OOee A MeO AO OCA A oot ***, y' pie Os «+, °6 6% OC t, 8 | e Nd, eee coe” of al al Ya. 0° §©@ >< a EO at BA oh > A ee ee oma ee es Ae? i C GCSO8ElO LOLI ll OLNOWOL 4O ' ™ RTS “Ak (te) EERILY SS ‘i . Malad | fis tit island poset tte dL teaeiuae oy seb L dati! ahd thladade nah’ ern A sspbatabuih seistaiaial an : ‘ P é FA De RD Ne we —_ , | 4 GOA 30 pe AN INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY BY SMITH ELY JELLIFFE, M.D., PH.D. PROFESSOR OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND INSTRUCTOR IN MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY (COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS), NEW YORK nd Fully Wlustrated ——_— PHILADELPHIA—NEW YORK—LONDON W. B. SAUNDERS AND COMPANY 1905 COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY W. B. SAUNDERS & COMPANY REGISTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON, ENGLAND Co" ee ss tti“( i‘ Y dl PREFACE. The following Introduction has been prepared with the hope that it may meet the needs of students of phar- macognosy in our schools of pharmacy. In general scope it follows the well-established lines already laid down by our European confréres, departing in many particulars, however, from most works pub- lished heretofore in this country. Thus special emphasis has been laid on the microscopic rather than the macro- scopic characters of drugs, although the latter have not been entirely neglected, and considerable attention has been given to the description of drug powders. While there have been many manuals in which the student of plant structures could find ample instruction concerning general histological features, no work has been offered in this country which deals with the special individual anatomical characters of different drugs. Such works have been issued in Germany by Moeller, Tschirch, Meyer, Marmé, Flickiger, and others, and the monumental volume of Plancon and Collin, nearly two thousand pages, testifies in a measure to the value set by the French upon such studies Greenish, of London, in 1903 gave to the-English pharmacists a guide similar in general features to the volume here presented. The present Introduction has been in preparation for some time, and here appears, not as a stupendous vol- ume such as those of Flickiger or Plancon and Collin, but in a compressed and convenient form. This form, rather than that of an enormous reference book has been de- 13 14 PREFACE. liberately chosen as complying with what has been con- sidered good pedagogic principles. The drugs studied in detail have been carefully selected as those most typical of general drug structures, and it is believed that with the knowledge that may be thus acquired the student of pharmacognosy will be amply equipped to pursue individual research of an economically practical nature. | New York, Ociober, 1904. CONTENTS. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 0.02.0... 00.0 ecu ceeeeene Fixe ta yeuk aT ? CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC DRUGS..... MER Pal scars Sy Si5'e ee es 19 ERMA Day, Rates SSiwaiiis We ks Wek CU Ne eds wes oes Fas: 96 Hirudo; The Leech—Cantharis; Cantharides; Spanish Fly. VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE............ 25 Sugars and Sweet Exudates: Manna—Saccharum; Sugar; Cane Sugar—Saccharum Uveum; Glucose; Grape Sugar— Saccharum Lactis; Lactose; Milk Sugar—Mel; Honey. EE aS Or Pr een Ns en 29 The Acacia Gums: Acacia; Gum Arabic—Tragacantha; Gum Tragacanth. Oils, Resins, Oleoresins, Gum Resins, and Balsams: Volatile Oils—Resins—Camphora; Camphor— Terebinthina; Turpentine—Terebinthina Venentia; Venice Turpentine—Canadian Turpentine—Colophonium; Resin; Rosin—Dammar—Copal—Kauri; Cowrie—Sandarac— Mas- tiche—Guaiac Resina; Guaiac—Benzoinum; Benzoin— —Copaiba; Balsam of Copaiba—Asafcetida—Galbanum; Mother Resin—Ammoniacum; Ammoniac—Myrrha; Myrrh —Styrax; Liquidamber; Storax. Drucs or VEGETABLE ORIGIN WITH ORGANIC STRUCTURE...... 75 Powdered Substances: Starches—Lycopodium—Lupulinum _ —Kamala—Galla; Galls. PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS............0c ee eeeeeeee 88 Roots: Sarsaparilla—Radix Belladonne; Belladonna Root —Radix Glycyrrhize; Licorice Root—Radix Ipecacuanhe; Ipecac—Radix Senege; Senega—Radix Rhei; Rhubarb— Radix Gentiane; Gentian. Rhizomes; Aspidium—Cala- mus—Podophyllum—dZingiber; Ginger—Curcuma; Tur- meric. Tubers, Bulbs: Squill—Colchicum—Aconite—Jalap. Woods: Quassia—Hamatoxylon; Logwood—Santalum Rub- rum; Red Saunders. Barks: Cortex Rhamni Purshiane; Cascara—Cortex Cinnamomi; Cinnamon—Cortex Granati; Pomegranate—Cortex Quillaje; Soap Bark—Cortex Angos- ture; Angostura Bark—Cortex Viburni Prunifolii; Black Haw—Cortex Pruni Virginiane; Wild Cherry Bark—Cortex Sassafras; Sassafras Bark. Leaves: Folia Senne; Senna— T5 16 CONTENTS. Folia Digitalis; Digitalis—Belladonna—Hyoscyamus—Pilo- carpus—Mentha Piperita; | Peppermint—Erythroxylon; Coca—Eucalyptus—Buchu—Tea. Herbs and Flowers: Ce- traria; Iceland Moss—Chondrus; Irish Moss; Carragheen— Santonica; Levant Wormseed—Cusso; Kousso—Pyrethri Flores; Insect Flowers—Lavender—Cannabis Indica; Indian Hemp. Fruits; Caryophyllus; Cloves—Cubeba; Cubebs— Piper; Pepper—Conium; Hemlock—Feceniculum; Fennel. Seeds: Amygdalus Dulcis; Sweet Almond—Physostigma; Calabar Bean—Nux Vomica—Ignatia—Sinapis; Mustard— Peas and Beans. PAGE INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY. | GENERAL INTRODUCTION. | Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs in their crude condition. It is one of the branches of Pharmacology, which in its broad sense consists of the study of reme- dial agents, or Materia Medica. Pharmacology includes Pharmacognosy, the study of drugs in their crude con- dition; Pharmacy, the preparation of drugs for the use of the medical practitioner; and Pharmacodynamics, the physiological action of drugs on living organisms. This latter branch is sometimes termed Pharmacology, but the word is then used in a narrow sense only. Thus the study of Pharmacognosy would include the knowledge of drugs with reference to botany and chem- istry, if of vegetable origin, or of their zoology and chem- istry if derived from the animal kingdom. Substances derived by chemical manufacture, such as the simple salts, acids and alkalis, are not usually included in the study of Pharmacognosy. The substances usually com- ing within the domain of Pharmacognosy are of organic nature. The study of plant drugs from the pharmacognostical standpoint would include the study of the habitat and general character of the plant from which the drug is derived, its place in the botanical system, the organ or 2 17 18 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. | . organs of the plant used, their gross and minute structure in the whole and powdered condition, and the chemistry of the constituents, especially of those which may be used in Therapeutics. Comprehensive treatments of this type have been carried out in such works as F. A. Fltcki- ger, ‘‘Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreiches;’’ A. Meyer, “Wissenschaftliche Drogenkunde;’’ Plancon et Collin, “Les drogues simples d’origine végétale,’’ and other smaller manuals, such as those of Marmé, Moeller, Wigand, and Herail et Bonnet. The subject-matter of Pharmacognosy may thus be divided into several fields. It may be considered mainly from the botanical point of view, constituting ‘‘ Medical Botany ;’’ it may be considered from the standpoint of the anatomist, ‘‘ Histological or Anatomical Pharmacognosy,”’ “Applied Plant Anatomy,” or the entire interest of the study may be directed toward the investigation of the constituents, active and non-active, of the plant, in which case the study may be termed “ Pharmaceutical Chem- istry,’ meaning by this not the chemistry of pharmaceutic manufacture, but the chemistry of plant analysis, as outlined by Dragendorff and others. Finally there is a commercial side to the study of Pharmacognosy, which has to do with the methods of gathering, transporting, packing and selling of remedial agents. This has been termed ‘‘Commercial Pharmacognosy.” * The study of Pharmacognosy as a separate branch did not begin until about the year 1825, when Martius began to give his series of lectures at the University of Erlangen. Even at the present time it is evident that Pharmacog- - nosy is not a branch of science with well-defined limita- tions. It overlaps so many fields of inquiry and is a * See Essay by Tschirch of Berne in the Pharmaceutische Zeitung, 1881, No. 8, for a full discussion of the aims of modern Pharmacog- nosy. See also Flickiger, ‘‘The Principles of Pharmacognosy,” translated by Powers. ; CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC DRUGS. 19 compound of so much that, like many another group of sciences, it is a science for convenience’ sake only.* CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC DRUGS. I. Animal Drugs. II. Vegetable Drugs without Organic Structure. Sugars, gums, gum resins, resins, oleoresins, balsams, volatile oils, milky juices, extracts and enzymes. III. Vegetable Drugs with Organic Structure. (a) Starches. (b) Simple Powders. (c) Galls. (d) Plant Organs or parts of Organs. Roots, Rhizomes, Tubers, Bulbs, Corms,’ Wood and Stems, Barks, Leaves, Flowers and Floral Appendages, Fruits and Seeds. The above very brief classification is offered as the one to be followed in the accompanying pages. In the discussion of plant organs, or parts of organs, certain advantages might be derived from a study of the simple organs first, such as seeds and fruits, taking up later the organs with more complex anatomical structure, yet custom has more or less stamped its approval upon the reverse order of study, and it is here followed for the sake of convenience. *See Flickiger, “ Pharmakographia,” for full discussion of the history of drugs and their method of preparation. ANIMAL DRUGS. As the science of medicine has progressed step by step, the great number of drugs derived from the members of the animal kingdom has been reduced. This large number of drugs was gradually introduced during the middle ages, so that in the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury at least 150 drugs derived from some portion of an © animal were in constant use. In the days of Hippocrates II, 400 B. C., and Dios- corides, 50 A. D., very few such drugs were employed, and at the present time the number is very small, except in the homeopathic Pharmacopceia, where many of the materials in use during the middle ages have been re- tained. Certain animal drugs have maintained their reputation for efficiency, and only a few of these will be considered. HIRUDO. THE LEECH. This is a worm of the Annelid or Ringed-worm class. The most familiar one of the class is the Hirudo medicin- alts, and this is the variety most commonly used. It lives in ponds and slow-flowing streams, where it feeds upon the blood of fishes, frogs, snails and other available food materials. It is its habit to take as much at one time as possible, gorging itself upon what supply of food is obtainable. It can thus often live a whole year without feeding twice. Its mode of locomotion is by means of - the alternate use of the front and rear suckers, and when disturbed it swims by a rapid wave-like motion of the entire body. Description.—The leech usually measures from 5 to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 inches) in length and is either 20 HIRUDO—THE LEECH. 21 cylindrical or flattened, varying according to the state of contraction. The body is dark (blackish or grayish with brownish stripes). It is marked by a series of rings, at least 100 in number. The dorsal surface is mottled by distinct rows of spots, whereas the ventral surface is irregularly mottled. At both ends of the body the worm is provided with a mouthpiece or sucker. Fic. 1.—Leecu (Moeller). With the posterior one the animal fastens himself, and then brings the triangular mouthpiece into play. This is provided with three sets of tooth plates, which by their muscular attachments move like a segment of a circular saw and make a triangular cut into the skin, through which the animal sucks the blood by means of its muscular pharynx. The clotting of the blood is prevented by a locally secreted ferment. The blood passes into a large 22 ANIMAL DRUGS. alimentary canal which is provided with a number of side pockets, all pointing forward. Fresh leeches are recognized by their fresh color, their active, elastic movements, and the fact that they do not give up any blood when salt or vinegar is dropped upon the mouth. Fresh worms are preferable to those from which the blood has been squeezed, for although the latter will suck blood, they, as a rule, do so less lustily. The leeches most commonly employed are: the Gray Leech (Hirudo medicinalis, L.), olivaceous in color, with six reddish longitudinal bands along the back, abdomen spotted with black and showing a blackish line on each side. Its rings are slightly roughened. It inhabits Europe, principally France, Germany, and Hungary. Green Leech (Hirudo officinalis, Moq.), greenish, with six dorsal bands similar to those of the former, olivaceous and unspotted abdomen, bordered by a black line. Its rings are very fine. The green leech is found with the gray leech. Dragon Leech (Hzrudo troctina, Moq.), bright green on the back, with orange borders; isolated black macules bordered with orange take the place of the longitudinal bands. The abdomen is yellowish green and may or may not be spotted. This leech is an in- habitant of northern Africa. There are a number of native species in the United States. : Collection and Preservation.—The leeches are caught in nets and are best preserved in clear water, at a tem- perature of from 10° to 20° C. (50° to 70° F.). The vessel should be comparatively large and should contain - some stones and an oxygen-giving plant. Uses.—To relieve congestion and abstract blood locally. | CANTHARIS. CANTHARIDES. SPANISH FLIES. These are the dried bodies of a species of beetle, Can- tharis vesicatoria, L., a member of the Meloide or Blister- CANTHARIS. CANTHARIDES. SPANISH FLIES. 23 ing Beetle family. The group contains a large number of blistering beetles, many of which are coming into use. In Europe, which is its native habitat, the Spanish fly lives upon plants of the olive family, more particu- larly on the ash, olive, lilac and privet, and upon the honeysuckle and elder. From these, in the early morning, they are shaken into cloths and killed by the vapor of chloroform, benzine, or other volatile liquid. They are then spread out in the-sun and dried. Description.—Cantharis varies from 15 to 30 mm. (% to 14 inches) in length and 6 to 8 mm. (4 to 4 inch) in breadth. It is of a brownish cast with coppery green iridescence. The head is somewhat trans- verse-heart-shaped, the antennz are somewhat thickened, the outer joints being round or oval; the front foot has five joints, the hinder four. The wings are striated and have two or three fine longitudinal stripes or ribs. The smell is peculiar and unpleasant and the taste sharp and burning. Chemistry.—The active principle has as ie ‘Qlcelen been isolated in the form of a crystal- lizable body, the anhydride of cantharidic acid, Cantha- ridin, C,,H,,0,, and is found in a number of other beetles of allied genera, Lytta, Meloé, Mylabris, Sitaris, and Zonaris, and even the common Colorado potato beetle, Doryphora, 0.5 per cent. It is with difficulty soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, ether, benzol, CS,, whereas in acetone, chloroform, acetic ether, and fatty and ethereal oils it is freely soluble. Cantharidin may be reduced by xylol. Other constituents are fat, 12 per cent., ash, 6.8 per cent. Adulterations.—Other beetles with which Spanish flies are often mixed can be detected if the size and description given are carefully followed. Those most often used are: 24 ANIMAL DRUGS. Carabus auratus, L.; shorter, greenish above, legs and antennz reddish. Catoma aurata, L.; greenish above, pelows hairy, with a cross white line on the wings. Shorter and broader than the Spanish fly. Cicambyx moschata, L.; about the same length but narrower, with very long (at least an inch) antenne and a steel blue color. Mylabris cichorit and Mylabris phalerata, Chines flies, and other blistering beetles from the United States are being introduced, and a number of the American species have been found to contain more cantharidin than the European species. Flickiger found as high as 2.5 per cent. in the Brazilian species, Epicauta adspersa. Physiological Action.—Cantharides is a violent irritant, producing when applied to the skin redness, smarting, and blisters. Sloughing may result from its application. Internally it is absorbed and is a violent poison with vomiting, purging, violent abdominal pain and collapse. It is eliminated mainly through the urine, and may induce violent symptoms in the genito-urinary tract. Poisoning is best treated by washing out the stomach, and the application of demulcents, mucilages, starch, cocaine, and morphine for pain. Intestinal antiseptics, salol, and bismuth for after-treatment of ulceration. Oils and fats should be avoided internally in the treatment of cantharides poisoning because of solubility of canthar- idin in these menstrua. Dose, 0.005 to 0.06 gm. (;5 to I grain) well diluted, in tincture. Ab mrearieesgt ies e oye, > ' VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUC- | TURE. SUGARS AND SWEET EXUDATES. MANNA. . Manna is the concrete saccharine exudation of Fraxinus Ornus, L. (nat. ord. Oleacez). Fraxinus Ornus is distributed throughout eastern tropical countries and is cultivated to a great extent in more northern regions. The manna is obtained in many places from cultivated trees. These begin to produce after five years and continue to yield manna for twenty years, after which they are cut down and new ones planted. In August or September the trees are tapped for the sugar, by means of sharp knives, the cut usually being three or four inches long, and extending well through the bark into the wood. From this wound comes the sap, at first brownish and somewhat bitter, afterward white and sweet. It is collected as it drops out in receptacles varying with the place of culture. Description.—_Two main kinds occur in the market, stem manna and lump manna, Tears and Sorts, although a number of terms have been in use in different sections. Flake manna is commonly sold. Stem or-Tear Manna is produced by slow exudation and drying, whereby the manna forms in irregularly triangular pieces. When good samples are obtained the pieces are from 15 to 20 cm. (5 to 8 inches) long and 2 cm. (4 inch) thick. They have a porous crystalline appearance, are light brown in color, whiter on the sur- face. 25 26 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. Irregular and brownish pieces, collected later in the year, in which tears may be found, constitute the variety of sorts. Often the manna spreads out on the branches and is gathered as flattened pieces, flakes, which vary widely insize. Fat manna is a type of sort manna which is collected late in the year after finer varieties have been utilized. It is darker in color, softer and hygroscopic. It may contain some tears. It is liable to ferment rapidly and break down into a soft, fatty and bitter mass. Chemistry.—Mannite, C,H,(OH),, 25 to 80 per cent.; also other sugars, grape sugar, invert sugar, mucilage, dextrin. Fraxin, C,,H,,O,,, is stated by Flickiger to be absent in old manna. Bitter principle, citric acid. Mannite, obtained by crystallization from alcohol, occurs in white rhombic prisms, is soluble in 6.5 parts of water (16° C.), melts at 165° C., without change, and can be sublimed. Manna does not reduce Fehling’s solution. Mannite is widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Other mannas are obtained from a variety of sources. Tamarisk Gallica, by stinging of an insect. Coceus man- nipanis, exudes a clear white manna which is supposed to be the manna eaten by the Hebrews in the wan- derings in the desert. Lecanora esculenta, a lichen, also enjoys a similar reputation. Quercus vallonea and Persica, Alhagt Maurorum, Astragalus adscendens, Salix fragilis and a variety of other plants contain manna. Uses.—Demulcent, laxative, and as a food. Dose, q. s. to 30 gm. (1 oz.) in solution. SACCHARUM. SUGAR. CANE SUGAR. The refined sugar obtained from Saccharum officinarum, L., and from various species or varieties of Sorghum (nat. ord. Graminez) and also from one or more varieties of Beta vulgaris, L. (nat. ord. Chenopodiaceze). Formula Soi: BS GBs The species of Saccharum and of Sorghum are from —C, SO —F> ‘a a ae Se SACCHARUM UVEUM. GLUCOSE. GRAPE SUGAR. 27 tropical countries and are extensively cultivated in warm climates. The beet may be cultivated in northern tem- perate zones as well as in the tropics. Sugar-cane contains about 18 per cent. of sugar; beets, about 14 per cent. The general output of beet sugar is nearly twice that of cane sugar; over six million tons of the former were manufactured in 1900. Cane sugar is present in the sugar maple, carrot, turnip, and in most fresh fruits, in which latter it is usually inverted. Description.— White, dry, hard, crystalline, granules, odorless, with a purely sweet taste. Permanent in the air. Soluble in half its weight of water; sparingly soluble in strong alcohol, insoluble in ether, chloroform, or carbon disulphide; fusible at 160° C. (320° F.); at temperature of 200° C. (392° F.) it is converted into caramel. Aqueous solutions are neutral to litmus paper. When acted on by bacteria and molds, or boiled with dilute acids, it is converted into invert sugar. Uses.—Demulcent. Food. SACCHARUM UVEUM. GLUCOSE. GRAPE SUGAR. Grape sugar is a normal constituent of the juice of grapes, but is manufactured on a large scale from various starches, corn-starch in particular, by the action of weak acids. Formula, C,H,,0,, H,O. It occurs in whitish to yellowish masses, softer than cane sugar and hygroscopic. It crystallizes with or with- out water and is very soluble. One part of cold soluble in all proportions of hot water. It is about one-half as sweet as cane sugar. It is sparingly soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether, and readily ferments with the production of alcohol. Solutions of grape sugar reduce Fehling’s solu- tion. Heating yields caramel. Uses.—Much as cane sugar, but less often employed. 28 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. SACCHARUM LACTIS. LACTOSE. MILK SUGAR. A peculiar crystalline sugar, obtained from the whey of cow’s milk by evaporation, and purified by recrystal- lization. Formula, C,,H,,0,,, H,O. White, hard, crystalline masses, four-sided, yielding a white, gritty powder, odorless and with a slightly sweet taste. Permanent in the air. Soluble in six parts of cold water, and in one part of boiling water. Insoluble in alcohol, in ether, or in chloroform. It gives up its water of crystallization at 130° C. (266° F.) and melts at 204° C. (398° F.). On boiling with dilute acid it splits into dextrose and galactose. Caramel can also be obtained from milk sugar. It reduces Fehling’s solu- tion slowly. Uses.—Chiefly as vehicle and for infants’ feeding. MEL. HONEY. A saccharine secretion deposited in the honeycomb of the bee, Apis mellifica, L. (Insecta).. Honey is a syrupy liquid of a light yellow to pale yellowish-brown color, translucent when fresh, but gradu- ally becoming opaque and crystalline. It has an aro-— matic odor and a cloying sweet taste. Honey is faintly acid to litmus paper. Specific gravity, 138 to 140. Honey consists of a mixture of glucose and levulose, a little wax, mucilage, proteids, volatile oil, coloring- matter, and slight ash. Microscopically it contains frag- ments of portions of insect bodies and pollen grains. It is widely manufactured from glucose. The manufactured product, unless mixed with the native product, contains no traces of insect fragments and no pollen grains. Uses.—Honey has a wide use as a food and as a de- mulcent. It makes an excellent vehicle for adminis- tering medicines to children. It is mildly laxative. GUMS AND MUCILAGES. 29 GUMS AND MUCILAGES. In the gradual anabolism of plants there are built up numbers of bodies that are very closely allied one to another, and which are intimately related to the carbo- hydrates. Among these carbohydrates are some charac- terized by their relatively easy solubility in water and showing certain definite chemical reactions, notably the reaction toward saturated aqueous solutions of potassium acetate. The precise method of the histological formation of gums is still a matter of a great deal of controversy.* Practically all the varieties of gum are characterized by their insolubility in alcohol, ether, or chloroform; and when heated with dilute sulphuric acid they are con- verted, for the most part, into simple sugars, glucoses, of the pentose (C,H,,O,) and hexose (C,H,,0,) groups. In form they are not identical, but are usually roundish to elongated or rootlike or in tears, and only in rare in- stances have they characteristic shapes. Most gums show surface cracking; forinstance,acacia. They usually havea sharp fracture when dry. In color they vary from white through various shades of yellow to brown. They are mostly translucent or transparent, some of the darker varieties being opaque; they have for the most part a glassy surface, at least in the broken surface. They are odorless, usually mucilaginous, sweetish or bitterish to taste. Many are markedly hygroscopic and tenacious, thus rendering it difficult to powder them. They vary very widely as to their solubility—all will dissolve somewhat—when placed in water; some are readily soluble, others insoluble. Most gums possess the interesting property of being soluble in concentrated aqueous solution of chloral hydrate. *Tschirch: Ueber die Entwickelungsgeschichte einiger Secret- behalter und die Genesis ihrer Secrete. Ber. d. Deut. bot. Gesellsch., 1888, S. 2. 30 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. Watery solutions of the gums have a slight acid reac- tion; in many instances this is reinforced by the sul- phuric acid which is frequently used to clean them. Chemically the gums are very complex. They con- Fin also many included substances, such as inorganic salts, tannin, sugars, coloring-matters and various pro- teids. Phe salts are usually compounds of potassium, cal- cium, or magnesium as carbonates, sometimes with oxalic acid. The presence of the sugars is usually indicated by the power of reducing copper. Of the chemical com- position of the coloring-matters very little is known. The nitrogenous bodies are in part ferments, which are widely distributed in gums, and have had important functions in the metabolism of the plant. Regarding the true gum substances, there is one group the members of which are soluble in water. These have heretofore been classified under the general title of the arabins. It would appear from most re- cent researches that these arabins are not simple bodies, but consist of mixtures of closely related compounds. Wiesner and Zeisel have recently proposed the name glycosido-gummic acids to include the group.* A second group of gums is characterized by its com- parative insolubility in water; these contain substances which have been named cerasin and bassorin. Cerasin is a colorless substance insoluble in water oralcohol. Its chemical and physical composition, when freed from the inorganic substances usually incorporated within it, shows great similarity to an insoluble variety of arabin, which is formed when arabin is heated to dryness and is termed meta-arabic acid. Cerasin acted on by enzymes, acting on one type of gum alone, is said to be converted into arabin.t It is perhaps better to regard cerasin as a type * Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiches, 2d edit., 1900, p. 61. t Garros: Bull. Societe Chimique. ——— a —-— GUMS AND MUCILAGES. 31 of substances, rather than as a-single body: of definite chemical composition. Bassorin, like cerasin, is probably best described by referring to ‘‘the bassorins.’’ They are colorless bodies, -very slightly soluble in water. They contain few or no organic compounds. Neither cerasin nor bassorin reduce Fehling’s solution, and they both yield arabinose and galactose by hydro- lysis. Both bodies are closely related to the plant mucilages and pectin bodies. The method of the origin of gums in plants has been the subject of much diversity in opinion. While formerly they were held to be secretions, they are now regarded, for the most part, as chemical modifications of the tissues. Traces of tissue structure sometimes persist in slight degree in some—tragacanth, for example. All or any of the tissues, normal or pathological, may be affected by this metamorphosis of the cell walls. In all proba- bility the metamorphosis is brought about by the action of the ferments, and Wiesner * in 1885 isolated a.diastatic ferment which he thought caused the formation of gums. Gums occur as the commonest plant products. While any tissue may be converted into gum, those of the organs of the periphery are more liable to undergo the metamor- phosis. In general the various commercial gums may be classed, following Wiesner, as follows, the words arabin, cerasin, and bassorin pees taken in the broad sense already outlined. (1) Arabin gums: Those rich in the arabins. Cerasin and bassorin are not present, or in very slight quantities. Here belong the bitter varieties of Acacia, Feronia and Anacardium gums. (2) Cerasin gums: Those rich in cerasin and containing arabin as well. The gums of the Prunus type are here * Sitzungb. d. k. Akad. der Wiss. in Wien, 1885. 32 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. included. These are: Peach, Cherry, Plum, Prune, Apricot, and Mandel gums. (3) Bassorin gums: These consist mainly of bassorin with some gum allied to arabin. These are Tragacanth, Kuter, Bassora, Cocos, Chagnal, and Moringa gums. (4) Bassorin and Cerasin gums: Mixture of these two gums. Gum of Cochlospermum gossypium. , THE ACACIA GUMS. The acacia gums are the Arabian, Senegal, Cape, North, East and West African, and East Indian varieties. The acacias form a family, as it were, of gums, many of which vary widely the one from the other. The discussion of the different species which yield the numerous varieties is beyond the scope of the present work.* The United States Pharmacopeeia recognizes the following: ACACIA. GUM ARABIC. A gummy exudation from Acacia Senegal, Willd. In roundish tears of various sizes, or broken into angular fragments, with a glass-like, sometimes iridescent frac- ture, opaque with numerous fissures, but transparent and nearly colorless in thin pieces, nearly inodorous, taste insipid, mucilaginous; insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in water, forming a thick, mucilaginous liquid. Acacia Senegal is a native of Egypt rather than of Arabia, growing in the fertile valleys of the Nile and of Senegambia. Probably it is spread well into Central Africa. In and about the same regions there are a large number of species of Acacia, most of which yield gums. In the main, however, most of the gums of commerce are derived from A. Senegal. _ The gum is obtained from plants eight to forty years * G. Vée: Etude sur les gommes dites arabiques. Thése Ecole de Pharmacie de Paris, 1888. a ee 4 9 q al : ¢ ee = ACACIA. GUM ARABIC. 33 old from natural ruptures in the bark, and is gathered during or after the time of blossoming, January to April. The richness of the exudation depends in large part on the climatic conditions. The gum coming from Kordovan from A. Senegal (A. Verek, Guill. et Perott.) is held to be the best in quality, and is collected in round nut-like pieces, or irregular angular ones, whieh are transparent and white, or have the slightest tinge of brown. It is easily broken with a glassy fracture and shows numerous cracks, most of which are superficial. Khartoum gum resembles this closely. The West African gum from Senegal, mainly derived from A. Senegal (A. Verek, of French writers), comes in pieces egg-shaped, elongated oval or worm-shaped, about two inches long and perhaps one-third of an inch in thickness. There is, however, a great variation in the matter of size and shape. The color is more yellowish, or even more reddish, than that of the East African sorts, and the gum is more regular in surface, showing fewer cracks. Smaller pieces are similar to those from ‘East Africa. Cape gum occurs in still smaller fragments, resembling ‘mastiche or sandarac. It is clear brown in color and is often mixed with impurities. Australian and Brazilian gums are of recent introduction. The powder of gum arabic is odorless, taste sweetish and mucilaginous. In commerce the pieces are sorted, often irrespective of origin, and made~into different grades with corre- sponding prices, first, second, third, and fourth sifted sorts. Chemistry.—The general chemistry of gum acacia has been considered. The specific gravity varies from 1.50 to 1.60. They are completely soluble in water and give a thick mucilage, slightly acid in reaction. Microscopical.—Little can be made of gum arabic under 3 34 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. the microscope. A few cell walls, occasionally some fragments of detached corky tissues, and some crystals. In adulterated powdered gum arabic the microscopic pictures will naturally vary according to the adulterant. Various flours are often employed as adulterants. Their characteristic starches are readily recognized. Adulterations—The gum is frequently adulterated with other kinds of gum, as cherry, Bdelbin, a gum resin. These, being dark gums, are bleached by means of sulphur or chlorine gas. : The powdered gum is mixed with a great variety of sub- stances, most of which, if of organic structure, are readily detected by the microscope. Other adulterants must be detected by chemical means. Dextrin is a very common adulterant of the powder. A mixture of this latter in gum may be detected by moistening with a few drops of ammonium molybdate and potassium nitrate which when heated gives a blue color. Uses.—In medicine as a demulcent. In the arts gum arabic has a wide range of usefulness. Other Gums of Similar Characters.—There are a great number of these, and only the most important can be mentioned. Their chemical composition has been con- sidered. 3 Cherry and plum gums,. from the cultivated and wild cherry and plum trees, are extensively gathered. They exude from natural breaks in the bark of the tree and occur as roundish irregular masses up to one and one- half inches in diameter. Plum gum is lighter in color, cherry gum being more reddish. Both are insoluble in water, but form emulsions. Senaar gum (Talca or Souakim gums) is from North Africa, probably from Acacia fistula and A. Stenocarpa, Hocht. Jesire gum is from the same general region. Cape gum or South African gum, from Acacia horrida, Willd., is a darker, cloudy gum, soluble with difficulty in water. It 1s © La! a ee “ae — << eS = ——e. teal ye “yy i 1ea-c. TRAGACANTHA. GUM TRAGACANTH. 35 widely used in English commerce mixed with Soudanese varieties. Mesquit gum is derived from a number of species of Prosopis of the Mimosee, plants allied to the Acacia and found in the west and southwest part of Texas and California, Mexico and South America. It is often mixed with the lower grades of gum arabic. TRAGACANTHA. GUM TRAGACANTH. A gummy exudation from Astragalus gummifer, Labill., and other species of Astragalus. (Nat. ord. Leguminosez.) In narrow or broad bands, more or less curved or contorted, marked by parallel lines or ridges, white or faintly yellowish, translucent, horn-like, tough, and rendered more readily pulverized by a temperature of so? C. (122° F.). The species of this genus Astragalus are very numerous in Asia Minor, at least thirty in number, and of charac- teristic appearance. The gum is obtained by natural exudation, or from cuts in the bark of the stem or branches.* The form of the exudate, which is a product of degen- eration in the cells of the pith and medullary rays, in part, is due to the kind of incision, and varies according to the conditions of heat and moisture. At times it exudes in flattened, ribbon-like, irregular worm-like, or spherical masses. After drying, the pieces have a horny consistency, are whitish to brownish yellow con- torted broad or narrow ribbons or irregular pieces, marked with longitudinal lines. The tragacanth is sorted and the different qualities determined by the size and color of the pieces. It is tough, not easily cut nor powdered, save at an increased temperature; pure tragacanth should be tasteless, but often it is bitterish from portions of the rind. It swells with water into a gelatinous mass. * Wiesner: Die Rohstoffe, p. 112, Fig. 23. (After Tschirch.) 36 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. In the market three kinds are handled—leaf or flake, consisting of the whitest, flattest pieces, most valuable; stem, or worm-like pieces; and sorts, or smaller rounded pieces. The finer leaf tragacanth usually comes from Asia Minor. _ (6) Ether sol. resin—asa resinotannol—which yields Resorcin, C,H, (OH,). Protocatechuic acid, C,H, (OH,) COOH. As an illustration of the complexity of a balsam the ultimate chemical analysis of Balsam of Peru is as fol- lows: (1) Free cinnamic acid, C. ald., C,H,, CH. CH, CO, H. (2) Vanillin, C,H, (OH) (OCH) CHO. (3) Cinnamein (fluid portion of balsam), consisting of much benzoic acid, benzyl esters, C oH, COO,.CH,C,H, Little cinnamic adi benzyl ester, Peruviol (C,,H,,O), C, H ;CH equals CH, COO, CH.CS:. (4) Resin. Ester of Peru resinotannol, C,,H,,O,OH, which yields cinnamic acid, benzoic and the Peru resinotannol, C,,H,,O,OH. Only the more important of this group will be here studied. * Wiesner: Die Rohestoffe des Pflanzenreichs. Hoffman, Volatile Oils. Tschirch, Die Harze. a 48 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. CAMPHORA. CAMPHOR. Camphora is a stearopten (having the nature of a ketone) obtained from Cinnamomum Camphora (Linné), Nees et Ebermaier, and purified by sublimation. Cinnamomum Camphora is a tree 100 to 150 feet high, a native of eastern Asia, where it is found in large num- bers, both cultivated and wild. Camphor tree contains camphor in all parts of the plant (perhaps failing a little in the flowers), either in crystalline form or dissolved in ethereal oil. | | . By processes of oxidation camphor, C,,H,,O, is formed. The method of preparing for commerce varies some- what in the different provinces where it is manufactured. In Formosa the trees are felled and the stem reduced to chips. These are brought to simple ovens and exposed to steam, and the vapors arising containing camphor are condensed on the inside of rude receptacles, sometimes iron pots, and from these scraped and sent for sublima- tion. The Formosa camphor thus prepared is crude, dark, and impure. — In many of the Japanese provinces the chips and por- tions of the plant are boiled in water in iron pots, the vapor which arises condensing on straw or bamboo, from which it is broken and packed for subsequent purification. Japanese crude camphor is somewhat red- dish in tint. y In the refining processes the crude camphor, which has a variety of foreign bodies included in it, is mixed with various materials, coal, sand, or iron filings, heated over a sand-bath, sublimed, and collected. In some American manufactories the vapor is received in a cooling room and precipitated as is sulphur. It is then pressed in cakes and in this shape appears in the market. Description.—It is white, translucent, irregular, crys- talline, waxy, shining, solid, breaking with a waxy tough ss TEREBINTHINA. TURPENTINE. 49 fracture. The odor is characteristic, the taste some- what aromatic and at first burning, later bitter with after-effect of cooling. Its specific: gravity is 0.993; it melts at 175° C.; sublimes at 200° C. Camphor is vola- tile at ordinary temperature. It powders with any liquid in which it is insoluble. It crystallizes in the hexagonal system; is soluble in 1200 parts of water and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, glacial acetic acid, carbon disulphide, acetone, and benzol. It liquefies with chloral hydrate, or phenol, thymol, resorcin, etc. Chemistry.—Pure camphor isC,H,,0) a ketone which does not combine with bisulphites, but from this a large number of derivatives are made by heating with other substances. Camphor is now being made from turpentine ona large scale. : TEREBINTHINA. TURPENTINE. evetitine is a concrete oleoresin obtained from ius palustris, Miller, and from other species of Pinus. It is sometimes termed Terebinthina communis, in distinction from Terebinthina Canadensis and Terebin- thina Venetia. Terebinthina is derived mainly in the United States from Pinus palustris and Pinus Teda, but almost all of the larger pines yield it. The habitat from which most of it is gathered is on the east coast from Canada to Florida and west to Texas. Much is also being gathered in the woods of Canada and the Northwest. Commercially North Carolina and Georgia furnish most. Turpentine exudes naturally, but the process is slow. For commercial purposes deep incisions or gouges are made in the trees and the resin collected in troughs. The earlier incisions give the best product. In the following years the flow (yellow dip) is scanty, and the products give but four gallons of oil to the barrel, in 4 50 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. comparison with six given by the first or virgin dip. Scrapings are even less rich in oil, giving one to two gallons to the barrel. : In its crude liquid state it is rarely seen on the market, but in its more solid form it consists of yellowish, opaque, tough, sticky masses; when cold, crumbly and brittle. The odor is peculiar, the taste bitter, acrid, and somewhat aromatic. Purer kinds are apt to be whiter; the less valuable ones yellowish to brownish and blackish, with much chip and scrapings. The resin in the tree is dissolved in the oil and is formed in special secretory passages by the metamor- phosis of the lining cells of these passages. | Chemistry.—Turpentine is a resin dissolved in ethereal oil. This oil of turpentine will vary from 15 to 30 per cent.; the resin or rosin of commerce (Colopho- nium) ranging from 60 to 80 per cent.; water, 5 to ro per cent., holding bitter stuff in solution, precipitated by tan- nic acid; small quantities of abietinic acid (C,,H,,O,). TEREBINTHINA VENETIA. VENICE TURPENTINE. Venice turpentine is derived from the European larch, Larix Europea, by boring holes to the center, from which the resin slowly flows. It was handled in the tenth century by the Venetians, hence the name. The tree is native throughout the greater part of Europe, but the parts where it is much used are southern France, northern Italy, a little in the southern Tyrol, and much in Styria. The holes are plugged during the winter, but in the following spring the plugs are withdrawn and more oleoresin collected, the process being repeated yearly. Description.