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AN
INTRODUCTION
TOTHB
STATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES;
BEING THE ARTICLE " ICHTHYOI-OGY," FKOM THE SEVENTH EDITION
OF THE
ENCYCLOPiEDIA BKITANNICA.
WITH ABOVE ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY H -USTRATIONS.
JAiMES WILSON, F.R.S K M.W.S.
'M, III' Tiu' i-v'rrtMnr.(ir:!i' \ I tMiiFT'.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO, WHITTAKfeR & Co\ AND HAMILTON, ADAMS, & CO.
LONDON ; AND JOHN CUMMING, DUBLIN.
M.DCCC.XX XVIII.
-#
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
LIBRARY
OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY
Library of SAMUEL GARMAN
U-AVg--
^, ^A^.
^liUQ 1929
INTRODUCTION
TO THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES
AN
INTRODUCTION
NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES;
a/.i/,ri;iiUM-.(,w,
BEING THE ARTICLE " ICHTHYOLOGY," FROM THE SEVENTH EDITION
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
WITH ABOVE ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY ILLUSTRATIONS.
BY
JAMES WILSON, F.R.S.E. M.W.S.
AND OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETT OF FRANCE.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH ;
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO., WHITTAKER & CO., AND HAMILTON, ADAMS, & CO. LONDON ; AND JOHN GUMMING, DUBLIN.
M.DCCC.XXXVni.
Edinburgh ; Printed by Thomas Allah * Co. 265 High Street.
PREFATORY NOTICE.
The Proprietors of the Encyclopjedia Britannica having informed me of their inten- tion to re-publish (in a separate form) the Systematic Treatise on the Class of Fishes, which, under the term Ichthyology, I some time ago contributed to the Seventh (or current) Edition of that work, I deem it advisable to prefix a Catalogue of the British Species described and figured in Mr Yarrell's recent volumes. These had not approached comple- ■ tion when the article above referred to was concluded ; and it will no doubt prove interest- ing to the student of the general subject to be enabled to perceive the relations which our indigenous species bear to the more gorgeous natives of foreign climes. By referring to the Alphabetical Index which terminates the Treatise, the generic titles of the British Fishes will be found in their systematic order, and the species named, many of which are of fami- liar occurrence, will thus serve to exemplify the groups to which they respectively belong, and so illustrate the Cuvierian arrangement of the Class.
Of two hundred and twenty-six British species, described and figured by Mr Yarrell, we believe that about one fourth part had not been previously included in any catalogue of our indigenous productions ; and when we consider that above six thousand different kinds of fishes have been already collected in the various waters of the earth (which, from their prevailing continuity and comparative equality of temperature, afford an easy as well as an ample field for migratory movement), we cannot doubt that the spirit of observation which is now afloat will lead to the discovery from time to time of numerous other and most in- teresting additions along our island shores. The admiration excited by the beautiful illus- trations of the " History of British Fishes," and the facilities which they afford for the com- parison and ascertainment of species, have indeed already conduced to that desired effect;' and we believe that Mr Yarrell's manuscript notes will enable him to furnish a great in- crease of ichthyological information to a second edition of his work, which we take it for granted will be ere long called for.
I shall here only further observe, that the vexata qucestio which regards the specific na- ture and origin of the Parr, has been of late discussed with frequency and fulness by se- veral ingenious, and one or two competent, observers. The most important point at issue, viz. the identity of parr and salmon-smolts, has received some curious confirmation from the
' See Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiv. ; and Annals of Natural Hittory, No. iii.
6 PREFATORY NOTICE.
observations and experiments of Mr Shaw, Drumlanrigg," — notwithstanding which, how- ever, there are not wanting zealous advocates to maintain the specific distinction of the fish in question. In the present state of the case, I think it unnecessary to qualify the opi- nions expressed upon the subject in the following Treatise, although I think that Mr Shaw's views regarding the slow growth of salmon fry, and their long continuance in river water, are founded upon too definite data to be disregarded, and that, when confirmed by a more extended series of observations on these creatures in their native streams, they will mate- rially modify the sentiments of naturalists, and eventually lead to an alteration in our fis- cal regulations regarding the conservation of the most important of all the species which breed in fresh waters.
The student of Scottish Ichthyology will peruse with interest the descriptive Essay by Dr Parnell, " On the Fishes of the Firth of Forth," at present on the eve of publication.'
J. W.
WooDviLLE, Edinburgh, May 1838.
■ Account of some experiments and observations on the Parr and on tlie Ova of the Salmon, proving the Parr to be the young of the Salmon {Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for July 1836). Experiments on the develop- ment and growth of the Fry of the Salmon, from the exclusion of the ovum to the age of six months. (Read be- fore the Royal Society on 18th December, and published in the Edinburgh New PhilosophicalJournal for January 1838.)
' Memoiriofthe Wernerian Natural History Society, vol. vii.
LIST OF BKITISH FISHES.
FIRST GREAT SERIES, CALLED 1
ORDINARY OR OSSEOUS FISHES. Order I. — Acanthopterygii.
Ray's Bream.
Family Squammipennes. Brama Rail.
Family The Perch. The Basse.
The Smooth Serranus. Couch's Serranus. The Dusky Serranus. The Ruffe or Pope. The Great Weever. The Lesser Weever. The Striped Red Mullet. The Plain Red Mullet.
PercidcB. Perca fluviatilis. Labrax lupus. Serranus cabrilla. Serranus Couchii. S. gigas.
Acerina vulgaris. Trachinus draco. T. vipera.
MuUus surmuletus. M. barbatus.
Family Bucccb Loricatce. The Red Gurnard. Trigla cuculus.
The Sapphirine Gurnard. ~ The Piper.
The Streaked Gurnard. The Gray Gurnard. Bloch's Gurnard. The River Bull-head. The Sea Scorpion. The Father-lasher. The Four-Horned Cottus. The Armed Bull-Head. The Bergylt. The Rough-tailed Stickle- ^
back. j
The Half-armed Stickle- (
back. J
The Smooth-tailed Stickle- (
back. The Short-spined Stickle- \
back. j
The Four-spined Stickle- j
T. hirundo.
T. lyra.
T. lineata.
T. gurnardus.
T. Blochii.
Cottus gobio.
C. scorpius.
C. bubalis.
C. quadricornis.
Aspidophorus Europaeus.
Sebastes Norvegicus.
Gasterosteus trachurus.
G.
-G.
semi-armatus.
leiurus.
G.
G.
pungitius. spinachia.
back. I
The Ten-spined Stickle^
back. The Fifteen-spined Stickle- (
back. J
Family Scianidce. The Maigre. Scisena aquila.
The Bearded Umbrina. Umbrina vulgaris.
Family SparidcB.
brachycentrus. spinulosus.
The Gilt-head.
The Braize.
The Spanish Bream.
The Sea Bream.
The Four-toothed sparus.
The Black Bream.
Chrysophrys aurata. Pagrus vulgaris. Pagellus erythrinus. P. centrodontus.
Dentex vulgaris. Cantharus griseus.
Family
The Mackerel.
The Spanish Mackerel.
The Tunny.
The Bonito.
The Sword-fish.
The Pilot-fish.
The Scad.
The Black-fish.
The Dory.
The Boar-fish.
The Opah or King-fish.
Family
The Scabbard-fish. The Silvery Hair-tail. Hawken's Gymnetrus. The Deal-fish. The Red Band-fish.
Family The Gray Mullet. The Thick-lipped Gray \ Mullet. /
The Short Gray Mullet. -The Atherine.
ScomheridcB.
Scomber scomber. S. scolias.
Thynnus vulgaris. Th. pelamys.
Xiphias gladius. Naucrates ductor. Caranx trachurus. Centrolophus pompilus. Zeus faber. Capros asper. Lampris guttata.
TcBiiioidcB.
Lepidopus argyreus. Trichiurus lepturus. Gymnetrus Hawken'". Gymnetrus arcticus. Cepola rubescens.
Miiffilida. Mugil capito.
Mugil chelo.
Mugil curtus. Atherina presbyter.
Family
Montagu's Blenny.
The Ocellated Blenny.
The Gattoruginous Blenny.
The Shanny.
The Crested Blenny.
The Spotted Gunnel.
The Viviparous Blenny.
The Wolf-fish.
The Black Goby.
The Doubly-Spotted Goby.
The Spotted Goby.
The Slender Goby.
The Gemmeous Dragonet.
The Sordid Dragonet.
Gobioida.
Blennius Montagui. B. ocellaris.
B. gattorugine.
B. pholis.
B. palmicornis. Mursenoides guttata. Zoarcus viviparus. Annarrhichus lupus. Gobius niger.
G. bipunctatus. G. minutus.
G. gracilis. Callionymus lyra.
C. dracunculus.
Family Pectorales Pediculati.
The Fishing Frog. Lophius piscatorius.
Family Labridce.
The Ballan Wrasse. Labrus maculatus.
The Green Streaked Wrasse. L. lineatus.
The Blue Striped Wrasse. L. variegatus.
The Sea- Wife. The Red Wrasse.
L. L.
vetula. carneus.
8
LIST OF BRITISH FISHES.
The Comber Wrasse. Labrus comber.
The Rainbow Wrasse. Julis Mediterranea.
The Gilt Head. Crenilabrus tinea.
Tlie Goldfinny. C. cornubicus.
The Gibbous Wrasse. C. gibbus.
The Scale-rayed Wrasse. C. luscus.
Family Fisiularidm. The Trumpet-fish. Centriscus scolopax.
Order II. — Malacopterygii Abdominales. Family Cyprinidce. The Common Carp. Cyprinus carpio.
The Crucian Carp.
The Gold Carp.
The Barbel.
The Gudgeon.
The Tench.
The Bream.
The White Bream.
The Ide.
The Dobule Roach.
The Roach.
The Dace.
The Graining.
The Chub.
The Red-Eye.
The Azurine.
The Bleak.
The Minnow.
The Loach.
The Spined Loach.
The Pike. The Gar-fish. The Saury Pike. The Flying-fish.
The Sly Silurus.
C. gibelio.
C. auratus.
Barbus vulgaris. Gobio fluviatilis. Tinea vulgaris. Abramis brama. Abramis blicca. Leuciscus idus.
L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L.
dobula.
rutilus.
vulgaris.
Lancastriensis.
cephalus.
erythrothalmus.
caeruleus.
alburnus.
phoxinus.
Cobitis barbatula. Botia taenia.
Family EsocidcB.
Esox lucius. Belone vulgaris. Scomber-esox saurus. Exocetus volitans.
Family Siluridm.
Silurus glanis. Family Salmonida.
The Salmon.
The Bull-Trout.
The Salmon-Trout.
The Parr.
The Common Trout.
The Great Lake Trout.
The Northern Charr.
The Welsh Charr.
The Smelt.
The Grayling.
The Gwyniad or Schelly.
The Vendace.
The Argentine.
Salmo salar. S. eriox. S. trutta. S. salmulus. S. fario. S. ferox. S. umbla. S. salvelinus. Osmerus eperlanus. Thyraallus vulgaris. Coregonus fera ? Cuv. C. Willughbii.
Scopelus Humboldii.
Family Clupeida.
The Pilchard. The Herring. Leach's Herring. The Sprat or Garvie. The White-Bait. The Twaite Shad. The AUice Shad. The Anchovy.
Clupea pilchardus. C. harengus.
C. Leachii.
C. sprattus.
C. alba.
Alosa finta. A. communis. Engraulis encrasicolus.
Ordeu III. — Malacopterygii Subrachiati. Family Gadida. The Common Cod. Morrhua vulgaris.
The Haddock. The Bib. The Poor. The Speckled Cod. The Whiting. The Coal-Fish. The Pollack. The Green Cod. The Hake. The Ling. The Burbot. The Three-bearded Rock- J ling. J
The Five-bearded Rockling. The Mackerel Midge. The Silvery Gade. The Torsk or Tusk. The Forked Hake. The Lesser Forked Hake.
' Morrhua aeglefinus. M. lusca.
M. minuta
M. punctata.
Merlangus vulgaris. M. carbonarius.
M. poUachius.
M. virens.
Merlucius vulgaris. Lota molva. L. vulgaris.
Motella vulgaris.
M. quinquecirrata.
M. glauca.
M. argenteola.
Brosmius vulgaris. Phycis furcatus. Raniceps trifurcatus.
Family Pleuronectida.
The Plaice. The Flounder. The Common Dab. The Lemon Dab. The Long Rough Dab. The Craig Fluke. The Holibut. The Turbot. The Brill. Muller's Topknot. Block's Topknot. The Whiff. The Scald-Fish. The Sole. The Lemon Sole- The Variegated Sole.
Platessa vulgaris. Platessa flesus. P. limanda.
P. microcephalus.
P. limandoides.
P. pola.
Hippoglossus vulgaris. Rhombus marinus. Rh. vulgaris.
Rh. hirtus.
Rh. punctatus.
Rh. raegastoma.
Rh. Arnoglossus.
Solea vulgaris. S. pegusa. Monochirus linguatulus.
Family Cychpterida.
The Cornish Sucker. The Bimaculated Sucker. The Lump Sucker. The Unctuous Sucker. Montagu's Sucking Fish.
Lepidogaster Cornubiensis. L. bimaculatus.
Cyclopterus lumpus. Liparis vulgaris. L. Montagui.
Family Echeneidce. The Common Remora. Echeneis remora.
Order IV. — Mai/Acopterygii Apodes.
Family MurmnidcB. The Sharp-nosed Eel. Anguilla acutirostris.
The Broad-nosed Eel.
The Snig.
The Conger.
The Muraena.
The Anglesey Morris.
The Beardless Ophidium.
The Sand-Eel.
The Sand-Lance.
A. latirostris.
A. mediorostris.
Conger vulgaris. Muraena Helena. Leptocephalus Morrisii. Ophidium imberbe. Ammodytes Tobianus. Am. lancea.
Order V. — Lophobbanchii. Family Syngnathida.
The Dorse.
M.
callarias.
The Great Pipe-fish. The Deep-nosed Pipe-fish. The ^quorial Pipe-fish. The Snake Pipe-fish. The Worm Pipe-fish. The Short-nosed Hippo- campus.
Syngnathus acus.
S. typhle.
S. asquoreus.
S. ophidion.
S. lumbriciformis.
- Hippocampus brevirostris.
LIST OF BRITISH FISHES.
Order VI Plectognathi.
Family Gymnodontida. Pennant's Globe-fish. Tetradon Pennantii.
The Short Sun-fish. Orthagoriscus niola.
Tlie Oblong Sun-fish. O. oblongus.
Family Salistidce. The European File-fisii. Balistes capriscus.
SECOND GREAT SERIES, CALLED
CHONDROPTERYGII, OR CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
Order I. — Branchiae fuee.
Family Sturionidce. The Common Sturgeon. Acipenser sturio.
Family Chimaridcc. The Northern Chimaera. Chimaera monstrosa.
Order II. — Branchiae fixed.
Family Squalida. The Small-spotted Dog-Fish. Scyllium canicula. TheLarge-spottedDog-Fish. Sc. catulus.
The Black-mouthed Dog- ( g^_ melanostomum .
Fish. J
The White Shark. Carcharias vulgaris.
The Fox Shark. C. vulpes.
The Blue Shark. C. glaucus.
The Porbeagle. The Beaumaris Shark. The Common Tope. The Smooth Hound. The Basking Shark. The Picked Dog-fish. The Greenland Shark. The Hammer Head. The Ansel-fish.
Lamna cornubicus. L. monensis.
Galeus vulgaris. Mustelus la;vis. Selachus maximus. Spinax acanthias. Scymnus borealis. Zygacna malleus ? Squatina angel us.
Family Raiidm.
The Electric Ray. The Long-nosed Skate. The Skate.
The Sharp- nosed Ray. The Bordered Ray. The Homelyn Ray. The Small-eyed Raj-. The Thorn Back. The Starry Ray. The Sting Hay. The Eagle Ray.
Torpedo vulgaris. Raia chagrinea. R. batis. R. oxyrhynchus. R. marginata. R. maculata. R. microcellata. R. clavata. R. radiata. Trygon pastinacea. Myliobatis aquila.
Family Petromyzida.
The Lamprey. The Lampern. The Fringed-lipped
Lampern. The Pride. The Myxine. The Lancelet.
Petromyzon marinus. P. fluviatilis.
P. Planeri.
Ammocaetes branchialis. Gastrobranchus caecus. Amphioxus lanceolatus.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
SECT. I. DEFINITION AND GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. THE
PRINCIPAL EPOCHS IN THE SCIENCE OF ICHTHYOLOGY.
Fishes maybe technically defined as, vertehrated animals viith red blood, breathing through the medium of water b;/ means of braiichia or gills. Tliis definition, as Baron Cu- vier has remarked, is the result of observation ; it is a pro- duct of analysis, or wliat is termed in physics an empyrical formula; but its accuracy is demonstrable by the inverse method, for, when once duly perceived, we may in a great measure deduce from it a knowledge of the entire nature of tlie beings to which it is applied. Being vertebrated, they must be possessed of an internal skeleton ; of a brain and spinal marrow, enclosed in a vertebral column ; of mus- cles exterior to the bones ; of four extremities only ; and of the organs of the first four senses, situate in the cavities of the head ; witli other relations not necessary to be here named.
The greater portion of the surface of the earth is cover- ed by the waters of the translucent sea ; and wherever con- tinents and the larger islands protrude their rocky bulk, we find them coursed by flowing rivers, or intersected by lakes and marshes. These present in their aggregate an enormous mass of waters, and afford protection and nou- rishment to mjTiads of living creatures, probabl}' superior in number, and in no way inferior in beauty, to those which inhabit the earth. On land, the matter susceptible of life is mainly employed in the construction and conti- nuance of vegetable species ; from these herbivorous ani- mals draw their nourishment ; and this being animalized by assimilation, becomes an appropriate food for the carni- vorous kinds, which scarcely amount to more than one half of the terrestrial creatures of all classes. But in the liquid element, and more especially among the saline waters of the ocean, where the vegetable kingdom is so much more re- stricted, almost all organized substances are pervaded by animal life, and each lives at the expense of some smaller or feebler foe. There we meet not only with the greatest and most wonderful variety of forms, but also with the ex- tremes in respect to size, — from the myriads of microscopic monads, which, but for artificial means, must have remain- ed for ever invisible and unknown, to tlie ponderous whale, which surpasses by twenty times the bulk of the largest elephant. There, too, we may discover the majority of those magnificent combinations of organic structure, on the rela- tions of which naturalists have established the distinction of classes, or great primary groups, — in other words, the sea may be said to contain representatives of each ; for, even among birds, those aerial creatures which usually in- habit so light an element, we find species so constructed as
to dwell almost for ever on its waves. The mammiferous Introduc- class is still more fully represented in the numerous tribes ''""• of seals, morses, manaties, and whales, all of which require '■■^~^''~*^ a moist abode, and some of which immediately perish when deprived of it. Most reptiles arc aquatic, many in- sects are so, more particularly in their larva state ; and al- most all the Mollusca, the Annelides, the Crustacea, and Zoophytes, — four great classes, which on terra fimia are kvf and I'ar between, — exist in countless numbers in the waters of the ocean. Hence that ancient dictum recorded by Pliny, " Quicquid nascatiu- in ])arte natura; uUa, et in mari esse ; pra;terque midta quae nusquam alibi."
But amongst all the teeming wonders which vivify the vast expanse and li(|uid depth of waters, none so predo- minate, or are so truly characteristic, as the subjects of our present treatise ; nor are any more worthy of our devoted consideration, whether we regard the beauty or eccentri- city of their forms, the metallic splendour of their colours, or the innumerable benefits which, through the foresight of Providence, they confer upon the human race. We there- fore deem it incumbent upon us to exhibit an ample view of the present condition of Systematic Ichthyology ; but before doing so, we shall endeavour to add to the interest of the subject by a (ew general observations.
We may state, in the first place, that we here intention- ally refrain from any bibliographical inquiry, or historical exposition of the progress of Ichthyology. If such were complete, or even ample, it wo\dd occupy too much of that space which we deem more usefully devoted to the actual condition of our subject-matter. W^e more willingly set that department aside, when we consider how perfectly it has been presented by Baron Ciivier.^ We shall, however, briefly allude to what may be regarded as the principal epocha in the progress of Ichthyological Science. During many remote ages it consisted, in common with all the kindred branches of human knowledge, of nothing more than a few partial and disjointed observations. Aristotle, about 350 years before the Christian era, made some pro- gress towards connecting these together as a body of doc- trine ; but still it was a feeble body, reposing upon truths (perceived indeed with surprising skill when we consider the scanty data) as yet obscurely known and vaguely ex- pressed, owing to the entire absence of all proper standards for the distinction of species. For more than eighteen hundred years ensuing, those who wrote on natural history can scarcely be regarded in any other light than as either copiers or commentators of Aristotle ; but about the mid- dle of the sixteenth century, Belon, Rondelet, and Salviani, the true founders of modern Ichthyology, made their ap- pearance (we mean as authors), by a singular coincidence, almost precisely at the same time, — the first in 1553, the second from 1554 to 1555, and the third from 1554 to 1658. Differing from their compiling predecessors, they
' From 'ix.^v!, a fish, and Xsycc, a discourte.
* See the Tableau Ilhtoihjiic dcs Froi^rls de VJchiyotogk, dcpuh son orlgine jutqii'a nos jours,, m the first volume of his great though un- fortunately uncompleted work, the Ilutoire NaUireUe dcs Fuissons. We deem ourselves fortunate beyond our predecessors in ency- cloptedic labour, in having as a guide in so difficult a subject as that on which the reader is about to enter, the first nine volumes of Baron Cuvier's signal publication. We should act unwisely were we to present a crude compendium of the works of foreign and British writers, such as has hitherto sufficed for publications similar to that in which we are now engaged. We prefer adhering throughout to Cuvier's system of arrangement, as one which, without doubt, is entitled to supersede all others hitherto proposed. We shall also avail ourselves, wherever our doing so seems likely to instruct the reader, of whatever general or miscellaneous information is scattered through his work, presenting it in a form and sequence the most advantageous to those unacquainted with the volumi- nous original ; and adding, especially in relation to our native species, wliatever we find of interest in recent authors, among whom, as elucidators of *' British i'ishes," Messrs Couch and Yarrell stand pre-eminent. We beg to make this general acknowledgment of the infinite advantage we have derived from Baron Cuvier's labours, in the formation of the present treatise, in reference both to ouriu- troductory and systematic portions.
152
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Introduc- saw and examined for tliemselves, and made drawings from tion. nature, if not with the elegant accuracy of modern days, at
^'^~y-^ least with a recognisable exactness. Yet, true to the ge- nius of their time, they continued to attach much more importance to the ascertainment of the names which the species bore in the classical pages of anticjuity, than to the composition of th.eir history, as it were afresh, by the light of nature and their own knowledge. Nevertheless they rectified as well as extended the observations of Aristotle, and laid a positive base or new foundation of the subject, by figures and descriptions of a certain number of well-de- termined species. About the close of the seventeenth cen- tury, Willughby, and his illustrious friend John Ray, gave tor the first time a history of fishes, in which the species were not only clearly described from nature, but distribut- ed in accordance with characters drawn solely from their structure, and in which we are no longer unnecessarily burdened with inapplicable passages from either Greek or Roman writers. Finally, about the middle of the eigh- teenth century, Artedi and Linnreus completed what the others had commenced, by establishing well-defined generic groups, consisting of ascertained species precisely charac- terised. From that period it may be said that no radical defect existed, nor any obstacle in the way of a gradual perfecting of the system, which could not be overcome by zeal, accuracy, and perseverance. Nevertheless it is to the genius of Baron Cuvier that we owe the gigantic stride which has been made in our own more immediate days. Prior to 1815, the methods of almost all the modern syste- matic writers were little else than modifications, variously disguised, of the Linnaean system, — that is, with alterations, generally for the worse, of the nomenclature of the illus- trious Swede. They darkened knowledge by a multipli- city of vain words ; — and when any principle of classifica- tion was brought forward, — if new, then it was untrue to nature, — if true to that beautiful abstraction, then it was already familiar as household words. But forty years assi- duously devoted to Ichthyology, — that is, to a deep study of all preceding authors, to a constant ascertainment of whatever could be gathered of the habits of fishes, and to the formation of an unrivalled museimi of comparative ana- tomy, where both their outward and internal forms were perfectly displayed, — convinced tlie great French naturalist that many heterogeneous groups still formed portions of our ichthyological system, and that a salutary reformation might consequently be effected in numerous minor details. It was obvious, from an attentive consideration of the subject, that the differences of both external and interior organs, by which fishes might be distinctly characterised, were not less numerous than decided ; and that in truth there were few classes of created beings among which it was more easy to recognise the existence of natural groups. But with a view to dispose of the genera and families in a becoming order, it was necessary to seize upon a small number of important characters, from which might result certain great divisions, not likely to break up nat>u-al rela- tions, and yet sufficiently precise and perceptible to leave no doubt as to the place of each species. This was a prin- cipal desideratimi, and one which the industry and perse- verance, not less than the genius and high attainments, of Cuvier, have gone so far to satisfy.
The numerous characters lield in common by the chon- dropterygian or cartilaginous fishes were too remarkable to have escaped detection by those who loved and sought for the light of system. Thus all Ichthyologists have agreed in the formation for these fishes of a separate order ; but
the Baron has observed, that almost all have likewise in- Introduc- jured the justness of their ordinal division, by a combina- ^'^""■ tion of certain species which resembled the true cartila- ^■"^"^^ ginous kinds merely in the softness of their skeleton. Thus the genera Lophius and Cyclopterus, except in that soft- ness, do not differ in any respect from tlie ordinary osseous fishes, and therefore ought not to be withdrawn from them. But there are others which, in addition to the softness of their bones, present peculiar characters in their tegumen- tary system, in their teeth, and especially in the disposition of the skeleton of the head, which render their immediate imion with either of the great groups of osseous or carti- laginous fishes a matter of greater doubt and difficulty. Such, for example, are the genera Tetrodon, Diodon, Os- tracion, and Batistes. The Syngnathi, or pipe-fish, like- wise present, in their peculiar branchia?, distinctive charac- ters of great importance. The remarkable external aspect of these different genera had long induced the majority of naturalists to separate them from the others ; but it so happened also that the same majority were by no means fortunate in discovering the true characters of separation. Thus Artedi not only re-united them to the Loptiii and lum)>fish, in the order of branchiostegous fishes, but he established that entire order on a false supposition — to wit, that they possessed no rays in their branchial membrane (" biaNc/iiis osseis, ossibus destilutis," — " t)ranchiostegi in branchiis mdta ossicula germit,"^) — while the fact is, that they all possess those rays, and that even Artedi himself has inadvertently described both their nature and their number (^membrana branch iostega ossicuta sex gracilia conti?tet) in his notice of the lump-fish [Cycloptey'us) in question.^
Linna;us,^ after placing the chondropterygian fishes among the reptiles, and adding thereto the genus Lo- p/iius ; after referring the Mormyri and Syngnathi to the branchiostegous fishes of Artedi, and assigning to them the character of wanting not only the rays of the branchiae, but the opercula (the contrary in several species being ob- vious to the most simple observation) ; afterwards combin- ed'' the Chondropterygii and Branchiostegi into a single or- der oi reptiles (^Amphibia Nantes), on the supposed but quite erroneous basis of their being possessed at once of lungs and gills. Gmelin re-established the two orders of Artedi, but still attributing to the Branchiostegi the absence of rays. Gouan characterised them merely by the incom- pleteness of their branchia:, — a vague expression, and in- deed contestable in almost all the genera. Pennant com- bined them with the Chondropterygii, imder the common name of Cartitaginous, a term adopted by M. Lacepede ; but which Cuvier has shown, in relation to the actual con- tents of the grovip, to be improper. The great French ana- tomist has observed that the appellation is by no means applicable, either in a positive or a negative sense. It can- not in any way be maintained that the skeleton of the Ba- tistes is cartilaginous ; and among the number of species " which Pennant and his followers leave among the osseous fishes, there are several, for example, the Leptocephali, in which we can scarcely perceive the vestige of a skeleton.* Baron Cuvier"s great object thus became, to disentangle, as it were, those anomalous groups, or at least to separate all such as seemed to differ sufficiently from the type of ordinary fishes to authorize such separation. His next object was the discovery of precise characters, cajiable of being clearly expressed in words. This examination soon convinced him that such genera as Lophius, Cyclopterus, Centriscus, Mormyrus, and Macrorhynclms, had been er- roneously withdrawn from the great group of ordinary
' Genera Piscutm, p. 85.
= Ihld. p. (i2.
^ Sf^stCfua Nitiurtr, 10th ed.
* Syitema Nalura, 12th ed.
» Hist. Nat. des Poissons, t. i. p. 555.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
153
Iiitroduc- fishes, from which in fact they essentially differed in no- t'O"- thing. But he satisfied himself that the singular genus
■"^-Y"*^ Syngnathus, of which tiie form and economy are so re- markable, were distinctively characterised by their bran- chiae, in the form of tufts (hence the title of lophobraiichial fishes), concealed beneath an opercle which permits the water to escape only by a small opening towards the nape of the neck ; and that the genera Diodon, Tetrodon, Os- tracion, and Balistes, independently of the singularity of their general form, and the incompleteness of their skele- ton, have the jaws, and in general all the bones of the head, somewhat differently arranged from the corresponding parts in tlie generality of fishes, the upper jaw and the palatine bones being articulated with each other, and with the vo- mer, by immoveable sutures — a structure which leaves them much less freedom in the opening of their mouths, and is also the cause (in connection with the tightness of the tegumentary envelope which fastens down the bran- chial apparatus) of so many naturalists having failed to per- ceive that the genera in question were furnished with rays and opercula like other species.
But these groups once separated, there remained nine tenths of the whole class of fishes, among which the first great distinctive division which presents itself is, into such as have soft fins, or of which tlie rays are branched and articulated, and into such as have spiny fins, of which a portion of the rays consist of pointed bones without branches or articulation, — two primary divisions, corre- sponding to the great groups named respectively Mala- coPTERVGii and Acanthopterygii by Artedi. Even this principle of classification is not universally prevalent; for, in its practical application, we are obliged to keep out of view the first rays of the dorsal and pectoral fins in cer- tain species of the genera Cyprimis and Silurus, in which these rays exhibit strong and solid spines, although we still class them with the Malacopterygii, or soft-finned division.' In like manner, there are, among the other great division, corresponding exceptions to the acanthopterygian character, as in the blennies and certain Labridae, of which the spines are so small, so feeble, or so few in number, as almost to escape detection. However, if the principle referred to is not quite precise in relation to these slight anomalies, it is on the whole well founded, and certainly does not force us to separate numerous species which nature has approxi- mated.
The same cannot be asserted of those distinctions which naturalists have sought to establish on other principles, nor of those on which so many of the secondary divisions have been founded. Thus the general form of the body, and tlie absence of the ventral fins, the characters assumed by Ray, anterior to those deduced from the spines, force a heterogeneous grouping of the eels, the gobies, the Syng- nathi, the Xiphias, and the moon-fish. Linnaeus was the first (in the tenth edition of the Systema Natura), while neglecting the distinction of the spiny rays, to imagine the division of ordinary fishes into apodal, jugular, thoracic, and abdominal, according to the absence or position of the ventral fins ; and in so doing obliged himself to place the genera Xiphias, Trichiurus, and Stromateus with the eels and Gytmwti, the Gadi between the weevers and the blen- nies, Pleuronectes between Zeus and Chatodon, and the Aru- pAaca7j</«' as intermediate with Silurus and Loricaria. Va-
rious modifications have since been proposed of the Lin- Introduc- noean arrangement, but our present limits will not admit of tion. our entering upon these as exhibited in the various works "^"V*^ of Gouan, Lacepede, Dumeril, Risso, Rafincsque, Goldfuss, Oken, and others who have laboured to amend the modern system.^
SECT. II. THE EXTERNAL FORM AND CHARACTER 01"
FISHES.^
The form and structure of fishes are as admirably adapt- ed for rapid movement through the water, as are those of birds for that aerial motion called flight. Suspended in a liquid element of almost equal specific gravity with them- selves, external organs resembling those of birds in size would have been disproportioned and unnecessary ; but the air-bladder (the functions of which, by no means entirely understood, have never been satisfactorily explained in all their bearings) is known to possess the power of contrac- tion and dilatation, the exercise of which is followed by a corresponding descent or ascent of the animal's body. Thus a small, central, and inconspicuous organ eiiects, in the easiest and most simple manner, the same object which even the soaring eagle or giant condor can only attain by great exertion of the wings, and after laborious and fre- quently repeated gyrations. We shall ere long, however, have occasion to observe, that the air-bladder, although es- sential to the economy of such species as possess it, is by no means indispensable to the class of fishes, as in many tribes it is entirely wanting.
Fishes being without a neck, and the part called the tail for the most part equalling at its origin the portion of the trunk from which it springs, the prevailing shape is some- what uniform, diminishing gradually towards either end. Doubtless, however, a vast variety of form is exhibited in a class which is now calculated to contain from six to eight thousand collected species. Of these forms a sufficiently accurate idea may be acquired by inspecting the numerous plates which accompany the present treatise, and we shall therefore not attempt any further verbal illustration of the subject, although we shall add a few notices regarding the general aspect and character of the principal external parts.
The mouth of fishes either opens from beneath, as in the rays, or at the extremity of the muzzle, as in the majority of the class, or from the upper surface, as in Uranoscopus. It also varies greatly in its relative dimensions, from the mi- nute perforation of Centrisctis, to the vast expansion of the angler fish.
Exteriorly only two of the organs of the senses are visi- ble, the orifices of the nostrils and the eyes. The former may be simple, as in the rays and sharks, or double, as in the generality of osseous fishes ; and they differ in their position in relation to the jaws, the eyes, or the extremity of the muzzle. The eyes vary extremely in respect to size in the different species, and even sometimes disappear entirely beneath the skin ; and they also differ greatly in their position, being usually placed laterally, one on each side of the head, although in Uranoscopus (as the name implies) they look upwards, and in most of the flat fishes they both occupy the same side.
In regard to those important organs, the branchiae or gills, a single family alone, the chondropterygian fishes.
' These epines, however, as Cuvier remarks, are formed, in the two genera above named, by the agglutination of a multitude of smaller parts, of which the articulations, though not obvious, are perceptible.
* For critical notices of their works, see the 1st volume of the Hitt. Nat. des Poissons.
' We may here premise, that in the ensuing sections several interesting and important particulars in the structure and physiology of fishes are very slightly, or even not at all, touched upon, in consequence of their having been already detailed in the article Comparative Anatomy of this work. (See vol. iii. p. 1, &c.) We deemed it more advisable that the reader should be made to incur the slight inconvenience of referring occasionally to a separate treatise, than that the present publication should be burdened by a repetition of the same subject. U
VOL. XI 1.
154
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Introduc- are characterised by having their exterior margin fixed to tion. ti,g skin, with as many openings for the issue of the water "^ as there are intervals between the branchiae themselves ; but all other fislies have the external margin of the bran- chia; free, and the water which enters the mouth escapes by the opening of the gill-covers.
A certain number of the fins are vertical, and serve the fish somewhat in the same way as a vessel is served by her helm and keel. Of these, some, called dorsal, are attached to the back, others, beneath the tail, are named anal, while a fine expansion, which usually terminates the body, is known as the caudal fin. All these are vertical fins, and vary in different tribes, either in number, or dimensions, or the nahu-e of the rays by which they are supported, and which arc sometimes spiny, sometimes branched and com- posed-of numerous articulations. The other fins are dis- posed in pairs, and rejDrcsent the foia- external members of the higher classes, such as quadrupeds and birds. Those which correspond to the fore-legs of quadrupeds and the wings of birds are named the pectoral fins, and are always attached behind the gills ; those again which are regarded as the analogues of the hinder extremities of the other classes are named the ventral fins, and have a considerable range of position in different species, from as far forward as beneath the throat, to the origin of the tail. Like the vertical fins, they also vary in size, and in the number and structure of their rays ; and one or even both pairs are oc- casionally wanting, as in eels, which have no ventral fins, and Murena;, which have neither ventral nor pectoral fins. Indeed the Apierichti have no fins at all.
Those fishes are named Malacopterygian, of which all the rays of the fins are articulated, and of a softer struc- ture : while such as are characterised by Jiaving at least a portion of their rays hard, simple, and in the form of spines, are included under the general title of Acanthoptery- GiAN fishes.' These great divisions apply solely to the os- seous species. We have already mentioned that the car- tilaginous kinds are distinguished by the name of Ciion- DRoPTERYGiAN, while two Icsscr groups, in some respects intermediate between these and the preceding, fall under the orders Lophobranchii and Plectognatiii of Baron Cuvier.
The differences hitherto alluded to are connected with intimate structure — with the skeleton or bony frame-work of the fish. There are of course others of a slighter or more superficial character. The jaws may be armed with teeth of all sorts, and these weapons sometimes occupy all parts of the mouth, and are found occasionally even in the throat. The lips are frequently furnished with a kind of fleshy beard or barbies, which differ greatly in number, size, and substance. Some have long fleshy isolated filaments hanging to the body, as in Scorpaiia; and occasionally one or more of the rays is to a certain extent detachable from the fin, and susceptible of independent movement.
The nature of the surface or external tegument of fishes also varies greatly. Some may be called naked, while others are scaly, spinous, or plated, in whole or in part. If to these considerations we add the infinitely varied cha- racter of colour in all its admirable distributions, and the differences in size and weight observable in fishes, we shall be able to form a general idea of the external aspect of this great and important class.
SECT. III. THE OSTEOLOGY OF FISHES.
In regard to the texture of the bones of fishes, their skeletons are either bony, Jibro-cartilaginous, or truly car-
tilaginous. Those distinguished by the last-named charac- ter are the chondropterygian groups, such as the sturgeons, sharks, and rays, all of which exhibit throughout the whole of their frame-work, in their branchiae (the external bor- der of which is fixed to the skin, and through which the water is allowed to escape only by narrow openings), and in other important parts of their organization, distinctive characters, which obviously separate them from all other fishes. They are in fact destitute of true bones, their har- der parts consisting only of a homogeneous and semitrans- parent cartilage, which is merely covered on the surface in certain genera by a layer of small, opake, calcareous gra- nules, closely set together. In the lampreys even this en- velope is wanting, while among the Ammocates the skele- ton continues in an actually membranous condition. The sturgeons and Chimera; partake in some measure of the lamprey character in relation to the softness of their spines, but the first-named genus is possessed of many true bones of the head and shoulder.
Other fishes differ in their osteological character chief- I3' in the hardness of their skeleton, and it is without rea- son that the fibro-cartilaginous kinds have been associ- ated by some authors with the Chondropterygii. The calcareous matter, that is, the phosphate of lime, is de- posited in layers and fibres in the cartilage which forms the basis of their bones, precisely in the same manner as among the hard-boned species, but less abundantly ; and the texture of the bone never becomes so hard and homogeneous as among the osseous kinds. Thus in Te- trodon 3Iola we perceive, as it were, only scattered fibres amid the membranes, and in Lophius piscalorius they are nearly as soft. The other Tetrodons and Diodons, the Balistes and the Ostracions, have denser bones ; and in some species these parts can scarcely be distinguished from those of the osseous fishes. It is certain also that the bony frame-work of the fibro-cartilaginous kinds is constructed on the same plan as that of the truly osseous species, and not in accordance with those of the Chon- dropterygii ; and it is in opposition to the known truth of nature that both Artedi and Linna;us have denied them the possession of opercula and branchiostegous rays. The Balistes have even ribs, — their only osteological dif- ference consisting in the granulation of their jaws ; while the Sijngiuithi have regular bony jaws, although they want the ribs and branchiostegous rays.
The majority of osseous fishes have bones fully harder than those of other animals, and it is quite a gratuitous assumption to suppose that the observed longevity of cer- tain species arises from the softer consistence of those parts. Certain fish bones, in fact, exhibit neither pores nor fibres, and appear almost vitreous to the eye. But neither the osseous nor the cartilaginous kinds have ci- ther epiphyses to the bones, or medullary canal within them ; but there are some, such as the trouts, in which the tissue of the bones is more or less penetrated by an oilyjuice; while in others, such as the Dory, the inter- nal portion continues cartilaginous, while the surface is completely ossified. Finally, in certain species, while the general skeleton is very hard, particular portions of it are cartilaginous. Such are the bones which consti- tute the head of the pike.
When viewed in relation to their general structure, the bones of fishes, like those of other vertebrated ani- mals, are composed of an organic base penetrated by earthy matter. The latter consists of phosphate of lime and of magnesia, with oxide of iron, supposed to be unit- ed to phosphoric acid. There is also a certain portion
I It may be here noted, however, that certain malacopterygian kinds, such as carps and siluri, have the articulations of some of the rays soldered together, in such a manner as to appear simply spinous.
ICHTHYOLOGY. 155
Introduc of subcarbonate of lime. The animal matter is of two The anterior members, commonly called the pectoral Introduc- . ^'°"" , kinds : — the one, of an azotised nature, forms the base of fins, consist of the shoulder, an osseous semicircle com- I'o"- "~^l'~'^ t|)e cartiiage ; the other is fatty, in the form of a pervad- posed of several bones suspended above from tlie cranium ^'"Y"^^ ing oil. The cartilage of fish bones differs from that of or the spine, and joined beneath to the corresponding mammifera; and birds, in as far as it yields no gelatine portion of the otiier side. We can here also distinguish when subjected to tiie process of boiling. The oil is certain bones analogous to the two pieces of the omoplate composed chiefly of oieine, impregnated with an odorous of reptiles, to the humerus, and to the bones of the fore- principle and a yellow colouring matter. The oil itself arm ; and further back there is usually a small projec- is easily convertible into soap, and then produces oleic tion, composed of two pieces, which have been supposed acid, glycerine, and a minute portion of margaric acid. to represent the coracoid bone, and even the clavicle.
The skeleton of osseous fishes consists of the head ; What is more assured is, that the two bones which Cu-
of the respiratory apparatus, having always a large bony vier compares to the cubitus and radius, bear on their
development; of the trunk, including body and tail ; and margin a range of little bones, which seem to represent
of members, that is, the pectoral and ventral fins. The those of the carpus, and which themselves support the
vertical fins, viz. those of the back, anus, and tail, may rays of the pectoral fin, excepting the first of the latter,
likewise be viewed as belonging to the trunk. which articulates directly with the radial bone.
The head, possessing many more moveable parts than The posterior members, much more variable in their that of the Mammalia, is subdivisible into a great many position than the corresponding limbs of the Mammalia, regions, such as the cranium, the maxilla;, the bones and of which the external and moveable portions are beneath the cranium and behind the jaws, and which aid named the ventral fins, project sometimes in advance of, in their movement and suspension ; the bones of the oper- sometimes beneath, and sometimes behind, the anterior cles, which open and shut the overtures of the bran- or pectoral members. They are composed of four bones, chia;; the bones, almost exterior, which surround the of which the largest, which are likewise the most con- nostrils, the eye, and the temples, or which cover a por- stant, being always placed in advance of the anus and of tion of the cheek. the generative system, may be regarded as a sort of pu-
In the majority of fishes the inter-maxillary bone forms bis, and bear upon a portion of their posterior margin the the edge of the upper jaw, and has behind it the maxil- rays of the fin, without any smaller intermediate bones lary, commonly called the mystax, or labial bone. A pa- which can be compared either to the femur, the tibia, latine arch, composed of the palatine, of the two ptery- the peroneum, or tarsal bones. The rays of both the gold processes, of the jugal, t3'mpanic, and squamous pectoral and ventral fins are likewise divisible lengthwise bones, constitutes, as among birds and snakes, a kind of into halves, like those of the vertical fins before mention- interior jaw, and provides posteriorly an articulation to ed. These rays, with the exception of the external ven- the lower jaw-, which has usually two bones on each side, tral one of the Acanthopterygii {which is spinous), are al- io the Chondropterygii, however, these various pieces are most always articulated, greatly reduced in number. The skeleton of the Chondropterygii, such as sharks and
Besides the apparatus of the branchial arches, the hy- skates, is composed of pieces consisting of no fibrous tis-
oid bone carries on eacli side certain rays which support sue characteristic of bone. The interior continues in a
the branchial membrane ; a kind of lid or clapper, com- cartilaginous state, and the surface alone becomes indu-
posed of three bony pieces, the opercle, the sub-opercle, rated by the accumulation of small calcareous granules,
and the inter-opercle, unites with that membrane to close which produce externally a stippled aspect. The form
the great opening of the gills ; it articulates with the as of the cranium is similar to that of other fishes, but ne-
tJ/mpam,aml plays on the piece called the pre-opercle. But, vertheless consists of only one enclosure, without sutures,
like the parts before mentioned, this apparatus is likewise The face is very simple, with only two bones in the pala-
wantingin many of the Chondropterygii. to-temporal arch; — the first descending from the crani-
The trunk is composed of the vertebrje of the back uni, at the articulation of the jaws, — the other represent-
and tail (for we can scarcely say that there is any neck, ing the upper jaw, and bearing the teeth. The maxillary
and the sacrum is wanting) ; of ribs ; of the interspinal and inter-maxillary bones are merely rudimentary. The
bones, which give support to the dorsal and anal fins ; under jaw has also but one bone (the articular) on each
and of the rays of those fins, and of the caudal. These side, bearing the teeth ; of the others only a single ves-
rays, whether branched and articulated, or simply spi- tige is discoverable, concealed beneath the skin of the
nous, may be always divided lengthways into halves. lip. The opercular apparatus is wanting, but the hyoi-
The vertebrae of fishes are characterised by the conical dean and branchial structure is very conformable with the hollow on each of their faces. Double hollow cones are same parts in osseous fishes. Sharks have, moreover, op- thus formed in the interval between two vertebrae, fill- posite to the external attachment of each branchia, a slen- edbya soft membranous and gelatinous substance, which der bone, which may be regarded as the genuine vestige passes from one void to another by means of an opening of a rib. The branchial system is situate further back through each vertebra, and forms as it were a gelatinous than in osseous fishes, and hence the humeral girdle is chaplet through the whole. They have, as in other ani- also more posterior. The spinal ribs, if they exist, are mals, an annular portion in their superior part, for the usually very small, except in the sturgeons. In that ge- passage of the spinal marrow. nus, indeed, the branchial system is in some respects inter- Fish rarely possess a sternum properly so called, and mediate between the cartilaginous and osseous fishes, when it does exist, it is formed of almost external pieces, Several bones of the head and shoulder are as hard as which unite the inferior extremities of the ribs. stone, yet the spine is almost as soft as that of lampreys.'
' For the sake of a more explicit comprehension of the principal portions of the osteological system of fishes, we have figured (from Cuvier) the skeleton ot'tlie perch. We shall here subjoin the names of the bones, in reference to the engraved numerals. See Plate CCXCVII. figs. 1, 2, 4, 5.
Cranium : Principal frontal, 1 ; anterior frontals, 2 ; ethmoidal, 3 ; posterior frontal, 4 ; basilary, 5 ; sphenoid, 6 ; parietals, 7 ; inter-parietal, 8 ; external occipital, 9 ; occipital lateral, 10 ; great ala, or temporal ala, II; mastoidean, 12; rupes, 13; orbitary ala, 14; anterior sphenoid, 16; vomer, lU. Upper jaw : Inter-maxillary, 17; maxillary, 18. Nasal, sub-orbitury, and supia-temporal bancs: First sub-orbitary, 19; chain of bones attaclied to the last named, and endini^ at the posterior frontal (these are conspi- cuous in Trigla and Scorpaena), likewise numbered 19 ; nasal, 20 ; supra-temporals, 21. Puleiiue arch, or palatim-pUrygoidean and
156 ICHTHYOLOGY.
SECT. IV THE MUSCLES AND MUSCULAR MOTIONS OF coiisequence of the projection of the upper and under Introduc
FISHES. spiny processes of the vertebrae. tion.
Tlie great organ of movement in all fishes is the tail. **^'^'^~'
The spinal column, composed of numerous articula- The muscles by which it is brought into play extend in
tions united by cartilages which permit of certain move- lengthened masses on either side of the vertebral column.
ments, curves with great facility from side to side ; but The body being supported chiefly by the swimming blad-
the vertical motion is much more restricted, chiefly in der (which, however, is absent in several species), is pro-
temporal system : Palatine, 22 ; temporal, 23 ; transverse bone, 24 ; internal aptervgoidean, 25 ; jugal, 26 ; tympanal, 27. Opercular bones: Operculum, 28 ; styloid, 29 ; pre-operculuni, 30; sympletic, 31 ; sub-operculum, 32 ; inter-opereulum, 33; this last-named bone furnishes an attachment to the branch of the hyoid bone at the point where it is itself joined to the styloid, which suspends it on the temporal bone, and hence the opercular sliutters can neither open nor close without a corresponding movement of the hyoidean branches. Lower ja-w : Dental, 34 ; articular, 35 ; these are the usual divisions, but there is often a third bone, the angular, 36", and sometimes a fourth, on the internal face of the articular, con-esponding to the opercular of reptiles, 37. Thus the head of fishes usually consists of about sixty bones — the amount being sensibly greater in such species as have the upper maxillary subject to division.
Hyoid bone and branchiostegous rn?/s. The three opercular pieces above mentioned do not of themselves effect the closure of those great clefts observable on each side of a fish, between the head and shoulder, and within which are the respiratory organ sor bran- chije. This closure is completed by the branchiostegous membrane, which adheres to the hyoid bone. (See Plate CCXCVII. figs. 2, 4, and 5.) This bone is placed as in other vertebrated classes, but is always suspended to the temporal bones. It is composed of two branches, each consisting of five pieces, viz. the styloid, 29, by which it is suspended to the temporal ; two large lateral pieces, 37 and 38, placed one behind the other, and forming the principal portion of the branch (the posterior, 38, being that which attaches to the inter-operculum) ; lastly, two small pieces, 39 and 40, placed one above the other at the anterior extremity of the branch, and serving to unite it with the corresponding portion of the other side. Anterior to this junction is the lingual bone, 41, and be- hind it, in the angle formed by the meeting of the two branches, and beneath the branchiiE, is a single piece, usually vertical, 42 (fig. 5), which represents the tail of the hyoid bone, so well known in birds and liz.irds. It is this piece which, uniting with the sym. physes of the humerals, forms what is called the isthmus, which separates the two branchial openings from below. Thus in its tota- lity the hyoid bone of fishes is composed of twelve bones.
The rays, 43, which support the branchiostegous membrane, adhere by moveable articulation, or by simple ligaments, to the infe- rior margin of the principal portions already mentioned (37, 38) of the hyoid bone. They vary in form and number, some species having three, others thirty. The perch, which forms the subject of our illustration, has seven branchial rays ; and that number is the most common among the acanthopterygian fishes.
Bones iehich support the branchlcr. As fishes cannot respire except by making the water which they have taken into the mouth flow out by the openings behind the lateral part of the head, it thus passes between the branchine, those well-known comb-like organs, usually four in number on each side, composed of a great quantity of thin, narrow, forked laminte, of a membranous or cartilaginous nature, and placed in files. These four pair of branchiae are supported by four pair of arches, adhering by their inferior extremities to the two sides of a chain of small intermediate bones, which is itself attached to the angle formed by the anterior portions of the hyoid bone, and above the tail of the latter. These arches ascend in a curve, and are attached at their other extremity beneath the cranium, but by means only of cellulosity, or of ligaments. The intermediate chain of bones just alluded to forms, in a certain sense, a continuation of the lingual bone. There are usually three : the first, 53 (see chiefly fig. 4), is attached at the base of the angle formed by the two branches of the hyoid bone ; the second, 54, affords attachment to the first pair of arches ; and the third, 55, affords the like attachment to the second pair, while the third pair adheres to its extremity ; the fourth pair of arches is connected with the angle of the third pair. Each arch is composed of two parts, moveable on each other, and the interior portion of the first three pair itself consists of two pieces, 57 and 58 ; in the last pair there is only a single piece, GO. The upper portion of the arches, CI, is simple, except in the first pair, which is usually suspended from the cranium by a small stylus, 59. The inner face of these arches is furnished with small plates or cones of osseous lamina, usually armed with teeth variously disposed according to the species. The most general uses of this armature are to arrest the progress of such substances as the fish is swallowing, — to prevent their escaping with the respired water, or their producing inconvenience amid the interstices of the branchia;. It may be likened in its functions to the epiglottis of quadrupeds, or the dentations of the margins of the larynx of birds. Besides the interior range of conical plates, the perch possesses an external row of slender pointed teeth, resembling those of a garden rake, upon its first pair of arches, see 03.
Pharyngeal bodies. At the entrance to the oesophagus, and immediately below the branchial apparatus, are placed the pharyngeal bones, which produce a second mastication, often more powerful than the first ; for this purpose they are armed with teeth of very variable form and number, according to the species. These bones are usually two inferior, 5ti, and six superior, 02.
Vertebra: We have already described the general character of the vertebral bones of fishes. Their special forms will be best un- derstood by an inspection of Plate CCXCVII. fig. 1, Nos. 07, 08, 09, with the processes, marked a, b, c. The ribs are shown at 72; the styles or appendages which frequently adhere to those parts, at 73. In a few fishes the ribs are entirely wanting.
Vertical fins. These are supported by rays composed of an internal portion, named the interspinal, 74, which serves as a sustaining root, by penetrating the flesh among the great lateral muscles, and an external portion, which exhibits the rays properly so called, as seen at 75. We sometimes find an interspinal bone which bears no rays, 70. A certain number of these vertical rays are pointed bones, and are then named spines, or spiny rays ; others are bony or solid only towards their base, their remainder being formed of a multitude of small articulations, and frequently ramified into lesser branches, themselves still further divided ; in these states they are named articulated, soft, or branched rays. Those of the tail, 71, are always soft and articulated ; although, towards the root, both above and below, 78, they gradually diminish till only the solid portion of the base remains. In a great nimiber of fishes the vertebra at which the abdomen terminates and the caudal part begins, and even that which follows it, 83, 83, have a great inferior spinous pro- cess, to which is joined a more or less voluminous bone, 79, extending behind the anus, and thus forming the posterior boundary of the abdominal cavity.
The sternum does not exist in all fishes. When present, it consists of a series of single bones of various configuration, according to the genera, and at these the ribs terminate.
Bones of the shoulder and arm. In osseous fishes, we find on each side, immediately behind the orifice of the gills, a suite of bones, forming a kind of frame, on which the opercle rests when closed. These bones, usually attached to the head from above, and unit- ing together below, form an osseous belt, surroumling that part of the body. Their inferior symphysis unites by ligaments to the tail of the hyoid bone (formerly mentioned, 42), and forms with it the ij(/()«;(j, which separates the external openings of the gills from each other beneath, just as the cranium separates them above. This cincture, when complete, is composed on each side of three bones, which represent the shoulder and the arm, to which adheres, posteriorly, a group of two or three others, occupying the place of the fore arm, and bearing the pectoral fin, which may be considered as the hand ; lastly, there is almost always suspended a style, com- posed of one or two bones, which Cuvier regards as the analogue of the coracoidian bone. The highest of these first three bones, 40, is usually forked, and attached by its two crests to the lateral crests of the cranium. It is visible externally at the top of the bran- chial opening, resembling a scale, larger than the others, and is sometimes toothed on its edges. The second, 47, continues along the margin of the branchial opening. The third, 48, always the largest, completes the cincture, by uniting with its counterpart beneath the throat. To the inner surface of the last-mentioned bone adheres a fourth, 51, and fifth, 52, placed one above the other. The free side of these bones bears the pectoral fin, but by means of an intermediate range of four or five small bones, 53. These bonelets may be supposed to represent the carpal series ; and if so, then the two others, 51 and 52, will be the cubitus and radius. The third
ICHTHYOLOGY.
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pelled forwards by the rapid flexure of the extremity acting laterally upon the resistance offered by the water. Generally speaking, neither the pectoral nor the ventral fins are of any material use during swift progressive mo- tion ; they rather serve to balance the body, or to aid its gentler movements while in a state of comparative re- pose. In fli/ing fishes, as they are called, the pectoral fins are of such great length and expansion as to support the animal in the air; and the strength of muscular ac- tion might probably suffice even for a longer flight, but for the necessity of constant moisture for the purposes of respiration. The drying of the gills in an individual of this class is attended by results analogous to those pro- duced by submersion in the case of a land animal ; — and a flying fish is obliged to descend to respire, in like man- ner as a swimming quadruped, or disguised mammiferous animal (as we may term a whale), is under the necessity of ascending for the same purpose.
The head of fishes exercises but a slight movement independent of the rest of the body ; but the jaws, hyoid bone, palato-temporal and branchial arches, and pliaryn- gial and opercular bones, are very free in their motions. The muscles of fishes, like those of other vertebrated animals, are composed of fleshy fibres more or less colour- ed, and of tendinous fibres of a white or silvery colour. With the exception, however, of certain special muscles which are sometimes of a deep red, the flesh of fishes is much paler than that of quadrupeds, and still more so than that of birds. In some species it is even entirely white.
SECT. V THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSES OF FISHES.
The sensitive system of fishes, like that of the higher classes, is composed of the external senses, of a central medullary apparatus, and of nerves of communication. As in the classes alluded to, the central portion of the ner- vous system, that is, the brain and spinal marrow, occu- pies the cavity of the cranium and vertebral column.
As fishes respire through the intervention of water alone, that is, as they can scarcely avail themselves, in rendering their blood arterial, of any tiling more than the small por- tion of oxygen contained in the air which is suspended in the water, their blood is necessarily cold, and their gene- ral energy, and the activity of their senses and movements, are less than among Mammalia and birds. Their brain also, though of similar composition, is proportionally much smaller ; and the external organs of the senses do not seem of such a nature as to be capable of impressing or convey- ing towards it any vivid excitement. Indeed the most striking characteristic of the brain of fishes is its extreme smallness, when compared either with the total size of the body, with the mass of nerves which proceed from it, or with the cavity of the cranium in which it is contained. In the burbot, or Gadus lota, the weight of the brain to
that of the spinal marrow is estimated by Carus to be as 8 Introduc to 12, and to that of the whole body as I to 720. It was t'o"- previously known that the brain of the pike weighed in ^'"V*^ proportion to that of the whole body as 1 to 1303. Now, in many small birds, the brain, viewed in relation to the rest of the body, is equal to a twentieth part. In the genera- lity of fishes, the spinal marrow extends along the whole of the caudal vertebra; ; and it is thus that it preponderates over the brain. The Lop/iius piscatorius, however, and a few other species, form remarkable exceptions to this rule, as in them the sjiinal marrow disappears before it reaches the eighth vertebra ; but in the greater proportion of cases it may be said that the spinal cord in this class terminates by a single thread in the last caudal vertebra.' The brain of fishes by no means fills up the cavity of the cranium ; and the interval between the pia-mater which en- velopes the brain itself, and the dura-mater, which lines the interior of the skull, is occupied only by a loose cellu- losity, frequently impregnated by an oil, or sometimes, as in the sturgeon and thunny, by a rather compact grease. It has also been remarked, that this void between the cra- nium and the brain is much less in young subjects than in adults ; from which it may be inferred, that the brain does not increase in an equal proportion with the rest of the body. Cuvier, in fact, has fovmd its dimensions nearly the same in different individuals, of which the general size of the one was double that of the other.
When compared with that of quadrupeds, the brain of fishes has been said to possess an embryonic character, and to have its greatest development in the cerebellum, the seat of the appetites. Of all vertebrated animals, fish in fact exhibit the smallest apparent signs of sensibility. Having no elastic air to act upon, they are necessarily mute, or nearly so ; and all the sensations which the de- lightful faculty of voice has called into being among the higher tribes, are to them unknown. Their glazed im- moveable eyes, their fixed and bony faces, their bodies and members moving altogether, if they move at all, admit of little play in their physiognomy, and of scarcely any ex- pression to their emotions. Their ears, surrounded on every side by the bones of the cranium, destitute of exter- nal conch, without any internal cochlea, and composed merely of some sacks and membranous canals, scarcely suffice for the perception of the loudest sounds. Even their sight may be supposed to find but little exercise in those profound depths where so many of the inhabitants of ocean dwell, although the largeness of the visual organs in many species probably in some measure makes amends for this deficiency of light. But even in those species the eye cannot change its direction ; still less can it alter its focus, so as to accommodate the vision to a varying distance ; for the iris neither dilates nor contracts, and the pupil remains for ever the same in all degrees of light. No tear moistens its glazed surface, no eyelid clears or protects it, and it
bone of the cincture, which supports the two last named, will then necessarily represent the humerus, and the first and second (46-7) the shoulder blade. There still remains to be mentioned a species of style, almost always composed of two pieces, 49 and 50.
Carpal bones. At the outer edge of the radial and cubital bones adhere the small flat bones, 53, compared to the carpus. Their function is to support the rays of' the pectoral fin, 53, a, however numerous these may be, with the exception of the first, which arti- culates directly with the radius or upper bone, 62.
B07ies of the hinder cxtremitij. The os innominata, the thigh, the tibia, and the tarsus, are represented in fishes by a single bone, 80, usually of a triangular form, but more or less complicated by processes and projecting plates. Its posterior side affords attach- ment to the rays of the ventral -fins. In eels and others, in which the ventral fins are wanting, the bone is also absent.
The rays of the extremities. These rays, that is, those of the pectoral and ventral fins, 82 and 53, o, without being as symmetrical as those of the vertical fins, are equally divisilde into halves. Except the external ray of the ventral in the Acanthopterygii, 81, they are almost always articulated, but their bases become solid, and there tlie articulation is scarcely if at all perceptible.
* In regard to the shortness of the spinal cord in Lophius, the fact, as above referred to, is taken from the dissertation of Apostolo- Arsaki, a Greek doctor, who published De. piscium ccrcbro et medulla spinali, Halle, 1813 ; but in a note to the Hist. Nat. dcs Poissmis of Cuvier (vol. i. p. 437), we find the following correction of that statement ; — " Sa moelle regne presque tout le long de IMpine ; mais elle est enveloppde et cache'e par les nert's, qui naissent beaucoup plus haul qu'ils ne sortent." It is certain, however, from Cu- vier's recent statement, that the supposed character is truly exhibited by the moon-fish (Lainpris guttatus, Retz ; opah of Pennant), " Ou la moelle dpiniere est tellement raccourcie qu'elle ne semble qu'une petite proiminence conique de I'enc^phale, de laqueUe les diffi^rentes paires de nerfs partent comme une queue de cheval." {Ibid.)
lo8
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Introduc- consequently offers but a dull and feeble representative of ''""■ that beautiful and most expressive organ, so full of life and '('""^ animation in the higher tribes.
The position, direction, and dimensions of the eyes of fishes vary greatly. In some they have an upward aspect, and are often very close upon each other ; in others they are lateral, and so wide apart as to be even directed slight- ly downwards. But of all anomalies, one of the most ex- traordinary which their position presents, is that of the Pleuronectes (such as tm'bot, flounders, soles, &c.). In which the two eyes are placed, as it w ere, the one above the other, and both u])on the same side of the head. In certain species of the eels and Siltiri, they are so small as to be scarcely visible ; while in other groiii)s, such as Pria- ca7it/ius and Pomatonms, they siu'pass in proportional dia- meter whatever is known of the same organs in the higher classes. It may be said in general that the eye of fishes is large, and that its pupil especially is broad and open ; a character probably connected witli the necessity of collect- ing whatever devious rays of light may penetrate the ob- scure depth of waters. Fishes have no true eyelids. The skin always passes over the eye, to which it is slightly ad- herent ; and it is for the most part sufficiently transparent for the passage of the solar rays. In some species, such as eels, it passes over without the slightest fold or duplication ; while in a few, for example, the Gcislrobranchus cacus of Bloch, it continues quite opake, so as entirely to conceal the eye. In others, as the well-known mackerel and her- ring, it forms an adipose fold both before and behind ; but these folds are fixed, and being unprovided with muscles, have no mobility. Sharks have one, somewhat more move- able, on the inferior margin of the orbit. The globe of the eye itself is very slightly moveable, although, like that of man, it is furnished «ith six muscles. Perhaps the most sin- gular eye presented by the class of fishes is that of Anableps, which has two cornea?, separated by an opake line, and two pupils pierced in the same iris, so that one might deem it double ; but there is only one retina, and a single vitreous and crystalline humour. In accordance with the general structure of the eyes of fishes (which we shall not further detail), the nearly spherical form of the crystalline humour, the immobility of the pupil, and the difficulty with which it changes the length of its axis, we can scarcely doubt that the vision of this class is comparatively imperfect. Images must be but feebly painted in their retina, and their visual perceptions must be indistinct and dull. At the same time it is evident that they perceive their prey from a considerable distance ; and the angler, who knows either how rapidly they seize or how cautiously they avoid his lure, and with what discrimination they sometimes pre- fer one colour or kind of artificial fly to another, must be impressed with the belief that the power of vision, at least of certain species, is by no means devoid of clearness and precision.
The organ of hearing in fishes consists of little more than the labyrinth, and that a much less complicated one than the corresponding part in either qiiadrupeds or birds. They have no external car, unless we may bestow that name on a small cavity, sometimes slightly spiral, which we find in the rays. It is however always covered by the skin, and is not perceptible among the osseous fishes. A i'ew of the latter, such as the genus Lepidolcprus, and certain Mormyri, have merely openings in the cranium closed by the skin, by means of which the vibrations of the element by which they are surrounded may be conducted to the labyrinth. In some other species, as Myripristis, the cra- nium is open beneath, and its orifice is closed by a mera- brano\is partition, to which the swimming bladder adheres ; but these communications are very different from that which takes place by means of the tympanum, and still more by means of the Eustachian tube in other classes.
Both these parts, as well as the bones, are in fact wanting Introduc- in the class of fishes. Those who find in the bones of the tion. operculum the four bones of the ear of man suddenly and prodigiously developed, hazard such a notion merely on the assumption that the bony pieces are the same in number in all crania ; but it must be borne in mind, that neither the form, nor the relations, nor the functions of these bones, nor their nerves nor muscles, support such a comparison. The ear of fishes, then, is much less complete than that of quadrupeds, birds, or even of the majority of reptiles. There is no doubt that they possess the sense of hearing ; but it is merely a general sense of sound, and is in all probability incompetent to perceive any variety or range of intonation. In truth, the simple fact of fishes being as a class entirely mute, is of itself a logical ground for be- lieving that their perception of sound is extremely dull.
A few lines may now be devoted to the consideration of the sense of smell. The nostrils of fishes are not so placed as to be traversed either by air or water, in connection with the act of respiration. They consist merely of two openings, situate near the extremity of the muzzle, and lined by the pituitary membrane, which is raised in ex- tremely regular folds. In the ordinary fishes, the bones which Cuvier regards as the nasal serve as the arch or covering ; while the vomer, the maxillary, and inter-maxil- lary contribute to sustain the sides, the first sub-orbitary forming the inferior portion. The shape of the nostrils is sometimes oblong, sometimes round or oval. They are placed either at the end of the muzzle or on its sides ; sometimes on its superior face, and even occasionally, as in skates and sharks, on its under surface near the angle of the mouth. In the lamprey they are approximate on the top of the head, and open by one common orifice. In the great majority of fishes, perhaps in all the osseous kinds, each nostril opens by two orifices, the one posterior to the other, and in some cases at a considerable distance. These are what are called double nostrils ; an inaccurate term, in as far as each pair of holes leads only to a single cavity. The margins oi' the anterior orifice are often tubular, as in the eel, and sometimes a single side of the tubular mar- gin is prolonged into a tentacular appendage, as in several JSiluri. In the genus Lophius the nostrils are borne upon a little pedicle, so as somewhat to resemble mushrooms. Various other modifications are observable in different ge- nera, although not necessary to be here narrated. It does not appear, at least in the osseous fishes, that the envelope of the nostrils possesses mobility, or that the orifices are furnished with muscles by means of which they can be opened and shut.
It is certain, however, that fishes possess the faculty of perceiving odours ; that various scents attract or repel them ; and there is no reason to doubt that the seat of that perception lies in the nostrils. It may be reasonably con- jectured that its strength depends mainly on the degree of development produced by the number and extent of the interior folds.
In regard to the sense of taste in fishes, it is evident that as, with few exceptions, they swallow their food rapidly and without mastication, their perception of that faculty nmst be in noways acute. The same may be inferred from the fact of their tongue being almost immoveable, often entirely osseous, or beset with teeth or dental plates, and from its receiving very slender nerves, and these but i'evi in number. Even those species of which the jaws are so armed as to enable them to cut and bruize their ali- ments, cannot long retain the latter in their mouths, on account of the position and the play of the respiratory or- gans. No salivary glands discharge their moisture on the organs of taste. The tongue itself is not seldom entirely wanting; and even when it exists in its most distinct and apparently fleshy state, it consists merely of a ligament-
ICHTHYOLOGY.
159
Introiiuc- ous or cellular substance, applied on front of the lingual ti(in. bone. It is never furnished with muscles capable of pro-
^•^''■''^^ ducing any movement of extension or retraction, as in quadrupeds.
Fisiies cannot be said to be more highly favoured in re- spect to the organs of toiwh than those of taste. The fa- culty is greatly deadened over the general surface by the coating of scales, and in the particular members by the in- flexibility of the rays. It is chiefly confined to the lips, and even these parts in many species are tiicmselves as liard and insensible as bone. Certain soft and delicate ap- pendages called barbies, possessed by many species, such as the cod and loach, are supposed to enjoy a more deli- cate perception of the sense of touch. It is by means of the dermis that that peculiar matter, so remarkable for its silvery metallic lustre, and ^^•hich bestows so much of bril- liancy upon the class, is secreted beneath the scales. It is composed of small polished plates resembling burnished sil- ver, and capable of being removed by washing, either from the skin itself, or from the inferior surfiice of the scales. It is this substance that is used in the formation of false pearls. It is also secreted by many species in the thickness of the peritoneum, and in the envelopes supplied by that part to particular viscera, especially the swimming bladder. The scales of the majority of fishes are imbricated, that is, placed partially over each other, like the tiles or slates of the roof of a liouse. They are not equally distributed, nor of the same form or consistence, over the general surface of the body. The head is frequently destitute of scales, and those of the lateral line of the body are distinguished from the others by one or more small tubes by which they are per- forated, and by otlier peculiarities.'
It thus appears that the external senses of fishes convey to them few lively or distinct impressions ; and by what- ever scenes in nature they are surrounded, their percep- tions are probably indistinct and dull. Their sexual emo, tions, cold as their blood, indicate only individual wants. Few species pair, or enjoy any connubial gratification, for the males seek the eggs rather than tlie females which de- posit them, and neither sex ever recognises its offspring. At least the exceptions to these generalities are extremely few, and the prevailing economy of fishes may be said in all these respects to be exactly the reverse of that of birds. These gay creatures of the sky have the power of survey- ing distinctly at a glance an immeasurable extent of hori- zon ; their acute perception of hearing appreciates all sounds, and every intonation ; and their glad voices are ex- quisitely skilled in their production. Though their bills be hard, and their bodies covered by down and feathers, they are by no means deficient in the sense of touch. They enjoy all the delights of conjugal and parental affection, and perform their incumbent duties with devotedness and courage ; they cherish and defend their offspring, and will sometimes die in that defence ; and of all the wonderful labours of instinctive art, none is so beautiful as the forma- tion of their mossy dwellings. With what deep and con- tinuous affection does the female brood over her cherish- ed treasures ! how unwearied is the gallant male in his ten- der assiduities, and in the rich outpouring of that varied song by which he seeks to soothe her sedentary task ! The same principle of attachment and discrimination is even made available in a state of domestication by the skill of all-en- grossing man. A bird acquires a knowledge of its master, and submits to and obeys that master's will ; and the proud falcon, which in its natural state
Doth dally with the wind, and scorn the sun, will wheel in airy circles over a well-trained dog, or stoop
its boldest flight at some familiar urchin's call. Other spe- cies will even imitate man's noblest faculty, the power of speech, — and it is thus with somewhat doubtfid feelings that we deny to them the gift of reason.
