other, whereas in
the rest the horizontal portion of one tegmen lies longi-
tudinally over that of the other ; he also probably took
their depressed body into consideration ; — these circum-
stances, however, rather indicate a tribe or suborder ;
and as such Mr. MacLeay regards it.
Def. Metamorphosis semicomplete.
Legs suspended.

Tegmina generally pergameneous'', reticulated
with nervures, more or less incumbent, cover-
ing the wings.
Wings longitudinally folded, ample : neuration
reticulated.

5. Neuroptera^ {Synistata^ Odonota F.). Of all
the Linnean Orders this appears to consist of the most
discordant tribes ; so that it seems next to impossible to
construct a definition that will include them all, unless

* From o^^oj, straight. ^ Fn. Suec.

<■ From l/KTvou, a net. "^ See above, p. 258.

' From uiv^Qv, a nerve.

2 B 2

372 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

indeed we admit M. Latreille's idea, adopted by Mr.
MacLeay^, that a varied metamorpliosis is its essential
character ; or, to speak more largely, variety itself seems
the characteristic of the insects composing it, in every
state ; and there is scarcely a common distinctive charac-
ter in their perfect state, upon detecting which in any in-
dividual you may exclaim — -ThisisaNeuropterous insect.
The only one that I have been enabled to seize is, that
their scajjulce and parapleurce are parallel and placed
obliquely^. Whether, with all this puzzling variation
and dissonance between the different tribes of which it
is now composed, this Order can be considered as a na-
tural group, in the present state of our knowledge it
would be rash to decide. I shall observe, however, that
• the Libelhdina, — whether we regard their metamorpho-
sis and the singular character before described that di-
stinguishes their larva and pupa*^, their oral instru-
ments'^, the remarkable position of their legs^, their
general form, the wonderful and peculiar machinery by
which their wings are moved ^, and other circumstances
of their internal anatomy, — if any are to be regarded as
forming a separate Order, are the first entitled to that
distinction. At present, with our friend Mr. MacLeay,
I shall consider it as not further divisible, and as consist-
ing of five principal forms. I must not omit to observe,
that in the JEijpTiemerina the parts of the mouth, except
the labrum and palpi, appear to be mere rudiments^.

" Hor. Entomolog. 43.3. ^ Vol. III. p. 583.

" Ibid. p. 125-. ■' Ibid. p. 424, 442—, 452, 455—.

" Ibid. p. 657. f Sec above, p. 181—.

t' N. Diet. cVHist. iVat. x. 344.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 373

Def. Metamorphosis varying. Larva a hexapod.

Wings four in most, and reticulated with nu-
merous areolets.
Prothorax distinct.

Scapula and Parapleurce parallel and oblique.
Tail of the female without a terebrant, or pun-
gent multivalve ovipositor*.

6. Hyme^hopterx^ {PiezataF.). Mr. MacLeay con-
siders Sirex L. as being osculant between the Order we
are now entering upon and the Tric/iopiera, and Te7i~
thredo L. as belonging to the latter. He appears to
ground this opinion chiefly upon a consideration of their
larvae and a slight difference in their ovipositor. As the
Order, as settled by Linne, has always been deemed one
of the most natural ones, and all the great Entomolo-
gists of the present sera have agreed with him in thinking
it so ; it seems to me that to prove them mistaken in this
opinion, the question should have been discussed at more
length, and that it requires arguments of more weight than
any Mr. MacLeay has at present produced, to set it
aside. He appears in general to lay great stress upon
an agreement in larvas and the kind of metamorphosis;
and I am ready to acknowledge that it forms a strong
presumption in favour of any hypothesis of affinity be-
tween certain tribes. But when it is had recourse to as
fundamental and infallible, I think it is pushed far be-
yond what it will bear, or is warrantable. I may be
wrong ; but in my apprehension, a striking agreement
in their general structure in the perfect state, which is

^ The ovipositor of Raphidia seems merely calculated to introduce
its eggs under bark ; it seems incapable of boring.
From v/xr,v, a membrane.

374 SYSTEM or insects.

the acme of their nature, affords a much more satisfac-
tory reason for keeping two tribes together, than any
difference observable in their larvae or metamorphosis,
for separating them. Let any one compare the structure
of these tveo tribes with the Trichoptera on one side, and
the Hi/menoptei'a on the other, and it will require but
a glance to convince him of their greater affinity to the
latter ; and the simple inspection only of Jurine's plates
of the wings of Hymenoptera is calculated to produce
the same effect. With regard to their larvce, the re-
semblance between the case-worms and the pseudo-ca-
terpillars of the saw-flies seems to me very distant, and
the numerous prolegs of the latter have scarcely a legi-
timate representative in the former. The larvae of the
genus Lyda F. {Cephaleia Jur.) lose the prolegs intirely,
and in one species, which much resembles the vermiform
larvae o^ Hymenoptera^ the real legs are so extremely
short as to be scarcely discernible * ; so that it requires
no great stretch of faith to believe that saw-flies or Si-
rices may exist in which the legs disappear''. But it is
this very tribe, whose larvae thus approach to those of
the other Hymenoptera^ in which Mr. MacLeay finds
the greatest external resemblance to the Trichoptera^.
In fact the difference between the saw-flies and Siricidce,
and the remainder of the Hymenoptera^ amounts to little
more than what takes place in the Diptcra Order be-

' De Geer ii. 1035. '' Since this was written,

Mr. Stephens has showed nie a remarkable Hymenopterous insect
taken by him in Hertfordshire, which appears to have the antennae
of one of the IchneumonidcE and tlic wings and abdomen of a Ten-
thredo L., so as to form a link connecting the two tribes or suborders.
This may probably have a vermiform larva.

" Hor. Entomolos. 431.

SYSTEM or INSECTS. 375

tween the Tipulidce, Asilidce, Muscidcef &c., in which
also the metamorphosis differs.

Another argument upon which Mr. MacLeay seems
to lay some stress, is taken from the number of parts
into which the ovipositor of the saw-flies is resolvable,
which he finds to consist of Jour pieces ; while in what he
considers as the genuine Hymenoptera, il; is formed only
of three^ : but in fact, in these last there are tijoo spiculae,
answering to the two saws of Tenthredo, so that the va-
gina in which these move may be considered as a double
sheath : only, as these were to be pushed out at the same
time, and the others alternately^ it was necessary that in
the latter each sheath should be separate, to admit of this
motion ; but as to its composition, the weapon in both is
essentially the same. At any rate this structure could
furnish a reason only for the formation of a separate
group in the same Order, but none for the transfer of
such group to another., which had no such instrument
at all ; since, as we have seen, the Trichoptera extrude
tlieir eggs at once in a mass''. I do not mean, however,
that it should be inferred from what I have here said,,
that there is no tendency in the saw-flies towards a Tri-
chopterous type, for in them nature seems pointing that
way, but the distance is too great, and the number of
types of form necessary to fill up the interval too many,
to warrant in my opinion their removal from the one
Order to the other.

Def. Metamorphosis incomplete*^.

• Hor. Entomolog. 429. *> Vol. III. p. 67. See above,

p. 1 55. "^ Whoever consults De Geer ii.

941—. t. xxxiii. /. 14, 15. t. xxxvi! /. 27- and t. xxxix. /. 7, 8, w<II
be convinced that the metamorphosis of Tenlhredo L. is incomplete
rather than oblccled.

376 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Trophi in most not used for mastication '-
Wijigs four : neuration generally areolate''.
Pruthorax obsolete, giving place to an ample

collar.
Tarsi pentamerous.
Ovipositor 5 — 6-valved, the vagina darting

forth two retroserrulate spiculae.

** Orders in isohich all the ordinary Trophi do not occu?;
or the Mouth is imperfect*^.
7. Hemiptera^ {Hyngota F.). Linne at first con-
fined this Order to those insects which have a promuscis,
which he denominated a rostrum ^ ; but afterwards, con-
vinced that the Orthoptera of the moderns could not be
associated properly with the Coleoptera ,- instead of form-
ing them into a distinct Order, as nature would have
dictated — perhaps to avoid the multiplication of Orders
and without altering his definition — with equal infelicity
he added them to this. Subsequent Entomologists, who
saw the impropriety of masticating insects thus herding
with suctorious ones, restricted the Order to its old limits ;
but; Latreille very judiciously altered its arrangement,
and divided it into two Sections, separating those whose
hemelytra terminate in membrane, from those in which
they are mostly tegmina, or of a substance intermediate
between that of the elytra of Coleoptera and that of the
wings of the Tetrapterous Orders. He denominated the
first of these sections, or rather suborders, Hcteroptera,

" The Hymenoptera, though they have all fhe usual oral organs, can-
not be denominated masticators generall}' ; these organs, especially
the mandibles, being chiefly used in their economy,

•• See above, p. 341. " Vol. III. p. 418.

'' From iiiAtav, the half. " Vol. III. {). 464—. Linn.

St/sl. Nat. Ord. II.

SYSTEM or INSECTil. 377

and the last, Honwptera'^ . Dr. Leach, observing that
very considerable differences take place both in the eco-
nomy and structure of Heteropterous and Homopterous
insects, followed De Geer in considering them as sepa-
rate Orders, which he has called Hemiptera and Omo-
ptera, and in which he has been followed by Mr. Mac-
Leay; who, however, with his usual accuracy and judg-
ment, has restored the aspirate to the latter name''. Their
agreement in having a promuscis, or instrument of suc-
tion, with a jointed sheath, at present induces me to hesi-
tate as to the propriety of their separation, and to consi-
der them as forming secondary rather than' primary sec-
tions of the Class. That you may be enabled to judge
for yourself upon this subject, I will state the principal
features in which they differ. In the first place, the He-
teropterous section usually sucks the juices of animals,
and the Homopterous, those o^ plants; in the former, the
Hemelytra, besides their different substance, as well as
the wings, cross each other ; while in the latter, the organs
of flight are deflexed, and do not lap over each other at
all. The antennae also of the one are often long, and do
not terminate in a bristle ; while in the other, with few
exceptions, they are very short and setigerous. In the
Heteroptera the body is depressed and flat, in the Homo-
pteraconve^ and thick. In the former, the scutellum is one
of the principal features of the trunk ; in the latter, not at
all remarkable '^. Other. differences in the structure, both

" If considered as suborders, their denomination should not ter-
minate precisely as that of Orders. Perhaps HemvpterHa and Hcic-
ropterua might be an improvement.

t' Hor. Entoniolog. 374—. <• Vol. Ilf. p. bbCu

378 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

of head, trunk, and abdomen, might be pointed out ; but
these you will chiefly find noticed in my letters on the
External Anatomy of Insects, where I treated of those
parts. I shall here, therefore, only further mention the
ovipositor also as forming a most striking distinction*.
Def. Metamorphosis semicomplete in almost all.

Mouth promuscidate''.

Wings covered by Hemelytra or Tegmina^.

Tarsi mostly trimerous, rarely dimerous or
monomerous''.

8. Trichopteka'^ Kirby [Synistata F. Neuroptera
Latr.). M.M. Latreille and MacLeay are of opinion
that Semblis F. and Phryganea L. ought to be associated
in the same group ; and the latter gentleman has backed
his opinion by some apparently cogent arguments ^ : diere
are others, however, that seem to me more cogent, for
considering them as belonging to different Orders. Who-
ever examines the several tribes into which Mr. Mac-
Leay has divided the Neuroptera, will observe in all of
them a distinct prothorax, a circumstance which they
possess in common with those Orders that use their man-
dibles for mastication; whereas in those that do not use

^ See above, p. 153—. '' Vol. III. p. 464.

' Ibid. p. 613—. 606—. "^ Ibid. p. 685—.

* From S^;|, 7^1x0?, hair. Mr. MacLeay, thinking it indispu-
table that the Perlidce should be included in this Order, suggests the
propriety of changing its name, both as inapplicable, and as being
preoccupied by a Dipterous genus. As I do not think the Perlidce
belong to the Order, and as the great body of the Trichoptera are
distinguislied by hairy upper wings, I cannot think the name impro-
per : but to apply a name to a Ge7itis which terminates like the deno-
minations of Orders, I think leads to mistakes, and should not be to-
lerated.—K. ' Hor. Enlomoloa. 430 — .

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 379

them for mastication, as the Hymenoptera, or that take
their food by suction, this part is replaced by a mostly
narrow collar, forming a part of the alitrunk*. The ex-
istence then of the prothorax in the Perlidce, and of the
collar in the Triclioptera^ affords no slight presumptive
evidence that they belong to different Orders. Another
circumstance that weighs much with me is, that the type
of the neuration of the wings in Perla is taken from the
^europtera, in the Trichoptera from the Lepidoptera ;
the same observation extends to the legs of both'', and
likewise to the abdomen. Even in their oral organs, as
far at least as relates to their mandibles, those of Perla,
though membranaceous — a circumstance occurring even in
Coleoptera — areof aNeuropterous type; while the angular
termination of the cheeks in the Phryganece approaches
to the Lepidopterous mandibular rudiments. The prin-
cipal argument on which Mr. MacLeay's opinion seems
to rest, is, that the larvae of both are aquatic, and clothe
themselves in cases formed of various materials : but
though this circumstance shows that they approximate
in the system, it does not prove that they belong to the
same Order, since the general habit and appearance of
the two animals when arrived at perfection contravenes
it. The larvse of Myrmeleon and oi Leptis Vermileo form
pitfalls of sand for their prey, and when they become
pupae, cover themselves with if^ ; but this in them does
not even prove an affinit}', but only an analogy. The
larva of Perla is carnivorous'*, that of Phryganea F.

* Vol. hi. p. 548—. " Tlie location of the legs to-

gether, then- long coxae, and their calcaria, are analogous also to
those of the Lepidojytera. '' Reaum. vi. Mem. x. t. xxxii.

/. 13. /. xxxiv./. 1—6. De Geer vi. 169—. /. x./. 7, 8.

" .V. Diet. d'Hist. Nal.^XKv. 386.

380 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

mostly herbivorous ^ : so that they are not precisely simi-
lar in their habits. Whether they resemble each other
altogether, in their form, does not clearly appear. The
above reasons will, I trust, justify me for considering
them at j)rese7it as belonging to different Orders ; but if
further discoveries should confirm the opinion Mr. Mac-
Leay espouses, I shall have no hesitation in yielding
to it.

Def. Metamorphosis incomplete ''.

Mouth emandibulate.

Prothorax replaced by a collar.

Wings four, upper pair mostly hairy, lower
ample, folded : neiiration branching.

Anus without setae. Eggs extruded in a gela-
tinous mass*^.

9. Lepidoptera'* {Glossata F.). Concerning this
Order, no difference of opinion exists amongst Ento-
mologists. Besides the scales that cover their wings,
they are distinguished by the peculiar instrument of suc-
tion formerly described : neither of these characters, how-
ever, is perfectly universal ; some of the Order {Nudaria
Haw.) having no scales upon their wings, and others
being without any antlia [Aglossa Latr.). Other peculiar
characters are to be found in them ; for instance, the

* De Geer ii. 511 — . He however observes, that they often at-
tack other insects : but the form of their mandibulas, like that of the
caterpillars of Lepidoptera, which also on some occasions become
carnivorous (Vol. I. p. 386), is fitted for a vegetable diet. De Geer
Ibid. 505. '' This is evident from De Geer's ac-

count. Ibid. 516. t. xii./. 14. t. xv./. 4.

"= Plate XX. Fig. 25. '• From 'mtti:, a scale.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 381

patagia, or tippets, tliat adorn their evanescent tliorax^,
and the iegula, or base-covers, of a shape quite dissimilar
to those of Hijmenoptera, which cover and defend tlie
base of their wings''. As in the last Order, their legs
are located all together with scarcely any space interve-
ning between them ; and they often agree also in their
spurs.

Def. Metamorphosis obtected'^.
Mouth antliate^.
Prothorax very short, covered by a pair of tip-s

pets.
Wings four, covered partially or generally with
minute scales : neuratio7i branching, often
with a central areolet.

10. DiPTERA^ [Antliata F.). This Order likewise ap-
pears indebted for its name to the philosopher of Stagyra,
who distinguishes the members of it from their counter-
parts— the Uymenoptera by their having an oral., while
these have an anal sting ^ : and we may add, that while
the last, on account of their wonderful economy and the
benefits which by them Providence confers upon man-
kind, have been justly regarded as the princes of the
winged insect world, — the former, when we consider the
filthy and disgusting habits of their grubs, and the an-
noyance, both from their numbers and incessant assaults,
of them, in their fly-state, may very properly be consi-
dered as its canaille. Almost all the tribes of Uymeno-
ptera., fi*om the saw-flies to the ants, have their represen-

" Vol. hi. p. 539. Plate IX. Fig. 4. " Ibid. Fig. 5.

*= Vol. I. p. 65—. " Vol. III. p. 469.

^ From S<f, twice, or double. ^ Hist. Animal. 1. iv. c. 1, 27.

382 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

tatives in this Order. Though the number of wings is
its prominent feature, yet there are two-winged insects
in other Orders, as some Ephemercs ; and the Eprobos-
cidea of Latreille seem rather a kind of winged Aptera,
if we consider their trophic than real Dipta'U; or they
may form an osculant group, partly winged and partly
apterous, between the two. I have before remarked,
that though, apparently, the insects of this Order
have only ttioo wings, yet the under or secondary wings
of the other Orders have in them their representative*.
Their poisers also, I formerly observed to you, are pro-
bably more connected with their respiration than with
their flight*'.

Def. Metamorphosis incomplete, or coarctate.
Mouth proboscidate'^.
Prothorax replaced by a collar. Sutures of the

trunk mostly spurious ''.
Wings two, with winglets attached to them:

neuration various'. Poisers.
Tarsi pentamerous.
Ovipositor various ^.

11. Aphanipteras [Aptera L. Lamarck. Rhyngota F.
Suctoria Latr.). This is an osculant Order, and is dis-
tinguished from the other Aptera L. in undergoing a
regular metamorphosis. The larva is vermiform, the
pupa incomplete, and inclosed in a cocoon. Probably

" Vol. II. p. 358—. "^ Ibid. p. 350.

<■' Vol. III. p. 466—. " Ibid. p. 554—.

* Ibid. p. 634. f See above, p. 157-

^ From a^«j/)7f, inconspicuous ; so named because something like
elytra appear.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 38S

the common flea and the chigoe would form distinct
genera. The nmnber of" species of fleas is greater
than has been supposed. I have been informed that
Dr. Leach is acquainted with fourteen British species
alone. Besides their metamorphosis, they are distin-
guished from the Aptera by the number of segments into
which their body is divided, and by their pentamerous
tarsi. Something like elytra and a scutellum appear to
distinguish these insects.

Def. Metamorphosis incomplete.
Bodfi/ apterous, compressed.
Mouth rostrulate^
Tarsi pentamerous.

We are now come to those insects which, though they
change their skin in their progress to their state of per-
fection, and some of them, as we have seen'', gain addi-
tional segments and pairs of legs, yet none of them ac-
quire wings or wing-cases : these I have considered as
forming one Order, under the denomination of

12. Aptera"^ [Syjiistata, Antliata^ Unogata, Mito-
sata F.). I do not give this as a natural Order. Our
knowledge, however, of the internal organization of its
groups, is not at present sufficiently matured to warrant
the formation of them into new Classes^ : till that is more
fully ascertained, it seems to me therefore better to con-
sider these groups as forming three Suborders : the Jirst
consisting of the Hexapods; the second of the Octopods;
and the third of the Polypods. It will be better, I think,

» Vol. III. p. 471. " Ibid. p. 23.

• From u, privative, and crrfjov. " Vol. III. p. 22 — .

SS* SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

instead of giving a general character of the Order, —
which principally consists in the insects composing it be-
ing Apterous^ or never acquiring organs of flight, — to
define each of these groups.

Hexapods [Ametabolia Leach, Ametabola M'^L.). ^?:i'
legs may be regarded as the natural number in all the
insect tribes* : but our business now is with those Aptera
whose body consists of three greater segments, and which
in none of their states have ever more or less than six
legs, and consist of the three Linnean genera Pediculus,
Lepisma^ and Podura {Thysanura Latr. and Anoplura
Leach). Some of the mites {Acarus L.) are hexapods,
but their body has no distinction of head, trunk, and ab-
domen. The metamorphosis of most female Blattce, and
of some other Orthoptera that are apterous, cannot be
regarded as materially different from that of the Hexa-
pods. Amongst the Anoplura, — the Pediculi, or lice, are
suctorious, and the Nirmi, or bird-lice, masticators, — a
circumstance which in them does not appear to indicate
even a different Order, and proves that undue stress ought
not to be laid, independently of general characters, on
the mode in which insects take their food.
Def. MetamorpJwsis complete.

Body consisting of three principal segments.

Mouth perfect, or rostellate^.

Ante7i7i£e distinct.

Legs six, in every state.

Octopods. This suborder consists of the Trachean
Arachnida of Latreille, excluding the Pycnogonida ; of

" Vol. IFI. ubi supr. *> Ibid. p. 472.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 385

the Acatidea, Siro?iidea, Phalangidea, and part of the
Scorpionidea of Mr. MacLeay, and, with some exceptions,
of the Linnean genera Acarus and Phalangium. This last
tribe (for with Linne, 1 include Chelifer and Obsidhim in
the Phalangidea,) on one side approaches Scorpio by
Thelyplionus^ and on the other the Aranidea by Gony^
leptes; or, according to Mr. MacLeay, the transit is to
both by Galeodes^. But as there is reason for thinking
that this last belongs to the Pidmonai-y Arachnida '', and
forms a peculiar type in that Class, I think the transit
from the one to the other is as above stated. The folded
abdomen of Gonyleptes seems much to correspond with
that of the cancriform spiders [Ej^eira canc7-iform2s, &c.).

Def. Metamorphosis complete.

Body consisting of one or two principal seg-
ments.
Mouth various*^.

Antennce obsolete, or represented by mandibles
Legs mostly eight, but in a few six only"^.

Polypods. This suborder consists of Dr. Leach's
Class Myriapoda, or the Chilognatha and Chilopoda of
Latreille, corresponding with the Linnean genera Inlus
and Scolopendra. Mr. MacLeay has arranged them in
the same Class with the Hexapods, and connects them
with the Anoplura by means of certain intestinal worms
of an indistinct annulose structure^ {Entozoa Nematoidea
Kud.), in which the sexes are dioecious, and some of

^ Hor. Entomolog. 381. " Vol. III. p. 22. note %

<^ Ibid. p. 472— " Ibid. p. 654.

* See above, p. 229.

VOL. IV. 2 c

386 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

which arefurnished with lateral spinulae, — thus, as he sup-
poses, connected with the Polypods ; and with the Ano-
plura by others {Epizoaria Lam.) in which appendages
appear somewhat analogous to the legs of Hexapods,.as
in Cecrops Leach, and which like them are parasitic ani-
mals^. But the right of these worms to be considered
as members of the same Class with the Hexapods and
Polypods at present appears rather problematical, and
requires further examination.

Def. MetamorpJiosis subcomplete ''.

Body consisting of numerous segments.

Mouth perfect*^.

Eyes compound or aggregate.

Antennce distinct.

Legs six on the trunk, many on the abdomen.

I must next say something on the Orders of the Arach-
nida. Every one, at first sight, sees that spiders and
scorpions are separated by characters so strongly marked,
that they look rather like animals belonging to different
Classes than to the same : these form the two primary
Orders of the AracJmida, and they appear to be con-
nected by two secondary or osculant ones, — on the one
side by Galeodes, and on the other by Thelyphonns and
Phrymis'^. This Class, although there is an appearance

* Hor. Entomolog. 286. •> The number of segments

and legs acquired by these insects in their progress to their last state,
distinguishes their metamorphosis from that o{ other Aptei-a, and re-
quires a distinct name. "= Vol. III. p. 418.

•^ When I said (Vol. III. p. 31.) that P/uynus probably belonged
to the true Arachnida, it escaped my recollection that Latreille had
placed that genus there.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 387

of eight legs, is, strictly speaking, of" a Hexapod type ; for
the anterior pair, ordinarily regarded as legs and per-
forming their function, are really the analogues of the
maxillary palpi of perfect insects. This will be evident
to vou if you examine any species of Galeodes. These
animals, if we look at them cursoril}', we should regard
as Decapods; but when we trace the two anterior pairs of
apparent legs to their insertion, we find that both pro-
ceed from the head, which in that genus is distinct from
the trunk ; while the three last pairs, which alone are fur-
nished with claws, are planted, as legs usually are, in
the latter part. The first pair represent the ordinary palpi
of Arachnida, are analogous to the labial ones of Hexa-
pods, and, as likewise in Phnjnus and Thelyplionus, are
more robust than what are usually taken for the first
pair of legs ; but they differ in being considerably longer,
and instead of terminating in a chela are furnished with
a retractile sucker*. The second pair are more slender
and shorter than the first ; they correspond precisely with
what are deemed the first pair of legs of Octopods and
Arachnida, and are clearly analogous to the maxillary
palpi of perfect insects. Whether the base of the first
pair of these palpi is in any respect analogous to the la-
bium of insects, (as that of the second seems to be to their
maxillae,) I am not prepared to assert : it will therefore be
most advisable to name these palpi anterior and pioste-
rior : but as they evidently proceed from the head in
Galeodes, and in that genus are clearly analogous to
those of the PJirynidea, (which in their turn as clearly
represent those of the Aranidea,) it follows that in all

* L. Dufour Six Kouvelt. Arachnid. &c. Ann. Gen. des Scknc,
Pkysiq. IV. iii. 17. t- Ixix./. 7- f>.

2 C 2

388 SYSTEM OF INSECTS. '

they are organs of the part representing the liead^ and
therefore not in a primaty sense legS; although in a se-
condary^ as M. Savigny has proved, they may be so
called*.

1. Aranidea M'^L. {Aranea L., Araneidde Latr.) The
- Aranidea, or spiders, seem resolvable into two suborders,

— the Sedentaries and the Wanderers ; thus forming, per-
haps, what Mr. MacLeay would denominate the normal
groups of a circle of Arachnida.

Def. Mandibles armed with a perforated claw.
Head and Trunk coalite.
Palpi pediform, anterior pair without claws.
Abdomen without segments or elongated tail.
Spiracles two''.
Anus furnished with an apparatus for spinning '^.

2. ScoKPiONiDEA M'^L. [Scorpio L. Latr.)

Def. Mandibles chelate.

Head and Trunk coalite.

Anterior Palpi chelate'*.

Posterior Palpi pediform.

Pectens two^.

Abdomen divided into segments and termina-
ting in a jointed tail, armed at the end with a
sting ^.

Spiracles four pairs.

■' Mem, sur les Anim. sans Vertebr. I, i. 37 — .

^ Plate XXIX. Fig. 1. ' Plate XV. Fig. 10. T" .

Plate XXIII. Fig. 15, 17. T". '' Plate XV. Fig. 7.

" Plate XXVII. Fig. 50. f Called the Centris. Vol. III.

p. 389, 717.

SYSTEM OF INSECrS. 389

3. Galeodea.

Def. Head distinct ^.

Eyes two.

Mandibles chelate with dentated chelae.

Palpi pediform, the anterior pair thickest with
a retractile sucker.

Trunk consisting of two principal segments,
with a minute supplementary posterior one ''.

Sjpiracles two, placed in the trunk *=.

Pseudo-pectens two'*.

Abdomen divided into segments.

Anus unarmed and without a spinning appara-
tus ^.

4. Phrynidea.

Def. Mandibles unguiculate.

Anterior Palpi chelate or unguiculate ^, very ro-
bust.

Posterior Palpi pediform, very long and slender.

Abdomen divided into segments.

Spiracles two pairs.

Atius terminating in a mucro, and sometimes in
a filiform jointed tail without a sting at the
end.

^ M. Latreille thinks that in Galeodes the prothorax is coalite with
the head {N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xii. 370.) ; but that it is not so, is evi-
dent from the six real legs being affixed to the pieces behind it.

" L. Dufour ubi .mpr. IV. iii. 18. , ' Ibid. 19.

•^ Ibid. t. Ixix./. 7. d. ^ When the characters of the

Class Arachnida were drawn up (Vol. III. p. 30.) I had not seen a
Galeodes : they should be thus amended :

Palpi four : anterior pair pediform, cheliform, or unguiculate ; pos-
terior pediform.

Trunk LejTs six, &c. Plate XIII. Fro. 1.

390 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

V. Having considered the Orders into which Insecta
and Arachnida may be divided, I am next to give you
some account of the groups into which each is further
resolvable. To draw out, however, a complete scheme
of these would be deviating from my province, and ex-
tend this letter to an enormous length. Indeed, to give
the natural primary and subordinate sections of every
Order, would require a knowledge of the subject to which
no Entomologist has yet attained. I shall therefore only
say something general upon them, and refer you to an
example of each kind of group.

Previously to the groups themselves their nomenclature
claims our attention. M, Latreille in his last arrange-
ment of Annulose animals has divided his Orders into
Sectio?iS; Families; Tribes; and Genera: his tribes he
has often further subdivided into lesser sections, repre-
sented by capital and small letters^. Mr. MacLeay,
discardmg the term section, has Tribes; Races [Stirps) ;
Families; Genera^ and Subge7iera^. But as in descending
from the Order to the lowest term, or the species^ a series
of groups gradually diminishing in value, which require
a greater number of denominations than have yet been
employed by Entomologists, often occur, I think we may
with benefit to the science add to the list. I would
therefore propose the following primary and subordinate
divisions of an Order: 1. Suborder; 2. Section; 3. Sub-
section; 4. Tribe ; 5. Subtribe ; 6. Stitps; 7. Family;
8. Genus ; 9. Subgenus. I would further propose that
each of these successive groups should have a name al-
ways terminating alike, so that the value of the group

" N. Did. d'Hist. Nat. x. 276. Culeopteres (T Europe, i. "]&— .
^ Annulosa Javanica, 5.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 391

when spoken of might always be known by the termina-
tion : — thus if a subclass end in ata^ a suborder might
end in ita; a section in ana^ a subsection in ena; a tribe
m ina, a subtribe in ona ; a stirps in una ,- and a family
in idee; the genera being left free.

With regard to their characters^ we are not to place
our groups upon Procrustes' bed, and lop or torture
them to accommodate them to every standard we may
have fixed for them : assuming one set of characters for
suborders, another for tribes, and so for every other
group ; for the value of characters varies, — those that in
some cases are common to an Order, in others indicate
only sections, or tribes, or genera and species, or some-
times even sexes. What is constant in one group is not
so in another, and vice versa; so that it is a vain labour
to search for a miiversal character. If it is our wish
really to trace the labyrinth of nature, we can only ac-
complish it by a careful perusal and examination of her
various groups. It is singular how much and how far
various Entomologists, and those of the very highest
class, have been misled by a kind o^ favouritism to give
too universal a currency to certain characters for which
they have conceived a predilection. Some have been
the champions of the antennce ; others of the trophi ;
others again of the wijigs; and others of the metamor-
phosis. These are all characters which within certain
limits lead us right, and are an index to a natural group ;
but if we follow them further, we leave the system of na-
ture, and are perplexed in the mazes of a method^.

Let us now see whether we can pitch upon any sub-

■' Sec above, [>. 356.

392 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

order which will afford an example of every group that
we have lately named. Mr. MacLeay, from a consi-
deration of the larvae of that Order, has divided the Co-
leoptera into five primary groups that may be denomi-
nated Suborders, Whether these are all natural groups
has not yet been made sufficiently evident. It answers
my present purpose, however, to assume it as proved. I
select therefore his Chilopodimorpha for my suborder,
altering the name as above proposed to Chilopodimor-
phita: for my Section I take the Predaceous beetles, or
Adephaga of M. Clairville, distinguished by having the
upper lobe of their maxillae biarticulate and palpiform ; —
these I would AenommaieAdephagSLna^ or devourers. They
consist of two groups forming two subsections, the one
terrestrial and the other aquatic; which I would name,
following Mr. MacLeay, Geodephagena and Hydrode-
pliag'&na. These two subsections are each resolvable
into two Tribes constituted by Linne's four genera Cicin-
dela and Carabus; Dytiscus and Gyrinus. The first tribe,
remarkable for the swiftness of ihewjiight, I would name
Eupterhiay or fliers ; the second, equally noted for run-
7iing, Eupodhia, or runners; the third Eunech'ma, or
swimmers ; and the fourth Gyronechhia, or swimmers in
a circle. The second of these groups, the Eupodma, are
resolvable into two other groups or Suktribes; one dis-
tinguished by having the cubit or anterior tibia notched^
(which, from their being in general not very brilliant in
colour, I would call Amaurona, or obscui'e) ; the other
having the cubit without a notch, (which, from the bril-
liancy of many of them, I would name Lanqnona^ or
splendid). These subtribes are both further resolvable
into two or more races (Stirpes). I select that to which

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 393

the crej)ita7it Eupodma belong, containing those which
from their usually truncated elytra MM. Latreille and
Dejean have named Tnmcatijpennes * : these, to shorten
the name, I call Truncipcmmna. This brings us down to
the lowest group formed out of genera and subgenera ;
or the family, which from its principal genus is named
Brachinidcs, and which leads us to the genus Brachinus,
and the subgenus AptincB. Thus we get the following
scale, expressing every division of an Order, till we ar-
rive at its lowest term, or the species that compose it.

Suborder

Chilopodimorphita M'^L.

Section

Adepkagafia Clairv.

Subsection

Geodephage?ia M'^L.

Tribe
Eupodina

Subtribe
Amaurona
Stirps

Truncipenniuia Latr.

Family
Brachinida;
Genus
Bracfdnus,
Subgenus
Aptincs.

In the construction of this scale I have endeavoured
Coleopt. (VEuroi^c i. 75.

394 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

to Steer clear of being led by any system, but, with the
exception of the Suborder, which I assume, to resolve it
into natural groups gradually decreasing in value, or
tending to the lowest term, which appear all of them to
have been considered as such by preceding Entomolo-
gists. The four Tribes into which the two subsections
Geodephagena and Hydradephageiia appear resolvable,
are not only distinguished by the characters of the per-
fect insect, but likewise by those of their larvae, which
are constructed on four distinct types ; those of the Gy-
ronechma being the most perfectly Chilopodimorphous
of the whole, and those of the Eunechina the least so*.
The former appear rather to form an osculant tribe, or
one without the circle, than one within it; and to be go-
ing off towards another section, including Hi/drophilus,
Spkeridium, &c. I must observe, that between Dytiscus
and Hydrophilus there is a striking agreement both in
their form and habits in their larvae *, and even in seve-
ral characters in the perfect insect ; so as in many re-
spects to generate, a doubt whether they ought not to
enter the same circle and to follow each other. Yet the
change of habits in the latter, which from a carnivorous
larva becomes a herbivorous beetle ; the consequent
change of structure in their oral organs, their antennae,
and other striking differences ; and the evident interven-
tion of the Gyronechma and some other osculant tribes
between the two, forbid their union in one and the same
circle.

» Vol. III. p. 167—. I formerly hinted {Ibid. p. 164.) that the
larva of Cicindela L. may be regarded as A7-aneidiform : this is fur-
ther confirmed by its having eight eyes, (and not six;) as 1 have since
discovered, and by the aspect of its large head and prothorax. The
other larva; of the Adephagana have twelve eyes.

SYSTEM Ol' INSfiCTtr. 395

vi. I need not say more on those larger groups of an
Order which conduct us to what are denominated its
genera; but upon these last it will not be a waste of your
time to enlarge a little. In the last edition of the Sy-
stema Natures^ and in its appendixes, Linne has described
2840 species of Insecta and Arachnida, which he divided
into 83 genera, allowing upon an average nearly 35
species to each genus. From the paucity of the mate-
rials, therefore, of which his system was constructed,
there was no loud call upon him for numerous genera.
But now more than thirty times that number are said to
have found a place in the cabinets of collectors ^, and
there is good reason for thinking that perhaps half that
are in existence are as yet undiscovered ; — this makes
it a matter of absolute necessity to subdivide the Linnean
genera, which in fact, with regard to the majority of them,
were the jyrimm^y groups of his Orders, rather than an
approximation to the ultimate. But this principle may
be carried too far : for it is the nature of man to pass
from one extreme to the other : and this seems to me to
be the case when it is proposed to make genera the ex-
treme term of subdivision before you arrive at species.
Bui it is argued by a very acute Zoologist, that simplicity,
perspicuity, and room for necessary variations are best
preserved by distinguishing these subdivisions each by
an appropriate name'' : — Granted. But still it is only a
choice of evils. It would require probably more than
10,000 names to designate them, were every extreme
group distinguished by a name : but if Mr. MacLeay's

■' Mr. MacLeay says that more than 100,000 Annulosa exist in
collections. — Ilor. Ent. 460.

'' Vigors in Zoolog. Journ. I. ii. 188.

S96 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

admirable pattern exhibited in his genus PhancBus'^ were
followed, it would not call for more than 2000 — could
the trifling difficulty occasioned sometimes by the disco-
very of a new group, be set against the advantage of hav-
ing only 2000 names to commit to memory instead of
10,000 ? But if, after all, it is judged best to name sub-
genera, M. Savigny's excellent plan of distinguishing
them by a plural termination in ce would diminish the
weight of the above objection, and might be used with
advantage.

When the component parts of any minor group differ
from another, — for the most part in important characters,
indicating some tangible difference in their habits and
economy, and confirmed by peculiarities in their larvae ;
and these differences run through the whole, except that
as usual they grow weaker as it is passing off to another ;
especially where they are striking in the centre or type
of the group, — this is always alegitimate genus : but where
the characters assumed are very slight, and nothing pe-
culiar in its habits, economy or larva, warrant such di-
stinction, it ought not to be conferred.

vii. I must next say a word concerning species and
varieties. A species is a natural object whose differences
from those most neai-ly related to it had their origin
when it came from the hands of its Creator ; while
those that characterize a variety, have been produced
since that event. As we do not know the value and
weight of the momenta by which climate, food, and other
supposed fortuitous circumstances operate upon animal

-' Uor. EntoDiolop. 125 — .

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. ' 397

forms, we cannot point out any certain diagnostic by which
in all cases a species may be distinguished from a va-
riety ; — for those characters that in some are constant, in
others vary. In general, where there is no difference in
form, appendages and orgajis, proportions, sculpture and
larvce, — colour alone, especially in insects inhabiting the
same district, only indicates a casual variety. T^hnsApho-
dius luridus F. has sometimes pale elytra with the striae
black [ScarabtTus nigro-sidcatus E.B.) : at others it has
black spots between the striae, as in the type : in a third
variety the elytra are black at the base and pale at the
apex {Sc. variiis E.B.) ; and lastly, in a fourth they are in-
tirely black {Sc. gagates E.B.) ; — yet all these in every
other respect precisely correspond. But the converse
of this will scarcely hold good ; for doubtless minor dif-
ferences of structure are sometimes produced by a dif-
ferent food and climate : which may probably account for
some variations observable in the individuals apparently
of the same species obtained from different countries.

Having considered the kind and value of the groups
into which Annulose animals, and more especially insects,
may be divided, I shall next call your attention to their
composition. There are ^ve numbers and their multi-
ples which seem more particularly to prevail in nature :
namely, Tkao — Three — Four — Five and Seven. But
though these numbers are prevalent, no one of them can
be deemed universal. The hinary number we see exem-
plified when two branches, so to speak, diverge from a
common stem, — as in the Vegetable awd Animal kingdoms ;
the terrestrial and aquatic Predaceous beetles ; in the
thalerophagous and saprophagous Lamellicorn ones ; in

398 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

the Annplura and Thysanura-, the Chilopoda and Chi-
lognatha amongst Apterous insects ; in the Scorpionidea
and Ara7iidea amongst the Arachnida ; and in the Ma-
crura and Brachyura amongst the Decapod Crustacea.
Again, in othei' cases three seems to be the most promi-
nent number : this takes place sometimes with regard to
the primary groups of an Order, or what I denominate
the Suborders. Thus we have the Diurnal^ Crepuscular,
and Nocturnal hepidoptera ,• the Linnean genera Blatta,
Mantis, and Gryllus constitute the Orthoptera ; and other
instances of this number might be produced in some
minor groups. But that which appears to prevail most
widely in nature is what may be called the quaterno-qui-
nary ; according to which, groups consist of four minor
ones; one of which is excessively capacious in comparison
of the other three, and is always divisible into two ; which
gives^t^e of the same degree, but of which, two have a
greater affinity to each other than they have to the other
three *. Mr. W. S. MacLeay, in the progress of his in-
quiries to ascertain the station of Scai-abcBus sacer L., dis-
covered that the thalerophagous and saprophagous Pe-
talocerous beetles resolved themselves each into a circle
containing^ue such groups. And having got this princi-
ple, and finding that this number and its multiples pre-
vailed much in nature, he next applied it to the Animal
Kingdom m general : and fi'om the result of this investi-
gation, it appeared to him that it was nearly, if not alto-
gether, universal''. Nearly at the same time a discovery
almost parallel was made and recorded by three eminent

* Linn. Trans, xiv. 56 — . It is to be observed, however, that
what Mr. MacLeaj' calls the aberrant groups are usuallj' also resolv-
able into two. ^ Hor. Enfomolog. 318, et passim.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 399

Botanists, MM. DecandoUe, Agardli, and Fries, with
regard to some groups of the Vegetable Kingdom * ; and
more recently Mr. Vigors has discovered the same qui-
nary arrangement in various groups of birds ^. This is a
most remarkable coincidence, and proves that the distri-
bution of objects into fives is very general in nature. I
should observe, however, that according to Mr. Mac-
Leay's system, as stated in his Horce Entomologicce, if
the osculant or transition groups are included, the total
number is seven •= : — these are groups small in number
both of genera and species, that intervene between and
connect the larger ones. Each of these osculant groups
may be regarded as divided into tiioo parts, the one be-
longing to the upper circle and the other to the lower;
so that each circle or larger group is resolvable into five
interior and two exterior ones, thus making up the num-
ber seve?i. Though Mr. MacLeay regards this quinary
arrangement of natural objects as very general, it does
not appear that he looks upon it as absolutely universal,
— since he states organized matter to begin in a dicho-
tomy'^ : and he does not resolve its ultimate groups into
five species ; nor am I certain that he regards the penul-
timate groups as invariably consisting of five ultimate
ones. In Copris M'^L. I seem in my own cabinet to
possess ten or twelve distinct types ^ ; and in PhancEUSy
the fifth type, which Mr. MacLeay regards as contain-

^ Linn. Trans, ubi supr. Mr. W. S. MacLeay informs me that
M. Agardh has found that the distribution of Fuci is regulated by
the same law. '' Zool. Journ. iii. 312 — .

' Vol. in. p. 15. note \ "^ Hor. Entomolog. 199.

^ Viz. 1. Copris Hesperus ; 2. C. reflexa ; 3. C. Sabceus ; 4. C. lii-
naris ; 5. C. Carolina; 6 C. CEdipus ; 7- C.Midas; 8. C. capu-
cina; d. C. Bucep/ialtti ; 10. C. Molofnts ; 11? C. Eridanm ; \2.
C. sexdentata K.

400 SYSTEM or INSECTS.

ing insects resembling all the other types *, appears to me
rather divided into two ,• one formed by P. carnifex^ Vin-
dex, igneus, &c., and the other by P. splendidulus, Jlori-
ger, Kirbii, Sec.

The great point which demands our attention in con-
sidering a numerical arrangement of the Kingdoms of
Nature is the value of the component members of each
group. It is by no means difficult to divide a Kingdovi,
a Class, or an Order into two, or three, or five, or seven
or more groups, according to any system we may be in-
clined to favour ; but it is not so easy to do this so that
the groups shall be of equal rank. Yet it seems re-
quisite that in grouping our objects, as we descend to-
wards the lowest term we should resolve each only into
its primary elements, and of them form the next group ;
and so on till we come to species. When I say of equal
rank, I do not mean an exact parity between the mem-
bers into which a group is primarily resolvable, — because
there will always be a degradation in descensu from the
perfection of the type; but merely that parity (to use a
metaphor) that there is between children of the same
mother, differing in their relative ages and approach to
the perfection of their nature. Perhaps it may be ob-
served with respect to the quinary system, that this con-
dition is not complied with, since two of the groups taken
per se appear really to form one group ; or to be much
nearer to each other than to the remaining groups. But
when it is taken into consideration that this great group,
always resolvable into two, is the typical group, and that
the two are really equal, or rather superior in valiie to
the three others, the objection seems to vanish.

■" Hor, Entomoloif. 518.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 401

With regard to all numerical systems we may observe,
that since variation is certainly one of the most universal
laAvs of nature, we may conclude that different numbers
prevail in different departments, and that all the num-
bers above stated as prevalent are often resolvable or re-
ducible into each other. So that where Phvsiolo«;ists
appear to differ, or think they differ, they frequently
really agree.

II. The Almighty Creator, when he clothed the
world that he had made with plants, and peopled it with
animals, besides the manifestation of his own glory,
appears to have had two most important purposes in
view; — the one, to provide a supply for the mutual wants
of the various living objects he had created, for the
continuance of the species, and for the maintenance
of a due proportion, as to numbers, of each kind, so
that all might subserve to the good of the whole ; and
the other, that by them he might instruct his creature
man in such civil, physical, moral and spiritual truths,
as were calculated to fit him for his station in the visible
world, and gradually prepare him to become an inhabi-
tant of that invisible one for which he was destined.
The first of these purposes was best promoted by crea-
ting things " according to their kind," with sexes monoe-
cious or dioecious ; that groups of beings related to each
other, and agreeing in their general structure, might dis-
charge a common function. This we see to be the case
generally in nature ; for where there is an affinity in the
structure, there is usually an affinity in the function. The
last, — or the instruction of man in his primeval state of
integrity and purity, — was best secured by placing before

VOL. J v. 2d

402 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

him for his scrutiny a book of emblems or symbols, in
which one thing, either by its form or qualities, or both,
might represent another. If he was informed by his Crea-
tor that the works of creation constituted such a book, by
the right interpretation of which he might arrive at spi-
ritual verities as well as natural knowledge, curiosity
and the desire of information concerning these high and
important subjects would stimulate him to the study
of the mystic volume placed before him ; in the pro-
gress of which he would doubtless be assisted by that
Divine guidance, which even now is with those who
honestly seek the truth. Both divines and philosophers
have embraced this opinion, which is built upon the
word of God itself*.

This last purpose of the Creator was the root of the
analogies, connecting different objects with each other
that have no real affinity, observable in the works of
creation : so that from the bottom to the top of the scale
of being, there is many a series of analogous forms, as
well as of concatenated ones ; and the intire system of
nature is representative, as well as operative : it is a kind
of Janus bifronsy which requires to be studied in two as-
pects looking different ways. To what degree of know-
ledge the primeval races of men attained after the fall,
by the contemplation and study of this book of nature,
we are no where informed; but we learn from the highest

^ The most natural and consistent interpretation of 1 Cor. xiii.
12, 'QTKt'irofiiv yccq et^Ti li' iao'Trr^a iv ix,tvty(<.uTi, is, that " we see
now as it were in a mirror the glory of God reflected enigmatically
by the things that he has made." Comp. Rom. i. 20 — . Our Sa-
viour (Luke X. 19.) calls serpents and scorpions the power of the
enemy ; which can only mean that they zve figures or symbols of the
enemy.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 403

authority that the revelation that God thus made of him-
self was in time corrupted, by those that professing them-
selves to be "isoise became fools, to the grossest idolatry,
which sunk men in the lowest depths of sensuality, vice,
and wickedness^.

In no country was this effect more lamentably stri-
king than in Egypt, whose gods were all selected from
the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

" Who knows not to what monstrous gods, my friend,
The mad inhabitants of Egypt bend ?
The snake-devouring ibis these inshrine,
Those think the crocodile alone divine ;
Others where Thebes' vast ruins strew the ground,
And shatter'd Memnon yields a magic sound.
Set up a glittering brute of uncouth shape.
And bow before the image of an ape !
Thousands regard the hound with holy fear,
Not one Diana :— and 'tis dangerous here
To violate an onion, or to stain
The sanctity of leeks with tooth profane.
O holy nations, in whose gardens grow
Such deities ! " Juv.

This species of idolatry doubtless originally resulted
from their having been taught that things in nature were
symbols of things above nature, and of the attributes and
glory of the Godhead. In process of time, while the cor-
ruption remained, the knowledge which had been thus
abused was lost, or dimly seen. The Egyptian priest-
hood perhaps retained some remains of it; but by them
it was made an esoteric doctrine, not to be communicated
to the profane vulgar, who were suffered to regard the
various objects of their superstitious veneration, not as

' Rom. i. 20, to the end of the chapter.
2 D 2

iO* SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

symbols, but as possessed of an inherent divinity : and
probably the mysteries of Isis in Egypt, and of Ceres at
Eleusis, were instituted, that this esoteric doctrine, which
was to be kept secret and sacred from the common peo-
ple, might not be lost.

But this kind of analogy is of a higher order than that
of which I am here principally to speak, — that, namely,
which the various objects of nature bear to each other.
This, however, though of a lower rank, is essentially
connected with the other, and leads to it; for it esta-
blishes the principle, that created things are representa-
tive or symbolical : and we find, when we view them in
this light, that as we ascend from the lowest beings in
the scale of creation, we are led from one to another till
we reach the summit or centre of the whole, and are
thus conducted to the boundaries of this visible and ma-
terial system ; from whence we may conclude that we
ought not here to stop, but go on to something invisible
and extra-mundane, as the ultimate object intended to be
reflected from this great speculum of creation — the Cre-
ator himself, and all those spirits, virtues, and powers
that have emanated from him.

The analogies which the various objects of the ani-
mal kingdom mutually exhibit, have for the most part
been either overlooked by modern Physiologists, or have
been mistaken for characters that indicate affinity ; a cir-
cumstance that has often perplexed or disrupted their
systems. Dr. Virey appears to have been one of the
first who obtained a general idea of the parallelism of
animals in this respect* ; and M. Savigny has contrasted

^ K. Diet. d'Hisf. Nat. xx. 484. coinp. ii. 30—.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 'i05

the Mandihulata and Haustellata of the insect tribes as
presenting analogies to each other*. But a countryman
of our own (often mentioned with honour in the course
of our correspondence), peculiarly gifted by nature, and
qualified by education and his line of study for such
speculations, and possessing moreover the invaluable op-
portunity of consulting at his ease one of the first Ento-
mological cabinets in Europe, in a work that will for
ever couple his name with the science that he cultivates'',
— has first taught the Naturalist the respective value and
real distinctions of the two kinds of relationship that I
am now discussing. He has opened to the philosopher,
the moralist and the divine, that hitherto closed door by
which our first parents and their immediate descendants
entered the temple of nature, and studied the symbols of
knowledge that were there presented to them: and in
addition to his labours (in numerous respects successful),
in endeavouring to trace out the natural groups of beings
connected by affinity, has pointed out how they illustrate
each other by analogy-, thus affording, as was before ob-
served*^, a most triumphant reply to the arguments of
those modern sophists, who, from the graduated scale of
affinities observable in creation, were endeavouring to
prove that animals, in the lapse of ages, were in fact their
own creators'*.

For the more satisfactory elucidation of the subject
before us, I shall consider, first, how we are to distinguish
affinities from analogies ; and then mention some of the

" Mem. sur les Ayiim. sans Verti'br. I. i. 20 — .

^ HorcE Ejitomologicce. '^ VoL. III. p. 173 — .

^ Ibid. p. 349. note '.

406 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

various instances of the latter that occur between insects
and other animals, and betweeen different tribes of in-
sects themselves.

To know what characters denote affinity and what
are merely analogical, it must be kept in mind that the
former being predicated of beings in a series (whether
that series has its gyrations that return into themselves,
or proceeds in a right line, or assumes any other inter-
mediate direction, it matters not), it cannot be satisfac-
torily ascertained but by considering attentively the gra-
dual approximation or recession of the structure to or
from a certain type in any point of such series. If, there-
fore, you wish to ascertain whether the characters, in
which any given object resembles other objects in certain
groups, indicate affinity or only analogy, you must first
make yourself acquainted with the common features which
distinguish the animals known to belong to that group,
— either those relating to their structure, or to their
habits and economy. If the object under your eye par-
takes in these characters more or less, in proportion as
it approaches the type or recedes from it, the relation it
exhibits is that of ajjiriity; but if, though it resembles
some members of it in several points of its structure, it
differs from the whole group in the general features and
characteristic marks that distinguish it, the relation it
bears to those members is merely that of analogy. Thus,
for instance, AscalapJius italictts in its antennae, the co-
louring of its wings, and its general aspect, exhibits a
striking resemblance to a hutterjly ; yet a closer examina-
tion of its characters will satisfy any one that it is in quite
a different series, and has no affinity whatever to that

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 407

genus. A departure, however, in only one respect from
what may be called the normal characters of its group,
does not annul the claim of any tribe of insects to remain
in it; since this very often only indicates a retrocession
from the type, and not a disruption of its ties of affinity.
Thus the saw-flies {Tenthredo L.) differ from the other
Hymenoptera, though not in their pupae, yet more or less
in their larvae ; but this alone cannot countervail their
agreement with that Order in their organs of manduca-
tion and motion, in their ovipositor, and in the other de-
tails of their structure^.

I have on a former occasion pointed out many of the
analogies which take place between insects and other
parts of the animal kingdom, and even between insects
and the mineral and vegetable kingdoms'' : I shall now
resume the subject more at large, but without recurring
to those last mentioned. In considerins; the analogies
which connect insects with other animals, or which they
exhibit with respect to each other, we may have recourse
to tvoo methods. We may either consider them as placed
somewhere between the two extremes of a convolving
series, from which station we may trace these analogies
upvoards and dowrmards towards each limit ; or we may
conceive them and other animals in this respect arranged
in a number of series that ai-e 'parallel to each other, in
which the opposite points are analogous. The first mode
will perhaps best explain the analogies that exist between
insects and other animals, and the last those between dif-
ferent groups of insects themselves. I shall give an ex-
ample or two of each method, beginning with the first.

" rice above, \k ^^'^ — • '' V*'^- ^' P* 7 — .

4-08 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

There are two tribes in the animal kingdom that seem
placed in contrast to each other, both by their habits and
by their structure. One of these is carnivorous, living
by rapine and bloodshed, and cannot be rendered sub-
servient to our domestic purposes ; while the other is
herbivorous or granivorous, is quiet in its habits, and
easily domesticated. Amongst insects we find the re-
presentatives of both : those of the first tribe are distin-
guished by their predaceous habits, by the open attacks,
or by the various snares and artifices which they employ
to entrap and destroy other insects. They may usually be
known by their powerful jaws or instruments of suction ;
by their prominent or ferocious eyes ; by the swiftness
of their motions, either on the earth, in the air, or in the
water ; by their fraud and artifice in lying in wait for
their prey. Amongst the Coleoptera, the Predaceous
beetles, — including the Linnean genera Cicindela, Cara-
busy Dj/iiscus, and Gj/rhius, — are of this description; and
they symbolize those higher animals that by open vio-
lence attack and devour their prey: — for instance, the
sharks, pikes, &c., amongst the fishes; the eagles, hawks,
Sec, amongst the birds ; and the whole feline genus
amongst the beasts. Similar characters give a similar
relation of analogy to the Mantidce and Libelliilma
amongst the Ortho})tera and Neuropiera. The whole
family of Arachne, the larvae of the Mi/rmeleoninaj &c.,
portray those animals that to ferocity add cunning and
stratagem, or suck the blood of their victims. The my-
riapods symbolize in a striking manner the Ophidian
reptiles. Look at an lulus, and both in its motions and
form you will acknowledge that it represents a living ser-
peHt ; next turn your eyes to a centipede or Scolopendra^

SYSTEM OF INSECTS* 409

and you will find it nearly un exact model of the skele-
ton of a dead one, the flat segments of its body resem-
bling the vertebras, its curving legs the ribs, and its ve-
nomous maxillae the poison-fangs. The great body of
the Orthoptcra, the Homopterous Hemiptera^ the Lepido-
ptera, and Tvichoptera^ afford no example of Predaceous
insects. All the analogies I have here particularized,
ascending from the insect, terminate in races of a corre-
sponding character and aspect amongst the Mammalia,
and thus lead us towards man himself, or rather to men in
whose minds those bad and malignant qualities prevail,
which, when accompanied by power, harass and lay waste
mankind ; and thus ascending from symbol to symbol, we
arrive at an animal who in his own person unites both
matter and spirit, and is thus the member both of a vi-
sible and invisible world : and we are further instructed
by these symbols, — perpetually recurring under different
forms, — in the existence of evil and malignant spirits,
whose object and delight is the corporeal and spiritual
ruin of the noble creature who is placed at the head ot
the visible works of God.

The other tribe of animals that I mentioned of a milder
character, may be looked upon as represented by many
herbivorous, or not carnivorous, insects ; amongst others,
the Lamellicorn beetles imitate them by their remarkable
horns, so that they wear the aspect of miniature bulls, or
deer, or antelopes % or rams, or goats, whether these
horns are processes of the head or of the upper jaws. The

* A remarkable imitation of an antelope's horn, in tlie possession
of R. D. Alexander, Esq. F.L.S., is figured in the fifth Number of the
Zooloaitttl Journal.

410 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

gregarious Hi/menoptera, some of which form part of our
domestic treasures, may be regarded in some degree as
belonging to this department. From insects the ascent
upwards, with regard ioform, is by some of the branchi-
ostegous fishes, which symbolize the horns of cattle ; with
regard to character^ by the various species ofCt/jninus and
other similar genera. — Whether any of the reptiles may
be looked upon as falling into this division, 1 am not
sufficiently conversant with them to assert; but if any, the
Chelonians, or tortoise and turtle tribes, are entitled to
that distinction. Amongst the birds, the Gallince and^w-
seres, — from which Orders we derive our domestic poul-
try, whether terrestrial or aquatic, — and our game, form
the step next below the ruminants, or cattle: and we are
thus again led towards man, and are symbolically instruct-
ed in those domestic and social qualities which endear us
to each other, best promote the general welfare, and ren-
der us most like good spirits and the Divinity himself;
of whom the perpetual recurrence of animals exhibiting
these amiable and useful qualities is calculated to im-
press upon us some notion. I might mention many more
instances of ascending analogies; as from some of the Di-
ptera by the parrots, to the Quadrumanes or monkey
tribes — or from some of the hilidce that roll themselves
into a ball, to the Armadillo; but these are sufficient to
set your mind at work upon the subject, so that you may
trace them for yourself. Nor shall I occupy your time
by pointing out how analogies may be traced from in-
sects downwards towards the lowest term in the scale of
animal life, but proceed to consider the analogies ob-
servable between insects themselves ; in which I shall fol*

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 411

low the second method lately mentioned, and consider
them as arranged in parallel series.

