JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF Tre : Mme rAtL SOCIETY a os Memeey SOUTH WALES Volume 134 Parts 1 and 2 (Nos 399-400) 2001 ISSN 0035-9173 PUBUIsnHED BY THE SOCIETY PO BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113 Issued June 2001 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES OFFICE BEARERS FOR 2000-2001 Patrons His Excellency the Honourable Sir William Deane, AC, KBE, Governor General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Her Excellency Professor Marie Bashir, AC, Governor of New South Wales. President Mr D.A. Craddock, BSc(Eng) NSW, Grad.Cert. Management NSW. Vice Presidents Prof. P.A. Williams, BA (Hons), PhD Macq. A/Prof A.T. Baker, BSc, PhD NSW, FRACI Prof. W.E. Smith, MSc Syd, MSc Oxon, PhD NSW, MInstP, MAIP. Mr C.F. Wilmot Hon. Secretaries Mrs M. Krysko von Tryst, BSc, Grad.Dip.Min.Tech NSW, MAusIMM. A/Prof A.T. Baker, BSc, PhD NSW, FRACI Hon. Treasurer Prof R.A. Creelman, BA, MSc, PhD Hon. Librarian Dr E.V. Lassak, MSc, PhD NSW, ASTC, FRACI Councillors Mr J.R. Hardie, BSc Syd, FGS, MACE. Ms K. F. 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This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying, such as copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for creating new collective works, or for resale. Responsibility for interpretations, opinions, reproductions and data published on behalf of authors rests with the relevant authors, not with the Royal Society of New South Wales. Journal € Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 1-11, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/01001-11 $4.00/1 Colour and Cash: The Exquisite Oxidized Zone PETER A. WILLIAMS AUG 2 7 2001 LIBRARIES Abstract: The geochemistry and chemical mineralogy of the oxidized zones of orebodies are extraordinarily complex, much more so than the primary deposits from which they are derived. The zones themselves are of great economic importance, especially to Australia. Many of the free-milling gold ores exploited over the last two decades are of supergene origin (secondary gold) and cobalt, nickel and copper deposits of the same kind are of increasing importance. We know much of the equilibrium chemistry of such mineral settings for some elements and something of the general processes that play a part in the development of ore grades in the oxidized zone. For other elements the situation is somewhat more sketchy and of certain aspects, including kinetics of crystallization, temperatures of mineral formation and solid-solution phenomena, we know very little indeed. Oxidized zone mineralization, some of which is exquisitely beautiful, is described in terms of its origin and the associated chemistry necessary to extract metals from these sorts of deposits. Further research directions are highlighted, together with problems that remain to be solved. INTRODUCTION The oxidized zone of an orebody is that part of it that lies above the water table. Its lower limit is not definite, but fluctuates with the seasons and local climatic influences. This is important for the chemistry of the oxidized zone in that ions in groundwaters can be introduced by these fluctuations (or drawn upwards by capillary ac- tion) causing local redox conditions to vary at the base of the zone. As its name implies, the oxidized zone carries the oxidized equivalents of primary materials generally formed deep in the earth when prevailing conditions were much different. These conditions would typically be characterized by relatively high temperatures and pressures, a lack of oxygen and high ac- tivities of sulfur and sulfide. Naturally, it is to be expected that minerals stable in this en- vironment are thermodynamically unstable in the near-surface environment, which is charac- terized by abundant oxygen dissolved in wa- ter, lower temperatures, ambient pressures and sulfur species dominated by sulfate (Williams, 1990). In general, elements reach higher or their highest oxidation states in the oxidation zone. For example, pyrite (iron(II) disulfide, Fe*+S.2—) is oxidized as shown in (1). Subse- quent oxidation of Fe(II) and hydrolysis leads to goethite (FeO OH), a characteristic iron mineral of the oxidized zone, according to (2) and (3). FeSo(s) + £Oo(aq) + H2O(l) > Fe?* (aq) + 280427 (aq) + 2H* (aq) (1) Fe*t (aq) + $0 2(aqg) + Ht (aq) — Fe**(aq) + $H2O0(I) (2) Fe?* (aq) + 2H2,O0(l1) — FeOOH(s) + 3Ht(aq) (3) A weathered sulfide orebody exposed at the surface most frequently shows a charac- teristic zoning pattern with increasing depth. At the surface, chemically resistant minerals (e.g., quartz, SiO2) remain, together with ox- ides and oxyhydroxides of certain metals. No- table among these are iron and manganese min- erals. These constitute the weathered remnants of the orebody known as a gossan. Since pyrite and other iron- bearing phases are so common in sulfide ores, these gossans are usually red- dish brown in colour and contain goethite, and sometimes its polymorphs lepidocrocite and ak- aganéite, and hematite (Fe2O3), together with a large number of rarer iron-bearing minerals. 2 WILLIAMS When primary iron minerals are less abundant, a conspicuous gossan may not be formed. Alter- natively, the gossan may manifest itself in other ways depending on the mineralogy of the pri- mary ore from which it was derived. A notable example is the gossan associated with the Bro- ken Hill, New South Wales lode which formed from ores lean in iron but very rich in man- ganese. Here, a black coronadite (PbMng0Oj6) gossan was extensively developed on the Num- ber 2 and 3 Lead lenses (Birch, 1999). Be- neath the gossan, a leached zone is often de- veloped. Most transition and other heavy met- als are leached and transported away from this zone in solution. Still deeper, the oxidized zone (sensu stricto) is encountered; this is a zone where the classical and aesthetically beautiful secondary minerals of the base and other metals are found. Finally, near the water table and the redox boundary between oxidizing and reducing conditions, a supergene enriched zone may be developed for certain elements. This is partic- ularly important in many copper deposits and rich to bonanza grades comprised of native cop- per, chalcocite (Cu2S) and its congeners such as digenite (CugS;) and djurleite (Cu3 Sig) have long been exploited in numerous and econom- ically very important deposits, notably in the Americas (see, for example, Anthony et al., 1995), but also in Australia. Current examples for the latter include Girilambone, New South Wales (Fogarty, 1998) and Gunpowder in north- west Queensland (Richardson and Moy, 1998). Aside from copper, the other coinage met- als too can be supergene enriched. Silver has been won from many such deposits, but today these are largely exhausted. One ex- ample worth mentioning is the Chanarcillo field in Chile (Segerstrom, 1962), which pro- duced 2,500 tonnes of silver between 1860 and 1885 from ores carrying native silver, chlo- rargyrite (AgCl), bromargyrite (AgBr), iodar- gyrite (AglI), together with solid-solutions of the three halides, dyscrasite (Ag3Sb), acan- thite (Ag2S), stromeyerite (AgCuS), stephanite (AgsSbS4), pearceite (AgigAs2S11) and polyb- asite (AgigSb2S;,). The fabulous Consols mine at Broken Hill NSW presented a similar wealth of these and related phases (Birch, 1999). En- richment of gold remains an important eco- nomic process. Emmons (1917) provided an early summary of gold enrichment in various de- posits and speculated on a mechanism for it. A more recent publication (Berkman and Macken- zie, 1998) lists no fewer than 18 Australian gold deposits that involve significant supergene en- richment of gold to an economically important degree. This enrichment is not solely due to removal of more reactive material from the oxi- dized zone. Spectacular examples are known of deposits that have bonanza grades of gold near the water table as a result of transport and re- deposition due to solution chemistry at ambient temperatures and weathering. Hannon South stands out in this respect (Lawrance, 1994). Gold was leached from the weathered profile to a depth of about 30 metres with grades of less than 0.1 ppm Au remaining. At the base of the oxidized zone secondary gold of very high fine- ness (> 999) was deposited in a supergene en- riched blanket with grades of over 100 ppm Au in places. Truly, the latest golden era of mining in Australia, contributing to a very significant level of export earnings, relied on the chemical processes responsible for the transport of gold in aqueous solution under ambient conditions in the oxidized zone. Given the above, a thorough knowledge of the geochemistry and chemical mineralogy of the oxidized zone is desirable. Unfortu- nately, our knowledge is imperfect in many per- tinent areas and in others virtually non-existent. The chemical mechanisms for the transport of gold in the supergene environment remain con- tentious for instance. Ligands that may be in- volved include chloride ion, thiosulfate ion and organic species; some have suggested that col- loids are involved. In similar vein, the chemistry of the formation of many of the minerals in su- pergene enriched silver deposits is entirely un- known, other than for the overall stoichiometric equations that can be all too readily chalked on the board. On the other hand, the geochemistry and COLOUR AND CASH 3 secondary mineralogy of the base metals is much better understood. This situation arises in part because of a better chemical understanding of these elements, a wealth of chemical data con- PbSO,4 anglesite PbWO, PbCO3 cerussite Pbs(PO4)3Cl PbCrO,4 crocoite Pbs(AsOq4)3Cl PbMoQO, wulfenite Pbs(VOq)3Cl Table 1: Some simple oxyanion minerals of Pb(II). PARTICULAR SUITES A chemical curiosity of the "simple" inorganic chemistry of these elements is the formation of basic double salts. For Pb(II) and Zn(II) exam- ples include hydrocerussite (Pb2(CO3)2(OH)2) and hydrozincite (Zns(CO3)2(OH).¢). However, both these ions tend to form simple salts in Na- ture. For Zn(II), smithsonite (ZnCOs3) is a rea- sonably common phase in oxidized zones, but the solubility of other simple zinc salts leads to a limited mineralogy of the element in such set- tings. This is so much the better in that equilib- rium models for secondary zinc mineralization are that much easier to construct (Williams, 1990). On the other hand, Pb(II) forms a num- ber of insoluble salts with a variety of oxyanions and these are reflected in oxidation zone miner- alogy. Table 1 lists some of these phases; note that double salts with ions other than hydroxide are featured. Again, fortunately, reliable ther- modynamic data are available for these species and they can simply be incorporated into mod- els that describe their behaviour in the oxidized zone. Regrettably, we come unstuck (chemically speaking) with copper(II). Copper is an element for chemical and min- eralogical connoisseurs. Its propensity to form basic double salts is unparalleled in the Periodic Table and almost any ion imaginable will form a solid found in Nature (or the laboratory). Some mineral examples are given in Table 2. The sit- uation is seen to be even more complex when it is realized that many of the species form solid- solution series; this is particularly true for the cerning a few of them and a serendipitous de- light in their mineralogy. Concentration is now particularly focussed on copper, lead and zinc. stolzite pyromorphite mimetite vanadinite arsenate and phosphate examples listed. Fur- ther, other metals may enter into solid- solu- tion. Thus, in the libethenite-olivenite series, Zn(II) and Co(II) may enter the lattice in all proportions (Hawthorne, 1976; Hill, 1976; Kato and Miura, 1977; Keller et al., 1979; Toman, 1978). In the adelite group of minerals, with for- mula ABAsO,(OH), end-member species have been named for A= Ca, B=Mg, Co, Cu (also for a vanadate analogue), Ni, Zn and A=Pb, B= Cu, Fe. If other cations and anions can be present in the same lattice, the stoichiometries of known secondary Cu(II) minerals may become ex- tremely complicated. Two examples involving multiple cations and multiple anions will suffice to illustrate the point. BolCite has the formula Phog Cug4Ago Clee2 (OH)47-H20; it crystallizes in the cubic system, space group Pm3m, with Z=1 and with a proton disordered over the hy- droxide sites. It is a rare mineral, but has been reported from a number of localities including various mines at BolCo in Baja California, the South mine at Broken Hill, New South Wales, in ancient lead slags that had been immersed in sea water at Laurion, Greece, and as a corrosion product of debased silver coins recovered from the wreck of the Batavia off Western Australia (Williams, 1990). The much more common solid-solution series connellite-buttgenbachite, Ce Cuze6Clg(NO3)2(SO4)y(OH)64-(24+2y)'5H20, contains four different anions with an extremely complicated pattern of mutual substitution over several sites in the lattice (Hibbs et al., 2001). 4 WILLIAMS Anion Cle CuCl,:2H»O eriochalcite CuCl(OH)3 atacamite botallackite paratacamite clinoatacamite PQ, ~. CusP0,08 libethenite Cus (PO4)2(OH)a pseudomalachite ludjibaite reichenbachite Cu3P0O4(OH)3 cornetite AsO,?- Cu,AsO,0H olivenite Cus(AsO4)2(OH)4 cornwallite cornubite Cu3AsO4(OH)3 clinoclase Anion SOjee CuS0O,4-5H,O chalcanthite CusSO4(OH)4 antlerite Cu4SO4(OH)¢ brochantite Osan Cu»CO3(OH)> malachite Cus (CO3)2(OH)2 azurite H2SiO4?- ~=CuSiO3-nH,O chrysocolla NO37 Cu2NO3(OH)3 gerhardtite Table 2: Secondary mineral diversity for copper(II). Minerals with extra cations are excluded. When several names are given, these refer to polymorphs of the same composition. Only a few examples are given here for illustration. CHEMICAL AND PARAGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS Comparatively simple primary metalliferous mineral suites of base metal orebodies in arid Australia (pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite, with minor accessory phases) are ac- companied by a bewildering array of secondary minerals in their supergene zones. This is as a consequence of saline (chloride, sulfate, carbon- ate) groundwater anion geochemistry with pe- riodic fluctuations of the water table and capil- lary action contributing to a recharge of anions in the weathering zone. Arsenate, molybdate, tungstate and chromate are contributed by the breakdown of (usually) minor primary minerals. Silicic acid and phosphate species form through acid decomposition of gangue and host rock. Ni- trate is common in groundwaters of Australian arid regions, due in part to formation of nitro- gen oxides via electrical discharge during thun- derstorms, but to some extent by leaching of nitrate formed in soils through biological action associated with termite mounds (Barnes et al., 1992). Chlorides, especially those of Cu(II), are abundant in these settings. Atacamite and paratacamite are most common but the so- called rare species nantokite, CuCl, claringbul- lite, CugCl1(OH)7, and connellite are frequently encountered. Silver halides are common, be- ing particularly abundant in the giant Bro- ken Hill orebodies and surrounding deposits as noted above. Exotic secondary nitrates includ- ing gerhardtite, likasite, Cu3NO3(OH)s5:2H2O, and connellite-buttgenbachite are sometimes as- sociated with the copper chlorides (Sharpe and Williams, 1999). Basic copper phosphates such as cornetite, and particularly libethen- ite and pseudomalachite, are common, associ- ated with arsenate analogues clinoclase, oliven- ite, cornubite, cornwallite and other members of the adelite group, when arsenic-bearing sul- fosalts are present in primary ores. Many other base metal arsenates and phosphates are found in more complex oxidized zones. Wulfenite, stolzite and crocoite, aside from the more commonly known localities, are present in many deposits of arid Australia. Chryso- colla is conspicuous in nearly all oxidized cop- per ores. More common sulfates (anglesite, brochantite, antlerite) and carbonates (mala- COLOUR AND CASH 5 chite, azurite, smithsonite, cerussite) contribute to very complicated assemblages of astonishing mineralogical diversity. These are, however, not randomly distributed throughout the oxidized zone. Rather, there are noticeably distinct patterns of distribution related to depth, re- dox potential and pH conditions (Sharpe, 1998; Williams, 1990). Naturally, it would be desirable to gain an understanding of the chemical conditions that give rise to these assemblages. This is evident for a number of important reasons, not just be- cause of the intrinsic interest that the minerals of the oxidized zone engender. First, it can be said that the chemistry associated with disso- lution of secondary minerals in heap-leach op- erations is just the reverse of that responsible for their formation. Behaviour in acid condi- tions and kinetic phenomena are of special im- portance here. Cu2CO3(OH)2(s) + 4H*(aq) — 2Cu?t (aq) + CO2(g) + 3H20(1) (4) Cus(PO4)2(OH)4(s) + 8Ht(aq) 6 5Cu2* (ag) + 2H2PO47 (aq) + 4H2O(1) (5) Furthermore, many acid leach reactions are not strictly analogous. For example, reaction of malachite (4) with acid is essentially irre- versible because of the loss of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. However, reaction of pseudo- malachite (5) is reversible and, with recycling of leach liquors, phosphoric acid will build up and indeed inhibit further reaction at the same pH unless the circuit is bled. A second reason concerns the application of the aqueous mineral chemistry to hydrogeochemical methods used in the exploration for new orebodies that are blind or very deeply or intensely weathered. Related to this, in that secondary minerals act as metal ion buffers, are strategies to avoid transition and heavy metal pollution associated with mining and manufacturing activities. This includes the dispersion of toxic species in acid mine drainage settings. Fortunately, reliable thermochemical data for many of the minerals referred to above are available in the literature and a number of ex- amples are given by Williams (1990). Incor- poration of the data in equilibrium models has led to explanations of associations, paragenetic sequences and modes of formation of complex suites. A couple of recent examples will illus- trate the utility of the approach. Field ob- servations over the last decade have revealed just how widespread are the secondary phos- phates of Cu(II) in the oxidized zones of copper orebodies in arid Australia. Examples include deposits at Girilambone (Gilligan and Byrnes, 1994) and Goonumbla or Northparkes in New South Wales (Heithersay et al., 1990; Crane et al., 1998) and several smaller deposits in the Mt. Isa Block in northwest Queensland (Ball, 1908; Day and Beyer, 1995; Carter et al., 1961; Sharpe, 1998). All of these deposits are charac- terized by an abundance of the secondary cop- per phosphates libethenite and pseudomalachite associated with smaller amounts of cornetite and turquoise, Cu Alg(PO4)4(OH)g-4H20. Sec- ondary mineral distributions in these deposits vary, but a number of recurring paragenetic re- lationships are evident. Characteristic zoning of the phosphate minerals has also been noted, with libethenite invariably being found nearer the surface. Rhythmically banded, botryoidal malachite- pseudomalachite composites com- prised of individual layers up to a few tenths of a millimetre thick are commonly found near the surface and sometimes in the outcrop. It has been shown that this material simply reflects the fluctuating availability of H2PO47 (aq) or HPO,?