But the silent dweller in the deep knows few attach- ments, expresses no language, cherishes no affections. Constructing no dwelling, he merely shelters himself from danger among the cavernous rocks of the ocean, or be- neath the murky shade of the overhanging banks of ri- vers ; and the cravings of hunger seem alone to exercise a frequent or influential action over his monotonous move- ments. We must not, ho^vever, suppose that the life of fishes is not one of enjoyment, for we know that the great Creator " careth for all his creatures ;" and it ought perhaps rather to be said that \vc cannot appreciate the nature of their feelings, than that they are in any way fore-doomed to a negation of pleasvu'e. Assuredly, however, the hand of nature has been most prodigal in bestowing on their ex- ternal aspect every variety of adornment. Their special forms are infinite, their proportions often most elegant, their colours lively and diversified, and nothing seems want- ing in them to excite the admiration of mankind. Indeed it almost appears as if this prodigality of beauty was in- tended solely for such an end. The brightness of metallic splendour, the sparkling brilliancy of precious gems, the milder effulgence of the hues of flowers, all combine to signalise fishes as among the most beautiful objects of crea- tion. When newly withdrawn from their native element, or still gliding submerged in its liquid coolness, their co- lours, fixed or iridescent, are seen mingling in streaks or bands, or broader flashes, always elegant and symmetrical ; sometimes richly contrasted, sometimes gradually softened into each other ; and in all cases harmonizing with a chaste fulness of effect, which Titian or Rubens might envy, but ooidd never equal. For what reason, then, it has been asked, has all this adornment been so lavishly bestowed on creatures which can scarcely perceive each other amid the dim and perpetual tv.'ilight of the deep ? Shakspeare has al- ready said that there are " more things in heaven and earth than are dream't of in our philosophy ;'' and we fear it is no answer to the foregoing question to add, that the same ob- servation applies with even greater truth to the " waters beneath the earth."
SECT. VI THE NUTRITION, MANDUCATION, AND DEGLUTI- TION OF FISHES.
The nutritive functions of fishes follow the same order of progression as those of the other vertebrated classes ; they seize and in some measure divide their food with their teeth ; they digest it in the stomach, from whence it passes into the intestinal canal, where it receives a supply of bile from the liver, and frequently a liquid similar to that of the pancreas ; the nutritive juices absorbed by vessels ana- logous to lacteals, and probably taken up in part also di- rectly by the veins, are mingled with the venous blood which is flowing towards the heart, from whence it is push- ed to the branchiae, in which, coming into contact with the water, it is converted into arterial blood, and then pro- ceeds to the nourishment of the whole body. As in other animals, also, certain properties are carried off from the blood by transpiration, the secreting power of the kid- neys, &c.
Fishes in general are extremely voracious, and the rule of " eat or be eaten" applies to them with unusual force. They are almost constantly engaged in the pursuit and capture of their prey ; their degree of power in these re- spects depending of course on the dimensions of the mouth
' See Hist. Nat. det Poissont, l. i. chap. vi.
]60
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Introduc- and throat, and the strength of the teeth and jaws. If the tion. teeth are sharp and hooked, they are capable of securing
^"""Y^*^ tlie slenderest and most agile animals ; if they are broad and strong, they are able to bruise the hardest aliment ; if they are feeble or entirely wanting, they are only service- able in procuring some inert or unresisting prey. Fishes indeed show but little choice in the selection of their food, and their digestive powers are so strong and rapid as to suffice to dissolve very speedily all kinds of animal sub- stances. They greedily swallow other fishes, notwithstand- ing the sharp spines or bony ridges with which they may be armed ; they attack and devour crabs and shell-fish, gulping them entire if they cannot otherwise attain their object ; they do not object occasionally to swallow the young even of their own species, and the more power- ful kinds carry their warfare into other kingdoms of na- ture, and revel on rats, reptiles, and young ducklings, to say nothing of the ferocious shark, which not seldom makes a meal even of the lord of the creation. The spe- cies which Hve chiefly on vegetable substances are few in number.
The growth of fishes depends greatly on the nature and supply of food, and different individuals of the same species exhibit a great disparity in their respective dimensions. They grow less rapidly in small ponds or shallow streams, than in large lakes and deep rivers.' The growth itself seems to continue for a great length of time, and we can scarcely set bounds to, certainly we know not with preci- sion, the utmost range of the specific size of fishes. Even among species in no way remarkable for their dimensions, we ever and anon meet with ancient individuals, favourably situated, which vastly exceed the ordinary weight and mea- surement of their kind.
The teeth of fishes are sometimes spread over all the bones which envelope the cavities of the mouth and pha- rynx; on the maxillary, inter-maxillary, and palatine bones ; on the vomer, the tongue, the branchial arches, and pha- ryngeal bones. In certain genera thf;y exist on all those parts ; while in others they are wanting on some, or are even entirely absent on all. The denominations of the teeth are derived from their position, that is, from the bones to which they are attached, and are consequently as numerous as the varieties of their situation. Their forms are not less varied than their stations, and give rise to terms still more numerous. The majority are conical or hooked, more or less acute. When these hooks are in con- siderable number, and disposed in several rows, or in quin- cunx, they are compared to those sharp points which beset the instruments called cards, used in the working of wool or cotton. It is to this form and distribution that we allude in the descriptive portion of the present treatise when we happen to use the French term en carde. Sometimes the teeth of fishes are slender, and so closely set together as to resemble to the eye the pile of velvet, in which case they are said to be en velours ;' when they are at the same time extremely short and close, they are likened to smooth velvet; when feeble and elongated, they are said to be brushy or hair-like. Lastly, those kinds of teeth are some- times so extremely small and short as to be reduced to mere asperities, sensible rather to touch than sight. The
whole are simple, and spring firom an equally simple pulpy Introduc- germ. ''""■
In the majority of osseous fishes, besides the lips, which, even when fleshy, having no peculiar muscles, can exert but little strength in retaining the aliments, there is gene- rally in the inside of each jaw, behind the anterior teeth, a kind of membranous fold or valvule, formed by a replica- tion of the interior skin, and directed backwards, of which the effect is to hinder the alimentary substances, and espe- cially the water gulped during respiration, from escaping again by the mouth. This structure, as formerly supposed, does not constitute a character restricted to the genus Zeus, but exists in an infinity of fishes. The food seized by the teeth of the maxillae, and detained by the valve just mentioned, is carried still farther back by the teeth of the palate and tongue when these exist, and is at the same time prevented by the dentations of the branchial arches from penetrating between the intervals of the branchiae, where it might injure the delicate organs of respiration. The movements of the maxillae and tongue can thus send the food only in the direction of the pharynx, where it un- dergoes additional action on the part of the teeth of the pharyngeal bones, which triturate or carry it backwards into the oesophagus. The last-named part is clothed by a layer of strong, close-set, muscular fibres, sometimes form- ing various bundles, the contractions of which push the alimentary matter into the stomach, thus completing the act of deglutition.^
SECT. VII. THE CIRCULATION OF FISHES.
Fishes, in common with warm-blooded animals, are pro- vided with a complete circulation for the body, and with another equally complete for the organs of respiration, and with a particular abdominal circulation terminating at the liver by means of the vena porta ; but their peculiar cha- racter consists in this, that the branchial circulation alone is provided at its base with a muscular apparatus or heart, corresponding to the right auricle and ventricle of the high- er classes, while nothing of the kind exists at the base of the circulating system of the body ; in other words, the left auricle and ventricle are entirely wanting — the bran- chial veins changing into arteries without any muscular en- velope.
The muscular apparatus of their circulation is composed of the auricle, the ventricle, and the bvdb of the pulmonary artery, and the auricle itself is preceded by a large sinus, in which all the veins of the body tei-minate ; a structure which gives rise to four cavities separated by restrictions, into which the blood must flow in its progress from the body to the branchiae. Their size is small in proportion to the dimensions of the body, and does not increase in the same ratio with the growth of the individual. Three of these receptacles, the auricle, the heart, and the bulb, are lodged in a pericardium, which is itself placed beneath the pharyn- geal bones, between the inferior parts of the branchial arches, and for the most part protected externally by the hu- meral bones. The great venous sinus is not placed in the pericardium, but between the posterior partition of that cavity and the membrane which represents the diaphragm,
' The writer of tliis treatise kept a minnow little more than half an inch long in a glass tumbler for a period of two years, during which time there was no perceptible increase in its dimensions. Had it continued in its native stream, subjected to the fattening in. fluence of a continuous flow of water, and a consequent increase in the quantity and variety of its natural food, its cubic dimensions would probably have been twenty times greater ; yet it must have attained, prior to the lapse of a couple of years, to the usual period ol' the adult state.
- The I'rench expression of dents en vcIouts, which so frequently occurs both in the Regne Animal and the Hist. Nat. dcs Poissoni, is one of the many instances, as Dr M'Murtrie has remarked, in which Baron Cuvier's expressions bid defiance to all English sy- nonyms.
» The various notices (as already intimated) of the internal stnicture of fishes contained in the article Compaeativk Anatomy of this work (vol. iii.) absolve us from the propriety of presenting any details regnrding the form and constitution of the intestinal canal, and of certain other important interior organs of the class.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
161
Inlrmluc- and which is merely the anterior portion of the peritoneum timi. strengthened by aponeurotic fibres. This sinus is extend- "'"^'^ ed transversely, and receives by several different trunks the veins of the liver, of the generative organs, of the kid- neys, of the fins, branchiiv, and throat, and finally those of the head, which tlicmselves partly pass by a sinus at the back of the cranium. The first-mentioned sinus sends the whole of this blood by a single orifice of its anterior con- vexity into the auricle, which receives it through the open- ing of its anterior portion. Two thin membranous valvules protect this comnumication, and are turned towards the auricle. The latter organ is ])laced in the pericardium, in front of the great sinus, and above the ventricle, that is, on its dorsal asjjcct. It presents very various and often re- markable configurations. In osseous fishes it is usually of a tetrahedral form, — in the cartilaginous kinds more i're- quently rounded and depressed. It is situate beneath the auricle, the cavity being so turned as to be almost vertical next that organ, and horizontal towards the bulb. Its coats are extremely robust, and furnished internally « ith power- ful fleshy columns, its substance being composed of two different layers. But it is in the bulb of the branchial ar- tery that we find the most vigorous fibres, usually disposed in a circular form. The prolongation of this bulb issues from the pericardium, and becomes the branchial artery, advancing forward beneath the single chain of small bones which unites the arches of tlie branchiae. The branchial artery soon divides, and in such a manner as to send a branch to each brancliia. These branches pass along a hollow groove on the convexity of each branchial arch, and more external than the vein which follows the same track, but in an opposite direction. To the arch are attach- ed a great number of leaflets, parallel to each other, usu- ally terminated in a forked point, and sometimes deeply divided. The principal branch which passes along the groove of the arch gives a smaller branch to each of the leaflets ; and this branch, after being twice bifurcated, fur- nishes an infinity of lesser branchlets, which meander over the surface of each leaflet, till they are finally converted into extremely minute veins. These little vessels meet on each side in a branchial vein, which proceeds along the in- ternal margin of the lateral lobe of the leaflet, and the two veins open into the trunk of the great vein of the bran- chia.
On passing out of the dorsal side of the branchia, the branchial veins assume the structure and functions of arte- ries ; even before their arrival at this point, the anterior have already sent several branches to different portions of the head ; and it is necessary to remark, that the heart and several parts situate in the chest receive their blood from a branchial vein, by means of an offset issuing from near its source, and consequently anterior to its exit from the branchia;. Nevertheless, it is only by the re-union of the trunks proceeding from the four branchiae that the great artery is formed which carries the blood to the viscera and all the parts of the trunk, and which is by consequence the representative of the aorta of the Mammalia, — but of m aorta which possesses neither auricle nor ventricle at its base. Thus, according to Cuvier's views, the left cavi- ties of the heart of quadrupeds do not exist in fishes, but are replaced by a simple vascular apparatus, situate above the branchise, in like manner as the right cavities are placed beneath them.
SECT. via. THE RESPIRATION OF FISHES.
It is thus by an almost infinite subdivision of the vessels over the surface of the branchiae or gills, that the blood of
fishes becomes subjected to the influence of an ambient Introduc- fluid. This fluid is of course water, which is made to flow tion. incessantly between the branchiae by the movement of the '^■"''Y'*^ jaws, and of the opercular and hyoidean apparatus. This mode of respiration is equally necessary to fishes, as the di- rect respiration of air is to other animals ; but the action of water on the blood is much more feeble than that of air. It appears that it is neither the water itself, nor the oxygen contained in it, which effects the respiration, but the small portion of air which is held in solution or mingled with the water. If this is expelled by ebullition, fishes cannot live ; and many species are obliged to rise fre<iuently to the sur- iiice for the purpose of breathing atmospheric air. It is easy to suffocate various kinds, by keeping them beneath the surface, enclosed in a gauze net. In the respiration of fishes, as in that of other animals, both the atmospheric air and that contained in the water give out their oxygen. The absorption of the latter, however, is very trifling among these aquatics, for it has been calculated that a man consumes fifty thousand times more than is required by a tench. When fishes are deprived of water, they perish not so much for want of oxygen, as because their branchiae be- come dry, and their blood can no longer circulate with freedom. Hence the species of which the branchial orifice is small, as the eel, or those which possess receptacles for moisture, like Aiiabas and Ophicephalus, long survive ex- posure ; while such as have their gills greatly cleft and open, as the herring, expire almost instantly when withdrawn from their moist abode.
SECT. I.K. THE SWIMMING BLADDER OF FISHES.
One of the most remarkable and characteristic organs of fishes is the swimming bladder, commonly so called. In many genera it has no opening or external communication, and the air which it contains must therefore be the result of secretion. It is composed of an extremely fine internal tunic, and of another of a thicker texture and peculiar fibrous structure, remarkable for producing the finest kind of isinglass. It is enclosed within the general coating with which the peritoneum invests the other viscera. It is sometimes simple, as in perch, sometimes furnished with more or less numerous appendages, as in some of the had- dock tribe, or branched, as in certain SciantB} Occasion- ally we find it divided, as it were, into two parts, by a re- striction, as in the genus Cyprinus, many of the Salmonida;, and others. The Catastomce have it even divided into three. It is chiefly among the abdominal fishes that we find it communicating by a tube or tunnel with the intes- tinal canal, and either directly with the oesophagus, as in Cyprmus, or with the base of the stomach, as in the her- ring. That of the sturgeon opens into the former portion by means of a large orifice. The contents of the swim- ming bladder are usually found to be azote, mingled with some fractional parts of oxygen or carbonic acid. A dif- ference of opinion, however, seems to exist regarding the proportion of oxygen, which is estimated as much greater both by Configliachi and Biot. Some physiologists appear to have regarded the swimming bladder as a true lung, which both admitted and returned the external air ; but in many species the air-duct which connects the bladder with the gullet is entirely wanting ; and in many others which remain constantly at prodigious depths, the quantity of oxygen gas in the swimming bladder is greater than in those the abode of which is near the surface. Indeed the oxygen is said to increase in quantity in proportion to the depth at which the species dwells. Carus considers it pro- bable that the vessel in question performs a part analogous
' For representations of various forms of the swimming bladder of fishes, see Plate CCXCVII. figs. 3, 6, 7, a .YII.
J 62
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Introduc- to that of the expiratory functions of the hmgs in the tion. higher classes, by not only separating excrementitious azote
^'"V^"' and superabundant oxygen from the blood, but even dis- charging those elements in such species as have this parti- cular viscus provided with an air-duct-
The more obvious use, however, of this organ seems to be to maintain the fish in equilibrium, or to lighten or in- crease its relative weight, so as to cause an ascension or a sinking, in proportion as the bladder is compressed or ex- panded. This is probably effected by the contraction or dilatation of the ribs. At all events, it is certain, that when the air-bladder bursts, the fish remains at the bottom, usu- ally turning up its belly, and exhibiting other irregularities in its locomotion. Another curious effect is observable in regard to fishes which have been suddenly brought from a great depth by means of a long fishing line, and which having no time either to compress or partially empty the organ in question, the air which it contains being no longer pressed by the heavy weight of water, either expands so as to burst the bladder, or by its dilatation forces the sto- mach and oesophagus into the fish's mouth. M^hen the air- bladder is pierced artificially, the fish almost immediately turns upon its back, and sinks to the bottom.
We have already alluded to the physiological opinion which regards this organ as an auxiliary to the respiratory system, and have likewise adverted to the argument against that opinion, deduced from the fact of its being imperforate in many species, and entirely wanting in others. We may add, that Weber' has pointed out a remarkable connection between the swimming bladder and the organs of hearing. It would appear that the former in several instances sub- serves the latter as a membrana tympani ; but its primary, or at least most important purpose, seems to be to regulate the ascending or descending movements. Though of the highest importance in the structure of such species as pos- sess it (and these are by far the greater number), yet the swimming bladder is not indispensable in the general eco- nomy of the class of fishes. In several genera (e. g. Pleu- ronectes) it is entirely wanting, and the species in such cases generally remain at the bottom, and, swimming ob- liquely on one side, propel themselves forward by a nearly vertical motion of the tail. In such cases both eyes are on the same side, and the whole structure of the fish, espe- cially the skeleton of the head, presents an unsymmetrical aspect of a very extraordinary kind.^ In many cartilagi- nous fishes, such as rays (commonly called skates), the ab- sence of the swimming bladder seems compensated by the enormous size of the pectoral fins, which, of all the exter- nal organs, are probably the most efficient in raising the body, as Uie caudal extremity is the power chiefly employ- ed during an onward course. The lamprey, which has neither swimming bladder nor pectoral fins, dwells in the mud. Flat fishes being unprovided M'itli swimming bladders, are supposed for that reason to raise themselves with dif- ficulty to the surface ; and they do not appear to strike the water laterally like other fishes, but swim rather after the manner of the Cetacea, by a motion alternately up and down. In all the other animals of tliis class the chief organ of progressive motion is the tail, or prolongation of the body, terminated by a caudal fin, the position of which, unlike that of the great aquatic mammalia called whales, is vertical. The reason of the difference is obviously this : A true fish, possessing the power of extracting air from water by means of its gills, does not (except at rare inter- vals) require to mount to the surface for the performance of the vital act of respiration ; but all cetaceous animals
being furnished with lungs, which cannot perform their Introduc- functions except through an immediate communication tion. with the atmosphere, require their bodies to be terminal- ^'^^•"'•^ ed by a horizontal expansion, the action of which is the most efficient for an ascending course.
It is, however, difficult to account for the fact that so considerable an organ as the swimming bladder should have been denied to so many species, not only of the more indolent kinds, which dwell composedly at the bot- tom of the waters, but to many others which yield to none of their class in the ease and velocity of their move- ments. Its presence or absence does not even accord with the other conditions of organization ; for while it is wanting in the common mackerel, it is found to occur in a closely allied species, the Scomber pnetimatophorus of Laroche.
Another singular peculiarity connected with the organi- zation of certain fishes may be also shortly noticed in this place, we mean the power of conveying electrical shocks. In Torpedos, the apparatus consists of membranous tubes filled with mucous matter, divided by transverse cham- bers closely set together, like the cells of honeycomb, and disposed in two groups placed on each side of the head. They receive enormous branches of nerves from the fifth and eighth pair. In the Gymnotus this extraor- dinary structure occupies the under surface of the body throughout its entire extent, and to a considerable thick- ness. It is composed oF parallel plates separated by thin layers of mucilage. The effect of this natural galvanic pile will be detailed in the course of the systematic por- tion of this article, when we shall have occasion to men- tion the electric fishes in their proper place.
SECT. X. THE GENERAL POSITION AND RELATIONS OF
FISHES, CONSIDERED AS A GREAT CLASS IN THE ANI- MAL KINGDOM.
It results not less from this general exposition of the Structure of our present class, than from all observation of special organization, that fishes form a class of animals distinct from every other, and destined by the totality of their conformation to live, move, and have their being in the waters. The liquid element forms their proper place in the creation ; there they had their origin, there they must remain till the final consummation of all things, — and it is either through slight and superficial approximations, or by vain metaphysical speculation, that any modern wri- ter could regard them as proceeding from an exalted or more perfect development of the molluscous tribes. Equal- ly unfounded is of course that other and corresponding opinion, which, in the spirit of the same philosophy, looks upon fishes as forming an elementary stage, or footal con- dition, of the other vertebrated classes. It is true that the Mollusca, in common with fishes, respire by means of branchiae ; they equally possess a nervous and circulating system, an intestinal canal and a liver ; " and nobody," says Cuvier, with a justifiable pride, " knows these things better than I, who was the first to make known with any degree of completeness the anatomy and zoological rela- tions of the molluscous tribes." As animal life, he con- tinues,'' has received but a limited number of organs, it necessarily happens that some of these organs are com- mon to several classes. But where is in other respects the resemblance ? The skeleton of these animals, and their entire system of locomotion, are they comparable in the least of their parts ? And even such organs as are
' De Aure ct Auditn, &c.
» In several insects of the genus Blatla we have observed a want of symmetry both in the size and markings of the elytra. >> e do not mean an accidental variation of one side, but an evidently pre-ordained disparity of form and colour. ' Hist. Nat. det Poitimi, t. i. p. 644.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
163
Introduc. common alike to the Mollnsca and to fislios, can they be tion. brought into relation with those connections which the
'""'y^^ latter exhibit with the other vertebrated classes? By what passage does nature conduct us from the one to the other ? It is certainly by no means difficult, while dis- regarding numerous disagreements, so to compose a defi- nition as to embrace only those points which they possess in common ; but that definition assuredly will always re- pose upon a pure abstraction of the mind, a definition simply nominal, an assemblage of vain words, which can never be represented by a harmonious and existing plan, notwithstanding whatever extraneous details may be col- lected or conceived in support of such visionary views. By a like procedure, there is in truth no two things, how- ever remote or dissimilar, which may not be so allied ; for, whatever their disresemblance, there will always be some particular point or other in which they may be found to agree. But when we look to the characters in which ob- jects differ, we shall find reason to view the subject in an- other light. The heart itself in those MoUusca which have only one, is placed in a contrary mode from that of fishes ; it is at the junction of the branchial veins and arteries of the body that that organ is attached ; in several the mem- bers are placed upon the head, in others the generative system is lateral, and frequently the respiratory organs are placed above those of digestion, and extend more or less over the dorsal surface. Perhaps all that can be said regarding any positive or important relationship between MoUusca and fishes is, that both classes are possessed of branchiae.
It may indeed be observed, that whenever we proceed from these purely verbal or metaphysical formula, we find ourselves lost among the most inadmissible comparisons. According to one theorist, the shells of bivalves represent the opercula of fishes ; according to another, the buckler of the cuttle-fish is a true fibrous bone ; according to a third, the large scales of the sturgeon, and the spines of the diodons, are to b^ regarded as an external skeleton. Others search for the desired analogies among the Crus- tacea, of which the margins of the thorax represent the opercula. Beneath these margins the branchiae actually occur, but if we continue the comparison, all is changed. The medullary cord is towards the abdomen, the heart towards the back, and the latter organ, as among the MoUusca, receives the blood from the branchiae, but does not send it thither. Finally, some observers, apparently despairing of their transcendental cause, perceive the rays or spiny apophyses of vertebrated animals in the legs of the Crustacea, forgetting that, were it so, an obvious de- gradation rather than amelioration of organic structure must have befallen the class of fishes.
The affinity of fishes toother classes of vertebrated ani- mals is much better founded. At least we here find the commencement of sensible relations in the number of or- ganic systems, and in their mutual connections ; but we are still far from discovering a progressive and continuous course. We cannot in this place report the conclusive reasoning of Baron Cuvier regarding the distinctions of these classes. We shall merely state his conclusion to be, that if there is a resemblance between the organs of fishes and those of the other great groups of the animal king- dom, it is only in so far as the functions of such organs are similar ; that if we assert either that fishes are Mol- lusca of an ameliorated or higher grade, or that they re- present a commencing or fcetal state of reptiles, we can do so only in an abstract or metaphysical acceptation, and that even with that restriction we by no means convey an accurate notion of their organic structure ; that we can- not regard them either as links of an imaginary chain of successive forms (of which none could serve as the germ of another, since none is capable of a solitary or isolated
existence), nor of that other chain, not less fanciful, of si- Introduc- multaneous and transitionary forms, which has no reality ,^l°|]l^ but in the imagination of certain naturalists, more poeti- ~^i~^-^ cal than observant. They pertain in truth, and solely, to the actual chain of co-existent beings, — of beings neces- sary to each other, and which by their mutual action maintain the resplendent order and harmony of created things.
These are thy (rlorious works, F.irent of good.
Almighty ! Thine this universal frame.
Thus wondrous fair ; Thyself how wondrous theri I
Unspeakable, who sitt'st above these heavens.
To us invisible, or dimly seen
In these thy lowest works; yet these declare
Thy goodness beyond thought, and power divine.
SECT. Xr. THE CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES.
The class of fishes is of all others the most difficult to divide into orders, according to fixed and perceptible characters. We shall here give a brief view of I3aron Cuvier's arrangement, the details of which we shall after- wards exhibit in our systematic view.
Fishes are divisible, in the first place, into two great and distinct series, viz. Fishes pkoperly so called, embra- cing the great majority of species ; and Chondboptery- GiAN or Cartilaginous Fishes, such as sharks and rays.
The general character of the latter series consists in the absence of the bones of the upper jaw, the place of which is supplied by those of the palate. Their entire structure also exhibits sundry analogies, to be afterwards described. Cartilaginous fishes are further divisible into three principal orders.
1st. Cyclostomi, the jaws of which are soldered into an immoveable ring, and the branchiae open by means of numerous holes. Example, the Lamprey.
2d. Selaciiii, which possess thebranchix of the Cyclos- tomi, but not their jaws. Example, Sharks.
3d. Sturiones, of which the branchial opening is in the usual fissure-like form, and furnished with an opercle. Example, Sturgeons.
The other great series, or that of the Ordinary Fishes, presents a first subdivision into those in which the maxil- lary bone and the palatine arch are fixed to the cranium. They constitute Cuvier's order Plectognathi, which comprises two families, the Gy.mnodontes and Sclero- DERMi. Examples, the genera Diodo7i and Ostracion.
The next subdivision of the ordinary fishes contains certain species with perfect jaws, but the branchiee of which, instead of being comb-shaped, resemble a series of small tufts. They constitute an order called Lopho- branchii, which comprises the two genera Syngnathus and Pegasus of Linn. Example, the Pipe-fish.
Of the ordinary fishes there then remains an immense assemblage, to the general classification of which no other characters can be applied than those of the external or- gans of motion. After a long and laborious research. Baron Cuvier became satisfied that the least objection- able of these characters is still that long ago employed by Ray and Artedi, drawn from the nature of the first rays of the dorsal and anal fins. Thus the great body of the ordinary fishes is divided into Malacopterygii, in which all the rays are soft, with the occasional exception of the first of the dorsal, or of the pectorals ; and Acan- thopterygii, in which the first portion of the dorsal, or the first dorsal if there are two fins of that kind, is al- ways supported by spinous rays, and where some similar spines are also found in the anal fin, and at least one in each of the ventrals.
Of these two last-mentioned groups, the former, or
164
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Inrri'iluc- iMalacopter}'gii, may be conveniently subdivided accord- ^ j^'""' ing to the position of the ventral fins, whether situate "^^f""*"^ behind the abdomen, suspended to the apparatus of the shoulder, or entirely wantinfj. This view furnishes us with three fjreat orders, the Malacopterygu Abdomi- NALES (such as pike, salmon, and herring), the M. Sub- BRACHiATi (such as cod, haddock, and flat fish), and the M. ApoDEs (such as eels).
But such a basis of subdivision is altogether inapplicable to the remaining group of ordinary fishes, viz. the Acan- THOPTERYGii, which at present can only be placed to- gether in a certain series of natural families. Fortunate- ly, several of these families are possessed of characters almost as precise as those which could be assigned to genuine orders. It is, however, impossible to assign to the families of fish the same marked gradation so percep- tible among those of the Mammalia. Thus the Chon- dropterygians are related to serpents on the one hand by the organs of the senses, and in certain cases even by the generative svstem ; while, on the other, they bear an alliance to the Mollusca and worms in the occasional im- perfection of their skeleton.
Before proceeding with our systematic exposition of the minor divisions, we shall present our readers with a sketch of Baron Cuvier's views regarding the general character and relations of certain groups. After forty years devot- ed to the study of Ichthyology, that great observer be- came convinced that no acanthopterygian species ought to be mingled in classification with the fishes of other fa- milies, as attempted by many of his predecessors; and he also came to the conclusion that the acanthopterygian order, which comprises about three fourths of the entire class, contains the characteristic type, and is the most accordant and homogeneous, even amid all the variations which it undergoes.
The acanthopterygian character prevails over all the others, and these ought to be employed only as subservient to it, and never in opposition ; but the extreme constancy of the general plan, and the predominating influence of the regulating character, render it a matter of greater diffi- culty to apply precise and perceptible characters of a sub- ordinate nature. It is thus that the various families of the acanthopterygian order pass so insensibly from one to another, that we are often at a loss to define the transition. The family of Percidas, for example, which is essentially distinguished from that of the Scianidae by its palatinal teeth, comprises a group of some extent, and extremely natural in its constr\tction, which yet contains a portion of species possessed of those teeth, while the other portion is without them. The same thing happens in the family with mailed cheeks (joues cuirassees), the majority of which are allied to the perches, — the others to the Scifenidse. The sciaonoid genera themselves approach in part to the ChaJtodontes in the scales which in several instances more or less cover their vertical fins, and yet it is necessary to assimilate them still more closely to the Sparidae, by rea- son, in many other instances, of the entire absence of those scales.
The malacopterygian families are distinguished by stronger and more obvious differences, and several of them are not only natural, but subjected to fixed limits, so that each, in its separation from the other, preserves within it- self a great resemblance in details. This precision is so sensible, that the majority of natural families established by Cuvier in this part of the class had been already signa- lised by Artedi as generic groups. His Siluri, Cyprini, Salmones, CliipetE, and Esoces, may remain unbroken, and there is even no inconvenience in distributing them according to the position of the ventral fins, because in those genera the character in question, however trivial in itself) is constant ; but it is clearly impossible to preserve
the distinction of jugular, thoracic, and abdominal fishes, In trod uc- in the mode established by Linnaeus. It is, as Cuvier ob- li"" serves, of small consequence, in fact, whether the ventrals manifest themselves externally a little before or a little behind the pectorals, or immediately beneath them ; but the circumstance of importance, as connected with the structure of the fish, is to ascertain whether the pelvis be attached to the bones of the shoulder, or whether it is sim- ply suspended in the muscles of the abdomen. To desig- nate the fish belonging to the former category, the name of Sub-brachians has been bestowed by Cuvier, and that without any reference to the external position of the ven- trals,— that circumstance being dependent on the greater or less extent of the bones of tlie pelvis. To those of the second category he leaves the older name of Abdominals. Lastly, the term Apodes naturally designates the JMala- copterygians destitute of ventral fins.
Cuvier's systematic exposition of fishes commences with the Acanthopterygians, which constitute in reality only a single family of vast extent. He then places in succession the various families of Malacopterygians, in the order in which they seem allied to the preceding great division ; but he guards the student from inferring that these rela- tions follow only in a single line or series. If the abdomi- nal Malacopterygians may be so arranged, and may even be made to commence with those \vhich possess some spiny rays, they are not followed in so natural a succession by either the apodal or sub-brachian tribes. The Gadi, for example, are as nearly related as any of the xlbdomi- nals to certain species of the acanthopterygian order, and there would be no reason for jjlacing them after the Abdo- minals if the question were mooted respecting the station they should hold in nature. If they are actually arranged subsequent to the latter in our systems, it is because the exposition of facts in a book necessarily requires a succes- sive order.
The spirit of the same observation is applicable to the rest of the fishes ; — to those of which the upper jaw is fixed (Pleclognalhi), — to such as have tufted branchiae {Lopliobranchii), — and, above all, to the great and impor- tant series of Chondropterygians, which terminate the class. I', is indeed chiefly among those last mentioned that we perceive the futility of whatever system seeks to arrange the objects of creation in a single line. Several of the genera alluded to, the rays and sharks, for example, may be said to rise above the rank of ordinary fishes by the com|)licated nature of some of their organs of sense, and by that of the generative system, which is more fully developed in some particulars than even that of birds ; — while other genera of the same series, and at which we arrive by graduated transitions, such as the Lampreys and Ammocastes, become so simplified in their structure, that they have even been regarded as affording a connecting link between the class of fishes and that of the articulated worms. The genus Ammoca-tes certainly possesses no skeleton; and its muscular apparatus is attached solely to tendinous or membranous supports.
Let it not therefore be imagined, says Cuvier, that be- cause one genus or family is placed anterior to another, it is for that reason to be regarded as more perfect, or supe- rior to those that follow. He alone will indulge in that fond fancy, who piu-sues the chimerical project of ranging beings in a single series, — a project, be it remembered, now renoimced by jihilosophy. The further we advance into the penetralia of the temple of nature, the more we shall feel convinced that a falser notion was never entertained in relation to natural history. Genuine systems view each being not as intermediate merely to two others, but as central among many ; — they show the «onderful radiations that link it more or less inmiediately with the vast web of organic life ; and it is by such extended views alone that
ICHTHYOLOGY.
165
Introduc- we shall acquire ideas worthy of nature and of nature's tion. (Jod. It is therefore not so mucii in the position which a
*""^~i'"^^ being occupies in our pubUshed systems, which are neces- sarily linear or consecutive, that we arc to seek for those multifarious relations, or for the actual dccjree of organisa- tion,— but in accurate descriptions of structure afforded by those who possess the use of their eyes and pen. It is not, however, to be in any way maintained that no di- rect classification is possible, or that species should not be formed into groups, and embraced by definitions. These approximations are on the contrary so real, that the natu- ral understanding of man has ever inclined towards them, and in all ages and countries the vulgar as well as the learned have formed their genera. It is in truth one of the great objects of science to render the various groups
into which, for our own convenience, we must arrange the Introduc- objects of creation, as natural in themselves, and as near- i'""- ly related to their neighbours, as is consistent with the ne- "C"^ ccssity of placing them in our descriptive systems in a single fixed position, — a [josition, be it remembered, in which their numeroiis and mixed relations can neither be philosophically exhibited nor fully expressed.
We here terminate our introductory chapter, or gene- ral exposition of the class of fishes, and shall now proceed to a detailed enumeration of the characters of the principal genera, adding, as occasion requires, a succinct descrip- tion and history of the most interesting or important spe- cies. We give in a note below a tabular abstract of the Ichthyological System.'
' Systematic View of the Orders, Families, Genera, and Sub-genera of Fishes, aecorilinii to the arrangement of Baron Cuvier.
N. B In this abstract we follow the system of the Regne Animal, as sufficing for a tabular view ; but in the body of our article
we shall introduce notices of such new or amended genera as have been signalised by our illustrious guide in those volumes of the Hist. Nat. dcs Poissons, which have made their appearance posterior to the publication of the second edition of the Animal Kingdom.
CLASS FISHES. First Great Series, called ORDINARY or OSSEOUS FISHES.
ORDER I ACANTHOPTERYGII.
lAMILY I PERCID.E.
With thoraeic ventrals.
Seven branchial ratjs, two dorsals, teeth small and crowded.
Perca.
I,abrax.
Ijates.
Centropomus.
Grammistes.
Aspro.
Huro.
Etelis.
Niphon.
Enoplosus.
Diploprion. Apogon.
Cheilodipterus.
Pomatomus.
.Some of the teeth long and pointed.
Ambassis. I.ucio-Perca.
JVith a single dorsal, and canine teeth. Serranus.
Serranus proper. Anthias. Merrus. Plectropoma. Diacope. Jlesoprion.
IVith a single dorsal, and s?nall crowded teeth.
Acerina.
Rypticus.
Polyprioii.
Centropristis.
Gristes.
JVith less titan seven branchial rays,
A single dorsal, and some canine teeth. Cirrhites.
A single dorsal, all the teeth small and crowded. Chironemus. Pomotis. Centrarchus.
Priacanthus. Dules. Therapon. Datnia. Palates. Helotes.
Trvo dorsals. Trichodon. Sill ago.
TVith more than seven branchial
rays. Holocentrum. Myripristis. Bervx. Trachicthys.
IVith jugular ventrals. Trachinus. Percis. Pinguipes. Percophis. Uranoscopus.
TVith abdominal ventrals. Polynemus. Sphyraena. Paralepis. MuUus.
MuUus proper.
Upeneus.
FAMILV II. BUCC.T, LORICAT.i;,
OR MAILED CUEEKS.
Trigla.
Trigia proper.
Prionotus.
Peristedion.
Dactylopterus. Cephalacanthus. Cottus.
Cottus proper.
Aspidophorus. Hemitripterus. Hemilepidotus. Platycephalus. Scorpjena.
Scorpaena proper.
Ta;nianotes.
Sebastes. Pterois.
Blepsias.
Apistus.
Agrlopus.
Pelor.
Synanceia.
Menocentris.
Gasterosteus.
Oreosoma.
FAMILY III SCI^NID^.
With two dorsals. Scisna.
Scisena proper.
Otolithus.
Ancylodon.
Corvina.
Johnius.
Umbrina.
Pogonias. Eques.
With one dorsal, and seven bran- chial rays, Hasmulon. Pristipoma. Diagramma.
With less than seven branchial rays, the lateral line continuous.
Pentapoda.
I.ethrinus. Cantharus. Boops. Oblada.
I.obotes. Cheilodactylus. Scolopsides. Jlicropterus.
With less than seven branchial rays, the lateral line interrupted.
Amphiprion.
Premnas.
Pomacentrus.
Dascyllus.
Glyphisodon.
Heliasus.
FA.MILY IV SPABID-t.
Sparus.
Sargus.
Chrysophris.
Pagrus.
Pagellus.
Dentex.
FAMILV V .MENID.E.
IMaena. Smaris. CoBsio. Gerres.
FAMILY VI SUUAMMIPENXES.
Chtetodon.
ChseUidon proper.
Chelmon.
Heniochus.
Kphippus. Taurichtes.
Holocanthus. Pomocanthus.
Platax. Psettus. Pimelepterus. Dipterodon. Brama. Pempheris. Toxotes.
FAMILY Vll SCOMBEHID.I.
Scomber.
Scomber proper.
Thynnus.
Orcynus.
Auxis.
Sarda.
Cybium.
Thyrsites.
Gempylus. Xiphias.
Xiphias proper.
Tetrapturus.
IMakaira.
HIstiophorus. Centronotus.
Naucrates.
Elacates.
Licbia.
Trachinotus.
J 66
Aranthop- terygii.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
FIRST GREAT SERIES OF THE CLASS OF FISHES.
ORDINARY OR OSSEOUS FISHES. ORDER I.— ACANTHOPTERYGII.
These, as already mentioned, form much the most nu- merous division of the class. They are distinguished by the spines, which occupy tlie place of the first rays of the dorsal fin, or which alone sustain the anterior dorsal when there are two. Sometimes, instead of an anterior dorsal, there are only a few free spines. The first rays of their anal fin are also spinous, and there is generally one of a similar nature to each of the ventrals. The Acanthoptery-
Percijit.
gians bear so many relations to each other, — their several Acanlhop- natural families exhibit so many variations in the apparent J'^O'Su. characters which one might suppose capable of indicatina orders or other subdivisions, — that it has been found im- possible to divide them, otherwise than by those natural families themselves, which are thus left without any higher combinations.
FAMILY I.— PERCID.^.
So named because well typified by the common perch. Their bodies are of an oblong form, covered with scales, which are generally hard and rough ; the opercle andpre- opercle, and frequently both, have the margins toothed or
Rhinchobdella.
jMacrognatluis.
Mastacembelus. Notocanthus. Seriola. Nonieus. Temnodon. Caranx.
Caranga.
Citula. Vomer.
Ollstus.
Scvris.
Blepharis.
Gall us.
Argyreiosus.
Vomer proper. Zeus.
Zeus proper.
Capros.
Lanipris.
Equula.
Mene. Stromateus.
Pampla.
Peprilus.
I.uvarus. Seserinus. Kurtus- Coryphaena.
Coryphoena proper.
Caranxomorus.
Centrolophus.
Astrodermus.
Pteraclis.
FAMILY VIII T.5NI0ID.E.
Tlie muzzle elongated, teeth strong.
Lepidopus. Trichiurus.
The muzzle short, mouth small.
Gymnetrus. .Stylephorus.
The muzzle short, mouth cleft, head
obtuse. Cepola. Lophotes.
FAMILY IX. — THEUTID.I.
Sipjanus.
Acanthurus.
Prionurus.
Naseus.
Axinurus.
Priodon.
FAMILY X LAllVRINTHIFORBI
PHARYNGEALS.
Macropodius.
Ilelostoma.
Osphromenus.
Trichopodus.
Spirobranchus.
Opbicephalus.
FAMILY XI MUGILIDiE.
IMugil.
Tetragonurus.
Atherina.
FAMILY XII GOBIDA.
Blennius.
Blennius proper.
Pholis.
Myxodes.
Salarias.
Clinus.
Cirrhibarba.
Gunellus.
Opistognathus.
Zoarcus. Anarrhicas. Gobius.
Gobius proper.
Gobioides.
Toenioides.
Periopthalmus. EUotris. Callionymus.
Trichonotus.
Comephorua. Platypterus. Chirus.
FAMILY Xlir PECT0RALE3
PEDICULATI.
Lophius.
Lophius proper.
Chironectes.
Malthe. Batrachus.
FAMILY XIV LABRID^.
Anabas. Polyacanthus.
Labrus.
Labrus proper.
Cheilinus.
I.achnolainius.
Julis.
Ananipses.
Crenilabrus.
Coricus.
Epibulus.
Cleplicus.
Gomphosus. Xirichthys. Chromis.
Cychla. Plesiops. Malacanthus. Scarus.
Calliodon.
Odax.
FAMILY XV FISTCLARID.E.
Fistularia.
Fistularia proper.
Aulostomus. Centriseus.
Centriscus proper.
Amphisile.
ORDER 11— M.'^LACOPTERYGH ABDOMINALES.
FAMILY I CYPRINIDX.
Cyprinus. •
Cyprinus proper.
Barbus.
Gobio.
Tinea.
Cirrhinus.
Abramis.
Laheo.
Catastomus.
Leuciscus.
Chela.
Gonorhynchus. Cobitis. Anableps. Psecilia. Lebias. Fundulus. Molinesia. Cyprinodon.
FAMILY II ESOCID^.
Esox.
Esox proper.
Galaxias.
Alepocephalus.
Microstoma.
Stomias.
Chauliodus.
Salanx.
Belone.
Scomberesox.
Hemiramphus. Exocetus. Mormyrus.
FAMILY III SILUaiD^.
Silurus.
Silurus proper. Schilbe. Mystus. Pimelodes.
Bagrus.
Pimelodes proper.
Synodontis.
Ag-neiosus. Doras.
Heterobranchus. Macropteronotes. Plotosus. Callichtbvs.
Malapterurus.
Platystachus.
Loricaria.
Hypostomus.
l^oricaria proper.
FAMILY IV SALMONIO/K.
Salmo.
Salnio proper.
Osmerus.
Mallotus.
Thj'mallus.
Coregonus.
Argentina.
Characinus.
Curimata.
Anostomus.
Gasteropelecus.
Piabucus.
Serrasalmo.
Tetragonoptei u».
Chalceus.
Myletes.
Hydrocyon.
Citharinus.
Saurus.
Scopelus.
Auiopus. Sternoptyx.
FAMILY V. — CLUPIDX.
Clupea.
Clupea proper.
Alosa.
Chatoessus. Odontognathus. Pristigaster. Notopterus. Engraulis.
Thryssa. Megalops. Elops. Bulirinus. Chirocentrus. Hyodon. Erytbrinus. Aniia. Sudis.
Osteoglossum. Lepisosteus. Polypterus.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
167
terygii
PercidK.
Acanthop- spiny ; and the jaws, the front of the vomer, and almost al- ways the palatine bones, are furnished with teeth. , The species of this ftmiily are extremely numerous, es- pecially in the tropical seas. Their flesh is in general wholesome, and of an agreeable flavour. By far the great- er number have their ventral fins attached beneath the pectoral, and thus form a first division, named
Thokacic I'ercid^.'
A. Seven branchial rays ; two dorsal ^ns.
a. All the teeth small and croivdcd.
Genus Perca, Cuv. I're-opercle dentated ; bony opcrcle terminated by two or three sharp points ; tongue smooth. Sometimes the sub-orbital and humeral bones are slightly dentated.
Tlie common perch (Perca Jluviatilis, Linn.), Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 1, one of the most beautiful of the fresh- water fishes of Europe, is too familiarly known to require de- scription. It inhabits both lakes and rivers, but shuns salt water.- As an article of food it is still in some estimation, although the character given of it in that respect by Au- sonius is higher than accords with modern views. The female deposits her ova, united together by a viscid matter,
I'erciiite.
in lengthened strings, a peculiarity noted by Aristotle. Acanthop- The number of these eggs sometimes amounts to nearly a ter.vB"- million. The perch occurs over all Europe, and most of the northern districts of Asia. Pennant alludes to one said to have been taken in the Serpentine River, in Hyde Park, which weighed nine povnuls. But even one half of that weight would be regarded as extraordinary in the pre- sent species.
The Perca Italica occurs in the south of Europe, and is distinguished by the want of the black bands so conspicu- ous in the common kind. Several other sjiecies are found in North America. P. ciliata is a native of Java; and P. trutta occurs in Cook's Strait, New Zealand.
Genus Labrax, Cuv. Distinguished from the preced- ing by scaly opercula terminating in two spines, and by the roughness of the tongue.
To this genus belongs the basse or sea-perch {P. labrax, Linn.; Labrax liqms, Cuv.), Plate CCXCVIIL fig. 2, a fish of a chaste and pleasing aspect, though destitute of the more strongly contrasted colours of the fresh-water spe- cies. Its upper parts are gray, with bluish reflections, which gradually shade away into a silvery whiteness o]i the under surface. The pectoral fins are slightly tinged with red. It occurs along the Dutch and British shores, but is
ORDER UI._MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI.
FAMILY I. GADID^.
Gadus.
Slorrhua.
Merlangus.
Merluccius.
Lota.
Motella.
Brosmius.
Brotula.
Phycis.
Raniceps. Macrourus.
FA5IILY II rtEURONECTID^.
Pleuronectes. Platessa.
Hippoglossus.
Rhombus.
Solea.
Monochirus.
Achirus.
Plagusia.
FAMILY III. — DISCOBOLI.
Lepadogastcr.
I.epaclogaster proper.
Gobiesux. Cycloptems.
Lumpus.
Liparis. Echeneis.
Synbranchus.
Alabes. Saccopbarynx. Gymnotiis.
Gyninotus proper.
Carapus.
Sternarchus.
Gymnarchus.
Leptocephalus.
OpblcUum.
Ophidium jirojier.
Fierasfer. Ammodytes.
ORDER V._LOPHOBRANCnir.
Syngnathus. Syngnatlius proper. Hippocampus.
Solenostomus. Pegasus.
ORDER VI._PLECTOGNATHI.
ORDER IV._MALACOPTERYGII APODES.
FAMILY I ANQUILLIFOBMES.
FAMILY 1 GYMNODONTES.
Aluraena. Anguilla. Anguilla proper.
Conger. Ophisurus. Muroena proper. Sphagebranchus. Monopterus.
Diodon. Tetrodon. Orlhagoriscus. Triodou.
FAMILY II. SCLERODERMI
Balistes.
Balistes proper.
Monocanthus.
Aluteies.
Triacanthus. Ostracion.
SecondGreat Series, called CHONDROPTERYG II, or CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
ORDERL(7thoftheentireClass.)— STURIONES, orCHON- DROPTERYGII WITH FREE BRANCHIAE.
Acipenser. Spatularia.
Chimsera.
Chimajra proper. Callorhynchus.
ORDER II. (8th of the entire Clas8.)_CHONDROPTERY. GII WITH FIXED BRANCHI^.
|
FAMILY I. |
— SELACHII. |
Squalus proper. Carcharias. |
|
Squalus. |
Lamiia. |
|
|
Scyllium. |
Galeus. |
Mustelus. Notidanus. Selache. Cestracion. Spinas. Centrina. Scymnus. Zygoena. Squatina. Pristis. Raia.
Rhinobatus. Rhina. Torpedo. Raia proper.
Trygon.
Anacanthus.
Jlyliobatis.
Rhinoptera.
Cephaloptera.
FAMILY II SICTORII.
Petromyzon. Myxine.
Heptatremus.
Gastrobranchus. Ammocsetes.
' Almost all the species were included by Linnseus in his genus Perca, but Cuvier has divided them, as shown above, according to the amount of the rays of the branchiae, the number of the dorsal fins, and the nature of the teeth.
» Pallas, however, is said to have remarked, in a work, we believe, still unpublished (Zoographia linsso-Asiatica), that about spawn- jug time both i)ike and perch are found in a gulf of the Caspian Sea, about thirty verstes from the mouth of the Terek.
1G8
Acanthop terygii. Percida?.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
much more abundant in the Mediterranean. It is a voracious fish, remarkable for the size of" its stomach, and was known to the ancients under the appropriate name of lupus.
Genus Lates, Cuv. Scarcely differs from Perca, ex- cept in having deep dentations, and even a small spine at the angle of the j)re-opercle, and by stronger dentations also on the sub-orbital and humeral bones.
We shall here notice only the L. Nilolicus, the largest and one of the finest-flavoured fishes of the celebrated Nile. It is altogether of a silvery tint, tinged on the up- per parts and fins with olive brown. Individuals of a very great size are sometimes found in Upper Egypt, and, ac- cording to Paul Lucas, the species occasionally attains to the weight of 300 pounds. Other kinds occur in India, where they are highly esteemed as food.
Genus Centhopomus, Lacepede. Pre-opercle den- tated ; opercle obtuse, and unarmed.
C. undecimalis, Cuv. is a large and excellent fish, known along a great extent of the South American shores, where it is much used as an article of consumption, under the name of brocket or pike. In the form of its muzzle, and general shape, it somewhat resembles that fresh-water fish, and indeed it frequently ascends the great rivers to a con- siderable height. A kind of caviar is made of its row. It attains to the weight of twenty-five pounds.
Genus Grammistes, Cuv. Opercle and pre-opercle spined, but not dentated ; dorsal fins approximate ; scales small, as if sunk beneath the epidermis ; anal fin without apparent spine.
Of this genus there seems to be only a single species, G. orientalis, a small fish, native to the Indian seas.
Genus Aspro, Cuv. Body elongated ; dorsals not ap- proximate ; ventrals broad ; teeth small and close (en ve- lours) ; head depressed ; muzzle reaching beyond the mouth, and terminating in a rounded point.
We are acquainted with only two species of this genus, both of which are known in the fresh waters of the conti- nent of Emope. We have represented A. vulgaris {Perca asper, Linn.), on Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 3. It is a small fish, rarely exceeding half a foot in length, common in the Rhone, especially between Lyons and Vienne.
We shall here pass over some limited genera, of which the species are all foreign to Europe; such as Huko, which contains the black bass, or black perch, of the English inhabitants of the banks of tlie Huron ; Etelis, NiPHON, Enoplosus, and Diploprion. The species of the last two genera are remarkable as resembling Cha:- todons in their general form, rather than percoid fishes.
Genus Apogon, Lacepede. Body short, and, in com- mon with the opercles, furnished with large scales which are easily dislodged ; dorsal fins very separate ; a double dentated border on the pre-opercle.
The Apogon rex Mullorunt of Cuvier (JJullus imberhis, Linn.) is a small Mediterranean species, of a red colour, with a black spot on each side of the tail. It measures about three inches in length. The foreign species seem chiefly confined to the Indian seas, at least they have not yet been observed in those of Africa or America. A ievi have been met with along the shores of New Hol- land, New Guinea, d-c.
Genus PomatojMus, Risso. Resembles the preceding in the separation of its dorsals, and its deciduous scales ; but the pre-opercle is simply striated, the opercle emar- ginate, and the eye enormously large.
Percidje.
The only known species is the P. telescopium, a fish of Acanthop. excessive rarity. According to Risso, it scarcely ever tervgii. leaves the bottom of the deep sea. He is aware of only two specimens having been taken near Nice during a pe- riod of thirty years. It measures about twenty inches in length. The colours are brownish violet, with red and blue reflections, the fins being brownish black. Whether the prodigious dimensions of its eyes are in any way con- nected with the depth and consequent darkness of its abode, is a point which we have not at present any means to determine.
b. Some long and pointed teeth mixed with the close-set kind.
Genus Ambassis, Commerson. Resembles Apogon in form ; the pre-opercle has a double dentation towards the base, and the opercle terminates in a point ; but the two dorsals are contiguous, and the anterior one is pre- ceded by a spine.
A peculiarity in the intestinal canal, that is, the want of appendages to the pylorus, renders the present position of this genus in the system somewhat doubtful. The species are small fishes found in the fresh waters of In- dia. One of them, A. Commersonii, Cuv. is abundant in a small lake in the island of Bourbon, where it is prepar- ed as the Europeans do anchovies.
Genus Lucio-Pkrca, Cuv. Margin of the pre-oper- cle with only a simple dentation, dorsal fins not approxi- mate.
This genus receives its name from the supposed com- bination which certain of its species exhibit of the cha- racters of the pike and perch, — that is, they possess the fins and banded markings of the latter, with the elongat- ed head and body, and acute lengthened teeth, of the former. The best known species is the L. sandra of Cu- vier {Perca lucioperca of Bloch), an excellent fish, found in the lakes and rivers of Germany and the east of Europe, but unknown in France, Italy, and England. It sometimes attains to the size of a large salmon. Its growth is remarkably rapid, and its flesh is said to be rich and agreeable. Great quantities, preserved by salt or smoke, are exported from Prussia and Silesia.
B. Scfen branchial rays ; only one dorsal Jin.
This subdivision is divisible, like the preceding, accord- ing to the nature of the teeth, the spines and dentations of the opercles, and other characters.
a. TeetJi hooked or canine. -
Genus Serranus, Cuv. Pre-opercle dentated, bony opercle terminated by one or more points.
This extensive genus has been recently partitioned into several minor groups. Serranus proper contains the Perca scriba of Linn.; so called on account of some peculiar markings in the cheeks, resembling written cha- racters.' Antiuus is represented by .^. «acer of Bloch, a beautiful fish of the Mediterranean, of a ruby-red co- lour, changing into gold and silver, with yellow bands upon the cheeks. The third ray of the dorsal fin is greatly elevated, and the ventrals are much prolonged. This fish appears to have been known to ancient writers, and was regarded as sacred by the divers for marine pro- ductions, Irom the fond belief that no dangerous species would approach its haunts. When an individual happen-
" The smooth Serranus {S. nihrUla, Cuv. ; Perca chatmut. Couch) has been described as a British species. Mr Couch regards it as a common fisli, well knottii to the Cornish fishermen. He mentions (Magazine uf Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 19) that it keeps in the neighbourhood of rocks not far from land ; and adds, as a singular fact, that the spasm which seizes it when taken never passes off. Hence it is found long after death in a state of rigidity and contortion, with the fins preternaturaUv erect. Both Cuvier and Cavo- lini have described this and other species of the genus" as actual hermaphrodites, — one portion of each lobe of roe consisting of true ova, the other having every appearance cf a perlect milt.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
jr.9
Percida".
Acunthop. ed unfortunately to be caught by the fislierman's liotik, terygii. jf y,^g supposed that its companions immediately severed the line by means of their sharp spines. Mekros of Cuv. contains tlie Perca gigas of Gmelin, a species wliich some- times attains to tlie weight of sixty pounds.' This sub- division of the genus Serranus contains a great amount of species. The only other which we shall here mention is that which we have shown in Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 4, under the name of Serranus altivelis, which is chiefly remarkable for the great size of the posterior portion of the dorsal fin. It occurs in the seas around Java.
Genus Plectropoma, Cuv. Differs from Serranus chiefly in the more or less numerous dentations of the in- ferior margin of the pre-opercle, being directed obliquely forward, — recalling in some measure the teeth of the rowel of a spur. AH the species are foreign to Europe ; and the same observation applies to the genus Diacope, the characters of which we shall not here detail.
Genus Mesoprion, Cuv. Agrees with Serranus in its teeth, fins, and dentated pre-opercle, but differs in its opercle being terminated by an obtuse angle, not spinous.
The species are remarkable for the varied richness and lustre of their colours. They inhabit both the castciTi and western seas, but occur chiefly in those of India, China, and Japan, concealing themselves in the hollows of rocks, and leaving their sombre haunts only during fine weather, to prey on the delicate Mollusca with which those waters swarm. Many of the species are large, and excellent as articles of food. M. vivanus attains the weight of forty pounds. We have figured, on Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 5, an American species of great beautj-, described by Cuvier under the name of M. mii/iolaliis. The back and upper portion of the head and cheeks are of rich steel blue, the lower part of the cheeks and sidts of a fine rose colour, the abdomen silvery. The entire body is coursed by many bands of a golden hue, irregular and disconnected on the dorsal surface. The dorsal fin is rose-colour, with three yellow bands ; the other fins are gamboge yellow. This species seldom much exceeds a foot in length.
b. Teeth fine, and closely set.
Genus Acerina, Cuv. Distinguished by cavities or depressions in the bones of the head, and by the opercle and pre-opercle having only small spines, without denta- tions.
We shall here name only the Acerina vulgaris {Perca cermia, Linn.), a British species, commonly called the ruffe, much esteemed for the delicacy of its flesh. Mr Yarrell informs us that it is common to almost all the canals and rivers of England, particularly the Thames, the Isis, and the Cam. Though said to be unknown in Spain, Italy, and Greece, it occurs pretty generally over the colder portion of the European continent, preferring slow, shaded streams, and a gravelly bottom.-
It is angled for with a small red worm, and being gre- garious, six or eight dozen may sometimes be taken at a single stand.
Genus Rypticus, Cuv. Small spines on the opercles ; scales likewise small, and concealed, like those of Gram- mistes, beneath a thick epidermis. The genus, however, is well distinguished from the latter by the single dorsal fin.
The species have been named Savonniers by the French, in consequence of their soft and soapy surface, which feels as if it had been lubricated by some unctuous matter.
I'orcKlu;.
Genus Polyprion', Cuv. In addition to spines on theAcanthop- opercle, and dentations on the pre-opercle, the former is tervpii furnished with a rough bifurcated crest, and the bones of the head generally are marked by asperities.
P. cernium is an enormous fish, extremely common in the Mediterranean, but very indistinctly characterised or understood before the time of Cuvier and his able coadju- tor M. Valenciennes. It attains the length of five or six feet, and sometimes weighs a hundred pounds. The flesh is white, tender, and well tasted. It is frequent, according to Risso, near Nice, where it delights in rocky bottoms, and is occasionally captured at the vast depth of three thousand feet.
Cuvier here places the singular genus Pentaceros, of which the sole species, bearing some resemblance in its general aspect to the Ostradon auritus of Shaw, was brought to Holland by M. Horstock. We shall here likewise merely name the genera Centropristis and Gristes of Cuvier, the former containing the Black Har- ry of the Americans, an excellent fish, common near New York,— the latter, the species called growler in the Uni- ted States.
The ancient unrestricted genus Perca, as defined by Artedi and Linnasus, terminates in this place. But there remains a large assemblage of allied species referrible to various distinct genera, though still pertaining to the great family of Percid;e.
C. With less thafi seven branchial rays.
a. inih a single dorsal fin, and canine teeth mingled with the others.
In this subdivision we place the genus Cirrhites alone. The species are from the Indian seas, and have only six branchial rays.
b. With a single dorsal fin, and small close-set teeth.
Here are classed the genera Chironemus, Centra r- cnus, and Pomotis. To the last belongs the P. vulgaris, Cuv. {Labrus auritus, Linn.), called pond-perch in New York. It is frequent in mill-dams and other tranquil waters, and is often angled for in America, both for plea- sure and profit. According to Dr Richardson, it is called sun-fish around Lake Huron. See Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 6. Of the genus Priacanthus we shall merely observe.X that the species are peculiar to the seas of hot climates. The genus Dules resembles Centropristis already de- scribed, except that it possesses only seven branchial rays. D. riipestris bears resemblance to a carp, and is found in the fresh waters of the islands of Bourbon and the Mau- " ritius, where it is highly esteemed for the excellence of its flavour. We have figured one of the most remarkable of the genus (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 7), named Dules auriga by Cuvier, on account of the long whip-like form assumed by the third spine of the dorsal fin. It was brought from Brazil by iM. Delalande.
We shall conclude this subdivision by a brief notice of the genera Tiierapon, Datnia, Pelates, and Helotes. It has been observed that these constitute a group, form- ed, as it were, to make naturalists despair, by showing how nature laughs at what we deem characteristic com- binations. The genera above named, possessing a mul- titude of mutual relations, as well interior as external, sufficient to forbid their distant separation, and bearing a great resemblance to the entire percoid family, at the same time combine species furnished with palatine teeth.
' It is synonymous with Pcrra robuita of Mr Couch, made known by that gentleman as a British species, from a single specimen taken with a hne. (See Mugaxiue uf Natural History, vol. v. p. 21.1 • Hiltory of British Fishes, p. \li. VOL. XII. ■*
170
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Percidae.
Acanthop. along with other species which seem to be constantly de- jterygii. prived oF these organs. They also possess close-set teeth in the jaws, and dentations on the sub-orbital, the pre- opercle, and not unfrequently on the shoulder bone ; none has more than six branchial rays ; no scales are visible on the cranium, muzzle, or maxilla? ; the dorsal spines are folded back into a groove of the back ; and the swim- ming bladder is constantly divided by a restriction into two distinct sacks, as in Ci/prhtus, Choracinus, and Myri- pristis, — a character somewliat remarkable in any group of the acanthopterygian order.
c. With (wo dorsal Jins.^
Genus Trichodon, Steller. Pre-opercle with several strong spines ; opercle terminating in a flattened point ; no scales ; mouth almost vertically cleft.
Of this genus only one species has been yet discovered, the T. Stelleri of Cuv. It was found by the unfortunate Stel- ler near Cape Cronock, and especially at the island of Unalaschka. It inhabits sandy shores, in which it con- ceals itself on the ebbing of the tide, and is there collected by the natives with their hands. The females deposit their eggs in little hollows in the sand, and offer, it is said, an exception to the ordinary instinct of fishes, in attending to their young ones after they are hatched.
Genus Sillago, Cuv. Head somewhat drawn to a point ; mouth small ; small crowded teeth on the jaws, and before the vomer ; opercle terminating in a small spine ; six branchial rays ; dorsal fins contiguous ; — the spines of the first slender, of the second long and low.
The species occur in. the Indian Seas, and are held in high esteem for the delicate flavour and brightness of their flesh. The most noted species is the peche madame of Pondicherry {S. domino):, of a brownish colour, and re- markable for the first ray of the dorsal fin being elongated to a filament as long as the body. Another species, called Soring by Russell (the Sciana malabarica of Bloch), mea- sures about a foot in length, and is of a fulvous colour. It is regarded as one of the best fishes in India.
D. With more than seven branchial rays.
The genera of this group, besides possessing eight bran- chial rays, are distinguished by this further peculiarity, otherwise unexampled among the acanthopterygian tribes, that they possess, besides the spine, seven soft rays, or even more, to each of the ventral fins. Many of the species are remarkable for their beauty.
Genus Holocentrum, Artedi. Scales brilliant and dentated ; opercle dentated and spinous ; pre-opercle not only dentated, but furnished at its angle with a strong spine directed backwards.
The species of this genus are widely distributed, occur- ring in the warmer portions of both the Pacific and Atlan- tic Oceans. Few species are more remarkable, either for the magnificence of their integuments, or the strength of their spines. The lustre of their scales equals that of a mirror, and is rendered still more brilliant by bands of red and spots of brown variously distributed. They bear a close resemblance to each other. That which we have se- lected as an illustration (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 8) is the H. hastatum of Cuvier, which exists in the Royal Mu- seum of Paris. Its native country is unknown, although it is presumed to have been brought from the African
Percidae.
coast, and seems identical with specimens more recently Acanthop- collected by MM. Quoy and Gaymard at the Cape de Verd i^'^yg"- Islands.
Genus Myripristis, Cuv. Resembles the preceding in splendour, form, aud scales ; but the pre-opercle has a double dentated margin, and wants the spine at the angle.
This genus is remarkable for its swimming bladder being divided into two portions, of which the anterior is bilobed and attached to the cranium in two places, where it is merely covered by a membrane, and which correspond to the cavities of the ears.
The genera Beryx and Trachichtys are nearly allied to the preceding. The latter was originally characterised, and somewhat vaguely, by Dr Shaw, from a specimen re- ceived from the New Holland seas.
All the percoid fishes to which we have hitherto alluded are characterised by having their ventral fins inserted be- neath the pectorals. But in several genera these import- ant organs are otherwise placed. Thus, in the ensuing group, their position is in advance of the pectorals, that is, upon the throat. They are hence called
Jugular Pebcidje.
Genus Trachinus, Linn. Head compressed ; eyes ap- proximate ; mouth oblique ; first dorsal very short, the se- cond very long ; pectorals large ; opercle furnished with a strong spine.
Several of the species occur in the European seas, and two species, known in our own country as the greater and lesser weevers ( T. major and draco), occur occasionally on the English coasts. They remain concealed in the sand, and the wounds inflicted by their spines are not only pain- ful, but dangerous.
" That the greater weever," observes Mr Yarrell, " pre- fers deep water, that it lives constantly near the bottom, that it is tenacious of life when caught, and that its flesh is excellent, are four points that have been already noticed ; but this subject, in reference to fishes generally, may be farther illustrated. It may be considered as a law, that those fish that swim near the surface of the water have a high standard of respiration, a low degree of muscular ir- ritability, great necessity for oxygen, die soon, almost im- mediately, when taken out of water, and have flesh prone to rapid decomposition. On the contrary, those fish that live near the bottom of the water have a low standard of respiration, a high degree of muscular irritability, and less necessity for oxygen ; they sustain life long after they are taken out of the water, and their flesh remains good for several days. The carp, the tench, the various flat fish, and the eel, are seen gaping and writhing on the stalls of the fishmongers for hours in succession ; but no one sees any symptom of motion in the mackerel, the salmon, the trout, or the herring, unless present at the capture. These four last named, and many others of the same habits, to be eaten in the greatest perfection, should be prepared for table the same day they are caught;" but the turbot, de- licate as it is, may be kept till the second day with advan- tage, and even longer without injury ; and fishmongers generally are well aware of the circumstance, that fish from deep water have the muscle more dense in structure, — in their language, more firm to the touch, — that they are
' In the indication of this group in the Regnc Animal, t. ii. p. 149, there seems to be a typographical error where the words " a moins des six rayons branchiaux" are used, instead oi sept. The mistake has been copied as a matter of course into all the Eng. lish and American translations.
•ur'r^''^ '^^^^ swims near the top of the water, and is caught with a fly, a -moth, or a grasshopper, upon the surface; and Isaac Walton sa,ys, " But take this rule with you— that a chub newly taken and newly dressed is so much better than a chub of a day's keeping after he is dead, that I can compare him to nothing so fitly as to cherries newly gathered from a tree, and others that have been bruised and lain a day or two in water."
ICHTHYOLOGY.
171
Percidoe.
Aeanthop- of finer flavour, and will keep longer, than fish drawn from terygii. shallow water.
The law referred to has its origin in the principles of organization ; and though it would be difficult for the ana- tomist to demonstrate those deviations in structure be- tween the trout and the tench which give rise to these distinctions and their effects, it is only necessary to make the point of comparison wider to be assured of the fact.
" Between a fish with a true bony skeleton, the highest in organization among fishes, and the lamprey, the lowest, the differences are most obvious. If we for a moment consider the lamprey, which is the lowest in organization of the vcrlebrated animals, with only a rudimentary ver- tebral column, as the supposed centre of zoological struc- ture, and look from thence up and down the scale of or- ganization, we on the extreme on one side arrive at man, to whom division of his substance would be destruction ; but on the other we come to the polype, the division of which gives rise to new animals, each possessing attributes, not only equal to each other, but equal also to the animal of which they previously formed but a small part."' The species represented in our accompanying illustration (see Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 9) is T. radiatus, well known in the Mediterranean.
The Trachini of exotic regions, if such exist, are un- known. They are in some measure represented there by the genus Percis of Bloch and Schneider, which is found in the Indian, African, and New Holland seas.
The genus Pinguipes, of a heavy form, is distinguished by its strong conical teeth ; its fleshy lips, and teeth upon the palate ; and by its thick ventrals. The only known species is from Brazil. The genus Percophis, on the contrary, is much elongated in its shape (combining, as it were, that of the perch and serpent, — from whence the name) ; some of the teeth are long and pointed, and the extremity of the lower jaw projects. The sole species is a rare and remarkable fish from Rio Janeiro, discovered by the French naturalists attached to Freycinet's expedition.
Genus Uranoscopus, Linn. Eyes placed on the upper surface of a nearly cubical-shaped head ; mouth vertically cleft ; pre-opercle crenate towards its base ; a strong spine at each shoulder ; gills with only six rays.
In the interior of the mouth of this remarkable genus, and in front of the tongue, there is a long and narrow shred, which they can exsert at pleasure, and which it is said they use while lying concealed in the mud, to attract their prey, consisting of the smaller fishes. Another sin- gularity in their structure consists in the immense size of the gall-bladder, a fact well known to ancient observers. In some of the species the first dorsal, which is small and spinous, is separated from the second, which is soft and long. Such is U. scaber, a Mediterranean species, not un- frequently used as food, although of a most ugly and re- pelling aspect. In others the dorsal is single, and its spi- nous and softer parts continuous. Such is U. inermis, the species represented in Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 10, which at- tains to the length of a couple of feet, and is native to the coast of Coromandel. It dwells in the sand, and the In- dian fishers allege, what is no doubt a gross exaggeration, that it sometimes penetrates to a depth of twenty feet.
In the third principal division of the percoid family the ventral fins are inserted behind the pectorals. They are hence named
Abdominal Percid^.
Genus Polynemus, Linn. Several of the inferior rays of the pectorals firee, and forming so many filaments ; ven-
trals not greatly posterior to the pectorals ; pelvis still sus- Acamhop- pended to the bones of Uie shoulder.
The species are allied to the Percidse in general by the close set teeth upon their jaws, vomer, and palate ; but they possess the arched or convex snout, and the scaly vertical fins, which distinguish so many of the Sciaenidee. Their two dorsals are distant ; their pre-opercle dentated, and their mouths greatly cleft. They appear to inhabit the seas of all warm countries. P. loiigifilis of Cuv. {P. paradiseus and qiiitiqiiinarius, Linn.) is the noted mango- Jish of India, so called from its fine yellow colour. According to Russel and Hamilton Buchanan, it is the most delicious of all the species eaten in Bengal. It is fished for all the year round, at the mouths of rivers, where the waters are saline. It ascends to some distance about spawning time in spring, but not beyond the influence of the tide. When in prime condition, the mango-fish, though onlyafew inches long, sells so high as a rupee. The eggs are also much esteemed. The colours of this species, like those of other fishes, seem to vary greatly, probably in relation to the condition of individuals, or the season of the year. M. Dussumier describes it as of a citron yellow, with the fins and filaments of a beautiful orange. Buchanan states that the greater niunber are silvery, with reflections of gold and purple, and a greenish tint upon the back ; the fins being then yellow, and the upper parts spotted with black. The same author names the silvery mango-fish P. risua, and the yellow ones P. aureus ; but he hesitates to make them distinct species, and rather opines that the fine co- lour is the result of season, and that it continues only du- ring spawning time. This view of the subject is well confirmed by the fact, that the high-coloured specimens sent to Europe by M. Dussumier were full either of roe or milt, and is moreover in exact conformity with the ob- servations of all practical anglers and Ichthyologists in relation to the species of our own country. We here figure (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 11) a recently-discovered species, received by Baron Cuvier from Senegal. It is named P. quadrifilis, having only four free rays on the pectoral fins.
In the ensuing genera of the abdominal Percidae, the ventrals are placed farther back, and the pelvis no longer adheres to the bones of the shoulder.
Genus Sphyr^na, Bloch and Sch. Form elongated ; two distant dorsals ; head oblong, with the lower jaw forming a projecting point beyond the upper one ; a por- tion of the teeth large, pointed, and cutting ; opercle without spines; pre-opercle without dentations; seven branchial rays ; numerous appendages to the pylorus.
These fish were formerly classed w ith the pikes ; and the Italians still name them Lucii marini, on account of their strong and pointed teeth. The Mediterranean spe- cies (S. vulgaris, Cuv. ; Esox sphyrana, Linn.) attains to the length of three feet. <S. picuda, from the coast of Brazil, is extremely similar. This fish, though used as an article of food, is occasionally poisonous. M. Poey alleges that the malady produced by eating it is some- times mortal ; but he adds that it is easy to distinguish the dangerous individuals beforehand, by a peculiar black- ness at the base of their teeth. Another species (S. bar- racuda, Cuv. ; £isox barracud, Shaw), which likewise oc- curs along the Brazilian shores, and among the Antilles, is said to be extremely formidable, on account of its fero- cious habits. It is among the number of those marine monsters of which Rochefort speaks in his Histoire des Antilles, as greedy of human flesh. He states it to at- tain the length of seven or eight feet, and that it darts with fury upon any man whom it perceives in the water.
' Britisti Fishes, p. 22.
172
j\canthop-
lerygii. . I'eicitse.