—It occurs in clear to yellowish and brown- ish masses, transparent in the finer grades, after being kept some time apt to show slight fluorescence. Solidi- fies slowly, non-crystalline. The odor is terebinthinate CANADIAN TURPENTINE. 51 and balsamic, taste aromatic to bitter and finally acrid. Miscible with absolute alcohol, acetone, acetic acid, amyl alcohol. Polarizes light to right. Chemistry.—The ethereal oil—15 per cent.—is made up of two parts, one distilling at 157° F., the other, smaller, at1g0°F. The resin is freely soluble in acetone, alcohol, and benzol. — Adulterations.—Other resins dissolved in turpentine. CANADIAN TURPENTINE. Canadian Turpentine is an oleoresin derived from Abies balsama, a tree of the northern parts of North America, also extending southward along the high mountains as far as Virginia. The oleoresin is contained in superficial secretory passages lying mainly in the outer bark. These are somewhat flattened, blister-shaped, and are punctured with appropriate instruments, the turpentine issuing from them as a viscous fluid with a yellowish or greenish color, sometimes slightly fluorescent. It has a pleasant and durable aromatic odor. The taste is terebinthinate and sharp, at times acrid. Chemistry.—Water extracts a bitter stuff; oil, 20 to 25 per cent.; resin, elastic or tenacious and clear yel- lowish. Ethereal oil consists of a carbohydrate, C,,H,,, and a small amount of an acid oil; the two differentiate at 167° and 170°F., respectively. The resin of Canada balsam rotates light to the right, is non-crystalline, refraction index 1.52, soluble in abso- lute alcohol, 75 per cent. residue in ether, soluble in xylol, chloroform, benzol. It remains clear and darkens slightly on standing. | COLOPHONIUM. RESIN. ROSIN. Colophonium is the residue left after distilling off the volatile oil from turpentine. 52 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. A transparent, amber-colored substance, hard, pul- verizable; fracture glassy and shallow conchoidal; odor and taste faintly terebinthinate. The better kinds of colophonium are yellowish to brown, transparent, breaking with a very splintery, shallow and conchoidal fracture. It melts at about go° to 100° C. The pieces vary in shape and size. The inferior grades vary from greenish, brownish to blackish red. These shades are due to the heat of distillation, and in part to the species of pine yielding the resin. Rosin is soluble in alcohol, acetone, ether, chloroform, CS,, which solutions show a mild fluorescence and chloral hydrate. With solution of KOH and NaOH it forms rosin soaps. ‘Taste and odor terebinthinate. Colophonium is derived mainly from Pinus palustris, Miller, and other species of pine, found largely in the United States. Chemistry.—A certain amount of residual turpentine is always present and generally a small percentage of water. It also contains pinic and sylvic acids, and the anhydride of abietic acid (C,,H,,O,), which latter is the most important ingredient. By dry distillation a large nuntber of products are obtained, one of the many being a resin oil, Harzol, con- sisting of methyl alcohol and a heptan, C,H,,, with other derivatives. DAMMAR. Dammar is a resinous exudation or a mixture of resins from a vast variety of sources. That which is usually found in the European and American markets is derived from Dammara officinalis, Lamb., or Agathis Dammara, Rich., a member of the Abzetinee, a native of Molucca and East Indian Islands, also of the Philippines and New Zealand.* * Concerning the many doubts which have been raised regarding the origin of this resin consult Wiesner: Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzen- reichs, new edition, p. 253. DAMMAR. 53 It flows spontaneously from the main stems and also from the roots. In some regions, as the mountains of Sumatra, the resin falls in large masses from spontan- eous fissures; in other regions wounds are made in the trees, with a corresponding greater yield of resin. It comes into commerce in large masses five to fifteen inches in diameter, or in small pieces one to three inches in diameter. > _ It is light yellowish, transparent in small pieces, _ smooth, fragile, breaking with clean, conchoidal, glassy fracture, and is readily powdered. It melts at about 120° _C. and is intermediate in hardness between Colophonium, which melts at 1oo°C., and Copal, melting at 180°C. The fresh resin has a terebinthinate odor and taste, but older specimens may be odorless and tasteless. Chemistry.—It contains traces of an ethereal oil, dam- marolic acid, C,,H,,0,(OH) (COOH),, and two resins.* It is insoluble in water, partly soluble in cold alcohol and ether, completely soluble in benzol, xylol, chloroform, CS,, soluble in concentrated H,SO,, with red color, and is thrown down by water as a white powdery precipitate from this solution; it is partly soluble in ether, alcohol, toluol, acetic acid, petroleum ether, acetone, and anilin. In an 80 per cent. solution of chloral hydrate it swells very markedly, but does not become soluble even after extended action of the chloral. * Tschirch and Glimann, Arch. der Pharmacie, 234, 1896, p. 585, have determined the composition about as follows: EM og OV core. .s v'c.ce se osesee ve 23.0 per cent. RI ECEE Rails bids Old des oa bade vceéscdoe 2.5 ee 3-5 oh Fy ov nas ew ecdcccene 8.0 ~ A. Dammar-Resin, sol.in alcohol............ 40.0 B. Dammar-Resin, insol. in alcohol.......... 22.5 3 Residue—Ethereal oil, bitter principles, etc... 0.5 = 54 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. COPAL. The different copal resins are derived from a great variety of plants, both fossil and recent, the botanical names of which are not definitely determined. The name is applied to a number of extremely hard resins; softer varieties appear in the English market under the name Animi. The harder sorts of copal are derived from fossiliferous trees. In the recent state the resins may be obtained from species of Trachylobium mossambicense, Klotzsch, Hy- menea and Gutbourtia copallifera, from Africa, South America, and the West Indies. It occurs for the most part in irregular pieces, spherical, flattened or angular, pale yellowish in the better sorts, to reddish and brownish, the surface being irreg- sce us ae copal ulsg and. pgwey «30; ‘the ; Zanzibar and Ancola variety, covered with a crust in the South American copals. It is hard, in the mineral scale about three, transparent or translucent, with a glassy concave frac- ture, having a tendency to break in six-sided fragments. It is odorless and tasteless. | As the sources from which this resin is derived are num- erous and as each kind varies somewhat, the description becomes extremely complicated. A few of the more important kinds may be mentioned. Zanzibar and Mozambique Copal.—This is found in drops 3 to 10cm. in diameter or in flattened plates with a trans- verse diameter of 10 to 20cm. Opaque, mixed with sand, finely warty. On fracture, which is brittle, the broken COPAL. ec _ surfaces show a yellowish brown, transparent or trans- _ lucent center. High melting-point up to 300° C.. West African Copals.—A variety of copal comes from different parts of West Africa. These, like southeast African sorts, are usually from recent fossil sources. South American Copals.—From different members of living Cesalpinacee, mainly from’ Hymenea Courbarit, L., and also from Trachylobium, Vouapa, and Icica, species indigenous to Brazil, Guiana, Colombia, and the Antilles. These occur in root-shaped pieces, 10 cm. long, 2 to 3 cm. thick, with irregular warty surface. In color they vary from yellow to deep green, very clear and homogeneous. They are not as hard as the African copals, and they have a lower melting-point, 200° C. The taste is bitter and it has a sourish, mucilaginous odor. Manila Copals.—Varieties of copal resin are found throughout these Indian islands, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, especially in Luzon and the Moluccas. These copals are widely used, being of the cheaper grades. They are derived mainly, according to most authors, from Vateria Indica, L., but Wiesner is inclined to believe that more of the Manila copals are really derived from Dammara orientalis. The copals derived from species of the Dipterocarpee are distinguished from those derived from the Coniferee by the solubility of the former in chloral hydrate. It is largely according to this chemical test that Wiesner rejects Vateria as the origin of these Manila copals. The resin appears as lumpy, root-like, and tear-like fragments. There is no weather crust, such as is seen in the East and West African copals and in the Kauri copal. It is opaque and turbid, becoming clearer in the inner mass. The colors are extremely variable, brownish, gray to milk white, sometimes honey-yellow. The taste is aromatic and the resin adheres to the teeth in biting. 56 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. KAURI. COWRIE. Kauri Resins or Kauri Copals are resins from New Zealand derived from Dammara Australis, and in New Caledonia commonly from Dammara ovata. Most of the resin is found imbedded in the earth in the so-called Kauri Fields, which are located in the northern islands. The pieces vary in size, from two to three to eight to ten inches in diameter, mainly roundish, the surface being irregular and showing the effects of weathering. The fracture is brittle and glassy. Externally the fragments are whitish and yellowish, gray or deep brown, even vary- ing widely ina single piece. The color of the resin within varies greatly, yellowish to brownish, changing even in the same piece. Often foreign matters are included, beetles, flies, and pieces of vegetable matter. The odor is bal- samic, the taste somewhat woody. The resin softens in the mouth and sticks to the teeth. The melting-point varies from 180° to 240° C., | Chemistry.—The chemical composition of these copals is still in need of much study. Being so very diverse in origin, they vary widely. Tschirch and Stephan* have shown that a specimen of Zanzibar copal has the following composition : Trachylolic acid, C,,H,0,(OH)(COOH),. 80.0 per cent. Isochylolic acid (melting pt. 105°-107°C.) 4.0 Res##t-and copalresin... oy. ot 6.0 ” A. resin (Cy, H¢0,), melting pt. 7 Pi B. resin (C,,H,,0 Ds ** 140° Imipurities. 00 Fiala on ee 0.4 af PTR bn a5 kc pele ees Sh ee 3) Oa Bitter principles (ethereal oil, etc.) ..... C46 Se SANDARAC. Sandarac is a resin derived from a member of the pine family, Callitris quadrivalvis, which is a tree indigenous to the northwestern parts of Africa. It is slightly culti- vated in the tropical regions of Europe. * Archiv der Pharmacie, 234, 1896, p. 552. SANDARAC. 57 The resin lies in oval schizogenous passages which are from three to six in number and are situated in the paren- -chyma of the inner bark. While in the plant the resin is comparatively fluid, containing ethereal oils, these evaporate readily upon exposure and thus the resin hardens. The resin is collected from natural and artificial open- ings in the bark, and occurs in various tear-shaped pieces, elongated, cylindrical, pear-shaped to spherical. The longer pieces are sometimes 2 to 3 cm. in length and 5 mm. in diameter. In warm weather the pieces are liable to run together. In the finer varieties the color is yellowish, transparent, with sharp, brittle, dusty fracture. This dust usually covers the pieces, giving them their characteristic dull color. Sp. gravity 1.04 to 1.09. It softens at 100° C., and melts at 135° C., giving off an aromatic odor. Inflammable at higher temperature. No ash. The taste is bitterish, On mastication sandarac powders and cannot be chewed. It is soluble in alcohol, 96 per cent., in ether, amyl alcohol, acetone, and ethereal oils, like anise oil. It is less readily soluble in chloro- form, CS,. It is insoluble in benzol and petroleum ether. Chemistry.—It contains traces of an ethereal oil which is little known. It contains two free acids, Sandaracol acid, C,,H,,O,(OH) (OCH,) COOH, a white crystalline substance with a melting-point of 140° C., and Callitrol acid, C,,H,,0, (OH) COOH, which forms colorless prisms melting at 248°C. Tschirch and Balzer* give the follow- ing composition :— NE IES Pina Pb x00 010 o/e 0 aie 85.00 per cent. IE fo oral on oleiéin oe ance ¥ se 10.00 ts IESE 02 016 gia diss ts cee vos esee 0.56 Ea is tet iie Pes Pan sso +6 0.10 IE Pei hi da n'y oc a's op.00%0 © 1.50 Beeee EEE, ONL BUG L Si eee ee eee 2.84 100.00 per cent. * Archiv der Pharmacie, 234, 1896, p. 289. 58 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. MASTICHE. Mastiche is a resin derived from trees of the natural order Anacardiacee or the Cashew family, the most common being Pzstacta lentiscus, a tree about fifteen feet high, a native of the Mediterranean basin. : In the tree the resin lies in a number of passages among the sieve tubes of the phloem portion of the stem, from which it exudes through artificial incisions made about the middle of June. The incisions are made numerous and small, from the root and running up to the branches in a longitudinal direction. The resin in the main stems exudes freely, being very fluid and aromatic. After ten to twenty days it is sufficiently hard to collect and pack. From the twigs the small pea-like pieces are collected. According to Fltckiger, the whole process lasts two months and a single tree yields about ten pounds. Description.—The better sorts of mastiche are small, spherical or ovoidal lumps about 0.5 to 2.0 cm. in diameter, colorless or clear yellow in color, transparent, with a shiny glassy surface, which may later become clouded by means of dust. The fracture is sharp and brittle with little dust. In hardness it is intermediate between dammar and san- darac. The odor is slightly aromatic, the taste somewhat terebinthinate. The resin, when crushed in the teeth, holds together and can be chewed. Inferior sorts are darker in color, more irregular in shape, and are often contaminated with portions of the bark and with foreign particles and dust. Chemistry.—Its specific gravity is 1.07. It softens at about 100° C., and melts at 103° to 108° C. It is readily soluble in amyl alcohol and oil of cloves. The greater part is soluble in alcohol; this part has an acid reaction, and has been called X resin or Masticin acid, 80 to go per cent., C,,H,,0,; the insoluble portion, soft or B resin, 10 to 20 per cent., has been termed Masticin, C,,H,,O. It con- GUAIACI. RESINA GUAIAC. 59 tains also an ethereal oil, one or two per cent. C,,H,,, made up for the most partof pinene. There isa bitter stuff extracted by water. Other Kinds and Adulterations.—/Pistacia Terebinthine, from North Africa, yields a mastiche, Chios turpentine, which closely resembles ordinary mastiche. It has the same turpentine taste, but is free from the bitter principle of mastiche, and is more completely soluble in alcohol. A variety of the species also gives a mastiche. Bombay mastiche is by Flickiger regarded as allied with the pre- vious type This mastiche resembles Chios mastiche closely, is soluble in acetone, rotates light to the right, is generally less yellow and more opaque. GUAIACI RESINA. GUAIAC. _ The resin of the wood of Guatacum officinale, Linné. The heart wood of Guaiacum officinale, a tree indigenous to the West Indian Islands and the northern coast of South America, contains 15 to 30 per cent. of resin, and is the chief source of guaiac resin. It may be obtained from deep incisions in the bark, but the usual method of collection is that of extraction by burning. The resin lies in nearly all the elements of the wood, it being particularly rich in the vessels, which are sometimes completely filled. In the market it appears in irregular pieces, reaching one to one and one-half inches in diameter, the surface somewhat watery, greenish to brownish, dusty. As it is usually mixed with portions of the charred wood its fractured surface will vary considerably, being brownish, greenish, glassy or dirty, according to its purity. Small pure pieces or splinters are transparent, shining, greenish or brownish in color.. Freshly powdered the color is grayish brown. Later by oxidation in the air the powder becomes greenish in color. The odor on heating is aromatic. The taste is at first sweet and bitter, later sharp, irritating, and astringent. 60 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. The specific gravity 1s about 1.20 and it melts at about 85° C. It is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, with brownish yellow color, also soluble in amyl alcohol, chloroform, acetone and caustic alkahes ; sparingly soluble in oil of cloves and cumarin. Practically insoluble in petroleum ether, benzol, or carbon disulphide. The alcoholic solution has a slight acid reaction, and by oxi- dation becomes blue or green, which color is also more rapidly developed on the addition of ferric chloride or other oxidizing agent; as chlorine, iodine, or bromine. The resin consists of (a) Guaiaconie acid, C,,H,,O, (OH),, which makes up about 70 per cent. of the resin. It is amorphous, bright brown, odorless and tasteless, melts at 95° to 100° C., is insoluble in water, easily soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and chloroform. The salts are amorphous, the alkali salts soluble in water and alcohol. (b) Guaiaretic acid (Guaiac resin acid, C,.H,,(OCH,), (OH),), about ro per cent. From alcoholic solution it crystallizes out as rhombic needles, which have a slight vanilla-like odor, melts at 75° to 80° C., is insoluble in water, soluble in ether, chloroform, acetic acid, benzol. Its alkaline salts are crystalline and are soluble in water. (c) Guaiac beta resin; C,,H,,O,(OH),, about 10 per cent. Insoluble in ether. (d) Guaiac acid; C,H,O,, sparingly found. (e) Guaiae yellow; C,,H,,0O,, the yellow coloring- matter of the resin, odorless, bitter, easily soluble in alcohol, ether, carbon disulphide. By destructive distillation a number of products are obtained. Tiglin aldehyd, CH(CH,); guaiacol, C,H,- (OH)(OCH,), and pyroguaiacin, C,,H,,(OH)(OCH,), and creosol, C,H,(OH)(OCH,)(CH,), are among the most _ important. Adulterations.—Guaiac is frequently adulterated by colophonium; its turpentine odor is usually sufficient to_ detect the sophistication. BENZOINUM. BENZOIN. 61 BENZOINUM. BENZOIN. Benzoinum is a balsamic resin obtained from Styrax Benzoin, Dryander, a medium-sized tree native of Sumatra, and portions of India, in which places it is also extensively cultivated. It is probable that the Siam variety is derived from another source.* The resin has its origin for the most part in the cells of the middle bark, but the secondary medullary ray cells also contain some resin. The contents of the resin-producing cells are at first in- creased, the cell becomes swollen, and later there appear drops of resin within the cell. The cell walls then break down, being absorbed from the inside, which results in the formation of lysigenous passages in the bark. These gradually increase to a large size. Artificial incisions are made in the bark in April and May from which the clear resin flows; that from the younger trees (five years) being the best quality. As the tree grows older the resin grows darker, and when the tree is about twenty years old it is frequently cut, and yields, along with pieces of wood and bark, inferior grades. The terms head, belly, and foot benzoin have been used to designate the benzoin derived from the trees at these respective times. The resin is received at Sumatra or Bangkok in canoes, sampans, and is sent from there to the ports of export, Singapore, etc. : Several varieties need to be distinguished. These are Sumatra, Siam, Penang, etc. Sumatra benzoin comes in large masses. These are somewhat irregular and porous, and have a general reddish or greenish brown color. Imbedded here and there are a number of whiter pearls or “ mandels,”’ 3 to 5 cm. in diameter. The relatively greater number of these mandels indicates a better sort of benzoin. Inferior * Flackiger: Pharmakognosie; Holmes: Phar. Trans., 1891, p. 518. 62 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT ORGANIC STRUCTURE. grades are very poor in “ mandels,’’ or tears, the product is darker brown, more porous, and has a greater admixture of foreign matter, chips, pieces of bark, sand, etc. The general melting-point is about go° C., that of the tears about 85° C. It has a pleasant odor, made more evident by warming, and a somewhat aromatic and later biting taste. When chewed it at first becomes powdery, but later the pieces adhere in masses. Penang benzoin may be a fine variety of Sumatra. Siam benzoin is a much more highly prized benzoin and appears in the market in different ways. Sometimes it comes in more or less loosely agglutinated tears, at other times in masses, somewhat resembling the Sumatra benzoin. The former is a purer variety, and the mass con- sists almost exclusively of tears, 2, 3 to 5cm. in diameter; these are almond to pebble-shaped masses, of an orange or brownish red color. Their fracture is soft, somewhat fatty, the outer layer being somewhat reddish. Inside the color is a pearly white, which later, on exposure to the air, becomes reddish. The masses are somewhat similar to those of Sumatra, but are darker yellow or brown and whitish, or pure white internally. The melting-point is about 75°C. The odor is stronger and more suggestive of vanilla. The taste is similar to that of the Sumatra variety. Foreign bodies are also likely to be included. Chemistry.—The drug consists of from 70 to 80 per cent. of amorphous resin, 14 to 24 per cent. of free benzoic acid, ethereal oils, cinnamic acid. ; Tschirch and Ludy* give the following composition for Sumatra benzoin: Benzaldehyd i.5..63.064 6 ws ee sb the outer gall. This sheath, perhaps one-half the diameter of the gall, is composed of yellowish stone cells, whose walls are thickened. The tissue of the outer gall is mainly parenchymatic, loosely thickened by spiral cell structures, richly pored in the inside layer. Primary vessel bundles may run through the long diameter from the centre. These are mainly composed of spiral vessels, —S et a SS Se ee a ee CCU - — - , GALLA. with a few sieve-tube-like cells. Numerous crystals of calcium oxalate of both rhomboid and agglomer- ated types are found and the cell walls are nearly all thickened by rich deposits of tannin. The outermost cells are smaller and have thickened walls. Chemistry.—Tannic acid up to 7o per cent. of the best galls; sugar, 3 per cent. Chinese and Japanese Galls.—These are produced on the young twigs of a species of Sumac, Rhus semtialata, indigenous to northern and northwestern India and the Himalaya chain, and also in related species. The insects de- posit large numbers of eggs and would hatch a large brood. In collecting, the eggs or larve are killed, generally by the applica- tion of steam. In general the galls may be said to be very irregu- larly egg-shaped, but all sorts of’ shapes are to be met with, the galls being bladdery with irregular projections and knobs, and GALLS. 85 Fic. 12.—GaALLA. Cross-section of an Aleppo gall: A, Outer portion of gall; /, inner portion; g, tannic acid and masses; kd, crystal sacs; kf, iso- lated crystals; st, stone-cells; /, parenchyma; gk, starch (Moeller), twistings and contortions. In general they run in size 86 VEGETABLE DRUGS WITH ORGANIC STRUCTURE. from 5 to 8 cm. in length, and 24 to 4. cm. in width. The thickness of the rind is from 2 to 8 mm. The color is grayish-brown, sometimes having a soft brown bloom, which on being rubbed off reveals the more or less translucent brown shell of the gall beneath. The fracture is horny or splintery and the internal surface is smooth and generally lighter in color than the outside. In the interior, products of insect life may be found. The Japanese galls are usually smaller. Microscopical Characteristics.—An inner and an outer epidermis-like arrangement of cubical parenchyma cells is to be noted; those on the outer wall having outgrowths of short one- to two-celled simple hairs. The centre of the rind is made up of parenchymatic cells which, from without inward, are at first tangentially arranged, and later grow larger, irregular, and mesh-like in disposition, while here and there are to be observed simple vessel bundles, made up of a few small spiral vessels and one or two small sieve tubes and sometimes milk (?) tubes. The cells of the inner region are cubical, somewhat like those of the outer wall, but may be arranged in but one or two layers. The parenchymatic cells contain irregular masses of tannic acid and a number of green circular bodies and small starch grains. Chemistry.—Tannic acid in large quantities; gallic acid, fat, resin, ash, 2 per cent. Other Galls.—A large number of other types of galls are used commercially, some of the most important being: (a) Hungarian Galls, derived from Quercus sessili- flora, and pedunculated, by means of insect, Cynips leguicola. Some are small; up to 1.5 cm. in size, red- dish brown in color. Again, there are large ones, on Quercus pedunculata by means of Cynips Hungarica. These are grayish or brownish, circular, 3.5 to 5 cm. in diameter, with irregular warty surfaces. ee ee a alae — Q.3 oS AL 5 a endod tubes SARSAPARILLA. 93 according to the variety of sarsaparilla and the type of soil in which the root grew. The cortical cells are more or less spherical, and contain, in some varieties, numerous starch grains and crystals; in others the starch grains are fewer. The width of the entire cortical layer as com- pared with the central cylinder is of importance in the diagnosis of the variety. | ‘The cortical layer is separated from the central cylinder by a layer of thick-walled cells, the endodermis sheath, the contour of the cells of which is of much importance. Inside of the endodermis sheath there is a layer of thin- walled cells, and within this is a cylinder of vessel bundles arranged in a radial manner. The major portion of this cylinder of the vessel bundles is made up of the elements of the xylem, which completely inclose the phloem elements, almost hiding them from sight. The xylem contains vessels and fibres. The vessels are from 30 to 40 in number and are of the pitted type, the pores being both simple and bordered, and many of the smaller peripheral vessels have spiral markings. The fibres are very numerous and thick-walled; their characters are manifest in the powder. The phloem consists of small groups of sieve tubes and parenchymatic cells, immersed in the elements of the xylem. These sieve tubes vary widely, those at the periphery being small-lumened; the inner ones are larger, and the sieve plates are exceedingly oblique. Inside of the cylinder of vessels there is a pith which contains elliptical to spherical cells, rich or poor in starch grains. The starch grains are apt to be compound grains of from 2 to 6 granules. In attempting to separate the different varieties of sarsaparilla the following points are to be borne in mind: _ Comparative width of the cortical and central portions ; shape and number of rows of cells of the hypodermis; shape and size of the endodermis sheath; variation of 94 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. width of the woody cylinder and the pith; shape, size, arrangement, and amount of the starch grains. An important point to remember is that all of these characters are variable, however. ‘The circumstances bearing upon the variability are: (1) the time when root is gathered, younger specimens having fewer hypoderm cells, the walls of the fibrous cells are thinner, the endodermis is thinner, etc.; (2) the time of year when collected, the character and the amount of the starch grains varying with the season. The root also varies at different dis- tances from the rhizome; parts nearer the rhizome are uniformly stouter in all of the elements. Great varia- bility of the endodermis is to be accounted for in this manner. The following characters express the average rather than the absolute conditions: Microscopical Characteristics of Different Varieties.— In Honduras sarsaparilla under low power the cortical and central parts are seen to be about equal in size. Under high power the hypodermis of one or two layers of cells and some root hairs become visible. Just beneath two or three rows of thickened mechanical cells is the cortex proper, consisting of spherical cells with thickened walls having simple pores; these cells are closely packed with starch grains. The endodermis consists of a single row of cells, more or less quadrangular, the wall usually being uniformly thickened or in some parts of the root a little thicker on the inside. In Para sarsaparilla the cortical portion is two or three times as wide as the central portion. The outer hypodermis is five to seven layers in thickness, the outer walls of these cells being slightly thicker than the inner walls. The cortical cells are rich in compound starch grains. The endodermis consists of cells somewhat radially elongated, which cells are thicker on the sides and inner walls, and conspicuously pored. The pith is white and broader than the vessel portion. Starch is copious. SARSAPARILLA. 95 In Mexican sarsaparilla the cortical portion is from three to four times as thick as the central portion. The epidermis is quite often present, with root hairs. The hypodermis is three to five layers of cells wide, the outer angles of the cells are thickened; the lumen is small. The cortical cells vary in starch content. The endoder- mis cells are usually radially elongated, thickened on the sides and inner walls, of small lumen as a rule (though sometimes the lumen is considerable). The pith is broader than the woody ring, poor in starch, and rich in acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. In Famaica sarsaparilla the cortex is usually half as wide as the central portion. The epidermal hairs are usu- ally more numerous than in other types. The hypodermis is arranged in two or three rows, its cells thickened on the outer wall and usually with small lumen. The cortex cells are poor in starch, and apt to be richly pitted. In the endodermis sheath, the cells are radially elongated, thickened on lateral and inner walls, and pored. The pith is as large as the woody cylinder, also pitted. Starch is scanty. Powdered Honduras Sarsaparilla.—A mixture of sev- eral sarsaparillas is almost impossible to detect, there- fore an average powder will be described. The chief microscopical characteristics are starch, crystals, paren- chymatic cells, both thick-walled and thin-walled, hairs, endodermis sheath cells, vessels, fibres, and phloem elements. The starch grains are very numerous, in twos, threes, fours, or even more decompounded; the hilum is usually centric and the edges are rounded. Single grains range from 5 to 15 microns in diameter, the compound grains varying from 12 to 20 microns. The crystals are of the _ acicular variety of calcium oxalate; they vary in size, but average about 60 to 80 microns in length. The parenchymatic cells of the hypoderm are thick- 96 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. walled, usually tinged with brown or yellow, and have one wall thicker than the other; they are richly pored and do not contain any starch grains. Their average diameter is about 20 to 30 microns, and they run from four to eight times as long as broad; some are much shorter, - Fic. 14.—PowpErRED SARSAPARILLA. Epi, Epidermis; H, hairs; W. P, wood parenchyma; C, crystals; ‘S, starch; Endo, endodermis; Fibr, fibers; Hyp, hypoderm; P.D, pitted ducts; TR, tracheids; P, P’, P,, parenchyma; 5T, hypoderm stone cells; V, fragments of ducts. resembling stone cells. The cortical parenchymatic cells are uniformly thinner-walled, though the wall is not very delicate; in general outline they are usually cylindrical, some short, others much longer. The average cross-section of this parenchymatic tissue shows cells whose diameters range from about 50 to 100 microns, the cells nearer the a a on - RADIX BELLADONN&. BELLADONNA ROOT. 97 periphery and those nearer the endodermis being usually the smaller. These cells are uniformly rich in starch. A number of them contain crystals. The hairs of the root of sarsaparilla, while not a con- spicuous part of the powder, yet afford a microscopical character of much diagnostic importance. They are short, irregular hairs with thin brown walls; the general length is about t50 to 200 microns, and their average diameter about 20 microns. The cells of the endodermis are characteristic, yet in some powders can be differentiated from some of the hypoderm cells only with difficulty. They are thick- walled, richly pitted, and sometimes contain starch grains. Their average diameter is about 20 to 25 microns, and they are usually three to four times as long as broad. The vessels are of the spiral, reticulated, scalariform, and pored types, the pores being both simple and bordered. The diameter of the various ducts ranges from 75 to 250 microns, the largest ones being found near the centre. Tracheids and cells transitional between tracheids and fibres are common. They range in diameter from 20 to 30 microns. The fibres are present in numbers; they usually average about 20 to 25 microns in diameter, and are not infrequently 200 microns long. Some of the delicate-walled prosenchymatic elements, belonging to the sieve elements, may also be found. Chemistry.—The chief constituents of sarsaparilla are parillin, by some considered the active principle; saponin, 1 to 3 per cent.; resin, of bitter, acrid taste; starch, 3 to 45 per cent.; crystals of calcium oxalate and traces of a volatile oil. The ash constitutes 3 to 12 per cent. RADIX BELLADONNZ. BELLADONNA ROOT. 3 _ Belladonna Root is the root of Atropa Belladonna (nat. order Solanacee). Habitat, Central and Southern Europe, in woods. 7 98 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Description.—The root is cylindrical, somewhat taper- ing, 1 to 2 cm. thick, grayish-brown externally, deeply furrowed longitudinally, and somewhat transversely above. Fractures smoothly, with discharge of dust; internal surface, white or yellowish-brown. Taste first sweetish, then bitter and acrid. Histology.—With the lupe a dirty white, mealy cortex is found within the grayish-brown periderm. It is separated from the wood by the cambium, and does not show a radial arrangement. The woody portion of the main root is radially striated at its periphery; in the branches this striation is very fine, and is continued to the centre with interruptions. In the centre itself a large vascular strand is found. Higher powers disclose several layers of brown cork cells in the periderm. The cortex consists of parenchyma cells, with a tangential elongation in the outer part of the section, but more rounded or quadrate internally. They are filled with starch and calcium oxalate crystals. The central portion is made up of alternating xylem bundles and medullary rays, not extending to the centre. The former are broad, and con- sist of a ground-work of thin-walled cells in which radially arranged groups of vessels are imbedded. The medullary rays consist of amylaceous parenchymatous cells, which become continuous with the central parenchyma. The centre of the section shows a firm bundle of vessels. Powder.—The powder of belladonna is usually grayish- brown in color. | The main histological elements found are starch, tracheids, fibres, and cork. Crystal sand forms an incon- spicuous element of the powder. The starch grains are numerous; they are both simple and compound, the compound varieties perhaps about as many as the simple forms. The compound granules exist in: twos, threes, occasionally in fours. The average diam- eter of the simple grains is about 18 microns; individual RADIX BELLADONN2. BELLADONNA ROOT. 99 grains average from 1o to 30 microns; the compound granules range from 20 to 40 microns in diameter. The hilum is usually centric, naturally somewhat eccentric in corT EX — a> Tex pag Qi es he Fic. 15.—Cross-sECTION OF BELLADONNA Root. S. T., Sieve tubes; B. F., bast fibres. the compound granules, and is simple or tristellate; the angles of the grain are usually rounded. There being several kinds of belladonna root in the market, certain variations from the types here described Ioo_ . PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. may be encountered. These express, however, the aver- ages of a large number of examinations. The ducts of belladonna root are manifest; few spirals are found, and a number of reticulated and pitted forms and varieties with bordered pores; much range in diam- Fic. 16.—BELLADONNA. S.V., Spiral vessels; C.T., corky tissue; TR., tracheids; PAR., pa- renchyma; Pt. Duct, pitted duct; S., starch; F., fibres; R.D., reticu- lated duct. eter of these ducts is to be observed. The average of several measurements gave: Spiral ducts, 18; reticulated ducts, 25; pored ducts, 40 microns. The tracheids are typical and prominent; their average diameter is about 30 microns. They frequently are very RADIX GLYCYRRHIZ#. LICORICE ROOT. IOI heavily pitted and pored. The wood fibres are few, and, as arule, quite slender; they average 13 microns in diameter. Parenchyma filled with starch grains is predominant. The cells vary widely in size; they are usually oblong cylindrical, generally being from two to three times as long as broad, and in the main measuring 25 to 60 microns. Masses of corky tissues, dark and light-brown, are scattered copiously throughout the powder. On clearing the structure of the cells, the walls become manifest. Some few tissues probably derived from the phloem may be encountered with the xantho-proteic test. These tissues give the characteristic proteid reaction for the cell contents. They may be recognized by their delicate ‘walls and the character of their contents. Chemistry.—The active principle is atropine, which varies from 0.2 to 5 per cent., according to the age of the drug. Other less important ingredients are belladonnine, starch, a red coloring-matter, atrosin, and a substance similar to esculin. RADIX GLYCYRRHIZZ,. LICORICE ROOT. Glycyrrhiza is the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra, L., and of the variety glandulifera (Waldstein et Kittaibel). Habi- tat: Southern Europe and Western Asia; cultivated. Description.—In long, wrinkled pieces, from 5 to 25 mm. thick, longitudinally wrinkled, externally grayish- brown, warty; internally yellow; pliable, tough, fracture coarsely fibrous, bark thick, wood dense, taste sweet, ‘somewhat acrid. The underground stem, which is often present, has the same appearance, but contains a thin pith. The variety derived from G. glandulifera con- sists usually of roots or root-branches 1 to 4 cm. thick, 15 to 30 cm. long, frequently deprived of the corky layer, the wood soft and usually more or less cleft. Resembling licorice are pyrethrum and taraxacum, but they are not sweet. 102 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Histology.—In the branches a periderm surrounds the thick, yellowish cortex. A cambium line separates this from the thin and angular medullary portion. The bark is radially striated by convoluted bast-fibres and wedge- shaped medullary rays, and the wood by similar woody and medullary rays. The main trunk has the same appearance, except that the medullary portion is missing. The periderm consists of flat cork-cells in layers, the = * 2 = > > - >» 4 ~* \ Ds = ° i & oi ea = ~ S « - 4 2 SSS o- > ~ a == ~F 2 =& a ™ - - > etal = - ies a” ca Snes a 2 eae <= Se - —— .- = ? . A , = ~ : x - . < = = La .: < x ©, Z = re LEP» _