~ (aq) versus HCO37 (aq) or CO3?7 (aq) in mineralizing solutions. The rare occur- rence of cornetite, confined to the Great Aus- tralia, Cloncurry, Queensland, Main Lode out- crop (Day and Beyer, 1995) and the Crusader mine, north of Kajabbi, Queensland, is due to its formation under somewhat more un- usual chemical conditions (relatively higher pH, higher copper and lower phosphate ion activi- ties). The equilibrium models also show that libethenite-pseudomalachite zoning with depth depends on intensity of weathering with most intense weathering at the surface leading to higher phosphate concentrations in downward- 6 WILLIAMS percolating groundwater, thus making the for- mation of libethenite more likely (Crane et al., 2001a). Related studies have shown that ba- sic copper phosphates and arsenates control the dispersion of copper in groundwaters adja- cent to the Great Australia, Girilambone and Mungana North, Chillagoe, Queensland, ore- bodies (Elvy, 1999). A second example concerns the simplest of the copper chlorides, nantokite, CuCl. Nan- tokite was first reported in 1867 from the Car- men Bajo mine a few kilometres west of Nan- toko, Chile (Palache et al., 1951). A second report was made by Liversidge (1894), regard- ing specimens found in a matrix of cuprite as- sociated with native copper and cerussite from the Broken Hill South mine, New South Wales. A few other occurrences of nantokite have ap- peared since the early reports (Anthony et al., 1997). Complex crystals have been re- ported from the Southwest mine, Bisbee, Ari- zona (Graeme, 1993). It also has been found as a volcanic sublimate (Vergasova, 1983), but has continued to be regarded as being quite rare, un- til recently. Attention was drawn to the mode of formation of this comparatively rare mineral be- cause of its discovery in considerable quantities in the oxidized zone of the Great Australia mine, near Cloncurry, Queensland, and its occurrence in a number of other Australian base metal de- posits (Sharpe and Williams, 1999). Freshly broken specimens from Great Australia showed nantokite as colourless, water-clear masses, su- perficially resembling quartz, and showing a conchoidal fracture. The mineral is, however, thixotropic and is readily identified by its sec- tile nature, with a hardness of 2.5, similar to that of candle wax. On exposure to moist air, it oxidizes and hydrates within a few weeks to form a pale-green, crumbly powder consisting of atacamite or its dimorph, paratacamite. The abundance of nantokite at the Great Australia is noteworthy and tonnes of the mineral were mined and heap-leached to recover contained copper, even though its presence was unsus- pected at the time. Nantokite altering to ata- camite actually was observed first, but not rec- ognized, in specimens from Cloncurry as early as 1887 when Lindon (1887) wrote: “I find that specimens of massive cuprite, or native copper changing to cuprite, from Cloncurry are very liable to be encrusted with mala- chite after keeping for a short time in the atmosphere of Brisbane.” Stability relationships between copper, nan- tokite, paratacamite and cuprite, CuO, could be deduced using data taken from Robie et al., (1978), together with a value for the solubil- ity product of paratacamite (Smith and Martell, 1976). These could be used to explain the fact that nantokite is the result of the alteration of native copper in a saline environment (Sharpe and Williams, 1999). For Pb(II) and Zn(II), equilibrium mod- elling of secondary mineral assemblages is much simpler because of the fact that these ions usu- ally form normal or simple salts with oxyanions. Reliable data are available for many of them (Robie et al., 1978; Smith and Martell, 1976). Nevertheless, much work remains to be done in this area so that a comprehensive database of stability constants is readily to hand; aside from known species, new minerals are reported at the rate of perhaps twenty per year. AREAS IN NEED OF FURTHER STUDY Less than satisfactory knowledge attends sev- eral aspects of oxidized zone mineralogy and geochemistry. One concerns structural and thermodynamic properties of the many solid- solution systems that exist in Nature. Few of these behave ideally or regularly and, in order to include them rigorously in equilibrium mod- els, solid-state activity coefficients need to be taken into account. This is because the activi- ties of the components in a solid-solution are not in principle equal to unity. By way of example, the AgCl-AgBr solid- solution may be exam- ined. For (6), the equilibrium constant expres- COLOUR AND CASH 7 sion is that given in (7), reducing to (8) since @Agci(s) is equal to 1 by definition. AgCl(s) «+ Agt(ag) + Cl (aq) (6) Ksp = @agt(aq)@ci- (aq) /AAgCl(s) (7) Ksp = @Agt(aq)@CI- (aq) (8) AgCl,Br(;_2)(s) + Ag* (ag) + yCl (aq) + (1-y)Br~ (aq) (9) Ksp(AgCl) = mag+(aq) Ag+ (aq) MCI- (aq) Yc1-(aq)/ Nagon(s) VAgCl(s) 3 Ksp(AgBr) = mMag+(aq) VAgt (aq) MBr- (aq) VBr= (aq) NAgBr(s)YAgBr(s) (10) For the solid-solution process (9), irrespec- tive of whether the dissolution is congruent or not, activities of AgCl(s) and AgBr(s) are not equal to one (although they tend to unity for the major component as it approaches stoichiomet- ric purity). Solutions and solids can be analyzed in any given case, but values of y in the solid state need to be known to solve the expressions given in (10); mj; is the molality of the dissolved species and N; is the mole fraction of the compo- nent in the solid-solution at equilibrium (7; for dissolved ions can be calculated from the Debye- Hiickel or Pitzer formalisms). In the particular example chosen, values for solid-state activity coefficients are known as a result of the techni- cal importance of it in the photographic indus- try. However, for most systems, including those mentioned earlier, the dearth of data is a seri- ous shortcoming in our knowledge of secondary mineral chemistry. Solid-solutions present other chemical sur- prises and it is evident that even the simplest of systems are sometimes not as well under- stood as might first be thought. One such system is that involving wulfenite, PbMoQ,, and stolzite, PhWO,. In the study of ground- water geochemistry associated with the North Mungana orebody mentioned above, wulfenite and stolzite were found to limit the disper- sion of Pb, Mo and W in solution. This dis- covery prompted a re-investigation of the vari- ety “chillagite” (Pb(Mo,W)O4, Mo ~ W) from the Christmas Gift mine, Chillagoe, Queens- land, and which was described as a new mineral nearly a century ago (Ullman, 1912; Smith and Cotton, 1912). Later workers concluded that it was merely a member of the solid-solution series extending between the end-members wulfen- ite, PbMoQg, and stolzite, PhWO, (Quodling and Cohen, 1938). Both end-members crystal- lize in the tetragonal space group 1[4,/a, and have been grouped with CaWO, (scheelite) and CaMoO, (powellite) in the Scheelite Group. Crystals from Chillagoe are frequently zoned, some crystals displaying rhythmic banding of Mo and W-rich material, which reflect the com- positions of the solutions from which the speci- mens formed. Recently, however, single-crystal X-ray structure of a "chillagite" specimen from Chillagoe of approximately constant composi- tion corresponding to wulfeniteggstolzitezg was carried out. While the structure could be re- fined in space group [4, /a, a significant number of symmetry-forbidden reflections was present in the diffraction record. These included 9 symmetry-forbidden reflections in the (hk0) zone and, significantly, the reflections 002, 006, 0010 and 0014 were observed in the [00/] axial direction; thus symmetry operations 4, and a could not be present. “Chillagite” actually crys- tallizes in the closely related space group I4, as does a specimen of powellite from Tsumeb, Namibia (Crane et al., 2000b; Hibbs et al., 2001). Just what is responsible for the space group change is not completely understood, but such structural variations are common in solid- solutions and much systematic structural char- acterization, even for “simple” mineral cases, re- mains to be completed. The temperatures at which secondary min- erals form vary considerably and this fact is of- ten overlooked. Most modelling has used data at 25°C and this is acceptable for most cases. On the other hand, subtle temperature varia- tions serve to stabilize certain phases in prefer- ence to others. This is true of the hydrate posn- jakite, CugSO4(OH)g:H20O, versus brochantite, Cu4SO4(OH)g, the former being stable at about 10°C. Antlerite will crystallize directly from so- lution under appropriate pH conditions only 8 WILLIAMS above about 35°C (Williams, 1990). It is diffi- cult to estimate temperatures of crystallization in the oxidized zone. Recently, however, stable isotope methods have been applied to develop malachite, azurite and cerussite geothermome- ters (Melchiorre et al., 1999, 2000, 2001). Some surprising results have been obtained including that which shows significant amounts of cerus- site in the Broken Hill, New South Wales ores to have formed at up to 50°C. Further applica- tions of these kinds of studies will permit the “fine-tuning” of chemical models in the oxidized zone. Finally, it must be stated that despite of the success of the equilibrium approach in explain- ing secondary mineral parageneses and stabili- ties in a wide variety of settings, other assem- blages are subject to kinetic control. Some good examples of this added complexity concern a few of the secondary copper(II) chlorides and car- bonate mentioned above. The three basic chlo- rides of stoichiometry CugCl(OH)3 have stan- dard free energies of formation at 298.2K in the order paratacamite < atacamite < botallackite, but are inter-related by a series of complicated kinetic phenomena. A fourth polymorph, cli- noatacamite, is not as well characterized in this respect (Pollard et al., 1989, 1992a). Botallack- ite is a rare species, but atacamite and parat- acamite are very widespread in oxidized zones of copper ore bodies. In the laboratory, pre- cipitation of aqueous copper(II) chloride solu- tions with aqueous base first gives rise to clar- ingbullite, which in time recrystallizes in turn to botallackite then atacamite then paratacamite. The last step can be almost completely inhib- ited by addition of excess chloride ion, while the addition of aqueous copper(II) chloride so- lutions to aqueous base gives rise to spertini- ite, Cu(OH)2, again under kinetic control, in a kind of “non-commutative” chemical reaction. This cascade towards compounds of increasing thermodynamic stability is a manifestation of the Ostwald Step Rule (Ostwald, 1897), which states “...1f a reaction can result in sev- eral products, it is not the stablest state with the least amount of free energy that is initially obtained but the least stable one, lying nearest to the original state in free energy.” Similar considerations apply to the forma- tion of georgeite prior to recrystallization to malachite (Pollard et al., 1991, 1992b). While our understanding of the details of these kinds of processes is poor, kinetic phenomena are very important in particu- lar cases. In acid mine drainage settings (Parker and Robertson, 1999), control of metal ion dispersion most frequently depends on metastable phases. These include, for copper and zinc, the various hydrates of the brochan- tite stoichiometry, Cu4gSO4(OH)., devilline, CaCu4(SO4)2(OH)g:-3H20O, and serpierite and orthoserpierite, Ca(Cu,Zn)4(SO4)2(OH)¢g-3H2O (Krause and Tauber, 1992; Popov, 1999). Much remains to be done in this area. CONCLUSIONS Much is known of the mineral chemistry of the oxidized zone. Applications of this knowledge range from processing of ores to the search for new deposits and control of heavy metal pol- lution. Yet our knowledge is far from perfect and obvious gaps require many further detailed studies. In view of the importance of the ox- idized zone in an economic sense, appropriate efforts will certainly be directed towards filling those gaps and helping to solve the problems that remain for geochemists and metallurgists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The ideas embodied in this article have been developed over many years and with the help of many students and colleagues. With respect to the examples singled out above the post- graduate work of Martin Crane, Shane Elvy, Christine Jury, Margareta Popov, Jim Sharpe and Richard Thomas has been highlighted. Jim Sharpe has made significant further contribu- tions in field campaigns that have exemplified COLOUR AND CASH 9 many of the applications mentioned above. ‘The financial support of the Australian Research Council, the Science and Engineering Council (UK) and the Australian Minerals Industry Re- search Association is gratefully acknowledged, together with that of many mining companies. REFERENCES Anthony, J.W., Williams, $.A., Bideaux, R.A. and Grant, R.W., 1995. MINERALOGY OF ARIZONA, Third Edition, University of Ari- zona Press, Tucson, 508 pp. Anthony, J.W., Bideaux, R.A., Bladh, K.W. and Nichols, M.C., 1997. HANDBOOK OF MINERALOGY, Vol. 3, p. 395. Mineral Data Publishing, Tucson Ball, L.C., 1908. Cloncurry Copper Mining Dis- trict. Part 2. Queensland Geological Survey Publication, No. 215. 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Formation of Chrysocolla and Sec- ondary Copper Phosphates in the Highly Weathered Supergene Zones of Some Aus- tralian Deposits, Records of the Australian Museum, 53, 49-56. Crane, M.J., Hibbs, D.E., Leverett, P. and Williams, P.A., 2001b. The Single-crystal X- ray Structure of Powellite-I4 from Tsumeb, Namibia. Mineralogical Magazine, in press. Day, B.E. and Beyer, B., 1995. Some Mines of the Mt. Isa District. Part 1. The Great Australia Mine. Australian Journal of Min- eralogy, 1, 23-28. Elvy, 5.B., 1999. GEOCHEMICAL STUD- IES OF BASE AND NOBLE METAL COM- POUNDS. PhD Thesis, University of Western Sydney, 217 pp. Emmons, W.F., 1917. The Enrichment of Ore Deposits. United States Geological Survey Bulletin, 615, 305-355. Fogarty, M., 1998. Girilambone District Copper Deposits, in GEOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN AND PAPUA NEW GUINEAN MINERAL DEPOSITS, pp. 593-600. D.A. Berkman and D.A. Mackenzie (eds). Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne. 