In studying the analogies that take place between in-
sects themselves, we should always bear in mind that our
inquiry is not concerning an affinity which demands a
correspondence in various particulars that are not neces-
sary to constitute an analogy ; as, for instance, that there
should be a mutual imitation in all the states of any two
insects. Wherever we discover a marked resemblance
between two perfect insects, there is a true analogy,
though their metamorphosis may differ ; and where there
is not that resemblance, though the metamorphosis may
agree, there is no analogy. In fact, insects are some-
times analogous in i\\e\x Jirst state and not in their last;
and at other times analogous in their last and not in their
Jirst; but the analogy is most perfect when it holds in
all their states : it then, indeed, almost approaches to an
affinity. They may also be analogous to each other in
their habits and economy, when there is little or no re-
semblance in \he\rform; and, vice versa, be analogous in
their yo/7M and not in their habits. So that different sets
of analogies may be assumed as foundations for different
systems. Thus Mr. MacLeay assumes the metamor~
phosis as the basis of analogy between the corresponding
Orders of Mandibulata and Haustellata^ , while M. Sa-
vigny compares the perfect insects'': the result therefore
differs in some instances. 1 shall now lay before you
in a tabular view their plans and my own.

" Hor. Entomolog. 456. Conip. Linn. Trans, xiv. 67 — .
^ Mem. sur les Anim. sans Vcrtebr. I. i. 20 — .

"^12 system of insects.

Savigny.
Mandibulata. Haustellata.

Neuroptera \ ( Lepidoptera

Ascalaphtis J i Papilio

Hymenoptera \ f Diptera

Eucera ) i Tabaniis

Orthoptera \ ( Homoptera

Locusta L. J i Cicada

Aptera 1 J Aphan

Nirmus i i Pulex.

MacLeay.

Trichoptera Lepidoptera

Hymenoptera Diptera

Coleoptera Aptera

Orthoptera Hemiptera

Neuroptera Homoptera.

K. and S.

Coleoptera Hemiptera Leach

Orthoptera Homoptera Leach

Neuroptera Lepidoptera

Hymenoptera Diptera.

In these two last columns, yow see, I differ little from
M. Savigny: I merely exclude the Aphaniptera as
forming an osculant Order, and I have added the Co-
leoptera and Heteropterous2y(?;«//5^era for reasons I shall
soon assign. From Mr. MacLeay I differ more widely,
which has resulted from our different ideas as to the
mode of tracing analogies ; his theory leading him to the

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 413

metaniorphosis,Q.r\(\ mine leading me * to i\\e peifect insect,
for the foundation of our several systems. It remainslhat
1 show how each of the pairs in my columns represent
each other : but I must observe, that the analogies exhi-
bited by insects in the corresponding Orders of these
columns are not equally striking in all their respective
members ; but only in certain individual species or ge-
nera, more or less numerous, by which the nearest ap-
proach is made to the contrasted forms.

To begin with the Coleoptera and Heteroptei-ous He-
miptera. — Both are distinguished by having an ample
prothorax^ a. conspicuous scutellum, the neuration of their
wings, the substance of the hard part of their hemely-
tta, which, as in Coleoptera^ sometimes imitates horn
and sometimes leather, and is occasionally, like elytra,
lined with a hypoderma^ \ the articulation of the head
with the trunk is likewise the same in both ^ : and some
Heteropterous species so strikingly resemble beetles {Ly
gaus brevipetmis Latr., &c.), having little or no mem-
brane at the end of their hemelytra, that they might
easily be mistaken for them. These circumstances prove,
I think, that this suborder is more analogous to the
Coleoptera than to the Orthoptera^ with which it agrees
in scarcely any respect but its metamorphosis. The
counterparts of this last Order indeed, instead of the
Heteropterous, are to be sought for amongst the Homo-
pterous Hemiptera, various species of which exhibit a
most marked and multifarious analogy with numerous
Orthoptera. Many of both Orders [Cicada Latr., Lo-
custa L.), as you have heard long since, are signalized

" See above, p 373-. " Vol. III. pp. 373, GOO.

• Ibid. p. 413,

41 4- SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

by possessing the same powers of song, and produced
by an analogous organ * : a large proportion also of both
are endued with wonderful saltatorious powers, and their
posterior tibiae are similarly armed j their legs in general
also are longitudinally angular, and the head in both
articulates with the trunk in the same manner''. In both
Orders also, the upper organs of flight are most com-
monly tegmina, but sometimes in both they are nearly
membranous, like wings. In Centrotus F. and Acrydium
F., the one Homopterous and the other Orthopterous, the
front is bilobed, the eyes are small ; there are only two
stemmata between the eyes ; the prothorax is conspi-
cuous, and behind is producted into a long scutelliform
process, under which all the parts also are analogous ;
the abdomen articulates with the trunk in the same way,
is similar in shape in both, and consists of short inoscu-
lating segments. Some Fulgoridce and Tmxalides agree
also in their producted front. Other analogous charac-
ters might be named between these tribes, but these are
sufficient to confirm M. Savlgny's opinion. That the
NeuroiJtera present analogies to the Lepidoptera, though
they differ so widely from them in their metamoi*phosis
and habits, is evident from the instance lately adduced
of Ascalaphus italiciis, which was described as a buttei*fly
by Scopoli ^ ; and many of the Libellulina, by their wings,
partly transparent and partly opaque, and by the shape
of those organs and of their bodies, imitate the Helico-
nian butterflies : and this resemblance is much more
striking than any that occurs between the perfect insects
in the li^europtera and Homopterous Hemiptera. With

" Vol. II. p. 399-. »' Vol. III. p. 414.

•^ Eiit. Cam. ] 68. n. 44G.

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 415

regard to the Hymenoptera and Diptera the analogy is
undisputed, and must strike every beholder; and one
would almost say it was a real affinity, were it not that
the resemblance is not only general between Order and
Order, but that almost every Hymenopterous tribe has
its counterpart amongst the Diptera; the saw-flies*
for instance, the ichneumons, the various false-wasps'*,
the false-bees*^, the bees, the humble-bees, the ants,
&c., severally find there a representative that wears
its hvery and general aspect : a circumstance which
evidently proves that it was part of the plan of the
Creator to place them in contrast with each other. Were
I to pursue this subject further, it might not be difficult
to show that were the tribes of Mandibulata or of Haus-
tellata also arranged in columns, analogies would be dis-
coverable between their corresponding points : this
seems to be Mr. MacLeay's opinion*^; and it is worth
your pursuing the subject further, which cannot but
prove very interesting.

But though the general analogy of these columns is
that of Order to Order, yet individual species in each
Order sometimes find their representatives in a different
one from that with which they generally are contrasted ;
— thus some Diptera, as Culex, by the scales on the veins
and other parts of their wings, are analogous to Lepi-
doptera rather than Hymenoptera ^ ; as is also the genus
Psychoda Latr. by its form.

We come now to the consideration of a question not

' Meigen has figured a Dipterous insect exactly resembling a Cim-
bex ; but not having his work, I cannot refer to the plate.
'' PrcBdones Latr., &c. <■ Andrena F., &c.

" Hot: Entoviolog. 437. ' Vol. III. p. 645.

4-lG SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

easy to be decided, — I mean, which Order of insects is
to have the precedency, and which is the connecting link
that unites them to Vertebrate animals.

Linne (and Mr. MacLeay seems in this to coincide
with him) considered the Coleoptera as at the head of the
Class of insects ; De Geer thought the Lepidopte^-a en-
titled to that honour ; Latreille and Cuvier begin with
the Aptera : Marcel de Serres favours the Orthojitera * ;
and others, on account of their admirable economy, have
made the Hymenoptera the princes of the insect world **.
If the claim to priority was to be decided by the exqui-
siteness of instincts and the benefits conferred upon the
human race, doubtless it would be in favour of the last-
mentioned insects. If the power to do mischief carried
it, and to lay waste the earth, the Orthoptera would be
entitled as much as any to the bad pre-eminence. If
beauty, and grace, and gaiety, and splendour of colours
were the great requisite, and the law enjoined, Detur
pulchriori, — the Lepidoptera would doubtless win the
throne. But if perfection and solidity of structure, as
they ought, are to regulate this point ; we must, I think,
with the illustrious Swede, assign the palm to the Co-
leoptera. If we consider these in all their parts, the
organs for flight only excepted, they seem more perfectly
formed and finished than the insects of any other order.
But which of the Coleopterous tribes are entitled to the
precedency? Linne placed the Lamellicorn beetles at
the head of the order, beginning with the Dpiastidce,
probably led by some characters which seem to connect
these with the Branch iostegous fishes. In this he was
followed by Fabricius. But Latreille and most modern
- Mem. du Mm. 1819. ].%. »> RifFersclnv. de Im. Genital. %

SYSTEM OF INSECTS. 417

Entomologists have begun with Cicindela L. and the
other Predaceous beetles. I am not certain what are
Mr. MacLeay's sentiments on this subject; but from
what he says in his Annulosa Javanica^, it does not ap-
pear that he is a convert to the latter opinion. Bulk
and strength seem the most striking characteristics of
the former tribe, which represent the cattle or ruminants
amongst Vertebrate animals. — Strength united with agi-
lity and a considerable portion of grace and symmetry
evidently confers a degree of pre-eminence upon the lat-
ter, symbolizing the feline race, which seems to throw
no small weight into their scale.

There are two Classes of Vertebrate animals with
which insects may appear to claim kindred. Thejishes,
and the reptiles. Fishes in their fins exhibit no small
resemblance to insects ; the pectoral and ventral ones
representing their arms and legs, and the dorsal ones
their wings : Pegasus Draco in this last respect is not
unlike a butterfly^. In some genera {Ostracion, Pega-
sus, &c.), like insects the animal is covered with a hard
shell or crust, formed by the union of its scales. The
oral cirrhi of many fishes seem analogous to the jjalpi
of insects ; and in some a pair longer than the rest re-
present their antennce'^. Another circumstance in which
insects and fishes correspond, is the wonderful variety of
forms, often in the greatest degree eccentric, that occurs
in both Classes. Some of the cyclostomous fishes, as
Ammoccetus Dum., Gastrobranchus Bloch, are supposed
to connect the fishes with the A?mulosaf by means of the

" Annulos, Javan. i. 1.

" iST. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxv. 115—. xxvii, t. M. 8./. 1.
" Piso Hist. Nat. 63. Cur id 1. Jundia v.
VOL. IV. 2 E

418 SYSTEM OF INSECTS.

Annelida as an osculant Class *, which Mr. MacLeay re ♦
gards as the passage to the CJiilopoda^ : his Mandibulata
he considers as passing into the Anoplura by means of
some osculant Order as yet unknown ^. But I must con-
fess I can see no good ground for this last transition : —
the Anoplura appear much more nearly related to Psocus,
especially by the apterous species Psoctts pulsatorms^y
than to any Coleopterous insect. But having stated these
opinions, I shall leave you to draw your own conclusions,
as the question is still perplexed with many difficulties. I
am ready to admit that some Vertebrates approach near
to the Annelida; but that it is through them alone that
they are connected with insects, is not at present clear.

With regard to reptiles, they seem to be connected
with insects by several characters. In the Chelonians,
the skeleton merges in the external carapace or
shell ; the Ophidians change their skin like larvae ;
the Batrachians undergo metamorphoses ; some of the
Saurians also have their changes ; and the Draco volans
has wings somewhat analogous to those of insects^.
Were I to be asked what Order of insects could con-
nect with reptiles, I should point to the Ort/ioptera, es-
pecially Gryllus L., which by their noise and saltato-
rious powers not a little resemble frogs ; and the larvae
of some strikingly imitate their form ^ : and of others
even that of a lizard s. But these resemblances, after all,
may only indicate analogies.

» iV. Diet. (VHist. Nat. xxvii. 235, Hor. Entomolog. 203.

'> Ibid. 281 -. ' Ibid. 354, 390, 397.

•^ This insect, except in its antennce, so nearly resembles a Nir-
mus, that it might be mistaken for one. See Coquebert lUiistr.
Icon. i. t. ii. /. 14. " Vol. III. p. 592.

<■ Fiiessl. Archiv. t. \\\.f. 5. ^ Stoll Sauf. de Pass. t. xx. b. f. 79.

LETTER XLVJIl.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

After the very general idea that I have attempted to
embody for you of the Si/sfe?n qf^ Insects ,- of the groups
in which nature has arranged them, and their mutual
relations ; it will not be out of place, if I next state to
you what has been effected by Entomologists towards
reducing them to order : or, in other words, if I give you
some account of the various Methods and Systems^, be-
ginning virith the earliest, that have appeared and had
their day, which will include a history of the progress of
our science from its commencement to its present era.

In writing the history of anj science, two modes pre-
sent themselves. We may either give a chronological re-
view of all the circumstances and publications connected
with it; or content ourselves with a rapid survey, dwell-
ing only on the principal epochs, and those lights of the
science who by their immortal labours gave birth to
them. The latter is that on every account best suited
to our present purpose, which I shall therefore here
adopt.

There seem to me to be seven principal epochs into
which the History of Entomology may be divided : viz.

See above, p. 355 — .
2 E 2

420 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

1. The Era of the Ancienfs. 2. The Era of the revival
of the science after the darkness of the middle ages.
3. The Era of Swammerdam and Ray, or of the Meta-
morphotic System. 4. The Era of Linne, or of the Alary
System. 5. The Era of Fabricius, or of the Maxillary
System, 6. The Era of Latreille, or of the Eclectic
System. And 7. The Era of MacLeay, or of the Qidnary
System. All of these appear to form important points,
or resting-places, in the progress of the science towards
its acme ; and of each of these I shall now proceed to
give you a brief account.

1. The Era of the Ancients. To ascertain what atten-
tion was paid to insects in the earliest ages, we must
have recourse to the most ancient of records, the Old
Testament. In this sacred volume we are informed that
after the Creation God brought the creatures to Adam
that he might name them *. Now the first man, in his
unimpaired state of corporeal, mental, and spiritual
soundness, under the divine guidance doubtless imposed
upon them names significant of their qualities or struc-
ture ; which according to Plato was a work above human
wisdom, and on account of which the ancient Hebrews
deduced that Adam was a philosopher of the highest
endowments''. Whether on this great and interesting
occasion he gave names to individual species, or only to
natural groups, does not clearly appear. But probably
as they were created, so were they brought before him
" According to their kinds •=."

Subsequently Moses will be thought to have possessed
no ordinary knowledge of insects, if we suppose, as the

* Genes, ii. 19 — . '' Pol. Synops. on Genes, ii.

•= Genes, i. 25.

HISTOIIY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 421

ingenious remarks of Professor Lichtenstein ' render
probable, that he distinguishes as clean insects the Fabri-
cian genera Gtyllus, Loaista, Truxalis, and AcJicta, which
a person unobservant of these animals would have con-
founded together. This discrimination presupposes this
knowledge of their general characters, not only in the
Jewish lawgiver, but also in the people themselves to
whom the precept was addressed, to whom it would
otherwise have been de ignotis.

Allusion is made in Holy Writ to insects of almost
every one of the modern Orders^. They are represented
as employed divijiitiis sometimes to annoy the enemies
of the Israelites, and at others to punish that people
themselves when they apostatized from their God. The
prophets frequently introduce them as symbols of ene-
,mies that lay waste or oppress the church : as thejly of
the Ethiopians or 'Egyptians; the bee of the Assyrians;
and the locust of the followers of Mahomet and other
similar destroyers '^. That Solomon, amongst other ob-
jects to the investigation of which his divinely inspired
wisdom directed him, did not deem insects, those " Little
things upon the earth''," unworthy of his attention, we
know from Scripture *=; but as his physical writings are
lost, we are ignorant whether he treated of their natural
arrangement, their economy and history, or of the in-
struction they afford analogically considered. Where

* Linn. Tram. iv. 51 — . See Levit. xi. 20 — .

^ The Neuroptera appears to be the only Order not so signalized.
It is worthy of notice that insects are usually noticed generically
and not specifically in Scripture. On the insects of Scripture see
Bochart Hierozoic. ii. 1. iv. ' Imi. vii. 18. Joel ii. Rev. ix. 3.

•> Prov. XXX. 24—. " 1 K'm^s iv. 33.

422 HlSTOilY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

he has referred to them incidentally, it is generally with
this latter view.

If we turn from the word and people of God to the
Lovers ofmoisdom (as they modestly styled themselves) of
the heathen world, and their writings ; we shall discern
amongst them a great light shining, the beams of which
illuminate even our own times. In the illustrious Stagy-
rite we recognize — " The father of philosophy, at least
of our philosophy, who, rising superior to the darkness
in which he lived, darted his penetrating glance through
all nature, and established principles which a long course
of ages of inquiry have but confirmed. With Aristotle
begins the real History of science : and how much so-
ever he may have erred upon particular points, the great-
ness of his conceptions and the justness of his ideas, on
the whole entitle him to our high veneration. His la-
bours in the investigation of the Animal Kingdom have
laid the foundation of the knowledge we now possess ^."
This language of the learned President of the Linnean
Society is particularly applicable to what this great and
original genius has effected in Entomology. We have
seen upon a former occasion'', that Linne himself had
not those precise ideas of the limits of the Class Insecta,
which Aristotle so many centuries before him had
adopted. In stating the obligations of Entomology to
this true sfavantf I shall begin by laying before you a
tabular view of what may be called his system, as far as
I have been able to collect it from his works, especially
his History of Animals.

' Linn. Traits, i. 5. *> Vol.. III. p. 6.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 42S

Coleoptera"*.

Pedetica = Orthoplerasaliatoria Latr.^
Astomata= Heviiptera Latr/
Psychae = Lepidoptei-a^ .
" Pterota_^vel ^ rmajora= iVew/'o/jiem L. Ortho-

Tetraptera i ptera cursoria Latr."* ?

\0'p\st\iocenXxdi= Hymenoptera '.

{mmorQ.= Musca, Tipula, &c.
Emprosthocentra = Culex, Sto-
vioxys, Tabanus, &c.

Pterotasimul ( Myrmex = Formica h.
et Aptera'' ) Pygolampis =Z<amjoym L.

_ Aptera*^.

It may be further stated, that Aristotle perceived also
the distinction between the Mandibiilata and Haustellata
of modern authors : for he observes, that some insects
having teeth are omnivorous ; while others, that have
only a tongue, are supported by liquid food'. He ap-
pears to have regarded the Htjmenoptera, or some of
them, as forming a third subclass ; since he clearly al-
ludes to them, when he says that many have teeth, not
for feeding, but to help them in fulfilling their instincts".

From the above statement it will appear that this great
philosopher had no contemptible notion, — though he has
only distinguished three of them as larger groups by ap-
propriate names, — of the majority of the Orders of Insects

* Aristotle calls winged insects Pterota when he would distinguish
them from those that are apterous, and Plilota when he contrasts
them with birds. (Comp. Hist. Anim. I. iv. c. 1. with 1. i. c. 3.) Some-
times he calls birds thus contrasted Schizoptera, and insects Holo-
ptera. De Anim. Licess. c. 10.

^ Hist. Anim. 1. iv. c. 1. " Ibid. "^ Ibid. 1. i. c. 5.

« Ibid. 1. iv. c. 7. f Ibid. " Ibid. I. v. c. 19.

" Ibid. 1. i. c. 5. i Ibid, and I. iv. c. 7- ' Ibid.

' Ibid. 1. viii. c. 11. ™ Gr. Of T^o(pyig xecq^iv sx^t ohovrx; cthX'

efhKYii. At^kyi means Strength of mind. Fortitude, Strenuousness, also
Help : — it here probably signifies their strenuous use of their oral
organs in fulfilling their instincts. De Partib. Anim. 1. iv. c. 5.

424 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

at present admitted. His Coleoptera, Psyches, and Di-
ptera are evidently such. His idea of Hemiptera seems
taken solely from the Cicada or Tettix : but the man-
ner in which he expresses himself concerning it, as
having no mouth, but furnished instead with a lingui-
form organ resembling the proboscis of Diptera^, proves
that he regarded it a3 the type of a distinct group. Since
he considers the saltatorious Orthoptera as forming such
a group, it is probable that he included the cursorious
ones with the Neiiroptera in his majora section of Te-
traptera ; and the resemblance of many of the Mantidcs
to the Neuroptera is so great, that this mistake would not
be wonderful. His division of the Diptera is quite ar-
tificial.

How far Aristotle's ideas with regard to genera and
species attained to any degree of precision, is not easily
ascertained : in other respects his knowledge of insects
was more evident. As to their anatomy, he observes
that their body is usually divided into three primary seg-
ments,— head, trunk, and abdomen; that they have an
intestinal, canal, — in some straight and simple, in others
contorted, — extending from the mouth to the anus ; that
the Orthoptera have a ventricle or gizzard ''. He had
noticed the drimis of Cicada, and that the males only
are vocal. Other instances of the accurate observation
of this great man might be adduced, but enough has
been said to justify the above encomiums. His princi-
pal error was that of equivocal generation.

Little is known with regard to the progress of other
Greek Naturalists in entomological science. It ap-

^ Hhl. Anim. 1. iv c. 7- '' Ibid.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 425

pears probable, from an epithet by which Hesiod dis-
tinguishes the spider — air-jlying *, that the fact of these
insects traversing the air was at that time no secret.
Apollodorus, as we learn from Pliny ^, was the first mo-
nographer of insects, since he wrote a treatise upon scor-
pions, and described nine species. But like many other
Zoologists, by mistaking analogy for affinity, he has in-
cluded a isoinged insect, probably a Panorya, amongst
his scorpions. From the time of Aristotle, however, to
Pliny, no writer is recorded, with the exception of those
before alluded to *^, that appears to have attended much
to insects. They are indeed incidentally noticed by Theo-
phrastus, Dioscorides, Virgil, Ovid, &c., but without
any material addition to the stock of entomological
knowledge bequeathed to us by the Stagyrite. Even
Pliny's vast compendium, as it professed to be, of the
natural history of the globe, was in many respects little
more than a compilation from that great philosopher.
Still, however, though he does not appear to have paid
much practical attention to insects, — which indeed, con-
sidering the extent of his views, was scarcely .to be ex-
pected,— yet as a guide to the then state of entomologi-
cal knowledge, and as an advocate for the study, which
in the exordium of his eleventh book he has so elo-
quently and with so much animation defended from the
misrepresentations of ignorance, Pliny has conferred a
lasting obligation on the science. The last zoological
writer of note was iElian, who amongst other animals
often mentions insects. He has, however, few original
observations. One was, that scorpions are viviparous"*.

* Gr. Agfl<7;woT)5Toc aQux"^- J^ics. lin. 13. •* Hist. Nat.\.y\. c. 25.

* Vol. 1. p. 485. Vol. II. p. 121—. ^ De Nalur. Animal. 1. vi. c. 20.

42G HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

From him we learn incidentally that artificial flies were
sometimes used by Grecian anglers*.

2. The Era of the Revival of the Science. From the
time of Pliny and ^lian liOO years rolled away, in which
scarcely any thing was done or attempted for Entomology
or Natural History in general. During that long night
the glimmer of only one faint luminary appeared to make
a short and feeble twilight. In the middle of the thir-
teenth century Albertus Magnus (so called from his fa-
mily name of Groot, and justly, if incredible labour
could entitle a man to the appellation,) devoted one out
of twenty-one folio volumes to Natural History. In this
work he professes not so much to give his own opinions,
as those of the Peripatetic philosophers ''. He occasion-
ally, however, relates the result of observations made by
himself, which prove him to have been no inattentive
student of nature. He mentions a voyage that he made
for the purpose of collecting marine animals, and that
he found of them ten different tribes or genera, and se-
veral species of each. Amongst these he particularizes
the Cephalopoda^ the Crustacea, the testaceous Mollusca,
and some of the Radiata and Acrita, &c. "^ He gives
a very correct account of the pitfalls of Myrmeleon. In-
sects he distinguishes, excluding the Crustacea, by the
denomination of Anulosa (Amiulosa), which he appears
to employ as a known term"*. He also calls them
'worms, describing butterflies zsjlying worms, flies Sisjly-
worms, spiders as spider-worms ; and what is still more
extraordinary, the toad and Wxefrog, which he includes
a,mongsX\i\sAnulosa,\ieca\[s quadruped-worms^ \ ! Though

" De Natur. Animal. 1. xv. c. 1. ^ Opera vi. 683.

• Ibid. 153-. •■ Ibid. 154, 233, 265, &c. " Ibid. 676, 679, 680.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGV. 427

it may appear so absurd to speak of these animals as in-
sects, yet he had perhaps a deeper and more philosophi-
cal reason for this than we may at first be disposed to
give him credit for. This would be the case if he se-
parated these from the other reptiles and placed them
amongst insects on account of their metamorphoses, mis-
taking perhaps an analogical character for one of affi-
nity '. Some of the Annelida, as Filaria and Lumbricus '',
he also regarded as insects. I cannot gather from his
desultory pages that he had any notion of a systematical
arrangement of his Anulosa.

After the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in
the middle of the fifteenth century, the light of learning,
kindled by those of its professors who escaped from that
ruin, appeared again in the West. The Greek language
then began to be studied universally; and in consequence
of the coeval invention of the art of printing, various
editions of the great works of the ancients were publish-
ed : amongst the rest, those of the fathers of Natural
History. From the perusal of those works, the love of
the sciences of which they treated revived in the West,
and the attention of scientific men began to direct itself
to the consideration and study of the works of their
Creator. In the latter part of that century, a work
entitled the Book of Nature appeared in the German
language, in which animals and plants were treated of
and rudely figured ; as they were likewise most misera-
bly in Cuba's Ortus Sanitatis, published in \^S5. In this
work insects and Crustacea were described under the
three different denominations of Animals, Birds, and
Fishes ; so that but little profit was at first derived from
-• See above, p. 418, '' Opera vi. 6S!2 — .

-iSS HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the writings of Aristotle, Invertebrate animals not being
then even honoured with

" A local habitation and a name."
This unpromising and apparently hopeless state of the
science proved, however, the dawn of its present meridian
brightness.

The first attempt at a separate and systematical ar-
rangement of insects subsequent to the times of Aristotle,
was made in the ponderous volumes of Ulysses Aldro-
vandus, who, disregarding the Stagyrite, arranged in-
sects according to the medium they inhabit, as you will
see in the subjoined table :

T,j , ( P'avifica.

Menibra-

Anelytra J nacea 1 ^o"^ Fa-
pAlata <^ T. _. .„. ^ vifica

(Anelytra ^
fP-lata iS^i

Farinosa.

- Aquatica -^
I
LApoda.

This artificial and meager system, which mixed insects
with Annelida, was adopted by Charlton and other au-
thors ; and even in the eighteenth century had a patron
of great eminence, who, endeavouring to improve upon
it, has rendered it still more at variance with nature and
Aristotle : I mean the celebrated Vallisnieri, to whom
in other respects, though in this he fell behind his age,
the science was under great obligations. He divides
insects into, 1. Those that inhabit vegetable substances

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 429

living or dead. 2. Those that inhabit any kind oi Jluid
and in any state. 3. Those that inhabit any earthy or
mineral substances, dead hones^ or shells. And 4. Those
that inhabit living animals ^. '

The work that is usually called Mouffet's Theatrum
Insectorum was produced in the present era, and was the
fruit of the successive labours of several men of talent.
Dr. Edward Wotton and the celebrated Conrade Ges-
ner laid the foundation ; whose manuscripts falling into
the hands of Dr. Thomas Penny, — an eminent physician
and botanist of the Elizabethan age^, much devoted to
the study of insects, — he upon this foundation meditated
raising a superstructure which should include a complete
history of these animals ; and with this view he devoted
the leisure hours of fifteen years of his life to the study
of every work then extant that treated of the science
either expressly or incidentally, and to the description
and figuring of such insects as he could procure : but be-
fore he had reduced his materials to order, in 1589 he
was snatched away by an untimely death. His unfinished
manuscripts were purchased at a considerable price by
MoufFet, a contemporary physician of singular learning *=,
who reduced them to order, improved the style, added
new matter, and not less than 150 additional figures ; and
thus having prepared the work for the press, intended
to dedicate it to Queen Elizabeth''. Fate, however,
seemed still to frown upon the undertaking, for before
he could commit his labours to the press he also died,
and the work remained buried in dust and obscurity till

' Esperienz. ed Osserv. i. 42 — .

•> Pulteney's Sketches of Botany in England, i. 86.

<■ Theatr. Insect Ejvxt. Bed. i. <i Ibid.

430 HISTORY or ENTOMOLOGY.

it fell into the hands of Sir Theodore Mayerne, baroii
d'Aubone, one of the court physicians in the time of
Charles I., who at length published it, prefixing a Dedi-
cation to Sir WiUiam Paddy, baronet, M.D., in 1634;
and it was so well received that an English translation ap-
peared twenty -four years afterwards. The work thus re-
peatedly rescued from destruction was indisputably the
most complete entomological treatise that had then ap-
peared. And though the arrangement (in which there is
scarcely any attempt at system) is extremely defective, the
figures very rude, often incorrect, and sometimes altoge-
ther false, — yet as an introduction to the study of insects
its value at that day must have been very considerable ;
and as a copious storehouse of ancient entomological lore,
it has not even at present lost its utility.

One of the most remarkable works of the era we ai'e
upon was published at Lignitz in the year 1603, by
Caspar Schwenckfield, a physician of Hirschberg, under
the title of Theriotrophium Silesice. This was probably
the first attempt at a Fauna that ever was made. In it
animals are divided into quadrupeds, reptiles, birds,
fishes, and insects. The Crustacea, Mollusca, and Zoo-
jphytes, are included under fishes. He says of the Spon-
gice that they are moved by animalcula which inhabit
them'. Did he borrow this observation from Aristotle,
or was it made by himself' ? It is singular that Linne
should never allude to this work. Goedart, who belongs
also to this era, is stated to have spent forty years of his

* Theriotroph. Siles. 455. '' Aristotle {Hist. Anim.

1. i. c. 1.) says, " The sponge seems to have some sensation : as a
proof, it is not easily plucked up, unless, so they say, the attempt is
concealed."

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 431

life in attending to the proceedings of insects ". But after
this long study, his principal use to the science was the
improvement he effected in the drawing and engraving of
them, — for his figures, though sometimes incorrect and
sometimes fabulous, were far superior to those of his
predecessors.

3. The Era of Swammerdam and Raj/, or of the Me-
tamorphotic Sj/stem. The great men whose names are
here united, as they were cotemporary, so they agreed
in founding their respective systems of insects on the
same basis. To the former, however, is due the merit
of being the first who assumed the metamorphoses of these
animals as the basis of a natural arrangement of them ;
upon which the latter, in conjunction with his lamented
friend Willughby, erected that superstructure which
opened the door for the present improved state of the
science. Swammerdam's system may be thus expressed
in modern language :

'Class i. Metamorphosis complete ''=^^f era L."^

semicomDlete { OHhoptera, Hemiptera.
" } Libellulina, Epliemerina^.

^^ C Coleoptera, Hymenoptera.

I ■* C incomplete < part of Neuropfera and

S iii. < (^ Diptera^.

obtected Lepidoptera ^

C Ichneumones minuti L.^
) Muscidce, &c. ^

It was a great point gained in the science to introduce

^ Lister's Goedart, Ptcb/. ii.

'' See Vol. I. p. 65 — , where these terms are explained.
^ Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. .38—. •" Ibid. 92—,

' Ibid. 119— f Ibid. ii. 1—. « Ibid. 31—.

" Ibid. 30.

coarctate

4,32 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

the consideration of the metamorphosis, and to employ
it in the extrication of the natural system : for though
when taken by itself it will, as in the table just given,
lead to an artificial arrangement, it furnishes a very use-
ful clue when the consideration of insects in their perfect
state is added to it. The tables contained in the Pro-
legomena to Ray's Historia Insectorum divide insects
into those which undergo no change of form, and those
which change their form. The arrangement of the
former (^/xfT«ju,og(pa)T«) was made by Willughby, who
subdivided them into Apoda and Pedata. As the only
insects included in the former section were the grubs of
(Estri, the remainder being Annelida, they need not be
included in our table. I have endeavoured to compress
these tables into as small a space as possible, by using
the Linnean terms for metamorphosis, and reducing
Ray's tribes of Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Neuroptera
to their modern denominations.

Ray details at considerable length the various tribes
belonging to the four classes of metamorphosis establish-
ed by Swammerdam^ Most of his tribes indicate na-
tural groups of greater or less value : but some of his
larger groups are artificial, as you will see by the mere
inspection of the table.

» Hist. Ins. Prolegom. ix. —

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VOL. IV.

2 F

434 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

This era produced several great and original geniuses,
who enriched the science with a vast increment of real
knowledge. The illustrious Zoologists whose names it
bears, — the one by his dissections and anatomical re-
searches, and the other by his concise and well drawn
descriptions of numerous insects, by various interesting
observations on their manners and characters, and by
the purity of his latinity, — contributed greatly to its pro-
gress towards perfection. Leeuwenhoek also, the com-
patriot of Swammerdam, and Hooke of Ray, amongst
other objects submitted to their powerful microscopes,
did not neglect insects. — To the former we are indebted
for the remarkable discovery that the flea belongs to
those that undergo a metamorphosis. Ray had besides
two coadjutors whose names ought not to be forgotten, —
Willughby and Dr. Martin Lister. The former is cha-
racterized by his lamenting friend as one of the pro-
foundest of naturalists, as well as one of the most amia-
ble and virtuous of men. What advantage Entomology
would have reaped from his labours may be inferred
from the eminent services that he rendered that science,
amongst other branches of Zoology, during his short
life. It appears from Ray's Letters ^, that he drew up a
history of insects and exsanguia, which probably formed
the groundwork of the posthumous Historia Insectorwn
of that author; concerning which he says, " The work
which I have now entered upon is indeed too great a
task for me : I rely chiefly on Mr. Willughby's dis-
coveries and the contributions of friends''." And in-
deed Willughby's name and initials occur so frequently
in that work, that it may be esteemed their joint pro-
» PMlos. Lett. &c. 141. ^ Ibid. MZ.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 435

duction. Lister by his Vcarious writings elucidated many
points relating to insects ; and he may be regarded as the
first modern who observed that spiders can sail in the
air. But the most important of his works, and that on
which his fame as an Entomologist is principally founded,
is his admirable treatise De Arancis ; in which his sy-
stematic arrangement of these animals leaves far behind
all former attempts, and rivals that of the best modern
Arachnologists. His specific descriptions are drawn
with a precision till then luiknown ; and each is headed
by a short definition of the species, which he calls the
Titulus, synonymous with the 'b^omen sjpecificum of Linne,
whose canon of twelve words it rarely exceeds.

One of the most important events of this era was the
complete exposure and refutation of the absurd doctrine
of equivocal generation^ which had maintained its ground
in the schools of philosophy from the time of Aristotle.
Our own immortal Harvey was the first who dared to con-
trovert this irrational theory : and his dictum — Omnia ex
ovo — ^was copiously discussed and completely established
by two of the ablest physiologists that Italy has produced,
Redi and Malpighi.

Previously to the publication of the Historia Insecto-
rum, no other works of eminence, with the exception of
Madam Merian's beautiful illustration of the metamor-
phosis of the insects of Surinam, made their appearance:
but in the interval of twenty-five years, which elapsed
between the publication of that work and of Linne's
firstoutlineof his Sy sterna Natures, Entomologists became
more numerous and active. In England the pious and
learned author of the Physico and Astro-Theology was
celebrated for the assiduity with which he studied in-
2 F 2

436 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

sects; and in the former of these works has concentrated
a vast number of mteresting observations connected with
their anatomy and history. No Enghshman contributed
more to the progress of Natural History, both as a writer
and collector, than that disinterested physician and na-
turalist Sir Hans Sloane, whose extensive and valuable
library and well-stored cabinets formed the original nu-
cleus of the present vast collection of the British Museum.
Amongst other departments, that of insects was not over-
looked by him ; and it is to be regretted that those which
he had accumulated have either perished from neglect
or are not accessible. Other Entomologists were emi-
nent at this period in Britain. The principal of these
were Petiver, Dale (to whom Ray bequeathed his collec-
tion of insects), Bobart, Bradley, and Dandridge ; the
last of whom, as Bradley tells us, delineated and de-
scribed 1 4-0 species of spiders.

I must not omit here to observe that our Royal So-
ciety, the origin of which took place in this era, com-
municated anew and powerful impulse to the public mind
in favour of Physical Science, and greatly accelerated
the progress of Natural History. It acted not only as
a centre of excitement which stimulated to exertion, but
also as a focus to collect the scattered rays of light before
they were dissipated. Insulated observations in every
department of nature were thus preserved; and commu-
nications from the most eminent naturalists in various
parts of Europe ornamented its TraJisactions. So that
from the establishment of this illustrious Society, the
triumphant march of Physical Science of every kind to-
wards its acme may be dated.

4. Ei^aqf Linne, or of the Alary System. We are now

HISTORY OF ENTOMOiOCiY. 4S7

arrived at that period in tlie history of Natural Know-
ledge, especially of Entomology, in which it received that
form, with respect to its general outline, which, amidst
many lesser mutations, has been preserved ever since.
Swammerdam had altogether deserted the system of
Aristotle, and Ray mixed it with that of his predecessor.
But a brilliant star soon appeared in the North ', which
was destined to be the harbinger of a brighter day than
had ever before illuminated the path of the student of
the works of God. The illustrious philosopher whose
name distinguishes this new era, imbibed a taste for
Entomology almost as early as for Botany ^ ; and though
the latter became his favourite, and absorbed his prin-
cipal attention, he did not altogether neglect the former.
In the first edition of his Systema la^aturcc^ published in
1735, and contained in only fourteen folio pages *=, he
began to arrange the three kingdoms of nature after his
own conceptions. But this initiatory sketch, as might
be expected, was very imperfect ; and with respect to
insects, instead of an improvement upon his predecessors,
was extremely inferior to what Ray had effected ; for he
puts into one Order (to which he gives the name of
Angioptera) the LepidojHera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
and Diptera. In this work, however. Generic Characters
were first given. In successive editions he continued to
improve upon this outline : in the fourth he finally set-
tled the number and denominations of his Orders ; and in
the twelfth (uniting the Orthoptera, which he had at

^ Ray died in 1705, and Linne was born in 1707.

^ When a bo)' he attempted to introduce wasps and bees into his
father's garden, to the great annoyance of the old gentleman. — Stoe-
ver's Life of Linijerua, 4. * Ibid. 75.

438 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

first considered as of a Coleopterous type, to the Hemi-
ptera) also their limits. His system, being founded upon
the absence or presence and characters of the organs
for flight, is in some degree a repubhcation of the Ari-
stotehan, and may be called the Alary System.

g, . 5 crustaceous with a straight suture Coleoptera. . . 1.

"P ( semicrustaceous, incuml)ent . . . Hemiptera . . 2.

C imbricated with scales Lepidoptera . 3.

< , » ^ unarmed . ) Neiiraptera . 4.

J membranous— Anus < ^ ^ t tt , k

( I aculeate . J Hymenoptera o.

I 2. Poisers in the place of the posterior pair .... Diptera .... 6.

(_ 0. Or without either wings or elytra Aptera 7-

In considering this table, it must strike every one ac-
quainted with the subject, that although the assumption
of a single set of organs whereon to build a system can
scarcely be expected to lead to one perfectly natural,
yet that the majority of the groups here given as Orders
merit that character. The second indeed and the last
require further subdivision, and concerning the fourth
no satisfactory conclusion has yet been drawn. With
regard to his series of the Orders, it is mostly artificial.
Linne has the advantage of all his predecessors in giving
clearer definitions of his Orders, and in their nomencla-
ture ; in which he has followed the path first trodden
by Aristotle.

One of his most prominent excellencies, which led
the way more than any thing else to a distinct know-
ledge of natural disjects, was his giving definitions of his
genera, or the groups that he distinguished by that name,
since all preceding writers had merely made them known
by the imposition of a name. His generic characters
of insects were of tmoo kinds : A shorter, containing the
supposed essential distinction of the genus, given at the

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 439

head of the Class; and another, generally longer, and in-
cluding non-essentials, given at the head of the Genus.
The first he denominated the essential, and the latter the
factitious or artificial character. He did not do for insects
what he did for Botany, — draw up what he has called
the natural character of a genus, which included both the
others, and noticed every other generic distinction^.

The older Naturalists used to treasure in their memo-
ries a short description of each species, by which when
they wished to speak or write of it they made it known.
Thus, in speaking of the common lady-bird they would
call it "the Coccinella with red coleoptra^ having seven
black dots." This enunciation of any object was at
first called its Title ( Titulus), and afterwards its Speci-
fic Name (Nomen specificum), and by Linne was restricted
to ttvelve words '^. But as the number of species increased
to remember each definition was no easy task ; that he
might remedy this inconvenience, he invented what is
called the Trivial Name {Nomeii triviale), which ex-
pressed any species by a single term added to its generic
appellation, as Coccinella septem-punctata ; and thereby
conferred a lasting benefit on Natural History. This conve-
nient invention has rendered it less necessary to restrict the
Nomen specificum to twelve words: it is desirable, however,
that the definition of a species should be as short as pos-
sible, and contain only its distinctive characters. In his
definitions and descriptions Linne was often very happy ;
but sometimes, in studying to avoid prolixity, he forgets

Horace's hint,

" Brevis esse laboro

Obscunis fio — "

' Linn. Philos. Boian, n. 87, 188, 189.

'' See above, p. 333, n. 5. '^ Ibid. n. 291.

440 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

and makes his definitions of species, without adding a
description, so extremely short as to suit equally well
perhaps a dozen different insects. The minor groups
into which he has divided some of his Orders and Ge-
nera are sometimes natural, sometimes artificial. Those
of the Coleoptera^ from characters drawn from their an-
tennae (as is evident from his arrangement of the genera
in that Order), are of the former description; while
those of his Aptera are more natural. The genera that
he has most happily laboured in this respect are his
Hemipterous ones of Gtyllus, Cicada^ and Cimex, and all
his Lepidoptera. He had such a tact for discovering na-
tural groups in general, that in him it seems almost to
have been intuitive.

But in no respect were the labours of Linn^ more be-
neficial to the science and to Zoology in general, than
when he undertook to describe the animals of his own
country. His Fauna Suecica is an admirable exemplar,
which ought to stimulate the Zoologists of every country
to make it one of their first objects that its animal pro-
ductions shall no longer remain unregistered and un-
described. Botanists have almost every where been di-
ligent in effecting this with respect to plants, but other
branches of Natural History have been more neglected.
In his Systema NatiircB Linne attempted this for all the
productions of our globe. The idea was a vast one; and
the execution, though necessarily falling far short of it,
did him infinite honour : and in it he has laid a founda-
tion for his successors to build upon till time shall be
no more.

Such were the services rendered to Entomology by
the labours of the immortal Swede ; services so extensive
as well as eminent, that had they been the fruit of a whole

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 441

life devoted to this single object, they would have en-
titled him to a high rank amongst the heroes of the sci-
ence. But how much more astonishing are they when
considered but as gleanings from his hours of relaxation,
snatched from labours infinitely greater, the produce, as
he himself tells us, of moments consumed by others in
" venationibus, confabulationibus, tesseris, chartis, lusi-
bus, compotationibus^." It is not so much in original
discovery that the merits of Linne lie, — though consi-
dered in this view they are pre-eminent, — as in the un-
rivalled skill with which he sifted the observations of his
predecessors, separating the ore fi*om the dross, and con-
centrating scattered rays of light into one focus.

This era produced other systematists who adopted
various methods, but none that merit particular notice
except GeoflProy and De Geer. The former in this view
is principally celebrated as the author of the method
generally adopted by modern Entomologists, of dividing
the Coleoptera into primary sections, according to the
number of the joints of their tarsi. This method,
though in many instances, as was formerly observed'', it
leads to artificial results, in others affords a clue to na-
tural groups ; it can only therefore be applied subject to
frequent exceptions. Geoftroy's work '^, which was pub-
lished in 1764, was further serviceable by indicating
many genera not defined by Linne.

We next come to one of the greatest names in Ento-
mology, the celebrated De Geer, who united in himself
the highest merit of almost every department of that
science. Both as a systematist, an anatomist, and phy-

» Fn. Suec, Pr«f. " Vol.. III. p. 682—.

Hutoire abresee des Insectes.

GENERAL

CLASSES.

ORDERS.

C\.

Four Win
without

r L Havina:

wing- ^

n. Two Wings
covered by two
wing-cases

IL Without

in. Two wings
[_ uncovered

r TV. Undergoing a
metamorphosis

V. Undergoing no
L metamorphosis

CLASSES,

f I. Wings covered with scales.

Tongice spiral. Lepidoptera.
U. Wings membranous, naked.

il/oz<^Awithout teeth or tongue.

TmcHOPTERA. Ephemerina.
in. Wings membranous, equal,

reticulated. Mouthvi'ith teeth.

Rest of Neuroptera.

IV. fTmg^membranousunequal,
nervures mostly longitudinal.
Mouth with teeth. A sting or
borer in the female. H^meno-

PTERA.

V. Wings membranous. Tongue
bent under the breast. Homo-
PTERA Leach.

r VI. Elytra half coriaceous and
half membranous, crossed. A
pair of membranous wings.
Tongue bent under the breast.
Hemiptera Leach.

VII. Elytra coriaceous or semi-
crustaceous, aliform. A pair of
membranous wings. Mouth
with teeth. Orthoptera.

VIII. Elytra hard and crusta-
ceous. A pair of membranous
wings. il/oM^A with teeth. Co-

LEOPTERA.

r IX. A pair of membranous luings.
A pair ofpoisers. Mouth with
a tongue without teeth. Di-

I PTERA.

•^ X. A pair of membranous ivings.
No poisers, tongue, or teeth in
the male. No ivings but a
tongue in the breast of thefe-

L male. Coccus L.

5 XI. No wings. Six legs. Mouth

X with a tongue. Aphaniptera.

f XII. No tvings. Six legs. Head
and Trunk distinct. Hexapod
Aptera, Termes, Psocus.

XIII. No icings. 8 or 10 legs.
Head united to the tnink. Oc-

^ TOPOD Aptera, Arachnida,
Crustacea.

XIV. No/wKgs. 14ieg.5ormore.
Head separated from the
trunk. PoLYPOD Aptera.

L Crustacea.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 443

siologist, and as the observant historian of the manners
and economy of insects, his Memoir es poiir servir a I'His-
toire des Insectcs are above all praise. His system^ is
contained in a posthumous volume published in 1778"'.

This system, though built upon the instruments of
flight ; in its ternary groups, equivalent to the Orders of
Linne, adds likewise the instruments of manducation,
and is thus intermediate between that of Linne and Fa-
bricius, who perhaps from the consideration of it might
dei'ive the first idea of assuming the last-mentioned or-
gans as the basis of a new method. But, though par-
taking of both, it is nearer to nature than either ; and
had its illustrious author laid less stress upon the number
and substance of the organs of flight, it would probably
have been as near perfection in this respect as most that
have succeeded it. But following too strictly these cha-
racters, he has been led to place in different Classes, or
rather Orders, insects that ought not to have been so se-
parated,— as in the case of the two sections of the Hemi-
ptera^ and the CoccidcE. In other respects the whole of
De Geer's Memoires are a storehouse of valuable observa-
tions, in which he has furnished many a clue for thread-
ing the labyrinth of nature, and given most complete
and interesting histories of the whole economy and ha-
bits of many tribes and genera, — as of the TrichopterOi
Aphides, Ephemerina, &c.

In this latter department of the science a light shone

during part of the era we are now considering, which

eclipsed every one that appeared before it, and has

scarcely been equalled by any one that succeeded it.

The date of its first appearance, indeed, was a year be-

* See the opposite page.

^ The first vohiinc of his Memoires Mas published in 1752.

444! HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

fore that of Linne's first outline of his Si/stema Nalwue
before alhided to; but it may properly be regarded as be-
longing to his era, since it did not disappear till some
years after that had begun. A volume indeed would
scarcely suffice to do justice to the preeminent merits of
Reaumui'j as exhibited in his admirable Memoir es pour
VHistoire des Insecies^: I must therefore content myself
with observing, that in judgement and ingenuity in plan-
ning his experiments ; in patient assiduity in watching
their progress ; in the elegance of his language, and the
felicity of his illustrations, he has rarely, if ever, been
equalled. Every subject that he undertook was tho-
roughly investigated, and in the true spirit of philoso-
phical inquiry. Every where you see him the same un-
prejudiced and profound observer, attached to no system,
anxious only for truth and the advancement of science.
If he has any fault, it is, perhaps, that of being some-
times too prolix; but we must recollect that from the na-
ture of his subject much diffuseness was often necessary
to render his meaning clear. A greater objection is his
total inattention to all system, except with regard to
Lepidoptcra and their larvae^, so that it is often difficult
to ascertain the insects whose history he gives. But with
these exceptions, no observer of nature, who wishes his
discoveries to be at once profound and interesting, can
copy a better model or one nearer to perfection.

Next to that of Reaumur, the name of his admiring
correspondent Bonnet may be mentioned. This great
physiologist, though still more deficient in systematical
knowledge*^, was also an admirable observer of the eco-
nomy and mannersT of insects. In this sense he became

^ The first volume of this work was published in 1734, and the
si 1th and last in 1 742. ^' Ivcauni. i. Mem. vi. vii. and Mem, ii. 68 — .

■= Smith's Tour, iii. 150,

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 4'45

an Entomologist before he was seventeen years of age,
in consequence of an impression made upon him by the
account of the AntHon in that attractive work the Spec-
tacle de la Nahire. From verifying its wonderful his-
tory with his own eyes, he entered with enthusiasm upon
the study of other insects, his observations on which he
regularly communicated to Reaumur. Amongst other
interesting inquiries, his experiments on that singular
anomaly in nature the generation of Aphides^ do him
the highest credit, and have set that question perfectly
at rest''.

In another department of the science this period was
distinguished by a work which may almost be deemed a
prodigy. I am speaking of Lyonnet's admirable treatise
on the anatomy of the caterpillar of the Cossus^ — a work
which will uphold his reputation as long as Entomology
shall be cultivated as a science, or the comparative Ana-
tomist be delighted to trace the footsteps of Divine Wis-
dom in the gradually varying structure of animals. The
plates to this publication, executed by the hand of its
excellent author, are as wonderful as the work itself;
and together, to use Bonnet's words, form a demonstration
of the existence of God. It is infinitely to be regretted
that the author of this incomparable monument of sci-
entific ardour and patient industry should have died be-
fore the full completion of his anatomical description of
\hepupa and imago of the same insect ; of which he had
prepared a considerable portion of the manuscript, and
engraved upwards of twenty of the plates.

Numerous other writers in various departments of
the science appeared during this era ; but it would be
' Vor,. I. p. 174. Also see above, p. 160—. '' Bonnet i. 19 — .

446 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

useless to enter into a particular detail of their works and
merits. I cannot however omit noticing, on account of his
inimitably accurate and chastely coloured representa-
tions of Lepidoptera, Sepp's beautiful Nederlajidsche In-
secten^ in which the whole history of these animals, from
the egg to the fly, is described and portrayed. In our own
country this era was distinguished by no entomological
work of any great eminence. Albin, Wilks, and Harris
produced the principal. Gould, however, without hav-
ing any thing of system, gave an admirable account of
English ants, which I formerly noticed^.

One of our first poets, the celebrated Gray, was also
much devoted to Entomology. From his interleaved
copy of the Systema Naturce, that venerable and able na-
turalist. Sir T. G. Cullum, Bart, copied the following
characters of the genera of insects of Linne, drawn up
in Latin Hexameters, which he kindly communicated to
me.

CoLEOPTERA.

Alas lorica tectas Qo\eo\>teYajactant.

* '

Serra pedum prodit Scarabcetivi et fissile cornu.
Dermcsti antennae circuin ambit lamina caulem
Qui ca|)ut incurvum timidus sub corpore celat.
In pectus retrahens caput abdit claviger Hister.
Occiput Attelabi in posticum vei'git acumen.
Ciirculio ingenti protendit cornua rostro.
Silplia Iseves peltse atque elytrorinn exporrigit oras.
Truncus apex clavae, atque antennuls Coccionellw.

**
Cassida sub clypei totam se margine condit.
Chrysomela inHexa loricae stringitur ora.
Gibba caput Melo'e incurvat thorace rotundo,
Oblongus frontem et tenues clypei exerit oras
Tenebrio. Abdomen MordcllcB lamina vestit.
Curta elytra ostentat Staph ylis caudamque recurvam.

* Vol. II. p. 58, note '.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 447

• *»
Tubere cervicis valet, antennisque CeranAyx.
Pectore Leptura est tereti corpusque coarctat.
Flexile Cantharidis tegmen, lateruinque papillae.
Ast Elater resilit sterni mucrone supinus.
Maxilla exserta est oculoque Cicindela grantli.
Buprestl antennae graciles, cervice retracta.
Nee Dytiscus iners setosa remige planta.
Effigiem cordis Carabus dat pectore trunco.
Necydalis curto ex elytro nudam explicat alam.
Curtum, at VorficulcB tegit hanc, cum forcipe cauda.

Hemiptera.
Dimidiam rostrata gerunt Hemiptera crustam
Fcemina serjnt humi interdtim, volat esthera conjux.

Depressum Blattce corpus venterque bicornis.
Dente vorax Gryllus deflexis saltitat alis.
Rostro Nepa rapax pollet chelisque. Cicada
Fastigio alarum, et rostrato pectore saltat.
Tela Cimcx inflexa gerit, cruce complicat alas.
Notonecta crucem quoque fert remosque pedales.
Cornua Aphts caudae et rostrum, sacpe erigit alas.
Deprimit has Chermes, dum saltat pectore gibbo.
Coccus iners caudae setas, volitante marito.
Thrips alas angusta gerit, caudamque recurvam.

Lepidoptera.

Squamam alee, linguce spiram Lepidoptera Jac/wH/.
Papilio clavam, et squamosas subrigit alas.
Prismaticas Sphinx antennas, medioque tumentes :
At conicas gravis extendit sub nocte Phalana.

Neuroptera.

Rete alee nudum atque hamos Neuroptera caudce.
Dente alisque potens secat aethera longa Libella.
Cauda setigera erectis stat Epihemera pennis.
Phryganea elinguis rugosas deprimit alas.
Hemermusqiic bidens planas tamen explicat ille.
Et rostro longo et cauda Panorpa minatur.
Raphidia extento collo setam trahit unam.

Hymenoptera.
At vitreas alas,jaculumque Hymenoptera caudce.
Faemineo data tela gregi, maribxtsquc negata.

448 HISTORY or entomology.

Telum pbdit spirale Cynips, morsuque minatur.
Maxillas Tenthredo movet, serramqiie bivalvem.
Ichneumon gracili triplex abdomine telum :
Et valde aurato resplendet corpore Chrysis.
Haurit Apis lingua incurva, quod vindicat ense.
Sphex alam expandit laevem, gladiumque recondit.
AIeb ruga notat Vespam, caudaeque venenum.
Squamula Formicam tergi, telumque pedestrem,
Dum minor alata volitat cum conjuge conjux.
Midilla impennis, sed cauda spicula vibrat.

DiPTERA.

Diptera sub geminis alls se poni\ere librant.

Os CEstro nullum, caudaque timetur inermi.
Longa caput Tipula est, labiisque et prsedita palpis.
Palpis Musca caret, retrahitque proboscida labris.
Qua Tabanus gaudet pariter, palpis subacutis.
Os Culicis molli e pharetra sua spicula vibrat.
Rostrum Emjns durum et longum sub pectorecurvat.
Porrigit articuli de cardine noxia Conops.
Porrigit at rectum et conicum sitibundus Asilus.
Longum et Bombyl'u^s qui sugit mella volando.
Unguibus Hijjpohosca valet, vibrat breve telum.

Aptera.
Aptera se j^cdibus pennarum nescia jadant.

Exit tres setas cauda extendente Lepisma.
Saltatrix est cauda Podurcs inflexa bifurca.
Armantur Tennis maxillis ora duabus
Pert telum quod ab ore Pedictdus edat acutum.
Pulicis inflexum rostrum est, telumque recondit.
Octo Acarus pedibus duplicique instructus ocello est.
Lumina bis bina octipedata Phalangia gestant.
Octo oculis totidem pedibusque se^rfl7ica jactat.
His etiam adjungit chelatos Scorpio palpos.
Dena pedum natura dedit fulcimina Cancro.
Unoculo bissena (duosque ambobus ocellos)
Quorum his chelatos gerit, ille gemellos.
Ovalis pedibus bis septem incedit Oniscus
Innumeris pedibus Scolopendra angusta movetur.
Secernit reliquis structura cylindrica Iidunu

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 449

During this era, and by the influence of Lhine, in the
year 1 739 the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm
was established, which did for Natural History in Swe-
den what our own Royal Society had done for it in Eng-
land. Other societies, with a similar object, were form-
ed in different parts of Europe, and were attended by
similar good effects. At Paris, at Berlin, at St. Peters-
burg,- at Moscow, at Turin, at Lisbon, &c., the lovers
of Nature, at that time and subsequently, have asso-
ciated for this purpose ; and I may mention here, that I
may not revert to the subject, the great Natural History
association of our own country, the Linnean Society,
named after the illustrious Swede, which was first insti-
tuted in 1788, and incorporated by royal charter in
1802. In the Transactions of this learned body, the Zoo-
logist in general, and particularly the Entomologist, will
find much useful information and many interesting ob-
servations connected with his science. This flourish-
ing society consists at this time of above 600 members,
of whom more than 500 are Fellows ; — a gratifying proof
how widely Natural History is cultivated in the British
Empire.

5. Era of Fabricms, or of the Maxillary &/siftw«. — We
are now arrived, if its consequences be considered, at
one of the most important epochs of the science. Fa-
bricius, a pupil of Linne, who highly estimated his en-
tomological acquirenlents^, thinking that the system of
his master was not built upon a foundation sufficiently
fixed and restricted'', conceived the idea of doing for

=• Linne is recorded to have said, "-Si DominusFabricius venitcum
aliquo Insecto, et Dominiis Zoega cum aliquo Musco, tunc ego pileum
detraho et dico : Estote doctores niei." Stoever's Life of Lintusus,
186. i' Fab. Pkilos. Entomolog. Prsef.