ICHTHYOLOGY-
Tlie wounds of its teeth are said to be mortal. Dutertre attributes to it the same great size and mahgn qualities, and regards it as more dangerous than the fiercest shark. Neither noise, nor any kind of threatening movement, has the slightest effect in producing intimidation ; on the contrary, such signs of dislike only excite it to a greater readiness to seize upon its victim. It must be a most dis- agreeable creature.
Genus Mullus, Linn. Surfijce of the body and opercles covered by large deciduous scales ; pre-opercle without dentations ; mouth small, or but slightly cleft, and feebly toothed ; dorsal fins distant from each other ; a pair of barbies or appendages depending from the sym- physis of the loiver jaw.
This genus, although allied to the Percidje by several anatomical and external details, is yet characterised by so many peculiarities of organization, that it might al- most be regarded as forming of itself a special family. Cuvier, however, has placed it a la suite of the Percidas, and we shall therefore follow that great authority in this as in the other portions of our ichthyological system. 'J'he genus Mullus is now divided into two.
1. Mullus proper. Branchiae wiih three rays; opercle spineless ; no teeth to the upper jaw ; two large plates of small teeth en pave on the vomer ; no swimming blad- der.
To this sub-genus belongs the famous red mullet {31. barbutus), Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 12, which, by reason both of its great personal beauty, and the exquisite flavour of its flesh, has for so many ages ministered to the degenerate and heartless luxury of man. It is very frequent in the Mediterranean, and also occurs occasionally along the outer and more northern coasts of Europe. It is brought occasionally to the London markets during the mackerel season ; but it is doubtful whether MUller is not in error in assigning to it so northern a locality as Denmark. " The great and rich among the Romans were in the ha- bit, according to Varro, of preserving the red mullet in artificial waters, as one of the most convincing proofs of their individual wealth. Cicero has ridiculed the sense- less ostentation with which they exhibited fine speci- mens of this fish, domiciliated in their own ponds ; but Seneca and Pliny have rendered their countrymen odious in the eyes of posterity, and of other nations, by relating the cruelty with which, in their disgusting orgies, they revelled over the dying mullet, while the bright red co- lour of its healthy state passed through various shades of purple, violet, blue, and white, as life gradually receded, till the convulsions of death put an end to the pleasing spectacle. They had these devoted fish enclosed in wa- ter in vessels with sides of crystal, over a slow fire, on their tables, and derived a fiend-like pleasure from the lingering sufferings of their victims as the increasing heat of the water gradually destroyed them, before the final operation of boiling had rendered them fit to gratify the refined taste of civilization. One cannot indeed read these revolting histories of old time without a blush at certain modern practices far too analogous with them : the sense of taste may, in the cases alluded to, be alone consulted ; but the difference is nothing to the suffering animal, wliether its torments gratify one or more of the evil pas- sions of its tormentors. The skinning of eels, and the boiling of live Crustacea, would be as disgusting as the gradual boiling of a mullet, did not, in this as in many other cases, the practice of evil destroy the feeling of its iniquity. So extravagant was the folly of the Romans with regard to this fish, that they often gave for them
Buccce Lorkatie.
immense prices. Martial mentions one of four pounds Acanthop. weight, which had cost 1300 sesterces ; and it is said that tervfrn. the Emperor Tiberius sold one weighing nearly five pounds for 4000 sesterces. Asinius Celer, one of the consuls, is reported by Pliny to have paid 8000 ; and, ac- cording to Suetonius, 30,000 sesterces had been given for three mullets."'
The surmulet, or striped mullet {M. Surmuktus, Linn.), is larger than the preceding, and measures about a foot in length. It is much more common as a British species than the preceding, being of frequent occurrence along the extended line of our southern coast, from Cornwall to Sussex ; but becoming rarer as we proceed from thence northward by the eastern coast. It has been regarded as migratory, yet it a])pears in the shops of the London fish-mongers throughout the year, though in much greater plenty during May and June, at which time their colours are most vivid, and the fish, as food, is in the best condition. The striped red mullet spawns in spring, and the young are five inches long by the end of October." The spe- cies is much more extensively distributed than the red mullet, and is not confined, as Baron Cuvier seems to suppose, to European coasts. It occurs not far to the south of New York, and has been found in much greater numbers along the southernmost coasts of South Ame- rica.^ It has been supposed that to this species the larger specimens of mullet mentioned by the ancients are referrible. Pliny indeed states expressly that the large mullets were found especially in the Northern and Western Oceans.
2. Upkneus, Cuv. Branchiaj with four rays ; teeth on both jaws, but frequently none on the palate ; opercle with a small spine ; a swimming bladder.
The species of this sub-genus are native to the seas of India and America. That which %ve have selected for illustration (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 13) is the H. Vlamingii of Cuvier. It was sent to Paris by MM. Quoy and Gay- mard, and when opened its stomach was found filled with small Crustacea.
We here terminate the family of Percid^, or perch- like fishes, and proceed to
FAMILY II — BUCC.E LORICATE, or MAILED CHEEKS.
Tliere are a certain set of fishes which, in the totality of their structure, certainly approach the preceding fa- mily of the perches ; but on which the singular aspect of their variously-armed heads bestows so peculiar a phy- siognomy, that they have always been classed together in special genera. As examples, we may mention the gur- nards, father-lashers, and river bull-heads, belonging to Trigla and Cotlus. The common character of all these fishes consists in the sub-orbital bone being more or less extended over the cheek, and articulating behind with the pre-opercle. The genus Uranoscopus alone of the preceding family exhibits some affinity to this form of structure ; but still in that case, the sub-orbital, though very broad, is connected posteriorly, not with the opercle, but with the temporal bones. It is then from this pecu- liar extension and attachment of one or both of the sub- orbitals that the family of the mailed cheeks derives its name.
In the Linnaean system these fishes formed three ge- nera, Trigla, Cotlus, and Scorpana, groups which have been considerably subdivided by Cuvier, who has more-
« Griffith's Animal Kingdom, vol. x. (>• 2/7. = Yarrell's British Fishss.
' Griffith's Animal Kingdom, vol. X. p. 278.
p. 27.
ICHTHYOLOGY
173
Buccse Ijoricatne.
Acaiilhop. over added to them a certain portion of the genus Gaste- terygii. rosteiis, or stickle-back tribe.
Genus Trigla, Linn. Here the family character is strongly marked. An enormous sub-orbital covers the entire cheek, and even articulates by means of an im- movable suture with the pre-opercle, vvliich in this way possesses no separate movement ; the sides of the head are nearly vertical, producing a form approaching that of a cube or of a parallelopiped, and the bones are hard and granulated ; the back bears two distinct dorsals, and be- neatli the pectorals are three free rays ; in the interior we find about a dozen caeca, and a broad bilobed swim- ming bladder.
This extensive genus has been subdivided by modern writers.
Trigla proper contains the gur7iards commonly so called. They have small close-set teeth on the maxillae, and before the vomer ; and their pectoral fins, though large, are incompetent to sustain them through the air. T. cuculus, Linn. ( T. jnni of Bloch), our red gurnard, is a voracious species, common in the European seas. T. b/ra^, named the piper, is another British species re- markable for the hissing sound which it produces when caught, by expelling air through its gills. It is a beauti- ful fish, of a bright red above, and silvery white below. T, cuculus of Bloch (7'. Blochii, Yarrell) is another red gurnard, distinguishable by a black spot on the first dorsal fin. T. lucerna is a Mediterranean species, so named because it shines in the dark. T. hirundo is a British species, known as the sapphirine gurnard. Its pectoral fins are rich green and blue. The only other species we shall mention is the grey gurnard ( T. gurnardus), Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 1. Its muzzle is bifurcated, with three spines on each side. It is easily taken with a hook, and is common in the British seas.
Prionites of Lacepede contains species analogous to those last named, but with pectorals so long as occasion- ally to sustain them in the air. Their precise character, however, consists in their having a band of small close- set teeth on each palatine.
Peristedion of Lac. is separated from Trigla proper, with still more correctness. The whole body is as it were cuirassed over by great hexagonal scales, forming longitudinal ridges ; the muzzle is divided into two points, and bears branched barbies beneath ; the mouth has no teeth. The only well-known species is the T. cataphracta, Linn, a Mediterranean fish, called Malarmat both at Mar- seilles and Genoa, probably by an antiphrase, as it is one of the most redoubtably armed of all the fishes of the European seas.
Dactylopterus of Lac, yet further removed from Trigla, contains certain (though not the whole) of those species known under the famous name of flying fishes.' Their sub-pectoral rays are much more numerous and ex- tended, and instead of being free, as in the preceding groups, they are united by a membrane so as to form a supernumerary fin, longer than the fish itself, and capable of supporting it in the air.
The common Dactylopterus, or flying fish of the Me- diterranean {Trigla volitans, Linn.), is a species too re- markable for its functions, so opposite to those of its class in general, not to have attracted from an early period the attention of mankind. It is extremely common in the Mediterranean, and has been mentioned by all the au- thors who have treated of the fishes of that inland sea. The ardour with which it is pursued by the dolphins and bonitos, the sudden effort which it makes to escape these predaceous creatures by vaulting into the air, the
new and probably unthought of dangers which there await Acanthop- it from gulls and other aquatic birds, render it an object t^rypi. of the highest interest to the unaccustomed landsman, , •'^^'^ somewhat wearied with the monotony of a sailor's life. ,.^,.^,,^ " It is by the extension of the pectoral rays and mem- brane that the fish is enabled to raise itself from its pro- per element to the regions of the air, though this is by no means a continual flight, for the utmost it can do is to describe an arch over the surface of the water extending to a distance of about 120 feet, and sufficiently elevated fiar the fish sometimes to fall on the deck of a large ves- sel. This power of flight or momentary suspension would be much greater if the pectoral membrane could preserve its humidity longer: this is soon evaporated in the heat of the tropics; and the membrane, as it becomes dry, loses its buoyant power, and the fish falls. They are some- times so numerous as to afford much pleasure to the spec- tator by their repeated flights ; and at particular times, especially on the approach of rough weather, in the night, numbers of them may be seen, by the phosphoric light they emit, marking their arched passages in apparent streams of fire.^"
It is singular that the species to which we now allude {D. volitans), though so frequent in the Mediterranean, should be almost entirely unknown along the oceanic coasts of Europe. Still more singular is it, in relation to that exclusion, that it should at the same time be found across the Atlantic, and spreading not only along all the central and southern shores of the New World, but ex- tending even as far north as the chilly waters of New- foundland. The great Gulf Stream may however prove influential in the northern distribution of many western species.
We shall conclude this notice by observing, that the fish in question measures about a foot in length ; it is brown above, reddish below, with blackish fins, variously spotted with blue. Its most formidable weapon of of- fence consists of the long and pointed spine of the oper- cle, which it can raise and render almost perpendicular to its body. With this organ it is easy to conceive that it may produce serious, or even dangerous wounds; and we therefore wonder the less that a poet like Oppian should have declared them mortal.
There seems to be only one other clearly ascertained species of the genus Dactylopterus. It is the D. orieiUalis of Cuvier, and occurs in the Indian seas.
Genus Cottus, Linn. Head broad and depressed, mailed, and variously armed by spines or tubercles ; two dorsal fins ; teeth in front of the vomer, but none on the palatines ; six rays to the branchia;, and only three or four to the ventral fins. The inferior rays of the pecto- rals, as in the weevers (genus Tracki/ius), are not branch- ed ; the caecal appendages are less numerous than in Tri- gla, and the swimming bladder is wanting.
The fresh-water species of this genus have the head al- most smooth, and only a single spine to the pre-opercle. Their first dorsal is very low. The most common is the river bull-head (Cottus gobio, Linn.), sometimes called the miller's thumb. It is a small dark-coloured fish, four or five inches in length, and frequent in most of the streams of Europe and the north of Asia. It usually lies con- cealed beneath stones, from whence it darts with great rapidity upon its prey. It is said to be extremely prolific ; and the female, when with spawn, becomes so greatly en- larged, that her ovaries protrude like mammae. The bull- head, like the salmon, has a reddish hue when boiled. It affords a good and wholesome food, much sought after by the mountain tribes of several countries ; yet Pallas as-
' Others, for example, belong to Exocalus, one of the genera of Malacopterygli ahdominakt, to be afterwards described. ' Griffith's Animal Kingdom, vol. X. p. 280.
174
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Buccae LoricatsB.
Acanthop- sures US that in Russia no one will taste it, although tjerygn. the common people hang it around their necks as an amu- let, under the impression that it acts as a preservative against attacks of tertian fever. We have represented in this work (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 2)a salt-water species, C. scorpius, commonly called the father-lasher, and frequent around our rocky coasts. Under the English name of father- lasher, tno species, however, seem to have been confound- ed.' There are many other species of the genus, one of which is extremely common in all the bays and gulfs of Greenland.
Under the generic name of Aspidophorus, several Cotti have been separated from the parent group. Their bodies are cuirassed by angular plates, and the teeth are wanting on the vomer. Such is a small fish common on our shores, and of which the membrane of the gills is gar- nished with fleshy filaments. It is the C. cataphractus of Linn., our common Pogge, or armed bull-head. See Plate CCXCIX. fig. 3.
We may here name three genera as intermediate be- tween Cottus and Scorpana, viz. Hemitripterus (ibid, fig. ■!■), Hemilepidotus, and Platvcephalus. We can- not enter into any details regarding them.
Genus ScoRPiENA, Linn. Head, as in Cottus, mailed and jagged, but compressed laterally; body covered with scales ; seven rays to the branchiae ; a single dorsal fin.
These are small fishes of a repulsive aspect, to be al- most inferred from the vulgar names bestowed upon them in most countries, such as scorpion, toad, sea-devil, &c. The species represented on the above Plate, fig. 5, was re- ceived from the Isle of France. Many others occur in the Indian seas, as well as in those of more northern countries.
The genus Sebastes of Cuv. possesses most of the cha- racters of .Scorpawa, although the head is less jagged and scaly. The species are widely dispersed through both the northern and southern seas. We have selected as an illustration (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 6) S. variabilis, which at- tains to the length of two feet, and occurs in great abun- dance in the seas about Kamtschatka and the Aleutian Isles, where it is used as food. To this genus belongs another northern species {S. norvegicus, Cuv. ; the sea- perch of Pennant), occasionally found along the British shores, and known to the Shetlanders under the name of Bergylt, or Norway haddock?
The genus Pterois of Cuv. contains the Scorpcena vo- litans of Gmelin and other authors, remarkable for its enormous pectoral fins, which resemble those of the fly- ing fish, except that they are feebler, and, from being so deeply notched, incapable of aiding the fish in leaving its native element. Mr Bennet was assured by the fish- ermen of Ceylon, where the species is very common, that they had never seen it fly.
The genus Apistus, Cuv., resembles Scorpana in its palatine teeth and dorsal fin ; but the few rays of the pec- torals are all branched. The distinguishing character, however, consists in the strong spine of the sub-orbitals, which on being projected from the cheek becomes a dan- gerous weapon ; the more so, as in a state of repose it is scarcely perceptible. In fact, their generic name is de- rived from amffros, perfidious. M. Ehrenberg has made us acquainted with a species from the Red Sea, which greatly resembles the Indian Wooi-ah-minoo described by Russel. It measures about four inches in length, and is of a reddish colour on the back, and whitish on the sides and abdomen. This Apistus flies like a Dactylopterus. Ehrenberg observed it in the vicinity of Tor ; and when-
Bucca
LoricatsE.
ever the sea was agitated, several fell into his vessel. As Acanthop it is the only flying fish of the Red Sea, and is extremely t^rygii abundant along those desert coasts over which the Israel- ites so long wandered, he has conjectured that the food mentioned in Exodus, ch. xvi. ver. 13, and by us translat- ed quails, was in reslity the fish in question. It is named by the Arabs Gherad el bahr, a term which we understand to signify sea locust. The genus is rather numerous. We have figured (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 7) Ap. marmoratus, a species transmitted by Peron fiom Timor. It surpasses the others in size, as well as in the lustre and precision of its marbled markings.
Genus Agriopus. No sub-orbital spine ; dorsal still higher than in the preceding genus, reaching as far for- ward as between the eyes ; the nape of the neck elevated ; muzzle narrowed ; mouth small and slightly toothed ; body without scales.
The fish called sea-horse {see paard) by the Dutch colonists at the Cape, and used by them as food, belongs to this genus. It is the A. torvus of Cuvier.
Genus Pelor, Cuv. Dorsal undivided, and teeth on the palate, like Scorpiena ; bod^' without scales ; two free rays beneath the pectorals ; anterior portion of the head appearing crushed ; e3'es approximate ; dorsal spines very high, and almost free ; sub-orbital spine wanting.
The fantastic shape and almost monstrous aspect of these fishes are alone sufficient to distinguish them from every other genus. It is scarcely possible by words alone to convey an idea of their extraordinary forms. ■ They in- habit the Indian seas, and one of the most remarkable is P.filamentorum, a species from the Isle of France, disco- vered during Duperrey's expedition. It may be inferred to feed upon Crustacea, as the remains of squillse were found within its stomach.
The genus Synanceia of Bloch and Schneider is quite as hideous as that of Pelor, and indeed surpasses all the Scorpaenae in ugliness. Their heads are rough, tubercu- lated, but not compressed, and frequently enveloped in a loose and fungous skin ; their pectoral rays are all branch- ed, their dorsals entire ; they have no teeth either on the vomer or palatines.
S. horrida, as the title implies, exhibits by no means an inviting aspect. It is named Ikan-swangi, or sorcerer fish, by the Malays. S. hrachio of Cuv. is the species called fi-fi, or hideous, by the Negroes of the Isle of France, who hold it in great abhorrence. In fact, nothing can be con- ceived more frightful. At first sight, no one would consi- der it a fish, but rather as a mass or unformed lump of corrupted jellj'. " Totum corpus," says Commerson, " muco squalidum et quasi ulcerosum." Its head and members seem enveloped in a sack of thick, soft, spongy skin, warty and wrinkled like that of a leper, and irregu- larly blotted over with various tints of brown and grey. Sometimes it appears entirely black ; but it is always gluey and disgusting to the touch. The little eyes are scarcely discernible in the large cavernous head. This species is said to possess great tenacity of life, and sur- vives for a long time out of the water. The skin, in fact, forms a little ring like that oi' Pelor, in the upper part of the gills, above the point of the opercle, through which the fish can respire at pleasure, leaving the remainder of the cover closed, and the branchiae consequently unex- posed to desiccation. The inhabitants of the Isle of France regard it rather as a reptile than a fish ; and they fear what they call its sting (that is, the wound inflicted by its spines) more than that of snakes or scorpions.
Genus Monocentris, Bloch. Body short, thick, and
• See Hitt. Nat. dcs Poistont, t. iv. pp. 160-165 ; and Yarrell's BritUh FUhct, pp. 60-63. ' Fleming's British Animals, p. 212.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acauthop. completely mailed with enormous angular scales, rough 'erygii. ^„^ carinated ; dorsal fin represented by four or five thick Buccoe spings . gjjch ventral consisting of a single enormous spine, orica ce. j^ ^j^^ angle of which some small soft rays lie concealed ; head large and mailed ; front gibbous ; mouth large ; small and close-set teeth in the jaws and palatines, but none upon the vomer ; eight branchial rays.
Of this remarkable genus there is only a single species known, a small fish of a silvery whiteness, measuring about six inches in length. It inhabits the seas of Japan. See Plate CCXCIX. fig. 8.
Genus Gasterosteus, Cuv. Cheeks mailed, but the head neither spined nor tuberculated, as in the preceding genera. The special characters consist in the freedom of the dorsal spines, which do not form a fin, and in the pel- vis being united to larger humerals than usual, thus fur- nishing the abdomen with a kind of bony cuirass. The ventrals, placed posterior to the pectorals, are reduced al- most to a single spine. There are only three branchial rays.
The species are small fishes familiarly known under the name of Stlckle-backs (Scotice, Betilicles), extremely common in all the fresh waters of Europe. Gesner indeed asserted that they did not occur in Switzerland ; but the contrary has been long since ascertained. Our most common species is G. aculeatus, Linn. (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 9), under which name, however, it is supposed that more than a single kind has been confounded. It is an active and greedy little fish, extremely destructive of the fry of other species, and consequently injurious in ponds where these are sought to be preserved. Mr Henry Ba- ker informs us that it will spring not less than a foot per- pendicularly out of the water, and to a much greater dis- tance in an oblique direction, when it desires to overcome any opposing obstacle. " It is scarcely to be conceived," he adds, " what damage these little fish do, and how greatly detrimental they are to the increase of all the fish in general among which they live ; for it is with the ut- most industry, sagacity, and greediness that they seek out and destroy all the young fry that come in their way, which are pursued with the utmost eagerness, and swal- lowed down without distinction, provided they are not too large ; and in proof of this, I must assert that a bannstic- kle which I kept for some time, did, on the 4th of May, de- vour, in five hours' time, seventy-four young dace, which were about a quarter of an inch long, and of the thickness of a horse-hair. Two days after it swallowed sixty-two; and would, I am persuaded, have eat as many every day, could I have procured them for it." The stickle-back sometimes swarms in prodigious numbers. Pennant states, that at Spalding, in Lincolnshire, there are once in seven years amazing shoals, which appear in the Welland, com- ing up the river in the form of a vast column. This con- course is supposed to arise from the multitudes which have been washed out of the fens by the floods of several years, and which collect in deep holes, till, overcharged with numbers, they are obliged to attempt a change of place. The quantity may perhaps be conceived from the fact, that a man employed in collecting them gained for a considerable time four shillings a day by selling them at the rate of a halfpenny a bushel. G. pmigitivus, com- monly called the smaller or ten-spined stickle-back, is the least of all our fresh-water fishes. In common, how- ever, with a more truly marine species (G.spiTiochia, Linn., which forms a sub-genus), it is also found in the sea.'
We shall here conclude our exposition of the family with mailed cheeks.
175
FAMILY III.— SCl.ENID^. Acanthop-
terypii.
This family is closely related to the Percidae, and exhi- r""^^^ bits almost all the same combinations of external charac- ^-^'^"^ ters, especially the dentations of the pre-opercle, and the opercular spines ; but the Scia;nidas have never any teeth either on the vomer or palatines ; the bones of the face and cranium are generally cavernous, and the muzzle more or less gibbous ; a form rarely observed among the Per- cida;. The vertical fins are frequently somewhat scaly.
Even in its interior organization our present family bears a considerable resemblance to the perches ; but there are greater variations, and especially a more compli- cated structure of the swimming bladder. In several spe- cies that organ is furnished with a multitude of branched appendages (See Plate CCXCVII. figs. 6, 7, 8) ; and al- though we cannot trace in it any connection with the ex- terior, yet when we consider that many of the Sciaenidae are more remarkable even than the gurnards for the produc- tion of extraordinary sounds, it is difficult to believe that the peculiar structure of the swimming bladder is not in some way connected with their utterance. The Sciaenidae are almost as numerous as the perches ; they are charac- terised in a great measure by similar habits, and present the same advantages to the human race. They almost all afford excellent eating ; of several, indeed, the flavour is exquisite ; and a few are of great size. The famous maigre, for example (<S. aquila, Cuv.), commonly weighs about sixty pounds, and sometimes attains to the length of six feet.
A. Two dorsal fins.
Genus Sci^na, Cuv. Head gibbous, supported by ca- vernous bones ; two dorsals, or one deeply emarginate, with its softer portion much longer than the spinous ; a short anal fin ; a dentated pre-opercle ; an opercle terminated by points ; seven branchial rays.
The species bear a great resemblance to perch, except that they want the teeth upon the palate. Their whole head is scaly, their swimming bladder irequently furnished with remarkable appendages, and the stony bones of the ear are larger than in most fishes. One of the most re- markable is the maigre above alluded to (<S'. aquila), call- ed Unibrina by the Romans, and held in high esteem even at the present day. (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 10.) It is a rare fish on the outer coasts of Europe, and disappears almost entirely towards the north. The only example with which we are acquainted of its appearance in the northern parts of our own country is recorded by Dr Patrick Neill.^ It was caught off Ugea in Northmavine, Shetland, in Novem- ber 1819, and was first observed by the fishermen while endeavouring to escape from a seal. It measured five feet four inches in length, and when lifted into the boat, made its usual " purring sound." Other instances are mention- ed by Mr Yarrell. It is, however, extremely common in many parts of the Mediterranean, especially along the Ro- man states. Paul Jovius mentions that many are taken there at the mouths of rivers, along with sturgeons. They swim in troops, and are said to utter at times a singular low bellowing beneath the waters. It is recorded that three fishermen, guided by this sound, dropt their net on one occasion so successfully as to secure twenty fine fish at a single throw. The noise may be heard at a depth of twenty fathoms, and is often very perceptible when the ear is placed upon the gunnel of the boat. Its tone seems to vary, as some have compared it to a dull buzzing, others to a sharp whistle. Some of the fishermen allege that the
' It appears that we now possess seven British species of stickle-back, of which the four-tpined (G. tpinulosus, Yarrell) was discovered by Dr James Stark in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. He exhibited specimens to the AV'emerian Nat. Hist. Society in 1831. ' £din. NcK Phil. Journ. No. 1.
176
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acaiithop. males alone are musical during spawning time, and that it Sde^fd' ^^ V^f^s possible to capture them without any bait, merely ^^^^^,^^ by imitating this peculiar sound. One alluded to by Cu- vier as having been entangled in a net spread along the shore at Dieppe, was at first found sleeping ; but on being handled, it roused itself so suddenly, and with such vio- lence, as to precipitate the fisherman into the water, and force him to call for assistance before he could become its master. High, though of course imaginary virtues, were formerly attributed to the stones which occur in the ear of this, as of other osseous fishes. They were worn on the neck, set in gold ; and Belon says they were called cotic- stones, being renowned for the cure, and even prevention, of that complaint. It «as necessary, however, that they should be received as a gift, — such as were purchased be- ing found to lose their virtue.
The species above mentioned belongs to the genus Sci- «NA proper of Cuvier, a subdivision characterised by the feebleness of the anal spines, and by the want of canine teeth and barbies.
Other subdivisions of the principal genus Sci;ena are as follows : — OroLiTHUsand Ancylodon are foreign groups (from India and America), which we shall merely name. CoRviNA of Cuvier differs from Sciaena proper chiefly in the much greater strength of the second anal spine. An abundant species in the Mediterranean is the C. nigra, of a silvery brown colour, with the ventral and anal fins black. It occurs in salt marshes and the sea, but does not appear to ascend rivers. It is less esteemed than the maigre, but is not unfrequently sold for that fish in the Italian markets. JoHNius of Bloch is closely allied to the preceding. We here figure as an example of that minor group, the C. den- tex of Cuv., a species from St Domingo. (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 12.) Several of the fishes used as food in India belong to the genus Jolinius. Their flesh is light, but not highly flavoured. They are called ivhitings by the English in Bengal. The species are tolerably numerous, and inha- bit both seas and rivers. Umbrina of Cuvier is distin- guished from the other Sciaenae by bearing a barbie on the symphysis of the lower jaw. (Ibid. fig. 11.) The spe- cies represented ( U. coroides) is a native of Brazil. The bearded Umbrina ( U. vulgaris, Cuv.), a species frequent on the coasts of France, Italy, and Spain, was captured in the river Eye in 1827, as recorded in the minute-book of the Linna-an Society. Pogonias, Lacepede, resembles the preceding ; but it is furnished with several barbies in- stead of one. The species are remarkable for their size, some of them weighing occasionally aboveahundred pounds, and for the singular sounds uttered by them, and which have gained them the vulgar name of drums. Mr John White, an American lieutenant, who (in 1824) published a Voyage to the China Seas, relates, that being at the mouth of the river Cambodia, himself and crew were great- ly astonished by certain extraordinary sounds, which were heard from around and beneath the vessel. They resembled a combination of the base of an organ, tjie sound of bells, and the guttural cries of a large frog, with certain tones, which the imagination might attribute to a gigantic harp. It might almost have been said that the vessel trembled at those uncertain sounds. For some time they increased, and finally formed a loud and universal chorus, the entire length of the vessel, and on either side. In proportion as they ascended the river the mysterious sounds diminished, and finally altogether ceased. The interpreter gave the information that they were produced by a troop of fishes of a flattened oval form, which possess the faculty of ad- hering firmly to various bodies by their mouths. A simi-' lar phenomenon was noticed by the illustrious Humboldt in the South Seas, although he was unable at the time to divine the cause. It would, as Cuvier has remarked, be an object of curious research to discover by what organ
these sounds are produced. We have already mentioned, Acantliop- that the majority of the Sciaenida;, especially such as are the tervgii. most remarkable for the utterance of the sounds in ques- Spaiiila;. tion, have large swimming bladders, furnished with strong ^"^■r^-^ muscles. In some species the organ is characterised by- prolongations, more or less complicated, which even pene- trate the intervals of the ribs. It must, however, be borne in mind that these swimming bladders have no communi- cation with the intestinal canal, nor in general with any part of the exterior. The example of the genus here figured is P.fasciatus (Labrus Grunniens of Dr Mitchell), a ISforth American species. (Plate CCXCIX. fig. LS.)
Genus Eques, Bloch. Recognisable by a compressed elongated body, raised at the shoulders, and finishing in a point towards the tail ; the first dorsal is elevated, the se- cond long and scaly.
All the known species are American. See Plate CCXCIX. fig. 14.
B. A single dorsal fin.
a. Seven branchial rays.
The genera of this subdivision are HiEMULON, Dia- GRAMM A, and Pristipom A, foreign groups, of each of which we have figured an example. See Plate CCC. figs. 1,2, 3.
b. Less than seven branchial rays.
This minor group is again subdivisible in accordance with the character of the lateral line. Those in which that part is continuous to the tail are the genera Lobo- TEs (Plate CCC. fig. 4), Cheilgdactylus (ibid. fig. 7), ScoLOPSiDEs (ibid. fig. 6), and Latilus (ibid. fig. 9). Those in which it is interrupted are Amphiprion (ibid, fig. 5), Premnas (ibid. fig. 8), Pomocentrus (ibid. fig. 11), Dascyllus, Glyphisodon (ibid. fig. 10), and He- liases. All these last-named genera consist of small species, which, with few exceptions, are natives of the Indian seas, the shores of which they embellish by the splendour of their colours, which are in general extremely brilliant. They may be perceived swimming about inces- santly, and with great vivacity, among the rocks, and in the watery pools left by the ebbing tide. Although for the most part eatable, none of the species furnishes an im- portant article of consumption, on account of the smallness of their size, and their not occurring in numerous shoals.
FAMILY IV — SPARID.«.
The genera of this family, like those of the Sciaenidae, have the palate destitute of teeth, and in their general forms, as well as in several particulars of their organiza- tion, they bear a strong alliance to that family ; but they have no scales upon the fins. Their muzzle is not gib- bous, nor the bones of their head cavernous. There are no dentations to the pre-opercle, nor spines to the opercle. The pylorus is furnished with caecal appendages. None of the species possesses more than six rays to the bran- chiae. They are further divisible according to the form of their teeth.
Genus Sargus, Cuv. Cutting incisors in front of the jaws, almost similar to those of the human race.
The species in general feed on shells and the smaller Crustacea, which they easily crush with their molar teeth. Certain kinds appear to devour fuci, at least Cuvier found the stomachs of some which came from the Red Sea, and of others from the Atlantic Ocean, filled with that marine vegetation. Many vague notices of the Sargi are con- tained in ancient authors. TElian and Oppian inform us that the male is polygamous, and fights with great fury against his own sex for the possession of many females.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
177
Acnnthop- The same authors attribute to it a feeling still more ex- terygii. traordinary, — a lively passion for goats, which it exhibits Spariilaf. |,y always swimming with great rapidity towards those '^^^ animals, and indulging in playful gambols before them. So blind was this passion, that a fisherman (it was so al- leged) might catch as many as he pleased by disguising himself with the skin and horns of a goat, and scattering in the water flour steeped in goats' broth. We have some- where seen a doggrel rhyme in allusion to this strange and foundationless fancy (it may have been an attempted translation of an ancient epigram), in which it was ex- pressed that the Sargus
Went courting she-goats on the grassy shore, Horning those husbands who had horns before.
The best-known species inhabits the Mediterranean. It is the S. Rondektiiot Cuv. (Plate CCC. fig. 12.) The American shores produce several others, one of which (S. ovis) is called the sheep s-1iead by the Americans. Dr Mitchell speaks in the most eulogistic terms of the superexcellence of its flesh, and of the high esteem in which it is held at the tables of New York. It yields in his opinion to fevi fishes, and is worthy of being served at the most sumptuous entertainments. The price varies from a dollar to a dollar and a half for a middle-sized in- dividual, and above that size the price ranges even so high as from four to seven pounds sterling. They some- times weigh from fourteen to fifteen pounds. The fish- ery of this species forms an object of importance along the coasts of the state of New York. It approaches those of Long Island in the hot season from the month of June till the middle of September, after which it seems to seek retirement iri the deep abysses of the ocean. As they swim in troops, they may be advantageously fished for with the net, and many hundreds are sometimes taken at a single cast. With the great nets used at Rayner town, and the two islands, thousands are drawn ashore. They are immediately packed in ice, and despatched during the cool of the night to the markets of New York. It is diffi- cult tn take the sheep's-head with a line, because it con- trives to snap the very hooks asunder with its cutting teeth.
Genus Chrysophris, Cuv. Round molars on the sides of the jaw, forming at least three rows on the upper one ; a few conical or blunted teeth in front.
The species of this genus are numerous, and extended through many seas. Those of the Mediterranean are only two in number, and are called Daurades by the French, no doubt from the Latin Aurata, a term applied to them by ancient authors. The Greeks named them Chrysophris, which signifies golden eye-brow, in allusion to the brilliant spot of gold which the common species bears between its eyes. That the Aurafa of the Latins was identical with the Chrysophris of the Greeks, may be inferred from a passage in Pliny, which is obviously bor- rowed from Aristotle, and where the former word is used as the translation of the latter. According to Columella, the Aurata was among the number of the fishes brought up by the Romans in their vivaria ; and the inventor of these vivaria, one Sergius Grata, is supposed to have de- rived his surname from the fish in question. jElian tells us that the Chrysophris is the most timid of all fishes, and that branches of poplars planted in the sand during a reflux so terrified a party of these fishes which were carried upwards by the flux, that in the succeeding re- flux they did not dare to pass the poplars, but allowed themselves to be taken by the hand.
The only species wo shall here notice is the Chryso- Acanthop- phris aurnta (Plate CCC. fig. 14), described under the terygii. name of Gilt-head hy Pennant.' This fish seldom quits the Sj^ridae. vicinity of the shore, and grows extremely fat in the salt ^'~>"*^ ponds. We owe to Duhamel whatever information we possess regarding its habits. The fishermen informed that author that it agitates the sand forcibly with its tail, so as to discover the shell- fish which may lie beneath con- cealed. It is extremely fond of muscles, and its near presence is sometimes ascertained by the noise which it makes while breaking their shells with its teeth. It great- ly dreads cold, and many were observed to perish during the severe winter of 1766. The Gilt-head is a British species, but of extremely rare occurrence.
Genus Pagrus, Cuv. Differs from the preceding by having only two rows of small rounded molar teeth in each jaw; the front teeth are either like those of a wool card, or small and crowded.
We have figured the best-known species, Pagrus vul- garis, C\jim. ( Sp. pagrus, Linn.), the braize or becker of English authors, which appears to be confined chiefly to the Mediterranean. (See Plate CCC. fig. 13.) Its sy- nonyms seem confused and contradictory, and are great- ly mingled in the works both of British and foreign au- thors with those of certain Pagelli and other Sparidae. Its history as a British species is obscure. Dr Fleming no doubt records it in his British Animals, p. 211; but as he indicates it by " a dark spot at the base of the pec- torals," it is probable that his actual species was Pagellus centrodontus, Cuv. synonymous with Sparus orphus of Linn. Mr Couch, however, observes that it appears on the Cor- nish coast in moderately deep water throughout the sum- mer and autumn, and retires in winter and spring.'-
Genus Pagellus, Cuv. Teeth nearly resembling those of Pagrus, but the molars, equally in two rows, are smaller ; the conical teeth in front are slender and more numerous ; and the physiognomy is different in conse- quence of a more elongated muzzle.
Several species occur in the European seas. P. erythri- nus, commonly called the Spanish Bream (Plate CCC. fig. 15), is very abundant in the Mediterranean, and even enters the Atlantic, advancing pretty far north. It is very rare along the British shores. The fish figured by Donovan {British Fishes, iv. pi. 89) as the Sparus aurata of Linn. (Pennant's Gilt-head) belongs to our present ge- nus. It is the Pagellus centrodontus just before referred to, which Pennant also erroneously regarded as synony- mous with Sparus pagrus of Linn. It is by no means a rare British species, although usually concealed by our modern authors under some other name. It is the sea- hream of Couch and Montagu.
Genus Dentex, Cuv. Conical teeth even on the sides of the maxillae, usually in a single row, and of which some of the anterior are lengthened into large hooks.
The Dentex vulgaris, a fish of a silvery hue, shaded into blue upon the back, with reddish pectoral fins, and sometimes attaining to the weight of twenty pounds, has occurred upon the Sussex coast. The specimen figured by Donovan, pi. 73, was obtained in Billingsgate market.
Genus Cantharis, Cuv. Teeth small and closely set all round the jaws, the outer range being the strong- est ; body elevated and thick ; muzzle short ; jaws not pro- tractile.
The species of this genus, of which four inhabit the European seas, are very voracious, and easily taken by hook and line. We may name as an example the fish called the black bream by Montagu-' ( Cantharus griseus,
' The Giluhead of Donovan and Turton is, however, another species, the Pagellus centrodontus. Cut. ' Linn. Trans, vol Xiv. p. 79. 3 Mem. of Wernerian Society, vol. ii. p. 451.
VOL. XII. Z
J 78
Acantliop- tervgii- Menidae.
Squammi. peiines.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Cuv. ; Pagrus Uneatus, Fleming ; Sparus brama, Linn.). Other species occur about the Cape of Good Hope, and in the Indian seas ; but it does not appear that any have yet been observed along the American shores, or around the islands of the Atlantic.
The genus Boops,' with which we shall conclude our sketch of the Sparidae, has its outer row of teeth of a tren- chant or cutting form ; the mouth small, and not at all protractile. Two species occur in the European seas, more particularly in the Mediterranean. They differ from most of their congeners in living entirely on marine plants, such as alga; and fuci of various kinds. In accordance with this vegetable diet, their intestinal canal is very long, though they have tevf appendages around the pylorus. They are celebrated for the beauty of their colours.
FAMILY v.— MENID.E
The genera of this family differ from those of the pre- ceding in their upper jaw being capable of projection and retraction, in consequence of the length of the intermaxil- lary pedicles, which withdraw between the orbits. Their body is scaly like that of Sparus, of which genus they formed a part, until their re-arrangement by Baron Cuvier.
As we have nothing of general interest to state regard- ing the fishes of this comparatively limited group, we shall merely refer, in relation to its general contents, to our Systematic Table (note to page 165), and proceed to
FAMILY VI.—SQUAMMIPENNES.
So called because the softer, and frequently also the spinous portions of the dorsal and anal fins are covered with scales, which as it were encrust them, and render their discrimination from the rest of the body by no means easy. This is the most obvious character of these fishes, of which the form is in general much compressed. The intestines are rather long, and the caeca numerous. This family was comprised by Linnaeus in his genus Chjetodon, so called from the long, slender, and hair-like character of the teeth ; and the species in general are alike remarkable for their singular forms and splendid colours.
The seas of the torrid zone have indeed no cause to envy the productions of those famous lands, the shores of which they have so long bathed with their translucent waters. If the equatorial regions of Africa and Ameri- ca possess, among their feathered tribes, the brilliant soui- mangas, the lustrous humming birds, and the gorgeous chatterers, the intermediate ocean and the Indian seas contain countless thousands of the finny race which sur- pass even these in splendour. The Cha?todons, in parti- cular, form a family on which nature has bestowed her ornaments with a most lavish hand. The deep purple of the iris, the paler richness of the rose, the azure blue of the " crystalline sky," the darkest velvet black, — these hues, and many more, are seen commingled with metallic lustre over the pearly surface of this resplendent group. The eye of man receives the greater pleasure from their contemplation, in as far as being of moderate size, and haunting habitually the rocky shores, at no great depth of water, they are seen to sport in the sunbeams, as if desir- ous to exhibit their splendid liveries to the greatest ad- vantage in the blaze of day.
Tribe \st. TeetJi Hair-like. Genus Ch^todon, Cuv. Body more or less elliptical,
the spinous and the softer rays continuing in a nearly Acanthop- uniform curve; muzzle'more or less advanced; the pre- terygii. opercle sometimes finely dentated. Sijuammi-
The species resemble each other not only in the more P^""®^' essential characters just stated, but even in the distribu- »^ tion of their markings. The majority, for example, are characterised by a black vertical band, in which the eye is placed. In some we find several additional vertical bands parallel to the one mentioned ; in others they are oblique or horizontal. Certain species are distinguish- ed by a filament which results from the prolongation of one or more of the soft rays of the dorsal fin. The ge- nus is very extensive, containing upwards of sixty spe- cies even in its restricted constitution. We must here confine ourselves to a slight notice of two or three of these. ChiEtodon reticulatus, Cuv. (Plate CCCI. fig. 1) is a beautiful example obtained by MM. Lesson and Garnot at Otaheite. Its sides are mailed or reticulated by a longitudinal series of scales. It measures about six inches in length, and four in height. Ch. lunula, Cuv. (ibid. fig. 2), occurs at the Isle of France. It is nearly of the same size as the preceding, A third species, of even more singular markings, is Ch. Ephippium of the same author (ibid. fig. 3). It was found at the Moluccas by M. Reinwardt — at Bolabola one of the Society Islands, by MM. Lesson and Garnot, — and appears, by a coloured drawing in the Banksian Library, to have likewise oc- curred at Otaheite during Cook's third voyage.
Genus Chelmon, Cuv. Separated from Cha?todon on account of the extraordinary form of the muzzle, which is long and slender, open only at the extremity, and form- ed by the inordinate horizontal prolongation of the inter- maxillary bone above, and of the inferior jaw. These parts are united for two thirds of their length by a mem- brane, so that the mouth is nothing more than a small terminal cleft. The teeth are rather fine and closely set than hair-like. Chelmon rostratus ( Chat. rost. Linn.) is the most anciently known. It is a small fish, measuring from six to eight inches in length, and is remarkable for the following peculiarity. It feeds on flies and other winged insects, and when it perceives one of these either hovering over the surface, or settled on a twig or blade of grass, it ejects against it with considerable force a drop of liquid from ist tubular snout, so as to drive it into the water. In shooting at a sitting insect it generally ap- proaches cautiously within a few feet before it explodes the water. Schlosser has described this curious device in the Philosophical Transactions for 1764, after Hum- mel, and it has since been confirmed by Reinwardt. It is even said to be an amusement of the Chinese in Java to keep this fish in confinement in a large vessel of water, with a view to observe its dexterity in the practice of this admirable instinct. They fasten a fly or other insect to the side of the vessel, when the Chelmon immediate- ly bombards it with such precision as very rarely to miss the mark. In a state of nature it is said to inhabit both the coasts and rivers of Java. We are as yet acquainted with only one other species of this restricted genus. It is the Ch. longirostris of Broussonet, of which the reader will find an accurate representation on Plate CCCI. fig. 5. It is not known de facto to possess the same singu- lar mode of capturing its prey as the preceding, but that it does so may be almost infierred from its similarity of structure.
Genus Henochius, Cuv. Differs from Chastodon in the spines of the back, particularly the third and fourth, being greatly increased in length, and forming a filament sometimes double the length of the body.
Tlie generic name is changed to Box in the Hist. Nat. ties Poissons, t. vi. p. 340.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
179
Acantliop.
tervcfii. Squaninii-
pennes.
//. macrolepidotus is a larpc fisli, celebrated in the East for the excellence of its tlavour. It is called Vlag- man by the Dutcli colonists, in allusion to the long fila- ment upon the back. They also name it Ttifel-visch, on account of its frequent use as food. Iluysch asserts that at Amboyna no good dinner is ever served without it, and he compares its taste to that of the finest flounder. The specimens hitherto sent to Europe do not seem to exceed the length of ten inches; but the species must at times greatly exceed that size, if, as llenard and Valentyn as- sert, it weighs from twenty to twenty-five pounds. As an example of this extraordinary genus we have figured Heuochius moitoceros, a species recently transmitted from the Isle of France by MM. Quoy and Gaimard, Plate CCCI. fig. 4. The specimen represented does not mea- sure above seven inches, and its height is almost equal to its length.
The genus Zanclus of Commerson is closely allied to the preceding, but the scaling is so much more delicate that the skin appears almost smooth to the naked eye. The external aspect is, if possible, still more extraordi- nary. We have here engraved L. cornutus of Cuv. (Plate CCCI. fig. 8), which, on account probabl3f of its singular form and horned front, has become an object al- most of superstitious reverence among the fishermen of the Moluccas. It is alleged, that when they happen to capture one of this species, they immediately salute it by certain genuflexions, and then cast it into the sea. It is, however, an excellent table fish, which attains a weight of fifteen pounds, and resembles the turbot in flavour. It is rather widely diffused, occurring both in the Indian seas and Pacific Ocean.
Genus Ephippus, Cuv. Distinguished by a deep emargination between the spinous and softer portion of the dorsal fin ; the former part has no scales, and can be folded into a groove on the back.
An American species (E. gigas) is remarkable for the great club-shaped enlargement of the first inter-spinal of the anal and dorsal fins, and by a similar enlargement of the crest of the cranium. A fish which may be referred to a subdivision of this genus, occurs among the fossils of Mount Bolca.'
Baron Cuvier has remarked,^ that among all the strange and fantastic fishes preserved in the representations of Ruysch, Renard, and Valentyn,' and which have so long excited the mistrust of naturalists, none seems more likely to provoke that feeling than the species which these wri- ters designate by the Malay name of Skankarbauiu, or buf- falo-fish ; and yet it now turns out that none is more accordant with the truth of nature. Its sharp recurved horns, the protuberance above the head, the compressed and unequal spines, and the singular distribution of colour, — all exist in a species recently received from the Indian Archipelago. It has accordingly been named Taurich- THYS by Cuvier, — the Greek translation of the Malay name. The species here figured is T. varius, which is from four to six inches long, with a height almost equal to its length. See Plate CCCI. fig. 7.
Genus Holacanthus, Lacep. A large spine at the
pennes.
angle of the pre-opercle, the margins of which are usually Acanthop- dentated. terygii.
The s|)ecies are remarkable for the great beauty and ^quamnn- synuiietrical distribution of their colours, and for their ex- cellence as articles of food. They are numerous both in the Indian and American seas. One of the most celebrat- ed for the splendour and singularity of its aspect, is that named the Emperor of Japan by the Dutch, Chmtodon JmperatoT of Bloch, figured in many works. Its body is deep blue, traversed all over by about two and thirty nar- row bands of orange yellow.'* The pectoral fins are black, and the entire tail bright yellow. It is a large fish of its kind, sometimes attaining the length of fifteen inches, and, as an article of food, is one of the most esteemed of all the Indian species, resembling our own much-prized salmon in flavour. Another and more recently discovered species is H. semicircidatus, Cuv. It occurs both at Timor and New Ireland. Its colours are white and blue, its length from four to five inches. The inhabitants of Waigiou call it Mami.
Genus Platax, Cuv. Anterior to the brush-like teeth, a row of cutting teeth, each of which is divided into three points ; body much compressed, and apparently pro- longed into thick, greatly elevated, scaly, vertical fins, in the anterior edge of which a small number of spines lie concealed.
Almost all the known species occur either in the Indian or Pacific Oceans. One or two were found by Ruppell in the Red Sea. They are esteemed as food. Words can convey but a feeble idea of the anomalous form of these fishes, some of which, if we include the vertical fins, are more than twice as high as they are long. We here figure the ChcEtodon teira of Bloch, wliich is a true Platax, Plate CCCI. fig. 6. It was brought by M. Dussumier from the coast of Malabar. It is said to attain to the length of two feet, a g^eat size for a fish of this genus, many of which measure only a few inches. P. punctulatus, indeed, may be regarded as one of the smallest of known fishes, as it is only an inch long. It occurs at Timor.
Genus Psettus, Commerson. Form resembling the preceding ; but all the teeth are small and crowded, and the ventral fins are reduced to a single small spine, without soft rays.
The species are natives of the Indian seas. Their teeth are rather short and close than in the usual bristle-like form of our present tribe of Squammipennes, yet they can- not be arranged under tribe third, in as far as they want the teeth iqion the palate. The Chcetodoti rhombeus of Bloch and Schneider belongs to this genus. It was an- ciently represented by Seba (t. iii. pi. 26, fig. 21), and now bears the name of Psettus Sebce. The species is ex- tremely rare, and its native country was unknown, till in recent times a specimen was transmitted from the Senegal coast by M. Perottet. It measures six inches in length, and is considerably higher than long. See Plate CCCII. fig. 1.
Tribe 2rf. With cutting teeth.
Genus Pimelepterus, Lacep. Distinguished from all other fishes by a single range of teeth borne upon a ho-
' Itliol. Veronese, plate 5, fig. 2. • I/ist. Nat. dcs Poissorrs, t. vii. p. 146.
' The works alluded to above are the following : — 1. The Theutrum Atiimalbwi of Henry lUiysch (son <it' the celebrated anato- mist), two vols, in folio, Anisterd. 1718, which is in fact a tliird edition of Johnston's prior work of the same name, with the addition of the plates of fishes, to be afterwards noticed. 2. A Dutch work entitled East India, Ancient and Modern, in five vols, folio, Am- sterd. 1724-26. The author was Francis Valentyn, a Protestant clergyman of Amboyna. 3. A Collection of P'igures of Fish, and other ."Marine Creatures, published by Francis Renard, in one vol. foho, Amsterd. 17.34. This recucil was formed about thirty years prior to its publication, and was engraved from a collection of native Indian drawings, which, under a necessarily extraordinary aspect, are now known to exhibit with accuracy many truly interesting species. The same series of drawings, or a corresponding copy, seems to have supplied the originals of both the other works just named.
■* Shaw describes this magnificent fish as of a '" golden-yellow, longitudinally but somewhat obliquely striped with very nume- rous bright blue parallel rays." This seems in some measure the reverse of the above, but is accounted for by the equal proper. tion of the two colours, either of which may be regarded as the groundwork.
180
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Squammi pen lies.
Acajithop- rizontal base or heel, on the anterior edge of wliich is a terygii. vertical cutting portion. The body is oblong, the head obtuse, and the 6ns rendered thick by means of the scales with which they are covered.
P. Boscii is a small Atlantic species, which measures about five inches in length. Bosc, by whom it was brought from the coast of Carolina, has seen it following vessels in the high seas, and assembling in troops around the stern, in order to seize upon whatever is thrown overboard. It is shy at seizing a hook, and is said to know how to carry off the bait without being captured. It is sought after as food by the French, though held in slight esteem by the natives of Britain.
The only other genus of this tribe is that named Dipte- KODON by Lacepede.
Tribe 3d. Teeth either close-set or en carde on the Jaws and palate.
Genus Bkama, Bloch and Schneider. Pertains to our present family, so far as concerns the scales which cover the vertical fins, which have only a small number of spiny rays concealed in their anterior margins ; but the teeth are en carde on the jaws and palate, the profile elevated, the muzzle very short, the front descending vertically, the mouth almost vertical when closed. The scales reach as far as the maxillaries ; there are seven rays to the gills ; a low dorsal and anal fin, each commencing by a salient point ; a short stomach, a small intestine, and only five cffica.
Of this genus there was known till recently only a sin- gle species, that of the Mediterranean, the Sparus Rati of Bloch.
It is only of late that its characters and history have been rendered in any way clear or satisfactory — a fact the more remarkable when we consider its large size, its singu- lar form, its extreme abundance, and the exquisite flavour of its flesh. In spite of all these circumstances, most mo- dern authors seem to have written regarding it as if they were blindfolded. Bloch regarded it as a northern fish, simply because so far back as 1681 a specimen was thrown ashore on our Yorkshire coast ; and Lacepede describes it as an oceanic species. The individual above alluded to was described by Ray in his Synopsis (p. 115), under the title of Braina marina cauda forcipata. Pennant figures and describes it in his British Zoology (2d edition) by the name of toothed Gilt-head, and it seems indicated by Mr Couch (in Linn. Trans, xiv. 78) as a Chaetodon seen ott' the coast of Cornwall. There is no doubt that its central dominion is in the Mediterranean, as it is extremely com- mon along many coasts of that inland sea.' It is called Rondauin in the markets of Genoa. At the same time there is no doubt that it wanders occasionally as far north even as Denmark, and that many accidental specimens have been captured along both the British and Irish shores. Two other species have lately been discovered in the equa- torial seas.
Genus Toxotes, Cuv. Body short and compressed ; dorsal situate on the hinder part of the back, strongly spined, its softer portion, as well as the corresponding part of the anal, scaly ; muzzle depressed, short ; lower jaw more advanced than the upper ; small close-set teeth in either jaw, on the vomer, the palatines, the pterygoids, and tongue ; six branchial rays ; very fine dentations on the inferior margin of the sub-orbital bone and pre- opercle. Stomach short and broad ; twelve ca.cal apjien- dages upon the pylorus ; swimming bladder large and thin.
ridse.
The Toxotes jaculatOT (Plate CCCII. fig. 2) is a small Acanthop- Javanese species, measuring six or seven inches in length, tervgii. remarkable for possessing the same faculty as that men- S'^ombe- tioned in our notice of Clielmon rostratus. When it per-- , ' "'" ceives a fly or other insect upon an aquatic plant, it dex- terously drives it into the water by a shower of drops. Cuvier received a specimen from Batavia, the stomach' of which was entirely filled with ants. This species has been erroneously multiplied in systematic works. It is twice described by Shaw- under two different names (Scrirus Schlosseri and Labrus jaculator), neither of v/hich is the right one ; and there is no doubt of its being identical with Hamilton Buchanan's Coins chatereus, a supposed new species irom the Ganges.^ It seems pretty widely distributed throughout the Indian Archipelago, and is known to the Malays by the name of ikan-siimpit.
FAMILY VII._SCO.\IBERID:E.
One of the most useful to the human race of the entire class of fishes, whether we consider their agreeable fla- vour, their considerable size, or their inexhaustible pro- ductive powers. We may mention the mackerel, the tunny, and bonito, as familiar examples.
When considered isolately, these celebrated fishes are by no means difficult to characterise. The simple sepa- ration of the posterior of the second dorsal, and of those of the anal fin, would of itself suffice ; but the species above named are the chiefs of a numerous series of gene- ra and sub-genera, in which the more typical form gi'a- dually alters, and passes insensibly into others which do not exhibit either the character just mentioned, or almost any other by which the principal types are distinguished. Scales usually very small, causing the greater part of the skin to appear as if entirely smooth ; opercular pieces without spines or dentations, and in general numerous caeca ; — these are almost the only prevailing characters which can be assigned to the family, which at the same time exhibits a likeness in the aspect of its constituent groups which never leaves it. In short, it forms what bo- tanists call a family by series or transition. The majori- ty have the sides of the caudal extremity carinated, or armed with scales or shields, which are themselves cari- nated ; or the terminal rays of the second dorsal or of the anal are free ; or the spiny rays of that dorsal want their uniting membrane. Most frequently the caudal fin is of great size, and corresponding vigour. In the majo- rity, also, the first spiny rays of the anal fin are separated from the others, and form, as it were, a small distinct fin by themselves. But none of these characters is common to the whole.
We may here group, as forming the First Great Tribe, those genera of which the anterior dorsal Jin is entire, but the terminal rays of the posterior one are detached or iso- lated, Jorming what may be called finlets or spurious Jins [pinna spuria:).
Genus Scomber, Cuv. The mackerels, properly so called, have a fusiform body covered by scales, uniformly small and smooth ; sides of the tail not carinated, but merely raised into two small cutaneous crests ; a vacant space between the first and second dorsal fin.
The common mackerel {Sc. scombrus) is one of the most beautii'ul of fishes, and too well knoviii to require a
' Mr Yarrell, however, Itas brought together various instances of its occurrence along the British shores ; and as it is mentioned by Nilsson in his Frodronms as occurring on the coast of Norway, and by lleinhardt as a Danish species, it rather appears that Baron Cuvier regarded Uay's Bream too exclusively as a Mediterranean species.
» General Zoolugtj, vol. iv. part ii. pp. 398, 485. ^ Fishes of Ha- Cannes, part 21)1, plate 14, fig. 34.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
181
Acanthop- minute description. The back is blue, crossed by many terysii. durii transverse bands, nearly straight in the males, but Scombe- findy waved in the females. The sides and abdomen are ""'^"" of a silvery hue, glossed with brilliant tints of gold. The name is said to refer to the spotted appearance of the up- per parts, and to be derived from the Latin macularius. We shall here avail ourselves of Mr Yarrell's history of this important species.
" The mackerel was supposed by Anderson, Duhamel, and others, to be a fish of passage, performing, like some birds, certain periodical migrations, and making long voy- ages from north to south at one season of the year, and the reverse at another. It does not appear to have been suffi- ciently considered, that, inhabiting a medium which varied but little either in its temperature or productions, locally, fishes are removed beyond the influence of the two prin- cipal causes which make a temporary change of situation necessary. Independently of the difficulty of tracing the course pursued through so vast an expanse of water, the order of the appearance of the fish at different places on the shores of the temperate and southern parts of Europe is the reverse of that which, according to their theory, ought to have happened. It is known that this fish is noiv taken, even on some parts of our own coast, in every month of the year. It is jirobable that the mackerel inhabits al- most the whole of the European seas ; and the law of na- ture which obliges them and many others to visit the shallower water of the shores at a particular season, appears to be one of those wise and bountiful provisions of the Creator, by which not only is the species perpetuated with the greatest certainty, but a large portion of the parent animals are thus brought within the reach of man, who, but for the action of this law, would be deprived of many of those species most valuable to him as food. For the mackerel dispersed over the immense surface of the deej), no effective fishery could be carried on ; but, approaching the shore as they do from all directions, and roving along the coast collected in immense shoals, millions are caught, which yet form but a very small portion compared with the myriads that escape.
" This subject receives farther illustration from a fresh- water fish, as stated in the Magazine of Natural History, vol. vii. p. 637 : ' When the char spawn, they are seen in the shallow parts of the rocky lakes (in which only they are found), and some of the streams that run into them : they are then taken in abundance, but so soon as the spawning is over, they retire into the deepest parts of the lake, and are but rarely caught.'
" It may be observed farther, that as there is scarcely a month throughout the year in which the fishes of some one or more species are not brought within the reach of man by the operation of the imperative law of nature referred to, a constant succession of wholesome food is thus spread before him, which, in the first instance, costs him little beyond the exercise of his ingenuity and labour to ob- tain.
" On the coast of Ireland, the mackerel is taken from the county of Kerry in the west, along the southern shore, eastward to Cork and Waterford ; from thence northward to Antrim, and north-west to Londonderry and Donegal. Dr M'Culloch says it visits some of the lochs of the West- ern Islands, but is not considered very abundant. On the Cornish coast this fish in some seasons occurs as early as the month of March, and appears to be pursuing a course from west to east. They are plentiful on the Devonshire coast, and swarm in West Bay about June. On the Hampshire and Sussex coast, particularly the latter, they arrive as early as March ; and sometimes, as « ill be shown, even in February : and the earlier m the year the fisher- men go to look for them, the farther from the shore do they seek for and find them. Duhamel says the mackerel
are caught earlier at Dunkirk than at Dieppe or Havre lAcanihop. upon our own eastern coast, however, the fishing is later, tervgii. The fishermen of Lowestoffc and Yarmouth gain their °'^°'"''^- great harvest from the mackerel in May and June. Mr \^..^-^ Neill says they occur in the Forth at the end of summer ; ~ ^^ and Mr Low, in his Fauna Orcadensis, states that they do not make their appearance there till the last week in July or the first week in August.
" The mackerel spawns in June ; and, according to Bloch, five hundred and forty thousand ova have been counted in one female. I have observed, by the mackerel sent to the London market from the shallow shores of Worth- ing and its vicinity, that these fish mature and deposit their roe earlier on that flat sandy shore than those cauglit in the deep water off Brigliton. The young mackerel, which are called shiners, are from four to six inches long by the end of August. They are half grown by November ; when they retire, says Mr Couch, ' to deep water, and are seen no more that winter: but the adult fishes never wholly quit the Cornish coast ; and it is common to see some ta- ken with lines in every month of the year.' Their princi- pal food is probably the fry of other fish ; and at Hastings the mackerel follow towards the shore a small species of Clupea, which is there called, in consequence, the mackerel mint. I have been unable hitherto to obtain any specimens of this small fish ; but, from various descriptions, I think it is probably the young of the sprat. It is described as being about one inch long in July.
" The mackerel as feeders are voracious, and their growth is rapid. The ordinary length varies from fourteen to six- teen inches, and their weight is about two pounds each ; but they are said to attain the length of twenty inches, with a proportionate increase in weight. The largest fish are not, however, considered the best for the table.
" As an article of food they are in great request ; and those taken in the months of May and June are generally considered to be superior in flavour to those taken either earlier in spring, or in autumn. To be eaten in perfection, this fish should be very fresh. As it soon becomes unfit for food, some facilities in the way of sale have been afforded to the dealers in a commodity so perishable. Mackerel were first allowed to be cried through the streets of Lon- don on a Sunday in 1698, and the practice prevails to the present time.
" At our various fishing towns on the coast, the macke- rel season is one of great bustle and activity. The fre- quent departures and arrivals of boats at this time form a lively contrast to the more ordinary routine of other pe- riods ; the high price obtained for the early cargoes, and the large return gained generally from the enormous num- bers of this fish sometimes captured in a single night, be- ing the inducement to great exertions. A few particulars from various sources may not be uninteresting.
" In May 1807, the first Brighton boat-load of mackerel sold at Billingsgate for forty guineas per hundred — seven shillings each, reckoning six score to a hundred ; the high- est price ever known at that market. The next boat-load produced but thirteen guineas per hundred. Mackerel were so plentiful at Dover in 1808 that they were sold sixty for a shilling. At Brighton, in June of the same year, the shoal of mackerel « as so great, that one of the boats had the meshes of her nets so completely occupied by them, that it was impossible to drag them in ; the fish and nets, therefore, in the end, sunk together, the fisher- men thereby sustaining a loss of nearly sixty pounds, ex- clusive of what the cargo, could it have been got into the boat, would have produced. The success of the fishery in 1821 was beyond all precedent. The value of the catch of sixteen boats from Lowestoffe, on the 30th of June, amounted to L.52o2 ; and it is supposed that there was, no less an amount than L. 14, 000 altogether realised by the
182
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Aranthop- owners and men concerned in the fishery of the Suffolk terygii. coast.' In March 1833, on a Sunday, four Hastings' boats brought on shore ten thousand eiglit hundred mackerel ; and the next day two boats brought seven thousand fish. Early in the month of February 1834, one boat's crew from Hastings cleared L.lOO by the fish caught in one night; and a large quantity of very fine mackerel appeared in the London market in the second week of the same month. They were cried through the streets of London three for a shilling on the 14th and 2-2d of March 1834, and had then been plentiful for a month. The boats engaged in fishing are usually attended by other fast-sailing vessels, which are sent away with the fish taken. From some situations these vessels sail away direct for the London market ; at others they make for the nearest point from which they can obtain land-carriage for their fish. From Hastings and other fishing towns on the Sussex coast the fish are brought to London by vans, which travel up during the night.
" The most common mode of fishing for mackerel, and the way in which the greatest numbers are taken, is by drift-nets. The drift-net is twenty feet deep, by one hun- dred and twenty feet long ; well corked at the top, but without lead at the bottom. They are made of small fine twine, which is tanned of a reddish-brown colour, to pre- serve it from the action of the sea-water ; and it is thereby rendered much more durable. The size of the mesh is about two and a half inches, or rather larger. Twelve, fifteen, and sometimes eighteen of these nets are attached lengthways, by tying along a thick rope, called the drift- rope, and at the ends of each net, to each other. When arranged for depositing in the sea, a large buoy attached to the end of the drift rope is thrown overboard, the vessel is put before the wind, and, as she sails along, the rope, with the nets thus attached, is passed over the stern into the water till the whole of the nets are run out. The net thus deposited hangs suspended in the water ]ierpendicu- larly twenty feet deep from the drift-rope, and extending from three quarters of a mile to a mile, or even a mile and a half, depending on the number of nets belonging to the party or company engaged in fishing together. When the whole of the nets are thus lianded out, the drift-rope is shifted from the stern to the bow of the vessel, and she rides by it as if at anchor. The benefit gained by the boat's hanging at the end of the drift-rope is, that the net is kept strained in a straight line, which, without this pull upon it, would not be the case. The nets are shot in the evening, and sometimes haided once during the night, at others allowed to remain in the water all night. The fish roving in the dark through the water, hang in the meshes of the net, which are large enough to admit them beyond the gill-covers and pectoral fins, but not large enough to allow the thickest part of the body to pass through. In the morning early, preparations are made for hauling the nets. A capstan on the deck is manned, about which two turns of the drift-rope are taken. One man stands forward to untie the upper edge of each net from the drift-rope, which is called casting oflf" the lashings ; others hand in the net with the fish caught, to which one side of the vessel is devoted ; the other side is occupied by the drift-rope, which is wound in by the men at the capstan. The whole of the net in, and the fish secured, the vessel runs back into harbour with her fish ; or, depositing them on board
ridie.
some other boat in company, that carries for the party to Acanthop- the nearest market, the fishing vessel remains at sea for terygii. the next night's operation."^ Scombe-
Another mode of fishing is with a hook and line, angled , with a coarse rod, from a boat under rapid sail. A slice from the mackerel's own body affords an excellent bait, and even a piece of scarlet cloth or leather is often used with great success. The line is weighed down by a heavy plummet ; and when the fish are numerous, two men h ill thus capture from 500 to 1000 in a single day. It is a singular fact, that the common mackerel has no swimming bladder, although that organ is found in several closely al- lied species. What necessity of nature, Cuvier asks, can require it in the one, and not in the other ? What can have produced it ? lliese are great problems, both in the study of final causes, and in the general philosophy of nature.
Genus Thvnnus, Cuv. A kind of corselet round the thorax, formed by scales larger and coarser than those of the rest of the body ; sides of the tail with a cartilaginous keel between the two crests above mentioned. The ante- rior dorsal is prolonged almost to the posterior one.
The tunny ( T7t. vulgaris, Cuv.; Scomber t/iytinus, Linn.), (Plate CCCII. fig. 3), is one of the largest fishes of the ocean.^ When it weighs only a hundred pounds, the Sar- dinians give it the name of scn?iipirro, a diminutive deriv- ed from Scomber. When above that weight, and onwards to three hundred pounds, it is called mezzo-tonno, or half tunny. The larger individuals frequently weigh a thou- sand pounds ; and Cetti asserts that old males are taken occasionally weighing eighteen hundred pounds.** The fishery of the tunny dates from the most remote anti- quity ; and the city of Byzantium was more especially enriched by it. The shoals which entered the Bosphorus were said to meet near Chalcedon with a white rock, which so terrified them that they turned into the Gulf of Byzantium, now the port of Constantinople. It was, according to Cuvier, in consequence of this abundance of tunnies, that the gulf in question received the name of the Golden Horn ; and the oracle of Apollo designat- ed Chalcedon as the Cih/ of lite Blind, because its foun- ders did not perceive the inferiority of its site in relation to these valued fish. Gibbon, however, tells us, that " the curve which it describes might be compared to the horn of a stag, or, as it should seem, with more propriety, to that of an ox. The epithet golden was expressive of the riches which every wind wafted from the most dis- tant countries into the secure and capacious port of Con- stantinople." The same prodigious quantities of the tunny are still seen there as in ancient times. According to Syllius, twenty vessels might be filled by a single cast of the net ; and they may frequently be taken by the hand without the aid of nets. W'hen ascending towards- the port, they may be killed with stones; and even wo- men take them in quantities, merely by suspending a large basket by a cord iiom the windows.* The tunny fishery was of still more ancient practice in the West. The Phoeni- cians established it at a very early period on the coasts of Spain, both within and beyond the columns of Hercules. It is thus that we find the tunny on the Phoenician medals of Cadiz and Carteia. Its salted preparation was known to the Romans as an esteemed article, under the name of Saltaiiientum Sardicum.
The tunny fishery does not seem to be now carried on
' " In an interesting and useful sketch of the natural history of Yarmouth and its neighbourhood, by C. and J. Paget, it is stated at p. IG, tliat in lfi23, one hundred and forty-two lasts of mackerel were taken there. A last is ten thousand."
= Britiik Fishes, p. 1-21.
" AVe may here note, in regard to the engraved illustrations of the present treatise, that we found it impossible to maintain a pro- portional size in our figures. Thus the liinny, a gigantic species, appears, upon the plate above referred to, as smaller than its neigh- bour Toxotcs jaculalnr, which is scarcely more than half a foot long.
♦ Hiitoire Nalurelk ds Sardaigne, t. iii. 134, 135. • De Constantino^. Topograpftia, in praeC
ICHTHYOLOGY.
183
Aoanlhop-
Sconibe- ri<lii'.
at Constantinople on a great or systematic scale, but is cliii'fly concentrated in the interior of the Mediterranean. The species sometimes wanders along the British shores ; and a fine specimen, measurinj; nine feet in length, was killed in the beautiful Gairloch, opposite Greenock, in July 1831. It is preserved in the Andersonian Museum, Glasgow.
The fish known to navigators under the name of Bonito belongs to our present genus. It is the Th. pelamijs of Cuv. and sometimes occurs along the British shores. It resembles the tunny in form, but is a great deal smaller, seldom exceeding the length of thirty inches. It is cele- brated in the tropical seas for its eager pursuit of the fly- ing fish. The bonito of the Mediterranean, however, be it remembered, belongs to the following genus.
Genus Auxis, Cuv. Corselet and pectoral fins as in Thynnus ; but the dorsal fins distant, as in Scomber.
We here engrave (Plate CCCII. fig. ■->) a species com- mon in the Mediterranean, where it is called bonito, Auxis vulgaris, Cuv. It is of a fine blue colour above, with oblique blackish lines. The flesh is red and coarse. We have eaten it during a voyage to Genoa, in the course of which the vessel was followed by a flock for an entire day. We struck them with a small harpoon from the bowsprit. The species seldom exceeds six pounds.
In regard to the genus Pelamys of Cuv.' we shall here merely state, that it is distinguished from the tunnies by its strong, separate, and pointed teeth. The vague name of bonito is likewise applied to one of the species, the Scomber sarda of Bloch, common in the Mediterranean. The genus Cybium has the body elongated, without corse- let, the teeth large, compressed, cutting, in the form of lancets. On the palatines there are only the close-set kind of teeth. The species inhabit the warmer parts both of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and some of them at- tain a great size. The genus Thyrsites differs from the preceding in having the anterior teeth longer than the others, as well as the palatines being furnished with point- ed teeth.
The genus Gempylus is allied in many respects to that last named, but it wants the teeth upon the palate, and the ventrals are almost imperceptible. See Plate CCCII. fig. 6, where we have represented G. prometheus, Cuv., a species discovered at St Helena, by Messrs Quoy and Gaimard.
We shall here briefly notice two genera which cannot be better placed than in succession to the preceding Scomberida. We allude to Lepidopus and Trichiurus,^ which resemble the two last-named groups in almost every thing, except that they entirely want the finlets, or false fins, and even the soft rays of the dorsal. There is merel)' a vestige of the ventral fins. It is a singular thing, as Cuvier has observed, that a fish so gcnerallj' met with as the great Lepidopus argyreus of the European seas (there is no other species), so handsome, and so large, should have remained unknown to naturalists so recently as the end of the eighteenth century, and that it should have been afterwards successively described by various writers, under a new name, and by each in ignorance of the labours of his predecessor. If we figure to ourselves a large and broad riband of silver, swimming with a wavy motion through the water, and casting from it in its pro- gress the most beautiful reflections of light, we may form some notion of the general aspect of this creature in its living state. Its length, as described by Montagu^ (under
the name of Zipotheca tc(radens), was five feet six inches, Acanthop. with a depth at the gills of four inches and a half; it gra- tery};ii. dually decreased from the vent to the commencement of Sconilje- the anal fin, where it measured only two inches in depth ; v^_^_J_^ at the end of that fin the form was nearly round, and the diameter only half an inch. The weight, without the in- testines, was about six pounds. Montagu's specimen was taken in Salcomb Harbour, on the coast of South Devon, on the 4th June 1808. It was swimming with astonish- ing velocity, icil/i its head above water, going, as the fisher- men said, "as swift as a bird,'' and was killed by the blow of an oar. It occurs occasionally on most of the Euro- pean coasts ; is more frequent in some parts of the Medi- terranean ; and has been captured as far south as the Cape of Good Hope. See our representation on Plate CCCII. fig. 4.