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An Explana- tion for the Origin of Hemihedrism in Wulfen- ite: the Single-crystal Structures of Tung- stenian Wulfenite-14;/a from the San Fran- cisco Mine, Sonora, Mexico and Tungstenian Wulfenite-I4 from the Christmas Gift Mine, Chillagoe, Queensland, Australia. Mineralog- tical Magazine, 64, 1027-1032. Hibbs, D.E., Leverett, P. and Williams, P.A., 2001. Solid Solution in the Connellite- buttgenbachite Series; A Single Crystal X- ray Study. Mineralogical Magazine, submit- ted for publication. Hill, R.J., 1976. The Crystal Structure and In- frared Properties of Adamite. American Min- eralogist, 61, 979-986. Kate, Ps and: Miura, Ya #977. ihe Crystal Structures of Adamite and Paradamite. Min- eralogical Journal (Japan), 8, 320-328. Keller, P., Hess, H. and Zettler, F., 1979. Ladungsbilanzen an den verfeinerten Kristall- strukturen von Libethenit, Adamin und Co2{OH/AsO4| und ihre WasserstoffbrAck- bindungen. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Abhandlung, 134, 147-156. Krause, W. and Tauber, H., 1992. Zum Kent- nisstand der Minerale Serpierit, Orthoser- pierit und Devillin. Der Aufschluss, 43, 1-25. Lawrance, L.M., 1994. Crystal features of su- pergene gold at Hannon South, Western Aus- tralia. Mineralium Deposita, 29, 391-398. Lindon, E.B., 1887. A catalogue of minerals as are at present known in Queensland, with their principal associates and places of occur- rence. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 4, 32-78. Liversidge, A., 1894. Boleite, nantokite, ker- argyrite, and cuprite from Broken Hill, New South Wales. Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 28, 94-98. Melchiorre, &.B., Criss, R.B. and osemaen. 1999. Oxygen and carbon isotope study of natural and synthetic malachite. Economic Geology, 94, 245-259. Melchiorre, E.B., Criss, R.E. and Rose, T.P., 2000. Oxygen and carbon isotope study of natural and synthetic azurite. Economic Ge- ology, 95, 623-630. Melchiorre, E.B., Williams, P.A. and Bevins, R.E., 2001. A low temperature oxygen iso- tope thermometer for cerussite, with ap- plications at Broken Hill, NSW, Australia. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, in press. Ostwald, W.Z., 1897. Studien iiber die Bil- dung und Umwandlung fester Korper. 1. Ab- handlung: Ubersattigung und Uberkaltung. Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie, 22, 289- Jol). Palache, C., Berman, H. and Frondel, C., 1951. THE SYSTEM OF MINERALOGY, Vol. 2, pp. 18-19. Wiley, New York. Parker, G. and Robertson, A., 1999. ACID DRAINAGE. Australian Minerals and En- ergy Environment Foundation, Melbourne. Pollard, A.M., Thomas, R.G. and Williams, P.A., 1989. Synthesis and stabilities of the basic copper(II) chlorides atacamite, parata- camite and botallackite, Mineralogical Maga- zine, 53, 50/—-563. Pollard, A.M., Thomas, R.G., Williams, P.A., Just, J. and Bridge, P.J., 1991. The synthesis and composition of georgeite and its reactions to form other secondary copper(II) carbon- ates. Mineralogical Magazine, 55, 163-166. Pollard, A.M., Thomas, R.G. and Williams, P.A., 1992a. The copper chloride system and corrosion: a complex interplay of ki- netic and thermodynamic factors, in DI- ALOGUE/89: THE CONSERVATION OF BRONZE. SCULPTURE IN» THE Cia DOOR ENVIRONMENT, pp. 123-133. T. Drayman-Weisser (ed.). National Association COLOUR AND CASH 11 of Corrosion Engineers, Houston. Pollard, A.M., Spenser, M.S., Thomas, R.G., Williams, P.A., Holt, J. and Jennings, J.R., 1992b. Georgeite and azurite as precursors in the preparation of co-precipitated cop- per/zinc oxide catalysts. Applied Catalysis A: General, 85, 1-17. Popov, M., 1999. SOLID PHASE FORMA- TION AS A LIMITING FACTOR IN THE DISPERSION OF HEAVY METALS IN AN ACID MINE DRAINAGE ENVIRONMENT. Honours Thesis, University of Western Syd- ney, 75 pp. Quodling, F.M. and Cohen, S.B., 1938. An X- ray examination of chillagite. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 71, 543-546. Richardson, S.M and Moy, A.D., 1998. Gun- powder copper deposits, in GEOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN AND PAPUA NEW GUINEAN MINERAL DEPOSITS, pp. 743- 752. D.A. Berkman and D.A. Mackenzie (eds). Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne. Robie, R.A., Hemingway, B.S. and Fisher, J.R., 1978. Thermodynamic properties of miner- als and related substances at 298.16K and 1 bar (10° Pa) pressure and at higher temper- atures. United States Geological Survey Bul- tevin, L452. Sharpe, J.L., 1998. CHEMICAL MIN- ERALOGY OF SUPERGENE COPPER DEPOSITS OF THE CLONCURRY DIS- TRICT, NORTHWEST QUEENSLAND. MSc(Hons) Thesis, University of Western Sydney, 112 pp. Sharpe, J.L. and Williams, P.A., 1999. Nan- tokite, a major new occurrence, and data on its stability relationships. Australian Journal of Mineralogy, 5, 77-81. Segerstrom, K., 1962. Regional geology of the Chanarcillo silver mining district and adja- cent areas. Hconomic Geology, 57, 1247- 1261. smith, C.D. and Cotton, L.A., 1912. Some crys- tal measurements of chillagite. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 46, 207 -219. Smith, R.M. and Martell, A.E., 1976. CRIT- ICAL STABILIVY CONSTANTS»: Vol.” 4. Plenum Press, New York, Toman, K., 1978. Ordering in olivenite-adamite solid solutions. Acta Crystallographica, B34, 715-721. Ullman, A.T., 1912. A new mineral. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 46, 186. Vergasova, L.P., 1983. Fumarole incrustations of lava flows of the effusive-explosive period of the Great Tolbachik fissure eruption. Vul- canology and Seismology, 75-87; Chemical Abstracts, 100: 178088. Williams, P.A., 1990. OXIDE ZONE GEO- CHEMISTRY. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 286 pp. Professor Peter A. Williams Centre for Industrial and Process Mineralogy, Faculty of Science, Food and Horticulture, BCRI Parramatta Campus, University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South DC NSW 1797, Australia Presidential Address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales on 4th April, 2001. (Manuscript received 21.4.2001) 12 ies ai x . rs i ‘a, w ee Lard ty Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 13-18, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/010013-6 $4.00/1 Surface Modification: Advancing the Functionality of Materials The Pollock Memorial Lecture in Mathematics and Physics MARCELA M.M. BILEK INTRODUCTION The surface properties of materials are most commonly optimised for their applications by coating with a layer of a material that has the required surface properties. Surface modifica- tion allows us to mix and match surface and bulk properties to optimise materials for their applications. For example, base metal door knobs can be made to shine like gold for decora- tive purposes, the surfaces of steel cutting tools can be hardened by a layer of titanium nitride, and skeletal prosthetic implants can be made more biocompatible by doping with magnesium (Bilek et al. 2000). A good coating needs to be both contiguous and well adherent. Physical vapour deposition is a flexible coating technique with advantages over wet chemical methods such as electroplat- ing, especially in minimising hazardous waste. The problems of porous films with voids have been solved by the use of techniques in which a fraction of the surface reacting species impinges with elevated energy. The downside of these techniques is that they often lead to significant amounts of intrinsic compressive stress in the films produced. This stress limits the thickness to which films can be grown and often causes films to delaminate exposing parts of the origi- nal surface. This is a particularly serious prob- lem in applications where even small exposures of the original surface cannot be tolerated, such as in corrosion protection and biomaterials. In prosthetic implants, the delaminated material presents an even greater problem because it will be released into the body. In this paper we describe a new generation of methods that offer solutions for the problem of intrinsic stress in surface modifying coatings. The physics behind their ability to alleviate in- trinsic stress is presented together with experi- mental results. The paper concludes with a dis- cussion of further work necessary to develop the techniques to a stage where they can readily be used to coat complex and varied shaped com- ponents used in real world applications, with particular reference to the field of biomaterials. GROWTH MODES AND STRESS Figure 1 shows schematically the types of mi- crostructures produced as impact energy varies across a variety of thin film deposition tech- niques. Films deposited at thermal energies (a fraction of an electron volt) tend to grow as columns with voids in between. This is because the atoms have very low surface mobility and the voids are shadowed from incoming ions by the columns just as the floor of a gorge is shad- owed from sunlight. In an attempt to reduce the very high surface energy of this structure, van der Waals forces between the columns result in a tendency for the film to try to contract - a ten- sile stress. The forces on the substrate, shown by the arrows in the diagram, are directed in- wards. The integrity of these coatings and their usefulness in protecting a surface are compro- mised by the presence of the voids. Contiguous coatings (ie coatings without voids or pores) are readily produced by a range of energetic ion assisted deposition techniques, such as sputtering and plasma enhanced chemi- cal vapour deposition (PECVD). In all of these techniques a fraction of the species condensing on the surface to form the coating layer are ionised. The substrates are usually biased neg- atively so that the ionised species arrive at the 14 BILEK substrate with energies of 50 to a few hundred electron volts. The energies of these impacts are sufficient to burry the ions a few atomic layers beneath the surface of the growing film and provide some mobility for minor atomic re- arrangements. This densifies the structure and prevents the formation of columns and voids. A secondary effect of the buried ions is to cause a low E (~ 0.1 eV) » iar wy, 8 os ooecs%e. medium E (10-100 eV) tendency for the deposited material to swell and try to expand laterally. This creates a signifi- cant compressive stress in the film, which results in strain and forces on the substrate as shown by the arrows in the diagram. As the thickness of the film increases the stress and stored strain energy increases. high E (~ kV) Figure lL: Schematic ea aie film microstructures that feealh a various levels of ion bombardment. The low surface mobility in the low energy case leads to columns separated by voids, leading to tensile stress. Higher levels of ion energy result in ions being buried below the top few atomic layers, this results in densification and compressive stress. Very high energies produce a mixing layer at the substrate interface and appear to reduce the level of compressive stress. f compressive’ compressive stress (arb. units) pod j i a eeeapeiehieaan a ha ae LOO ei XD AK? te file a IESAARRARIRIND SaRRSEA A Ex) SOK) HOO energy of impact (eV) Figure 2: Schematic diagram of the generally observed relation between impact energy and in- trinsic film stress. Although strain energy is not a problem for many applications, it cannot be tolerated in sit- uations where coatings need to be thick and completely free of cracks, such as in biomateri- als. The classical Griffith criterion tells us that a crack will propagate and a film will delami- nate if the strain energy relieved is greater than the total surface energy of the two new surfaces created by the delamination (ie substrate and underside of film). It may be possible to overcome this limita- tion by using even higher impact energies. Re- SURFACE MODIFICATION 15 cent experimental evidence shows that impact energies of a few kilo-electron volts or greater introduce enough energy to the atoms near the impact site to allow for significant atomic re- arrangement and the relaxation of local stress and strain. For all materials studied to date, the stress versus impact energy behaviour has been found to be as sketched in Figure 2. High energy impacts also provide an additional ben- efit in the mixing of the substrate-coating in- terface because the first energetic impacts im- plant atoms under the surface of the substrate as shown in Figure 1. The diffuse interface pro- vides for improved adhesion. The next section describes the new techniques for deposition with high-energy bombardment and the physics be- hind their success in eliminating stress. PLASMA BASED ION IMPLANTATION AND THE THERMAL SPIKE Plasma based ion implantation (PBII) also known as plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII) is a technique in which a high nega- tive voltage is applied to the component be- ing treated while it is immersed in a plasma. On short time scales, of the order of the in- verse plasma electron frequency (typically 0.01 to 1ns), the electrons are accelerated out of the region surrounding the biased work-piece. This establishes a charged region with high electric field around the work-piece across which vir- tually the entire voltage difference between the work-piece and the plasma drops. This region, often called the ion matrix sheath, shields the plasma from the high-voltage of the work-piece. At greater time scales (given by the inverse ion plasma frequency, usually over 100 times longer than the time scale of electron motion) the more massive and less mobile ions start to accelerate across the sheath towards the surface of the bi- ased work-piece. As the ions accelerate and im- plant beneath the surface of the work-piece the ion density in the sheath is reduced and it is no longer able to completely shield the plasina from the bias on the work-piece. Electrons at the edge of the sheath feel an electric field and they are repelled further into the plasma and thus the sheath expands. The sheath will con- tinue to expand until a steady state ion den- sity profile is established across it or until the plasma is depleted of ions. In order to avoid plasma depletion it is usually necessary to ap- ply the high-voltage bias in pulses. Energetic ion Some atoms are sputtered \y Quench time depends on radius Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the thermal spike or high mobility region produced imme- diately surrounding the site of an energetic ion impact. In some ways ion impacts on the surface of a film are a microscopic version of meteor im- pacts on a planet. In both cases the size of the affected area is dependent on the energy of the impact. For a meteor this is determined by its size and velocity. For the impact of an ion, it is also determined by the mass and energy of the impacting ion. The effected region is of- ten referred to as a thermal spike and is shown schematically in Figure 3. It can be approxi- mated as a hemispherical region with radius r (r x WE) around the impact site. As with a meteor impact some material may be ejected in the form of sputtered surface atoms, but most of the energy is transferred to vibrational en- ergy of the surrounding material. The energy is then gradually dissipated to the rest of the film as heat. It can be shown (Marks, 1997) that as the energy of the impact and hence the radius 16 BILEK of the thermal spike increases the time it takes for the region to be quenched back to the initial temperature also increases. If the thermal spike endures for long enough there will be sufficient time for significant atomic movements and re- laxation corresponding to local annealing. Thus high-energy impacts are an ideal way to relieve intrinsic stress during the growth process. SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Figure 4 shows scanning electron microscope (SEM) images (Tarrant et al. 2001) of films deposited using a cathodic arc carbon plasma (~50 eV ions), (a) without high-voltage puls- ing of the substrate and (b) with high-voltage pulsing. The high-voltage pulsed power sup- ply delivered 20kV pulses lasting 20ms at a frequency of 500Hz. There is a dramatic re- duction in cracking and delamination around the test scratch mark for the film deposited with the high voltage ion impacts. The reduc- tion in intrinsic stress has allowed the deposi- tion of extremely thick carbon layers. Figure 5 shows a cross-sectional SEM image (Tarrant et al. 2001) of a 11.4 um thick film. Conventional cathodic arc deposition can achieve no more than a few hundred nanometers before the film spontaneously delaminates. Titanium nitride films deposited with high voltage pulsing are also quite different from the gold coatings produced by a titanium cathodic arc operating in a nitrogen atmosphere. When high-voltage pulsing is used the colour of the films becomes purple. There is also a distinct change in the preferred orientation of the crys- tallites in the film. For the usual arc fabricated material a < 111 > direction perpendicular to the plane of the film dominates, whereas with high-voltage pulsing the preferred direction be- comes < 200 >. This is the crystal orientation observed in low stress material where minimi- sation of surface energy determines the orienta- tion (Pelleg et al. 1991). The minimisation of bulk strain energy on