VOL. IV. 2 G

450 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Entomology what tbe latter had done for Botany. As
the learned and illustrious Swede had assumed the Fruc-
tification for the basis of his system in that science, so the
emulous and highly-gifted Dane, observing how happily
those organs were employed as characters in extricating
the genera of Vertebrate animals, assumed the instru-
ments of mcmducafion, far more numerous and various
in insects, for the basis of a new system of Entomo-
logy; which, from the maxillce being principally em-
ployed to characterize the Classes or rather Orders, may
be called the Maxillary System. De Geer, indeed, as
we have seen above, had, in the majority of his Classes, to
the organs of flight added the parts of the mouth : but
Fabricius pursued the idea much further, and made the
TropJii^, or Instrumenta Cibaria as he called them, the
sole corner-stone of his whole superstructure. Though
nothing seems to have been further from his intention
than to follow Nature, since he complains that Linne by
following her too closely had lost the Ariadnean thread of
system^, yet it is singular that, by building upon this seem-
ingly narrow foundation, he has furnished a clue, by the
due use of which, instead of deserting her, his successors
have been enabled with more certainty to extricate her
groups : since the parts in question being intimately con-
nected with the functions and economy of these animals,
where they differ materially, indicate a corresponding
difference in their character and station.

The^rst outline of his System, I believe, appeared in
his Systema Entomologia; published in 1775; and the last,
\n\m Supplement io\n% Entomologia Systematica in 1798.
In this the series and characters of his Classes (for so,

* Vol. III. p. 417.

^ Philos. Entomolog. vi. ^. ?. Syst. £"«/. Prolegom.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 45 1

after De Geer, he denominates his primary groups) were

as follows : —

#

1. Eleutherata=>. {Coleoptera L.) Maxilla naked,

free, palpigerous.

2. Ulonata''. {Orthoptera Oliv.) Maxilla covered by

an obtuse galea or lobe.

3. Synistata*^. {Neuroptera L., excluding the Libel-

lulina, and taking in Tcrmcs L. and Thysanura
Latr.) Maxilla geniculate at the base and connate
with the labium.

4. Piezata''. {Hymenoptera L.) Maxilla corneous,

compressed, often elongate.

5. Odonata*^. {Libellulina M*^L.) Maxilla corneous,

toothed, two palpi.

6. Mitosata*^. (il4^nft/?of/r/ Leach.) Ma.r///a corneous,

vaulted, not palpigerous.

7. Unogata^. {Pulmonary Arachnida Latr.) Maxilla

corneous, armed with a claw.
***

8. Polygon ATA "'. (Isopod and Branchiopod Crustacea

Latr.) Palpi mostly six ; Maxillce many *witliin the
labium.

9. Kleistognatha'. {Brachyuroiis Decapod Crustacea

Latr.) Many Maxillce without the labium, closing
the mouth.

* From Exeii^tgof, Free. ^ Derivation uncertain. Perhaps
hvhuv, A long and narrow space or tract.

<^ "Zvuiarrifit, To stand together. ** Hn^a, To press.

* OSaj, A tooth. f M/Toc, A thread.

8 Unogata is probably a mistake for Onychata ; from 0»v|, A claw.
•» Doubtless for Polygnatha j from no7ii;<r. Many, and Tvu$os, A jaw.
' KA«ffT0f> Closed, and TuuSog,

2 G 2

452 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

10. ExocHNATA^. (Macrurous Decapod Crustacea Latr.)

Maxillcc many without the labium, covered by
palpi.

11. Glossata''. {Lepidoptera L.) Mouth with a spiral

tongue between reflexed palpi.

12. Ryngota'^. [Hemiptera Latr.) Mouth with a ros-

trum, having a jointed sheath.

1 3. Antliata^. {Dipt era L., Anoplura Leach., Trachean

Arachnida Latr. &c,) Mouth with a haustellum
without joints.

The Orders of Fabricius are equivalent usually to the
primary groups of the Linnean Orders, and are regu-
lated chiefly by the antennce.

In estimating the value of the above system, we must
bear in mind that, according to the statement of its au-
thor, it was intended to be partly artificial and partly
natural : artificial as to its Classes and Orders ; natural
as to Its genera, species, and varieties^. He admitted,
however, that natural Classes, &c. do exist ; but he con-
tended that artificial ones should be substituted for them,
till further discoveries had cleared the way for their sa-
tisfactory developement''. As therefore his system, in
its primary and secondary groups, was confessedly arti-
ficial, and the only use of an artificial system being to fa-
cilitate the study of any department of Natural History,
its value must be estimated by the facilities it affords to
the entomological student. But here, it must be allowed,

^ Ef,ij, Without, and Tvxdog. •> V'Kuaaat., A tongue.

^ 'Pt/yx°?' A rostrum. '' AvrT^iK, A pump.

^ Dispositio insectorum sistit divisiones s. conjunctiones eorum,
et est artiJlciaUs quae Classes et Ordines, et naturalis quae genera,
species, et varietafes docet. Philos. Entomol. vi. §. 2, ' Ibid. ^. 7-

! HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 5i3

that instead of enlarging the entrance to the temple of
his science, it has made it narrower, and has placed
most discouraging impediments in his way.

If you examine the definitions of his Classes, you will
find them in a variety of cases calculated rather to mis-
lead than to instruct a learner. Thus that of the Eleti-
therata would equally well suit the Piczata and several
others : that of the Piezata is scarcely to be found in it ;
since in this the maxilla, instead of being corneous, is usu-
ally coriaceous^, and its lobe sometimes nearly membra-
nous. In the Uiiogata he even mistakes the mandibles
for maxillae. Let any young Entomologist endeavour to
make out the Fabrician class of a Cicindela for instance;
and finding its maxillae corneous and armed with a claw,
he would conclude that it belonged to the Unogata rather
than to the ^leutherata. Besides all this, the necessity of
examining minute parts not easily come at without dis-
section, is very discouraging to a beginner.

From hence it is evident, that the system of Fabricius,
considered as an artificial one or a method, was no im-
provement upon the classification of his master Linne,
but rather a retrograde movement in the science.

As to that part of his system in which he professes to
take nature for his guide, his genera, — though even with
respect to them he seems fearful of following her too
closely '', — he certainly has rendered most essential ser-
vices to Entomology, and laid the foundation of all that
has since been done for its improvement. But it must be

' Latreille Gen. Crust, ct Ins. iii. 214.

•> With respect to Natural Genera he says — " Cavenduin tamen
ne nimis imitamlo naluram systematis amittamus filiim Ariaihieum."
Ibid. $. f>. '

4i54i HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

observed, that the series of his genera is often altogether
artificial; as where he separates and places far asunder the
Saprophagous and Thalerophagous Petalocerous beetles.

Entomology, however, in other respects was deeply
indebted to this great man. He first, as was lately ob-
served, directed the attention of her votaries to parts
which enabled them better to follow the chain of affini-
ties, and to trace out natural groups. In his Philosophia
Entomologica^ drawn up on the plan of Linne's Philoso-
phia Bota7iica, he bequeathed to the science a standard
work that ought to be studied by every Entomologist.
His incredible labours in defining new genera and de-
scribing new species, with which view he travelled into
various parts of Europe, and seven times into Britain,
have been of infinite service^, and placed the science
upon a footing much nearer to that of Botany than it
had ever before attained.

6. E7'a of Latreille, or of the Eclectic System. The
system of Fabricius, though generally adopted in Ger-
many and Switzerland, did not meet with a universal
reception. It seems to have gained no permanent foot-
ing in the North of Europe, Britain, or France. In the
latter country the Linnean phraseology and characters of
the Orders were retained by the celebrated Olivier ; while
at the same time his definitions of genera were construct-
ed, after the Fabrician model, upon the antennae and the
oral organs. But a new and brilliant genius had now
appeared in France, whose indefatigable labours and
singular talents have thrown more light over entomolo-
gical science than those of all his predecessors. In 1796

^ Fab. Entomolog. Syst. em, et and. i. Praef. iv.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 1'55

about two years after Fabricius had completed his Ento-
mologia Systematica cmcndata et aiicta, M. Latreille pub-
lished his P?tr/5 f?6' Caracteres Ge?ieriqncs des Insectes;
in which important work, walking in the steps of his
great compatriot Bernard de Jussieu, he disregarded all
artificial systems of Entomology, and attempted to con-
struct one upon a natural basis: and to this end, uniting
the consideration of the instruments of manducation
with that of the organs for flight and motion, and of
other external characters, — or the system of Linne with
that of Fabricius, — he became the founder of the modern
or Eclectic system''; for he judiciously adopted that sen-
sible dictimi of Scopoli, " Classes et Genera naturalia,
non sola insfnimenta cibaria, non solas alee, nee solse
antcnucv constituunt, sed structura totins, ac cujusque
vel minimi discriminis diligentissima observatio ^" His
object has been in the above and subsequent works, by
dividing his Classes into ««/?^i«^ Groups, from the Order
to the Genus, to trace out in all its windings, to its in-
most recesses, the perplexing labyrinth of the true system
of the Creator : — of what he has effected, the subjoined
tables will give you a sufficient idea'^.

' Fabricius calls this a chaos, and threatens to prove it, but he
never fulfilled lub threat. See Fab. Supplcm. Prtef. i.
b Litrod. ad Ilht. Nat. 401.
'^ Sec N. Diet. d'JIist. Nat. x. article Entomoloinc.

456

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

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HISTOIIV OF ENTOMOLOCtY. 457

In a table of Invertebrate articulate animals distri-
buted according to their external organs^, this learned
Entomologist has arranged his Entoma differently, under
two Types divided into four Classes, — Thus :

'1'ype I. Polygnatha. Type II. Pseudognatha.

Class i. Crustacea. Class iii. Crustacea- Arachnida.

Decapoda. Branchiopoda. Branchiopoda.

Stomapoda. Phyllojui. Poeciloj)a.

Amphipoda. Lophyropa. Pycnogonides.
Laemodipoda.
Isopoda.
Myriapoda.

Class ii. Insecta.
Masticators. Suckers. Class iv. Arachnida

Thysaniira. Lepidoptcra, Palmonariae.

Coleoptera. Suctoria. Holetrae.

Orthoptcia. Hemiptera. Pedicularios.

Neiiroptera. Diptera.
Hymcnoptera. Papipara.
Rhiphiptcra.

Here he places the myriapods {Polypods) in the Crus-
tacea, and the Parasita, after Lamarck, which surely is
no improvement, as an Order, under the name of Pedi-
mlaria, in the Arachnida. He, very properly, divides,
Insecta into Mandihulata and Haustellata, and has made
the Pupipara a separate Order.

Having given you these tables of the Orders, I shall
proceed to give those of his subordinate groups arranged
under each. This I have already done, to save space,
in the Arachnida and Insecta aptera.

* Anim. Invertcbr. Articid. Ann. dii Mus. 1821. ad calc.

4^8

HISTORY or ENTOMOLOGY.

OaDEii. Section. Famif-y.

"Entomophaga .

Staphylinii . . .

Tribe.

Subsection.

("rentamcia .

Coleo-
pteia

Truncatipennes'
. ^ Bipartiti.
Thoracici.
Abdominales;
^Subulipalpi.

r Cicindeletsc.
\ Carabici. . .
j Hydrocanthari.
(_ Gyrinus.

TFissilabres.

I Longipalpati
J Deplanati.

j Microcephali.

[_Hctcrodactyli.

S Buprcstides.

f Stcrnoxi . .. . <

Sciiicornes

Clavicoincj . .

Palpicornes ...
•Ijamellicoincs

TMelasoma , , .

Taxiconics . .
Hetciomeia*; Stenclytra ....

Trachelidcs

f Rhinchophora }

Xylophagi . .

Tctramcra ^

Platysoma

Lonsicorncs

{ Eiipoda

Cyclica . .

l_Clavopalpata .
Trim,.r-, ^ Aphidiphaga.

(_Malacodciini.
f Clerones.

IPalpatores.
Histerides.
•^ Peltoides,
I Deimestini.
1 Byrrhii.
(_Macrodactyli.

< Hydrophilii.
\ Sphffiridiota.
^ Scaiaba;idcs.
\ Lucanides.

f Pimcliaria;.
^ Blapsides.
I Tciicbrionitcs
( Cossypliores.
I Diapcriales.
i Helopii.
I CEdcmeiitcs.
f Pyiochi oides.
1 INIordellones.
^ Anthiciles.
} Iloriales.
(_Cantharidia\

Bnichelrc.

Cmculiouilcs.
f' Scolitaria\
) Bostrichini.
"S Paussilcs.
(_ Trogoailariiv.

. . Cuciijipcs,
( Prionii.

< Ccranibycini.
f Leptuictcs.

^ Sagridcs.
I Crioccridea,
f Cassidariae.
^ Chiyaoniclini.
( Galerucites.
^ Eiotyleiia:^
\ Globulites.

Elaterides.

fCebrionites.
I Lampyridcs.
^ Melyrides.
j Ptiniores.
[_Lymcxylonidey

fCoprophagi.
I Geotrupini.
J Xylophili.
1, Pliyllophagi.
1 Antliobii.
(_Mclitopliili.

HISTORY or ENTOMOLOGY.

459

OuDtR.

Orthoptcra.

Section.

f Heteroptera

Hemiptera

• 1

.Homoptera

Neuropteii'

Hymenoptcra <

^x\ciilcata

Family.

Tkibe.

I

C Forficiilariac.
r^ • J Blattariae.

i opectra.
LMantides.
c u * • ^ Gryllones.
oaltatoria . . J Acridii.

C Locustarige.
fLongiiabres.
Membranea;.
Gcocorisa2. ■^ Nudicolles.
I Ociilatae.
LRemigentes.
Hydrocorisse/ Raptores.

iPlatydactyli.
f CantatorJiE.
fCicadaria) . . \ Fulgorellae.
C Cicadellae.
j ( Psyllida;.

I Hymenelytia j Thripsidte.
^-Galliuoecta. ' Aphidii.

rSubulicornesjJ;^^,^""''".^^-
I i jbphenierina;.

fPanorpataj.

Myniicleonides.

{

Planipennes \ l^'JJJ^;

Hemerobini.

-Plicipcnnes.
I^Securifera. .

•Terebraiitia . . <

uilli.

Tenuitini.
j Rapliidini.

Megaloptera.
^Perraria2.
S Tentliredineta?.
I Uroccrata.
'Evaniales.

Ichneuinonides.

Gallicolas.
^ Chalciditcs.
I Oxyuras.
LChrysidiiles,
,^ I Formicaiia?.

pHctciogyna ^ Mutillaria^.

-Piipivora

Fossorcs

Diploptcra.

^Mellilcra

Scoliata;.
I Sapygites.
I Ponipilii.
J Sphegimae.
I Bembecidcs.
I Larratas.
I Nyssonii.
V-Crabronites,
C Vesparia;.
■ } Masaridcs.
{ Andrcnctir.

' ' tApiaiia;.

460

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Order.

Lepidoptera

Rhiphiptera.

Section.

Family.

Tribe.

fProboscida
I

Diptcra

.:\

fDiurna
I

{Papilionides.
Hesperides.

, Crepuscular;a||ph'"gides.

• I Zygaenides.

I fBombycites.

I Noctuo-bombycites-

I I Phalaenites.

UJ Delto'ides.
octurna ■• 1 Noctua^lites.
I Tortrices.
I Tiiieites.

Fissipennes.
r Culicides.
I Tipularias.
f Asilici.
I Empides.

Inflata.

Bonibyliarii,

Tany.toma i ^"u'"'^^"-
•^ I I abanu.

I Sicanae.
I Mydasii.
I Rhagionides.
l_Dolichopodes.
Notacantha \ pecatomae.
(. Stratiomyda?.

'Ncmocera.

LAtliericera

LEproboscida. . | Pupipara

fConopsariae.
Syrphise.
J (Estrides.
>.Muscides.
i Coriaceae.
(Phthiromyas.

N.B. This table is chiefly taken from the tenth volume of the
Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle, arti-
cle Entomologie : hit the groups of the Carabici are
from the Coleopteres d'Europe, P^ livrais. 75 — .
If you examine the Orders as here given, you will
find that they mostly represent natural primary groups
of his Classes, though with regard to their (Ustrihutio?i
you may perhaps feel disposed to differ from him. You
will also think that his secondary and minor groups', with

^ Several of the minor groups given in the tabic he has further i-e-
solved before he arrives at his crenera.

HISTORY or ENTOMOLOGY.

4G1

the exception of some of his sections, merit the same
character. Indeed, he has left far behind all his prede-
cessors in the progress that he has made towards ex-
tricating the true system. Setting out from a common
centre he holds on his unwearied course, endeavouring to
trace every set of objects that branches from it to its ex-
treme term. But though he studied insects analytically
vA\h unrivalled success, he was not always equally happy
in his synthetical arrangement of them. I do not here
so much speak of the result which must necessarily fol-
low from any arrangement in a series, and which cannot
well be avoided ; but I allude particularly to his adop-
tion of the Geoffroyan system in the Coleoptera, which
has prevented him in many instances from seeing the
natural distribution of his groups.

In 1798, two years after the publication of Latreille's
first enunciation of his system, M, Clairville, a very acute
and learned Swiss Entomologist, drew up the following

analytical table of insects.

Sections,
f 1. Elytroptera
I (Coleoptera).

I 2. Deratoptera
' Mandibiilata j {Orthoplera).
« 3. Dictyoptera

f Pterophora
I ( Winged)

Insecta<

L Haustellata

Aptera r Haustellata
_ {Wingless) |^ Maiulibulata

{Neuroptera).
I 4. Phleboptera
L {Hymenopterd).

5. Halteriptera

{JDiptera).

6. Lepidioptera

I [Lepidopterd).

I 7. Hemimeroptera
J_ ( Hemiptera).

. 8. Rophoteira.

. 9. Pododunera.

Every one will think that the change of the received
names of the Orders, here denominated Sections, is per-

462 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

fectly needless. The principal merit of this system is the
division of insects, tacitly pointed out by Fabricins, into
two groups or subclasses, fi'om the mode in which they
take their food.

Lamarck, — whose merits as a Zoologist, except in one
point ''j are of the highest order, — in his Systems des Ani-
mmixsans Vertebres, which was published in 1801, adopts
the above division of insects ; but, after Aristotle'', he
makes the Hymenoptera an intermediate Order between
the masticators and those that take their food by suction ;
he places the Lepidoptera at the head of the latter, and
the Aphaniptera, which he denominates Aptera, at the
end'^: the Hexapodj Octopod, and Polypod Aptera he
considers as AracJmida'^. In his last great work [Hi-
stdire Naturelle dcs Aniincmx sans Vertebres) he in-
cludes the Hymenoptera amongst the masticators, and
reverses the disposition of his Orders, beginning with
his Aptera and ending with the Coleoptera^.

M. Cuvier, in his Anatoniie Cowzp^r^e (1805) divided
Insecta into two subclasses, from the presence or ab-
sence of maxillcc : thus —

With Maxillce, Without Maxillce.

1. Gnathaptera. 1. Hemiptera.

2. Neuroptera. 2. Lepidoptera.

3. Hymenoptera. 3. Diptera.
4-. Coleoptera. 4. Aptera.
5. Orthoptera.

His Gnathaptera include the Isopod Crustacea, the

" Vol. III. p. 349, note ^ •• See above p. 423.

"^ Syst. des Anim. sans Vertehr. 185. '' Ibid. 171-

* Anivu sans Vertebr. iii. 332 — .

HISTORY or ENTOMOLOGY. 463

Arachnida, the Polypod, and some of the Octopod and
Hexapod.^P^^^'^ > ^^^ ^"^ ^pt(^'('- — Pulex, Pcdiculus, and
Acarus L., with the exclusion of Hydrachna F.* It is
remarkable enough that his Class as it stands, with a
slight alteration, returns into itself, thus forming a circle;
for his first Order {Gnatliajpterci) contains Hydraclina
and the Thysamira of Latreille, and his last {Aptera)
ends with Anoplura Leach, and Acarus L.

All the French Entomologists have followed Olivier
and Latreille in adopting, with some variation, Geof-
froy's system with regard to the Colcoptera^ which has
rendered them all more or less artificial. J)umeril has
constructed a table of the Order, arranged differently
from that above given ^ of Latreille ; but not more na-
tural, for the very same reason.

Our learned countryman. Dr. Leach, by his zoolo-
gical labours has thrown much light on the natural dis-
tribution of the Animal Kingdom, and no department
of that kingdom is more indebted to him than the
An7iulosa ; of which I have before stated to you his
Classes'^. I shall now give a table of his Orders of AracJi-
nida and Insecta Latr. and also his families, &c. of his
Classes Myriapoda and ArachnidesK

Class. Order. Family.

C Glomerides.
Chilognatha .... \ lulides.

Myriapoda J \ Polydesmides.

^ C Cermatides.

Syngnatha \ Scolopendrides.

' Geophilides.

{

" Anat, Comp. i. t. viii.

•» Expos. (Tune Meth. Nat. 17.

<= Vol. III. p. 19.

^ Linn. Trans, xi. 376. N. B. I have transferred from the Arach-
nida his suborder Notostoviata, as he subsequently placed it at the
end of Insecta, under the Omaloptera.

464

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Class.

Arachnides

fAinetabolia

Insecta

Metabolia ^

Order.
^ Podosomata

Polymerosomata .
Dimerosomata ..

L Monomerosomata

S Thysanura.
I Anopliira.
'" Coleoptera.

Dermaptera.

Orthoptera.

Dictyoptera.

Hemiptera.

Omoptera.

Aptera.

Lepidoptera.

Trichoptera.

Neuroptera.

Hymenoptera.

Rhiphiptera.

Diptera.
L Omaloptera.

Family.
5 Pycnogonides.
( N3Tnphonides.
( Sironides.

Scorpionides.

Tarantulides.

Solpugides.

Phalangides.

Arane'ides.
f Trombidides.

Gammasides.

Acarides.

Cheyletides.

Eylaides.

Hydrachnides.

I have before expressed my sentiments upon several
of these Orders*: I shall not here repeat them, but shall
merely observe, with respect to those I have not adopted,
that, though perhaps not entitled to rank as Orders,
most of them form natural groups. His Orders, however,
of Arachnida must be excepted from this remark, since
they are evidently artificial. His analyses of his Orders,
though in general they give natural groups, are usually
not carried so far as those of M. Latreille, so as seldom
to indicate what may properly be Aenaminaied families.
He has made his nomenclature for his so-called families
more uniform and satisfactory than that of the French
* See above, pp. 369, 371, 377, 382.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

\65

Entomologist : and we may say? with respect to the ex-
tent and effect of his zoological labours, — Nihil non
tetigit, et omnia quce tetigit ornwvit,

7. F^ra of MacLeay, or of the Qvimary System. I have
more than once stated to you in my former letters the
bases upon which the system which I am in the last
place to explain to you is built. You know the Sub-king-
doms and Classes into which its learned and ingenious
author, upon a novel and most remarkable plan, has di-
vided the Animal Kingdom*. I shall now copy for you
his diagram of the Annulosa,

=■ Vol. hi. p. 14
VOL. lY.

2 H

4-66 HISTOHY OF ICNIOMOI 0(^Y.

I have before sufficiently noticed these Classes, or
Orders as Mr. MacLeay terms them, of the Sub- king-
dom Anmilosa : I shall here therefore only throw out
a few remarks on their composition. With regard to
their circular distribution in the Crustacea^ Mr. MacLeay
thinks the series runs from the Branchiopods or Mono-
ctilus L. to the Decapods or Cmicer L. ; and so on, till by
means perhaps of the genus Bopyrus, which Fabricius re-
gards as a MonocuIuSf it returns to the Branchiopods
again. This circle, through Porcellio Latr., a kind of
woodlouse, &c., which has only a pair of antennae and at
first but six legs, is connected with the Ametahola Class,
which beginning with Glomeris goes by the other Chilo-
gnatha [lulus L.), having also six legs at first, and certain
Vermes to the Anoplura, and terminates in the CJiilopoda
[Scolopendra L.) their cognate tribe ^. From the Arneia-
hola Mr. MacLeay proceeds to the Mandihdata^ between
which two groups he has discovered no osculant one, but
he takes the Anoplura of the former as the transit to the
Coleoptera in the latter ; from whence passing to the Or-
thoptera, &c., he finally returns by the Hymenoptera.
Between the Mandibidata likewise and Haustellata he
finds no osculant class : but as the affinity between the
Triclioptera and Lepidopitera is evident, proceeding b}"-
the Homoptcra he returns to the Lepidoptcra by certain
Diptcra, as Psychoda, &c. From the Aptera Lam. or
Puleoc L. he passes by the osculant class Nycteribida to the
Arachnida ; and beginning with the Acaridea, he goes to
the Scorpionidea, and so to the Aranidea or spiders,
which he connects with the Decapod Crustacea ,- — thus

^ See Vol,. III. p. 2.5 — . and above, p. 38o — .

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

467

forming his great circle o{ Jive smaller ones, each of
which, as well as that which they form, returns into it-
self».

We next take his Circles of Mandihulata : thus—

Hor. Entomolog. c. vi.
2 H 2

468 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

In this arrangement of the tribes, as he calls them, of
Mandihulata, Mr. MacLeay sets out from the Coleoptera,
which he distributes, according to the supposed typical
forms of their larvcE, into five minor groups, sufficiently
noticed on a former occasion ^. From this tribe or Order
he proposes to pass by Atractocerus to the osculant Order
Strepsiptera, and from thence by Myrmecodes Latr. and
the Ants to the Hymenoptera. From hence he next pro-
ceeds to his Trichoptera ; in which, as we have seen*,
he places not only Phrijganea L., but also Tenthredo L.
and Perla Geoffi'., making his transit by Sir ex L. ; form-
ing an osculant Order which he denominates So?;zSop^^r«.
From this his way to the Ncuroptera is by the Perlides,
with Sialis Latr. as an osculant Order under the name
of Megaloptera .- he enters by Chaidiodes, and leaves it
by Panorpa or Raphidia by means of Boreus, forming
also an osculant Order [Raphioptcra) for the Orthoptera ;
which he enters by Phasma, Mardis, &c., and leaves by
Gryllus Latr., entering the Coleoptera again by the os-
culant Order Dermaptera formed of Forjicula L. : and
thus returning to the point from which he set out^. He
has not, however, made this return of the series into
itself so clear in each order, excepting in the Ortho-
ptera, as he has done in the whole Class or Sub-class.
Thus in the Coleopiera there appears no particular af-
finity between the Predaceous and Vesicant beetles, his
first and fifth forms *^, or his Chilopodimorphous Coleo-
ptera, and his Thysanurimorphous.

To enter fully into his doctrine of Analogies would
lead us into a very wide field, and occupy a larger space

^ See above, p. 3/4. *" Hor. Entomvlog. 420—.

' Ibid. 422.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

46i

than I can afford ; I must therefore refer you to his
work for more particular and detailed information on
that subject. With regard to the analogies between op-
posite points of contiguous circles, you may get a very
good idea of it from his diagram of Sapi'ophagous and
Thalerophagous Petalocerous beetles, which I here
subjoin.

It is a very singular circumstance that in these two
circles we have two sets of insects, — one impure in its ha-
bits and feeding upon putrescent food, and the other
clean and nourished by food that has suffered no decay^ —
set in contrast with each other, and that in each of the op-
posite groups, the one has its counterpart in some respect
in the other.^ In none is this more striking than the Sca-
rabcsidce and Cetoniadce, both remarkable for having soft
membranous mandibles unfit for mastication, and both
living upon juices, the one in a putrescent and the other
in an undecayed state ^.

* Other systems or methods have been promulgated by various
authors, as by Schseffer, Scopoli, GeofFroy, &c. Walckenaer and
Blainville have proposed one founded on the number of the legs of
insects ; but those in the text are the principal and best known.
— iV. Did. (THist. Nat. xvi. 377-

4-70 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

Our learned author in subsequent works has stated
every circle to be resolvable into t'wo superior groups,
which he denominates normal or typical, and three infe-
rior ones, which he calls aberrant or annectent*.

Before I conclude this account of the various general
systems that have distinguished the different entomolo-
gical eras, I must say a few words on those i^artial ones
which have been founded on the neuration of the wings
of insects. Frisch, who died in ITiS, attempted some-
thing in this way'' ; Harris, in his Exposition of English
Insects published in 1782, had arranged his Hymeno-
ptera and Diptera accorduig to characters derived from
this same circumstance '^ : Mr. Jones in the Linnean
Transactions had made good use of it in dividmg the
Diurnal Lepidoptera into groups'*: and in the Monogra-
phia Apum Anglia^ the characters exhibited by the va-
rious groups into which Linne's genus Apis was resolv-
able, as to the neuration of their wings, were described ^.
But M. Jurine was the first Entomologist who made that
circumstance the keystone of a system ; which indeed he
restricted to Hymenopterous and Dipterous insects, but
which might be extended much further. As this system
has been before sufficiently enlarged upon % I need here
only mention it.

To particularize the various entomological works in
every department of the science, that have appeared since
the commencement of the era of Fabricius, would re-

^ Linn. IVans. xiv. 59 — . Anmdos. Javan. 6. See above, p. 400.
*> Latreille Gen. Crust, et Ins. iii. 22G. note 1.
'■ Prcsf. ii. ^ Linn. Trans, ii. 63 — .

« Mon, Ap. 4ngl. i. 211—. ' Vol. III. p. 622. n. 3.

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 471

quire a volume. Such was its progress and spread, that
in every corner of Europe tiie pens and pencils of able
and eminent men, whose works have almost all been
quoted in the course of our correspondence, have been
employed to illustrate it*.

^ It may not be unprofitable here to mention those works which
the Entomologist may find it most useful to consult in various de-
partments of the science. For descriptions of the Genera and Spe-
cies of insects in general, he must have recourse to the Entomologia
Systematica emendata et aucta of Fabricius, and its Supplement ;
to the volumes he subsequently published under the titles Systema
Eleullieratorum, Khi/ngotorum, Glossatorum, Piezatonim, and Antlia-
toriim ; to the Genera Crustaceoruin et Insectorum of Latreille ; to the
same department of the Ri'gne Animal oi Quwcv ; and to the A)iimaux
sans Vertebres of Lamarck. He will find the genera of Linne and Fa
bricius illustrated by fi'iiires, in Rcemer's Genera ; and many of the
species described by the \i\tteYmVo<:[x\eheri^?iIllnstratioIconographica.
In our countryman Drury's beautiful Illustrations of Natural History,
a large number of new and rare insects are depicted ; and in Mr. Do-
novan's Insects of China, India, and New Holland, some of the most
brilliant and interesting that have been imported from those coun-
tries. Panzer's Fauna Jnsectorum Germanicce Inltia has little short of
SOOOfigures of insects of every Order (a considerable munber of which
are found to inhabit Britain), by the celebrated Sturm ; and the
latter, in his Deutsc/ilands Fauna, has illustrated many Coleopterous
genera analytically (as has also M. Clairville the weevils and Preda-
ceous beetles of Switzerland in his Entomologie Helvetique) by his
admirable pencil. Beetles in general are well fig'jred and described
in Olivier's splendid Entomologie ; as are those of Europe in a beau-
tiful work now in course of publication, under the title of Cole-
opteres d^ Europe, by MM. Latreille and Dejean. For the Ortlio-
ptera and Hemiptera, the student must have recourse to Stoll's Spec-
tres, Mantes, Sauterelles, Grillons, Blattes, (.'igales, and Punaises,
To a knowledge of the species of Lepidoptera, the admirable figures
of Cramer [Papillons Exotiques de trois Parties du Monde) Esper
{SchmetterUnge, Tagschmetterlinge),and Huhnev ( Sckmetterlinge, &c),
will afford a useful avenue ; to the Hymenoptera Christian, and to the
Diptera Meigen.

With regard to works in British Entomology in general — Dono-
van's Natural History of British Insects, and Samouelle's Entomolo-

472 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.

I may observe, however, that the Intetmal Anatomy o^
Insects, a branch of Entomology which on account of
its difficulty, from the extreme nicety required in dissect-
ing them, had before been cultivated by scarcely more
than a single student in an age, had now attracted nu-
merous votaries. In Germany — Gaede, Herold, Posselt,
Ramdohr, Rifferschweils, Sprengel, and others, distin-
guished themselves in this arena : and in France, besides
the illustrious Baron Cuvier (himself a host). Marcel de
Serres, Leon Dufour, and very recently, by his elabo-
rate essays On the Flight of Insects and its wonderful ap-
paratus, one of the most acute of anatomical physiolo-
gists, M. Chabrier, — have all contributed greatly to the
elucidation of this interesting part of the science. In
our own country very little has hitherto been effected
in this line ; but I understand a learned Oxford Pro-
fessor (Kidd) has presented to the Royal Society an ac-

gisfs useful Covipendium, will be found very excellent helps to the
student. For the British Genera, the most important work that has
yet appeared is Mr. John Curtis's British Entomology, in which not
only are the insects admirably represented, but their trophi correctly
delineated, accompanied by able descriptions. For the Coleoptera
of our country, Mr. Marsham's Entomologia Britannica should be
consulted : for the Lepidoptera, the Butterflies of Lewin, and Mr.
Haworth's useful Lepidoptera Britannica ; and for the English spe-
cies of Linne's genus Apis, the Monographia Apum Anglics. These
are the principal works that have at present appeared, to aid the
student in his endeavours to become acquainted with our indigenous
insects. It is to be hoped, however, that some able Entomologist
will undertake that grand desideratum a British Fauna Insectorum.
Who so well qualified for this great work as the possessor of the
most complete collection of British insects, and whose thorough
knowledge of the subject equals his means for its elucidation ? May
it therefore in such good hands begin, m.akc progress, prosper, and,
Deo favenle, be happily concluded ! Verbum snpicrdi-

HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY. 473

count of the anatomy of the Mole-cricket, which will
entitle him to an eminent station amongst the above
worthies.

I may likewise further observe, that the pictorial de-
partment of Entomology was, during the period I am
speaking of, carried to its greatest perfection. Painters
of insects formerly were satisfied with giving a repre-
sentation generally correct, without attempting a faithful
delineation of all the minor parts, particularly as to
number ; — for instance, the joints of the antennae and
tarsi, the areolets of the wings, &c. : but now no one
gives satisfaction as an entomological artist unless he is
accurate in these respects.

LETTER XLIX.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF IN-
SECTS; THEIR STATIONS AND HAUNTS;
SEASONS: TIMES OF ACTION AND RE-
POSE.

1 HOUGH no subject is more worthy of the attention
of the Entomologist than the Geographical Distribution
of insects, yet perhaps there is none connected witli the
science, for the elucidation of which he is furnished with
fewer materials. The geographer of these animals sit-
ting by his fireside, even supposing his museum as amply
stored as that of Mr. MacLeay, and the habitats of its
contents as accurately indicated, still labours under di-
ficulties that are almost insuperable ; so that it is next to
impossible, with our present knowledge of the subject,
to give satisfactory information upon every point which
it includes. Had he the talents and opportunities of a
Humboldt, and could, like him, traverse a large portion
of the globe, he would endeavoiu' to note the elevation,
the soil and aspect, the latitude and longitude, the mean
temperature and meteorological phaenomena, the season
of the year, the kind of country, and other localities con-
nected with the insects he captured, and so might build
his superstructure upon a sure basis. But these are

GEOGKAPHTCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 475

things seldom registered by travellers that take the
trouble to collect insects ; who, if they specify generally
the country in which any individual was found, think
they have done enough. But to say that an insect was
taken in India, China, New Holland, and North or
South America, — when we consider the vast extent of
those regions, — is saying little of what one wishes to
know even with respect to its habitat. You must re-
gard therefore, after all, what I have been able to col-
lect,— and for which I am greatly indebted to the labours
of my few but able precursors in this walk, — as merely
approximations to an outline, rather than as a correct
map of insect Geography.

Amongst the numerous obligations that he conferred
upon Natural History, Linne was the first Naturalist
who turned his attention to the Geographical Distribu-
tion of its objects, especially that of the Vegetable King-
dom^ : and the accomplished traveller Baron Hum-
boldt, by the observations he made on this subject in
the course of his peregrinations in tropical America,
has furnished the Botanist with a clue which, duly fol-
lowed, will enable him to perfect that part of his science ;
an end to which the learned observations of Messrs.
R. Brown and Decandolle have greatly contributed''.
With regard to animals, Mr. White, so long ago as
1773, had observed that they, as well as plants, might
with propriety be arranged geographically ^ : and in 1778
Fabricius in his Philosophia Entomologica applied the
principle to insects^. Nearly forty years elapsed before

* Linn. Philos. Botan. § 334.

^ Linn. Trans, x. 20—. &c. Diet, des Scietic. Nat. xviii.

'■■ Selborne i. 173. '' Philos. Entonwlug. ix. § 20.

476 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

any improvenn^nt or enlargement of this last department
was attempted; when in 1815 M. Latreille, stimulated
by what had been effected in Botany, in a learned and
admirable memoir* endeavoured to place Entomology
in this respect by the side of her more fortunate sister :
and subsequently Mr. W. S. MacLeay, in the memora-
ble work so often quoted in our correspondence, has
viewed the subject m another light, and added some
important information to what had been before col-
lected".

The point now under consideration naturally divides
itself into two principal branches ; — the numerical distri-
bution of insects, and the topographical.

I. By the numerical distribution of insects I mean
not only the number which Providence has employed
to carry on its great plan on this terraqueous globe, or
any given portion of it ; or of the species of which each
group or genus may be supposed to consist ; or of the
comparative number of individuals furnished by each
species, — points of no easy solution: but more parti-
cularly their distribution according to t\\e\v functions^
whether they prey upon animal or vegetable matter, and
in its living or decaying state.

We have no data enabling us to ascertain with any
degree of accuracy the actual number of species of in-
sects and Arachnida distributed over the surface of the
globe ; but it is doubtless regulated in a great degree by
that of plants. We should first then endeavour to gain
some just though general notion on that head. Now
DecandoUe conjectures that the number of the species

a Mem, (III Ahis, 1815. f" Hor. Entomolog. 42—. 518.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 477

of plants, 60,000 being already known, may be some-
where between 110,000 and 1 20,000 ^ If we consider,
with reference to this calculation, that though the great
body of the mosses, lichens, and sea-weeds are exempt
from the attack of insects, yet as avast number of phanero-
gamous plants and fungi are inhabited by several species,
we may form some idea how immense must be the num-
ber of existing insects ; and how beggarly does Ray's con-
jecture of 20,000 species^, which in his time was reckoned
a magnificent idea, appear in comparison ! Perhaps we
may obtain some approximation by comparing the num-
ber of the species of insects already discovered in Britain
with that oVits phanerogamous plants. The latter, — and it
is not to be expected that any large number of species have
escaped the researches of our numerous Botanists, — may
be stated in round numbers at 1500, while the British in-
sects, (and thousands it is probable remain still undisco-
vered,) amount to 10,000 ; which is more than six insects
to one plant. Now though this proportion, it is probable,
does not hold universally ; yet if it be considered how
much moi'e prolific in species tropical regions are than
our chilly climate, it may perhaps be regarded as not
very wide of a fliir medium. If then we reckon the pha-
nerogamous vegetables of the globe in round numbers at
100,000 species, the number of insects would amount to
600,000. If we say 400,000, we shall perhaps not be
very wide of the truth. When vve reflect how much
greater attention has been paid to the collection of
plants than to that of insects, and that 100,000 species
of the latter may be supposed already to have a place

' Esaai Element, de Geograpk. Bntan. 6?.
' Wisdom of God, &c. 2d edit. 2.

478 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

in our cabinets^, we may very reasonably infer that at
least three fourths of the existing species remain undis-
covered.

Certain groups and genera are found to contain many
more species than others : for instance, the Coleoptera
and Lepidoptera Orders than the Orthoptera and Neu-
roptera; the Mhincophora Latr. than the Xi/lophagi Latr.;
the DytiscidcB than the GyrinidcE ; Ayhodius than Geo-
tmpes ; Carabus than Calosoma. Again, some insects
are much more prolific than others. Thus the Diptera
Order, though not half so numerous with respect to spe-
cies as the Coleoptera,^ exceeds it greatly in the number
of individuals, filling the air in every place and almost
at every season with its dancing myriads. We rarely
meet with a single individual of the most common spe-
cies of Calosoma or Buprestis ; whilst the formicary, the
termitary, the vespiary, and the bee-hive send forth
their thousands and tens of thousands ; and whole coun-
tries are covered and devastated by the Aphides and the
Locusts. An all-wise Providence has proportioned
the numbers of each group and species to the work as-
signed to them. And this is the view in which the nu-
merical distribution of insects is most interesting and
important : and we are indebted to Mr. W. S. MacLeay
for calling the attention of Entomologists more particu-
larly to this part of our present subject.

With regard to their fo,?ictions, insects may be pri-
marily divided into those that feed upon animal matter
and those that feed upon vegetable. At first you would
be inclined to suppose that the latter must greatly ex-

^ Hor. Entomolos. 469. This calculation includes the Crustacea.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 4-79

ceed the former in number : but when you reflect that
not only a very large proportion of Vertebrate animals,
and even some Mollnsca^, have more than one species
that preys upon them, but that probably the majority of
insects, particularly the almost innumerable species of
Lepidoptera, are infested by parasites of their own class,
sometimes having a different one appropriated to tliem
in each of their preparatory states^, and moreover that
a large number of beetles and other insects devour both
living and dead animals, — you will begin to suspect that
these two tribes may be more near a counterpoise than
at first seemed probable. In fact, out of a list of more
than 8000 British insects and AracJinida taken three
years ago- and furnished chiefly by Mr. Stephens, I found
that 3894 might be called carnivorous, and 3724 phyti-
phagous*^ ; so that, speaking roundly, they might be de-
nominated equiponderant.

Carnivorous and phytiphagous insects may be further
subdivided according to the state in which they take
their /oof/, — whether they attack it while livings or not
till after it is dead. To adopt Mr. W. S. MacLeay's
phraseology, the former may be denominated thalero-
phagous^ and the latter saprophagous. The British sa-
prophagous carnivorous insects, compared with those
that are thalerophagous, are about as 1:6; while the
yihytiphagous ones are as 1 : 9. The thalerophaga in
both tribes may be further subdivided as they take their

" It has lately been discovered that the larva oi DrUusJlavescens,
a beetle, feeds upon the common snail. {Bulletin des Scienc. N'at.
1824. iii. 297; v. 110; vi. 221.) I have found an Acarus on the same
animal. '' See above, p. 212 — .

■^ We employ this term, because the more common one, licrh'wo-
7-oHs, does not properly include devourers of timber, fnnci, &c.

480 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

food hy suction or mastication: in the carnivorous ones, the
suckers to the masticators in Britain are nearly as 1 : 6 ;
but with respect to the phytiphagous tribe you must take
into consideration that some insects imbibing their food
by suction in their perfect state (as the great body of the
Lepidoptera), masticate it when they are larva: deducting
therefore from both sides the insects thus circumstanced,
the masticators will form about three fourths of the re-
maining British thalerophagous insects. Another cir-
cumstance belonging to this head must not be passed
without notice : — there are certain insects feeding upon
liquid food that do not suck^ but lap it. This is the case
with the Hymenoptcra^ who, though they are mandibulate,
generally lap their food (the nectar of flowers) with their
tongue, and may be called lambent insects : nor is this
practice confined to that Order, but all the mandibulate
insects that feed on that substance merit the same appel-
lation. The absorption of this nectar is so important a
point in the economy of nature, that a very large propor-
tion of the insect population of the globe in their perfect
state, are devoted to it. Considerably more than half
the species indigenous to Britain fulfill this function,
and probably in tropical countries the proportion may
be still larger.

To push this analysis still further — Amongst our car-
nivorous thalerophaga, aphidivorous insects are about as
1:14?; and amongst the phytiphagous, ihefungivorous
ones form about a twentieth , and the gra^iivorous about
a twe^ity-ffth part of the whole. Again : in the sapro-
phaga the lignivorous tribes form more than half.^ and
the coprophagous ones more than a third.

If you wish to know further the relative proportions

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 48 1

of the different Orders to each other. The Coleoptera
may be stated as forming at least 1 : 2 of our intire insect
population ; the Orthoptera and Dermaptera as about .
1 : 160; the Hemiptera as 1 : 15; the Lepidoptera as more
than 1:4; the Neuroptera with the Trichoptera as .1 : 29 ;
the Hymenoptera as about 1:4; the Diptera as not 1:7;
and the Aptera and Arachnida as perhaps amounting to
1:19^

To extend this inquiry to exotic and more particularly
to extra-European insects, in the present state of our
knowledge, would lead to no very satisfactory results.
The lists we have are so imperfect, that those which tell
most in this country, — 1 mean the more minute insects
and the Brachelytra Latr., — have hitherto formed a very
small, if any part, of the collections made oiit of Eu-
rope. Mr. W. S. MacLeay however, who, besides his
father's (particularly rich in Petalocera), has had an op-
portunity of examining the Parisian and other cabinets,
finds that the species of coprophagous insects 'within the
tropics, to those 'without, are nearly in the proportion of
4:3; and that the coprophagous Petalocera, to the re-
mainder of the saprophagous ones, may be represented by
3:2''. It maybe inferred, from the superabundance of
plants and animals in equinoctial countries, that the num-
ber of species of insects in general is greater within than
without the tropics : the additional momentum produced
by the vast size of many of the tropical species nmst also
be taken into consideration.

II. There are three principal points that call for at-

^ If we consider the number of species of Acari, Nirmi, Podurce,
and Arancidce, tiiis proportion will appear moderate.
" Hoi: Entomolog. 48.

VOL. IV. 2 I

482 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

tention under the second branch of our present subject —
the topographical distribution of insects; namely, their
Climates, their Range, and their Representation.

i. Entomologists, taking heat for the principal regulator
of the station of insects, have divided the globe into ento-
mological climates. Fabricius considers it as divisible into
eight such climates, which he denominates the Indian,
Egyptian, Southern, Mediterranean, Northern, Oriental,
Occidental, and Alpine. The first, containing the tro-
pics ; the second, the northern region immediately ad-
jacent ; the third, the southern ; the fourth, the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean sea, including also
Armenia and Media ,- the fifth, the northern part of
Europe interjacent between Lapland and Paris; the
sixth, the northern parts of Asia where the cold in winter
is intense ; the seventh. North America, Japan, and
China ; and the eighth, all those mountains whose sum-
mits are covered witli eternal snow^. M. Latreille ob-
jects to this division, as too vague and arbitrary and not
sufficiently correct as to temperature ; and observes, with
great truth, that as places where the temperature is the
same have different animals, it is impossible, in the actual
state of our knowledge, to fix these distinctions of climates
upon a solid basis. The different elevations of the soil
above the level of the sea, its mineralogical composition^
the varying quantity of its waters, the modifications which
the mountains, by their extent, their height, and their di-
rection, produce upon its temperature ; the forests, larger
or smaller, with which it may be covered ; the effects of
neighbouring climates upon it, — are all elements that

" Philos. Entomolog. ix. § 20.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 483

render calculations on this subject very complicated, and
throw a great degree of uncertainty over them *. This
learned Entomologist would judiciously consider ento-
mological climates under another view, — that which the
genera of Arachnida and insects exclusively appropriated
to determinate spots or regions would supply *'. Linne's
dictum with regard to genera will here also apply ; " Let
the insects point out the climate, and not the climate the
insects." If you expect invariably to find the same insects
within the same parallels of latitude, you will be sadly
disappointed ; for, as our author further observes, " The
totality or a very large number of Arachnida and insects,
the temperature and soil of whose country are the same,
but widely separated, is in general, even if the countries
are in the same parallel, composed of different species '=."
The natural limits of a country, — as mountainous ranges,
rivers, vast deserts, &c., — often also say to its insect po-
pulation, " No further shall ye come ; " interposing a bar-
rier that it never passes"*. Humboldt observes, with re-
spect to the Simidia and Cidices of South America, that
their geographical distribution does not appear to depend
solely on the heat of the climate, the excess of humidity,
or the thickness of forests; but on local circumstances that
are difficult to characterize^ : and Mr. W. S. MacLeay
makes a similar observation upon that of Gymnopleurus
111. ^. So that the real insect climates, or those in which
certain groups or s{)ecies appear, may be regarded as

* Geograph. Gener. des Ins. 5. •> Ibid.

" Ibid. 7—. «> Ibid. 8, 11,

* Personal. Narrat, E. T. v. 88. He says also that each stream
almost has its peculiar species {Ibid. 98), and that they sometimes
emigrate to stations they had not infested before. Ibid 106 — . •

' Hor. Entowolog. 519.

2 I 2

484 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

fixed by the will of the Creator, rather than as certainly
regulated by any isothermal lines. Still, however, under
certain limitations, it must be admitted that the tempera-
ture has much to do with the station of insects. The
increase of caloric is always attended with a proportional
increase in the number and kind of the groups and
species of these beings. If we begin within the polar
regions of ice and snow, the list is very meager. As we
descend towards the line, their numbers keep gradually
increasing, till they absolutely staai-m within the tropics.
Something like this takes place in miniature upon moun-
tains. Tournefort long since observed at the summit of
Mount Ararat the plants of Lapland ; a little lower, those
of Sweden ; next, as he descended, those of Germany,
France, and Italy; and at the foot of the moimtain, such
as were natural to the soil of Armenia. And the same
has been observed of insects. Those that inhabit the
plains of northern regions have been found on the moun-
tains of more southern ones ; as the beautiful and common
Swedish butterfly Parnassius Apollo^ on the mountains of
France, and Prionus depsarius on those of Switzerland ^.

M. Latreille, having given a rapid survey of the
peculiar insect productions of different countries, next
attempts a division of the globe into climates, which he
thinks may be made to agree with the present state of
our knowledge, and be even applicable to future disco-
veries. He proposes dividing it primarily Into Arctic
and Antarctic climates, according as they are situated
above or below the equinoctial line ; and taking twelve
degrees of latitude for each climate, he subdivides the

•' Latr. vhi supr. 3.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSEC'J'S. 485

whole into twelve climates. Beginning at 84° N. L. he
has seve?i Arctic ones, which he names polar, subpolar,
superior, intermediate, supratropical, tropical, and equa-
torial : but his antarctic climates, as no land has been
discovered below 60° S. L., amount only to Jive, be-
ginning with the equatorial and terminating with the
superior. He proposes further to divide his climates
into suhclimates, by means of certain meridian lines ; se-
parating thus the old world from the neiio, and sub-
dividing the^o/vwa' into two great portions, — an eastern,
beginning with India, and a western, terminating with
Persia. He proposes further that each climate should
be considered as having 24° of longitude, as well as 12°
of latitude^. In this chart of insect Geography he
states that he has endeavoured to make his climates agree
with the actual distribution of insects''; and it should
seem that in many cases such an agreement actually does
take place : yet the division of the globe into climates by
equivalent parallels and meridians, wears the appearance
of an artificial and arbitrary system, rather than of one
according with nature.

He has also pointed out another index to insect cli-
mates, borrowed from the Flora of a country. Southern
forms in Entomolog-y, he observes, commence where the
vine begins to prosper by the sole influence of the mean
temperature ; that they are dominant where the olive is
cultivated ; that species still more southern are compa-
triots of the orajige and palmetto ; and that some equa-
torial genera accompany the date, the sugar-cane, the
indigo, and banana •=. The idea is very ingenious, and,

» Geographie, &c. 22—. " Ibid. 27- ' Ibid. 20—

4-86 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

under certain limitations, supplies a useful and certain
criterion. For though none of these plants are univer-
sal in isothermal parallels of latitude ; yet, as plants are
more conspicuous than insects, the Entoniologist, fur-
nished with an index of this kind, may by it be di-
rected in his researches for them ; and in all countries
in which there is a material change of the climate, as
in France, there will be a proportional change in the
vegetable accompanied by one in the insect produc-
tions.

ii. In considering the range of insects I shall first ad-
vert to that of individual species. At the extreme limits
of phanerogamous vegetation we find a species of hum-
ble-bee [Bomhis arcticus K.), which, though it is not
known to leave the Arctic circle, has a very extensive
range to the westward of the meridian of Greenwich,
having been traced from Greenland to Melville Island ;
while to the eastward of that meridian it has not been
met with. In Lapland its place appears to be occupied
by B. alpinus and lapponicus, with the former of which,
though quite distinct, it was confounded by O. Fabri-
cius ; but whether these range further eastward of that
meridian has not been ascertained. From its being
found in the Lapland Alps^f it may be conjectured that
B. aipinus ranges as high on this side as B. arcticus on the
other, and may perhaps be found in Nova Zembla. Some
species that have been taken m Arctic regions are not
confined to them. Of this kind is Di/tiscus marginalis,
which appears common in Greenland, abundant in Bri-
tain, and is dispersed over all Europe ; while D. latis-

' See above, p. 484.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 487

simm is more confined, neither ranging so far to the north
or south; and though found in Germany, not yet dis-
covered in Britain. Other species have a still more exten-
sive range, and are common to the old world and the new.
Thus Dermestes murinm, Brachinus crepitans, Tetyra
scarabccoides, Pentatoma juniper iJia, Cercopis spumaria^
Vanessa Antiopa, Lyaena Argiolus, Hesperia Comma,
Vespa vulgaris, Ophion luteum, Elophilus pendulus, Osci-
nis Germinationis, and many besides, though sometimes
varying slightly ^, inhabit both Britain and Canada : and
though vast continents and oceans intervene between us,
New Holland, and Japan ; yet all have some insect pro-
ductions in common. With the former we possess the
painted-lady butterfly ( Vanessa Cardui), with scarcely a
varying streak : and Thunberg, in his list of Japan in-
sects, has mentioned more than forty species that are
found also in this country. Whether any species has a
universal range may be doubted, unless indeed the flea
and the louse may be excepted. On the other hand,
some are confined within very narrow limits. Apion
Ulicis for instance, abundant upon XJlex europceus in
Britain, has not, I believe, been found upon that plant
on the continent.

The geographical distribution of groups is, however,
far more interesting than that of individual species : for
in considering this we see more evidently how certain
functio7is are devolved upon cavisixn forms, and can scan
the great plan of Providence, in the creation of insects,

^ M. Latreille {Geographic, &c. 8.) seems to regard these varieties
as distinct ; in which case they would be the representatives of the
species named in the text : but the varieties are mostly so slight, as
not to afford any satisfactory distinctive characters.

488 GEOGRAPHIGAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

more satisfactorily than by confining our attention to
the latter. Groups, according to their range, may be de-
nominated either predominant, dominant, sub-dominant,
or quiescent.

1. M. Latreille has observed, that where the empire
of Flora ceases, there also terminates that of Zoology *.
Phytiphagous animals can only exist where there are
plants; and those that are carnivorous and feed upon the
former, must of necessity stop where they stop. Even the
gnat, which extends its northern reign so high^, must
cease at this limit ; while, wheje vegetation is the richest
and most abundant, there the animal productions, espe-
cially the insect, must be equally abundant. I call that,
therefore, a predomitiajit group, members of which are
found in all the countries between these points, or from
the limits of animal-depasturing vegetation in the polar
reffions to the line.

Generally speaking, the carnivorous insects, whether
thalerophagous or saprophagous, are of this description.
Calosoma, which devours Lepidopterous larvae, though
poor in species and individuals, is widely scattered. Cap-
tain Frankland found C. calidum in his Arctic journey ;
C laterale and curvipes inhabit tropical America*^ ; C
Chinense, as its name indicates, is Chinese"^ ; Mr. Mac-
Leay has an undescribed species from New Holland; and
C. retusum was taken in Terra del Fuego. Another
genus, equally universal and richer in numbers, is the
lady-bird (Coccinella), which keeps within due limits the

* Geogr. Gener. des Ins. 2. ^ When I described the

Melville Island insects for Captain Sabine, I received from him no
CuHces ; but I afterwards saw in his possession a genuine one from
thence.— K. '^ Linn. Trans, xii. 380—. n. 6, 7. '' Ibid. n. 5.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 489

Aphides of every climate from pole to pole. The Z/f-
belluUna pursue their prey both in Greenland and New
Holland. The saprophagous carnivora are also similarly
predominant ; — the Silphida, the Dermestidce^ the Bra-
chelytra, the Muscida, prey on carcases wherever the
action of the solar beam causes them to become putrid.
Many of the above insects have probably their capital
station, or that where the species are most numerous, in
or near the tropics ; but the metropolis of the Brachely-
tra [Staphylinus L.), at least as far as we can judge from
our present catalogues, is within the temperate zone, par-
ticularly in Britain*. The coprophagous Petalocera are
most abundant in the hottest climates; hnt \he ApJiodiadcc
form a predominant group : Professor Hooker took one
species in Iceland '',^ and it probably ascends higher;
others are found in India and China : but the metropolis
of the group is within the temperate zone. Perhaps no
genus is more completely universal than Bombus (Bre-
mus Jur.), which, although its centre or metrojwlis is
likewise in the northern temperate zone, extends from
Melville Island to the line. It is remarkable that some
of the tropical Bombi wear the external aspect of Xylo-
copa, the kindred genus most prevalent in warm cli-
mates ; and, vice versa, some Xylocopce resemble Bombi,
I have a Brazilian undescribed species of the latter ge-
nus, whose black body and violet-coloiyed wings would
almost cause it to be mistaken for a variety of X. violacea;
and B. antiguensis and cqffy'us F., (though their aspect
belies.it,) which misled Fabricius, are true Xylocopce. I

® De Jean in his catalogue gives only 434 species ; while Mr. Ste-
phens,/oM;' years ago, had 550, and has since increased the number to
above 600. *" Journal of a Tour in Iceland, 'H'l'il,

490 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

shall mention only one other predominant group, but
that one of no common celebrity, formed of the gnats, or
genus Culex L. These piping pests, with their quiver —
" venenatis gravida sagittis" — annoy man almost from
the pole to the line. What remarkably distinguishes
them, (as was formerly observed^,) and also the Simvlium
or true mosquito, — they appear to prevail most in the
coldest and the hottest climates, and the Laplander and
the tropical American are equally their prey ; while the
inhabitants of the temperate zone, with some exceptions,
suffer but little from them : so that they may be stated to
have both an arctic and a tropical metropolis.