: Me i S—% DP : > 2 2522. %, a oS be a eee Be —— = ieee o = : > . . < or > o> x - - ae - A ws Yd /- < = ad Fic. 17.—LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF GLYCYRRHIZA. g, Pitted and reticulated vessels, tracheids to left; Kr, crystal sac; b, bast fibres; hp, wood parenchyma. primary bark of few rows of starch-containing parenchyma cells. The inner bark is much broader and is made up of three- to- seven rowed medullary rays and wedge-shaped bast-fibres. The cells of the medullary rays are tangen- tially elongated, thin-walled, and filled with starch. The chief mass of the bast rays consists of parenchyma cells with rounded bundles of thickened bast-fibres. The separate bast-fibres have quite a considerable length, and a ~ _s ’ The wood rays consist of three tissues. tissue of thin-walled, woody parenchyma there are wide RADIX GLYCYRRHIZ&. LICORICE ROOT. 103 convoluted course, and in proper section show branchings. A broad cambium line connects the bark with the wood. s ) See eet Cai \ ae eect, IH Nes | { } : aed i\ Soa ©, 5 eas Vigo, see 5S:a8ene: WE eer CH Hee SOO ee: lg BS dar) sare ff (exo a es} p—y~"_-T {J Seer ne ee == 7% Mea RE S@ 2s ts a ASSIS CNS Ve e249 1. Vee ._ (m ACT ae Or \\ eer es te melee Fic. 18.—CRoSS-SECTION OF GLYCYRRHIZA. A, ww, - roel ~y, A x“ | > ew hp , Bast fibres, wood fibres; g, ducts; m, medullary rays; s, sieve ; HA wood parenchyma; cr, crystals; c, cambium; St. starch; ray in cortex (Tschirch). In a ground 104 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. . _ or narrow vascular channels, single or in groups of two or four, with spirally thickened or pitted walls. Besides Fic. 19.—PowpDERED GLYCYRRHIZA. P, Parenchyma; Ph, phelloderm; M, medullary rays; Sf, stone cells; K, crystal fibres; Gf, vessels; Sb, sieve tubes; HC, keraten- chyma; Kr, crystals; St, starch (Koch). these there are rounded bundles of thick-walled wood fibres. , RADIX IPECACUANH,. IPECAC. I05 Powder.—A medium fine powder, No. 60, is brownish in color, and shows the following elements: Fibres, crys- tals, vessels, starch, cork cells, and woody parenchyma of medullary rays. The fibres are very numerous. Both bast fibres and wood fibres are accompanied by crystal small sacs, each containing a single crystal of calcium oxalate. A line of such crystals. lying along a fibre is a very characteristic picture in licorice powder. The form of the starch grains, cork cells, and medullary ray cells is not of particular diagnostic significance. _Chemistry.—Glycyrrhizin, glucose, mucilage, proteid, starch, tannin, asparagin, fat, resin, and a yellow pig- ment. RADIX IPECACUANHZ. IPECAC. Ipecac is the root of Cephelis Ipecacuanha, a native of Brazil, and extensively cultivated in India. Two vari- eties are common in the markets of the United States, the Rio Ipecac and the Carthagena. The plant grows in deep forests under the shade of trees. The roots are pulled along the ground backwards and then broken off, packed in bags after the dirt, which gives the color to the root, has been cleaned off, then sorted, rapidly dried in the sun and broken into short fragments. Description.—As the root appears in the market it is in pieces from one to two or three inches in length, twisted, slightly and irregularly contorted, 5 mm. in thickness, grayish to brownish-black, according to the character of the soil, distinctly annulated, annule 1 to 14 mm. apart, wavy in places, longitudinally striated, when dry cracked, the cracks running through the cortex to the central cylinder. The fracture of the cortex is wavy to resinous, that of the central cylinder is short, sharp, and brittle. Odor slight, in the powder nauseous to irritating. The taste of the cortex is bitter, that of the wood less so. Histology —Under the dissecting microscope or lupe the cross-section shows a thick cortical portion surrounded 106 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. eer eT by a thin brownish periderm witha yellowish central woody cylinder. The relative proportion of cortex to central cylinder is an index of the character of the root. Those ” a a cll ti inl tli tit ell Longitudinal section of Ipecac root: c, Cambium; K, crystals; rp, cortical parenchyma; hp, woody parenchyma; hf, wood fibres; m, medullary rays; tr, tracheids with border pores (Moeller). Fic. 20.—IPEcAC. . 4 roots with thicker cortex are considered of better quality than those with thinner cortex, since the active principles are present almost exclusively in the cortex . RADIX IPECACUANH. IPECAC. 107 and, moreover, stemmy ipecac or ipecac stems are made up of thick central cylinders and thin cortex. With greater magnification the periderm is seen to consist of from four to six rows of regularly arranged cork cells. Beneath this is the cortex, consisting externally of isodiametric polygonal, many-angled parenchymatic cells usually filled with starch, and strongly pitted with simple pores. Here and there throughout the cortex are crystal sacs with larger and smaller bundles of acicular calcium oxalate crystals. The parenchymatic cells of the cortex become more irregular and smaller as the cambium is approached. The fibro-vascular bundles consist of a well-developed xylem and a feebly developed phloem, between which there is the delicate two- or three-layered cambium. The phloem consists almost exclusively of sieve tubes, many of which soon undergo occlusion. These run out into the cortex in thin, irregular, triangular wedges which vary markedly foreach bundle. The xylem consists of elements which are difficult of exact definition. They are best termed tracheids, though many transitional forms are found. True vessels in the ordinary sense are missing, and when found in a powder indicate a certain admixture of stem. These tracheids are radially dis- posed, and are separated by bands of woody parenchyma, though distinct medullary rays are wanting (separating this from Gillenia, which also possesses vessels). The individual cells are considered in the powder. Powder.—The powder (No. 60) is light grayish-brown in color, and has the characteristic penetrating and irritant taste and odor of the drug. Microscopically, the following elements enter more or less conspicuously into the powder: Starch, crystals, cork, parenchyma, wood fibres, tracheids and vessels. The starch is the most characteristic feature of the - powder, and is almost of diagnostic value alone. The grains are simple, and in twos, threes and occasionally in 108 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. : diate’ h fours. The hilum is centric, the margins rounded. In Fic. 21.—SEcTIONS oF IPECACUANHA. « 1, Cross-section showing corky epidermis: P, Parenchyma, with starch; b, sieve tube groups; h, woody portions made up of tracheids. 2. Parenchyma cut long. 3. Longitudinal section of tracheids (Vogl). many cases compound granules are observable; in these compound granules the size of the different granules RADIX IPECACUANH. IPECAC. I0og varies, a point which, according to Tschirch, is of im- portance. The average diameter of the starch grains is _from 7 to 9 microns; some of the larger granules may measure from 17 to 19 microns. Kraemer gives 4 to 7. The smallest are usually about 2 microns. The starch of Carthagena ipecac is said to range on the average larger than that of Rio ipecac. Schneider’s figures are from 17 to 23 microns. The crystals are of the acicular variety, usually lying in special cells, but in the powder dislodged therefrom they range in length from about 20 to 100 microns, though this only represents an average. The cork cells are dark brown, and without clearing are usually indistinct in outline; in size the cells range from 9 X15 to 15 X25 microns. The parenchymatic cells of the cortex form a large part of the powder. The cells are usually ample, ranging from 60 to 100 microns. They are comparatively thin- walled, and are usually filled with starch grains. Some few special cells of the parenchymatic sheath contain the acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. The remaining elements of the powder present an interesting series of gradations in cell structure. In some works they are called tracheids, yet there would seem to be enough characters to differentiate wood-fibre like tracheids, true tracheids, and vessel-like tracheids. Schneider describes at least six kinds of tracheids.* The most characteristic cell forms are: (1) Vessel- like tracheids, having large openings, usually at the end of diagonal cross walls; these are usually the largest tra- cheids, from 12 to 15 microns indiameter. (2) Tracheids with bordered pores; usually smaller and having no end opening. (3) Ersatzfasern, or wood-fibre-like tracheids, with diagonal pores; these elements are about 15 microns in diameter and about 300 microns long. * Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 4, 1897, p. 3. IIo PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. True vessels are not found in the root of ipecac, unless the vessel-like tracheids are included under that head; functionally they certainly are vessels and, morphologi- cally, approach them closely. If portions of the rhizome are included in the powder of the root, spiral vessels similar to those figured may be found, also typical stone- like parenchymatic cells, also figured. Adulterations and Substitutions.—Undulated Ipecac.— Richardsonia scabra has well-marked medullary rays and spiral vessels. Undulated and wrinkled transversely in the form of shallow constrictions, brownish-gray, bark white, mealy, not bitter. The wood is nearly as thick as bark. Microscopically, two round medullary ray rows, vessels, and wood fibres are sufficiently distinctive. White Ipecac_—From Ionidium Ipecacuanha. Vtolacee. Somewhat branched, contorted, not annulate, longi- tudinally wrinkled, whitish or pale brownish-yellow, root porous, free from starch, 2 mm. thick. In powder, stone cells are found. New ‘cortex also contains sieve tubes. One-rowed medullary rays are also to be found and a few vessels. | Striated Ipecac.—Psychotria emetica. Vogl calls it I. glycyphlea. Longitudinally wrinkled, not annulate, 8 microns thick, grayish-brown, sweet, no starch, no emetic. Cortex waxy, inner half of periderm made up of regular cells, tinged with dark violet. These have no starch, but there are numerous crystals of calcium oxalate. Chemistry.—The chief constituents are emetine, 1 to 2 per cent.; ipecacuanhic acid, an amorphous, bitter glycoside, tannin, volatile oil, starch, gum, etc. RADIX SENEGA. SENEGA. The root of Polygala Senega, from the United States. Two varieties, Minnesota and Manitoba Senega, are generally recognized. Description.—The root is elongated, sharply triangu- ee "2 Tae RADIX RHEI. RHUBARB. Itt lar, 10 to 25 cm. long, nearly 0.5 cm. thick, with a swollen warty crown, produced by the remnants of 30 to 40 stems, with reddish scaly leaves. A few tortuous, irregularly contorted branches are given off, generally at right angles. Just below the crown the root is zigzag in outline, twisted about a keel, and sometimes transversely wrinkled. The keel and wrinkles are more prominent in the dry condition. The color of the root is yellowish- gray to brownish-yellow, white within, the fracture sharp and short, the odor and taste acrid. Histology.—The cortex is light brown, surrounded by a dark periderm, the xylem cylinder white and crossed by narrow medullary rays. Further down, where the keel is well developed, the wood is defective and parenchyma is substituted for it in many places. Under the microscope the periderm consists of layers of cork tissue. The primary cortex is made up of thin- walled parenchyma cells, which fill out the woody portion where this is defective. Within the keel the inner cortex is well developed and made up of several rows of medul- lary rays and of bast-fibres. The wood is penetrated by more narrow medullary rays, which resemble those of the inner cortex. The xylem bundles contain wide vessels and the parenchyma cells of the primary and secondary cortex are filled with oil droplets and a pale yellow sub- stance which dissolves in potassium hydrate. Chemistry.—The chief ingredients are senegin, fatty and ethereal oil, volatile fatty acid, mucilage, tannin, sugar and pectin. RADIX RHEI. RHUBARB. Rhubarb is the root of Rumex officinale, an herbaceous perennial, growing indigenously in the eastern Asiatic countries. The best specimens are the so-called Chinese. Description.—In cylindrical or flattened segments de- prived of the brown corky layer, covered with a 112 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. yellowish powder, smooth or slightly wrinkled, marked with white, elongated meshes, containing a spongy tissue and a number of short, reddish-brown striz; compact, hard, fracture uneven, internally white with numerous red, Fic. 22.—RHUBARB. Cross-section of root portion: c, Cambium surrounding a central phloem with medullary rays, m, and numerous crystals, obliterated sieve tubes and parenchymatic cells; g, vessels; ph, parenchyma in phloem. Starch is found in many of the cells. irregularly curved, and interrupted rays which are radially parellel only near the cambium line; odor aromatic, taste bitter and astringent. Htstology.—When examined with the lupe, large or small remnants of the dark outer cortex are seen. » pele | Ce eR a. ri ee 1 Po sa. 5 RADIX RHEI. RHUBARB. II3 If only part of the centre is removed, fine, white strize appear upon the surface, which alternate regularly with yellowish-red lines. Where the cortex is removed en- tirely, the tortuous groups of vascular channels will form a rhombic network. If the woody ring is cut away, the medullary portion will come to view with a number of scattered, circularly arranged rays upon the surface. The granular fracture line shows a meshwork of reddish- brown lines and’ dark dots upon a white ground sub- stance; a regular arrangement is noticed only with the cylindrical, lateral branches. Here a yellowish-brown cambium line runs parallel and close to the outer circum- ference; tortuous medullary rays radiate through the parts external to this, to end in a light zone internal to the cambium. The medulla is colored irregularly red and brown and also shows still darker rays without any typical distribution. The whole surface is mottled. Under the microscope, the white ground-substance consists of thin-walled parenchymatous cells containing starch and calcium oxalate. Every mottling which reaches a diameter of 1 cm. is made up of ten to twenty narrow, dark-brown medullary rays, which run from a central point. The dark line which divides every mot- tling into two halves consists of cambium tissue. Internal to this cambium, small-celled parenchyma containing starch and calcium oxalate is found between the brown medullary rays; externally tracheids and ring-shaped vascular channels abound. The medullary rays con- sist of two or three layers of radially elongated cells which are filled with yellowish-brown masses. The red and white mottling of the medulla is due to the presence of these masses or starch. Powder.—This is reddish to yellow-brown, is gritty between the teeth, and when mixed with water or saliva -it imparts to it an orange-red tinge. Microscopically the following elements are usual: Crystals, starch, peculiar 8 II4 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. needles of chrysophanic acid (?), parenchyma, vessels, and fibres. The crystals form the most conspicuous feature in the powder; they are large and numerous, sometimes con- stituting 30 per cent. of the whole; they are of the rosette type and vary widely in size, measuring up to roo microns. Some tabular octahedral forms are.also observed. — Bronce ( ¢ Fic. 23.—RHUBARB IN POWDER. S, Starch; C, crystals; P, parenchyma; A, chrysophanic acid, crystals (?); Pt, parenchyma, twisted and contorted; V, pitted and reticular vessel fragments; Va, fragments of large vessels; F, fibres. The starch grains are for the most part simple, though compound grains are not rare. They are spherical to slightly angular and average about 20 to 30 microns. Their polarization cross is conspicuous; the arms are at right angles andattenuatein thecentre. Peculiar acicular clus- ee ee ee ee RADIX GENTIAN#. GENTIAN. Irs ters, deeply stained, are met with in the powder; they are said to be chrysophanic acid. The parenchyma is abundant, very thin-walled, wide-meshed, and usually crowded with starch. Peculiar strings of flattened parenchymatic tissue are frequent. The vessel fragments are usually large and show the conspicuous reticular markings; sometimes annular and _ spiral vessels are observed. The fibres are few and present the characters of short wood fibres, with usually less thickened walls. 3 Chemistry.—The official rhubarb contains chrysophan, __ emodin, and the three resinous bodies, aporetin, eryth- ___‘-roretin, and phzoretin; also rheotannic acid, cathar- ___ tinic acid, a bitter substance, a crystalline body allied to __ eantharidin, 1.5 per cent. oxalic acid, traces of a volatile oil, and 3.43 per cent. ash. RADIX GENTIANZ. GENTIAN. _ The root of Gentiana lutea, L. (nat. ord. Gentianee), 3 U.S. P. The official gentian is a stately yellow-flowered __ perennial herb, 2 to 4 feet high, growing in central and southern Europe. The drug is also obtained from several unofficial species, as G. purpurea, L., G. pan- nonica, Scopoli, and G. punctata, Linné. Description.—Gentian comes in pieces of about 10 em. in length and from 1 to 1.5 cm. in thickness, being the entire thickness of the smaller roots and longitudinal slices of the larger. It is sometimes cut obliquely in k 3 _ cross-sections. The heads of the official root are closely __ annulated, the others scarcely so. In drying it contracts _ One-third in thickness which causes its contorted ap- pearance and deep longitudinal and spiral wrinkles. ___ The color is outwardly yellow or, from adherent earth, brownish. _ The fracture is after a slight bending sharp, showing _ a golden yellow interior. When cut, it shows a waxy lustre. FiO. PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF. PLANTS. The odor is slight, tobacco-like, increased by moisten- ing. Taste very bitter. Histology.—Microscopically a cross-section.of gentian root shows an epidermis of thin-walled cork cells, four to f —~ (Ose. @ 7 (' 4} y G e oc . 2 °F wat, y Fic. 25.—ASPIDIUM. . Cross-section of Aspidium: dh, Glands, in parenchyma, P, which surrounds the concentric fibro-vascular bundle, with X, the vessel por- tion (xylem), made up of tracheids in the centre, surrounded by Ph, the sieve portion (phloem), the whole surrounded by the dark lined endodermis (Moeller). in the market, should be about 1 to 5 cm. in diameter, and from 10 to 25 cm. inlength. It is completely covered with the ascending bases of the old stems, which usually * ys Soe lg PT eae ~ 4; ted rk ad ak ainda | ga « a ews er ee aT! a Ll ee ee ae ee se : . i - s » ASPIDIUM. I2I average 5 cm. in length, o.5—-1 cm. in diameter, slightly curved, shining dark-brown. These are closely inter- mingled with numerous light-brown chaffy scales and -mumerous delicate branched roots. Internally the rhi- zome is pale-green when fresh, yellowish and spongy when old. Fragments of the stipes are good when green only. The green character of the internal structure of both rhizome and stipes is essential. This is usually retained for from a half to two years after gathering, at the end of which time the drug is of no value, and, in fact, has suffered a gradual deterioration throughout the whole period. Histology.—A cross-section of the rhizome shows an angularly irregular outline; without is a layer, six to eight rows deep, of brownish-yellow thick-walled polyg- onal cells. In the light green thin-walled parenchymatic ground tissue cells are. numerous small, round or oval starch grains, single or in groups of two or three. Of frequent occurrence are round intercellular spaces into which project one or more round stalked glands contain- ing the dark green oleoresin. About midway between the centre and periphery of the section is a single circle of six to twelve (D. marginalis has five to seven) oval or reniform concentric fibro-vascular bundles arranged with the larger diameters at right angles to the radii. Each of these is surrounded by an endoderm of thickened cells, within which is the phloem tissue of the bundle and the central xylem. The xylem is composed mostly of large, angular, pitted, thick-walled tracheids, with here and there, single or in groups of two, narrow pitted and scalari- form ducts, imbedded in starch containing parenchyma. In the outer phloem portion of the bundle three zones of tissue may be distinguished. Within lie one or more _ rows of parenchyma enmeshing the wide, thin-walled sieve bundles. Surrounding these are several rows of narrow, thick-walled, longitudinally elongated paren- 122 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF. PLANTS. chyma. The whole is enclosed in the brown, corky, thick-walled endodermis. The sieve tubes are wider than the surrounding cells. Their cross walls are at right angles or only slightly inclined. They and the side walls show many pores closed by the coagulated protoplasmic substance in which are seen glistening spheres. Without this central circle of fibro-vascular bundles are seen irregularly distributed smaller ones. These lead out- S, Starch; G, glands; Pr, pitted parenchyma; P, parenchyma; Cr, thickened cortical tissues; T, tracheids: O, phloem parenchyma. ward to the fronds and have their origin in the central bundles. Powder.—This varies greatly in color according to the age of the specimen, from greenish to yellowish, to yellow- ish-brown. In a powdered condition the color-changes take place more rapidly, even when the powder is kept in a glass-stoppered bottle. 1S ie ee Hee) se Cea = ee ee ee ek ee we ee Re, ASPIDIUM. 123 The constituents of the powder, here describing both _ powders under the same heading, are starch, parenchy- matic tissue, thick-walled epidermal structures, vessels, glands, and fragments of roots and chaffy scales. If much stipe tissue is included in the powder, fibres may be found. The starch grains are suggestive. They are usually __. simple and exhibit a very great range both in size and shape. In shape they vary from minute spheres to flattened ovoids, and in size from 2 or 3 microns to 4 to 6 or8to12microns. These larger grains often show small apical irregularities, and are markedly flattened. The hilum is not manifest. With polarized light it is seen to be irregularly situated, sometimes centric, sometimes eccentric; stratification lines are few in the ordinary media used for observation, and with the polarizer, the cross observed in so many of the starch grains is only in- frequently seen. The parenchymatic cells are commonly ; __. packed with starch grains. They vary in the character ___ of the cell wall, some thin, others thicker and pitted, with irregular outlines, somewhat cuboidal in shape, and they vary in diameter in the different parts of the same rhi- zome ; measurements gave the range from 50 to 80 microns. Thick-walled epidermal structures are appreciable in those powders which have been made from the rhizome and stipes, in their natural condition; powders made from peeled or prepared specimens lack this thick-walled tissue. These cells are somewhat elongated and flat- tened, with slightly wavy and thickened cell walls, not infrequently sharp-pointed. Their color is dark-brown to yellow, and when found they form a striking feature of the powder. Cells from the outermost layers of this cortical tissue have cell walls which are much thicker than those further in. The vessels of aspidium are extremely large, and as a rule, fragments only are found. These show the typical 124 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. reticulated tracheid-like construction characteristic of many of the ferns. The tracheids are much of the same character, varying only in the complexity of their mark- ings and in their diameters. Some of the tissue of the phloem may,be seen. This consists of elongated and very delicate thin-walled cells, which are much crushed and contorted in the powdering. Characteristic features of this rhizome are the glandular structures. These are found in the parenchymatic tissues, or, more frequently, broken into small fragments and free; when perfect they consist of small dark-brown sacs, filled with resin, and averaging 25 to 40 microns in diameter; a minute stalk may sometimes be noted. If the rhizome is particularly old and much stipe tissue included in the powder, typical bast fibres may be found. Chemistry.—Male-fern contains the crystallizable or amorphous filicic acid whose reputation as the sole active constituent is disputed. It is, at least in the crystalline state, odorless, tasteless, insoluble in water except with an alkali, but quite soluble in absolute alcohol and ether. Other constituents are filicic tannic acid (10 per cent.), fixed and volatile oil, resin, sugar, and starch. CALAMUS. The rhizome of Acorus Calamus, Linné (nat. ord. Aroide@). Habitat.—Europe and North America, in wet meadows and on the banks of streams and ponds. Description.—In sections of various lengths, unpeeled, about 2 cm. broad, subcylindrical, longitudinally wrin- kled; on the upper surface marked with leaf-scars forming triangles, but on the lower surface with the circular scars of the rootlets in wavy lines; externally reddish-brown, somewhat annulate from remnants. of leaf-sheaths; internally whitish, of a spongy texture, breaking with a short, corky fracture, showing numerous oil-cells and CALAMUS. 125 scattered wood-bundles, the latter crowded within the subcircular endoderm. It has an aromatic odor, and a strongly bitter taste. Histology.—The cross-section reveals an outer zone, about 1 to 3 mm., covered on the outside with a thin epidermis, and enclosing an inner cylinder con- taining numerous vascular bundles. The underlying tissue resembles collenchyma, which on the inner part Fic. 27.—CaLamus RHIZOME. Cross-section: s, Starch-filled parenchymatic cells; 4, intercellular spaces; 0, oil cells; gfb, fibro-vascular bundle; k, cambium. gives way entirely to loose-meshed parenchyma, which encloses large cellular spaces. The inner parts of the exoderm, and of the central tissue, consi$t simply of one- layered cell sheets which separate the long cell spaces which extend in the direction of the axis. Together with each string or sheet of cells, there is a nearly spherical oil cell. The adjoining parenchyma is filled with granules of starch, which is mixed with, or accompanied by tannic 126’ PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF: PLANTS. acid. There are also cells filled with ethereal oil in the exoderm. The endoderm is composed of cells which are not very prominent, and extend only a short distance longitudinally. Deep within the endoderm the vascular bundles are more numerous; they resemble in their course the palm-type of cells, since they penetrate the tissue like leaf-vessel bundles and join with the central bundle. The bundles are concentric and carry the sieve tubes in the inside. In the outermost zone, the collenchymatic zone, there are single short sclerenchymatic fibre bundles. Chemistry.—Kurbatow has isolated a sesquiterpene (C,;H,,) which boiled at 255°. Flickiger, on the con- trary, isolated an oil of the apparent formula C,,H,,0, which boiled at 255°. The crude calamus oil has a some- what dark-brown color. Such a discoloration may be due to the mixture of a blue oil. Calamus oil furnishes a small amount of such a blue constituent, after the distillation of the principal part of the mixture at 270° to 290°. In addition, it appears to contain a phenol, since the portion which has the highest boiling- point is colored greenish-brown by alcoholic ferric chloride. Acornin, C,,H,,O,, is a very bitter, soft glycoside. It was prepared by Thoms by heating the calamus root with water, evaporating the solution after the ad- dition of animal charcoal, and exhausting the residue with boiling alcohol. The product was less than 2 per mille. It is neutral, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and ether. Other constituents of calamus are resin, starch, mucilage, calamine, and choline; the latter forms in decomposition, trimethylamin and methyl- alcohol. PODOPHYLLUM. Podophyllum is the rhizome and roots of Podophyllum peltatum, L., a plant found abundantly in certain locali- ties of the United States. It is very common in north- eee Vee ee Pe eee ae eee? q PODOPHYLLUM. 127 western New York and its cultivation could be developed toanindustry. The plant is well known and is character- istic by reason of its leaves and striking white blossom in spring, and later in the year by its fruit. This, when ripe, is pleasantly acid and is devoid of purgative properties. Description.—The rhizome of the market is composed of pieces from 4 to 12 cm. in length and about 0.5 to 1 cm. in width. It has. flattened joints at intervals of from 4 to 6 cm. which bear on their upper surfaces the cup-like scars of the single stems, and from their lower surfaces a - _ number of delicate roots. Between the scars the rhizome _ is cylindrical and smooth, sometimes slightly wrinkled in drying, and light brown in color. It has a sharp frac- ture, is hard and short, to waxy. The odor is very slight; sweetish taste, later mucilaginous and acrid. In drying, | _ the root contracts but little, and the fresh specimens ____ closely resemble the market varieties, varying only in the lighter color and the fuller firm character. Stems rarely _ enter into commerce, though stem elements have been _ detected by the writer in some powders. This should be considered as a very rare adulteration. Histology.—Under a low power, a cross-section of the fresh root, between the nodes, shows on the outside a _ brown epidermis encircling a whitish to grayish-white cortical layer; within this there is an irregular circle of separated oval fibro-vascular bundles, varying in number from eighteen to thirty. Within them there is the central cylinder of parenchymatic tissue, the pith, connected with the parenchyma of the cortical cylinder, between the bundles by parenchymatic strings. With a high power the epidermis is seen to consist of one or two layers of cutinized cells. In old specimens and in the region of the nodes this layer is more dis- tinctly corky and is frequently four or five layers thick. The average size of these cork cells is 0.022 X 0.045 microns. The cortical layer averages about twenty layers of 128 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. 4 ‘Fic. 28.—PopDOPHYLLUM RHIZOME. Upper figure, section of cortex; lower, of fibro-vascular bundle: Ck, Corky layer; Cort, cortical parenchyma, with starch grains and crystals, represented in single instances only; BF, bast fibres; ST, sieve tubes; C, cambium; T, tracheid; WP, woody parenchyma cells; V, vessels: SV, spiral vessel; WF, wood fibres; Par, parenchyma of center (pith). & | is) 4. Sie a PODOPHYLLUM. 129 parenchymatic cells down to the circle of fibro-vascular bundles. The cells bordering on the epidermis are slightly collenchymatic and average about 45 microns in diam- eter. A great degree of polymorphism exists in these par- enchymatic cells of the cortex. They vary greatly in size and shape, yet in general conform to the oblong cylin- drical type. The cells of the middle of this layer are on the average larger than those on either side, measuring about roo microns on cross-section and 140 microns in length. Most of them are filled with starch grains, and in the regions of the nodes large rosette-shaped crystals are frequent. The regions between the nodes are poorer in such crystals in the fresh specimens. The circle of fibro- vascular elements is quite irregular. The bundles vary in completeness in a given cross-section, and also in differ- ent parts of the rhizome. As a rule, they become larger and more fully developed as the nodes are reached. The bundles are distinctly separated and are typical. The xylem consists of ducts, tracheids, woody parenchyma, and a few wood fibres. The ducts vary from five to ten in number, and are of the reticulated and pitted varieties. A few spiral vessels are to be found in the inner angle of the bundle. Tracheids are few and present no note- worthy features. Woody parenchyma is not abundant, and many of the bundles have no wood fibres, save in the region of the nodes, where they become very marked and characteristic. The cambium is irregular and deli- cate, and is rarely found reaching across the interfascicu- lar space to join the cambium of the adjoining bundle; thus there is no well-marked cambium ring either in the root or in the stem. The phloem contains sieve tubes, accompanying cells, a few cambiform cells, and a few bast-fibres. There is nothing peculiar in any of the phloem elements, though many of the sieve tubes become occluded to form keratenchyma. The sieve plates are in many cases horizontal. The parenchyma of the 9 130 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. centre resembles that of the outside. The cells are filled with starch and are pitted, and contain few crystals. The structure of the stem, or practically the leaf stem, is interesting in that the arrangement of the bundles is very irregular and the bundle is of the closed collateral OY, a 7 Ow 0" ce t L) ‘ o0"9 e * . i: 7) ql .& ; : ab) = 3s ® m0 : ape (9 (7 > 4 = oy C-) staron® (iti alii = We at ie 28 = oa ae & oar BY Mocigd | . Be gecryp PAR ~ cs 3 + we Fic. 29.—PopoOPHYLLUM IN POWDER. Starch; Cryst, crystals of calcium oxalate; Ck, corky tissue, side view; PD, duct with bordered pores; RV, PV, reticulated and pitted ducts; Tr, tracheids; SV, spiral vessel; WF, wood fibres or bast fibres; Par, parenchyma, in longitudinal view; P, parenchyma in cross-sec- tion. type, so characteristic of the monocotyledons, though not unknown for dicotyledons, as, for instance, in the stems of Ranunculus. Powder.—The most characteristic and conspicuous fea- tures of the powder are starch grains, crystals, vessels, parenchyma, and fibres. Less conspicuous tissues found ZINGIBER. GINGER. 131 are sieve tubes, cork cells, tracheids, and wood paren- chyma. The starch is fairly typical. In the fresh condition it is seen to consist of compound grains made up of from _ five to twenty granules. In dry specimens of the market, ___ the grain is found to be broken up, and is apparently _____‘ much simpler in structure. The average diameter of the grains is from=8 to 14 microns. The larger granules a _ measure from 4 to 6 microns. The hilum is inconspicu- -_ ous and concentric markings are few. _ The crystals are not very numerous, yet are large, well- _ marked rosettes. They average from 40 to 80 microns, in several specimens examined. Be. Reticulated and pitted vessels are the most character- istic i in the powder. Fragments measure about 4o to 100 _ microns. The parenchyma, starch-filled, is thick-walled a Pian pitted, and the cells average from 40 to 100 microns. _ The fibres in old dried specimens colored yellow are not as frequent and typical; tracheids average about 25 microns across. Here and there in a field in the powder of the dry oe drug, masses of resin-like material may be encountered. ___‘Chemistry.— Water will precipitate a resinous body _ called podophyllin from the alcoholic extract. This Beidophyitin contains fatty oil, extractives, a yellow _ pigment called podophylloquercetin, an acid, podophil- ae Tinie acid, and picro-podophyllin and podophyllotoxin, _ which latter can be split up into the former and picro- «4 Se eidophyflinic acid. 5 a ‘ e. >. ZINGIBER. GINGER. ‘The rhizome of Zingiber officinale, Resave. The year- old roots are those in commercial use. Ginger is cul- tivated in the West Indies and in the tropics generally. _ Description.—Practically the cultivated rhizome alone comes into the market at present. It is a large flattish- branched rhizome, about 7 cm. long and 2 cm. thick. Pee ee ee a Ne ee 132 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. The branches are more or less finger-shaped, flattened, and generally collected along one side. The odor is pungent, the fracture short, sharp, and uneven, showing yellowish to grayish-yellow interior (yellowish fibro-vascular bundles on fracture). There is considerable variation in the external appearance, different packers in different countries shipping it in their own peculiar fashion. The main types that come into our markets are: Jamaican, coated and uncoated, only the latter recog- nized by Pharmacopceia; African; East Indian; Chinese. The Jamaica ginger is usually selected more carefully than the other types. It is first peeled and scraped and then dried rapidly in the sun. This gives it a whitish appearance which is a mark of good quality. The rhi- zome is generally more slender than in other types of ginger and rounder; the lobes are more pointed. East India ginger is generally peeled on the broad face only. Sometimes it is peeled, and then as it dries, if of a darker color than the Jamaica, it is dipped so as to simu- late it, or is bleached with chlorinated lime, calcium sulphate, sulphur, or chloroform. African and Chinese ginger are both generally coated. Sometimes they are half peeled. The Chinese ginger has short and stumpy stems. Histology.—Examined under the low power a cross- section shows, if unpeeled, an external layer of brown, corky epidermal cells, within which is found a small grayish parenchymatic cortex, separated by means of an endodermis from a central cylinder of parenchy- matic tissue more or less filled with fibro-vascular bundles and secretory organs. The cortex also contains a number of fibro-vascular bundles. The parenchymatic tissues are filled with starch. A yellowish color of the parenchyma is considered a sign of good quality. The fibro-vascular bundles appear as dark brown points in the field. Under EE —E—— ———— ee UCU ZINGIBER. GINGER. 133 the high power the epidermis shows several layers of corky tissue. Just beneath the cork layer the paren- LJ) \ \ S > f Fic. 30.—GINGER. Cross-section ginger rhizome: cp, Epidermis; end, endodermis; fv.b, fibro-vascular bundles; secr, oleoresin cells; scl.f, wood fibres (Greenish). _ chyma is free from starch and rich in secretory reservoirs. The parenchymatic cells of the cortex are polyhedral, __ isodiametric, and thin-walled, and are separated by 134 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. small intercellular spaces and numerous clearly marked starch grains with eccentric hilums. The cortex con- tains a number of secretory reservoirs which are about the shape and size of the parenchyma cells, or slightly larger; the cell walls of thesé are suberized and they contain yellowish ethereal oil, which at times becomes resinous. Numerous small calcium oxalate crystals are present. The fibro-vascular bundles of the cortex are rudi- mentary or built on the same plan as those inside the endodermis. The endodermis is composed of one to three layers of much contorted, slightly elongated cells whose walls are comparatively thick, compressed, and somewhat suberized. Some annular reticulated vessels are often found close to the endodermal sheath. The central portion consists mainly of parenchymatic tissue similar to that in the cortex. The fibro-vascular bundles are of the closed collateral type. The xylem consists of from three to eight tracheids and a few spiral vessels or spiral-like tracheids.* These are surrounded in part by a varying number of sclerenchymatic elements with pores with cross partitions which are slightly lig- nified. These elements are more numerous on the tracheal side of the bundle. At times they surround the bundle completely. Secretory cells are sometimes found in this portion of the rhizome. The phloem is made up of parenchyma and a few sieve tubes with oblique walls, surrounded by parenchyma cells. The starch of ginger is of diagnostic importance. In the powder the presence of much corky tissue is indica- tive of the fact that the outer rind has not been removed. Adulterations of powder are not rare. | Chemistry.—Two to six per cent. ethereal oil, Ter- pene, Acid, three to five per cent. ash. * A. Mayer: Arch. d. Ph., 1881, S. 422. ee a ee ee ee re CURCUMA. TURMERIC. 135 CURCUMA. TURMERIC. The rhizome of Curcuma longa, L. (Curcuma ro- tunda, L., Amomum, Jacq.). Nat. Ord. Scitaminee. This is a perennial plant with long sheathing radical leaves. A native of India, it is cultivated throughout that country, southern and eastern China, and the islands of the East Indies. It grows also in Africa and Brazil. The main portion of the rhizome from which the leaves emanate constitutes round turmeric; its cylindrical or fusiform rhizome branches form the long turmeric of commerce. | The rhizome sends out long, tough, very fine root fibres, which sometimes develop at some distance from their source into oval tubers, which consist, when young, almost entirely of pure white starch, but when older develop the yellow coloring-matter characterizing the rhizome. Description.—The rhizome appears in the market in the two forms characterized. The round turmeric comes in round or pear-shaped masses, hard and dense, exteriorly gray to light yellow, internally reddish-yellow. The diameter is from 1 to as much as 30 cm. (Flickiger). The large rhizomes are cut transversely and all are scalded to facilitate drying. The upper portion shows numerous stem scars arranged in concentric circles; below are the large irregular scars of the rhizome branches, and here and there a fine tough root fibre. The surface between the markings is nearly smooth above, irregularly wrinkled below. -Long turmeric comes in tapering cylindrical pieces, sometimes branched like ginger, but usually simple, with large orange-colored scars. It is indistinctly ringed, rough with deep irregular wrinkles. The fracture is sharp, shining, and resinous, the odor slightly aromatic, the taste pleasantly aromatic and somewhat pungent. The varieties are: the Chinese, 136 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. which is not common; Madras, which comes in rather large central rhizomes with golden yellow branches; Bengal, which in spite of its dull gray surfaces contains the most color; Cochin, which comes in sections or slices of a rather large rhizome; and Java, in small pieces of little esteem. Histology.—The bark, about one-sixth the thickness of i 7 e fo “i . l= y - CA A i B¢ . Fic. 31.—CuRCUMA. Cross-section cortical portion of turmeric rhizome: k, Cork; », . parenchyma with swollen starch masses; oe, oil cells; g, portion of vessel bundle (Moeller). the wood, bounded by an epidermis of thin-walled polygonal or round corky cells, consists of two layers, the outer of irregular pitted parenchyma with somewhat thickened corners without definite arrangement, the inner’ of regular rectangular cells in radiating rows developed from phellogen. On the surface are numerous CURCUMA. TURMERIC. 137 thick-walled, mostly single-celled, blunt-pointed tri- chomes, and here and there stomata. Oil cells are of occasional occurrence. More numerous are the elon- gated resin cells. The larger portion of the parenchyma is well filled with starch, which by the scalding swells up to form pasty. masses which retain the form of the en- closing cell even in the powder. The grains in their natural form are small, 15 to 30 microns long, oval, tri- angular, or three-Sided, sometimes long and thin or disc- shaped. The concentric rings are visible but indistinct. The hilum is at the smallerend. Here and there through- out the bark are isolated irregular fibro-vascular bundles, the numerous small angular sieve tubes surrounding the rather large-celled vessel portion. Occasionally in the parenchyma are found very small angular crystals of calcium oxalate. A distinct endoderm of tangentially elongated cells separates the cortical from the inner portion of the rhizome. The structure within is in general similar to that of the outer portion. The fibro-vascular bundles, however, are much more numerous, especially near the endoderm, where they merge into one another. They are usually concentric, as in the cortical tissue, but here and there an isolated bundle shows a rudimentary bicollateral structure. The vessels show markings between spiral and net-formed. The sieve tubes are weak with distinct sieve plates. The parenchyma is filled with starch. Resin cells are frequent, oil cells less so. Powder.—The curcuma in powder is easily recognized by its characteristic color, odor, and taste. It tinges the saliva yellow. The united masses of starch grains retaining the shape of their enclosing cells make up the greater portion. Isolated grains, uninjured by heat, are also met with. The tissue elements, cork, paren- 'chyma, and ducts, are of no diagnostic value. The absence of bast fibres is noteworthy. 138 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Chemistry.—A yellow volatile oil 1 per cent., a thick oil, turmerol, boiling-point 285° to 290° C., of an aromatic odor, and another less viscid body, the yellow coloring-matter curcumin, crystallizing in shining blue crystals, yellow by transmitted light, form the principal constituents. Fat and starch in some qua gum ‘and resin are also present. TUBERS—BULBS. SQUILL. The bulb of Urginea maritima deprived of its dry membranaceous outer portion and cut into thin slices, the central portions being rejected, of the natural order Liliacee, a native of the Mediterranean basin, growing in the neighborhood of the sea-coast. Two varieties are known, the white and the red, the former of which is preferred. The bulbs should be collected in summer or autumn, after blossoming but before the leaves have commenced to develop. The chief microscopical elements of the powder are crystals, parenchymatic tissue, epidermal cells with few stomata, and spiral vessels. Starch is absent, though at certain times the vessels contain a few small starch grains. The crystals of calcium oxalate are very prominent; they are of the acicular type, and vary greatly in size; some are extremely fine, others large or coarse, at least one millimetre in length. They appear round but are somewhat quadrate, belonging to the quadratic octa- hedral system. These crystals are usually found in all sorts of fragments; they are rarely found in the sac-like parenchymatic cells in which they are formed. They constitute from 3 to 4 per cent. of the drug. The parenchyma is elongated polyhedral and thin- walled, and much contorted, many of the cells contain- ing, in the powder, irregular clumps of mucilaginous = Le —— COLCHICUM. 