The other genus to which we have alluded, that of Trichiurus, Linn., resembles the preceding in its head and teeth, but it has not even a vestige of a ventral fin ; the anal is replaced by a series of very small spines, which scarcely project above the skin, and the tail terminates in a filament or lengthened point, without any caudal fin. We here figure (Plate CCCII. fig. 8) an Indian species, named Trichiurus savala by Cuvier. We believe it is synonymous with T. armutus of Mr Gray's Illustrations of Indian Zoology. Some additional species are figured in Mr Griffith's valuable edition of the Animal King- dom, and that called the silvery hair-tail, or blade fish ( T. lepturus, Linn.), was some years ago cast ashore on the Moray Firth.^
Another group of Scomberida;, or rather a branch of the first great tribe, contains the sword-fish, and a few other species, which modern Ichthyologists, anterior to the time of Cuvier, placed too much apart from each other, solely because some were possessed of ventral fins, while in others those parts were wanting, " difference," observes our author, " qui ne sert qu'a prouver de plus en plus le pen d'importance de ces nageoires pour un raethode na- turelle."^ Their relationship to the tunnies and macke- rels has been still less appreciated, although very obvi- ous in the form of the tail, the structure of the intestines, the quality of the flesh, and even in the parasitical ani- mals by which they are infested ; but as they differ in wanting the false fins, all actual resemblances have been set aside, at least in regard to such as are destitute of ventral fins.
Genus Xiphias, Linn. Pertains to the family Scom- beridoe, and approaches the tunnies especially in the ex- treme smallness of the scales, the carination of the sides of the tail, the strength of the caudal fin, and the whole of the interior organization. The distinctive character consists in the lengthened beak or sword-like prolonga- tion of the muzzle or upper jaw, which forms a powerful weapon of offence, and enables them to attack and over- come the largest marine animals. This beak is composed chiefly of the vomer and intermaxillaries, strengthened towards the base by the ethmoid, the frontals, and maxil- laries. The branchia? are not divided like the toothing of a comb, but formed each of two large parallel plates, of which the surface is reticulated. The rapidity of their course is excessive, the quality of their flesh excellent.
Such is a brief indication of the characters of the genus Xiphias of Linnaeus, which has been divided as follows, in more recent times.
\st. Genus Xiphias proper, Cuv. No ventral fin.
149.
' Hist. Nat. dcs Po^isons. t. vUi. Regnc Animal, t. ii. p. 199.
■ Both genera were formerly placed by Cuvier in the ensuing family T^Niom.E • Memoirs of the Werncrian Nat. Hist. Sflcictif, vol. i. p. 8*2
The genus Pela.mys corresponds to that named Sarda in the second edition of tlie
(See Rc^nc Animal, t. ii. p. 217.)
• f.inti. Trans, vol. xi. p. 200.
" Hist. Nat. des Poitsons, t. viii. p. 254.
]84
Acanthop.
terygii.
Scombc-
ridae.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
The only known species seems to have received the same name from all nations. Gladhis, Ejiee, Dard, Pesce- spada, Scliipcrd-fish, Su-ord-Jish, and the Greek generic name of Xiphias, all indicate the formidable weapon with which the front is armed. So remarkable a creature in size and structure could indeed have scarcely remained unknown at any period. All ancient wTiters within whose province it could possibly fall, speak of it in such a man- ner as clearly to prove an intimate knowledge of its nature. They describe its offensive weapon, the blows which it in- flicts, the dreadful combats which it sustains, the attacks which are made upon it, and the stratagems by which, in spite of its strength, it is lured to its destruction. Although, in relation to its European distribution, the Mediterranean may be said to be its chief dominion, yet the older indivi- duals especially often enter the ocean, and astonish the natives of colder climes by spreading along the northern shores. It has been frequently captured on the British coasts. It even enters the Baltic, and has been seen near Lubeck, of an enormous size.' Pennant is doubtful of its occurrence as a North American species, although it is named as such by Catesby. It is not noticed by Dr Mit- chell, in his description of the fishes of New York, and for this reason Baron Cuvier does not admit that it crosses the Atlantic. It is, however, fully described by Dr Smith, in his Fishes of Massachusetts ; and the same writer as- sures us, on the authority of an old pilot, that the sword- fish is by no means uncommon off that portion of the Ame- rican shore. It cannot, however, be traced far south in any part of the western world ; whilst, like many of the Mediterranean species, it advances along the African coast as far as the Cape of Good Hope.
The fish now alluded to is the Xiphias gladius, Linn. (Plate CCCII. fig. 7.) Its horizontal snout is flat and cutting, like the blade of a sword. The sides of its tail are strongly carinated. It has but one dorsal fin, which rises both before and behind, but of which the middle por- tion in the adults becomes in some manner so worn away, that an appearance is at last presented of two dorsal fins. This v.ill be perfectly understood by comparing the figure last referred to, with fig. 10 of the same plate, where we have represented the young of the present species."
Sword-fish, though by no means uncommon, are sel- dom captured, owing to their extreme vigilance. Captain Beechey informs us, that while in the Pacific Ocean, near Easter Island, '■ as the line was hauling in, a large sword- fish bit at the tin case which contained our thermometer, but fortunately failed in carrying it off." Their mode of capture in the Mediterranean may be likened to whale fishing in miniature, and is said to be a very amusing and exciting sport. A watchman placed upon a mast, or standing on the summit of a neighbouring rock, gives warning by signal when he sees a fish approach. The fishermen then row towards it ; and, being so skilful as frequently to strike the fish from a great distance, they throw a harpoon into it attached to a long line. An ardu-
We shall conclude by observing, that the sword-fish isAcanthop- not only one of the largest species of the European seas, ^^'^O'f " attaining sometimes to a length of fifteen feet, but that it is also much esteemed as an article of diet. When young, especially, the flesh is white, firm, and of excellent fla- vour.
2rf. Genus Tetrapterus, Rafinesque.^ Point of the muzzle shaped like a stiletto ; ventrals consisting each of one unjointed slender bone ; two small projecting crests, like those of the mackerel, at each side of the base of the caudal fin.
The sole European species is T, helone of the Italian author. It is a large Mediterranean species, of about six feet in length, and weighing from 150 to 200 pounds.
3rf. Genus Makaira, Lacep. Possesses the points of the two small caudal crests of the preceding genus, but it wants the ventral fins.
We shall merely mention as an example the X. Makai- ra, or short-snouted sword-fish of Shaw.''
Ath. Genus Histiophorus, Lacep. Characterised by the beak and caudal crests of Tetrapterus, but the dorsal fin is so greatly elevated as to serve as a sail when swim- ming on the surface, and the vontrals are long, slender, and composed of two rays.
This genus contains that large and showy species {H. indicus, Plate CCCII. fig. 9) known to the Malays by the name of fan-fish, and called by the corresponding title of sail-fish by the Dutch. It sometimes attains to so great a size as to have been compared to a small whale. When swimming near the surface, its dorsal fin may be seen pro- jecting, from the distance of a league at sea. Many years ago a letter was addressed to Sir Joseph Banks by the captain of an East Indiaman, containing an account of the astonishing strength occasionally exerted by this species. The bottom of the ship was pierced through by it in such a manner that the snout or sword was buried almost to its base, and the animal itself was killed by the violence of the blow. Accidents of a similar nature have also occur- red with the common sword-fish ; and it is the opinion of naturalists that both species mistake our wooden walls for the vast abdomen of some great cetaceous animal which they desire to encounter and destroy.
We here figure, under the name of Histiophorus pul- chellus, a beautiful dwarf species taken by M. Raynaud on his return from the Cape to France in 1829. It measured only four inches in length, and possesses certain special characters, which lead to the conclusion that, notwith- standing its minute size, it ought not to be regarded as the young of any previously described species. See Plate CCCII. fig. 1 1.
We now enter upon a group of genera which form the Second Great Tribe of Scomberidae, and are character- ised by having the spiny rays of the back not contintwus, but separate.
ous struggle then commences, during which the aggres
sors are sometimes pulled about by the hours before they can get it into the boat.
The Scomberidae, as has been already remarked, have the fish for many caudal fin in general very strong, although the other verti- cal fins are often extremely feeble. We have now noticed
' Captain Crow, in a work recently published, relates the following spectacle, witnessed during a voyage to Memel. " One morn- ing, during a calm, when near the Hebrides, all hands were called up at three a. m. to witness a battle between several of the fish called thrashers, or fox-sharks {Carcliarius vuljies), and some sword-fish on one side, and an enormous whale on the other. It was in the middle of summer, and the weather being clear, and the fish close to the vessel, we had a fine opportunity of witnessing the con- test. As soon as the whale's back appeared above the water, the thrashers, springing several yards into the air, descended with great violence upon the object of their rancour, and inflicted upon him the most severe slaps with their long tails, the sound of which re- sembled the reports of muskets fired at a distance. The sword-fish, in^heir turn, attacked the distressed whale, stabbing from be- low ; and thus beset on all sides, and wounded, when the poor creature appeared, the water around him was dyed with blood. In this manner they continued tormenting and wounding him for many hours, until we lost sight of him ; and I have no doubt they in the end completed his destruction." (Quoted from Mr Yarrell's British Fishes, p. 144.)
' It was probably this disparity of the dorsal fin in different individuals that induced Dr Leach to apply the new name of Xi- phiju Roiidclctii to the old species. (See Wcrnerian Memoirs, vol. ii. part i. p. 58.)
• Caratteri di alciini nuovi geiieri, &c. delta Skilta, p. 54. * General Zoology, vol. iv. part i. p. 104, pi. 16,
ICHTHYOLOGY.
185
Acanthop.
tervpii.
Scunibe-
rida;.
the genera of the first great tribe, in wliich the posterior portion of the second dorsal and of tlie anal fin possess no continuous membrane between its rays, which thus re- main free and disconnected, under the name of finlets. But in the group which we are about to enter it is the anterior dorsal which wants the membrane, and of which the rays are consequently free, and capable of isolated movement. Certain species even conjoin with this cha- racter that of the preceding tribe, and have finlets behind, at the same time that they possess free rays upon their anterior portion.
Genus Naucrates, Rafin. Dorsal spines free ; body fusiform ; a carina or keel on the sides of the tail, as in the tunny, and two free spines before the anal fin.
This genus contains N. ditctor, the fdmous pilot Jish of navigators (Gasterosteus dwtor, Linn.), so named from its habit of keeping company with ships at sea, and frequent- ly swimming beneath their bows. It would seem, from early indications of a similar instinct, to be the Pompilhis of the ancients, described as pointing out the way to dubious or embarrassed sailors, and as announcing the vicinity of land by its sudden disappearance. It was thus regarded as a sacred fish. The other story of its serving as a guide to the shark does not appear to have been transmitted to us from so remote a source. It is not mentioned even by the Ichthyologists of the sixteenth century ; and Cuvier regards as the first allusion to it, that of Dutertre in his Description of the Antilles, printed in 1667. Since that period it has been carefully repeated by all voyagers and compilers ; and Osbeck even makes it a subject of pious reflection on the wonderful ways of Providence. We are told by a greater than Osbeck that " they that go down to the sea in ships, that do business in great waters ; these see the works of the Lord, and his wonders in the deep :" but the fact in the present instance seems reduci- ble to this, that the pilot accompanies both ships and sharks, sometimes swimming before, sometimes behind, for the sake of preying upon whatever may be thrown over board in the or e case, or left uneaten in the other. It is true that the shark never attacks it ; but it is also true that the hawk does not attack the swallow ; and in both instances the reason is the same ; the pilot being too nimble for the unwieldy shark in the water, just as the feebler but more agile bird is too swift in its movements fur falco in the air. It is thus that the apparent alliance of these dissimilar fishes may be explained even upon ge- neral principles, to say nothing of Bosc's observation, who assures us that he has seen hundreds of pilot-fish, that
they always keep at a respectful distance from the shark, Acantliop. and swim about swiftly in different directions, that they terygii. may more certainly avoid it. If any food be thrown over board, the pilot stops to seize it, and abandons both the shark and vessel. Geoffroy no doubt tells a story of two ])ilot-fish having been seen to take a great deal of trouble, swimming to and <Vo, in order to conduct a shark towards a baited hook ; but admitting the truth of the details, it is clear, that whatever advantage might eventually accrue to the conductors, the probable result to the shark was a cruel death, and one is consequently the more inclined to admire how the narrative itself should find place in a Memoir Sur rajfertioii nmtiielle des quelques animaux I'
The pilot-fish in question is chiefly a Mediterranean species, although it also spreads into distant oceans, hav- ing been found by Daldorf under the equator. A great extent of geographical distribution may indeed be expect- ed in reference to a species which is said to suffer itself to be led away immense distances in its eager pursuit of ships. Dutertre records that he saw one which followed his vessel for more than 500 leagues. Whether he kept his eye upon it night and day during all that time, or in what other way he ascertained it to be the same individual throughout so long a traverse, is what he does not state, and we therefore cannot explain. " In the year 1831," Mr Yar- rell observes, " two specimens of pilot-fish were caught on the opposite side of the British Channel, and more than one instance has occurred of their following ships into Guern- sey. A few years since, a pair accompanied a ship from the Mediterranean into Falmouth, and were both taken with a net. In January 1831, the Peru, Graham master, put into Plymouth, on her voyage from Alexandria for Lon- don, after a passage of eighty-two days. About two days after she left Alexandria, two pilot-fish, Gasterosteus duc- tor, made their appearance close alongside the vessel, were constantly seen near her during the homeward voy- age, and followed her into Plymouth. After she came to an anchor in Catwater, their attachment appeared to have increased ; they kept constant guard to the vessel, and made themselves so familiar, that one of them was actu- ally captured by a gentleman in a boat alongside, but, by a strong effort, it escaped from his grasp, and regained the water. After this the two fish separated ; but they were both taken the same evening, and, when dressed the next day, were found to be excellent eating. In October 1833 nearly one hundred pilot-fish accompanied a vessel from Sicily into Catwater, but they were not taken.'"- The pilot-fish is of a silvery blue colour, paler below, with
' Annaks du Mus. i'H'ist. Nat. t. ix. p. 4C9. In further illustration of the subject, we sliall subjoin a short extract from a recent publication, Dr Aleyen's Reise urn die Erdc. " The pilot swims constantly in front of the shark ; we ourselves have seen three in. stances in which the shark was led by the pilot. "When the sea-angel neared the ship, the pilot swam close to the snout, or near one of the breast fins of the animal ; sometimes lie darted rapidly forwards or sidewards, as if looking for something, and constantly went back again to the shark. AVhen we threw overboajd a piece of bacon fastened on a great hook, the shark was about twenty paces from the ship. With the quickness of lightning the pilot came up, smelt at the dainty, and instantly swam back again to the shark, swimming many times round his snout, and splashing, as if to give him exact information as to tlie bacon. The shark now began to put himself in motion, the pilot showing him the way, and in a moment he was fast upon the hook. Once we watched a pilot for many days, who kept constantly swimming close before the'keel of the ship. The sailors say, as of a thing well known and familiar, that such a iish so situated has lost his shark, and is seeking another. Upon a later occasion, we observed two pilots in sedulous attendance on a blue shark, which we caught in the Chinese Sea. It seems probable that tlie pilot feeds on the shark's excrements, keeps his company for that purpose, and directs his operations solely from this selfish view." On this very singular subject we are tempted to quote another anecdote, which, notwithstanding what we have said in the text above, if correctly observed and recorded, would certainly indicate something remarkable in the association of these species. The account was furnished to the editor of the English edition of the Animal Kingdom (vol. x. p. (iSC), by Colonel Hamilton Smith, an accurate and accomplished naturalist. " Captain Richards, R. N., during his last station in tlie Siediterranean, saw on a fine day a blue shark, which followed the ship, attracted perhaps by a corpse which had been committed to the waves. After some time a shark-hook, baited with pork, was flung out. The shark, attended by four pilot-fish. Scomber ductor, repeatedly approached the bait ; and every time that he did so, one of the pilots, preceding him, was distinctlv seen from the tatfrail of the ship to run his snout against the side of the shark's head, to turn it away. After some farther plav, the' fish swam off in the wake of the vessel, his dorsal fin being long distinctly visible above the water. WTien he had gone, however, a considerable distance, he suddenly turned round, darted after the vessel, and before the pilot-fish could overtake him and interpose, snapped at the bait and was taken. In hoisting him up, one of the pilots was observed to cling to his side until he was half above water, when it fell off. All the pilot fishes then swam about awhile, as if in search of their friend, with every apparent mark of anxiety and distress, and afterwards darted suddenly down into the depths of the sea. Colonel H. Smith has himself witnessed, with intense curiosity, au event in all respects precisely similar." ' British Fishes, p. 151.
VOL. XII.
2 A
186
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Scombe-
Acanthop. bands of deeper blue upon the upper portions. It varies terygii. from four inches to a foot in length, and the larger indi- viduals have much the aspect of a mackerel. The name of pilot has been bestowed on various other fishes, and the genus Naucrates itself contains several species. N. In- dicus, Cuv. was brought from Aniboyna by Messrs Lesson and Garnot.
Other genera of this tribe are Elacate, Lichia, Cho- RiNEMUs, and Trachinotus, which we. cannot here do more than name.
Genus Rhinchobdella, B1. and Schn. Free spines on the back, as in tlie preceding genera, and two free spines in front of the anal fin, but the ventrals are absent, as in Xiphias proper. The body is lengthened.
Of this genus Cuvier has formed two minor groups, — Rhinchobdella {Macrognathus, Lacep.), including such species as have the muzzle concave, and striated beneath, and the three vertical fins separate ; and Mastacomblus, Gronovius, containing such as have the muzzle simply conical, neither striated nor concave, and the vertical fins more or less completely joined.
The S])ecies of both genera inhabit the fresh waters of Asia, and are widely distributed, from Syria to the isles of Sunda, tlie Moluccas, and China. Their snouts are fur- nished with a delicate organ of touch, and it appears that they employ it while searching in the mud for small worms, or other slender substances on which they feed. They are generally regarded as poissons de bon gout, the flavour of their flesh bearing some resemblance to that of eels.
The genus Notocanthus (of which N. Nastis is the sole species) is characteristic of the most northern seas.
We next proceed to a grou]) of the Scomberidse which forms the Third Great Tribe, distinguished by having the sides furnished ivith a cuirassed lateral line.
In the timnies, sword-fish, and other Scomberidae al- ready discussed, a projecting cartilaginous portion is ob- servable, forming a kind of ridge or keel on each side of the tail, at the extremity of the lateral line. In the ge- nera of the same family of which we have now to treat, this ridge is no longer a simple prominence of the dermis, but is covered by scaly shields, themselves crested, and overlapping each other. These shields, frequently ending in a point or hook, are not always confined to the termi- nation of the lateral line, but sometimes spread over its entire length, and usually occupy a considerable portion. In relation to this character, however, the tribe may be di- vided into two sections : the first of which, comprising only the great genus Caranx, exhibits this kind of armour in its greatest strength and extension ; while the second (of which the genus V^omer is the type) shows its gradual reduction to small scales, not surpassing those of the rest of the body.
Genus Caranx, Cuv. Lateral line armed to a greater or less extent with scaly shields, raised into a keel, and pointed.
As an example, we here figure the Caranx hoops, a beautiful fish from Amboyna, of a fine silvery hue, tinted towards the back with brilliant steel blue, with green re- flections. A pure line of orange extends from the gills to the tail, but this ornamental character is said to disappear speedily after death. The pectoral fins are likewise orange. It varies from a few inches to a foot in length. See Plate CCCII. fig. 12. The genus is extremely numerous, con- taining probably not fewer than seventy different kinds ; but the only other species we shall here notice is a fish called the scad, or horse-mackerel (^Caranx truchurus, Lacep. and Cuv.), which occasionally occurs in prodigious shoals along the British shores. Ten thousand have been
taken by a foot-sean in a single evening in August. It Acanthop- likewise occurs in the Mediterranean, and in the vicinity tervgii. of Madeira.
Of genera allied to Caranx, and consisting chiefly of , species heretofore and erroneously referred to Zeus, Baron Cuvier has established or retained the following, viz. Olis- Tus, ScYRis, Blepharis, Gali,ichtys, Argyreyosus, Vomer, and Hynnis. Of these our restricted limits pre- vent our exhibiting the detailed characters. We shall merely present the reader with a figaire of that singular little fish Gallichtys ^gyptiacus, brought by Ehrenberg from the neighbourhood of Alexandria. It measures only from one to two inches in length, and is of a truly remarkable form. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 1.
We have now arrived at the concluding group or Fourth Great Tribe of the Scomberidae, in which thejinlets, the free spines of' the hack, and the armour of the sides of the tail, are all wanting.
The genera of this tribe, it will be perceived, are com- bined by means of merely negative characters, and it may therefore be expected that they will exhibit mutual rela- tions of a less intimate kind than those of the preceding tribes. They form in fact a group, as it were, by con- tinuity,— one of those series of which there are many in nature, and of which the agreement is not the less evi- dent and harmonious, although it may be difficult to point out a precise character in common.
As we have little to say of general interest regarding their history or habits, we think it more suitable to the na- ture of this article to reserve a principal portion of our al- lotted space for the elucidation of those species concerning which some important or amusing information has been re- corded, We shall therefore do little more than name the genera of our present tribe.
The genus Seriola scarcely differs from Caranx, ex- cept in the lateral line being either unprovided with a cui- rass, or at least merely furnished with scales which slightly surpass those of the rest of the body. S. Dumerilii of Risso occurs near Nice, and elsewhere in the Mediterra- nean. It sometimes attains to the great weight of nearly 200 pounds, and dwells in deep and inaccessible places of the sea, rarely approaching the shores, unless when com- pelled to do so by hunger. Its flesh is of a reddish colour, firm, and of an exquisite flavour.
The genus Temnodon greatly resembles the preceding, but its teeth are cutting. There are two small spines in advance of the anal fin, but almost concealed beneath the skin. We here place the Perca saltatrix of Linn, called skip-jack by the Americans. Its geographical distribution is extremely extensive.
The genus Nomeus, Cuv. was for a long time combined with the Gobies. It is related in several particulars to Seriola, but the very large broad ventrals, attached to the body by their inner edge, produce a peculiar character and aspect. We here figure a small species, of which the ground colour is like brilliant silver. The ventrals are tra- versed by two black bands. It was transmitted to the Mu- seum of the Low Countries from Java, by MM. Kuhl and Van Hasselt. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 4. Three other genera are described by Cuvier in this portion of his great work,' which, however, we shall merely name, — viz. Nauclerus, Porthoneus, and Psenes. The next genus is of more general interest.
Genus Coryph^na, Linn. Body compressed, elon- gated, covered by small scales ; head compressed, profile circular ; eyes low, approaching the angle of the mouth ; dorsal fin rising from the cranium, and stretching con-
' I/ist Nut. dcs Foisso'ii-, t. ix. pp. 247-C7.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acantliop.
teryjjii.
Scombe-
ridae.
tinuously to the taiU towards whicli it decreases in ele- vation.
Tiiis noted frenus has been remodelled in recent times, and now consists of the following minor groups.
Isi. Genus Corypiia;na proper. Cuv. Head very ele- vated, profile curved and perpendicular, eyes low ; mouth well cleft ; teeth like those of a wool card.
The generic term is derived from xo^uipri, I'ertex, or top of the head, in reference to the height of the crest of the cranium. This division contains the famous dolphin of the
187
ridsE.
One or two other kinds, not so distinctly known, occur Acanthop- in the Meditenanean, and many others in more distant terygii. seas. We here figure a large species, measuring nearly Scombe- four feet in length, taken by M. Dussumier about fifty leagues to the west of the Azores, for which reason it bears the name of Coryjilmna, Azorica, see Plate CCCIII.fig. a. The PoKtuguese name more than one species Dorade, a term which, from its similarity to Baurade (a frequent appella- tion of our gilt-head, Chrysophria aurata), has produced some confusion. Not less ambiguous is the name of Dol-
Mediterranean(Cor./(ip/j?<TOs, Linn.), so celebrated for the /)/««, which appears to have been first misapplied to the beauty of its versatile tints. Corypha;na; by the Dutch. It is scarcely necessary to ob-
serve, that the English word Dni|)hin, as synonymous with the Greek AsXp/j, the Latin Delphinus, and the French Dauphin, was originally, and is still correctly, applied only to designate a group of cetaceous animals (allied in struc- ture to the whales), to which the classical dolphin of anti- quity assuredly belonged. But by some conversion, into the history of which it is not worth while to inquire, the
parting day
Hies like the dolphin, whom each pang imbues
AVith a new colour as it gasps away.
The last still loveliest, till — 'tis gone — and all is gray.
The species are still in some measure indistinctly cha- racterized. They occur in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea, and are remarkable, anions
other things, for their keen pursuit of flying fish, which, in term has been applied by most modern writers, particularly
poets, to a creature of another class, a genuine fish, of the genus Coryphana. No fault therefore can be imputed to the naturalist, if the general misapplication of the term is now found to occasion any misconception. There is no doubt, however, that the animal beloved by gods and men, the Hieros Ichthys of the heroic Greeks, and the revered symbol of the Delphic Apollo, was nothing more than a pellock or porpoise.-
2rf. Genus Lampugus,^ Cuv. Head oblong ; central crest of the forehead much lower than in Coryphaena ; dorsal fin equal, and low throughout its whole extent.
More than one species occurs in the Mediterranean, but the most common in that sea is L. pelagicus, which almost in every thing resembles the so-called dolphin, except in the form of its head, and more diminutive di- mensions.
3rf. Genus Centrolophus, Lacep. Form more length- ened ; palatine teeth wanting ; an interval between the occiput and the commencement of the dorsal fin.
Most of the species occur in the Mediterranean ; and the black perch of Pennant, the black fish of Couch and Yarrell (Cent, pompilus, Cuv.), is referrible to this genus. It is a fish of great strength and velocity, measuring from two to three feet, and is one of our rare British species.
Genus Astrodebmus, Bonelli. Head elevated and sharp; mouth slightly cleft ; only four branchial rays ; ven- trals very small, and placed upon the throat ; scales scat- tered upon the body, and assuming the radiated form of little stars. It is from the latter circumstance that the genus derives its name.
There is only a single species of this genus, — recently discovered, and still extremely rare. It has been taken near Nice, and also in the Gulf of Cagliari in Sardinia, and was originally described by M. Risso under the name of Coryphana elegans.
Genus Pteraclis. Head and teeth as in Coryphana, but the scales are larger, the ventrals very small, and placed upon the throat ; the dorsal and anal fins prodi- giously extended.
This eccentric genus is founded on a fish described by Pallas in his Spicilegia, under the name of Cofrypha'na ve-
the first place, they force to leave their native element, and then following swiftly in a corresponding track, receive with open mo\ith the moment they descend exhausted to the surface. The Coryjjhaena; may be regarded as among tlie most brilliant inhabitants of the sea. It is necessary, according to Bosc, to have seen them following a vessel in troops, before we can form a proper estimate of their beauty. When they swim embodied near the surface, and beneath the light of a cloudless sky, they seem effulgent with the rich- est gold, combined with the sparkling lustre of the topaz, the emerald, and the sapphire, — and every brilliant hue in perpetual change, accordant with the vivacity and varied grace of their movements. It is indeed a spectacle suffi- cient anywhere to excite our unfeigned admiration ; and when seen suddenly amid the waves of the lonely and monotonous ocean, it comes upon us like a glad surprise. The beauty of these fishes has in every age attracted the wonder
Of all who on the wide deep wandering are;
and it is so far to be regretted, that their fugitive colours have been the chief object of attention, — their more pre- cise description and specific discrimination having been greatly disregarded.
The Coryphaenae are strong, active, and voracious fishes. W'hile swimming rapidly, they seem rather as if impelled or projected forwards by some exterior force, than by any exertion of their own. But, on attentive examination, a strong and rapid muscular movement may be detected, by the constant undulation of the long dorsal fin, a movement which greatly contributes to the throwing off of those lus- trous metallic reflections for which they have so long been noted. The Mediterranean species. Cor. hippurus, if not the most beautiful, is the largest known. It sometimes attains to the length of five feet. Its colours, so far as they are ca- pable of description, are silvery blue above, with markings of a deeper azure, and reflections of pure gold^the lower parts citron yellow, marked with pale blue. The pectoral fins are partly lead colour, partly yellow ; the ventrals are yellow on their under surface, and black above ; the anal fin is yellow. The iris of the eye is made of apparent gold.'
' Every voyager seems to describe the dolphin in his own way ; and it is by no means easy for a landsman to ascertain which is the right one. The plav of colour, as it is called, may no doubt admit of great diversity in the expressions used. The above de- scription is from the recorded observation of the living fish by 51. Biberon. Another eye-witness. Colonel Bory St Vincent, de- scribes the back as being of a sea-green colour, sprinkled with orange spots ; the abdomen silvery ; the lateral line yellow ; the dorsal fin celestial blue, with golden-coloured rays ; the caudal fin surrounded by a green hue ; the other fins yellow. {Dictiannnire Ctas- tique d'Hist. Nat. t. iv. p. 528)
' Wilson's Illustrations of Zoology, vol. i. article Uelphiwaptehus.
' Synonymous with the genus Caranxomiis of Lacepede, which was adopted by Cuvier in the Rcgne Animal, but is now, so far as the name is concerned, handed over to oblivion.
18S
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop. lifera, and it was with a feeling of doubt that Cuvier terygii. placed it where it now stands. It is not easy to conceive Scombe- j|^g ^gg pf jjg dorsal and anal fins, so enormouslj' large in "'"'*■ proportion to the size of the body. Pallas indeed ima- gined that they might serve to sustain it in the air ; but in that case the fish must fly, as a flounder swims, upon its side. The species are unfortunately so rare, that it may be long before an opportunity occurs of throwing any liglit upon the subject. The only known specimen of Pt. ocellatus, Cuv. was taken entire from the stomach of a bonito in the Straits of Mosambique. The species re- presented in this work (See Plate CCCIII. fig 3) was brought to Europe by MM. Quoy and Gaymard, but we know not from what locality.
Genus Stromateos, Linn. Distinguished among the Scoraberidoe by the want of the ventral fins, and by a single dorsal, the spiny rays of which, few in number, are concealed in its anterior margin. The vertical fins are covered by scales, as among the Squammipennes.
The Mediterranean produces a beautiful species {St. fialola, Linn.), remarkable for its spots and broken bands of gold upon a lead-coloured ground. The black pomfret of India, a delicious fish for table uses, pertains to this genus. It is the St. niger of Bloch. According to Russel, it is abundant at Vizagapatam during the months of March and April, and vanishes and re-appears alternately every two or three days. It requires to be eaten immediately after capture. A singular circumstance in the geographi- cal history of this genus is, that although the species seem common along a great extent of Indian coast, and spread as far as China, none is known at the Isle of France, nor in any part of the Indian Archipelago.
Genus Rhombus,' Lacep. Extremity of the pelvis forming, anterior to tiie anus, a small pointed and cutting blade, which resembles a vestige of the ventral fins.
As an example, we may mention the Harvest fish of New York, an excellent article for the table. It is the Rh. longipinnis of Cuvier, erroneously placed by Linnaeus among the Chaetodons.
The genus Luvarus of Rafinesque resembles the pre- ceding. There is only one species distinctly known {L. imperialis), a fish of fine flavour, but extremely rare. It measures five feet in length ; the whole body is of a reddish silvery colour, more obscure upon the back. It was dashed ashore near Solanto, in Sicily.* A species unknown to the fishermen was taken in 1826, at Isle-de- Re, which Cuvier regards as referrible to this genus. The genus Sbserinus, Cuv. possesses the characters of Stro- mateus, but very small ventrals are perceptible, or at least the vestiges of these organs are apparent. The only known species is S. Rondeletii, a small fish of the Medi- terranean.
Gekus Kurtus, Bloch. Allied to Rhombus, but differs in the dorsal fin being shorter, and the ventrals more developed. The scales are so fine as to be imperceptible in the dried state. There are seven branchial rays. The pelvis shows a spine between the ventrals, and several small cutting blades are visible anterior to the dorsal fin.
at the base of which is a spine directed horizontally for- Acanthop. wards. tervgii.
The skeleton in this genus presents a striking pecu- Scombe- liarity in the ribs, which are dilated, convex, and in the ^_,_ " / form of rings which come in contact with each other, — thus enclosing a conical empty space, which is prolonged beneath the tail, in the inferior rings of the vertebra;, into a long thin tube enclosing the swimming bladder. The species inhabit the Indian seas, and are few in number. K. cornutiis, called somdrum-hara-moddee at Vizagapatam, and which Cuvier regards as the male of K. Blochii, La- copede, is an excellent eating fish, remarkable for being almost transparent in a state of freshness.
We shall conclude our exposition of the Scomberidae by a brief notice of the genus Zeus, Linn, from which some of the preceding genera, such as GaUychtis, Argy- reyosus, &c. have already been detached. In its more restricted form it contains fishes of a compressed body, protractile mouth covered by small scales, with teeth feeble and few in number. It is further divisible as follows :
Genus Zeus, Cuv. Dorsal fin emarginate, its spines accompanied by long slips of the membrane; a series of forked spines along the base of the dorsal and anal fins.
The type of the genus is Zeits faber, commonly called the Dory (Plate CCCIII. fig. 5), probably from the French term doree, in allusion to the golden tints of its body.^ Its surface has at the same time a smoked appearance, on which account the French name \lforgeron, a word which corresponds to the Latin trivial name oi faber, or black- smith. It is also called \hefish of St Peter, from an an- cient traditionary belief that it was from the mouth of this species that the apostle extracted the tribute-money, and the black spot on either side of its body is supposed ta be a record of its capture at that time.'' The dory is a fish greatly esteemed for the table. It occurs both in the Mediterranean Sea, and along the oceanic coasts of Europe. According to Pennant, the largest are found in the Bay of Biscay. Willughby alludes to it as common in his day on the shores of Cornwall ; and it is still taken both there and along the Devonshire coast, occasionally even in profusion. Mr Couch, as quoted by Mr Yarrell, considers the dory rather as a wandering than a migra- tory fish, and as regulated in a great measure by the move- ments of the smaller kinds on which it preys. Wlien the pilchards approach the shore, it is frequently taken in considerable numbers. In the autumn of 1829, more than sixty were hauled on shore at once in a net, some of them of large size, and yet the whole were sold together for nine shillings. The largest specimens of the London market weigh from ten to twelve pounds, but the aver- age weight is scarcely more than five. The dory is a bold, voracious species, preying greedily upon the more timid kinds, and pouncing readily upon all sorts of bait. Its flesh was highly esteemed in the time of Pliny. Co- lumella, who was a native of Cadiz (where it was regard- ed as the best of fishes), has recorded that it had been long known by the name of Zeus — a designation which in
' In the second edition of the Regne Animal, this genus bears the name of Peprilus ; Cuvier not having been at that time aware that it had been previously designated by Lacepede under the name of Rhombus. We deem the choice of the latter name equally unfortunate, seeing that it had been previously applied generically to that group of the Pleuronectidfe called Turhots. But we leiivL> it to more influential authors to propose a second change.
- Rafinesque, Caratteri di alcuni ntiovi pener'i, &c. dclla Sicilia, p. 22.
' A variety of derivations, however, have been assigned to the English name. In addition to the one above alluded to, we shall merely mention the following : St Christopher, while wading through an arm of the sea, and bearing the infant Saviour, is said to have caught a dory, and to have impressed its sides with the two peculiar marks, as a perpetual record of the fact. The name was therefore said to be from the French adoric, worshipped, as something unusually sacred. The designation of John Dory is in all probability derived from the French jauiie dorie, in allusion to the tints of a golden i/cllow hue with which it is adorned. Some, however, refer it (and again in connection with St Peter) to the Italian term janifoir, or door-keeper, by which it seems the species is known to the fishermen of the Adriatic.
* The common haddock also bears a share in this tradition.
ICHTHYOLOGY
189
Acanthop- terygii.
itself argues pre-eminence, Ziut in Greek signifying the monarch of the gods.
Genus Capros, Lacep. Dorsal fin emarginate, as in the preceding, and the mouth still more protractile ; but there are no spines to either the anal or dorsal fin. The body is covered with strong rough scales.
The only species with which we are acquainted is the Zeus aper of Linn, a small fish of the Mediterranean. A specimen was taken in Mounts Bay in October 1825,' and more recently it was observed in the Bridgewater fish- market, as we are informed by W. C. Trevelyan, Esq.
Genus Lampris, Retzius. A single dorsal fin, high in front, where it is furnished with one or two small spines. The ventrals have ten long rays, and the lobes of the caudal fin are considerably elongated, but these prolonga- tions seem to become effaced by age. The sides of the tail are carinated.
The only known species (Z. guftatiis, 2kus luna, Gme- lin) occurs, though rarely, off the French coasts, and in the British seas, where it is known as the opah or king- fish. It is one of the most splendid and remarkable of European fishes. Its back is of a deep blue spotted with silver, — the rest of its body like polished gold, reflecting ail the colours of the rainbow. It is certainly sufficiently singular that a species included by Nilsson in his Prodro- mus of the fishes of Scandinavia, should likewise be enu- merated by Kaempfer as occurring in Japan. The opah is a fish of great size, measuring sometimes five feet in length. Its flesh is said to taste like beef. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 6.
The remaining genera are Equula, Cuvier, and Mene, Lacepede. The Zeus insidiator is an example of the for- mer,— the Zeus maculatus, of the latter.
FAMILY VIII — T^NIOID^.
This family is closely connected with the Scomberidae. The species are of a very lengthened form, and flattened laterally, from which they have obtained the name of rib- bon-fishes. Their scales are very small.
The first tribe' comprehends those genera of which the mouth is small, and but slightly cleft.
Genus Gymnetrus, Bloch. Body elongated and flat; anal fin entirely wanting ; dorsal fin long, with prolonged anterior rays, which, however, are easily broken ; ventrals also very long, when not worn away by use, or otherwise fractured ; the caudal, composed of few rays, rises verti- cally on the extremity of the tail, which finishes in a little hook. There are six branchial rays.
The species are so soft and tender that they often pre- sent themselves as it were with false characters, from the natural mutilation of the rays. For this reason they are as yet indistinctly characterized by systematic writers. Even the central skeleton, and especially the bones of the vertebrae, are extremely soft. The stomach is long ; there are numerous caeca; the swimming bladder is wanting; and the flesh, of a raucous nature, decomposes with great rapidity. The European species occur in the Mediter- ranean, and also occasionally in the British and more northern seas. The fish called king/ of the herrings by the Norwegians belongs to this genus. We here figure as
a curious example the Gymnetrus falx. See Plate CCCIII- Acanthop- fig. 8. We may add, that the Gymnetrus Hawkenii of toryjfii. Bloch, a species originally described from a specimen taken Theuti'lae. near Goa, in the Indian Sea, was many years ago drawn ^^"V"~^ ashore dead on the south coast of Cornwall. It measured nearly nine feet, and weighed forty pounds. The vaag- tnaer, or deal-fish, has also been recorded by Dr Fleming as a British species.-* It is the Gymnetrus Arcticus of sys- tematic authors.
That very singularly-formed fish, the Slyleptiorus cor- datus of Shaw, forms the remaining genus of the present tribe.*
In the second tribe of T^Nioina; the muzzle is short, and the mouth obliquely cleft.
Genus Cepola, Linn. Dorsal and anal fin long, each reaching to the base of the caudal, which itself is rather large ; the cranium is not raised or crested ; the muzzle is very short, with the superior curved upwards ; the teeth are distinct, and the ventral fins perceptibly developed. There are a few unarticulated rays in the dorsal fin, which are as flexible as the others ; the spine of the ventrals alone being stiff and pointed. There are six branchial rays. Both the abdominal cavity and stomach are very short. Some casca are perceptible, and a swimming blad- der, which extends into the caudal extremity. The occa- sional occurrence of a Mediterranean species of this genus ( Cep. rtthescens, Linn.) along the coasts of Devon and Corn- wall has been recorded both by Montagu and Couch.^
Genus Lophotes, Giorna. Head short, surmounted by a raised osseous crest, on the summit of which is ar- ticulated a long and powerful spiny ray, bordered behind by a membrane, and followed by a low simply rayed con- tinuous fin, which spreads onwards to the point of the tail. Caudal fin distinct but small ; and beneath the above- mentioned point there are two scarcely perceptible ven- tral fins furnished with four or five exceedingly small rays. The teeth are pointed, and not very close toge- ther ; the mouth directed upwards, and the eyes very large. There are six branchial rays, and the abdominal cavity occupies almost the entire extent of the body. We are acquainted with only a single species (Loph. Lacepe- dianus), which inhabits the Mediterranean, where, how- ever, it is extremely rare. It attains to a large size, that is, to about four feet in length.*
FAMILY IX.— THEUTID^.
This family is perhaps as closely allied to the Scombe- ridae as the preceding, but its alliance proceeds from other points,— such as the armature of the sides of the tail in several genera, or the horizontal spine anterior to the dorsal fin in others. It comprises but a small number of foreign genera, with compressed oblong bodies, small mouths, slightly or not at all protractile, armed on each jaw with cutting teeth upon a single range, the palate and tongue without teeth, and a single dorsal fin. The species are of herbivorous habits, feeding chiefly on fuci and other marine vegetation. Their intestines are ample. We are compelled to be brief in our indications of the generic groups.
The genus Siganus, Forsk. of which the species are
' Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1833, p. 113.
' In the Regne Animal, t. ii. p. 217, the first tribe of the family above named is composed of the genera Lepidopiis and Trichiurua, which, however, in Cuvier's later work (Hiit. Nat. dei Poissons, t. viii. p. 217) are placed as an appendix to the first tribe of the ScoK- BERID.E, where we have accordingly placed them in the present article. We therefore commence the T^NioiDiE with what waa formerly the second tribe.
^ Magazine of Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 215. ■• See General Zoology, vol. iv. part 1. p. 87.
• Linn. Trans, vol. vii. p. 291, and vol. xiv. p. 17.
• See Mem. deVAcad. de Turin, 1805-8, p. 19; and Ann. du Museum, t. xx. fig. 17-
190
Acanthop- terygii. I.abyrin- thitbrni Pliarvn- geals.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
numerous in tlie Indian seas, is characterized by a fea- ture believed to be unique among fishes, that of having both the outer and inner ray of the ventral fins spiny. The genus Acanthurus, Bloch, has the teeth cutting and dentated, and a strong moveable spine on each side of the tail, capable of inflicting a severe vvound on those who grasp it incautiously. On this account a species greatly sought for in the West Indies as food has re- ceived the name of surgeon, Ac. Chirurgus. As an ex- ample we here figure the Acanthurus Delisianus. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 7. In the genus Naseus the sides of the tail are armed witli fixed spines, and the teeth are coni- cal. The great peculiarity, however, consists in a horn- like prominence on the front of the head. The skin re- sembles leather. Forskall relates of one species (N.fron- ticornis, Lac.) that although of peaceable demeanour and herbivorous habits, it knows hoiv to defend itself from unprovoked aggression ; and he reports the observations of some Arabian fishermen, who saw a troop of them come to the rescue of a companion who had been transfixed on the surfiice of the water by an eagle. They so bothered the " Bird of Jove" as eventually to produce his death by drowning. This, however, savours more of an " Arabian Tale" than of a fact in natural history. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 9. The reader will perceive in the two preceding re- presentations a resemblance to the genus Chaetodon. The remaining genera of this small family are Axinurus and Priodon, Cuv.
FAMILY X— LABYRINTHIF0R5I PHARYNGEALS.
By this term Baron Cuvier means to designate the pe- culiar structure of a part of the upper pharyngeal bones, which are divided into leaflets more or less numerous and irregular. This formation produces cells capable of containing water, which flows upon and moistens the branchise for some time after the fish itself has been re- moved from its natural element; and this refreshing in- fluence is rendered the more effectual by the closeness of the opercula or gill-covers. The consequence is, that most of the species possess the power of quitting their streams and pools, and creeping, as it were, to some little distance from their watery homes, — a faculty not unknown to an- cient writers, and one which in India has led to the belief that these fishes fall from heaven.
Genus Anabas. In this genus the labyrinths alluded to attain the greatest degree of complication. Neverthe- less the third pharyngeals have teeth en paves, and there are others beneath the back of the cranium. The body is round, covered by strong scales ; the head large ; the muzzle short and obtuse ; the mouth small ; the lateral line interrupted about its posterior third. The margins of the opercle, sub-opercle, and inter-opercle, are strong- ly toothed, but not those of the pre-opercle. The bran- chial membrane has five rays. There are many spiny rays to the dorsal, and even to the anal fin. The stomach is of medium size, rounded. The pylorus has only three appendices.
The generic name is derived from the Greek, anajSaim, to ascetid, and refers to the singular instinct of the only known species (A71. scaiidens, Plate CCCIII. fig. 11), which induces it to climb trees.' It performs this action by means of the spiny processes of the gill-covers, and moves at pleasure up the trunks of trees which grow by the water side. It was observed by Lieutenant Daldorff, at Tranquebar, ascending by a fissure in the stem of the
Labynii- thiforni Pharyn- geals.
palm called Borassus Jlabellifer, and was also found to Acanthop be so tenacious of life as to move about upon the dry terygii sand for some hours after it was captured on the tree.* At the same time other respectable observers who have attended to this species in its natural state, make no men- tion of the fact. M. Reinwardt has frequently taken the Anabas at Java, but never heard any climbing propensi- ties attributed to it ; M. Leschenault, who transmitted se- veral specimens to Pondicherry, simply observes that they dwell in rivers and fresh-water ponds ; while Mr Hamil- ton Buchanan proceeds still further, and not only denies the fact, but regards it as contrary to the laws of nature. One point, however, is certain, that it is capable of living an unusual length of time out of the water, a fact in per- fect accordance with the peculiar structure of its pharyn- geals. It also creeps about upon the ground for hours together, and the fishermen are alleged to keep it alive for five or six days in a dry vessel. It is thus brought alive to the markets of Calcutta from the great marshes of the district of Yazor, which are distant more than a hundred and fifty miles. " Les charlatans et jongleurs," says Cuvier, " dont ITnde abonde, ont generalemeftt de ces poissons avec eux dans des vases, pour amuser la po- pulace de leurs mouvemens."^
Passing over the nearly allied genera of Helostoma, Polyacanthus, Colisa, and Macropodus, we arrive at the
Genus Osphronemus of Commerson, of which .the forehead is somewhat concave, the anal fin larger than the dorsal, the sub-orbitals and base of the pre-opercle finely dentated, and the first soft ray of the ventrals re- markably prolonged. There are six branchial rays, and the general form of the body is much compressed.
This genus contains the Os. olfax, or Gourami, one of the most famous for its flavour of all the fishes of the East. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 10.) It grows as large as a turbot, and is even more delicious than that favourite food. Com- merson has recorded in his manuscript that he never tast- ed so exquisite a fish, — " Nihil inter pisces turn marinos tum fluviatiles exquisitius unquam degustavi ;" and he adds, that the Dutch of Batavia rear them in large earth- en vessels, renewing the water every day, and feeding them on aquatic plants, particularly Pistia nutans. That navigator was also of opinion that the species had been imported originally from China to the Isle of France, and it appears to have been recently conveyed to the French colonies in South America by Captain Philibert. Its im- portation to Europe would be well worth attempting, and would probablj' be attended by success if the Gourami, like the golden carp, is actually a native of China. It does not, however, appear that any mention is made of it in any natural history notices of that empire, and it seems as yet unknown in India. It is said that the female Gou- rami hollows out a little foss in the side of the pond where she is kept, for the purpose of depositing her eggs in safety.
The remaining genera of this group are Thichopus, Spirobranchus, and Ophicephalus. Of the former two only a single species is known of each. The last named is more numerous, and is deserving of a brief notice.
The Ophicephali resemble all the preceding genera of the family in the majority of their characters, and particu- larly in the celhilar disposition of their pharyngeals, which seem equally adapted for the singular retention of water before alluded to. They can consequently also creep to a considerable distance from their liquid abodes ; but what particularly distinguishes and even separates them irom all
' It is synonymous with Perca scandcns of Daldorf, and Coins coioiiii of Buchanan. In the Tamoiil language it is called Paneiri, or the tree climber.
* Linn. Trant. vol iii p. G2. » Hitt. Jfat. dct Poition; t. vii. p. 332.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
191
Acanthop. other acantliopterygian fishes, is the absence of spines to developed, give an angular form to the oesophagus resem- Acanthop.
terygii. fjjjj ^fjg^ except the single one to the ventrals, which itself, \,^^^IJ^ though simple, is neither stiff nor pointed. The body is elongated, and almost cylindrical ; the muzzle short and obtuse ; the head depressed, and furnished with polygonal scales, or rather plates, as in Aiuibas. It may be said, how- ever, that it is by means of the solitary ventral spines alone that they exhibit the normal character of the great division of acanthopterygian fishes with which we have been hitherto engaged. They thus, by such ambiguous combination of cha- racter, almost break up the grand distinction of acanthop- terygian and malacopterygian species, a distinction other- wise so well grounded as to have hitherto produced no dis- ruption of the relations of natural affinity. " If it were pos- sible," says Cuvier, " to admit that anomalous beings exist- ed in nature, there is certainly none to which the title is so justly due as to the Ophicephali." Their watery reservoirs enable them to journey from one marsh to another, and they are moreover so tenacious of life that their bowels may he torn out, and themselves cut to pieces, without pro- ducing immediate death. They are often thus carried about alive, or sold in the markets slice by slice ; and the con- sumers refuse to give the best price when so much has been cut away that the remainder ceases to move. This seems a parallel case to that of the beef-steaks from the oxen of Abyssinia. We here figure as an example of this singular genus the Ophicephalus slriatus, a species which seems spread over the whole of India. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 12. Buchanan describes another species under the name of Gachua ( Oph. marginalus, Cuv. ?), which some- times grows to a foot in length. It is very common in the l)onds and fosses of Bengal, and is one of the species most generally believed to fall from the clouds in wet weather. During the first heavy showers of the rainy season, they are certainly seen crawling on the grass ; but their object in so doing is doubtless to escape from the corrupted water of the narrow dykes which they had previously inhabited, and to go in search of a purer element, and a fresherand more ample food. The species called Barca by Buchanan lives in holes in the vertical banks of the Brahmapootra, with no- thing visible but its head, that it may the more readily ob- serve and seize its prey. It is a large fish, measuring three feet in length, and is regarded as good eating. On the W'hole, however, the species of this genus are consumed ra- ther by natives than Europeans, — the latter probably re- garding them too much in the light of reptiles. We may add, that the Ophicephali are often exhibited by the Indian jugglers, and that even the children amuse themselves by forcing them to crawl upon the ground.
FAMILY XI—MUGILID.E.
The fishes which compose our present group (corre- sponding to the genus MuGir, of Linn.) exhibit so many peculiarities of organization, that Cuvier has deemed it ad- visable to form them into a distinct family. The body is almost cylindrical, covered with large scales, and furnished with two distinct dorsal fins, the first of which has only four spiny rays. The ventrals are attached somewhat be- hind the pectorals. The gills have six rays. The head is rather depressed, also covered with large scales or polygo- nal plates. The muzzle is very short. The transverse mouth forms an angle by means of a prominence of the
biing that of the mouth, which permits only fluids or very ter.v{»ii. small substances to enter the stomach, notwithstanding ^^"S''"'*- which the latter terminates in a kind of fleshy gizzard, ana- *~'"V~' logons to that of birds. The pyloric appendices are few in number, but the intestine is long and folded.
The species are excellent as articles of food. They re- sort in vast troops to the mouths of large rivers, where they may be observed continually springing out of the wa- ter.
The Mtigil cephalus, or Mediterranean gray mullet (the English name must not mislead the unpractised reader to confound it with the genus Mullus, formerly described), is distinguished from all the other European species by its eyes, which are half covered by two adipose veils adherent to the anterior and posterior margin of the orbit, and by the peculiar concealment of the maxillary bone, which, when the mouth is closed, is completely hidden beneath the sub-orbital. The base of the pectoral fin is surmount- ed by a long carinated scale. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 13. The species just referred to is the best and largest of the Mediterranean kinds. It weighs about ten or twelve pounds, and does not appear to have been yet detected in the seas or estuaries of Britain, nor along the oceanic shores of France. It is very common on the coast of Spain, especially around the island of Ivica, where the fishermen are said to recognise two varieties under the names of Mw gil and Lissa. W^hen surrounded by a net, it endeavours, and often successfully, to effect its escape, by leaping over the edges into the unencumbered sea.'
" Its hearing is very fine, as has been noticed by Aris- totle, and it feeds on worms and small marine animals ; but it is doubtful, though it has been advanced, that it can live on vegetable substances. It appears to be of a stupid character, a fact which was known in the time of Pliny, for that author tells us that there is something ludicrous in the disposition of the mullets ; for if they are afraid they con- ceal their heads, and thus imagine they are entirely with- drawn from the observation of their enemies.
" When, towards the end of spring and the commence- ment of summer, the fishes of this species, excited by the necessity of living in the fresh water, approach the shores and advance towards the mouths of the rivers, they form such numerous troops that the water through which they are seen, without being clearly distinguished, appears to be bluish. This particularly happens in the Garonne and the Loire at these periods. The fishermen there adopt the plan of surrounding these legions of mullets with nets, the enclosure of which they gradually contract, taking care to make a noise to frighten the fish, and oblige them to press together, and heap themselves as it were one upon the other.
" Of the mullets thus taken some are eaten fresh, others are salted and smoke-dried ; it is with their eggs salted, washed, pressed, and dried, that the preparation called io- tarcha is made, which is a condiment greatly in request in Italy and the southern provinces of France. The flesh of this mullet is tender, delicate, and of an agreeable flavour ; it is fatter and more in estimation when it is taken in the fresh water. The ancients, who from the time of Aristotle w ere acquainted with this fish, had it in great request ; and the consumption of it is still very considerable in most of the southern countries of Europe. According to the re- port of Athenaeus, those mullets were formerly in very high
middle of the lower jaw, corresponding to a depression of esteem which were taken in the neighbourhood of Sinope the upper one ; and the teeth are excessively fine, indeed and Abdera ; while, as Paulus Jovius informs us, those were in some cases imperceptible. The pharyngeal bones, greatly very little prized which had lived in the salt marsh of Or-
' The Mngil salicni derives its specific name from the extraordinary velocity with which it springs into the air when it finds it- self abuut to be enclosed.
]92
Acanlhop.
tervi^ii. Gobioidae.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
bitello in Tuscany, in the lagunes of Ferrara and Venice, in those of Padua and Chiozza, and sucli as came from the neighbourhood of Commachio and Ravenna. All these places in fact are marshy, and the streams by which they are watered are brackish, and communicate to the fish which they sujiport the odour and the flavour of the mud."' At the conclusion of this family Cuvier places the two following genera, the first of which is allied partly to the mullets and partly to the Scomberidae, while the second partakes of characters intermediate between the Mugilidae in general, and the ensuing family of Gobioidas.
Genus Tetragonubus, Risso, so called from two sa- lient crests on each side, near the base of the caudal fin. The body is elongated ; the spinous dorsal long, but very low, — the soft dorsal approximate, but higher and short, with an anal of corresponding form ; the ventrals are a little behind the pectorals ; the branches of the lower jaw are vertically raised, and furnished with a range of pointed cutting teeth, forming as it were a saw, and fitting, when the mouth is closed, into those of the upper jaw. The sto- mach is garnished interiorly with hard and pointed papillae. The only known species (71 Cuvieri, Risso) is found along the Mediterranean shores, but only at great depths. It is of a black colour, measuring about a foot in length, and is covered by hard, toothed, striated scales. Its flesh is said to be poisonous.
Genus Atherina, Linn. Body elongated; dorsals wide apart ; ventrals further back than the pectorals ; mouth very projectile, and furnished with extremely small teeth. The transverse processes of the last abdominal ver- tebrae are bent so as to form a little conical bag for the re- ception of the point of the swimming bladder.
All the known species are characterised by a broad sil- very band along the sides. They are highly esteemed for their delicacy ; and the fry, which continue for a long time together in crowded troops, are eaten along the Mediter- ranean shores under the name oi Nonnat. A. hepsetus, Linn, was till very recently regarded as indigenous to the seas and estuaries of Britain. There was reason, however, to believe that several species had been confounded under that name ; and Mr Yarrell has ascertained that the Bri- tish species, commonly called the Atherine, coincides in its characters with the Atherina presbyter of Cuvier. It is a common fish at Brighton, where, under the name of sand-smelt, it is eaten in large quantities by the inhabitants and visitors during the winter months. It partakes of the cucumber smell and flavour of the true smelt, and is a small handsome fish, measuring from five to six inches. It is rarely brought to the London market. It spawns in May and June.
FAAIILY XII GOBIOID,*:.
This family derives its name from the Linnaean genus Gobius, and is distinguished by having the dorsal spines
slender and flexible. The viscera of all the fishes pertain- Acantliop- ing to it are nearly of the same conformation ; the intestinal terygii. canal is equal, ample, and without cjeca, and there is no Gobioida;. swimming bladder. ^■^"Y"*^
The species referrible to the genus Blennius, Linn, pre- sent a very distinctive character in having their ventral fins placed before the pectorals, and composed only of two rays. Their bodies are elongated and compressed, and they bear only a single dorsal, composed almost en- tirely of simple and flexible rays. They live in small com- panies in rocky streams, and can survive for a consider- able time out of the water, in consequence of their skin being covered with a kind of mucus, a circumstance which has caused the Greek name Blennius to be applied to them. Many of them are viviparous, and both sexes have a tubercle near the anus, which seems to be subservient to the purposes of copulation. They are now arranged under the following genera :
Genus Blennius, Cuv. Includes the blennies properly so called, and is characterised by long, equal, and closely- placed teeth, forming only a single and rather regular row on each jaw, terminating behind in some species by a long and hooked tooth. The head is obtuse, the muzzle short, and the forehead vertical ; the intestines broad and short. Several species occur along the coasts of Britain. Of these we may mention the butterfly blenny {B. ocella- ris), distinguished by having the dorsal bi-lobed, the an- terior lobe being very elevated, and marked with a round black spot, cinctured with a white and black circle. See Plate CCCIV. fig. 1.
Genus Myxodes, Cuv. Separated from the blennies properly so called, in consequence of the head being elon- gated, the snout pointed, and projecting beyond the mouth ; the range of teeth like those of the blennies, but without the canine teeth.
Genus Salarias, Cuv. Teeth laterally compressed, hooked at the extremity, exceedingly slender, and in pro- digious numbers. The head of these fishes is very much compressed superiorly, and of great breadth across the base : their lips are fleshy and thick, their forehead quite vertical, and their intestines, spirally convoluted, are longer and more slender than in the common blennies. All the known species are from the Indian Ocean.
Genus Clin us, Cuv. Teeth short and pointed, dis- posed in several rows, the first of which is largest. Their muzzle is less obtuse than in the two preceding groups, the stomach broader, and the intestines not so long.
Genus Cihrhibarbus, Cuv. The general form is that of the preceding genus ; the teeth are crowded, and there is a small tentaculum over the eye, and another on the nostril, besides three large ones at the extremity of the muzzle, and eight under the point of the lower jaw. Only one species is known, a native of the Indus. It is of a uniform reddish-yellow colour.
Genus Gunellus. {3Iur(enoides, hacep.) Distinguish- ed from all the other blennies by having the ventrals so
■ ' Griffith's edition of the minimal Kingdom, vol. x. p. 300. According to Baron Cuvier, Linnaeus and several of his successors liave confounded all tlie European niugils or gray mullets under the single specific name of M. ccphalus. The Frencli naturalist restricts that denomination to the species characterised above, and which has not yet been detected along our island shores. Our ffratj mullet is the mugil capita of Cuvier, an inhabitant not only of the Mediterranean, but also of all the western shores of the temperate parts of Europe. " The partiality," says Mr Yan-ell, " exhibited by the gray nuillet for fresh water has led to actual expeiiment of the effe.-t of confining them to it entirely. Jlr Arnould put a number of the fiy of the gray mullet about the size of a finger into his pond at Guernsey, wliich is of about three acres area, and has been before referred to under the article Jjussc. After a few years, mul- let of four pounds weight were caught, which proved to be fatter, deeper, and heavier for tlieir length, than others obtained from the sea. Of all the various salt-water fishes introduced, the gray mullet appeared to be the most improved. A slight change in the ex- ternal colour is said to be visible." [llritish Fishes, p. 205.) The same author informs us that the gray mullet is frequently an object of sport to the angler. They rise freely at the Hies used for trout, and even at the larger and more gaudy flies used for salmon. They are strong in the water, and rc(iuire a careful hand in consequence of their impetuous plunging. Our other British species are the thick-lipped gray mullet, mugil clirlo, Cuv., and a small species described by Mr Yarrell under the name of short gray mullet, mu- gil cuitns. We may here remark, Ihat it is unfortunate that the English term miillft should be applied both to the subjects of our jiresent note, and to the red and striped mullets, which belong to a very diflPerent genus of the family Percidae, before described. If the latter were termed lurmulkts, or the former mugils, the ambiguity of a double application of the same name would be avoided.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
]93
Acanthop- small as to be almost imperceptible, and often reduced to
tervfrii. a single ray. The head is very small, and tlie body elon-
Gobioidae. gated like the blade of a sword ; the back garnished
^'^'V^ throughout its whole length with a uniform dorsal fin, all
the rays of which are simple and without articulations.
The teeth are as in the genus Cliiius, the stomach and
intestines of a uniform character.
One species, the common gunnel {B. gtmnellus), is very abundant on the coasts of Britain, and in other northern seas. It varies from six to ten inches in length, is of a yellowish-brown colour on the body, with the belly white, and the dorsal fin ornamented with a series of dark ocillat- ed spots along the base.
Genus Opistognathus, Cuv. Presents the form of the blennies properly so called, but differs from them in having the maxillaries very large, and prolonged posterior- ly into a kind of long flat moustache. The teeth in each jaw are rasp-like, the exterior range being strongest. The ventrals are placed exactly under the pectorals, and con- sist of three rays. Only one species seems to be known, which was brought from the Indian Ocean by M. Sonne- rat, after whom it was named by Baron Cuvier.
Genus Zoarcus, Cuv. The species of this group are destitute of a spiny ray ; they have an anal tubercle, the intestines are without cseca, and there are six branchial rays. The ventrals have three rays ; the teeth are conic, and placed in a single row along the sides of the jaws, but in several in front ; the palate is without teeth. Their dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are united, although the first named experiences a great depression.
The viviparous blenny {B. viviparvs) is a well-known species, and has been long celebrated for a peculiarity which is chiefly observable among cartilaginous fishes, that, namely, of producing its young alive. These are so matured at the time of their birth, that on their first ex- clusion they swim about with the utmost agilit)'. No fewer than 200 or 300 young are sometimes produced by an individual, and the abdomen of the mother is so dis- tended before parturition, that it is impossible to touch it without causing them to be extruded. Full-grown in- dividuals seldom exceed twelve inches in length ; the body is slender and smooth ; the colour yellowish olive, pale beneath, and marked on the upper parts with dusky spots. It is a littoral fish, and of frequent occurrence under stones. When boiled, the back-bone acquires a green colour. America produces a much larger species, which sometimes exceeds the length of three feet. It lias been described under the name of Blennius labrosus.
Genus Anahrhichas, Linn. Bear so much affinity to the blennies, that the species have been termed b)' Cuvier Blennies without ventrals. The dorsal fin, en- tirely composed of simple rays, but without stiffness, be- gins at the nape, and extends, in common with the anal one, nearly to the caudal fin, which is rounded like the pectorals. The whole body is smooth and covered with mucus. Their palatines, vomer, and mandibles, are arm- ed with large osseous tubercles, which are crowned with small enamelled teeth ; but the anterior teeth are longer and conical. Such a conformation of the teeth makes them very powerful instruments, and these fishes, from their large size, are thereby rendered ferocious and dan- gerous. They have six rays in the gills ; the stomach is short and fleshy, with the pylorus near its base ; the in- testine short, thick, and without caca ; and the swimming bladder is wanting.
The most common species is the A. lupus. Plate CCCIV. fig. 2. It is of frequent occurrence in most of the northern seas, and is well known along the coasts of Britain by the names of sea-wolf and sea-cat. Its ordinary length is from three to four feet, but examples sometimes occur near- ly double that size. The colour is obscure livid brown, with
VOL. XII.
several transverse stripes or bands of a darker hue. The Acanthop- dorsal fin, as already mentioned, extends along the whole terygii. length of the back, and is composed of seventy-three t'ol'''"Jie. rays. The fore teeth project considerably, and diverge a^^^'^^ little from each other, forming a powerful kind of arma- ture, moved by jaws of such strength that the animal has been known to imprint the marks of its teeth on a bar of iron. The uninviting aspect of this fish has probably not been without influence in producing a prejudice against it as an article of food. Its flesh, however, is far from being unsavoury, and bears considerable resemblance to that of the eel. It is in great request among the Ice- landers, who eat it dry and salted ; while the other parts of the fish are likewise converted to useful purposes, the skin forming shagreen, and the gall being used as soap.
The gobies ( Gobius, Linn.) are at once distinguished from their associates by having their thoracic ventrals united, either throughout their whole length, or only to- wards the base, and forming a single hollow disk, more or less tunnel-shaped.
The spines of their dorsal fins are flexible ; the open- ing of the gills, provided there are only five branchial rays, is generally very small ; and, like the blennies, they can live for some time out of the water. Their sto- mach is without a cul-de-sac, and the intestinal canal has no ca^ca : the males have an appendage, like the blen- nies, behind the anus ; and some species are known to produce their young alive. They are small or middle- sized fishes, and usually frequent rocky places near the margin of the waters which they inhabit. The greater number are provided with a simple air-bladder.
Genus Gobius, Cuv. Includes the gobies properly so called. They have their ventrals united throughout their whole length, and even anterior to their base, by a traverse, so as to form a concave disk. Their body is elongated ; the head of moderate size, and rounded , the cheeks inflated ; and the eyes placed near each other. The back bears two fins, the posterior one rather long. Several species occur in European seas, the characters of which have not been sufficiently examined. They fre- quent waters having a clay bottom, and pass the winter in excavations which they make for that purpose. In the spring they prepare a kind of nest in places which abound with Fuci, and cover it with the roots of the Zostera: the male remains there waiting the arrival of the females, which come in succession to deposit their eggs. These he fecundates, and afterwards watches and defends coura- geously.
The black goby ( Gobius niger, Linn.) is not a scarce species on the coasts of Britain. It is about five inches long, of a dark-brown colour above, and white beneath, variegated with darker spots and stripes. The tail is rounded, and the superior rays of the pectorals are free at the extremity. Several others are found in the Mediter- ranean, such as G.jozzo, G. capita, and G. cruentatus. A few are inhabitants of fresh waters, such as the small dark-co- loured species described by Bonelli under the name of G. Jiuviatilis. Among foreign kinds the most remarkable are the Coitus 7nacrocephalus of Pallas, in which the head is unusually large; and the G. lariceolatus of Bloch, distin- guished by its elongated form, and pointed caudal fin.
The genus named Gobioides by Lacepede differs from the gobies only in having their dorsals united so as to form a single fin, and in the body being more elongat- ed. The Tenioides of the same distinguished Ichthyo- logist have likewise a continuous dorsal line, and the body is still more lengthened. These fishes present a very peculiar aspect, in consequence of having their upper jaw very short, and the lower one high and convex, rising above it, both of them being armed with long crooked teeth, while the eye is reduced to a mere point, and en-
2 B
194
ICHTHYOLOGY.
' — ,-
Acanthop. tirely concealed under the skin. The cavity of the mouth
lervs^i. jg filled with a fleshy tongue almost of a globular shape,
Gutii.iida!. ^^^j ^Y,e lower jaw has a few barbels beneath. The TVe-
^*^'""*^ nioides Hermanii is the only species known : it is a native
of the East Indies, and is usually found in the mud of
stagnant waters.
Genus Periophthalmus, Schn. Contains such as have the head entirely scaly, the eyes placed quite close to each other, and furnished on their lower margin with an eye-lid capable of covering them ; the pectoral fins clothed with scales for more than half their length, which makes them look as if supported by a kind of arm. Their gills being still narrower than those of the other gobies, they can live for a longer period out of the water ; and in the Moluccas, their native country, they are often observ- ed to leap out on the mud in order to escape their ene- mies, or to seize the small shrimps, which form their prin- cipal nourishment. In some the ventrals have a concave disk like the gobies properly so called ; while in others these fins are separated almost to the base. Plate CCCIV. fig. 3.
Genus Eleotris, Cuv. In common with the gobies, the fishes referred to this genus have the first dorsal with flexible spines, and an appendage behind the anus ; but the ventrals are perfectly distinct, the head obtuse and a little depressed, the eyes remote from each other, and the branchial membrane with six rays. The lateral line is faintly marked, and the viscera resemble those of the Gobii. The greater proportion of the species live in fresh water, and often in the mud. That named E. dor- mitatrix is a native of the Antilles ; it is of considerable size, with the head depressed, the cheeks dilated, and the fins spotted with black. Others occur in Senegal and the Indies, and a small gilded species, marked with a black spot at the base of the pectoral (the Gobius aura- tus of Hiss.), inhabits the coasts of the Mediterranean.
Genus Callionymus, Linn. Possesses very strongly marked characters in the gills being open only by a hole on each side of the nape, and in the ventral fins being placed under the throat, remote, and larger than the pec- torals. The head is oblong and depressed, the eyes ap- proximating when seen from above, the inter-maxillaries very protractile, and the pre-opercles elongated behind and terminating in a few spines. The teeth are crowded, and are wanting on the palate. They are beautiful fishes, with a smooth skin, and having the anterior dorsal sup- ported by some setaceous rays, occasionally much ele- vated. The second dorsal is elongated, as well as the anal. The same appendage is observable behind the anus as in the preceding genera. The stomach is not in the form of a cul-de-sac, and they are without casca and air- bladder. Of this handsome genus we may mention as an example the gemmeous dragonet (C. lyra), which oc- curs not unfrequently in the British seas. Plate CCCIV. fig. 4. It derives its specific name from the form of the dorsal fin, which has been thought to bear an obscure resemblance to a lyre. The full-grown fish is about a foot in length. It is of a beautiful orange or yellow co- lour, spotted and striped with violet ; the pupils of the eyes fine deep blue, and the pectoral fins light brown. The sordid dragonet (C. dracunculus) differs from the above only in having the dorsal fin short and without a fillet : by many it is conjectured to be the female of C. lyra. Several species inhabit the Mediterranean, such as C. lacerta, cithara, jaciilus ; and not a few are found in foreign countries.
Genus Thichonotus, Schn. Differs from the typical Callionymi only in having the body very much elongat- ed, and the continuous dorsal and anal of proportionate extent. The genus Comephora of Lacepede compre- hends but one species, from the Lake Baikal, which is
Pediculati.
usually found dead after storms, and is of so soft and fat Acanthop- a substance as to afford a considerable quantity of oil. tervjrii. It is distinguished from all the other members of this J*';f'"'?'f? group by being destitute of ventrals. The genus Pla- TYPiERON is constituted by a few Indian fishes, which, to the large and remote ventrals of the Callionymi, unite a short depressed head, a small mouth, open branchia', and large scales : their two dorsals are short and remote. Genus Chirus, Steller (^Labrax, Pallas). Placed by Cuvier at the end of this family, presents so many dis- tinctive characters, that it may not improperly be regard- ed as the type of a new famil)' group. The body is elon- gated, and garnished with ciliated scales ; the head small and unarmed ; the mouth but slightly cleft, and furnished with small unequal conical teeth ; the spines of the dor- sal are almost invariably slender, and that fin extends along the whole back. But their most distinctive feature consists of numerous series of pores, resembling several lateral lines. Their intestines are without caecal appen- dages ; they have often a tuft on the eye-brow, like cer- tain kinds of blenny ; but their ventrals are composed of five soft rays, as is usual in the allied species. All the known kinds, amounting to six or seven in number, are from the sea of Kamschatka, and were first described by Pallas in the II th volume of the Memoirs of the Academy of Petersburg for 1810.
FAMILY XIII PECTOllALES PEDICULATI.
This family, in Baron Cuvier's arrangement, compre- hends such acanthopterj'genous species as have the carpal bone prolonged in order to form a kind of arm, which sup- Dorts t^-e pectorals. From this peculiarity they have de- rived their family name. Only two genera are here in- cluded, and these are closely allied to each other, although the generality of authors have placed them widely apart.