2. There are other groups which, though their empire
extends to the tropics, fall short of the polar circles : —
these I call dominant groups. Of this description are
some of the Scarabceidce M'^L. Onthophagus is found
both in the old world and in the new, and in the tempe-
rate and torrid zones. Its principal seat appears to be
within the tropics, but it may almost be said to have also
a northern metropolis. More than one species have
been taken in New Holland. In general, tropical insects
exceed those of colder climates in size; but in the genus
we are speaking of, the European species are usually
larger than the Indian. Copris seems more abhorrent
of cold than its near relation Onthophagus. C. Itmaris,
which ranges northward as far as Sweden, is the only
recorded species found in Europe out of Spain. La-
treille says, that all the large species of this genus are
equinoctial : but C. Tmolus, described and figured by
Fischer ^, found in Asia near Orenburg, north of 50° N.L.,

" Vol. I. p. 113—. •> Entomogr. Riiss. Coleopt. L\m./. 1.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 4-91

is as big as C Gigas or bucephalus, Anotlier domi-
nant group of Petalocera, remarkable for the bulk and
ai'ms of its trojiical species, are the mighty Dynastiddc,
the giants and princes of the insect race. Though their
metropolis is strictly tropical, yet the scouts of their host
have wandered even as far as the south of Sweden, where
one of them, Oryctes nasicornis, is extremely common.
O. Gn/pus^ and some other species are found in South
Europe; but though in a torpid state they can endure
unhurt the severity of a Scandinavian winter, they cannot
when revived stand the cold that often pinches Britons
in the midst of summer, and therefore are unknown in
our islands''. The Spharidiadte, whose metropolis is
within the northern temperate zone, extend from thence
beyond the line, since Dr. Horsfield found two species
in Java'=. It is probable, indeed, that this group is pre-
dominant. Some dominant groups begin at a lower la-
titude. Of this description are the carpenter-bees (Xt/Io-
copa), whose larvee are preyed upon by that of Horia^
under fwo forms, which extend from the tropics to about
50° N. L. Others are not common to both worlds.
Thus, while Cantharis is the gift of Pkovidence to Ame-
rica as well as the old world, Mylahris is confined to the
latter, where its range is very extensive; — in Europe,
fi'om South Russia to Italy and Spain ; in Asia, from
Siberia to India ; and in Africa, from the shores of the
Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope ; which last
continent, to judge from our present lists, especially the

^ Ahren's Fn. Europ. i, 1. '' Hor. Ent. 47—.

•^ Amiulosa Javanica, 36.

" See the Rev. L. Guikling's atlmirahle Hislor>/ of Xylocopa Te-
redo unA Huria macululn, Linn. Trans, xiv. 313—.

492 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

vicinity of the Cape, may be called the metropolis of the
groups. On the other hand, the Rutelidde and Chlamys,
which have a range from Canada to the tropics, (within
which is their metropolis,) are purely America7i groups.
Many more might be named under this head, but these
will suffice for examples.

3. I call those suhdominant groups, which either never
enter the tropics, or those tropical ones whose range
does not exceed 50° of N. L. in the old world, or
43° in the new. I make this difference because, as
M. Latreille observes, the southern insects which in
Europe begin between 48° and 49° N. L., in America do
not reach 43°.^ But though the winters in Canada,
within the same parallel as France, are longer and more
severe than those even of Great Britain or of Germany,
yet the summers are intensely hot ; so that though tropi-
cal species do not range so high, those of a tropical stinic-
ture, as Mr. W. S. MacLeay has intimated •=, maybe found
at a higher latitude in the new world than in Europe.

The genus Meloe F. affords an instance of a suhdomi-
nant group of the first description. It ranges from Swe-
den to Spain and the shores of the Mediterranean, and
seems a tribe almost confined to Europe, where it is not
very unequally distributed. Of registered species Britain
possesses the largest proportion ; but Mr. W. S. MacLeay
is of opinion that Spain is its true metropolis''. I have
a species of this genus, taken in North America by Pro-

^ Out of 51 species described by Bilberg, 28 are African, and 19
of these are from the Cape.

'' Gcogr, Gencr. des Ins. 18. "^ Hor. Entomolog. 45.

^ Dr. Leach has described 8 British species {Linn. Trans, xi. 37.);
De Jean has 7 Spanish ones.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 493

fessor Peck. The splendid genns Cat^abus ranges still
further north than Mcloe. A very fine species {C.cri-
bellatus Adams) inhabits the polar regions of Siberia^;
but the metropolis of the group appears to be the tem-
perate zone : some, however, have been found in northern
Africa ; and Sir Joseph Banks captured one in Terra del
Fuego. Of those whose range is between the tropics
and 50° N. L. we may begin with Cicada Latr. One
species, indeed, was found by Mr. Bydder a little higher,
near the New Forest, Hampshire; but, though anxiously
sought for, it has not since been discovered^. It seems,
therefore, to admit of some question whether this is ab-
original as British, and may not by some accident have
been imported'^. We may take Scolia for an example of
a subdominant group beginning more southward. Its
species first appear about 43° N. L., and abound in warm
climates. In general most of those insects which M. La-
treille denominates meridional, — such as ScarabccusM.'^Lt.f
OnitiSy Brentus, Scarites, Mantis, Fidgora, Termes, Scor-
pio, &c. — come under the present head, and in fact all
tropical forms that wander to any distance within the
above limits from their metropolis.

4. By quiescent groups I mean those that have none,
or no high range as to latitude, from their centre or metro-
polis. I say as to latitude, because these groups have often
an extensive one as to lo?igitude. Thus, Mr. W. S. Mac-
Leay has remarked to me, that Goliathus Lam. appears

" Fischer Entomogr. Rttss. 90 — . t. viii./. 13.

•> Since the above was written, it has been stated to me that two
were taken this year in the New Forest.

" The same observation applies to Forficida giganteay found at
.Christ-Church by Mr. Bingley, but which, though often sought for,
'has never since been taken there.

494- GEOGRAPHTCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

to belt the globe, but not under one form. The types of
the genus are the vast African Goliaths ( G.gigantetis, &c.),
which, as well as G. Polyphemus, and another brought
from Java by Dr. Horsfield, have, like Cetonia *, the sca-
pulars interposed between the posterior angles of the
prothorax and the shoulders of the elytra: while the
South American species (G. micans, &c.) have not this
projection of the scapulars ; in this resembling Trichius.
Mr. MacLeay further observes, that the female of the
Javanese GoUathus is exactly a Cetonia, while that of the
Brazilian is a Trichius. But quiescent groups have not
generally this ample longitudinal range. Thus, Eu~
glossa F., in both its types, — one represented by Eti. cor-
data, and the other by Eu. surinamensis, — is confined to
the tropical regions of America. Doiyphora, likewise
American, seems equally confined. Asida, though a
southern genus, is not found to enter the tropics; and
Manticora and Pneumora are in nearly the same predica-
ment.

Under the present head we may consider what may
perhaps be denominated without much impropriety en-
demial groups ; by which I mean those groups that are
regulated, as to their limits, not so much by the tempera-
ture, or the northing and southing of the latitude, as by
the general aspect and circumstances of the country.
Thus, the vast and nearly insular continent of Africa,
almost as wide as it is long, and situated in or near the
tropics, instead of inland seas or sea-like rivers, is inter-
sected by parched sandy deserts, extending far and wide;
circumstances which, though in the vicinity of its streams
it is humid, impart an unusual degree of aridity as well
- Vol.. III. p. 504.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 495

as heat to its general atmosphere ; so that it well merits
the poet's epithet, Lcomim arida nutrix ; and is also pe-
culiarly fitted for all such animals, especially insects, as
delight in a dry, sandy, hot country, particularly such as
are predaceous in their habits. America^ on the other
hand, exhibits quite an opposite character. It is long,
and comparatively narrow ; surrounded, and almost di-
vided into two continents, by immense circumfluent
oceans ; watered every where by rivers and lakes that
emulate seas : in some parts covered by interminable
forests; in others, intersected by ridges of the loftiest
mountains. These circumstances, except in its Llanos or
table-land, give a general character of humidity to its at-
mosphere, and fit it particularly for the production of a
vast variety of peculiar plants, and for the residence of
numerous and peculiar phytiphagous insects and other
animals*. Midway between these two continents lies a
third (for so the vast island of New Holland may be
denominated), which presents new features in its ge-
neral aspect, and consequently new forms both in its
Flora and Fauna, mixed with many old ones parallel to
those both of the new world and the old. Perhaps Eu-
rope and Asia, with several that are peculiar, agree more
in their animal productions than the continents just de-
scribed.

Let us next particularize a few of the peculiar types
that distinguish particular continents and countries. The
genera Manticora, Grajjhipterus, Glaphyrus, Eurychora,
Pneumora, Masaris, and many others, are peculiar to
Africa. In Asia alone we find Mimela^, Euchlora M'=L.<=,

* Latr. Geograiph, &c. 18 — . '' Limi. Trans, xiv. t.\a..f. 4.

•^ Hor. Entom. 147.

496 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

Colliurisy Catascopus K.^, Apogonia K. ^, a peculiar type of
Horia^ &c. In America, AgrOy Galerita, Nilion, another
type of Horia, Tetraonyx, Rutela, Dorypliora, AlurnuSy
Efotylus, Scotimis K. '^, Cupes^ Corydalis, Labidus, Heli-
con? a, Castnia, &c. And in New Holland, Helluo, Ele-
phastomus M'^L., Anoplognathm, Agrostiphila M'^L.'*,
Cerapterus, Helcrus, Adelium K., Pat^ojjsis, AcMliis K.,
Thynnus, &c.

The countries bordering upon the Mediterranean, the
Black, and the Caspian seas, agree in producing similar
insects. These countries, and the Cape of Good Hope
though so distant from them, appear to be the principal
seat of Heteromerous Coleoptera, of the genera Lixus and
BrachyceruSy and of the conical Buprestes^. But the in-
sects of Guiana, on one side the Cordilleras, diifer from
those of New Granada and Peru on the other ; and simi-
lar differences are observed in other neighbouring coun-
tries separated by natural boundaries.

iii. Another head connected with the topographical
distribution of insects relates to their representatiott ol
each other. Here we may observe, that some insects re-
present each other only in their Jbrm ,- others also in their
function ; and others in both. I shall give some instances
of each. In Brazil there is a group of petalocerous
beetles {Chasmodia M'^L.), one o^ the Muteli da, which in
New Holland has a representative, as to form, in one of
the Cetoniadce [Schizorhina K. ^), which, having soft

^ Linn. Trans, ubi supr. /. 1 . ^ Ibid. xii. /. xxi ./. 9. ^ Ibid. f. 1 4.

<* To this genus belong Melolontha aurulenta. Ibid. 400. ; and
M. sericea. Ibid. 463. ^ Latr. Geograph. 7.

f Cetonia atropunctata and Brownii of Linn. Trans, (xii. 4G4
t. xxiii. /. 6.) belong to this genus.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 497

mandibles, must have a different function : — it is to be
observed, however, that these insects appear to approach
each other in the series of affinities. Again, the Cara-
hidce may in the same country be said to have a represen-
tative in the remarkable heteromerous genus Adelium^y
which is altogether an analogy. Others are representa-
tive only in their J}mcti07i. The general function of in-
sects is to remove ?iuisances and to check redundancies, —
the saprophagous tribes do the one, and the thaleropha-
gous the other. In going from the poles to the line, — in
proportion as the heat increases, the quantum of work of
both kinds increases ; and new forms are either added to
the old ones, so as to increase their momentum ; or new
ones, more powerfully talented, replace the old ones, and
act in their stead : thus we see a gradual and interesting
change take placa in proportion as we approach the
maximum of heat and of insect population. At the Cape,
the universal Cicindela are aided by Matiticoraj in North
America, the Silphidcs by a new group, the type of which
is S. Americana ; in South America, Copris by Phanaus
M'^L. Again : Colliuris and Drypta of the old world,
in the new give place to Eutrachehis and Agra. The
honey and wax of Europe, Asia, and Africa, is prepared
by bees congenerous with our common hive-bee [Apis
Latr.) ; while in America this genus is not found as a na-
tive, but is replaced by Melipofia and Trigona ^ ; and in
New Holland by a still different but undescribed type.
The Melolonthidce and Rutelidce of the old and new
world appear to have their work done in that country by
the brilliant and numerous Ajioplognafhidre. The Mki-

^ Linn. Trans, xii. t. xxii. f. 2; t. xxiii. /. 7.
^ Latreille, Geograph. &c. 10.
VOL. IV. 2 K

498 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

picera of Brazil is of a different type from that of New
Holland. The singular genus Cremastocheilus of North
America has its representative in Africa in Genuchus K.*
The Lucani of the rest of the world give place in New
Holland to Lamprima Latr. and RyssonoUis M'^L. — I
could produce a much greater number of examples, but
these are sufficient to explain my meaning.

Having thus given you some, though an imperfect ac-
count, of the geographical distribution of insects, I am
next to say something concerning their local distribution
in any district, or their favourite haunts ; a knowledge
of which, with respect to those of our own country, is in-
dispensable to the collector.

The surface of a country consists either of mountains
hills and valleys, or of plains. It is diversified by forest,
wood, or copse ; and watered by rivers, rivulets, lakes,
and pools. Those parts that are not clothed with wood
are either open or inclosed, forming grassy downs, heaths,
pastures, meadows, morasses, and arable land. The soil
also is equally various :— we find clay, loam, marl, chalk,
vegetable mould, moor, sand, &c. The mountains and
hills are either covered with a stratum of soil, or are
rocky and bare ; the arable lands are divided by living
or dead fences, the latter formed of various materials,
— or else they are open, and the property only marked
out by grassy balks, &c. All these places abound in
shrubs and plants ; some local, and some generally distri-
buted. But besides the land and its fresh waters, we
must look also to the sea, and its sandy, pebbly, or rocky

" Linn. Trans, xiv. 569.

LOCAL DLSTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 4-95)

shores, and the sea- wrack that is cast up upon them ; the
estuaries that receive its tides ; the brackish waters and
saUne marshes in its vicinity. All the above places, when
opportunity serves, the Entomologist should explore, for
in almost all he will find peculiar kinds of insects.

As mountams and hills have usually their own Flora,
the insects appropriated to alpine plants can only be met
with where the pabulum is found. Here also those north-
ern insects that are impatient of a warmer climate will
take their station, if they migrate to the southward*.
The predaceous beetles likewise sometimes frequent a
mountainous district. Carabus glabratus was first taken
by Professor Hooker on Ingleborough ; and probably,
if the Welsh and Scotch mountains were duly investi-
gated by an Entomologist, many novelties would reward
his toils. The valleys and plains, especially those of a
sunny exposition, abound in insects. When the heat of
the atmosphere indisposes you for motion, you will find
it no unprofitable or unpleasant employment, lying on
the grass, to search for minute beetles, which you will
there find coursing about amongst the tufts and roots of
the herbage. Thus you may procure many of the Pse-
lapliidce, which you would not otherwise meet with. Even
when the grass is grownup, insects are fond of alighting
upon its spikes, and thence drop or run to the ground.
Should circumstances ever carry you abroad to the
steppes or grassy plains of Tartary, or to Hungary, you
would find there two or three species of the singular ge-
nus Lethrus, which burrows in the soil. Every hole is
inhabited by a male and female ; — from it they issue to

* See above, p. 484,
2 K 2

500 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

attack the plants or vines ; and having cut out the heart
of a plant, go backwards like a crab with the prize to
their burrow. At the time of pairing, sometimes violent
battles, encouraged by the female, take place between the
male and a stranger of that sex desirous of admission,
which cease only with the death or flight of the stranger*.
The vicinity and borders of woods generally abound in
insects of every Order; and if you proceed, as hereafter
directed, will furnish you with numerous prizes, espe-
cially of Lepidopiera. Here alone you can meet with the
purple emperor butterfly [Apatura Iris); and if properly
equipped you may readily secure him.

The moaters you will find nearly as prolific in insects as
the land. In them, amongst the beetles, you may expect
to meet with Dytiscus, Haliplus, Palobius, HypJiydrus,
Hydropor7is, Noterus, Colymbetes, and other Dytiscidce ,-
the Gyrini, Hydrophili, Hydrcence^ T2opliori^ &c. : under
stones, the Limnius Mlill. {Elmis Latr.); and in the
mud, the Par7n and Heteroceri. Some Sph(eridiadcB are
also aquatic : I have taken more than once Cercyon hce-
mcn-rlioidale from the under side of a piece of wood im-
mersed in a canal ''. Even a few of the weevil tribes are
to be met with in water. Lixus paraplecticus, Tanysphy-
rus Jiemnce, Bagous atrirostris, are of this description.
A species of Ceutorhynchus Schlip. of Germar's third fa-
mily (C Natator K.) smms well. On aquatic plants you
must look for Helodes and the splendid DonacicE, which,
living on submerged shoots and roots of these plants
in their larva state, continue to attend them when per-

* Fischer, Entomogr. Russ. i. 135.

•> From finding it in water, Fabricius considered this insect as a
Hydrophilus, but it is a true Cercyon,

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 501

feet Amongst the Eupodina^, — Elaphrus, NotiophiluSy
and Bemhidium frequent humid places, as the banks of
rivers and ponds ; and in such a station, under the roots
of Potentilla anserina, Polygonum, &c. if you shoukl
be fortunate enough to find Omophron limbatum, which
connects the Eupodina with the Eunecliina, you will
make a valuable addition to the list of British insects.
In the waters also you will meet with many Hetero-
pterous Hemiptcra ; as Gerris, Hydrometra, and Velia
Latr., and all the Hydrocorisce or water-bugs. On aqua-
tic plants the larvae of some Lepidoptera feed, as Bo-
tys stratiotata, potamogata, &c. Those also of the Tri-
choptera must be sought for in the water : and if you
should feel inclined to see an int-eresting collection of their
very curious cases, Mr. Sheppard of Wrabness can gra-
tify your curiosity. Though few or no Hymenoptera fre-
quent this element, vast numbers of Diptera are there
alone to be met with in their preparatory state, particu-
larly the gnats. We learn from Humboldt a curious fact
with respect to those of South America, or the Zancudos;
that, with some exceptions, these pests do not frequent
those rivers called by the natives black waters, but only
those which they name Kiohite 'waters^. Of the Aptera, the
genera Hydrachna, Ela'is, and Limnochares are purely
aquatic. Several spiders will walk over the water ; and
one species [Argyroneta aquatica) inhabits it*^. The stag-
nant waters in your vicinity will produce different species
from running ones. Thus Haliplus elevatus, &c. inha-
bits only the latter, while the majority of the Dytiscidce

' See above, p. 392. '' Personal Narrat. E. T. v. 91-

' See Vol. I. p. 473—.

502 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECT'S.

abound most in the former : the more minute ones may
be sought for with success amongst the duckweed that
covers a pool. I do not recollect finding any insect in
waters absolutely salt^; but brackish waters produce
peculiar species : in these only, Hydrcena marina occurs ;
and many of those large-eyed Cimicidce [Salda F., Acaii-
thia Schrank), as S. saltatoria, littoralis, and Zosterce
occur in places where salt water has been. Latreille
observes, that the genus Pimelia is to be met with only
where the soil is impregnated with saline particles, or
where the species of the genus Salsola abound''.

Heaths, though they do not afford numerous insects,
have their rarities. Cicindela sylvatica, Carabus nitens
and arvensiSf frequent them, and are not elsewhere to be
seen. Curcidio nebidosus is also to be found on them, in
places where the turf has been peeled ; and some scarce
Lepidoptera. In their vicinity, in sunny sandy banks,
some of the rarer Ammophilce and Pompili may be taken ;
and it is here only that I have ever met with Panurgus '^
Latr. Meadows and pastures are not to be neglected.
Early in the year, when they are yellow with the blos-
soms of Ranunculus bulbosus, Leontodoti Taraxacum, &c.,
many minute beetles, and not a few Hymenoptera and
Diptera, frequent them. Morasses also have their pecu-
liar insects. In these you will meet with some of the
scarcer Eupodina; as Chlcenia holosericea and nigri-
cornis, Blethisus multipunctatus, various Bemhidia, &c.
In this kind of district in the Isle of Ely Aphodius pla-

* A species of Gyrinus (G. Viola aquatica), described by Modeer
{Linn. Syst. Nat. Ed. Gmel. i. JG12. n. 9.), is said to inhabit salt
water.

*" Gcograph, &c. 6. ' Jpis. *. a. Mon. Ap. Angl. ii. 1 78 — .

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 503

giatus has been taken, and that scarce and beautiful but-
terfly Lyc(jena Virgaurece. Where land is cultivated the
Entomologist as well as the farmer may expect a harvest.
Insects in general are fond of perching on the summit of
a blade of grass or corn ; and many minute ones may be
taken coursing about in the ears of the latter: some to de-
vour ihejimgilli that infest the grain, as Phalacrus corrus-
cus in ReticulariaSegetum; others to attack the grain itself,
as Cccidomyia Tritici; others to destroy these destroyers,
as three little parasites belonging to the Ichneumones mi-
nuti L.*. But I have already mentioned most of those in-
sects that are to be expected in such situations •' : I shall
therefore only further observe, that upon ia;/«/ particularly
you will meet with the species of Latreille's genus Cephus.

With respect to soils, those that are light appear to be
most prolific in insects. Warm sandy banks are fre-
quented by Cicindela campestris, Opatrum sahulosum. He-
lops quisqiiilitiSi &c. : in them (when of a southern aspect)
Ammophilce, Pompili, and numerous Hymenoptera nidifi-
cate. Chalk also attracts various insects. Latreille ob-
serves, that the Licim, Papilio Cleopatra, several species
of Dasytes, and some Lamia, delight in this kind of soil *' :
— in my own neighbourhood I have observed Lycccna Co-
ry don principally in chalk-pits. One of these pits, under
a wood in an adjoining parish, has produced me several
valuable insects. Here I took Apion ebeninum, Orobitis
globosus, a new species of Eveesthetus Grav., several of the
rarer Pselaphidce and Cholevce, and Chcetophora cretifera
before noticed'', I do not mean, however, that all these

" Lhm. Tra7is. iv, 30—. v. 96—. /. iv. " Vol. I. Letter VF.
* Geograph. &c. 6. " Vol. II. p. 258.

504 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

are properly chalk insects ; but they fall into these pits,
where they are readily discerned, from the contrast of
their colours with the whiteness of the chalk. By watch-
ing attentively the bottom of one, vast numbers in a warm
day may be taken when they fall or are climbing up-
wards. Of all soils clay offers the fewest inducements to
the Entomologist, who will lose both his time and labour
in a clay- pit; while in one of sand, chalk, or marl they
will usually not be mispent. Vegetable earth also affords
a harbour to various larvae, and the pupae of many night-
fliers amongst the Lepidoptera, by digging in it, espe-
cially under trees, may be obtained. Even the bare rocks
have their insect frequenters that take shelter in their fis-
sures ; and in the early part of your career especially you
should always turn over large stones, as beneath them
many of the Harpalidce and other Eupodina frequently
lie hid : and in this situation, both in Suffolk and Sussex,
Lomechusa emargi7iata, one of our scarcest Brachelijtra
Latr., has been taken. Old trees also, and planks that
have laid long without being moved, often afford a shelter
to many of the minute Coleoptera ; as Paelaphidce^ Aleo-
charid(S, Cryptophagidcc, ScymnidcE, &c. Live fences,
especially when the hawthorn is in blossom, and where
trees are also intermixed, are attended by innumerable
insects of almost every description ; and even the black-
thorn will present you with one of our most splendid
weevils [Rhy^ichites Bacchus). Dead fences are almost
as fertile in insects as living ones. In gates, posts, rails,
and other timber when felled, the timber-devouring
tribes take their station: — between the bark and the
wood are the Bostricida ; in the wood itself, the A7io-
bida and the Capricorn beetles. Here also you may meet

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 505

with many Hymenoptera, which either devour timber or
nidificate in it, — as the Siricidce, Chelostoma, Trypoxylon,
Sapyga, and several Diptera. In the decaying hedge-
stakes and sticks, where the Sphcsria decorticans has
turned off the bark, you may meet with Anthrihus brevi-
rostris ; with A. latirostris, and other beetles, in S.fraxi-
nea : and A. albhms, which I have more than once cap-
tured as it was enjerging from the fissure of a gate-post,
probably feeds on some internal fungus. The grassy
balks that separate open fields usually abound in umbel-
liferous plants, which are attended by numerous Hymeno-
ptera and Diptera^ particularly by the various species of
the splendid tribe of ChrysidcE: and the grassy banks of
fences, where the aspect is sunny, are generally bored by
a variety of insects of the former Order, to prepare a nest
for their young. Andrenidce and Nomadidce particularly
select this situation, the latter probably depositing their
eggs in the burrows of the former^. By watching these
places in the spring, you may perhaps have the good for-
tune to meet with a Sfylojjs. It is singular, that some
insects choose, for their own residence or that of their
young, the hardest and most trodden pathways. Thus,
some ants will build their subterranean apartments un-
der gravel walks ; and so do many species of the genus
Halictus^, the habits and economy of which have been
so ably detailed by M. Walckenaer "= : Cerceris also, and
other Hymenoptera, will choose such places, however
public, for the site of their nests or burrows. The ground

^ These, as well as Melecta, are probably a kind of Cuckow-hee.
Mon. AjJ. Angl. i. 150.

i' Melitta. * *. b. Mon. A]^. Angl. i. 138 — .
* Memoires sur le genre Halicte.

506 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

is SO consolidated by the constant foot, that they proba-
bly find such situations spare them a world of labour, and
therefore in their choice balance one inconvenience by
another.

Though the sea itself, I believe, produces no true i?i-
sects, yet there are many that constantly or occasionally
haunt its shores. On the sand-hills of the Norfolk coast
I found j3igialia globosa and Cicindela hybrida. JRyn-
chccmis liorridus inhabits thistles that grow near the sea.
Under the Zostera and Fuci, (cast up both on its beach and
the shores of estuaries,) many peculiar species oiCercyon,
several Aphodii, and numerous Staphylinid(S, may often
be found. In this situation the rare and singular Oxyte-
lus trico7-nis has been taken. At certain seasons of the
year the beach and environs of the sea are covered by
many species of Coccinella, which seem to bend their
course thither from the inland country, as if they were
about to emigrate*. When the weather is fine and the
tide begins to retire, at the line of its highest rise I have
taken on the eastern coast a variety of insects, and
amongst the rest Anomala Frischii. The inundations of
rivers, except in the depth of winter, always bring a
number of these little creatures, which float on the sur-
face on bits of stick, weeds, &c. ; and where they deposit
these articles when the water begins to subside, you may
generally reap a plentifiil harvest of various kinds.

You see, now, how varied is the scenery to which the
diversion of the Entomologist introduces him ; that he
is never out of his way : whether on hill or in valley ; on
upland or plain ; on the heath or in the forest ; on the

* Vol. II. p. 9.

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 507

land or on the water ; in the heart of a country or on
its shores; — still his game is within his reach. But in
order to enable him to pursue it with greater prospect of
success, he must recollect that not only is every face of
the country to be explored, but both the plants and the
animals that it produces ; and that he must not turn with
disgust from even the carcase or the excrement of the
latter. As numerous species of herbivorous insects feed
only on one kind of plant, the Entomologist, when he
discovers a scarce one, should examine it with the hope
of finding upon it a scarce insect. Sometimes it happens
that only a single opportunity occurs in a man's life of
seeing certain plants growing wild : such opportunities
should never be neglected. Some insects also inhabit a
plant in one district or season, and not in another. Thus
the most beautiful of the Apions, A. Limonii^^ though the
plant it feeds upon usually abounds near the sea, I have
discovered only on the northern coast of Norfolk; and an-
other scarcely less beautiful, but more minute {A. As-
tragali^), though I have sought for it year after year, As-
tragalus glyciphyllus being abundant near me, I never
found but once. The blossoms of plants as well as the
leaves must be inspected. In those of the rose, the Ce-
tonia aiirata is often taken ^ ; and in the bells of the dif-
ferent species of Campanula various bees may be cap-
tured enjoying a luxurious repose^. Upon living Verte-
brate animals you must look for Pulices, Pediculi, Nirmi,
Acari, and many Diptera, as (Estnts, Tabanus, Stomoxys,

^ Linn. Trans, ix. 78—. U i. /. 20, " Ibid. 55. t. If. 12.

' This insect does not, I believe, eat the petals of the rose, but
laps the nectar it produces. I have seen it employed upon wounded
trees lapping the sap. '' Mon. Ap. Angl. ii. 172^ 257.

508 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

and the Pupipara of Latreille ; and on the garden-snails
for that curious genus Drilus, and some Acari^. The
caterpillars and pupae of Lepidoptera^ &c. will, as you
have heard, furnish you with numerous ichneumons''.
On dead animals you will find the various species of Sil-
phidce, Nitidididce, Dermestida^ Byrrhidce^ Chloleva, Sta-
philinida, Muscidce, &c. ; and in excrement, various Sca-
rab(Eid(e, Histeridce, Aphodiadce, Sphceridiadce, the Bra-
chelytra in general, and several Diptera'^. In putrescent
roots and fruits, as the turnip, the cucumber, &c., you
may also occasionally meet with rare Coleoptera.

I must next say something upon the seasons of insects,
and their times of appearance. Those that collect honey
and pollen are generally among the first that proclaim
the approach of spring; and their appearance may be
dated from the blossoming of certain trees and plants of
common occurrence. Other plants, accompanied by pe-
culiar insects, blossom later ; and so on till we arrive at
the autumn. The earliest insect-season commences with
the flowering of the sallow {Salix Caprea), usually ac-
companied in the garden by that of the crocus and the
gooseberry. Then is your time to collect many species of
wild bees and Diptera not afterwards to be met with :
and various other insects now begin to emerge from their
winter quarters, or are produced from the pupa. An-
other and later season is marked by the general blossom-
ing of the butter-cup {Ra?iunculus bulbosus), accompanied
by the mar sh-mary gold {Caltha palustris) and ladies'-
smock (Cardamine pratensis) ; when you may hunt the

' See above, p. 479, note ^.

f Ibid. p. 208 ; and Vol. I. p. ^65—. <= Ibid. p. 251—.

SEASONS OF INSECTS. 509

pastures, meadows, and marshes with success, and take
some msects that do not show themselves later. The co-
prophagous insects are now abundant. Amongst others,
Aphodius testudmarius^ a perfectly vernal species, is now
only to be taken, and usually flying. A third insect-sea-
son indicated by Flora, and a very prolific one, com-
mences with the blossoming of the haisothmm^ when you
must desert the meads for the inclosures. At this time
all nature begins to put on her gayest attire, and all her
insect tribes are now on the alert, and fill the air. They
are almost universally attracted by the sweet and lovely
blossoms of the plant just named : so that by examining
them you may entrap some of every Order, and many
that during the year will appear no more. Even many
of the saprophagous insects will sip nectar from these
flowers. The umbelliferous plants proclaim the fourth
season of insects, particularly the wild carrot and parsnip.
You will scarcely ever fail to find, if the weather is ge-
nial, Hymenopterous and Dipterous insects of various ge-
nera,— especially such as have a short tongue, — engaged
in collecting the honey from those plants. Here you
may take some of the rarer Chrysidce^ Crahronidce, Cer-
cerides^ &c., and occasionally even Coleoptera, The last
insect-season may be dated from the general flowering of
the thistle tribe. When these are in blossom is the best
time of all to collect the humble-bees {Bombus^), the leaf-
cutter bees (Megachile^), and many other Apiaria Latr.,
which alone by their long tongues can imbibe the honey
and collect the pollen of these flowers. The male hum-
ble-bees frequent them to the last, and often seem as if
they were intoxicated with their sweets.

* Apis. * *. e. 2. K. '' Apis. * *, c. 2. k. K.

510 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

But perhaps you may prefer considering the whole
summer appearance of insects as divided into three prin-
cipal seasons. This may thus be done. Their vernal
season may commence Florente Caprea, and end Florente
Oxyacantlia ; their summer, Florente Oxyacantha and Flo-
rentihus Uinbellatis ; their autumti, Florentibus Umbellatis
and Florente Carduo. In thej'fr^^, the number of insects
will be daily increasing; in the second (which is the har-
vest of the Entomologist, when his eyes and his hands
ought to be every where), they will reach their utmost
complement; and in the third, they will be gradually de-
creasing in number, till they generally die, or go into
winter-quarters. At this time many minute Diptcra and
Ichneumons take shelter from the weather in the windows
of our apartments. These seasons will not always exactly
correspond with our usual reckoning, and take place at
the same time; since, being regulated by our varying tem-
perature, they will be sometimes sooner and sometimes
later, sometimes longer and sometimes shorter. Though
I have not named a brumal season, because insects are
in winter usually torpid, — yet some, as Tinea Novembris,
Geometra brumaria, and many TipulidcE, even then make
their appearance.

If you ask, Whether it be not possible to regulate our
Entomological seasons by the appearance of insects them-
selves? I should answer, that probably this might be
done; but that further observations seem wanted to en-
able us to do it satisfactorily. Perhaps the appearance
of Formica nifa beginning the business of the year might
form the commencement of one season ; the flight of the
orange-tip butterfly {Colias Cardamines^), of a second ; a

' Butterfly Collector's Fade Mecum, 06. Note ".

SEASONS OF INSECTS. 511

third might be indicated by the swarming of Melolontha
vulgaris ; a fourth, by that of M. solstitialis ; and the
last, by the appearance in numbers of Ajjhodms ciliaris,
which in tlie autumn fills every horse-dropping.

Some insects are so ephemeral, that they are to be
found in numbers only for a few days, and then disap-
pear for that season. Of this descripti'bn are the Ephe-
mera, much of whose history has been detailed to you.
Those of which De Geer has given an account {E. vtil-
gata) appeared about the end of May or the beginning of
June, and continued about ^ fortnight^ ', while those
which Swammerdam observed did not come forth till
the middle of June, and lasted only three days^. The
same period distinguished those of which Reaumur has
compiled so interesting a history, but they did not show
themselves before the middle of Augusf^. My kind
friend Mr. Marsham not long before his death copied for
me some memoranda he had made with respect to the
sudden appearance o^ Cercopis bifasciata F. On one
occasion the white dress of a lady sitting upon a hay-
cock was covered by these insects; but on the followmg
day the same steps were taken at the same time to pro-
cure some, when after the most diligent search not a
single one could be found. The same circumstance was
observed a few years afterwards by another friend of
his. He himself was of opinion that the insects in ques-
tion were then migrating **.

I may here observe, that the London amateurs have
particular seasons for collecting moths. For the imago
they go into the woods in April, May, June, and Octo-

' DeGeer ii. 638— . 641- .

•> Swamm. Bihl. Nat. i. Conf. 114 with 103.

" Reaum. vi. 480—. " Vol, II. p. 11.

512 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

ber. For the larvce they take the beginning of April,
Jane, the Ibeginning of July, and September. They dig
for pupcE late in July, and in January and Fehmary.

I shall lastly make a few observations upon the times
of action and repose of insects, the knowledge of which,
as far as it can be obtained, is of essential use to the in-
dustrious collector. ' Entomologists have divided the L^
pidoptera, with a view to this circumstance, into diiirnal,
crepuscular, and nocturnal ; or butterflies (Papilio L.),
hawkmoths {Sphinx L.), and moths {Fhalcena L.}. These
terms may be applied to insects in general.- y^^fj ji-f^siaa

i. Diurnal insects are abundant. Butterjlies in parti-
cular fly generally at no other time :. they accompany the
sun in his course, and before he sets disappear. Some
other Z^epz^qpif^ra, though not so named are day insecl;^^
—such are the Zyganidcs, &c. amongst the hawkmoths ;
and amongst the moths, Noctua Gamma, the Phytometr^a
solares of Haworth ^, and some others. Numberless Cg.-
leoptera belong to this section. The Donacice fly only
when the sun is out and the air is warm ; they are then
extremely agile and difficult to take. Some Hoplia swarm
in the day before noon, and then disappear^ : most of the
tetramerous beetles also appear to be diurnal. The lA-
bellulina and many other Neiiroptera may also be so
termed; and the Hy7Jienoptera almost universally, with the
sole exception of the Formicidce "=. Amongst the Dipteray
if we leave out the Tipulari<s Latr., the rest will be found
for the most part to belong to the present section.

ii. Crepuscular insects, strictly speaking, are those that

* Lepidopt. Britann, 263 — . *" Linn, Trans, v. 256.

^ Vol. II. p. 96-.

SEASONS OF INSECTS. .513

appear only during the twilight, whether in the morning
or evening; but the term may be understood, with some
hititude, to signify all those insects that are seen only in
the morning and evening, though after sunrise and before
sunset. Of these, some come forth only in the mortimg,
others only in the evening, and others both morning and
evening. My memory only furnishes me with a single in-
stance of an insect whose principal appearance and flight
are in the morning. Hemigeometra nupta Haw. I have
often seen flying at this time, about six or seven o'clock,
and never at any other : I am not however prepared to
assert that it does not appear in the evening or night,
but I have then never met with it. In the evening more
particularly you hear the hum of the dung-beetle (Geo^
trupes Latr.), which Linne thought the prognostic of a
following fine day ; and of the sw:.rms of Mclolontlia vul-
garis and solstitialis. Then also many other Coleoptera
are in the air; especially before a thunder-storm, a state
of the atmosphere that particularly excites insects ^ : Pti-
nus imperialis and germanns I have never taken except
under these circumstances. Then the Ephemerce sport
in the air, and lead their mystic <lance. The majority
of the hawkmoths are then too on the wing, with their
long tongues imbibing the nectar of the flowers while
they hover over them, both morning and evening.

iii. In the night the main body of the moths take their
flight, as well as a vast number of Coleoptera and insects
of other orders. At this time the Blattte and crickets leave
their hiding-places and run about : but the other Grylli
L., though they sing in the night, fly only in the day.

* See above, p. 246—.
VOL. IV. 2 L

514 SEASONS OF INSECTS.

Then also the Carabi^Yike beasts of prey, leave their dark
retreats, — in this, differing from the Cicmdelce, which are
diurnal, — and prowl about to entrap other unwary in-
sects. Then, likewise, the female glowworm hangs out
her lamp of love, and the male, led by it, wings his way
to her : and then the water beetles (Dj/iisci, Gyrini, &c.)
forsake the waves and become tenants of the air.

Could we with certainty discover the stations in which
insects after their excursions take their repose, we might
capture many that we now search for in vain. Several
of these stations were pointed out in a former part of this
letter where I detailed their usual haunts. I may here
add, that numbers of them, when reposing, conceal thenir
selves from their enemies on the under side of the leaves
of trees and plants. Moths, especially the Noctuida, may
often be met with in woods, as before observed*, on the
north side of the trunks of trees. Mr. Marsham related
to me, that once a little before sunset, observing over his
head a number of insects on the wing moving on in one
direction, he caught some of them, and they proved to be
Forjicula minor L. Struck with the circumstance, he
watched them several evenings ; and on one, as he was
looking about a melon-pit for insects, he saw these little
animals alight on the frame, hastily fold up their wings,
and entering under the glasses, run down its sides and
bury themselves in the loose earth. This he observed
repeatedly. The onward flight of these insects was there-
fore evidently their return from their diurnal cruise to
their nocturnal station. — This happened in September.

» Vol.. II. p. 220. See above, p. 192.

LETTER L.

ON ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS ; AND
THE BEST METHODS OF COLLECTING,
BREEDING, AND PRESERVING INSECTS.

JhlAVING in my last letter given you some account of
the haimis of insects, I now proceed to describe the va-
rious instruments with which you ought to be provided,
to enable you to collect them ; and the best mode of em-
ploying each. The Entomologist when he makes an
excursion should have three principal objects in view,
for which he ought to be duly prepared. The first is to
^nd insects, the next is to catch them, and the last when
taken to bring them safe home. In exploring their
haunts he must also recollect that some will be reposing ;
others Jeeding; others walking or running; others ^y^-
ing; others swimming ; others /wrHw^ in various places
of concealment, and in different states of existence; and
that he must be prepared with means of coming at and
capturing them under all these circumstances.

1. First furnish yourself with a strong knife or other in-
strument with which you can raise the bark or penetrate
the wood of any tree, when circumstances indicate that in-
sects are busy below the one or within the other. There
2 L 2

516 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTIlUiVlENTS, &C.

is no better tool for this and other purposes than Mr.
Samouelle's digger, which consists of an iron five inches
long, rather more than one-third of an inch in diameter,
forming a curve tov^^ards the extremity, terminating in a
lozenge- shaped point, and strongly fixed in a wooden
handle ^. With this you may not only explore the in-
terior of timber-trees, but grub up the turf under iheni,
and examine the earth for the pupae of Lepidoptera.
When your object is merely this latter purpose, a po-
tato-fork— which is better than a spade, as it will seldom
injure the pupae — will be your best implement.

2. Next have a stick, to resemble a common walking-
stick, sufficiently stout to beat the branches of the trees
and shrubs, fitted at one end with a male screw, and at
the other with a female, with a brass cap to screw over
each to keep the dirt from them. Besides this, you may
carry with you a spare piece or two about a foot long,
properly equipped to screw to it when you want to
lengthen it.

3. Another implement must be a hag-net^. This con-
sists of a hoop of stout brass wire about nine inches or
a foot in diameter, with a socket to receive the end of
your stick, or, what is more secure, a screw to fix it to it,
with a bag of gauze, muslin, or fine canvass, about twelve
inches deep, sewed round it. The French collectors
use a net of this kind, in which the hoop is formed of
two semicircular pieces of iron or brass wire hooked to-
oether at one end, and at the other made to lap over the
corresponding piece, and pierced to receive the screw at

^ Entomologists useful Cowpendium. t. xi. /. 5.
" Plate XXIV. Fig. 1.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 517

one end of your stick. When not employed, they double
the hoop and conceal it under the vest ; they fix to it a
muslin bag of two feet long. This net is made to serve
various purposes. With it they catch Lepidoptera and
other Jii/hig insects ; and an adroit collector by giving it a
certain twist completely closes the mouth, so as to prevent
the escape of his captives. Fixed to a very long pole
(Mr. Haworth says it should be t'wenty or thirtif feet
long ^), it is the best net for the purple emperor butterfly
{Apatura Iris). It is also used with success to push be-
fore you through the grass of meadows, woods, &c., and
thus often displaces numerous insects, which fall into it :
— every now and then it is examined, and the valuable
captures secured. The common bag-net will perform
the same operations, but is not deep enough ior Jli/mg
insects. If you lengthen your stick before you screw it
on, it enables you to brush with it the weeds at the sides
and bottom of ditches. This employment of brushing
the grass, &c. may be carried on if you are walking with
any friend not interested in Entomology, without much
interruption of conversation. For this last operation —
sweeping the grass, &c. — if you wish at any time to de-
vote a morning wholly to it, you will find a net invented
by Mr. Paul, of Starston in Norfolk, and which he em-
ploys to clear his turnips oi Haltica Nemorwn^, a very
useful implement. The accompanying figure will give
you a better idea of it than any description '^ ; you may
make it large or small according to your convenience :
the wider it is, the greater space it will brush at once.

» Lepidopt. Britann. 20. ^ Vol. I. p. 186.

« Plate XXIV. Fig. 3.

518 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

When your object is a more general investigation, the
bag-net just described is preferable.

4. Scarcely any implement seems a greater favourite
with British collectors than what may be called the^-
net *. This is universally employed by them for cap-
tMv'mgJlying insects, especially Lepidoptera. It is simi-
lar to what is called a bat-fo'wUng net, and should be
made of green or white gauze or coarse muslin. The
former colour, as being less visible, is most proper for
mothing in the night ; but the lattej' is best for the day,
as this net is useful to hold under the branches of trees
and shrubs to receive the insects that fall when they are
beateiL The rods for the net we are considering, — which
should be about five feet long, half an inch in diameter
at the base, and gradually tapering to the end, — must be
made of some tough wood ; each should consist of about
four joints for the convenience of carriage, and each
joint should be fitted with a socket at the lower ex-
tremity, to receive the top of the joint below it : the ter-
minal joint must either be bent into a curve, or fitted
with an angular socket or ferrule, so as to form an ob-
tuse angle with the rest of the rod ''. The gauze which is
to form the net, being cut into the requisite shape, should
be welted round, except at the bottom, where it should
have a deep fold or a bag for preventing the escape of
the included insects — in order to form a slide for the
rods to slip in. At the apex where they meet, a few
stitches should be set, or a piece of leather sewed in, to
prevent their going too far. At the bottom, on each
side, two strings must be sewed on the net, to receive

* Plate XXIV. Fig. 4. ^ Saniouelle's Compendium, t. xi./. 1,2.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 519

which there must be a hole in each rod about six inches
from the bottom : these must be tied, which will keep the
net from slipping upwards. When you go after moths
and other insects that fly in the nighty a plan, as I am
told, of some of the London collectors may be adopted
with advantage. Cause a lanthorn to be made with a
concave back, and furnished with a reflector : this must
be fastened, by means of a strap, upon the stomach. If
you hold your expanded fly-net before this (as nocturnal
insects fly to the light), you may thus entrap a considera-
ble number. In sultry summer nights also, if you place a
candle on a table in a summer-house, or even in a com-
mon apartment, and open the windows, you will often
have excellent sport, and take insects you might other-
wise never meet with.

When you use your fly-net, you must take the rods
one in each hand, so as to keep it extended ; and when
you have brought it fairly beyond the insect you are pur-
suing,— to accomplish which you must be upon the alert,
— you must bring the two sticks together, which, if you
are commonly dexterous, will capture your prey. This
net is likewise useful in taking winged insects when at
rest upon the ground, by simply spreading it over them.
When you use it to beat into, as above recommended,
you must take both the sticks in one hand, and ex-
tend it by crossing them as much as you can. In the
absence of this, a common umbrella, or even a sheet of
stiff" paper which you may carry folded in your pocket,
are no bad substitutes. When your object is beating
the bushes, bring your fly net, &c. rapidly under the
branches you mean to operate upon, or the insects will
fall from them to the ground before you are prepaied.

.520 ENTOMOLOttlCAL INSTUUMENTS, &C.

Under this head I may mention a very ingenious net
for taking Lepidoptera, particularly butterJUes^ invented
by Dr. Maclean of Colchester, which I would call Mac-
learCs elastic net. It is constructed of two pieces of
stout split cane, connected by a joint at each end and
with a rod which lies between them, in which a pulley is
fixed ; through this a cord fastened to the canes passes :
a long cane with a ferrule receives the lower end of the
rod and forms a handle ; and to the canes is fastened a
net of green gauze. Taking the handle in your right
hand, and the string in your left, when you pull the lat-
ter the canes bend till they form a hoop, and the net
appended to them is open ; when your prey is in it, re-
lax the cord, and the canes become straight and close the
mouth of the net, keeping them close with your left hand,
you may soon disable your prey with your right. Dr*
Maclean has scarcely ever found this net fail.

5. Another instrument which should be constantly in
the hands of the Entomologist is \he forceps *. This is
particularly useful for catching Diptera and Hymeno-
ptera chiefly while at rest on the leaves and flowers of
plants. Both these tribes are usually too agile to be
taken by the hand alone, which besides without this
contrivance would be exposed to the stings of many of
the latter. The leaves of the forceps should be octagonal,
five or six inches in diameter, and covered with green
gauze, or rather very fine catgut, which will enable the
head of a lace-pin to pass through it. You must direct
your artisan to make the joint of the handle nearer the
rings for the finger and thumb than to the leaves, or the
instrument will not open well. An old pair of curling-

'' Plate XXIV. Fig. 5.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 521

irons might be made into very good handles; but the hoop
to which the catgut is fastened should be brass, or if iron
it ought to be painted to secure it from rust. Some make
the leaves of the forceps round ; but when an insect is
perched on a wall or any vertical surface, it has less chance
of escape if you can apply a straight side to its station.
The Germans use a much longer and larger instrument
of this kind, having leaves of ten or twelve inches in dia-
meter, which they use to catch Lepidoptera when settled
on plants. When you aim at an insect with your for-
ceps, you must expand the leaves as much as possible,
and cautiously approach your prey; and when within
reach, close them upon it suddenly, including the leaf or
flower on which it rests. As these are sometimes bulky,
and prevent the instrument from shutting closely, — that
the included insect may not escape, it is often necessary
to use the other hand to bring them together, when the
pressure of the finger and thumb soon disables it.

6. As the laaterSi whether running or stagnant, as well
as the earth and the air, leem with insects, you must
likewise be provided with a net of a different description
from any of the preceding, that you may fish them out.
It may be made of fine canvass, just deep enough to pre-
vent the insect from jumping out, and fastened to a brass
hoop five or six inches in diameter, not perfectly circu-
lar, but having the segment of a circle cut off anteriorly,
so that it will apply well to a flat vertical surface ; and
fitted posteriorly with a socket, to receive the end of
your stick ; or, what is better, with a screw, which will
securely fasten it to it*. In using this net, different

" Plate XXIV. Fig. 2. N.B. The net is represented too shallow
in this figure.

522 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

modes may be adopted. You may either watch the mo-
tions of an individual insect, and secure it by darting
the net beyond it and drawing it towards you; or by
placing it quietly under it, and then elevating it suddenly ;
<m: you may push your net at random along the margins
of the pools and rivers amongst the weeds, &c. ; amongst
the duck-weed {Lenina) on their surface, or the mud at
the bottom; and when you examine its contents, you
will often find valuable captures. I have thus sometimes
got rich booty in the most unlikely places ; — such as Hj/-
drcena Kiigellaniii {lotigipalpis Marsh), and an allied
nondescript species, &c. ; and by fishing amongst Zani-
chellia pahistris, Macroplea Zosterce, If at any time you
do not happen to have your water-net with you, with a
common rake you may take the duck-weed from the sur-
face of a pool, and upon examination you will often detect
amongst it many minute water-beetles.

But besides all these implements you will find your
Jinger and thumb a very handy forceps when insects are
stationary or walking upon the ground ; and even when
flying, minute ones that you would not otherwise meet
with may be taken by the palm of your hand, wetted
with saliva, if, when you see them swarming in the air,
you pass it to and fro amongst them. When such are
stationary, or moving on the ground, on rails, the trunks
of trees, &c., the fore-finger, so wetted, will often best
secure them : but if they are perched on a summit or a
vertical surface, before you approach near enough to
alarm them bring forward quietly your bag-net, and
hold it so that they may fall into it, if they attempt by
falling to escape you. Other methods of entrapping in-
sects may also be pursued with success. A table-cloth

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 523

spread on the grass in the open parts of a wood I have
known allure several scarce insects : a lady's white dress
is equally attractive. An old mattress, laid at night upon
a grass-plat, if suddenly reversed in the morning, will sup-
ply the Entomologist occasionally with good Coleoptera.
No better trap for the Silphida, Dermestidce, &c., than a
piece of carrion, a frog, &c. The numerous insects that
inhabit excrement of every kind, especially that of the
cow and the horse, may be best taken by immersing
their pabulum in water : for this purpose, let a boy carry
a spade and pail to the scene of action, and filling the
paU nearly full of water begin the operation, and all the
insects lurking in the submerged dung wiU come to the
surface, and may be easily taken.

Another object of the collector of insects, when he has
once entrapped them, is to bring them safe home. The
Entomologists on the Continent, I believe, generally
transfix their prey, of whatever Order, with a pin, as
soon as they are caught : but as hard ones, such as Co-
leoptera, Hemiptera, &c., may be destroyed without in-
jury by immersion either in spirits of wine or boiling
water ; and as large beetles, if transfixed (not to mention
the unnecessary cruelty of so serving them), are apt to
whirl round upon the pin in spite of any precaution, and
injure themselves, and destroy other insects that are in
their way, it seems best to kill them by other more effec-
tual methods. With regard to those that would be
injured by immersion in any fluid, as the Lepidoptera,
Hymenoptera, Diptera, &c., they must be secured as
soon as taken ; and after having disabled them as much
as you can without injuring them, by pressing the trunk
below the wings with the finger and thumb, they should

524 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

be transfixed and put into a pocket-box lined with cork.
Some use an oblong deep chip one, with paper pasted
over it, and lined at top and bottom, the top being con-
venient for setting small moths. But this you will find
not easy to open when you have an insect in one hand ;
and it is too deep for the pocket. I generally use a
mahogany one, about 7^ inches by ^i, and 1 i deep in
the clear, corked only at the bottom, and opening by
pressing a spring, which can be done with one hand.
This will contain as many of the above insects as you
will usually take in a day's excursion. When travelling,
you should provide yourself with larger store-boxes, to
receive at night the fruit of the day's hunt. These may
be 18 inches square and 2| deep, corked at top and bot-
tom; which should be of equal depth, and fit very closely,
to keep out Acari, &c. Entomologists have recourse
to various ways of bringing home insects for immersion.
For the larger ones, you must be provided with a num-
ber of small boxes, the lids of which are not liable to
come oflp in the pocket. If it can be done, it is best to
have only a single insect in a box. If you have several,
those that are predaceous in their habits will probably
devour the rest : and besides, if you open a box to put
in other insects, generally one or two of those before im-
prisoned in it will make their escape. It is best to put
the boxes containing an insect in one pocket, and the
empty ones in another. If your boxes are numbered, in
a small memorandum-book, which you should carry for
the purpose, you may make any remarks as to the food,
station, and habits of any insect you may take, inserting
against them the number of the box or phial that contains
it, and it will be ready for future use. For the smaller

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 525

beetles, &c. a number of phials, with their rims ground
down and the mouths well fitted with corks, must be pro-
vided ; but for those you do not wish to keep separate, a
wide-mouthed phial filled with spirits of wine, which soon
kills them, is the best receptacle. I have found, when at a
loss, a piece of elder, with the pith taken out to a sufficient
depth at each end and each mouth stopped with a wooden
plug, a useful insect-box. As numerous insects inhabit
the various species of Boleti^ if you go where these are
to be found, unless you are a veiy agile person and ex-
pert at climbing, a boy with a short light ladder will be
no useless accompaniment.

Something may be said in this place upon the dreSs
with which the Entomologist should provide himself. I
shall not recommend to you, in imitation of the insect-
hunters in the vignette to Reaumur's second volume, to
put on a bag-wig and a velvet court-dress ; but the plain
fustian jacket with side and other pockets used by En-
glish sportsmen will very well suit your purpose; only
let the pockets be sufficiently ample : have also an inside
one fixed on the left-hand side to receive your forceps.
You may also have a bag like a shooter's, or an anglei''s
basket, which may contain your nets till you want to use
them. With all your implements about you, you will
perhaps at first be stared and grinned at by the vulgar ;
but they will soon become reconciled to you, and regard
you no more than your brethren of the angle and of the
gun. Things that are unusual are too often esteemed
ridiculous ; and the philosopher whose object is to collect
and study the wonderful works of his Creator, is often
regarded by the ignorant plebeian as little short of a
madman.

S2(S ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

Such is the apparatus to be provided by the entomo-
logical Nimrod : it is not often, however, that it will be
necessary, except in distant excursions, to encumber and
disfigure yourself with the whole. Even in this pursuit
more may be effected by a judicious division of labour,
than by grasping at every thing at once ; and your ac-
quisitions will in the end be more numerous, and your
acquaintance with them more intimate, if at one time
you devote yourself to the woods and hedges, another
to the plains and meadows, a third to any heaths In your
vicinity, and a fourth to the collection of aquatic insects
whether from stagnant or running waters : — having thus
chosen the scene of action, you may equip yourself ac-
cordingly. You will of course, though in pursuit of a
particular description of game, not neglect to seize any
other insects that fall in your way ; but for this purpose
it is unnecessary to be always provided with a certain in-
strument. Dr. Franklin used to say that a man would
never make a Natural Philosopher, who, in performing
his experiments, could not saw with a gimblet or bore
with a saw ; and so we may say, he will never make an
expert collector of insects, who on occasion cannot fish
with his hand or forceps, use his hat or an old letter to
beat his game into, or, in the absence of boxes or bottles,
contrive to secure his captures in small pieces of paper
twisted up. Sparrman, when at the Cape, was wont, —
to the no small amazement of the wondering natives, who
took him for a conjurer, — to stick his impaled insects
round the outside of his hat^: and though I should not
recommend such an exhibition in a civilized region, it

* Voyage to the Cape, i. 63. Eng. Trans.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTllUMENTS, &C. 527

has often struck me that the cavity of a modern hat, if
lined with cork, might be made a very useful receptacle
for these animals in a long excursion. Indeed, an active
Entomologist is never at a loss for an apparatus, but often
makes his most valuable captures when unprovided with
other instruments than his hands and eyes. A careful
survey of the trunk and branches of trees and shrubs,
particularly of the underside of their leaves, seldom fails
to detect many a lurking moth or beetle, which may be
transfixed or otherwise captured with little trouble by an
expert hand. In this way an ingenious collector, who
scarcely knew what a net of any kind was, told me he had
made his whole collection, which was rather extensive.
It is, in fact, only by thus detecting them when reposing,
and adroitly shutting them up along with the leaf on
which they sit, in a box, that the minute Tinece L. (whose
beauty and freshness the slightest handling destroys) can
ordinarily be taken without being injured. The boxes
containing them should afterwards be exposed to the
action of heat, a low degree of which will destroy them.

Enough has been said upon the best modes of catching
insects : — I shall next attempt to give you some further
instructions as to the most effectual one of destroying
them when caught, and to point out how you are to pro-
ceed with them after they are dead. As I sufficiently
rebutted the charge of cruelty in a former letter ^, it will
not be necessary to enter here into that subject.

I have before recommended to you the use of spirits
qf>wine, and shall here repeat my recommendation; for

^ \ oL. I. Letter II.

528 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

after several years trial, I am of Bohni's opinion, who
had tried it nine years *, that it is superior to any other
method ; particularly, because it not only effectually kills
the insects, and they may be put together into it while
you are collecting, if you have no reason for keeping
them separate, of all sorts and sizes, in a wide-mouthed
phial, without danger of their devouring each other:
but when you come home wearied with a long day's
hunt, you may let your insects remain in it without in-
jury till the next morning. In collecting beetles abroad,
when there is a want of store-boxes the readiest way is
to put them into a wide-mouthed bottle or jar filled with
any spirit, and send them home in it : some few may lose
their colours, or become greasy ; but in general they will
receive little injury. This method saves room, and avoids
the risk of breakage. The derangement which some
hairy species sustain from this method may be readily
repaired by brushing them with a dry camel's hair
pencil.

When you wish to take the. insects you have immersed
in spirits out of the phial, you must strain its contents
through a piece of muslin, return the spirit into it for
future use, and spread the insects separately upon blot-
ting-paper, to absorb the moisture remaining about them.
With regard to such as you have in boxes or phials with-
out spirit, these must be immersed in a basin of boiling
water. First empty into it the contents of your boxes,
and next, those of your phials ; giving each, before you
take out the cork, a smart rap, that the insects adhering
to the latter may drop to the bottom : or you may im-

« lUig. Mas. ill. 222.

ENTOMOLOGrCAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 529

merse the phial itself, with the cork in, which soon de-
sti'oys them, and is the safest plan. This done, with a
camel's-luiir pencil or feather take them out of the water,
lay them upon blotting-paper to dry, and put them by for
a few hours till you have leisure to impale and set them.