the other hand leads to the < 111 > orientation (McKenzie et al. 1999) in highly stressed material deposited using a ca- thodic arc without high-voltage pulsing. Polymers have an attractive set of bulk prop- erties. They combine lightness and strength with ease of fabrication. Their range of applica- tions can be considerably enhanced by modify- ing their surface properties to give them metal- lic lustre or scratch resistance for example. It is difficult to make a good adherent metal layer on a polymer, due to the lack of chemical bonds be- tween the metal film and polymer surface. How- ever, PBII allows interface mixing and improves the chance of chemical bonding between metal and polymer (Yap et al. 1998). Lower intrin- sic stress in the deposited film also reduces the tendency to delaminate. silicon substrates produced (a) with no ion implantation and (b) with 20 keV ion implantation. SURFACE MODIFICATION 17 silicon Figure 5: Scanning electron microscope im- age of an 11.4 micrometer thick carbon film on a silicon substrate produced with 20 keV ion im- plantation. Skeletal prosthetic implants are bonded to the skeleton most effectively when there is a good compatibility between bone cells and the surface of the implant. The hospitalisation time of the patient is greatly reduced if the cells can be quickly recruited onto the new surface. Al- loys of titanium have been found to be effective at bone cell recruitment while alloys of cobalt and chromium have excellent mechanical prop- erties. A well bonded treatment of the tita- nium alloy coating on a cobalt-chromium sub- strate achieves almost the same recruitment of adhered bone cells as does the titanium alloy (Howlett et al. 1999). The implantation of mag- nesium without concurrent film deposition into an alumina substrate was also found to increase the recruitment of bone cells (Bilek et al. 2000). THE TREATMENT OF COMPLEX SHAPES FOR BIOMATERIALS APPLICATIONS The test samples reported on in the previous section were all small planar substrates, how- ever the shapes of real devices, particularly in the biomedical field are much more complex, of- ten having sharp points. Since the sheath con- trols the ion implanting process it is essential to understand and to be able to correct for the be- haviour of the sheath around complex objects. Solving the equations of sheath expansion near a curved surface of small radius shows that the sheath there is thinner than it is near a flat ap- proximately planar part of the substrate (Bilek 2000). This can be understood by realising that as the ions are accelerated towards a pointed part of the substrate they are also converging so the reduction in density caused by their ac- celeration cannot be as great as that near a flat part of the substrate. Since it is the reduction in ion density in the sheath which causes it to expand, the sheath will always expand less near a Sharp corner or curve than at a planar surface. In fact in some situations it could conceivably even contract if the ion focusing is great enough. If the sheath becomes too thin anywhere around the substrate, electric breakdown will occur between the substrate and the plasma. Such a breakdown causes ablation of material on the surface of the work-piece where it occurs and damages the surface. In a drifting plasma, such as produced in laser ablation or the ca- thodic arc, the sheath behaviour is further com- plicated by the plasma drift. Because the drift maintains a higher plasma density on the side of the work piece facing into the plasma beam the sheath on this side will be thinner than that on the wake side. Further work is required to study experimentally and theoretically the de- velopment of the sheath around complex sub- strates and develop control strategies suitable for reliable plasma based implantation of the devices used in the medical industry. 18 BILEK CONCLUSION Plasma based ion implantation with energies upwards of 1 keV and concurrent deposition us- ing a cathodic arc plasma source has been found to produce good quality films with significantly reduced stress. A further benefit of this surface modification technique is that it induces mixing at the interface. Interface mixing together with stress reduction leads to improved adhesion and the ability to deposit much thicker films than would be possible using the plasma source alone. These advances are of special significance in the field of biomaterials, where even minor delam- ination cannot be tolerated. The next step in the application of the technique to prosthetic implants of complex shape is the development of a process control strategy capable of ensuring a uniform treatment without electric breakdown across the plasma sheath. REFERENCES Bilek M.M.M., Evans P., McKenzie D.R., Mc- Culloch D.G., Zreiqat H., and Howlett C.R., 2000. Metal ion implantation using a fil- tered cathodic vacuum arc, Journal of Ap- plied Physics, 87(9), pp. 4198-4204. Bilek M.M.M, 2000. Effect of sheath evolution on metal ion implantation in a vacuum arc plasma source, Journal of Applied Physics, vol: 89,no0.2, pp923-927. Howlett C.R., Zreiqat H., Wu Y., McFall W.D., and McKenzie D.R., 1999. Effect of ion mod- ification of commonly used orthopedic ma- terials on the attachment of human bone- derived cells, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 345-354. Marks N.A. 1997. Evidence for subpicosecond thermal spikes in the formation of tetrahe- dral amorphous carbon, Physical Review B, 56(5), pp. 2441-2446. McKenzie D.R. and Bilek M.M.M., 1999. Elec- tron diffraction from polycrystalline materi- als showing stress induced preferred orienta- tion, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 86, no. 1, 230-236. Pelleg J., Zevin L.Z. and Lungo S., 1991. Reactive-sputter-deposited TiN films on glass substrates, Thin Solid Films, vol. 197, pp. 117-128. Tarrant R.N., Montross C.S., and McKenzie D.R., 2001. Combined deposition and im- plantation in the cathodic arc for thick film preparation, Surface and Coatings Technol- ogy, vol. 136, no. 1-3, pp. 188-191. Yap E., McCulloch D.G., McKenzie D.R.., Swain M.V., Wielunski L.S., and Clissold R.A., 1998. Modification of the Mechanical and Optical Properties of Polycarbonate by 50 keV Art and H™ ion implantation, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 83, no. 6, pp. 3404- 3412. Marcela M.M. Bilek Applied and Plasma Physics Group A28, School of Physics, University of Sydney, NSW 2006. Pollock Memorial Lecture delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales on 17th of May 2001 (Manuscript received 29.5.2001) Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 19-44, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/010019-26 $4.00/1 The Centenary of Mary Everitt’s “Gundungurra” Grammar CHRISTOPHER R. ILLERT Communicated by Michael K. Organ Abstract: Year 2001 marks the centenary of a unique scientific paper (Mathews & Everitt, 1900), on the gunduyara Aboriginal language, whose primary authorship has been in dispute ever since it was read before the Royal Society of New South Wales on 5th December 1900. Complex grammatical forms and structures, accurately preserved in the raw phonetic data within the paper, have been largely overlooked by successive generations of scholars and lin- guists (Kohen, 1993; Russell, 1914; Turbet, 1989; Dixon, 1980). In fact, Appendix 2 of the present paper is the first attempt by anyone in 100 years to decipher the gundunara women’s Evening-Star Song, a treasure originally published in (Mathews & Everitt, 1900), whose mean- ing no modern scholar has ever even speculated about. Such has been the rate of research in this neglected field. And, whereas numerous large biographies including (Elkin, 1975) were long-ago written about one of the coauthors, the other coauthor Mary Martha (“Minnie”) Everitt (1854-1937) is still virtually unknown and the important story of how the paper came into being has never been properly told. New advances at the cutting edge of linguistic theory now enable us to demonstrate that the grammar is actually women’s language likely to have been collected by Mary Everitt, not her male “coauthor”, thus shedding light on the principal authorship of this historic and important century-old paper. INTRODUCTION gundunara Aboriginal people were referred to by Barrallier (Barralier, 1802) as “the moun- taineers”, by the Sydney Gazette as “mountain men”, and by Governor Macquarie (Macquarie, 1814) as “the wild mountain blacks”. They occu- pied muran-daru which was the general region south-west of present-day Sydney, including the entire Cox’s River Valley from the Cowpastures and Southern Tablelands to the Blue Mountains beyond Lithgow (lIllert, 1998, pp. 10-11). Un- like neighbouring Aboriginal tribes they had a tradition of warrior chieftains who, throughout the first half of the 19th century, openly waged war against European soldiers and Native Police with varying degrees of success (Illert, 1998). By the 1870’s isolated farmer settlers had begun intermarrying with the local Aboriginal people, and Roman Catholic missionaries were running several small schools for Aboriginal children throughout the Burragorang and Wol- londilly river valleys (Smith, 1991). Scattered groups were still living “wild” along the Cox, duribulud = “river-land” (see Appendices 4 and 5; references Barrett, 1993 and 1995, and Illert, 1998), well into the 20th century - for exam- ple when the Hughes Brothers escaped from Katoomba jail in 1921 and were recaptured living in a “blacks camp” on the Upper Cox River, or, in 1929 when the seminarians Keith Bush and Steve Ford, walking from Wentworth Falls to Picton, passed an Aboriginal camp near the junction of the Cox and Wollondilly Rivers (Barrett, 1995, p. 115: based upon reminis- cences by the late Keith Bush). Thus Mary Everitt, Mistress in charge of the Girls Department of the Superior Public School in South Parramatta, one of the co-authors of the December 1900 paper, quite understandably mentions: ‘having visited and camped with the natives of Burragorang, on the Wol- londilly River, the most isolated and 20 ILLERT hence the best preserved and prim- itive remnant of the Gundungurra speaking people - two of our princi- pal informants being “Billy Russell”, and “Bessy Simms”, who were able to satisfy us in every particular...’ (Mathews & Everitt, 1900, p. 263). Being a teacher Mary Everitt could only have undertaken this visit to the Nulla Nulla camp in the upper reaches of the Wollondilly River Valley - mainly to see William Russell, Mrs Annie Sherritt, and the Rileys (Long, 1973) - during one of the school holiday breaks which were four weeks at Christmas, one week at easter, and two weeks during winter (McPher- son, 1998). We know it was the winter holiday break because this coincided with the planet Venus attaining its once-every-586-day (syn- odic) maximum angular separation from the Sun (45.58 degrees), becoming most conspic- uous in the evening sky in early May 1900 and thereafter remaining prominent through- out June, hence the Evening-Star Song (see Ap- pendix 2). Additionally Mary Everitt mentions taking “...about half a dozen lessons, between July and November 1900 ...[{from] Mrs Bessie Simms, at La Perouse ...” who advised her to further “verify her grammar ... at Burragorang” (Long, 1973). Throughout this epic research and fieldwork Mary Everitt claims to have been assisted by her niece who had “a better ear, and better theory than I...” (Everitt, 19 June 1901). But there is no reason to believe that the other co-author of the final paper, the surveyor R.H. Mathews (1841-1918), accompanied them on any occa- sion or played any active part at all in docu- menting the language. On the contrary, Mary Everitt’s claim was that she studied the lan- guage “...for many months, and wrote a little grammar on it which was incorporated in a pa- per by a member of the Royal Society [of New South Wales], and read by him before that body last December” (Everitt, 12 June 1901). A.L. Bennett of The Oaks — a contempo- rary of the parties involved who himself, 14 years later, compiled William Russell’s memoirs — cheekily gave the credit for the entire paper to Mary Everitt, only mentioning R.H. Math- ews obliquely as an afterthought: “...as to the grammatical structure of this language compared with that of other tribes. I refer to Miss M.M. Everitt’s “The Organisation Language and Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of the South East Coast of N.S.W.”:. andi odd: wiit- ings of Mr R.H. Mathews, scattered through some of his many pam- phlets on the Australian race in gen- eral” (Russell, 1914, p. 7). With this book selling for a shilling a copy each year at the Camden Show, during the life- times of both Mary Everitt and R.H. Math- ews, there clearly was some contemporary pub- lic awareness of unrefuted claims that the gram- matical research was conducted by Mary Everitt and her niece and that it was their field-trip to the Burragorang — perhaps with a detour to Pic- ton to visit Mark Feld whose account of local Aboriginal legends and place-names appeared in July 1900. In 1900 Charles Butler’s coach service from Camden to Yerranderie was yet to begin regu- lar runs (Barrett, 1995, pp. 9, 12 & 70) and al- though the Warragamba (bush) Walking Club had formed in Sydney as early as 1895 (Hilder, 1988, pp. 80-84; Tompkins, 1907) — no doubt with some students from Parramatta’s Supe- rior Public School as members — it seems likely that Mary Everitt and her niece would have made their ambitious and epic journey to the remote upper reaches of the Wollondilly River valley on horseback, up and down the Burrago- rang’s precipitous 2000 foot cliffs, at the on- set of the bitter winter of 1900 which culmi- nated in unprecedented frosts and snowfalls in New South Wales central districts. Throughout July/August that year, nearly a metre of snow fell at Bathurst with Forbes reporting its first known snowstorm since European settlement. The Budawangs were blanketed (Hilder, 1998, p. 80) and the Shoalhaven Aboriginal William “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 21 Bothong even recorded snowfalls on Woodhill Mountain. Years later, Bernard O’Reilly like- wise recalled a dreadful winter in the Kanimbla Valley, he thought it was 1902, in which: “..ice, even at noon, blocked rip- ples of the creek, and there were over sixty hard frosts in succession, frosts which killed big gum trees on Round Ridge and Blackfellows Hill” (O’Reilly, 1958, pp. 59 & 265). One needs to reflect upon the physical (as well as intellectual) achievements of this 46 year old Parramatta schoolmistress who professed to suffer from the “severe colds I catch in Parra- matta” (Everitt, 12 June 1901) and who, un- like R.H. Mathews, was actually a grammarian and linguist with sufficient qualifications and wit to professionally teach at Parramatta’s Su- perior Public School. She and her niece actu- ally “lived” linguistics whilst R.H. Mathews was a retired 59 year old at the time — one would imagine well past riding horses down 2000 foot cliffs, through snowdrifts, into iced river valleys — an armchair expert occasionally travelling the countryside in a leisurely fashion to attend Boo- nans and discuss bizarre “man-making” rituals and marriage practices usually with men of the tribe. Women’s lullabies (see Appendix 2 and Illert, 1999) and children’s songs and games, the domestic fun-things that are equally part of any culture, are largely missing from his 170 pub- lished papers. This sort of chauvinistic and sometimes prurient stuff (Roth, 1910) may have livened male conversation round 19th century Royal Society dinner tables but it made Aboriginal people objects of study in a way that did lit- tle to rectify contemporary European prejudices about their supposed “primitiveness” (Long, 1973; Roth 1910) “inferiority” (Telfer, 1949) and “superstitiousness” (Feld, 1900). It’s like study- ing Australian society today, but limiting the investigation to European religious art and to rituals (funerals, marriages and baptisms etc) performed in churches on Sundays. A.P. Elkin’s 1975 review article on R.H. Mathews’ achievements devoted twenty six pages to his anthropological investigations but said virtually nothing about his linguistic sal- vage work - in relation to which some quite se- rious matters of plagiarism may have to be ad- dressed. What was missed was the fact that one can emphasise inevitable differences in so- cial and cultural practices and spiritual beliefs, but Aboriginal people also had a language and an oral tradition that was subtle, with a gram- mar as sophisticated as any modern European language (see the various Notes and Appendices at the end of this paper). “SATURNALIAN"” CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHILOLOGY In 1874 the Roman Catholic priest Fr. Dillon, at the Pocket Creek farming community, claimed that every young Aboriginal in the Valley had been taught to read and write (Smith, 1991, p. 14). By 1891 Aborigines comprised one third of the total Cox’s River population and even the Aboriginal Protection Board’s 1890 report peevishly admitted that Burragorang Aborigi- nal people were surviving and “not addicted to bouts of intemperance” which was in stark con- trast to their wards elsewhere, for example at La Perouse, whom Philip Cohen described as: ‘...demoralised degraded beings who infested the ...camps on the southern shores of Sydney Harbour or at Botany ...reek[ing] with rum and debauchery, and in many in- stances with butchery ... The white lads and young men of the time vis- ited those camps in droves, and of- ten night was made hideous by the saturnalian performances of both blacks and whites ...