139 material. A few elongated stomata are sometimes seen in the outer thicker-walled fragments of epidermis. The vessels are usually lax, and of the spiral type; fragments of broken spirals are common in the powder. Fic. 32.—SQuiILL IN PowpeEr. Epi, Epidermal cells with stomata, below; above, cross-view showing crystal sac; C, crystals in various stages; Sp V, spiral vessels; M, mucilage cell. COLCHICUM. Colchicum is the corm and seed of Colchicum autum- nale, L., natural order Liliacee@, a native of central and southern Europe, England, and North Africa. The corm is most active after one year and should be gathered from June to August of the second year, after the seeds are ripe. I4o0 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. The color of the powder is whitish; with age it becomes grayish to brownish white. The taste is acrid. The powder, under the microscope, shows the following gen- eral elements: Starch, ducts, and parenchyma; the starch predominating. The starch is abundant; the grains are large and characteristic. They are mainly compound, in groups of 5 of) @ 2 S : &y, ee b 4 RES oh te @@, Cge= Se 3 We SS Y Ye sa) 48) est) ett e Ly (Jj @: ¢/ OA Ei a oS Fic. 34.—ACONITE. Cross-section of tuber of Aconitum napellus: p, Parenchyma; e, endodermis; sr, cortex; c, cambium, stone cells at periphery, vessels within the cambium (Tschirch). they are usually colored brownish. The general size is from 20 to 60 microns. There is little characteristic of the parenchyma; it varies greatly in size in the different parts of the tuber, ACONITE. 143, hence a uniform size in the powder is not to be expected. The cells are mainly rounded, and the walls are some- what thickened and collenchymatic, especially near the epidermis; the parenchyma inside of the endoderm is eM) W's nedall ee Fic. 35.—PowpErRED ACONITE. T, Tracheid; V, pitted vessel; S, starch; ST, Sto, stone cells; H, hairs; P, Par, parenchyma; EN, endodermis; WP, wood parenchyma; Sp V, spiral vessel; E, epidermis. richly pored. The cells of the epidermis are usually light-brown in color, thin-walled, and are not character- ‘istic. Occasionally a few epidermal hairs are seen. These come from the lower part of the tuber or from the 144 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. minute side rootlets. The vessels vary widely, may be thick-walled, and the fragments usually show traces of the pores, which are slightly bordered. Sometimes spiral Ne, grahacte eee aptauun. a) ‘\ ) DEST (] = XG {] Poy uae fay ISS nee eet As a LY yr te bY eS eee suesmaes SQea Os HES BR q tee SW snieatiie’s a SOREN Fic. 36.—JALAP. Cross-section through the outer portion of jalap tuber: &, Cork; m, milk tubes; c, cambium; h, vessel portion (Tschirch). vessels are found. Small fragments of woody paren- chyma containing starch grains are also met with. JALAP. Jalap is the tuberous root of Ipomea Falapa, a native of damp _ shady woods of eastern Mexico and the surrounding pro- vinces. It is now also in cultivation in Jamaica and in the Nilgherry mountains of India. Jalap is gathered at all times of the year, hence there is a great variation in its con- stituents, especially the starch, some specimens being very rich in this ingredient and on account of this generally less valu- able. These specimens break with a mealy frac- ture. Others contain very little starch, have a tough fracture, and are dark- brown and shiny on the broken surface. As a rule, such are to be pre- ferred. The powder is dark-brown. The more prominent microscopical constituents are Se JALAP. 145 starch, ducts, crystals, tracheids, resin masses, and parenchyma. The starch grains of jalap are large; simple and com- pound forms abound. The larger simple grains are gen- Fic. 37.—JALAP IN PowDeER. S, Starch; C, crystals; R, resin globules; Co, corky tissue; Pr, parenchyma; T, tracheid; V, vessels with slit-shaped and border pores. erally dense, rounded or broadly oval, sometimes ovate, with an eccentric, generally simple, hilum and pronounced concentric markings. Their polarization cross is irregu- lar. The smaller simple grains and the compound grains, which latter are in twos or threes, rarely more, have 10 146 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. central and usually lacerate hilums. The grains range from 1o to 35 microns in size. In the artificial heat of drying many of the starch grains are apt to be altered, especially those near the epidermis of the tuber. The resin masses are prominent, they are usually spherical, light to dark-brown,. and minutely irregular or with larger drops of oil. The crystals vary; they are of the spheroidal, spiny type and average from 20 to 40 microns. The parenchyma is very abundant; it is lax, thin- walled, and usually non-pored. The tracheids are few, and have simple slit-like markings. The vessels are few but large, the fragments sometimes showing the markedly regular border pores. The cells of the epidermis are generally elongated, hexagonal in shape, and are dark- brown to black. WOODS. The woody tissues form, as a rule, the greater part of the mechanical tissues of the plant, and in some plants by far the greatest amount of material in the stem is made up of woody fibres. There are but few official woods, as we know from the physiology of the plant that the woody fibres serve mainly to support and conduct air and water only; in the bark the more active life processes of the plant are constantly taking place, and hence more active chemical compounds are found in the bark. This lack of active chemical compounds accounts for the few official woods: Starch and sugar are sometimes found lying free in the woods, but rarely nitrogenous substances nor alka- loids. Heart woods frequently contain tannin and resin, coloring-matter forming part of cells or the cell walls. The proper contents of the woods are reserve-stuff materials, aromatic bodies, ethereal oils (Juniper, Sassa- fras), resin (Guaiac), tannin and coloring-matters (Hama- ee ee ee WOODs. 147 toxylon and Santalum), bitter products (Quassia)— in general, products of destructive metabolism. Although from the medical standpoint the woods are of small interest, they are of more importance to the phar- macognocist, for they are frequently used to adulter- ate ground drugs, and they form, though in small quan- tities, an important part of the stems and roots of official drugs. ; In the narrow sense of the word the “ woods”’ include the xylem elements of the dicotyledonous stem; the phloem elements of the bundle generally adhere to the bark. These elements, it may be recalled, are: (1) Ducts or vessels. (2) Tracheids. (3) Woody fibres (libriform). (4) Parenchyma. (a) Wood parenchyma. (6) Simple parenchyma. (1) The ducts or vessels are characteristic of woody tissues. They are usually lignified, have thick walls, and the end cell membranes have become absorbed. The walls are provided with variously shaped and sized pores and may be sculptured in a variety of ways, giving rise to. the various types of vessels. (a) Spiral.—Cell wall thickening spiral. (6) Annular.—Cell wall thickening annular or ring-like. (c) Reticulated.—Cell wall thickening net-form. (d) Pitted —Pits or pores which may be simple or bordered. Various transitional forms are to be encoun- tered and they all spring from the cambium. (2) The tracheids are to be distinguished from the ducts by the presence of cross walls that have not been ab- _ sorbed. In other respects they resemble the ducts quite closely. The wood of the Conifers is distinguished by having 148 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. nothing but tracheids. The woody cylinder in the root | of Ipecac consists entirely of tracheids. (3) The libriform or wood fibres make the largest mass of the wood. They are generally packed about the vessels, supporting them. They are elongated elements with rounded or sharpened ends, thickened lignified walls, and provided with left oblique, slit pores, in all respects similar to the bast fibres, from which they can be distinguished with difficulty. (4) The parenchyma may be of two kinds: (a) Woody; (b) simple. (a) Woody parenchyma is, as a rule, found in small quantities in the wood, immediately surrounding the vessels or arranged in radial rows between the vessels. Parenchyma may be difficult to distinguish from libriform in long section. Shortness is diagnostic. The — simple pores are also diagnostic. Medullary ray cells closely resemble woody parenchyma in cross-section in many woods. (b) Simple parenchyma may be irregularly scattered in small amounts among the various elements of the wood. Its thin-walled isodiametric cells with simple pores are sufficiently distinctive. Rarely does the simple paren- chyma become sclerotic. ; Transition forms among the elements are to be ex- pected, and to these much of the difficulty in determina- tion of powders is due. Excretory reservoirs (oils, mucilage, tannin) are rare in the official woods (Sassafras). Crystals are sometimes found in the woody paren- chyma of the medullary rays and sometimes in the simple parenchyma. Secretory reservoirs, both schizogenous and lysigenous, are met with. In Pinus, Eucalyptus, etc., the oil, resins, and balsams are contained in schizogenous reser- voirs, as also in the root of Arnica, Angelica, etc. QUASSIA. 149 Schultze’s maceration fluid is an invaluable help in the study of the isolated parts of the wood and should be constantly employed. QUASSIA. The wood of Picrena excelsa (Swartz), Lindley. Jam- aica. In the German Pharmacopceia both Jamaica (P. ex- celsa) and Surinam (Quassta amara) Quassia are men- tioned. In billets of various sizes, dense, tough, of medium hardness, porous, with a minute pith and narrow medullary rays, inodorous and intensely bitter. In the shop it is met with in the form of chips or raspings of a yellowish-white color. Description.—The bark is 0.5 to 1.0 cm. wide, and breaks off quite readily. It is of a dark color and “shows on cross-section a radial irregular structure. Be- neath the end is a narrow, grayish layer, beneath which is the main body of the wood, showing a number of ducts and medullary rays. Central pith in the interior. The cells of the periderm are oblong, the outer ones being stained dark-brown. The parenchyma of the outer layer is rich in calcium oxalate crystals. Famaica.—Elements large; medullary rays two to five, lying close to vessels. Single calcium oxalate crystals in woody parenchyma. Pores elongated radially (crystal cells); more bordered pores. The phloem contains bast fibres which are well marked, cambiform cells, and sieve tubes which are somewhat contorted and irregular. The medullary rays are some two or three cells in width, contain starch, and widen out very markedly in the phloem portion of the bundle. The xylem contains: Vessels, tracheids, woody fibres; woody parenchyma and simple parenchyma. The vessels are large, two or three collected and I50 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. surrounded by a layer of pitted woody parenchyma containing resin at times. Pitted vessels predominate. The woody fibres are numerous, making up the greater part of the bundle. The woody: parenchyma forms tangential bands which are quite a marked feature of this wood, These contain at times calcium oxalate crystals. The pith consists of large, spherical cells, abundantly pored, containing numerous calcium oxalate crystals. ORD Sse is eos es Worse ws TAR wees! IK oe / \s 0 er ®& eo Oloo © S S Fic. 38.—CRoss-SECTION QUASSIA. WP, Wood parenchyma; M, Medullary rays; W, wood fibres; RD, re- ticulated ducts. Surinam.—All the elements are smaller, so that the wood seems harder and thicker. The medullary rays are narrower, generally only one, rarely two cells wide, five to twenty cells high; woody parenchyma less; vessels thicker walled. Vessels in groups of two to five; about one-half diameter of distance between medullary rays; pores broader than long. Calcium oxalate not found in wood, but in medullary rays. Under the low power the stem and branch pieces a. - ne ee ee —~— a2 = T= . v ie) ' QUASSIA. 151 Uahave a small one-half inch thick rind. Within is seen the strongly marked whitish yellow woody centre, which shows concentric sheath and narrow vessels and very fine, closely arranged whitish medullary rays. A light brown pith is found in the centre. With the higher magnification the cortex shows a layer of cork, on cross-section oblong quadrangular, on long sec- tion somewhat elongated hexagonal. Within is found a layer of parenchymatic cells rich in calcium oxalate, also a number of stone cells, which at times form a more or less complete sheath separating the outer from the inner cor- tex. The phloem of the fibro-vascular bundles consists of a few bast fibres, sieve tubes, and parenchyma. They are radially arranged and separated by the medullary rays, which have become somewhat wider than when in the xylem portion of the bundle. The medullary rays are small, one or two cells wide only. The xylem contains ducts, woody parenchyma, and simple parenchyma. The woody tissues lie in more or less alternate rows of two or three pitted vessels surrounded by woody fibres and one or two rows of woody parenchyma, pitted with simple pores. There areno annular rings, as the plant is tropical. Pith is composed of polyhedral cells. Differences —Surinam, smaller pieces, branches, etc. ; Jamaica, blocks, etc. Surinam, medullary rays one cell wide or only two. Vessels smaller. Sheath of parenchyma in wood one or two cells wide. Smaller sized pieces, never over four inches in diameter. Thin, brittle bark. Denser wood. Crystals present in woody parenchyma (Meyer). Jamaica, rays two or three cells wide. Vessels double the size. Woody parenchyma two to four cells wide. Large blocks. More open and porous. Crystals in woody parenchyma and medullary rays. Chemistry.—The main and important constituents of 152 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. both forms of quassia is quassin. Besides this, there is some resin and starch. The wood of the Surinam variety yields 3.6 per cent. and its bark 17.8 per cent. ash, while the figures for the Jamaica variety are respectively 7.8 and 9.8 per cent. HAMATOXYLON. LOGWOOD. The heart wood of Hematoxylon Campechianum, Linné — (nat. ord. Leguminose). This is a tropical tree, 8 to 12 metres (24 to 36 feet) high, a native of Central America, but since 1715 cultivated in Jamaica and other West Indian islands. The trunks and branches of the trees at least ten years old are collected, and the yellowish sap wood removed. Description.—The wood comes in logs about three feet long and weighing about 50 kilograms. It is bluish black or greenish externally, fibrous, splitting easily, the fresh surfaces shining red brown. The wood also often occurs in commerce in the form of chips or powder which have been exposed to air and moisture and have assumed a greenish-black color. In this state it should not be used as a drug. The odor is pleasant, the taste sweet and astringent. It colors the saliva red. Histology.—A cross-section of the root shows in general a number of irregular transverse bands, alternately light and porous and dark and dense. The former form the groundwork in which the unconnected, sinuous, diamond-shaped masses of shining sclerenchymatic wood tissue are embedded. Fine medullary rays divide the whole into equal sections. These are one to three cells wide and contain a red brown pigment. The dense masses are made of long, polygonal, thick-walled, finely dotted wood cells, colored a deep red brown. The porous ground tissue consists of polygonal slightly thick- walled parenchyma through which run the large pitted vessels, singly or in couples. They often occupy the - . SS Se oe — ee * a 2 . g ll Bi et i at | | es at : ° SANTALUM RUBRUM. RED SAUNDERS. 153 entire space between two medullary rays. They are filled with red brown masses, as is also the parenchyma, which in addition contains many-faced crystals of cal- cium oxalate. | Powder.—The color, odor, and taste, all of which are characteristic, are of more diagnostic value than the microscopical characters. It may be distinguished from Brazil wood and Red Saunders by its yielding a purple color with alkalies, whereas Brazil wood causes a red color and Red Saunders remains unaffected. The powder shows, however, the large pitted vessels, the thick wood fibres, and the narrow medullary rays. Calcium oxalate crystals are rare. Chemistry.—Hzmatoxylon contains tannin, volatile oil, resin, and, as its important commerical constituent, hematoxylin. An aqueous solution of the latter yields columnar crystals, which are colorless and very sweet, resembling licorice. By the influence of air and moist- ure or other weak oxidizing agents these crystals become dark red brown. In solution with ammonia exposed to the air they yield violet-colored hzematin-ammonia, which at 13°C. yields its ammonia, leaving hematin, a blackish- violet crystalline powder with a green lustre. With metallic salts they yield variously colored precipitates. Fused with potash, hematoxylin yields pyrogallol. SANTALUM RUBRUM. RED SAUNDERS. The wood of Pterocarpus santalinus, Linné filius (nat. ord. Leguminose@). This is a small tree, native of the Coromandel coast, but cultivated in the East Indies and the Philippines. It grows to be about 30 to 40 cm. in diameter and 6 to 8 metres (18 to 24 feet) high. Description. Red Saunders is found in the market either in logs derived from the lower portion of the trunk and the larger roots or in chips, raspings, and powder. I54 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. The former are irregular, heavy, deprived of bark and sap-wood, 1 m. to 1.5 m. long, 12 to 15 cm. thick, the surface from exposure dark-brown, with a slight greenish tint, internally deep red. The wood is firm, fibrous, susceptible of a high polish, but easily split. It is odor- less and tasteless and does not color water. Histology.—The wood on cross-section reveals al-. ternate bands of dark, dense, and shining tissue and lighter and porous circles. A radial longitudinal section shows a peculiar structure characterized by the oblique directions in which the alternate bands run, crossing each other at an angle of 30 degrees. The wood is divided radially by numerous fine medullary rays into narrow bands. } The wood fibres of the dense bands are long, varying much in diameter, their deep red thickened walls leaving small round or oval lumens. The light porous bands are composed of two to eight rows of slightly thickened cubical pitted parenchymatic cells containing large crystals of calcium oxalate and masses of red resin. Imbedded in this tissue are the large pitted walled vessels, single or in couples, often occupying all the space between the medullary rays. They are often filled with red resin. The medullary rays are a single cell wide, rarely two-celled, and vertically five to eleven cells high. Their outer ends are curved. Powder.—The powder is dark red, odorless and taste- less, colored bluish-red by alkalies. It consists mostly of wood fibres, but with some pains portions of the closely pitted vessel walls and fragments of tissue showing tangential sections of the medullary rays may be found. These being but one cell row in width, distinguish this from all other red woods (Moeller). Calcium oxalate crystals are also present. Chemistry.—Santalic acid or santalin is the principal constituent. Further, pterocarpin and santal and homo- 7 BARKS. 155 pterocarpin. Santalin, C,,H,,O, or C,,H,,O,, crystallizes in minute red prisms, insoluble in water, dissolving in alcohol with a red color and an acid reaction, in ether with a yellowish and in alkalies with a violet color. Pterocarpin, C,,H,,O;, colorless crystals, insoluble in water, with difficulty in alcohol, easily in chloroform and carbon disulphide. Soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid with a red, in nitric acid with a green, color. San- tal, C,H,O,, colorless crystals, insoluble in water, with difficulty in ammonia water and dilute alcohol, easily in a weak solution of potash with at first a red and then a green color. Ferric chloride turns the alcoholic solution red. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves the crystals with a red, nitric acid with a green, color. Homoptero- carpin, colorless crystals, soluble in carbon disulphide. BARKS. The subject of barks in pharmacognosy is a much abused one. The vegetable anatomist has one definition of a bark, whereas the pharmacognocist has another. To the one it consists of tissues developed in the main from the layer of primary tissue termed the dermatogen, and comes to be entirely outside of what is known as the phloem portion of the fibro-vascular bundles. To the other, who does not restrict the term so closely, the bark consists of all those structures outside of the cam- bium line; in this sense, then, being a wider term than that of the anatomist, including both phloem structures and those in the bark proper. Hence the pharmacogno- cist can rely in great part for the detection of the barks upon the bast fibres, which, according to the anatomical definition, have no place in the bark. The description of the general type of barks here adopted will include both definitions. In the growing stem anatomists have defined three 156 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. regions of growth, the periblem, the plerome, and the dermatogen, from which within general limits the ground tissue, the fibro-vascular bundles, and the epidermis severally take their origin. Primary epidermis is found in few official barks and is to be seen best in some of the official herbs. In young stems this layer is generally one or two cells thick, the’ outer cells being cutinized. Secondary epidermal structures are common. Among the official plants are found the following types. In the stems of most dicotyledons and a few monocot- yledons a series of changes take place which make up the secondary epidermal structures. These secondary changes are brought about by means of what is known as the phellegen layer. As the stem of a plant gets larger the’ primary epidermis is forced off, and if no other structures grew, the tissues of the plant would suffer exposure; so that while the increase in size is taking place and the primary epidermis is being thrown off a layer of cells immediately beneath the primary epidermis takes on meristematic growth, forming the phellogen layer, and builds up the periderm, adding new structures mainly composed of isodiametric cells on both inside and out- side. | The modifications of these isodiametric cells on both inside and outside make up a number of distinct types, the most important of which are the cork cells. These are generally the outermost. Beneath these parenchymatic cells, which may be thickened, stone cells may be found. Within the phloem elements are present. Hence from the pharmacognostic standpoint the follow- ing structures are to be identified and studied: Cork cells; stone cells; bast fibres; sieve tubes, generally lost or dried or otherwise mutilated; simple parenchyma. CORTEX RHAMNI PURSHIANZ. CASCARA. 157 CORTEX RHAMNI PURSHIANZ. CASCARA. Rhamnus Purshiana (Cascara Sagrada).—Chittem Bark. The bark of Rhamnus Purshiana, De Candolle (nat. ord. Rhamnacee). Habitat, northwestern United States. Description.— Occurs in quills or curved pieces, about 3 to ro cm. long, and about 2 mm. thick; outer surface brownish-gray and whitish; the young bark having numerous, rather broad, pale-colored warts; inner sur- face yellowish to light brownish, becoming dark brown with age; smooth or finely striate; fracture short, yellow- ish, in the inner layer of thick bark somewhat fibrous; inodorous; taste bitter. The medullary rays are thin and extend about three- fourths of the width across the bark. They occur in groups which converge at their outer ends, thus differing from Rhamnus Californica. Stone cells are present, thus distinguishing it from Rhamnus frangula. Powdered bark turns orange on the addition of alkalies. Rhamnus Californica turns a deep red. Powder.—The powder shows the following elements: Crystals, starch, resin, cork, bast fibres, parenchyma, medullary ray tissue, stone cells, and fragments of long- celled tissues from the phloem part of the fibro-vascular bundles. Crystals are the most characteristic constituents of the powder. These are usually in great abundance and are particularly prominent in a fine powder. The rosette forms are the most common; these vary in size, but on the average run about 15 to 20 microns. Cubical crystals are found clinging about the bast fibres in numbers; these are smaller, averaging between 5 and 10 microns in a number of specimens examined. The starch grains are not of much diagnostic im- portance, being simple, quite small, and usually incon- spicuous. They average in size about 4 microns. 158 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. The cork cells are in abundance and are of interest; they vary in size from about 15 to 25 microns and often are found isolated. : Bast fibres are found, in fragments, depending upon the fineness of the powder; they-are usually colored some shade of yellow or brown, are about 5 to 15 microns in the Fic. 39.—POWDERED CASCARA. C, Crystals, two kinds; B, bast fibre with crystal sac; Cr., Cor, cork; P, PAR, parenchyma with starch; ST, stone cells; M, medullary rays; S, starch; O, tissues of phloem. short diameter and contain clustered cubical crystals in small crystal sacs, one crystal to a sac, along their long diameter. The parenchymatic tissues vary widely. Those of the middle bark are usually wider lumened and average about 20 microns in diameter and about 40 microns in length. The cell walls are delicate, those nearer the outer bark eee ale 7 CORTEX CINNAMOMI. CINNAMON. 159 showing the stained walls. The parenchyma of the phloem portion of the bark, the inner bark, is more irregular and contorted, usually due to drying and to hardening of the resin, which seems to be more abundant in this part of the bark. The stone cells are frequent. They are very irregular and characteristic. In the main, their diameters vary between 25 and ‘50 microns. The medullary ray parenchyma is only infrequently met with and presents no noteworthy characteristics. It is usually richly pitted. The cells from the sieve tube portion of the bark are much distorted, as a rule, but in a field of the whole slide some long thin-walled elements may be found. Chemistry.—Tannic, oxalic, and malic acids, fixed oil, volatile oils, a neutral crystalline substance resembling frangulin; red, yellow, and brown resins which change to an intense purple on addition of caustic potash. CORTEX CINNAMOMI. CINNAMON. SAIGON CINNAMON. Cinnamomum Saigonicum (Saigon Cinnamon; Ger. Saigonzimmt).—The bark of an undetermined species of Cinnamomum (nat. ord. Laurinee), so called from Saigon, in French Cochin China. Description.—In quills about 15 cm. long and 10 to 15 mm. in diameter, the bark is 2 or 3 mm. thick; outer surface gray or light grayish-brown, with whitish patches, more or less rough from numerous parts and some trans- verse ridges and fine longitudinal wrinkles; the inner surface cinnamon-brown or dark-brown, granular and slightly striate; fracture short, granular, in the outer layer cinnamon-colored, having near the cork numerous whitish strie forming an almost uninterrupted line; odor fragrant; taste sweet, warmly aromatic, somewhat 160 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. astringent. Saigon cinnamon is darker than Ceylon or Cassia; in thickness it exceeds both, while its taste is the strongest. CEYLON CINNAMON. Cinnamomum Zeylanicum (Ceylon Cinnamon; Ger. Zey- lonzimmt).—The inner bark of the shoots of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Breyne (nat. ord. Laurinee). Ceylon. — Description.—Long, closely rolled quills, composed of eight or more layers of bark of the thickness of paper; pale yellowish-brown; outer surface smooth; fracture short-splintery; odor fragrant; taste sweet and warmly aromatic. The microscopical anatomy of this bark is similar to that of Cassia Cinnamon, except that the elements are smaller, particularly the starch granules, which are mostly about 6 microns in diameter. CASSIA CINNAMON. Cinnamomum Cassia (Cassia Cinnamon; German, Cassienzimmt).—The bark of the shoots of one or more undetermined species of Cinnamomum, grown in China (Chinese Cinnamon) (nat. ord. Laurinee). The Cinnamomum aromaticum of Nees, Cinnamomum cassia of Blume, are the more generally received names for the plant which yields the Cassia cinnamon. This is widely cultivated in the southern provinces of China, between certain latitudes, 22° to 23°, and the bark is usually taken from the six- to ten-year-old trees. The pieces are scraped so that most of the true corky tissue is removed, dried, packed, and shipped in appropriate lengths. The bark from the more delicate stems and the young twigs which are taken from the trees are usually used in China. , Description.—Cassia is found in quills of various shapes and sizes, forming complete tubes or only portions of tubes from 1 to 3 cm. in transverse section and from 25 i % ? SOL Ss 2 eee Te ee Te ee ee eee oe l glee S40 o a Ld eet 0 chin nth ati. te ie | ie ee ——e) a) (5 SS) GS) . P ” 6 . Ong ; ge SIN Cs cada S18 B. > Z fo >» a % 2 R a ai = A ae Bake x SRR - fate & M ———— SS ~~ <= Ae) e~) YI |} 08 2) oe ae t phe = gp, Nate Wy VZ q — sf on 2 a! — iy i, ™ y aa Fic. 40.—CrRoOSS-SEGTION Cass1A CINNAMON. rar > - ’ C.T, Cork tissue; P, parenchyma, with stone cells, ST, inter- spersed in outer cortex; S, starch; GL, | gsm containing oil; B, bundle of bast fibres; M, medullary ray; 5, sieve tubes; O, oil cell; C, mucilage cell. 11 161 162 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. to 40 cm. long. The individual pieces: of bark vary from 1 to 3 mm. in thickness. The inner side is dark-brown, almost to black at times, the outer side is usually lighter—grayish-brown—in its general tone. The differences in the amount of the cork that has been scraped from the outer surface is the cause for the variations in the color. When the cork has been removed entirely, the bark may be reduced to 1 mm. in thickness and have a clear reddish-brown exterior. ' The fracture is even, somewhat sharp and short, taste and odor aromatic, at the same time astringent and mucilaginous. Histology.—With a low power the cross-section is reddish-brown and shows near the centre a strongly refractile white line. On the outer side of this, near the cork, small whitish spots can be noticed, and the inner side shows fine radiating structures with numerous large empty spaces in the inner bark. Under magnification of from 400 to 600 diameters, the cross-section of the larger and thicker pieces shows on the outside an even, many-layered brownish cork sheath, the outer cork cells having thin walls; the inner, thicker walls, making what is usually called stone cork— the ‘‘bork’’ of some writers. Just beneath the outer bark, the parenchymatic cells of the middle bark are arranged somewhat tangentially. Here and there are found stone cells. These parenchymatic cells are usually rich in starch. Irregular oval mucilage cells are also present in this parenchyma. Marking off the middle bark from the -inner bark is a line of mixed stone cells and bast fibres, which under the low power produces the white line. This is not continuous, being broken here and there by numer- ous thin-walled parenchymatic cells. The inner bark consists mainly of parenchymatic cells; these are smaller than those in the middle bark and are traversed by the medullary rays, which vary from two to © CORTEX CINNAMOMI. CINNAMON. 163 three cells in width. Bast fibres, single or in groups of two, three, or four, are few in number; mucilage cells are also rare, but large oil spaces are common and character- istic. The sieve tubes are numerous, but for the most part have undergone a keratenchymatous change, being reduced to strings of thick-walled cells, with very small Fic. 41.—PowpeErepD Cassia CINNAMON. St, Stone cells, differing in thickening of walls; CST, cork stone cells; L) yore: ma; O.S, mucus cell; C, crystals; Cr, cork; B, bast fibres; M, re medullary ray; F, short fibre; S, starch; O, oil cell; Rb, bast fib | lumens. A few crystals may be found in the cells of the medullary rays or in special crystal sacs near the medul- lary rays. , Powder.—The constituents of the powder are stone cells, cork cells, parenchyma, bast, crystals, and starch. The stone cells are very numerous. They vary widely both in shape and in the character of their thickening. 164 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Some are almost completely lignified, while others are only slightly thickened, most of them are irregularly spherical to quadratic, slightly tangentially elongated (differing from the Ceylon), and richly pored; the pores ~ are simple, and are usually intricately branched, especially in the more highly lignified cells. A number of the stone cells are irregularly thickened, one side remaining quite thin. This is the inner side, near the cambium. This is an important character in cassia bark, though it is not absolutely diagnostic of the bark, as has been stated by some observers. The stone cells vary in diameter from 1o or 15 to 30 or 40, and sometimes 100 microns. Some- times stone cells may be found in which starch grains are deposited. . Cork cells are not in abundance, as most of them have been scraped from the bark, yet they are always present in small quantities. They form the characteristic small reddish-brown cell masses, distributed through the powder. Isolated cork cells with slightly thickened walls are present, and also typical stone cork cells. These latter are quite characteristic. They average about 20 to 30 microns, and have partially lignified walls, with straight, simple pores. The lumen is usually filled with dark, reddish-brown masses. The parenchymatic tissue is apt to be irregular, contorted, slightly elongated in the direction of the long axis of the twig. The walls are usually stained a light yellow to deeper brown from the oil which is abundant in the bark. These cells are especially rich in starch, more particularly in the middle bark. They average about 50 to 100 microns in diameter. The parenchymatic cells of the inner (phloem) part of the bark are usually smaller than those outside. Fibres are conspicuous elements. Two types may be distinguished. Those of the primary bark (middle bark of the pharmacognosist) are in groups, and in the powder are apt to be associated in bundles of 5 or 6 or more. “ —_— eo CORTEX CINNAMOMI. CINNAMON. 165 Those of the secondary bark (inner bark) are usually isolated or in twos; rarely in threes. The diameters of the fibres of the middle bark vary from 8 to 30 microns, while those of the inner bark are more or less constant, 15 to 40 microns, averaging about 35 microns. The length of the two may be the same, 250, 400, 700, but about 500 microns as a general average. The lignification may also be the same. The fibres of the primary bark are apt to be a little longer than those of the secondary bark. The starch is quite abundant; it is found closely packed in the parenchymatic cells of the middle and.inner barks. The grains are both simple and compound. The compound grains consist of two, three, or four granules. The edges are rounded and the hilum is generally centric, simple, or sometimes slightly radiate. The grains average from 4 to 20 microns; the majority measuring about to to 13. In a few cells small acicular crystals of calcium oxalate are found. These are in small quantities only, and are readily overlooked. They rarely are over 5 microns in length. Still more seldom are small cuboidal crystals associated with the fibres. These are also minute, and, while seen sometimes in long sections of the bark, are rarely met with in the powder. Mucilage cells and oil cells are frequently found. The oil cells are the more prominent. They are situated more commonly in the outer part of the inner bark, and are quite large, being from 20 to 75 microns wide and sometimes 150 microns long. In many of the dried oil cells, small rectangular secretory bodies may be found. The powder from Ceylon cinnamon shows numerous fibres and stone cells. Parenchyma and starch are not so . abundant. The powder is best studied in chloral or in a 5 per cent. solution of lysol. 166 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Chemistry.— Ethereal oil between 2 and 3 per cent. ; tan- nin, mannit, mucilage, sugar, and ash from 2 to 5 percent. Oil of Cinnamon consists of a hydrocarbon, cinnamyl acetate, and 80 to go per cent. of cinnamic aldehyde, C,H,O,, which takes up oxygen to form cinnamic acid. CORTEX GRANATI. POMEGRANATE. The bark of the stem and-root of Pumnica granatum, Linné (nat. ord. Lythrariee), a plant of India and south- western Asia; naturalized in subtropical countries. Description.—In thin quills or fragments, from 5 to 10 cm. long, and from 1 to 3 mm. thick; outer surface yellow- ish-gray, somewhat warty, or longitudinally and reticu- lately ridged; the stem bark often partly covered with blackish lichens; the thicker pieces of the root bark more or less scaly externally; inner surface smooth, finely striate, grayish-yellow; inodorous; taste astringent, very slightly bitter. Cross-sections of the. bark, made with a sharp knife, are characteristic in that they appear almost completely homogeneous. The color of the cut surface is yellowish toward the outside, usually somewhat darker than the inner side. On very careful examination the medullary rays may be recognized as very fine dark radiating lines, and the tangential rows or parenchyma cells, in the fibres of the bark, as exceedingly fine cross-lines. In consequence of the lack of long, sclerotic elements the bark breaks short. Hstology.—Only the thinnest pieces of the drug are furnished with a cork layer, since in the first year a cork cambium is produced deep within the primary bark, and later breaks off. Of the primary bark there remains, after the first production of periderm, only the innermost cell deposit of the thin-walled parenchyma, and the primary sieve tubes. Therefore, the cork cam- bium of the wood bark produces an apparently abundant eo er — as Ghee ck, ie ieee ee ee Ae CORTEX GRANATI. POMEGRANATE. 167 periderm. On young, thin pieces of the drug there are here and there, on the outside, thick layers of cork, which consist of increased deposits of thick and thin-walled cork cells, but mostly only of layers consisting of two or four cells, which rest upon a layer of thin-walled cells. The cork cells are seen from above to be irregularly polygonal, but for the most part are quadrangular. In this thickening only the inner wall of the cell takes part, Fic. 42.—GRANATUM. Cross-section of portion of Granatum bark showing large stone cell to left, oe bp filled with calcium oxalate crystals and starch grains. m, The medullary rays, free from crystals (Moeller). so that it sometimes takes up half the width of the cell; the remaining part of the cell wall is very thin. In young bark there are distinct and regular lenticels; in old bark these are very much flattened out. Next the cork layer there is a layer of phelloderm, the cells filled with chlo- rophyll and starch. Next to the phelloderm, and scarcely to be differentiated from it, there is a narrow layer of cells, which arises from the primary bark tissues. After this 168 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. comes the irregularly formed outer part of the secondary bark. The secondary bark is penetrated by medullary rays, which are mostly one cell, seldom two cells broad, and from one to fourteen cells long. In the keratenchymatous strings there usually grow simple, tangential rows of oxalate cells, with small tangential bands of parenchyma enclosing sieve bundles. The similar tangential bands, in,the entire bark, are made up of concentric rows. On the tangential or radial sections of the bark it may be seen that the thin-walled oxalate cells are placed together in long rows, or, what amounts to the same thing, they form long chambered or divided crystal tubes. The zones of sieve tube con- taining parenchyma are made up of rows, two to twelve cells long, of starch-bearing cells, having thickened walls, and of sieve bundles with rather broad, slightly bent, separating walls, and sieve tubes with simple sieve plates. In old barks a change takes place. The single paren- chyma cells of the phelloderm, and also those of the bark fibres, increase in size, and their walls thicken, often obliterating their lumen. At the same time, next the sclerenchyma cells, single cells are produced containing oxalate crystals. Later on a formation of cork takes place, which, when the layer of cork becomes about ten cells thick, is broken off. From the standpoint of the anatomist the root bark varies, but slightly from the stem bark. It appears at first as though the bast fibres in the root bark were ' smaller than those of the stem bark, and that in old barks the elements contained more numerous and smaller stone cells. The very limited thickness of the phelloderm layer is characteristic both of young and old root barks; also the absence of the sclerenchyma cells, lying outside of the cambium, and the absence of chlo- rophyll in the phelloderm. In the root bark also the medullary rays extend entirely to the cork layer. Sa eo ea ee ———— ee ee eee eee — bs 7 CORTEX QUILLAJ#. SOAP BARK. 169 Chemistry.—The principal anthelmintic constituent of the drug is the poisonous pelletierin, C,H,,NO, an alkaloid, yet the 20 per cent. of tannic acid contained therein is not without medicinal importance. Besides pelletierin, there are three other poisonous liquid al- kaloids—isopelletierin, pseudo-pelletierin, and methyl- pelletierin—found in the bark. The amount of alkaloid seems to vary from o.1 to 1 per cent., and the various barks seem to give up their alkaloids to boiling water with a varying facility. . CORTEX QUILLAJZ. SOAP BARK. The inner bark of Quillaja Saponaria, Molina (nat. ord. Rosacee). Description.— Flat, large pieces about 5 mm. thick; outer surface brownish-white, often with small patches of brown cork attached, otherwise smooth; inner surface whitish, smooth; fracture splintery, checkered with pale brownish bast fibres imbedded in white tissue; inodor- ous; taste persistently acrid; the dust very sternutatory. The infusion of quillaja foams like soap-water. The distinctly checkered arrangement of the tissue which appears on cross-section is due to the zones of sieve-tube groups and parenchyma which alternate with bast bundles and medullary rays. The medullary rays are made up of four rows of cells. The short bast fibres are very much knotted and bent, and contain cavities which enclose crystals of oxalate of lime, of unusual size and structure. In the parenchyma there are, besides the small starch granules, small lumps of a material which is probably saponin. They dissolve in sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 18.4), forming a yellow solution, which changes to red, and then to violet. Chemistry.