Those insects that are caught by \\m forceps would for
the most part escape you, were you to attempt to get
them out before you had transfixed them. You must
therefore do this while the leaves of the instrument are
closed ; and then opening them, and taking the pin by
the point, the head will readily pass through the catgut;
and thus you may safely take, and more effectually kill
your specimen by pressing it, as before directed. With
respect to Lepidoptera, it is necessary to disable them
while yet in the fly-net, immediately after their capture.
To effect this, \vhile one hand holds both the rods of the
closed net, with the other stretch the gauze so as to con-
fine your insect within a narrow space ; bring its wings
into an erect position, and prevent its fluttering : which
being done, with your finger and thumb give its breast a
strong pinch below the wings ; and then unfolding your
net, and taking it up by one of its antennae, place it
between the finger and thumb of your left hand, stick a
pin through it, and deposit it in your pocket-box.

But though nipping the breast will kill many small
Lepidoptera, the larger ones will live long after it ; as will
likewise many Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera:
and besides this, in some Bombycidce the thorax pre-
sents a very conspicuous and interesting character, which
renders it desirable, in order to avoid the damage or de-
rangement occasioned by pressure, to transfix them with-
out it. To dispatch these effectually, you will find the

VOL. IV. 2 M

530 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

following apparatus very convenient. Fix in a small tin
saucepan ^ fiUed with boiling water, a tin tube consisting
of two pieces'' that fit into each other; cover the mouth
of the lower one*^ with a piece of gauze or canvass, and
place your insects upon it; then fix the upper one*^ over
it, and cover also the mouth of this with gauze, &c. ; and
the steam from the boiling water will eifectually kill your
insects without injuring their plumage. Tlijere is another
more simple mode of doing this, the apparatus for which
may be met with every where. Fix a piece or two of
elder, willow, or any soft wood, with the bark on, across
the bottom of a mug, and on this stick your impaled in-
sects ; invert the mug in a deep basin, into which pour
boiling water till it is covered, holding it down with a
knife, &c., that the expansion of the included air may
not overturn it. In two minutes, or less, all the insects
will be found quite dead, and not at all wetted. If the
sticks do not exactly fit, they may be wedged in with a
piece of cork. Professor Peck, who used to put minute
insects into the hollow of a quill stopped with a piece of
wood made to fit, killed them instantaneously by holding
it over the flame of a candle.

Having killed your insects, your next object should
be to prepare them for your cabinet. First, place by
you a pincushion well stored with lace-pins of various
magnitudes and lengths : for most insects those nearly
an inch in length, for large ones, diose that are thicker
and longer, bat for Lepidoptera, a stouter kind, as shot^t
whites, are best. Next, take the Colcoptera and He-
miptera that, as before directed, you have laid by on

" Plate XXIV. Fig. 7. c ^ Ibid, a, b.

' Ibid. b. * Ibid a.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 531

blotting-paper after immersion, and begin your ope-
rations, selecting the largest first The pin should be
stuck through the middle of the right-hand elytrum*,
and about one third of its whole length should emerge

O CD

above the insect. Some foreign collectors, probably
having in view its more convenient examination with a
microscope under the glass of a drawer, bring it nearer
the head of the pin : while the English ones, on the con-
trary, studying the most ornamental position of their
specimens, leave only enough of the point free to fix
them safely in their drawers^. Both these methods are
open to objection. When the insect is too near the head
of the pin, it is difficult to fix it in your cabinet without
bending the wire; and there is danger, without great
care, of injuring the specimen when you put it in or take
it out. Again : When the legs of your insect rest on the
surface they collect the dust and dirt, are very liable to
be broken, and the length of the pin above it is incon-
venient when you have occasion to examine any one
under a lens. Lepidoptera, however, which are never
thus examined, maj' always be transfixed in this way,
which sets them off to the greatest advantage.

Some insects, especially of the beetle tribe, are so ex-
tremely minute that it is next to an impossibility to get
a pin through them without injuring, and often destroy-
ing them. By using fine needles, or very slender pins
manufactured on purpose, this difficulty might per-
naps be surmounted ; but the needles will be subject to
rust, and the pins, I know by experience, cannot be

'' Plate XXIV. Fig. 8. *

t" In the figure just quoted the artist has represented the insect
as transfixed in this way.

2 M 2

532 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, 8cC,

fixed in cork without difficulty. For such minute insects,
therefore, by far the best mode is to gum them on small
pieces of card, which may be stuck upon a pin. Talc,
which admits the underside of an insect to be seen
through it, has been used for this purpose ; and where
you have only a single specimen, a thin small lamina of
it would answer well; but ordinarily I should recom-
mend the former mode. Your pieces of card, which
must be small, may be either oblong and cut at the
corners for neatness, with a couple of specimens gummed
upon each, one on its belly and the other on its back ;
or you may cut little narrow card wedges, about four
lines long and terminating in a point, upon which you
may so gum your insects as to show the principal part
of the under side, as well as the upper side of its body.
Common gum-water made rather thin, with a very
little glue mixed with it, will answer your purpose very
well: it should be thinly spread on the card with a
camel' s-hair pencil, and then the insect placed upon it.
With the same implement, if it has not been killed too
long, before the gum is dry you may expand its antennae,
palpi, legs, and wings, &c. If you want to remove a
specimen gummed on a card for any purpose, it is easily
effected by plunging it into hot water.

Other insects may be transfixed through the thorax
or upper side of the trunk; as also those Coleoptera, Or-
thoptera, and Hemiptera^ whose wings you are desirous
of expanding ; only you should be careful that your pin
passes through them behind the prothorax.

Having impaled your insects, the next thing to be
done is to set them. The best time for doing this is not
till they have begun to stiffen, but before they are become

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 533

quite stiff. If attempted soon after they are killed, the
parts, unless you keep them in the intended position by
means of pins or braces, will not retain it; and if after
they are become too stiff, they are liable to be broken.
Not only should the antennae and palpi be extended so
as to be readily seen ; but the legs, and often the wings,
ought to be placed in their natural position ; all of which
tends much to the beauty of your specimens, and adapts
them for more ready examination. But as this operation
requires time, and beauty and regularity may be pur-
chased too dear if at the price of hours called for by
science, you may be left to your own discretion in this
business, only you should always with a pin expand the
antennas and palpi if possible. You might, however,
both save your time and have your insects neatly set, if
you would take the trouble to instruct some acute and
handy youth in your neighbourhood in the modus ope-
randi, and devolve this department upon him : and as
none are quicker and more expert in capturing insects
than boys, he might also assist you in your hunting ex-
peditions.

I do not mean, however, to leave you at liberty with
regard to the setting of Lepidopterous insects, which not
only have a much worse appearance than those of other
Orders if their wings be not regularly and uniformly
expanded, but require it for the proper display of their
characters. The necessary apparatus consists of a piece
of cork about nine inches long, four broad, and half an
inch thick, which should be made perfectly smooth, with
a piece of white paper pasted over it; and of several
narrow slips of card or braces, tapering gradually to a

534- ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

point, of different lengths, from half an inch to two inches
or more, with a pin fixed in each at the broadest end.
Thus provided, you may proceed to action. But you must
first decide whether, like the continental Entomologists,
you will set your Lepidoptera horizontally ; or, like the
British, with their wings declining obliquely from the
body. If you prefer the former method, the body must
be let into a groove, and the wings expanded as flatly as
possible, the anterior margin of the primary pair being
brought forward so as to project beyond the head. But
as this usually gives the insect an unnatural and formal
appearance, I apprehend a man of your taste will prefer
the mode adopted by your compatriots, the collectors of
Britain, who in setting make the wings form an angle,
varying according to the size and characters of the insect,
with the body, and do not bring the anterior wings so
forward. The wings of butterflies however, in order to
appear at all natural, should be set more horizontally.
Which fashion soever you prefer, the mode of operating
is nearly the same ; only that the Enghsh plan, except in
the case of some large-bodied moths or hawk-moths, re-
quires no groove in the setting-board. After you have
stuck the insect upon the cork so as to bring its body
close to its surface, stretch the anterior wing with a needle
fixed in a handle, or a camel' s-hair pencil, applied to the
joint at the base, sufficiently forward, and then confine
it by means of one of your card braces : — next, do the
same by the opposite wing. Afterwards expand the pos-
terior wings, which must not be separated from the an-
terior so as to leave any interval between them, and fix
them with braces. When you are become expert, you

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 535

will find, if the fly is not large, that a single brace will be
sufficient for each pair of wings*; but sometimes, if the
card be not sufficiently stiff, you may confine it by a pin
near the point. You must be careful in expanding the
wings that each is brought equally forward. Lastly,
give the antennae their proper position, and if necessary
confine them with braces ; and leave your specimen in
an airy situation to dry and stiffen. In a few days the
braces may be removed, and the specimen transferred to
the cabinet. When you put them away to become stiff,
you must be careful to place them and your other insects
at night where earwigs cannot come at them ; for in sul-
try weather these animals will often then attack and spoil
them.

It is obvious that this process can only be performed
while the joints and ligaments of the insect are still
flexible; so that small species, in warm weather, will
often be immoveably rigid before you can have an op-
portunity of setting them. On this account collectors
usually set minute moths as soon as taken, which can be
readily done on the lid of a cork-lined box. But for-
tunately both these and specimens which have been
dried for years may be relaxed and rendered pliable by
a very simple process. Fill a basin more than half full
of sand, and saturate il with water ; pour off the super-
fluous water, and cover the sand with blotting-paper :
into this stick the insects you wish to relax, and cover-
ing the basin closely, leave them there for two or three
days, according to their size ; and the evaporation will
render them sufficiently flexible for expansion or any

=" Plate XXIV. Fig. 9.

536 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

Other purpose. Beetles may be relaxed by plunging
them for a short time in warm water or spirits of wine *.

Many moths of the tribe of Tinea L. are so extremely
minute, that it is almost impossible to set them without
defacing their characters : indeed, the trunk of some is
so small as not to admit being pierced by a pin. These,
therefore, it is adviseable merely to gum upon card, ex-
panding their wings (which the gum will easily retain in
their proper situation) with a camel's-hair pencil. If
you have two specimens, you may fix one in the natural
position when at rest, — a taethod I should recommend
with respect to other Lepidoptera, and indeed insects in
general. Pezold advises that, by way of contrast, white
card should be use^l for dark-co\o\xxeA species of these
little moths, and black for such as are pale. As the
wings of different Coleopterous groups, as well as those of
Hymenoptera, Diptera, &c., vary in their neuration^,
you should, whenever you can, set open the elytra and
expand the wings of one specimen at least in each group,
which will be very important to you in making out the
characters of your genera.

When sufficiently dried, your insects should be trans-
ferred from the setting-boards, either to their place in
your cabinet or to the store-box before described, till
you have leisure to investigate them.

However tedious some of the foregoing manipulations
may seem, they are in fact much less so than those re-
quired in several other branches of Natural History,
where, in addition to the labour of catching, the nice and

» Mr. Samouelle {Use/id Comj^endium, 321) recommends a some-
what different method.
" Vol. III. p. mb -.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, Scc. 537

difficult task of clearing the skeleton of its muscular co-
vering, and its internal cavity of its contents, and then of
stuffing it and replacing its perished eyes by glass ones
of the proper colour, is a necessary process with every
individual. Happily the Entomologist, from the small -
ness of his game and the nature of their integument, is
usually spared this labour. There are some few insects,
however, in which a process in some degree analogous
is requisite, if the beauty of the specimens be a conside-
ration. Thus the abdomen of dragon-flies is very apt to
lose its colour, and that of the Meloes to shrink up, if
left in their natural state: these therefore should be
eviscerated; which may be done by slitting the abdomen
longitudinally on the under side, then carefully removing
its contents, and stuffing it with cotton. In the former,
a small straw or stalk of hay may be used, which will
prevent the fractures to which that part, when dry, is so
liable. Spiders, and a few apterous genera, as well as al-
most all larvce, as they usually shrink up, in drying, into a
shapeless mass, destitute of every character dependent on
colour or form, require to be preserved in a different man-
ner. They may all be very well kept in rectified spirits of
wine mixed with water, in the proportion of three parts
of the former to one of the latter. Each, suspended by
a thread, should be put in a separate very small labelled
phial. Larger spiders, such as Mj/gale aviculare, &c.,
when suffered to dry, though the abdomen shrinks, do
not wholly lose their characters, and are often kept in
cabinets : but if preserved in spirits, they may be put
into larger wide-mouthed bottles, suspended at different
heights, with a label on the outside opposite to each
species. Mr, Abbott of Georgia had an excellent method

538 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

of preserving caterpillars, so that his specimens retain
their colours and other attributes, and look as if they
were alive. I am not acquainted with his process, but
the following will answer very well. — The animal must
first be killed by immersion in spirits of wine ; next you
must eviscerate it, which is best eifected by gradual pres-
sure of the finger and thumb. You must begin at the
head, and so proceed till all the fluid contents of the
body have passed out at the anus, which you may enlarge
with a fine pair of scissors, being cai*eful not to injure
the anal prolegs. When you have cleared the skin as
much as possible, introduce a fine glass tube, or a piece
of hay or slender straw into the anus, round which, as
near to the extremity as may be, pass loosely a fine
thread : then blowing through the tube, when the skin is
fully inflated withdraw it, at the same time pulling the
thread tight and securing it by a knot. The caterpillar
will now exhibit its proper shape and colours ; to retain
which, all that is necessary is to hold it near the flame of
a lamp until perfectly dry, which will be in a few mi-
nutes, when it may be placed in the cabinet along with
the imago to which it belongs *.

Although a very large proportion of the insect inha-
bitants of any country may be captured in their perfect
state by the active Entomologist, yet there is no small
number of them that probably he may never meet with
in that state, and to secure which he must have recourse
to other methods. He can procure j^mjj^e by digging for

* Some other methods are recommended by Mr. Samouelle, which
the reader will find in his useful Compendium, 318.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 539

them in woods, under trees, &c., as above directed",
keeping them in some of their native earth till they are
disclosed ; or he must collect larvce^ and breed them ; for
which I shall now give you some instructions. — The in-
sects we are particularly concerned with under this head
are the caterpillars of Lepidoptera and of the saw-flies
{Tenthredo L.). If, however, in our entomological ram-
bles we discover the larvae of insects of other Orders
upon their appropriate food, we may often attempt to
* breed them with success : but as you will seldom thus
get species that you will not also meet with in their
imago state, and the general directions for breeding will
include almost all, I shall principally consider the best
mode of breeding caterpillars and pseudo-caterpillars*
The first thing is to collect them. In beating the trees,
bushes, and plants, while hunting for Coleoptera, &c., the
Entomologist will often displace caterpillars, which, if
unknown, he should put into a pill-box with a portion of
their food : but Lepldopterists often sally into the woods,
&c., for the express purpose of collecting these only.
When engaged in this employment, the best plan is to
take a sheet with you, and when you mean to beat the
branches of any tree, place it as near them as you can,
upon four or more sticks fastened in the ground, so as to
leave the upper surface concave, and it will receive the
fallmg caterpillars when you beat. If you aim at the
pseudo-caterpillars of the Cimhicidcs, you must turn your
attention principally to the different species of sallows
and willows {Salix L.). Your spoils you will put into
boxes with their food, as above directed, to bring them
home.

* See above, p. 516.

540 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, ScC.

There are several kinds of boxes recommended to re-
ceive them and breed them in. If your only object is to
get the perfect insect, a cubical box of moderate dimen-
sions, glazed in front or on one side to enable you to
watch their proceedings, with the other sides and top
fitted with fine canvass for the admission of air, will very
well answer this purpose ; or your box may be canvassed
all round, with a door in front*. In this you may place
a small garden-pot filled with earth, with a phial of
water plunged in it to receive the insects' food. This
might be moved, when you wish to change the water,
without disturbing the earth, which should be kept some-
what moist. The earth is for those caterpillars whose
pupae are subterranean. But as you will probably wish
to proceed scientifically, and ascertain precisely the moth
that comes from each caterpillar, I should strongly re-
commend to you a box invented by Mr. Stephens, which
he describes in a letter to me in nearly these words : —
"The length of the box is 20 inches, height 12, and
breadth 6 ; and it is divided into^ue compartments. Its
lower half is constructed intirely of wood, and the upper
of coarse gauze stretched upon wooden or wire frames :
each compartment has a separate door, and is moreover
furnished with a phial in the centre for the purpose of
containing water, in which the food is kept fresh ; and is
half-filled with a mixture of fine earth and the dust from
the inside of rotten trees ; the latter article being added
for the purpose of rendering the former less binding upon
the pupae, as well as being highly important for the use
of such larvae as construct their cocoons of rotten wood.
The chief advantages of a breeding cage of the above

» Plate XXIV. Fig. 6.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 541

construction are, the occupation of less room than five
separate cages, and a diminution of expense ; both im-
portant considerations when any person is engaged ex-
tensively in rearing insects. Whatever be the construc-
tion of the box, it is highly necessary that the larvae be
constantly supplied with fresh food, and that the earth at
the bottom should be kept damp. To accomplish the
latter object, I keep a thick laj^er of moss upon the sur-
face, which I take out occasionally (perhaps once a week
during hot weather, and once a fortnight or three weeks
in winter), and saturate completely with water, and return
it to its place: this keeps up a sufficient supply of moisture,
without allowing the earth to become too wet, which is
equally injurious to the pupae with too much aridity. By
numbering the cells, and keeping a register correspond-
ing with the numbers, the history of any particular larva
or brood may be traced."

In attending to your insects in their cells, your expec-
tations will sometimes be disappointed, when, instead of a
butterfly or moth, you find only an Ichneumon. But this
you must not regard as all misfortune ; for by this means
you will be better instructed in the history of each species,
and learn to the attack of what enemies it is exposed :
and thus you may get many species of these parasitic de-
vourers of insects that you would not elsewhere meet
with. If your caterpillars, however, appear to be of a
rare kind, you must watch, and often examine them ; and
if you discover black specks upon any one, that appear
unnatural or like nits, they may be extracted, Mr. Ha-
worth assures us*, by a pair of small pliers; and if the
operation is adroitly performed, the caterpillar will reco-

* Lepidopt, Britann, 87.

542 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C.

ver and do well. You will often meet Lepidopterous
larvae travelling over I'oads and pathways : at such times
they have usually done feeding, and are seeking a spot
in which they may, assume the pupa with safety. These
you may place in one of your cells, and they will select
a station for themselves. You must be careful frequently
to examine the boxes in which you have pupas, that you
may take the imago as soon as it appears, and before it
has had time to injure itself in attempting to escape. I
mentioned to you on a former occasion Reaumur's expe-
riments to accelerate the appearance of the butterfly^ ; —
there is another still more remarkable, to which he had
recourse for this purpose : it was by hatching his pupas
under a hen!! You will wonder, perhaps, how this
could be effected, and be disposed to maintain that the
pupae must be crushed by the weight of the brooding
animal. How did the ingenious and illustrious expe-
rimentalist prevent this ? He prepared a hollow ball of
glass, open at one end, about the shape and size of a
turkey's egg. Having several chrysalises of the nettle-i
butterfly ( Vanessa Urticce) suspended to a piece of paper,
he cut out some of these singly, with a square portion of
die paper attached to them, and covered witli paste the
side opposite to that from which the chrysalis was sus-
pended : these he introduced into the ball through the
aperture, placing them as near to each other as possible,
taking care so to apply the pasted surface to the inside of
the ball, that when the side to which they were fixed was
uppermost they all hung as from a vault. This being
done, he stopped the aperture with a linen plug, but not

•Vol. III. p. 26.3-.

ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS, &C. 543

SO completely as to cut off all communication with the
atmosphere : he next placed the egg under a hen that
had been sitting some days, who always kept it at the
side of the nest, where it nevertheless derived benefit
from her incubation. After the first day its interior
was covered with vapour ti-anspired by the chrj'salises.
Upon this Reaumur took the egg, and removing the
linen plug it soon became dry again : he replaced it
under the hen, and no vapour afterwards appeared. In
about Jour days the first butterfly ever hatched under a
hen made its appearance; it would probably have re-
quired Jburteen under ordinary circumstances. He tried
the same experiment with some Dipterous pupae; but the
heat was too great for them, and they all perished *.

Having properly prepared and set your specimens as
above directed, the next step, when they have remained
a sufficient time to be perfectly dry, is to place them in
your cabinet. If you collect foreign insects as well as
British, you may either preserve the latter in a separate
cabinet, or keep both in the same, distinguishing the in-
digenous species by a particular mark. The letter B in
red ink, if the pin which transfixes the insect be run
through it, or, in the case of Lepidoptera, placed before
the specimen, would be a very distinct and sufficient in-
dication of them. The drawers of your cabinets should
be about 18 inches square, and from the glass to the
corked bottom about an inch and a half in depth : but
the larger Dynastida;^ as Megasoma Actaon, &c., will re-
quire tixio inches. The frame of the glass should be rab-

* Reaumur ii. 12 — .

544 ENTOMOLOdldiL msTRUMENTS, &C.

betetf Tinderneath ; arid parallel with the sides of thfe'
drawer, but a little lower, there should be inner side-"
pieces fixed, so as to form a cavity all round of a proper
width to closely recei^^e' the rabbet; and likewise to cfoti-
tain the camphor for preserving your insects from *th^
attack of Acari, &c.; to emit the scent of which, mari^
holes should be bored in the side-pieces. Each cabinet'
may contain forty of these drawers in a double series,
protected by folding doo^s ; and you may place one ca!-'
binet tipon another, if your space admits it. You wilP
find a tool used by bell-hangers for cutting their wire'
very convenient to behead or otherwise curtail the pins^^
as those with which foreign insects are transfixed are
often too long. If you cut them off below the insect, cut'
them obliquely, which will leave a point that will enter'
the corkH §Ji*^ y:>*Ximiii is lo jctaiaaqa i*ilJ io omii« ifcr/n:J

When your drawers are smoothlT/ corked.^ aiid neat^^
papered, first divide each transversely by a Jiill black^
line ; parallel witb this, on each side, draw a line witn
red ink : then, for arranging your insects, draw pericW'
lines, which are easily obliterated, at right angles with''
the others, according to the general size of the insect's •
thjkt -ate to occupy them. Insects look better thus yr-
ranged in double columns, than if the pencil lineS tti^^
versed the whole width of the drawers. In arratigiti^"
them, you may either place them in a straight line he-^-
t%een the pencil lines, — which I think is best,-^io]h"^js<^
them. You will begin your columns from the red'line^X
in the middle, and not from the sides of the drawer: thii^*^

the heads of those on one side of it will be in an opposite"
p. w^ri {ot aoBqa t/bsI oi gunag das'*

•loqu /'S'frf See Mr.Sattoifelle's C'd»w^VwrfiKW,^ll"fi*^»^ '*-^

71 JOV

KNTOMOLOGICAL IXSTRUMKNTS, &C. 54-5

direction to those on the othei*. Where your pins are very
fine and weak, you must make a hole first with a com-
mon lace-pin ; otherwise, in forcing them into the cork,
they will bend. In labelling your specimens, you should
stick the appellation of the genus or subgenus with a
pin before the species that belong to it. As to the species
themselves, you may eitlier number them 1, 2, 3, &c.,
sticking the pin they are upon through the number, and
denoting them by a corresponding one in your catalogue;
or you may at once write the trivial name, with the ini-
tial of the genus upon a label transfixed in the same
manner. Lepidoptera cannot easily be arranged in co-
lumns. Perhaps I'i squares, corresponding with the size
and number of the specimens of any given species you
wish to preserve, were made with pencil, a label of the
trivial name of the species, or a number being placed at
its head, it would be as good a way as any other. But
every one must be left to his own taste in these matters.
Wherever you can, procure a specimen of each sex of
an insect, and where important characters require it, let
some of your Lepidopterous specimens exhibit the under
side of the wings.

In arranging insects in your cabinet, if you wish to
have it scientific, as much as the nature of the subject
will admit, follow the series of affinities ,- but you may re-
serve a few drawers to place in contrast analogous forms.
As your numbers of species increase you will have to alter
your arrangement ; but as pencil lines are easily rubbed
out, this will occasion you less trouble than if they were
drawn with ink. You should always be careful under
each genus to leave space for new species.

As certain Acari, Tineidte, Ptinid<v, &c., prey upon

VOL. IV. 2 N

.jl6 ENTOMOLOGICAL INSTUILMEXTS, &C.

dead insects, you will of course wish to know how they
may be kept out of your drawers, or banished when de-
tected there. Camphor is the general remedy recom-
mended. The cavity closed by the rabbet of the glass
frame affords a good receptacle for this necessary article:
put some roughly powdered into each side, and be care-
ful to renew it when evaporated. This will generally
preserve your insects, as will be seen from the result of
the follovr'ing experiment. — Some insects in a chip box
having become much infested by Acari and Psocus pul-
saiorius, I placed under a wine-glass several of each
along with roughly-powdered camphor : at the end of
twenty-four hours the Acari were alive; but at the end
of forty-eight they were all apparently dead, and did not
revive upon the removal of the camphor. The speci-
mens of Psocus all appeared dead in an hour, and never
revived. If the camphor be put only into one side of a
drawer, and in a lump, though perhaps it may keep out
"" Acari, &c., it will not expel them. .MijjiJxBtt

• jfioiq
tdj o.t

taum

„;. .; A-,. A., ..^^

bill bsah
I Lsnijoaiq

-sb nsriv/ L. --r-o-^u 'juo'^'io Juo Jqsjl so T(;em

«moaai ijbamei fBfen^: Oi^awiaO ,3ietii baiosi

:3' .-^aooan ?u;"r

yl:

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

•

An Entomologist who aspires to more than the cha-
racter of a mere amateur, will not be content with fill-
ing his cabinet with nameless objects for the sole amuse-
ment of the eye ; but will also be anxious to acquire
some knowledge of what he has collected, and to ascer-
tain by what names, whether indicating their genus or
species, they have been distinguished by scientific writers
who have described insects either in general or those of
particular districts. Thus only can he himself derive
profit from any discoveries he may make, or contribute
to the further progress of the science*.

But in order to accomplish this object effectually, you
must remember and practise the Onslow motto — Festina
lente : — you must not be too eager to name your species,
but begin first with grouping your collection. The only
way to acquire, in any degree, a correct knowledge of
the Natural System, or of the general plan of the Crea-
tor, which is the primum and ultimiim of true science,
is by studying groups. The knowledge of species is in-
deed indispensable for the registry of facts and other
practical purposes, but the knowledge of groups leads

"» Compare what is said Vol, I. p. 4/ — .
2 N 2

foW 'hitter 'WJsi^yfivl ktid ifideed it i$ through these that
#e best descend to the study of species. o? > oau;!

I will suppose you have made yourself mastei* of '^
much of the technical language, particularly the names
and most important attributes of the principal organs of
itisects, as will suffice for understanding descriptions, or
Riiowing these parts when you see them. I will also
further suppose that what was formerly said on thiese
subjects lias been suffiliently studied, to enable you with-
out much difficulty or hesitation to say whether any
given object belongs to the Class Insecta or Arachnida^
or to which of their respective Orders =>. You are there-
fore qualified to arrange your collection into its j>rma7y
groups. But you have seen that many others intervene
between the Order and the genus or species. As the
genera of Linne are mostly primary groups of Orders,
perhaps, setting aside such insects included in them by
him as your eye and their apparent characters convince
you have no claim to a place there, your next best
step would be to make yourself thoroughly acquainted
with them. When you have accurately marshalled
and intimately studied these groups, you will probably
have acquired an eye and a tact, cxperto crede, for group-
ing without book, and may proceed by analysis to re-
solve your whole collection, as nearly as possible, into tts
many as nature seems to indicate to you. In doing this
you will doubtless at first fall into many errors ; biit th^sfe^
practice and a closer examination will in tini^ ' eiiable
you to rectify. Having thus got your groups as nefaY
to nature as you can, you may now have recourse to those

• Vol. III. p. 28—. See above, p. .368—.

INVEiJTIGATION OF INSECTS. 54-9

authdrs, particularly Fabricius and Latreiile, who luive
subdivided die genera of Linne ; and you will see which
of' your groups agree witli theirs, detect your own errors,
and often theirs, and be enabled to label each of your
genera and higher groups, if already known, with its
modern appellation. You a)e now qualified also to
enter scientifically into the study of the characters that
distinguish groups, and may proceed, wherever opj)ori^
tunity is afforded, to examine the trophi, which may
Qften be displayed sufficiently by the means recommended
in my last letter^. In this way you may learn also io
know your groups as well by character as by habit, and
be qualified to trace the gradual progress of nature froni
form to form; and may look upon yourself as duly pre-
pared to put the last hand to your labours, and proceed
to the examination of species. mA "io BiansB

.. It will have occurred to you, in making out your genera
or lowest groups, that some consist of a vastly greater
number of species than others. It seems advisable
therefore, when you apply yourself seriously to ascertain
what described ones your cabinet contains, to begin with
those genera which appear to be poor in them ; for here
y^ur labour will be comparatively light, from the small
number you will have to examine; and you will become
practised in the employment before you are called upon
to attack those that overflow. Had Fabricius and
other describers of species taken the trouble to sub-,
divide the larger genera, as might easily have been done,
into more sections or subgenera, the student would have
been spared a most discouraging labour. To be obliged

fif(- -^ See above, p. oo'S.

550 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

to compare a single iiulividual witli the descriptions of
from 100 to 300 species*, to ascertain its name, seems
enough to make you start aside witli horror from tlie
employment, and be content that your species should
remain unnamed, rather than expose yourself to such a
waste of time and patience. But to lessen your alarm
and encourage you to proceed, I must observe to you,
though in a few instances it may be necessary to ad-
vert to the description of every single species in a sec-
tion, yet that this is seldom requisite ; and where it iSj
there are many helps to diminish the labour and abridge
the process. A large number of insects are characte-
rized by their colour; and it is the practice of all good de-
scribers to begin their definition of the species with that
which predominates, and then to enumerate the varia-
tions from it. Thus, if an insect be all black except the
thorax^ antenme, and legs, you will find it thus charac-
terized, ^^ Black : mth thorax, antennce, a7id legs ferrugi-
no?is" ; and so on. Hence, having noticed the predon)i-
nant colour of your unknown species, in many genera
you may compare it with the descriptions contained in a
whole page at a single glance, and only read the further
descriptions when the colour agrees. A practised Ento-
^ifiblogist will thus investigate his insects vidth a rapidity
which to an unlearned bystander would seem impossible.
Though I have instanced colour as being the character
most commonly employed in describing species of in-
sects, you will readily conceive that in some tribes other
characters afford more prominent distinctions. Thus in

' In Elater, Fabricius describes 137 species; in MeMontha, 149 ;
in one section of RynchcEnus, 161 ; of Curculio, 183 ; and in his Pa-
piliones Heliconii, 300.

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 551

the Dy)iastid(£ and many other I^etalocerous beetles, the
principal specific character is derived from the horns or
tubercles that arm the head and thorax : in Liicamis^ L.
from the rnandlbulcc ; and in Prionus F. from the mar-
ginal teeth of the thorax. If the insect, then, you want
to name belongs to any of these genera, having observed
its peculiar characters in this respect, you may ascertain
in a very few minutes Ayh^ther any already described
exhibit the same. This facility of investigation can be
better acquired by practice than precept, and cannot be
attained all at once. The above hints, however, may be
of some use ; and camiot fail to be so, if you always en-
deavour to make yourself acquainted by a previous care-
ful examination with the characters of every new insect
you acquire, — whether those of form, colour, or sculp-
ture,— before you attempt to discover its name in Fabri-
cius or any other author.

When you have made such proficiency in the study
as to be familiar with a few species of each section of an
extensive genus, the labour of investigation will some-
times be greatly facilitated by attending to that con-
formity between the proportions, general aspect, and
figure of a known and an unknown insect, which Natu-
ralists express by the name of habit, and which, though
easily perceived by a practised eye, is described with
such difficulty. Scientific Entomologists in their de-
scriptions have usually taken care to place near to each
other, species agreeing in habit. When therefore you
know the name of one species, and find another of the
same general habit, you may conmionly take it for
granted that if described at all by your author, it wdli be
j)laced near that already known to you. Thus, supjK)-

gg^ 11^Vl!!!frRlAT10N Ob INSECTS.

s$iig^dU'ar^ftet}uiainte*i with that common weevil R/it/n-'
ckcenusScwjy/iuicaiaF. {^Cioniis Latr.), and find its near
relation R. Blattm^ia; F.; instead of comparing it one
by one with the 161 species which compose his LoU"
girbstj^sfenwribusdentatis of that genus in the iSj/5^<?y»)d;
El&iH/terafortwi, y oil would at oncie turn to the former,
very near which you would without further trouble dis-
cover it; Fortunate would it be,- could the Etttomo*
lbgist'i^#a5^fe depend on thus finding descriptions of
allied species in the neighbourhood of each other ; but
unhappily the most distinguished authors have sometimes
violated this important rule, so that tve cannot always be
eiertaiii that any given species is not elsewhere described
than in its right place. Fabricius in many instances
often removes widely asunder insects not merely related,
biit which are in reality scarcely more than varieties of
the same species^. In fact, the attention of this cele-
brated author was so distracted by the immensitj^ of the
materials he had to arrange, by the distance of the ca^-
nt>inets, in many cases, from each other, the niew spe^
cies of which he undertook to describe, and the rapidity
with which they necessarily passed under his eye, that
he seems never to have attained any nice perception of
^e'qffijiiii^s ontisects. j^ioaqes ,ii^n

■yAo Yqxx must not conclude, however, that the investiga-
tion of a new insect is even to an adept always a work of
ease and dispatch. Often, when seemingly ascertained
by the rapid process abovte indicated, a furthei^nquiry
will be requisite ; the more detailed description must be

Thus be places Chleenia holoscriccEa and nigricornis, which might
pass for varieties, far asunder; and Dromia agilis is even put in a
different section from D. quadriniaculata, triuwnteUa, &c. •^^'^

INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. 553

readj> and figures consulted, before its name can be in-
disputably determined. In addition to the difficulty
arising from the insufficient characters frequently given
by Fabricius and the older autliors, obstacles arising
from their errors not seldom intervene. Thus they have
sometimes selected for a specific character, — as in the case
of Megachile ceniuncularis, Nomada riificornis^ and vari-
ous other insects, — what really only indicates a, famijy.
iAt other times sexual characters common to many, — as
in Eucera longicorfiis, Loaistaperspicillata F., &c.,— have
been had recourse to. In these cases, in order satisfac-
torily to ascertain your species, you must further con-
sult the si/nonyms and habitat given by the original de-
scriber, especially the figures he has referred to. When
all these fail, as they sometimes will, the derniev. resort
is a reference to the cabinet containing the original spe^
cimen from which the description was drawn. British
Entomologists possess an invaluable privilege, which
tiieir continental brethren may well envy them, in having
the most liberal access, indulged to them by the learned
President of the Linnean Society, to Linne's collection
pf insects, from which a large proportion of the species
ihe desci'ibed may be ascertained. Several of tlie^ catfi-
nets, especially the Banksian, — now the property of the
.Linnean Society, — from which Fabricius described his
';insects, may also still be consulted ; and thus many mis-
takes rectified, which would otherwise greatly mislead^.
Though sometimes the limits that separate good spe-

* It may not be amiss to mention a few : — Sphcerklium dytiscoides
is a HrjdrophUus related to H.fuscipes. S.glabmfnm is heteromerous,
probably one of the Helopii Latr. Carabiis retitsm and Madera; both
belong to Calosoma. Ciste/a a/igustata is a true Choleva. Sec Linn.
Tz-fi-M. xi. 138.^— S. - ^nap ,vl moil ftcilaaa 3f!3idiftrb

554 INVKSriGATlON OF INSECTS.

cies appear at livst very slight, and require a practised
eye to catch them, yet it occasionally happens that con-
siderable apparent differences may safely be disregarded.
The colour of insects, — to which unhappily for waujij 0(f
better characters we are so generally forced to have re-
course,— though usually constant, is in some species very
variable*. This is the case sometimes with ^voJiole colours.
Thus Carabtis arvensis, Pcecilus cupratSy &c., are some-
times of a copper colour ; at others, resemble brass ; at
others, they are green or blue, and even black. The
colour of spots also often varies. In some individuals
qS Pentatoma oleracea they are pale, and in others,, r,^4i,
The number and shape of spots are also often incon-
stant. Many of the species of Coccinella so abound in
these variations, that nothing short of the most careJ^usl
examination can enable you to distinguish the species
from the variety. Insects vary also in size : but as this;
is never assumed as a specific character, it will not oc-
casion you much trouble. Where the difference in thisi
respect between two specimens is very great, the pre-
sumption is that they are specifically distinct. Diffe-
rences in sculpture and proportion do not alM^ays indicate
different species-, this being sometimes, as we have seen
above, only a sexual character''. Authors also in their
descriptions in this respect sometimes mislead the young
student. When Linne calls the thorax of Aphodius eVrr
raticus smooth {Icevis)^ he would not expect to find it co-
vered with impressed puncta, and with a longitudinal
posterior impressed line. Likewise in describing Chlacuia
vestita and nigricornis^ Fabricius passes without notice

" See above, p. 3.')/. " Vol. III. p. .30.5.

INVESTIGA'IION or INSECTS. 555

their punctate surface, so different from that of other
HarpaUdcE, Errors of this kind liowever, it is but fair
to observe, are chiefly to be attributed to the circum-
stance that both Linne and Fabricius rarely employed
a microscope in making descriptions ; though no one now
attempts this, except where insects are large, without
such an aid.

If you ask. How am I to acquire this delicacy of tact
which is to decide when the terms of a specific character
are to be rigidly adhered to, and when taken with a cer-
tain latitude? I answer, In the same way in which a
connoisseur attains the faculty of discerning the works
of different masters in painting ; — by such carefiil study
of your author as will make you master of his style.
Thus you will soon perceive in what cases expressions
are to be taken literally and strictly, or with some al-
lowance and abatement.

There yet remains more distinctly to be adverted to,
the assistance that may be derived in the investigation of
insects from figures. Generally speaking, these should
never be referred to in the first instance, but be regarded
as a resource when the ordinary methods leave the sub-
ject of inquiry doubtful. Those who begin their ento-
mological studies by turning over figures usually end
them there, and never attain to that nameless tact in
making out insects that can only be the result of patient
study. Indeed figures, though often very useful, and
sometimes indispensable, can scarcely ever exhibit those
nice characters, particularly as to sculpture, that distin-
guish some insects. Our modern artists, indeed, are re-
medying this defect of the art, by giving in many cases
the thorax or elytrum a})art, with all its sculptural pecu-

556 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS.

liarities : but this is not, and cannot be, done so as to re--
present every one. But though in general figures should
be your last resort, I know not whether an exception to
the rule may not be advisable with respect to the Lepido'
pta'a^ which are more difficult to be intelligibly described
than any other order of insects; while a good figure exhi-
bits to the eye all those markings and shades, that scarcely
any description can place clearly before the mintfeni; Iliv/
When every attempt to investigate the name of your
unknown species fails, and you have consequently reason
to believe that it is undescribed, the best mode you qslw
pursue for retaining that knowledge of its characters,
which fi'oin your long investigation you must have ac-
quired, is to note them down in your entomological
journal, inserting it under its proper genus with a tri-
vial name of your own. Such a journal you will find
almost a sine qua non for containing a catalogue of your
insects, and to register any observations concerning indi-
viduals you may have had an opportunit}^ of making.
With regard to this journal, I should recommend^dj
you to get two blank books. One a duodecimo of 200 or
300 pages, to contain the mere catalogue of your insects,
their habitat and localities, or the source from which you'
derived them. In this you should number the genera in
Roman capitals, and the species under each bj?^ a figure ;
leaving considerable space at the end of each genus for
the insertion of new species. The other book shoi Jd be
of an octavo size, containing 400 or 500 pages. Undet**
the number of each genus and species you might de-
scribe and figure it, if undescribed ; if described, note in
what it varies from the description, and Avliat 6lj^'f^'6Tte/s
are overlooked : and in general ijiscrt sucl,i j^bseryi^tions,

-j-^

INVESTJGATLON OF INSECTS. 5S^

with regard to its economy and habits j as'j'ou mayhave
had an opportunity of making- — As to foreign insects,
wherever you can, upon good authority, be particular!
in indicating the country and station of each specimenu';

i)iineed not say much to you concerning the micro-
scopes you should use for the examination of insects, a
common pocket one of three glasses of different powers
will answer every ordinary purpose*. > rt(»ijqiij^9b .^iib

1U07 to' ^niHa otiJ ^»iJ;J^lJasvuI oj j- r/si naiiW

We hkve treated hitherto of insects as we find them
now inhabiting our globe : but I must not conclude our
correspondence without taking some notice of those that
are found in a. fossil state. Fossil insects may be divided
into those that are found in amhe7', and those that are
found in other substances.

It has been observed with respect to insectiferous am-
ber, that the greater part of the insects found in it exist
no longer in the countries that produce that amber, and
that in every different locality the insects found in it are
different. Thus the amber of Sicily contains various
species of Coleoptera not to be met with in other ambers,
while that of the Baltic is rich in Diptera and Nenroj^tera^ .
It is further observed, that the insects inclosed in the
amber of Prussia, and those figured by Sendelius in his
Historia Succinontm^ all belong to genera at this time
found in Europe"^. Insects of the following genera are
recorded as having been found in this singular substance :
Platypus^ Elater, Atractocerus ; Gryllus^ Mantis ; larvae

, * For dissections the one recominended above, p. 194, may be used.
Sometimes a watchmaker's e^'e-glass, which also sets the hands at
liberty, will be found useful.

•> N'.Dirf. d'Hist. Nat. xxxii. 264. " Ibid. xvi. 281 .

558 INVESTIGATION OF INSECTS. ,

o^ Lepidoptera ; Phri/ganeaY,,; Ephemera, PerlOf TermeU;
Formica; Tlpula,Bibio, Empis; Scolopejidra ; and various
Araclmida^. In a piece of amber in my collection I find
Evania, Formica^ Chironomiis, and some Arachnida.Hp^^
Fossil insects have also been found in other substances.
Parkinson figures larvae of Libelhdina found in lime-
stone^; some Melolontha in slate ; a Polistes in schistus ;
Carabi and Necrohia in vegetable debris: but some of
these rather belong to a comparatively modern forma-
tion •=.

I observed in the outset of our correspondence, that
we vv^ere entering an august temple, exhibiting in its
inmost sanctuary the symbols of the Divine Presence"*.
In proportion as we have penetrated, glory from that
Shechinah has more and more shone forth : and whether
we have considered the uses of insects, their ways and
instincts, their forms and structure, and their arrange-
ment in a wondrous and complex system, the Wisdom,
Power and Goodness of their and our Creator have
every where been marvellously conspicuous, and calcu-
lated to awaken in us every devotional feeling. If, indeed,
we admire and study these little creatures, or any other
department of nature, without reference to their Crea-
tor, and collect and love them merely for themselves, we
shall be in some sense idolaters, and, like the ancient
woi'ld, put the liwks of God in his place. But if, while
we admire them and store them up and study them, we
see in them his glory reflected, and in the creature love

» N. Diet. d'Hist. Kat. xvi, 281.

^ Organic Remains iii. /. xvii. /. 2.

<= Ibid. 281—. J Vol.. I. p. 20.

INVESTKiATION OF INSECTS. 559

the Creator, the study of them, in conjunction with
that of the written Word, will be highly beneficial to us,
and at the same time that it ministers to our temporal
enjoyment will promote our eternal interests.

Taking this view, I cannot better close our correspon-
dence on the subject that has so long occupied us, than
in. the pious words of one of our most admired poets:

io rtmoa Ju(J

" Happy if full of days — but happier far.

If, ere we yet discern life's evening star,

Sick of the service of a world that feeds

Its patient drudges with dry chaff and weeds.

We can escape from custom's idiot sway,

To serve the Sovereign we were born t' obey.

Then sweet to muse upon his skill display'd

(Infinite skill) in all that he has made !

To trace, in Nature's most minute design.

The signature and stamp of pow'r divine,
bun Contrivance intricate, express'd with ease,
.,,,;^Vhere unassisted sight no beauty sees, ^^j.

The shapely limb and lubricated joint.

Within the small dimensions, of a point,

IVIuscle anil nerve miraculously spun,
" " His mighty work, who speaks and it is done,

Th' Invisible in things scarce seen reveal'd,
i To whom an atom is an ample field :
, To wonder at a thousand insect forms.

These hatch'd, and those resuscitated worms.

New life ordain'd and brighter scenes to share.

Once prone on earth, now buoyant upon air.

Whose shape would make them, had they bulk and size.

More hideous foes than fancy can devise ;

With helmet-heads and dragon-scales adorn' d.

The mighty myriads, now securely scorn'd,

Would mock the majesty of man's high birth,

Despise his bulwarks, and unpeople earth :

JGO INVESTIGATION OF INSF.CTS.

Then with a glance of fancy to survey,
Far as the faculty can stretch away.
Ten thousand rivers pour'd at his command
From urns that never fail through every land;
These like a deluge with impetuous force,
Those winding modestly a silent course;
The cloud-surmounting alps, the fruitful vales;
Seas on which every nation spreads her sails;
- The sun, a world whence other worlds drink light;
The crescent moon, the diadem of night ;
Stars countless, each in his appointed place,
Fast anchor'd in the deep abyss of space : —
At such a sight to catch the poet's flame.
And with a rapture like his own exclaim.
These are thy glorious works, thou source of good !
I low dimly seen, how faintly understood !
Thine, and upheld by thy paternal care.
This universal frame, thus wondrous fair ;
Thy power divine, and bounty beyond thought,
Adored and praised in all that thou hast wrought.
Absorb'd in that immensity I see,
1 shrink abas'd, and yet aspire to thee ;
Instruct me, guide me to that heavenly day,
Thy words, more clearly than thy works, display,
That, while thy truths my grosser thoughts refine,
I may resemble thee, and call thee mine.'"

* Cowper's Relircmcnt.

APPENDIX.

I.

DE GENtTALIBUS ET GENERATIONE INSEC-
TOR UM.

INTER tot et tanta Optimi Creatoris miracula, quae
Regnum Animale tantopere illustrant, vix ulla sunt majori
admiratione digna, et Physiologi eruditi introspectione, quam
quae ad generationem insectorum spectant. Quamvis enim
inter sexus organa vertebratorura aniraalium et insectorum
analogia baud parva locum babet; nuinero tamen, figura et
proportione partium, miro modo s.nepius differunt ; et organa
insuper plura in insectis reperiuntur quorum in vertebratis
exempla frustra quaesiveris.

Hoc argumentum tractando duo sunt imprimis conside-
randa, genitalia nempe ipsa utriusque sexiis, et coitus.

I. De genitalibus in genere prima observatio erit, " quo
minor borum, habita corporis ratione, moles, eo magis nervo-
rum systema, et cephalicum imprimis gangb'um, predominans
fit; eo major igitur intellectus facultas (instincto naturali con-
sociata) reperitur," ut in principibus, Apibiis nempe, Formica,
&c.* In Hymenopteris, iterum, Dipteris, et Neuropteris, haec
organa maxime retracta sunt; dum in Lepidopteris, Coleo-
pteris, et Orthopteris (quorum insuper mascula et feminea

" RifFerschweils De Insect. Genital. 9,
VOL. IV. 2 O

562 APPENDIX.

insigniter inter se congruunt *), magis exserta jacent''. Geni-
talia plerumque in extremitate postica abdominis sub ano sita
sunt<=, sed in Arachnidis et Libellulinis masculis in basi ventris,
in Phalangio sub ore, et in Chilog7iathis in anteriore corporis
parte subtus latitanf*. Ubi organa duplicantur, ut testes, sem-
per symmetrica sunt. Non obliviscendum est quod in diversis
generibus habitu externo persimili consociatis, imo in diversis
unius generis speciebus genitalia diversa interdum reperiun-
tur"^: sic in IjameWicormhiis stercorariis [ScarabcBus, Copris,
&c.), testes tantummodo sunt f/wo ,* \n arhoreis [Melolontha,
&c.) duodecim, et in Jloralibiis {Cetonia,&c.) vigmti-quatuor. "

Genitalia sunt vel mascula vel Jeminea.

i. Genitalia w?«5CH^a, snnt penis; canalis excretorius ; vesiculcB
seminales ; vasa dejerentia ; testes ; prehensores ; et semen.

1. Penis^ qnoa,d. substantimn plerumque memhranaceus, at
interdum corneus est, et intus cavernosus s^ ; in Coleopteris
apice vagina bivalvi vulvam aperients instructus est'':^^Mm
variat admodum, saepius tamen cylindricus vel subcylindricus
est; in Blattis apicem versus sensim attenuatus'; in Cherme
Pyri capitatus''; in Vespa vulgari cochleariformis' ; in Cra-
brone bilobus" ; in Vespa alia quadam incurvus et apice bicor-
nis"; in Musca vivipara apice spinosus"; in Megachile mu-

* t)e Orthopteris hoc praecipiie notavit D. Marcel, de Serres
{Mem. du Mus. 1819. 113— .j in quibus vesiculge seminales, colle-
terio; testes, ovariis; vasa deferentia, ovitliictui ; canalis seminalis,
ovipositori, &c., mutuo adamussim respondent.

^ RifFerschw. De Insect. Genital. 9.
" Reaum. ii. 79. Herold. Schmetterl. t. vf.f. 2, 3.
<i Treviranus yirac/mjrf. 11,36 — . Reaum. vi. 436. N, Diet. cV Hist.
Nat. xi. 82. Marcel, de Serr. ubisupr. 104. Latreille Fam. Nat. 324.

* Rifferschw. ubi supr. ^ Plate XXII. Fig. 1. a.
e Rifferschw. 10, N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 2i2.

h Ibid. & XXXV. 412. ' Gaede jbiat. der Ins. t.\. f. 9. a.

k De Gecr iii. t. ix./. W.t. ' Reaum. vi. t. xvi./. 6, 7- g-

"' Ibid. #. xviii. /. 4, 5. g. " Ibid. t. xxvii./. 16. c.

° De Geer vi. t. iii. /. 17. d, e, f.

APPENDIX. 563

raria difformis'; in Tyrophaga piitri et quibusdam aliis Mus-
cidis, spiralis''; in Libellida cBiiea et Phalangio biarticulatus*^.
Utplurimum nudus est, sed in Tephrite fimbriatus. In insec-
tis proprie dictis simplex est hoc organon, in Scorpionibus au-
tem duplex evadit; quod fit etiam in quibusdam reptilibus,
Serpentibus nempe et Lacertis"^.

2. Canalis excretorius e concursu vesicularum seminalium
formatur, et a pene excipitur in quo terminat et cui semen
reddit; interdum brevissimus est, ut in Blatta", et interdum
itei-um praelongus, ut in Blapte Mortisaga, Tyrophaga pidri, et
aliis ^ Plerumque cylindricus est, musculosus, compactus, et
externe tracheis pertextus».

3. Vesicidce seminales conniventes formant, ut jam dictum
est, canalem excretorium communem cujus prolongatio bifida
esse videntur ; vasa deferentia hinc excipiunt. Interdum vasa
haec ac vesiculae seminales eodem loco in canali excretorio
comrauni terminant, unde canalis hie tumidior fit"'. Vesiculae
supradictae maxima variant : modo canalem exliibent ventri-
cosum, tortum, implexum, longissimum ; modo reetum, bre-
viorem. In plerisque duce sunt vesiculae seminales, etiam in
Lepidopteris monorchidis; in quibusdam {^Tenebrione Moli'
tore, Hydrophilo piceo) qiiatuor' ; in aliis [Dytisco margmali)
sex^; et, in Lociistis et Blatta, plurimceK Breves admodum
sunt in Orthopteris et quibusdam Coleopteris"^ ; sed in aliis
longissimae ; in Qrycte nasicorni vicies, et in Cetotiia aurata

* Reaum. vi. t. viii./. 5. d, e, vi.
*" Swarain. Bibl. Nat. t. xliii. /. 17. a, b, c.
" De Geer ii. t. xix. /. 11./. N. Diet. cTHist. Nat. xi. 82.
>< Ibid. XXX. 41 ; xxix. 177. ^ Gaede Anat. t. i. f. 9.

' Ibid. 18. Swamra. ubisupr. ^. xliii. f. 17. c, d.
s RifFerschw. 10. " Ibid. 22.

i Gaede t. ii. /. 9. d, e. N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 241.
'^ Swamm. ubi supr. i. 223. t. xxii. /. 5. k, i. Hoc insecto et Ht/-
dropkilo supradicto organa insunt quaa pro Prosfatis habentur.
' N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 242. Gaede /. i. /. 9. dd.
•» Ibid, etiam t. ii. /. 9. 14, dd.

2 o 2

564 APPENDIX.

ter decies corpus longitudine superant^. In hisce organis
semen e testibus per vasa deferentia acceptum ante emissio-
nem elaboratur.

4. Fasa deferentia ita appellantur quia semen e testibus ac-
ceptum ad vesiculas seminales deferuwt. Ex utroque teste
unum vas deferens exit, et si utrinque plures sint testes, ut in
Mclolontha^, Cetonia, &c., omnia ad unicum utrinque canalem
formanduni confluunt, qui vesiculis supradictis semen reddit;
interdum, ut in Lepidopteris'^, ab his nullo modo separantur,
unum canalem aut tubum formantia ; sed in aliis penitus sunt
distincta'^. Ex eodem file quo contexuntur testes vasa defe-
rentia saepius deducuntur.

5. Testes organa sunt semen priraum secernentia : variant
compositiorie, numero, etjlgura. In quibusdam (Lejndopteris et
Hymenopteris) sunt corapacti vasculis visui se subducentibus;
in aliis ( Orthopteris, Neuropteris, Dipteris, et quibusdam Coleo-
pteris ) e vasculis brevibus caecis variique voluminis conformati
sunt, atque tunica densa tenaci vel rete tantum mucoso ob-
ducti^; vel iterum ex unico variisque modis tecto canali varie
contorto et implexo, qui deduci potest et baud raro massam
ovalem tracliearum ope contextam refert, conflantur, ut in
Coleopteris Prcsdaceis tarn aquaticis quam terrestribus'.

Numero etiam variant testes. Quaedam Lepidoptera, ut
Pieris Brassicce, item lulidce^, unico gaudent ; pleraque taraen
insecta animalia vertebrata hie semulantur, et testibus instru-
untur duobus; in Nepa cinerea et reliquis Hemipteris qua-
tuor vel quinque*", in Melolontha vulgari sex', et in Cetonia
aurata duodecim'', utrinque deteguntur. Interdum ex acinis

» Cuv. Anat. Comp. v. 192. >> Gaede t. ii. /. 2, e.

" Herold, Schmett, t. xxxii. "^ Gaede t. ii. /. 9.

« Rifferschw. 19. -' Ibid. 20. '^

8 Marcel, de Serres Mem.duMus. 1819. 115. " '

*" Ibid. 128. Comp. Cuv. Anat. Coinj}, v. 195. cum Swamm. Bihl,
Nat. I. 102.

i Cuv. /iirf. 191. "" Ibid.

APPENDIX. 565

pluribus compacti videntur, et baccifoimes appellari possunt.
In Lamia duodecim glandules in utroque teste coalitae inve-
niuntur*, et in Tenebrione Molitore plurimae''.

Quoad Jiguram, interdum, ut in Pieride Papilionum ge-
nere, spherici evadunt*^; in Acheta pyriformes*^; in A jje do •
mestica oblongi''; lineares et longissimi in Carabo coriaceo, in
quo decies longitudine corpus superant*^; in Nepa cinerea sub-
ovati, et singuli filamento longo varie convolute et contorto
terminati'. ' *.» lu.. - ^^^iuUvjuh

In larvis etiam hsec organa detegere est. Sic in erxic^'Tt-
eridis quatuor testes sunt utrinque, vel potius unicus ex qua-
tuor serie ordinatis, conflatus''. Hi sensim coacervantur do-
nee in sphaericum testera antea descriptuni coalescant.

6. Prehensores^ sunt organa figura varia quibuscum mas in
coitu feminge anum corripit et comprimit, Quoddam analo-
gum in quibusdam MammaliiSf Avibus, Piscibus, et Reptilibus^
invenitur, sed in insectis maxime conspicui. Eoruni siUis,
numerus, etjbrma, sunt notandi.

Quoad situm — circa foramen per quem prodit penis sub ano
pleruraque sunt inserti, sed in Conope cornu prehensorium in
segmento ventrali antepenultimo deprehenditur'; et in Libel-
lidinis, preeter prehensores anales, par est aliud anum spectans,
in secundo ventris segmento pone penis ipsius situm". Pre-
hensorum numerus minime constans : plerumque duo sunt, sed
in Tettigoniis F. unicus furcatus tantummodo videi'e est" ; iti
Lepidopteris variis, Conope, Libellulidis, tres anum armant, dift'
formes tamen°; duo paria Cidicem s'lgnant^, Megachilem mn~

^ Rifferschw. 22:"^ '*"' " Gaede VaUTl^Sf:^^ ' '"'^

<■ Herold. Schnett. t iv. /. 8, 9. " Gaede L ii.,/. l^.J^b.}

^ Swamm. ubi stq^r. /.xxi,/. 1. a. ^ Rifferschw. 21.^ , , ,1

"5 Swamm. t. iii. /. 6. /. "^ Herold. ubi suj)r. t, \.f. 1, 9. &c.

' Plate XXII. Fig. 1. b. ^ Cuv. ubi siipi: v. 115.

• De Geer vi. t. xv, /. 8. d. "" Ibid. ii. ^.xix, /. 11. e.

" Reanm. v. t. xix. /. 9.

" Ibid. ii. t. xxvi./. 10, 1 1 . //. De Geer ii. t. xix. / 9.
'' Reauni. iv. /. xl. /. 8. c, c.

566 APPENDIX.

rariam *, et Agrionidas '' ; in Locustls veris intra abdomen re-
tracta sunt haec organa; in pupa tamen L. morbillosce, in nos-
tro musaeo asservata, quinque apparent ; sex in Formicis De
Geerius detexit, sed in cognato gex\ere My rynica, duo tantum*^;
quatiior paribus postremo Tipula oleracea instructa est. Pre-
hensorum yornza multifarie variat, imo baud raro in specie
eadem : interdura enim prehensioni soli hujusmodi instrumenta
sunt adaptata, aliis diversae figurae compressionem efficientibus ;
interdura et utroque munere funguntur. In Pieride Bras-
siccs, in qua par unicum, concavo-convexi sunt, deltoidei, intus
setis rigidis fimbriati, et apice dente incurvo armati''; in
Acrida varia tenues, simplices, recur vi ; in Arctia lubricipeda,
qu£E tribus gaudet, laterales sunt concavo-convexi, ovati, dura
intermedins brevior est, triangularis et unguiculo armatus'^;
in Libellula cenea, et affinibus, duo superiores sunt lineares et
undulati, et ?V«/eno>" 7W2CM5 profunde bifidus*^; in Vanessa Ur-
ticcB exteriores duo sunt conchiformes, par autem interius un-
guiforme' ; in Cidice superiores longiores conici hirsuti, infe-
riores breviores et ut in praecedente unguem referunt''; in
Tipula oleracea^ in qua octupUci preliensore anus armatus, val-
vulae omnes figura diversae — par exterius nempe concavum
membranaceum reliquos includens, secundura unguiculatura,
tertium subclavatum, et ultimum fere lunatum' ; in Megachile
muraria, inter alios diversos, unum par literae T formam ha-
bet '' ; in Bombo forceps analis bivalvis est intus ramosus ' ; et
in Panorpa cheliformis '".
7. Jyesemine ipso insectorum paucula sunt notanda. Fluidum

* Reaum. vi. t. v'm.f. 4. c, b. " De Geer ii. t. xxi./. 20. 6, c.