[They spoke] impure language ...mixed up with pigeon English, as well as the di- alects of the natives of other tribes which had joined them ...More 22 ILLERT than 40 years ago I brought to Syd- ney from the Hastings district two Aboriginal lads, bright intelligent fellows, ... one day I took them over to the blacks’ camp, which was at the time situated at Rose Bay. My boys could understand but very lit- tle of the gibberish they heard there, and when I questioned them on the subject their reply was “too much Irish” ...’ (Cohen, 1890). Cohen was a vexatious arguer about the meaning of Sydney’s Aboriginal place-names. In a letter of reply Richard Hill politely asked Cohen how it was that he knew so much about blacks camps: ‘...“vreeking with rum, debauchery and butchery” ...My late brother George never tasted spirits in his life, and in his company I and many others ... have visited these camps and spent days there on more than one occasion, but never did any of us ... provide the blacks with rum’ (Hill, 1890). A third correspondent, Alex Oliver pointed out the impossibility of Cohen’s references to the supposedly original “Comlerai blacks of Port Jackson and Botany” whom Cohen claimed in years past to have known, and to have hunted and fished with, and learned their language from. In fact the Kamilaroi tribe is from north- west of Maitland, way the other side of Newcas- tle, and certainly nowhere near Sydney. And why should Aboriginal lads from “the Hastings district” understand the Sydney language, any more than a Frenchman would understand Lat- vian or Arabic? More than a century later we might have more important things to think about were it not for the fact that this is evidence for a popu- lar oral tradition that Kamilaroi’s were the orig- inal Sydney tribe. We encounter it elsewhere. William Albert Cuneo (1860-1942), who wrote some poems and plays, likewise claimed intimate knowledge of his “friends” the local “Kamilaroi” Aborigines (Cuneo, 1899). He was born at Binalong and became Stationmaster at Thirlmere from 1885, where he was also Post- master from 1887 to 1907 (Meredith, 1989, pp. 30-47; Smith, 1991, pp. 3-5). Cuneo (1893) published “A Brain Record” in the Picton Post & Advocate newspaper recount- ing historically important bush yarns and sto- ries. We know that Cuneo wasn’t born till 1860, so he simply couldn’t have been the white lad who witnessed muran-guli’s Ascension to Chief- taincy ceremony in 1846. Clearly these are sto- ries learned by Cuneo, from his mining part- ner Ben Carlon (1841-1925), and actually dat- ing back to the 1840’s (Meredith, 1989, p. 30; Smith, 1991, pp. 7-8). Interpreted in this light, with possible errors removed, there is no rea- son to believe that the other historical details of the stories are especially untrue - but there are telling minor details that are wrong. For example, one of Carlon’s stories says: “T think I was about four years old when Dad (Patrick Carlon) bought the farm at Burragorang, then the headquarters of the Kamileroi tribe that claimed sovereignty over a tract of country much larger than the present County of Camden ...” (Cuneo, 1899). Although any Burragorang Aboriginal from that time would have affirmed that they were gunduyara - not Kamileroi - yet another story tells of an Aboriginal runner arriving at the Bur- ragorang, carrying a message-stick from the Ed- wards River, being welcomed and “escorted to the boundary of the Kamilaroi dominions ...”. Maybe this particular misconception origi- nated from the name of “Comleroy” Road — the first road north from Sydney dating back to the early 1800’s — which turns north from the Bell’s Line Road at the approach of Kurrajong town- ship (today’s road turns north at Windsor). There is also a misnamed Mount Kamilaroi near the Nattai/Wollondilly junction. But, what- ever its origin, systematic mis-information like “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 23 this demonstrates that popular stories of the time, about Sydney, relied very little upon first hand information obtained from actual Aborig- inal people who were often the subjects of dis- cussion. MISSIONARY CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHILOLOGY ? At the other extreme, E.J. Telfer’s book tells the story of missionary work at La Perouse. How a Christian Endeavourer, who initially went there to install a stove at the old Customs House, was shocked to find that white people often came from the city to: “lure the dark folk into sin. They brought cards and dice, and taught the natives to gamble, drink, and swear. ...Miss Watson, before be- ing appointed a missionary, some- times stayed in Sydney on Saturday nights and sought out the aborigines around Paddy’s Markets, shield- ing them from temptation, keep- ing them from hotels, and getting them home early ...[she] walked from Stanmore to La Perouse, a dis- tance of at least nine miles, return- ing home in time for the evening service ...there were many adver- saries. Many of the white residents, who had been benefiting themselves through the credulity and defence- lessness of the aborigines, regarded the advent of the missionary with suspicion and aversion, realising, no doubt, that hope of their gains was gone...” (Telfer, 1949, pp. 39-41). On the surface this sounds almost rational but there were also reports (refer Missionary Journals) of zealous converts running from tent to tent at the Port Kembla Aboriginal camp hysterically shouting “Its Christ you want. I was once like you, but now I am satisfied”. Miss Retta Dixon (who married L.W. Long) replaced Miss J. Watson, serving as the mission- ary at La Perouse from 1898 to 1905. In 1973 some papers were deposited with the Australian Institute for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Is- lander Studies by E.C. Long - the retiring di- rector of the Aborigines Inland Mission who was also, importantly, the son of Retta Dixon. He seems to be attributed with the claim that “...Miss Dixon ..., along with Miss Everitt, was one of the first resident missionaries at La Perouse” (Organ 1993, p. 200). Now this is an interesting proposition. Mary Everitt had a busy and distinguished career as a teacher and educationalist from the time of her graduation in December 1878 (from the then co-educational Fort Street Teacher Training School, in Observatory Hill, Sydney) till her retirement as Head-Mistress of the Girls Department at the Crystal Street Public School at Petersham on 31st July 1909. The only break in this long career, during which time she could have “resided” at La Perouse, were the “two full years” 1896 and 1897 which she took off - supposedly because of “increasing short sight ...it was only the chance of at last getting suit- able spectacles that justified my application for re-admission into the service in January 1898” (Everitt, 11 Nov. 1908). This “broken service” cost her nearly 20 years worth of accrued superannuation, up to 1896, the Chief Inspector of the New South Wales Department of Public Instruction decid- ing flatly to keep her contributions. Upon re- joining the New South Wales teaching service in 1898, she mentions having thereafter “insured my life instead of contributing to the Superan- nuation Fund” (Everitt, 11 Nov. 1908). Both Miss Watson and Mary Everitt moved on, in 1898, when Retta Dixon was appointed to La Perouse. And there is absolutely no documentary evidence that Mary Everitt was a missionary or even religious. None of Mary Everitt’s letters mention Christianity. E.J. Telfer’s classic book doesn’t mention her once! Nor do the early missionary newspapers. Surely a founding missionary in the same league as Retta Dixon, one who supposedly knew Retta Dixon, would have been mentioned somewhere 24 ILLERT in these latter sources - at least once - if it were true. It seems, by the 1970’s, the descendants of the La Perouse Christian Endeavourers started to find it convenient to retrospectively imagine links between their ancestors and people like Mary Everitt who was clearly not bent on ex- tinguishing “heathen” language and culture but, rather, made a great effort to document and pre- serve it. In contrast, where in the missionary journals of that time are the joyous accounts of Aboriginal words and songs being saved along with souls? What we do reliably know about Mary Everitt is that she was one of three daugh- ters born to the carpenter John Everitt and Martha Susannah Thomas who were married in St Lawrence’s Church of England, George Street, Sydney, in 1853. Their first daughter Jane had been born at Petersham in 1850 and baptised there in St Peter’s Church of England, Cooks River. Mary herself was born in 1854 and baptised at St Lawrence’s Church of Eng- land in Sydney, whilst Emily was born in 1858 at Kensington. John Everitt died young shortly after the birth of his third daughter. In December 1878, at the age of 24 years, Mary was awarded her teacher training qual- ification from the Fort Street Teacher Train- ing School in Sydney. As a temporary assis- tant she attended Sussex Street from 16 January 1879, Ashfield from 9 March 1880, and Parra- matta South from 8 April 1880. She was ap- pointed Mistress in charge of the Girls Depart- ment at Wagga Wagga School from 1 October 1880 where she had the additional responsibil- ity of supervising student-teachers in the class rooms. Many years later, one of the student- teachers from that time, the subsequently fa- mous poet Mary Gilmore (whose portrait was painted by William Dobell) reminisced with de- light about the experience (McPherson, 1997, p. 54). On Ist October 1883 Mary Everitt was given the important position of Mistress in charge of the Bathurst Girls High School which was one of only three within New South Wales at the time (ie Sydney, Bathurst & Goulburn. Maitland Girls High did not start till the fol- lowing year). By 1st July 1885 Mary was given the ex- tremely important and senior position of Prin- cipal of the Hurlestone Training School, which was the first training institution exclusively for women-teachers within New South Wales It was from here that she resigned on 31st December 1895. When she reapplied for admission into the teaching service, on 28th December 1897 she was appointed Mistress in charge of the Girl’s Department at the Superior Public School at South Parramatta (now the Parramatta Public School in Macquarie Street) where she stayed for a decade. It was during this period, particu- larly in the years 1900 and 1901, that she visited Bessy Simms and Queen Emma at La Perouse and made field-trips to the Upper Wollondilly to the Nulla Nulla Camp to gather the necessary material to write her paper on the Gundungara Aboriginal language. On 17th August 1907 she was appointed Mistress in charge of the Girls Department at the Crystal Street Public School, at Petersham, from which she retired aged 55 years on 31st July 1909 due, supposedly, to “a kind of chronic bronchial asthma which promises to affect my work ...”. When Mary Everitt died, aged 83 on 23 June 1937, she was a resident of Cronulla Street, Hurstville - within about 10 miles of La Perouse. We don’t know if today’s Everitt Street at Maroubra was named after her. The first missionary at La Perouse in the early 1890’s, Miss J. Watson, lived at Stanmore and walked to La Perouse and back each week- end (Telfer, 1949, p. 14). Her successor in 1898, Retta Dixon, was a resident of Petersham - the same general neighbourhood as the Everitt fam- ily. Educated women were uncommon in those times so it is indeed likely that Miss Watson and Mary Everitt, perhaps even Retta Dixon, grew up together and attended the same local schools and educational institutions. It is also likely that Mary Everitt did initially find her way to the La Perouse mission strolling along with Miss Watson on a Saturday afternoon in the early 1890’s. As a teacher Mary is even “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 25 likely to have donated some of her weekend time giving lessons at La Perouse to elevate literacy and numeracy amongst the Aboriginal people and she may actually have resided there during the years 1896 and 1897 with Miss Watson. But it does not follow that Mary Everitt was, herself, a missionary or even religious. Her claimed bronchial problem (Everitt, 12 June 1901) may have necessitated some time in the sun at the seaside to recover, or she may have wanted to help her friend Miss Watson, or she may have been motivated by social justice con- siderations, or some combination of these fac- tors. But, whatever her contributions at La Per- ouse, the known missionaries of the time chose not to record them. SCHOLARSHIP AND PUBLICATION Of far greater importance was the fact that Mary Everitt knew, and was personally known by, an amazing number of leading Aboriginal El- ders from that time. Her correspondence of the 19th and 24th of June 1901 lists letters from or conversations with Bessy Simms, Granny Giles, Emma Timbery, Lizzy Malone, Clara Phillips (“Gungee”), Kate Saunders, Jimmy Lowndes and Robert Racklin in contrast to the published paper (Mathews & Everitt, 1900) which, true to form for R.H. Mathews, mainly lists male Elders by name: “Jerry Murphy a native of Bega, and also a resident for many years at Cooma, Steve of Braid- wood, [William] Budthong of Shoal- haven, [George] Timbery of Wollon- gong, Ned Caroll of Goulburn; and ...many others, including some old women...” With the exception of William Russell the male informants listed in this paper, obviously by Mathews, are from everywhere other than the Burragorang and every tribe other than the gundunara Yet the language is gunduyara and it is demonstrably women’s language. For ex- ample the paper claims that: ‘There are two genders, the mascu- line denoting the male sex; and the feminine, denoting the female sex; generally expressed by the use of different words. “bowwil” = man; “bullan” = woman. The sex of an- imals may also be distinguished by the prefixes “go-wul” = male, and “ngo-wal” = female’. These “prefixes” are actually the words gu(n):w(ur)ul(a) = lazy (i.e. not “male”; refer to Appendices 4 and 5), and ynu(ru):w(ur)ul(a) = busy, industrious (i.e. not “female”; refer to Note B “stamping hand” and Appendix 2 “twin- kling star’). And, whilst bula:n = pair of breasts may actually be a complimentary word for “woman”, bu(lu:i:dar):w(urula):w(ur)ul(a) = dwarf or midget (probably referring to pe- nis size) is not a complimentary or correct word for “man”. Clearly a female informant was responsible for this vocabulary! R.H. Mathews himself, was clearly uncer- tain over gundunara gender expressions when he wrote in his solo paper: “...the males of ani- mals are distinguished by the addition of goom- ban, and the females dhoorook ... Others again have the suffix koual for the male, and noual for the female ...” (Mathews, 4 Oct. 1901, p. 142). One could well ask what was the supposed difference? Furthermore a note written by Mary Everitt (Long, 1973), attached to an offprint of the 1900 paper, specifically states: “as taught to me by Mrs Bessie Simms, at La Perouse, in about half a dozen lessons between July and November 1900. ... Mrs Simms ...advised me to verify her gram- mar ...at Burragorang. This gram- mar, however, is Mrs Simms only, and is based upon Dr Roth’s method ) 26 ILLERT ...so much for Mathews’ male “informants”. R.M.W. Dixon (Dixson, 1980) has conjec- tured that “Mathews frequently doctored his field-notes for publication” but, not actually knowing the gundunara language, he was un- able to convincingly demonstrate or quantify the full extent of it. However we can give ex- amples from the paper (Mathews and Everitt, 1900). (a) Mary Everitt heard “ben-g:u:l-warea” for the expression duyn-g:i:lu-wuru = my rear. This mishearing of dq as “b” is so wrong and dis- tinctive (see Note A) that she self-corrected this mistake elsewhere. R.H. Mathews how- ever, perpetuating the mistake in 1904, served up “ben:g:a:l:” (“back”) supposedly as a “ngun- nawal” word from Ned Carrol of Goulburn (see Appendix 3(i) and Mathews, 1904). Likewise, in The Evening Star Song (Ap- pendix 2), Mary Everitt mis-phoneticised garu as “Jirra”, evidently hearing g as “j’. And sure enough, three years later, R.H. Mathews (1903) faithfully parroted garu as “jarra’ in his allegedly “thurrawal” word “bulla:jarra::ng:” (“shine”) which is obviously bulu-garu:(i)- p(uy:nura) = going down there(distant). And there are too many other examples like