Genus LoPHius,Linn. Besides the semi-cartilaginous nature of the skeleton, and the want of scales on the skin, has for its general character pectorals supported as if by two arms, each of them sustained by two bones, which have been compared to the radius and cubitus, but which in reality belong to the carpus, and are more elongated in this genus than in any other. The ventrals are placed greatly in advance of the pectorals, and the opercles and rays of the branchiae are enveloped in the skin, while the gills open only by a single hole, pierced behind the pec- torals. The species are voracious ; they have a large sto- mach and a short intestine, and are able to live for a very long period out of the water, on account of the small open- ing of their gills. The kinds now included in this genus, in the restricted sense attached to it by Cuvier, have the head excessively large in proportion to the rest of the body, and at the same time broad and depressed, and spiny in many places ; the opening of the mouth very wide, and armed with pointed teeth ; and the lower jaw furnished with numerous barbels. There are two distinct dorsals, of which the anterior possesses some detached rays, moveable over the head, where they rest on a ho- rizontal inter-spinal ; the branchial membrane forming a very large sac opening in the axilla, and supported by six very long rays ; the operculum small. It is asserted that they lie among the mud, and by putting in motion the rays of their head, attract small fishes, which, mistaking the broad and fleshy extremities of these rays for worms, thus become the prey of the Lophii. It is also said that they can seize and retain their prey by means of their large branchial sacs. Their intestine has two very short caeca towards its origin, and the swimming bladder is awanting. Of these fishes, the most remarkable is the Lophius piscalorius oi lAnnxas. Plate CCCIV. fig. 3. It
ICHTHYOLOGY.
195
Acanthop- is a large fish (measuring from four to five feet in lengtli)
ttr.vi,'ii. of the European seas, with a wide mouth, depressed head,
Lahrid*. numerous teeth, and a bearded tongue. Its aspect is ex-
^""i"^^ tremely repulsive. The Mountshay Avgltr of Borlase,'
and the one from Bristol,^ are, according; to Dr Fleming,
only mutilated specimens of the species just alluded to.
The Chironectes {Anten?iarhis, Commers.) have free rays on the head, like the preceding, the first being slen- der, often terminating by a tuft; and the following, in- creased by a membrane, are sometimes greatly inflated, and at other times united into a single fin. Their body and head are compressed, and the mouth opens vertically ; tiieir gill-covers, provided with four rays, open only by a canal, and a small hole behind the pectoral ; the dorsal occupies nearly all the back. The whole body is some- times garnished with cutaneous appendages. The bran- chias are four in number ; the swimming bladder is large, and the intestine of moderate size and without ca;ca. By filling their enormous stomach with air, after the manner of the Tetrodons, they can inflate their abdomen like a balloon. When on land, their fins assist them in creep- ing, which they do almost after the manner of small quad- rupeds, the pectorals, from their position, performing the office of hinder legs. Moving about in this manner, they can live without entering the water for two or three days. They are found in tropical seas; and Linnaeus appears to have confounded several species under the name of Lo- phivs histrio.
Genus Malthe, Cuv. Has the head unusually large and flattened, principally by the projection of the sub-oper- culum : the eyes placed very far forwards ; the muzzle projecting like a little horn, and the mouth situate under it, the latter being of moderate size and protractile ; the gill-covers supported by six or seven rays, and open to- wards the back by a hole above each pectoral ; the single dorsal small and soft ; the body covered with osseous tu- bercles, and having barbels along the sides, but there are no free rays over the head. The swimming bladder and caeca are wanting.
Genus Batrachus. Derives its name from a Greek word signifying a frog, to which the species are thought to bear some resemblance, in consequence of the enlarge- ment of the head. The latter is flattened horizontally, and wider than the body ; the gape wide, and both the opercle and sub-opercle spiny ; the gill-covers six-rayed ; the ven- trals narrow, attached under the throat, and consisting only of three rays, of which the first is wide and elongat- ed ; and the pectorals supported by a short arm, form- ed by the prolongation of the carpal bone. The first dor- sal is short, supported by three spiny rays ; the second long and soft, which is also the case with the corre- sponding anal one. The lips are often garnished with fila- ments. Such as have been dissected have their stomach in the form of an oblong sac, the intestines short and without ca;ca. The swimming bladder is deeply furcate anteriorly. Thej' conceal themselves in the sand, lying in ambush for their prey. The wounds made by their spines are supposed to be dangerous. The species, which vary considerably in their form and aspect, occur both in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
FAMILY XIV — LABRIDjG.
Easily recognised by its external aspect. The body is oblong and scaly, and the single dorsal fin is supported an- teriorly by spines, each of which is generally garnished with a membranous appendage. The jaws are covered
by fleshy lips ; the two upper pharyngeals are supported Acanthop- against the cranium, and the lower one is large, all the '"-^S,"' three armed with teeth, srimeUmes en pave, at other times ^||i|^™^ pointed or in the form of plates, but generally stronger ^""^'^^ than usual. The intestinal canal is entirely without casca, or only with two very small ones ; and there is a strong swimming bladder.
The genus LABUUSofLinnseus forms an extensive group of fishes, very like each other in their oblong shape, and double fleshy lips (from which circumstance they derive their name), one of which is immediately connected with the jaws, and the other with the sub-orbitals ; the gills are serrated, and have five rays ; the maxillary teeth conic, the middle and anterior ones being longest ; the pharyn- geal teeth cylindrical and blunt, disposed en pave, the superior on two large plates, the inferior on a single one corresponding to the two above. The stomach is not in the form of a cul-de-sac, but is continuous with an intes- tine without caeca, which, after two convolutions, termi- nates in a large rectum. The swimming bladder is robust and simple. The species are numerous, and the colours of many of them liable to so much variation that it is dif- ficult to distinguish them with precision.
In recent times the Linna;an genus has been subdivid- ed as follows :
Genus Labrus, properly so called. Opercle and pre- opercle destitute both of spines and dentations ; cheeks and opercle covered with scales ; lateral line straight, or nearly so.
Four different kinds have been described as inhabiting the British seas, but some of these seem to be mere va- rieties, such, for example, as the L. balaniisand L. comber of Pennant, which are probably referrible to the Labrus maculatus of Bloch. L. lineatus is likewise a British spe- cies. The ground colour is reddish, with one or more ir- regular clouded bands of a deeper colour along the flanks. The dorsal has from sixteen to seventeen spines, and is marked with a dark-coloured spot anteriorly.
Genus Cheilinus, Lacep. Differs from the Labri properly so called, by the lateral line being interrupted opposite the dorsal fin, and commencing again a little lower. The scales at the extremity of the tail are large, and partially envelope the base of the caudal. They are fishes of considerable beauty, and are found in the Indian seas.
The next genus of interest is that named Julis, in which the head is entirely smooth and without scales, and the lateral line is much bent opposite the end of the dorsal. Several species occur in the Atlantic and Medi- terranean, and most of them are of very beautiful colours. The most common European one {Labrus Julis, Linn.) is frequent in the Mediterranean, and has likewise been found on the coast of Cornwall. It is about seven inches in length, and of a beautiful violet, relieved by a bright zigzag orange band on each side.
Genus Crenilabrus has been separated by Cuvier from the Z.M//awi of Bloch, and associated with the Labri, to which all their characters, both external and internal, correspond, except the dentation of the edge of the pre- opercle. (See Plate CCCIV. fig. 6.) Several species are found in the northern seas, such as Lutjamis rupestris, Bloch, 250, of a j'ellow colour, with clouded vertical bands. The British species (C. tinea) known under the name of old wife, or wrasse, belongs to this genus, as does likewise the gibbous wrasse of Pennant's British Zoology. The Mediterranean furnishes a great number adorned with the most beautiful colours, such as the Labr. lapina, Forsk, which is silvery, with three broad longitudinal
' Cornaall, 26C, t. 27, f. 6.
- Phil. Trans, liii. p. 170, t. 13.
196
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop- bands formed by dots of vermillion ; the pectorals yellow, tervgii. gpij [i^g ventrals blue. Many likewise occur in tropical v^_™*^ countries, of which we may mention Lut. verres{V>\. 255), ~ 1^ Ijiii. notatus, L. virescens, and L. chrysops.
To the characters of the Cretiilabri, the genus CoRi- cus of Cuvier joins that of a mouth nearly as protractile as in the Epihuli. The latter group are very remarkable for this property, being capable of extending it to a great length, and suddenly forming it into a kind of tube by a peculiar movement of the maxillaries. They practise this artifice to seize small fishes as they swim within reach of this singular instrument. Several allied genera avail themselves of the greater or less protractility of their jaws to procure their food in a similar manner.
The whole bod}', and the head of the Epihuli, are covered with large scales, the hinder row of which encroaches even on the anal and caudal fins, as likewise takes place among the Cheilini. Tlie lateral line is interrupted in a similar manner, and, in common with these last-named fishes, and the Lahri. they have two long conical teeth in front of each jaw, and behind them small blunt ones. Those of the pharynx have not been observed. The Sparus insidiutor of Pallas is the only species hitherto discovered. It is of a reddish colour, and found in the Indian Ocean.
Genus Clepticus. Furnished with a small cylindrical muzzle, which rises suddenly like that of the Epibuli, but is not so long as the head, and scarcely permits the view of a few small teeth ; the body is oblong, the head obtuse, the lateral line continuous, and the scales envelope the dorsal and anal fins, almost as far as the summit of the spines. The only ascertained species {C. geiiizara) is of a reddish purple colour, and inhabits the Antilles.
Genus Elops, Commers. Gomphosis, Lacep. Has the head entirely smooth, as in Julis, but the muzzle is in the form of a long and slender tube, formed by the prolonga- tion of their inter-maxillaries and mandibularies, which the integuments bind together as far as the small opening of the mouth. Of these fishes, the Gomphosis cceruleus, and G. raWe^ra^!^, Lacep., may serve as examples. They are taken in the Indian seas, and many of them are said to form a delicious article of food. The preceding genera, from Labrus properly so called inclusive, may be all re- garded as Linnaean Labri. We now come to
Genus Xirichtiivs, Cuv. Which comprehends fishes resembling the Labri in form, but they are very much compressed, and the ibrehead descends suddenly towards the mouth by a deep and nearly vertical line, formed by the ethmoid and the ascending branches of the inter-max- illaries. The body is covered with large scales ; the late- ral line interrupted ; the jaws armed with a row of coni- cal teeth, of which the medial ones are longest, and the pharynx paved with hemispherical teeth; the intestinal canal is continuous, with two convolutions, and no caeca, nor is the stomach in the form of a cul-de-sac. They pos- sess a pretty large air-bladder.
Naturalists, anterior to the time of Cuvier, ranged the species with the Coryphccna, from which they greatly dif- fer in their structure, internal as well as external. They approximate to the Labri, to which, however, they are dis- similar in the profile of the head.
Genus Chromis, Cuv. Has the lips and protractile in- ter-maxillaries, the pharyngeal bones, and dorsal filaments, of the Labri ; but the teeth are en carde upon the jaws and pharynx, with an anterior range of a conical shape. The vertical fins are filamentous, and even those of the abdo- men are often prolonged into long filets, and the lateral line is interrupted. The stomach is a cul-de-sac, but there are no ca;ca. One small species, of a chestnut- brown colour (S/)ari<« chromis). is found in immense num- bers in the Mediterranean. The Nile produces another, which attains the length of two feet, and is regarded as
the best fish occurring in Egypt. It is the Labrus Nilotictts Aanihop. of Hasselq.and Sonnini. The genus Cych la differs from ^erygii. the preceding by having all the teeth crowded, and placed in a broad band, and by the body being more elongated. Plesiops, Cuv., has the head compressed, the eyes near each other, and the ventrals very long. Malacanthus possesses the general characters of the Labri, and the maxillary teeth are also similar to theirs, but those of the pharyngeals are e?i carde ; the body is lengthened, the lateral line continuous, the opercle terminated by a small spine, and the long dorsal has only a small number of slender, flexible, anterior spines. One species is found in the Antilles, of a yellowish colour, irregularly rayed across with violet ; it is the Coryphena plumieri, Lacep. iv. viii. 1.
Genus Scarus, Linn. Comprehends fishes very re- markable on account of the form of the jaws (that is, their inter-maxillary and pre-mandibularybones), which are con- vex, rounded, and garnished with teeth like scales upon their edges and anterior surface ; these teeth succeed each other from behind forwards, so that those of the base are the newest, and in time come to form a range upon the cutting edge. Naturalists have erroneously thought that the jaw-bones themselves were naked or exposed. These jaws are, besides, covered while the fish is alive by fleshy lips, but there is no double lip adherent to the sub- orbitaries. The species have the oblong form of Labrus, with large scales, and the lateral line interrupted ; they bear on their pharynx two plates above and one below, garnished with teeth like the pharyngeal plates of the Labri, but these teeth are in the form of transverse lamina;, and not e» jMve.
Cuvier is of opinion that the Scarus crelicus of Aldro- vandus is the species so celebrated under the name of Scarus by the ancients, and in search of which (in the time of Claudius) Elipertius Optatus, the commander of the Roman fleet, went to Greece, with a view to effect its introduction to the Italian seas. It is still used in our da3'S as an article of food in Greece. The species are nu- merous in the seas of warm climates, and are vulgarly known, on account of the peculiar form of the jaws, and the splendour of their colours, under the name of parrot fishes.
FAMILY XV._FISTULAKID^.
Characterised by a long tube formed in front of the cra- nium, by the prolongation of the ethmoid, the vomer, the pre-opercles, inter-opercles, &c. at the end of which the mouth is placed, composed, as usual, of inter-maxillaries, maxillaries, palatines, and mandibularies. The intestine is without any considerable inequalities, or many convo- lutions, and their ribs are either short or wanting. Some of them (the Fistularice) have the body cylindrical, others (the Centnsci) have it oval and compressed.
Genus Fistularia, Linn. Acquires its name from the long tube common to all the family. The jaws are at the extremity, opening but little, and nearly in a horizon- tal direction. The head, thus elongated, composes a third or fourth part of the whole body, which is itself long and slender. There are six or seven rays in the gills ; the osseous appendages likewise extend behind the head to the anterior part of the body, which they tend more or less to strengthen. The dorsal corresponds to the position of the anal, and the stomach, in the form of a fleshy tube, is continuous with a narrow canal, w ithout folds, at the com- mencement of which there are two CEeca. In Fistu- laria properly so called, there is only one dorsal, which, as well as the anal, is composed chiefly of simple rays ; the inter-maxillaries and lower jaw are armed with small teeth ;
ICHTHYOLOGY.
197
Malacop- terygii Abdomi-
nales. Cvpvinidae,
and between the lobes of the caudal there issues a filament sometimes as long as the whole body ; the tube of the mu/,7.1e is very long and depressed, the swimming bladder excessively large, and the scales invisible. In the subdivi- sion called AuLosTOMA by Lacep^de, a name derived fioni avXoi, a Jiute, and Sro/ia, the month, the dorsal is |)reced- ed by numerous free spines, and the jaws are without teeth. The body, which is very scaly, is broad, and compressed between the dorsal and anal, the latter followed by a short, small tail, terminated by the usual fin. The tube of the muzzle is rather short, large, and compressed ; the swim- ming bladder very large. We are acquainted with only one species (Fisltdaria chinensis, Bl.), \vliicii is found in the Indian seas.
The CENTitisci of Linn, possess the tubular trunk of this family; the body, however, is not elongated, but oval or oblong, compressed laterally, and sharp on the under side ; the gills have only two or three slender rays ; the first dorsal is spiny, and the small ventrals are placed be- hind the pectorals. The mouth is extremely small, and opens obliquely ; the intestines are without ca:'ca, I'olded three or four times ; and the swimming bladder is of con- siderable size. In Centriscus properly so called, the anterior dorsal, which is placed very far forwards, has its first spine long and strong, supported by an apparatus connected with the shoulder and head. The species are covered with small scales, and have several broad and denticulated plates on the apparatus just mentioned. The C. scolopax, or trumpet-fish, is a very common species in the Mediterranean, about five inches long, and of a silvery lustre. (See Plate CCCIV. fig. 7.) It occurs occasion- ally on the south-western coasts of England. In the sub-genus Amphisile, the back is defended with large scaly pieces, of which the anterior spine and the first dor- sal have the appearance of being a continuation. All the species hitherto known to us are from the Indian seas : we may mention as examples, Centriscus scutaliis, Linn., and Centriscus velitaris, Pallas.
We here terminate our abstract of the Acanihop- TERYGii, or first great order or division of the ordinary fishes.
The second division of common fishes, or that named Malacopterygii, contains within itself three orders, which admit of being characterised by the position of the ventrals, or, in certain cases, by their absence.
ORDER II.'— MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES.
These are distinguished by having their ventrals sus- pended to the under part of the abdomen, and behind the pectorals, without any attachment to the shoulder bone. This is the most numerous of the three orders, and in- cludes a large proportion of the fresh-water fishes. It is divisible into five families.
FAMILY L— CYPRINID^.
May be known by having the mouth but slightly cleft, the jaws weak and generally without teeth, and their edge formed by the inter-maxillaries ; by pharyngeals strongly toothed, thus compensating for the imperfect armature of the jaws ; and by the branchial rays being few in num-
nales. Cvprinida
ber. Their body is scaly, and there is no adipose dorsal, Malaccip- such as is observed in Siluri and salmon. Their stomach terygii has no cul-de-sac, and the pylorus is without caecal ap- Abdomi- pendages. They are the least carnivorous of fishes.
The typical genus Cyprinus is a very natural one, and comprehends a great number of species, which are readi- ly distinguished by the small mouth, toothless jaws, and the three flat branchial rays. Their tongue is smooth, and the palate provided with a soft and singularly irritable substance, vulgarly known by the name of Carps tongue. The pharynx presents a powerful instrument for mastica- tion, consisting of large teeth attached to the inferior pharyngeal bones, and ca|)able of pressing the food be- tween them, and a stony disk enclosed in a wide cavity under an apophysis of the basilary bone. These fishes have only one dorsal, and the body is covered with scales, most frequently of large size. They inhabit fresh waters, and are perhaps the least carnivorous of their class, subsisting chiefly on grains, grass, and even on mud. Their stomach is continuous, with a short intestine without ceeca, and the bladder is divided into two by a constriction.
The genus Cvprinus,-' Cuv. including the Carps pro- perly so called, has a long dorsal, which, as well as the anal, has a spine for the second ray. Of these, some have barbels at the angles of the upper jaw, and others are destitute of these appendages. Of the former we may cite as an example the common carp ; and the gold fish of China affords an instance of the latter.
Cyprinus carpio, the common carp. This well-known fish is of an olive-green, yellowish beneath, having the anal and dorsal spines strong and denticulated, and the barbels short ; the pharyngeal teeth are flat and striated on the crown. It is a native of the central countries of Europe ; but, owing to its value as an article of food, it was early distributed by human agency over the whole of that Continent. The ease with which it can be transport- ed from one place to another, and its speedy growth and propagation in ponds and artificial reservoirs, afforded great facilities for its rapid dispersion. The year 1614 is assigned as the date of its first introduction into England ; but it was naturalized in Germany and Sweden nearly half a century before that period. It delights in tranquil waters, preferring such as have a muddy bottom, and the surface partially shaded with plants. Its food consists of the larvae of aquatic insects, minute Testacea, worms, and the tender blades and shoots of plants. The leaves of lettuce, and other succulent plants of a similar kind, are said to be particularly agreeable to them, and to fatten them sooner than any other food. Although the carp eats with great voracity when its supply of aliment is abundant, — to such a degree, indeed, as sometimes to pro- duce indigestion, which occasionally proves fatal, — it can subsist for an astonishing length of time without nourish- ment. In the winter, when they assemble in great num- bers, and bury themselves among the mud and the roots of plants, they often remain for many months without eat- ing. They can also be preserved alive for a considerable length of time out of the water, especially if care be taken to moisten them occasionally as they become dry. Ad- vantage is often taken of this circumstance to transport them alive, by packing them among damp herbage, or wet linen ; and the operation is said to be unattended with any risk to the animal, especially if the precaution be taken to put a piece of bread in its mouth steeped in bran- dy ! In a similar way, the Dutch preserve them by sus- pending them from the roof of a damp apartment in a bag-net filled with moss, which is continually kept moist,
' Of tlie general Class of Fishes.
' The name is of Grecian origin, and was applied to the species because they were dedicated to Venus, in consequence of their extraordinary fecundity.
198
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop. and they are fed with vegetables and bread steeped in iery^ii niilk, — a mode of treatment by wliich they are not only
Abdomi- j.gpj alive, but actually thrive and fatten.
CvprinidEE. T'^^ fecundity of these fishes is very great, and their
C— >^^ numbers consequently would soon become excessive, but for the many enemies by which their spawn is destroyed. No fewer than 700,000 eggs have been found in the ova- ria of a single carp, and that too by no means an indivi- dual of the largest size. Their growth is very rapid, more so perhaps than that of any other fresh-water fish, and the size which they sometimes attain is very considerable. In certain lakes in Germany and Prussia, individuals are occasionally taken weighing tliirty or forty pounds ; and Pallas relates that they occur in the Volga five feet in length, and even of greater weight than the examples just alluded to. The largest of which we have any account is that mentioned by Bloch, taken near Frankfort-on-the- Oder, which weighed seventy pounds, and measured near- ly nine feet in length.
CyprhiHS anratus (gold fish). This beautiful species, the most brilliantly adorned of all our fresh-water fishes, and scarcely surpassed even by the more richly ornament- ed inhabitants of the ocean, is well known to be a native of China, although it is now domesticated, so to speak, in almost every country, both of the old and new world. Like the carp, it has the dorsal and anal spines denticu- lated. When young it is of a blackish colour, and it gra- dually acquires the fine golden red by which it is charac- terised ; but some examples are of a silvery hue, and others are variegated with three different shades of co- lour. Like most other animals that have been long estran- ged from their natural habits, and subjected to artificial in- fluences, this species presents a great many varieties, ex- tending even to some important parts of structure. In- dividuals occur without a dorsal, others with a very large one, others with the caudal greatly enlarged, and divided into three or four lobes ; and in some instances the eyes are enormously dilated.' The golden carp is said to have been originally confined to a lake near the mountain Tsimking, in the province of The-kiang, in China, about the 30th degree of N. lat. It was first brought to Eng- land in 1691, but was very scarce till 1728, when a con- siderable number were imported, and they soon became generally known. They do not flourish in rivers and open ponds, not, however, because such places are uncongenial to them, but because they are exposed to many enemies, against which they have no means of defence. When kept in confinement they ought to be nourished with fine crumbs of bread, small worms, flies, and yolks of eggs dried and powdered, and the water ought to be frequently chan- ged. The ordinary length of this species is from four to six inches ; but they have been sometimes known to reach a foot. Although natives of a warm climate, they can sus- tain a great degree of cold uninjured. An individual, which was accidentally exposed during the night, was completely frozen up in the centre of its glass jar ; but as the ice thawed it recovered its vigour, and seemed to suf- fer no further inconvenience.
To this group belongs the smallest of the European Cyprini, viz. C. amariis, which is about an inch long, greenish above, and of a fine red beneath. During the time of spawning, which takes place in April, it has a steel-blue line on each side of the tail ; the second dorsal ray forms a rather stiff spine.
Genus Barbus of Cuvier, contains such species as have the dorsal and anal short, with a strong spine for the second or third ray of the dorsal, and four barbels.
two of which are at the extremity, and two at the angles Malacop- of the upper jaw. As an example, we may refer to the '•^'"vgii Cyprimis barbus, or barbel, which may be known by its ^"^""n- oblong head. It is very common in clear and running Cyj^jj^]^ waters, where it sometimes attains to a length exceeding v^-y-.^, ten feet. Several allied species are found in Italy, having the spine weaker, but which, nevertheless, differ from the following genus by possessing four barbels. Such are Barbus caninus., Bonnelli ; JB. plebeius, Val. ; B. eqites. Id. Various species of Barbi occur in the Caspian Sea, in the Nile, and in India ; and not a few have been ascertain- ed to inhabit America.
Genus Gobio, Cuv. Has the dorsal and anal short, both of them without spines, and the mouth furnished with bar- bels. Of this genus the gudgeon ( Ci/prinus gobio) may be cited as an example. It is a small fish, seldom exceeding seven or eight inches, and is found in most parts of Europe in small lakes and gently flowing rivers. It is of a pale olive-brown colour, slightly spotted with black, especially on the fins, tlie sides and abdomen being silvery white. It spawns in the spring, and as it deposits its ova at dis- tant intervals, the operation generally continues for a con- siderable time. It is a very prolific fish ; and as its flesh is of a very delicate flavour, it is much sought after for the table.
Genus Tinca, Cuv. Unites to the characters of the gudgeons that of having very m.inute scales ; their bar- bels also are very small. This genus includes the com- mon tench (Ci/prinus tinca, L.), which is of a deep yel- lowish brown, sometimes, however, assuming a fine gol- den colour. Its usual length is from twelve to fourteen inches ; but instances are on record of its having reached three feet. It inhabits stagnant waters with a muddy bottom ; and in the winter conceals itself among the mud, and seems to undergo a kind of torpidity. In May and June it deposits its ova among aquatic plants; these are very minute, of a green colour, and so numerous that 297,000 have been reckoned in one female. The tench is very extensively distributed, appearing to occur through- out the whole globe. Its flesh is not much esteemed, as it is soft, insipid, and difficult of digestion.
Genus Adramis, Cuv. Distinguished by wanting spines and barbels ; the dorsal is short, placed behind the ven- trals, and the anal long. Two species are known, the common bream {Cyp. bramd), and the little bream {Cyp. hlicca, C. latus, Gm. Bl. 10). The former is the largest fish in this subdivision ; there are twenty-nine rays in the anal, and all the fins are obscure. It is common in slow flowing rivers and lakes in most European countries. It sometimes acquires two feet and a half in length, but its ordinary dimensions may be stated to be about a foot. Worms, conferva-, and aquatic plants are its usual food ; but, like many allied species, it often swallows mud, which renders its flesh unsavoury. " There exists in the river Trent, in the neighbourhood of Newark, two species or varieties of bream. The common bream, Cyprimis bra- ma, is known there by the name of Carp Bream, from its yellow colour, and has been taken of nearly eight pounds weight. The other species or variety, which 1 believe to be a non-descript, never exceeds a pound in weight. It is of a silvery hue, and goes by the name of White Bream.""
Omitting the genera Labeo and Catastomus, of which the species are all foreign, and imperfectly known, we now come to the generic group named Leuciscus (Klein), comprehending several kinds indigenous to Eu- rope. They have the dorsal and anal short, and are des- titute of spines and barbels, and there is nothing particu-
' The varieties of this species have afforded materials for a kind of monograph by Sauvigny, and a painter of the name of Slartiiiet. ' Liii?i. Trant. xiv. p. 5U7-
ICHTHYOLOGY.
199
Malacop. terygii Abdomi- nules. Cypri- nidoe.
lar in the structure of the lips. The species of this sub- division are considerable in amount, but they are held in httle estimation as articles of food. They are distinguished by the position of the dorsal, a character, however, which is not always sufficiently defined. In some it corresponds to the position of the ventrals ; such is the case with Letic. dohula {Cyprinus dobula, Linn.), in which the head is broad, the muzzle rounded, and the pectorals red. Leiic. rutilus (the roach), has the body compressed and silvery, and all the fins red. In others, the dorsal cor- responds above to the interval which is between the ven- trals and the anal. This is exemplified in Leuc. alburnus (the bleak), in which the body is narrow, and of a bril- liant silvery hue ; the fins pale ; the forehead straight, and the inferior jaws somewhat elongated. It is com- mon throughout Europe ; and is one of the fishes vvhose nacre (or silvery-looking substance) is employed in fabri- cating artificial pearls. Leuc. phoxinus (common minnow) likewise pertains to this group. The appearance of this beautiful little fish is familiar to all. It is the smallest species of the genus found in Europe, the greatest length which it attains seldom exceeding three inches. It first makes its appearance in March, and disappears in Octo- ber, passing the winter beneath the mud. It is well known to be a gregarious species, and small shoals are to be found in almost every shallow stream, especially in clear weather, as they seem to delight in warmtli and sunshine. They usually spawn in the month of June, but their ova are often found at a much later period. The flesh of the minnow is delicate and well flavoured, but its size is too small to admit of its being of much value as an article of food. It is principally used as a bait for the capture of larger kinds.
Certain species of the present genus (the Chelae of Bu- chanan) have the dorsal corresponding to the commence- ment of the anal, and in several of these the body is com- pressed nearly in the same manner as in some of the Clu- peoe. Such is Leitc. cultratus, which is further remarka- ble for its lower jaw, which ascends in front of the upper, and for its large pectorals shaped like a scythe.' The ge- neric group GoNORHYNCHUs, Gronov. is dissimilar from all the other Cyprini, by having the body and the head elongated, and covered, as well as the opercula, and even the membrane of the branchiae, with small scales ; the muz- zle projecting in front of the mouth, which is small, and without teeth or barbels ; three branchial rays, and a small dorsal above the ventrals. Only one species is known {Cyprinus gonorhynchus, Gm.), which is found at the Cape of Good Hope.
Genus Cobitis (loach). Has the head small, the body elongated, clothed with scales, and covered with a mucous matter ; the ventrals placed behind, and above them a small single dorsal ; the mouth at the end of the muzzle, but little cleft and without teeth, but surrounded with lips fitted for sucking,and bybarbels; gill-covers little opened, and having only three rays. Their inferior pharyngeal bones are rather strongly dentated, their intestines are without any caeca, and their swimming bladder, which is very small, is enclosed in an osseous bilobate case, attached to the third and fourth vertebrae. Three species are found in the fresh waters of Europe, viz. C. barbatukt, C. fossiUs, and C. tcenia. The first of these, the bearded loach, is a well-known fish in this country, as it occurs plentifidly in almost every small stream. It is about four or five inches long. The second species, which does not occur in Britain, measures sometimes a foot in length. It dwells in the mud of ponds, and is so tena- cious of life as to live a long time after being stiffly frozen, or even dried. In stormy weather it rises to the surface
and agitates the water. It swallows quantities of air, which it converts, according to M. Ehrman's observations, into carbonic acid. Its flesh is soft, and savours of mud. The third species was introduced into the British Fauna by Berkenhout. Turton says it occurs in the " clear streams of Wiltshire."
The fishes which Bloch distinguished by the name Ana- BLEPS (a term first used by Artedi, and signifying to raise the eyes, or to look up, being derived from avaSxixoi) were long united with the loaches, although they afford charac- ters of a very distinctive kind. Their eyes, which are very salient, and placed under an arch formed on each side by the frontal bone, have the cornea and iris divided into two portions by transverse bands, in such a manner that they have two pupils, and appeardouble, although in reality there is only a single crystalline and vitreous humour, and one re- tina,— a peculiarity of which no other instance is to be found among vertebrate animals. The organs of genera- tion, moreover, and the bladder of the male, have their ex- cretory canal in the anterior border of the anal fin, which is thick, long, and clothed with scales ; its extremity is per- forated, and no doubt subserves the generative functions. The female is viviparous, and the young are not produced till they have attained a considei'able size.
The body of these fishes is cylindrical, and covered with scales; there are five branchial rays, the head is flat, the muzzle truncated, the mouth cleft transversely at the end, and armed in both jaws with numerous small teeth. The inter-maxillaries are without a pedicle, and suspended un- der the nasal bones, which form the anterior edge of the muzzle. The pectorals are in a great measure scaly, and a small dorsal is placed over the tail, and further back than the anal. Their pharyngeal bones are large, and provided with numerous small globular teeth ; their air-bladder is very large, and also their intestine ; but the latter is with- out caeca. Only one species is known, which is an inha- bitant of the rivers of Guiana. It is the Anableps tetrop- thalnms, Bl. 361. See Plate CCCIV. fig. 8.
Genus Pgecilia, Schn. Has the two jaws flattened ho- rizontally, protractile, slightly cleft, furnished with a series of small and very fine teeth, the upper side of the head flattened, the opercula large, five branchial rays, the body not much elongated, the ventrals not far back, and the dorsal placed just above the anal. They are all small vi- viparous fishes, and inhabit the fresh waters of America. The only remaining genera included in the present family are Lebias,Cuv., Fundulus, Lacep., Molinesia, Lesueur, and Cyprinodon, Lacep., which comprehend but a limited number of species, most of them of small size, and pre- senting no peculiarities of particular interest.
FAMILY II._ESOCID^.
Corresponds to the undivided genus Esox, as established by Linnaeus. It is characterised by the want of the adi- pose dorsal ; by having the edge of the upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillary, or at least, when not wholly formed by that bone, the maxillary is without teeth, and concealed in the thickness of the lips. They are a very voracious tribe of fishes ; their intestine is short and without caeca, and all are provided with a swimming bladder. With the excep- tion of the 3Iicrostoma, all the kinds with which we are acquainted have the dorsal opposite the anal.
In the Cuvierian system this family is divided into many genera, of the principal of which we shall now proceed to give some account. Such fishes as belong to
Genus Esox, in its present restricted acceptation, have
Malacop- tcryjni Abdomi.
nak'S. Esocidie.
' The genus Ltuciscus contains also the dace, chub, and other well-known British species.
200
JMalacop- tervgii Abdomi-
nales. Esocidae.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
small inter-maxillaries provided with minute pointed teeth in the middle of the upper jaw, of which they form the two thirds ; but the maxillaries occupying the sides are with- out teeth. The vomer, the palatines, the tongue, the pharyngeals, and the arches of the branchia;, are covered with teeth resembling those of a card ; and, in addition to these, a series of long pointed teeth occupy the sides of the lower jaw. The snout is oblong and obtuse, broad and depressed ; and there is only one dorsal opposite the anal. The stomach, which is large and plicate, is continuous with a slender doubly-folded intestine without ca;ca. The swim- ming bladder is very large. There is only one European species, viz. Esox luchts, Linn, (the common pike), Plate CCCIV. fig. 9. During the earliest stage of its life it is of a greenish hue, but in the second year it becomes gray with pale spots, the latter ultimately acquiring a yellow- ish colour. Its markings, however, are very variable, and instances have occurred of its being perfectly white. It is one of the largest of fresh-water fishes, and indeed, if the accounts which some writers give are not exaggerat- ed, it occasionally attains a size not greatly inferior to the gigantic inhabitants of the ocean. Individuals are record- ed as measuring from five to nine feet in length. They frequently weigh above thirty pounds in the lakes of the north of England ; and Dr Grierson mentions one taken in Loch Ken, in Galloway, which weighed sixty-one pounds. Bloch indeed examined a portion of the skeleton of ano- ther which could not be less than eight feet in length. The most remarkable pike, however, of which we have any authentic account, is that caught at Kaiserslautern, near Manheim, in 1497, which was nearly nineteen feet in length, and weighed 360 pounds. The skeleton of this extraordinary specimen was for a long time preserved, and bore a brass ring with an inscription to the effect that the fish was put into a pond by the hands of the Emperor Frederick II., the 5tli of October 12(32. From this it is inferred that it was upwards of 235 years old. Pikes are proverbially voracious. There seems indeed to be no bounds to their gluttony, for they devour indiscriminately whatever edible substances they fall in with, and almost every animal they are able to subdue. " It is,'' says M. de Lacepede, " the shark of the fresh waters ; it reigns there a devastating tyrant, like the shark in the midst of the ocean ; insatiable in its appetites, it ravages with fear- ful rapidity the streams, the lakes, and the fish-ponds where it inhabits. Blindly ferocious, it does not spare its species, and even devours its own young ; gluttonous with- out choice, it tears and swallows with a sort of fury, the remains even of putrified carcasses. This blood-thirsty animal is also one of those to which nature has accorded the longest duration of years ; for ages it terrifies, agi- tates, pursues, destroys, and consumes the feeble inhabit- ants of the waters which it infests; and as if, in spite of its insatiable cruelty, it was meant that it should receive every advantage, it has not only been gifted with strength, with size, with numerous weapons, but it has also been adorned with elegance of form, symmetry of proportions, and variety and richness of colour."' A singular instance of its voracity is related by .Johnston, who asserts that he saw one killed which contained in its belly another pike of large size, and the latter on being opened was found to have swallowed a water-rat !
The pike inhabits almost all the fresh waters of Europe, but seems to flourish most in the northern and middle countries. It likewise occurs in abundance in Asia and North America. Its flesh is well flavoured and easy of digestion, and is consequently much sought after as an
article of food, especially for convalescents, and others of Malacop- weakly habit. It is most lender and nutritive in young tervgii individuals, but full-grown pikes are occasionally found, in which the flesh on the back and near the vertebral co- lumn acquires a greenish colour, which is held in high re- pute, and often purchased at a great price.
Genus Galaxi.is, Cuv. Has the body without appa- rent scales, the mouth slightly cleft, pointed teeth of mo- derate size on the palatines and both jaws, the upper jaw having almost its entire edge formed by the inter-maxil- lary. There are also some strong hooked teeth on the tongue. 'V\\e Esox truttaceus,CviV., Esox alepodittcs, Forst. exhibits the structure above described.
Genus Alepocephalus, Risso. The species of this genus bear a very close resemblance in their general form to those of the preceding group, but their head only is destitute of scales, the body being covered with scales of large size; their mouth is small, and the teeth small and crowded. The eye is very large, and the gills have eight rays. Only one species is known, and it inhabits the deepest parts of the Mediterranean. It is the A. rostra- tus, Risso, 2d ed. f. 27.
Genus jVIicrostoma, Cuv. Have the snout very short, the lower jaw more advanced, and furnished, as well as the small inter-niaxillaries, with very fine teeth ; three broad and flat branchial rays ; the eye large, the body elongated, and having the lateral line garnished with a series of strong scales. There is a single dorsal a little behind the position of the ventrals, and the intestines are similar to those of the pikes. The only species known {Sa-pa microstoma, Risso, p. 356) inhabits the Mediter- ranean.
Genus Stomias, Cuv. Muzzle extremely short, the mouth cleft almost to the gills, the opercula reduced to small membranous leaflets, and the maxillaries fixed to the cheek ; inter-maxillaries, palatines, and mandibles armed with small bent teeth, and the tongue with similar ones. Their body is elongated, their ventrals altogether behind, and their dorsal opposite their anal, on the hinder extremity of the body. We are acquainted with two spe- cies of these singular fishes, Esox boa, Risso, and Stmnias barbatus, both from the Mediterranean.
The genera Chauliodus (of which the sole species, found near Gibraltar, is shown on Plate CCCIV. fig. 10), Salanx, and Belone, comprehend a few species found chiefly in the Mediterranean. In the last-mentioned genus, the inter-maxillaries form the whole edge of the upper jaw, which is prolonged, as well as the inferior, into a long snout, and both provided with small teeth ; there are no other teeth in the mouth, and those of the pharynx are en pave. Their body is long, and covered with indis- tinct scales, except a longitudinal carinated range on each side, near the inferior edge. The bones are very remark- able for their fine green colour. The intestines differ in their structure from those of the pikes. One species in- habits the European coasts, which is about two feet long, green above, and white beneath. It affords a good dish, in spite of the prejudice caused by the colour of its bones. It is the Esox belone, sea-pike, or gar-Jish. Species near- ly allied are to be found in all seas. Of these, one is said to reach eight feet in length, and its bite is reported to be dangerous.
Genus Scomber-esox, Lacep. Has a snout of the same structure as in Belone, nearly the same appearance and arrangement of the scales, but the last rays of the dorsal and anal are detached in spurious fins, as in the mackerels. One of them occurs in the Mediterranean, viz.
' Quoted in Griffith's edition of the Rif^e AniTnal. We cannot, however, agree with M. Lace'pede in his admiration of the gene* ral ajijiearance of the pike, for we think its long lank jaws and sunken eye give it rather a diabolical aspect.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
^lalacop-
Abd<imi-
nales. Ksiicitiu?.
Esox saurus, Bl. Sch. pi. Ixxviii. 2, and is also found along the British shores, where it is known under the name of Egyptian herring. It sometimes leaps so actively out of the water as to pass over a space of thirty or forty feet. Of the nearly allied genus Hemi-rami'hu.s, Cuv. several species are to be found in the warm latitudes of both he- mispheres. Although their flesh is oily, it is of an agree- able taste.
We now come to a tribe of fishes which have attracted much attention, owing to the power they possess of leap- ing to a great height into the air, and even sustaining themselves in Uiat element for a perceptible time. This faculty, which has caused them to be nameA Jiying fishes, they owe to the excessive development of their pectorals, a peculiarity which readily distinguishes them from all other abdominal fishes. Their head and body are clothed with scales, and a longitudinal series of carinated scales forms a salient line at the bottom of each flank, as in some of the genera last described. The head is flattened above and on the sides ; the dorsal is placed above the anal, the eyes are large, the inter-maxillaries without pe- dicles, and themselves forming the edge of the upper jaw. The two jaws are furnished with small pointed teeth, and the pharyngeal bones with teeth en pave. Such as pre- sent these characters are to be referred to the
Genus Exocetus, Linn., a name which signifies lying out, and which was given by the ancient Greeks to a fish that was reported to be in the habit of coming to repose on shore. They are further characterised by having ten branchial rays, a very large swimming bladder, and straight intestines without ca?ca; the upper lobe of the caudal fin is the shortest.
The Exocetus voUtans, Bloch, 398 (see Plate CCCIV. fig. 11), is a well-known flying fish of the ocean (but not to be confounded, as it has sometimes been, with the Trigla volitans, or flying gurnard, already alluded to under the genus Dactylopterus). It is common in many of the warmer parts of the northern hemisphere, especially be- tween Teneriffe and the line. It is also said to occur oc- casionally in the Mediterranean, and may be recognised by its large eyes, and the smallness of the ventral fins, which are placed in advance of the centre of the body. Its mouth is slightly tubular, its scales deciduous, and its size from six to twelve inches. A species more common in the IMediterranean is the E. exilie/is, Bloch, 397, of which the ventrals are long, and placed behind the centre of the body. It attains to the length of fifteen inches. The young have black bands upon the fins. !■ Some difference of opinion seems still to exist in regard to the mode of flight in these fishes. Mr Bennet sup- poses, that because they do not use their pectoral fins in the air precisely as birds use their wings, that their pro- gression ought rather to be termed leaping than flying. " In fish," he observes, " the organ of motion for propel- ling them through the water is the tail, and the fins di- rect their course ; in birds, on the contrary, the wings are the organs of motion, and the tail the rudder. The only use of the extended pectoral fins in the fish is for the purpose of supporting the animal in the air, like a para- chute, after it has leaped from the water by so?ne power which is possessed even by the whale. From the struc- ture of the fin, I cannot consider it at ail calculated for repeated percussions out of the water ; while in that fluid, it continues its natural action uninjured ; but it soon dries when brought into contact with the air, and the delicacy of the membrane between the rays would very readily become injured were the organ similarly exerted in that
medium. The greatest length of time that I have seen these I'olatile fish on the fin, has been thirty seconds by the watch. ...Their usual height of flight is from two to three feet ; but I have known them come on board at a height of fourteen feet ; and they have been well ascertained to come into the channels of a line-of-battle ship, i. e. as high as twenty feet and upwards. But it must not be supposed that they have the power of elevating them- selves in the air, after having left their native element : on watching them, I have often seen them fall much be- low the elevation at which they first rose from the water, but never in any one instance could I observe them raise themselves above that height. I therefore regard the elevation they take to depend on the power of the first spring or leap they make on leaving their native element."' Colonel Bory St Vincent, on the other hand, regards that opinion as erroneous which limits their aerial movements to a single sudden spring. " Je n'ai pas vu les exocets s'^lever tres-haut ; mais je souvent observe qu'ils ne se replongeaient dans la mer qu'a une bonne portee de fusil au moinsdu point d'ou ilsetaient partis. Selon I'occasion, ils changent la direction de leur vol, et s'abaissent ou s'elevent parallelement aux flots agites ; ils ont enfin la faculte de voler d'une maniere bien plus parfaite qu'on ne la leur suppose generalement."^ The double chase of this unfortunate species was indicated by Duquesne so far back as 1690. " Ce petits animaux," observes that voy- ager, " n'ont nul repos, ni dans I'eau, ni dans fair; dans I'eau, a cause des bonites, dans fair, a. cause des oiseaux qui fondent sur eux avec plus de rapidite que le faucon ne fond sur la perdrix."^ Indeed, all voyagers, whether ancient or modern, have recorded the delight with which they witnessed these sudden emergencies ; and Bosc in particular describes the flying fish as sometimes rising in hundreds, and even thousands, around his vessel, and dart- ing over the waves in all directions, scouring away, as Coleridge has beautifully said in relation to another group of animals, " like a Tartar troop over the wilderness." We shall conclude this notice by observing that the flesh of flying fishes is savoury and delicate, and that they thus present another claim to the attention of the voyager.
At the end of the family of the Esocid^ is to be placed a genus which differs but a little from them, except in having long intestines provided with two C£Eca, and which will probably be formed into a particular family.
Genus Mormybus, Linn. Body compressed, oblong and scaly ; tail slender at the base, and enlarged towards the fin ; head covered with a thick naked skin, envelop- ing the opercula and the branchial rays, and leaving for their aperture only a vertical cleft, a circumstance which has caused some naturalists to deny the existence of opercula, although they are as complete as in any other fish, and to assign to them only two branchial rays, al- though there are five or six. I'he opening of the mouth is very small, almost as in those Mammalia named ant- eaters, and the maxillaries form its angles. The teeth, which are slender and notched at the end, cover the in- ter-maxillaries and the lower jaw ; while on the tongue, and under the vomer, there is a band of small and crowd- ed teeth. The stomach is in the form of a rounded sac, followed by two cajca, and a long slender intestine al- ways enveloped in a profusion of fat. The bladder is long, large, and simple. Many of these fishes inhabit the Nile, and they are ranked among the best which that river produces. It is conjectured that it was one of them which the ancient Egyptians held in religious veneration, and which they named oxyrhincus.
201
Malacop- tervpii
Abdomi- nak's.
Ksocuiae.
* Wanderingt in New South TValcs, &c. vol. ii. p. 31. = Voyage aux quatre Ues d'Afri^ue^ t. i. p. 83.
* yoyage aM.r Indcs Orieniaks, t. i. p. 236*. VOL. XII. 2 C
202
Malacop.
tervfrii Abilomi-
nales. SiluriilDP.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
FAMILY III— SILURID/E.
Is distingiiislied from all the others in the order by hav- ing no true scales, but only a naked skin, or large osseous plates. The inter-maxillaries, suspended under the eth- moid, form the edge of the upper jaw ; and the maxillaries are reduced either to mere vestiges, or are lengthened into barbels. The intestinal canal is large, folded, and without caeca ; the bladder large, and adhering to a pe- culiar osseous process ; the dorsal and pectorals have al- most always a strong articulated spine for the first ray, and there is very frequently an adipose fin behind, as in the SalmonidsB.
Genus Silurus. A numerous genus, known by its want of scales, the mouth cleft at the end of the snout, and, in the greater number of sub-genera, by the first ray of the pectoral being composed of a strong spine. Tliis is articulated to the shoulder bone, in such a manner that the animal at pleasure can either draw it towards its body or erect it perpendicularly, in which case it becomes a dangerous weapon, and inflicts wounds which in some countries are considered venomous, doubtless because tetanus or lock-jaw sometimes ensues. The head of the Siluri is depressed ; the maxillaries very small ; and the covering of the branchiae wants that piece which has been named by Cuvier the sub-opercle.
In some species (Sibinis, Lacep. properly so called) there is only one small fin, with few rays on the anterior part of the back, but the anal is very long, and reaches nearly to the caudal. In others, more especially so nam- ed by Artedi and Gronovius, the small dorsal is without any apparent spine ; the teeth on both jaws are like those of a wool card, and behind the inter-maxillary band of teeth there is a vomerian band. Of this kind of structure an example is found in Silurus glanis, L. which is the largest of European fresh-water fishes, and the only one of this extensive genus inhabiting the Continent. See Plate CCCIV. fig. 12. It is smooth, greenish black, spot- ted with black above, and yellowish-white beneath. The head is large, with six barbels. It sometimes attains the length of twelve or fifteen feet, and the weight of 300 or 400 pounds. As this creature is somewhat unwieldy in its motions, it does not pursue its prey, which consists of small fishes, but lies concealed among the mud, and seizes such unwary stragglers as happen to come within reach. It has occasionally been observed in the sea, but always near the mouths of rivers, and in such other situations as to leave no doubt that its appearance there is to be as- cribed to accidental causes. The flesh is fat and sweet, and its lard has been employed in some places as a sub- stitute for that of the hog. Sir Robert Sibbald, at the conclusion of his list of river fishes, adds, " Silurus sive Glanis ;"' from which it has been inferred that this gigan- tic species may at one period have inhabited the Scottish rivers.^
A few fishes, found hitherto only in the Nile, differ from the Siluri in having their bodies compressed vertically, and by having a strong and denticulated spine to the dorsal. Their head is small and depressed, the nape suddenly raised, and the eyes placed very low — circumstances which be- stow upon them a very singular appearance. They consti- tute the genus Schilbus. The Pimelodi of Lacepede are characterised by the body being covered only by a naked skin, without lateral armature. This definition, how- ever, comprehends a great number of fishes, many of which present so many differences in appearance and structure, that it is necessary that they should be grouped in several
subordinate genera. The first of these, established by Cuvier, and which he names Bagrus, has in each jaw a band of small crowded teeth, and behind those of the up- per jaw a parallel band which belongs to the vomer. They admit of still further subdivision, from the number of their barbels and the form of their head. Among those having eight barbels, some have the head oblong and depressed ; in others it is broad and short. Of such as are furnished with six bar'^^els, the most remarkable have the muzzle depres- sed anci broad, after the manner of the pike ; while others have the head of an oval form, and its shagreened bones forming a kind of helmet. The Pimelodi, however, /)ro- perly so called, have no band of teeth on the vomer, paral- lel to that of the upper jaw, but there are often some on the palatines. In the number of their barbels, and in the form of their heads, these fishes present still more nume- rous varieties than the Bagri. Thus, among such as have only a single band of teeth, some are observed to have the head helmeted, and a distinct osseous plate or buckler be- tween the helmet and the spine of the dorsal. Such is Sil. clarias, Bl. xxxv. 1, 2. In others the buckler is united to the helmet, and forms only a single body with it, the hel- met thus extending from the muzzle as far as the dorsal. In some instances the head is oval, clothed only by the skin, through which the bones do not appear ; in this group the species have either six or eight barbels. In those called cat-Jish, the head is naked but very broad, and their barbels also vary, according to the species, from six to eight. We ought probably to place here the Mathe- megh of the Cree Indians (Silurus felis, Gm. ?), described by Dr Richardson as found sparingly in the lakes that flow into the Saskatchewan, and more abundantly in the lakes and rivers to the southward. It is much prized as a rich food.^ Numerous other modifications of structure are to be found in this extensive genus, of which the greater pro- portion of the constituent species have but recently become known to naturalists. Several have the muzzle elongated, and these lead to a group of still more remarkable confor- mation, viz.
Genus Synodontis, Cuv. In which the muzzle is nar- row, and the lower jaw supports a packet of teeth much flattened laterally, terminating in hooks, and each suspend- ed by a flexible pedicle ; a kind of dentition of which no other example is known. The rough helmet, formed by the cranium of these fishes, is continuous, without any in- terruption, with an osseous plate, which extends to the base of the spine of the first dorsal ; and that spine is very strong, as is likewise the case with those of the pectorals. The lower barbels, and sometimes also the maxillaries, have lateral barbels. The species are found in the Nile and Senegal, and are known to the inhabitants of Lower Egypt by the general name of Schal, while in the upper regions of the same country they are termed Gurgur. Their flesh is not accounted of any value. The Age- NEiosrof Lacep. possess all the characters of the Pimelodi, but they are without the barbels properly so called. Silu-' Tus inermis (Bl. 363) affords an example.
Genus Doras, Lacep. Contains such Siluri as have a second adipose dorsal, and the lateral line defended by a row of osseous pieces, each relieved by a spine or pro- jecting keel. Their dorsal and pectoral spines are very strong, and powerfully dentated. Their helmet is rough, and is continued as far as the dorsal, as in Synodontis. and the humeral bone forms a point behind.
Genus Heterobranciius, Geoff. Has the head pro- vided with a rough, flat buckler, wider than in any other of the Siluri, because the frontals and parietals produce
Malacop.
terygii
Abilniiii-
nale.°. Siluridae.
' Scoiia lUustrata, p. 25
» Appendix to Captain Franklin's first Voyage to the Polar Seti, p. 12i
' Fleming's British Animals, p.
198.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
203
Malai'op- teryi;ii
AbdiiRii- nales.
Siluridoe.
lateral plates which cover the orbit and the temple. The operclc is still smaller in ])roportion than in the foregoing genera, and the peculiarity observed by Geoffroy distin- guishes them from all other fishes, viz. that besides the or- dinary hranchiiv, they have ramified appendages like trees adhering to the superior branch of the third and fourth branchial arch, and which appear to be a kind of supernu- merary branchia;. All the species pertaining to this genus are found in the Nile, Senegal, and a few of the Asiatic rivers. Their flesh is either of indifferent quality, or alto- gether imfit for food. This is not the case, however, with the Sharmuth or Blncfi-Jish ( Sihiriis ajiguillaris, Hasselq.), which is common in Egypt and Syria, and constitutes in the latter country a valuable article for the table.
Genus Plotosus, Lacep. Is characterised by a second radiated dorsal, of great length, as well as the anal ; and both uniting at the caudal, form a point, as in the eel. Their lips are fleshy and pendent ; the throat armed an- teriorly with conical teeth, behind which there are others of a globular form, which at the upper jaw jiertain to the vomer. The head, as well as the rest of the body, is en- veloped in a thick skin, and the branchial membrane has nine or ten rays. All the known species are from the East Indies. They have eight barbels, and, behind the anus, the fleshy and conical tubercle common to all the Sihiri ; and there is, besides, a fleshy ramified appendage, the functions of which, though unknown, are [)robably re- markable. Some have the dorsal and pectoral spines dentated, and of considerable size. Such is Platystacus anrjuillaris, 151. 373, while others have them concealed beneath the skin. The latter is the case with Plotosus cashis, Buchan. xv. 44. Certain fishes referred by Lin- naeus to the genus Callichthys, and pertaining to that nam- ed Cataphractus by Lacep., have their bodies almost entirely cuirassed, so to speak, on its sides, by four rows of scaly pieces ; and there is likewise on the head a com- partment of these pieces. The extremity of the muzzle, however, is naked, as well as the under side of the body. The second dorsal has but a single ray in its anterior edge; the pectoral spine is strong, but the dorsal is slen- der or short. The mouth is but little cleft, and the teeth nearly imperceptible ; the barbels, four in number ; the eyes small, and placed on the sides of the head. These fishes can crawl for some time on dry land like the eel. In some the pectoral spine is merely rough, in others it is dentate, as in the majority of the Sihiri.
Genus Malapterurl's, Lacep. Distinguished from all the true Sihiri by having no rayed fin upon the back, but only a small adipose one on the tail, and by the want of a spine to the pectorals, of which the rays are entirely soft. But one species is known with six barbels, the head not so thick as the body, which is inflated in front. It is the famous electric Silurus (Siltirus ehctricus, Linn.) of the Nile and of Senegal ; the Raash or Thunder of the Arabs, which gives electrical shocks like the Torpedo and Gymnohis. It appears that the seat of this faculty is a particular tissue situate between the skin and muscles, and which presents the appearance of an adipose cellular substance, abundantly supplied with nei'ves.
Genus AsPREDO, Linn. Platystacus, B\. Presents very peculiar characters in the flattening of the head, and the enlargement of the anterior part of the trunk, which prin- cipally results from the size of the humeral bones ; in the proportional length of the tail ; in the small eyes placed in the superior face ; and in the inter-maxillaries being in- clined under the ethmoid, directed backwards, and bear- ing teeth only on the hinder edge. In addition to these
peculiarities, they are the only osseous fishes known which have no mobility in the operculum, because the pieces which ought to compose it are soldered to the tympanum and pre-opercle. Only a few species have come under the cognizance of naturalists, such as the Silurus Asjiredo, Linn. ; Plat, cotylep/iortis, Bl. 372 ; Silurus hexadacti/lus, ' Lacep. They have six or eight barbels, and it is remark- able, that when there are eight, one pair is attached to the base of the maxillary barbels ; the four of the lower jaw are in pairs, one behind the other. Globules are seen on some of these fishes, which appear to be their eggs, ad- hering to the thorax by means of pedicles.
Genus Loricaria, Linn. Is so named on account of the rigid angular plates which completely cover the body and head, as with a coat of mail, and is further distin- guished from such kinds as possess a somewhat similar defensive armour by having the mouth pierced under the muzzle. In position and mode of conformation, this mouth is most analogous to that of Synodontis ; the inter- maxillaries are small and suspended under the muzzle, and the mandibular bones, which are transverse and sepa- rate, bear long flexible teeth, terminating in a hook. A broad, circular, and membranous veil surrounds the aper- ture ; and the pharyngeal bones are garnished with nu- merous teeth e«/)at'e. The trueopercula are immoveable, asin^«/)reffo,but twosmall, moveable, external plates seem to perform their office. The branchial membrane has four rays ; and the first rays of the dorsal and pectorals, and even of the ventrals, are strong spines. There is neither ca?ca nor air-bladder. The species may now be arranged in two sub-genera, viz. Hypostoma, Lacep., which has a second small dorsal, provided with a single ray, as in Callichthys. Their labial veil is simply papillose, and bears a small barbel on each side. They have no plates under the belly, and the intestines, which are spirally convoluted, are as slender as a pack-thread, and twelve or fifteen times longer than the body. They are caught in the rivers of South America. Loricaria plecostomus, Linn., Bl. 376, and Hyp. etentaculatum, Spix, iv. are examples of this sub-genus. Loricaria, properly so called, has but a single dorsal in front : their labial veil is garnished on its edges with many barbels, and sometimes covered with villosities ; the belly is defended by plates, and the intestines are of moderate thickness. To this group be- long L. cataphracta, Linn. ; L. rostrata, Spix ; Rinelepis aspera and Acanthicus hystrix, Id.
FAMILY IV.— SALMONID^.'
The fourth family of the Malacopterygii of Cuvier is composed almost entirely of the Linniean genus Salmo, and has in consequence received from modern Ichthyolo- gists the title of Salmonid^. It will remain, however, to future observation to determine whether the family shall take its title from the salmon, as typical of the form, or from some other group, leaving to the above-mentioned fishes the value of a sub-family only. As it is, the circum- stance of the present Salmonidae possessing a small adi- pose fin, placed between the dorsal fin and the tail, has been used in a light purely artificial, and too much conse- quence has been attached to it. Mons. Agassiz is of opi- nion that the Clupeas should be added to them, as diflering only in the want of this fin ; while all the Salmones of Cu- vier do not possess a true adipose fin, — that part being composed of rays in the genera Serrasalmus and Myletes.
The family, as it now stands, may be characterised by
Jlalacop-
terygii Abdocni- nales. Salmo. iiidse.
' As an illustration of the SaljioniDvE, we here figure (from IMr Griffith's Animal Kingdom) Salmo Canademit, a North American species, beautifully spotted with blood rid on a white circle. See Plate CCCV. fig. I.
204
ICHTHYOLOGY
Malacop. a lengthened form, the body covered with scales of no terypii great size, and furnished with two dorsal fins. The first dorsal fin is composed of soft rays ; the second, gene- rally of a fatty substance, resembling a fold of the skin, is usually of small size. The tail is remarkably power- ful, acting as an elastic lever, and, as usual, constitutes the principal organ of locomotion. Tlie margins of the jaws are formed by the maxillary and inter-maxillary bones, and, with the vomer and palate bones, are com- monly thickly studded with teeth, strong, conical, and bending backwards. The maxillary and inter-maxillary bones constitute a single continuous arch, as in the higher animals. The pyloric portion of the stomach is furnished with numerous appendices connected with a pancreas. The swimming bladder is large and oblong, and opens into the gullet near the extremity. They are voracious, feed on insects, the less Crustacea, and small fishes. Many of the species are migratory, and approach the mouths of rivers, or ascend their streams for the purpose of spawning. In the breeding season they are marked by some appendage peculiar to the time, or by a change to colouring of more brilliant tints. They reach a large size. The flesh is well flavoured and wholesome.
In the modern arrangement it was found necessary to separate the Salmonid.je into groups ; and in the present sketch we shall follow those proposed or adopted by Ba- ron Cuvier in the last edition of the Ri'gne Animal, — having deeply to regret that his decease should have pre- vented his great ichthyological work from advancing to a branch of the subject which still stands in need of revi- sion, and which would undoubtedly have derived the most signal advantage from the exercise of his critical skill.
Genus Salmo, Cuv. Edges of the upper jaws form- ed by the maxillary and inter-maxillary bones, which, with the palatine bones, vomer, and tongue, are armed with strong conical recurved teeth ; rays of the gill-covers from ten to twelve ; tail very powerful ; posterior dorsal fin adipose ; ventral fins ])laced opposite the anterior dor- sal, anal opposite the posterior ; vertebroe from fifty-six to sixty. The male fish has the nose elongated and the un- der jaw hooked during the breeding season. The silvery colours change to gray and red. The species inhabit the sea and fresh waters. Some migrate at the breeding sea- son ; all spawn in shallow streams, and both sexes assist in forming the spawning bed. They inhabit Europe, Asia, and America.
The fishes which constitute this genus are of great im- portance, and are by far the most esteemed and valuable of all those which inhabit the fresh waters. The value of the fisheries, with the number of men engaged in them, is very great, and the expense of the materials which are consumed in the capture of one or two species is immense. In Britain they are mostly consumed in the great towns, either in a recent or prepared condition. In the north of Europe and America numbers are salted or otherwise cured for exportation. At the commencement of the ge- nus is generally placed
Salmo salar, or common salmon, a species which likewise occupies the foremost place in the estimation of both sports- man and epicure. The salmon is a fish of great elegance, combining a form fitted alike for strength and swiftness ; and its depth and thickness, while in good condition, are so proportioned to its length as at once to convey the idea of a pleasing symmetry. The body above is of a rich bluish or greenish gray, changing below to silvery, sprinkled above the lateral line with rather large sub-cruciform black spots, a few of which at the shoulders generally extend below the line. The characters which distinguish it from its British congeners are the diflerent form of the opercular bones, which show a rounded outline to the posterior edge of the gill-covers, the longest diameter of which to the nose would
be in a line through the eye, while in all the other British Malacop- migratory species the same line would pass much below the ter.vg" eye. The black inner surface of the pectoral fin is nearly ■'^bdoini- a constant mark. The tail is forked in the young state, but fills up to a nearly square outline in the adult, in which the width between the extremities is proportionally wider than in S. eriox, the only migratory species which attains a weight at all approaching that of the salmon. The out- line of the scales also presents distinguishable differences.
The common salmon inhabits the seas around Great Britain, and extends to the north of Europe and to Asia; but it is not properly ascertained that those found in North America are identical. Its true abode may be called the sea; for as soon as it has entered the rivers it begins to deteriorate in condition, the scales lose their brilliant silvery lustre, and the flesh becomes soft and pale. It is drawn to the fresh waters by that natural instinct so wisely implanted for the purpose of its reproduction, an instinct which enables it to stem the current of the most rapid rivers, to ascend precipitous falls, and to pass through weirs and obstacles of human intervention, which no other power could overcome. This desire of looking for a suit- able place in which to deposit their ova is their sole rea- son for thus seeking the " rivers of water," the torment of sea insects, or other causes which have been assigned, having no influence. This may be at once understood from the fact of the barren fish continuing their usual haunts along the coast, while a great many do not for a year at all enter the fresh waters. It is during this run to the proper spawning beds that the greatest numbers are captured, either by weirs, cruives, nets, or the rod; and it is then also that tlie sporting angler alone can ply his vo- cation, almost all attempts to angle the salmon in salt wa- ter having yet proved unsuccessful. Many fish far ad- vanced with spawn are by these means destroyed; for unfortunately the most advanced are the most voracious, and a needy fisherman looks more to his present gain than to an expected produce of another year. It would be well and wise if the net fisheries of tliis valuable species were more confined to the tide-ways, where, in some es- tuaries, they are extensively carried on (as well as in the rivers) by means of stake-nets. These are so constructed as to intercept the fish entering the rivers, all in a high state of condition, and are sometimes wrought to such an extent as to employ several miles of netting.
Salmon generally delay entering the rivers in great num- bers until the streams become somewhat swollen by rains, although in the larger rivers there may be said to be a limited daily run. When the flood has fairly mingled with, and to a certain extent has saturated, the estuaries, the rush of fish is often very great, especially if there has been a continued tract of dry weather. In the latter case they collect at the mouths of rivers, and are seen and often taken in vast numbers ; but they do not then attempt an ascent, deterred perhaps by the clearness of the stream, or by some instinctive feeling that the water would yet be de- ficient to carry them through. As the fiesh approaches, how- ever, an increased activity may be perceived ; and, as far as we can judge, the change is probably indicated by the nostrils receiving a sense of the mixture of the waters, by means of the large ramification of nerves with which they are supplied; and to this same sense may perhaps be attributed the singu- lar fact of the greater proportion of salmon returning to the ^ ery streams in which they were spawned. The fish, on en- tering the river, rush forward as long as the flood continues, seldom resting in their course during the time that the water continues discoloured. From ten to twenty-five miles daily is the rate, as far as can be ascertained, at which they are supposed to travel.
In their more lengthened courses, where the rivers are deeper and the interruptions less frequent, the rate at
ICHTHYOLOGY.
205
Malacop- wliici) salmon travel is probably much more rapid. We tervfjii know indeed little as yet regarding the identity of species
Abdoini- (jytween our own and those of foreign regions , but if, as i* , ■ some suppose, our salmon attains to the lofty Cordilleras iiidiK. of South America, by means of the miglity Maragnon,
>,»-^,-^./ then it must run a course of about 800 leagues. 15ear- ing in mind, however, that the salmon is a truly northern fisli (that they occin- in soine abundance in the arctic re- gions, may be inferred from the fact, that Commander Ross, during liis recent voyage, took three thousand three hundred nnd seventij-eighl at one haul, in the month of July ; and that his uncle Sir John obtained a ton weight of salmon from an Esquimaux, in exchange for one or two knives !), and also remembering those laws of distribution which re- gulate, and, with a few exceptions, circumscribe, the loca- lities of living creatures, we think it more than likely that the South American salmon belong to another species. We know, however, that our common kind (Snlmo sa/ar) makes its way by the Elbe into Bohemia, and through the Loire as far as the environs of Puy, in the ancient Velay. We also know that it works its way up the Rhine, and visits a portion of the rivers of Switzerland, although the irresistible torrent of the Falls of SchafFhausen prevents its ingress to any part of the basin of the great Lake of Constance. But we feel less assured of its occurrence in the Persian Gulf, or of the identity of the species found in the Caspian Sea. Neither can we credit that it advances unrepelled by the gloomy terrors of a subterranean journey, and that salmon from the Gulf, adorned by the fanciful Persians with rings of gold and silver, have been found in the Caspian. The non-existence of the supposed commu- nication is of itself a pretty sufficient barrier, even did no other exist in tlie laws of nature, and were light and atmo- spheric air dispensable.
In our lower and clearer waters, however, they travel at a much slower rate than tb;.t above alluded to, — resting i()r some time in the pools by the way, and now and then taking a regular lie in some chosen spot, which they will return to daily as long as the river continues unfitted for their progress. Upon the least accession, however, to the ^vater, either directly or from some swollen tributary, they are again upon the alert ; and it is often felt by them several hours before the quickest or most experienced hu- man eye can perceive a rise upon the river. Having as- cended to a considerable height, they remain more station- ary, and proceed more slowly with the subsequent floods, till the spawn increases in size. This increase, if not in- fluenced by, is at least so connected with, the commence- ment of the colder weather, as then to proceed at a more rapid rate. As the spawn advances, the symmetry of the form is disfigured ; the female becomes disproportionate- ly large, the colours lose the brightness of their silvery tints, and become dull and gray. The male becomes thin upon the back, the nose elongates, and the under jaw turns nj5 in a large and strong hook, which enters a hollow in the nose before the inter-maxillary bones. The colours and markings become brown and red, those on the head and gill-covers being particularly brilliant, and disposed in lines almost like the marking of a Sparus.^ In this full breeding dress the male and female seek some ford or shallow stream, and commence to excavate a trench or furrow (chiefly by the exertions of the female). In this the spawn is depo- sited, and impregnated at the same time, and finally cov-
ered with gravel by the exertions of the fish. The fur- row is generally liom six to nine inches in depth ; and when the spawn has a))peared to be covered beyond that de))th, this has occurred from some other circumstances, — such as the stream or floods having carried downward addi- tional masses of gravel, i'c. After this great effort has been accomplished, both sexes are reduced to a state of remark- al)le emaciation. The elongated nose, and hooked jaw, and brilliant coloiirs, are almost immediately lost ; the old scales are cast, and the fish retire to some pool to regain their strength and complete their new clothing. They finally redescend to the sea by easy stages, where their former condition and silvery lustre are regained, their strength invigorated, and all their functions so repaired as to enable them ere long to renew their visit to the flowing streams, again to multiply their race.
The ova continue covered by the gravel d\iringthe win- ter, and begin to vivify from abo\it the end of March to the commencement of April. Tlie fry remove from under the gravel when nearly an inch in length, with the ovum still attached ; and at tliis period, if the spauning bed or furrow be turned up, it will appear in motion. When dis- engaged from the ova, the fish increase in si::e most rapid- ly, and about the end of April and during May conniience and perform their first migration or journey to the sea. At this time they are from four to six inches in length, of a greenish gray above, silvery below, the scales extremely delicate and very deciduous. From the time they reach the sea, for two months or ten weeks, we lose sight of them, and can only infer their growth from the fact, that after the lapse of that period we find them again ascending the rivers with a weight of from two and a half to four pounds. They are then known under the name of gi/se or grilse ; and their size, as they ascend from the sea, increases with the advance of the season. The gilse which thus ascend spawn during the ensuing winter, and are then entitled to the name of salmon. Descending in a weak state (as be- fore mentioned), they return again in the summer of the following year, as fish of from ten to fifteen pounds weight, according to special circumstances. A third year would still increase their weight, as would several ensuing sea- sons, till the attainment ot an enormons size. Pennant, for example, mentions a salmon which weighed seventy - four pounds ; and although we now regard with something of wonder a fish which weighs even the half of that amount, yet there is no doubt that not many years ago salmon of forty pounds were much more frequent than in these de- generate days." The absence of salmon of the largest class from many of the Scotch rivers, where they formerly abounded, is in fact owing to the injudicious perfection of our fisheries, which occasions the constant capture of the species in the state of gilse, or other early condition ; and the chances are by consequence greatly against any indi- vidual escaping the various dangers by which it is environ- ed, for such a succession of years as is likely to admit of its attaining to its full dimensions. The destruction by poachers in the higher parts of the rivers, of the large en- feebled kelts, or fish which have completed their spawning operations, is also extremely prejudicial ; for these indi- viduals (almost utterly useless as food at the time alluded to) would, if allowed to descend to the salubrious sea, ere long revisit their native streams, greatly increased in size, and full of health and vigour.'
Jfalacnp- tervgii
Abdonii- nales. Salmci- nidse.
' In this state it has received from Cuvier the erroneous name of S. liamatus, as if it were a distinct species. See Regne Animal, t. ii. p. 303.
* We observe that a salmon above fifty pounds weight was recently taken at the mouth of the Leven in Dumbartonshire. The general capture this season (1835) has beeii very great in Scotland. Nearly 800 were taken at one haul in a bay of the island of Islay ; and our calculation, from accurate data, is, that for some time past about a hundred thousand salmon (including grilse) have been shipped in Scotland weekly from our eastern ports alone. A friend of our own lately saw a salmon of sixty-one pounds weight on a fishmonger's stall in London.
" The reader will consult with advantage the Parliamentary Reports of evidence taken by a Committee of the House of Commons,
20G
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- tervgii Abdomi-
nales. Xalmo-
nidfE.