= Ibid. t. xlii, f.U.b,c, d; t. xliii. /. 13. p.
^ Herold, Schmett. t, iv.f. 3. .r.r. ^ Reaum. ii. /. vii.f. 2. c, I.

f De Geer ii. t. xix,/. 9. b, c; f.\ 0. c. e Reaum. ii. t. iii,/. 3. c. I.
" Ibid. iv. t. xl. /. 8. c. e. '• Ibid. v. /. iii. /. 7, 8.

k Ibid. vi. i. viii. /. 4. b, c. ' Plati; XXII. Fig. 1. b.

■" Plate XV. Fig. 12. L".

\

APPENDIX. 567

est spissum, lacteum, granulis repletum ; sub lente punctula
numerosa, nigra, oblonga, incurva, in illo deteguntur. Quoad
analysin ejus, neque alkalinum neque acidum est, sed quod-
dam neutrum inter hos intermedium. Ex sanie vel sanguine
deoxydato, et durante coitu copiosissime, secernitur : in aqua
tepida solvitur, et conquassatum fundum petit: spiritu vini
rectificato superfuso flocculi quidam formantur ". r«

ii. Genitalia feminea vulva excepta antea tractavi '', haec est
tubus subcylindricus, foramine ovali vel lunato ab ano di-
stincto, cum matrice connexus, et per quern semen in coitu
transmittitur. In Scorpionibus duplicem esse vulvam affirmatur
duobus ovariis connexum '^.

II. Coitus. — Coitum insectorum tractaturo paucula de leno-
ciniis amatoriis, et aliis ejusmodi, quae antecedunt, sunt prae-
dicenda. Olfactu mares Phalcenarum interdum feminam la-
tentem, uti canis leporem, odorantur''; splendore phosphorico
Lampyrides et quorundam aliorum insectorum femin.Te mari-
tum ad lectum gramineum praelucent ; et hue referri forsan
debet plurium caecus ardor lumina circumvolandi, vel etiam
in lumen irruendi; sonus excitat feminas Tettigoniarum et
Gryllidarum", &c. ad amores, et cantu stridulo querelisque
amatoriis diem ducit mas cupidus, donee sponsa advolat, et
tori foliosi fit baud invita particeps. Sonitu etiam uterque
sexus formidati Anobii mutuo sese provocant ad venerem ^

In plurimis tamen insectis femina fit modestiae et pudicitiae
exemplar, et non nisi difficillime et capite averso maris ardori
se tradit. In insectorum moribus et ceconomia virtutum plu'
rimarum typum quendam et delineationem nobis proposuit
Deus O. M., quem imitari nos voluit, interdum jussite. Sic

^ Rifferschw. 12. ^ Vide supra. Letter XLII,

c N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 16. 425. Marcel, de Serres Mem. du
Mus. 1819. 89.

•^ Rai. Hist. Ins. 177. Jurine Hymeiiopt. 9. not.

* Vol. if. p. 394—. f N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 255.

* Prov. vi. 6; xxx. 25.

568 APPENDIX.

excitare nos ad laborem indefessum, ad prudentiam item et
amorem erga prolem Formicce dedif^ : Api ad devotam sui
consecrationem, et omnium facultatum et virium ad reipublicae
emolumentum, ad obsequium quoque verum erga parentes et
regem '' : atque ita, ut jam dictum est, in re amatoria insec-
torum feminae saepe speciera prae se ferunt pudoris et casti-
tatis, et virginibus verecundiam, virtutum omnium custodem,
et sexus sui ornamentum maxime proprium, moribus suis
prsedicant. Hujus modestiae exemplar insigne praebent Li-
belluUnce. CEstro amoris concitus, mas feminae collum prC'
hensore anali tripbyllo arripit et avolat, illam quasi praedara
secum gerens; sponsae sic electae, persuadere in animo est ut
caudam suam inflecteret, et ad coitum se daret, quod, ilia in-
vita, fieri nequit ; maris enim genitalia, ut antea dictum est, in
basi ventris sita, feminae vero in extreme ano ; hinc, nolente
ilia, vix fit coitus, et saepissime longo et vano labore, hue illuc
volando virginem protervam frustra solicitat ; sed tandem la-
cessitus aquas petit, quas sponsae cauda longa, me teste, sas-
pius riagellat, donee defatigata, et quasi ex frigido calorem
concipiens, demum et sensim caudam inflectit, et se reddit
amori*^. Aranenm ferocem, sjEvam etiam in amoribus, mas
caute appropinquat, et, si blanditiis ejus minus propitiam
sese ostendat, cito resilit, ne osculorum loco raorte donetur :
coitu etiam peracto, pede veloci ab uxore se subducit, quas
ilium, imo post Veneris aurea dona, alias forsan voraret*^. In
genere mares feminas antennarum et abdominis motibus et
frictione lenocinantur et ad coitum provocant.

Insecta sunt alia, ut Phalencx, MuscidcB quaedam, et Apis
dotnestica, in quibus inversa est haec naturae lex casta; harum
enim feminae marempetunt, vel blanditiis alliciunt ad amores.

Nunc de coiiu ipso tractabimus, in quo haec sunt praecipue
notanda — modtis, static relativa, locus, et duratib:^'^^'^'^^^^

» Vol. f. p.363— . " Vol. 11. Letter XIX.

f Rcaiini. vi. 432—. '' Dc Geer vii. 179—.

APPENDIX. 569

1. Plensque insectis penis tntrans est, sea m Muscidu

quibusdam inversa est lex, et feminse tubus retractiiis analis,

" foramen sub ano mairis penetrat et ita coeunt'^. Araneidis

'singular! et mirabili prorsus modo fit coitus; organienim

masculi functio partim palpis et partim meiiibro ventrali dele-

gatur : prioribus includitur glans qujE pudendum femineum

penetrat, et sic in utroque sexu, palpis ambobus alternis vici-

bus huic officio inservientibus, orgasmus venereus produci-

tur, cui insequitur fcecundatio, ab organo ww^m?^ raasculo ;

femina tubercula duo supra genitalia sita in rimas totidem

inter branchias maris imraittente, et in temporis memento

" omnia peracta sunt ''. Listerus, De Geerius, et alii in

■' zTootomia periti, in palpis latere organum masculum credide-

"' 'ra6i, sed ex observationibus et dissectionibus Trevirani patet,

testes et vesiculas seminales in abdomine locum habere*^; sed

exitus horum soluramodo in orificio '^ ; in palpis e contra est

"^ 6'rganum exsertile penem referens, quod in coitu erigitur et

"fere glandiforme est: hinc deduci potest, ut videtur, quod

utrumque organum pro genifale habendum, et fcecundatiohem

lemmai ab utroque pendere. ' ^

ii. Statio relativa. In pilerisque insectis, durante coitu,

maris statio superior est, Gijemince inferior, in hujus dorsum

' ^'idonscendente illo ; interdum tamen hasc lex inversa est, et ma-

"'^''irem femina ascendit, quod ipse vidi in Vespa vulgari, et Sca-

tophaga ; in Pulice etiam femina superior, sed more humano

OS ori*^ ; quod fit etiam in aliis quibusdam masculo praedomi-

nanti, nerape in Cryptophago quodara minuto, nostris sub ocu-

'''«lis, in Zygcena, Culice, et Phalangio \ In insectis Oiihopteris

"^''et pluribus Heniipteris sexus in coitu sibi invicem a latere pa-

auqir?*'B^UBi. iv, 385. " De Geer vii. 249.; Treviran. Arachnid. 41.

'^ Marcel, de Serres penem in palpis cum teste pyriformi in tho-
race connexiim esse affirmat, Mem. du Mm. 1819. '.)o.

" Treviran. Ibid. 37. t. hi.f. 33. ^ De Gecr vii. 10.

f Reaum. ii. 73. t. ii./ 2. Do Gecr vi. 314; vii. 165. Rai. Hist.
Ins. 40.

VOL. IV.

570 APPENDIX.

ralleli slant*; sed in aliis Hemipteris, saltern in Pentatomate,
more canum capitibus aversis, quod fit etiam in quibusdam
TipuUdis, res venereas peragunt''.

iii. Locus. Interdum in terram et inter gramina ; interdum
inter arborum Gtjruticum ramos, et sub foliis ; interdum iterum
super aquas ; et in ipso aere demum baud raro araoris gau-
diis ultimis fruuntur ; bic EphemercB caducae in ipso venere
choreas ducunt, sursum et deorsum, memetipso teste, alter-
natim volitantes " : hie etiam Apum regina et mater in sub-
lime fertur maritum infelicem petens, qui voluptatem brevem
vita emat ^ : Phalcenarum feminae apterae hue illuc per aerem
inter arbores trabuntur a mare alato " ; et quarundem Tipu-
larum mares a feminis tracti, per aerem item durante coitu
rapiuntur. Modeste satis coeunt insecta, utplurimum plan-
tarum sub umbra latitantes; et plura insuper, ut qusedam
TipulcE, Tineidce, et Bombycidcc, sub cortina alarum abdomen
omnino tegente, veneri se tradunt ^

iv. Duratio. Coitus horum animalium duratio varia, inter-
dum, ut in AraneidiSf spatio perbrevi conficitur, in quibusdam
tamen plus uno die opus est. Plures feminas interdum aggredi-
tur idem mas, hoc in Bomhyce, Chrysomela Polygoni, et Musca
domestica obtinet. Aphidem masculum cum quinque feminis
successive copulantem De Geerius videbat^.

N.B. Inter pupas Orthopterorum et Hemipterorum coitus
interdum locum habet, quod maturiorem organizaiionem in his
analogis, quam in aliis insectis probat.

II.

When the account of the Spermatheca '" of insects was writ-
ten, I had not met with Dr, Fleming's Philosophy of Zoology.

" De Geer ii. 'Z^-, iii. 132. ' Ibid. iii. 242. t. xiii./ 15.

" Ibid. iii. 642. ^ Huber Nouv. Observ. i. 37 — .

■ De Geer ii. 276. ' Reaum. ii. 65 — .

* De Geer iii. 62. ^ Soe above, p. 146.

APPENDIX. 571

The following passage from that learned work proves that or- "
gan to be really a sperm -reservoir. ^

*' Impregnation in insects appears to take place while the^
eggs pass a reservoir containing the sperm, situated near the
termination of the oviduct in the vulva. < In dissecting,' says
John Hunter, to whom we owe the discovery, ' the female
parts in the silk-moth, I discovered a bag lying on what may
be called the vagina, or common oviduct, whose mouth or ^
opening was external, but it had a canal of communication
between it and the common oviduct. In dissecting these
parts before copulation, 1 found this bag empty; and when I ^
dissected them after, I found it full".' By the most decisive '
experiments, such as covering the ova of the unimpregnated
moth, after exclusion, with the liquor taken from this bag in *
those which had sexual intercourse, and rendering them fer- '-
tile, he demonstrated that this bag was a reservoir for the
spermatic fluid, to impregnate the eggs as they were ready for
exclusion, and that coition and impregnation were not simul-
taneous V

III.

Since I wrote the account of the disease in flies, which I
denominated a kind of plethora '^, I observed one fixed to a
pane of glass in a window, round which was a semicircle of
what appeared to be merely vapour, whose radius was nearly
three-fourths of an inch. Taking it for an aqueous fluid that
had transpired from the dead animal, I paid no further atten-
tion to it at that time. But observing from day to day that
the moisture did not evaporate, after two or three months had
passed I had the curiosity to examine it more closely ; and

' Pkil. Trans. 1792. 186. ^ Philosophy of Zoology, i. 418.

' Sec above, p. 203— .

572 APPENDIX.

upon scraping some of it off with a penknife, I found it was a
white substance of a fatty nature. In this case, then, the fat
must have been exploded on all sides with considerable vio •
lence through the pores of the body. Probably this was a
more intense degree of the plethoric disease. When I exa-
mined this appearance the fly had fallen off, and I could not
find it.

In looking over some letters long since received from
J. Hobart Briggs, Esq., (a most diligent and accurate observer
and delineator of natural objects,) after my account of the
diseases of insects was printed ; in one I found the details of
a singular instance of Acariasis which had escaped my recol-
lection, but which ought not to be lost. — In July 1817 he
found a small spider, not bigger than those called Spinners, in
his garden, which appears to belong to Walckenaer's third
family of Theridion, to the thorax of which were attached
four oblong bright scarlet Acari, each of which was as large
as the thorax itself. He afterwards met with another spider
still smaller, attacked by two of these swoln parasites, one of
which appeared to him nearly to equal the whole spider in size.
The ^carM^ was probably either the Leptus Phalangii'^, or
i\H^?A^amQ.parasiUcum^%ui\i .oiujiiiojil auo i: ^ti-ie.

.ov8 .—68 VI nob (10 J _^ if. bus

.0131 aennavufl jy

9{d£t !«oijficn'f:i r to tWsn'iYP. "iltv ' vf <^K

The obsei-vations on the chemical composition of insects *=
were printed before the publication of the^r.s^ number of the
Zoological Journal, in which is an able memoir, to which we
must refer our readers for further information on that sub-

* De Geer vii. 117. ^. vii. /. 5, Latr. Gen. Crust, et Ins. i. 161.
»> De Geer Ibid. 118. t. vii. /. 7, ». Latr. Ibid. 162. ;-rSV

'^ Vol. III. p. 395-.

B 2K aJnsq s filiwDo jiHo omog ^niqBioa noqw

Jsi arU ffijiii ,j?.iiu ^itl1 nl .siuJsn ■'(MBit bIo sonsJadua aiulw
♦ 017 sid/riabianoo ifjiw aohh 11b no babolqxs nasd averf izuta
fi 8EW eiff} \(Idcdoi*I .^bod sili "io asioq srij dguoiHl sanal
-BX9 I aodW .sanoKif) ^v'.r;'\\bV^ sdj lo 93i^^9b sanaini oiora

3on biuooA U^-TTfH QfR S '^' Q I?' OT'E'D /■''!* ^9"'^

Ji bad

raoii bovxaosT aonia gaol aiuJiai' amoa isvo gnijlool nl

i9vi98do 9JBioo3BbnB JnagHif)" soffl B ) <.p?.3 ,8g§n3 JiedoHX

Off J lo InuoooB <{«! tg.tltis (.aJoo^do (Bfulfirr lo "JoJGsnHob bns

[N. B. r/jose ivorh in the foUoivivg list to which an Asterisk is jn-efixed ai'd

■useful to the Entomologist. The abbreviations of the titles of the tuorks

^ used in the text and notes of (He Introduction to Entomology, m %q list^

Oii are jmt in Holies.] -^^'O! '^d jJ 'Oii Jiigi/0 .b;d'; j,j{] ,aod3y?

ni ,ei9nniq8 bellBO aaodJ ncdl loggid ion <i9biqa IlBcne b bauo't

' ■ '■ ' " '■ ' ""■ ' . ! :; «-i£3jim r^' ' ■ -.' - ' »

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of English butterflies. Ipswich 1824. 12mo.

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AUTHORS QUOTED. 575

Bruce (James) Travels to discover the source of tlie Nile in the years 1 7G8 —

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Campbell (John) Travels in S. Africa, undertaken at the request of the

Missionary Society. 2nd ed. London 1815. 8vo.

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islands. 2 vols. London 1731 — . fol.

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rangees d'apres une nouvelle methode. torn. 2. Zuric 1798—. 8vo.
Clark ( Bracy) * An essay on the bots of horses and other animals.

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Clarke (Edward Daniel, LL.D.) Travels in various countries of Europe,

Asia and Africa. 8 vols. London 1816 — . 8vo.

Consett (Matthew) Tour through Sweden, Swedish Lapland, Finland, and

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Cook (James, Capt. ) Account of the voyages undertaken by order of his

present Majesty for making discoveries in the S. Hemisphere by

John Hawkesworth, LL.D. &c. 3 vols. London 1773. 4to

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musseis Parisinis observavit et in lucera edidit Joh. Christ. Fabricius,

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Cramer (Peter) * Papillons exoliques des trois parties du monde, L'Asie,

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reptilibus, de avibus et volatilibus, de piscibus et natatilibus, de lapi-

dibus, &c. 1485. fol.

Curtis (John) ^British Entomology, being illustrations and descriptions of

the genera of insects found in Great Britain and Ireland, &c.

London 1824. 8vo.
Curtis (William) A short history of the brown-tailed moth, &c.

London 1782. 4to.
CuviER (G. L. C. F. D. Baron) * Legions A' Anatomic comparee. 5 vols.

Paris 1805. 8vo.

Le liegne Animal distribue d'apres son organisation, &c. torn. 4.

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Darwin (Erasmus, M.D.)

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London 1800. 4to.

576 AUTHORS QUOTED.

yjoiiy (Sir Humphry, Bart., P.R.S.) Elements <>f agrkullnral Clif^miah-y, in

a course of lectures for t!ic Board of Agriculture. London 1813. 4to.
De Geer (Baron Charles) * Memoires pour servir a I'liistoire dcs insectes.

torn. 7. A Stockholm 1752 — •. 4to.

De Jean (M. le Baroxi) 'Catalogue de la collection des Coleoptei-es de

M. le B. de J. A Paris 1821. 8vo.

Derliam (William, D. D.) Phys\CQ-theology, or a demonstration of the being

and attribTites of God from his works of creation. 13th ed.

London 17C8. Svo.
Detha/rding (George Christoph.) Dispiitatio de iiixectis coleopterh Daniels.

liuetzovii 176'3. 4to.
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London 1792 -. Svo

~- Epitome of the natural liistory of the insects of China.

London 1798. 4to.

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London 1807. Svo.
Dniry (Dru) * Illustrations of natural histoiy, wherein are exhibited

figures of exotic fw.?erts. 3 vols. London 1770 — . 4to.

Dufour (Leon) Description de six Arachnides nouvelles et d'une nouvelle

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EqKr (Eugen. J. Christoph.) * Die schmelterlingen in abbildungen nach

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Escholtz. Beitrage sur naturkund.
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Fleming (John, D. D.) • The Philnsophi/ of Zoology, or a general view of
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Forbes (James) OrietUal Memoirs, from a series of familiar Letters written
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Forsyth (W^illiam) Observations on the diseases, defects, and injuries in all
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Franklin (William) Mi\it&ry memoirs of General TAomas, who rose /from
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A Paris 1764. 4to.

Germar (E. F.) *//isec/orum s;)mes novtS autminiis cognitae descriptioni-

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Gleditsch (Johan. Gottlieb.) P/i^stcalisch-6o<anisch-a;conomische abhand-

/ungen. Halle 1765 — . Svo.

Goedartius (Johannes) De insectis in methodum cum notularum additione.

Opera M. Lister, &c. cum Scaraba^orum Anglicanorum quibusdam

tabulis mutis. Londini 1685. Svo.

Goete (Johann. Aug. Ephr.) Natur menshenleben verschung.

Goldsmith (Oliver, LL.D.) History of the earth and animated nature.

8 vols. )^,r4nii>ifi njubasujtM flWTtMjgvm^ttriia • London 1774. Svo,

VOL. IV. 2 P

578 AUTHORS QUOTED

Good (John Mason, M.D.) Anniversary Oration, delivered March 8tll,
1808, before the Medical Society of London.

Gould (William) An account of English ants. London 1747. 12mo.

Gravenhorst (J. L. C. ) Coleoptera. Microptera Brunsvicensia nee non exoti-
corum quotquot extant in collectionibus Brunsvicensium.

Brunsvigae 1802. 8vo.

Grew (Nehemiah) Musceum Regalis Societatis, or a catalogue and descrip-
tion of the natural and artificial rarities belonging to the R. Society,
and preserved at Gresham College, &c. London 1681. fol.

Groskr (Abbe) A general description of China. (E. Tr.)

London 1788. 8vo.

Gyllenhal CLeonurd) *7?i5ecta ^^wecica descripta. Classisl. Coleoptera sive
Eleutherata. torn. 3. Scaris 1808. 8vo.

Haworth (Adrian Hardy) * Lepidnpiem Britarmica, sistens digestionem
novam insectorum Lepidopterorum quEc in Magna Britannia reperi-
untur, &c. Londini 1803—. 8vo.

Hermann (J. F.) Memoire apterologique. Strasbourg 1804. fol.

Herold (Mauritius) * Entwickelungsge&chichie der scJnnetterlmge anato-
raischevuad physiologisch. Cassel und Marbui-g 1815. 4to.

Hohhouse (John Cam) Some account of a journey into Albania, Romelia,
and other provinces of Turkey in 1809 and 1810.

London 1812. 4to.

HooJce (Robert, M.D,) ilficrographia, or some physiological descriptions of
minute bodies made by magnifying-glasses, &c. London 1665. fol.

Hooker (Professor) Journal of a tour in Iceland in the summer of 1809.

Yarmouth 1811, 8vo.

Home (Thomas Hartwell) Introduction to the study of Bibliography ; to
which is prefixed a memoir on the publick libraries of the ancients, &c.
2 vols. London 1814. 8vo.

Huber (Francis) New observations of the natural history of bees. 2nd ed.
(E. Tr.) Edinburgh 1808. 12mo.

— * iVbi(j;elles observations sur les abeilles. tom. 2.

A Paris et a Geneve 1814. 8vo.

Huber (P.) * Recherches sur les mceurs dss four 7nis indigenes.

A Paris 1810. 8vo.

Hubner (Jacob) * Der gamlung Europaischen schmetterlinge.

Augsburg 1796. 4to.

Hughes (GriSith) The natural history of Barbados. London 1750. fol.

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ment of bees. London 1815. 8vo.

Humboldt (Alexander, Baron de) and Bonpland ( Aime) Personal travels
to the equinoctial regions of the new contineiat during the years 1799
—1844. (E. Tr.) 5 vols. London 1818 — 8vo.

— — — Essais sur la geographic des plantes. Paris 1805.

■ — Political essay on New Spain. (E. Tr.) London 1811. 8vo.

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Humboldt ( Alexander, Baron de) Recueil d' observations de zoologie et
d'anatomie comparee. A Paris 1805. 4to.

Hunter (John, M.D.) Observations on certain parts o( the animal economy.

London 1786. 4to.

Jablonsky (Carl. Gustaf.) *Natursystem aller bekannten insekten. Ed.
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Jackson (James Grey) An account of the empire of Morocco and the dis-
trict of Suez ; compiled from miscellaneous observations made during
a long residence in those countries, &c. London 1809. 4to.

Jacquin (Nicolaus Joseph) Collectanea, ad botanicam, chemiam, et nistoriam
naturalem spectantia. Vindobonse 1 786.

Illiger (J. K. W.) •Versuch einer systematischen volstandigen Termino-
logie das thierreich und pflanzenreich. Helmstadt 1800. Svo.

Inch (C. W.) Ideen zu einer zoochemia. 1800.

Jungius (Joachimus) Historia vermium. Hamburg! 1691. 4to.

Jurine (L.) * NouveUe methode de classer les HymSnojiteres et les Dipteres,
Tom. 1. Hymenopteres. A Geneve 1807. 4to.

AWm (Peter) Trwe^s into N. America. (E. Tr.) 3 vols.

Warrington 1772. Svo.

ITcemjyfer (Evgelhert) The history o( Jaj)an. (E. Tr.) 2 vol.-

London 1728. fol.

JKei/s (John) A treatise on the breeding and management of bees,

London 1814. 12mo.

Kirby (William) *il'/onographia ^;,'um Angl\se, or an attempt to divide
into their natural genera and families such species of the Linnean ge-
nus Apis as have been discovered in England, &c. 2 vols.

Ipswich 1802. 8vo.

Kleemann (Christ. Fried. Karl.) JBeitr'dge zur natur-oder insecten ges-
chichte. Nurnberg 1761. 4to.

Knight (Tliomas Andrew) A Treatise on the culture of the apple and pear,
and on the manufacture of cider and perry. London 1797. Svo.

Knoch ( August. Wilhelm) Beitr'dge zur insecten geschichte.

Leipzig 1781 — . Svo.

Knox (Robert) An historical relation of the island of Ceylon.

London 1681. fol.

Lafmtaine. Traite de la chirurgie. Leipzig. 1792.

La Lande de Lignac (Joseph Albert) Memoire pour servir a coramencer
I'histoire des araignees aquatiques. Paris 1 749. Svo,

Lamarck (Jean Baptiste) Systexae des anitnaux sans vertebrei, ou tableau
general des classes, des ordres et des genres de ces animaux, &c.

A Pans 1801.

— ^— — * Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebrei presentant les
caracteres generaux et particuliers de ces animaux, leur distribution,
leur classes, &c. torn. 7. A Paris 1815 — . Svo.

Philosophic zoologique. A Paris 1809. Svo.

La7nbert (John) Travels through the United States of America, Canada,
and Georgia in the years 1806 — S. 3 vols. London 1810, Svo.

2 P 2

580 AUTHORS QUOTED.

io^Aaw (John) A general synopsis of birds. 3 vols. London 1781 — . 4to.

Latreillk (Pierre Andre) * Histoire na^urelle generale et particuliere des
crustaces et des insectes. torn. 14. Paris 1802 — . 8vo.

— — ~ * Histoire 7io/ urelle desfourmis et recueil des memoires et d'ob-

servations sur les abeilles, les araignees, les faucheurs, et autres in-
sectes. A Paris 1802. 8vo.

I — * Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum secundum ordinem na-

turalera in familias disposita, iconibus exemplisque plurimis explicata.
torn. 4. Parisiis et Argentorati 1806 — . Svo.

JPamilles namrelles du regne animal, exposes succinctement et

daus un ordre analytique, avec I'indication de leurs genres.

A Paris 1825. Svo.
et De Jean (Baron) * Histoire naturelle et iconographie des in-

sectes Coleopteres (VEurojie. A Paris 1822 — . Svo.

Leach (William Elford, M.D.) *The Zootogical Jlfwcellany, being a de-
scription of new and interesting animals, illustrated with coloured
figures^&c. London 1817 — . Svo.

Jjeemoenhoek ( Antonio) Arcana nilturas detecta.

Delphis Batavor. 1695. 4to.
————— Arcana naturae opes et beneficio exquisitissimorum mlcrosco-
piorum detecta variisque experimentis demonstrata, &c.

Lugd. Batav. 1696. 4to.
————— Ejnstolst physiologicse super compluribus naturae arcanis, &c.

Delphis 1719. 4to.
• Select works of, containing his microscopical discoveries in

many of the works of nature, translated from the Dutch and Latin
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London 1798. 4to.

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insectorum scilicet et vermium, commentatio. Gottingae 1798.

■ De antennh insectomra dissertatio prior fabricam antennarum

describens ; Dissertatio posterior usum antennarum recensens.

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Lempriere (William) Practical observations on the diseases of the army in
Jamaica during the years 1792 — 7. 2 vols. London 1799. Svo.

Lesser (Friedr. Christ. ) Theologie des insectes, on demonstration des per-
fections de Dieu dans tout ce que concerne les insectes, &c. Avec
des remarques de M. P. Lyonnet. (Lesser L.) torn. 2.

A la Haye 1742. Svo.

Lctvin (William) * The insects of Great Britain systematically arranged,
accurately engraved, and painted from nature, &c.

London 1795. 4to.

Frodromus Entomolegy, or natural history of Lepidopterous insects

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IJchtev.stein (Ant. Aug. Hen.) Catalogus rerum naturalium rarissimarum
auctionis lege distrahendarum. [Catal. Ham.) Hamburgi 1794.

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Ligon (Richard) A true and exact history of the island of Barbados.

London 1657. fol.

LINNE' (Carl. Von) * Sy sterna, Natwsc per regna tria naturae secundum

classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, syno-

nymis, locis. Ed. 13. torn. 3, Vindobonas 1767—. 8vo.

■ * Fauna Stiecica. Sistens animalia SuecijE regni. Mammalia,

Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes distributa per classes, &c.
Ed. altera. Stockholmia; 1761. 8vo.

Flora, Lapponica, exhibens plantas per Lapponiam crescentes.

secundum systema sexuale, collectas in itinere &c. anno; 1732 insti-
tuto, &c. Ed. J. E. Smith. Eq. Londini 1792, 8vo.

— — Skanska resa, flirrattad ar 1749. (It. Scan.)

Stockholm 1751. Svo.

— — .Lackesis Lapponica, or a tour in Lapland, now first published

from the original MS. Journal of the celebrated Linnjeus, by Sir
J. E. Smith. 2 vols. (Lack. Lapp.) London 1811. Svo.

Amcejiitates Academicsz, seu dissertationcs variae physicae, me-

dicae, botanica; antehac seorsim edita;, nunc coUectcX et aucta;, &c.
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* PkilosQ^hla Bolamca in qua explicantur fundaments botanica,

cum definitionibus partium, exemplis terminorum, observationibus

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Lyonket (Pierre) • Traiie awafomique de la chenille qui ronge le bois de

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Mac Kinjien (Daniel) A Tour through the British W. Indies during the

years 1 802 — 3, giving a particular account of the Bahama islands.

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MacLeat (William Sharp) * Horse Entomologies, or essays on tlie annu-

lose animals.

Vol. 1. Part I. containing general observations on the geography,

manners, and natural affinities of the insects which compose the genus

iScarcti^KMS of Linnaeus, &c. London 1819. 8vo.

Vol. 1. Part II. containing an attempt to ascertain the rank and

situation which the celebrated Egyptian insect, ScarabcEuss accr, holds

amongst organized beings. London 1821. Svo.

* Annulosa Jammica. London 1824. 4to.

Mo5«M5 (Albertus) Opera, torn. 21. De natura animalium. fol.

Malpighius {^laxc^Wus) Opera omnia, torn. 2. {De Bornbyc.)

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Marsham {Thomas) * Enloraologia Britannica {E.B.) sistens insecta Bri-

tannias indigena secundum methodum Linnaeanam disposita. tom. 1.

Coleoptera. Londini 1802. Svo.

Martin (George, M.D.) Essays and observations on the construction and

gi'aduation of thermometers, and on the heating and cooling of bodies.

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Martyr (Peter) The decades of the New World, or West Indies. (E. Tr.)

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MaUkiolus (Petr. Andr.) Commentani in libros Dioscoridk de Medica
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Meigen. * Nouvelle classification des mouches a deux ailes {^Diptera L.)
d'apres un plan tout nouveau. A Paris 1800, Svo.

— . * Systematische beschreibung der bekanuten Europ. zweifliigeli-

gen Insecten. Aachen 1818 — .. 4to.

JWerian (Maria Sibylla) * Metamorphosis insectorum 5'Mrmawiensium. In
qua erucae et vermes ad vivum delineantur et describuntur, &c,

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ErucaxvLva ortus, alimentum et paradoxa metamorphosis.

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Mills (John) An essay on the management of bees, &c. London 1 766. 8vo.

Moldenhawer (Joh. Jac. Paul) Beytrage zur anatomic der pjlanzen.

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Molina (I. Ignatius) The geographical, natural, and civil history of Chili.
2 vols. (E. Tr.) London 1809. Svo.

Monro (Alexander, M.D.) The anatomy of the human bones and nerves,
&c. Ed. Kirby, M.D. Edinburgh 1820. 12mo.

Morier (James) A second journey through Persia to Constantinople be-
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Mouffet (Thomas) * /n^ectorum sive minimorum animalium theatrwm,

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avec leur caracteres generiques et specifiques, leur description, leur
synonymic, et leur figure enluminee. Coleopteres. torn. 8.

A Paris 1789 — . 4to.

Travels in the Ottoman empire, Egypt and Persia. (E. Tr.) 2 vols.

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Osbeck (Peter) A voi/age to China and the E. Indies. Toreen (Olof) A
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Paley (William, D.D.) iNTa^ural Theology, or evidences of the existence
and attributes of the Deity collected from the appearances of nature.
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Pallas (Peter Simon) Spicilegia zoologica, quibus novae imprimis atque
obscurae animalium species describuntur, et observationibus iconibus>
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und volkerbcschreibung, naturgescliichte und oekonomic. {N. JVord.
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PaUas (Peter Simon) Travels through the southern provinces of tlje Rus-
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the direction and patronage of the African association, in the years

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The journal of a mission to the interior of Africa in the year 1805:

together with other documents, official and private, &c. 2nd ed.

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Parkinson (James) Organic remains of a former world. 2 vols.

London. 4to.
Peck (Professor) Natural history of the slug- worm,

Boston, N.E. 1799. 8 vo.

Percival (Robert, Capt.) An account of the island of Ceylon, containing its

history, geography, natural history, with the manners and customs of

its inhabitants. London 1803. 4to.

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Pezold (Ch. Ph.) Lepidopterologische anfangsgriinde zum gebrauch au-
gehender schmetterlingssommler. Coburg 1796. 12rao.

Piso (Gulielmus, M.D.) De Inclise utriusque re naturali et medica, &c.

Amstelaedami 1558. fol.
Plinius Historia, mundi naturalis. Francofurti ad Moen. 1582. fol.
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Tubingen 1804. 4to.
Preysler (Johann. Daniel) Verzeichniss Bohmiscker insekten,

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Pulteney {Richard, M.D.) Historical and Biographical Sketches of the

progress of botany in England, from its origin to the introduction of

the Linnean System, vol.. 2. London 1790. 8vo.

PurcAas ( Samuel) His Pilgrimes. London 1625. fol.

Ramdhor (Karl. August.) *Abbildungen zur anatomie der insecten.

Halle 1809—. 4to.
Rat (John) Catalogus Plantarum circa Cajtiabrigia nascentium, &c.

Londini 1660. 12mo.

— ■— Historia Plantarum, species hactenus editas aliasque noviter jnventas

et descriptas complectens. Londini 1686. fol.

The msdom of God manifested in the works of creation.

London 1692. 8vo.

— — * Historia Insectorum, cui subjungitur appendix de Scarabseis Bri-

tannicis autore M. Lister. Londini 1710. 4to.

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Ray ( Jolin) Philosophical Letters between the late learned Mr, Hay and
several of his ingenious correspondents ; to which are added those of
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toire des insectes. torn. 6. A Paris 1734 — . 4to.

Redi (Franciscus) 0;>usculorura pars prior sive experimenta circa gene-
rationem insectorum, &c. Amstelaed. 1686. 18mo.

Opjtsculonim tomus alter. Experimenta circa varias res naturales

speciatim illas qu« ex Indiis afferuntur. Amstelasd. 1685. 18mo.

Jieeve (Henry, M.D.) An essay on the torpidity of animals.

London 1809. 8vo,

Rifferschweils (Johann. Jacob Hegetschweiler) * Dissertatio inauguralis
zootomica de inseclonnn genilalibus. Turici 1 820. 8vo.

Roenier (Johann. Jacob) * Genera insectorum Linnaei et Fabricii iconibus
illustrata. Vitodur. Helvetor. 1789. 4to.

RUsel von Rosenhoff (August. Johann.) * Der monatlich-herausgegeben
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Rossi (Petrus) Fauna Etrusca sistens insecta quae in provinciis Floren-
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Rudolphi (C. A.) Entozoa, scu vermium intestinalium [historia naturalis.
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Sabine (Edward, Capt.) An account of tlie animals seen by the late North-
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London 1821. 4tor

St. Pierre (James Hen. Bernardin) A voyage to the Mauritius or Isle of
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London 1775. 8vo.

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Samouelle (George) * The Entomologist's useful compendinva, or an intro-
duction to the knowledge of British insects, &c. London 1819. 8vo.

Sandwith (Thomas) * An i7itroduction to anatomy and physiology for the
use of medical students and men cf letters. London 1824. 12mo.

Sauvages (Francois Boisier de) Observations sur rorigin de miel.

Nismes 1763.

Savi (Paolo) Osservazioni per servire alia storia di una specie de lulus
communissima nella pianura Pisana. Bologna 1817.

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-^— — Sy Sterne des Annelides principalement de celles des cotes de I'Egypte
et de la Syric*. fol.

Scheele (Charles William) Chemical observations and experiments mr air
andjire. (E. Tr.) London 1780. Bvo.

* This memoir, which was sent me by its learned author, is stated as
part of the first volume of his llistoire Naturellc. — K.

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ScheUenberg (J. R.) * Cimicum in Hclvetlse aquis et terris degentliim ge-
nus in familias redactum observationibus et iconibus ad naturam de-
lineatis illustrsitiim. Turici 1800. 8vo.

■" •Genres de mnuches Dipteres represent^s en xlii planches.

Zuric 1803. 8vo,

iScAnewfer (David Heinrich) Systematische beschreibung der Europaischer
schmetterlinge. Halle 1787. 8vo.

Schonfierr (C, J.) * Synont/m& insectorum, oder versuch einer synonymic
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geordnct. torn. 3. Stockholm 1 806. 8vo.

Schrank (Franciscus de Paula) EmimQxa,t\o insectorum Austrix indi^e-
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Sclnvenckfeeld (Caspar, M.D.) Tkeriotropheum Silesix, in quo animalium,
h. e. quadrupcdum, reptilium, avium, piscium, insectorum natura, vis
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Scopoli (Johann. Anton.) Eiit&mologia, Camiollca. exhibens insecta Car-

niolias indigena et distributa in ordines, genera, species, varietates

' '' methodo Linneana. {Eiit. Carniol.) Vindobonae 1763. Svo.

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Scriba (Ludwig Gottlieb.) Bcitrage zu der insekten geschichte.

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Sendelius (Nathanel) Historia succinorum corpora aliena involventium,
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Amsterdam 1762. 4to.

Skaw (Thomas, D.D.) Travels and observations relating to several parts
of Barbary and the Levant. 2nd ed. London 1757. 4to.

Shaw ( George) The naturalist's mwcellany, or coloured figures of natural
objects, drawn and described immediately from nature.

London 1789—. Svo.

Shirach (Adam Gottl.) Histoire naturelle de la reine des abeilles, avec
I'art de former les essaims, &c. (F. Tr.) A la Haye 1771. 8vo.

Smenthman (Henry) Some account of the Termites which are found in
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Smellie (William) The philosophy of natural history.

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■ * The natural history of the rarer Lepidoptcrous insects of Georgia

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■ Tracts relating to natural history. London 1798.

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Sorg (F. L. A. W.) Disquisitiones physiologicae circa respirationem in-

sectoruTVL et vermmm. Ruuolst. 1805. ]2mo.

Southed/ (Robert, LL.D.) History of Bradl. London 1810—. 4to.

Sowerby (James) » British miscellaay, or coloured figures of new, rare, or

-' little-known animal subject*, many not before ascertained to be na-

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SpaUanzani (Lazaro) Opwscoli diJUica. animale e vegetabile.

Modena 1776. Svo.

_^— — Dissertations relative to the natural history of animals and

vegetables. (E. Tr.) London 1784. Svo.

Memoirs on resjnration, (E. Tr.) London 1804. 8vo.

Sparrman (Andrew) A Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, towards the
Antarctic Circle and round the world, but chiefly into the country of
the Hottentots and Cafires. 2 vols. London 1785. 4to.

Spetice (William) Observations on the disease in turnips termed in Hol-
dernesse fingers and toes. Hull 1812. 8vo.

Sprengel (Christian Conrad) Das entdeckte gekeimniss der natur in bau
und in der befrucktung der blumen. Berlin 1793. 4to.

Sprengel ( Curtius) * Comtnentarius de partibus quibus insecta spiritus
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Staunton (Sir George) An authentic account of the embassy from the king
of Great Britain to the emperor of China. 3 vols.

London 1797. Svo.

Stedman (J. C. Capt,) Narrative of a five years expedition against the re-
volted negroes of Surinam in Guiana, on the wild coa.st o.f S. America,
from 1772 to 1777. 2 vols. Londcn 1796. 4to.

Stichney {W\\\ia.m) Observations respecting the grub. Hull 1800. Svo.

Stillitig fleet (Benjamin) Miscellaneous tracts relating to natural history,
husbandry, and physick, translated from the Latin. 2nd ed.

London 1762. Svo.

Stoever (D. H.) The life of Sir Charles Linuceus; to which is added a
copious list of his works, and a biographical sketch of the life of his

',rt : son. (E. Tr.) London 1794. 4to.

Stall (Caspar) * Representation exactement coloree d'apres nature des
cigales qui se trouvent dans les quatre parties du monde, &c.

Amsterdam 1788. 4to.

* Representation, &c. des punaises ditto. Amsterdam 1788. 4to.

^-^ *[Representation, &c. des spectres ou phasmes, et des mantes ou des
feuilles ambulantes, des sauterelles, des grillons, des criquets et des
blaltes, &c. Amsterdam 1813. 4to.

Struck. Neue schriften der naturforschenden. Halle 1810.

Sturm (Jacob) * Deutschlands Fauna in abbildungen nach der natur mit
beschreibungen. tom. 4. Nurnberg 1805—. 12mo.

SwAMMERDAM (John, M.D.) * The Book of Nature, or the history of irv-
sects reduced to distinct classes, confirmed by many particular instances
displayed in the anatomical analysis of many species, and illustrated

AUTHORS gUOTED. 587

with copper-plates. (E. Tr.) [Swamm. Bibl. Nat. Hills, Swamm,']

London 1758. fol.

Tkejiard ( L. J. ) Traitd de Chimie dtementaire theorique et pratique, torn. 2.

A Paris 1813. Svo.

Thompson (Thomas, M. D) System of chemistry. London 1802 — .

Thorley (John) MiXifffftiXoyta, or the female monarchy, being an inquiry into
the nature, order, and government of bees, &c. London 1744. Svo.

Thunberg (Charles Peter) Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia, performed
between the years 1 770 and 1779. (E. Tr.) 4 vols. London 1795. Svo.

Treviranus (G. R. Von) * Ueber den innern bau der Arachniden.

Nurnberg 1812. 4to.

Trost (P.) Kleinen Beytmge zur Entomologie, &c. Erlangen 1801. Svo.

Tulpius (Nicolaus) Ofiservationes »»edicae. Amstelaed. 1652. Svo.

Tusser (Thomas) Five hundreth points of good husbandry, united to as
many of good houswifery, first devised, and now lately augmented
with diverse approved lessons concerning bopps and gardening.

London 1573. 4to.

Ulloa (George Juan de) A voyage to S. America, describing at large the
Spanish cities, towns, provinces, &c. on that extensive continent, &c.
2 vols. London 1760. Svo.

Vaillant (Le) Travels into the interior parts of Africa by the way of the
Cape of Good Hope, in the years 1780—1785. (E. Tr.) 2 vols.

London 1790. Svo.

Valentia (George, Lord) Voyages and Travels to India, Ceylon, the Red
Sea, Abyssinia, and Egypt, in the years 1S02 — 1806. 3 vols.

London 1809. 4to.

Vallisnien (Antonio) * Es])erienze ed osservazioni intorno all origine, svi-
luppi, e costumi di vari insetti, con altre spettanti alia naturale e me-
dica storia. Ed. 2. In Padova 1726. 4to.

Voet (Johannes Eusebius) Icones insectorum Coleopterorum. Ed. Panzer.

Erlangen 1793. 4to.

Walckenaer (C. A.) * Tableau des Araneides, ou caracteres essentielles des
tribus, genres, families, et races que renforme le genre Aranea de
Linne, avec la designation des especes comprises dans chacun de ces
divisions. Paris 1805. Svo.

— — * Memoires pour servir a I'histoire naturelle des abeilles soli-
taires qui composent le genre IZc/icte. Paris 1817. Svo.

Walton (Izaac) The universal angler, made so by three books of fishing :
the first written by Mr. Izaak Walton, the second by Charles Cotton,
Esq., and the third by Col. Robert Venables. London 1676. 12mo.

Walton. Present state of the Spanish colonies, including a particular report
of Hispaniola, &c., with a general survey of the settlements on the S.
continent of America, &c. 2 vols. London 1810. Svo.

Weld (Isaac) Travels through the states of N. America and the provinces
of Upper and Lower Canada in the years 1795 and 1797.

London 1799. 4to,

588 AUTHORS QUOTED.

IFkUe (Gilbert) * The -natural history of Selborne. New ed. by Marck-
wick. 2 vols. London 1813. 12mo.

Wiedemann (C. R. W.) Archiv. fiir zoologie & zootomie.

Berliniind Brunschweig. 1800 — .
— — — — Diptera exotica ! Pars I. Kilise 1821. 12mo.

Wildman (Thomas) A treatise on the management of bees. 2nd ed.

London 1769. 4to.
WUlan (Robert, M.D.) Description and treatment o£ cutaneous diseases.

London 1801, 4to.
WUldcnow (Carl. Ludwig.) Grundriss der kraturkunde.

Berlin 1792. 8vbr
-^^— — The principles of botany and of vegetable physiology. (E. Tr.)

Edinburgh 1811. Svo.
Young (Arthur) Annals of agriculture and other useful arts. 40 vols.

Bury St, Edmunds 1790 — , 8vo.
I Travels during the years 1787 — 1789, undertaken more particularly

with a view of ascertaining the cultivation, wealth, resources, and
natural prosperity of the kingdom of France. 2 vols.

Bury St. Edmunds 1792. 4to,

TRANSACTIONS OF PUBLIC BODIES.

Transactions (Philosophical) of the Royal Society of London, with the
Abridgements of Lowtborp and Dr. Shaw. 4to.

of the Linnean Society of London. 4to.

—— ^ of the Horticultural Society. 4to.

of the Society for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and

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Ann?les du Museuca national d'histoire naturelle, 4to.

ilf^jnoires du Museum national d'histoire naturelle. 4to.

Acta physico-medica Academic Cassareaj naturae curiosorum. (Nova
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tiaxura ^uecSim. (Act. Stock.) Svo.

Communications to the Board of Agriculture. 4to.

AUTHORS (QUOTED. 589

PERIODICAL WORKS.

-(^M»ia/s of botany (Konig and Sims), 4to

of Philosophy (Thompson).

Amiales de chimic, ou recueil de meraoires concernant la chimie et les

arts qui en dependent. Paris. 8vo.
Annali di chimica. H f a .M ,H9d<vil > j»-,U' ii

Bulletin des sciences naturelles et de geologic (De Ferussac). 8vo.
Journal of natural philosophy, chemistry, and the arts (Nicholson's).

Edinburgh medical and surgical.

. Zoological. 8vo. - aBlod 1o e<»Iqbniiq sdT ^-^

Massachusetts Agricultural. 8vo.

• de physique (Abbe Rozier, &c.).4to.

— — fiir die liehabcr der entomologic (Scriba). 8vo.

Magazine, Tilloch's Philosophical.

Magazin Berlinisches (^Martini, Berlin natural history Societies),

Neuestes fiir die liehabers der entomologie (^Schneider. 8vo.

' Neu. entomolog. (Fuessli, Entomologischebemerkungen.) 8vo.

fiir das neueste aus der physik und naturgeschichte, &c. {Lichlen-

berg & Voigt). 8vo.

*fur insektenkunde (Illiger). 8vo.

'der entomologic (Dr. Germar und Dr. Zicken Gennant Som-

laer). 8vo.

Encychpedique, ou journal des sciences, dcs lettres et des arts. 8vo.

Naturforscher der (The naturalist).

Review. London medical.

Systematisches verzeichmss der schmetterlinge der Wienergegend, &c. 4to,

DICTIONARIES.

Dictionary of Chemistry (Messrs. Aikin).

■ medical (Dr. Hooper's). 8vo.

Dictionnaire Physique.
■ * A'buveau d'Histoirc iVixiurelle. torn. 36. 8vo,

des sciences naturelles. 8vo.

Encyclopcedia Britannica. 4to.

N. B. Fallen's Monograpkia Cimicum Suecice, Diplera Suecice, and Och-
senheimer's Die Schmetterlinge von FAiropa, though omitted in the note
p. 471, are particularly recommended to the Entomological student.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XXI. =*

FIG.

1. Part of the interior of Cossiis ligniperda. (Lyonnet.)

a, b. The spinal chord and its ganglions, d. The bron-
chiae connected with the trachea.

2. One of the labial palpi of ditto. (Ibid.)

3. Another view of the interior of ditto, (Ibid.) a. Trachea.

b. BronchifE. c. CEsophagus. d. Ventricle or stomach,
e. The lower intestines. fF. The bile vessels, g. Se-
ricterium, or silk reservoir, h. Scalisterium, or saliva
vessel.

4. Part of one of the tracheae of ditto, to show its coats and

spiral thread. (Ibid.) Vol. IV. p. 62.

5. A portion of the interior of ditto, to shoiv the epiploon,

or fat. (Ibid.) a a. Epiploon. Vol. IV. p. 144.

6. Leg of ditto laid open. (Ibid.) aa«. Semipenniform

muscles of ditto, b. Their lower point of insertion in
the claw. c. Muscles of the coxa. Vol. IV. p. 178.

7. Nervous system of the grub of Oryctes nasicornis.

(Swamm.) a. The first ganglion or brain, c. The re-
maining ganglions, forming a thick spinal chord.
d. The nerves issuing from them.

8. of the louse. (Ibid.) a. The brain,

ccc. The ganglions, d. Nerves.

9. The spinneret, or organ that renders the silk of the Cosms.
(Lyonnet.) Vol. IIL p. 124..

» Vol. IV. Letters XXXVII. and XL.

I' I, It, A'A'I.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 591

PtATE XXII. »

FIG.

1. Male genital organ of a Bombus. a. The male organ.

b. The prehensor. Vol. IV. p. 562, 565.

2. Female ditto of the louse. (Swamm.) a. The oviduct

with an egg passing through it. b c. The ovaries.
d. The colleterium, or varnish secretor. e. The lower
extremity of the oviduct.
3, 4. Larvae as arranged in the body of two species of vivi-
parous flies. (Reaum.) Vol. I, p. 254.; IV. p. 164<.

5. Interior of postpectus. Dynastes. a. Parapleura.

b b b. Points of the postfurca. c. Its stalk.

6. The medifurca of ditto, a. Base. b. Apex.

7. Antefurca of ditto, a. Base.

8. Mesothorax. Calandra.

9. Mesophragm and appendage. Dynastes. a a. Pieces

adjacent, b. Septula, c. The notch for the transmis-
sion of the intestines.

10. Part of metaphragm, ditto, a, A kind of cupule afford-

ing a point of attachment to muscles, d. A deep notch
for the intestines,

11. Interior oi the upper side of alitrunk of ditto, a. The

cavity of the chest between the prophragm and meso-
phragm, b. Ditto between the mesophragm and me-
taphragm, c. Cupules that afford a point of attach-
ment to some of the wing-muscles, d. Notch of the
metaphragm,

12. Portion of the alitrunk of Melolontha vulgaris, c. Cupule

attached to the axis of the wings.

13. Part of the postpectus of Dytiscus marginalis, to show the

operculum. Vol. Ill, p. 580.
14;. Part of the metathorax of Melolontha vulgaris^ to show

the metapnystega. Ibid. 574.
15. The pseudocardia, or dorsal vessel of Stratyomis ChamcB-

lean. (Swamm.)

"" Vol. IV. Letter XLII, ; III. p. 581-.

592 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG.

16. a. — to. Specimens of scales from the wings of various Le-
pidoptera. (Reaum., De Geer.) Vol. III. p. 646 — ,

PLATE XXIII.

i. One of the prolegs of a caterpillar. Cossus. (Lyonnet.)
a. Its coronet of spines. Vol. III. p. 135. . ^^

2. One of the spiracles of ditto. (Ibid.) Vol. IV. ^. ^7-^.

3. Three of the hexagonal lenses of a bee's eyCj with their

prisms. (Swamm.) Vol. III. p, 497-

4. Trunk of a flea with the head removed, showing that all

the legs are attached to the former. Ibid. p. 658.

5. Alitrunk of Dytiscus marginalis, exhibiting the wings as

they are folded when unemployed.

6. Part of ditto, with the scutellum and apex of an elytrum,

to show the alula. Vol. II, p. 348. ; III. 560.

7. Anterior and posterior prolegs of Tanypiis maculatus.

(De Geer.) a. Posterior proleg. b. Anterior ditto.
Vol. II. p. 278 ; IV. p. 354. •. ,,.

8. Posterior extremity of a pupa, to show the cremastrce, or

hooks by which it is suspended, a. Hooks. Vol. III.
p. 210, 256; IV. p. 354.

9. Another specimen, in which the hooks are more nume-

rous, a. Hooks.

10. Pulex penetrans, or the Chigoe. Vol. I. p. 49, 102.

1 1 . Mandible of the larva of Myrmeleon Formicaleo. (Reaum .)

Vol. III. p. 121.

12. Anal spinneret of ditto. (Ibid.)

1 3. Branching palpus, or feeler of Tromhidium holosericeum.

14. Part of the tarsus of a spider, to show the simple and

pectinated claws. (De Geer.) Vol, III, p. 691.

15. A pair of spinners of a spider. (Leeuwenh.) Vol. III.

p. 392.

16. A mammula or teat of ditto. (Ibid.)

17. Anus of ditto,

15. Stilt-legs of a dipterous larva. (De Geer). Vol. III.
p. 136.

-PiaA'jnm.

Ilate^Zir.

' ' ■ ' ' --I— 1—1

M

p/atf js^sn:

H

44

48 49

i

27

?f

?8

29

30

83

86

y/A

,fU^J'/,r

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. /593

PLATE XXIV.

FIG.

1. The bag-net. Vol. IV. p. 516,

2. The landing-net. Ibid. p. 521.

3. Mr. Paul's net. Ibid. p. 517.

4. The fly-net. Ibid. p. 518.
.5. The forceps. Ibid. p. 520,

6. The breeding-cage. Ibid. p. 540.

7. Apparatus for effectually killing large moths, &c. a. The

upper piece of the tube, h. The lower, c. The sauce=
pan. Ibid. p. 530.

8. A beetle transfixed by a pin. Ibid. p. 531.

9. A butterfly, ditto, with the wings set out by card braces.

Ibid. p. 534.
10, A scale of two inches, with one subdivided into lines,
twelve to the inch.

PLATE XXV.'

J. Antenna with a lamellate knob.

2. Ditto Ditto

3. Antenna with a pectinate knob.
4, cirrate.

5. with a tunicate knob. Inside view.

6. ■ Outside view,

7. clavate, with clava solid.

8. serrate.

9. with an inflated knob,

10, gradually incrassate.

11. biflabellate.

12. with a patellate scape, a. Scape.

1 3. with a solid knob.

14.. ■ - clavate, with last joint elongated.

15. -_ broken.

15, , unguiculate. a. Claw.

VOL. IV.

Vol. IV. p. 316 -.
2(2

594- EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG.

17. Antenna scopiferous. a. Stellated brush.

18. suddenly incrassate, and biserrate.

19. capillaceous, and suddenly incrassate. (Stoll.)

20. bipartite.

21. clavate, with clava subramose.

22. bipectinate.

2,3. broken.

2'!'. suddenly incrassate.

25. pectinate. (J.

26. serrate. 9.

27. . filiform, and submonilirorm.

28. auriculate. a. Auricle.

29. appendiculate. a. Antenna, b. Appendicles.

30. capitate, with a multiarticulate knob.

31. . spiral.

3'2. fasciculate.

33. capitate, with a transverse solid knob.

34,. capillaceous, or suddenly attenuated. (Latr.)

35. embracing the eye. Vol. III. p. 525.

PLATE XXVI. »

1. Feeler, maxillary, lamellate and appendiculate. a. Ap-

pendicle. h. Last joint lamellated. c. Second joint.
Vol. III. p. 4-50, note '"', Atractocems.

2, — heteromorphous. Cerocoma.

3. fasciculate. Lymoxylon.

4. . . incrassate.

5_ clavate.

6_ ^ — conical.

7. „ .,. subulate.

8. - fusiform.

9. Maxilla compound, with the lobes spinous.
jQ . ■ unarmed.

^ Vol. IV. p. 309-315. Vol. HI. 41G— 456, 490. vii. 681. c.

r/ate .YJn.

8

4

e

m

n

48

22

w

31

3k

38 34.^

mil ^k

35

36

rr

31 . -^^ 33.

42

43

./' ^-^

^^

48

43

'tft/^ grj tf Jr/

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 595

FIG.

11. Maxilla compound, with the upper lobe biarticulate.

Vol. Ill, p. 443.

12. .. ._ with the lobes penicillate.

13. simple, raandibuliform, lobe unarmed. (Mac-

Leay.)

J4. lobe penicillate. (Ibid.)

15. toothed. (Ibid.)

16. Mandibula. Ciireidio Hancocld K.
17. Rhiplcera marginata K.

18. Eur hi mis Icevior K.

19. ■ Mnntlcora Gigas.
20. Euchlora viridis.

21. Macraspis tetradactyla.

22. Apogonia gemellata K.

23. Labium, &c. of Stenus.

24. Stomis. (Clairv.) a. Lateral lobes, of

tongue, b. Intermediate lobe.

25. ■ Geotriipes. External view.

26. Internal view.

27. ' Hister maxhnus. (MacLeay.)

28. ■■ Leistus. (Clairv.)

29. Melolontha Stigma F,

30. Labrum whiskered. Halictiis. a. Appendicle.

31. ■ Mega chile.

32. - — ■— Pelecium K.

33. Chasmodia viridis M'^L.

34. — _ . Genuchus K.

35. Cremastochilus Knoch, Vol. III.

p. 423.

36. Lateral view of the head of Tetraopes Dalm., to show the

eye wholly divided by the canthus.

37. Part of the trunk of a spider, to show the position of its

simple eyes.

38. Eyes compound, columnar. Xenos.

39. Ephemera.

40. Eyes compound and stemmata of Reduvius personatus,

41. • . Fulgoralaternaria. Stem-

mata subocular,

222

596 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG.

42. Eyes compound and stemmata of Cercopis. Stemmata

intraocular.

43. Eyes simple, dorsal. Phalangium.

44 45. Claw-joint of tarsus of Lamia, to show the arthrium.
45^ „ Vespa Crabro.

47. Tarsus of Entimus imperialis. a. The rotula or ball re-

ceived by the socket of the tibia,

48. The penultimate bilobed joint of ditto, with the arthrium

separated from the claw-joint,
.49, Part of the claw-joint so separated, a. Muscles which
enter the arthrium.

PLATE XXVII.=^

1. Head of Calandra Palmarvm. a a. Muscles fixed in the

myoglyphides or muscle-notches.