this. Incidentally, in 1901, the correct verb gul(a):i = shine(ing) (as in “shining star”, Ap- pendix 2) had actually been given by Mathews as a supposedly “dharruk” word “killi” (“shine”). So we begin to see another even more alarming problem here. These words do not represent the same concept (’shining’) in different languages as Mathews claimed. They are actually different concepts within the same universal south east Australian Aboriginal language which, through ignorance, Mathews perceived as several dif- ferent Aboriginal languages - “thoorga”, “thur- rawal”, “dharruk”, “gundungurra”, “ngunnawal” and “ngarrugu”. (b) Mary Everitt quite astutely recorded Bessy Simms’ phrase mu(ra):n:nu(ru) g(ura):i- pu(y):nin dun-g:i:lu-wuru = run - come here (approach) - my rear. R.H. Mathews frugally broke this into two components, in 1904 serv- ing up come-running, mu(ra):n:nu(ru) g(ura):i, as a supposedly “ngunnawal” word “come” and then, in 1908, the other half approach my rear, gura:(i-nuy:nin) duy-g:i:lu-(wuru), as its sup- posedly “ngarrigu” counterpart “come”. One can’t just cut a phrase in half like this and ex- pect both halves to still mean the same thing. The logic of this is presented in a concise and visually obvious way in Appendix 3(i) and, af- ter thoughtful study, the reader will notice that R.H. Mathews again parroted Mary Everitt’s distinctive telltale misphoneticisation of the d sound (as “b”) in his 1904 and 1908 papers. This isn’t gratuitous speculation. From the point of view of probability theory, the likeli- hood of all these “coincidences” occurring simul- taneously is multiplicative, hence diminishingly small. There can be little doubt that Mathews obtained these words, complete with distinc- tive misphoneticisations, from Mary Everitt’s gunduyara material to which he had access at least since the year 1900. (c) But the most telling example arises from Mary Everitt’s quite correctly given expressions for sun-set and sun-rise (see Appendix 1). Ina careless slip, Mary Everitt gave the sentence I will come running back here at sunrise - with the wrong accompanying translation “will run I back sun will sink, or, I shall return at sun- set” (see Appendix 3(ii)). This was all R.H. Mathews needed. Now armed with gunduyara phrases for sun-rise and sun-set, but unknown to him with their meanings switched, he care- fully extracted the noun-phrase “sun”, dula:n- win = orbiting thing, leaving behind what he thought must, by a process of elimination, mean something like “going up/down” (see Appen- dices 1 and 7). And, had these meanings not been switched, Mathews’ footsteps would have been invisible and he would have gotten away with misleading statements in his 4 Oct. 1901 paper which was, significantly, published overseas without any acknowledgement of Mary Everitt, nor even a reference to their previously published “joint paper” from which he drew pho- netic data. Specifically, in his 4 Oct 1901 solo paper Mathews opined ‘A prepositional mean- ing is often obtained by a verb; thus, instead “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR Pati of having a word for “up” or “down’, a native will say, boomaningga = up I will go; woorara- muningga = down I will go’. Now this is simply untrue; bulu means up, and bulu means down, and the language has a precise Boolean algebra employing these words. The Appendices clearly show how up and down were actually used. The only reason Mathews had a “verb” was be- cause that’s what was left from the expressions “sun goes up/down” (in Appendix 1) once the noun-phrase “sun” is removed. To make it a bit less obvious he installed the word here in place of there giving quite wrong expressions bu(lu)-nu(y):nin-ga(ru:i) = “boo-ma:nin-gga:” = down here(close) gofing], and wuru:(nu)ra- nu(y):nin-ga(ru:i) = “woora:ra-mu:nin-gga:” = away-yonder(distant) here(close) goes (this is a self contradictory jumble, and a bad guess). Mary Everitt’s examples, carefully analysed in our Appendices 1, 2 and 3, clearly show the logic of something coming-here(close) or going- there(distant), but it is absurd, if not logically forbidden, to make Mathews’ combinations of coming-there(distant) or going-here(close) - even in English it is wrong. Mary Everitt gave no examples of these wrong cases. Her gram- mar makes complete sense whilst Mathews’ is logically absurd. As a woman, Mary Everitt wouldn’t have been encouraged to either write a solo paper or to personally present it to the Royal Society of New South Wales. Protocol of the time required that it be done through a male intermediary, in this instance by R.H. Mathews who was clearly muddling the roles of referee and co-author. Yet even whilst Mary Everitt’s grammar was being “refereed” by Mathews for the Royal Society of New South Wales, he must have, in the author’s opinion, also been plagiarising her phonetic data to secretly write his solo paper for the Pro- ceedings of the American Philosophical Society. This follows when one considers the months of delay required for sea-mail first from Australia to America, then for a reply back to Australia, then for Mathews’ reply to the reply plus, of course, refereeing and ultimately printing - all by 4th October 1901. Even with modern e-mail it can take a year or more to get a scholarly paper refereed and published. The author sees abuse of trust at every level. The kindest interpretation is that, by mid 1900, Mathews was flustered at the prospect of some genuine field-work by a professional grammarian of Mary Everitt’s calibre and that this triggered perhaps uncharacteristic intellec- tual dishonesty on his part. However R.M.W. Dixon takes a stronger position, pointing out that Mathews routinely falsified his field notes over a period of many years and that all of his 170 published papers are therefore potentially suspect. Whatever the case R.H. Mathews used his influence to promote his alleged expertise in the coastal “Thurrawal language” and also the masculiness (hence presumed reliability) of his named Aboriginal informants - as compared to Mary Everitt’s informants “many others, includ- ing some old women” (Mathews & Everitt, 1900, p. 262). This self-serving and irrational compar- ison left Mary Everitt, on 12 June 1901, defen- sively explaining to the editor of The Bulletin that she had personally known: “’..the late Mrs [Lizzy] Malone (from whom Ridley [1875] got his Turruwul and Wodi- Wodi words) ...I have many Turruwul words, and have studied the language a little, but don’t pretend to understand it. With the Gundungurra, however, it is different. I have made it a study for many months, and wrote a little grammar on it which was incorporated in a paper by a member of the Royal Society [R.H. Mathews], and read by him before that body last December. I sent them last February (solely on my own account) drawings and descriptions of rock carvings at Burragorang, which they accepted, but afterwards said the paper was too short, and desired something added. I added the enclosed tradition, and had already sent it to the member who had engaged to communicate it, when a point of difference taken by me at this person decided me 28 ILLERT to take back the whole paper, and withdraw it altogether. I am not a member of the Royal Society myself, but the little I have had to do with [it] impresses me with their courtesy and fair play. My objection is not in the least to them. I only tell you this to show you how carefully and thoughtfully I have studied the subject. The drawing will follow, if all be well, for your examination, in a few days. My address [Superior Public School, Parramatta] will show you I have but little time for my recreation, i.e. the blacks, but I am asking for three months leave because of the severe colds I catch in Parramatta, and then (if I be successful) I might see the Burragorang again and be quite sure about the pigment on the caves [see Note B]. I am sure as it is, & others agree with me but the subject is hard ...I couldn’t take your pay, being a Government servant ...[{also] would you mind returning my cave-painting paper at once, if you don’t want it, as I might make other use of it. And do you know I think we lose points of ethnological interest by paraphrasing the poor blackfellows traditions. The very one I sent you helps corroborate the theory of the enormous time they have been here - and is one among many that geologists do not disdain to notice - I refer here to the loose sand being turned into sandstone. You know that [Rev. Julian] Tenison-Woods believed the Hawkesbury Basin to be all of blown sand formation, and all agree that some of it was. Perhaps the poor darkies were here - but I got lost when I tried to study this among the geologists terrifying millions”. And, how convenient it was for Mathews that his male elders were all sufficiently far away that Mary Everitt would have experienced dif- ficulty consulting them and cross-checking his information. Undeterred, the pesky woman be- gan writing letters, specifically citing: “'..a letter from Robert Racklin ...well up on his countryman’s ways, a fully initiated member of the Numba Tribe [in the Shoalhaven] ...1 keep carefully the few letters I have received from any of his peo- ple” (Everitt, 10 July 1901). Thus the break with Mathews occurred in record time, and Mary Everitt was committed to working without his interference. The mate- rials sent to the editor of The Bulletin demon- strate that, in addition to linguistic research, Mary Everitt had amassed enough information for several papers about cave-paintings, rock- carvings, and traditional legends. THE GREAT LOSS Unfortunately, however, the handicap of being a woman in that age was too great. Despite vig- orous efforts, nothing further by Mary Everitt made its way past (male) editors into print. To the enduring shame of the scholarly community of that time, Mary Everitt’s extensive and pre- cious collection of linguistic and anthropologi- cal materials was almost all lost at the time of her death. It was known to contain historic pic- tures, taken by the photographer J. Robinson of Carlton, of prominent 19th century Aboriginal Elders including: “’..a much faded group of Granny Giles, her brother, my old friend Jimmy Lowndes, Mrs Amm (still alive), and another man, whom I never knew, and who is dead ...” (Everitt, 24 June 1901). Also there were Mary Everitt’s extensive field-notes and diaries containing precious pho- netic data and historical materials, along with the letters she received from Aboriginal corre- spondents and “kept carefully”. Amongst this was “the lark song” and an Aboriginal language account (i.e. the Aboriginal version) of the April 1770 Botany Bay landing of Captain Cook as told by: “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 29 “Granny Giles’ husband - Old Cooman, or Goomung, [the] great grandfather of Mrs Timbery. He was a tiny child when Capt. Cook came. He was alive, an extremely old man, when Dunbar was wrecked (in 1859)”. (Everitt, 12th and 24th of June 1901) Popular accounts of “Saturnalian” activi- ties at La Perouse (Cohen, 1890), combined with R.H. Mathews’ dismissal of Bessy Simms, Queen Emma and Granny Giles as merely “ .. others, including some old women” (Math- ews & Everitt, 1900), had the cumulative effect of portraying Mary Everitt’s Aboriginal linguis- tic informants as unimportant and unreliable. In fact they were “Aboriginal Royalty” with a direct bloodline to Spear-man, gu:mu, who had thrown spears at Captain Cook’s landing party 130 years previously. That they were still in residence on their own traditional lands, with continuously transmitted stories and oral tradi- tions, spoke volumes for their reliability as lin- guistic informants. This is precisely why Math- ews, in the author’s opinion, used gender as a weapon, not only to write Mary Everitt out of history but also her Aboriginal informants. Although much of National Heritage value was lost when Mary Everitt died, at least some of her precious materials did miraculously sur- vive — however the traditional Aboriginal own- ers have understandably decided not to share with the broader Australian community whose Federal Court recently refused to hear their na- tive title claim. We will respect this decision by relevant Aboriginal elders. A PHOTOGRAPH FROM THE 1901 FIELD TRIP ? Mary Everitt’s two letters respectively dated 12th and 19th June 1901, both have the re- turn address Superior Public School, Parra- matta. She must then have obtained the re- quested three months leave, “...to see the Bur- ragorang again ...”, as her letters respectively dated 24 June and 10th July 1901, both have the return address at Bargo Road, Upper Pic- ton which is, essentially, Thirlmere. Jim Smith (1991. p. 9) comments that “',.Cuneo ...met Miss Everitt”. We don’t know quite where he obtained that piece of in- formation, but it is probably true as we know that in late June and early July 1901 she posted letters to the editor of The Bulletin whilst at Thirlmere, and probably received at least one reply prior to setting off for the Burragorang, and Cuneo was the Thirlmere Postmaster at the time. But one should not read too much into it. Most likely, Mary Everitt was staying with Mr M. Feld of Picton whom she had prob- ably visited the previous year and encouraged to publish his reminiscences. In any case, by 1901 Charles Butler’s coach service was running on a regular basis between Camden and Yerranderrie and it continued to do so till 1917 - see photos in (Barrett, 1995, pp. 9 & 12). Mary Everitt and her niece would most likely have taken the coach this time, either by catching the train back to Camden or else by travelling overland to The Oaks and catching the coach from there. Whilst at The Oaks they may have met A.L. Bennett, setting him on the path collecting his: “fairly complete vocabulary of Gon- dun-gorra words and legends, which I trust may some day be printed for the information of those interested” (Russell, 1914). The Yerranderrie coach would have de- scended 2000 feet into the valley from Nattai, crossing the Nattai River near its junction with the Wollondilly River, thence proceeding along the eastern bank of the Wollondilly River, cross- ing at the old ford at Coleman’s Bend, from whence it was a short journey back to the Nulla Nulla camp on Byrnes Creek. This itinerary was a bit circuitous but preferable to riding horses directly from Thirlmere down Little River, to the Nattai, thence following the stagecoach route. But one does not know, difficulty did not seem to deter 30 ILLERT Mary Everitt and this may be exactly what they did do on both occasions. Thirlmere was a bit out of the way for travellers intending to catch the new coach. There is a wonderful photograph from this time, which could be of Mary Everitt and her niece standing in front of the Red Hands Cave at Bimlow in mid 1901 (Barrett, 1995, p. 116), the very picture sent to the editor of The Bul- letin but never published. Also in the picture are a couple of lads, one on a horse that has a distinctive “M” brand on its shoulder - there- fore probably a local guide from the Maxwell’s mini-village at Bimlow which is now submerged in the reservoir (Barrett, 1995, p. 43). A second classic photograph (Barrett, 1995, p. 48) shows what could even be the same pair of “lady walk- ers” at the Kill farmhouse in 1917. It looks like an auntie and her niece, albeit 16 years later, and the older woman’s hat seems to match the 1901 photograph. At the very least these pic- tures show the places and the clothing of the period. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper is in support of and in part fulfilment of the requirements of a Ph.D. by the author, at the University of Western Sydney, supervised by Professor Stuart Campbell. The author is grateful to the anonymous referee who made valuable suggestions for improving this paper, also to Daniela Reverberi, Michael Organ of Wollongong University, John Laurent of Grif- fith University, Mary McPherson of the Open Training and Education Network at Strathfield, Mae Vanderschaar of The Book Gallery at Moss Vale and Jim Barrett of Glenbrook, for help- ing to locate relevant information and provid- ing valuable feedback as this paper developed. The author also acknowledges the encourage- ment and ongoing support of the La Perouse Ko- rewal/Eora Bloodline Aboriginal People’s Tra- ditional Resident Elders Council and, in partic- ular, the several surviving Simms elders still in residence at La Perouse, who were girls when Mary Everitt visited their family many decades ago and who still personally remember her! NOTES (A) Ambiguity in the pronunciation and spelling of south-east Australian Aboriginal words can be reduced through the use of an al- phabet of only 18 characters, comprising 4 “vow- els” and 14 “consonants”, as below: ab 0 do. Qs ieee a Uo Rh ft 0 ee where u = aya. This phonology contains no vowels e or o, and none of the consonants c, f, h, j, k, p, q, s, t, v, x or z. Probably there is no y either. The four allowable “vowels” are a, i, u and u though the latter, actually a vowel-consonant-vowel cluster, is not strictly a vowel but it behaves like one. This notation constitutes an almost standard usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet - the exception being that (for typographical rea- sons) we’ve commandeered the handy keyboard character u as above. For a general overview of Australian phonetics see (Yallop, 1982). (B) The answer to The Bulletin editor’s ques- tion is that the hand imprintations in the Bim- low cave are in red ochre. Hence it has come to be called red-hands cave. The Aborigi- nal name for the cave was murula:n:g(ula:i)- gulu:n(uru):gun:g(un) = hand imprintations which was given as “murrolu:n:g::gulu:ng::” by William Russel in 1914 (W. Russell, 1914, p. 20), and as “murrolu:n:::::gun:g” by Jimmy Pip- pen in 1890 (J. Barrett, 1994, p. 93). murulain = five-things whilst gula:i = shining can also mean radiating-vitality hence living. Thus mu- rula:n:gula:i = five-living-things/fingers] is just a word meaning hand. gulu (as in koala bear) usually means lethargic or petrified or fossilised but, in this case, it means an imprintation. yuru-gun:gun = extremely-oscillatory captures the notion of hands stamping or smacking the cave wall. Hence gulu:n:gun:g means stamped- imprintations. (C) The verb malu:i = blocking, obstructing, shielding occurs in the song in Appendix 2. “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 31 In fact, the name of a small bark shield used to deflect spears was recorded as “mela:tho:n” (L. Atkinson, 1853) deriving from the noun malu-du(la):n = blocking/obstructing thing = [a] shield. | We also have the completely equivalent expression “hila:ma:n” (J. Rowley, 1875) and “ilee:mo:n” (W. Tench, 1788) de- riving from dula-ma(lu)-n. Additionally the place-name “mul:warrie’, said by C. Macalister (1907) to mean “long water”, actually derives from mal(u)-wuru(la) = obstruction-s(plural) = “cataracts”. REFERENCES Archives Office of New South Wales, reel 6065, 4/1798, p. 44. Atkinson, L. 1853, Pen and watercolor illus- tration titled “Plate 29” depicting Aborigi- nal artefacts, with Aboriginal titles and notes in English. Mitchel library, in the Charlotte Barton folio PXA 579, vol. 2, f.4. Barralier, F. 1802, JOURNAL OF AN EXPE- DITION TO THE INTERIOR OF N.S.W, Historical Records of New South Wales vol. 5, Apendix A. “Barrett; J, a) 1993, THE COX’s RIVER, self-published, Glenbrook. b) 1994, PLACE NAMES OF THE BLUE MOUNTAINS & BURROGORANG VAL- LEY, self-published, Glenbrook. c) 1995, LIFE IN THE BURRAGORANG, self-published, Glenbrook. Bean, C.E.W. 1910. ON THE WOOL TRACK, pp. 251 Bell., D. and Illert, C. 1999, MUNUNJA THE BUTTERFLY, THE FIRST BILINGUAL STORYBOOK IN TRADITIONAL ABO- RIGINAL LANGUAGE FROM SOUTH- EASTERN, Department of Education and Training, Canberra. Bulmer, Rev. J. 1850’s. Collected papers, An- thropology Department (National) Museum of Victoria, Melbourne. Also see R.B. Smyth, 1876 and E.M. Curr, 1888. Carroll, L. 1911 in L.L. Gillespie, 1984, ABO- RIGINES OF THE CANBERRA REGION, self published, Canberra. Cohen, P., 26 May 1890, Letter to the Editor. Sydney Morning Herald. Cuneo, W.A. 1893, press clipping, ‘A Brain Record’, Mitchell Library MSS ND. Cuneo, W.A. 1899, ‘minute’, Australian Mu- seum Archives C84/1899, Curr, E.M. 1887, THE AUSTRALIAN RACE, in four volumes, Government Printer, Mel- bourne. Dawes, W. 1790, GRAMMATICAL FORMS OF THE LANGUAGE OF NEW SOUTH WALES, IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF SYDNEY ..., manuscript in the Marsden Collection, School of African and Oriental Studies, University of London. Dixon, R.M.W., a) 1976, ‘Review of S.A. Wurm ...’, Language 52: 260-266, pp. 263. b) 1980, THE LANGUAGES OF AUS- TRALIA. Cambridge University Press, pp. 15 and 367. Eades, D.K. 1976, THE DHARWAL AND DHURGA LANGUAGES OF THE N.5,W. COAST, Australian Institute for Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. Elkin, A.P., December 1975, ‘R.H. Mathews, his contribution to Aboriginal studies - part 2’. Oceania XLVI(2): 126-153. Everitt, M.M., a) 12 June 1901, Letter to A.G. Stephens (Editor, The Bulletin), sent from the Supe- rior Public School, Parramatta. Held in the Hayes Collection, University of Queensland Library, # 2/950a. b) 19 June 1901, Letter to A.G. Stephens (Editor, The Bulletin), sent from the Supe- rior Public School, Parramatta. Held in the Hayes Collection, University of Queensland Library, # 2/950b. 32 ILLERT c) 24 June 1901, Letter to A.G. Stephens (Ed- itor, The Bulletin), sent from Bargo Road, Upper Picton. Held in the Hayes Collection, University of Queensland Library, # 2/950c. d) 10 July 1901, Letter to A.G. Stephens (Ed- itor, The Bulletin), sent from Bargo Road, Upper Picton. Held in the Hayes Collection, University of Queensland Library, # 2/950d. e) 9 May 1908, Telegram from M. Everitt to D. Cooper, Principal Senior Inspector of Schools. Also the Inspector’s reply note. Crystal Street School, file 1902-13, Bundle B, New South Wales State Records Office ref: 5/15600.B. f) 11 Nov 1908, Letter to Principal Senior In- spector, Dept. Public Instruction, sent from Girl’s Department, Superior Public School, Crystal Street, Petersham. Also reply by the Inspector, dated 19 November 1908. Crys- tal Street School, file 1902-13, Bundle A, New South Wales State Records Office ref: 5/15600.A. Feld, M., 23 July 1900, ‘Myths of the Burrago- rang Tribe’. Science of Man 3(3): 99. Hilder, W. 1988, FITZROY FALLS AND BE- YOND. The Budawang Committee. pp. 80- Sa. Hill, R., 5 June 1890, Letter to the Editor. Syd- ney Morning Herald. Howlitt, A.W. 1904, NATIVE TRIBES OF SOUTH-EAST AUSTRALIA, McMillan, New York. Hunter, J. 1793, AN HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE TRANSACTIONS AT PORT JACKSON AND NORFOLK ISLAND, John Stockdale, London. Illert, C., a) 1998, THE MAYRAN CLAN OF GUN- DUNGARA. Northern Illawarra Aboriginal Cooperative. b) 1999, Maria’s Lullaby, in THERE IS NO MYSTERY, AN ARTISTIC RESPONSE TO LAKE GEORGE, pp. 47, 48 and 172. K. Ki- tuai (Ed.). Ginninderra Press, Canberra. c) August 2000, ‘The Last Shoalhaven Lore Master?’, Shoalhaven Chronograph (Shoal- haven Historical Society Inc.), 22(10), pp. 1-5. d) 2001, LEXIGENESIS IN ANCESTRAL SOUTH-EAST AUSTRALIAN ABROIGI- NAL LANGUAGE, preprint series, School of Languages and Linguistics, University of Western Sydney, pp. 42. Kirby, D.R. 1970, FROM SAILS TO ATOMS, THE FIRST 50 YEARS OF THE SUTHER- LAND SHIRE 1906-1956, Sutherland Shire Council, New South Wales. See the Picture 2, “Aborigines from Holt’s Property at Sylva- Lee ly] nla Kohen, J. 1993, in BLUE MOUNTAINS DREAMING, E. Stockton (Ed.). Three Sis- ters Publications, 1993, Pages 136-146 con- tain a small dictionary of words and a useful bibliography. Long, E.C. 1973, Handwritten note, MS 2671. Australian Institute for Aboriginal and Tor- res Strait Islander Studies collection. Lynch, “Billy”, 12 Dec. 1896, Interview pub- lished in The Sydney Mail. Lyne, C. 1882, INDUSTRIES OF NEW SOUTH WALES, pp. 213 MacAlister, C. 1907, OLD PIONEERING DAYS IN THE SUNNY SOUTH, George B. Philips & Son. Sydney Macquarie, L. 22 July 1814. The Governor’s formal “letter of instructions to leaders of the punative expedition against hostile natives”, New South Wales Archive Office (AONSW), reel 6044, 4/1730 Malone, L. in W. Ridley, 1875, pp. 99-115 Mann, J.F. 1840, “Australian Aborigines, a few notes on ...the language of Long Dick ...of the cammeray Tribe ...”. Manuscript. Mitchel Library, State library of New South Wales. Mathews, R.H., and Everitt, M.M., Dec. 1900, ‘The organisation, language and initiation “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 33 ceremonies of the Aborigines of the south- east coast of New South Wales’, Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Syd- ney, 34, 262-281. Mathews, R.H.., a) 4 Oct. 1901, ‘The Gundungurra Lan- guage’, Proceedings of the American Philo- sophical Society. XL(167), 140-148. Page 147 discusses “up” and “down”, and page 142 discusses “male” and “female”. b) 1901, ‘The Thurrawal/Gundongurra/ Dharruk Language[s]’, Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 35, 127-160. Page 160 gives the supposedly “Dharruk” word “killi” (“shine”). c) 1901, ‘The Thoorga Language’. Royal Ge- ological Society of Australasia Proceedings &8 Trans., Queensland 17, 49-74. d) Mathews, R.H. 1902, “The Aboriginal Lan- guages of Victoria’, Journal of the Royal So- ciety of New South Wales, 36, pp. 71-106. e) 1903, ‘Vocabulary of Kamilaroi and Thur- rawal words’. Journal of the Anthropological Institute Great Britain & Ireland 33, 259- 283. Page 279 gives the supposedly “Thur- rawal” word “bullajarrang” (“shine”). f) 1904, ‘The Wiradjuri and other Languages of N.S.W.’ Journal of the Royal Anthropologi- cal Institute, 34(2): 294-305. See page 303-5 for Ngunawal words. Page 305 lists the verb “come”. g) 1908, ‘Vocabulary of the Ngarrugu Tribe N.S.W.’, Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales 42(24), 335-342. Page 340 lists the verb “come”. McPherson, M., a) 1997, IT HAPPENED AT SCHOOL. Kan- garoo Press, Sydney. pp. 54 (letter from Mary Gilmore to Mr Hicks dated 2 July 1936). b) 1998, GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS OF N.S.W. 1848-1998, 150 YEARS. Open Train- ing and Education Network, New South Wales Department of Education and Train- ing. Page 234 discusses the history of school holidays in New South Wales. Meredith, J. 1989, THE LAST KOORADGIE. Kangaroo Press, Sydney. Missionary Journals, The NSW Aborigines Ad- vocate, Sydney, was a monthly newspa- per published from July 1901 to Feb 1908. The Australian Aboriginal Advocate, monthly from 1908 to 1929. The United Aboriginal Messenger, monthly from 1929 to 1987. “Oldfield, Dr R.” (pseudonym for Rev. Ralph Mansfield), Jan. 1828. The South-Asian Reg- ister (Sydney), No. 2, pp. 101-115 Oliver, A., 7 June 1890, Letter to the Editor. Sydney Morning Herald. O’Reilly, B. 1958, GREEN MOUNTAINS AND CULLENBENBONG. Smith & Patterson, Brisbane. Organ, M. 1993, ILLAWARRA AND SOUTH COAST ABORIGINES 1770-1900, Report for Australian Institute for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, vol. 2, p. 200. Parkinson, S. 1773, A JOURNAL OF A VOY- AGE TO THE SOUTH SEAS. London.See the plate titled “two of the Natives of New Holland, advancing to combat”, ML Q980/P. mitchel Library, State Library of New South Wales. Petit, N.D. and Dawson, W., early 1850’s. “Vocabulary List” in Howitt Manuscripts MS9356, La Trobe Collection, State Library of Victoria, Melbourne. Ridley, W. 1875, KAMILAROI AND OTHER AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. Thomas Richards & Co., Sydney Rowley, J. in W. Ridley, 1875, pp. 99-115 Roth, W.E. 1910, THE QUEENSLAND ABORIG- INES. Govt. Printer. Chapter XIII, pp. 169- 184, deals with “Ethno-pornography”. Russell, W., 16 February 1914, MY RECOL- LECTIONS. Reprinted by The Oaks Histori- cal Society, Oct. 1995, Smitha; a) 1990, ‘Wywandy and Therabulat - the Aborigines of the Upper Cox River’, Lithgow 34 ILLERT District Historical Society, paper 49. b) 1991, ABORIGINES OF THE BUR- ROGORANG VALLEY 1830-1960, Self- published. Smythe, R.B. 1876, THE ABORIGINES OF VICTORIA ..., in four volumes, Govern- ment Printer, Melbourne. Telfer, E.J. 1949, AMONGST AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES, FORTY YEARS OF MIS- SIONARY WORK, THE STORY OF THE UNITED ABORIGINES’ MISSION. Fraser, Melbourne. Tench, W. 1789/93, SYDNEY’S FIRST FOUR YEARS. Fitzhardinge, London. Threlkeld, L.E. 1834, AN AUSTRALIAN GRAMMAR ..., Stephen Stokes & Co., Syd- ney. Tompkins, J. 1907, WITH SWAG & BILLY. Warragamba Walking Club. Turbet, P. 1989, ABORIGINES OF THE SYD- NEY DISTRICT 1788. Kangaroo Press, Syd- ney. pp. 29-37 survey Aboriginal grammar. Yallop, C. 1982, AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES, Andre Deutsche & Co., Lon- don. See Chapter 3 on “Pronunciation”. “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 35 te Sa ee hs 5 dee M4 tae mane — AALS itt 1,8 eine Gil tiot t ven a id “— oer me praeire Met * ; c util ‘ Fai LF i y ii ” wt £ S. # z Vee fg of ee ‘ Meat ead af F \ Opt Ved fet AGGt Web bwl adv edgy Fe e From Sydney Parkinson’s A Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas, published in 1773. An engraving by Thomas Chambers, from a sketch by Sydney Parkinson, showing armed Botany Bay warriors on 28 April 1770 resisting the landing of Captain Cook’s men. In the rear is gu:mu:y = spear-man who was shot, and whose first-hand Aboriginal language account of the incident was preserved by Mary Everitt. The fanciful sword, held by the closer figure, is a boomerang or woomera. Note the two bullet holes in the shield. (By permission of The State Library of New South Wales) 36 [GEER Left: Queen Emma of La Perouse, the great granddaughter of Granny Giles, photographed at La Perouse in about 1900. From E.J. Telfer’s book, 1949. (Photo reproduced by courtesy of the La Perouse Korewal Elders Council) Below: This photograph: “Aborigines from Holt’s property of Sylanvia’, from page 25 of David Kirkby’s (1970) book From Sails to Atoms, the first fifty years of Sutherland Shire, shows “Granny Giles” = buru:y (sleepy/quiet person) in the front, with Jimmy Lowndes immediately be- hind her, amongst a group on Thomas Holt’s Syl- vania property in the 1870’s. This picture is one of several taken by J. Robinson of Carlton. An- other occurs along with an interesting article in the “St George Call”, 14th May 1904. (Photo re- produced by courtesy of the La Perouse Korewal Elders Council and the Sutherland Shire Council) “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 37 APPENDIX 1 sunrise and sunset In the gunduyara language sun-set isn’t so much a word as a concept that can be expressed by a phrase made from several fundamental words belonging to two interspliced expressions, a noun- phrase [the] sun and a verb-phrase going-down-there (= setting), in an interlocking sequence: = sun/moon LC , thing orbiting bu(lu) — d(vla:n) — ga(ru:i) — p(uy:nura) — win —— ee = down = going there (distant) Because such expressions can be unwieldly, taken whole, they are routinely “condensed” when spoken. In the above case all those words and portions of words within brackets were omitted a century ago when Bessy Simms gave the contracted version of this expression which Mary Everitt recorded as “bee:t::go::nya::winyoo” (“goes down sun’). Likewise sun-rise / dawn (= birth / commencement [of the] day) can be formed by splicing two expressions together, a noun-phrase [the] solar shine-cycle which [is] and a verb-phrase rising-up, in an interlocking sequence which can be counted-off using the alternate fingers of a hand: = [the] solar day which [is] eS EE ———————————EEE————Ee—ee [the] sun shine—cycle which [is] win:(dula:n) —i:bu(lu) — n(uru:gula) — bu(lu) — min )Sin up rising Eo = being born, commencing Again, all those words and portions of words within brackets were omitted a century ago when Bessy Simms gave the contracted version of this expression which was phonetisised and recorded by Mary Everitt as “win’yoo:::a:boo:ng’::ba:min” (“sun rises”) Sunrise, win’-yoo-a boong’-ba-min; lit., sun rises. 38 ILLERT APPENDIX 2 The gundunara Women’s Evening-Star (= Venus) Song Mary Everitt (1900) mentioned “having visited and camped with the natives of Burragorang, on the Wollondilly River ...” and recording the following evening-song “from the lips of some of the old women” whose menfolk were away participating in an initiation ceremony. Unfortunately she supplied no translation, because ‘our informants could not give us any meaning of the words of the(se) song(s), except that “jirran din-ngee” means sun going down ...’. But the sun and the moon aren’t the only celestial objects that rise and set, and the noun in this phrase is star (singular). di:n — y(uru):i —> “di:n - ng:ee ” = tinyciing — twinkling (singular) as in the repeat-word twinkling stars (dual or plural) "jin i nnurucng?? di:n — di:n — nuru — n(uru:i) — (“sparkling stars”) L. Malone, 1875, dariwul Hence the song: = setting EE EI RC down—there (distant) going * win —bu(lu) - nun:nu(ra) — gula — garu:i—di:n:y:i — ae Se eee orbiting shining star a / = Venus = which |rs| } entire mal(u:i) — wuru — min — gu(n):wuru(la) — ae SRR ETS [becoming] J = gradually shieded/obstructed [by the horizon] = vanishing “wam - ba’:oon:nee - (n)gala’ - jirra:n’ - di:n:ng:ee, mil::warroo - win - go:w’ra ” (= setting Venus which |is] gradually vanishing [below the horizon]) M.M. Everitt, 1900, gundunara Note: * R.H. Mathews (1903) parroted this distinctive mis-hearing of garu as “jarra” in his allegedly dariwul word, “bulla:jarra::ng:” (“shine”), which is obviously bulu-garu:(i)-n(un:nura) = going- down-there = “setting”. “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 39 APPENDIX 3 “come(ing)-here” We have now discussed celestial objects going down there (= setting). Mary Everitt also supplied the following examples of coming-here, in which words can occur together in sentences or interspliced as follows: i) come-run-ing [up] here behind me mu(ra):n:yu(ru) — g(vra):i - pu(y):pin — duy - g:i:lu:wuru a orc QoS ne a Se a = irun come here = approach = my rear “mu:n’:na - g:i:ngoo:nin - ben’:g:u:]:war’eea” (= “come up here to the back of me’) M.M. Everitt, 1900, Qunduyara ~~" | “mu:m:na - g:ai:: - ::::’(“come”), nunuwul ??? “sr enn - ben:g:a:l:” (“back”), nunuwul ??? ‘: = yerra::: - bin:g:a:lai:”(“come”), naragu ??? R.H. Mathews, 1904, 1908 ¢ ii) I [will] come running back here [at] sunrise mu(ra):n:qu(ru) — nu —_—_—e—eeesC/-— ” = Tun i = return = sunrise * pin:g(vra):i-— wi:lu — win:i:bu:y:bu—puy — ‘cence some! Noe SE EES = come here “mu:n’:na - ga nin’:g:a - w:i:lli(n) - win’yoo::boo:ng:ba - nig” (= “will run I back sun will sink, or, I shall return at sunset”) ???