—Shaken with water the saponin in the bark produces a lasting foam. Saponin is a poisonous glycoside, formed of two very poisonous substances, s 170 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Quillaic acid (C,,H,,O,,) and Sapotoxin (C,,H,,0,,). Fic. 43.—QUILLAJA. Longitudinal section of quillaja bark showing: K, Large crystals of cal- cium oxalate; bp, bast parenchyma; Df, bast fibres; s, sieve tubes; m, medullary rays (Moeller). Saponin may be separ- ated by boiling alco- hol to the amount of 80 per cent., from the powder from the dried watery decoction of Quillaja bark. Itisa white, amorphous, and tasteless powder, which does not produce sneez- ing. It has, according to Stutz, the formula C,,H 300) 10° Saponin is easily sol- uble in water, insoluble in ether or alcohol. It gives up its contained water only to alcohol. Under the influence of dilute acids it is, on boiling, resolved into sugar and crystalliz- able sapogenin. Sapotoxin is amor- phous, and easily solu- ble in water. It gives the burning acrid taste to the bark, and is the cause of the irritating action on the nose and mucous membrane (Jacobi). CORTEX ANGOSTURE. ANGOSTURA BARK. This is the bark of a South American tree, variously named Cusparia febrifuga, Humboldt; Galipea officinalis, Hancock; Galipea febrifuga, Baillon; Galipea Cusparia, SE ee CORTEX ANGOSTUR#. ANGOSTURA BARK. 171 St. Hilare; Bonplandia trifoliata, Wildenow (nat. ord. Cusparice). | The tree attains a height of from 4 to 5m. It is found in the mountains of Venezuela in the neighborhood of the source of the Orinoco River. The drug enters commerce by way of Trinidad. Description.—_The bark comes in irregular, usually slightly curved pieces of various lengths and of a thickness of from 1 to 3 mm. .The outer surface is mostly covered by a spongy, yellowish-white cork, warty and somewhat irregularly marked. The bark within is of a reddish- brown color, light,. hard and brittle, in thin lamine which often show a shingle-like overlapping appearance _ on the under side. The fracture is sharp, showing glistening calcium oxalate crystals on the broken sur- ~ faces. On maceration in water the bark swells up. The odor is disagreeably aromatic, the taste aromatic, sharp, and bitter. A cross-section shows three distinct zones. The outer light yellowish periderm, the innermost brownish bast region, which is interrupted by the sharp-pointed medul- lary rays penetrating into the shining light middle bark. The periderm consists largely of thin-walled, almost. cubical cells, between which there may at times be found some stone cells. (Marmé.) Between the thin-walled parenchyma cells of the outer bark single stone cells lie scattered; also many oil cells, which last are larger than the parenchymatic cells, and contain, in fresh condition, yellowish oil or resin. In this same general region many crystal sacs containing raphides may also be found. | The inner bark contains many parenchymatic cells which contain starch and also crystals. In the inner bark there are also the phloem elements, sieve tubes and bast fibres. The bast fibres are arranged in small bundles. The medullary rays are two or three cells wide, but 172 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. become markedly wider toward the periphery. The medullary rays contain starch and oil cells. Oil cells and crystal sacs are to be found in the inner bark also. Htstology.—The periderm is composed of thin-walled cork cells with here and there groups with walls some- what thickened. The outer portion of the cortical parenchyma is composed of rectangular cells in regular radial files surrounding small and large groups of tan- gentially elongated stone cells. In the looser and more irregular layer of larger polygonal cells within are distrib- uted numerous large oil or resin cells with yellow con- tents and still more numerous groups of calcium oxalate raphides with more rarely single cubical crystals. The inner bark with its long well-developed phloem bundles occupies three-fourths of the thickness of the bark. — These phloem bundles of layers of regular bast paren- chyma, thick-walled where inclosing sieve tube groups, with here and there groups of small thick-walled bast fibres, make up the laminated portion of the bark. The medullary rays, two and three cells wide, expanding outwardly, contain much starch, as does also the bast parenchyma. Here, as in the outer bark, calcium oxalate crystals and oil cells are frequent. The Powder.—The elements of the powder are the large oval oil or resin cells, surrounded by smaller-celled thin- walled parenchyma, calcium oxalate, rarely in rhom- boidal crystals, starch grains, cork cells, sometimes some- what thickened on the outer side, and occasionally narrow thick-walled bast fibres with simple pointed ends. Nu- merous groups of irregular thick-walled phloem paren- chyma representing the sieve tube portion of the liber are also met with. None of these elements, except per- haps the oil cells, are by themselves particularly character- istic, but altogether they render the recognition of the powder a matter of no great difficulty. Substitutes and Adulterants.—False Angostura, the oo 2 "ae see ts - ris, > 7 . ve . et CORTEX ANGOSTUR#Z. ANGOSTURA BARK. 173 bark of Sitrychnos Nux vomica, which has been sold for Angostura bark in Europe, comes in hard, thick, curved fragments, the outer surface covered with a yellowish cork marked with whitish warts and rust-colored patches. The inner surface is gray and finely striated. A cross- section shows near the surface a dense layer of whitish stone cells forming a continuous layer not present in the true bark. Oil cells and calcium oxalate raphides are absent. The taste, owing to the presence of brucine and strychnine, is very bitter without aroma. Brazilian Angostura, from Esembekia febrifuga, is dark brown on the inner surface, the fracture fibrous, the taste bitter but not aromatic. It is distinguished microscopically by the presence of an abundance of stone cells, distributed in large groups throughout the entire bark. The bark of Sternostomum acutatum, D. C., is dis- tinguished by its smooth exterior surface, by the absence of stone cells, and by the presence of ligneous fibres, in very irregular groups. The bark of Alstonia scholaris is easily distinguished by its peculiar rough, deeply marked, dark gray surface, and microscopically by the presence of milk ducts, the absence of oil cells, and the large lumens of the stone cells. Chemistry.—The bark contains a yellowish, acrid, volatile oil, 0.75 per cent. starch, resin, and three al- kaloids—angosturine, C,,H,,O,,, crystallizable, turning red with sulphuric acid and green with sulphuric and nitric acids, its salts yielding a blue fluorescent solution; galipein, C,,H,,NO,, crystallizing in white needles, yield- ing soluble greenish-yellow salts; cusparin, C,,H,,NO,, in greenish-yellow needles, yielding yellow salts. The acetate and tartrate are soluble in water. Treated with - potash, cusparin splits up into another alkaloid and an aromatic acid. 174°." PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. CORTEX VIBURNI PRUNIFOLII. | BLACK HAW. The bark of Viburnum prunifolium, Linné (nat. ord. Caprifoliacee). This is a large shrub or small tree, 2.5 to 6 m. high, growing in the eastern part of the United States from Connecticut to Florida. The bark of both stem and root is collected. , Description.—The stem bark occurs in small, thin, irregular, slightly curved pieces. Outer surface light brown or with irregular patches of silvery white, and blackish, much fissured cork, somewhat warty or showing small black dots. Inner surface smooth, showing minute, glistening crystals (calcium oxalate). The root bark is in much more irregular pieces, lighter in color, outer surface smoother, of an even grayish-brown color, inner surface striated. Both varieties are very brittle. The taste is bitter, more so in the root bark than in that of the stem, and astringent. There is no odor. Histology.—The cork when present is formed of typical flat tabular cells. The cortical parenchyma is made up of tangentially elongated polyhedral cells rich in agglom- erated crystals of calcium oxalate. Distributed through- out are round or oval various sized groups of stone cells with minute lumens and concentrically and radially marked walls. The liber is formed of regularly arranged radial lines of parenchyma. Fibres are absent, but, as in the outer bark, calcium oxalate crystals and stone cells are abundant. The many indistinct medullary rays one-cell wide, of regular radially elongated cells, divide the inner bark in narrow bands. | Chemistry.—Two bitter resins have been isolated: one brown, proved not to be of glycosidal nature; the other greenish-yellow, slightly soluble in water, freely so in alcohol (Kramer’s viburnin). Valerianic acid or CORTEX PRUNI VIRGINIANA. WILD CHERRY BARK. 175 tannin, yielding a greenish-black color with ferric salts, and oxalic, citric, and malic acids are also present. CORTEX PRUNI VIRGINIAN. WILD CHERRY BARK. “The bark of Prunus serotina, Ehrhart (nat. ord. Rosacee), collected in autumn.” U.S. This is one of the largest of American forest trees, sometimes attaining a height of 1oo feet with a trunk three or four feet in diameter. It is found from Hudson Bay south to Mexico, abounding in Kentucky and Ohio. The bark of the root is the most active. Description.—It comes in irregular pieces, 1 to 3 mm. thick, the thinner the younger, of variable lengths, slightly curved, usually deprived of the rust brown corky layer, greenish, shining, with brown transverse markings. The older the bark, the more the brown predominates. The inner surface is darker, showing white longitudinal striations. The fracture is brittle and granular. When dry it has a faint odor, developing when moistened that of bitter almonds. The taste is bitter, astringent, and aromatic. Histology.—The cork when present is formed of several rows of brown tabular cells. Imbedded in the cortical parenchyma of thin-walled, polyhedral, tangentially elongated cells are innumerable groups of sclerenchy- matic cells closely arranged in radial rows. The in- dividual sclerids are very thick-walled with small lumens, concentric and radial markings. The medullary rays, four to five cells wide, contain, as does the cortical parenchyma, frequent agglomerated crystals of calcium oxalate. The phloem is destitute of fibres, but, like the outer portions of the bark, contains numerous groups of sclerenchymatic tissue, irregular in size and shape. Starch is present in small round grains in bark collected in spring and fall. It fills the cells of the medullary rays and the bast parenchyma. 176° PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS. OF PLANTS. Chemistry.— Distilled with water, the bark yields hy- drocyanic acid and a volatile oil similar to that of bitter almonds. A bitter glycoside, amygdalin, crystallizing in colorless needles, is the source. It is soluble in warm water with a blue fluorescence intensified by alkalies and destroyed by acids. CORTEX SASSAFRAS. SASSAFRAS BARK. From bark of root of Sassafras vartifolia, Sassafras officinale, U. S., from Canada to Florida, west to Missouri. Tree. Shrub. : Irregular fragments, deprived of gray corky layer; bright rust brown, soft, fragile, with short corky fracture. Inner surface smooth, strongly fragrant; taste sweetish, aromatic, somewhat astringent. Histology.—The bark showson section an outer, thin and compact, brownish layer; an inner loose, brownish, par- enchymatic layer, with perhaps a radial is! ea in the inner bark. The outer bark is made up of from five to fifteen rows of regular, oblong, right-angled cork cells. Be- neath this there may be at times a portion of the primary bark. This consists of thin-walled parenchy- matic cells, large, generally rich in starchy contents. Scattered here and there in the parenchyma are several large oil cells which contain the active sassafras oil. Crystal cells and crystals are absent. The inner bark is composed in the main of thin parenchymatic cells with a few medullary rays. The medullary rays are generally two cells wide and the cells are more or less quadrangular and possessed of large simple pores. Here and there are a few bast fibres in the outer edge of the secondary bark; these are small in cross-section. Between the medullary rays lying in the inner side of the inner bark there may be found a few thin-walled cam- biform cells and perhaps some few sieve tubes. The sieve LEAVES. 177 tubes have very delicate walls, 0.045 microns in diameter, and in dried specimens are made out with difficulty. The sieve plates are horizontal. _ LEAVES. For the purposes of the general student of pharmacog- nosy little or nothing need be said regarding the general shape, size, margins, apices, and bases of leaves, but attention is here given to the microscopical character- istics that present themselves in the determination of the leaves that are broken or powdered. Leaf structures are very characteristic. In order to correctly understand this microscopical structure it will be necessary to recall that in the leaf there are to be found parts of three types of tissues; the Epidermal, the Respiratory, and the Conducting Systems. The surface is mainly made up of the epider- mal tissues; the leaf is built up, and around the veins of the leaf, that is, about the conducting tissue, and in between are to be found the tissues of Romer tans and assimilation. The Epidermis.—From a diagnostic standpoint this is the most important of the tissues in broken or powdered leaves. The epidermis of leaves is a continuation of the epidermis of the stem, and is found to consist generally of one layer of tissue completely surrounding the leaf surfaces. It consists of isodiametric cells that fit into one another without intercellular spaces. Usually the outer wall of the cells is strongly cutinized, the degree of cutinization varying, as a rule, according to the amount of heat or cold the leaves are called upon to stand. In leaves that are normally horizontal the upper or more exposed side has epidermal cells whose walls are generally more markedly cutinized than are those on the lower or less exposed side. 12 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. 178 Oe cc. ie Fic. 44.—GENERAL STRUCTURE OF LEAF. in als i perficial view of th oval stomata and crystals. JJJ, Glandular hairs II, Su paren cells; K, cryst airs. . ic cells, wi dermis; p, ’, Epi irs; d, glandular : @, e ; p, parenchymat pidermal cells; K, simple ha vessel 1 -section wavy outlines of e greatly enlarged. ot, , Spira UV I, Cross Pinks meso leaf FOLIA SENN. SENNA. 179 In the leaves of evergreens that are exposed to ex- tremes of cold this same adjustment is apparent. The important parts of the leaf from the technical stand- point are, however, the trichomes. These are appendages or outgrowths of the epidermis, and their shapes, sizes, and characteristics are of great importance. Two main types of Trichomes are to be distinguished : 1. Glandular Hairs. 2. Trichomes proper. Glandular hairs are, properly, hairs that contain secretions. Trichomes proper exist in almost every conceivable variation, from simple papille to many branched and shield-like hairs. Other important modifications of the epidermis are the stomata. These are peculiarly modified cells, as a rule oval to kidney-shaped, on a surface vein between which a space is left for the passage of gases into the cavity beneath.* — FOLIA SENNZE. SENNA. Senna is the leaves of Cassia acutifolia and Cassia angustifolia; plants of eastern and central Africa and India. Cassia acutifolia is the Alexandrian senna, Cassia angustifolia, the Indian, especially fine qualities of which have received the name of Tinnevelly. This is ‘said to come from Arabian seeds cultivated in southern India. Description.—The leaves of Cassia acutifolia are 3 to 5 cm. long and.g mm. broad, lanceolate or lance- oval, subcoriaceous, brittle, rather pointed, equally oblique at the base, entire, grayish-green, somewhat pubescent, of a peculiar odor and a nauseous, bitter taste. Cassia angustifolia leaflets are from 3 to 5 cm. long and 10 to 15 mm. broad, lanceolate, acute, unequally *For a more detailed study of the Leaf, consult ‘‘ Morphology and Histology of Plants,” Rusby and Jelliffe. 180 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. oblique at the base, entire, thin, yellowish-green or dull green, nearly smooth; odor peculiar, somewhat tea-like, taste mucilaginous, bitter, and nauseous. Histology.—The cross-section of the midrib shows a woody pith, convex downward, whose vessels are placed in radial, fan-shaped rows. In Cassia acutifolia they are separated by broad medullary rows; in Cassia an- gustifolia they are closer together. A small layer of sieve-tissue surrounds the convex margin; this is bor- dered by several layers of polygonal, lignified cells in the form of a semicircle. The parenchymatous cells pass over into a collenchyma, which is covered by epidermis and cuticle. Along the upper side of the leaf the woody portion is covered by a plano-convex or elliptical plate, consisting of several layers of polygonal, lignified cells. Following this is a layer of chlorophyll, containing palisade cells, which lie close to the epidermis. In the mesophyll, a loose tissue, containing vascular bundles, crystal sacs, and calcium oxalate crystals, separates the broad upper palisade layer from the narrow lower one. The cells of the epidermis are polygonal, and both upper and lower surfaces arc supplied with stomata and warty hairs. ' Powder.—This is brownish-green and has a leaf-like and also a peculiar characteristic odor. The following elements enter into the composition of the powder: Hairs, crystals, parenchyma, chlorophyll grains, stomata, and the con- stituents of the midribs and veinlets, fibres and spiral or annular vessels, and occasionally pitted ducts. The hairs are characteristic; they vary greatly in size, reaching a length of 300 microns and usually averaging about 25 microns at the base; they are usually sharply bent either at the base or, more often, below the centre; the upper third is minutely roughened. The cells clustered about the scars and the number of leaf scars found upon a fragment are characters used by FOLIA SENN. SENNA. 181 some writers to distinguish the varieties of senna; these have proved inadequate in the writer’s experience. . - ERED ety CL FEET TERE PPP dusuddalk dddacal ‘otlods > Fie 45.—SENNA IN PowDER. C, Crystals; H, hairs, large and small; EP, epidermis, above, show- ing sears of hairs; P, parenchyma; B, bast fibres; W, woody fibres; AV, annular vessel; RV, reticular vessel; V, pitted vessel; X, epi- dermis of leaf about a hair; Fib, fibres of phloem. _ The crystals are small and at times rare. Two types are observable: flat tabular angular forms and the spherical agglomerative variety. 182 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. The parenchymatic tissue is the characteristic. mes- ophyll of leaves; in fresh powders the chlorophyll grains are prominent and numerous. The stomata are held to be characteristic by some writers, but exhibit great variety in form. The elements of the leaf stalks and veins are usually conspicuous, lying in small masses; the vessels, spiral or annular, are of the usual form; from the midrib or leaf stalk pitted vessels may be found, also a certain propor- ~ tion of fibres; some short bast fibres may ve; found in the mesophyll. Chemistry.—The active principle is vesiaee cathartic acid, a black amorphous glycoside. Besides this, there are sennapicrin, a bitter substance, crystallizable sugar, cathartomannite, and also chrysophanic, malic, tartaric, and oxalic acids, with mucin, tannin, and traces of a volatile oil. The ash constitutes 1 to 12 per cent. FOLIA DIGITALIS. DIGITALIS. “The leaves of Digitalis purpurea, Linné (nat. ord. Scrophularinee), collected from plants of the second year’s growth.” Digitalis is a handsome biennial herb, 2 to 5 feet high, growing in sandy or gravelly soil in the mountainous. forests of Western Europe, from Norway to southern Spain. It is cultivated as a garden plant, and, to some extent, for the drug market. Leaves of the second year’s growth only should be collected. They should be full-grown, gathered at the time of flowering, or, according to F. Schneider, during the late summer or early fall. The preservation of the virtues of the drug requires great care in drying. The leaves become inactive in about one year. The seeds, though little used in the United States, are stronger and more permanent. Description.—The lower leaves are narrowly oval in A 4 FOLIA DIGITALIS. DIGITALIS. 183 shape, bluntly pointed, the base is decurrent, extending down the sides of the petiole. They measure 20 to 4o cm. in length, 6 to ro cm. in breadth, with strongly crenulate or crenulate-dentate, sometimes slightly un- dulate, margins. The upper leaves become smaller and are borne on gradually shorter petioles as they ascend. They are more oblong in shape with less crenulate margins. The upper surface is deep-green, paler in younger leaves, smooth or very slightly pubescent. The lower surface is much paler, grayish, and very hairy, and - Fic. 46.—Cross-SectTion or Dicitatis Lear SHOWING MIDRIB OF VASCULAR BUNDLE AND Hairs ON THE EPIDERMIS. is marked by a network of very prominent whitish veins. The secondary veins leave the midrib, which is quite broad at the base, thence tapering upward, at an angle of about 45 degrees, and, following a somewhat undulating course, diverge to the margins, where they recurve. From them branch numerous tertiary veins, which form the coarse network so characteristic of this leaf. 184 = PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. The odor of the fresh leaves is peculiar and disagreeable; they possess a slight tea-like aroma. In infusion they develop the original disagreeable odor.. The taste is acrid and bitter. Histology.—The upper epidermis of elongated polyg- onal cells, with sometimes slightly undulating walls, bears here and there simple and glandular hairs, but no stomata. The simple hairs are long, two to four-celled, very thin-walled, the terminal cell bluntly pointed. They show an inclination to turn at the cell-joinings. Often, too, the walls of a single cell are collapsed, while those on either side retain their normal form. The glandular hairs are short, formed of a one or two-celled pedicle supporting a spherical one or two-celled head, containing a yellow resinous mass. The mesophyll consists of a single row of palisade cells and three or four rows of thin-walled, round or elongated parenchyma, loosely arranged, with large intercellular spaces. Calcium oxa- late crystals are entirely absent. The structure of the vas- cular bundle in the primary nerve is bi-convex, formed of radial rows of vascular tissue and a sieve portion, separated by masses of polygonal, vertically elongated, and densely thickened wood tissue. Large-celled paren- chyma and interlocked collenchyma occupy the space between the fibro-vascular bundle and the epidermis on either side. The under epidermis is composed of unusually small cells with undulating interlocking out- lines. Both varieties of hairs are plentiful. The stomata are also of frequent occurrence. They are small, oval, or often almost round. Powder.—The most conspicuous element of the powder is the hairs. These, with their extremely thin walls, are of diagnostic importance. Portions of the un- der epidermis, with their small interlocked cells and stomata, are also noteworthy. For the rest, the fibro- vascular elements and parenchyma are of little value. FOLIA DIGITALIS. DIGITALIS. 185 The absence of calcium oxalate crystals distinguishes this from all other narcotic herbs. Adulterations and Substitutions.—Verbascum leaves from Verbascum phlomoides, L., and V. thapsiforme, somewhat resembling digitalis, are thicker and, on the under side, more densely hairy. Microscopically they Fic. 47.—DiGiTa.is In PowpeEr. H, er ie G, glands; Mes, sesopiyt, seen on end; Tr, tracheids; .E, upper epidermis; L.E, lower epidermis; V, vessels. are readily distinguished by their branched star-shaped hairs. | . The leaves of Symphytum officinale, L., are entire, rough-haired, and without bitter taste; those of Juula conyza, D. C., are entire or sharply serrate, with thicker- walled hairs than those of digitalis (Moeller). ' In powder the drug is adulterated with belladonna, stramonium, and hyoscyamus. All these contain calcium 186 - PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. oxalate crystals; belladonna in the form of fine powder (sand crystals); stramonium, sand crystals and agglom- erations; hyoscyamus, large single crystals. In digitalis, as stated, all forms of calcium oxalate crystals are entirely absent. Chemistry.—The chemistry of digitalis is complex and as yet incompletely studied. There are in the market a large number of commercial products. The French and German digitalins, however, are supposed to represent the drug. Neither do so completely. Schmiedeberg (1874— 75) has isolated four principles, all free from nitrogen— digitonin, digitalein, digitalin, and digitoxin; further, there are present two acids, digitalic and antirrhinic, a stearopten, digitalosium, inosite, and ash, 10.5 per cent. Reduction. compounds of the glycosides are common. Digitonin, C,,H;,0,,, is an amorphous glycoside, similar to saponin, readily soluble in water, slightly so in alcohol, insoluble in ether, chloroform, and benzin. Boiled with dilute acids, it splits up into glucose and two amorphous principles. Digitalein, the existence of which has been questioned by Kiliani, is described as an amorphous white powder, readily soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Digitalin, C,H,O,, is amorphous or distinctly crystal- line, difficultly soluble in water and ether, easily soluble in alcohol. Heated with acids, it splits up into glucose and digitalin-resin. It is the principal constituent of the | amorphous French digitalin. Digitoxin, C,,H,,O,, crystallizes in needles. It is soluble in chloroform and hot alcohol and ether, not at all in water or benzin. Boiled in alcoholic solution with dilute acids, it yields amorphous toxiresin. Digitoxin, which is the most active of the constituents of digitalis, forms the greater portion of crystalline French digitalin. Kiliani has more recently shown that there are differ- ences in the contents of these bodies in seed and in the BELLADONNA. 187 leaf, and his work has been revised by Cloetta.*. Kiliani _ found digitoxin and digitophyllin and a product allied to digitalin in the leaves. In the seeds he found digitalin and digitonin. Cloetta’s results confirm in part only the researches of Kiliani. Digitalic acid crystallizes in white needles, having an acid taste and reaction, forming soluble salts with the alkalies and alkaline earths. It decomposes readily in the air. Antirrhinic. acid is volatile. It is perhaps identical with valerianic acid. Digitalin-resin occurs in yellowish-white plates of a pearly lustre, smelling like fresh digitalis, and having a nauseous, astringent taste. It is soluble in alcohol and ether; slightly in hot water. BELLADONNA. Atropa belladonna is indigenous to many parts of southern and middle Europe, also to middle and southern Asia and South America. It does not thrive well in northern climates. It is extensively cultivated in Eng- land, America, and France.t According to A. Meyer,t it is not widely cultivated in Germany, but the leaves are gathered from the wild plants of two to four years of age, during the months of June and July. The cultivated plants are made to yield two crops of leaves, in July and in September, after they are at least two years of age. One hundred parts of the fresh leaves yield about sixteen parts of the dried. Description.—_The leaves when fresh are ovate with sharpened apex, narrowed at the base, from 20 to 30 em. in length and about 10 to 12 cm. broad. The margins are entire and the surface is smooth; here and * Journal of Pharmacology, 1899. tFor cultivation, see Holmes, Pharmaceutical Journal and Trans- actions (3), No. 586, p. 237. }Wissenschaftliche Drogenkunde, p. 194. 188 = PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. there a few hairs may be seen on the veins of the under side and also on the petiole. In this latter situation they are more numerous and larger. The younger leaves are more abundantly provided with hairs, and these also have \ s & Fic. 48.—BELLADONNA LEAF IN POWDER. Epi, Epidermis, to right in transverse section; to left, superficial view, showing contorted and wavy cell outlines and the wavy mark- ings of the epidermal cells which are quite characteristic: ST, Stomata; H, simple multicellular hairs; G, glands and glandular hairs; M, parenchymatic tissue of the mesophyll; Pr, parenchyma near the veins, vessels of the ribs and delicate fibre-like elements; C, to left, filled with crystal sand; to right, rosette-shaped crystal; these last being rare; O, parenchymatic cell with crystal sand; V, vessels. small-stalked glandular cells. The upper surface is dark- green, the lower lighter, grayish-green, showing whitish spots; these locate the cells containing the crystal sand of oxalate of calcium. Histology.—Both upper and lower surfaces of the leaf , HYOSCYAMUS. 189 show stomata. These are oval. A cross-section shows the epidermis, with slightly thickened outer cutinized wall, palisade tissues on the upper side only in a single row filled with chlorophyll grains, the mesophyll parenchyma with cells containing the crystal sand and cross-sections of the fibro-vascular bundles, which are more prominent in the lower parts of the leaf. Powder.—This is brownish to dark green. The most prominent features of a No. 60 powder are the epidermis cells. Other elements are hairs, mesophyll parenchyma, parenchyma of the fibro-vascular bundles, vessels, crystal sand, and rarely crystals. The epidermal cells are characteristic, they are very wavy-and show very delicate wavy markings. The stomata are slightly elongated and have from three to four neighboring cells about them. The mesophyll parenchyma varies. It is in some places isodiametric, in others stellate. Large isodiametric cells imbedded in the mesophyll contain fine crystal sand of calcium oxalate. Larger calcium oxalate crystals of the rosette form occasionally are formed, but these are inconspicuous in the powder. The hairs are not diagnostic. They are few in number and come from young leaves, on the petioles or under sides of the chief veins in the older leaves. They are usually simple multicellular hairs. Small glandular hairs with short pedicles are also found. The vessels and fibres are few and not characteristic. Chemistry.—The chief constituents are atropine, some hyoscyamine, and a trace of belladonnine. According to some, the latter two are identical. Besides these there is present asparagin and 14 to 15 per cent. ash. HYOSCYAMUS, Hyoscyamus is the leaf and seeds of Hyoscyamus niger. Only the leaf will here be considered. Hyoscyamus is 190 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. indigenous to many European countries, and is exten- sively used in gardens. 7 Description.—The leaf is simple and entire and wilts very rapidly by reason of its open structure. Anatomi- cally it is bifacial, the palisade tissues being found on the upper side only. The epidermis of both sides is similar, and the stomata are distributed on both sides. The epidermis cells are irregular in shape, with wavy outlines save over the main veins, where they are some- what elongated and sharp pointed. Hairs are present on both sides. | : H1stology.—The following structures are to be distin- guished: Parenchyma, crystals, epidermis cells, hairs, and fibro-vascular elements. : The parenchyma is thin-walled, simple, and usually rich in chlorophyll, often brownish in general color. Palisade cells from the upper side only are in single rows, rarely double, and these usually are connected at their lower ends to the funnel-shaped cells of the mesophyll. In the irregular mesophyll cells numerous crystals of calcium oxalate are to be found. These are very various —column-shaped, dice-shaped, cuboidal, and octahedral forms being found. Sometimes twin crystals are seen. The hairs are very characteristic: both simple and glandular types abound. Most of them are multicellular. The simple hairs end in straight non-secreting points, while others have many-celled heads which contain resin-like secretions.. The simple hairs vary ‘greatly in length and diameter. In length they often measure from 100 to 400 microns, and often average betwen 20 and 50 microns at the base. The wall is usually smooth. The glandular hairs may be larger even than the simple ones. Stomata are frequent, being found on both surfaces. They average about 40 microns in their longest diameter and about 30 in breadth; the ‘‘neben-zellen’’ average three to four, though there may be at times as many as six. HYOSCYAMUS. 191 Fibres are not common. Fragments of spiral vessels ’ are not infrequent. Occasionally pollen grains may be found in the powder. According. to Tschirch, the crystals are diagnostic Fic. 49.—Hyoscyamus LEAF IN PowDeER. Epi, Epidermal cell with ST, stomata, and GI, apy hairs; G, glands from the tips of the hairs; H, simple multicellular hair; Pl, pali- sade tissue, rich in chlorophyll; C, crystals of at least four shapes; V, vessels from the ribs and petioles; those from the petioles may be reticulated; B, fibre from rib; P; pollen grains occasionally found. alone and serve as a means of differentiating this leaf from other leaves of the narcotic group. Thus hyoscyamus has at least four kinds of crystals; stramonium has crystal glands; belladonna, crystal sand; and digitalis, no crystals. 192 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Chemistry.—The main ingredients are hyoscyamine, an alkaloid, and hyoscine, also an alkaloid, and some potassium nitrate. The exact composition of hyoscya- mine is not yet determined... PILOCARPUS, Pilocarpus is the leaflets of Pilocarpus selloanus and Pilocarpus jaborandi, respectively termed Rio and Per- nambuco jaborandis. These plants are low shrubs, usually from four to six feet high, and inhabit the forests and cleared hillsides of Brazil. A large number of species are known, some eight to ten of which have been described as occurring in the markets.* These species are some- times used as adulterants, and in addition some ten to twelve allied plants have been figured, all of which have at various times been used for sophistication. The plants of the pharmacopoeial species are now under culti- vation. Description.—Dried jaborandi leaves are usually green- ish-brown in color and oblong-lanceolate in shape, vary- ing from two and a half to four inches. The apex is blunt and emarginate, the margin entire and revolute. The base is usually rounded and unequal and attached to a short stalk. Upon the upper surface the lateral vessels are distinct; the lower surface is. glabrous, but sometimes bears a few scattered hairs. Histology.—The following elements may be _ identi- fied: Leaf epidermis with stomata, leaf mesophyll, fibrous tissues from the midribs and petioles, oil glands, crystals, starch, hairs, and sometimes stone cells. The leaves of pilocarpus are dorsiventral; the stomata are confined to the lower surface, hence in the powder upper and lower leaf surfaces are to be differentiated. The upper epidermal cells are usually regularly poly- gonal, they vary greatly in average diameter in the * Hf. H. Rusby, Druggists’ Circular, 1902. PILOCARPUS. | 193 different varieties of jaborandi, and they are usually - somewhat wrinkled; over the region of the nerves the walls of the epidermal cells are at times richly pored; Fic. 50.—JABORANDI IN PowpER. Epi, Epidermis of upper surface: above, cross-section; below, surface view; E, epidermis of under surface: above, from inside; below, surface view; Ea, epidermis over mid nerve; P, palisade tissue—leaf acest: H, hairs; C, crystals; V, spiral vessels; T, tracheids; Fib, fibres; 5, stone cells of petioles; O, oil gland. the outer cutinized wall is, on the average, thicker in the official leaves. The stomata vary in the various species; they are confined to the lower epidermal surfaces. 13 194. + PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. The leaf mesophyll is made up of irregular parenchy- matic tissue, some palisade cells with chlorophyll, and many cells contain isolated aggregated crystals of calcium oxalate. A few rhomboid, tabular crystals may also be at times found, though they are few and readily over- looked, The tissues from the nerves and petioles con- tain bast fibres, few in number; tracheids, a few spiral and annular ducts, and occasionally scalariform ducts. The oil glands are usually situated just beneath the epidermis of the leaf, either upper or under surface. The crystals have been mentioned as occurring in the meso- phyll; starch is usually rare, the granules are, as a rule, simple, rarely compound, with centric hilums, and vary from 6 to 10 microns. The hairs are very few. They are characteristic, however, long and curved, and are apt to be irregularly thickened towards the apex. Small stone cells sometimes occur in the petiole of the leaf.* Chemistry.-The leaves contain about one-half per cent, of ethereal oil and two alkaloids, pilocarpine and jaborine, MENTHA PIPERITA, PEPPERMINT. — Mentha piperita, peppermint, is the leaves and tops of Mentha piperita, a small herbaceous plant widely culti- vated in gardens. Fluckiger states | that it does not resemble any known indigenous mint of Europe, and quotes Bentham as stat- ing that peppermint is probably derived from the wild form, Mentha hirsuta, L. Description.The plant is a low perennial, two to _ *Two important researches have recently appeared upon the leaves of pilocarpus, that of Geiger, published in the ‘Berichte der Deutschen Pharmaceutischen Gesellschaft,’’ 1896, and the other from the Pharma- cognosy Laboratory of the New York College of Pharmacy, by A. Schneider, ‘‘Journal of Pharmacology,’’ vol. 4, 1897, Pp. 14. + Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreiches. 0 es th ee Bi i a MENTHA PIPERITA. PEPPERMINT. 195 ° - r : F he ¢ / ad ’. Fic. 51.—Mentua Piperita,. I, Leaf of Mentha piperita. 11, Cross-section showing, st, stomata; d, glandular hair; ¢, guard cell of stoma; p, palisade tissue; fv, fibro- vascular bundle; ¢, epidermis lower side; d oil glands; A, hairs; 1, midrib, JI, Surface view of leaf, letters ‘as in // (after Vogl), 196 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS, four feet in height. It has a creeping rootstock, from which it sends off long stolons, by which it is propagated, for the most part. The stems are square; erect, purplish, slightly pubescent, and many times branched above. The corolla is light purple, four-lobed, typically bilabiate, with four enclosed didynamous stamens. The calyx is five-lobed, about 2 mm. in length, purplish, and pubescent, with simple multicellular and glandular hairs. The corolla is about twice the length of the calyx. The drug is made up for the most part of the leaves. These range from 5 to 8 cm. in length and about 2 cm. in width, borne on a petiole about 1 cm. long. They are © oval to ovate lanceolate in general outline, finely serrate, minutely glandular, and sparsely provided with hairs. Histology—A cross-section of the leaf shows a delicate epidermal layer with a layer of palisade cells, beneath the upper surface; the lower epidermal layer is bordered by open parenchymatic cells, which are richly pored. The oil glands are usually short- pedicelled; short glandular hairs are also present as well as elongated simple multicellular hairs. The cross- section of the midrib or large vein shows collenchymatic parenchyma, open collateral fibro-vascular bundles, with delicate vessels’ and thin-walled wood fibres and a few bast fibres.* Powder.—A medium fine powder, is dark green in color, and shows the following characteristic elements: Parenchyma, rich in chlorophyll, simple multicellular hairs, oil glands, sometimes showing menthol crystals within, glandular hairs, ducts, fibres, fragments of floral tissues, collenchyma, and pollen grains. The parenchyma is usually thin-walled and filled with chlorophyll grains; at times it is richly pored; the aver- age diameter of the cells ranges from 60 to 80 microns. The hairs are striking; they are thin-walled, usually * See Tschirch’s angewandte Pflanzenanatomie, p. 120, Fig. 124. MENTHA PIPERITA. PEPPERMINT. 197 long and many celled, the walls being marked with fine - longitudinal striz. These simple multicellular hairs are non-glandular. They may contain chlorophyll grains or unorganized contents. Small glandular hairs are also present. These are composed usually of two cells, Sa) aie 4 _ Fic. 52.—MENTHA PIPERITA IN Powber. : Epi, Epidermis, above, of upper side; below, underneath showing the pitted parenchyma; Tr, hairs or trichomes; Col, collenchyma; P, pollen grains from flower; Ep, cross-section of epidermis showing cells; Fibr, fibres from midrib. a small quadrangular basal cell and an enlarged pyriform apical cell. — The oil glands are characteristic; they are globose and slightly flattened, multicellular with a short basal pedicel, and filled with oil, in which, at times, crystals of menthol may be present. Their walls are thin, but resistant to evaporation. Ducts are not common in the powder; they are usually 198 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. delicate, and are either annularly or spirally thickened; pitted ducts may be found in specimens which have an appreciable quantity of the stout stems: present. Fibres are also few in number in the powder. Bast fibres are apt to be isolated. Wood fibres are in groups. The walls of each type of fibre are but slightly thickened. Fragments of delicate, flat tissue, derived from the plant corolla, may be found; these are slightly colored, usually brownish, and readily recognized. Pollen grains are also not infrequent. The grains are echinate, roughened with minute spines, are globular, sometimes pointed at one side, to ovoid triangular. The surface is undulate, and they average in size, exam- ined in oil, 18.5 to 21.5 by 20 to 21 microns, being almost double the size of the pollen grains of Mentha viridis, which, moreover, are distinctly triangular. — Collenchymatic tissues of no particular characters are present; these are derived from the structures of the midrib and the angles of the stem. Chemistry.