Snlmo erioXjOr hull trout, is another British species which attains a large size, and does not seem as yet clearly de- scribed as inhabiting any of the other European waters.' It reaches a weight of twenty-five pounds. It is thicker in proportion to its length tlian the salmon ; the fins are much more muscular ; the tail particularly so, and per- fectly square at the end in all the stages of growth, while the distance between the two extremes of the web is smaller proportionally than in any of the other species. The head is larger in proportion than that of the salmon of a similar weight, and the opercular covering is more lengthened. The toothing is very strong. The general co- lours are, above greenish gray, the lower parts silvery white ; the body above the lateral line being thickly cover- ed with large cruciform black spots. In the breeding dress they assume a much blacker tint than the salmon, and want much of the red markings. All the under parts, jaws, and cheeks, become blotched with deep blackish gray. The flesh is of a yellowish tint, and is coarse, ex- cept in the young state ; it has the least flavour, and is consequently less esteemed in the market than any of the other species. The hook of the under jaw of the male does not become so elongated as in the salmon. The old fish commence to enter the rivers about the end of July, and appear to deposit their spawn and return to the sea about a month earlier than the salmon. The young fish, of from two to three pounds weight, and in this state known as whitlings, enter the rivers about the beginning of June. In all its states it is a very powerful fish, and feeds voraciously and indiscriminately. When hooked it springs repeatedly from the water, and runs (to use an angler's expression) with extraordinary vigour to free it- self. The river Tweed and its tributaries are among the principal localities for this fish. It occurs also, though more sparingly, in some of the rivers of the Sol way, but appears to be rare on the west and north coasts of Scot- land.^
Salmo Irutta and alhua. — These fish have been by most modern Ichthyologists described as distinct. The charac- ters of each, however, are extremely difficult to determine ; and it is most probable that they will both be found to merge into one species, entitled to the name ot Salmo trutta. Both fish are very abundant, and are taken in great quan- tities in the Solway and its tributaries, and along the great- er part of the west and north coasts of Scotland. In the first-named locality, they bear the name of sea trout, herling, and wliitling ; in the two latter, of white trout and Jinnock ; and being transported to the markets of our metropolis, they receive the additional name of salmon trout. Thus we may easily conceive the immense con- fusion that may and has arisen from the use or abuse of provincial names. Along the south-east coast of Scotland they appear less abundant ; but this may arise from the larger mesh employed in the nettings. The Tay and the Forth supply the Edinburgh market. In its largest state, or as known under the specific title oi trutta, it enters the rivers from two and a half to six pounds weight in the end of May. It is of an elegant form, and possesses all the symmetry of the salmon. The head is small, the back remarkably broad when viewed from above ; the tail slightly forked, and wide at the extremity of the web ; the colour above greenish, inclining to bluish-gray, lower parts of the clearest silver ;
terygii Abduini- r.ales. Salmo- iiida;.
body above the line spotted, as in .S. eriox, with large, deep- Malacop black spots, but generally much fewer in number. The flesh is pink, richly flavoured, and much esteemed for the table. It ranks next to that of the salmon, and by many is esteemed more delicate than even that prized species. The S. albuSfOr smaller and younger state in which it is found, is very nearly of the same proportion, form, and colours. They approach the mouths of the rivers in the end of July and commencement of August, in immense profusion, and im- mediately enter the fresh waters, where an angler may take almost any quantity without the exercise of great skill. In the north they form a perquisite to the tax- men or kayners of the salmon fisheries, — above a thou- sand being sometimes taken at a sweep of the net. In the Solway they are taken in equal abundance in houses of the stake-net, covered for the purpose with net of a small mesh, and are then carried to the various country markets, and during the height of the run to the villages, in cart-loads, for sale. The flesh of this smaller fish (whe- ther species or variety, as the case may be) is also pink, and delicately flavoured. Its food is likewise the same as that of the larger kind; in the sea small Cr\istncea{Talitrus locusta being a favourite and common food), — in fresh wa- ter aquatic insects, worms, minnows, or other small fish. They appear also to spawn rather earlier than the salmon, and after the same manner. The colours of both sorts during the breeding season are deep-grayish black, slight- ly tinted with brown in the males ; and at this time they offer a most marked contrast (being black and lean) to the symmetrical form and brilliant silvery tints of their per- fect condition.
The preceding species (S. salar, eriox, trutta, and al- bus) — whether three or four in number, is still, as we have said, a dubious point — appear to be the only migratory salmon yet known to inhabit the waters of Great Britain. On the Continent of Europe, however, we have the
Salmo hucho, said to be peculiar to the waters of the Danube, but most probably migratory to the Black Sea, and certainly not a native of the British waters, though inserted in many of our lists. It is a fish of extraordinary power, attaining to the weight of sixty pounds ; and is of more lengthened proportions than the common salmon. The flesh pale coloured, and rather coarse. The young have large transverse bands upon the back and sides ; with age these break up into spots, and gradually disap- pear, till the ground colour becomes uniform, and is only broken by the ordinarily black or violet spotting. In Ame- rica, again, we have in this division the
Salmo Hearnii, or Copper-mine River salmon. Above olive-green, pale on the sides, and shading into bluish white, marked with longitudinal rows of flesh-red spots, largest on the sides, where they are about the size of a pea. The scales, like those of the other salmon of America, are much smaller than those of the European species, and in this fish they possess peculiar lustre. The teeth are weak and few, their size inferior to those of the common salmon. Their flesh is red. This fish is abundant during July and August, below the falls of the Copper-mine River.
The migratory salmon are distinguished from those which inhabit only the fresh waters by the clear grayish blue of the upper half of the body, and the brilliant sil- very lustre of the belly and lower parts. Among those
appointed to investigate the subject of the salmon fisheries. We beg also to refer to Dr Knox's Observations, published in the 12th volume of tbe Transactions of the Roi/al Societi/ of Edinbarfsh.
' The young is the whitUng of the Tweed, the Bir-uick trout of the London markets ; but tlie ■whitlinf; of all our Scottish rivers is not necessarily the young of .V. eriox, in as far as provincial names are sometimes variously apjilied. In regard to the more scientiSc synonyms of this species, we know not what degree of relationship its adult state may bear to the Tru'ite dc Ncr of the French,— Salmo Schicfr.rmulkri, Bloch, 103.
^ \Ve liavc no doubt that the Xor-xay salmon of the Sulherlandshire fisheries is identical with the above-described species, — that is. with the full-grown Salmo eriox. _
ICHTHYOLOGY.
207
JIalacop. terygii
Abdomi- iiales. Salmo- nicte.
• which in common language receive the appellation of trotits, the colouring is more varied and of brighter tints, in which yellow and orange predominate, changing to various shades according to locality. The best and most familiar example is ' Salmo fario, or comyyion front. This lovely fish is most extensively distributed over the whole of Northern Europe, being found in every burn and tarn, in every lake and river. It may be also said to be one of the most pleasing in its appearance ; and, when newly taken in " golden glory" from some translucent stream, is exqui- sitely beautiful. The variation of the tints of the ground colour is infinite ; yellow, however, is the most predomi- nant, varying to the most brilliant orange ; while at other times the ground colour of the body runs from a dark- greenish black to violet, in most instances numerously spotted with black and red. Sometimes, however, the black is alone present in the form of large round spots, placed in a pale circle, but in all cases beautifully reliev- ed, and breaking up the uniformity of the other colours. In a few instances the spots have been observed to be wanting altogether. One cause of the variation in the trout, is the difference of food ; and, according to every in- formation we possess, those which feed on fresh-water shells, Gammari (screws, or fresh-water shrimps, as they are sometimes called), are of the most brilliant tint, and also of the finest flavour, with a decided pinkness in their flesh. Those feeding on the ordinary water insects are next in brilliancy and flavour, while such as live chiefly upon aquatic vegetables are dull in colour, and of soft consistence. This is further confirmed by the trout in steics being always finished, or fed off as it is called, on the foresaid Gammari, collected often from a distance. It is only in this v.ay also that we can account for the varia- tion in the appearance and flavour of trout found in two adjoining bays of the same lake. The individuals, in fact, do not appear to stray to any distance, but seem to be satisfied with whatever food is found within a limited dis- trict, and which of course will be in many instances of a peculiar and local kind. It is also true, that the colours of trout accommodate themselves to the tint of the water, and to the prevailing to7ie of the bottom, whether of rock or gravel, or of softer substance ; and so constantly is this the case, that an experienced and observant angler has little difficulty in accurately predicating the general aspectof the fish of any lake or river. The presence of moss, so frequent in alpine districts, has invariably the effect of deepening the tints, particularly the shades of green and yellow.
In form this fish, when in perfect condition, may be said to be nearly symmetrical ; the head only being some- times rather large in proportion to the body, when con- sidered in relation to what we regard as the beau ideal. The fins are of moderate strength, those of the body as- suming a variation of form, from a rounded to a lengthen- ed extremity. The tail is almost always forked ; the fins are always coloured, that is, never of the transparent whiteness observable in the migratory species; and their tints are generally of a paler shade than those of the corre- sponding parts of the body. The anal fin is often border- ed on its lower surface with white. The scaling is propor- tionally less than in the migratory kinds. The toothing is in general strong, and very prominent on both the tongue and vomer.
The average growth of the common trout, taking the species generally, may be stated at about a pound, and certainly not more than a pound and a half. In almost all
rivers, fish weighing beyond this may certainly be found ; but they are comparatively uncommon. Individuals from two to six pounds weight are occasionally taken, even in what may be termed a " wild state." In ponds or stews, again, they reach a much greater size, but cannot be said io be in the natural condition of unenclosed fish. The Thames trout seem to reach most frequently the largest size, being short compared to their length, but of great thickness and well flavoured. Two were lately taken, the one of eleven, the other of fifteen pounds weight. The lakes in the north of England produce trout of very fine quality, and which are often passed off for char. Loch Le- ven, too (of which the barren isle and now dismantled castle are famous in history as the prison-place of the beautiful Queen Mary), has long been celebrated for its breed ot trout. These, however, have fallen off of late con- siderably in their general flavour and condition, owing, it is said, to the partial drainage of the loch having destroyed their best feeding ground, by exposing the beds of fresh- water shells, which formed the greater portion of their food. Farther north (as in Sutherlandshire) the immense multitude of lochs produce a corresponding abundance and variety of trout. Of these, however, only a few are of superior quality; but these i'ew may assuredly vie with the trout of any country in the v/orld.' Another large species, occurring in the British waters, and not yet dis- tinctly known elsewhere, is the
Salmo ferox, Jardine. This species reaches a weight of twenty-eight pounds, and is of very great power compared with its size. The characters which distinguish this fish from S.fario are the great size which it attains in a natural state, the large proportional size of the head, the square extremity of the tail in all the stages of its growth, the relative position of the fins, and the number of rays in the dorsal, which vary from 2 — II to 4 — 11. The external skin or covering of the scales is also extremely tough ; and there is a difference in the form of the scales of the lateral line. In colour the upper parts are generally of a deep purplish brown, shading into purplish gray, and finally, on the lower parts, to greenish or grayish yel- low, more or less tinted with orange. The spotting is large and not numerous, and consists of black spots placed in a pale circle, and of large pink spots with a similar light area. These extend over the gill-covers, upper fins, and often over the tail itself. A variety occurs in Loch Loyal, in Sutherland, above purplish brown, beneath blackish gray, the whole body spotted over with dark se- pio-coloured spots, of a smaller size on the lower portions. Salmo ferox appears to be entirely confined to the lakes, seldom ascending or descending rivers, or wandering in and out of them, and never migrating to the sea. When spawning, it ascends for a short way up the rivers or streams which run into the lakes, but never, as far as yet known, descends those which run out of them. It inha- bits, among the English lakes, Ulswater ; but does not there reach a size above ten or eleven pounds. In Ire- land, as far as we can yet learn (specimens having not yet reached us on this side of the water), it is found in Loch Neagh and some other large lakes ; and in Scotland we have taken it in Loch Awe, Loch Laggan, the upper end of Loch Shin, and Lochs Loyal and Assynt. It is a fish of remarkable ferocity, and as great an enemy to its smaller companions as the pike. It may be taken by night lines, or by strong trolling tackle, baited with a small trout, and will return a second and third time to the bait, even after it has been dragged for forty or fifty yards.*
Malacop. terygii Abduiiii-
iiales. iSalnio-
i)iil;c.
■ We may here note the existence of a strongly marked and peculiar variety, called the gillaroo trout of Galway. It is remark- able for feeding on shell-tisli, in consequence of whicli (as is supposed) the coats of the stomach acquire a great degree of thickness,
from wliich peculiarity it is sometimes called tlie ghzard trout.
■ for a detailed account of the mode of fishing for this and the other species, see our article Angling, in the third volume of the present woik.
208
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- terygii Abiiomi- nales. Salmo. nidae.
5. salmulus, or pnrr. An abundant species in all the clear running streams in England and Wales, and the south of Scotland ; but in the last-named country it begins to decrease, so as to become comparatively rare, towards the north. It frequents the clearest streams, delighting in the shallower fords having a fine gravelly bottom, and hanging there in shoals, in constant activity apparently both day and night. It is found during the whole year in the rivers; but its breeding has not yet been discover- ed, though the fish are found in such a state as to shed their spawn when handled, close to the verge of the tide- way. It is a remarkably beautiful little fisli when newly taken from the water, above of a greenish gray, beneath white inclining to yellowish, the sides marked with dull bluish patches of an oval form, and the body above the lateral line sparingly spotted with brownish-black and red. On the gill-covers there are two black s)K)ts, one of which is often indistinct. Tiiis fish has been always confounded, and still is so, with other species. Many maintain it to be the young of the salmon, while others insist that it bears that relationship to the common trout. The presence of the dark finger-like markings upon their sides has natvnally assisted in this confusion. These marks, however, are dis- tinguished by being always narrower in their form than in the trout or young salmon.' Besides the external aspect being so distinct tiiat any observer will without difficulty separate them when seen together, the whole skeleton of our present species is more delicately formed, as are also the teeth. The form of the opercular bones is likewise different, and the length of the maxillary bones is much less in the .S'. salmulus, or parr, showing a very marked difference when the open mouths of the different fish are exhibited together. Another distinction is, the great width and power of the pectoral fins, evidently a special provision, as the principal organ of support in those rapid streams where tiiis little fish is almost always found.
Although the history of the parr is still, in truth, ob- scure, we certainly deem ourselves authorized to state that it is not the young of the salmon. It may be found in rivers throughout the year, and is more especially a- bundant during those midsummer months in which the acknowledged young of the salmon is unknown except as a fish returning from the sea. The most characteristic and irrepressible instinct of the latter seems to consist in its descent to the sea a i'ew weeks after exclusion from the egg ; and if our summer parr is also the young of the salmon, the fact presents a very rare and remarkable ex-
ample of different individuals of the same species vary- ing in their instinctive habits. The occurrence of parr in rivers so long after midsummer, and the entire disappear- ance oi smoults (as the young salmon are sometimes call- ed) anterior to that period, is a main argument in favour of their being distinct kinds ; and we cannot get over the ■ difficulty by simply asserting, that such as go down to the sea early are parr, and that such as go down late are parr also. It is admitted that tlie ova of salmon are hatched in spring, and that the growth of the young (by whatever name we choose to call it) is extremelj' rapid. Now, as nobody ever finds a parr above a few inches long (six inches is a large one), and as by the end of summer they must be several months old, how can we (in the belief of their being young salmon) reconcile their imputed age with their actual dimensions?'- Still more difficult will it be to explain, in connection with that belief, how the brood which has descended seawards in the spring should, after the lapse of the same period, be found in their na- tive rivers weighing many pounds.
The preceding are all the species belonging to our pre- sent group which have been yet ascertained to inhabit the waters of Britain. On the Continent of Europe we have the S. lacuslris, Linn., found in the lakes of Lower Aus- tria, and in the Rhine above Constance, and reaching to an enormous size.'*
In the northern parts of North America, according to Dr Richardson, trout abound in every lake and river. In the Appendix to that gentleman's first expedition under Captain Franklin, the diflerent varieties are all placed un- der <S'. fario, or common trout. It is doubtful, however, whether that species exists at all in America ; and several species entirely distinct will be described in the third vo- lume of the Northern Zooloyy, which have much of the co- louring of some varieties of the European trouts, but differ remarkably in the smallness of the scales.* Specimens of forty pounds in weight were seen ; and in Lake Monito they were said to attain the weight of ninety pounds.
Another small group, which has hitherto been placed among the true Salmones, contains the fish commonly known under the name of Char. They differ from the trouts in the very small and narrower form of the scales, in the more delicate toothing (the vomer furnished with a single minute tuft at the tip, instead of being armed for its whole length), in the remarkably brilliant change which takes place during the season of breeding, a change very much more completely developed than in any of the other
Malacop- tervgii
Abdomi- nales. Salmo- nidsE.
' We would also suggest, as a good logical argument against the fact of S. salmulus being the young of the common salmon, that it is frequent in streams where salmon are scarcely ever seen. " What a jiity it is," uliserves tlie Kev. George Low, " that I am almost obliged to deny the salmon a place in the Orkney zoology ; yet true it is, that this noble tish is so seldom got here, that it is considered as a ■wonder when one is thrown asliore, or runs so tar up one of our burns as to be taken. I have not heard of above three or four instances of salmon being taken in Orknev, three of which (if they were all salmon) were killed and brought on shore by the otter from the sea, and i)icked up by the country people, and a fourth which stuck in a mill-wheel, and was caught by the miller." The same writer, under the article Pan\ observes, " Pretty /myj/cii/ in the shallower lakts and clear burns, tliough not in such numbers as I have observed them in Scotland." {Fauna Orcudrnsis. Y\). i."JO and 223.) The reader will also bear in mind, that as we advance northwards in our own island, the parr becomes scarcer, the salmon more abundant, — and that while in the icy streams of the arctic regions the former has riot yet been detected, the latter swarms in (elsewhere) unequalled luunbers. It is scarcely worth while to allude to the opinion maintained by the late Sir Humphry Davy and others, that the parr is a hybrid or mule between the trout and salmon !
= We yesterday (Uth September 1835), while angling in the North F.sk, above the beautiful residence called The Bum, in Kin- cardineshire, killed about a dozen parr, two of which, measuring eight inches in length, were the larjrest we had ever seen. They were, however, as usual, spotted with red along the lateral line, and tinged all over the under parts, like trouts, with yellow. They ex- hibited no approach to the silvery character of the salmon, nor any departure from the usual asjiect of the parr. The majority of the others were of the ordinary size, and some of them so small as to render it entirely incomprehensible — unless we are totally misinformed regarding the spawning periods of the salmon, and the time of its exclusion from the egg — by what process of rea- soning they could be maintained to be the young of that fish.
^ We are not yet in a position to judge conclusively regarding the identity or distinction of the great lake trouts of Switzerland, and our own Suhno fcrox. '^ I. a grande truite du I-ac de Geneve (^Salmo kmanus, N.)," says I5aron Cuvier, " qui se trouve aussi dans quelques lacs voisins, a la tete et le dos semes de petitcs taclies rondes et noiratres sur un fond blandvitre ; sa chair est iris blauclie. II y en a de quarante et de cinciuanle livres." (Itcgne Animal, ii. 303.) Now the gigantic tyrant of our Scotch lochs, to fay nothing of other discrepancies, has the llesh of an orange hue.
* The greater number of the ])lates for the volume above alluded to have been for some time engraved, and their publication, with the corresponding descriptions, will atibrd an important addition to the library of the Ichthyologist.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
209
Abdunii- nales. SalinM- nidfle.
Malacop. species, and in their food consisting in a great measure of minute entoniostraca. TIic best aii'l most familiar exam- ple of this group is the char of England.
Salmo iimbla, Agassiz, — -apparently confounded by most authors, in consequence of its great variety of aspect, and ' synonymous, according to the above-named naturalist, with S. alpinus and salvelinus, Linn. It is abundant in the Englisli and Welsh lakes, and in the greater mmiber of those in the north of Scotland, when of any considerable extent ; but more seldom seen there, from the absence of the practice of netting, and the general miHillingness of char to take a fly or bait. This fish is of great repute in the Lake of Geneva, and is also found in many of the alpine lakes of northern Europe. The common char reaches a considerable size, being sometimes taken in Bri- t.ain above two pounds in weight, although the more usual weight is under three quarters of a pound. When in full condition, it is a fish of very great beauty, above of a gray- ish green, shading into the most delicate white on the lower parts, and tinted with a blush which is comparable to that seen on the breasts of some of the gull tribe when newly shot in spring. The body is sprinkled over with pale spots of a considerable size. In this state they re- main in the deeper parts of the lakes, and are not frequent- ly taken, although we doubt not they might be so were the practice adopted of hanging a herring-net in the deep water, instead of trying only the xuinter practice of bawling in shore. We ourselves caught them by the former me- thod, in their prime silvery state, in Sutherland, during the month of June. On the approach of the breeding time, they seek the mouths of the small tributaries, and are taken in vast numbers at the very period when their pre- servation ought to be most strictly attended to, and when, in truth, they begin to fall off in their condition. At this season the colour of the upper parts is darkened, the fins are very rich, and the sides and belly become of a beauti- ful and brilliant red, the whole spotted with small marks of a paler tint.
Although we here follow our friend M. Agassiz in pla- cing the two supposed species under one denon)ination, yet we willingly admit, and indeed particularly desire our readers to remember, that the history of the char, whether single or distinctive, has not yet been clearly made out.' We have already mentioned (in the article Angling of this work) that both kinds occur in Windermere, to wit, the char or case char (Salmo alpinus), and the torgoch or red char (Salmo salveliims). These are usually thus distinguished : — the former by having the first rays of the ventral and anal fins white ; the latter by having those parts plain, that is, of the same colour as the other rays. A remarkable distinction is also observable in their natu- ral habits, — the case char ascending rivers, and spawning about Michaelmas, — the red char depositing its ova along the shores of the lake, and not till the end of December or the beginning of the year." Let these facts be duly regarded in determining upon the distinction or identity of species. We hope ere long to investigate the subject steadily. In the mean time, to illustrate the character of colour, we shall extract from our note-book some memo-
randa made a few seasons ago, on six specimens of char iMalacop- (supposed to exhibit examples of the different varieties or teOf/ii kinds) selected from a bawl taken (hy net) in Windermere on the 12th December. " No. I is a very beautiful fish, — the ground colour of the body pale ashy brown, somewhat lighter beneath the lateral line. The sides are richly marked with scarlet spots of different sizes ; the whole of the under surface, from the pectoral fins to the tail, are brilliant scarlet. The fins are margined anteriorly with an opake white stripe, followed by a blackish-brown por- tion, passing posteriorly into deep crimson. The tail is blackish brown. The nose and front part of the head are marked by a black spot. The dorsal fin is of the same pale-brown colour as the back, slightly inclining to blue." This seemed a male. " No. 2 is a smaller fish, brown upon the back, and becoming gradually paler beneath ; the abdomen and lower parts are dingy white, tinged with bluish colour. The ventral and anal fins are margined with white, their other parts flesh colour; the pectoral fins are reddish brown ; the dorsal fin and tail blackish brown. The sides of this specimen are indistinctly mark- ed with pale yellowish-red spots." This was a male red char, which appeared to have spawned. " No. 3 is of a blackish-brown colour, somewhat silvery, paler beneath the lateral line, and passing into yellowish white on the belly. The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins are brown, tinged with red. The dorsal fin and tail are brownish black. The upper part of the head is also black. The sides of this specimen are distinctly marked with numerous very pale, almost colourless, spots. No. 4 resembles the last described, but is smaller." These the fishermen called two geld fish, full grown and half grown. " No. 5 is a very dark fish, brownish black upon the back and sides, be- coming, as usual, gradually paler beneath the lateral line. 77(6 pectoral, ventral, and anal fins are distinctly margined anteriorly with opake white; the central portion of these fins are brownish black, and their interior margins flesh colour. The upper part of the head is dark ; the belly of a dingy red. No. 6 resembles the preceding, except that the under surface, instead of being dingy red, is pale red- dish white. The ventral and anal Jins are reddish brown, jnargined anteriorly with white. The pectoral fins are reddish brown, the dorsal fins are brownish black. Both these specimens are marked on the sides with obscure pale-reddish spots." These two fish were what the fish- ermen called case char (Salmo alpinus ?), male and female, — yet the pectoral, ventral, and anal fins of the former, and the ventral and anal fins of the latter sex, were con- spicuously margined with white, although that character is usually regarded as distinctive of the torgoch or red char. Perhaps the fact of the male having the pectorals so margined, while those of the female were of uniform colour, may be regarded as of some importance, as tend- ing to show that the character itself is in some measure variable, and therefore insufficient to constitute a specific distinction.^ Every angler knows that the under fins of the common trout are frequently margined on one edge w ith an opake line of milky white.
Although the art of angling is not immediately connect-
' We understand that Blr Yarre!) has obtained what he considers as a second species of char, from Wales, which will be described in an early number of his Briihh Fishes. We are as yet, however, uncertain whether he makes out the two common kinds to be iden- tical, and has discovered a new species, or whether his observations merely go to prove that the said kinds (as formerly supposed) are distinct from each other.
'^ The chief feeder or head stream of Windermere is composed of two branches, the Brathay and the Rothay, wliich meet a short way above the lake, into which they speedily pour their united waters. The Brathay is the lefc-hand branch (as we ascend from the
lake), and draws its sources from the mountain vales of I^angdale, reaching Windermere without any resting place, while the
Kothay has previously formed and flowed from two consecutive lakes, Grassmere and Kydal. The char,' in ascending from Winder- mere to spawn, invariably turn to the left, and ascend the Brathay (though to no great distance), and as invariably avoid the lake- descended w aters of the Rothay. Tliey also spawn lower down the Lake of Windermere, at the mouth (or a short way upwards) of the stream called Troutbeck, which is also derived from the flow of mountain tributaries, without any lesser or intermediate lake.
» The specimens above alluded to are now deposited in the Edinburgh College Museum.
VOL. XII. 2 D
210
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Abdomi- nales. Salmo- nidae.
Malacop- ed with the science of Ichthyology, it is at the same time terygii evident that the successful practice of that art necessarily illustrates the food of fishes, and therefore makes us ac- quainted with an important portion of their natural his- tory. For this reason we insert the following memoranda, transmitted to us by Mr John Wilson, junior: — '| The season for fishing char (with rod and line) in Winder- mere and Coniston commences about the end of May, and, I should say, is over by the first or second week in July. Trolling with a smallish minnow is by far the most suc- cessful mode of angling for this fish. It may, however, be taken with the artificial fly, the green and gray drake being the favourites. I killed three one day in May last with a small red professor} A Bowness fisherman on the same day, trolling without intermission from six in the morning till six in'the evening, killed six mid tioenty, being the greatest number that has been taken in Windermere, in a single day, by one person, for many years. In Co- niston, where this fish is more abundant, I believe it is by no means uncommon to kill three or four dozen in a day. In regard to the size of char in Windermere, 1 should say they average three to the pound. I never saw one that was a pound. Billy Balmer told me that he once saw one that was a pound and a quarter, and that it was the largest ever taken in Windermere." In relation to the same subject, in a different locality, we may also add the following extract from another hand. " A small red char is found in Loch Achilty, Ross-shire, on the property of Sir George Mackenzie. It takes the fly greedily in warm, still weather, and, w hat is singular, during all the summer and autumnal months. I have captured eighteen in a forenoon in July, — raising many more. My flies were of various sorts, from a midge to one as large as a sea-trout fly. The water of Loch Achilty is singularly deep and transparent,— the soil is rich and loamy, and contains large quantities of imbedded wood, — black oak especially. It is supplied by numbers of minute streams, but has no visible outlet, being supposed to discharge itself subter- raneously. The chai- found in it average eight or nine inches in length ; we, however, caught one much larger. They rise with less velocity than the trout, and on miss- ing the fly, unless injured, will return to the hook. In Strathglass there is a Loch Bruiach, where char are caught of a much larger size, but chiefly with the net, — except in the month of October, when, as our informant, the Rev. Mr Chisholm, told us, they may be taken in the shallows with the rod, but at no other season.""-
On dissecting the char which we killed last summer in Sutherland, with a view to ascertain their food, we found the stomach usually empty, but the lower part of the in- testine filled with green vegetable residuum. This we found to be the remains of the cases of aquatic larvae {Phryganidce), a few of which we discovered in a half di- gested state in the upper portion of the intestinal canal.
Following the preceding groups, or Salmones properly so called, Cuvier has placed the
Genus Osmerus of Artedi. Characterised by two rows of teeth on each palate bone, the vomer with a tuft on the fore part, the branchial membrane with only eight rays, the body without spots, and the ventral fins placed a little more forward than in the true salmon.
The best-knowii species is the O. eperlanus, Arted., Salmo eperlanus, Linn.; called spiTli7i in Scotland. It is a small fish of delicate but brilliant colours, clear green on the upper parts, passing into silvery on the sides and belly. It fi-equents the sandy bays at the mouths of rivers,
which during the breeding season it ascends to spawn. It Malacop- is abundant on the British coasts, and in many parts of terygii Europe, and is taken in immense quantities, being much Abdomi- esteemed for the table. "^^^^'
Genus Mallotus, Cuvier. Characterised by the teeth, ■ "'™- which are fine, closely set, and nearly concealed ; eight rays i^^,.^ to the branchial membrane ; the body lengthened and co- vered with minute scales ; the first dorsal and ventral fins placed beyond the middle of the fish, pectoral fins very large and round ; the male during the breeding season with the scales of the lateral line furnished with lengthened ap- pendages resembling hairs.
The only species is M. Groenlandicus, Cuv. ; .S'. Groen- latidicus, Bloch ; Capelan, or Lodde. A small fish of from four to seven inches in length, the under jaw longer than the upper ; above of a greenish gray, changing to whitish be- low ; and remarkable for the structure of the scales on the lateral line, and the size of the pectoral fins. Abundant in the Arctic Seas, where it is taken in immense profusion when approaching the coasts to spawn, and is used as the principal bait for cod. A few are cured and brought to this country in barrels, where they are sold, and used as a relish by the curious in wines.
Genus Thymallus, C\xv\ev ; grayling. Has been se- parated from the Guiniads, principally on account of the small scaling, and large dorsal fin. The species approach nearer in form, colour, habits, and food, to the trouts. They have the mouth with sides, that is, but slightly cleft, the teeth very fine, the body spotted, the branchial mem- brane with seven or eight rays. The stomach is very mus- cular. They inhabit rivers, and feed on aquatic insects, &c. England produces a beautiful species, commonly called the grayling, or
Thymallus thymus,^ Salvianus. The grayling delights in clear rapid streams, and is found in many of those bear- ing that character in the more hilly or mountainous parts of England, particularly in Shropshire, Yorkshire, and Derbyshire, — reaching as far north as some of the tri- butaries of the Tyne in Northumberland. The European range of this fish seems extensive, if all the authors are correct in their designation. According to the Flora Lapponica, it is common in Lapland, and the viscera are there used instead of rennet, with the milk of the rein- deer. It is also found in Siberia, in Prussia, and Pome- rania. It is a very beautiful fish, above of a dusky bluish green, changing to a fine silvery gray. The lower edges of the scales are dusky, which gives the appearance of dark streaks running along the fish. The most marked feature is the dorsal fin, of very large size, and darkly spotted between the rays, in the form of transverse bands. The ordinary size is from a foot to sixteen inches in length, but instances of one or two from four to five pounds are recorded. By some authors the grayling is said to be a migratory fish, passing the winter in the open sea, and the summer in the fresh waters. This may, how- ever, be the habit of the fish in some countries only, as in certain of the English rivers they seem to remain during the winter. This species, as far as we know, appears to be the sole example of the form in Europe ; and it is on- ly seen again in North America, in a very beautiful fish, the
Thymallus signifer, Cuv. ; Coregonus signifer, Rich- ards. This grayling was met with by the expedition un- der Captain Franklin, in the strong rapids and clear rivers to the northward of Great Slave Lake, where it rose ea- gerly at artificial flies, and afforded good sport from its
• A noted fly, so named in honour of the Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh,- said to conjoin with various other accomplishments, considerable skill in angling.
"> From the manuscript of Mr Thomas Tod Stoddart, an ingenious angler, of the Scotch bar. 3 So named from its supposed scent or flavour resembling thyme.
gentleman who is
ICHTHYOLOGY.
211
Malacop- powerful motions in the water. Dr Richardson describes its sides as tiiitjed with lavender purple, mixed with bhi- ish gray, witiiout streaks ; the belly blackish gray, with several irregular white blotches ; and there are five or six longitudinal rows of uniform quadrangular spots of Prus- sian blue on the anterior part of the body. There is a large blue mark underneath the lower jaw on each side. The dorsal fin, which forms a prominent feature in the fish, is of a blackish-gray colour, with some lighter blotches. Superiorly it has a narrow margin of light lake- red, and posteriorly it is beautifully ornamented with spots of Berlin blue. The ventrals are streaked with red, and with whitish lines in the direction of their rays. The scales are moderately large, and have no great lustre ; their exterior margins are rotund and entire, or very slight- ly undulated, those on the anterior part of the belly being much smaller than the others. Of the fins the dorsal is the most extraordinary, being, according to Dr Richard- son, " probably by far the largest in this genus." Its co- lours, as above mentioned, are beautiful, and, with its great size, form the chief ornament of the fish. It contains twen- ty-four rays ; the first two or three are small ; but the others increasing rapidly in height, as their origin is more posterior, become more and more branched, and cause the fin to play loosely like a flag over the posterior part of the body ; the insertion of the fin occupies about one third of the length of the body, and the extremity of the poste- rior ray, which is five inches long, reaches as far as the adipose fin.' Specimens were taken sixteen inches in length. Another American grayling, found in the same northern localities, is the Thymallus tltymalloides, Cuv. ; Coregonus tliymalhides, Richard. Resembles TIi. signi- fer, but differs remarkably in the size of the dorsal fin. The body is compressed, and of a bluish gray, with pur- ple reflections when moved in the light. The dorsal fin contains from twenty-two to thirty-four rays ; but the posterior ones do not branch out in the same manner, and scarcely exceed the others in height ; hence the fin has a very different aspect. It is about one inch high, has a dark bluish-gray colour, with several rows of spots, having pur- ple centres and light-red borders. The usual length is eight inches.-
Genus Coregonus, Artedi. Distinguished from the last by the still finer teeth, larger scaling, and small dor- sal fin ; live in shoals in lakes or still waters, and only ap- proach the edges during spawning time. Of delicate structure; feed much on entomostraca, and aquatic insects and their larvae. Flesh white and delicate. The best- known British species is the Guiniad, or
Cor. lavaretus, Salmo lavaretus, Linn. Frequent in the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland, and also found in some of the Scotch lochs, — for example, Loch Lo- mond, where, as in the north of England, it is termed the schelky. According to the best authorities, it likewise occurs in those of Alpine and Northern Europe. It does not reach a very large size ; the average may be stated from nine inches to a foot in length. The colours chaste and delicate, of a greenish gray above, changing to whit- ish, with a silvery lustre. The scales are of considerable size, and, when examined narrowly, are seen to be cover- ed with minute black dots. It is used for the table, but is not so delicate as our other British species. It is known under the name oi fresh-water herrbig in most of its loca- lities.
Cor. marcBtiula, found in the Swiss lakes and some other parts of the Continent of Europe, is a small species, of nearly the same colours as the last. This fish was sup- posed to be found in some parts of Britain, and the ven-
dace of the Lochmaben lochs was thought referrible to it. When Scotch specimens, however, were shown to Mons. Agassiz during the autumn of ISSJ', he considered them distinct from the species known to the continental Ich- thyologists as C. 7narai7nda, and the title of C. WUbigh- bii was suggested for the Scottish kind. Continental spe- cimens of C. marcinula have not yet been received by us, and the distinctions, therefore, cannot at present be detailed. The vendace of Lochmaben, whatever scientific name it may ultimately receive, or whether it may be identical or not with the species inhabiting the lakes of Continental Europe, may be described as an interesting example of the genus. It is one of the most elegant, though of a small size, reaching from four to ten inches in length. The head is of an angular shape, and small compared %vith the size and depth of the body. The crown of the head is very transparent, and the form of the brain, which is heart-shaped, is seen through the integuments. This peculiarity is one of the first things pointed out to the stranger naturalist who visits Lochmaben to see this spe- cies. The eye is large and brilliant ; the body rises grace- fully to the back fin, and recedes with a gradual line to the tail ; the under line is nearly straight from the gills to the ventral fin. The upper parts are of a delicate green- ish brown, shading gradually into a clear silvery white ; the dorsal fin greenish brown, the anterior edge much lengthened and pointed ; the lower fins all bluish white ; the tail much forked. They spawn about the commence- ment of November. The roe is minute and abundant, and of a bright orange colour. The flesh is white and rich, and highly prized as food ; but as it requires almost to be eaten on the spot, it is not useful as a market commodity when transmitted to any considerable distance. The lochs of Lochmaben are the only authentic British habi- tat for this species.
Several other species inhabit the Swiss lakes, and are known chiefly from the works of the continental Ichthy- ologists, particularly M. Jurine, who has devoted a paper to the fishes of the Lake of Geneva. He there describes C. fera and hyemalis (the latter so named from its ap- pearing only in winter) ; and Baron Cuvier notices a third from the Lake Neufchatel, under the title of C. palcea. In America several species are found in the lakes and rivers. The white fish of Dr Richardson seems to belong to the genus. It is the C. albus of Lesueur, and is call- ed by the Cree Indians Attihhawmegh, a name corrupted to Tittameg by the traders. This fish attains a weight of from three (the ordinary size) to twenty pounds. It abounds in every lake and river, and is much esteemed as food, in many parts forming the sole article of diet for years together, without producing satiety. The sto- mach is of great thickness, generally filled with earth mixed with slender roots, and small white worms. It spawns in October. Another species is C. quadrilateralis, Richardson, of which the colour of the upper parts is in- termediate between honey yellow and wood brown ; the scales with a thin border of blackish gray round their ex- terior margins ; the belly white, with a pearly lustre ; the eye moderately large, the iris with a silvery hue ; the mouth without teeth ; the fins are yellowish ; the adipose fin attached for its whole length. The stomach not thickened. The food small insects. Inhabits the Arctic Sea, and the small rivers about Fort Enterprise. The average size is about fifteen inches in length.
Under this division also appears to rank the Inconnu of Mackenzie and the Canadian Voyagers, although it is placed by Dr Richardson in the genus Salmo, under the name of S. Machenzii. We therefore here record it as
Malacop. terygii
Abdorai- nales. Salmo- nidas-
' Eichardson, in the Appendix to Franklin's Juurucy to the Polar Sea, p. 711.
Ibid. p. 714.
212
ICHTHYOLOGY.
JlaUop- terygii
Abdomi-
nales.
Salmo-
nidae.
the Coregonus Machenzii. The colour of the back and sides changeable from bluish to greenish gray, according as it is moved in the light. The belly bluish white ; the scales sub-orbicular, four lines in diameter, and possess- ing much pearly lustre. From the form of the body, the size of the scales, the fineness of the teeth, and their distribution, this fish evidently belongs to the genus Co- regonus. It reaches a vceight of thirty or forty pounds. The flesh is white but agreeable. It is found in Mac- kenzie's River, and the lakes and streams which flow into it ; also in Salt River, which, however, is its most south- erly limit.'
Genus Argentina, Linn. The mouth small, depress- ed horizontally ; no teeth on the jaws, but with a small tuft on the vomer, and having the tongue with teeth ra- ther strong and hooked, as in the trouts. Six rays to the branchial membranes. The internal structure as in the trouts. The genus is composed of a single species, the
Arg. sphyrcena, Linn. Found in the Mediterranean sea, and remarkable for the thickened coats of the swim- ming bladder, which, as well as the scales, is plentifully charged with that silvery secretion used in the manufac- ture of " I'esseiwe d'orient," an article employed in the formation and lustre of false pearls. For this purpose the species is fished in great numbers along the coast of Tuscany. It is a small fish, scarcely exceeding four or five inches in length, of delicate tints,' — the integuments being transparent, and giving a clear brilliancy to the co- lours. The upper parts are grayish, the sides and lower surface of a brilliant silvery lustre.
Following this fish, Cuvier adopts the genus Chara- ciNus of Artedi, as a group to contain all the species of the Linnsean Salniones, which have only four or five rays to the branchial membrane, but as the form, toothing, &c. vary in most of these fishes, he has thought it neces- sary to subdivide them into subordinate genera. It is remarkable that many of them have the caecal or pancre- atic appendages, and at the same time the narrowing or girth of the air-bladder, which is seen in many of the Cy- prini. The first subdivision is
Genus Curimata, Cuv. In form the species resemble Thymallus. The teeth are, however, variable, and the divisions of this group may yet require examination. The number of branchial rays not exceeding five, must be remembered ; some of the species, with the exception of that distinction, approaching very nearly to the genus just named. They inhabit the rivers of South America. As an example may be noted a new species, the Curi- mata Gilbert of Quoy and Gaimard. This fish some- what resembles a small Cyprinus, but is distinguished, even on a superficial view, by the presence of the adi- pose fin. The scales are rather large in proportion ; the upper parts are bluish gray, changing into silvery; the fins yellowish ; the body appears spotted, or rather blotch- ed, with indistinct dark markings, conspicuous only when placed in particular lights. This species was discover- ed in the fresh waters of Brazil, near the river Macaca, and appeared to prefer those |)laces which were of a marshy character.
Genus Anastomus, Cuv. Characterised by combining with the form of the graylings a mouth cleft somewhat vertically, and furnished with fine teeth. It contains a single species, a native (it is said) both of South America and India, the Salmo anastomus, Linn. Is it not likely that two species are confounded here ?
Genus Gasteropelecus, Bloch. With the mouth
placed vertically as in the last, but with the belly com- Malacop. pressed. The ventral fins very small, and placed far back, tervpii The first dorsal fin placed above the anal, which is very Abdomi. long. Conical teeth in the upper jaw, in the lower sharp <,"| ^'' and cutting. "^■^^°;
Gast. sternicla, Bloch, is a very small species, scarce- v«»-^-«i^ ly two inches in length, which inhabits the waters of Su- rinam. Its form is very much compressed, and sharply ca- rinated beneath ; above bluish gray; beneath silvery." The fins gray, ventrals extremely minute, the anal extending nearly from them to the tail ; the tail much forked.'
Genus PiABucus, Margrave? Characterised by a length- ened form ; a small head, with the mouth deeply cleft and armed with strong teeth. The body compressed ; the belly carinated, but smooth ; the anal fin much extended. The species inhabit the rivers of South America, and are carnivorous and voracious.
P. binmculatus. About four inches in length by about two in breadth. Above brownish, lower parts silvery ; fins jiale yellow ; on each side of the body beyond the gills an oval spot of black, with a similar one at the base of the tail. Inhabits the rivers of Surinam, and is esteemed as food.''
Genus Serrasalmus, Lacepede. The body compress- ed ; the belly carinated, and toothed or serrated on its lower margin ; the teeth triangular and cutting ; some species with a concealed spine before the first dorsal fin.
Ser. rhomhoides, Bloch. Above of a dusky red, mark- ed with a few small scattered dusky spots ; sides and belly silvery, the latter strongly carinated and serrated by a se- ries of aculeated processes. The fins yellowish ; tail ter- mniated by a black border. Found in the rivers of Suri- nam, where it reaches a considerable size ; feeds on fish and waterfowl ! Two other species, G. aureus and nigri- cans, are figured in the work of Spix.
Genus Tetragonopterus. This group was formed by Artedi, and after being thrown out by Ichthyologists, was re-established by Cuvier as a sub-genus. The form con- tinues compressed, the anal fin much extended, and the teeth sharp and cutting ; but there are two rows of teeth on the upper jaw, and the belly is neither carinated nor serrated, as in the preceding.
Genus Chalceus, Cuvier. Characterised by the same form of the mouth, and the same cutting teeth, as the pre- ceding fishes ; but the body is of an oblong form, and nei- ther carinated nor serrated beneath. The maxillary bones have three small round teeth. Inhabit South America. The species are C. macrolepidotus, Cuv., and C. angulu- tus. Spix.
Genus Myletes, Cuvier. Characterised by the singu- lar form of the teeth, in the shape of a triangular prism, short, rounded at the corners, and with the upper surface so hollowed by mastication, that the three angles form three projecting points. The mouth small, with two rows of teeth on the inter-maxillary bones. None on the max- illaries. The under jaw with a single row of teeth. The form elevated ; a spine before the vertical fins. The belly carinated and serrated. Inhabit America and Africa. Some of the species attain to a large size, and have the flesh well flavoured.
M. Uasselquistii, Cuv., Salmo dcntex, Hasselquist, is found in the Nile. It is a fish of a lengthened form, w ith the dorsal fin occupying the position which corresponds to the space between the ventral and anal fins. The teeth are very strong. The colours above are brownish, with three or four indistinct longitudinal lines upon the sides ; the under parts silvery.^ M.paco is an American species.
Kichardson in the Appendix to Franklin's Journey to the Polar Sea, p. 707. Schneider. » Shaw. ■* Schneider, Shaw.
* Schneider.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
213
Malacop.
terygii
Abdomi-
nales.
Saltno-
nidse.
Genus Hydrocyon, Cuvier. Extremity of the muzzle formed by the inter-maxillary bones ; tlie maxillaries com- mencing near or before the eyes, and completing the up- per jaw. The tongue and vomer always smooth, but there are conical teeth on both jaws. A large sub-orbitary bone,
* thin and bare as tlie opercle, covers the cheek.
Certain s|)ecies have a close row of small teeth on the maxillary and palatine bones, the first dorsal fin corre- sponding to the space between the ventral and anal fins. They are of agreeable taste, and inhabit the rivers of the
• torrid zone. To this group belongs the Hyd. falcalus, Quoy and Gaim. Above of a violet tint, beneath pale, but tinted generally with a shade of silvery. A silvery band extends the whole length of the body from the oper- cle to the tail, and at each extremity is marked with a dark spot. The fins gray at the base, and brown at the extre- mity. The eyes of a golden red. The scales small and deciduous. The specimens brought by Freycinet were from five to six inches in length. They were taken in Brazil.
Other species have a double row of teeth on the inter- maxillaries and lower jaw, a simple row on the maxillaries, and none on the palatine bones. The first dorsal fin is placed above the ventrals. A Brazilian species, H. bre- videns, Cuv., exemplifies this minor group.
Others again have only a simple row of teeth on the maxillaries and lower jaw, but the teeth are alternately small and very large, especially the two second from be- low, which pass through hollows of the upper jaw when the mouth is shut. The lateral line is composed of scales of a larger size, and the dorsal fin is so placed as to corre- spond to the interval between the ventral and anal fins. H. scomberoides, Cuv. or Cynodon vulpanus, Spix, is an example of this peculiar form.
Another form has the muzzle pointed, the maxillary bones very sharp, and the inter-maxillaries and lower jaw furnished with a single row of very close, small teeth ; the body covered with strong scales. A Brazilian species, H. lucius, Cuv. affords a characteristic example.
A fifth form has teeth only on the inter-maxillaries and lower jaw, and these few in number, but strong and pointed. The first dorsal fin is placed above the ventrals. A single species from the Nile, the Characinus dentex of Geof. (Pois. d'Egypte), presents the sole example of this limited group.
Genus Citharinus, Cuvier. Characterised by their depressed mouth, the upper edge formed entirely by the inter-maxillary bones. The maxillaries small and without teeth ; the tongue and palate smooth ; the adipose fin co- vered H-ith scales, together with the greater part of the tail. The species inhabit the waters of Africa.
Some have the upper jaw only fiirnished with very fine teeth ; the body elevated as in Serrasalmus, but without the carinated or serrated abdomen.
Salmo cyprinoides exemplifies this division of the genus. Others have on both jaws a number of teeth, thickly placed in several rows. These fish are more lengthened in their form, and appear to lead to the next genus. Salmo ^Sgyp- ticus, Linn, serves as an illustration.
Genus Saurus, Cuvier.' Distinguished by its length- ened and cylindrical form, and by the large scales, which cover also the cheeks and opercles. The edges of the upper jaws are formed entirely by the inter-maxillaries ; and on each, as well as on the palatine bones and the tongue, are numerous pointed teeth, which are wanting on the vomer. The first dorsal fin is placed much pos- terior to the ventrals, which are large. The interior struc-
ture resembles that of the trouts. They are very vora- Malacop. cious. tervifii
This form is illustrated by the Salmo saurus of Bloch AluU and Linn., a native of the Mediterranean ; above of a greenish blue, varied with numerous narrow undulated transverse bands, reaching as far as the lateral line, which is itself bounded beneath by a continued stripe of brown ; abdomen silvery. The fins pale, the pectorals crossed with a few brown bars."
S. variegattis, Lacepede, Quoy, and Gaimard. The jaws, tongue, and palate with formidable sharp teeth. The upper parts of a dull gray, banded transversely with eight or nine brown bands, broad and irregular when ceasing at the centre of the fish. The under parts tinted with rose colour. The eye red and brilliant. In this fish the second dorsal fin is so small as not easily to be perceived. Found in the neighbourhood of the Sandwich Isles.^
«S'. gracilis, Quoy and Gaimard. A small species, reach- ing only about four inches and a half in length. The co- lours are unobtrusive, being a dull gray blotched with ir- regular blackish spots, most defined on the sides and to- wards the tail. All the fins are covered with brownish specks, which on the pectorals are so disposed as to form three transverse bands. This fish was also found in the neighbourhood of the Sandwich Isles.*
Genus Scopeles, Cuvier. Mouth and opening of the gills wide; thejaws furnished with very fine teeth ; the up- per jaw formed entirely by the inter-maxillaries; the tongue and palate smooth ; the branchial rays from nine to ten ; the adipose fin small, but having a trace of bony rays. The species are small in size, and live in shoals. They are found in the Mediterranean Sea. The Sc. Humboldtii of Risso offers a characteristic example.
Genus Aulopus, Cuvier. In this form the characters of the Cod or Gadi, and Salmoiies, are united. The mouth is widely cleft, the inter-maxillary bones, which form the border of the upper jaw, are furnished, together with the palatine bones, the vomer, and the lower jaw, with a nar- row stripe of teeth en carde. The maxillary bones are longer, and without teeth. The ventral fins are placed almost under the pectoral fins, and have the outer rays strong, and simply forked. The body, cheeks, and oper- cles, are covered with large ciliated scales. Salmo Jilamen- tosus of Bloch illustrates Aulopus.
Genus Sternoptyx, Herman. These curious fish have by Cuvier been placed under the above title at the conclu- sion of his Salmonidae. They embrace two forms, which, he thinks, will eventually be converted into sub-genera. They are of small size, the body high, and very compress- ed ; the mouth directed upwards. The humeral bones form on the fore-part a sharp crest or ridge, terminated be- low by a small spine. The pelvic bones form another and similar crest, also terminated by a small spine placed before the ventral fins, which are so minute as to have escaped the observation of the first observer. On each side of the last ridge there is a row of small hollows, h hich has been regarded as a fold of the sternum, and has suggested the name oi' Sternoptyx. Before the dorsal fin there is a bag or membranous ridge, and behind this fin there is a small membranous projection, which is thought to represent the adipose fin of the true Salmones.
The first form of this genus has very fine teeth, with five rays to the branchial membrane, and is represented by St. Hermannii. The second has the teeth hooked, and nine rays to the branchial membrane. St. Olfersii exhibits the only known example. Both species are from the warmer parts of the Atlantic Ocean.
' Named from their lengthened Saurian or lizard-like form, and distinguished from the other groups derived by Cuvier from tie genus Characinus of Artedi, by the branchial rays ranging from eight to fitteen in number.
• Shaw, General Zoology, vol. v. • Voyage dc Fref/cincl. * Ibid,
214
JTalacop- terygii Abdomi-
nales. Clupids.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
FAMILY V.—CLUPID^.
Fishes allied to herrings are easily recognised by their having no adipose fins ; their upper jaw is formed as in trouts, — in the middle by inter-maxillary bones witliout pedicles, and on the sides by the maxillary bones; their body is always very scaly. The majority of the species possess a swimming bladder and numerous caeca. Those which as- cend rivers are comparatively few in number.
The great genus Clupea of Linnaeus may be known by two well-marked characters ; 1st, by the narrow and short inter-maxillary bones, which constitute only a small por- tion of the upper jaw, the sides of which are completed by the maxillaries in such a way that the lateral parts only are protractile ; and, 2(1, by the comjiressed and sharp inferior edge of the body, upon which the scales project like the teeth of a saw. Besides, the maxillaries are divided into three pieces. The branchial openings are very much cleft ; and hence these fishes speedily die when removed from their native element.
Their branchial arches are furnished on the side next the mouth with pectiniform dentations. The stomach has the form of an elongated pouch ; the swimming bladder is long and pointed, and in some species sends forwards two long and small processes, which communicate with the in- ternal ear in a remarkable manner. Their ca;ca are nume- rous. Of all fishes, these have the most numerous and the finest bones.
Genus Clupea, Cuv. Herrings, properly so called. The maxillary bones arched anteriorly, and longitudinally divisible into several pieces ; the opening of the mouth of modei'ate size ; the upper lip not emarginate.
C. /lareiifftis, Linn. The common herring ; le Hareng, Fr. ; der Haring, Ger. Tiiis well-known fish has visible teeth in both its jaws ; the carina of the belly is but slight- ly marked ; the sub-opercle is rounded ; there are veins on the sub-orbital, pre-opercle, and upper part of the opercle. The attachment of the ventral fins corresponds to the middle of the dorsal ; the head is one fifth of the length of the whole fish, and by carrying backwards from the first dorsal fin the distance of that organ from the snout, we arrive at the middle of the caudal. The anal fin has sixteen rays.
The investigation of the habits of this fish has not re- ceived that attention which its importance as an article of food to the inhabitants of this country demands ; and there are several circumstances respecting its economy which still require farther examination. It is generally believed that the herring inhabits in winter the depths of the Arctic Ocean, or other seas in northern latitudes, and that during the rest of the year it makes migrations southwards. In summer and autumn they appear on the north and west coasts of Europe in immense shoals, and about the same season they arrive at some parts of the coast of America and Asia. It has been supposed that those coming from the north divide into two detachments, one of which pro- ceeds along Newfoundland to America, the other along Norway to the south of Europe, and that one subdivision of this second detachment goes up the Baltic, while the other proceeds along Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, and France, as far as the western coast of Spain.
This is the description of the annual migrations of the herring given by Pennant ; but some doubts have been en- tertained as to its accuracy, from the circumstances, \st, that while in some places the herrings do not make their appearance for years, in others they are taken in abundance all the year round ; and, 2rf, that they have never been observed on their return northwards. Other naturalists
suppose that they come merely from the deep into shallow Malacop- water during the spawning season, and that in so doing ^'^T""'' they do not make any very lengthened journeys. In truth.
Abdonii-
we ai-e not as yet furnished with sufficient data to decide the ciuyidse questiiin ; but, in the mean time, we do not feel inclined ^ entirely to reject the generally received opinion, that the herrings migrate from north to south in summer and autumn. In migrating, the herrings proceed in vast troops, — so great, indeed, that the sea is sometimes covered with them for miles, and that they have even been known to be stranded or crushed in immense quantities in confined bays, or when thrown by the wind or by currents upon the shore. The shoals are said to be generally preceded, sometimes for days, by one or two males. The largest generally go first, to act in some measure as guides ; and, as they proceed onwards, immense numbers fall an easy and unresisting prey to rapacious birds, or to their own not less rapacious kindred of the sea.
It is generally believed that the herrings captured far north are larger, fatter, and of a better quality, than those of the south ; and for this reason, in the month of July, our fishermen go out to meet the shoals as far as Orkney and Shetland. The greatest number are taken on the coasts of Norway and Sweden, in the first of which countries it is said that about 400 millions are taken in one year, and sometimes twenty millions in a single fishery. The inha- bitants in the neighbourhood of Gothenburg, in Sweden, take as many as 700 millions in a year. Herrings are fished also in great quantity in this country, Germany, France, Holland, the United States, and Kamtschatka.
The average size of the herring is stated to be about ten inches. According to Dr Knox, the females are consider- ably larger than the males, — the largest female he found on the east coast of Scotland measuring eleven inches, the largest male nine inches and a half. It does not appear to be precisely known at ^vhat age they attain their full size. Considerable doubt has at all times prevailed regarding the food of the herring. They were generally stated to live on small crabs and fishes, and on a minute crustaceous animal named by Fabricius Astacus harengum. But this was chiefly matter of supposition, for most practical fisher- men described the stomach of the fish when in good state as quite empty, or, at most, as containing a little brownish mucus ; and it has appeared difficult to reconcile the fact, that it is when the stomach appears thus empty that the fish is in its best condition, viz. fullest, with the finest fla- vour, and most capable of keeping, — with the notion, that when it appears upon our coasts it has quitted its natural feeding ground, and has been longer and longer in a state of starvation the more southern the latitude in which it is found. Dr Knox's interesting observation, that the prin- cipal food of the salmon and vendace consisted of minute crustaceous animals, led him to examine carefully with the microscope the brownish matter contained in the alleged empty stomachs of the herring ; and he then formed the opinion, that this matter consisted of the debris of a very minute entomostracous animal.'
It is well known that the herrings caught upon the east coast of Scotland are much inferior to those taken on the west coast, and more particularly to those of Loch Fine, and other lochs of Argyleshire. Dr Knox states that the herrings taken near the Firth of Forth in July are foul, or are engaged in spawning, while those of the west coast, in the same season, have the organs of reproduction very slightly developed ; and he conjectures that that species of crustaceous animal which forms their appropriate and most favourite food may exist abundantly in the bays on the west coast of Scotland, and either not at all, or not in
It is figured iu the Edin. Phil. Trans, vol. xii. pi. x.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
215
Mt>lacop-
terygii Abiiomi-
nales. Clupidae.
sufficient quantities, along our eastern coasts. It appears to be chiefly after these fishes have been absent for some time from their proper feeding ])laces that they eat marine worms and small fishes ; and when so feeding they lose much of their flavour, and run rapidly into putrefaction after being captured. The time of spawning seems to vary considerably, both in the same and in different districts ; so tliat we may have spring, summer, and autumn herrings, as we know they have in some parts of tlic Baltic. Dur- ing the s|)awning season they are seen to rub their bellies against the rocks or sand. As many as 68,606 eggs have been coimted in one female. The young do not accom- pany tlie larger herrings in their migrations.
Of the genus Clupea, Cuvier makes four other species besides the common herring, viz. tiie sprat, white-bait, pil- chard, and sardine. Of these we shall now give a short account.
Clupea sprattus, Bl. The sprat, mellet (Esprot, Haran- guet, Fr.), bears a very close resemblance in form to the herring, but does not attain the same size. The number of its vertebrae is forty-eight, and the dorsal fin is placed fartlier back tlian in the herring. It has no veins on the opercle ; a gilded band runs along the sides in the spawn- ing season. This fish is eaten in considerable quantity in this country, both in the fresh and salted condition. It ap- pears in the Thames from November to March.
Clupea latulus, Cuv. White-bait {Blanquette, Fr. ; die Brcitliiig, Germ.) has the body more compressed, and the belly sharper, than the herring. The length of its head, and height of its body, are each one fourth of the whole length of the fish. The dorsal fin is placed farther for- wards, the anal is longer and situate nearer the caudal fin, than in the herring.
Considerable difference of opinion formerly existed among ichthyological writers as to the exact specific na- ture of the white-bait. Pennant and Shaw considered it as allied to the bleak, Cyprinus alburnus. Turton, Dono- van, and Fleming, regard it as the young of tlie shad Clupea olosa, an opinion which was generally received as correct, until Mr Yarrell in 1828 ascertained that the num- ber of vertebrae in the white-bait is invariably fifty-six, and in the shad only fifty-five ; and he is thus supposed to have demonstrated that the well-known ivhile-bait ought to be regarded as a species distinct from every other. It is a very small fish, seldom exceeding four inches in length. It is of a very brilliant silvery colour, and has a black spot on the end of the snout. The flavour of the white-bait is considered as particularly delicate, and great numbers are eaten by the Londoners in the month of July, at which time innumerable quantities make their appearance in the Thames.
Clupea pilchardus, Bl. The pilchard (k Celan, Fr.) nearly equals the herring in size, and bears a considerable resemblance to it in form. The sub-opercle is quadran- gular, the pre-opercle and opercle striated ; the head pro- portionally shorter than in the herring, and the dorsal fin placed farther forwards. The ventral fins begin as it were under the end of the dorsal ; the ana! consists of eighteen rays ; and on each side of the caudal two scales longer than the rest project. The habits of this fish seem to be near- ly the same as those of the herring. It is believed, like it, to reside in winter and spring in the northern seas, and to proceed southwards in the beginning of summer. It is fished in enormous quantities off the coast of Cornwall for the purpose of salting and exporting to the Mediterranean, especially to Naples. It appears there in July. Its flavour is considered by some as even superior to that of the herring. Clupea^ sardiTia, Cuv. The sardine, which is esteemed for the extreme delicacy of its flavour, differs only in size from the pilchard. Numbers are taken off the coast of Brittany, and also in the Mediterranean.
tervjjii vMidomi-
iiales. Clupidae.
Genus Alosa, Cuv. This genus is distinguished from Malacop- the herrings projierly so called, by an emargination in the upper jaw ; its other characters seem in all respects the same as those of the pilchard and sardine.
Alosa vulgaris, Cuv.; Clnpea alosa, Linn. Plate CCCV. fig. 2. The shad is distinguished by the absence of sen- sible teeth, and by an irregular black spot behind the gills. This fish is much larger than the herring, attaining some- times to the length of three feet. It is also of a much flatter shape ; its tail is much forked ; and on each side of the lower margin of the belly the scales are very large. It is a native of the Mediterranean, as well as of the North Atlantic and Caspian Seas. According to Pennant, the best in this country are found in the Severn. The shad ascends rivers in spring and the beginning of summer, and it is then highly esteemed ; but it is of a dry and disagree- able flavour when taken at sea. The Russians believe that the shad has deleterious properties. The Arabs smoke-dry it. This species lives chiefly on vermes, insects, and small fishes ; and Dr Fleming informs us that he has taken small herrings from its stomach. The number ascending rivers varies very much in different years.
Alosa Jitita; Clupcajinta, hacep. The i^eaM of the Flem- ish is more elongated than the shad, and has well-marked teeth in both jaws ; there are five or six black spots along the flanks. It is found as far south as the Nile. Its taste is very inferior.
Genus Chatoessus, Cuv. The chatoessi are true her- rings, with the last dorsal ray prolonged into a filament. Some have the jaws equal and the snout not prominent, and a small mouth devoid of teeth. In others the snout is more prominent than the jaws ; an equally small mouth with the preceding ; the upper combs of the first pair of gills unite together so as to form a very singular pennated point beneath the palate.
At the end of the true herrings Cuvier has placed some foreign genera which resemble them in their sharp and dentated belly.
Genus Odontognathus, Lacep. ; Gnathobolus, Schn. Has the body much compressed, and very sharp dentations along the whole of the belly ; the anal fin long, and pro- jecting little ; the dorsal so brittle as to be almost always destroyed ; six rays in the branchial covers. The maxil- lary bone is somewhat prolonged into a point, and is arm- ed with small teeth directed forwards. There are no ven- tral fins.
One species only is known. It comes from Cayenne ; resembles a small sardine, and is called by Lacepede the Odontogiiathe Aiguillonne.
Genus Pristigaster, Cuv. Has the head and teeth similar to those of the herrings ; four rays to the gill-covers, and no ventral fins ; the belly much compressed, its lower edge arched, and sharply dentated.
The Prist, tardoore and Prist, cayanus are mentioned by Cuvier as known species existing in both oceans.
Genus Notopterus, Lacep. Was placed among the Gyrmioti for some time, on account of a resemblance occa- sioned by the extreme length of the anal fin. The spe- cies have scaly cheeks and opercles ; the sub-orbitals, lower part of the pre-opercles, the inter-opercles, the two crests of the lower jaw, and the keel of the belly, dentated ; there are fine teeth in both palates and jaws, and strongly hooked teeth on the tongue. The branchiostegous mem- brane has only one strong osseous ray. There are two very small ventral fins, followed by an anal, which occu- pies three fourths of the whole length of the fish, and unit- ed as in the gymnoti to the caudal fin. A small dorsal fin with soft ravs is placed opposite to the middle of the cau- dal.
One species only is known, inhabiting the fresh-water ponds of the East Indies.
216
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop
lerygii
A)»(lnmi.
nales. Cliipidse.
Genus Engraui.is, Cuv. Tlic Anchovirs differ con- siderahlj' from the true lierrings in Iiaving tlie moutli cleft far beliind the eyes ; the gills more open, with twelve or a still greater number of rays ; the maxillaries straight and / elongated, and there projects in front of the mouth a small pointed muzzle, under which are fixed very small inter- maxillaries.
The best known have not the sharp-edged belly ; their anal fin is short, and the dorsal is placetl opposite to the ventrals.
Clupea encrasicolus, Linn. The common anchovy [TAn- c/iois, Fr.) has the back of a bluish-brown colour, the belly silvery. It measures from four to seven inches long. The anchovy formed one ingredient of the f/arum, a favourite sauce of the Romans ; and when pickled it is much prized at the present day. It is fished in greatest quantity in the Mediterranean, but is found as far north as the coast of Holland. It lays its spawn near the shore, from December to March, at which time it is supposed to leave the deep sea and approach the coasts. E»f/rmilis mdelta, Cuv., an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, is small- er than the common anchovy. Among some remarkable American species of this genus, the Eng. edentulus is with- out teeth. Others, as the Chip, atherinoides, Clup. te- lara, and Chip, pimsa, have the body compressed, and its lower edge serrated.
Genus Thryssa, Cuv. Differs from the last-mention- ed anchovies only in the great prolongation of the maxil- laries. The species occur in the East Indies.
Genus Megaiops, Lacep. Differs from the herrings in having the belly blunt, and the body not compressed. The jaws and palatine bones are covered with small, even, sharp teeth ; there are from twenty-two to twenty-four rays in the gill-covers ; and the last ray of the dorsal fin, as also often that of the anal, is prolonged into a filament, as in Clialncssus.
One species is found in America, the Savalle or Apa- like {Chip, cypriuoidcs, Bl.), which attains the enormous length of twelve feet ; it has fifteen dorsal rays. Ano- ther Indian species, Megalojic Jilamcnteux of Lacep., has been confounded by Russel with the preceding, under tile name of Apalihe. Its dorsal fin lias seventeen rays.
Genus Elops, Linn. Is very similar in structure to Megaiops, but wants the elongated filament of the dorsal fin. It has thirty or more rays in the branchiostegous membrane ; a flat spine on the upper and lower edge of the caudal fin. The species are found in both hemi- spheres.
Elops saurus is described by Sir Hans Sloane as be- longing to America. According to Cuvier, the Argentina machnata, I'orsk., Mugil taUnoiieus, Forsk., the Tinagow, Russ., Syiiode clmois, Lac, Mugil appendiculatiis, Bosc, the Pounder, Sloane, and the Argentina Carolina, Linn., are all the same as Elops saurus, while the Sawns maximus, usually confounded with it, belongs to a different genus.
Genus Butirinus, Commerson. Muzzle prominent like that of the anchovies, and the mouth slightly cleft; twelve or thirteen rays on the branchiostegous membrane ; close and even teeth on the jaws ; and (a peculiar charac- ter) the tongue, vomer, and palatines closely paved with rounded teeth. These fishes arc described under various names by different authors.
The Elopes and Butirini are found in both oceans. They are pretty, silvery-looking fishes, and make excel- lent soup.
Genus Chirocentrus, Cuv. Have thejaws formed like those of the herrings; both maxillaries and inter-maxilla- ries furnished with strong conical teeth, two of which above and all below are very long. The tongue and branchial arches are bristled with teeth like a comb, but there are none on the vomer or palatines. Their gill-
covers have seven or eight rays, of which the external are very broad. Above and below each pectoral fin is a long, pointed, membranous scale, and the rays of those fins are very hard. The body is elongated, compressed, and sharp beneath, but not serrated. The ventral fins are very small, and the dorsal shorter than the anal, opposite to which it is placed. The stomach forms a long, narrow, and pointed sac, the pylorus being near the cardia ; no ca2ca ; the swimming bladder long and narrow.
One species only is known, of a silvery hue, and from the Indian Ocean. It is the Esoce chirocentre, Lac, Clup. dentex, Schn. and Forsk., Clup. dorab, Gmel., Wallach, Russ., and probably also the Parring or Chnees of the Moluccas. Genus Hyodon, Lesueur. Possesses the general form of the herrings, and their sharp belly, but that part is not serrated. The dorsal fin is placed opposite to the anal ; the gill-covers have eight or nine rays; hooked teeth on the vomer ; palatines and tongue as in trouts.
Those which are known live in the fresh waters of North America.
Genus Ebythrinus, Gronov. A range of conical teeth in each jaw, some of which in front are longer than the rest ; the palatines are covered with close even teeth. The gill-covers have five broad rays ; the head is without scales ; and the cheeks covered by hard sub-orbitals. The body long, little compressed, covered with large scales like those of the carp. The dorsal fin is placed above the ventrals. The stomach forms a broad sac, and there are numerous small ctca. The swimmingbladder is very large. We may mention as a characteristic species the .Esoa; Malaharicus of Bloch.
These fishes inhabit the fresh waters of warm climates. Their flesh is agreeable.
Genus Amia, Linn. Similar to the preceding in many respects, but with twelve rays in the gill-covers. Below the lower jaw is an osseous buckler, which exists also in Megaiops and Elops, though of smaller size in those ge- nera. The dorsal fin, beginning between the pectorals and ventrals, extends nearly to the caudal ; the anal is short. Each nostril has a small tubular appendage. The stomach is ample and fleshy; the intestine without caeca. The swimming bladder is cellular, like the lung of a reptile. Only one species, Amia calva, is known. It resides in the rivers of Carolina, where it feeds on crabs. It is sel- dom eaten.
Genus Sudis, Cuv. The characters of this group are nearly the same as those oi Erythrinus, excepting that their body is proportionally longer, and the dorsjl and anal fins are placed opposite to each other, and, nearly of ah equal size, occupy the posterior third of the length of the body. The species live in fresh water.
Three kinds are now known. One, Sudis Adansonii, Cuv., was found in Senegal by Adanson, and in the Nile by Riippel. Another, of a much larger size, with great bony scales and an oblong muzzle, is a native of Brazil, — the Sudis gigas, Cuv. A third, Sudis Niloticus, discover- ed by Ehrenberg in the Nile, has a singular spirally con- voluted funnel adhering to the third gill, which may be analogous to what has been observed in Anabas and neigh- bouring genera.
Genus Osteoglossum, Vandelli. Distinguished from Sudis principall}' by two barbels, which depend from the symphysis of the lower jaw ; the anal and caudal fins are united. 'I'he tongue is rendered very rough by a cover- ing of short straight teeth, so that it may be used as a rasp to reduce fruits to a pulp.
Osteoglossum Vandellii, Cuv., is a native of Brazil.
Genus Lepisosteus, Lacep. Muzzle formed by the
union of the maxillaries, inter-maxillaries, and palatines.
with the vomer and ethmoid, which the lower jaw equals
in length. The jaws have along their edge a row of lony
Malacop.
terygii Abilumi-
nales. Clupidte.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
217
Malacop- terygii
Siib-lira- '■hiati.
Claduloe.
and pointed teeth, and their inner surface is rendered bristly by a coverinf; of sharp, rasp-like teeth. The gill- covcrs are united below by a connnon membrane, having three rays on each side. These fishes are covered with scales of a stony hardness. The dorsal and anal fins, which arc opposite to one another, are both situate very far back. The two outer rays of the tail, and the first ray of all the other fins, are furnished with scales so as to make them appear dentated. The pylorus has many short CKca. The swimming bladder is cellular, as in Amia.
There appear to be several species or varieties of this fish. They inhabit the rivers and lakes of the warm parts of America. They grow to a considerable size, and are considered to be good eating. l)r Fleming observes, that the claims of Lepisosteus osseus to rank as a British spe- cies are ver)' doubtful. Berkenhout indeed has inserted it in his Si/twpsis (yi. 81), with the habitat of Sussex coast ; and Mr Stewart, in his Elements of Nat. Hist. (vol. i. p. 374), intimates its occurrence in the I'irtli of Forth ; but we are not aware of its having been seen among us in re- cent times. We here figure the Lepisosteus spatula of Lacepede {Esox Cepediaiivs, Shaw), a native of the seas and rivers of America. Plate CCCV. fig. 4.
Genus I'oLVPTEnus, Geoff. Distinguished at once from other genera by a number of separate fins placed along the back, each supported by a strong spine, to the posterior edge of which are attached some soft rays. The caudal fin surrounds the end of the tail, and the anal is very near it; the ventrals are very far back. The body is covered with bony scales like those of the preceding genus, and the whole cheek is covered by an osseous plate, shagreened in a similar manner to those on the rest of the head. Around each jaw there is a row of conical teeth, and behind some close or rasp-like teeth. Their stomach is capacious, the intestine narrow, with a spiral valve and one ca3cum. The swimming bladder is double, with large lobes, particularly that on the lel't side, com- municating by a wide aperture with the cesophagus.
Polypt. bichir (P. Niloticus, Shaw) may be named as a species of the genus. It has.sixteen dorsal fins, and was discovered by M. GeofFroy in the Nile. (See Plate CCCV. fig. 3.) Polypt. Senegalus, Guv. is another species from Senegal. It has only twelve dorsal fins. The flesh of these fish is good eating.
ORDER III.— MALACOPTERVGII SUB-BRACHIATI.
This order is characterised by the attachment of the ventral fins beneath the pectorals, — which latter may be regarded as analogous to the arms, and hence the name Sub-brachian. The pelvis is suspended immediately from the bones of the shoulder.