2. . Apoderus Coryli.

3. Buprestis acuminata.

4, - Copris. a. Muscles.

5^ „ . Elater. a a. Corneous scales analogous to pax-
wax, attached to the depressor muscles, like those of
Geotrupes. Vol. IV. p. 176.

6. . tibia. Calandra Palmarum.

7. End of thigh, ditto, next the tibia,

8. Dynastes. Vol. III. p, 672. note *\

9. Head of tibia of ditto.

10. — Copris bucephalus. Vol. Ill, p. 671.

11. End of thigh, ditto, next the tibia.

12. Middle coxa, Melolontha vulgaris, a. The open part

which receives the muscles.

13. Posterior ditto, ditto, a. The open part.

14. Head of posterior thigh of ditto.

15. End of ditto next the tibia, Gryllus.

16. Head of tibia of ditto. Vol. Ill, p. 670—.

17. Lateral view of ditto.

" Vol. IIL 527, 663--.

d

u

^ .§-"

S . 2

^O

?3

28

10'

R

2S

H

SI '38

41

u

U-'

48 4S

30

32 33

34 i

34

ar /•

i' J'nmiJ uri ri Jrfi '

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES- 597

FIG.

18. Lateral view of the head of the coxa of Lamia, a. The

point of attachment with the body, or the orifice through
which the muscles pass.

19. Back view of ditto.

20. Posterior trochanter of /c/i«eMwio«,biarticulatc. Vol. III.

p. 666.

21. Tibia o£ Arachnida, to show the epicnemis,

22. Multiarticulate spiral antenniform tarsus of Scutigera.

23. Armed thigh. Scaurus.

24. -^ tibia. Hispa spinipes.

25. Auriculate posterior tarsus, Dasytes ater.

26. Armed anterior ditto. ditto,

27. anterior coxa. Megachile WillughbieUa.

28. ■ trochanter. Necrophorus.

29. Calcar or spur, thumb-shaped. Anterior tibia of Sphinx

30. Calcar of posterior tibia. CEnas qfer. ,«m

31. ■ anterior ditto. Zahrus gibbus, ^^^ ^,

32. intermediate ditto. Acanthopus splendidus.

33. • • posterior ditto. Ammopliila vulgaris. ,

34. ' Acanthopus splendidus. .

35. ■ intermediate tibia. Cimbex Vitellinee.

36. Calcar and velum of anterior ditto. Apis meUifica. a. The

notch in the first tarsal joint.

37. C\?iw& o£ Anomala Frischii. -* s ri «

38. — Macraspis quadnvittata. - -^_^/ p>

39. Serica brunnea.

40. — Melolontha vulgaris. __^

41. Posterior tarsus. Acheta 'monstrosai^,,',^^^^ t.-^rr

42. Part of tarsus of Scolopendra.

43. Lebia, to show pectinated claws.

44,. . Phanceus. _^^fj' pf

45. Part of tibia of Onitis Apelles (J, to show its very mi-

nute tarsus. Vol. III. p. 337.

46. Double claws of Oxypterum.

47. Claws. Annplognathus.

j.n-

598 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG,

48. Claws. HojMa. Anterior tarsus.
49. Melolontha suhspinosa,

50. Pecten of Scorpio europceus.

51. Claw of Hopliuj posterior tarsus.

52. Meloe variegata.

53. Pulvilli and claws of the Asilidce.

54. • — ' Tahanus.

55. — Hive-bee,

56. Pulvilli and pseudonychia. Lucanus Cervus.

57. ■ —■ Cetonia Lanius.

58. Segment of the body of lulus. Showing that two pairs

of legs are attached to each segment *.

59. Tarsus oi" Priocera, with involute pulvilli.

60. • Nirmus Anseris.

61. Xenos Peckii.

62. Melittophagus K, Vol. I. 162. IV. 225.

63. Acarus Ricinus. (De Geer.)

PLATE XXVIII.

1. Inside of elytrum of Dytisciis tnarghialis.
2. ■ Dynastcs Aloeus. Part of hypo-
derma peeled oft".
3. Part of ditto of Buprestis vittaia, to show the axis.

4,. . Passalus.

5. ' — — Dynastes.

6. Elater sulcatus, to show the epipleura.

7- ■ Blaps lethifera, ditto.

8. ■ Dynastes quadris]}i?ws2(s, ditto.

9. Alitrunk and part of tegmina and wings of Locusta.

a. Space marked by the transverse nervure in which all
the nervures of the anal area terminate. Vol. III.
p. 620.

" N.B. The transverse lines in the figure are merely impressed,
and do not represent a segment.

5,

^e

r^^yn>

... /('

'• fy

i^:m

20

''i' ^Jr^««f/ Ua-J^-

J'/.i/e^VA

H

7^ ^vM

:V@

i6

/?

0

/7

m.::.

[V/i5N\<X»7.'

(^y

^'x

OQ

^-^;

;r U,„„, i: ,;-

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 599

FIG.

10. AHtrunk and part of elytra and wings oi Melolontha hor-

ticola.

11. - tegmina and wings of Fulgora later-
naria. Postfrjenum funiculate, with an elastic part
marked a. Vol. III. p. 560.

12. — — — — hemelytra and wings oi Pentatomn.

13. ■ wings of P«??or^a.

14. ■ Trichoj)tera.

15. ' •• Lepidoptera. Geometra.

16. ' ' _— — - Lepidoptera.

17. Diptera-
ls. Wing of Chermes Fraxini.

19. Tegmen of Locusta.

20. Issiis.

2J. Wing. Cercopis sangiiinolenta.

22. Locusta.

25. Hemelytrum of Rediivius ?

PLATE XXIX.-

1. Gills of a spider. (Treviran.)

2. Scorpio europceus. (Ibid.)

3. Aenducts of \arva. of Ephemera Jusco grisea. (De Geer.)

Vol. IV. p. 58.

4. — — vespertina. (Ibid.) Ibid.

5. — — • vulgata. (Ibid.) Ibid.

6. Siallis lutaria. (Ibid.) Ibid.

p. 57—.

7. Thread-like ditto of the upper and under side of the larvae

of Trichoptera. (Ibid.) Ibid. p. 5Q.

8. Part of the body of the larva of a Libellula, laid open to

show the tracheae. (Reaum.) «.a. a. Tracheae. Vol. IV.
p. 65.

9. Part of the imago of ditto. (Ibid.) a. Vesicles that

' Vol. IV. Letter XXXVIII.

600 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG,

terminate the tracheae, b. Oblong ditto. Vol. IV.
p. 68.

10. Pupa of Coretkra culiciformis. (De Gear.) a. h. Vesicles

connected with the tracheae, c. Tail. Vol. IV. p. 67.

1 1 . Part of the head of Glomeris zonalis. a. Pseudo-spiracle.

Vol, III. p. 494.

1 2. Part of the trunk of Staphylinus olens, to show its ante-

pectoral spiracle. Vol. IV. p. 43.

13. Part of the abdomen of Pneumora. a. The series of

ridges, by striking the hind leg over which they pro-
bably produce their noise. Vol. II, p, 395 ; III. p. 340,

14. Underside of part of the alitrunk of Lygceus sexmacu-

latus K. MS. b, Branchiform apparatus between the
scapula and parapleura. Vol. IV. p. 45.

15. — _____ _^— — Pentatoma rufipes.

a. Corrugated membrane, b. Apparent fringe of hairs
or bristles. Ibid.

16. Spiracle of larva of Orydes w«szcorn/5. (Sprengel.)

17. ■ Dytiscus marginalis. (Ibid.)

18. Part of the trachea and bronchiae of the pupa of Smerin-

thus Pojndi. (Ibid.)

19. Spiracle of the imago of Oryctes 7iasicornis. a. The boss,

(Ibid.)

20. Dorsal spiracle of Scutigera.

21. Pencil of hairs attached to a supposed respiratory plate

in certain Noctuce. Vol. IV. p. 60.

22. Part of the back of the abdomen of the pupa of a Penta-

toma. a. Pseudo-spiracle, b. Connecting corrugations.
Vol. III. p. 714.

23. Unilabiate spiracle of Gonyleptes.

24. Portion of ventral segments of abdomen of Aradus lami~

natus K. a. Tobaccopipe-shaped organ near the ven-
tral spiracles. Vol. III. p. 714,

25. Part of the back of the alitrunk of Bclostoma grandis, to

show the metapnystega? or rather spiracle. Vol. III.
p. 574; IV. p. 45.

/

JVf

C

^

f \^ Ji:dkwu/ lii cf. Jf.!~

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. COl

FIG.

26. Pseudo-spiracle of Epeira cancriformis. Vol. III. p. 715.

27. Part of the ventral segments of the abdomen o^ Lygceus

compressipes. a. Pseudo-spiracles.

28. Portion of dorsal segments of Dytiscns marginalis, to

show the large anal spiracles. Vol, IV. p. 42,

29. Plumiform gills in the mouth of the spiracles of the larva

o£ Cossus ligniperda. (Sprengel.)

PLATE XXX.

1. Brain, spinal chord and ganglions of a full-grown cater-

pillar of Pieris BmssiccB. a. The brain, b. The dou-
ble spinal chord, c d. Ganglions with a portion of their
nerves.

2. Brain, spinal chord and ganglions, after two days, when

the chord is shortened.
a . when the animal is

become a pupa.
A ' . when it has been a

pupa six days.
^ ^ _. I- just before it assumes

the imago,
g' . when it has become

a butterfly. Vol. IV. p. 24—.
7. Intestinal canal of the caterpillar, a. Saliva vessel, b. Silk
' "' reservoir. c.GvWet or cesophagus, c?.Stomach, eee.Bile
vessels. /. Large intestine, g. Rectum.

g ^— ^— after it has assumed the

, . * , s. .■<> .i>v-

■ pupa tvoo days.

g . . ■ after eight days. a. Crop

or honey-stomach, first showing by the dilatation of the

base of the oesophagus.
jQ . — a. Honey-stomach be-
come a lateral appendage of the cesophagus b,

-^<|;-il::_ , of the butterfly, a. Honey-stomach.

'*■ h. CEsophagus, c. Small intestine become very long.
d. Rectum. Vol. IV. p. 112.

602 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
FIG.

12. Anal portion of the interior of the feinale butterfly.
a. Ovaries, b. Oviduct, c. Colleterium or varnish
secretor. d. Spermatheca or sperm receptacle, e. Part
of the spinal chord. J". Rectum, g. A secretory organ
filled with a thick white fluid, which is supposed to
lubricate the passage. Vol. IV. p. 126.

ANATOMICAL INDEX^

Vol. III. 354.—.

Abdomen, 387, 699; iv. 350.
Acetabulum, 384, 429.
Aculeus, 391,
Adminicula, 255; iv. 354.
Aeriductus, iv. 50, 353.
Alae, 618; iv. 335.
Alitruncus, 871, 547; iv. 330.
Allux, 336.

Alula, 373, 381, 625; ii. 358.
Amphiarthrosis, 431, note.
Antefurca, 369, 586.
Antennae, 366, 510; iv. 316.
Antepectus, 368, 543; iv. 328.
Antlia, 362, 469.
Anus, 390.
Apophysis, 429.
Appendices, 391,
Appendicula, 355,

Areas, 374, 597, 607, 614, 623.

Areolae, 375, 625, 632; iv. 341.

Arthrium, 386, 684.

Articulatio, 408, 596, 606,614,619,
655, 664, 670, 682, 699,

Axis, 372, 374, 607, 614, 619,

Basis, 361.

Brachia, 369, 546 ; iv, 329,

Branchiae, iv,' 60.

Bronchiae, iv, 61,

Bulbus, 366, 516.

Bullae, 626.

Calcaria, 370, 385, 676.

Calx, 386.

Canalis excretorius, iv, 563,

Canthus, xi65; iv. 313,

Capitulum, 366 ; iv. 322.

Caput, 355, 405; iv. 305.
Cardo, 357, 440.
Cauda, 389; iv. 351.
Caudulae, 392.
Centris, 389, 717.
Cephalophragma, 367,
Cephalotheca, 249,
Ceratheca, 250.
Cerci, 392.
Cerebrum, iv. 7.
Chela, 462, 463.
Chorcides, 497,
Clavicula, 369, 663.
Clavola, 366, 517,
Ccecum, iv, 102.
Collare, 371, 548,
CoUeterium, iv, 126,
CoUum, 367, 526,
Commissura, 381,
Corium, 373, 401,
Cornea, 496.
Coronula, 369, 385,
Corpus, 354 ; iv. 304.
Corysterium, iv, 127.
Coxa, 384, 663 ; iv. 346.
Cremastrae, 256 ; iv. 354.
Cubitus, 369, 670.
Cultelli, 362.
Cuius, 390.
Cytotheca, 350.
Dentes, 356, 438.
Diarthrosis, 404, note.
Digitulus, 676.
Digitus, 386.
Dorsolum, 372, 553; iv. 331.

N.B. Where the volume is not indicated, the third is to be understood.

604

ANATOMICAL INDEX.

Duodenum, iv. 101.

Dura mater, iv. 7.

Elastes, 389, 715.

Elytra, 372, 595; ii. 347; iv. 33.3.

Eiiarthrosis, 404, 412,682.

Endosternum, 393, 586.

Epicnemis, 385, 670.

Epidermis, 401.

Epigastrium, 388, 70S.

Epipharynx, 359, 458.

Epipleura, 373, 598 ; iv. 334.

Epiploon, iv. 144.

Epistomis, 476.

Ereisma, iv. 353.

Esoderma, 403.

Exoderma, 402.

Fades, 364.

Faecifurca, 353.

Femur, 384, 667 ; iv. 347.

Fila, 392.

Fistula, 362.

Flosculus, 392.

Foliola, 392.

Foramen, 389.

Forceps, 391.

Forfex, 391.

Fraenum, 378, 559.

Frons, 365, 484.

Funiculus, 389, 701.

Furca, 392, 715.

Fusi, 392.

Fusulus, iv. 352.

Ganglia, iv. 8.

Gastrotheca, 251.

Gence, 365, 488.

Ginglymus, 404, 431, 682.

Glossotheca, 250.

Gomphosis, 433.

Gonytheca, 384, 670.

Gula, 367.

Halteres, 381; ii. 358.

Hamuli, 381; ii. 357.

Hamus, 376 ; ii. 353.

Haustellum, 361.

Hemelytra, 373, 613; iv. 335.

Humerus, 369, 667.

Hypochondria, 388, 709.

Hypoderma, 373, 600.

Hypopharynx, 359, 458.

Hypopygiura, 390, 707.

Ileum, iv. 101.

Incisores, 3.56. ^ _,W, inuuVi
Intestma 2yarva, iv. 10 1,^-^
magna, iv. 102,,^
loterlum, iv. 127.
Jejunum, iv. 101.
Jugulum, 367, 526. ^^^^

Labella, 361.
Labium, 355, 420.
Labrum, 355, 418; iv. 309.,^^,^^,
Laminae, 362. '■. ,xi^

Laniarii, 357. j, >,

Ligamenta Nuchae, iv. 176. , j
Ligula, 363. /jjj

Lingua, 358, 451 ; iv. 312. ' „q
Lobi, 358, 442. ^^y

Lobuli, 377. .^^^y

Lora, 367. '',(j

Mammulae, 392. .^

Mandibulae, 356, 428 ; iv. 309.
Manitruncus, 368, 534 ; iv. 32^.
Manus, 370, 681. . ,

Mastigia, 1 50 ; ii. 252 ; iv. 35a.
Maxillae, 357, 439 ; iv. 309.. ,j
Medifurca, 379, 587. j' '-''[''n
Medipectus, 378, 562. , « 'i **
Mediti'uncus, 548.
Medulla sjnnaUs, iv. 8.
Membrana, 374, 615. .j^

Mentum, 355, 424. ^

Mesophragma, 379, 583.
Mesosternum, 379, 566,
Mesostethium, 382, 576.
Mesothorax, 371, 548 ; iv. 330.
Metaphragma, 382, 584. .^
Metapnystega, 381, 574. j
Metasternum, 383, 579.
Metathorax, 379, 570 ; iv. 348,
Mola, 357, 437.
Molares, 357.
Molula, 385.
Mucro, 388.
Musculi, iv. 168.
Myoglyphides, 367, 527.
Nasus, 364, 475; iv. 313.
Nervi, iv. 14.
Neura costalis, 375, 627.

postcostalis, 376, 628.

mediasiina, 376, 627.

externo-media, 376, 628.

ANATOMICAL INDEX.

605

Neura subextemo-vicdin, 376,
interno-mcdia, 376, 628.
subinterno-media, 376.
analis, 377.
axillaris, 377.
Neurae, 375 j iv. 340,
subcostales, 376.
spurics, 377.
Nodi, 389.
Nucha, 367.
Occiput, 365, 487.
Oculi, 365, 490 J iv. 313.
Oesophagus, iv. 98.
Opercula, 383, 580.
Ora, 368, 536.
Os, 355 ; iv. 308.
Osmaterium, iv. 1 28.
Ovaria, iv. 148.
Oviductus, iv. 148.
Ovipositor, 390 j iv. 151, 351.
Palatum, 455.
Pahna, 370.
Palmula, 370.
Palpi, iv. 310.

maxUlares, 358, 447.
labiales, 356, 425.

Papillae, 402.

Paraglossae, 359.

Parapleura, 382, 577.

Parastigma, 377.

Patagia, 366, 539.

Patella, 664.

Pectines, 383, 696.

Pectus, 393.

Pedes, 653 ; iv. 343.
intei-mcdii, 379.
jjostici, 383,

Pedicellus, 366, 517.

Peristethium, 378, 562.

Pessella, 384.

Petiolus, 389.

Pharynx, 359, 456.

Phialum, 375, 600, 625.

Phragma, 368, 582.

Pia mater, iv. 7.

Planta, 385.

Plan tula, 386.

Pleurae, 380, 574.

Pnystega, 378, 562.

Podex, 390, 707.

Pollcx, 370.

Postdorsoluni, 380, 570 j iv. 348.
Postfraenum, 380, 572; iv. 349.
Postfurca, 383, 588.
Postnasus, 364, 483.
Postpectus, 382, 579.
Postscutellum, 380, 572 ; iv. 348,
Potruncus, 570.
Proboscis, 361, 466.
Promuscis, 360, 464.
Propedes, 134; ii. 288; iv. 353.
Prophragma, 371, 582.
Prosternum, 369, 544.
Prostheca, 356, 439.
Prothorax, 368, 535 ; iv. 326.
Pseudo-cardia, ii. 29 ; iv. 82.
Pseudo-nychia, 386.
Pseudo-pecten, iv. 389.
Pseudo-spiracula, 713,
Pteropega, 372.
Pterygium, 381.
Pulmonarium, 713.
Pulvilli, 386, 692.
Pylorus, iv. 99.
Rectum, iv. 102.
Respiratoria, iv. 48.
Rete mucosum, 401.
Retina, 497.
Retinaculum, 391.
Rhinarium, 364, 481.
Rostellum, 363, 472.

Rostrulum, 362, 471.

Rotula, 429, 664.

Rumulae, iv. 353.

Sacculi, iv. 63.

Scalpella, 361 — 363.

Scapula, 309, 664.

Scapularia, 378, 564.

Scapus, 366, 516.

Scutellum, 378, 555; iv. 331.

Segmenta, 387, 706.

Sensorium commune, iv. 18.

Septula, 382, 585.

Sericterium, iv. 122.

Sialisterium, iv. 124.

Siphonuli, 393.

Siphunculus, 363.

Solea, 386, 692.

Solenaria, 362.

Spermathcca, iv. 146, 570,

606

ANATOMICAL INDEX.

Spicula, 391.

Spiracula, 368, 379, 382, 387,

388 ; iv. 37.
Squama, 389.

Stemmata, 365, 504; iv. 315.
Sternum, 393, 344.
Stigma, 377 ; iv. 343.
Stipes, 357, 441.
Styli, 392.
Subfacies, 366, 526.
Syneurosis, 431, note.
Synovia, 429, 656.
Syringia, 150; iv. 353; ii. 252.
Talus, 385.

Tarsus, 385, 681 ; iv. 346.
Tegmina, 373, 606 ; iv. 335.
Tegulae, 377.
Tempora, 365, 489.
Tendo, 38 1 ; ii. 353.
Terebellae, 391.
Tergura, 387.
Testes, iv. 564.
Theca, 361.
Thorax, 393.
Tibia, 384, 670; iv. 347.
Torulus, 366, 515.

Tracheae, iv. 61.

Trochanter, 384, 644 ; iv. 346.

Trochlea, 701.

Trophi, 355, 417; iv. 308.

Truncus, 367, 529 ; iv. 326.

Tubulus, 363, 390.

Tympanum, 388 ; ii. 205.

Umbones, 368.

Unci, 390.

Ungues, 358, 445.

Unguiculi, 386, 690.

Ungula, 386, 684.

Uvea, 497.

Vagina, 361.

Vaginula, 390.

Valvae, 391.

Valvulae, 362.

Vasa deferentia, iv. 564.

hepaticay iv. 103.
Velum, 370.
Venter, 388.
Ventriculus, iv. 99.
Vertex, 565, 486.
Vesiculae resjnratorioB, iv. 66.
seminalesy iv. 563.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX^

Abbreviatus, 261. c", :333./', 315.
Acclivis, 298.
Acliatinus, 288.
Acidus, 301.
Acies, 294.
Acinacicatus, 262.
Acinaciformis, 265.
Acqiiisitus,/', 345.
Acuductus, 271.
Aculeiformis, MJ 352.
Acuminatus, 295.
AcutLis, 294.
Adhserens, d,' 310.
Adiaphanus, 285.
Adjunctus, C. 350.
Adnatiis, d,' 310. v\ 349.
Adiincus, I), 351.
./Eneus, 283.
.lEqualis, /," 336.
iEquatus, 269.
.^qiiidistantes, 344.
iEruginosus, 281.
Alatus, a, 328. s'\ 347.
Albus, 278.
Aliformis, d", 335.
AUiaceus, 301.
Ambiens, a. 327.
Ambulatorius, /', 345.
Amethystinus, 283.
Aniplectens, c. 331.
Ainplexus, A. 306.
Ampliatus, c". 334.
Anceps, 267.
Aneurosus, f." 340.
Angularis, kJ" 342.
Angulatus, a, 328.

Anguloso-undulatus, 290.
Angulus, cJ" 333.

Immeralis. /," 339, 340.

scuiellaris. f," 339, 340.

posterior. /," 339, 340.

analis. /," 339, 340.
Angustatus, 260. k, 323.
Angustus, 260. /," 338.
Annulatus, 291.
Annulus, 285.
Antenniformis, //'. 311.
Antepectoralis, /,' 344.
Anterior, A, 314./," 335./,' r', 345.
Apertus, c', 309. k, 318, c, 330.

/f,'" 341. t', 348.
Apex, 268, 294. c." 333.
Apiculatus, 295.

Appendiculatus, h", 311. k, 325.
ApplicanSj /," 337.
Approximatus, k, 316. rff, 344.
Apterus, 343.
Arcuatus, 263.
Areatus, c. 331. k"\ 341.
Areolatus, 291. k"^ 341.
Argenteiis, 283.
Arniatus, b, 329.
Armillatus, 291.
Aromaticiis, 302.
Articulus, 297. k, 325.
Ascendens, 298. k, 332.
Asper, 277.
Ater, 282.
Atmosphaera, 287.
Atomus, 285.
Attenuatus, 260. k. 319.
Aurantius, 279.

^ Where the volume referred to is not indicated, Xhe fourth is to be under-
stood. The reader will also be pleased to observe that the references to Partial
Orismology are accompanied by the characteristic mark of each part, as given
in the table, Vol. III.

608

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Aureus, 283.

Auricula, 301.

Auriculatus, k, 325. a, 828. a",

330. c", 333.
Azureus, 280.
Badius, 282.
Barbatus, 277. k, 324.
Basis, 268, 294. c", 333.
Biarticulatus, 325.
Bicaudatus, /". 338.
Bifidus, 296.
Bipalpatus, 308.
Bipartitus, 296. k. 821.
Bipectinatus, k, 321.
Bisectus, 305. g. 330.
Biserratus, k, 320.
Brevis, k, 317.
Brevior, k, 317.
Brevissimus, k, 317.
Brunneus, 282.
Buccatus, A. 307.
Caelatus, 273,
Cseruleus, 281.
Caesius, 281.
Calcar, 300.
Calcaratus, «", 348.
Calceoliformis, 267.
Cailosus, 258.
Calvus, 277.
Campanulatus, k, 325.
Canaliculatus, 272.
Canaliformis, «', 349.
Canalis, 294.
Cancellatus, 291.
Capillaceus, k, 322.
Capillaris, k, 319.
Capistratus, A, 307.
Capitatus, k, 322.
Capitulum^wtVe, k, 822.

tunicatuviy 323.

solidum, 323.

injlatum, 323.
Carinatus, 272.
Carneus, 279.
Carnosus, 259.
Cartilagineus, 258.
Cai-uncula, 301. iii. 539.-
Castaneus, 282.
Catenulatus, 274.
Caudatus,/", 338,

Centipes, /', 344.

Cernuus, A. 305.

Cerviculatus, «, 327.

Cervinus, 281.

Chalybeus, 283.

Chelatus, c', 309.

Cheliferus, Z), 351.

Chrysalis, i. 67.

Cicatricosus, 272.

Ciliatus, 278, 315. k, 324.

Cimicinus, 30).

Cinereus, 279.

Cingens, h, 314.

Cingulatus, 291.

Cinnanionieus, 282.

Circularis, 261.

Circumambiens, a. 327.

Circumseptus, f", 340.

Cirratus, k, 321.

Cirrosus, 277.

Cirrus, 277.

Clathratus, 272.

Clathrosus, 271.

Clavatus, 263. k. 322,

Claviformis, 267.

Clypeatus, A, 307, a, 327. s", 329.

Coalitus, 299, 305. e, 330. k\ 331.

u\ 349. C, 350.
Coccineus, 280.
Coecus, m'", 343.
Coleoptra, c", 333.
CoUiformis, a, 326.
CoUigatus, 299.
Columnaris, h, 315.
Comatus, 278. ]

Communis, 293.
Compactus, 304.
Complanatus, 272.
Completus, i. 67.
Complicans, c", 334.
Compositus, 301. d', 310. h, 314.

k, 324.
Compressus, 259. j

Concavus, 269, \

Conchiformis, g", 332.
Concolor, 291.
Confluens, 292.
Conglomeratus, h. 314
Couicus, 265, J

ConmitUS, 299. kj 317. ;t

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

609

Connectens, /'", 341.

Connivens, 293. /'", 337.

Conspersus, 288.

Constrictus, 268.

Consiitus, 274,

Contiguus, 292. k. 317.

Couvergens, 299.

Convexus, 269.

Convolutus, k, 318./", 336.

Convolvens, d", 335.

CorbicLilatus, s", 347.

Cordatus, 261.

Cordiforrais, 265.

Coriaceus, 258.

Cornells, 258.

Cornu, laminatus, 300.
nutans, 300.

Coronatus, /'", 340, /', .^54.

CoiTugatus, 274. >

Costalis, k"\ 342.

Costatus, 272.

Crassus, 260. k, 319.

Crenatus, 296.

Crepera, 2S5.

CrinitLis, 278.

Crispus, 293.

Cristatus, 272. k, 323.

Croceus, 279.

Cruciato-complicatus, /", 337.
Cruciato-incumbens, /", 337.
Cruciatus, 296. a, 328. v', 349.
Crustaceus, 258.
Crystallinus, 283.
Cubicus, 261.
Cucullatus, 328.
Cucumiformis, 265.
Cultratus, 263.
Cultriformis, 266.
Cuneatus, 262,
Cuneiform is, 265.
Cupreus, 283.
Cuspidatus, 295.
Cyaneus, 280.
Cylindricus, 267.
Cymbiformis, 305.
Deauratus, 284.
Deciduus,/', 344.
Declivis, 298.
Decolor, 291.
Decussatus, 297.

VOL. IV.

Deflexiis, k, 318. /"', SS8.
Dehiscens, c", 324.

Deltoidciis, 2C6.

Dens, 300.

Dentatus, 297. c', 309. d', 310. k,
320.

Denudatus, /", 339.

Depressus, 219.

Descendens, 298.

Detectiis, e", 335.

Deuteromesus, k'", 343.

Diaphanus, 285.

Diceriis, k. 3 1 6.

Dichotomiis, 297./", 837.

Didymus, 293. k"\ 342.

Digitatus, s'\ 329. /", 338.

Dilatatus, 260, 294. k, 319.

Dimerus, B, 326. q'\ 347.

Dimidiatus, c", 333.

Dipterus, 343.

Discoidalis, d'", 334.

Discolor, 291.

Discus, 268.

Disjunctus, 304.

Distans, 300. k, 316. r', 344.

Distichus, k, 321.

Distinctus, 292, 300. k', 331. «',
348. D, 351.

Divaricatus, 297.
Divergens, 299. /", 338.
Dividens, h', 313.
Dolabratus, s", 329. /", 338.
Duplicatilis. /", 336.
Duplicato-pectinatus, k, 321.
Echinatus, 273,
Edentulus, c'. 309.
Elabratus, 308.
Ellipsoideus, 264.
Ellipticus, 261.
Elongatus, 261.
Emandibulatus, 308,
Emarginatus, 295, a, 327.
Ensatus, 262. M', 351.
Ensiformis, 265. k, 320,
Erecto-patens, /", 337,
Erectus, 298, /", 337,
Erosus, 296.
Evanescens, a. 327.
Exarticulatus, k. 324.
Excalcaratus, s", 348.

610

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Excavatus, 269.
Excisiis, 295.
Excurvus, k. 318.
Exertus, A, 306. M', 352.
Expalpatus, 308.
Expansus, f", 337.
Explanatus, a, 327.
Exscutellatus, 332.
Extensus, /". 337.
Extraocularis, k. 316-
Extricatus, M' , 352.
Falcatus, 263./", 338.
Falciformis, 320.
Farinosus, 275.
Fascia, 289.

pyramidata.

macularis.

articulata.

dimidiata.

abbremata.

sesquialtera.

sesquitertia, 290.

Fasciatus, om,

Fasciculatus, 277. h", 311. k, 324.

Fasciculus, 277.

Fastigiatus, c", 333.

Fastigium, 294.

Fenestratus,/", 339.

Fenestrella, d", 335.

Ferrugineus, 282.

Filatus, 294. k, 324.

Filiformis, k, 318.

Fimbriatus, 278. k. 324.

Findens, h, 313.

Fissus, 295.

Fixus,^", 346.

Flabellatus, k. 321.

Flavus, 279.

Flexilis, 259.

Flocculatus, p", 346.

Fostidus, 302.

Foliaceus, 259. s", 347.

FoUiculus, 354.

Forcipatus, b'. 352.

Fornicatus, 267. a. 313.

Fossorius,/', 345.

Fossula, 270.

Fossulatus, 270.

Foveola, 270.

Foveolatus, 270.

Fractus, 299. k. 317.
Frontalis, i. 315.
Fulcrans, 5", 346.
Fulgidus, 279.
Fuliginosus, 282.
Fulvus, 281.
Fundus, 294.
Funiculatus, v', 349.
Furcatus, 297. k. 321. -joal

Fuscus, 282. oaoni

Fusiformis, 267. h". 3I2»j£jq»8l9«I
Geminus, 293. \ .y.uVj^m\

Geniculatus, 268. k. 317. d

Gibbosus, 273. J

Gibbus, 269. i

Glaber, 277. i

Glaucus, 279.
Globifer, k. 323.
Grabatu?,/', 354.
Granula, 273.
Granulatus, 273.

Griseus, 279. il

Gutta, 285. I

Guttatus, 285. I

Hastatus, 262. - 1

Heteromorphus, h", 812. f

Hexaedrus, 266. i

Hexagonus, 266. f

Hexapus, 243. !

Hieroglyphicus, 285. \

Hii-sutus, 266. .[

Hirtus, 276. '

Hispidus, 276. i

Holosericeus, 276. ^J

Hcrizontalis, 298, 301./", 3SlfiJ
Hyalinus, 285. .-.J

Imago, i. 68. .;

Imbricatus, 274. k, 320. ; L

Immarginatus, a, 327. \imixA

Immersus, h, 3 1 4. ^jobvI

Imperfectus, 308. .coiiiiiune J

Inaequalis, 210. f". 33,6^ J .bvibJ
Inauratus, 284. ,^;,^e ,^ ^anaJfiJ
Incanus, 279. *.'r^ ^A ^>\^B■K)i&d
Incisura, 297. ,euJBJ

Tncisus, 295. vhoaJ

Inclusus, a, 313. 'I

Incrassatus, 260, 294. k. 819. r\y
347. ,■,,,....., u.iJ

Incompletus, k'", 3^j i«iftfe)8iiJ

ORISMOLOGICaL indix.

<)11

Incumbens,/", 337.

Incurvus, 298. k. S18.

Inermis, b. 329./', 354.

Inferior, h, 314.

Iiiflatus, h". 311. •' ■ >' '

Inflexus, 298. A, 306. '^

Infundibuliformis, 267. '

Infuscatus, 292. ; i

Inociilaris, k, 316.

Inosculans, 300.

Inscriptus, 285.

Insectus, C, 350.

Insertus, A, 306.

Insula, 285.

Insulatus, /'", 340.

Integer, 294. k, 317. c", 333.

Intercipiens, q", 346.

Interocularis, k. 316.

Interstitium, 271.

IntervalUim, 272.

Intrans, h, 313.

Intraocularis, i, 315.

Intrusus, A, 306.

Involutus, 298.

Iridescens, 292.

Iris, 287.

Irregularis, k. 322.

Irroratus, 285.

Laevigatus, 269.

Laevis, 269.

Laciniatus, 296.

Laciniformis, g", 332.

Lacteus, 278.

Lactifloreus, 278.

Lacunosus, 270.

Lageniformis, 268.

Lamellatus, h", 311.

Laminatus, p", 346.

Lanatus, 275.

Lanceolatus, 262.

Lanuginosus, 27^^^' .'^*-'-

Larva, i. 63. '"\ o^'.^

Latens, t', 348,

Lateralis, h, 314.

Latus, 260. f", 338. fci'Sim '- "''

Lenticularis, 264. <-'^-'^ ,t\KiMil

Liber, d', 310. p", 346.- tu^m-inl

Ligneus, 259. - <'~'"52 ,, ouiisaijn*

Liguliformis, e', S12. ■•'»'•-

Lilacinus, 280. .'"^^ ,80l9lqmoonl

Limbatus, 291. ■"'■^^

Linibus, 268. -3

Linea, 290. '^■'^^

Linearis, 263. f

Lineatus, 290.
Linguiformis, e', 312
Litura, 285.
Lituratus, 285.
Lividus, 281.
Lobatus, 296. k, 325.
Longior, k, 317.
Longissimus, k, 317.
Longitudinalis, 298.
Longus, 261.
Loricatus, >•", 347.
Lubricns, 277.
Luniformis, 268.
Lunula, 285.
Lunulatus, 263. b", 311.
Luridus, 281.
Luteus, 279.
Lutosus, 275.
Lychnidiatus, A, 307.
Macula, 285. -^-"i

Maculatus, 285. "^

Mammillatus, h", 311. - uH

Mandibuliformis, d', ,JI0. -d^

Maniformis, h", 311. :>^

Margaritaceus, 282. 3'5

Marginalis, d'", 334. /.-'", 341. /i
Marginatus, o, 327. i^

Margo, 268. i''*I

exterior,/", 339. .il

interior,/", 339. n'^

posterior,/", 339. -jiI

Marmoratus, 289. -i'^I

Mediocris, k, 317. '^r-M.

Medipectoralis, /, 344. ">l'i

Medius, h. 314. ''^

MelissiEus, 302. >i'5

Membranaceus, 258. ^j1

Miniatus, 279. 'Ol

Mollis, 260. 0%

Moniliformis, k, 320. ;.o'^

Monomerus, B, 325. <?", MJ-no'^;
Moschatus, 301. ' \ .^i-'ifc^aol
Motatorius,/', 345. ^-^^i.

Mucro, 300. -o^.

Mucronatus, 295. h, 322v.-.«.-^vfo''!
Multiarticulatus, k, 325.)aii09vo'i

2 R 2

612

OIUS-MOLOGICAL INDKX.

Multifidus, 296.
Multipartitus, 296".
Multisectus, 305.
Muricatus, 273.
Mutilatus, c", 333.
Myriapus, 344.
Mystacinus, a', 309.
Natatorius,/', 345. C, 352.
Navicularis, M', 351.
Nebulosus, 288.
Nervulus, /", 340.
Neiu'osus, /", 340.
Niger, 282.
Nitidus, 284.
Niveus, 278.
Nodosus, 268. k, 320.
Nudus, /", 338.
Nutans, A, 305.
Nympha, i. 67.
Obesus, 260.
Obliquus, 298.

Obliteratus, 274, 292. w', 349.
Oblongus, 261.
Obscurus, 284,
Obsoletus, 293.
Obtectus, e", 335 ; i. 68.
Obtusus, 290.
Obumbrans, A', 332.
Obumbratus, c, 351.
Obversus, 299.
Obvolvens, a, 328. c' 334.
Ocellus, 286.

ccecuSy 287.

spuriuSf 287.

simplex, 287.

complexus, 287.

nictitans, 9.S7.

fenestratus, 287.

dioptratus, 288.

geminatus, 288.

didi/mus, 288.

sesquialterus, 288.
Octopus, 343.
Odoratus, 302.
Olivaceus, 281.
Opacus, 284.
Opalinus, 283.
Operculatus, h, 315.
Orbiculatus, 264.
Ordinatus, 292. h, 313.

Oricluilceus, 283.
Ovaliformis, 268.
Ovalis, 261.
Ovatus, 261.
Oviformis, 265.
Pagina, 268.

superior.

inferior.
Palatiformis, e', 312.
Palmatus, k, 321. <", 329.
Papillifer, D, 351.
Papillula, 274.
Papillulatus, 274.
Parallelograramicus, 264.
Parallelopipedus, 267.
Parapleuriticus, 382.
Partitus, 296.

Patellatus, k, 325. a", 330.
Pateriformis, k, 325.
Patulus, /", 337.
Pectiiiatus, k, 321.
Pectunculatus, d', 310.
Pediformis, h", 311.
Pediinculatus, A, 306. h, 315.
Pellitus, 278.
Penicillatus, 277.
Penicillus, 277.
Pentaedrus, 266.
Pentagonus, 266.
Perfectus, 308.
Perforatus, c", 334.
Pergameneiis, 258.
Persistens,/', 344.
Petiolatus, k'". 342. C, 350.
Phoneticus, c, 331.
Piceus, 282.
Pilosus, 275.
Pinguis, 260.
Plaga, 285.
Planus, 269./", 336.
Plectrum,/", 339.
Plicatilis, /", 336. C, 350.
Plicatus, 294. c", 334.
Plumatus, k, 324.
Plumbeus, 284.
Plumosus, k, 234.
Plumulosus, 276.
Pollinosus, 275.
Polyedrus, 266.
Polygonus, 266.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

ei3

Polypus, 344.
Porcatus, 272,
Porosiis, 270.

Porrectus, 299, A, 305. k, 317.
Porus, 269.
Postcostalis, k'", 342.
Posterior, h, 314. i", 336.
Postpectoralis, d\, 344.
Prasmorsiis, 295.
Praeocularis, k. 316.
Prasinus, 281.
Prehensorius, d\, 346.
Priniarius,/". 335.
Prismaticns, k. 320.
Prismoidalis, 266.
Productus, 295. a, 328.
Prominens, A, 305. h. 315.
Pronus, 299, 308.
Protomesus, k'", 343.
Pruinosus, 284.
Pubescens, 276.
Piilverulentus, 275.
Pulvinatus, a. 328.
Punctatus, 270.
Punctum, 270.
Puniceus, 280.
Pupa, i. 64.
Pupilla, 287.

hastata.

suffnlta.
Purpureus, 280.
Pyramidalis, 265.
Pyriformis, 267.
Quadrangulus, 262,
Quadratus, 263,
Quadriarticulatus, k, 325,
Quadrifidus, 296.
Quadripartitus, 296.
Quinquangulus, 262.
Radians, A'", 342.
Radiatus, 290. h"', 341,
Radius, /", 338.
Ramosus, 297. k, 321.
Ramulosus, k'", 342.
Raptorius, /', 345.
Receptus, k, 318. k', 332.
Reclinatus, 298.
Reconditus, A, 306,
Recumbens, 298.
Recurrcns, I'", 341.

Recurvus, 298. k, 318.
Reflexus, 298. k, 318. M\ 352.
Rejectus, k', 332.
Reniciila, 285.
Repandus, 297,
Resupinatus, 299.
Reticulatus, 272. k'", 341.
Reticulosus, 271.
Retractilis, A, 306, 308.
Retractus, A, 306, 308. C, 358.
Retusus, 295.
Revelatus, C; 330.
Reversus, 299. /", 338.
Revolutus, 298. k, 318.
Rhombiformis, 266.
Rhomboideus, 264.
Rigidus, 259. k, 318.
Rimosus, 270.
Rivosus, 271.
Rorulentus, 275.
Rosaceus, 302.
Roseus, 280.
Rostralis, k, 316.
Rostratus, A, 307.
Rotatorius, 301.
Rotundatus, 261, 295.
Rubineus, 283.
Rufus, 280.
Rugosus, 272.
Sagittatus, 262.
Salebrosus, 273.
Saltatorius,/', 345. C, 351.
Sanguineus, 280.
Scaber, 273.
Scopatus, s", 347.
Scopifer, k, 324.
Scopulatus, t", 348.
Scutatus, 274. a", 330.
Scutellatus, 332,
Scutelliformis, vl, 349.
Secundarius, i", 336.
Securiformis, h", 311.
Segmentum, 297.
Seniicompletus, i. 67.
Semicoronatus, 354.
Semireconditus, A, 306.
Septiformis, h', 313.
Sepultus, c', 309. C, 330.
Sericeus, 284.
Serpentinus, V", 340.

614id

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

Serratus, 297. k, 320.

Sesquialterus, k'", 342.

Sessilis, 307. h, 314. C, 330.

Setaceus, k, S18.

Setarius, k, 324.

Setiformis, e', 312. k, 318.

Setigerus, k, 322,

Setosiis, 276.

Setulosus, 276.

Sexangulus, 262,

Sigmoideus, 262.

Signatura, 285.

Signatus, 285.

Simplex, d', 309. h, 313. k, 324.

/'", 340. r". 347.
Simiilans, e, 348.
Sinuatc-undulatus, 290.
Sinuatus, 296.
Sniaragdinus, 283.
Solidus, 259.
Sparsus, 313.
Spatulatus, 263.
Sphaericus, 264.
Sphaerulatus, 274.
Spina, 300.
Spinigerus, c", 333.
Spinosus, d', 310.
Spiralis, k, 318.
Splendens, 284.
Spongiosus, 259.
Spurius, 297. i. 315.
Squaraatus, /", 338.
Squamosus, 274.
Squarrosus, 296.
Stoniapus, 309.
Stramineus, 279.
Striatus, 271.
Striga, 290.
Strigilatus, a'. 330.
Strigosus, 290.
Stupeus, 275.
Stupulosus, 276.
Subereus, 258.
Subociilaris, k, 316.
Subulatus, h", 312. k, 322. c",

334.
Suctorius, c', 309.
Sulcatus, 271.
Siilphureus, 279.
Superciliimij 288.

Superimpositus, C, 350. -A: .mdmiJ

Superior, h, 314. k, 316. /", SS5i''^

Suspensus, 300.

Sutura, 297.

Tabularis, k', 332. J

Tabulatus, v', 349. ■

Tectus, g', 331.

Telescopiformis, M', 352.

Tensus, C, 350. >

Tenuis, 260. k, 319. '

Teres, 267.

Terminalis, 308.

Tesselatus, 289.

Testaceus, 280. -'

Testudinarius, 288.

Tetraedrus, 266.

Tetragonus, 266.

Tetrapterus, 343.

Tetrapus, 343.

Thoraciformis, i', 331.

Tomentosus, 276.

Topazinus, 283.

Torulosus, k, 325.

Trachelatus, b', 328.

Tramosericeus, 284.

Transciu'rens, v', 349.

Transversus, 298.

Trapezatus, 264.

Trapeziformis, 266.

Trapezoideus, 264.

Trapezoidiformis, 266.

Triangulus, 262.

Triarticulatus, k, 325.

Tricaudatus, /", 338.

Triedrus, 266.

Trifidus, 296.

Trigonus, 266.

Trimerus, B, 326,

Tripartitus, 296.

Triquetrus, 265.

Tritomesus, k'", 343.

Truncatus, 295. c", 33.S.

Tuberculatus, 273.

Tuberculura, 273.

Tubulosus, 259. e, 312.

Tumidus,/", 336.

Turbinatus, 262.

Turbiniforrais, 265.

Turritus, A, 306.

Umbilicatus, 270.

ORISMOLOGICAL INDEX.

615

Umbra, 285.
Umbraculatus, A, 807.
Uncinatus, k, 322. 1'", 341. D,

351.
Undosus, 271.
Undulatus, 291, 293.
Unguiculatus, c', 309. d', 310. k,

322.
Unguiformis, c', 353.
Unicolor, 291.
Ustulatus, 289.
Varicosus, I'". 340.
Variola, 270.
Variolosus, 270.
Velutinus, 276.
Venosus, 290.

Ventricosus, 260.
Vermiculatus, 271.
Verricula, 277. * i& ,ri .
Verriculatus, 277. BfJ*
Verruca, 273.
Verrucosus, 273.
Versatilis, 301. A, 306.
Versicolor, 292.
Verticalis, 298, 301. i, 315.
Verticillatus, k, 324.
Vibratilis, 301.
Villosus, 275.
Violaceus, 280.
Viridis, 281.
Vitta, 290.
Vittatus, 290.

INDEX ... )

TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS NOTICED IN 'PHm>

WORK. ' ^ ^,

[From the long period that the present work has been in hand; Sbrti'e'
confusion has taken place with regard to the nomenclature of the ge-
nera mentioned in it; but the following Index it is hoped will enable'
the reader in most instances to rectify it.]

CLASS I. Insecta.

Order I. Coleoptera, iv. 368 — .
Abax, iv. 250.

Acilius (l)j/iiscus),u. 251 ; iii, 305.
Adelium, iv. 496.
^salus, iii. 504.
Agathidium, ii. 233.
Agra, iii. 527; iv. 496.
Agrostiphila, iii. 386 ; iv. 496.
Akis, iii. 601.
Aleochara, ii. 232.
Alurnus, iii. 34 ; iv. 496.
Amblyterus, iii. 426.
Amphiconia, iii. 386.
Anisonyx, iii. 690.
Anisotoma, iii. 41.
Anobium {Ptinus), i. 36, 234, 386 ;

ii. 235, 386.
Anoplognathus, iii. 337 ; iv. 496.
Anthia, iii. 33.
Anthophagus, iii. 506.
Anthrenus {Bijrrhus), \. ,^Mt>,}L

226; iii. 177. ,, .-.-ntn'.

Anthribus, iii, 318.
Aphodius, iv. 397, 478, 489, 554.
Apion, i. 176; iv. 487.
Apoderus, iii. 333, 412.
Apogonia, iv. 496.
Archon, iv. 446, note.
Areoda, iii. 692.
Asida, iv. 494.

Ateuchus, i. 252.

Atractocerus, ii. 348; iv. 557.nori >
Attagenus {Derniestes), i. 231.{'ul')
Attelabus, iv. 107. ;c>s .i .Bbbni'jiO
Anchenia, ii. 391, • ^r"? ji ,sijHoiO
Bagous, iv. 69. 'iir-i')

Balaninus {Curculio), i. 201;'*iF.^

274; iii. 84. ., ;v .j ^

Bembidium, iv. S\2:?:{sP. ,ii ,.:
Blaps, ii. 242 ; iii. 344.
Blethisus, iv. 502. ■>

Bolbocerus, iii. 329.
Bostrichus, i. 210.
Brachinus, ii. 246; iv. 129,
Brachycerus, iii. 33.
Brachyrhinus, ii. 219.
Brentus, iii. 33, 709.
Bronchus, iv. 273.
Broscus, iv. 272.
Bruchus, i. 175.
Bryaxis, iv. 311.
Buprestis, i. 233 ; iii. 33.
Byrrhus, ii. 234.
Byturus, i. 1 94.

Calandra, i. 171, 298; iii. 33.! vri)
Callichroma {Cerambyx), ii. S^ft;)

iii- 523. - ; .. .- ^i^auoou:)

Callidium, i. 232 ; i!eg9j& ,^u^do^(0
Calopus, i. 233. ;' ■' ifrnYO

Colosoma, i. 269, 275; iv. 488>'{yP
Cantharis {Lytta), L 5X%i Miy^Sfi^^

iv. 77, 491. >ri iit ,?n!Iior;ii(]

illo:)
tadtiiYJoO

>i>ii'J
tqvi'.)

INDEX TO THE GENEKA OF INSECTS.

617

Carabus, i. 269 ; ii. 247 ; iii. 33 ;

iv. 493, 558.
Carpaliimis, ii. 30, note.
Cassida, ii. 261; iii. 601.
Catascopiis, iv. 496.
Catheretes, i. 295.
Cebrio, iii, 519.
Cerambyx, iii. 545.
Cerapterus, iii. 514 ^ iv. 496.
Cercyon, iv. 500.
Cerocoma, iii. 317.
Cetonia, iii. 344, .< ^f,.,j A-i-*"
Chaetophora {Georyssus), ii. 258.
Chasmodia, iii. 568 ; iv. 496.
Chilocorus, iv. 280.
Chiroscelis, ii, 421.
Chlaenia, iii. 539 ; iv. 554.
Chlamys, iii. 525, 597.
Choleva, iv. 553, note.
Choragus, ii. 315.
Chrysomela, ii. 245, 321 ; iii. 34.
Cicindela, i. 268 ; ii. 349 ; iv, 488.
Cionus, ii. 274 ; iv. 552.
Cistela, iii. 567.
Claviger, iii. 519.
Clems, i. 271.
Clivina, ii. 365,
Clytra, i. 464; iii. 332.
Clytus, ii. 391.
CnodaJon, iii. 514.
Coccinella, i. 262 ; ii. 9, 2S0.
Colliuris, iii. 527 ; iv. 497.
Colymbetes, iii. 324.
Copris, i. 252 ; ii. 240; iv. 299,490.
Corticaria, i. 225.
Corynetes, i, 255.
Cossyphus, iii. 598.
Cremastocheilus, iii. 423.
Creophilus, iii. 433.
Crioceris, ii. 391.
Cryptocephalus, iii. 525.
Cryptophagus, i. 225 ; iii. 335,716.
Cryptorynchus, ii. 234 ; iii. 329.
Cupes, iii. 511 ; iv. 495.
Curculio, ii. 219.
Cychrus, ii. 391.
Cymindis, iii. 691.
Cyphon, i. 87.
Cyphus, iv. 271.
Dascillus, iii, 689,

Dasytes, iii. 690,
Dermestes, iii. 536.
Diaperis, iii. 310.
Ditoma, iii. 518.
Donacia, ii. 349 ; iii. 227.
Dorcadion, i. 232.
Dorcatoma, iii. 519.
Doryphora, iv. 494.
Drilus, iv. 479 note, 508.
Dromia, iv. 295.
Drypta, iii. 689 ; iv. 697.
Dynastes, ii. 240 ; iii. 33.
Dytiscus, ii. 255, 295 ; iii. 83, 48i':j

iv. 254, (.jiii inm-

Elaphrus, iv. 501. *■

Elater, i. 179; ii. 317; iii. 556;

iv. 557.
Elephastomus, iv. 496.
Elmis, ii. 258.

Elophorus, ii. 257, 364. ^

Enoplium, iii. 324. '

Entinius, iii. 603. ''■ t^i'^'JA

Erotylus, iii. 568 ; iv. 496i^ ^ ^iiiii'jA
Euchlora, iii. 704. .I'liiiloLA

Eumolpus, i, 202. ' .fijIfcvSv

Eurhinus, iii. 325. .HjirilKgA

Eurychora, iii. 489; iv. 49'5',' ^^''SA
Eurynotus, iii. 693. .- wlqii^ioigA
Eutrachelus, iv. 497. • I'J^ ■"« t^'^A
Evoesthetus, iv. 503. '■ • -^'-^-^oolA
Feronia, iii. 336. '"'A

Galerita, iv. 496. <lniA

Galeruca, iii. 690. sooi/iijmA

Geniates, iii. 423. .//noaiiiA

Genuchus, iii. 423. raoJoainA

Georyssus, ii. 258. .'HiiidonA

Geotrupes, i. 253 ; ii. 234,^4^51^
Gibbium, iii. 513. f. ohjonA

Glaphyrus, iv. 495. Mnh

Gnathium, iii. 317. '^"A.

GnathoceraCCe-jfojiia), iii. 488, si^^/'
Gnonia, iii. 542. ' — -

Goliathus, iii. 33; iv. 493.'"J"*'J"A
Graphipterus, iv. 495. -fiihorlqA
Gymnopleurus, iii. 704; iv. 48'3;''!/^
Gyrinus, ii. 4, 241 ; iv. 56. "'/i

Haliplus, iii. 450. " ' ■

Haltica, i. 182, 186.
Harpalus, ii. 246,
HelsEus, iii. 502 ; iv. 496. -i^^A

618

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS

Helluo, iv. 496,

Helodes, iv. 500.

Helops, iii. 567.

Heterocerus, iii. 399.

Hexodon, iii. 446.

Hispa, iii. 166.

Hister, ii. 227.

Hololepta, iii. 668.

Hoplia, ii. 234.

Horia, iv. 491, 496.

Hydrasna, ii. 364 ; iv. 522.

Hydrophilus, ii. 295; iii. 33, 71.

Hydroporus, iv. 500.

Hylecoetus, iii. 317.

Hylessinus, i. 232.

Hylurgus, i. 232.

Hypera, iii. 142, 215.

Hyphydrus, iv. 500.

Imatidium, ii. 261.

Labidus, iv. 496.

Lagria, iv. 276.

Lamia, iii. 34, 514.

Lamprima, iii. 681.

Lampyris, ii. 410; iv. 498.

Languria, iii. 444.

Lebia, ii. 443.

Lema, ii. 260.

Leptura, iii. 301.

Lethnis, i. 202; iv. 499.

Liparus, iii. 232.

Lixus {Curculio), i. 148 ; ii. 280.

Lomechusa, ii. 44 1 .

Lucanus, ii. 227 ; iii. 33, 314.

Lyctus, i. 172; ii. 231.

Lycus, iii. 517.

Lymexylon, i. 234.

Macraspis, iii. 442.

Macrocephaliis, iii. 319.

Macroplea, iv. 522.

Macropus, iii. 332.

Malachius, iii. 323, 539.

Manticora, iii. 33.

Megasoma, iii. S3, 311, note.

Melasis, iv. 306.

Meloe, i. 162; ii. 250; iii. 163;

iv. 225, 492.
Melolontha, i. 177,205; iv. 558.
Micropeplus, iii. 500.
Mimela, iii. 545 ; iv. 495.
Molorchus, ii. 348.

Moluris, iii. 539.

Mordella, iii. 451.

Mycetophagus, i. 256, note.

Mylabris,i. 155; iv. 491.

Nebria, iii. 513.

Necrobia, iii. 683, note; iv. 558.

Necrodes, iii. 540.

Necrophorus, i. 350.

Necydalis, ii. 348.

Nemognatha, iii. 317.

Nilion, iv. 496.

Nitidula, i. 209.

Noterus, iii. 324. '

Nothiophilus, iv. 274.

Notoxus, iii. 448.

Ocypus, iii. 439.

Odacantha, iii. 542.

Oedemera, ii. 315.

Oenas, iii. 518, 676.

Omaliuni, ii. 242.

Omophron, iv. 501.

Onitis, iii. 333, 337.

Onthophagus, iii. 310, 338; iv.490.

Onthophilus, iv. 272.

Opatrum, iv. 295.

Opilo, iii. 683, note.

Orchestes, ii. 314.

Oryctes, i. 300; iv. 491.

Oxyporus, iv. 263.

Oxytelus, ii. 439 ; iii. 327 ; iv. 141.

Pachygastei" {Curculio), i. 203.

Pachysoma, iii. 659.

Paelobius, iv. 500.

Parnus, ii. 364.

Paropsis, iv. 496.

Pasimachus, iii. 542.

Passaliis, iii. 310.

Pausiis, i. 234 ; ii. 421.

Paxillus, iii. 446.

Pedinus, iv. 295.

Pelidnota, iii. 691.

Peltis, iv. 1 36.

Phalacrus, iv. 503.

Phaleria, i. 173.

Phaneeus, iii. 326, 337.

Phengodes, iii. 440.

Phileurus, iii. 390.

Phloiotribus, i. 232.

Phoberus, iii. 446.

Pholidotiis, iii. 315.

NOTICED IN THIS WORK.

619

Pinielia, ii. 250 j iv. 502.

Platypus, iii. 518 ; iv. 557.

Plectropus, iii. 660.

Poecilus, iv. 554.

Pogonophorus, iii. 441.

Priocera, ii. 327.

Prioniis, i. 233,- ii. 391 j iii. S4;

iv. 484.
Psammodius, i. 252.
Pselaphus, ii, 307, note.
Psephus {Melolontka), iii. 678.
Pterostichus, iii. 668.
Ptilinus, i. 234.
Ptinus, i. 238.
Pyrochroa, iv. 324.
Ramphus, ii. 314.
Rhagium, iii. 143.
Rhina, iii. 432.
Rhinosiraus, i. 232, note.
Rhipicera, iii. 320, 321 ; iv. 498.
Rhipiphorus, iii. 444.
Rutela, iv. 496.
Rhynchaenus, i. 453.
Rhynchites, i. 196, 202.
Ryssonotus {Lucamis), iii. 667.
Sagra, iii. 483.
Saperda, iii. 332.
Sarrotrium, iii. 523.
Scapliidium, ii. 315.
Scarabseus, i. 349 ; iii. 337.
Scarites, ii. 365.
Scaurus, iii. 489.
Schizorhina {Cetonia), iii. 479 ; iv.

496.
Scolytus, iii. 444.
Scotinus, iv. 496.
Serica, iii. 691.
Serropalpus, iv. 200.
Siagonium, iii. 315.
Silpha, ii. 242.
Sinodendrum, i. 229.
Sphaeridiam, iii. 674 j iv. 394.
Spheniscus, iii. 567.
Sphodrus, iii. 332.
Staphylinus, ii. 236, 244 ; iii. 33.
Stenocorus, iii. 5 1 6.
Stenus, iii. 448.
Stomis, iii. 454.
Tachinus, i. 252.
Tachyporiis, i. 252.