—The plant contains resin, tannin, gum, and from 1 to 1.25 per cent. of ethereal oil. The perfectly fresh leaves contain 0.3 per cent. If the leaves are carefully dried, there is little or no loss, as the cuticle of the epi- dermis and glands does not permit of much evaporation. The ethereal oil is extremely complex, it is greenish yellow, thickens on standing, is soluble in equal volumes of alcohol, specific gravity o.g10, and consists of numer- ous terpenes, at least fifteen in number, with the general formule C,,H,, and C,,H,,; also menthon, C,,H,,O, in which the crystallizable stearopten menthol, C,,H,,OH, is contained. ERYTHROXYLON. COCA. Erythroxylon is the leaves of Erythroxylon coca. This is a shrub, three to six feet in height, a native of western South America, growing in and about the moun- ERYTHROXYLON. COCA. 199 tain table-lands. It is there extensively cultivated, - and recently also in India, Ceylon, and Java. The leaves are collected from plants over one year of age, and are slowly dried.in the sun. Two varieties are commonly found in the market, the Huanuco and the Truxillo. ‘Description.—The Huanuco leaves have a brownish- green color, are oval in shape, and vary from 4 to 8 cm. in length and from 2.5 to 2 cm. in breadth. Both surfaces are glabrous, and the lateral veins are prom- inent. The margin is entire, and the lamina tapers to- ward both base and apex; the latter is acute and the midrib projects in the form of a minute horny point. The odor is faint but characteristic, and the taste slightly bitter. Truxillo leaves are smaller, pale green, and more fragile, hence usually more or less broken.* Powder.—This is greenish-brown; if too yellow, it signi- fies age or imperfect’ drying. The Huanuco powder is usually darker than that derived from the Truxillo Si o<* e ty. The main histological elements found in the powder are crystals, parenchyma, epidermis, hairs, vessels, and fibres. The crystals are not abundant; they are of the cubical (monoclinic) variety, usually quite flattened and angular. They are found usually in crystal sacs, one crystal being in each sac, and are present also in the palisade cells; and also clustered about the bast fibres. The average size of the crystals is about 3 to 10 microns. The parenchyma is typical leaf parenchyma. It varies considerably in size, is usually thin-walled, and has on the upper sides of the leaf a single row of palisade cells, rich in chlorophyll. The structure of the epidermis of the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf is different. The upper surface is ' macroscopically smooth, though microscopically minutely * Consult H. H. Rusby, ‘Coca Leaves,” Druggists’ Circular, 1903. 200 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. granular; the walls are regularly and strongly cutinized, Huanuco leaves possessing a thicker epidermis than the Truxillo. The lower surface is provided with stomata, which are thickly distributed. The outer wall of the epidermis on this side is swollen, making small, regular, readily recognizable protuberances. The epidermal cells Fic. 53.—Coca Lear PowpeEr. EP, Epidermis, side view, showing papules Epi, epidermis seen from above; Pr, parenchyma; F, fibres; tracheids; C, crystals; H, hair; V, pitted vessels; E, lower epidermis, side view below, surface above; B, bast fibre. of the under side are smaller than those of the upper. The epidermis also has a few simple multicellular hairs; these are few in number and readily overlooked, and are not figured in many illustrations of this powder. The fibres of the petioles, midribs, and veinlets form a con- spicuous feature, though not in great abundance. Vessels and fibres are found together. The vessels are of the EUCALYPTUS. 201 spiral annular or reticulated types. The fibres are for ~ the most part comparatively short; those in the Huanuco coca being stouter and stronger than those in the Truxillo. A few starch grains may be found and some oil droplets. Chemistry.—The important constituents are the two alkaloids, cocaine and hygrine, together with tannic acid and wax. F EUCALYPTUS. “The leaves of Eucalyptus globulus, Labillardiére (nat. ord. Myrtacee), collected from the older parts of the tree.”’ This is a giant tree, native of Tasmania and Australia, but now cultivated in California and southern Europe. It attains a height of 60 or 100 m. and a circumference of Io to 15 m. Description.—The leaves are of two kinds; of these, | only the older are official. They are thick, 15 to 30 cm. long, about 4 cm. broad, oblique and rounded at the base, borne on long, flat, frequently twisted petioles, in shape falcate, lanceolate, outline entire. Both surfaces are smooth and leathery. Color, greenish-gray, showing, when held to the light, translucent dots of oil-glands. The midrib is slightly prominent, the secondary veins parallel, united at the ends to two undulating marginal veins. The surface is marked with brown dots of sub- erized tissue. Odor, when bruised, strongly aromatic, camphoraceous; taste pungent, aromatic, slightly bitter. Histology.—The epidermis, of several rows of strongly cuticulated, flattened cells, polygonal in outline, covering ‘a single row of larger, less thickened cells, in accordance with the vertical position of the leaves on the tree, is alike on both surfaces of the leaf. Stomata are plenteously present on both sides. Within the epidermis are two or three rows of palisade cells, containing chlorophyll. Among the palisade cells near the epidermis are numerous large, round oil-glands. In many places the palisade 202 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. tissue undergoes corky modification which results in the brown nodules which break through the epidermis, forming the spots found on the surface of the leaf. The mesophyll, through which run the fibro-vascular bundles, constituting the nerves, consists of somewhat irregular, but far more compact, tissue than is the rule. The cells, as well as those of the palisade layers, contain many crystals of calcium oxalate, both single and in glomerules. The nerves, which are compact and well developed, 4 u y in cs (may @ a RS ¢ (‘ Bis Sny Guo < bc % — fon auc 3) € aS ¥ Sn cS Bas ic! JA) ) Pinp ree 3 SS cay WW esc Bia row, = SS Sess, as) “ Ba Jes] ery BSX Jows; ie .- ~ . * A CAS 57 5 A nek Ye) 5 uy < Poke a> ta ‘nd A 4 = 4S a4 ae abs. rs 5 ‘ was Be ¢, oe fd 4 > A RE s : . A ne =e \ PY So) F Fic. 54.—EucALYPTUS. Cross-section of leaf of eucalyptus showing large schizogenous oil cell in the m, mesophyll; ~, parenchyma filled with chlorophyll, pali- sade cell arrangement; sp, stomata; K, crystals (Moeller). consist of wood bundles arranged in regular rows, sur- rounded by bast fibres which are somewhat thickened on the periphery. The whole bundle is surrounded by a ring of woody parenchyma, which on each side becomes collenchymatic and extends to the epidermis of upper and lower surfaces. BUCHU. 203 Powder.—In the fresh state the powder is light green. _ The characteristic elements found are: Epidermal cells, stomata, crystals, fibres, parenchyma, cork cells. The epidermis cells are small, irregularly polygonal, thick- _walled. The stomata are broadly oval, present in both epidermal surfaces, superficial. Strongly lignified fibres are present in large numbers, and vessel elements are more prominent in eucalyptus leaves than is usual in other leaves. Both rosette and rhomboid crystals are present in considerable quantities. Collenchyma cells are abundant, and occasionally cork cells are found. These are derived from peculiar lenticels, or wounds, at times found on the leaves. | Chemistry.—The principal constituent of eucalyptus is the volatile oil. This is colorless or slightly yellow, boiling at 170° C., specific gravity 915 to 925, soluble in all _ proportions of alcohol or glacial acetic acid. It consists principally of eucalyptol (about 70 per cent.) ; eucalypten and eucalyptolen are also present. The leaves contain also gallic and tannic acid, cerylic alcohol, pyrocatechin, and a crystallizable acid fusing at 247° C. BUCHU. “The leaves of Barosma betulina (Thunberg), Bartling et Wendland, and Barosma crenulata (Linné), Hooker (nat. ord. Rutacee@).”’ Both plants are slender shrubs, about 1 m. high, grow- ing in Southern Africa, in the districts of Clanwilliam and Worcester, north and northeast of Cape Town. Description.—The leaves of Barosma betulina are 10 to 20 mm. long, obovate or almost round, cuneiform at the base, ending in a recurved point, margins serrate, with numerous oil-glands, one in each serration, which render the leaf pellucid punctate. The leaves are thicker than _ those of the other varieties. The leaves of Barosma crenulata are oblong, oval or 204 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. oboval, sometimes elongated, obtused at the apex, from 1 to 2 cm. long and 7 to Io mm. broad, smooth, with crenulate or serrate margins. At the base of each tooth is situated a large oil-gland. Other smaller glands are distributed throughout the leaf. These two official varieties yield the short buchu of commerce. Long buchu is obtained from BSarosma serratifolia, whose leaves are thin, linear, lanceolate, about 3 cm. long, 5 mm. broad, tapering at both ends, margins obtusely serrate, with a gland at each point, apex truncate. All varieties are smooth, dark green in color, paler on the under surface. The odor is strong, pepper- mint-like. Taste, warm, aromatic, somewhat acrid. Long buchu is sometimes adulterated with the leaves of Empleurum serrulatum, These are longer and narrower than the genuine leaf, apex sharply pointed, margins coarsely serrate. Their odor is distinct, taste acrid. Histology.—The upper epidermis, destitute of stomata, is formed of a layer of tabular cells with cutinized, thickened outer walls. On the surface, these cells appear polygonal in outline, with straight sides. They are filled with hesperidin. This occurs in irregular yellow masses, amorphous, or in spherocrystals. Beneath the epidermis is a layer of flat cells, rich in mucilage, which swell up on contact with water and elongate in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the leaf. Next within is a layer of typical palisade cells covering the loose, irregular leaf parenchyma. The lower epidermis bears numerous stomata. Hesperidin crystals are also present here. The fibro-vascular bundles are small, but slightly ligni- fied, separated from each epidermis by a number of colorless, thick-walled cells. The oil-glands are large at the borders, occupying the entire space between the upper and lower epidermis. ‘They are enclosed in two layers of tabular, thin-walled parenchyma. Powder —When fresh the powder is a light green, with TEA. 205 _ the characteristic odor of the drug. The most important microscopical character is found in the epidermal cells. The stomata are small, somewhat immersed, and numer- ous. They lhe irregularly over the inferior surface. The _ epidermis cells are regularly polygonal, and many con- tain spherocrystals as well as irregular rhomboids of cal- ciumoxalate. Chemistry.— Buchu contains a volatile oil, mucilage, resin, hesperidin, and, perhaps, rutin. The ash is rich in manganese. The volatile oil, 16 per cent., in short buchu, 66 per cent. in the long, consists of a stearopten, diosphenol, having a peppermint odor, and a liquid portion, which by fractionation yields dioscamphor, a substance of a thymol-like odor. The residue yields | TEA. The leaves of Camellia thea, Link. (Thea Sinensis, Sims.) | Tea is extensively cultivated throughout tropical countries, but the main source of supply is Asia. The leaf is bifacial, the epidermis of both sides being com- posed of small isodiametric cells. Some are developed into unicellular trichomes 500 to 700 microns in length. The palisade cells are frequently two-rowed, the lower row being much smaller than the first row. The general “mesophyll is open. and well provided with intercellular spaces. A number of very characteristic sclereids (stone cells) are present in the mesophyll. These are usually very irregularly contorted and twisted and very thick- walled (lignified). They are commonest in old leaves; in the young leaves being associated with the midrib. The stomata are broadly oval with narrow mouth. The characteristic stone cells and hairs of tea are suffi- _ ciently distinctive. Numerous admixtures with other leaves are used for falsification, but for the most part they may be excluded by reason of the absence of the 2060 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Fic. 55.—TrEA LEAVES. I, Portion of leaf showing the teeth and nerves. II, Cross-section young tea leaf: Ep, Epidermis of upper side; Ep’, of lower side; p, palisade cells; S, mesophyll; K, crystals; J, stone cell. III, Cross-sec- tion young tea leaf, showing in addition, t, hair. IV, Epidermis, upper side. V, Epidermis from under side, showing sp, stomata; p, paren- chyma. VI, VII, VIII, IX, Stone cells and parenchyma with, a, peculiar ee _X, Hairs and base of hair. XII, Fragment of gland (Vogl). a ee ey CETRARIA. ICELAND MOSS. 207 typical branched stone cells. Leaves with similar stone cells have been found, and these are frequently used. The Imperial tea of the Chinese is one of these, but in this the stone cells are more regularly oblong, or squarish. The leaves most.often used are those of the horse-chest- nut, beech, poplar, apple, ash, elder, hawthorne, fire-weed, etc.* x HERBS AND FLOWERS. The general structure of herbs and flowers does not admit of ready generalization. In the most typical forms the structures of stem, leaf, etc., conform to structures already described under the general headings of leaf and woody structures. In addition, however, herbs and flowers contain cells characteristic of the reproductive organs, pollen and seed structures. These structures introduce a far greater variety into the study of these powders, while at the same time offering more differential | characters. CETRARIA. ICELAND MOSS. _ “Cetraria islandica (Linné), Acharius (class, Lichens).”’ U.S. This is a lichen growing plentifully throughout the temperate zone; in the North, on the plains; in the South, on the mountains. Description.—The membranous thallus is thin and cartilaginous, 5 to 10 cm. long, obscurely dichotomously divided, the edges of the lobes rolled up below with irregular ciliate margins above. The base is red, the under convex side of the lobes gray with white points, the upper side olive green or brown. The apothecia, seldom present in the dried drug, are 1 cm. broad, saucer- shaped, reddish-brown, situated at the ends of the lobes. *M. Brunotte: De la determination histologique des falsifications du thé. Thése Ecole de Pharamcie de Nancy, 1883. 208 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. The drug is odorless; the taste bitter and mucilaginous. Histology.—There are three varieties of tissue. The outer cuticle, four to six cell-rows deep, of very small, thick-walled, difficultly distinguishable cells, with, how- ever, visible lumens, merges into the compact mass of colorless, filiform hyphz, which in turn give way to the | dense branched interlocking cells of. the central portion. In the latter tissue are numerous intercellular spaces con- taining round gonidia about 1 micron in diameter, Fic. 56.—CETRARIA ISLANDICA. filled with the green coloring-matter, thallochlor. In many places the colorless middle and outer layers of tissue entirely replace the central body, producing the white dots seen on the surface of the membrane. Here are found crystals of cetrarin. The cilia of the margins are the spermagonia. These are short, cylindrical, often forked, filled with rod-shaped antherozoids, 6 microns long. _ Chemistry.—Lichenin or lichen starch, 70 per cent.; cetraric acid, 2 per cent.; lichen-stearic acid, about 1 per —_ tl a te i ee a het in ot ees ee ee nT ee - + aed ee a a ee “1 deel a CHONDRUS. IRISH MOSS. CARRAGHEEN. 209 cent., and 1 to 2 per cent. of ash, are the constitutents. Lichenin is colorless and tasteless, soluble in boiling water, forming a jelly on cooling. Cetraric acid, or cetrarin, is bitter, crystalline, almost insoluble in water, soluble in warm alcohol and ether; forming salts with bases soluble in water. Lichen-stearic acid is crystalline, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether. CHONDRUS. IRISH MOSS. CARRAGHEEN. “Chondrus crispus, Stackhouse, and Gigartina mam- illosa, J. Agardh (class Alge).”’ U.S. These closely related Algz are found on the rocks on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, in Europe, from North Cape to Gibraltar; in America, along our eastern coast. They are collected in the spring from the Irish and New England coasts. | Description.—Arising from a disk-like base, the frond of Chondrus crispus enlarges and flattens, then either divides dichotomously into numerous linear, slightly wedge-shaped lobes, or into fewer broad irregularly wavy marginate segments. Forms intermediate between these two arealsocommon. The cystocarps are imbedded near the ends of the lobes; they project slightly, sometimes showing a small aperture. Gigartina mamillosa is similar but more irregular. The crystocarps, distributed along the grooved branches, are oval and raised on a short peduncle. Histology.—The two faces of the frond show each a comparatively broad layer of regularly arranged thick- walled cells with minute cavities. Within these are the larger cells of the body of the frond, growing more ir- regular toward the centre. The contents of these are granular. Zinc chlor-iodide colors the inner lamella of the cell-wall blue, the granular brown, and the mucilage slightly rose-red. The crystocarps consist of large numbers of round or oval well-filled spore sacs. 14 210 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. | Chemistry.—The principal constituent is mucilage. One part of this dissolved in thirty of hot water forms a jelly on cooling. It is precipitated by alcohol and lead acetate, is not colored blue by iodine, and in the pure state contains no nitrogen. Boiled with nitric acid it yields mucic acid. Some albuminoids are also present. Fifteen per cent. of ash, mostly sulphates, phosphate, and chlorides; traces only of bromides and iodides. SANTONICA. LEVANT WORMSEED. The unexpanded flower heads of Artemisia paucziflora, Weber (nat. ord. Composite). Alexandria, Aleppo, or Levant wormseed is the product of a woody perennial shrub, about 6 cm. high, growing abundantly in Turkestan and the steppes of southern Siberia. Description.—The unexpanded flower heads are ovoid, elongated, about 3 mm. long and 1 mm. thick. When fresh they ‘are yellowish-green, becoming brown with age. The involucre is formed of about twelve closely imbricated scales, the inferior ones very small, the supe- rior internally smooth, strongly keeled and bearing many small, shining, resinous glands on the outer surfaces. Their margins are colorless and membranous. ‘The flower heads are separate, shining, and always smooth. This characteristic distinguishes the true from inferior varieties whose flower heads are rendered adherent by the presence of a fine down. (Planchon and Collin.) The involucre encloses upon a naked receptacle three to five unde- veloped florets, each divided at the summit into five triangular teeth. The odor is strongly aromatic, the taste bitter and camphoraceous. Histology.—The epidermal cells of the involucre scales are small, angular, slightly thick-walled, axially elon- gated. They compose entirely the membranous scalé margins, but in the thick central portion they enclose eae ee he a, SANTONICA. LEVANT WORMSEED. 2II first an arc of two rows of sclerenchymatic cells which form the keel, and within a body mass of chlorophyll containing parenchyma, through which runs a small central fibro-vascular bundle of concentric structure, the central vessel portion of spiral-annular ducts surrounded by smaller thinner wall liber and the whole enclosed in distinct endodermis. There is usually present a secre- tory canal smaller than the fibro-vascular bundle. -On either side of the keel is a row of large, several celled oil glands. These are similar in structure to those of the Labiate. They are more numerous in the true than in other varieties of the drug. In the neighborhood of these glands are found organic crystals soluble in ether. Calcium oxalate needles are also present. The flower tissue, consisting principally of corolla, bears many similar glands situated in depressions in the lobe. Within the thick-walled epidermis of the corolla lobe are two rows of palisade cells. Within run several minute fibro- vascular bundles. Powder.—The elements of the powder are numerous, the most frequent being three-sided, almost globular pollen grains. Glands from the bracts and floral leaves are frequent. Long, irregular, pointed stone cells from the keels of the involucre scales, fibres, annular ducts, and parenchyma from the fibro-vascular bundles, por- tions of pitted walled epidermis with many stomata and irregular cubical organic crystals make up the rest of the powder. Chemistry.—The active principle of Santonica is san- tonin, 1.5 to 2 per cent., in colorless prismatic crystals, turning yellow in the light. They are slightly bitter, almost insoluble in water, dissolve in alcohol and ether, and form crystallizable salt with alkalies. Three per cent. of a thin, yellow, unpleasant smelling volatile oil, boiling at 170° F., resin, etc., are also present. 212 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. CUSSO. KOUSSO. “The female inflorescence of Hagenia Abyssinica (Bruce), Guieli (nat. ord. Rosacee).”’ This tree, growing on the plateaus of Abyssinia, attains a height of 20m. It flowersin the autumn. The female panicles are collected and rolled into bundles, 30 to 40 cm. long and 5 cm. thick. It enters commerce through the ports of Aden, Bombay, and Leghorn. Description.—The inflorescence is in unisexual axillary panicles, about 30 cm. long. The flowers are small, 5 to ro mm. broad, supported on short pedicles. The branches of the rachis divide dichotomously, bending sharply at each fork. A sheathing bract subtends the base of each branch, and two oboval bracts accompany each flower. All parts are densely hairy and glandular. The short calyx tube of the female flower is surmounted by two whorls of four or five calyx lobes; the outer, 5 to 6 mm. long, membranous, with anastomosing veins; the inner, smaller, about as broad as long. The bracts and calyx are reddish or purple. The petals, usually wanting in the dried drug, are small, linear, lanceolate, alternating with the sepals. The stamens, about twenty in number, are inserted on the calyx tube; each bears a sterile anther on a short filament. Carpels two, one often undeveloped, free, within the calyx tube, bearing on lengthened styles two truncate stymes. In the male flower the androecium is well-developed, the long filaments bearing two-celled anthers. The gynecium is abortive. The bracts and calyx are green, with a slight reddish tint. The odor is pleasant, tea- like. Taste, at first mucilaginous, then acrid, bitter, and astringent. - Histology.—The bracts and calyx lobes bear an epi- dermis of polygonal cells, somewhat thick-walled on the bracts, thinner-walled, with undulating outlines on the — ae ee <@&@°@°°: pe CUSSO. KOUSSO. 213 calyx lobes. Stomata and trichomes are numerous. The latter are of two kinds, the one simple, pointed, single-celled, thick-walled, on the leaves, large; on the calyx smaller. The other variety is short, bearing glands, consisting of small many-celled or large single- celled heads, supported on short pedicles. On the bracts, a layer of palisade cells lies beneath the epidermis. The mesophyll consists of star-shaped cells, with large inter- cellular spaces. The peduncle bears an epidermis of finely striated cells. The elongated parenchymatic cells within, enclose agglomerated crystals of calcium oxalate. A few tracheids are also present. The tissue of the anthers is recognized by the regularity of the arrange- ment of the cells and the reticulate thickenings of the walls. The surface of the stigma is papillous. Powder.—The elements of the powder are numer- ous; the most predominant being the trichomes, which vary greatly in size. Spiral and pitted vessels from the peduncle are frequent. The characteristic, usually four- celled, glands are less often met with. For the rest, stone cells from the peduncle, calcium oxalate crystals from the leaf parenchyma, and epidermal tissue, are of little importance. Pollen grains, if present in large numbers, indicate the admixture of male flowers; their occasional occurrence, however, does not indicate fraud. Chemistry.—Cusso contains a bitter resin, a trace of volatile oil, 24 per cent. of tannin, traces of valerianic and acetic acids, and koussine, which Liechsenring claims to consist of protokosine and koussotoxine, the former crystalline and inactive, the latter amorphous, yellow, fusing at 80°, soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloro- form, insoluble in water. Whether koussotoxine or the bitter resin is the active principle is not yet finally deter- mined. 214 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. PYRETHRI FLORES, INSECT FLOWERS. The flowers of several species of Chrysanthemum, nat. ord, Composite. 3 The product of C. sinetartaldvas Visiani, growing both wild and under cultivation in the mountains of the eastern shores of the Adriatic, and cultivated in Cali- fornia, is called from its-original source Dalmatian insect flowers. C. roseum, Web. and Mohr, and C. carneum, Weber, growing in the Caucasus Mountains and in northern Persia, yield the inferior Persian or Caucasian insect flowers. Description.—The flower heads of all three species are hemispherical, from 12 to 20 mm. in diameter with a densely imbricate involucre, naked receptacle, ligulate pistillate ray, tubular perfect disk florets, ribbed fruit, toothed pappus. : The bracts of the Dalmatian flowers bear slight whitish scarious margins. There are only about 15 ray flowers present, and the achenes are five ribbed. The pappus is about 1 mm. long. The Persian flowers bear brown bordered bracts, 20 to 30 rose-red ray florets, and 1o ribbed achenes. The -pappus is short, about o.5 mm. Of the two Persian varieties the rarer product of C. carneum may be distinguished from C. roseum by the paler ray florets, the less pronounced colored bract borders, and by the extending of the anthers outside the corolla tube of the disk florets. The closed flower heads are more valuable than the open ones, as the development of the flower weakens its efficacy as an insecticide. Histology.—The upper portion of the stem, which is included with the flowers, bears an epidermis of irregular polygonal cells with numerous stomata, hairs, and glands. The hairs are T-shaped, the long double-pointed horizontal cell often broken off, being supported on a _— SS ee rie, ys PYRETHRI FLORES. INSECT FLOWERS. 215 two- or three-celled pedicle. The glands are elliptical, about six-celled, three rows of two cells each superim- posed. This portion of the flower is rich in vascular elements, spiral annular ducts being numerous. The disk is composed of polygonal, thick-walled, much pitted Bae: Gis »)> A lars rm & twit ZA3) ius Fic. 57.—PyYRETHRI FLoREs. Insect powder: sc, Stone cells; 4 epidermis; h, hairs; ept, epi- dermis with papille; St, S/’, tissue of flowers; g, vessel; pa, paren- chyma; po, pollen grains; P, cells of pappus; D, glands; S, portion of flower; ep’, epidermis-of flower; iep, cells of interior of flower and stems; Fr, stone cells of fruit; rh, rhomboid crystals (Hanausek). sclerenchyma. Bracts bearing thick-walled epidermis over keel, thinner toward margins and on inner surface, stomata numerous. Within through a loose parenchyma runs a single fibro-vascular bundle with a dense layer of bast fibers, extending into the margins. The ligule of 216 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. — the ray flowers bear an epidermis papillose above, of finely striated polygonal cells below. Glands are found among the striated cells on the lower portion of the ligula; within are several small fibro-vascular bundles, and an occasional oil or resin duct. The elongated disk florets, their lower portion (Fruchknoten) enclosed in an entire pappus, densely studded with resin glands below and with numerous crystals of calcium in their elongated, slightly thickened cells, possess a five-toothed corolla of structure similar to that of the rays, but without papille. Resin glands and calcium oxalate crystals are frequent. The united anthers are made up of regular polygonal some- what thick-walled tissue, containing a yellow granular matter. The peculiar thickening of these cell walls is quite characteristic. The round, single-celled pollen grains, 28 microns in diameter, show three distinct equi- distant dilations and a surface covered with conical papille. The stigma is forked and bears cylindrical papille. The ovary is five-ribbed (in C. roseum ten), with a minute fibro-vascular bundle and two or more resin ducts in each, and, in the outer portion, crystals of calcium oxalate. | Powder.—The powder, if unadulterated with cur- cuma, has a grayish-yellow color. That from the Per- sian flowers is lighter than that from the Dalmatian. Differential characters are difficult to find. The T- shaped hairs seldom occur with the horizontal cell attached. As they are more numerous on the stem and leaves of the plant than on the flower, their frequent appearance would indicate adulteration, which may be confirmed by the presence of much fibro-vascular tissue and a scarcity of pollen grains. The cell walls of the anthers, at least of the Persian flowers, show peculiar papillous thickenings, which are characteristic. The papille on the ligules of the ray flowers of C. roseum : ; ; . ——— ele LAVENDER. 217 are more pronounced than in the Dalmatian variety. The calcium oxalate crystals differ also. Those of the former are imperfect small agglomerations, whereas those of the latter are large, quite perfect single or twin crystals. _Adulteration with Hungarian or Russian daisy may with difficulty be detected, by the presence of the trichomes peculiar to the latter. These are long, three to ten- celled, with a much inflated terminal cell. Other adul- terants are numerous, among them the flowers of C. Parthenium,C.inodorum, C.corybosum, Leucanthemum cor- onarium, Anthemtis arvenis, A. Cotula, A. tinctoria and A. nobilis, Inula pulicaria, Tanacetum vulgare, Matricaria, Calendula, are difficult to detect. Curcuma, sawdust, and mustard are easily recognized, and chrome yellow, barium chromate, and ochre are discovered in the ash, which should not exceed 7 per cent. Chemistry.—The active insect-killing constituent has not been determined. Volatile oil, resin, cholesterin, a paraffin, a glycoside, an alkaloid, and three acids, one volatile, have been found. LAVENDER. The unexpanded flower of Lavandula vera, De C. (nat. ord. Labiatee), a plant of southern Europe; now exten- sively cultivated. Description.—Bracts rhombic-ovate, pointed, brown- ish and glandular; calyx tubular, about 5 mm. long, hairy and glandular, blue-gray, thirteen-ribbed, five- toothed; the upper tooth is more developed, darker colored. The corolla is violet-blue, dries often to a brownish color; about 10 mm. long, on the outside hairy and glandular; two-lipped, the upper lip has two lobes, the lower lip is smaller and has three lobes; stamens four, didynamous, short, inserted on the corolla tube, not extending out of the corolla tube. The corolla is tra- versed by numerous vascular bundles, and is covered with 218 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. ' fine branching hairs, between which there are also glands. Odor fragrant; taste bitter, somewhat camphoraceous. Constituents.—About 2 or 3 per cent. of volatile oil. Fic. 58.—Hairs FROM LAVENDER. CANNABIS INDICA. INDIAN HEMP. Cannabis indica is the flowering tops of the female plant of Cannabis sativa, L., growing in the East Indies. This is a plant usually some eight to ten feet in height, indigenous to parts of Persia and Asia, and widely culti- vated in the Eastern countries. Description.—The drug usually appears in the shops in flat, compressed masses of a dull greenish color. The tops vary in size from 5 to 30 cm., and consist of straight stems, with ascending branches, longitudinally furrowed and bearing numerous small curved hairs and occasional ee Se ee ee ee CANNABIS INDICA. INDIAN HEMP. 219 glands. The former are enlarged at the base and con- tain cystoliths. The leaves are alternate, the lower are digitate and consist of three or five linear-lanceolate leaflets with distinct serrated margins; the upper are simple. The pistillate flowers consist of a single ovary surrounded by a perianth and supported by an ovate bract beyond which two long brown stigmas protrude. The fruit is ovoid, slightly reticulated and contains a x res $3 : x ae e.) Aen Sane \ “A i Naot” S ese te & V Ge Beak x 4 (a Fic. 59.—LeEear or CANNABIS INDICA. ?, Mesophyll; c, calcium carbonate crystals; sch, loose paren- chyma; oe, oil glands, with S, basal cells; cu, covering of gland; sp, stomata; o, upper surface; u, under surface; c, ¢c, cystoliths; hairs. single, oily seed. Both bracts and leaves bear numerous hairs and stalked glands, the latter secreting a viscid ° resin. The odor is strong, but taste is almost absent. Histology.—The upper surface of the leaf shows flat, polygonal cells, the lower surface epidermis cells with numerous stomata. Both surfaces are covered with _ spine-like hairs, set between elevations of the epider- mis. They contain a cystolith in a vesicular space and are longer at the lower surface. Small gland- 220 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. ular hairs with one-celled stalk and two to four-celled heads and large oil and resin glands are very abundant. On section, the palisade tissue is twice as thick as the spongy tissue; both are rich in calcium oxalate. A horseshoe-shaped woody pith is contained in the midrib, consisting of radially arranged vascular channels. The perianth carries glands and long, thin-walled hairs. Fic. 60.—CANNABIS INDICA. oed, Oil glands; tr, hairs; d, young gland; a, b, c, d, ef, g, developing gland; p, protoplasm in trichome; k, crystals. Powder.—This is a dirty, brownish-green, and when moistened and pressed is sticky. It contains a large number of histological elements, inasmuch as stem, leaf, flower, and seed constituents enter into the powder. The main histological features are hairs, glands, pollen grains, crystals, resin, parenchyma, epidermis, fibres, vessels, and stone cells from the seed. The hairs alone are diagnostic of the powder. There are two or three CANNABIS INDICA. INDIAN HEMP. 221 types which are prominent, though the hairs make a series of almost every grade from the long, thin falciform to the short, stout thorn-like hair: (1) Long, thin, ir- regular, unicellular, simple, glandular hairs, with spiny Fic. 61.—PowpERED CANNABIS INDICA. G, Glands; H, hairs; Gl H, glandular hairs; Epi, epidermis; V, vessels; ST, stone’cell;~Sto, stomata; CYS, crysta sac; Pl, pollen grains; E, epidermis cells; C, crystals. or wart-like irregular markings found at their apices; these come from the under leaf surfaces; (2) broad, multicellular, simple, glandular hairs with a sub-spherical multicellular gland (usually 8 cells) at the apex; these are numerous and come from the under side of the leaf, 222 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. the upper part of stem, and the flower.axis; (3) shorter, broad, falciform: hairs, with rounded mass-like collec- tions of calcium carbonate at the base of the hair; these are the cystoliths, and occur on the upper leaf surface. The glands proper are rounded and multicellular, sac- like in general shape, and form a conspicuous-feature in a good powder. In size they range from 20 to 60 microns. They may be stalked or sessile. Pollen grains are few and may readily be overlooked. They are spherical and regularly marked. Crystals of calcium oxalate of the rosette-shaped variety are also few and inconspicuous. These average about 20 microns in diameter. The parenchyma is thin-walled and lax, and the cells often appressed and gummed together by the resin masses which show as brown and blackish bodies throughout the powder. These irregular masses form a very con- spicuous part of the powder. The resin masses and hairs are sufficient for making a diagnosis of the powder. Epidermal cells with stomata are occasionally found. The fibres and vessel elements vary widely in quantity. In some powders fibres are common, and also spiral, annular, and reticulated ducts; in others these elements are fewer. This depends upon the amount and the de- velopment of the stem, which may be included. The seeds show stone cells and small, irregular, twisted, and contorted epidermal cells. These are diagnostic of them- selves. Attached to these seed elements are cells con- taining small masses of starch grains and ‘sometimes masses of aleurone grains. Chemistry.—Indian hemp contains about 20 per cent. resin. A brown, alcoholic extract obtained from this is known as cannabin, and from this oxycannabin has been isolated. The alkaloid cannabinine also occurs. FRUITS. Fruits cannot be said to have any particular type of structure. In the main, the official fruits consist of parenchymatic tissues arranged in different ways, ac- cording to the individual plant under consideration. In addition to this, some vascular elements may be en- countered and also some sclerotic cells. CARYOPHYLLUS. CLOVES. Caryophyllus, cloves, is the unexpanded flowers of Eugenia aromatica (Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb.), a handsome and large evergreen, cultivated in the islands of the Indian Ocean, Sumatra, Penang, in southern India, Africa, the West Indies, South America, and in other tropical regions. The cloves of commerce come in large part from the east coast of Africa, and the chief mart is Rotterdam. Wild trees contribute but a small proportion of the entire yield. The cloves are gathered from trees which are from six to twelve years old, and after the trees are twenty years old they do not bear well. One tree fre- quently yields from two to four kilos of fruit (Fluckiger). The cloves are gathered just before the corolla of the flower falls off, either by hand or the trees are beaten with sticks and the falling cloves collected on spread-out cloths. After drying, the clove becomes characteristically dark-brown and has its own peculiar aroma. Its fracture is short and sharp to waxy. Histology.—A section of the solid, stem-like lower por- tion of the clove, technically the hypnanthium, shows the disposition of the tissues as follows: An outer dark- 223 224 “PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. brown zone surrounds a lighter brown central zone. Sections in the upper portion, just beneath the spreading of the calyx lobes, cut into the ovary with its two carpels and numerous ovules (about twenty) arranged on a cen- tral placenta. The minute anatomy of the cross-section shows greatly thickened outside epidermic cells, 13 to 15 microns in diameter; as Tschirch has pointed out, this is NS RC er Fic. 62.—CLoveE. Cross-section of base of clove: e, Epidermis; p', parenchyma with oil canals; (')—p, parenchyma with interspersed vessel bundles; 7%, loose parenchyma; c, columella; g, vessels; 7, oil cells (Wiesner). not strongly cutinized. Beneath this single epidermal row there are numerous thin-walled parenchymatic cells. These are radially elongated, and surround numerous schizogenous oil glands, which are arranged in from two to three rows. The parenchymatic cells measure from 15 to 30 microns. The oil glands are oval elliptical, sur- rounded by two or three rows of flattened secreting cells, and measure from 170 to 220 microns in the radial diam- al Gl an, alee CARYOPHYLLUS. CLOVES. 225 eter and 30 to 125 microns tangentially. Those nearer the epidermis are usually smaller. The parenchymatic tissue lying within the area of the oil glands is larger, the cell walls are more pronounced, and collenchymatic thickening is more common, though it is not absent, for the outer parenchymatic rows. -Fibro-vascular bundles are found here and the tissues become lax, and large intercellular spaces are prominent. The bundles are delicate, more or less incomplete, contain small vessels and fibres, and are, in general, of the open collateral type; bi-collateral, and bundles concentric to a central sieve portion and peripheral to an outer sieve portion, are described by Tschirch and Oesterle. Bast fibres are found on the outer portions of the bundle. They average 40 to 50 microns in diameter. Closely surrounding the bast fibres, usually lying between them and the vessels, small crystal cells are closely clustered. A well-marked columella is found in the centre of the section. It is connected with the outer portions by the loose, parenchymatic tissue with large intercellular spaces. The columella contains in- complete fibro-vascular bundles. The vessels and fibres are usually very delicate. Numerous small crystals are here present. Sections of the calyx lobes show numerous oil cells, with typical leaf structures. If sections of the hypnanthium, after previous soaking in water, are placed in a low flat dish in alcohol, or a micro-slide-cell, crystalline needles of caryophyllin de- velop. Similar sections placed in official potash solution, and then soaked in water in a cell, show in from one to two hours, the development of fine crystal needles of eugenol potassium, C,H,(C,H,)OCH,OK. These are par- ticularly abundant in the oil reservoirs. Powder.—The powder of cloves is composed of a great many diverse elements, and its complete study is attended with much patient effort. The powder is dark-brown. It contains parenchymatic tissues, collenchyma, bast 15 226 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. fibres, wood fibres, spiral and annular ducts, tracheids, _crystals, epidermis of calyx lobes with stomata, tissue from corolla, pollen grains, tissues of the seed, and if = a = SSO Fic. 63.—CLovEs IN PowpDeEr. Epi.C, Epidermis of calyx showing oil glands beneath; Epi.F, epidermis of corolla; E, epidermis of outer side of calyx teeth, with stomata; CAL, cross-section of calyx (Epi.C), outer cuticularized wall and collenchymatic tissue; P, parenchyma of body of cloves with fibres, V vessels, and C crystals; PAR, parenchyma of fruit body in cross-section, to right, and longitudinal section, to left, the latter showing pitted parenchyma; ST, stone cells from the stem of the cloves; Str, sclereids from the wall of the fruit; O, pollen grains; Fibr, fibres from the clove stem; vessel from the clove stem; C.T, pitted parenchyma from cotyledons; §S, starch grains from seed. much stem has been included, the characteristic sclereids and bast fibres of this part of the fruit are in evidence. Bast fibres are conspicuous features in the powder; when unbroken, they measure from 300 to 400 microns CARYOPHYLLUS. CLOVES. 