This order contains as many families as Linnsan genera.
FAMILY I._GADID.E.
Comprehends the members of the great Linnaean genus Gadus, containing the well-known cod and haddock.
The Gadi in general are recognised by the ventral fins being pointed and attached to the throat. The body is moderately elongated, slightly compressed, and covered with soft and not very large scales. The head is well proportioned, and without scales ; all the fins are soft. The jaws, and the front of the von)er, are armed with several rows of pointed, irregular, middle-sized, or small
teeth, forming a sort of currycomb or rasp. Their gill covers are large, with seven rays. Most of the species have two or three fins on the back, one or two behind the anus, and a distinct caudal. Their stomach forms a large muscular sac ; the ca;ca are very numerous. The swim- ' ming bladder is large, and lias strong parietes, frequently dentated on the sides.
These fishes generally live in cold or temperate cli- mates, and constitute a very important article of fishery. The greater number are considered wholesome, and form a light and agreeable food, — the flesh scjiarating easily by boiling, into white flaky layers. The great sand bank of Newfoundland is the most famous station of the cod fish- eries, and is resorted to by English fishermen, who chiefly use the hook and line. The fish abound in this place probably on account of the great quantity of the sn)aller animals which serve as food, viz. mussels, clams, &c.
The family of GauidjE has been divided by Cuvicr into MouHHUA, or cods properly so called, Meklangus or whitings, Merluccius or hakes, Lota or lings, Motella, Brosmius, Buotula, Piiycis, and Uaniceps.
Genus Moriiiiua, Cuv. Has three dorsal fins and two anal ; a tuft at the point of the lower jaw. The spe- cies are extremely prolific.
M. vulgaris ( Gadus morrhua, L.). The common cod {la Morue, Fr. ; Kabliau, Germ.) measures from two to three feet in lengtli. The back is spotted with yellowish brown. It inhabits the whole Northern Ocean, and occurs in vast profusion.
This fish dwells in salt water only. It is not found nearer the equator than the 40th degree of latitude. The weight of the common cod varies from twelve to eighty or even 100 pounds. It is extremely voracious, and its digestive powers are seemingly very great. It feeds upon smaller fishes, such as herrings, on MoUusca, worms, and Crustacea, and even on the young of its own species. It has a strong muscular stomach, and is said to possess the power of rejecting by the mouth substances, such as wood, &c. which it finds indigestible.
In spring they come nearer the shore in order to depo- sit their spawn. This happens in January in England, in February in Norway, Denmark, and Scotland, and in March in Newfoundland. One female is said to contain from four to nine millions of eggs !
The most extensive cod fisheries on our coasts are off the Western and Shetland Isles, but they are still greater in more northern countries. The cod has been fished on the coast of Sweden since the year 1368, by the inhabitants of Amsterdam. The English resorted to Iceland before the year 1415; and it is stated that in the year 1792, 200 French vessels of a burden of 191,153 tons were employed in the cod fishery. Every year more than 6000 European vessels are employed in this fishery.'
The flesh of the cod has a good flavour, and may be easily preserved. The tongue, salted and dried, lias been considered a great delicacy. The gills are preserved and used as bait. The liver is eaten, and is sometimes used for the production of oil. The swimming bladder affords a very good isinglass.
This important species constitutes a principal article of food to the inhabitants in some parts of Iceland, Norway, and other northern countries. In a dried state it is also much used in some papal kingdoms of the south.
In the neighbourhood of the Isle of Man, and elsewhere, there is a variety of the cod named the red or rock cod, the skin of which is of a brightish vermillion colour. Its flesh is much esteemed.
Malacop- tcryf»ii
Sub-bia- chi:jti.
Ciiiiliiioe.
' We cannot in this place enter upon the important subject oi Fisheries ; but the reader mav consult with advantage Pennant's BrHish Zoology, vol. iii. and Duhaniel's Trailc Giniral del Peachu.
VOL. XII. 2 E
218
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- tervgii
Sub-brc- ciiiatL
Gadidae.
M. agkfinus (Gadus ceglefinus, Linn.). The haddock (FEgrefin, Fr. ; ScholIfiscU, Germ.) is as nell known, and al- most as important, as the cod in this country ; it is of a smaller size, usually eighteen inches long. The back is brown, the belly silvery, and the lateral line black. There is a blackish spot behind the pectoral fin, which tradition assigns to the impression of St Peter's finger and thumb when he took the tribute-money out of the mouth of a fish, supposed the haddock. The upper jaw is longest.
The haddock is found, like the cod, in the Northern Ocean, but has not been seen in the Baltic. It annually approaches the shores, in February and March generally, in order to deposit its sjjawn. The regularity with which it re-appears in some districts on a stated day is quite re- markable. On the coast of Yorkshire, since the year 1766, they have annually made their appearance on the 10th of December. At this place they are supposed to form an immense shoal three miles broad, and extending eighty miles in length, — from Flamborough Head to the mouth of the Tyne. It is in autumn that they visit the shores of Holland and East Friesland, and the neighbour- hood of Heligoland.
The haddock frequents our coasts during the greater part of the year, although the largest are taken in winter. The flesh is generally best in the months of May and June.
It is stated, that in the north, when the sea is frozen near the shore, these fish collect in troops beneath any openings in the ice, and the Greenlanders are thus enabled to catch them in considerable numbers. The seals and foxes adopt the same method of securing them for food. The food of the haddock is very similar to that of the cod, which spe- cies it resembles in its voracious habits.
M. callarias ( Gadus callarias, Linn.). The dorse (Faux Merlan, Fr.) is smaller than the haddock, being only eleven or twelve inches long. It is spotted like the cod, and has the upper jaw longer than the under. The lateral line is placed near the back. It resembles the whiting in taste, and is considered by many as the best eating fish of all the Gadus tribe. It is much sought after on the shores of the Baltic.
This fish frequents the mouths of large rivers, which it sometimes ascends along with the salt water. It is gene- rally taken in June. The Icelanders salt and dry it, and the Greenlanders are said frequently to eat it in a state of semi-putrefaction.
To these fishes, which are among the best-determined species of the old genus Gadus, may be added Gadus bar- batus or whiting pout, a fish about eighteen inches or two feet long, which is eaten by the Greenlanders, but not much esteemed. Gadus minutits, the capelan or poor, Gadus punclalus, the speckled cod, and Gadus luscus, the bib, may be named as other species which occur along the British shores.
Genus Meklangus, Cuv. The whitings have the same number of fins as the cods, but they want the barbels.
M. vulgaris ( Gadus merlangus, Linn.). The whiting, Merlan, Fr. ; Witliitg, Germ. The body a foot or more in length ; upper jaw long ; pale reddish-gray back, and sil- very belly ; lateral line yellow, nearly straight.
This fish ij very common on our coasts, and is valued on account of its abundance, and the wholesomeness and fine flavour of its flesh. It is often salted and dried in this country, as well as in Holland. The shoals of whitings sometimes occupy a space three miles long, and one and a half broad. It is generally fished in summer in this country, and is taken both with the line and net. The food of the whiting is similar to that of the haddock. It is more frequently found near the shore than that species. M. carhoiiarius ( Gadus carbonarius, L.). The coal-fish (Merlan nuir ou Colin, Fr. ; Kohlfisch, Germ.) is twice the size of the whiting, and of a deep brown colour ; the upper
jaw shortest ; the lateral line straight and white. The flesh Alalacop. of the young is rather delicate ; that of the adult is some- 'erygii w hat leathery, but it is used when salted and dried, like the Sub-bra- cod. This is the poilhy, silloch, cuddy, Sec. of our coasts. ci,A\AL The young swarm along the British shores, and form a fre- '_^ -_< quent sustenance of the lower orders of tlie Western High- lands. On one occasion we killed thirty-three dozen with the rod in a few hours, using a line with six small flies. By giving the line one or two additional turns through the wa- ter, we frequently pulled six ashore at once. It even consti- tutes an important article of exportation from our northern coasts. In Norway the poor ii^ed upon it ; and oil is made from its liver. The adult fish is taken principally in sum- mer ; it deposits its spawn in this country in February and March. The coal-fish is found in the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans ; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the Mediterranean Sea, — for example, near Nice.
M. pollachivs ( Gadus pollachius, L.). The pollock or pollack, Merlan jaune, Fr. About eighteen inches long; resembles M. carbonarius in its general form and struc- ture of the jaws ; brown above and silvery beneath ; sides spotted ; lateral line curved, black. The flesh of the pol- lock is considered better than that of the coal-fish, and inferior only to that of the dorse and whiting ; it inhabits the Atlantic, and is gregarious. It is commonest on the coasts of Norway and the north of England, and sometimes occurs in the Mediterranean in winter. It is easily caught with a white fly.
Gadus vireiu, Ascan., the sey, may also be included in the genus Merlangus.
Genus Merluccius, Cuv. The hakes have only two dorsal fins and one anal, and resemble the whitings in the absence of the barbels.
M. vulgaris ( Gadus merluccius, L.). The hake (le Mer- lus, Fr.) is generally from one to two feet long, but some- times much larger. The back of a brownish-gray colour ; the anterior dorsal fin pointed ; the lower jaw longest.
Great numbers are taken in the ocean, and in the Me- diterranean. On the coasts of the Mediterranean it is called merlan or whiting ; s.iul, when dried, it receives in the north the name of stock-fish, in the same way as the cod. It is said to be very abundant in tlie Bay of Gal- way on the west of Ireland, and at Penzance in Cornwall. The flesh is white and flaky, and its liver is considered a delicacy.
Gadus magellanicus, Forst., and Gadus maraldi, Risso, may be included in this group.
Genus Lota, Cuv. The lings have the same fins as the hakes, but are also provided with barbels to a great- er or less amount.
Lota molva (Gadus molva, L.) or common ling (la Lingue, or Morue longue, Fr.), is the best-known species. It measures from three to four feet in length, and sometimes even attains the size of seven feet; it is named ling from its lengthened shape. Olive above, silvery beneath. The fins have a white margin; the two dorsal fins are of equal height. The lower jaw rather the shortest, and furnish- ed with a single barbel.
This fish spawns in June ; it inhabits the same seas as the cod, and is fished in the same manner during the spring months. It is preserved dry, and exported in con- siderable quantity.
Lota Jluviatilis (Gadus lota, L.), river ling or burbot (la Lolte commune, Fr.), is from one to two feet long. Its colour yellow, marbled with brown ; a single barbel on the chin. The two dorsal fins are of equal height, tlie second extending to near the tail. The body is almost cylindrical, and the head slightly depressed, so as to give the fish a peculiar appearance, somewhat resembling that of an eel ; hence its occasional name of Eel Pout. See Plate CCCV. fig. 5.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
219
Malacop- tervf^U
Sub-bra- cbiati.
Ciacliclae.
This is the only Gadus which inhabits fresh water ; it ascends rivers to a considerable distance, and inhabits lakes. It is very abundiuit in North Asia and the Indies. It is also well known in North America. In England it is found only in a few rivers. Tiie flesh and liver of the burbot are esteemed.'
To this sub-genus may be added Gadus Bacchus, Forst., Gadus Duwulosus, Lesueur, and Lola elongata, Risso.
Among the lings, Cuvier has distinguished another small group named
Genus Motella, Cuv., in which the anterior dorsal fin is so small as scarcely to be perceptible.
As species we may name Gadus 7nustcla, L. described by Bloch as G. iricirrhatus. It is of a fawn-coloured brown, with blackish spots ; two barbels on the upper jaw, and a third on the lower one. Gadus cimbricus, Schn. {G. qumquecirrhatus, Penn.) is also a Motella. The species are called Gades by English writers.
Genus Buosmius, Cuv. The torsks or tusks have only one dorsal fin, which extends nearly the whole length from the head to the tail.
B. brosme, or Scotch torsk, seldom ventures farther south than the Orkneys or Caithness ; it is very nume- rous near the Shetland Isles. It is called Brosme by the fishermen, from its resemblance to the blenny genus. The name of torsk is applied in Norway and Sweden to the Gadus callarias (a true Morrhua), which has three dorsal fins. This circumstance has given rise to some confusion. Donovan described the Scotch torsk from a specimen sent him alive from Shetland. It is salted and dried in the north.
Genus Brotula, Cuv. Dorsal and anal fins united with the caudal, so as to form a single fin, terminating in a point.
One species only (JEncliehjopus barbatus of Bloch and Schneider) is known. It has six barbels, and comes from the Antilles.
Genus Phycis, Art. and Schn. Differs from the other Gadi in having ventral fins with only one ray, — fre- quently forked. The head is thick, the chin with one barbel. Two dorsal fins, the second of which is long. Some species are found in European seas.
Such is Phycis Mediterraneus, Laroche, sometimes call- ed the sea tench (Blentiius p/ti/cis, Linn.). Anterior dor- sal round, and not higher than the other ; the ventrals of the same length as the head. This is a common species in the Mediterranean.
Phycis blemioides, Schn., S. furcatus, or forked hake of Pennant, occurs also in the ocean. The first dorsal fin is more elevated, and its first ray considerably elon- gated ; the ventral fins are twice the length of the head. It is a British species, though a rare one.
Genus Raniceps, Cuv. The head more depressed than in Phycis and the other Gadi ; the anterior dorsal fin so small that it is lost in the thickness of the skin. Inha- bits the ocean.
The trifurcated hake of Pennant belongs to this genus.
Genus Macroubus, B\. Lepidokprus, Risso. The sub- orbitals unite in front with each other and with the bones of the nose, so as to form a depressed snout, which pro- jects above the mouth, and beneath which the latter pre- serves its mobility. The head and body are covered with hard and spiny scales. The ventral tins are small and somewhat jugular ; the pectorals of moderate size ; the
first dorsal short and high ; the second dorsal and anal Malacop-
both very long, and uniting with the caudal ; very fine ''^'"yt!" , ^ ^ ;^, . f. ■ Sub-bra-
short teeth m the jaws. chiati.
The species inhabit deep water, and when taken from it pi^,uroriec- utter sounds resembling those of the genus Gristes. Only tjjjg. two species have been as yet described, the Lep. calor- ^.^^.^^^ hynciius and trachyrynchus of Risso. They occur both in the Mediterranean and along the oceanic coasts of France.
FAMILY II PLEURONECTID.E.
This family of the sub-brachian malacopterygian order comprehends the great Linnean genus Pleuronectes, which includes all those osseous species usually known un- der the name oi flat Jish.
They are at once distinguished by a character unique among vertebrated animals, viz. the want of symmetry in the construction of the head ; both eyes being placed on the same side, or on that which remains uppermost when the animal swims, and which is always of a darker colour ; while the side in which the eyes are wanting faces the ground, and is always whitish, or very pale. Some of the other organs participate in this irregularity of the orbits ; thus the two sides of the mouth are unequal, and the two pectoral fins are generally of different sizes. Their body is much compressed, and raised vertically. The dorsal fin runs along the whole of the back, the anal occupies what may be regarded as the under part of the body, and the ventrals have almost the appearance of continuing that fin forwards, so much do they often appear as if imited toge- ther. There are six rays in the branchiostegous mem- brane. The abdominal cavity is small (the anus being far forwards) ; but it is prolonged irrto a sinus in the thickness of the two sides of the tail, in which some portion of the viscera is lodged. There is no swimming bladder, and these fishes seldom quit the bottom.
The Pleuronectid.*; furnish an agreeable and whole- some food, and occur along the coasts of almost all coun- tries. The disposition of the bones of the head is curious, on account of the inversion which brings the two orbits to the same side ; still we recognise in it all the pieces com- mon to the other genera, but of unequal size. Individuals termed reversed are sometimes found, having the eyes placed on a different side from that on v\hich they are situated in the rest of their species. Others, having the two sides of the body of the same colour, are called double. The brown or upper side is more frequently thus repeated than the white one; but the rose-coloured flounder of Shaw pre- sents an instance of the duplication of the paler side.'
The genus Pleuronectes was formerly subdivided ac- cording as the eyes were placed on the right or left side of the middle line ; but, on account of the irregularity of in- dividuals in this respect, Cuvier has rejected the charac- ter, and has distinguished various groups, as follows :
Genus Platessa, Cuv. Has on each jaw a range of obtuse cutting teeth, and generally some teeth in the form of pavement {en pares) on the pharyngeal bones. The dorsal fin advances forwards as far as the upper eye, and leaves, as well as the anal, a naked interval between it and the caudal. The form of the body is rhomboidal ; the ma- jority have the eyes on the right side. They have two or three small caeca. Several inhabit the British seas.
' " On estime fort sa chair, et surtout son foie, qui est singulierement volumineux," observes Biron Cuvier, Beg'ie Animal, t. ii. p. 334. A different opinion, however, has been formed of it in the western world. " The burbot," says Dr Richardson, " is so little esteemed as food, as to be eaten only in cases of necessity. Very good bread, however, may be made of the roe, and the livers are always prized. Dogs will scarcely ever eat this Jish." {Appendix to Captain Franklin's first Journey to the Polar Sea, p. 7--4-) Dr R. addsi that this species preys upon every kind of fish that it can swallow, and that in spring its stomach is generally so crammed with cray-fish as to distort the shape of the body.
' Gen, Zool. vol. iv. part 2, pi. xliii.
220
Jlalacop-
tervtjii
Sub-bra-
chiati.
PleuroneC'
tidK.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
p. vtdgaris (Pkuronectes platessa, L.). The plaice ( Carekt, Fr. ; Scholle, Germ.) is recognised by six or seven tubercles forming a line on the right side of the head be- tween the eyes, and by spots of a bright yellow colour, which relieve the brown of the body on that same side. This fish is three times as long as it is high. Plate CCC V. fig. 6.
The plaice grows sometimes to the size of fifteen or six- teen pounds weight, but those weighing seven or eight pounds are considered large ; its flesh is more tender than that of any other species of the genus. It inhabits the Me- diterranean, Baltic, and North Seas, and spawns in spring.
A large plaice, PI. borealis, Fabr., having the spine behind the anus concealed under the skin, is described as belonging to the northern regions.'
PL latus, Cuv. The broad plaice (la Plie large, Fr.) is a much rarer species. It has the same tubercles as the common plaice, and differs from it chiefly in being only once and a half as long as it is high.
PL flesus, L. The flounder {le Flet on Picaud, Fr. ; dfr Plunder, Germ.) has nearly the same form as the plaice, with paler spots ; it has only small granular emi- nences at the salient line of the head, and at the base of each ray of the dorsal and anal fins there is a small rough projection ; the lateral line has also bristly scales. Many of this species occur reversed.
The flounder is taken in spring near the shore, and at the mouths of rivers, into which it sometimes ascends a considerable way ; it lives well in fresh water, and is kept in ponds in Friesland. It inliabits the Baltic and North Atlantic Seas. Its flesh is much inferior to that of the plaice ; the best are said to be taken near Memel.
PI. pola, Cuv., is a fish described by Duhame! under the name of La Vraie Limandelle. It is of an oblong form, approaching to that of the sole, although broader. It is distinguished from other Plalessa with sharp teeth, by a smaller head and mouth. The body is smooth and the lateral line straight. In France it is considered as equal to the sole.
PI. limanda, L. The dab or bret {la Limande, Fr. ; die Glahrhe, Germ.) is of a rhomboidal form, like the flounder ; has large eyes, and a salient line between them. Its lateral line is strongly curved above the pectoral fin. Its scales are rougher than in the preceding species, and to this character it owes its name (from livia, file). Its teeth, though in a single row, as in other PlatesscB, are nar- rower, and almost linear. The side on which the eyes are placed is of a clear brown, with some indistinct brown and whitish spots. This is a small fish, its length being less than a foot ; but it is much esteemed. It is less common than either the plaice or flounder. It spawns in May, and is in season for the table during spring.
Genus Hippoglossus, Cuv, Has a form of body, and fins, similar to the plaices ; the jaws and pharynx are armed with sharper and stronger teeth. Their form is generally more oblong,
H. vulgaris (PL hippoglossus, L,), The great holibut, or halibut (le grand Fletan ou Helbut, Fr, ; die Heiligbutte, Germ,), is one of the largest of this genus inhabiting the northern seas. It sometimes attains a very great size, for example, to the length of six or seven feet, and weigh- ing three or four hundred pounds. The skin is smooth ; it has the eyes to the right side ; the lateral line arched above the pectoral fin ; there is a long spine before the anal fin.
This is the most voracious of all the Pleuronectidoe,
preying on smaller fishes, Crustacea, Mollusca, &c. It in- Malacop- habits the Mediterranean, as well as the northern seas, terygii The flesh of the young is esteemed, and is not seldom sold Sub-bra- to the uninitiated for turbot, to which, however, it is „]'*'''■ much inferior in every way. Indeed, when old, it is ex- wi2i. tremely coarse.' v.^-y^>^
In the Mediterranean there are several smaller species, of which some have the eyes to the left side. Such is PI. macrolepidotus, Bl. — Citharits, Rond, ; distinguished by the large size of its scales, its oblong form, and straight la- teral line, (Plate CCC V, fig, 7.) Pl.cy7ioglossus\%Aescr\h- ed by Shaw as a smaller holibut, found in considerable quantity in Greenland, and superior to the common kind as an article of food.
Genus Rhombus, Cuv. The turbots, like the holibuts, have teeth closely set, or en carde, both on the jaws and pharynx ; but their dorsal fin advances as far as the edge of the upper jaw, and extends, in common with the anal, to near the caudal fin. The greater number have the eyes to the left.
In some the eyes are approximate, and in the interval between them there is a slight projecting crest. The two largest of our coasts are of this kind ; they are the most esteemed as food of all the Pleuronectid^,
Ph. maximus {PL maximus. L,), The turbot, le Tur- bot, Fr, ; Steinbutte, Germ, This fish, so highly prized on account of its delicate flavour, and the wholesomeness of its flesh, is distinguished by the rhomboidal shape of its body, which is nearly as high as it is long. It is bristled on the brown side with small tubercles ; has the lateral line curved ; and the eyes on the left side.
This species is usually much smaller than the holibut ; it is frequently two feet long, with a weight of twenty pounds ; but it is stated sometimes to attain the length of five or six feet. Extensive turbot fisheries are established on different parts of our coast. The turbot is taken with the hook; it is very voracious, and may be lured by various baits, such as portions of herring or haddock, mussels, limpets, and other shell-fish ; but all these must be very fresh. Indeed the species very sensibly prefers live bait without hooks, more especially the small river-lamprey. Mr Pennant has particularly described the extensive turbot fishery at Scar- borough. There are three men in each of the fishing- boats, each man having three lines, and each line 280 hooks. All the nine lines are fastened together, and then extend to about three miles in length ; they are laid across the current, and are allowed to remain for six hours before they ai'e hauled. This fish is called the water or sea- pheasant, by the French common people, on account of its fine flavour,
Rh. rhombus. The pearl or brill, la Barbue, Fr. The body more oval than that of the turbot ; without tu- bercles ; and distinguished besides by the first rays of its dorsal fin being half free, with their extremities divided into several strips. This fish is of a smaller size than the turbot ; it has a delicate flavour, and is in gi-eat request.
Rh. punctatus ; PL l(i;ris, Shaw, The kitt {le Tar- geur, Fr.) is much rarer than the preceding on our coasts. Its shape is oval like the brill ; it has no strips on the rays of its fins ; its scales are rough ; its teeth very fine ; its cheek furnished with very close and even teeth ; and it has black points and spots on a brown ground. It is said to be more frequent in Shetland than along the other Bri- tish coasts,
Rh. cardina. The whifF {la Cardine, or Calimande, Fr.) is quite of an oblong form ; its first rays are free, but simple ;
' Uh, xxi. p. 8G8.
• Nevertheless it is generally called turlot in the Edinburgh market, where the true turbot passes under the classical cognomen of
ruun-Jkiilc.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
221
cliiati Discoboli
Mnlacop- its teeth very close and even. It lias spots partly white tervifii and [lartly blackish, scattered on a brown ground. This Subbia- species is taken, though seldom, in the Ciiannel.
In the Mediterranean there is a small species, only a few inclies long, — PL nudus, Risso ; Arnoglossum, Kond. ; and another still smaller, which is quite transparent, — PI. can- didissimus, Risso ; PI. diaphamts, Schn.
In other turbots the eyes are distant, the upper one far back ; their interval is concave ; they have a small pro- jecting hook on the base of the maxillary bone at the side on which the eyes are placed, and sometimes another on the inferior eye. There are several of this nature in the Mediterranean, such as the PL podas of Laroche.' We have figured PL argiis on Plate CCCV. fig. 8.
Genus Sole a, Cuv. The soles have, as a distinguish- ing character, the mouth twisted to the side opposite the eyes ; that side only being furnished with teeth, which are fine, like the pile of velvet, or, according to Cuvier's fre- quent expression, en velours ; the side on which the eyes are placed is toothless. Their form is oblong ; the snout round, and almost always projecting more than the mouth. The dorsal fin commences at the mouth, and extends, as well as the anal, to the caudal fin. The lateral line is straight ; the side of the head opposite to the eyes is fur- nished with a kind of villosity. The intestine is long ; it forms several folds, but has no caica.
S. vulgaris (PL solea, L.). The sole (le Sole, Fr.) is a species common on the European coasts, and luiiversally esteemed wherever known. Bro\\n on the side which bears the eyes ; the pectoral fin spotted with black. It is one of our most valued fishes for the table, the flesh being firm, white, and of delicious flavour. The sole generally measures from one to two feet in length, and its weight varies from one to seven pounds. It is a gregarious fish, and is generally taken with the trawl-net. It inhabits the Baltic, North, Atlantic, and Mediterranean Seas. There is a large sole fishery at Brixham in Torbay, and a very extensive one on the coast of Sardinia. The best soles are said to be found at the Cape of Good Hope ; yet our honoured friend Justice Menzies does not esteem them so highly as he did those of his native Scotland.
There are many distinct species of this genus, besides numerous varieties that have been too vaguely described to admit of their being easily distinguished from each other. We shall here merely name the Pallasian, Zebra (Plate CCCV. fig. 9), Carolina, Ocellated, Ro7ideletian, Platessoid, Silver, Smooth, Bearded, Marbled, Pavonian, and Variegat- ed Soles.
Genus Monochibus, Cuv. Contains such soles as have only a very small pectoral fin on the side of the eyes, the one on the opposite side being either very minute, or wholly wanting. There is one Mediterranean species, the PL microchirus of Laroche.-
Genus Achikus, Lacep. Contains the species which are w holly destitute of pectoral fins ; and which may again be divided according as their vertical fins are distinct, as in Achiri properly so called, or united to the caudal fin, as in the sub-genus Plagusia.
FAMILY III.—DISCOBOLI.
Forms the concluding division of the sub-brachian ma- lacopterygian fishes. They receive their name from the disk formed by their ventral fins. This family comprehends two genera, neither of which is numerous.
Genus Lepadogaster, Gouan. The ample pectoral fins
descend to the inferior surface of the body, and become \mited together beneath the throat by a transverse mem- brane, directed forwards, which is formed by the union of the two ventral fins. The body is smootli and without scales ; the head broad and depressed ; the muzzle projecting and extensile ; the brancliial openings small ; the gill-covering furnished with four or five rays. There is only one soft dorsal fin, opposite to an anal of a similar kind. The in- testine is short, straight, and without ca;ca. There is no swimming bladder, but nevertheless the species swim ra- pidly along the shores. The genus is divisible as follows : ~ \st, Lepadogaster properly so called. The membrane already mentioned, which takes the place of the ventral fins, extends circularly under the pelvis, and forms a con- cave disk ; on the other hand, the bones of the shoulder form a slight projection behind, which completes a second disk with the membrane uniting the pectorals.
Several species inhabit the Mediterranean and neigh- bouring seas. In some the dorsal and anal fins are distinct from the caudal, « ith which tlicir membrane is however sometimes continuous, though it at the same time becomes narrower. Of this kind are the I^ep. Gouani, balbis, and Decandolii. In others, these three fins are united, as in L. Wildenovii. The Cyclopterus cormtbir.us of Shaw (Ja- ra sucker of Pennant) belongs to the genus Lepadogaster.
2rf, GoBiESox, Lacep. Interval between the pectoral and ventral fins not divided into a double disk, but form- ing only a large single disk, cleft on both sides, and pro- longed by the membranes. The dorsal and anal fins are short, and distinct from the caudal. The branchial aper- tures are larger than in the preceding. A British species, known under the name of biniaculated sucker (Cyc.bimacu- latus, Pennant), belongs to this genus. It is a very small fish, not measuring more tlian an inch and a half. Mon- tagu found it adhering to stones and old shells, and ob- tained it in abundance, by dredging, near Forcross.^
Genus Cyclopterus, Linn. The circle-finned fishes, commonly called suckers or lunip-Jish, have a well-mark- ed cliaracter in their ventral fins, the rays of which, sus- pended all round the pelvis, and united by a single mem- brane, form an oval and concave disk, which the fish em- ploys as a sucker to fix itself to the rocks. Besides this, their mouth is wide, and furnished on both jaws and pha- ryngeal bones with small pointed teeth. Their opercles are small ; their branchial openings closed towards the bottom, and furnished with six rays. Their pectoral fins are very large, and unite almost under the throat, embra- cing as it were the disk of the ventrals. Their skeleton does not harden much ; and their skin, viscous and without scales, has small hard grains scattered here and there upon its surface. They have a stomach of considerable size, many ca;ca, a long intestine, and a swimming bladder of ordinary dimensions.
The Cyclopteri are divided by Cuvier into two sub-ge- nera, as follows :
\st, LuMPus. Has a first dorsal fin, more or less per- ceptible, though very low, and with simple rays, — and a second one with branched rays opposite to the anal. The body is thick.
CycL lumpus,'L. (PlateCCCV.fig.il.) The lump- fish or sucker (le Lump, Gras Blollet, Fr. ; See Hase, Germ.) has its first dorsal fin so much enveloped in a thick tuber- cular skin, that externally it might be taken for a mere hump on the back. It is furnished ^vith three rows of co- nical tubercles on each side.
This fish is about eighteen inches long. It lives, espe- cially in the north, on Medusae and other gelatinous ani- mals. Its flesh is soft, insipid, somewhat oily, and is sel-
Malacop- terygii
Siib-bia- chiali.
UiscoboU.
' Ann. du Mus. xiii. xsiv. 14.
= Ibid. xm. 356.
Linn. Trafie. vol. vii. p. 293.
222
>[alacop- tervgii
Sub-bra- chiali-
Discoboli.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
dom used for food by those who can provide better. It is, however, held in some estimation by tlie Greenlanders, themselves an oily people, whose lines do not alw ays tail in pleasant places. They also eat its roe (which is a very large one), after having reduced it by boiling to a pulp. In Ireland it is sometimes salted. This fish is very unwieldy, and, possessing few means of defence, it generally remains at the bottom of the sea, adhering to the rocks. It thus becomes an easy prey both to seals and sharks. Large placid oily spots upon the surface of the sea are often seen above the places where the lump-fish have been seized and slain. We also occasionally find their skins floating empty along the shore, the flesh and blood having been previous- ly extracted by their insatiate foes. The male is said to preserve with great care the eggs which he has fecundat- ed, and he has moreover been famed in fable for his affec- tionate behaviour to the female. There does not, however, appear to be any real foundation for this trait in his cha- racter,— a very unfrequent one in that of any member of the fishy tribes.
Cyclopt. spinosiis inhabits the northern seas. Cycl. mi- nutits is found in the Atlantic, and C. nudus in the Indian Ocean.
2rf, LiPARis, Artedi. Has only one dorsal fin, which, as well as the anal, is rather long. The body is smooth, elon- gated, and compressed behind.
Lip. vulgaris {Cyc. liparis, L.), the unctuous sucker of Pennant, is a European species of variable size, not un- common about the mouths of rivers, especially those of the northern seas. It is a well-known British species, re- markable not merely for dying, but for actually dissolving, soon after it is taken out of the water. Liparis 3Iontagui measures only about two inches in length.' It was disco- vered by tlie naturalist whose name it bears, among the rocks at Milton, on the south coast of Devon, during some extraordinary low tides. Lip. gelatinosus is another northern species, the flesh of which is not eatable, as de- scribed by Pallas in his Spicilegia Zoologica. Its flesh is so bad that not even dogs will eat it.
Genus Echeneis, Linn. This genus, so different from its neighbours, might, like the old Linnasan genus Pleuro- nectes, almost form a separate family of the sub-brachian malacopterygian fishes. The species called Remoras are remarkable for the flattened disk tliey bear upon their heads, and by means of which they can adhere to other bodies with considerable firmness. These disks are com- posed of a certain number of transverse cartilaginous plates, directed obliquely backwards ; dentated or spinous at their posterior edge, and moveable in such a manner that the fish can create a vacancy between them ; and thus, aided also by the toothed margin, it fixes itself securely either to rocks or floating bodies.
This genus has the body elongated, and clothed with small scales ; a single soft dorsal fin op|)osite to the anal ; the head quite flat above ; the mouth cleft horizontally, and rounded ; the lower jaw placed more forwards, and furnished, as well as the inter-maxillary bones, with small pectiniform teeth. There is a row of regularly-set small teeth, like cilia, along the edge of the maxillaries, which form the external margin of tlie upper jaw ; the vomer is furnished with cardiform teeth, as well as the tongue. They have eight branchiostegous rays. Their stomach is a wide cul-de-sac ; the caeca six or eight in number ; the intestine wide, but short. They have no swimming bladder. The species are few in number. Of these, Echeneis re- mora, Linn., the famous Remora, or sucking fish, of the Me- diterranean, is the best known. It has usually eighteen plates in its cranial disk.
Sub-bra-
chiati.
Discoboli.
The extraordinary power possessed by this fish, of ad- Malacop- hering tenaciously to any flattish surface, was known to terygii ancient writers, as well as to the curious inquirers of mo- dern times. Pliny luxuriates upon it with his usual dis- cursive verbosity. The reader may possibly be amused by Philemon Holland's translation of the passages in ques- tion. " Having so far proceeded in the discourse of na- ture's historic, that I am now arrived at the very lieigth of her forces, and come into a world of examples, I cannot chuse but in the first place consider the power of her ope- rations, and the infinitnesse of her secrets, which offer themselves before our eyes in the sea : for in no part else of this universal frame is it possible to observe the like ma- jestic of nature : insomuch, as we need not seeke any far- ther, nay, we ought not to make more search into her di- vinitie, considering there cannot be found any thing equall or like unto this one element, wherein she hath surmount- ed and gone beyond her own selfe in a wonderfuU number of respects. For, first and foremost, is there any thing more violent than the sea ; and namely when it is troubled with blustring winds, whirlepuffs, storms, and tempests ? or wherein hath the wit of man been more employed (seeke out all parts of the known world) than in seconding the waves and billows of the sea, by saile and ore ? Fi- nally, is there ought more admirable than the inerrable force of the reciprocall tides of the sea, ebbing and flowing as it doth, whereby it keepeth a current also, as it were the stream of some great river '
" The current of the sea is great, the tide much, the winds vehement and forcible ; and more than that, ores and sailes withall to help forward the rest, are mightie and powerfuU : and yet there is one little sillie fish, named echeneis, that checiceth, scorneth, and arresteth them all. Let the winds blow as much as they will, rage the storms and tempests what they can, yet this little fish commaundeth their furie, restraineth their puissance, and, maugre all their force, as great as it is, compelleth ships to stand still : a thing which no cables, be they never so big and able as they will, can perform. She bridleth the violence and tameth the great- est rage of this universall world, and that without any paine that she putteth herselfe unto, without any holding or putting backe, or any other meanes save only by cleav- ing and sticking fast to a vessell : in such a sort as this one small and poore fish is sufficient to resist and withstand so great a power both of sea and navie, yea and to stop the passage of a ship, doe they all what they can possible to the contrarie. What should our fleets and armadoes at sea make such turrets in their decks and forecastles ? what should they fortifie their ships in warlike manner, to fight from them upon the sea, as it were from mure and rampier on firme land ? See the vanitie of man ! alas, how foolish are we to make all this adoe ? When one little fish, not above half a foot long, is able to arrest and stay per force, yea, and hold as prisoners, our goodly tall and proud ships, so well armed in the beakehead with yron pikes and brazen tines ; so offensive and dangerous to bouge and pierce any enemie ship which they doe encountre. Certes, reported it is, that in the naval battaile before Ac- tium, wherein Antonius, and Ckopatra the queene, were defeited by Augustus, one of these fishes staled the admi- rall ship wherein M. Antonius was, at what time as he made all the hast and meanes he could devise with help of ores to encourage his people from ship to ship, and could not prevaile, untill he was forced to abandon the said ad- rairall, and go into another galley. Meanwhile the arma- da of Augustus Casar, seeing this disorder, charged with greater violence, and soone invested the fleete of Atitonie. Of late dales also, and within our remembrance, the like
' Donovan's British Fishes, t. Ixviii.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- liappened to the roiall ship of the emperor Caiits Cali- teryRii gula, at what time as he rowed backe, and made saile from Astura to Antium ; wlien and where this httle fish de- tained his ship, and (as it fell out afterward) presaged an - unfortunate event thereby : for tliis was the h»st time tliat ever this emperour made his returne to Rome : and no sooner was lie arrived, but liis own souldiours in a niutinie I'ell upon him and stabbed liim to death. And yet it was not long ere the cause of this wonderfuU staie of his ship was knowne : for so soon as ever the vessel (and a galliace it was, furnished with five bankes of ores to a side) was perceived alone in the ileete to stand still, prescntlie a number of tall fellows leapt out of their ships into the sea, to search what the reason might be that it stirred not ; and found one of these fishes sticking fast to the very helnie : which being reported unto Caius Caligula, he fumed and fared as an emperour, taking great indignation that so small a thing as it should hold him back perforce, and check the strength of all his mariners, notwithstand- ing there were no fewer than foure hundred lustie men in his galley that laboured at the ore all that ever they could to the contrarie. But this prince (as it is for certain knowne) was most astonied at this, namely, that the fish sticking only to the ship, should hold it fast ; and the same being brought into the ship and there laid, not worke the like effect. They who at that time and afterward saw the fish, report that it resembled for all the world a snaile of the greatest making : but as touching the form and sun- drie kinds thereof, many have written diversly, whose opinions I have set downe in my treatise of living crea- tures belonging to the waters, and namely in the particu- lar discourse of this fish : neither doe I doubt but all the sorte of fishes are able to doe as much : for this we are to believe, tliat Pourcellans also be of the same vertue, since it was well knowne by a notorious example, that one of them did the like by a ship sent from Periander to the Cape of Gnidos : in regard whereof, the inhabitants of Gnidos doe honour and consecrat the said Porcellane with- in their temples of Venus. Some of our Latin writers do call the said fish that thus staieth a ship, by the name of Remora."
Anotherspecies,J5'cAe?jew7VaMcrato, Linn. (Plate CCCV. fig. 10), commonly called the Indian Remora, has usually twenty-two plates upon the head. In its habits it resem- bles the preceding ; but it seems to be more frequent in the seas of India and America, than in those of Europe. The manuscripts of Commerson, as quoted by Count La- cepede, inform us that it is common along the coasts of Mosambique, where it is made use of in a singular way fiar the purpose of catching turtles. A ring is first fastened round its tail, and then a long cord is attached to the ring. When thus accoutred, tlie fish, placed in a vessel of sea- water, is carried out in a boat ; and as soon as the fisher- men perceive a sleeping turtle, they row gently towards it, and throw the remora into the water, with a sufficient length of cord. It seldom fails speedily to attach itself to the unconscious turtle, which by the tenacity of its ad- herence is immediately drawn towards the boat and cap- tured.
A third species of remora is described by Mr Archi- bald Menzies as an inhabitant of the Pacific Ocean.' He has named it Ech. lineata. It is distinguished by having only ten transverse plates to its sucker. Mr Menzies found it adhering to a turtle. A fourth species (and these are all with which we are acquainted) has been more re- cently discovered by Baron Cuvier. The rays of its pec- toral fins are bony, compressed, and terminated by a slight- ly notched /;a/toe. He names it Eeheneis osteochir?
ORDER IV.— MALACOPTERYGII APODES
which may be considered as constituting a single natural family, the
223
MaUcop-
terygii
Apode*.
Angiiilli-
tbrme8.
ANGUILLIFORMES,
or fishes with an elongated shape; a thick skin, on which scales are in general but indistinctly visible; and without cteca to their intestines. Almost all are provided with a swimming bladder, which often assumes a remarkable form.
The ancient unrestricted Genus Mur^ena of Linnae- us is distinguished by the snake-like form of the body ; the small opercles covering concentric branchiostegous rays, buried in the skin, and only opening posteriorly by a sort of tubular orifice. This structure, by giving a more perfect command over the closure of the gills, ena- bles them to remain longer out of water without injury than the generality of fishes. They have scarcely-per- ceptible scales, which are concealed in a tough skin, co- vered with a slippery mucus. They all are destitute of ventral fins and ca;ca, and have the anus placed very far behind. Numerous subdivisions of the old genus Murmna have taken place in modern times. We shall here note the following:
Genus Anguilla, Thunbergand Shaw. Eels in gene- ral, as distinguished from Muranue, are characterised by the possession of pectoral fins, under which the branchial aperture opens ; their swimming bladder has an elongated shape, and near its middle a peculiar glandular body ; their stomach has a long cul-de-sac ; their intestine is al- most straight.
The more restricted genus Anguilla, or eel properly so called, has the dorsal and caudal fins continued around the tail, giving it a pointed form.
In the true eels, the dorsal begins a considerable dis- tance behind the pectorals. Some have the upper jaw shorter than the lower ; such as the Anguilla vulgaris, or common eel. (Plate CCCVI. fig. 1.) This fish is uni- versally distributed, and scarcely requires description. The usual colour is an olive tint above, and a silvery co- lour below ; but in some instances the back is spotted with brown. We have observed these fish in considerable num- bers leaving fresh-water lakes in the night time, and fre- quenting meadows, seemingly for the purpose of preying on slugs and snails. They easily move on the land, with a motion resembling that of snakes. The eel grows to the size of two or three feet, and is sometimes said to reach five or six feet in length. It abounds in many European rivers. Eels are caught in immense numbers in the rivers emptying themselves into the Baltic ; and they form a con- siderable article of trade. Two thousand are stated to have been caught at one sweep in Jutland ; and in the Garonne 60,000 were taken in one day by a single net.
" That eels migrate towards brackish water," observes Mr Jesse, " in order to deposit their roe, I have but little doubt, for the following reasons. From the month of November until the end of January, provided the frost is not very serious, eels migrate towards the sea. The Thames fishermen are so aware of this fact, that they invariably set their pots or baskets with their mouths up stream during those months, while later in the spring and summer they are set down stream. The best time, however, for taking eels, is during their passage towards the sea. The eel-traps, also, which are set in three dif- ferent streams near Hampton Court (the contents of which, at different times, I have had opportunities of ex-
Linn. Tram. vol. i. p. 1S7, pi. xvii.
' Rigm Animal, t. ii. p._348.
224
Malacep-
Apotles. An<iuilli. formes.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
amining), have invariably been supplied with eels suffi- ciently large to be breeders, during the months I have mentioned. This migratory disposition is not shown by small eels ; and it may therefore be assumed that they remain nearly stationary till they are old enough to have spawn. I have also ascertained that eels are taken in greater or lesser numbers during the months of Novem- ber or December, all the way down the river to the brack- ish water. From thence the young eels migrate, as soon as they are sufficiently large and strong to encounter the several currents of the river, and make their way to the different contributary streams. I have also been able to trace the procession of young eels, or, as it is called here, the ee^/«iV, from the neighbourhood of Blackfriar's Bridge, as far up the river as Chestrey, although they probably make their way as far, or farther than Oxford. So strong, indeed, is their migratory disposition, that it is well known few things will prevent their progress, as, even at the locks at Teddington and Hampton, the young eels have been seen to ascend the large posts of the flood-gates, in order to make their way, when the gates have been shut longer than usual. Those which die stick to the posts ; others, which get a little higher, meet with the same fate, until at last a sufficient layer of them is formed to enable the rest to overcome the difficulty of the passage. A cu- rious instance of the means which young eels will have recourse to, in order to perform their migrations, is an- nually proved in the neighbourhood of Bristol. . Near that city there is a large pond, immediately adjoining which is a stream. On the bank between these two waters a large tree grows, the branches of which hang into the pond. By means of these branches, the young eels as- cend into the tree, and from thence let themselves drop into the stream below, thus migrating to far distant waters, where they increase in size, and become useful and beneficial to man. A friend of mine, who was a casual witness of this circumstance, informed me that the tree appeared to be quite alive with these little animals. The rapid and unsteady motion of the boughs did not appear to impede their progress."'
•' All authors agree," adds Mr Yarrell, " that eels are extremely averse to cold. There are no eels in the arc- tic regions, none in the rivers of Siberia, the Wolga, the Danube, or any of its tributary streams. It is said there are no eels in the Caspian or Black Seas, but they abound in the Mediterranean ; and M. Risso has de- scribed eight species in his work on the Natural History of the Environs of Nice. There is no doubt, also, that fishes in general, and eels more particularly, are able to appreciate even minute alterations of temperature in the water they inhabit. The brackish water they seek to re- main in during the colder months of the year, is of a higher temperature than that of the pure fresh water of the river, or that of the sea. It is a well-known law in chemistry, that when two fluids of different densities come in contact, the temperature of the mixture is ele- vated for a time, in proportion to the difference in density of the two fluids, from the mutual penetration and con- densation. Such a mixture is constantly taking place in rivers that run into the sea, and the temperature of the mixed water is accordingly elevated."^ As eels are well known to breed in ponds, it may be inferred that their de- scent to the brackish water, though customary, is not in- dispensable. They sometimes attain a great size. The species (or variety) called the sharp-nosed silver eel has been taken near Cambridge of the weight of twenty-seven pounds.
Some authors make a separate division of the Congers
{Conger, Cuv.), which chiefly differ from the common eels in having the upper jaw the longest, and the dorsal fin commencing almost over the pectorals. The chief species are the following : Anginlla conger (Plate CCC VI. fig. 3) grows to the size of six feet or more, and is as thick as a man's leg. The conger is found around all our coasts. The skin has a leaden hue above, and is white below, with darker spots along the sides. The dorsal is bordered with black. The teeth are sharp, and when cap- tured the fish is capable of giving very severe bites. The fishermen are stated also to dread injury to their legs from a large conger twining round them. It has been said to attack swimmers by coiling round them, and preying on their bodies. It is voracious, and has not unfrequently been found within the carcasses of dead animals, on which it was evidently feeding. The conger fishery was at one time of some consequence on the Cornish coasts, for the supply of Spain and Portugal. The fish were cured by drying, during which they lost much fat. Anguilla myrus (Rondelet) has a sharp snout, a thin roundish body of a dark colour, without spots, except toward the head, where a few yellowish dashes are seen ; as also a whitish trans- verse band on the occiput, and two rows of small specks on the back of the neck. This species occurs in the Me- diterranean, as do several other small congers, such as A. balearica, mystax, and nigra. The last named lives among the rocks near Nice, and attains to the weight of forty pounds. Its flesh is more esteemed than that cf the common kind.
The Genus Ophisurus, or snake-tail, differs from the eels properly so called, by the dorsal and ventral fins terminating abruptl}' before reaching the extremity of the tail, which is thus deprived of fin, and ends in a sharpen- ed point. The intestine resembles that of the eels ; but a portion of it extends into the tail, farther back than the anus. The teeth are sharp and cutting. Ophisurus ser- pens is a Mediterranean species, marked by a triple chain of large, dark-brown, oblong spots, on a silvery-white body. It grows to the length of six feet, and is as thick as the human arm. The snout is sharp ; the branchial membrane has twenty rays. Ophisurus guttatus, a handsome spe- cies from Guyana, belongs to this subdivision ; as does O. ophis, the Murcena ophis of Bloch. In some Ophisuri the pectoral fins are small, and sometimes almost impercepti- ble ; a circumstance which assimilates them to the Murce- ntB. Such are O. colubrinus,fasciatus, and maculosus.
Genus Mur^na, Thunberg. The species were unit- ed by Linnseus to the eels ; but they are distinguished sufficiently by the total want of pectoral fins. Their branchial apertures are minute lateral holes ; their oper- cles are so small, and their branchiostegous rays so slender, and so concealed within the skin, that some able natural- ists have denied their existence in this genus. Their stomach is a short pouch ; and their swimming bladder is small, oval, and placed towards the upper part of the ab- domen. Some of them have the dorsal and anal fins dis- tinctly visible ; some have obtuse, others sharp cutting teeth, and the latter can bite severely.
The best known is Murcena Helena, or Roman murccna (Plate CCCVI. fig. 2), which abounds in the Mediterra- nean, and was introduced by the luxurious Romans of antiquity, in crystal vases, to the table before being cook- ed, that the guests might admire its variegated skin. This fish is very voracious, and feeds on all sorts of ani- mal matter. The Romans fed them in ponds, and Pliny has recorded the atrocities of Vedius Pollio, who used to punish his offending slaves by throwing them alive to his muraena;. We have seen this fish repeatedly taken at
Slalacop-
tervgii
Apodea.
Anguilli-
tbrnies.
GUaninsii in Natural Ilktory, second series.
Ibid.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
225
MaUcop- teryjjii Apodcs.
Anguilli- fornies.
Gibraltar, between three and four feet in lenptb. The skin is beautifully marbled with yellow sub-anjjular mark- ings on a rich brown ground. When captured in nets it lives long out of the water, and is capable of biting very severely, from the sharpness of its numerous teeth. A very beautiful muraena with obtuse teeth, 31. cntenata, is found in the rivers of Guyana ; its colours are brown and white. In the same region is found 31. zebra, a species beautifully marked, on a dark-brown ground, with trans- verse, linear, distant bands, meeting irregularly beneath. Other species are, 31. reticularis, 31. punctata, 31. unico- Inr, 31. Haiii/, 31. pictn, 31. meleagrii, 31. grisea, M. afra, 31. gtdlata, M. wubdata, 31. sordida.
Genus Sphacebranchus, Bloch. This genus differs from Murcena chiefly in having the branchial apertures close together, and beneath the throat, instead of being on each side of the neck. The snout is sharp, and projecting far beyond the mouth ; the dorsal and anal fins, when per- ceptible, do not commence until within one third of the length of the fish from the extremity of the tail. Some of them h.ave no ajipearance of pectoral fins ; others have slight vestiges of those parts. One of them, Sph. catcus (Genus Apterichtes, Dumeril), is absolutely without any fins at all. The stomach has a long cul-de-sac ; the intes- tine is straight ; and all have a long narrow swimming bladder placed towards the posterior extremity.
The best known is Sphagehianclnis rostratus, first no- ticed by Bloch. It grows to a length of nine inches. Sph. imberhis was described by Laroche in Aim. du 3Ius. xiii. as well as Sphag. cceciis, which he considered as a murxna.
Genus Synbranchus, Bloch. This division is distin- guished from the last by having only a single branchial ori- fice, which is placed under the throat, and communicates with the gills on each side. The fishes included in it are totally w ithout pectorals, and their vertical fins are almost entirely adipose. Their head is thicker than any part of the body, and short ; the mouth is wide, lips fleshy, teeth small, conical, and in several rows. Their opercles are partly cartilaginous ; their branchial rays are very strong ; their swimming bladder is long and narrow. They have no csBca to the intestine, which is straight, and can scarcely be distinguished from the stomach except by a kind of pyloric valve. The species inhabit the seas of the hotter parts of America, especially Surinam. Two only are known, Synbranchus marmoretus (Plate CCCVI. fig. 4) and Syn. iynmacvlatus. They have much the habit of water-snakes. In succession to the preceding generic subdivisions of the Linnaean 3iur(p.ncB, Cuvier places a singular and recently discovered species, the Saccopharynx flagdJam of Dr Mitchell. Its body is capable of great inflation. It is a large and voracious fish, measuring about six feet in length, with a deep cleft mouth armed witli sharp teeth. It has hitherto been found only in the Atlantic Ocean, where it floats on the surface by means of the inflation just allud- ed to.'
Genus Gymnotus, Linn. The gymnotes, like eels, have the gills partly shut up by a membrane, which, how- ever, opens before the pectoral fins ; the anus is placed near the head ; the anal fin nms along nearly the whole under part of the fish, and generally reaches to the extre- mity of the tail, but is not continued along its upper por- tion.
In Gymnotus, Lacep. properly so called, the skin is without visible scales; the intestine, in several convolu- tions, occupies but a moderate space, and has many csca ; the stomach is r. short, blunt sac, with numerous ruga;
A]ioile3.
Ans;uillU
i'ormes.
within. Some of them have two swimming bladders ; the Malacop. anterior is ovate and bilobular, and lies on the oesophagus, terygii at the top of the abdomen ; the posterior is cylindrical, and occupies a sinus in the abdominal cavity. The true gymnotes are confined to the rivers of America. The i^ best-known species is Gymnotus electricus, or electric eel (Plate CCCVI. fig. 5). This animal has been well de- scribed by Dr Garden of Charlestown, by John Hunter, and by Humboldt. It is remarkable for the violence of its electric shocks, which are often so powerful as to stu- pify a man or a horse. The researches of Hunter detect- ed an organ in the posterior part of this iish, resembling the electric apparatus of the torpedo. See Plate CCCVI. fig. 6. This organ consists of four longitudinal fasciculi, which occupy one half the thickness of the part in which they occur, and about one third of the whole animal. The larger pair lie above, the smaller below. Each fasciculus is composed of flat partitions or septa, with transverse divisions between them. The outer edge of the septa appear in nearly parallel lines in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the body, and consist of thin membranes, which ai-e easily torn ; they serve the same purpose as the columns in the analo- gous organ of the torpedo, making the walls or abutments for the perpendicular and transverse dissepiments, which are exceedingly numerous, and so closely aggregated as to seem almost in contact. The minute prismatic cells, inter- ce|)ted between these two sorts of plates, contain a gela- tinous matter ; the septa are about one thirtieth of an inch from each other, and one inch in length contains a series of 240 cells, giving an enormous surface to the electric or- gans. The whole ai)paratus is abundantly supplied with nerves from the medula spinalis; and these nerves are seen coming out in pairs from between the vertebra:. In their course they give out branches to the muscles of the back, and to the skin of the animal. In the gj^nnote, as in the torpedo, the nerves supplying the electric organs are much larger than those bestowed on any part for the pur- poses of sensation or movement. Hunter thinks, how- ever, that these nerves are more considerable in point of size in the torpedo than in the gymnote. These organs are attached loosely to the muscles of the back which lie between the larger, and they are immediately connected with the skin by a loose cellular texture. Humboldt has given a very interesting and lively description of the mode of capturing the electric gymnote, as practised in South America, near the town of Calabozo.
These fish abound in the stagnant pools of that vicinity. The Indians are well aware of the danger of encountering the gymnote when its powers are unexhausted. They therefore collect twenty or thirty wild horses, force them into the pools, and when the fish have exhausted their electric batteries on the poor horses, they are laid hold of without difficulty. The horses at first exhibit ir.uch agi- tation and terror ; they are prevented leaving the pool by an enclosing band of Indians, who goad them with bam- boos whenever they attempt to escape. " The eels," says Humboldt, " stunned and confused by the noise of the horses, defended themselves by reiterated discharges of their elec- tric batteries. For some time they seemed likely to gain the victory over the horses and mules ; these were seen in every direction, stunned by the frequency and force of the shocks, to disappear under water. Some horses, how- ever, rose again, and, in spite of the active vigilance of the Indians, gained the shore, exhausted with fatigue ; and their limbs being benumbed by the electric explosions, they stretched themselves out upon the ground." " I re- member the superb ])icture of a horse entering a cavern.
VOL, xii.
' Ophiognalhut amfvUaceus of llr Ilariiwood, Pliil. Trans. 1827, seems to pertam to the same genus.
2v
226
Malacop- terygii Apodes.
Anguilli- formes.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
and terrified at the sight of a lion. The expression of ter- ror is not there stronger than what we witnessed in this unequal conflict. In less than five minutes two horses were already drowned. The eel, more than five feet long, glides under the belly of the horse or mule ; it then makes a discharge from the whole extent of its electric organs, which at once attacks the heart, the viscera, and especially the gastric plexus of nerves." " After this com- mencement, I was afraid that the sport might end very tragically. But the Indians assured us that the fishing would soon be finished, and that nothing is to be dread- ed but the first assault of the gymnotus. In fact, whether the galvanic electricity is accumulated in repose, or the electric organ ceases to perform its functions when fa- tigued by too long-continued use, the eels, after a time, resemble discharged batteries. Their muscular motion is still equally active, but they no longer have the power of giving energetic shocks. When the combat had lasted a quarter of an hour, the mules and horses appeared less af- frighted ; they no longer bristled up the mane, and the eye was less expressive of suffering and of terror. They no longer were seen to fall backwards ; and the gyninotes, swimming with the body half out of the water, and now flying from the horses instead of attacking them, began themselves, in their turn, to approach the shore."
The electric gymnote is by no means fierce or voracious ; but its electric organs are the instruments by which it pro- cures its prey, and defends itself against alligators and other enemies.
It has been several times brought alive to Europe, and some experiments have been made on its electricity, — which is conducted and insulated by the same substances as common galvanism.'
So common is the gymnotus in some parts of South America, that, in tlie neighbourhood of Uritucu, a route at one time much frequented has been entirely abandon- ed, in consequence of the necessity of fording a stream, in which many mules were killed every year by these sub- aqueous electric shocks.
The only other known species of gymnotus is the G. aquilabiatus of Humboldt, which appears to differ from the other in wanting the posterior swimming bladder.
The Genus Carapus was separated by Cuvier from the gyninotes, with which they were formerly confounded ; and the species are distinguished by a scaly compressed body and a slender tail. The appellation is derived from their Brazilian name. All the species live in the rivers of South .'\merica, ov on the coasts of that country. Carapus macrourus grows to the length of eighteen inches or two feet, and is of a brown colour, with small eyes, and slen- der tail. C. brachiurus vel fascialus is marked with darker transverse bands. C. albus is of a whitish colour; tail naked for about an inch ; upper lip with a lobule on each side ; several pores on the sides of the head. C. ros- tratiis has a body like that of C. macrourus, but the snout is narrow, compressed, and tubular, with connate jaws ; colour pale brown, variegated with darker spots ; the scales not visible.
The Genus Sternarchus of Schneider was so deno- minated from the anus being near the sternum. The anal fin ends before it reaches the extremity of the tail, which has a fin of its own ; but the most singular character in the structure of this fish consists of a soft fleshy filament, con- cealed in a furrow on the dorsum, beyond the middle of the back, and retained in this groove by tendinous threads, which admit of its having some motion ; a very singular
Apodes. AnguiUi- formes.
organ, of which we cannot conjecture the use. The head Slalacop' is oblong, naked, and compressed ; neither opercula nor terygii branchial rays are externally visible ; the rest of the body is scaly ; the teeth are soft, short filaments, like velvet, on the middle of each jaw. The only species is Sternarchus albifrons, which was considered by Pallas, its first describer, as a Gymnotus.
Genus Gymnarchus, Cuv. Body scaly and elongated, gills but slightly open in front of the pectorals, as in Gym- notus, but the back is furnished all along with a soft rayed fin ; there is no fin behind the anus, nor beneath the tail, which has a pointed termination. The head is conical, naked, — the mouth small, and provided with a single row of small cutting teeth.
Gymnarchus Nilotictis of Cuvier, discovered by M. Rif- fault, is, as its name implies, an Egyptian fish, and is, we believe, the only known species.
Genus Leptocephalus, Pennant. This genus differs from the eels by being greatly compressed laterally, by a larger branchial aperture opening before the pectorals, by a head extremely small, and a pointed snout. The pec- torals are almost invisible ; the dorsal and anal are very small, and unite at the point of the tail. The intestines occupy a narrow line along the inferior margin of the body.
Only one species is known, a native of our own seas, first described by Pennant. It is the Leptocephalus Mor- risii, a small fish of four inches long by one tenth of an inch in thickness, and so transparent as almost to exhibit the form of the vertebra;, which may also be felt through the integuments. This singular creature was first seen near Holyhead by Mr William Morris, who transmitted it to Pennant. Though still a rare species, it has since been observed by several other British naturalists.
Genus Ophidiu.m, Linn. This genus has the anus far behind ; the dorsal and anal fins join in a point at the tail ; the body is long and compressed, and covered with small irregular scales, scattered in the thickness of the skin. But these fish differ from eels, in having open gills, furnished with a large operculum, and a branchiostegous membrane, with short rays. The dorsal rays are articulat- ed, but not branched.
The genus is subdivided into two sub-genera, viz. Ophi- dium proper, in which the throat is provided with two cirrhi adhering to the point of the os hyoides. The best-known species is Ophidium barbatum, which grows to eight inch- es ; general colour silvery, but the vertical fins banded with black ; the surface smooth, scales attached by their centre to the skin ; two bifid cirrhi on the throat ; skin spotted with small red spots. The swimming bladder is oval, large, and thick, for the size of the fish, and is sup- ported by three peculiar bones suspended under the first vertebra, and moveable by particular muscles. This fish abounds in the Mediterranean, where it is in request as an article of diet. Ophidium Vassali is a small species, also found in the Mediterranean ; but in the South Seas a large species has been caught. It is named Oph. blacodes. Enchelyopus (Fierasfer), Klein, differs in wanting the beards of the true Ophidium. The dorsal fin is so slight as only to seem a fold of the skin ; the swimming bladder has but two supporting bones. Only one species is recog- nised, Ophidium imberbe of Linn., which is also Gymno- tus acus of several naturalists. As a British species, it was first communicated to Pennant by the Duchess of Portland, from Weymouth. It has since been found by Montagu on the south coast of Devon.
^ ' Dr Traill informs us that he liad two ?ent to him from Demerary, but they died the day before the sliip made the coast of England, and were unluckily thrown overboard.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
227
I.opJio- Genus Ammodytes, Linn. Has a thin and elongated branchii. form. The dorsal fin is furnished with articulated rays, ^""'y^^ but is simple for a considerable part of its extent. There is a second fin behind tlie anus, and a third at the end of the tail, which is forked. These three fins are quite dis- tinct, or separate from each other. The snout is point- ed ; the upper jaw susceptible of extension, but the lower is longer than the upper when the latter is not extended. The stomach is angular and fleshy ; there is no swim- ming bladder nor CKca. Only one British species is as yet distinctly known, the Ammodi/tes tobianus (our com- mon launce), a fish about eight or ten inches long, the body somewhat of a square form, but the angles not sharp, and the sides slightly convex. It is very frequent on our sandy coasts. Its back is bluish, the rest rich sil- very. This fish lives on vermes and other marine animals, which it is believed to pursue by burrowing in the sand, from whence it is often dug up at the depth of a foot. It is prized as food, and is considered as an excellent bait for turbot and mackerel. It is the favom-ite prey of the latter fish ; and the porpoise ploughs up the sand at the bottom of the sea with his nose, in the manner of a hog, in search of this species, which has often been foimd in his stomach. It is also sought for by salmon, which have been captured in the sandy bays of Sutherland, by means of a hook baited by a launce, commonly called the sand-eel.
It is extremely probable that two British species are usually confounded by us under the name of launce.'
The various genera of fishes with which we have been hitherto engaged, not only possess an osseous or fibrous skeleton, and free and complete jaws, but their branchia; are constantly pectiniform, that is, in the shape of lamina; or combs. We now proceed to others, in which the re- spiratory organs assume another form.
ORDER v.— LOPHOBRANCHII.
,7aws complete and free, as in the preceding orders, but the branchiae, instead of being comb-shaped, are divided into little rounded tufts, disposed in pairs along the bran- chial arches. The branchiae have this further peculiarity, that they are entirely enclosed beneath a large operculum, attached all round by a membrane, which jiermits the wa- ter to escape merely through a small hole, and exhibits only vestiges of rays.
The genera of this order may be distinguished exter- nally by the cuirassed aspect of their bodies, which are strongly plated, very angular, and frequently furnished with spiny projections. The species are meagre creatures, of small size, and very extraordinary aspect. They have scarcely any flesh upon their bones. The intestine is uni- form, and without caeca ; the swimming bladder is thin, but tolerably large in proportion to tlie other parts. The order is almost entirely composed of the old genera Syng- natlius and Pegasus of Linnaeus.
The genus Syngnathus of the great Swedish naturalist consisted of a rather numerous assemblage of species, dis- tinguished by a tubular muzzle, formed, like that of the FisTULARiDvE, by a prolongation of the ethmoid, vomer, and tympanic bones, of the pre-opercles, sub-opercles, &c. and terminated by a mouth of the ordinary kind, but al- most vertically cleft. The respiratory opening is towards the nape of the neck, and the ventral fins are wanting. The generative system is characterised by this peculiarity, that the eggs slip into, and are hatched in, a kind of sac or
pocket, formed by a pursing of the skin — in some beneath Lopho- thc belly, in others at the base of the tail. This pouch branchii. opens in due time for the escape of the young. In this *""'^"~' respect, then, these fishes may be said to connect the osse- ous with the cartilaginous kinds, for the eggs arc hatched internally, and the young are produced alive. This fact was observed by Aristotle, and has lately been confirmed (so far, at least, as concerns .S'. acus) by Cavolini. The genus is now subdivided into three minor groups, as fol- lows : —
\st, Genus Syngnathus properly so called. Body very long, thin, and differing but little in its diameter throughout. Several species occur in all our seas. They differ in the character and mmiber of their fins.
2rf, Genus Hippocampus, Cuv. Body laterally com- pressed, and obviously higher than at the tail. The sur- face is raised into ridges, its edges are angular and incis- ed, and the hinder parts of the body and tail have the ap- pearance of being divided into segments. The caudal fin is wanting.
Of this genus several species are found in the European seas, and one or two occur along the British shores. The greater number, however, are exotic. In the dried spe- cimens the head is usually bent at right angles with the body, the thorax curved, and the tail bent inwards. From the peculiar aspect which they exhibit in this condition, they have received the name of sea-horses. The most re- markable species with which we are acquainted is the Hippoeampus fofiatvs of Shaw, or foliated pipe-fish. (See Plate CCCVI. fig. 7.) This rare and very singularly con- structed fish is a native of the Southern Ocean. The specimen described by Shaw was transmitted from New Holland to Sir Joseph Banks. The one here figured was sent to Professor Jameson from Van Diemen's Land. We should not have hesitated to consider this species as synonymous with S. tomiolalus of Lacepede (and the more readily as they seem to be regarded as identical by Cuvier") ; but on comparing it with the figure in the Annales du Mits. we find that the Van Diemen's Land specimen possesses two large appendages on the dorsal outline, not represented by the author of the earlier Hist. Nat. des Poissons.
3d, Genus Solenostoma, Seb. and Lacep. Differs from Syngnathus chiefly in possessing very large ventrals placed behind the pectorals, and united together and with the body so as to form a kind of apron, which, like the pouch of the genus just named, serves to retain the ova. There is also a dorsal, with few rays, but elevated, and placed near the nape ; another very small fin on the origin of the tail ; and a large pointed caudal. In other respects the genus bears a great resemblance to Hippocampus. There is only a single species known, the Fistularia pa- radoxa of Pallas.-"
Genus Pegasus, Linn. Projecting muzzle formed by the same pieces as in the preceding genera, but the mouth, instead of being placed at the extremity, is found at the base, and, in its protractile nature, so far resembles that of the sturgeon, although it is composed of the same bones as the mouth of ordinary fishes.
The body in this genus is cuirassed like that of Hippo- campus and Solenostoma, but the trunk is broad, depress- ed, the branchial opening lateral, and there are two dis- tinct ventral fins behind the pectorals, which are often large and wing-like, and have given rise to the generic name. The dorsal and anal are opposite to each other. The species are chiefly from the Indian seas. See Plate CCCVL fig. 10.
' See Regne Animal, t. ii. p. 360 ; and Bulletin des Scienets for September 1 824. licgne Animal, t. ii. p. 363.
S Sficilcgia, viii. iv. 6.
228
Plectog- nathi-
Gyninu- dontes.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
ORDER VI.— PLECTOGNATHI.
The fishes of this order approach the great chondrop- terygian division in the imperfection of their jaws, and the slowness with whicli their skeleton hardens ; yet that skeleton is fibrous, and its general structure resembles that of the ordinary or osseous fishes. The principal dis- tinctive character, however, of the Plectognathi, consists in the maxillary bone being soldered or firmly attached on the side of the inter-maxillary, which alone forms the jaw, and in the palatine arch being connected by suture with the cranium, which consequently renders it immove- able. Moreover, the rays and opercles are concealed be- neath a thick skin, which permits only a small branchial cleft to be visible externall}'. The vestiges of ribs are very slight. The true ventrals are wanting. The intes- tinal canal is ample, but without ca;ca, and almost all the species are provided with a rather large swimming blad- der.
The order comprises two very natural families, cha- racterised by the different armature of the jaws.
FAMILY I._GYMN01)0NT£S.
Instead of apparent teeth, the jaws are furnished with a substance like ivory, divided internally into lamina? or plates, the totality of which resembles the beak of a par- rot, and is essentially composed of true teeth united to- gether, and succeeding each other as they become used by trituration. The opercles are small, their rays five in number on each side, and the whole greatly concealed. The species live on Crustacea and Fuci. Their flesh is in general mucous, and slightly esteemed. Some indeed are even poisonous, at least during certain seasons.
Two of the genera {Tetraodon and Diodon), commonly called orbs or balloon-fish, possess a singular facult)' of inflating their bodies by swallowing great quantities of air. When thus swollen, they roll over and float upon the surface, belly uppermost, apparently unable to direct their course. They are not, however, defenceless, for the spines with which their skin is armed project in all di- rections. Their swimming bladder has two lobes, and their kidneys, which arc placed very high up, have been sometimes mistaken for lungs. There are but three bran- chiae on each side. Each nostril is furnished with a double fleshy tentaculum.
Genus Diodon, Linn. The undivided jaws exhibit but one piece above and another below, — from whence the generic name, which signifies two teeth. Behind each cutting edge is a rounded portion, transversely grooved, and forming a powerful instrument of mastication.' The skin is armed on all sides by strong, pointed spines, so that, when inflated, these creatures bear a resemblance to a gigantic burr of a chestnut tree.
The species are numerous in the warmer seas. One of the most common is the Diodon atinga of Bloch, which measures about a foot in diameter. It inhabits the seas of India, America, and Southern Africa, and feeds on the smaller fishes, Crustacea, and shell-fish, the calcareous covering of which it breaks with great facility, by means of its robust and bony jaws. It is a dangerous species to meddle with, owing to the sudden and hedgehog-like manner in which it bristles up its spines. It seems s3'no- nymous with D. hystrix of Linn., commonly called the sea-porcupine, and ivas formerly a frequent and dusty ap-
pendage in the shop of the apothecary. (See Plate CCCVI. Plectog- fig. 8.) Diodon liolocanthns inhabits almost all the seas nathi. between the tropics. When taken by means of a hook, Gymno- it exhibits the most ungovernable movements, — alter- '""'^s- nately inflates and compresses its body, ascends and de- scends with rapidity and violence, and is extremely dan- gerous to lay hold of. It is fished for both in the Red Sea and along the coast of Japan ; and, according to Du- tertre, the hooks are baited with Crustacea. The bait, it appears, is first approached with caution, then tasted, left, returned to, and finally svvallowed. It no sooner, however, finds itself fairly hooked, than it swells itself up like a balloon, utters a dull sound like that produced by a turkey-cock while making its wheel, and then becomes exceedingly furious. It next has recourse to an opposite mode of action, by lowering its spines, disinflating its body, and becoming as loose and flabby as a wet glove.* It resumes its activity, however, as soon as it perceives the fisherman drawing towards it, or feels itself being drawn towards the fisherman. In short it has a particu- lar dislike to being killed.
Genus Tetraodon, Linn. Jaws divided in the centre by a suture, so as to exhibit the appearance of four teeth (from whence the name), two above and two below. The skin is armed merely by small spines, which project but little. Several species are regarded as poisonous.
The most anciently known is an Egyptian species, T. lineatus, Linn., which is thrown by the floods in vast num- bers over the prolific banks of the Nile, where it is after- wards gathered as a plaything by the children. According to Hasselquist, however, the Egyptians hold it in abhor- rence, and believe that the use of its flesh as food is fol- lowed by death. The prickles of its skin produce a sen- sation like the stinging of nettles. In many iMahommedan countries another species, called T.hispidushy Lacepede, is fully inflated, then carefully dried, and afterwards sus- pended from the pinnacle of the minarets, where it serves the purpose of a weathercock. The hare tetraodon, as it is called ( T. lagocephalus, Linn.), appears to have been described by Pennant under the title of Globe Diodon. Though a tropical species, it has occurred occasionally along" the British coasts, particularly near Penzance in Cornwall. We here figure a curious Indian species, the Tetraodon patocaoi'Yitiia.mWto'n Buchanan. Plate CCCVI. fig. 9.