Tanysphyrus, iv. 69. ''^*' -^ fiuU^n

Telephorus, ii. 312. '^ •" f"'f-' ' ^^-

Tenebrio, i. 134; iii. 33.

Tetraonyx, iv. 496.

Tetratoma, iii. 518.

Tetraopes {Tetrops), iii. 498.

Thanasimus, iii. 683, note.

Tillus, iii, 448.

Timarcha, iii. 99.

Tomicui {Bostrichus¥.), i. 210.

Trechus, iv. 3 1 2.

Trichius, iii. 386.

Trichopteryx, iii. 40, note.

Trogosita, i. 171.

Trox, i. 255; ii. 240, 391.

Ordee II. Strepsiptera,\\.S69.
Stylops, i. 267; ii. 327.
Xenos, i. 267 ; ii. 327.

Order III. Dermaptera, iv. 370.
Forficula, ii. 350; iii. 341.
Labia {Forficula), iv. 514.
Labidura {Forficula), ii. 237; iii.
34.

Order IV. Orthoptera, iv. 371.
Acheta (Gri/l/us), iii. 679, 688.
Acrida, iii. 35; iv. 152.
Acridium, ii. 328.
Blatta, i. 239 ; ii. 328 ; iii. 34.
Conocephala {Conoccphalus), iii.

609, 679.
Enipusa, iii. 668.
Gryllotalpa, ii. 366, 398 ; iii. 34.
Gryllus {Acheta), i. 239 ; iii. 674

iv. 557.
Locusta, i. 213; ii. 15 ; iii. SS, 70.
Mantis, i. 275; ii. 221,328; iii. 70;

iv. 557.
Mantispa, ii. 351.
Myrmecophilus, iii. 41.
Phasma, ii. 220, 328 ; iii. 34.
Phyllium, iii. 668.
Pneuniora, ii. 395; iii. 340.
Proscopia, iv. 308.
Pterophylla {Locusta ¥.), iii. 609.
Scaphura, iv. 132.
Tridactylus, iii. 679.
Truxalis, ii. 328,

620

INDEX TO THE (lENERA OF INSECTS

Order V. Neuroptera, iv. 371.
jEshna, ii. 295; iii. 128.
Agrion, ii. 355 ; iii. 36, 128 ; iv. 58.
Anax, i. 273 ; iii. 36.
Ascalaphus, iii. 499; iv, 414.
Boreus, iv. 468.
Calepteryx, iii. 304.
Chauliodes, iv. 468.
Cordulia, iii. 128.
Corydalis, iii. 36; iv. 496.
Ephemera, i. 279; ii. 5; iv. 57,

558.
Hemerobius, i, 261 ; ii. 243, 259.
Libellula, ii. 295; iii. 127.
Myrmeleon, i. 427 ; iii. 36.
Osmylus, iii. 631.
Panorpa, i. 271 ; ii. 256,
Perla, iii. 508 ; iv. 558.
Psocus, ii. 383.
Raphidia, ii, 310,
Sialis (Semblis), ii, 294.
Termes, i, 241, 304, 511; ii. 31;

iv. 558.

Order VI. Hi/metwjHera, iv. 373.

Acanthopus, iii. 680.

Alysia, iv. 215.

Ammophila, i. 344.

Andrena, ii. 243.

Anthidium, i. 437.

Anthophora, iii. 304.

Apis, i. 375, 484; ii. 125, note.

Atta (Formica), i. 207 ; ii. 101.

Aulacus, iii. 633.

Bembex, i. 259 ; ii. 234.

Bombus, i. 377, 502.

Bracon, iii. 633.

Cephus {Tracheitis), iii. 518; iv.

503. ■' ' ■'''■''' ■

Centris, iii. 306. '' ' "

Ceratina, i. 440.
Cerceris, iii. 711,
Chalcis, ii. 315, 356.
Chelonus, iii. 320.
Chelostoma, iii. 318.
Chlorion, iii. 549.
Chrysis, i. 448; ii. 233.
Cimbex, ii. 327; iii. 676.
Codrus, iii. 632.
Coelioxys, iii. 338.

Colletes, i. 436.

Crabro, ii. 243 ; iii. 334.

Crocisa, iii. 558.

Cryptoceriis, iii. 525.

Cryptii'i, iii. 595. ;

Ctenoplectra, iii. 681.

Cyclostoma, iii. 36.

Cynips, i. 295, 315,448; ii. 281,

Dasyga, iii, 484,

Dasypoda, iii, 306.

Diapria, iii. 721.

Dinetus, iii, 318,

Dorylus, iii, 508.

Epicharis, iii, 306.

Epipone, i. 346.

Eucera, iii. 319.

Euglossa, iii. 181, 335.

Eulophus, iii. 321.

Evania, iii. 533, 580, note; if.

216,558.
Foenus, iv. 211.
Formica, i. 182, 479; ii. 50; iv.

558.
Halictus, iii. 307.
Heriades, ii. 262,
Hylasus (P?-osopisF.), iii, 483, 633.
Hylotoma, iii. 321.
Ichneumon, i. 266, note. ^

Larra, iii. 507. |,

Leucospis, ii. 315. '

Lophyrus, iii, 74. ^

Lyda, iii, 140.
Lyrops, iii, 507.
Masaris, iv. 495.
Megachile, i. 441,
Melecta, iii. 306.
Melipona, iv. 497. nin'jA

Mellinus, i. 259. .ni.A

Misocampus, ii. 223.
Mutilla, ii, 255, 392, . ■"

Myrmecodes, iii, 480. uiqA

Myrmica, ii. 69, 96. ^^

Nomada, ii. 262. "' ,«JjbsTA

Odynerus, i. 447. • r.moKole^
Omalus, iii. 632, ■'■'■'■ liJ .AuaqB")
Ophion, iii, 711;*^. mSV^oria'y)
Osmia, iii, 304. '''^^^■^'^ >) siqoang')
Oxybelus, iii, 508.9 i« .ii ,«'jcnr>d1
Panurgus, iv. 5o2.*"^i>Vs»'Y) «f.b-.i!">
Parnopes, i. 259; ii.'iS3S."*^ .>>'

NOTICKU IN THIS) WORK.

6-21

Pelecinus, iii. 3S4.

Pelopaeus, iii. 662.

Pepsis, iii. 508.

Perga, iii. 521,

Philanthus, i. 163.

Pimpla, iii. 704 • iv. 210.

Podalirius, iii. 660.

Polistes, iv. 558.

Pompilus, i. 344 ; iii. 36.

Ponera, iii. 485.

Proctotrupes, i. 266.

Psilus, ii. 356,

Pteronus {Pterygoptcrus), ii. 248 j

iii. 140, 322.
Sapyga, iv. 505.
Saropoda, iii. 681.
Scolia, ii. 229 ; iii. 36.
Sirex, i. 209, 234.
Sphecodes, iii. 314.
Sphex, iii 662.
Stelis, iv. 291.
Stigmus, iii. 306,
Stilbum, iii. 563.
Synagris, iii. 315.
Systropha, iii. 318.
Tenthredo, i. 196 ;ii. 10, 245,251.
Tiiynnus, iv. 496.
Tiphia, iii. 640.
Trigona, i. 328 ; iv. 497.
Trypoxylon, iv. 505.
Vespa, i. 371, 505 ; ii. 107.
Xiphydria, iii. 551.
Xyiocopa, i. 438; iii. 36, 336; iv.

489.

Order VII. Hemiptera, iv. 376.

Acanthia(Co/'e?/s), iii. 615.

Achilus, iv. 496.

Aleyrodes, iii. 261.

Alydus, iii. 615.

Aphis, i. 174, 198, 323, 454; ii.

88.
Aradas, iii. 320. i muho^'

Belostoma, iii. 35, 525, 574,r.7li<'^
Capsus, iii. 507.
Centrotus, ii. 225; iii. 537.
Cercopis {Cicada), ii. 228, 31,5„,

Chermes, ii. 316. i-, .t

Cxc&d-A {TettigoniaY.), i. 204; ii.

302, 402 ; iii. 35 ; iv. 493.

Cimex, i. 106, 162.

Cixius, iii. 520.

Coccus, i. 193, 203, 316; iii. 77.

Coreus, ii. 378.

Cydruis, iii. 613.

Darnis, iii. 557.

Delphax, iv. 316.

Dorthesia, iii. 18.3, 347.

Edessa, iii. 480.

Plata {Cicada), i. 325.

Fiilgora, iii. 35.

Galgulus, iii. 520.

Gerris, i. 272.

Hydrometra, i. 272.

Jassus, iii. 508.

Ledra, iii. 537.

Lygaeus, ii. 316; iii. 35, 673.

Membracis, iii. 537.

Miris, iii. 507. ,,

Nabis, iii. 667. .jj^

Naucoris, i. 272; iii. 83.

Nepa, i. 272; iii. 94.

Notonecta, i. 108, 272.

Otiocerus {Cobax), iii. 479, 510.

Pentatoma, iii. 88, 101.

Plea, iii. 616. ,a

Psylla, iii. 465. ' A

Ranatra, i. 272 ; iii. 94.

Reduvius, i. 108, 272 ; ii. 258, 297.

Rhinuchus {Lyg<sus F.), iii. 615,

714.
Salda, iv. 502.
Scutellera {Tetyra F.), ii. 250 ; iii.

506.

. A

Sigara, iii. 170.

-H.

Tetyra, iv. 487.

'.a

Thi'ips, iii. 163.

>a

Tingis, i. 453; ii. 222.

Velia, i. 272.

Xiphostoma, iii. 684.

Zeliis, iii. 527.

Order VIII. Trichoptera,\\ . 378.

Phryganea,i.467; ii. 220, 264, 304;

iii. 68; iv. 558. ,,;\

Lepido2Jtera, iv. 7J

Order IX.

Agarista, iii. 679. v^^.^,rt^

Aglossa, {Crambtis), i. 237,iii. 156,
note; iv. 380.

622

INDEX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS

Alucita, iii. 235. ' ifiwoeot'.
Apatura, iv, 500, 3if^ "
Apoda, ii. 280 ; iii. 140.
Arctiai £ombi/x), i. 30, 476; ii. 226,

253; iii. 74.
Argynnis, iii. 179.
Attaciis, {Bombyx), i. 332 ; ii. 239;

iii. 36, 321.
Bombyx, i. 476.
Botys, iv. 54.
Callimorpha, iii. 194.
Castnia, iii. 507, 647 ; iv. 496.
Cerura {Bombyx), ii. 251 ; iii. 150.
Clostera, iii. 261.
Colias, iii. 252.

Cossus, i. 209; ii. 301 ; iii. 223.
Danaus, iii. 147.
Endromis, iii. 100.
Erebus, iii. 36.
Eriogaster, iii. 175.
Erminea, iii. 1 23.
Erycina, iii. 1 64.
Galleria, iii. 638.
Gastrophaca {Bombyx), ii. 222;

iii. 36, 99.
Geometra, ii. 236, 292.
Heliconia, iii. 630; iv. 496.
Hemigeometra (A^ocfMfl), iii. 139;

iv. 513.
Hepialns, i. 182; iii. 220.
Herminia, iii. 324.
Hesperia, ii. 254; iv. 39.
Hipparchia, iii. 84, 97.
Hypogynina {Bombyx), ii. 298; iii.

74.
Laria, iii. 176.
Lasiocampa {Bombyx), i. 1 30 ; ii.

22 ; iii. 80.
Limenitis, iii. 115.
Lithosia, iii. 157.
Lycaena, iii. 164.
Macroglossum, iii. 571.
Melitaea, iii. 114, 182.
Morplio, iii. 35.

Noctua, i. 188, 190; ii. 220, 291.
Notodonta {Bombyx), ii. 237 ; iii.

152.
Nudaria, iii. 647.
Nycterobius, i. 304, 456.
Nymphalis, iii. 115, 182.

Odenesis, iii. 638. ^^^^(aiBH

Oecophora {Tinea), i. 455." ''"' '^
Papilio, ii. 244, 354; iii. 35, 148.';
Parnassius, iii. 149; iv. 484. ;
Phalasna, i. 195, 327.
Pieris, iii. 189, 195 ; iv. 200.
Platypterix, iii. 260.
Pontia {Piei-is), iii. 79, 98, &c.
Procris, i. 203. ;

Psyche (i^MW?ea!Haw.),i.464; iv.l ^9.
Pterodactylus, iv. 337. '

Pterophorus, iii. 643. \

Pyralis, i. 172; ii, 29l J 'ifl.' 231. ■
Saturnia, ii. 251. ^ '■'^'■, •^-'^
Satyrus, iii. 104, lli.-' ,Bino-i,Ki
Sesia, i. 195. ;^^^-''', '"",!;
Smerinthus, iii. 186. * " '" " ' '■ i
Sphinx, i. 163; iii. 36. ]\

Stauropus (Bombyx), ii. 25-}. '
Tinea, i. 230, 465.
Tortrix, i. 457, 198. ;'

Vanessa, iii. 84, 179. |

Urania, iii. 179.
Zygaena, ii. 290.

Order X. Diptcra,^ iyy,^]i^!^
Anthrax, iii. 645. i'- 1' o(iioJ8

Asilus, i. 271 ; ii.-36'l^''"!- 'i^^il^
Berip, iii. 67, 337.;>'*^' •' .^-uriqn^
Bibio {Hirtcpa), i;4i90;<e«ii;^6T;

iv. 558. ■"•- •« t^iJij/.ifi'r

Bombyliiis, ii. 3S3. - ; ; ^'

Cecidcmyia, i. 170, 433;. iv; '9!'S
Ceria, iv. 317. '' )''.\

Ceroplatus, iv. 131. ^^

Chironomus, iii. 143, 288; iv. Ssis.
Conops, iii. 713.

Corethra, iii. HI; iv. 66. v^

Ctenophora {Ctenocera),i, 25*6'?,' ifi.

247, 449. ,

Culex, i. 112; iv. 1^83;' '- f'-'^"^'^
Dilophus, iii. 370. '-^' '^ ^^3*"^
Dioctria,i. 271. jjx aaaiiO
Diopsis, m. 501.

Dolichopus, iv. 55? '^« •} «8"iB3A
Echinomyia, iii. S1^^ ■'" .fimoJaA
Elophilus, iii. 137; ivP^sj." ,xbjA
Empis, iii. 337; iv. 56i8.-'".»:^™^
Eristalis, i. 192. -— -'] .I3libri3
Eumerus, iv. 2031^*''^ •" tSaooiri J

NOTICED IN THIS WORK.

623

Hsniatopota, iii. 326.

Heptatoma, iii. 326.

Hippobosca, i. 147; ii. 310.

Leptis {Rhagio), i. 43:5 ; iv. 379.

Limonia, iii. 680.

Mosillus, i. 168.

Musca, i. 147, 172, 254.

Myopa, iii. 480.

Nemotelus, iii. 479.

Nycteribia, ii. 311.

(Estrus, i, 136, 146, 149, 1.58.

Oinopota, i. 227.

Ornithomj'ia, i. Ill ; ii. 310.

Oscinis, i, 201 j iv. 487.

Pangonia, i. 1 52.

Phasia, iv. 291.

Psychoda {Hirtcca), iii. 634.

Rhagio, i. 151.

Rhingia, iii. 479.

Scaeva, ii. 280.

Scatophaga, i. 190, 271 ; iii. 96.

Sciara, iii. 478.

Seioptera, ii. 305.

Sepedon, iii. 259.

Sicus, iii. 667.

Simuliura, i. 128 ; iv. 483.

Stomoxys, i. 110, 145.

Stratyomis, ii. 230, 285; iv. 54.

Syrphus, i. 262 ; ii. 275.

Tabanus, i. 110, 145; iii. 37.

Tanypus, ii. 278.

Tephritis, i. 196, 453; ii. 283.

Thereva, iii. 621.

Tipula, i. 180, 294; ii. 359.

Trichocera, ii. 443.

Tyrophaga {Tephritis), ii. 283 ; iv.

79.
Volucella, i. 264; ii. 223.
Xylophagus, iii. 645.

Order XI. Aphaniptera, iv. 382.
Pulex, i. 100.

Order XII. Aptera, iv. 383.

Acarus, i. 96, 226.

Astoma, iii. 107, 654.

Atax, ii. 294; iii. 91.

Cans, iii. 107.

Chelifer, iv. 385. , ,,:;g;j'i:)

Chionea, ii. 446. ,i ,p.'jfcimu3

Craspedosoma, iii. 494.

Elylai's, iv. 501.

Gammasiis (Acarus), i. 201 ; ii.

306, 311 ; iv. 227.
Geophilus (Scolopendra), i. 256;

iii. 499; iv. 19.
Glomeris, iii. 494.
Gonyleptes, iii. 670, 686.
Hydrachna, iii. 83 ; iv. 228.
lulus, ii. 308; iii. 37; iv. 142.
Ixodes (Acarus), i. 105, 145, 161 ;

ii. 308.
Lepisma, ii. 320; iii. 161.
Leptus (Acarus), i. 103-
Lininocliares, iv. 501.
Lithobius (Scclopcndra), iii. 494.
Machilis, ii. 320; iii. 23, 715.
Melittophagus, i. 162.
Melophagus, i. 156.
Nirmus (Ricinus), iii. 104, 321.
Nymphon, i. 165.
Obsidium, iv. 385.
Ocypete, iii. 107, 654.
Pediculus, i. 83.
Phalangium, ii. 332; iii. 686.
Podura, ii. 319; iii. 715.
Pollyxenus, iii. 107.
Polydesmus, i. 184.
Sarcoptes (Acarus), i. 91.
Scolopendra, i. 125; iii. 37; iv.

Scutigera, iii. 22, 581 ; iv. 48. ' '
Sminthurus, ii. 319; iii. 715.
Trombidium, i. 323.
Uropoda, iii. 90; iv. 227.

CLASS. Arachnida, iv. 386.
Aranea, i. 127.
Argyroneta (Aranea), i. 473.
Clubiona, iii. 491.
Dolomeda, iii. 493, note. „ {

Drassus, iii. 491. ]/■

Dysdera, iii. 490.
Epeira, iii. 71.

Eresus, iii. 493, note. i;;,:j<;.ri

Galeodes (Solpuga ¥.),,M,r.\^^;

iii. 23.
Latrodectes, iii. 493, note.
Lycosa, i. 126; iii. 71, 491.
M.yga\&(Ara')iea), i. 359,47 1 ; iii. 37.

62t

JNDKX TO THE GENERA OF INSECTS-

Nyssus, iii. 493, note.
Pholcus, iii. 493. note.
Phrynus, iii. 684; iv. 387.
Salticus, ii. 316.

Scorpio, i. 134, '276; iii. 37, 718.
Scytodes, iii. 490.
Segestria, iii. 490.
Sparasiis, iii. 493, note.
Sphasus, iii. 491.
Storena, iii. 493, note.
Tetragnatha, iii. 493, note.
Thelyphonus, iii. 684, 704, 718;

iv, S87.
Tliomisus, iii. 71.

Foreign Provincial Names.
Alkennes, i. 317.
Baniburos, i. 328.
Bemarkelse-mask, i. 33.
Bete rouge, i. 105.
Bete de la Vierge, i. 263.
Blaazops, ii. 395.
Brulot, i. 1 10.
Brumm-Vogel, ii. 378.
Cadelle, i. 171 j iii. 142.
Cafafi, i. 128, note.
Cancrelas, i. 260.
Cantaride de' Gigli, i. 260.
Chenille, i. 184.
Cheveux de Florence, i. 284.
Chigoe, i. 49, 102.
Ciron des paupieres, i. 88.
Coddia, i. 122.
Comegen, i. 238.
Coya, or Coyba, i. 132.
Cucuij, ii. 413.

Cupia, i. 136.

Dibben Fashook, i. 312, note.

Fils de la Vierge, ii. 334.

Gards-drag, ii. 275.

Grilio, ii. 401.

Grugru, i. 296

Heerwunn, ii. 8.

Jiggers, i. 102.

Kakerlac, i. 260.

Kerraes, i>^317.

Lierman, ii. 403.

Macauco, i. 300.

Mantas blancas, i. 128.

Mosquito, i. 112.

Moustique, i. 112, note.

Moutac, i. 300.

Nigua, i. 102.

Pe-la, i. 325.

Pique, i. 102.

Sacktrager, i. 464 ; iii. 257.

Skai'nbosse, i. 33.

Stamm-raupe, ii. 433.

Tania-joura, i. 306.

Teignes a fourreau it mantcau, i.

462.
Tendaraman, i. 127.
Tola, or Thola, i. 316.
Torbist, i. S3.
Tsalt-salya, i. 1 52.
Tungua, i. 102.
Vaches a Dieu, i. 263.
Vinaigrier, i. 67.
Voupristi, i. 155.
Wurm-trockniss, i. 210.
Zancudo, i. 112, note.
Zimb, i. 152, note; ii. 380.

ENGLISH INDEX.

Abstinence of insects, i. 399.

Acariasis, disease so called, i. 86;
iv. 'J27, 572.

Acid, acetic, iv. 138.

boinbic, iv. 139.

formic, iv. 138.

malic, iv. 138.

Mlian, iv. 425.

Aeroscepsy, iv. 240, 245.

Affinity, iv. 357: object of, 401.

Air-reservoirs, iv. 54, 184.

Aldrovandus, iv. 428.

Analogies in nature, kinds of, iv.
411: object of, 408: scale of,
in insects, 412.

Analogy, argument from, iv. 237.

Analysis (chemical) of insect sub-
stance, iii. 395 ; iv. 572.

Anbury, i. 453.

Animals, classifications of, iii. 2.

annulose, iii. 13; iv. 426.

A'lit, black, i. 483; ii. 48 : fire, i.
122: green, 122: hill or horse,
231 ; ii. 48, 97: jet, 48, 98:
mason, 96 : miner, 80 : parasol,
i. 207, 479 : red, ii. 48, 69 : ru-
fescent, 76: sanguine, 81: sugar,
1.182: turf, ii. 93: visitation, i.
123, 270: yellow, ii. 48, 90.

Anteater, i. 280.

Antenn(X, whether analogous to
ears, iv. 240.

Antlion, i. 428.

AntSy love of their young, i. 362 :
nests, 479: swarms, ii. 51: lan-
guage, 62 : wars, 69 : slave?,
75: milch-cattlc or Aphides, 88:
emigrations, 91: recruits, 93:
roads, 97: strength, 100: di-

versions, 103: diseases of, iv.

20.

Ants (white) ravages of, i. 241:
nests, 511: history, ii. 31 : colo-
nies, 34 : number of eggs, 36 :
soldiers, 40 : sounds of, 42.

Aphides. See Plant-lice.

Apparatus for taking and destroy-
ing insects, iv. 513.

Apple, attacked by insects,!. 197.

Apricots, attacked by insects, i.
200.

Aristotle, system of animals, iii. 2 :
of insects, iv. 423.

Armour (defensive) of insects, ii.
225.

Arms, fore legs why so called, iii.
546.

Articulations of legs, iii. C55, 664,
670, 682.

Artifices (defensive) of insects, ii.
257.

Aspect (defensive) of insects, ii.
224.

Attitudes (defensive) of insects, ii.
232.

Aurelia, i. 66.

Barley, destroyed by insects, i.
172.

Beans and Peas, destroyed by in-
sects, i. 173.

Bee, carpenter, i. 438: leaf-cutter,
35, 192, 444: mason, 441:
poppy, 443.

Bees, (hive) affection for their
young, i. 375: combs, 484: fa-
bles respecting, ii. 122: females,
125: larvae of workers, how
turned to females, 129: weight

VOL. IV.

'J s

626

JEI;I(,;XISH INDEX.

and bulk, 1 29 : jealousy and
battles of the female or queen,
142 : her appearance how
retarded, 146 : homage paid
her, 151 : effects produced by
the loss of her, 152: sound
,.^ emitted by her, 387 : fecun-
'tlation, 172; iv. 158: swarms,
I it 161 : males, number of, 171 :
slaughter of, 173: workers,
» ilongue of, 177: wax-pockets,
* 178: collection of honey and
pollen, 178: excursions, 187:
i' "Jc^couts, 189: ventilation of their
'hive, 193: language, 201: an-
ger and battles, 202, 207 : ene-
mies, i. 162; ii. 209 : tempe-
rature, 212, 446; iv. 77: modi-
1 . fications of their instinct, ii. 48 1 .
j), degree of intellect, 495, 513 : iv.
■V32: diseases, 204: kinds of, i. 328.
Beetle, pertinacity of one, ii. 23 5:
asparagus, iv. 1 04 : bacon, i.
225: bloody-nose, ii. 247, 321 :
burying, i. 351 ; iv. 254. dark-
ling, ii, 242 : death-watch, i. 36 ;
ii. 385: lily, 260: meal-worm,
i. 224; iv. 104: oil, ii. 250:
» T)oplar, 245 : rhinoceros, iv. 11:
„■ . iurnip, i. 185: vine, 202; iv.

' "499.

^^^^jetks, blister, i. 312; ii. 227:

■j^ ^^ombai-dier, 246; iv. 129, 143:

Vapricorn, i. 252,298; ii. 391:

carnivorous, iv. 131: carrion, ii.

^Q .£2'42: dung or pill, i. 349; ii.

'^234, 257; iii. 442, 456: elastic,

ajii. 317: herbivorous, iv. 132:

J ° -Jknot-grass, 163: lamellicorn, iii.

' '%09,436: petalocerous, 163,168,

. ,446 ; iv. 398 : predaceous, i.

;268; ii. 321; iv. 392,408: rove,

U^.Mi. 236j 244, 306: Stag, 224,

227; iv. 189: tiger, iii. 152:

timber and labyrinth, i. 210,

'"'g"?32, 454; ii. 235: water, 363;

^^_,^ ''iii. 123, 481; iv. 254.

^f/e of insects, iv, 103.

Blood, showers of, caused by moths,

97Sri

i. 35: of insects, iv. 84, 92.

Boatman (water), i. 272. ,.

Bon7iet, iv. 444. ' ' y>^

Book-crab, iv. 228.

Books, attacked by insects, i. 236.

Boxes (store), described, iv. 254.

breeding, iv. 540.

Brain, Acarus found in, i. 140,

Bug, bed, i. 107: chintz, 170:
harvest, 103: red, 184: water,
ii. 364: wheel, i. 108. ,,^

Bugs, their scent, ii. 242.

Bujyrestis of the ancients, what,
i. 154.

Butcher Bird, i. 284,

Butterflies, blues, iii. 651 : cop-
pers, 652 : fritillaries, 253 :
skippers, ii. 305: Trojans and
Grecians, iii. 303 : mode in
which their caterpillars suspend
themselves when about to as-
sume the pupa, 207.

Butterfly, admiral, iii. 84, 114:
Adonis,i. 4 1 ; iii. 651: brimstone,
252 : cabbage, i. 1 88 ; ii. 11;
iv. 24, 28 1 : Glanville fritillary,
iii. 114: hawthorn, 98: large
skipper, ii. 305: mountain, iii.
149: nettle, 253: orange-tip,
254: painted lady, 261: pea-
cock, i. 9; iii. 214: purple em-
peror or high-flier, iv. 415: sil-
ver-washed fritillary, iii. 253 :
swallow-tail, ii. 224; tortoise-
shell, iii. 110. ''^^''^.

Cabbage tribe, insect assailants of,
i. 188.

Cabinet, directions for making, iv.
542.

Case or Caddis worms, i. 468; ii.
264.

Camphor, how to be used, iv. 545.

Carrots and Parsnijis, injured by
a centipede, i. 180.

Catching insects, directions for, iv.
515.

Caterpillars, diseases of, iv. 206 :
how to preserve, 538 : surveyors,
attitudes of, ii. 236.

Cattle, insects that attack, i. 148.

Caul of insects, iv. 93.

ENGLISH INDEX.

627

Centipedes, i. 123, 256, 308.
Chabrier, eulogium of, iv. 179.
Chafer, carrion, ii. 391 : cock, i.
177, 205 J ii. 377: dung, 234,
249, 3,57: fern, 5; ^•6se,_321 ;
tree, 234, ■' !.

^Phcese maggot, i. 2'2'^';\ii. 283:

inite, 229, 332. ,' ' !

' Cherrij, insects that attack, i. 1 95.
Chestnut, insects that attack, i.
j 201. , ,

' ' ChrysdVis, i. Q5. ' " ".
Cicada, male, sound jiTOduced by,
and its apparatus, ii. 402, 405.
. ^^Pk'cula/ion, different modes of in
bna Ir^ animal kingdom, iv. 81 ;

- ^^hether any in insects, 85.
1 CJnirvUle's system, iv. 461.
„ Classes of annulose animals, iii. 1 6 ;
iv. ?>65; osculant, iii. 14.^ 1
.. C/iwafcy, insect, iv. 482. ' ".^ i
\,Chc7cs or Dors, ii. 310.
*' ^ Clover-seed destroyed by a wee-
'.: vil, i, 176. . . . ,

\- Cochineal, 1. S\Q. , »V, — '
-.Cockroach, I. 22G,'2S9~.
\l[Cocoon, i. 68, 462; iii. 214.
^l X-'oIIar of certain insects, whether
^". the analogue of the prothorax.

-li.-

m. 548.

^Collier, plant-louse of the bean,

_^y ,i. 175.

Cototirs (brilliant),usepf in insects,
•j^, ii. 224. ■'■.'

' ' Commosis, what? ii. 485.
, Concealment, modes of in insects,
ii '''57" """ "" '"" '■ ■ ■

;- Correlation, iv, 357. -^ ' ,--, '
' Cossus,P\my\u'^^k "' J''- ^
- Potton,insecti> that injure, i. 184.
'i Creation, works of, have a double
^ ' object, iv. 401 .

• Cr<?/;?«cM/«/- insects, iv. 512.
■ ' Cricket, field, ii. 397; iv. 104:
,.^,. house, i. 240; ii. 396: Indian,
"^„ i. 240: mole, ii. 366, 398.
' ' Cro}) of insects, iv. 106, 109^ 1 11.
Cuckoiv, bee, i. 287.
Cucumbers, fecundated by bees,
1. 295.

CupiJes, i v. 172, 183.

Currant, insects that attack, i. 194.

Cuvier^s system, iv, 462. * '

Dances of insects, ii. 5, 372;^}

Death-watch, i. 36 ; ii. 385^ ^

Deer infested by insects, i. 158.

De Geer (Baron), system of, iv.
442.

Deiielopments of plants and ani-
mals, iii. 57.

Digger (entomological) described,
iv. 516.

Dimerous insects, iii. 685.

Diptera, three descviptions of, ii.
360.

Diseases of insects : — wounds, iv.
1 9 8 : in tern al diseases, 20 1 , 5 7 1 :
parasitic, 207, 572.

caused by lice, i. 83 : by

mites, 87 : by larvae, 98, 134.

Dissection of insects, modes of, iv.
194.

Distribution of insects: — numeri-
cal, iv. 476 : topographical, 482 :
local, 498,

Diurnal insects, iv. 512.

Dogs, insects infesting, i. 161.

Do)-s, ii. 219, 310; iii. 332.

Dragon, flying, wings represent
mid-legs of insects, iii, 593 ; iv.
418.

Dragon-flies, devourers of insects,
i. 273 : remarkable iapparatus of
larva, &c., iii. 125.

Drone, or male bee, ii. 171.

Drum of the cicada, ii. 405 : of
grasshoppers, 399.

Dijes afforded by insects, i. Si 5.

Earwigs, common, i. 358; ''giant,
ii. 237: lesser, iv. 514.

Education, effects of on ants and
other insects, ii. 87; iv. 22.

Egss of insects, how fecundated,
IV. 158: exclusion, ni, 66: situ-
ation, 70 : substance, 86 : num-
ber, 88: size, 89: growth, 91:
shape, 93 : sculpture, 97 : co-
lour, 99 : period of hatching ac-
celerated by artificial means, iv.
542: gestation, iii. 162: have

2 s 2

r>28

ENGLISH INDEX.

their parasites, iv. 212: various
modes of depositing, 353.
Electricity affects gossamer web, iv.

1;U : excites insects, 135, 24G.
, 'Eidomologid, not cruel, i. 53 : dress
, proper tor, iv. 525.
Entomology, instances of its utility,
i. 234 : study of, value, 4 : uses
of a system of, 47.
Entozoa namatoklea, a kind of in-
testinal worms, iv. 229.
EphemercB, history of, i. 279 : sin-
gular gyrations of, ii. 369 : have
an inner pupa case, iii. 296 : re-
spiratory organs, iv. 57 : used as
II manure, i. 314.
V Ercis, entomological :~of the an-
• l dents, iv. 420: of the revival of
u; the science, 426 : ofSwamnier-
oi dam and Ray, 431 : of Linne,
1 436: of Fabricius, 449 : of La-
treille, 454: of MacLeay,465.
Evil (seeming), uses of, i. 247.
,^_Eu.'ciement of miiects,iv. 119: lar-
,/. vae of wasps,bees,&c. have none,
102.
Eyes of insects : — simple, iii. 490 :
conglomerate, 493 : compound,
494: structure of, 495: num-
, bar, 498: situation, 500: figure,
: 501.

[i'Fabricius, system of, iv. 451.
,Yi Fis/ies attacked by an insect, i. 1 65.
i?.Flfa, i. 100: leap of, ii. 315:
bn strength of, iv. 18S.
^ii:'FHes, singular disease of, iv. 202,
.1 571.

:<jc' Flowers, insects that devour,i. 1 92.

: V iFluid in pseudo-cardia of insects,

-u iv. 81, 89, note. , ,. .

Y/f JFYy, cauliflower, i. 108: chamae-

01 leon, iii. 99 ; iv. 54 : cheese, ii.

VI 283 : crane, ii. 367; iv. 1 57 : eye,

■i[i- i. 130: fire, i. 314; ii. 427 : flesh

~; or carrion, ii. 276, 361 : forest,

' . i. 147; ii. 310: gall, i. 315,448;

iv. i56: Hessian, i. 50, 169:

horse, i. 109, 145; ii. 472, note :

house, i. 129; ii. 362: lace-

- winged, iii. 94 ; May, i. 279 ; iii.

239, 295, 305: onion, i. 190:
sand or burning, i. 110: scor-
pion, ii. 20, 56: snake, ii. 310,
527: swallowji. Ill: wheat, 168.

Food, insects that attack, i. 224 :
reservoir, iv. 98.

Forceps described, iv. 520.

Forest-trees, insects attack, i. 205.

Frog-hopper (froth), leaps of, ii.
315.

Fungi, parasitic on insects, iv. 207.

Gad-fly, deer and reindeer,!. i58 :
horse, 146 : ox, 148 : man, 136 :
rabbit, 165: sheep, 157.

, has eight tracheas, iv. 65.

Gall-nuts, i. 315, 448.

Garmeiits, insects that attack, i.
229. /' "^

Gecko (lizard), ii. 325. ^ , _

Geometers or surveyors, a kind of
caterpillar, ii. 292 ; iv. 1 88.

Gesner, iv. 429.

Gizzard of insects, iv. 99.

Glow-worm, common, ii. 410; iv.
143: Italian, ii. 425.

Gnat, agaric, ii. 7 : common, i.
112; ii. 285; iii. 81: gall, i.
208, 453: horse, 147: wheat,
i. 28, 170: winter, ii. 443.

Goliath beetles belt the globe, iv.
493.

Gooseberry, insects that attack, i.
195.

Gossamer webs, ii. 334.

Gould (Rev. W.), the historian of
English ants, ii. 48.

Grass, insects that attack,!. 177.

Grasshopper, ii. 222, 398 : large
green, i. 150; iv. 230.

Gi-ay (Mr.) characters of Linne's
orders and genera of insects in
Latin verse, iv. 446.

Groups of amm?i\ kingdom,iv. 360 :
of insects, 390 : characters of,
391: scale of, 393: composition
of, 397 : how to be investigated,
548 : predominant, 488 : domi-
nant, 490: sub-domirtant, 492:
quiescent, 49.3: endemial,.494.

Gyrations of'irtsett^^'fi.^^^J.

ENGLISH INDKX.

629

Habit, what, iv. 551.

Habitatioiis of solitary insects, i.
435: of gregarious insects, 446.

curious ones of Tinei-

dccy i. 457.

Harvest-man, \\ . 114.

Hawkmoth, bee, i. 209 : death's-
head, 34, 163 ; ii. 240, 266: hor-
net, i. 209 : humming-bird, ii.

, 869, 383: privet, iii,266: spurge,
266.

Haivkmoths, ii. 237.

Hearing of insects, organ of, iv.
240.

Heart of insects, what represented
by ? iv. 84 : of Arachnida, 93.

Heat (vital) of insects, ii. 229 : iv.
77.

Herbage benefited by insects, i.

249.
Herod (Agrippa) destroyed by lar-
vae, i. 99.
Heteromerous insects, iii. 6S3.
Honei/, i. 327: iv. 134.

comb, i. 485.

dew, i. 203.

Hojis, insects that attack, i. 182.
Hornet, \. 121, 270.
Horse, insects that annoy, i. 145.
Hovering of insects, ii. 368.
Humble-bees, affection for their
young, i. 379 : mode of building
their nests, 502: females, ii. 114:
,^ ,,, making cells, 117 : males, 118:
workers, 118: hive-bees per-
r- suade them to yield to them
,.^1. their honey, 119.

Humeral piece of wings, iii. 619.
.^■'^ffumnmig of insects, ii. 379: iii.
jr,f ,., 552, note.

in the air, ii. 377.

. (^,^1/bernation ofimects-.—'mthecgg
•;,, state, ii. 432 : pupa state, 435 :
^(p,, larva state, 436 : perfect state,
^;-,),- 437: places to which they resort
"■i'^ for, 440: cold not the only cause
go t ot, 460.

^.flymenoptera (gregarious) not sub-
ject to the attack of ichneumons,
iv. 218.

Ichneumons, i. 26-1 ; iv. 209, 222 :
how to extract from caterpillars,
541.
Ignis fatuus, ii. 422.
Imago, i. 68 : motions — walking,
ii. 306 : running, 310 : jumping,
313: climbing, 320 ; against gra-
vity, 323 : flying, 346 : swim-
ming, &c., 363 : burrowing, 365 :
development, iii. 291 : sexual di-
stinctions, 299: age, 343.
Insects, apparatus for killing, iv.
530 : annoyance of in what
respects beneficial, i. 250 : be-
neficial in removing nuisances ;
as dung, 252: carrion, 253 : in
keeping other insects, &c. within
due limits, 245, 259: as afford-
ing food to mammalia, 277 ; to
reptiles, 278 ; to fishes, 279; to
birds, 284 ; to man, 298 : as ar-
ticles used in materia medica,
312: used for ornament, 314:
as affording materials for dyeing,
ink, &c., 315: as producing wax,
324; honey, 327; silk, 329:
cold and frost, effects upon, ii.
442,451 : definition of, iii. 28 :
breeding them, directions for, iv.
538 : differ from Crustacea and
Arachnida, iii. 9 : education, ef-
fects of upon, ii. 87 : errors (wil-
gar) concerning, i. 33 : fossil, iv.
557 : /oorf of— vegetable, i. 382;
animal, 384; both animal and
vegetable, 386 : some univorous,
387 ; others omnivorous, 388 :
times of feeding, 391 : organs ])y
which they feed, 393; iii. 417 :
stratagems employed in procu-
ring food— by spiders, i.404; by
the ant-lion, 427 : how best to
kill them when captured, iv.
523, 527 : imitations they exhi-
bit, i. 7; ii. 219: injuries they
occasion to man, i. 82 ; other
animals, 144 ; grain, 166 ; pulse,
173; herbage, 177 ; roots, 184;
kitchen-garden, 187; flower gar-
den, 192; fruit, 193; plantations,

^"^^ ENGLISH

205; to our food, 224- ear-
ments, 229 • timber, 232; books
and cabinets, 256 : instincts), ex-
quisiteness of, ii. 473; number
ot, 498; development of, 509:
instruction afforded by insects,
1. 16: integuraents of, iii. S94 :'
intellect of, ii. 513 j iv. 21, 32 :
inventions they have anticipat-
ed, i. 14: means by which tbey
defend them selves —passive, ii, i
219; active, 232: luminous in- I
sects, u. 409 : noxious, how to '
be destroyed, i. 30: number, |
(supposed) of insects existing, !
IV. 477 : compared with that of I
plants, 477: of carnivorous and i
phytiphagous insects, 479 : ovi- I
parous and ovo-viviparous in- '
sects, iii. 65 : representative in-
sects, iv. 496: rank of, S63 •
strength of, iv. 188: setting and '
preparmgfor cabinet. 530: table
of relative size of, iii. 53 : tram-
formations of, i. 69.
Itisti?wi, change of in a spider, iv

198, note,
lic/i, cause of^ i, 90.
Jmvs of insects, i. 394.
«/<-% secreted by ditto, iv. 133.
Journal, entomological, how to

make, iv, 556.
Jurine, system of, iii, 622 ; iv. 470.
Kingdoms (animal and vegetable)*
analogies between, iv, 361 : nu-
merical arrangement of, 400,
Knowledge, two avenues to, i. 24,
Lac, an insect product, i. 321.
Lady-bird or Lady-cow, u 262^ ii

9, 230. *

Lamarck,system of animals, iii. 15:

of insects, iv. 462.
Lantern-fly^ noise of, ii, 401 : whe-
ther luminous, 418,
Larva of flies, i. 227 : stinging
iii. 179 : rat-tailed, i, 253 f i?s
respiratory apparatus, iv. 53.
Larva;, substance of,iii, 1 10: head,
112: eyes, 116: antenna, ng:
mouth, 119: trunk and abdo-

INDEX.

men, 130: prolegs, 134: dor-
sal of gall-fly, ii. 28 1 : appen-
dages, iv. 145: figure, 156 :r
kinds of, 160: primary forms
of, 162: clothing of, 174: co-
lour, 185 : food of, 189 : moultr^
ing, 190 : growth of, 201 : how|
they prepare to assume the pu- "
pa, 204 : motions of apodou&i
11. 273 : of pedate, ii. 286, ,j^

Latreille, system of, iv. 456. \ r
Law (original) of the Creator, re^^
gulates the developments of in*r
sects, iii, 56.
Leach, Dr,, system of, iv. 463.
Legs of insects, parts of, ii. 286:
number of, 307; iii. 654: acr
quisition of, by myriapods, m^j^
107, 159: antennas supply theii^
place of, ii. 313: relative loca^4^'
tion of, 658: motatory, ii. 306.
Lepiiloptera, parasites of, iv. 221:, r

colours, iii. 649 : scales, 646. '
Linnc, system of animals, iii. 5 : ofx r,

insects, iv. 438.
Lint collected by an ant, i. 312.
Lister, Dr. Martin, iv. 434.
Liver of Arachnida, iv, 103, 115,
Locusts, ravages of, i. 213 : follow,
ed by famine and pestilence/
214: benefits produced by, 249:
used as food, 300 : leap of, ii. , r
314 : female killed by the male. ' *"
iii, 347.
Louse, bat, ii, 31 1: bird, i. 162,-'.,^
iii. 97: common, i, S3 : peacock, /
1. 162: sheep, i. 156: sugar, ii. " "
320: wood, 233.

, leaf. See Plant-louse. \r^

Luminosity of insects, causes of, n,.^
423 ; iv. 444. f**S«oSA

Lyonnet, anatomy of the cossus, iv^\r
445, ■ . * '«l

MacLeay, W, S., system ofani- \r
mals,iii. 12: of Annulosa,iv. 465; •
of Mandibulata, 467: ofPetalo-
cera, 469: columns of analo-
gous Haustellata'and Mandibu-
lata, 412. 'j

Maggot of a fly, destructive to 'tte^

ENGLISH

Wsk, i. i 57 : jumping of cheese-
fly, i. 226 ; ii. 283.

Magnus, Albertus, iv. 426.

Maize, insects that attack, i. 170,
173.

Males, two kinds of? iv. 166.

Man, centre of the animal crea-
tion, iv. 360.

Marrow, spinal, iv. 8.

May-fly. See Fly.

Meal-iuorm, i. 224 ; iii. ! 42.

Medicine, insects useful in, i. 312.

Metamorphoses of insects, ana-
logy between and the resurrec-
tion, i. 72: use of, 77: analo-
gies of those of plants and ani-
mals, iii. 57.

Method, what? iv. ?,55.

Microscopes, iv. 194, 557.

Migrations of insects, ii. 7; iv. 51 1 :
of locusts, ii. 15.

Milk produced by insects, ii. 245,
251 ; iv. 465.

Mite, autumnal, or harvest bug, i.
97, 103: bee, 162: beetle, iv.
227 : cheese, i. 226, 307, 332 ;
iii. 107 : dysentery, i. 89 : flour,
225: itch, 90: milk, 88: spi-
der, iv. 572: spinning or red spi-
der, i. 201 : strawberry, ii. 31 1 :
vegetating, i. 393 ,• iv. 227.

Mites that infest collections of in-
sects, &c. how best destroyed,
iv. 545.

Mitys, what? ii. 285.

Mole-cricket, ravages of, i. 191 :
wonderful apparatus for moving
its arras, iii. 586.

Monomerous insects, iii. 686.

Moses, knowledge of insects, i.
22 ; iv. 420.

Mosquito, a Simulium, I. US. See

Gnat.
Moth, aquatic, iv. 56 : barley, i.
172: brown-tail, 204 : clothes',
229, 465 : emperor, 334 ; ii.
251: figure-of-eight, i. 197:
fir, 131 ; ii. 22: fur, i. 230:
ghost or hop, 182; iii. 66, 271,
306 : gold or yellow-tail, i. 30 ;

H^llan3 '^^'^

INDEX. 631

.-.jl.j , t^tf^ ;i>00')l 'JWO OJ {'tO''^

ii. 21, 25ii:-^m^eiff attdi'iiiit-
rant, i. 195; ii. 452: grass, i.
178 ; great-goat, i. 209; ii. 301 ;
iii. 119, 174, 201, 352: lackey,
iii. 80: lappet, ii. 222; iii. 99 :
lobster, ii. 254 : locust, iii. 284:
procession, i. 130, 478; ii. 23:
prominent, iii. 152: puss, ii.
251, 253; iii. 283; iv. 213: silk-
worm, i. S32; iii. 89, 276: ta-
pestry, i. 230: tiger, ii. 226,
252 ; iii. 164 : wax, i. 388 : wolf,
i. 171 : wool, i. 230.

, remarkable brush of, iv. 60 :

one resembling a caterpillar, 1 59.

Moths, certain that construct cui
rious habitations, i. 457, 465 j
ii. 477 : minute, how to be takeii^
iv. 527. ■■■'■"^■;

greasy, how to restore, i^?

139. . v: ,i^' i^T^n^m

Mothing, seasons af^Wi^SPiy'^c"^^

Mouffet, iv. 429.

Moulting. See Insects.

Muscles of insects, origin of,iv. 168:
substance olj 168: shape, 170:
colour, 171 : kinds, 171 : point
of attachment, 172: motions,
173: muscles of larvae, 174: of
imago head and organs, 175: of
trunk, 177: of wings, 179.

, of Arachnida, iv. 187.

Myrtle, attacked by a coccus, i.
193. -f

Nectar of flowers, numerous in^"
sects devoted to its absorption,
iv. 480.

Nectarine^ attacked by insects, i.

200.

Nerves of insects, number of, iv.
14: recurrent, 16.

Nervous system of insects, mixed,
iv. 21, 23: changes of in their
metamorphosis, 23.

Net, bag, iv. 516 : fly or bat-fowl-
ing, 518: French, 516: Mac-
lean's, 520 : Paul's, 517: landing
or water, 521.

Neuters, ii. 30 ; iv. 165.

Nine-killer, i. 285.

\ •

632

'ill tUiUlU

ENGLISH

Noctwnal Insects, iv. 513.
Noises of insects, how produced,

ii. 380: of beetles, &c. 390.

See Humming.
Nut weevil of, i. 201.
Ni/mpk, i. 65 : cased nymph, 67.
Oils produced by insects, iv. 133.
Olive, insects that attack, i. 201.
Orawgf-, attacked by a coccus, i.l 93.
Orchard and Fridteri/, insect ene-
mies of, i. 193.
Orders of insects, denominations

of, i. 66, note : definitions of, iv.

367 : which should precede, 416:

osculant, 369.
Orismology (term), iii. 257 ; iv.

529, note.
Ovo-vioiparous insects, iv, 163.
Palpi, of what sense organs, iv. 248.
Parasites of insects : — vegetable, iv.

207 : Insect ; hymenopterous,

i. 264 ; iv. 209 : strepsipterous,

i. 267; iv. 208: dipterous, i.

267; iv. 224: apterous, ibid :

Worms, 229.
Pax-wax, iv. 1 76.
Peaches, insects that attack, i. 200.
Pears, insects that attack, i, 197.
Peck (Pi'ofessor), his description of

the ovipositor ofsaw-flies.iv. 154.
Penny (Dr. Thomas), iv. 429.
Pentamerous insects, iii. 368.
Pei-spiration of insects, iv. 145.
Phosphorus, iv. 107.
Phthiriasis, or lousy disease, i. 84 ;

iv. 224.
Phthirophagi, i. 1 07.
Pigeons, insects that infest, i. 162.
Pine-apple, insects that attack, i.

201.
Pissoceros, what? ii. 147.
Plant-lice, extraordinary fecundity

of, i. 174; iv. 164: numbers of,

ii. 8.
Plant-louse — of the apple, i. 32,

198 : of the bean or Collier,

175: of the beech, 208: of the

fir, 208, 454 : of the hop, 265 :

of the larch, 208 : of roots, ii.

90: of the rose, i. 192.

INDEX.

.( ,f,r!<;^'i.o Jioji

Plants, entrap flies; ir2&$ :'■ fecun-
dated by insects, 293 : some
yield poisonous honey, ii. 180.

Pliny, iv. 425.

Phims, insects that attack, i. 197.

Pockets (wax), ii. 177.

Poisons, insect, iv. 137.

Polymerous insects, iii. 686.

Potatoes, insects that attack^ i,
IS."?.

Poultry, insects that attack,!. 162.

Praying-insects or Mantes, ffefb-
city of, i. 275.

Propolis, -wYi-At? ii. 186.

Proportion (relative), of insects ac-
cording to the kind of their
food, iv. 480.

Pubescence of insects, uses of, iii.
399.

Pupae, kmds of, i. G5 ; iii. 228 : La-
marck's and Latreille's division
of, 243, note : integument of,
244: figure of, 246: parts of, 249:
colour of, 259 : age of, 26 1 : sex
of, 270 : motions of, ii. 296 ; iii.
270 : re<;piration of, iv. 74 : ex-
trication of, iii. 272.

Pupiparous insects, iii. 64; iv. 1 65.

Q,ucen-bee, ii. 141.

liange (geographical) of insects, iv.
486.

Raspberry, insects that attack, i.
194.

Patel (honey), i. 278.

Pay (John), system of insects, iv.
433.

Reaumur, eulogium of, iv. 443.

Respiration of insects, how carried
on, iv. 36 : external signs of, 73.

Rooks, serviceable by destroying
insects, i. 30.

Rye attacked by insects, i. 172.

Salmon, louse of, i. 165. ' ' '

Saprophagous insects, iv. 479.

Saw-flies, how they deposit theii'
eggs, i. 353 : their ovipositor,
353; iv. 154: vast flights of,
ii. 10 : simulate death, ii. 2.^5 :
eggs of, grow, iii. 91 ; why hy-
menopterous, iv. 373,407: their

ENGLISH INUKX.

(iS.'i

scent organs, ii. 245, 'J5I : slimy
larva" of, '228.

Saw-fly y barley, i. 172: cherry,
195: gooseberry, 195: rose,
192, ^5'i: turnip, 186 ; ii. 10.

Schwenclcfecld, Dr., first faunist,
iv. 400.

Scolechiasis i. 99 ; iv. 224.

Scorpion, terrific attitude of, i. 1 24 :
ferocity of, 276: gills of, iv. 60 :
liver of, 117.

— ■■ , water, eggs of, iii. 94.

Scripture (Holy), account of in-
sects, iv. 420.

Sculpture of insect integument, iii.
397,

Seasons of insects, iv. 508,

Secretions of insects: — silk.iv. 130 :
saliva, 131: varnish, 133: jelly,
133: oils, 133: milk, 134: ho-
ney, 1 34 : wax, 1 35 : poisons
and acids, 137: odorous fluids
and vapours, 1 40 : phosphorus,
143 : fat, 144.

Semicomplete pupa, i. 67.

Senses of insects, whether seven,
iv. 233 : they have the ordi-
nary, 237 : internal sense, 234 ;
sight, 234 : hearing, 235 : an-
tennae, whether organs of, 240 :
touch, 247: smell, 249: taste,
255.

Sensorium, common, where re-
sident, iv. 1 9.

Seven, a sacred number, iii. 15,
note; iv. 283: quinary groups
resolvable into, 399.

Sheep, insects that infest, i. 156.
[. SheU-fish, insects that infest, i. 165.

Showers (bloody), produced by in-
sects, i. 34. ^

Shrike. See Butclierrhird.
Silk, i. 329.

Sil/i-worms, kinds of, i. 332 : dis-
eases of, iv. 205 : not attacked
by ichneumons, 221:. how to
forward their exclusion, iii. 101.
Skill of insects, ijij, j40^^
Skunk, ii. 241. ,.;,",,;".
Sleep of insects, iv. 192.

Soap, manufactured from insects,
i. 313.

Society, Royal, iv. 436.

— : , Linnean, iv. 449.

Solomon, knew insects, i, 23 ; ii. 46.

Sow-bug, i. 140.

Sparrows, number of caterpillars
they devour, i. 288.

Species, iv. 396 : how to inves-
tigate, 549.

Spectre, large egg of, iii. 90.

Sphinx, why so named, ii. 237.

Spider, amphibious, i. 473: bird,
424; iii. 491: edible, i. 307.
gossamer, ii. 336 : large field or
diadem, i. 405 : shepherd, ii.
310: small garden, i. 4 1 6 : trap-
door, 471,

Spiders, hunters, i. 424: swim-
mers, 425: vagrants, 404 : wea-
vers or sedentaries, 404; iv. 31.

, aftection for their eggs, i.

359 : webs, texture of and how
spun, 408, 421; iv. 123: won-
derful apparatus for spinning,
404 : floating nest of, 425 :
nest under water, 475 : web
desti:oyed by fluid emitted by a
caterpillar, ii. 248 : sailing in
the air, 334 : effects of their
venom, i. 131: cruelty, 276:
gills of, iv. 61: liver of, 118:
disease of, 207. I

Spiracles (false), iii. 714.

Spirits-of-wine, their use in de-
stroying insects, iv. 523, 527.

Stamina of flowers adhering to
bees mistaken for fungi, iv. 208.

Stick, entomological, iv. 516,

Stomach of insects, iv, 99 : pecu-
liar of bugs, 110.

Strawberry, whether attacked by
insects, i. 193; ii. 311.

Strength (muscular) of insects, iv.
188.

St7-epsiptera (order), denomination

proper, iii. 591, note.
Subclasses, iv. 366. \^

Subclimates, iv. 485. .'

Suborders, iy, ,39^ ,

634

ENGLISH INDEX.

Sugar-cane, insect assailants of, i.

182.
Sivammerdam, system of, iv. 481.
Swine, insects that infest, i. 158.
System, what? iv. 356.
(nervous), of animals,

three primary types of, iv. 3 :

what analogous to, 20.
— of the development of

insect forms by Dr. Herold,

refutation of, iii. 52, 192.
Systems of insects, alary, iv. 436 :

eclectic, 454: maxillaiy, 449:

metamorphotic, 431 : quinary,

465.
Tarantula spider, effects of bite,

i. 126.
Taste, organs of in insects, iv. '^^55.
Tetramerous insects, iii. 684.
Thalerophagous insects, iv. 279.
Tick, American, i. 105, 145: dog,

161 ; ii. 223, 308.
Timber, insects that attack, i. 232.
Times of appearance of insects, iv.

512.
Tobacco, insects that attack, iv.

184. _ _ ,;- .

Tool for cutting pins, &c. iv. 544.
Torpidity of insects, iv. 78 : causes

of, ii. 442 : their reviviscence

from, 455.
Touch, organs of in insects, iv.' 247.'
Trachea or wind-pipe of insects, iv.

61 : analogy between and the

spiral vessels of plants, iv. 70,
Tree-creeper, \. 2?>6. ' ~'
Trees, injured by insects, i. 205 :

particularly by a small beetle,

210.
Trimerous insects, iii. 685.
Trunk of insects, reasons assigned

for the nomenclature of, iii. 529.
Turnip, greatly injured by insects,

i. 185 J ii. 10.
Vacuum formed by the little cater-
pillar of a moth, i. 15, 461.

Varnish, produced by insects, iv.

133.

Vessel (dorsal), of insects, iv. 83,
90 : varicose or bile, 103.

Vine, attacked by insects, i. 202 ;
I ii. 235; iv. 500.

Virey, Dr., system of animals, iv.
362 : theory of instinct, 26.

^r«sp, bee, ii. 224, 367 : blue-sand,
384 : caterpillar or sand, 367 ;
iv. 132: commoUji. 15; ii. 107:
fly, 367: golden, 224, 233: ma-
son, i. 346, 356, 447 : spider,
345; ii. 358, 367.

Wasps, females, i. 372: love of
their progeny, S71 : nests of,
505: niunbers of, ii. 109: sen-
tinels, 112: destruction of, 1 1 3 :
kept in hives, how they proceed,
113: walk against gravity, 331:
how they act if their prey is
too heavy, 520: fluid eifused by,
iv. 132: poison of, 139.

Wax (bees'), i. 324, 465 ; iv. 135.

(coccus), i. 324.

Weevil, clover, i. 177: common,
171: dock, ii. 280: figwort,
274: millet, i. 172: nut, 201,
356 : palm, 298 ; ii. 322 : rice,
i. 171 : water-hemlock, 280.
.^ Weevils, ii. 234, 322.

Wheat, numerous insects attack,
i. 166. •liu-jn-^A .ii

Wheel, animal, ii. 4^2^,'3

Willughby, encomium of, iv. 434.

Wings of insects, ii. 346; iii. 618.

Wood-louse (timber), ravages of, i.
235.

Wood-pecker,!.. 31, 286.

Works, Entomological, which use-
ful to the entomologist, iv. 471,
note, 590.

Worm, wire, ravages of, i. 179,
186 : hand or wheale, 92.
wheat, iv. 23 1 .

Worms, intestinal, iv. 229, 231.

END OF THE FOURTH AND LAST VOLUME.

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