227 long and from 40 to 50 microns in diameter. The degree of lignification varies widely. _ The pollen grains are characteristic. They are tetrahe- dral, and may be empty or may contain brownish, oil- stained, protoplasmic contents. They measure about 15 microns toa side. ~~ The vessels are very delicate, and rarely measure more than 4 to 10 to 15 microns in diameter. They have spiral or annular markings,.and may be accompanied by delicate tracheids, measuring about the same in diameter. Epidermis cells with stomata do not call for special mention, as these latter are not of any diagnostic signifi- cance. The crystals are small and may readily be over- looked. They measure from 8 to 16 microns. Tissues derived from the petals may be readily recognized by the regular irregularity so characteristic of this type of tissue. In the seed, pitted parenchymatic cells measur- ing 50 to 70 microns are found. These contain irregular shaped starch grains. These are usually simple grains, but are often much compressed and elongated. Some of the larger grains measure from 30 to 35 microns, while the smaller ones average 5 to 7 microns. | If the powder contains much tissue from the stem the numerous isodiametric sclereids (100 to 130 microns) are found, though similar sclereids are also present to some extent in the walls of the fruit. Larger pitted vessels also are indicative of admixture with stem, and the irregular bast fibres are characteristic. Many of these have knob- like ends, and frequently average, according to the measurements of Tschirch and Oesterle, 8 to 26 microns in diameter. In addition to the rosette crystals, cubical crystals 77 microns may be found. A further chemical reaction is noteworthy in addition to those already described. Solutions of chloride of iron stain most of the tissues dark-blue to black, due, it is said, to the saturation of such tissues with eugenol. 228 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Chemistry.—Cloves contain an ethereal oil, consisting of hydrocarbon and eugenol; some cusonn caryophyllin, and vegetable mucus. CUBEBA. CUBEBS. Cubebs is the unripe fruit of Pzper cubeba, a plant now extensively cultivated in the Eastern countries, notably Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Antilles; though origi- nally it was indigenous to these places and even now is found there growing wild. It is widely cultivated about the coffee plantations, growing on.or about the trees which are planted in these places to protect the coffee plants. The fruit is collected before ripening and is handled mainly by the Chinese. Description.—The cubebs of the mavket are spherical, dark-brown, grayish-brown and black, and measure about one-fifth of an inch in diameter (5 mm.). They are usually provided with stems about the same length as the fruit or somewhat longer. The surface is hard and irregularly netted or reticulated. At the summit there are the small, lighter colored, pointed remnants of the pistil. The base is contracted to meet the remnant of the stalk, which is anatomically continuous with the outer layers of the pericarp. Hstology.—With a lens the cross-section shows a brownish outer pericarp making up about one-third of the radius of the fruit. The large perisperm makes up the rest of the section. The endosperm is small, and is lo- cated at the upper end of the seed, just beneath the rem- nant of the pistil, and contains the embryo. Under higher magnification the pericarp is seen to be made up of at least three more or less distinct zones. The epidermis consists of regular quadratic cells, with thickened outer walls, resting directly upon a layer of stone cells, which may be in one or two rows. This layer of stone cells may be broken here and there. The Se = ,:tC—Cteee mc ehmrtC= Yijiz x A SMILE ONE L LD LEI BIS Fic. 64.—Cuspess, CroSsS-SECTION OF FRUIT. E, Epidermis; St, stone cells, beneath epidermis, hypodermis and at base of outer portion of the fruit; PAR, parenchymatic tissue filled with starch, and oil cells; OG, oil glands; SC, the seed coat inside of which is the seed, with oil cells and starch grains. 230 PLANT ORGANS. OR PARTS OF PLANTS. — walls are markedly thickened and many pored. The parenchyma of the pericarp makes up the greater mass of this structure; it is very irregular, thin-walled, and the cells inclined to be elongated parallel to the surface of the fruit. These cells contain starch and have a number of large oil glands, which have distinctly suberized walls. Oil, fat, and crystals of cubebin may also be found in this parenchyma. The fibro-vascular bundles run up in the stem and spread out in this parenchymatic layer. They soon become fragmentary, however. The inner zone of the pericarp is made up of very large stone cells, cells from five to ten times the size of the stone cells lying just be- neath the epidermis. These are usually arranged with their longest axis at right angles to the thin seed coat, which is just beneath. This seed coat consists of one to two layers of compressed cells, the outer row of which - may have a slightly thickened wall. The seed coat cells are dark-brown. Inside of the seed coat the cells of the perisperm are large, thin-walled, starch-filled, paren- chymatic cells. The starch grains are very small and. compound. The perisperm also contains large oil cells. The starch grains develop as the fruit grows older. Hence specimens according to their age will contain more or less starch. The unripe seed should contain no well- formed grains. Needle-like crystals, occurring in groups, are often observed both in the pericarp and in the peri- sperm. By some writers these are termed crystals of cubebin. Meyer believes them to be either fatty crystals or a terpene hydrate. | Powder.—Powdered cubeb (No. 50) is grayish-brown in color. The most prominent features of the powder are stone cells, oil globules, starch grains in the ripe fruit, crystalline masses, and parenchyma. Less conspicuous are epidermal structures and fibro-vascular elements. The stone cells present a variety of shapes and sizes. —— ——— CUBEBA. CUBEBS. 231 Those of the inner row, 7. e., just outside of the seed coat, are the largest. These are usually oblong, sometimes three times as long as broad, and measure in the longest diameter from 50 to 75 microns. The smaller stone cells of the hypodermis average 25 to 35 microns. All of the ¥ ei) ibis BWP Dy yi r BH = a ) FS a Fic. 65.—CuBEBS IN POWDER. Ep, Epidermis from upper surface; St, stone cells of the pericarp; r; © cr grea bar of pericarp with stone cells; Tr, tracheid-like stone cells of the stems; V and Sv, vessel of pericarp and of the stem; O, parenchyma with oil cells and oil globules; Pr, parenchyma of the seed; C, crystal-like bodies of fat or cubebin. stone cells are richly pored and many are brownish in color. The oil globules are very numerous throughout the entire powder. They are usually lying free, though occasionally not disturbed from the glands, which ' average 75 to 120 microns in diameter. The starch grains are found, well formed, only in the 232 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. ripe fruit. They are very minute, averaging 1 to 5 microns, and are simple and compound in twos, threes, and fours. The crystal masses are very distinctive; they vary greatly in size and are sometimes very common in the powder, at other times not. Specimens mounted in glycerine jelly will not be preserved, if the jelly in preparation is heated above 125° C. The parenchyma is usually thin-walled and very irregular; in the region of the pericarp many of the cells are pitted and the walls are thicker, the cells being somewhat smaller, 30 to 40 microns. The cells of the endosperm are thinner-walled, average about 40 microns, and are not pored. Epidermal struc- tures are distinctive though not prominent. The thickened walls, which are finely striated, are readily recognized. The fibro-vascular elements are not numerous, yet almost always present in any small field. Spiral vessels, tracheids, tracheid-like stone cells, and short fibres are constant and some sieve tube elements may be found. The greater the quantity of stems, the more vascular and fibrous elements are found. Chemistry.—Fresh cubebs contain about to to 16 per cent. of ethereal oil, which is contained for the most part in the glands. This oil consists in the main of various terpenes, with the general formula C,,H,,. Cubebin, C, t1,,0;, is found in amounts varying from 1 to 2.5 or 3 per cent. It is a slightly bitter, colorless, and odorless crystalline body, colored red by concentrated sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in white needles, which have a melting-point about 125° C. Cubebin is usually mixed with the resin, which is found in percentages of about 5 to 7. There is, further, about 8 per cent. of gum and 1 per cent. of fatty oil. PIPER. PEPPER. The unripe fruit of Piper nigrum, Linné (nat. ord. Ptiperacee), a native of India and Cochin-China, culti- vated in the East Indies. a ee ee 7 - - ' o = © eee Sr gses 844s > a Ss 2 “Sates ‘A Ais ons Ba M5. & © & E ee : ogee ‘ es ” sc 9 2h — oF 9 Lis, abs 74,9 OS .sH © 1S) Oo oO & Be thee ei 3 sR -S.9 4 oO, * 228 3 ve ; ° 3.5 ae eS 2 BAB 8 SoCo. 8a ae = a 16 2. $2 %, S57 es : o dS § 2 ATR i $Sa e683 8 = a ¢ \@! gees a 2.2.5 a pee ate raes a Syges cate 12 fo Se $3.08 ry oes es aOge Se he on fy Gu gee 1 Seas Ce Be eae Seees 0 we GUS q bo ékyea &- 883 B yeas. , fe OB ee: Ay rc be aes @ ; 3 E pea OE ee SERS ome gt 5° . mre gd. Q2ae w ww 228D = 2 Yi ae e8aee be Go =, 5 - Eee: 3832 T Boe 3 9D6 & =< 8S o gd 523! Were send eagES 6 Os i Me Bn a orn OS SP HAE Ba .. e 2s 3 ey B \Peaeee® Pt ¥ vo a oy . & o 2 = S | q eae bee : Fe q 2 SNe Bas Ss a = S . BE = a 234 - PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. parenchyma, which contains many aggregations of starch grains and oil drops. By the drying of this loose middle layer the berries acquire the marked wrinkling of ‘their surfaces. The tissue next within contains soft prosenchyma and small spiral vessels, and within this, starch-free parenchyma with large oil cells. The seed coat consists of a row of small, yellow cells, on the inner walls of which there is deposited a thickened porous layer; frequently there are therein crystal rosettes of calcium oxalate. The following dark brown-red thick tissue separates the layer from the seed albumen, between which angular radially- arranged cells, numerous oil spaces are disseminated. The first are filled with trophoplasts in which there are numerous small, angular starch grains, with few thick nuclei. Other cells contain yellow grains of piperin; the endosperm contains aleurone grains. CONIUM. HEMLOCK. “The full-grown fruit of Conium maculatum, Linné (nat. ord. Umbellifere), gathered while yet green.” Us: Though the fruit alone is official, we shall here con- sider the leaves also. The biennial root of the conium plant bears an annual stem, often over 2 m. high, round grooved, hollow, and marked below with brownish-red spots. The plant grows in waste places throughout the old world. It has been naturalized in America. The plant grown in a hot, dry climate is superior. Description.—The leaves are twice or thrice pinnat- ifid compound, four to eight-paired, in general out- line triangular, the lower ones often 40 cm. long, with sheathing petioles, the upper smaller, almost sessile, and less compound. The leaflets are deeply cleft, promi- nently veined, the terminal leaflet larger, strongly CONIUM. HEMLOCK. 235 toothed. Color, when dry, grayish-green. Odor dis- agreeable (mousey). Taste salty, bitter, and acrid. ’ The fruit is a cremocarp, about 3 mm. long, broadly ovate, laterally compressed, the mericarps usually sepa- rate, slightly curved, dorsally compressed, bearing five slightly wavy ridges; intermediate spaces wrinkled, faces grooved, oil tubes absent. Color gray or green, odor and taste faint. The disagreeable mousey odor is developed by trituration. Histology.—The Leaj.—A single layer of smooth polyg- 0 a Cc m e- t v t C b Fic. 67.—Conium. Cross-section of mericarp of Conium: a, Seed portion; e, epi- dermis; m, fruit scale; t, ’, conine layer containing alkaloid; v, vas- cular bundle; o, outer surface of pericarp; c, central surface; b, bundle in albumen (Flickiger). onal cells forms the epidermis. The outer walls of these epidermal cells are thickened. A single row of palisade cells is found. Beneath these, and extending to the under epidermis, is the usual loose round-celled leaf _ parenchyma. The veins each contain a single fibro- vascular bundle, accompanied by a few resin ducts, and protected by the collenchymatic tissue, to which the 236 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. prominence of the vein is due. Stomata are numerous, particularly on the lower surface. Many cells of the epidermis contain groups of crystals, said to be hesperi- din. | The Fruit.—The epidermis of the mericarp is com- posed of irregularly thickened and finely striated cells, with occasional stomata. - Within this layer lies the meso- phyll of thin-walled, compressed polygonal cells, which in the unripe fruit contain starch and chlorophyll. In each rib is a fibro-vascular bundle. These consist of a central bast bundle, with, on either side, a smaller sieve bundle, and on the inner side of the whole a group of vessels. The bast fibres are of the usual type. The ves- sels are mostly spirally marked. Near each bundle, on the outer side, lies a small resin duct. Surrounding the seed are two very characteristic cell-layers, the outer of large tangentially elongated cells with dark-colored walls, much thickened on the inner and lateral faces. The layer within, the eridocarp, is formed of cubical or slightly radially elongated cells whose brown walls are somewhat thickened on the inner and outer faces, while remaining quite thin on the sides. It is this endocarp which con- tains the active principle of the drug. Within the en- docarp is a seed-coat of small, thick-walled cells surround- ing the polygonal cells of the albumen which are filled with aleurone grains and fat. The aleurone grains are mostly 5 to 6 microns in breadth. They often contain one or more round or irregularly swollen masses or single or agglomerated crystals of calcium oxalate. (Tschirch and Oesterle.) The absence of oil tubes serves to distinguish this fruit from all others of the Umbellifere. Chemistry.—The fruit contains four alkaloids,—conine, methyl conine, conhydrine, and pseudoconine,—a little volatile oil of a conium-like odor, fat, and 6 per cent. of ash. ea eee a - 9" FENICULUM. FENNEL. 237 The herb contains traces of the alkaloids, a little volatile oil, and about 12.8 per cent. of ash. . Conine is a volatile, non-oxygenated, highly poisonous alkaloid of a strong, disagreeable odor and an acrid and ‘bitter taste. It is an oily liquid, specific gravity 0.88, boiling at 167°C., soluble in alcohol, ether, and go parts of cold water. It fumes in contact with hydrochloric acid and forms soluble crystalline salts with this and other acids. Methylconine is a similar oily liquid, boiling between 169°C. and 180°C. Conhydrine, 0.006 per cent. present in the herb, crystallizes in colorless, pearly plates which sublime below 100°C., and treated with phosphoric anhydride yield a # and ; coniceine. Pseudoconine crystallizes in needles, melting at 98° C. FCENICULUM. FENNEL. “The fruit of Feniculum capillaceum, Gilibert (nat. ord. Umbellifere).” U.S. A perennial herb, 1 to:2 m. high, with decompound leaves, growing throughout Europe and Asia, more plentifully in the warmer regions. it is cultivated in France and Germany. There are two principal varieties, Roman and German. Indian fennel and bitter fennel are of less frequent oc- currence. Description.—German or Saxon fennel. The fruit is from 5 to 8 mm. long, straight or slightly curved, and about 3 m. in thickness, almost cylindrical, with five distinct greenish-yellow ribs on each mericarp, the lateral ones being more strongly developed than the others. Two short, thick styles surmount the fruit. The color in general is greenish-brown, the taste sweet and camphoraceous. Roman or Italian fennel differs from the above in its - greater length, 10 to 14 mm. This dimension, however, varies with the age of the plant, each succeeding year 238 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. producing a smaller fruit. Its taste, though quite aromatic, is less sharp than the German fennel. Histology.—The epicarp of the half fruit, which is less smooth, is formed of tabular cells with walls slightly but evenly thickened on all sides. Viewed on the sur- Fic. 68.—FENNEL. | __ Cross-section of mericarp of fennel: com, Commissural side; c, ribs with small vessel bundles; vt, vitte, and vl, valleculz, oil passages; c (in center), endosperm of seed; sh, endocarp sheath (Tschirch). face, they are irregular in outline, somewhat angular, with sparsely distributed oval or almost round stomata. ‘Imbedded in the mesocarp of the usual thin-walled tissue are the oil tubes, six in number, two on the inner face, the other four in the outer intercostal spaces. The i i FENICULUM. FENNEL. 239 cells forming the surface of the oil tubes are sharply angular in outline, and, with the surrounding tissue, of a dark brown color, caused by the infiltration of the resin- ous contents of the oil tubes. The fibro-vascular bundles, one in each rib, are composed of spiral and reticulate ducts, 4 to 6 microns brdad, small, 2 to 3 microns broad, much pitted tracheids, and, making up the greater por- tion of the bundle, bast fibres which merge gradually into the characteristically large-pored parenchyma surround- ing the bundle. The endocarp is also distinctly char- acteristic, made up of a-single layer of narrow, oblong, thin, straight-walled cells, in groups which are arranged at various angles to each other, but composed individ- ually of regularly parallel cells. Powder.—The brown angular oil tube cells and sur- rounding tissues form the most conspicuous elements of the powder. They are of no diagnostic value, but by clearing with chloral hydrate and treating with Schultze’s maceration fluid, the characteristic tissues may be found. These are the large-pored parenchyma cells, surrounding the vascular bundles and the oblong cells of the en- docarp. By treating with oil the cells of the endosperm are seen to contain numerous single aleurone grains, in which are found calcium oxalate crystals in angular masses. (Tschirch and Oe6esterle.) Chemistry.—The essential constituent is the volatile oil. This varies greatly in the several varieties of the drug, both in quantity and composition. It has a specific gravity of 0.90 to 0.99, is soluble in all proportions of alcohol, becomes crystalline at low temperatures, 5° to 10° C., owing to the separation of anethol, pinene, dipentine, fenchone, and phellandrene. The percentage of anethol varies greatly. The oil of the Italian or sweet fennel, esteemed for its mild flavor, probably owes this - quality to a lower proportion of anethol. (Flickiger.) 240 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. SEEDS. ‘Seeds possess few universal characters.. In general the tissues to be distinguished microscopically are the cells of the seed coat, or testa; those of the nucleus of the young plant, and those of the cotyledons. Thé seed coat differs greatly in the different seeds. In general, however, it is composed of parenchymatic cells with greatly thickened cell walls. The thickness of the cell walls differs in every seed, but most of the seeds of the Pharmacopoeia have stone cells inthe seed coat. The tissues of the cotyledons are usually thin-walled and parenchymatic. Occasion- ally very delicate spiral vessels may be found in the cotyledons. Aleurone grains and starch grains are im- portant features in seed structures. One or the other, and frequently both, are found in seeds. AMYGDALUS DULCIS. SWEET ALMOND. The seed of Amygdalus communmts, L., a plant originally found in Asia about the region of the Caspian Sea, now quite widely spread by cultivation in the milder climates of the world. Southern Italy, Spain and Greece, and the northern countries of Africa are the regions more com- mercially active. Description.—Elongated, thin; average size 2.5 cm. long and 1 cm. broad, 0.5 cm. thick. Commonly two forms are found, those with the hard shell and the paper-shelled. In the hard shell the outer pericarp wall is thick and plentifully provided with stone cells. In the paper-shelled this outer pericarp layer is more fibrous and thinner. The inner walls of the shell are alike in the two; hard, made up of compact smooth layers of stone cells; between the two layers a more or less corky tissue is to be found, thickly interwoven with fibro-vascular bundles. Some stone cells may be found interspersed. ee a a. _- * ie PHYSOSTIGMA. CALABAR BEAN. 24I The almond itself consists of two cotyledons closely _appressed, surrounded by a thin brown layer of paren- -chymatic tissue, with numerous fine vessel bundles tamifying over the surface; this layer is readily removed by soaking the seed. Histology.—The outer” layer of cells, the endocarp, consists of a number of layers, the outer ones of which are brown, flattened. These are often irregular because of the fine vessels that pass into the tissue of the endocarp. Calcium oxalate crystal sacs are also found. The inner layers are made up of small colorless cells whose outer walls are somewhat swollen and form a sort of interlacing with the inner cells of the exocarp. The inner face of the endocarp is united but slightly with the cells of the cotyledons. The cotyledons consist of numerous parenchymatic cells which are smaller and more regular at the periphery and increase in size and irregularity toward the centre. The cells contain numerous oil globules and also aleurone grains. Starch is lacking. Chemistry.—Over one-half the weight of the seed consists of a clear yellowish oil, mild tasting, sp. gr. 0.920°. It consists for the main part of the glycerine ether of oleic acid, C,,H,,O0,, also probably a number of the fatty acids found in Linum. A small amount of sugar (glucose) is also found. This with mucilaginous ma- terials makes up about 7 per cent. PHYSOSTIGMA. CALABAR BEAN, Physostigma is the seed of Physostigma venenosum (Balfour), a member of the Papilionacee. It isaclimbing shrub, sometimes 16 m. high, a native of the delta of the Niger and the Guinea Coast. Cultivation has proved successful.’ A so-called Calabar Bean comes into European markets 16 242 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. which is closely similar to M ucuna cylindros perma, Welwitsch.* | The seeds, two or three in number, are contained in pods about 18cm. long. __ 7 Description. — Calabar beans are chocolatecealared and yous, , . a: =— SS — Baie staat Fic. 69.—PHYSOSTIGMA. ‘Cross-section of outer portion of physostigma seed: p, Palisade cells; ¢ (macrosclereids), sclereids of spongy portion; s, pigment layer; j, microsclereids; a, outer seed coat with small vessels; 1, inner seed coat; c, cotyledon (Tschirch). 2.5 cm. long, 2:°cm. broad and. 1.5-cm: thick. In shape they are oblong-reniform, one side being flat or slightly convex and the other well curved. Along * Holmes: Ph. Jour., ix, 1879, 913. PHYSOSTIGMA. CALABAR BEAN. 243 nearly the entire length of the curved side, and passing completely around one end of the seed, runs a broad, deep groove, the lips of which are thickened and paler in color and the bottom of which is black and bears a dis- tinct brown furrow in the centre. In this hilum there are frequently portions of a white papery funiculus. At one end the micropyle can be detected as a minute de- pression. | Histology.—On cross-section near the chalaza four dis- tinct tissues can be made out. The external layer consists of closely appressed cylindri- cal cells with small lumen. These are one layer thick and have a palisade arrangement. Externally the ends are square, internally rounded and passing into the second row of tangentially arranged cells. These are more irregular and have thick walls and brownish cell contents. A number of air spaces are found in this layer. The third layer consists of much more irregularly ar- ranged cells. The last layer consists of flattened, dark- brown, tangentially arranged, thin-walled cells, under which the parenchyma of the cotyledons is found. This is made up of large cells, the outer layers being smaller and more regularly arranged. The cells contain large amounts of starch and a number of protein granules. The starch is ample and consists of large, elliptical grains with irregular hilum, and by polarized light shows curved lines similar to those found in papilionaceous starches. Chemistry.—Taste and smell are similar to those of other members of the.bean family. Starch, 40 to 50 per cent.; proteids, 23 per cent.; 3 per cent. ash; mucilage. The most important constituent is the alkaloid phy- sostigmine (eserine). Hesse proposed the formula C,,H,,N,0. _ Harnack and Witowski have isolated a second alkaloid, which they have called calabarine. This, they state, is allied to strychnine. The alkaloids are found in the 244 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. cotyledons only. Hesse also found: a cholesterin-like substance, physosterin. NUX VOMICA. Nux Vomica is the dried seed of Sirychnos Nux Vomica, L., asmall tree, indigenous to India and occurring also in Ceylon, Siam, and northern Australia. Description.—Dried Nux Vomica seeds are round or disk-shaped, and flattened but a little depressed on one side, and flattened on the other. They vary from 2 to 2.5 cm. in diameter and 0.33 to 0.5 cm. in thickness, and are grayish in color. A number of closely appressed hairs radiate from the centre to the circumference. The edge is rounded or acute and at one point there is a promi- nence, the micropyle. The hilum is in the centre, and may be recognized by the scar left by the funicle. The seeds are almost odorless, but have an intense bitter taste. Histology.—A thin epidermis covers the entirely gray endosperm. | The epidermis cells are thick-walled, deeply pored, side walls swollen. Each epidermis cell has a long, free papillose round-pointed hair, 1 mm. long, sharply inclined. Beneath the epidermis there are a number of large cells with dark-brown walls. : On the outer surface of the endosperm is a layer of small cells whose side walls are perpendicular to the surface. These walls swell but slightly in water. The layers immediately beneath swell markedly on being placed in water. The layer of cellulose immediately surrounding the lumen is apt to be more highly refractive than the sur- rounding layers. The membrane of the cells is completely perforated by a few fine punctures. The membranes show the reaction of cellulose. In the interior of the endosperm cells are aleurone grains with crystalloids very ae NUX VOMICA. 245 variable in size and quantity and some fatty oils. The cells of the embryo are parenchymatic, have at times a few spiral vessels and cell contents of aleurone grains and fat. Fic. 70.—SectTion or Nux Vomica Seep. Showing 7, the thick-walled cells of the seed; EZ, the elongated cells beneath the long hairs; s, sheath beneath hairs. Chemistry.— About equal amounts of strychnine and brucine, 0.23 to 5.3 per cent. Loganin, tannic acid, 40 _ per cent. fat. Palmitin, caprin, and caprons. Butyric acid, alkaloid in the endosperm. Not definitely known 246 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. whether to be found in the cell wall or in the proto- plasm of endoderm cells. | Probably in protoplasm (Mayer). Igasurine probably does not exist. IGNATIA. The seeds of Strychnos Ignatia, Bergius, a stout climb- ing plant indigenous to the southern Philippine Islands. Description.—Dried ignatia beans vary considerably in size, and are of dull grayish color and. irregular ovoid outline. In general they are 2.5 cm. long and somewhat less broad and thick. Frequently there is one large, curved side seed and three or four smaller, flatter surfaces, but some seeds are altogether irregular. The hilum is generally readily seen and sometimes there are remnants of the seed-coat covering the horny surface. Hstology.—When soaked in warm water, the large endosperm can be divided into two portions, enclosing between them a cavity in which lies the embryo, with its small radicle and leafy cotyledons. The cells resemble those of nux vomica, but hairs are absent. Chemistry.—The constituents are those of nux vomica. SINAPIS. MUSTARD. Sinapis is the seed of Szuapis nigra, L., a member of the — nat. ord. Crucifere, now cosmopolitan. Description.—The seeds are small, about 1.5 mm. in diameter, spherical, slightly umbilicated, and of a dark-brown color. Under the magnifying glass the sur- face is finely reticular. 7 The powder is green. Histology.—The epidermis consists of colorless, hex- agonal, tubular cells, whose inner walls undergo the mucilaginous modification upon the addition of water. Just beneath this row of cells thére is a layer of palisade- like cells whose inner walls are thickened and deeply ~ neti - oo ee ae ee ee a ee a ee SINAPIS. MUSTARD. 247 colored from about half-way down, the outer walls remaining thin and colorless or light yellow. Fic. 71.—BLack MUSTARD. I, Stone cells of the walls of the seed, shown sidewise, Ps, and on end, Ps.fl. II, Epidermis cells on surface view. III, Pigment layer. IV, Aleurone layer (Vogl). Beneath the palisade there follows a single row of tan- gentially arranged thick-walled cells, colored dark brown. 248 PLANT ORGANS OR PARTS OF PLANTS. Beneath this a zone of colorless cells filled with aleurone grains and oil, and finally a many rowed layer of empty compressed cells. Fic. 72.—WHuHITE MustarpD (SINAPIS ALBA). I, Part of testa: Gr, large cells; Ps, palisade cells; pg, pigment layer; Al, aleurone layer; S, hyaline layer. II, Isolated cells of sclereid layer. III, Sclereid layer seen from surface. IV, Aleurone layer. V, Epidermis. VI, Large cells from above. VII, Fragments of large cells in powder. VIII, Tissue from cotyledon (Vogl). The cotyledons consist of a regular thin-walled par- enchymatic tissue whose outer layers are thicker walled . and smaller. PEAS AND BEANS. 249 The contents are proteid granules and oil globules. Chemistry.—Mustard contains 33 per cent. fatty oil, about 18 per cent. proteid, 19 per cent. mucilage, and 4 to 6 per cent. ash, a glycoside, sinigrin, and a ferment, myrosin, whose interaction in the presence of water yields the volatile oil of mustard (allyl sulphocyanate). PEAS AND BEANS. A knowledge of the structure of the seeds of the pea and the bean is of great service to the student of phar- macognosy, as these two seeds enter so largely into the manufacture of so many products. The pea is the seed of Pisum sativum, L., a universally cultivated plant. Nat. ord. Leguminosee. Histology.—On the outside of the pea there is a thin epidermis which is palisade-like in structure, the cells _ being about 10 to 15 microns in diameter and 50 to 60 microns long. The walls are irregularly thickened and are not lignified. The lumens of the epidermal cells are very irregular. They are almost occluded by the thick- ening of the cell wall in the middle of the cells; below the lumen widens out perceptibly. Beneath the epi- dermis a row of thin-walled irregularly quadrate cells, the hypodermis, is found. These cells are about 35 microns in diameter, and have a somewhat dumb-bell form. The remainder of the seed is formed of paren- chyma largely filled with starch and with aleurone grains. Tissues about the hilum show a slight thickening of the cell walls, forming a double layer of palisade cells, and certain elongated elements resembling tracheids may be found. The cells of the cotyledon epidermis are isodiametric, contain aleurone grains, while the main body of the ' cotyledons is made up of large parenchymatic cells, * Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs und Genussmittel. 250 PLANT ORGANS AND PARTS OF PLANTS. COMPARISON OF PEA, BEAN, AND LENTIL. PARENCHYMA PALISADE EPI- HYPODERMIS. OF COTYLE- STARCH. DERMIS. Gomes Pea. ..|75 to 110 microns|Delicate goblet, | Moderately 15 to 51 microns, ir- long (average! beaker or dumb-| thick-walled} regular in shape, 90), not conical| bell-shaped cells| cells, 3 mi-| with many pro- toward cuticle;| whose inner walls| crons, pit-| tuberances; reni- inner cell wallir-| are somewhat] ted;cell wall| form and _ bean- regular; lumen! thicker thanouter;} smooth or} shaped forms, few wide near the in-} large intercellular; minutely} elliptical. Hilum ner wall, con-| spaces between; beaded in| in many absent as tracting in cen-| cells at side (radial| cross-section.| fissure; distinctly tre, and widen-| diameter 30 to 36 annulated. ing externally. microns, transverse 36 to 45 microns), rather thick walls with cleft pores, no crystals. Bean ..|30 to 60 microns! Cross-section four-| Thick-walled | Distinctly elliptical, long; not conical| sided, without in-| cells with| up to 57 microns; at cuticle; wall| tercellular spaces! .large pores,| kidney- and bean- smooth within;|} (radial diameter15| wallsat least! shaped with long lumen wide atin-| to3omicrons,trans-| 5 microns cleft hilum. An- ner side, occlud-| verse 15 to 25 mi-| thick and| nulations marked. ed soon to peri-| crons), thickened| coarsely phery. at the sides and| beaded in containing crystals} cross-section.| of calcium oxalate (6 microns). Lentil .|45 microns long,| Compressed dumb-} Thin-walled g to 45 microns, re- witha short coni- cal projection at cuticle ; inner wall smooth; lu- men wide, con- tracting toward outer wall. bell or hourglass- shaped, often ir- regular, seldom elongated, with in- tercellular spaces and cleft pores (ra- dial diameter 9 to 24 microns, mostly 15 to 18 microns; transverse diam- eter 15 to 30 mi- crons), no crystals. cells which on cross-sec- tion are slightly or indistinctly pitted. sembling both bean and pea. grains; many with concen- tric markings, not as distinct as bean starch ; many with small unbranched fissured hilum, others no fissure. filled with starch grains. The starch grains are very irregular, but are elongated oval, with lacerate elongated hilum. They average 20 to 40 microns in ’/short and long diameters. The seed of the bean resembles that of the pea very closely, but differs in a few important particulars. The epidermal cells are palisade-like, as in the pea, but the thickening of the cell walls is very characteristic. The entire lumen of the epidermal cells is occluded save at the base, where the walls become thinner. cells are also shorter (30 by 60 microns). The hypoderm The palisade eS ae eee oe ae —s . cells in profile; 6, on surface; 7, tissue of cotyledon. On PEAS AND BEANS. 251 Fic. 73.—BEAN. On right side of illustration: 1, The testa, showing epidermal cells, Ep; H, = yori with calcium oxalate crystals; P, parenchyma; 2, epidermis cells on surface; 3, 5, isolated palisade cells; 4, hypanaen eft side: 1-4, Portions of cotyledon structure; 5, tissue of the shell; 6, starch grains (Vogl). 252 PLANT ORGANS AND PARTS OF PLANTS. he: oi . x PEAY ai OWNS Me a Sak MOL? Beds *): i oe sy k , ees ! - ’ { fy, \ i eae | & \ ar 5.5 eda eS ee 0 at — AT .. = i wares ae \ Ne \\ = ~ r: a) \y uw. eo SS ARF oes" \ Saree - ae eet ee a ‘ a eet te 7 SS ria et zs b 7 Teor = eo ~ eras hie _ iar aris | oats = : ——— er | © Sy Se Yon QO Fic. 74.—PEa. On right side of illustration: I, Cross-section of testa; Ep, epider- mis; H, hypodermis; II, palisade cells on flat; III, isolated palisade cells; IV, hypoderm cells; V, epidermis in cotyledon leaves; V1, hypo- derm cells on flat; VII, cotyledon epidermis. On left side: 1-5, Cell won of cotyledons; II, starch; III, cotyledon parenchyma ogl). ae ee. ee Oy Re PEAS AND BEANS. 253 = aly smaller, about one-half the size of those - The starch grains are more distinctly oval 1 die 50 microns representing the longer et ba of the larger grains. The hilum is distinctly d and lacerate. e ta ie from Vogl* on page 250 shows the con- 63 22°58 Sele ies ars a % “e i ely 3 ¢ a oa ¢ i all agg hes hes vom oh tee Te ee Tab eeneore aes Pmt Yee 3 eae att ga pale. ‘ a se 2 e ike — eek 1 butyl, 42 di olefinic, 42 ethyl, 42 hexyl, 42 2 ) methyl, 42 St aa octyl, 42 atharid: papa ors of, 23 ole ‘ 42 hartic, 182 _ |. propyl, 42 \ rtini , 115 Aldehydes, 43 2 cinnamic, 43, 166 Alecoo antl 8 eppo S, o4 wormseed, 210 . Aleurone, 234 ic ; Alexandrian senna, 179 ‘mic, nitrile of, 24 wormseed, 210 ou entisi , 117 Alhagi Maurorum, 26 _glycosido-gummi Aliphatic hydrocarbons, 41 ruaiac, Allyl sulphocyanate, 249 Almond, hard-shell, 240 oil, 241 paper-shell, 240 sweet, 240 ’ Alstonia scholaris bark, 173 Ammoniac, 70 Ammoniacum, 70 | amy gdaloides, 70 ; lump, 70 he Amygdalin, 176 Amygdaloid asafcetida, 67 Amy us communis, 240 dulcis, 240 Amylodextrin, 76 Anacardi der of, 172 Anatanine: 173 255 256 Anhydride of cantharidic acid, 23 Animal drugs, 20 Animi, 54 Antirrhinic acid, 186 Apiol, 43 Apis mellifica, 28 Aporetin, 115 Apricot gum, 32 Arabins, 30 gums, 31 insoluble, 30 Aromatic alcohols, 43 hydrocarbons, 41 Aromatics, 38 Artemisia pauciflora, 210 Artificial camphor, 42 Asafoetida, 65 amygdaloid, 67 formula of, 47 lump, 67 stony, 67 tear, 67 Asaresinotannol, 68 Aspidium, 119 Filix mas, 119 powder, 122 Assimilated starch, 76 Astragalus adscendens, 26 gummifer, 35 Atropa belladonna, 97, 187 Atropine, tor, 189 | Atrosin, ror B-CONICEINE, 237 B resin, 58 Balsams, 37, 45 Canada, 45 complexity of, 47 copaiba, 63 adulterations, 65 Peru, formula, 47 Barks, 155 alstonia scholaris, 173 angostura, 170 definition, 155 epidermis of, 156 sassafras, 176 soap, 169 sternostomum acutatum, 173 Strychnos Nux vomica, 173 wild cherry, 175 Barosma betulina, 203 crenulata, 203 serratifolia, 204 Bassora gum, 32 Bassorin, 30, 31 gums, 32 INDEX. Bast fibres of barks, 155 Beans, 249 peas, and lentils, comparison of, 250 Beet sugar, 27 | Beetles, blistering, 22 Brazilian, 24 potato, Colorado, 23 Belladonna, 187 powder, 98, 189 root, 97 Belladonnine, tor, 189 Belly benzoin, 61 Bengal turmeric, 136 Benzaldehyde, 43 Benzoin, 61 belly, 61 foot, 61 head, 61 Penang, 62 Siam, 62 Styrax, 61 Sumatra, 61 Benzoinum, 61 Benzoresinol, 63 ester, cinnamic acid, 63 Benzyl alcohol, 43 Beta coniceine, 237 resin, guaiac, 60 Vulgaris, 26 Bitter fennel, 237 Black haw, 174 mustard, 246 pepper, 232 Blistering beetles, Brazilian, 24 Bohemian galls, 87 Bombay mastiche, 59 Bonplandia trifoliata, 171 Borneol, 43 camphor, 43 Brazilian angostura, 173 blistering beetles, 24 Buchu, 203 adulterations, 204 oil, 205 powder, 204 Bulbs, 138 Butyl alcohol, 42 ; CADINENE, 42, 70 Calabar bean, 241 Calabarine, 243 Calamine, 126 Calamus, 124 oil, 126 Callitris quadrivalvis, 56 Callitrol acid, 57 Se a See 2 i i i i tn pee ia tae te le, ee oe > ae % ; § — INDEX. 257 Camellia thea, 205 perenne, 42 Camphor, 43, 48 ‘fcial Canada balsam, 45 Canadian turpentine, 51 Cane sugar, 26 Cannabin, 222 Cannabinine, 222 * Cannabis indica, 218 sativa, 218 Cantharides, 22 adulterations, 23 Cantharidic acid, anhydride of, 23 Cantharidin, 23 Cantharis, 22 adulterations, 23 vesicatoria, 22 » 157 Cassia acutifolia, 179 angustifolia, 179 cinnamon, 160 _Cassienzimmt, 160 insect flower, 214 Cellulose, starch, 76 Cephelis Ipecacuanha, 105 » 30 gums, 31 Cetraria, 207 , 207 Cetraric acid, 208, 209 Cetrarin, 209 Ceylon cinnamon, 160 Chagnal gum, 32 Cherry bark, wild, 175 gums, 32, 34 17 Chinese cinnamon, 160 flies, 24 galls, 85 ginger, 132 rhubarb, 111 ig ania 135 ios turpentine, Chittem bark, 1 ah, Choline, 126 Chondrus, 209 crispus, 209 Chrysanthemum, 214 carneum, 214 cinerariefolium, 214 roseum, 214 Chrysophan, 11 Cicambyx moschata, 24 Cinnamic acid, 63, 166 benzoresinol ester, 63 suma resino tannol ester, 63 * aldehyde, 43, 166 Cinnamon, 159 Cassia, 160 Ceylon, 160 Chinese, 160 oil, 166 owder, 163 igon, 159 Cinnamomum aromaticum, 160 Camphora, 48 Cassia, 160 Saigonicum, 159 Zeylanicum, 160 Cinnamyl acetate, 166 Citral, 43 Citronellal, 43 Cloves, 223 il of, 228 powder, 225 Coca, 198 Huanuco, 199 wder, 199 ruxillo, 199 Cocaine, 201 Coccus mannipanis, 26 Cochin turmeric, 136 Cochlospermum gossypium, gum of, 32 OS, 32 Colchicum, 139 autumnale, 139 wder, 140 Colophonium, 51 Colorado potato beetle, 23 Commiphora Myrrha, 71 Conhydrine, 236, 237 Coniceine, 3-, 237 Y-, 237 258 Coniferez, 55 Conine, 236, 237 methyl, 236, 237 Conium, 234 maculatum, 234 Copaiba, 63 balsam, 63 adulterations, 65 oil, 65 Copaifera confertiflora, 64 coriaceze, 63 Guyanensis, 63 Langsdorffi, 63 multijuga, 64 oblongifolia, 64 officinalis, 63 Copaivic acid, 65: Copal, 54 Ancola, 54 kauri, 56 Manila, 55 Mozambique, 54 South American, 55 West African, 55 Zanzibar, 54 Cortex angosture, 170 cinnamomi, 159 granati, 166 pruni virginiane, 175 Quillajz, 169 rhamni purshiane, 157 sassafras, 176 viburni prunifolii, 174 Cowrie, 56 oh Creosol, 60 Cryptogams, vascular, 118 Cubeba, 228 Cubebin, 232 Cubebs, 228 ‘ oil, 232 powder, 230 Curcuma, 135 longa, 135 rotunda, 135 Curcumin, 138 Cusparin, 173 Cusparia febrifuga, 170 Cusso, 212 powder, 213 Cynips galle tinctoria, 83 Hungarica, 86 . _ Kallari, 87 leguicola, 86 D-PINENE, 70 Daisy, Hungarian, 217 Russian, 217 INDEX. Dalmatian insect flower, 214 Dammar, 52 Dammara Australis, 56 officinalis, 52 orientalis, 55 ovata; 56 ‘Dermatogen, 156 Dextrose, 28 Di olefinic alcohol, 42 Dicotyledons, 118 Digitalein, 186 Digitalic acid, 186 Digitalin, 186 Digitalin-resin, 186, 187 Digitalis, 182 adulterations, 185 powder, 184 purpurea, 182 Digitalosium, 186 Digitonin, 186 Digitoxin, 186 Dioscamphor, 205 Diosium, 205 Diosphenol, 205 Dipterocarpee, 55 Dorema Ammoniacum, 70 Doryphora, 23 Dragon leech, 22 Drugs, animal, 20 organic, classification, 19 vegetable, with organic struc- ture, 75 without organic structure, 25 Dryopteris Filix mas, 40, 119 marginalis, 119, 121 Ducts of vessels of woods, 147 East Indian ginger, 132 Emetine, 110 Emodin, 115 Empleurum serrulatum, 204 Epicauta adspersa, 24 Erythroretin, 115 | - Erythroxylon, 198 coca, 198 Esembekia febrifuga, 173 Eserine, 243 - Ether of oleic acid, 241 Ethyl alcohol, 42 Eucalypten, 203 Eucalyptol, 203 Eucalyptolen, 203 Eucalyptus, 201 globulus, 201 oil, 203 powder, 203 ae alum, 237 237 Y-CONICEINE, 2 Galactose, 28 as oil of, 70 INDEX. Galbaresinotannol, 69 Gali Cusparia, 170 -coniceine, 237 egos 6. See powder, 117 ae Gentiana lutea, 115 pannonica, 115 punctata, 115 German digitalin, 186 fennel, 237 pore nin, 117 ve ycosido-gummic acids, 30 Glycyrrhiza glabra, 1o1 : pe 0 bare 101 ered, 104, 10 Gtvepectiaht 105" , Granulose, 76 _ acid, adulterations, 60 resin, 60 260 INDEX. Guibourtia copallifera, 54 Gum, 29 acacia, 32 Anacardium, 31 apricot, 32 arabic, 32 adulterations, 34 arabin, 31 Bassora, 32 bassorin, 32 Cape, 34 Caramanca, 37 cerasin, 31 chagnal, 32 cherry, 32, 34 Cochlospermum gossypium, 32 Jesire, 34 kuter, 32 mandel, 32 mesquit, 35 Moringa, 32 Moussul, 37 origin, 31 peach, 32 plum, 32, 34 prune, 32 resins, 37, 45 Talca, 34 Senaar, 34 Souakim, 34 South African, 34° tragacanth, 32, 35 adulterations, 37 watery solutions, 30 H2MATIN, 153 Hematoxylin, 153 Hematoxylon, 152 Campechianum, 152 Hagenia Abyssinica, 212 Hard resins, 45 Hard-shell almond, 240 Haw, black, 174 Head benzoin, 61 Hemiterpene, 42 Hemlock, 234 fruit, 236 leaf, 235 Hemp, Indian, 218 powder of, 220 Heptane, 41 Herbs, 207 Hexose, 29 Hexyl alcohol, 42 Hilium of starch grain, 75, 76 Hirudo, 20 medicinalis, 20, 22 . Hirudo officinalis, 22 troctina, 22 Homoptercocarpin, 154 Honduras sarsaparilla, 91 microscopic appearance, 94 powdered, 95 Honey, 28 Horizontal rhizomes, 117 Huanuco coca, 199 Humulene, 42 Humulus Lupulus, 80 Hungarian daisy, 217 galls, 86 Hydrocarbons, 41 aliphatic, 41 aromatic, 41 Hygrine, 201 Hymeneza, 54 Courbarii, 55 Hyoscine, 192 Hyoscyamine, 189, 192 Hyoscyamus, 189 niger, 189 powder, 191 ICELAND moss, 207 Icica, 55 Ignatia, 246 Imperial tea, 207 Indian fennel, 237 ‘hemp, 218 powder of, 220 myrrh, 73 senna, 179 Inosite, 186 Insect flowers, 214 adulterations, 217 Caucasian, 214 Dalmatian, 214 Persian, 214 powder of, 216 Inula conyza, 185 Invert sugar, 27 Ionidium Ipecacuanha, 110 Ipecac, 105 Carthagena, 105 powder of, 107 Rio, 105 striated, 110 undulated, 110 white, r10 Ipecacuanhic acid, 110 Ipomoea Jalapa, 144 Irish moss, 209 Isopelletierin, 169 Isorottlerin, 83 Italian fennel, 237 TOE LL a ee JABORANDIS, Pernambuco, 192 INDEX. 