Baron Cuvier has separated from the preceding, under the generic title of Orthagoriscus (imposed by Schnei- der, and synonymous with genus Cepltatus of Sliaw), the peculiar species known to English readers under the name of sun-Jish, the Poissons-ltmes of our continental neighbours.^ The jaws are undivided, as in Diodon, but the body, compressed and without spines, is unsusceptible of inflation, and the tail so short, and vertical in its poste- rior outline, as to convey the idea of an artificial trunca- tion. The form is in consequence extraordinary and cha- racteristic. The dorsal and anal fin, each high and point- ed, seem to unite with the caudal. The swimming blad- der is wanting, the stomach small, and penetrated direct- ly by the ductus chokdocus. Beneath the skin we find a thick layer of a gelatinous nature. The European seas produce a species which sometimes measures more than four feet in length, and weighs, in consequence of its bulky proportions, above three hundred pounds. It is of a fine silvery hue, and is named Tetraodon mola by Lin- niEus, and the short sun-Jish by British writers. (See Plate CCCVI. fig. 11.) It often exhibits during the night a high
' Baron Cuvier observes, that the jaws of these fishes are by no means unfrequent among pelrifactionB. - Griffith's Animal K'tvijdotn^ vol. x. p. r)yl.
^ The title of Poisson-lune is however bestowed also on other .'jpecies by French writers, for ex.iniple on Lamprh gi'Uatus <i{ Ret- zius, which is the Zcua liim of Gmeliji, and the Ojiah of Pennant.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
229
Pleetog. nathi. Sclero. dermi.
degree of phosphoric splendour. We once came along- side of one while swimming in the Mediterranean. It got out of our way by sinking very slowly downwards. The Diodon mola of Pallas {Spic. Zool.) is anotiier species of the same genus.
The only remaining genus of the first family of Plec- TOGNATin is named Tbiodon by Cuvier, from a species discovered in the Indian seas by M. Reinward.'
FAMILY II._SCLEHODERMI.
Easily distinguished by the conical or pyramidal form of the muzzle, prolonged from the region of the eyes, and terminated by a little mouth armed with a small number of distinct teeth on each jaw. The skin is generally rough, or covered by hard scales. The swimming blad- der is large and robust, and of an oval form.
Genus Balistes, Linn. Body compressed; eight teeth upon a single row on each jaw, and generally of a cutting kind ; skin scaly or engrained, but not absolutely osseous ; first dorsal composed of one or more spines, ar- ticulated on a special bone, which is attached to the cra- nium, and presents a groove into which the spines are re- ceived ; second dorsal soft and long, and corresponding in its position to an anal fin of nearly similar form. Although the ventral fins are wanting, we nevertheless perceive in the skeleton a true pelvic bone suspended to those of the shoulder.
The species occur in vast numbers in the torrid zone, among rocks nearly on a level with the surface of the water, where they shine with a brilliant lustre resembling that of the beautiful chsetodons, formerly described. Their flesh, at no time much esteemed, is said to become dangerous as food while they themselves are nourished by the polypi of the coral reefs. Cuvier however states, that in such specimens as he had occasion to dissect, he found nothing but the remains of marine vegetation. The generic name is derived from balisla, an ancient imple- ment of war, to which the inclined dorsal spine has been regarded as bearing some resemblance. In modern times the oiiginal genus has been divided into the four follow- ing groups.
In Balistes (properly so called) of Cuvier, the whole body is clothed by large, hard, rhomboidal scales, which not being imbricated, or encroaching on each other, pre- sent the appearance of compartments on the skin ; their anterior dorsal has three spines, of which the first is much the largest, the third being very small, and placed some- what apart behind. The extremity of the pelvis is al- ways prickly and projecting, and behind it are some spines involved in the skin, which in the lengthened species have been regarded as rays of the ventral fins. Some have no particular armature on the sides of the tail ; others have the lateral portion of that part armed by a certain num- ber of ranges of spines curved forwards.
In MoNOCANTHUS, Cuv., the scales are very small, and beset by close asperities ; the extremity of the pelvis is projecting and spiny, as in the preceding group, but there is only one large dentated spine to the first dorsal, or, if the second exists, it is almost imperceptible.
In Aluteres, Cuv., the body is elongated, and covered by scarcely visible, small, close-set grains ; there is a single spine to the first dorsal ; and the pelvis is entirely sub- cutaneous, not forming that spiny projection visible in the other Balistes. See Plate CCCVI. fig. 12.
In Triacanthus, Cuv., the species are distinguished by possessing a kind of ventral fins, each sustained by a large
single spiny ray, and adhering to an unprojecting pelvis. Chondrop- The first dorsal, posterior to its principal spine, has three terypi. or four smaller ones. The skin is covered by small, close- -"O"*^ set scales, and the tail is more elongated than in the other groups. There is only one species known, a small fish from the Indian seas, figured by Bloch (148, 2) under the name of Balistes bi-aculeatut.
Genus Ostracion, Linn. Instead of scales, the species of this genus have the head and body covered by regular and bony compartments, soldered together so as to form an inflexible cuirass, which leaves nothing moveable but the tail, fins, mouth, and a small lip which borders the gills. The majority even of the vertebral joints are also as it were soldered. Each jaw is armed with from ten to twelve conical teeth. The branchiae open only by a small cleft, furnished with a cutaneous lobe ; but internally they are provided with an opercle and six rays. Both the pelvic bones and ventral fins are wanting, and there is only a single dorsal and anal fin, each small of its kind.
These anomalous-looking fishes are sparingly supplied with flesh ; but their liver is large, and yields an abundant supply of oil. Some are suspected of being poisonous. The species are called tnmk-Jish by our English writers. We here figure the horned trunk-fish, Ostracion cornutus of Linn, and Bloch, a native, like most of the genus, of the Indian and American seas. Plate CCCVI. fig. 13.
SECOND great SERIES OF THE CLASS OF FISHES.
THE CHONDROPTERYGII, OR CARTILAGI- NOUS FISHES.
This division of fishes, by the peculiarities of the organs of hearing and generation in some genera, approaches to the class of reptiles ; while others have a skeleton so de- fective, and such simplicity of organization, that we might almost arrange them with Vermes. We may thus consider them, says Cuvier, as bearing the same relation to the first series as the marsupial animals do to the other mam- mifera furnished « ith claws.
Their skeleton is distinctly cartilaginous, destitute of true bony matter, as the calcareous portion is not dis- posed into a fibrous structure, but is deposited in grains in a substance essentially gelatinous. The skull is com- posed of a single piece, and consequently is destitute of sutures, but possesses foramina, prominences, and fossuls, like the cranium of other fishes. The facial articulations are also wanting ; and it forms one of their characteris- tics to want the maxillary and inter-maxillary bones, which ordinarily support the teeth of the upper jaw ; or they have only vestiges of these parts, while their functions are performed by bones analogous to the palatines or the vomer. In some the vertebral column, as in the lamprey, forms but a single piece ; in others, as in certain rays, several vertebra are joined together. The gelatinous in- ter-vertebral substance, which in other fishes communi- cates from one to another through a small foramen, is in several of this series a cord of equal thickness, perforat- ing all the vertebrae. Yet their nervous system, connected with the organs of digestion, is as complete as in other fishes ; and some of them have organs of copulation and generation quite as perfect as in the class of reptiles.
This series is divided into two orders ; one distinguish- ed by having the gills free, as in other fishes ; the other with fixed branchia.
' See Rigne Animal, t. ii. p. 370 ; and Buperrey's Voyage, Foistoru, No. 4.
230
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chondrop.
tervcu: ORDER I.— STURIOXES, OR CHONPROPTERYGII Stur'iones. WITH FREE BRANCHIiE.
The few genera of tliis order approach to ordinary fishes, by their gills being attaclicd only at one extremity. They have but one branchial ajierture, which is very o])en ; they have but one operculum, and are without rays to the mem- brane of the gills.
Genus Acipenseu, Linn.; Sturgeon. The general form of this genus resembles that of the sharks ; but they are distinguished by longitudinal rows of bony plates or bosses implanted on the skin ; the head is defended by similar plates ; the mouth is small, and. as in sharks, placed below the snout ; the palatal bones are lufited to the max- illaries, and vestiges of the inter-maxillaries may be traced in the lips, while the mouth is capable of some degree of projection, by its position on a style with three articiilations. Instead of teeth, the mouth is furnished with a sort of horny process on the jaws. The nostrils and eyes are on the sides of the head; the muzzle is furnished with vermiform cirrhi. There is no vestige of an external ear, but the labyrinth is perfect within the bones of the head. The dorsal fin is behind the ventrals, and the anal immediately below the dorsal. The caudal fin surrounds the extremity of the s|)ine, and its upper lobe is longer than the lower. Internally there exists the spiral intestinal valve, and the pan- creas forming a single mass ; but we also find a very large and strong swimming bladder, communicating by a wide aperture with the gullet. They prey on the smaller fishes, in pursuing which they can exert much speed ; but in the rivers they frequent they are said to search for Vermes in the oozy bottom, which they explore with their snout, like swine.
Sturgeons are marine fishes, but at certain seasons they ascend in vast numbers particular rivers, where they are the subject of extensive fisheries, jiarticularly in the large rivers that disembogue themselves into the Black Sea and Caspian, and the rivers of France and Prussia ; they abound also in the large rivers of North America, where the spe- cies appear to be peculiar to that continent.
The European species are —
Acipenser sturio, or common sturgeon. Its ordinary length is seven or eight feet, but sometimes they are caught exceeding sixteen feet. Snout pointed, and furnished with cirrhi ; body gradually tapering, pentagonal, from the dis- position of six longitudinal rows of hard, bony, radiated, and mucronated tubercles. Its skin, except the flat belly, is rough, from small plates of a similar form ; mouth a trans- verse oval orifice ; lips cartilaginous ; tongue thick ; gill- covers consisting of an oval radiated plate ; pectorals oval ; dorsal near the tail. Its flesh is white and delicate, re- sembling veal. Its roe forms common caviar. This fish was highly prized by the ancients, and is still an esteemed food.
Acipenser rtdhenus, or sterlet, is the smallest of Euro- pean sturgeons, rarely measuring more than three feet long. It is very numerous in the Volga and Ural, and is uncommon in the IJaltic. The lateral tubercles are very numerous, and strongly carinated ; those of the under part of the body are more flattened. The flesh resembles delicate veal, and the roe forms the most highly prized caviar. See Plate CCCVII. fig. 1.
Acipenser huso, or isinglass sturgeon, is the largest of the genus, sometimes attaining the length of from twenty to thirty feet, and weighing from 1300 to between 2000 and 3000 lbs. Its skin is much less tuberculated than the com-
mon sturgeon, and is covered with a viscid mucus ; the Chondrop- snont and cirrhi are shorter. This species is chiefly found terygii. in the Caspian and Euxine, or the rivers that flow into Sturiones. those seas ; but the large sturgeons sometimes caught in ^'^"^^^"^ the northern seas appear also to belong to the same species. The best isinglass is formed of its air-bladder.
The following species, which are found in the rivers of North America, appear to be peculiar to that continent (See Ainer. Trans, vol. i.) : Acipenser brevirostris, A. o.rijrin/nchus, A. macvlosus, and A. rubicundus. The last of these appears to be the American representative of the A. riilhcniis, the preceding one of the A. sturio.^
Genus Polyodon, Lacep. ; Spatularia, Shaw. This genus, which consists but of a single species, is at once re- cognised by the enormous prolongation of its snout, which has a dilated middle, something resembling the leaf of a tree when viewed from above. The habit of the body re- sembles the sturgeon ; but the spinal column is formed of one piece, as in the lamprey. The upper jaw is formed of the maxillary and palate bones \mitcd together, and the pedicle of the mouth has two articulations ; the mouth is small, and furnished with numerous minute teeth. The spiracle is wide, and covered by a very large, soft opercu- lum, extending to the middle of the body. The intestine is provided with the spiral valve, so frequent among the Chondropterygii ; but tlie pancreas exhibits the commence- ment of a subdivision into lobules. The existence of an air-bladder suificiently distinguishes it from the Scjuali. It has only been found in the Mississippi, and does not exceed a foot in length.
Genus Chimera, Linn. This genus has a strong affi- nity to the Squall in general shape, and in the position of the fins, but the gills have only one aperture on each side ; yet, on inspecting more accurately, we see that the rays are attached by most of the edges, and that there are really five holes opening into the bottom of a general cavity. A rudiment of an operculum is found in the skin ; the jaws are still less complex than in the Squali, for the upper jaw is represented only by the vomer, and the palate bones and tympana are merely rudimentary, attached to the sides of the muzzle. Instead of teeth, the mouth is fiu-nished with undivided hard plates, of which four are above and two below. The snout resembles that of the shark, and also has regular ranges of pores. The first dorsal fin is armed with a strong spine, and is placed over the pectorals. The males, as in the Squali, are distinguished by the carti- laginous appendages of the ventral fins, divided into three branches, and have two spiny plates before the base of the ventrals. These fish have also on their front a fleshy ca- runcle, garnished with a group of small prickles. The in- testine of this genus is short, and has a spiral valve. The female lays eggs of a large size and coriaceous consistence, flattened, and hairy. The only species is Chimcera borea- lis, or northern chimera. It is found in the Northern Ocean, where it is believed to feed on the numerous Mollusca and Crustacea of that sea. It is rarely taken, because it keeps much in deep water ; but it has been occasionally caught among our northern islands, and is sometimes seen of the length of three or four feet. Its head is the thickest part of the body, whence it tapers imiformly to the tail. It is most common on the coasts of Norway, where its eggs are eaten, and the oil of its liver is used as a stimulant em- brocation. It also occurs in the iMediterranean.
Genus Cali,oiuiynchus, Gronovius. Cuvier separates this from the last genus, to which it was united by Linnae- us. It is distinguished by its snout terminating in a fleshy,
' In a quarto work published some time ago at Berlin (Geltreiic Darstclhing, &c.). containing figures and description of the various animals of use in Therapeutics, tliere is a MoiwgrajiU of the Sturgeons by Messrs Brandt and Rulzeburgh. See Anmles dcs Science} A'at. for Feb. 1831, p. 223.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
231
Selaclii
Chondrop. flattened process, something in the form of a hoe. The terygn. mouth is small, and below the snout. The second dorsal fin commences over the ventrals, and terminates opposite to the commencement of the low er part of tlie tail. The only known species inhabits the Southern Ocean. See Plate CCCVII. figs. 2 and 3.
ORDER II.-
-CHONDROPTERYGII WITH FIXED BRANCH liE.
Instead of having the gills free at their external edge, in this order we find them fixed all round ; and in respiration water is emitted through as many apertures as there are intervals between the rays. Another peculiarity of this order consists in the small cartilaginovis arches suspended from the soft parts at the outer edge of the branchiBe.
The Linniean genera Squalusand Baia are the principal members of this order ; but Cuvier and the later Ichthyo- logists have subdivided these into several genera, accord- ing to marked peculiarities in their anatomical structure.
FAMILY I.— SELACHII, OR PLAGIOSTOMI.
The palatal and post-mandibular bones support the teeth, while the bones corresponding to the jaws in other fishes are merely rudimentary. A single bone connects these jaws with the cranium, and represents at the same time tympana, jugal, and temporal bones. The os hyoides is at- tached to a single pedicle, and, as in ordinary fishes, sup- ports the rays of the gills. The labyrintli is membranous, and included in the cartilaginous substance of the cranium ; the sac attached to it does not contain, as in fishes, the porcelanous concretions, but masses that are easily pulve- rized. The pancreas has the form of a conglomerate gland. The intestinal canal is short ; but one part of the tube is fvirnished internally with a spiral lamina, that seems intend- ed to prevent the too rapid passage of the food.
The Selachii have pectoral and ventral fins ; the latter placed behind the abdomen, and on the sides of the anus.
In some respects their sexual intercourse resembles that of Mammifera. The females have well-developed oviducts, which serve the purpose of a matrix in the species whose young are perfected within the body ; while in others the ova are covered by a tough and horny envelope, to the formation of which a large gland surrounding each oviduct is subservient. These eggs, especially in the Squali, have the form of a parallelogram with long filamentous tendrils at each corner, intended for attaching the egg to Fuci or sub-marine rocks during the maturation of the young in- cluded animals. Many of these eggs are found in a female, but only two appear to be perfected at once. In these the foetus is coiled up, and to its umbilical region is attached a large pyriform bag, of a white colour, by a slender tube. On opening this bag it is found filled with a yellowish, thin liquid, like the yolk of a hen's egg, intended for the nou- rishment of the foetus. When the young animal becomes able to collect its own food, the coriaceous egg opens at one end, the creature escapes, and soon the bag, now empty and useless, drops off. Tlie males are provided with two peculiar organs, placed at the inner edge of the ventral fins. Some have supposed that these are intimately connected with the generative process ; others regard them as mere holders, by means of wiiich the female is more closely embraced by the male.
Genus Squalus, Linn.; Shark. This forms the first great genus of our present order. The general form is elongated ; the tail is thick, with the spinal cohimn con- tinued into the upper lube ; the pectoral fins are of con- siderable size ; tlie spiracles are on the sidco of the neck ;
and the eyes on each side of the head. The muzzle is Chondrop- supported by three cartilaginous projections, proceeding teryfjii. from the anterior part of the cranium ; and we can easily Selachii. observe in the skeleton the rudimentary jaws. The sea- """"'V^' pula is suspended in the flesh behind the gills. Some of the sharks are oviparous, while others are viviparous. Dis- tinct but small branchial rays ; there are rudiments of ribs along the spine ; and that column is divided into regular vertebrae.
The original genus is numerous, and may be divided as follows.
Genus Scyllium, Cuv. This division is characterised by a short, obtuse muzzle, by nostrils near the mouth, con- tinued in grooves which reach to the edge of the lip, and more or less closed by one or two cuticular lobules. Their teeth have a central point and two lateral prongs. They have spiracles, partly over the pectoral fins. Their dorsal fins are placed iiir back, the anterior not being before the ventrals. All have an anal fin ; and, in some species, its position corresponds to the interval between the two dor- sals ; the tail is elongated, truncated, not forked.
The most common on our coasts are the following spe- cies.
Sq. canicula, L. ; greater spotted dog-fish, P. This com- mon and prolific species is very numerous on the northern and western coasts of Britain. The colour of the male is dusky, with numerous distinct small, blackish, spots : the fe- male, of which some naturalists have made another species, is larger than the male, of a more red hue, variegated with deep-brown spots disposed in an ocellated pattern on the sides. The ventral fins of this species have the edge cut obliquely.
Sq. caivhis, et Sq. stellaris, are also the male and female of another species not uncommon on our coasts. This species differs from the last in size. The spots on its sur- face are fuller and broader ; the ventral fins are more square at the edge.
To this sub-genuS belong several other Squali, natives of foreign seas. They are distinguished by the position of the anal fin, which is placed behind the second dorsal ; the spiracles are remarkably small ; the fifth branchial aperture is often concealed in the fourth, and the lobes of the nostrils are usually prolonged into cirrhi.
Among the species are Sq. pendulatus ; Sq. Isabella, Shaw ; Sq. cirr/iatus, Linn. ; Sq. lobatus ; and Sq. tigrinus, Lacep., or Squalus fasciatus of Bloch.
This last is one of the most beautiful of the order, and has been observed of the length of fourteen or fifteen feet, with a large and blunt head, and tapering body. (See Plate CCCVII. fig. 4.) A kvf years ago one of them was observed for several hours to follow a Liverpool East In- diaman off Madagascar. It was elegantly transversely banded with alternate whitish and dark brown or black- ish fascia; ; and was further variegated by ocellated spots or rings on various parts of its body, which seemed to be about fourteen feet long. Its head appeared to be four and a half feet across ; but the thickest part of its body did not seem more than two feet in diameter. It was accompanied by several pilot-fish, which often swam be- fore, and returned towards it. Several attempts were made to catch it with large baits of fresh meat, but it. never ventured to seize one of them. The lower jaw was distinctly visible whenever it opened its mouth, into which the accompanying fishes seemed to tlie spectators to enter and to leave at pleasure.
Genus Suualus properly so called, Cuv. This group comprehends all those species with a pointed muzzle, under which the nostrils are placed ; but the latter parts are not terminated by a groove, nor are they furnished with lobules. The tail has more or less of a forked shape. We may farther subdivide this genus in accordance with
232
Chondrop- terygii. Selachii.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
■ the presence or absence of apertures behind the eyes, and of an anal fin.
Without Air- Holes, with Anal Fin.
Cabcharias, Cuv. This well-known and numerous group have extremely sharp-pointed teeth, often serrated on their edges. Of these, their jaws are armed with se- veral rows, which they have the power of elevating or de- pressing, and can use with remarkable effect, from the strength of the muscles moving the lower jaw. The first dorsal fin is considerably before the ventrals, and the se- cond is almost opposite to the anal. The posterior bran- chial apertures are over the pectoral fins.
The best-known species is Sg. carrharias, or white shark, the dread of seamen in hot climates, and not unfrequent- ]y seen on our own coasts. It is a very large fish, grow- ing, it is said, to more than thirty feet, and often observed to measure from fifteen to twenty-five feet. The teeth are, in full-grown animals, in six rows ; those in the up- per jaw are nearly isosceles triangles, with sharp, dentated edges ; those in the lower jaw have a narrow lancet- shaped point on a broader basis, with smooth-cutting edges. From the position of the mouth in this species, the animal turns on its side on seizing its prey. Its vo- racity is well known, and it has been seen to leap out of the water in its eagerness to snatch a suspended morsel. The jaws are so powerful as to bite at once through the body of a man. The gullet is very large, and the intes- tine short. One killed near Marseilles is alleged to have had the entire body of a man, and several fisli, in its sto- mach ; and one captured oft' the island of St Margaretta is even said to have contained the whole body of a horse. This one had the enormous weight of 1500 pounds.
The sailors believe that the pilot-fish, which is so con- stant an attendant on this species, directs him to his prey ; and, by touching his head, warns him against a baited hook. Certain it is, that the pilot-fish have been repeatedly seen clinging to a shark wl ile he was hoisting on deck, and appeared as if distressed on separation from their formidable comrade, who has never been known, in his utmost voracity, to attack his friendly guides. What the instinct is that produces this attachment is unknown ; but probably it depends on the pilot (Naucmtes ductor) obtaining its subsistence from the remains of the shark's prey, as the jackal does from that of the lion.'
Little of the age or development of this species is as- certained. The female has been known to contain many ova ; but only three or four are perfected at a time, and impregnation may take place long before the fidl growth of the animal. A shark ten feet long has been found to contain forty ova, three or four of which were near ma- turity.
Sq. vulpes, the thrasher, so called from the inordinate length of his tail, which is almost half the length of the
Selachii.
animal. It is the upper lobe-which is thus elongated ;Chondrop- and as it has the fin along its under side, it gives the or- }erygii. gan some resemblance to a fox's tail. It grows, even in our own seas, to a large size. Pennant measured one thir- teen feet, of which the tail was more than six feet. The body is round, the nose short but pointed ; the teeth are small, but sharp.
It is this species which is said to attack various Cetacea, which it harasses by dealing them violent strokes with its tail, when they rise to the surface for the purpose of breathing.
Sq. glaucus, the blue shark, is a very bold and vora- cious fish, not unfrequent on our .coasts during the her- ring season. It grows to ten, or even fourteen feet in length ; is of a slaty blue above, and smoother than the rest of the genus. Head large, muzzle very pointed ; mouth large ; teeth almost triangular, long, sharply point- ed ; the upper curvilinear, bent outwards ; the lower straighter, and all dentated.
The nostrils are long and transverse. Artedi and others have noticed a triangular fossule, with its apex downward, on the lower part of the back.
To this subdivision we must refer the following species:
Sq. ustus, Dum. ; S. ocellatus ; Sg. ciliaxis ; and several Indian species, described by Russel.
Lamna, Cuv. This subdivision is distinguished from the last by having all the spiracles hefore the pectoral fins, and by having a projecting pyramidal snout.
Sqtuilus corniibicus, portbeagle shark, is well known in the Mediterranean and British seas, and is formidable on account of its teeth and size. One caught in Ib34, on the coast of Caithness, now in the College Museum of Edinburgh, measures eight and a half feet, and is in girth four feet eight inches. Its teeth are upwards of an inch in length, extremely sharp, but not serrated. There are three rows of teeth, of an elongated form, slightly bent outward, and extremely sharp. The nostrils are under the snout, two and a half inches from the eye.^ The cir- cumference of the mouth round both jaws is about three feet. This animal is confounded with the white shark, both by seamen and naturalists ; but it differs in the form of its teeth, as well as in the other circumstances noticed in the character.
The colour of this species is deep bluish-black, and the skin is smoother than that of most of its congeners.
Sq. jnonensis, Beaumaris shark, first described by Pen- nant, was by some considered as a sexual difference only of the last ; but this is a mistake. Though similar in many respects, they are quite distinct, as the following characters, taken from a fine specimen caught in Orkney in 1833, will show. The colour of the upper parts a pale leaden gray, the lower parts yellowish white. Skin above covered with very minute granular roughnesses, but less prominent than in the Squalus catulus and Sq.
' We liave already discussed the point above alluded to, at greater length, in a preceding portion of the present treatiae. See p. 185.
' The following are the more detailed measurements of the specimen above mentioned : —
Inches
Extreme length along curvature of back....« 3
Girth at abdomen ' H
.it spiracles J 0
Width of mouth round upper lip 1 !)
round lower lij) 1 4
Length of teeth in upper jaw 0 1-5
in lower jaw 0 1-2
Length of muzzle from eye 0 ^•b
.^^^— . from upper lip 0 4-5
Eye in diameter about 0 1
Nostrils from eye 0 2 5
Ijength of spiracles 0 9
From snout to first dorsal 3 5'5
From tlrst to second dorsal 2 6
From second dorsal to caudal 0 0
First dorsal, high, .ilong its edge 1
perpendicularly 0
broad 0
Second dorsal, high 0
broad 0
Pectorals along edge I
broad (•
Caudal, upper lobe 1
lower lobe 1
spread 2
Ventral at outer edge 0
From pectoral to ventral 2
Keel near tail 0
Anal fin, broad 0
lDChC8. 1
10
9-5
1-8
1-5
5
9 10-5
3
0
4
4
<»-5
10
ICHTHYOLOGY. 233
Chondrop- cam'cafa. Form of the head obtusely conical, muzzle whalebone. The mouth is provided with small teeth; the Chondmp. tervRii- blunt. The teeth were in three rows, two of which were muzzle projects far beyond it. Nothing has ever been terygii. Selacliii. recumbent, rather than with sharp points and cutting found in its stomach except the remains of Fuei or Algae, Selacliii. ^•"^"^-^ edges, and two small processes at the bases of those of in the numerous instances in which it has been captured '^'^'y""^ the lower jaw. Numerous nasal pores were perceived on in various parts of Scotland. They grow to thirty or thir- the snout, six of which on each side admitted a slender ty-six feet or more, and are fishes of great SLrength, but probe to the depth of three inches ; but there were no are harmless, indolent, and not very sensible to slight temporal apertures. A deep sulcus, eight inches long, wounds. They often lie on the surface of the water, with extended from the ventrals to within two inches of the their large dorsal fin exposed, and permit the approach of anal fin. This specimen was a male, with two holders, each boats until the harpoon can be securely fixed in their bo- one foot two inches long, by one and a half in diameter, dies. They sometimes appear in shoals, but more cora- As this species is rare, we shall give its dimensions. monly in pairs ; and enter the bays on the western and
Feet, inohes. northern shores of Britain in the months of June and Ju-
Extreme length along curvature of back 7 8 )y^ but retire from the land on the approach of cold wea-
Girth where thickest 4. 8 ther. The liver of a full-grown fish has been known to af-
Upper Up from muzzle 0 .5 ford eight barrels of fine oil; and on this account the bask-
Mouth along curvature of upper lip 1 1 ing shark is considered as a profitable capture.
Eye round, in diameter 0 1-7 xhis is the species to which Sir E. Home erroneously
First dorsal, placed a little behind pectoral 1 1 referred the supposed sea-snake, driven on shore in Ork-
Second dorsal, very small, over anal 0 2 ney in 1808; but the enormous length of that animal,
Anal fin 0 ~"5 the smallnessof the vertebrae of the neck, andof its whole
Pectorals along their curved edge 1 6 head, still preserved in the Museum of the University of
Tail lunated, extent across tips 3 0 Edinburgh, prove that idea to be inconsistent with the
Upper lobe of ditto 1 9 fact, and show that singular animal to have been some
Lower ditto of ditto 1 3 great species of cartilaginous fish as yet unknown to na-
Distance between ventral and anal 0 10 turalists,— a species in which we are to look for the proto-
Both this and the last species have, just above the tail, type of the famous sea-serpent of the Northern Skalds,
lateral projections, that in the centre rise into a blunt edge and the wild legends of the Sagas.
one inch from the general surface in the middle, and de- Cestracion, Cuv. This sub-genus has the temporal
cline gradually into the general surface at both ends, apertures, the anal fin, and rounded teeth of S. mustelus ;
These are about eight or nine inches long. but the mouth is terminal, or at the extremity of the point- ed muzzle ; the middle teeth are small and pointed, those
With Air-Hoks and Anal Fin. at the angles of the jaw are very broad, and rhomboidal.
Galeus, or Tope. These chiefly differ from the true The only known species is a native of the Australian
Squall in having the temporal apertures. One species is seas, the Sq. Philippi, which has an elongated lobe on each
found on our coasts, and is not uncommon in the Firth of side of the head.
Clyde. It seldom exceeds, with us, five or six feet ; and o • • i ^ i r.- i ■ i a t^ <
there is reason to suspect that the accounts sometimes ^P^'''^^ without Anal Fm, but with Air-Holes.
given of its enormous size arise from confounding it with Spinax, Cuv. ; Dog-fish. The Sq. acanthias, one of our
other sharks. Its skin has a very rank, offensive smell ; most common sharks, is the type of this sub-genus. It
its colour above is light cinereous, below white ; nose has all the usual general characters of the Squali, but is
long, flattened, and sharp at the point. The muzzle without an anal fin ; it possesses the temporal apertures,
seems translucent toward the end ; the nostrils are near and is distinguished by a strong spine placed just before
the mouth ; the first dorsal is placed towards the middle each dorsal. The muzzle of our piked dog-fish is long ;
of the back, and is rather large ; the second is near the the teeth in two^rows, small, and cutting, bending from
tail ; the tail is finned beneath, and ends in a sharp angle about the middle of the jaw toward the corners of the
above. mouth. The tail is unequal ; the upper lobe much the
Mustelus, Hound. This subdivision combines the longest, but the lower lobe is finned for a considerable
characters of Carcharias and Galeus, but it has the tem- space beneath. The colour is of an ash-gray, dashed with
poral apertures and small rounded teeth. The species brown above and white below : when young, the sides are
are of moderate size : Cuvier thinks that Linnaeus has mottled with whitish spots,
confounded two distinct species in his Sq. mustelus. Several foreign species, especially those described by
NoTiDANUS, Dry-back. This subdivision is distinguish- Rafinesque, appear mere varieties of our Squalus spinax ;
ed from Galeus, to which it has much resemblance, by the indeed this author has multiplied species on very slender
want of the first dorsal fin. authority.
Sq. cinereus has a pointed muzzle, seven large bran- Centrina, Cuv. So called from their strong dorsal
chial apertures, with a smooth skin compared to most of spines. This subdivision has all the characters of Spinax,
the family of sharks : the teeth are compressed and sharp ; as far as the spines, want of the anal fin, and possession
the dorsal is in the middle of the back. Length about of temporal apertures ; but the body is less elongated,
three feet. the last dorsal is placed over the ventral, and the tail is
Sq. griseus. Colour, ash colour above, white below ; short. The best known is the
six wide branchial apertures ; teeth large, triangular Sq. cetUrina, Linn. A species uncommon in our seas,
above, serrated below; snout depressed and rounded; but occurring on various coasts of Europe. (Plate CCCVII.
anal fin half way between the ventral and the tail. These fig. 6.) The mouth is far beneath the snout ; the nose is
, two are natives of the Mediterranean. Another species blunt ; the head small ; in the upper jaw are three rows
of this subdivision is found in the Indian seas. of teeth, and one only in the lower, all of which are slen-
Selache, Basking Shark. Contains as yet only a single der and pointed. The dorsal fins are large ; the spine in
species, which unites to the general form of Carcharias, the anterior pointing forward, that in the posterior is di-
and to the air-holes of Galeus, large branchial apertures reeled backwards ; both project through the epidermis of
almost surrounding the neck. It is the gills of this spe- the fins,
cies that have been erroneously described as a sort of The Squalus squamosus belongs to this division. It is
VOL. XII. 2 a
234
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chondrop- allied to Sq.c€ntrina,\)wt has conspicuous, ovate, hard, ca- terygii. rinated scales.
belaehii. -j-j^g gj^jj,^ jjj^g jji^^ pj- jjjQgt other sharks, is rough, with ''"^"^ numerous sharp granular eminences.
ScYMNUs, Cuv. This subdivision has all the charac- teristics of Centrina, except the dorsal spines.
The European species is the Sq. Americaniis of Brous- sonet and Shaw. It occurs on the coasts of France, off Cape Breton, which lias been mistaken for the transatlan- tic Cape Breton. It appears to be identical with Risso's Sq. Nicensis.
The formidable animal described by O. Fabricius, in his Fauna Groenlandica, as Sq. carcharias, is now, from the descriptions of Scoresby and others, to be referred to this sub-genus. It is Scoresby 's Sq. borealis. It wants the anal fin, but has the temporal orifices. It grows to the length of twelve or fourteen feet, and is six or eight in circumference. Scoresby mentions the singular appen- dages which he invariably found attached to the cornea of this animal. Some have supposed them to be parasitic animals. If so, it is singular that they should be so uni- formly in the same position, and of the same size, about one or two inches long, and cleft at their fore extremity into two parts. This shark is peculiarly attracted by a dead whale, out of which it scoops at once masses of blubber as large as a man's head. The sailors believe this species to be blind, from its returning to feed on its fa- vourite morsel, even after having aflensingkniferun through its body ; but this only shows its fondness for whale blubber, — to which circumstance we may also attribute the comparative safety of Greenland sailors who have fallen into the water when flensing the whale. But, if we may credit Fabricius, when this delectable food is not present, he will attack the slender bark of the Greenlanders.
To this division belong also the Sq. spinosus and La- bordii.
Genus Zyg^na, Cuv. This genus, which has the ge- neral form of body and fins of Carcharias, is distinguished by the extraordinary form of its head, that has no analogy in nature, except in some of the insect tribe. It is flat- tened horizontall}', truncated in front, and extended late- rally into two arms, at the extremity of which are the eyes, giving to the animal the form of a hammer. The mouth is below the centre of this singular head, and the nostrils at its anterior edges on each side. The most com- mon in Europe is the .S'^'. zygcena, or hammer-headed shark, which often attains the length of sixteen or seven- teen feet, and is formidable on account of its voracity and strength. It is found also around the West Indies, and in the Indian Ocean, especially at Taheite, where the natives are said, from their dexterity in swimming, to hold it in little dread. It is a very prolific animal. Two kin- dred species are known : the Sq. Blochii, Cuv., which dif- fers in having the nostrils nearer the middle of the head, and its two dorsals much nearer the tail ; and Sq. tiburo, or heart-headed shark, a much rarer species, which we have received from the coast of Guyana. We here figure ZygcEna Leivinii, a species captured off the south coast of New Holland. Plate CCCVII. fig. 5.
Genus Suuatina, Dumer. ; Angel-fish. Has the tem- poral apertures without the anal fin ; but its mouth is ter- minal, and its eyes are both placed on its dorsal surface, in which it differs from all the sharks. The head and body are flattened ; the pectoral fins are extremely broad, and project forward to the sides of the head, but are separat- ed from it and the neck by a fissure, in which the bran- chial apertures are placed ; the two dorsals are behind the ventrals, and the tail is equally finned above and below the spinal column.
The best-known species is the Sq. squatina, Linn., or angel-shark, which grows to eight or ten feet. It is a bold
and voracious fish ; when captured, it bites with great Chondrojv fury ; it preys much on flat fish ; it has tentacula on its terygii. upper lip ; its eyes, placed obliquely, give it a sinister look- SelachiL The English name has been given ironically to this hide- ous creature, which is by seamen generally termed devil- fish.
The teeth are slender, sharp, and dilated at their base ; the dorsal fins very small, the pectorals very broad, the ventral large, and enclosing the male organs. The upper lobe of the tail longer than the lower. It is very prolific, fourteen young being sometimes found in its belly ; twelve frequently.
To this genus we raust also refer the Sq^ aculeatus of the Mediterranean.
Genus Pristis, Lath. ; Saw-fish. This last genus has the general form of the Squali, but is more flattened in front, and has the branchial apertures beneath, like the Rays. The most peculiar character, however, consists in the great depression and extension of the snout, which has on each side a row of strong teeth or spines, which are trenchant on the fore-side, and mucronated. These spines are not, however, their true teeth. These are lodged in the mouth, and are very small and rounded. But, with their formidable beak, they are said successfully to attack the larger Cetacea. In the foetal Pristis the ru- diments of these osseous spines are mere tubercles, and the snout is folded up over the head of the embryon. These spines are not, like the teeth of cartilaginous fishes, attached by ligaments to the bones, but are firmly implant- ed in the bone of the snout.
The best-known species is the Sq. pristis of Linn, or Pristis antiqiiorum. It grows to a great size. We have measured snouts more than ten inches in diameter, and four feet seven inches in length, with sixteen or eighteen spines on each side, some of which projected three inches. The animal attains the length of sixteen or eighteen feet. There are other species chiefly distinguished by the num- ber and form of these spines : as Pristis cuspidatus, — Pr. pectinatus, with numerous slender teeth, — Pr. microdon, — P. cirratus, with alternate long and short teeth, — and Pr. semi-sagittatus, a small Indian species, in which the spines are deeply denticulated on the posterior edge.
Genus Raia (or Ray) of Linnaeus. This great genus of the Selachii is very numerous, and the species often grow to a vast size. They are readily recognised by their flattened body, like the Pleuronectes, forming a horizontal disk, very broad in proportion to its thickness, in consequence ofthe body graduating into the enormous pectorals of the ani- mal, which unite in front with the snout, and extend on both sides of the abdomen to the base of the ventral fins. See skeleton of the thorn-back (i?. clavata), Plate CCCVII. fig. 9. The scapula of these vast pectorals are articulated with the spine just behind the branchial aper- tures. These apertures, the nostrils, and mouth, are on the ventral surface of the fish ; the temporal orifices, and the eyes, are on the dorsal surface. The dorsal fins are usually placed on the tail. These animals are oviparous. Their eggs are coriaceous, square, with long angles. The subdivisions of Cuvier are the following.
Genus Rhinobatus, Sch. Distinguished by the length of the snout ; connects the sharks and rays. They have a thick and fleshy tail, like Squali, with two dorsal and two caudal fins. Their snout and pectorals form a sharp rhom- boid. Their teeth are placed in a quincunx arrangement. In some the first dorsal is placed over the ventral fins, in others it is placed farther back. The best known is the IVIediterranean Raia rhinobatus, which is found four feet in length. The others are, R. T/iouiniana (Plate CCCVII. fig. 7), supposed by Cuvier a variety of that just named, but it has such difference of form as to entitle it to be con- sidered a distinct species ; R. djiddensis, Forsk. ; one de-
ICHTHYOLOGY.
235
Selachii.
Chondrop- scribed by Russel, R. suttivara ; and one from Brazil, R. terygii. electricus, Marc, whicli, as its specific name implies, has been said to possess some of tlie properties of the Torpedo.
Genus Rhina, Sch. This subdivision has a short, rounded muzzle ; in other respects it is like the last nam- ed. The species is R. anci/lostomus of Bloch.
Genus Torpedo, Dum. This subdivision is short, and rather fleshy. The body appears a nearly circular disk, the anterior edge being composed of two projections of the muzzle, which stretch sidewise, and unite with the pectorals. The space between these last and the head is entirely filled with the very extraordinary electric appara- tus first accurately described by John Hunter. It consists of irregular columns, varying from one and a half inch to one fourth of an inch in length by 0-2 broad. They are irregular hexagons or pentagons, reaching from surface to surface of the fish, and forming (in that dissected by Hunter) an electric organ five inches long, varying in breadth from three to about one and a half inches. Their number on both sides is about 940 in a small fish ; but in a large one there were 2364. Their coats are thin and transparent ; they are horizontally divided by thin parti- tions, so numerous that one inch of these columns con- tained 150 dissepiments filled with fluid. This curious apparatus is supplied with numerous nerves from the eighth pair. The columns are firmly united by cellular substance. When the skin covering this apparatus is touched, the person receives a violent shock at each con- tact ; and it is probable that in this way the species stuns its prey. The animal can give the shock at pleasure ; but if often reiterated, the shocks are weakened, until the ner- vous energy of the fish is recruited by rest. This animal electricity is conducted and intercepted by the same sub- stances that conduct and intercept ordinary artificial elec- tricity. Wehere figure T.Ba7icrqftii. ^PlateCCCVll.fig.S.
Several species occur in Europe, which Linna2us con- founded together under the title of Raia torpedo. We have Torpedo naske, distinguished by having no fleshy dentations at the edges of its temporal apertures ; its dor- sal spots vary from one to five : Torp. Galvmiii has seven dentations round its air-holes, and is of an uniform brown, sometimes marbled or spotted with darker tints : Torp. marmorata is another Mediterranean species, described by Risso. We know several foreign species, such as Torp. temeree and Torp. nalatemeree of Russel, Torp. timlei? of Bloch.
Genus Raia, properly so called. Has a rhomboidal body united to a slender tail, which has near its extremi- ty two small dorsals, with, in some instances, a vestige of a caudal fin. The teeth are small, and disposed in a quincunx arrangement on the jaws. Several species in- habit the European seas, some of which are yet indiffer- ently distinguished by naturalists. As articles of diet, some of them are frequently used ; and though seldom seen at the tables of the rich, they are by no means des- picable food, especially their pectorals.
Raia clavata, or thornback, is a common species, dis- tinguished by the roughness of its back, and the strong os- seous oval plates, each furnished with a curved prickle, that are irregularly scattered on both its surfaces. These plates are variable in number, and therefore do not afford any diagnostic character.
Raia rubus, rough ray. There is much confusion among Ichthyologists respecting this and the next species. Cu- vier seems to think that the Balls of Pennant and Rubus of Lacepede are the same ; but Rubus of Pennant and Willughijy is certainly different from the skate, and dis- tinguished from the last by its less pointed nose and the greater length of the tail, and is more thickly studded with small spines, not only on the back, but on the fins and belly, which are equally rough with the back. There are
Selachii.
three rows of large spines down the tail, the surface of Chondrop. which is irregularly beset with small prickles. It is to this i^'.^K^.'- species that we confine the name of R. rubus. It is less common than R. batis, and is a much smaller fish. Found among the Hebrides.
R. batis, the skate. One of the thinnest and broadest of the tribe ; but sometimes growing to an immense size, and weighing 200 pounds. The nose, though not very long, is pointed. Sometimes the surface of the back is marbled with dusky and white. Along the tail is one row of spines ; a few are irregularly dispersed on the sides of the tail, and the fins of the males have many small spines.
The spring is their season of love ; and when coupling, both may be drawn into the boat, though one only has taken the bait. The male holders appear to be true organs of penetration, as we have been assured by fishermen. The eggs have the form of coriaceous parallelograms, and are vulgarly with us termed purses, which the females begin to cast in May, and continue to perfect and cast till Septem- ber. This species is often eaten, as well as the thornback, both in the greatest perfection in spring.
R. oxyriiichus, the sharp-nosed ray. We do not agree with Cuvier in confounding this with R. batis. The form of the nose is much longer and narrower ; the body much smoother than any species we have mentioned, though there are triple rows of small spines along the tail. A single row of small spines runs down its back, and a few are scattered about the eyes. The teeth too, in this species, differ from those of the skate, being bent inward, and less granular. It is not inferior in size to the skate. Indeed specimens are said to have been seen of the weight of 500 pounds.
Some species of this division have a sort of membra- nous expansion, like a fin elevated in the middle of the back. This has been seen also in rays in other respects resembling the skate ; but it is particularly conspicuous in R. Cuvieri. To this division likewise belong R. undulata, Lacej)., R. fultonica, R. marginata, R. miraletus, Ronde- let, R. picta, R. alba, and others.
Genus Trygon, Adans. Is characterised by having the tail armed with a spine, finely serrated on both sides ; and by the teeth, which are slender, and crowded in a quin- cunx. Form of the disk obtuse ; some have the tail fleshy, but in many it is very slender, and almost destitute of the rudiment of a fin. Most of them have smooth bodies ; their caudal spine long — a powerful weapon of offence and of defence, which inflicts severe and dangerous wounds.
R. pastinacea, Linn. ; sting ray. Is found on the Euro- pean coasts. Some have a few prickles on the back ; it is tuberculated in others. In some species the lower part of the tail has a broad membrane, — others have a short tail terminated by a fin. The principal species are, P. tuber- culata; P. Wolga Tenkee, Russ. ; P. sephen, Forsk. ; P. Ges- neri, Cuv. ; P. lymna, P. Jamaicensis, Cuv. ; P. cruciata, Lacep. ; P. kunsua, Russ.
Genus Anacanthus, Ehrenb. Has a general resem- blance to Pastinaca, but is destitute of the spine and anal fin. This sub-genus is formed from the description receiv- ed of the large shagreen ray of the Red Sea, in which the grains are stellular.
R. orbicularis, Bl. belongs to this division. Genus Myliobatis, Dumer. This sub-genus has the head projecting beyond the pectorals altogether ; and these fins have a greater proportional breadth than in the other rays, which gives these animals no small resemblance to a bird with its wings extended ; but their name is derived from the millstone-like form of their broad flat teeth, planted on their jaws like the stones of a pavement : their tail, long, slender, and tapering to a point, is armed, as in Pastinaca, with a strong spine, toothed on both sides, and is furnished, just above the spine, with a small dorsal fin. In some instances there are two or more such spines.
236
Chondrop
terygii.
Cyclos-
tomi.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Raia aquila, or eagle ray, grows to an immense size : it has a projecting parabolic snout : the plates or teeth in the middle of the jaws are in a single row, much broader than long ; but the lateral ones are hexagons in three ranges. The eyes are prominent, the tail very long and slender. It has been known to measure fifteen feet in length, and to weigh 300 lbs. It is said to swim with a slow sailing motion, and when captured vibrates its tail with great activity. It yields much fine oil. Inhabits the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. To this division also we must refer the following species :
R. guttata, Shaw, Plate CCCVII. fig. 10, synonymous with the Eel- Tenhee of Russel ; R. fasciata, Shaw ; Myl. bovina, and Myl. marginaia, Geoff. ; which last has the snout cleft into two short lobes, and belongs to the sub-genus Rhirwptera of Kuhl.
Genus Cephaloptera, Dum. The last division of the rays is distinguished by the bifurcation of the appendages to the head, derived from the pectorals, which give the species the appearance of being horned. The head is trun- cated between these projections ; the teeth are less strong than those of Pastinaca, and are finely crenulated on the edges ; the tail, spine, and small dorsal fin, resemble those of Myliohatis. ;
The best known is the gigantic Chephal. giorna of the Mediterranean, the back of which is blackish, bordered with violet. (PlateCCCVII.fig.il.) The animals which are mentioned by Shaw as Raia manatia, R. fahroniana, and R. Banksiana, are considered by Cuvier as doubtful species.' It is probable that the R. diabolus of Willughby, described by Duhamel, and said also to occur at the Azores, may be a distinct species, or perhaps the same as the Ere- goodoo-Tenkee of Russel, which Cuvier is disposed to con- sider as a species well established. Ch. massena of Risso is a Mediterranean species, twelve feet long and twenty- seven in circumference. The female weighs 1250 lbs., the male about 800 lbs. Top of the horns black, the base blu- ish externally, and white on their inner sides. Of the pair described by Risso, the female was first taken ; and the au- thor adds, that the male continued constantly about the boat for three days, as if bewailing the fate of his compa- nion, and was then found floating dead.
FAMILY II.— CYCLOSTOMI, OR SUCKERS.
The suckers, as far as their skeleton is concerned, are the most imperfect of all vertebrate animals. The bodies of all their vertebra; are traversed by a single tendinous cord, uniformly tapering from head to tail, which almost reduces
the vertebrae to cartilaginous rings, scarcely distinct from Chondrop." one another, and not even cartilaginous through their terygii. whole circumference. The body is terminated abruptly Cycles- in front by a fleshy circular or semicircular mouth, sup- ^°'°'' ported on a cartilaginous ring formed by the union of the ^^'^~'-^ palatal and maxillary bones. No ribs are distinguishable : there are no solid branchial arches ; but the small branchial rays, scarcely recognisable in Squaltis and Raia, are in them fully developed, and united together into a sort of lattice. The gills, instead of the pectinated form they have in almost all other fishes, exhibit the appearance of little sacs, from the union of each gill with that adjacent. The labyrinth is enclosed in the cranium, the nostrils have only a single aperture, in front of which is a cul-de-sac, mistaken by some authors for a temporal orifice. The intestine is straight and narrow, with a spiral valve.
Genus Petromyzon, Linn. This genus is distinguish- ed by seven branchial apertures on each side ; the skin above and below the tail is elevated in a rayless fin. The sub-genera are the following :
Genus Petromyzon, Dum. or Lamprey properly so called. Maxillary ring armed with strong teeth, within which are tubercles, with a hard enamel lining the lips. This ring is suspended by a piece answering to an inter-maxillary bone. The tongue is furnished with two longitudinal ranges of small teeth, and is capable of vigorous motion. The tongue acting like a piston in the circular mouth, is an essential part of the mechanism by which the fish is enabled to attach it- self firmly to stones, or to fasten itself to the larger fishes, which it is thus enabled to suck and devour at its leisure. In respiration, the water is carried from the mouth to the gills by a canal under the gullet, and pierced with lateral apertures. The dorsal fin is farther forward than the anus, and a second unites with the tail. The European species are,
P. tnarinus, the greater lamprey, which grows to the length of more than three feet. (Plate CCC VIL fig. 12.) It is considered as a delicate food, and is caught as it as- cends rivers in the end of winter and spring.^ Colour yel- lowish, marbled with brown. First dorsal fin very distinct from the second. This fish is common in the Severn, and in the mouths of many European rivers. Its supposed hermaphroditism is mentioned by Sir Everard Home.^
P.Jiuviatilis, the lampern, or nine-eyed eel.'' Length from twelve to eighteen inches ; olive back, silvery below ; first dorsal distinct from the second. Two thick teeth, separate, in the top of the maxillary ring. Ascends rivers from the sea ; swarms in the Thames, Severn, and Dee. Vast quan- tities taken in England are sold to the Dutch for the turbot fishery. It abounds in the rivers on the southern side of
' There is no doubt, however, that one or other of those names refers to an existing though obscurely known species, of enor- mous size. A specimen of the Bankiian ray is said to have been found on the coast of Barbadoes, of such a vast weight that seven yoke of oxen were required to draw it. A figure of tlie Ceph. manatia was sent to Lac^pede, the original of wiiich was alleged to be nearly twenty feet long. " It seems that it is to this species we may refer what Barrere and other travellers have said of the enormous rays of the American and equinoctial seas, which spring above the surface of the water, and splash it to an immense distance on falling into it. Levaillant, in his second voyage to Africa, speaks of having seen one, the smallest of three, which swam round about the vessel, about twenty-five feet long and more than thirty wide; and Sonnini speaks of one which appeared to him larger and wider than the ship in which he was sailing." " Colonel Hamilton Smith once witnessed the destruction of a soldier by one of these Cephalopteri, off Trinidad. It was supposed that the soldier, being a good swimmer, was attempting to desert from the ship, which lay at anchor in the entrance of the Bocca del Toro. The circumstance occurred soon after daylight ; and the man, being alarmed by the call of a sailor in the main cross-trees, endeavoured to return to the vessel ; but the monster threw one of his fins over him, and carried him down. The colonel is positive as to this fish being a Cephalopterus." (Griffith's Anivial Kingdom, vol. X. p. G53.)
^ The death of Henry I. was attributed to a too plentiful meal of lampreys. They seem, however, to have continued in high esteem in spite of that " untoward event ;" — at least we find Henry IV. granting protection to such ships as brought over lampreys for his royal consorVs table ; and his successor issued a warrant to William of Nantes, for supplying himself and his army with these fishes, wherever they might happen to march. {Rynier, ix. 544, as quoted by Pennant.)
3 Phil. Trans. 1815, 266.
•* " Whether," says Sir Thomas Brown, " Lampries have nine eyes, as is received, we durst refer it unto Polyphemus himself, who had but one to judge it ; an error concerning eyes, occasioned by the error of eyes, deduced from the appearance of divers cavi. ties or holes on either side, which some call eyes that carelessly behold them ; and is not only refutable by experience, but also re- pugnant unto reason." (jPscudodoxia Epidemica.)
ICHTHYOLOGY.
237
Conclusion, the Baltic. Both these animals are very tenacious of life, ^"'"Y''*^ and will live many days out of water.
P. planeri. About ten inches long ; greatly resembles the preceding ; but the two dorsal fins are united. It is also an European river fish.
The other species described by Shaw appear to be but mere varieties of the above.
Genus Myxine, Linn. This genus is properly separat- ed from the lampreys, to which, however, it has much resemblance. It is distinguished by having only two spi- racles, and by wanting eyes. The species best known, Mijxiiie glutinosa, Linn., or glutinous hag, was classed by Linnaeus with the Vermes ; but its real place is among chondropterygian fishes. The mouth is a membranous ring, with a single tooth on its superior part ; while the strong dentations of the tongue are arranged in two rows on each side, so as to give to these animals the appearance of having lateral jaws, like insects or nereides ; but the rest of their structure corresponds with Petromyzon, and their tongue in particular performs the office of a piston in exhausting the mouth, so as to enable them to adhere to other bodies, like the lamprey. The lips are furnished with eight cirrhi, and above is an aperture commiuiicating with the mouth ; the body is nearly cylindrical, and terminates in a fin which surrounds the tail. The intestine is simple, wide, and straight, as viewed externally ; but it is plaited within : the liver has two lobes : the eggs grow to a con- siderable size. When taken and confined in a large glass jar, a single fish will pour so much mucus from its lateral pores as to give the water the appearance of jelly.
Three species are known, which Cuvier makes the types of a corresponding number of sub-genera, as follows :
\st, Heptatremus, Dumer. With seven branchial apertures, as in the lamprey. This animal is the M. Dom- beyi, found on the coast of South America by Dombey. It has a rounded head ; the teeth are sharp, and arranged in two rows, respectively of fourteen and twenty-two, and with one longer than the rest in the upper part of the mouth ; tail rounded at the extremity, and terminated by a very shallow fin.
2(/, Gastrobranchus, Bloch. The intervals of the branchial rays open into a common canal for each side, and these two canals terminate in two apertures under the heart of the animal, about one third of its length from the head.
The only known species is the European Myxine gluti- ttosa, Linn. On the Yorkshire coast the fishermen occa- sionally find that it has entered the mouths of fish on the hooks of the long lines, and devoured the flesh, leaving only the skin and bones. They often catch it in the fish thus emptied, and term it the sea-hag. It grows to the length of six or eight inches.
3d, Ammocjetes, Dumer. Is destitute of a real skeleton ; body cylindrical, with numerous annular lines around it, that give it much the appearance of a worm. It lives in the mud of rivers. Mouth cirrhated, toothless, lobated be- low, and incapable of adhering by suction to other bodies ; fins very shallow ; tail sharp at the tip ; no tracheal tube, as in the rest, but the gills receive water from the oesopha- gus. The only species is P. bra?ichialis, Shaw, the Pride of Pennant, which grows to six or eight inches long, and is as thick as a goose-quill. It inhabits the rivers of Ox- fordshire, and occurs in various parts of tlie European con- tinent.
We have now brought our exposition of the modern system of Ichthyology to a close. The subjects of which it treats are of deep and sustaining interest, in a philoso- phical point of view, and of the highest and most imme- diate importance when considered in relation to the eco- nomical advantages derivable bji the humaa race. We
have endeavoured to combine with the precise and tech- Conchisicni. nical expression of the generic and other characters such ^"■•~,-^~-' miscellaneous information as could be collected from au- thentic sources, with a view to render the subject more palatable to the general reader ; — and if any great defi- ciency in that department is observable, we hope it may in some measure be attributed to the nature of this branch of natural history, the objects of which inhabiting another element from ourselves, have thus their on-goings too often veiled from mortal sight by a " world of waters," — which no eye can pierce but the eye of Him who call- ed the light out of darkness, and who created the " hea- vens and the earth, the sea, and all that in them is."
We shall conclude with a brief allusion to a subject of the highest interest to the naturalist, — one to which we believe no reference has been made in the introductory portion of the present treatise, and which, we regret, our now exhausted space must prevent us from exhibiting at greater length, — ^we mean the geographical distribution of fishes. Our knowledge of the laws which regulate that distribution is meagre in the extreme ; in other words, the facts concerning their true localities are few, and have never been properly generalised. From the immea- surable extent and continuous nature of the fluid which they inhabit, they are supplied by nature with greater faci- lities of dispersion than most other animals ; and the greater equality of the temperature of water, compared with that ot earth or air, admits in several instances of the same spe- cies inhabiting almost every latitude from pole to pole. Those races especially, which, travelling together in vast shoals, speedily consume the natural food which each par- ticular spot affords, are obliged, like the pastoral tribes of old, or the woodland hunters of America, to remove from place to place in search of additional supplies ; and thus the species acquires a more widely extended distribution. It is thus that the cod and herring are spread over the whole extent of the Northern Ocean, and in undiminished numbers, notwithstanding the war of extermination which man and other voracious animals appear to wage against them. Those species which lead a solitary, and, as it may be called, a stationary life, are frequently confined within very narrow limits. The Chaetodons, for example, which delight in rocky coasts covered with madrepores, attach themselves to the torrid zone, which produces so abun- dantly those magnificent ornaments of the sea. But though thus confined to particular spots, from which the individuals of the species seldom wander, the species itself may be said to be repeated again in different regions, se- parated from each other by almost insurmountable obsta- cles. Thus many of what may be termed stationary spe- cies are found identically the same along the coasts of Brazil, in the Arabian Gulf, and over the multiplied shores of Polynesia. It has hence been concluded, that such species, incapable of colonizing themselves by leaving their accustomed shores, and hazarding a journey across unknown oceans, have either been created in more places than one, or have been enabled to transport themselves by means different from any of those that are now available in the ordinary course of nature.
If the natural means by which the more powerful species inhabiting the saline waters of the ocean have spread them- selves from clime to clime, be to a certain extent within the reach of our comprehension, it is otherwise with those peculiar to rivers, and the waters of inland lakes. How these have contrived to migrate from one region to ano- ther, and to people with identical species the depth of far- removed and solitary waters, separated from each other by chains of lofty mountains, or wide extended wastes of de- sert sand, is a problem which, in the present state of our knowledge, we seek in vain to solve. It may indeed at times happen that spawn or ova are carried by water-fowl
238
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Index, from one great central reservoir to another, and thus the fices to account for the general diffusion of certain species, Index. ^"^"^^ rivers of half a continent may be put in possession of spe- and still less for the narrow restriction of others equally ^-^'Y'^ cies unknown before ; — but this supposition scarcely suf- exposed to the chances of that aerial flight.' (t.^)
INDEX.
Page.
Abramis 198
ACANTHOPTERY-
GII 166
Acanthurus 190
Acerina 169
Achirus 221
Acipenser 230
Ageneiosi 202
Agriopus 174
Alepocephalus 200
Aleuteres 229
Alosa 21.5
Ambassis 168
Amia 216
Ammodytes 227
Ammocaetes 237
Amphiprion 176
Amphisile 197
Anabas 190
Anableps 199
Anacanthus 235
Anarrhichas 193
Anastomus 212
Anchor)/ 216
Ancylodon 176
Angel-Jish 234
Anguilla 223
Anguilliformes 223
Anthius 168
Apistiis 174
Apogon 168
Argentina 212
Argyreyosus 186
Aspidophorus 174
Aspredo 203
Aspro 168
Astrodermus 187
Atherina 192
Aulopus 213
Aulostoma 197
Auxis 183
Auxinurus 190
Bagrus 202
Balistes 229
Baloon-fish 228
Barbel 198
Barbus 198
Batrachus 195
Becher 177
Belone 200
Benticles 175
Bergylt. 174
Bervx 170
Bk'ak 199
Page.
Blcnnius 192
Bleimy 192
viviparous 193
Blepharis 186
Bonito 198
Boops 178
Braize 177
Brama 180
Bream 177
common 198
Mack ......177
little 198
sea 177
Spanish 177
Brill 220
Brocket 168
Brosraius 219
Brotula 219
BuCCiE LOKICATiE 172
Bull-head. ,.173
Buffalo-fish 179
Butirinus 216
Callionymus 194
Callorhynclius 230
Cantharis 177
Capros 189
Caranx 186
Carapus 226
Carcharias 232
Carp. 197
common 197
golden 198
CARTILAGINOUS
FISHES 229
Cataphractus 203
Catastomus 198
Cat-fish 202
Centrarchus 169
Centrina 233
Centriscus 197
Centrolophus 187
Centroporaus 168
Centropristis 169
Cephaloptera 236
Cepola 189
Cestracion 233
Chaetodon 178
Chalceus 212
Char 208
Characinus 212
Chatoessus 215
Chauliodus 200
Cheilinus 195
Cheilodactylus 176
Page.
Chelmon 178
Chimaera 230
Chirocentrus 216
Chironectes 195
Chironemus 169
Chirus 194
CHONDROPTERY-
GII 229-231
WITH FREE BRAN-
CHi« 2.30
WITH FIXED BRAN-
CHi« 231
Chorenemus 186
Chromis 196
Chrysophris 177
Cirrhibarbus 192
Cirrhites 169
Citharinus 213
Clepticus 196
Clinus 192
Clupea 214
Clupid* 214
Coal-fish 218
Cobitis 199
Cod 217
Colisa 190
Comephora 194
Coregonus 211
Coricus 196
Corvina 175
Coryphaena 186
Cottus 173
Crenilabrus 195
Curimata 212
Cybium 183
Cychla 196
Cyclopterus 221
Cyclostomi 236
CvPRINIDiE 197
Cyprinodon 199
Cyprinus 197
Dab 220
Dactylopterus 173
Dascyllus 176
Datnia 169
Deal-fish 189
Dentex 177
Devil-fish 234
Diagramma 176
Diodon 228
Diploprion 168
Dipterodon 180
Discoboli 221
Dog-fish 233
Page.
Dolphin 187
Doras 202
Dorse 218
Dory 188
Dragonet 194
gemmeous 194
sordid 194
Drums 176
Dules 169
Echeneis 222
Eel 223
common 223
conger 224
electric 225
sand 227
Egyptian herring 201
Elacate 186
Eleotris 194
Elops 196-216
Emperor of Japan 179
Enchelyopus 226
Engraulis 216
Enoplosus 168
Ephippus 179
Eques 176
Equula 189
Erythrinus 216
EsociD^ 199
Esox 199
Etelis 168
Exocetus 201
Fan-fish 184
Father lasher 174
Fishes.
Definition of. 151
Form and character of 153
Osteology of 154
Muscles and motions of 1 56 Nervous system of.... 157
Senses of 157
Nutrition, manduca- tion, and degluti- tion of 159
Circulating system of. 160
Respiration of. 161
Swimming bladder of.l61 Rank in the animal
kingdom 162
Classification of. 163
Tabular view of the Cuvierian system... 165 Fistularia 196
FlSTULARID^ 196
' Consult M. Gaimard'3 Memnirc iitr la Distribution Geographique des Poiisons ; an Essay on Geography considered in relation to natural history, in the seventh volume of the Diction. Classiqite cTHist. Nat. ,• and our lUiulrctions of Zoologij, letter-press preceding plate XX.
= The author of the preceding treatise has to acknowledge his obligations to Sir AVilliam Jardine, Bart., for the use of his notes on the Salmonida?, — to Professor Traill, for assistance in relation to the Apodal Malacopterygian, and Chondropterygian tribes,— gnd to Dr Allan Thomson, for bis aid in drawing up the history of the Clupidse, and of the Sub-brachian Malacopterygians.
ICHTHYOLOGY.'
239
Index. rage.
k— ,- — ' Flat-fish 219
Flounder 220
Flying-fish 173
Mediterranean 173
Oceanic 201
Fundulus 199
Gadid^e 217
Gadus 217
Galeus 233
Gallichtys 186
Galaxias 200
Gar-fish 200
Gasteropelecus 212
Gasterosteus 175
Gastrobranchus 237
Gempylus 183
Gherad-el-hahir 174
Gilt-head. 177
Glyphisodon 176
Gobies 193
Gobiesox 221
Gobio 198
GOBIOID^E 192
Gobioides 193
Gobius 193
Gonorhynchus 199
Gramniistes 168
Grayling 210
Gristes 169
Gudgeon 198
Gunnel, common 193
Gunellus 192
Gurnards 173
Gyninarchus 226
Gymnetrus 189
GVMNODONTES 228
Gymnotus 225
Haddock 208
Haemulon 176
Hake 218
Harvest-fish 188
Heliases 176
Helostoma 190
Helotes 169
Hemilepidotus 174
Hemiraniphus 201
Hemitripterus 174
Henochius 178
, Heptatremus 237
Herring 214
Heterobranchus 202
Hippocampus 227
Hippoglossus 220
Histiophorus 184
Holibut 220
Holocaiithus 179
Holocentrura 170
Huro 168
Hydrocyon 213
Hynnis 186
Hyodon 216
Hypostoma. 203
Ichthyology 151
Definition of. 151
Historical sketch of... 151
Ikan-sumpit 180
Johnius 176
Page.
King-fish 189
King of the herrings 189
Kitt 220
Kurtus 188
Labeo 198
Labrax 167
Labrid^b 195
Labrus 195
Labyrinthiform Pha- ryngeals 190
Lamna 2.32
Lampern 236
Lamprey 236
Lampris 189
Lampugus 187
Laimce, common 227
Lates 168
Latehis 176
Lebias 199
Lepadogaster 221
Lepidopus 183
Lepisosteus 216
Leptocephalus 226
Leuciscus 198
Lichia 186
Ling 218
Liparis 222
Loach 199
Lobotes 176
Lophotes 189
Lophius 194
LOPHOBRANCHII...227
Loricaria 203
Lota 218
Lucio-perca 168
Lump-fish 221
Lumpus 221
Luvarus 188
Mackerel 180
Macrourus 219
Macropodiis 1 90
Maigre 175
Malacanthus 1 96
Makaira 184
Malapterurus 203
MALACOPTERYGII
ABDOMINALES...197 MALACOPTERYGII
APODES 223
MALACOPTERYGII
SUB-BRACHIATI..217
Malarmat 173
Mallotus 210
Malthe 195
Mango-fish 171
Mastacomblus 186
Megalops 216
Mene 189
MenidvE 178
Merluccius 218
Memis 169
Mesoprion 169
Microstoma 200
Miller's thumb 1 73
Minnow 199
Molinesia 199
Monocanthus 229
Monocentris 174
Page.
Monochirus 22 1
Mormyrus 201
Morrhua 217
Motella 219
Movntsbay angler. 195
MUOILIDVE 191
Mullet. 172
red 172
striped 172
gray 191
MuUus 172
Murana 224
Mustelus 233
Myletes 212
Myhobatis 235
Myripristis 170
Myxine 137
Myxodes 192
Naseus 190
Nauclerus 186
Naucrates 185
Niphon 168
Nomeus 186
Norway haddock 174
Notocanthus 186
Notidanus 233
Notopterus 215
Odontognathus 215
Old wife 195
Olistus 186
Ophicephalus 190
Ophidium 226
Opistognathus 193
Ophisurus 224
Orthagoriscus 228
Osmerus 210
Osphronemus 190
OSSEOUS FISHES... 166
Osteoglossum 216
Ostracion 229
Otolithus 176
Pagellus 177
Pagrus 177
Parr 208
Parrot-fish 196
Peche madame 1 70
PfiCTOItALES PEDICU-
lati 194
Pegasus 227
Pelamys 183
Pelates 169
Pelor 174
Pentaceros 169
Perca 167
Percid.'e 166
jugular 170
abdominal 171
Perch 167
common 167
sea 167
black 187
Percis 171
Percophis 171
Periophthalmus 194
Peristedion 173
Petromyzon 236
Phycis 219
Page.
Piabucus 212
Pike 200
Pilchard 215
Pilot-fish 185
Pimelodi 202
Pinielepterus 179
Pinguipes 171
Plagiostomi 231
Plaice 220
Platax 179
Platessa 219
Platyccphalus 174
Platypteron 194
PLECTOGNATHI 228
Plectropoma 169
Plesiops 196
PLEUKONECTIDiE 219
Plotosus 203
Podley 218
Poecilia 199
Pogonias 176
Pogge 174
Pollock 218
Polyacanthus 1 90
Polynemus 171
Polyodon 230
Polyprion 169
Polypterus 217
Pomatomus 168
Pomotis 169
Porthoneus 186
Pomfret, black 188
Pomocentrus 176
Premnas 176
Priacanthus 169
Prionites 173
Priodon 190
Pristigaster 215
Pristipoma 176
Pristis 234
Psenes 186
Psettus 179
Pteraclis 187
Pterois 174
Raia 234
Raniceps 219
Ray 235
Remora 222
Rhina 235
Rhinchobdella 186
Rhinobatus 234
Rhombus 188-220
Roach 199
Rypticus 169
Rtiffe 169
Salanx 200
Salarias 192
Sa.mo 204
Salmon 204
Salmon iD,E 203
Sand-smelt 192
Sand-eel 227
Sargus 176
Saurus 213
Saw-fish 234
Scad 186
Scampirro 182
Scarus 196
Index.
240
Ichthvo- phagi
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Page.
Sciaena 175
SciMmDS. 173
Schelley 211
Schilbus 202
SCLEItODERMI 229
Scolopsides 176
Scomber 180
Scomber-esox 200
SCOMBERID.* 180
Scopeles 213
Scorpaena 174
Scorpion 174
Scyllium 231
Scyranus 234
Scyris 186
Sea-cat 193
Sea-devil 174
Sea-wolf. 193
Sea-horse '. 227
Sea-liag 237
Sebastes 174
Selache 233
Selachii 231
Seriola 186
Serranus 168
Serrasalmus 212
Seserinus 188
Shark 231
white 232
blue 232
portbeagle 232
Beaumaris 232
baskinff 233
hammer-headed 234
Sharmuth 203
Sheeps-head 177
Siganus 189
Page.
Sillago 170
Sillock 218
SiluridjE 202
Silurus 202
electric 203
Skate 235
Skankarbauw 179
Skip-jack 186
Smoults 208
Solenostoma 227
Solea 221
Sole 221
Sorcerer-fish 174
SparidjK 176
Spirlin 210
Sphagebranchus 225
Spliyrajna 171
Spinax 233
Spirobranchus 190
Sprat 215
Squalus 231
Squammipennes 178
Squatina 234
Sterlet 230
Sternarchus 226
Sternoptyx 213
Stickle-back 175
Stomias 200
Stromateus 188
Sturgeon 230
STURIONES 230
Sucking-fish 222
Sudis 216
Sun-fish 169-228
Suckers 236
Swordfish 184
Page.
Synanceia 174
Synbranchus 225
Syngnathus 227
Synodontis 202
Tmviiowm 189
Tafel-visch 170
Taurichthys 179
Temnodon 186
Tench 198
Tenioides 193
Tetraodon 228
Tetragonopterus 212
Tetragonurus 192
Tetrapterus 184
Therapon 169
TheutidjE 189
Thorn-back 235
Tliresher 232
Thryssa 216
Thyraallus 210
Thynnus 182
Thyrsites 183
Tinea 198
Tope 233
Torpedo 235
Torsk, Scotch 219
Toxotes 180
Trachichtys 170
Trachinotus 186
Trachinus 170
Triacanthus 229
Trichiunis 183
Trichodon 170
Trichonotus 194
Trichopus 190
_, . , Page. Iconium
Ingla 173 ||
Triodon 229 Iconodas-
Trout 206 '^^s.
bull 206 *"^V*^
sea 206
white 206
salmon 206
common 207
Trumpet-fish 197
Trunk-fish : 229
Trigon 235
Tunny 182
Tarbot 220
Umbrina 176
Upeneus 172
Uranoscopus 171
Vendace 211
Vlagman 179
Vomer 186
Weever 170
Whiff. 220
White-bait 215
Whiting 218
Whitling 206
Wrasse 195
Xiphias 183
Xirichthys 196
Zanclus 179
Zeus 188
Zoarchus 193
Zygsena 234
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