261 Logwood, 152 powder, 153 _ sarsaparilla, 91 microscopic characteristics, sr 295 ; ginger, 132 Japan ‘Sergei 43, 48 + 95 ava turmeric, 136 esire gum, 34 gray, 20, 22 green, 22 Lentils, oa and beans, com- parison of, 250 Levant ornisted, 210 powder, 211 Lichen starch, 208, 209 Lichenin, 208, 209 Lichen-stearic acid, 208, 209 Licorice root, 101 Long turmeric, 13 Lubriform fibres 3? woods, 148 Lupulinum, 80 Lycopodium, 80 adulterations, 80 clavatum, 80 Lytta, 23 MapRas turmeric, 136 Male-fern, 40, 119 Mallotus Philippinensis, 83 Mandel, 61 gum, 32 Manila copal, 55 Manitoba Senega, 110 Manna, 25 fat, 26 flake, 25, 26 lump, 25 sorts, 25 tear, 25 Mannite, 26 Mastiche, 58 adulterations, 59 Bombay, 59 Chios, 59 Materia medica, definition, 17 Mel, 28 Mentha hirsuta, 194 iperita, 194 Menthol, 43, 198 Menthon, 198 Mesquit gum, 35 Meta-arabic acid, 30 Metacopaivic acid, 65 Methyl alcohol, 42 conine, 236, 23 Methyl-pelletierin, 169 Mexican sarsaparilla, 91 microscopic characteristics, 95 Milk sugar, 28 Minnesota Senega, r1o Monocotyledons, 118 Moringa gums, 32 Moss, Iceland, 207 Irish, 20 Mother resin, 68 Moussul gum, 37 Mozambique copal, 54 Mucic acid, 210 Mucilages, 29 262 . INDEX. Mucuna cylindrosperma, 242 Mustard, 246 black, 246 oil, 249 nitrogen compounds from, 43 sulphur compounds from, 43 white, 248 Mylabris, 23 cichorii, 24 phalerata, 24 Myrica, 41 Myrosin, 249 Myrrh, 71 African, 73 Indian, 73 : Turkish, 73 .Myrrha, 71 Myrrhol, 73 NeEPHRODIUM Filix mas, 119 Nitrile of formic acid, 44 Nitrogen compounds from mus- tard oil, 43 Nux vomica, 244 OBLIQUE rhizomes, 118 Octyl alcohol, 42 Oils, 37 almond, 241 buchu, 205 calamus, 126 cinnamon, 166 cloves, 228 copaiba, 65 cubebs, 232 eucalyptus, 203 fennel, 239 galbanum, 70 mustard, 249 nitrogen compounds from, 43 suphe compounds from, 43 sassafras, 176 volatile, 38 Olefin alcohols, 42 Oleic acid, ether of, 241 Oleoresins, 37 Ordinary resins, 45 Organic drugs, classification, 19 Oxycannabin, 222 Oxycopaivic acid, 65 PAPER-SHELL almond, 240 Para sarsaparilla, 91 microscopic characteristics, 94 Paraffine, 41 Parenchyma of woods, 148 Parillin, 97 Peach gum, 32 Peas, 249 beans, and lentils, comparison of, 250 Pelletierin, 169 Penang benzoin, 62 Pentose, 29 Pepper, 232 black, 232 Peppermint, 194 powder, 196 Periblem, 156 . Pernambuco jaborandis, 192 Persian insect flower, 214 Peucedanum albacein, 65 Pheoretin, 115 Pharmacodynamics, 17 Pharmacognosy, definition, 17 history, 18 Pharmacology, definition, 17 Pharmacy, definition, 17 Phellandrene, 42 Physosterin, 244 Physostigma, 241 venenosum, 241 Physostigmine, 243 Picreena excelsa, 149 Picro-podophyllin, 131 Picro-podophyllinic acid, 131 Pilocarpine, 194 Pilocarpus, 192 jaborandi, 192 powder, 193 selloanus, 192 Pinene, 42 D-, 70 Pinus palustris, 49, 52 Teda, 49 Piper, 232 cubeba, 228 nigrum, 232 Piperin, 234 Pistacia lentiscus, 58 Terebinthine, 59 Pisum sativum, 249 ‘Pits of woods, 147 Plant organs, 88 parts of, 88 Plerome, 156 Plum gum, 32, 34 Podophyllin; 131 Podophyllinic acid, 131 Podophyllodtiercetin, 131 Podophyllotoxin, 131 Podophyllum, 126 . _ . Par Bors ag aE Pi ee eS ae ee oe a eo ee ne ara alte Podophyllum peltatum, 126 Pomegranate, 166 Pores of woods, 147 Potato beetle, Colorado, 23 Powdered substances, 75 _ Propyl alcohol, 42 amara, 149 INDEX. 263 Resins, 37, 44, 5! B, 58 complexity of, 46 Quaiac, 59 beta, 60 gum, 37, 45 hard, 45 kauri, 56 mother, 68 ordinary, 45 X, 58 Rhamnus Purshiana, 157 Rheotannic acid, 115 Rhizomes, 117 horizontal, 117 oblique, 118 of dicotyledons, 118 of monocotyledons, 118 of vascular cryptogams, 118 vertical, 118 Rhubarb, 111 ’ Chinese, 111 powder of, 113 ‘Rhus semialata, 85 Richardsonia scabra, 110 Rio ipecac, 105 jaborandis, 192 Roman fennel, 237 Roots, 88 belladonna, 97 — licorice, 1o1 structure of, general, 88 primary, 88 secondary, 89 Rosin, 51 Rottlerin, 83 Round turmeric, 135 Rumex officinale, 111 Russian daisy, 217 SACCHARUM, 26 lactis, 28 officinarum, 26 uveum, 27 Saigon cinnamon, 159 Saigonzimmt, 159 Salix fragilis, 2 Sandarac, 56 Sandaracol acid, 57 Santal, 154 Santalic acid, 154 Santalin, 154 Santalum rubrum, 153 Santonica, 210 powder, 211 Santonin, 211 264 Sapogenin, 170 Saponin, 97, 169, 170 Sapotoxin, 170 Sarsaparilla, go Honduras, 91 microscopic characteristics, O4 powdered, 95 Jamaica, 91 microscopic characteristics, 95 ; Mexican, g1 microscopic characteristics, 95 Para, 91 microscopic characteristics, 94 separating varieties, 93 Sassafras bark, 176 officinale, 176 oil, 176 variifolia, 176 Saxon fennel, 237 Schultze’s maceration fluid, 149 Seeds, 240 Senaar gum, 34 Senega, 110 Manitoba, 110 Minnesota, 110 Senegin, 111 Senna, 179 Alexandrian, 179 Indian, 179 owder, 180 innevelly, 179 Sennapicrin, 182 Sesqui-terpenes, 42 Siam benzoin, 62 Simple parenchyma, 148 Sinapis, 246 alba, 248 nigra, 246 Sinigrin, 249 Sitaris, 23 Smilax medica, go officinalis, go ' papyracea, go Soap bark, 169 Soft resins, 45 Sorghum, 26 Souakim gum, 34 South African gum, 34 American copal, 55 Spanish flies, 22 - adulterations, 23 Spices, 38 Squill, 138 powder, 139 INDEX. Starch, 75 assimilated, 76 cellulose, 76 examination for, 77 grains, 75, 76 hilum of, 75, 76 lichen, 208, 209 reserve, 76 Sternostomum acutatum bark, 173 Stony asafcetida, 67 Storax, 73 Striated ipecac, 110 Strychnos Ignatia, 246 Nux vomica, 244 bark, 173 differentiation from ango-_ stura bark, 173 Styrax Benzoin, 61 Styrene, 41 Sugar, 25, 26 beet, 27 cane, 26 ape, 27 inven 27 milk, 28 Sulphur compounds from mus- tard oil, 43 Suma resino tannol ester, cin- namic acid, 63 Sumatra benzoin, 61 Surinam quassia, 149, 150, 151 Sweet almond, 240 exudates, 25 fennel, 237 Symphytum officinale, 185 7 TALCA gum, 34 Tamarisk Gallica, 26 Tannols, 45 Tea, 205 Imperial, 207 Terebinthina, 49 Canadensis, 51 communis, 49 Venetia, 50 Terpenes, 41 Terpineol, 43 Thuyone, 43 Thymol, 43 Tiglin aldehyde, 60 Tinnevelly senna, 179 Tracheids of woods, 147 Trachylobium, 55 mossambicense, 54 Tragacanth gum, 32, 35 adulterations, 37 we ree Se - ie 265 X RESIN, 58 . with organic | ZANZIBAR copal, 54 Zeylonzimmt, 160 structure, 25 page 131 ; cinale, 131 » 23 SAUNDERS’ BOOKS on Practice, Pharmacy, Materia Medica, Thera- peutics, Pharmacology, and the Allied Sciences W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY 925 WALNUT STREET PHILADELPHIA 9, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON SAUNDERS’ SUCCESSFUL PUBLISHING S is well-known, the lists of most publishers contain a number of books that have never paid, and for which the publisher will never get back the money invested. Messrs. W. B. Saunders Company would call attention to the fact that they have no such works on their list. In all the years of their business experience they have never ‘published a book at a loss. This they confidently consider a most remarkable record, and submit the fact to the attention of the profession as an example of what might justly be called “Successful Pub- ishing.” A Complete Catalogue of our Publications will be Sent upon Request The prices of all books bound in sheep or half morocco have been advanced FIFTY CENTS PER VOLUME over the prices herein listed, excepting Keen’s Surgery and Nothnagel’s Practice 2 SAUNDERS’ BOOKS ON AMERICAN EDITION NOTHNAGEL’S PRACTICE UNDER THE EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF ALFRED STENGEL, M.D. Professor of Clinical Medicine in the University of Pennsylvania; Visiting Physigian to the Pennsylvania Hospital. It is universally acknowledged that the Germans lead the world in Internal Medicine; and of all the German works on this subject, Nothnagel’s ‘‘Specielle Pathologie und Therapie” is conceded by scholars to be without question the best Practice BEST IN of Medicine in existence. So necessary is this book in the study of Internal Medicine that it comes largely to this country in the EXISTENCE original German. In view of these facts, Messrs. W. B. Saunders Company have arranged with the publishers of the German edition to issue at once an authorized American edition of this great Practice of Medicine. For the present a set of r2 volumes, selected with especial thought of the needs of the practising physician, will be published. These volumes will con- FOR THE tain the real essence of the entire work, and the purchaser will therefore obtain, at less than half the cost, the cream of the orig- PRACTITIONER inal, Later the special and more strictly scientific volumes will be offered from time to time. The work will be translated by men possessing thorough knowledge of both English and German, and each volume will be edited by a prominent specialist. It will thus be brought thoroughly up to date, and the American edition will be more than a mere translation; for, in addition to the matter contaimed in the original, it will represent PROMINENT the very latest views of the leading American and English special- ists in the various departments of Internal Medicine. Moreover, SPECIALISTS as each volume will be revised to the date of its publication by the eminent editor, the objection that has heretofore existed to treatises published in a number of volumes will be obviated, since the subscriber will receive the com- pleted work while the earlier volumes are still fresh. The American publication of the entire work is under the editorial supervision of Dr. ALFRED STENGEL, who has selected the subjects . for the American Edition, and has chosen the editors of the different volumes, The usual method of publishers when issuing a publication of VOLUMES SOLD | this kind has been to require physicians to take the entire work. This seems to us in many cases to be undesirable. Therefore, in SEPARATELY purchasing this Practice physicians will be given the opportunity of subscribing for it in entirety; but any single volume or any number of volumes, each complete in itself, may be obtained by those who do not desire the complete series. This latter method offers to the purchaser many advantages which will be appreciated by those who do not care to subscribe for the entire work. Szdbscription. SEE NEXT TWO PAGES FOR LIST PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 3 AMERICAN EDITION NOTHNAGEL’S PRACTICE Per volume: Cloth, $5.00 net VOLUMES NOW READY Half Morocco, $6.00 net Typhoid and Typhus Fevers By Dr. H. CuRSCHMANN, of Leipsic. The entire volume edited, with additions, by WILLIAM OsLer, M. D., F. R. C. P., Regius Professor of Med- icine, Oxford University, Oxford, England. Octavo volume of 646 pages, - fully illustrated. Smallpox (including Vaccination), Varicella, Cholera Asiatica, Cholera Nostras, Erysipelas, Erysipeloid, Pertussis, and Hay Fever By Dr. H. IMMERMANN, of Basle ; Dr. TH. vON JURGENSEN, of Tiibingen ; Dr. C. LIEBERMEISTER, of Tiibingen; Dr..H. LeNnARTzZ, of Hamburg; and Dr. G. Sticker, of Giessen. The entire volume edited, with additions, by Sir J. W. Moore, M.D., F. R. C. P. 1., Professor of Practice, Royal Col- lege of Surgeons, Ireland. Octavo, 682 pages, illustrated. Diphtheria, Measles, Scarlet Fever, and Rétheln By WixuiAM P. Norturup, M. D., of New York, and Dr. Tu. von Jir- - GENSEN, of Tiibingen. The entire volume edited, with additions, by WILLIAM P. Norturup, M. D., Professor of Pediatrics, University and Bellevue Hos- pital Medical College, New York. Octavo, 672 pages, illustrated, including 24 full-page plates, 3 in colors. Diseases of the Bronchi, Diseases of the Pleura, and Inflam- mations of the Lungs 3 By Dr. F. A. HorrMann, of Leipsic ; Dr. O. Rosensacn, of Berlin; and Dr. F. Aurrecut, of Magdeburg. The entire volume edited, with additions, by Joun H. Musser, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, University of : Pennsylvania. Octavo, 1029 pages, illustrated, including 7 full-page colored lithographic plates. Diseases of the Pancreas, Suprarenals, and Liver By Dr. L. Oser, of Vienna; Dr. E. Neusser, of Vienna, and Drs. H. QuinckeE and G. Horre-Seyer, of Kiel. The entire volume edited, with additions, by ReGcinaLp H. Fritz, A. M., M. D., Hersey Professor of the Theory and Practice of Physic, Harvard University; and Freprrick A, PACKARD, M. D., Late Physician to the Pennsylvania and Children’s Hos- pitals. Octavo of 918 pages, illustrated. Diseases of the Stomach By Dr. F. Riecet, of Giessen. Edited, with additions, by Cuar.es G, STocKTON, M. D., Professor of Medicine, University of Buffalo. Octavo of ' 835 pages, with 29 text-cuts and 6 full-page plates. Diseases of the Intestines and Peritoneum By Dr. HERMANN NOTHNAGEL, of Vienna. The entire volume edited, with additions, by H. D. Rotteston, M. D., F. R. C. P., Physician to St. George's Hospital, London. Octavo of 1050 pages, finely illustrated. 4 SAUNDERS BOOKS ON AMERICAN EDITION | NoOTHNAGEL’ S PRACTICE Per volume : Cloth, $5.00 net VOLUMES NOW READY Half Morocco, $6.00 net Tuberculosis and Acute General Miliary Tuberculosis By Dr. G. Cornet, of Berlin. Edited, with additions, by WALTER B. JAMEs, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Medicine, Columbia University, New York. Octavo of 806 pages. Diseases of the Blood (4emia, Chlorosis, Leukemia, and Pseudoleukemia) By Dr. P. EHRLICH, of Frankfort-on-the-Main ; Dr. A. LAzArus, of Char- lottenburg; Dr. K. VON NoorpeEN, of Frankfort-on-the-Main; and Dr. FELIX PINKUS, of Berlin. The entire volume edited, with additions, by ALFRED STENGEL, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, University of Pennsylvania. Octavo of 714 pages, with text-cuts and 13 full-page plates, 5 in colors. Malarial Diseases, Influenza, and Dengue By Dr. J. MANNABERG, of Vienna, and Dr. O. LEICHTENSTERN, of Cologne. The entire volume edited, with additions, by RONALD Ross, F. R. C. S. (ENG.), F. R. S., Professor of Tropical Medicine, University of Liverpool ; J. W. W. STEPHENS, M. D., D. P. H., Walter Myers Lecturer on Tropical Medicine, University of Liverpool : a6 ALBERT S. GRUNBAUM, F. R. C. P., Professor of Experimental Medicine, University of Liverpool. Octavo of 769 pages, illustrated. Diseases of Kidneys and Spleen, and Hemorrhagic Diatheses By Dr. H. SENATOR, of Berlin, and Dr. M. LITTEN, of Berlin. The entire volume edited, with additions, by JAMES B. HERRICK, M. D., Professor of the Practice of Medicine, Rush Medical College. Octavo of 815 pages, illust. Diseases of the Heart }3y Pror. Dr. L. VON SCHROTTER, of Vienna : PRoF. Dr. TH. VON JuR- GENSEN, of Tiibingen ; Pror. Dr. L. KREHL, of Greifswald : and Pror. Dr. H. VIERORDT, of Tiibingen. The entire volume edited, with additions, by GEORGE Dock, M.D., Professor of Theory and Practice of Medicine and Clinical Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Octavo of about 1000 pages, with 72 text illustrations and 6 colored plates. SOME PRESS OPINIONS London Lancet ( 7yphotd volume) ‘We welcome the translation into English of this excellent practice of medicine. The first‘:volume contains a vast amount of useful information, and the forthcoming volumes are awaited with interest.” Journal American Medical Association ( 7iberculosis volume) ‘We know of no single treatise covering the subject so thoroughly in all its aspects as this great German work... . It is one of the most exhaustive, practical, and satisfactory works on the subject of tuberculosis.” Medical News, New York (Z7ver volume) ‘Leaves nothing to be desired in the way of completeness of information, orderly arrange- ment of the text, thoroughgoing up-to-dateness, handiness for reference, and exhaustive dis- cussion of the subjects treated.” EACH VOLUME IS COMPLETE IN ITSELF AND IS SOLD SEPARATELY —<—- THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE . Anders’ Practice of Medicine Recently Issued—New (7th) Edition A Text-Book of the Practice of Medicine. By James M. ANpERs, M. D., Pu. D., LL. D., Professor of the Practice of Medicine and of Clinical Medicine, Medico-Chirurgical College, Philadelphia. Hand- some octavo, 1297 pages, fully illustrated. Cloth, $5.50 net; Sheep or Half Morocco, $6.50 net. OVER 27,000 COPIES SOLD The success of this work as a text-book and as a practical guide for physi- cians has been truly phenomenal, it now having reached its seventh edition. This success is no doubt due to the extensive consideration given to Diagnosis and Treatment, Differential Diagnosis being dealt with under separate headings, and the points of distinction of simulating diseases presented in tabular form. — Among the new subjects added are Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, Splanchnop- tosis, Cammidge’s Test for Glycerose, Myasthenia Gravis, Pseudotuberculosis, Benign Cirrhosis of the Stomach, Intestinal Lithiasia, Intestinal Calculi, Red Light in Variola, Emulsion-albuminuria, and Adams-Stokes' Syndrome. Im- portant additions have also been made to diseases which prevail principally in tropical countries. PERSONAL OPINIONS James C. Wilson, M. D., Professor of the Practice of Medicine and of Clinical Medicine, Jefferson Medical Collage Philadelphia. “Tt is an excellent book—concise, comprehensive, thorough, and up-to-date, It is a credit to you; but, more than that, it is a credit to the profession of Philadelphia—to us.” Wm. E. Quine, M. D. Professor of Medicine and Clinical Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago, “I consider Anders’ Practice one of the best single-volume works before the profession at _ this time, and one of the best text-books for medical students,” Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital “ The success of this work is well deserved, . . . The sections on treatment are excelent and add greatly to the value of this work. Dr. Anders is to be congratulated on the continued success of his text-book.” 6 SAUNDERS BOOKS ON Pusey and Caldwell on X-Rays in Therapeuticsand Diagnosis The Practical Application of the Rontgen Rays in Therapeutics and Diagnosis. By WiLLt1AM ALLEN Pusey, A. M., M.D., Professor of Dermatology in the University of Illinois; and EuGENE W. Ca.p- WELL, B.S., Director of the Edward N. Gibbs X-Ray Memorial Labo- ratory of the University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. Handsome octavo of 625 pages, with 200 illustrations, nearly all clinical. Cloth, $5.00 net; Sheep or Half Morocco, $6.00 net. RECENTLY ISSUED—NEW (2d) EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED TWO LARGE EDITIONS IN ONE YEAR Two large editions of this work within a year testify to its practical value to both the specialist and general practitioner. Throughout the work it has been the aim of the authors to clucidate the practical aspects of the subject, and to this end the text has been beautifully illustrated with clinical pictures, showing the condition before the use of the X-rays, at various stages of their application, and the final therapeutic result obtained. Details are also given regarding the use and management of the apparatus necessary for X-ray work, illustrating the descriptions with instructive photographs and drawings. In making the revision the histories of the cases cited have been brought down to the present time. OPINIONS OF THE MEDICAL PRESS British Journal of Dermatology ‘The most complete and up-to-date contribution on the subject of the therapeutic action of the R6ntgen rays which has been published in English.” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal ‘It is indispensable to those who use the X-rays as a therapeutic agent; and its illustrations are so numerous .. . that it becomes valuable to every one.” New York Medical Journal ‘We have nothing but praise for this volume, the combined work of two authors than whom no one is better fitted by training or experience to write in his individual field.” PRACTICE OF MEDICINE 7 Sahli’s Diagnostic Methods Editors: Francis P. Kinnicutt, M.D., and Nath’! Bowditch Potter, M.D. A Treatise on Diagnostic Methods of Examination. By Pror. Dr. H. Sanu, of Bern. Edited, with additions, by Francis P. Kinni- cutt, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Columbia University, N. Y.; and Natn’t Bowpitcu Porrer, M. D., Visiting Physician to the City and French Hospitals, N. Y. Octavo of 1008 pages, profusely illustrated. Cloth, $6.50 net; Half Morocco, $7.50 net. JUST READY Dr. Sahli's great work, upon its publication in German, was immediately recognized as the most important work in its field. Not only are all methods of examination for the purpose of diagnosis exhaustively considered, but the ex- planation of clinical phenomena is given and discussed from physiologic as well as pathologic points of view. In the chemical examination methods are described so exactly that it is possible for the clinician to work according to these directions, Lewellys F. Barker, M. D. Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine, Johns Hophins University “T am delighted with it, and it will be a pleasure to recommend it to our students in the Johns Hopkins Medical School.” Friedenwald and Ruhrah on Diet Diet in Health and Disease. By Jurivs Friepenwacp, M.D,, Clinical Professor of Diseases of the Stomach, and Joun Rvunran, M. D.., Clinical Professor of Diseases of Children, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Baltimore. Octavo of 728 pages. Cloth, $4.00 net, JUST ISSUED—NEW (2nd)EDITION This work contains a complete account of food-stuffs, their uses, and chemical composition. Dietetic management in all diseases in which diet plays a part in ‘treatment is carefully considered. The feeding of infants and children, of patients before and after anesthesia and surgical operations, and the latest methods of feeding after gastro-intestinal operations are all taken up in detail. George Dock, M. D. Professor of Theory and Practice and of Clinical Medicine, University of Michigan, * It seems to me that you have prepared the most valuable work of the kind now available, — I am especially glad to see the long list of analyses of different kinds of foods.” & SAUNDERS’ BOOKS ON Rolleston on the Liver Diseases of the Liver, Gall-bladder, and Bile-ducts. By H. D. Rotieston, M. D. (Cantras), F. R. C. P., Physician to St. George’s Hospital, London, England. Octavo volume of 794 pages, fully illus- trated, including a number in colors. Cloth, $6.00 net. ENTIRELY NEW—RECENTLY ISSUED This work covers the entire field of diseases of the liver, and is the most voluminous work on this subject in English. Dr. Rolleston has for many years past devoted his time exclusively to diseases of the digestive organs, and any- thing from his pen, therefore, is authoritative and practical. Special attention is given to pathology and treatment, the former being profusely illustrated. Medical Record, New York ‘The most extensive treatise on diseases of the liver yet published in English. . . . It re- flects an unusual degree of experience ina difficult but highly important branch of study.” Boston’s Clinical Diagnosis Clinical Diagnosis. By L. Naroteon Boston, M.D., Associate in Medicine and Director of the Clinical Laboratories, Medico-Chirurgi- cal College, Philadelphia. Octavo of 563 pages, with 330 illustrations, many in colors. Cloth, $4.00 net. RECENTLY ISSUED—NEW (2d) EDITION TWO EDITIONS IN ONE YEAR Dr. Boston here presents a practical manual of the clinical and laboratory examinations which furnish a guide to correct diagnosis, giving only such methods, however, which can be carried out by the busy practitioner in his office as well as by the student in the laboratory. In this new second edition the entire work has been carefully and thoroughly revised, incorporating all the newest advances. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal “He has produced a book which may be regarded eminently as a practical and service- able guide. . . . The illustrations are both numerous and good.” MATERIA MEDICA. 9 GET THE NEW THe Best American ei Illustrated Dictionary | Just Issued—New (4th) Edition The American Illustrated Medical Dictionary. A new and com- plete dictionary of the terms used in Medicine, Surgery, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and kindred branches; with over 100 new and elaborate tables and many handsome illustrations. By W. A. NEwMAN Dorvanp, M. D., Editor of “The.American Pocket Medical Diction- ary.” Large octavo, over 800 pages, bound in full flexible leather. Price, $4.50 net ; with thumb index, $5.00 net. WITH 2000 NEW TERMS The immediate success of this work is due to the special features that distin- guish it from other books of its kind. It gives a maximum of matter in a mini- mum space and at the lowest possible cost. Though it is practically unabridged, yet by the use of thin bible paper and flexible morocco binding it is only 1X inches thick. In this new edition the book has been thoroughly revised, and upward of two thousand new terms have been added. Howard A. Kelly, M. D., Professor of Gynecology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. “Dr. Dorland’s dictionary is admirable. It is so well gotten up and of such convenient size. No errors have been found in my use of it,” Goepp’s State Board Questions State Board Questions and Answers. By R. Max Goeprp, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Philadelphia Polyclinic. Octavo of 800 pages. READY SOON _ Every graduate who desires to practice medicine must pass a State Board Examination, and to aid him in successfuily passing such an examination this work will be of inestimable value. Dr. Goepp has taken great pains to collect the many questions asked in the past by Boards of the various States, and has arranged and classified them under subjects in such a manner that the prospective applicant can acquire the knowledge on any branch with the least difficulty. fo) SAUNDERS’ BOOKS ON Stevens’ Modern Therapeutics A Text-Book of Modern Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By A. A. Stevens, A. M., M.D., Lecturer on Physical Diagnosis in the University of Pennsylvania. Octavo of 670 pages. Cloth, $3.50 net. RECENTLY ISSUED—NEW (4th) EDITION Adapted to the New (1905) Pharmacopeia Dr. Stevens, by his extensive teaching experience, has acquired a clear, concise diction that adds greatly to his work’s pre-eminence. In this edition new articles have been added on Scopolamin, Ethyl Chlorid, Theocin, Veronal, and Radium, besides much new matter to the section on Radiotherapy. The numerous changes in name or strength of various drugs and preparations, as called for by the new Pharmacopeia, have also been made. The work includes the following sections: Physiologic Action of Drugs; Drugs; Remedial Measures other than Drugs ; Applied Therapeutics ; Incompatibility in Prescriptions ; Table of Doses; Index of Drugs; and Index of Diseases ; the treatment being eluci- dated by more than two hundred formule. - OPINIONS OF THE MEDICAL PRESS University Medical Magazine ‘The author has faithfully presented modern therapeutics in a comprehensive work... and it will be found a reliable guide and sufficiently comprehensive for the physician in practice.” Bristol Medico-Chirurgical Journal, Bristol ‘“This addition to the numerous works on Therapeutics is distinctly a good one... . It is to be recommended as being systematic, clear, concise, very fairly up to date, and carefully indexed.” Monro’s Manual of Medicine Reedley leeued Manual of Medicine. By THOMAS KIRKPATRICK Monro, M. A., M. D., Fellow of, and Examiner to, the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons, England ; Glasgow Physician to Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow, etc Octavo volume of go! pages, illustrated. Cloth, $5.00 net. a EEE —m&m<«m8£0£€ } THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. II Hatcher and Sollmann’s Materia Medica A Text-Book of Materia Medica: including Laboratory Exercises in the Histologic and Chemic Examination of Drugs. By Robert A. Hatcuer, Pu. G., M. D., of Cornell University Medical School, New York City ; and Toratp SoLi-Mann, M.D., of the Western Reserve Uni- versity, Cleveland, Ohio. 12mo of 411 pages. Flex. leather, $2.00 net. RECENTLY ISSUED—A NEW WORK This work is a practical text-book, treating the subject by actual experimenta] demonstrations. Journal of the American Medical Association “ The book is well written, the classifications are good, and the book is to be recommended as a practical guide in the laboratory study of materia medica.” Eichhorst’s Practice A Text-Book of the Practice of Medicine. By Dr. Hermann Eicuuorst, University of Zurich. Translated and edited by AuGus- tus A. Esuner, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Philadelphia Polyclinic. Two octavos of 600 pages each, with over 150 illustra- tions. Per set: Cloth, $6.00 net; Sheep or Half Morocco, $7.50 net. Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hospital “This book is an excellent one of its kind. Its completeness, yet brevity, the clinical methods, the excellent paragraphs on treatment and watering-places, will make it very desirable,” Bridge on Tuberculosis Tuberculosis. By Norman Brinoe, A. M., M.D., Emeritus Pro- fessor of Medicine in Rush Medical College, in affiliation with the University of Chicago. 12mo of 302 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net. Medical News, New York Thoroughly representative of our practical methods of diagnosis and treatment of the disease.” 12 SAUNDERS’ BOOKS ON Thornton’s Dose-Book Dose-Book and Manual of Prescription-Writing. By E. Q. THorn- Ton, M.D., Assistant Professor of Materia Medica, Jefferson Medical College, Phila. Post-octavo, 392 pages, illustrated. Flexible Leather, $2.00 net. Recently Issued—New (3d) Edition Dr. Thornton, in making this revision, has brought his book in accord with ‘a the new (1905) Pharmacopeia. Throughout the entire work numerous references have been introduced to the newer curative sera, organic extracts, synthetic com- pounds, and vegetable drugs. To the Appendix, chapters upon Synonyms and Poisons and their antidotes have been added, thus increasing its value as a book of reference. C. H. Miller, M. D., . Professor of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago. ‘*T will be able to make considerable use of that part of its contents relating to the correct terminology as used in prescription-writing, and it will afford me much pleasure to recommend the book to my classes, who often fail to find this information in their other text-books.” Lusk on Nutrition Elements of the Science of Nutrition. By GraHam Lusk, Pu.D., Professor of Physiology in the University and Bellevue Hospital Med- ical College. Octavo of 325 pages. Cloth, $2.50 net. JUST READY This practical work deals with the subject of nutrition from a scientific stand- point, and will be useful to the dietitian as well as the clinical physician. There are special chapters on the metabolism of diabetes and fever, and on purin metab- olism. Lewellys F. Barker, M.D., Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University. ‘“T shall recommend it highly. It is a comfort to have such a discussion of the subject.” Mathews’ How to Succeed in Practice How to Succeed in the Practice of Medicine. By JosrpH M. MatuHews, M.D., LL.D., President American Medical Association, 1898-’99. 12mo of 215 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net. THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 13 Gould and Pyle’s Curiosities of Medicine Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine. By GrorcE M. Goutp, M.D., and WattTer L. Pye, M.D. An encyclopedic collection of rare and extraordinary cases and of the most striking instances of abnormality in all branches of Medicine and Surgery, derived from an exhaustive research of medical literature from its origin to the present day, abstracted, classified, annotated, and indexed. Handsome octavo volume of 968 pages, 295 engravings, and 12 full-page plates. Popular Edition: Cloth, $3.00 net ; Sheep or Half Morocco, $4.00 net. As a complete and authoritative Book of Reference this work will be of value not only to members of the medical profession, but to all persons interested in general scientific, sociologic, and medicolegal topics ; in fact, the absence of any complete work upon the subject makes this volume one of the most important literary innovations of the day. The Lancet, London “The book is a monument of untiring energy, keen discrimination, and erudition. . . . We heartily recommend it to the profession.” Saunders’ Pocket Formulary Recently Issued—New (8th) Edition—Adapted to the New (1905) Pharmacopeia — Saunders’ Pocket Medical Formulary. By WiciAm M. Powe Lt, M. D., author of “ Essentials of Diseases of Children": Member of Philadelphia Pathological Society. Containing 1831 formulas from the best-known authorities. With an Appendix containing Posological Table, Formulas and Doses for Hypodermic Medication, Poisons and their Antidotes, Diameters of the Female Pelvis and Fetal Head, Obstetrical Table, Diet-list, Materials and Drugs used in Antiseptic Surgery, Treatment of Asphyxia from Drowning, Surgical Remem- brancer, Tables of Incompatibles, Eruptive Fevers, etc., etc. In flex- ible morocco, with side index, wallet, and flap. $1.75 net. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin “ Arranged in such a way as to make consultation of it as easy as possible. It is remark- able how much information the author has succeeded in getting into so small a book."’ 14 SAUNDERS BOOKS ON Sollmann’s Pharmacology Including Therapeutics, Materia Medica. Pharmacy, Prescription-writing, Toxicology, etc. A Text-Book of Pharmacology. By Toratp Sortmann, M.D., Professor of Pharmacology and Materia Medica, Medical Department of Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Handsome octavo volume of 1070 pages, fully illustrated. Cloth, $4.00 net. RECENTLY ISSUED—NEW (2d) EDITION Because of the radical alterations which have been made in the new (1905) | Pharmacopeia, it was found necessary to reset this. book entirely. The author bases the study of therapeutics on a systematic knowledge of the nature and properties of drugs, and thus brings: out forcibly the intimate relation between pharmacology and practical medicine. J. F. Fotheringham, M. D. Prof. of Therapeutics and Theory and Practice of Prescribing Trinity Med. College, Toronto. ‘“The work certainly occupies ground not covered in so concise, useful, and scientific a manner by any other text I have read on the subjects embraced.”’ Butler’s Materia Medica Therapeutics, and Pharmacology A Text-Book of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, and Pharmacology. By GeorcE F. Butter, Pu.G., M.D., Associate Professor of Thera- peutics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago. Revised by SMITH Ety JEeLuirFeE, M.D., Professor of Pharmacognosy, Columbia University. Octavo of 694 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $4.00 net; Half Morocco, $5.00 net. RECENTLY ISSUED—NEW (5th) EDITION Adapted to the New (1905) Pharmacopeia For this fifth edition Dr. Butler’s text-book has been entirely remodeled, re- written, and reset. All obsolete matter has been eliminated, and special atten- tion has been given to the toxicologic and therapeutic effects of the newer com- pounds. A classification has been adopted which groups together those drugs the predominant action of which is on one system of organs. Medical Record, New York ‘Nothing has been omitted by the author which, in his judgment, would add to the com- pleteness of the text, and the student or general reader is given the benefit of latest advices bearing upon the value of drugs and remedies considered.” oes RE tin shears apres PRACTICE, MATERIA MEDICA, Ete. 15 The American Pocket Medical Dictionary. 4th Ed. Recently Issued Tue AMERICAN Pocket MepicaL Dicrionary. Edited by W. A. NEWMAN Dor- LAND, M. D., Assistant Obstetrician to the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania. Containing the pronunciation and definition of the principal words used in medicine and kindred sciences, with 64 extensive tables. Flexible leather, with gold edges, $1.00 net; with thumb index, $1.25 net. “T can recommend it to our students without reserve.’’"—J. H, Holland. M. D., of the Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. _Vierordt’s Medical Diagnosis. Fourth Edition, Revised J Mepicat Diacnosis. By Dr. OswaLp VIERORDT, Professor of Medicine, Univer- sity of Heidelberg. Translated from the fifth enlarged German edition by FRANCIS H. Stuart, A. M., M: D. Octavo, 603 pages, 104 wood cuts. Cloth, $4.00 net; Sheep or Half Morocco, $5.00 net. “ Has been recognized as a practical work of the highest value. It may be considered indispensable both to students and practitioners.""—F. Minot, M. D., date 5 dem fi Theory and Practice in Cohen and Eshner’s Diagnosis. Second Revised Edition EssenTIALs OF DracGnosis. By S. Soits-CoHEN, M. D., Senior Assistant Professor in Clinical Medicine. Jefferson Medical College, Phila. ; and A. A. EsHner, M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Philadelphia Polyclinic. Post-octavo, 382 pages; 55 illustrations. Cloth, $1.00 net. /n Saunders’ Question-Comnipend Series. “Concise in the treatment of subject, terse in expression of fact.""—American Journal of the : 2 Recently Issued Morris’ Materia Medica and Therapeutics. New (7th) Edition EssSENTIALS OF MATERIA MEDICA, THERAPEUTICS, AND PRESCRIPTION-WRITING, By Henry Morris, M. D., late Demonstrator of Therapeutics, Jefferson Medical College, Phila. Revised by W. A. BAstTEpo, M. D., Instructor in Materia Medica and Pharmacology at Columbia University. 12mo, 300 pages. Cloth, $1.00 net. /n Saunders’ Question-Compend Series. “ Cannot fail to impress the mind and instinct in a lasting manner.’’"—Auffalo Medical Journal. Williams’ Practice of Medicine Recently Issued ESSENTIALS OF THE Practice OF Mepicine. By W. R. Wi LLiaAms, M.D., f Instructor in Medicine and Lecturer on Hygiene, Cornell University ; and Tutor in Therapeutics, Columbia University, N. Y. 12mo of 456 pages, illustrated. In Saunders’ Question-Compend Series. Double number, $1.75 net. Stoney’s Materia Medica for Nurses New Grd) he! MATERIA MEDICA FoR Nurses. By Emity M.A. STONEY, Superintendent of the Training School for Nurses at thé Carney Hospital, South Boston, Mass. Handsome tamo volume of 300 pages. Cloth, $1.50 net. “Tt contains about everything that a nurse ought to know in regard to drugs.”—/ournal of the American Medical Association. Grafstrom’s Mechano-therapy Second Ediion, Ralesgel A TEexT-BooK OF MECHANO-THERAPY (Massage and Medical Gymnastics), By AXEL V. GrarsTRom, B. Sc., M. D., Attending Physician to Augustus Adolphus Orphan- age, Jamestown, N. ¥Y. 12mo, 200 pages, illustrated. $1.25 net. “Certainly fulfills its mission in rendering comprehensible the subjects of massage and medical gymnastics.”"—New York Medical Journal. 16 SAUNDERS’ BOOKS ON PRACTICE, £ic. Jakob and Eshner’s Internal Medicine and Diagnosis ATLAS AND EPITOME OF INTERNAL MEDICINE AND CLINICAL DIAGNOsIS. By Dr. Cur. JAKos, of Erlangen. Edited, with additions, by A. A. EsHNER, M. D., Pro- fessor of Clinical Medicine, Philadelphia Polyclinic. With 182 colored figures on 68 plates, 64 text-illustrations, 259 pages of text. Cloth, $3.00 net. Jn Saunders’ Hand-Atlas Series. : ““Can be recommended unhesitatingly to the practicing physician no less than to the student.’’— Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hospital. Lockwood’s Practice of Medicine. Reba REE Coleen A MANUAL OF THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. By GEo. RoE Lockwoop, M. D., Attending Physician to the Bellevue Hospital, New York City. Octavo, 847 pages, with 79 illustrations in the text and 22 full-page plates. Cloth, $4.00 net. ‘‘ A work of positive merit, and one which we gladly welcome.” —New York Medical Journal. Keating’s Life Insurance How ‘ro EXAMINE FOR LIFE INSURANCE. By the late JOHN M. KEatinc, M. D., - Ex-President of the Association of Life Insurance Medical Directors. Royal octavo, 211 pages. With numerous illustrations. Cloth, $2.00 net. *« This is by far the most useful book which has yet appeared on insurance examination.” —Medical News. Corwin’s Physical Diagnosis. Third Edition, Revised ESSENTIALS OF PHYSICAL DIAGNOSIS OF THE THORAX. By A. M. Corwin, A. M., M. D., Professor of Physical Diagnosis, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago. 220 pages, illustrated. Cloth, flexible covers, $1.25 net. “A most excellent little work. It arranges orderly and in sequence the various objective phenomena to logical solution of a careful diagnosis.’’"—/ournal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. Barton and Wells’ Medical Thesaurus A THESAURUS OF MEDICAL WorRDs AND PuRAsES. By W. M. Barton, M. D., and W. A. WELLS, M. D., of Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 12mo of 535 pages. Flexible leather, $2.50 net; thumb indexed, $3.00 net. Jelliffe’s Pharmacognosy Recently Issued AN INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY. By SMITH ELy JELLIFFE, Pu. D., M. D., of Columbia University, Octavo, illustrated. Cloth, $2.50 net, Stevens’ Practice of Medicine. New (7th) Edition—Recently Issued A MANUAL OF THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. By A. A. STEVENS, A. M., M. D., Professor of Pathology, Woman’s Medical College, Phila. Specially intended for students preparing for yraduation and hospital examinations. Postoctavo, 556 pages; illustrated. Flexible leather, $2.50 net. ‘‘An excellent condensation of the essentials of medical practice for the student, and may be found also an excellent reminder for the busy physician.’’—ABuffalo Medical Journal. Paul’s Materia Medica for Nurses Just Ready MATERIA MEDICA FOR NursEs. By GrorcE P. Paut, M.D., Assistant Visiting Physician and Adjunct Radiographer to the Samaritan Hospital, Troy, N. ¥Y. 12mo of 240 pages. Cloth, $1.50 net. In Dr. Paul’s new work the physiologic actions of the drugs are arranged according to the action of the drug and not the organ acted upon. Another important section is that on pretoxic signs, giving the warnings of the full action or the beginning toxic effects of the drug. If these signs be known many cases of drug poisoning may be prevented. COLLEGE 44 GER SPO ERAS Se oe ar ope tagator nme” ey * eee ss bee ae Sea, Ie Ses Wy ete s! rn Opi} ‘ve van oaths te te ao s Geywee tees eae . rele!