* M.M. Everitt, 1900, gundunara 40 ILLERT APPENDIX 4 lazy = “male” Bessy Simms was obviously joking when she said that the prefix denoting masculinity was “go’-wul”. This expression is a well known combination of two fundamental words: gun which can be translated as very, whilst wurula (the standard plural ending for nouns) translates as several or lots of. She obviously combined and contracted these two fundamental words as follows, gu(n):w(ur)ul(a) = gu:wul, creating an expression (literally “very lots of [time]”) which means gradually, slowly, “by-and-by” or lazy. And she was by no means the only person to ever give this expression or use it this way. It was the basis of “Black Maria’s Lullaby”, from Moss Vale, dating back to the 1830’s (Illert, 1999). Mary Everitt also recorded the expression gu(n):wuru(la) in the “Evening Star song” supplied here in Appendix 2. Even as early as 1793 Captain J. Hunter recorded the word gu(n):w(ur)ul(a):i as “the male of animals” = “cowull”, and “a shag or cormorant” = “gowalli”. Also “cooerwull’, in the sense of “trickling” instead of “gushing”, is the name of a brook at Lithgow and C. Lyne (1882) wrote of a homestead ‘...situated ...not far from ...the shores of a lake which in this part of the Colony is called, in the language of the Aborigines, a “cowall” or “cowell”.’ Furthermore, C.E.W. Bean (1910) advised “If one gets bogged in a creek or a cowal (which is a small tree-grown, swampy depression often met with in the red country) ...”. There even exists a widely recorded repeat-word meaning slowly, gradually or delayed (= plenty [of time]): gu(n): w(ur)ul(a) — gu(n) ; w(ur)ul(a) — — = very = lots of [time] = very = Jots-of [iime| “go:w:go:w” (“by and by”) “gu:wa:gu:” (“bye and bye”) “ko:w::wol” (“much”) M.M. Everitt, 1900, g:wa:gun: (“presently”) Dr. R. Oldfield, 1828, eora Gunduyara R. Dawes, 1790, eora “kau:wul::” (arge”) “co:wal:co:wal” “kau:wul:kau:wul” (“many”) “gau::gau::” (“by and by”) (“very big/many”) Rev. L.E. Threlkeld, 1834, R.H. Mathews, 1904, nunawul J.F. Mann, 1840, eora awabakal “ka:wal::” (“by and by”) E.M. Curr, 1887, durga hence to play wuru(la):g(un - wurula):gu(n) — — bul(u):i:ri el —, = delaying/ dithering/ wasting [time| to commence (or be) “wo:g::ga:bal:i:ri” (“play”), punuwul —— > |. “wurrarcci:ni’ (play or dance”), dariwal R.H. Mathews, 1904, 1903 “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 41 APPENDIX 5 trickling/flowing rivers The words dura = through, and bulu = down, can be combined to produce the verb dura:i:bulu = flowing, which we would expect to encounter in the word “river” because, after all, rivers flow down through the countryside. For example, traditional gundunara groups from the Upper Cox River have a well documented historical association with Hartley and Lithgow. Billy Lynch (Lynch 1896) in an interview described gunduyara people from the Kanimbla and Megalong sections as “therabulat” which just means [people from the] flowing [portion of the] river, deriving from a standard word creek / river (= flowing thing): dura:i:bulu — n:d(uvla) —> — YS ee = flowing thing [river] “thera::bula::t” (“the Cox’s River”) “tarra::pala::tt” (“the River Lett”) “s:le::tt” (“the River Lett”) Cullen, Lithgow Mercury, 1931 Billy Lynch, 1896, gunduyara Jenny Clay and Betsy Grant, 1880, gunduyara “tur:i:ba:n:” (“creek”) J.F. Mann, 1840, eora On the other hand those near the source of the Cox, centred on Pipers Flat Creek (which is still relatively unchanged and has a major concentration of art and camping sites), were called the “wywandy” meaning [people from the upper or] trickling [portion of the] watershed: = slowly = flowing ——— ) ima (gon):wuru(la:gun):wu(rvla) — n:(dula) — d(ura):i:(bulv) ——— thing [watershed] ... the same phrase occurring in the Yass vocabulary: LLC, ———— gu(n:wurula) — dura:du(la:n) — g(un:wurula) — b(ulv):i ee a “goo::dra:di::g::b:ee” —> | (“water falling over rocks” at site of present Burrinjuck Dam) Lucy Carroll, 1911, QNunuwul 42 ILLERT APPENDIX 6 “put(ing) into” A first fleeter William Dawes (1790) recorded the word “gnarra” (“a knot or to tie”) deriving from nara = spiral, coiled or looped. This word features in expressions for woven nets and baskets which Aboriginal people created in various clever ways, actually without any knots, using a variety of natural fibres. Also John Rowley (1875) recorded “rao:rao” “(net)” = gura:gura = into-into. Additionally there is a common adjective muru:gun = gentle(ly). Combining all this information provides a fuller expression for a net bag or woven basket (= woven thing into [which one] puts): gur(a) —bu(lu)-muru:(gun)-i— dula:(n) — y(ara) —> Se ee Ne oe into gently dropping = “putting" thing = net/woven ES putting—into thing = bag/basket VKarrs st: (Karrcst::)” (ashing net”). “‘qurb:mari-kds brieeilarung: (“woman’s [string net] bag”) R.B. Smyth, 1876, Yarra L. Atkison, 1853, Nunawul “ba: thutng’ (“net bag”) “sbaz::::dyu::ng” (“woman’s bag”) Rev. J. Bulmer, 1876, kurnai “-bu:::ddhu::ng” (“net bag”) R.H. Mathews, 1902, narugu, kurnai or yara— gur(a-bulu):mu(ru:gun):i-(dula:n) —> AT ae ee ne ee a Bn = net/woven = bag/basket “narray:m:li:’ (“a net”) “wgui:ma::::’ (“net bag’) Capt. J. Hunter, 1793, eora R.H. Mathews, 1901, darug oe = net/woven ; nl an, bulu:mu(ru):g(un):i— du(la):n— ya(ra) —gura ee ee ee eee ee ——- putting thing anto nr era ee reern mr -cf2 AACR o EA Sp ores ie, A ee ee = bag/basket “poolla::::da::noo:ko” (“woven basket”) “D::simnnu:k” (“woven basket”) “smoo:k:::::kurra” (“small square net used in streams”) R.B. Smyth, 1876, Southern Australia, Lower Murray We can see from this example exactly why celestial objects need to go-down-there(distant) as in Appendices 1 & 2. They don’t go-down-here(close) = bu(lu)-nu(y):pin-ga(ru:i) as R.H. Mathews asserted in his paper. Things may come-down-here(close) or be put-into something here(close). But anything else violates the natural Boolean logic of the language. “GUNDUNGURRA” GRAMMAR 43 APPENDIX 7 “Thoorga” = gunduyara ? We can demonstrate quite clearly that R.H. Mathews had the words sunrise and sunset inter- changed, consistent with Mary Everitt’s mistake (Appendix 3(ii)), and that he therefore didn’t properly understand the fundamental words of the language, or how they combine to make expres- sions. In one paper he gave the supposedly “Thoorga” words bag-go-ran kar-rick-bung-a-leen = sunrise and bag’goran = sun. From Appendix 1 it is clear that: bu(lu)-garu:(i) - p(uy:nura) — “ba:ggora::n:” = going down there (distant) is a standard verb (as in “setting of the sun”), and not the noun “sun” as R.H. Mathews claimed. The second expression combines this verb with the actual noun. dula:n-g ula-win = shining orbiting thing (= “sun”) as follows: —~ SS gar(u):i— d(ula:n) — bu(lu)-n(uy:nura) — gul(a):win ee ee ee — — “karr:i:ck::bu:n::gal:een” = setting sun . which is not the word “sunrise”, obtained from William Bothong of the Shaolhaven or otherwise, as elaaicd by R.H. Mathews. It is clearly a telltale expression, parroted complete with reversed meaning, from Mary Everitt’s (1900) gundunara grammar, leaving subsequent researchers such as Diana Eades (1976) to forlornely comment: ‘Although Mathews probably knew exactly what the phrase or sentence for “sunrise” here consisted of, we have no way of knowing. Because all his vocabularies are by no means extensive, all the elements in phrases such as the above cannot be analysed’. And there is even more to the colorful history of this particular expression for sunset. Whilst surveying the Omeo Road, in the 1850’s, N.D. Pettit and W. Dawson recorded from kurnai informants: ga(ru):i— d(vla:n) — bul(u)-p(uy:nura) — g(ula:win) Se coasts Bs be a, —> “gori:t::bil:yu::k:” ..explaining confidently that “goit-bil-yuk” literally meant “sun-in-west”. This level of misinformation, masquerading as informed opinion and unchallenged over the ensuing 150 years, clearly illustrates limitations not only in the primary 19th century linguistic data but, also, in subsequent scholarship. It is a good example of why we need to know how expressions are constructed and what individual words mean. 44 ILLERT Chris Illert, School of Languages and Linguistics, University of Western Sydney Address for correspondence: 2/3 Birch Crescent, East Corrimal, NSW 2518 A Ph.D. thesis on gundunara language, deduced largely from Mary Everitt’s (1900) paper, is currently in preparation by the present author for submission at the University of Western Sydney. Additional references are contained therin. (Manuscript received 8-06-2000, received in final form 5.7.2001) Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 45-45, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/010045-1 $4.00/1 Thesis Abstract: The Genesis and Tectonic Significance of Chromitite-bearing Serpentinites in Southern NSW IAN TERENCE GRAHAM Abstract of a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Technology, Sydney 2000 The Tumut Serpentinite Province consists of four major serpentinite belts and numerous small serpentinite bodies, that occupy a long narrow tract within the Lachlan Fold Belt of southern NSW. The tectonic setting of one belt, the Coolac Serpentinite Belt, has been con- tentious. Much of the uncertainty results from lack of a combined study on the major belts and inadequate age constraints. Resolving the un- certainty will benefit construction of a tectonic model for the evolution of the Lachlan Fold Belt. The belts mainly comprise massive serpen- tinite or harzburgite, with internal shear zones of schistose serpentinite, and intrusions of pla- giogranite, gabbro, basalt, pyroxenite, dunite and chromitite. The main foliation has a con- sistent NNW-SSE trend and is similar in the adjacent rock units. The various rock types of the serpentinite belts are geochemically akin to similar rocks from ophiolite sequences. Podiform chromitites are geochemically, mineralogically and geometrically akin to those in the mantle sequence of most ophiolites. The different chromitite types are interpreted in terms of the degree of evolution of the MORB- type magma and hence the extent of fractiona- tion of the source. Serpentinisation and rodin- gitisation occurred during progressive cooling of the chromitites and host rocks and were accom- panied by systematic fracturing and remobilisa- tion of chemical components. Radioisotope dating gives an age of crystalli- sation of 412-400 Ma for the plagiogranites and leucogabbros, whilst an inherited zircon age of 430 Ma appears to be derived from Early Sil- urian felsic volcanic rocks of the region. As the plagiogranites, leucogabbros and other rock types within the serpentinite belts have com- mon deformational and metamorphic histories, their crystallisation age constrains the ages of deformation and metamorphism. The serpentinite belts are interpreted as ophiolites of the ‘embryonic’ type that formed within a back-arc basin setting in the Late Silurian-Early Devonian. Crystallisation of the MORB sequence and emplacement onto conti- nental crust, together with metamorphism and deformation may have only spanned 20 Ma. In the Late Silurian to Early Devonian, the Tu- mut Serpentinite Province differed from basins elsewhere within the Lachlan Fold Belt in that a volcanic arc was ruptured by mantle-derived MORB magmas which ascended to the surface. Their extrusion was short-lived and after the Early Devonian, the development of the Tumut region differed little from that in the rest of the Lachlan Fold Belt. The development of oceanic crust within the Tumut Serpentinite Province and the genera- tion of granitic magmas within the central and eastern parts of the Lachlan Fold Belt are symp- tomatic of the same Late Silurian to Early De- vonian tectonothermal event. An important as- pect of this is that oceanic and crustal rocks need not form from different events or in sub- stantially different tectonic settings. Ian.T.Graham Department of Earth Sciences University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002 Republic of South Africa (Manuscript received 29.06.2000) Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 46-46, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/010046-1 $4.00/1 Thesis Abstract: Characterisation of Sperm Surface Antigens in the Guinea Pig ISURANI ILAYPERUMA Abstract of a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Fertilisation is one of the most complex and exciting areas in biology. Mammalian fertil- isation involves sperm capacitation in the fe- male reproductive tract, passage through the cumulus mass, induction of the acrosome re- action, penetration through the zona pellucida and fusion with the egg plasma membrane. The surface of the sperm head plays a cen- tral role in each of these events. The mam- malian spermatozoon has a highly regionalised surface. Identification and characterisation of sperm membrane proteins that are involved in gamete recognition and sperm-egg membrane fusion is one of the key problems in current re- search on mammalian fertilisation. G11 is a sperm-specific membrane protein implicated in sperm-egg binding and fusion. The main body of this thesis describes charac- terisation of the G1l antigen. The G11 anti- gen was purified using anion-exchange chro- matography, immuno-affnity chromatography and preparative SDS-PAGE and was subjected to amino acid microsequencing. Internal amino acid sequence data on the 48kDa G11 antigen revealed sequence homology with the recently discovered guinea pig sperm protein, sperad. Sperad is a transmembrane protein present in the peri-acrosomal membrane of the acrosome- intact spermatozoa. Guinea pig sperad has al- ready been cloned and sequenced. A striking feature of the cytoplasmic domain of sperad is the presence of a repetitive proline-rich se- quence, PPQPEQ, which is unique to sperad. Oligonucleotide primers made from the pub- lished sperad nucleotide sequence were used to amplify the cytoplasmic domain of sperad from a guinea pig testis cDNA expression library. Three additional forms of the sperad cytoplas- mic domain were consequently identified. These isoforms of the cytoplasmic domain of sperad were tested for their ability to bind monoclonal — antibody G11 by expression in a prokaryotic gene fusion system as fusion with glutathione S- transferase. Results obtained from these exper- iments confirmed that the G1l epitope is spe- cific for the cytoplasmic domain of sperad. It is likely that the predominant epitope recognised by the monoclonal antibody G11 is the intracel- lular repetitive PPQPEQ motif. Evidence suggests that mammalian sperma- tozoa fuse with eggs using the equatorial seg- ment plasma membrane. My findings provide evidence that the equatorial segment plasma membrane contains sperad. Sperad is of inter- est in the context of sperm-egg adhesion and egg activation for a number of reasons. First sperad carries a Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic acid sequence that could potentially dock the equa- torial segment plasma membrane with the in- tegrins on the egg surface. Second it is re- lated to a biliary glycoprotein family of adhe- sion molecules. Third, the repetitive proline- rich cytoplasmic domain of sperad, which is unique to sperad, could act like other cyto- plasmic proline-rich regions as an intracellular signaling molecule. Since the cytoplasmic do- main of sperad is exposed to the egg follow- ing sperm-egg fusion it could act as an egg- activating molecule. I. Ilayperuma Faculty of Medicine, University of Ruhuma, PO Box 70, Galle, Sri Lanka (Manuscript received 7.6.2001) Journal €& Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 47-47, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/010047-1 $4.00/1 Thesis Abstract: Reef Growth and Lagoonal Sedimentation at High Latitudes, Lord Howe Island, Australia DR DAVID M. KENNEDY Abstract of a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The southern limit of coral reef growth in the world occurs on Lord Howe Island (33°30°S, 159°05°E) in the form of a discontinuous 6 km long fringing reef along the western side of the island. Compared with other fringing reefs worldwide it is large being attached to the shoreline only at its northern and southernmost ends while the central portion encloses a lagoon over a kilometre wide. The reef and lagoon are developed over an antecedent surface composed of reefs of Last Interglacial age and calcarenite dunes; however, there appears to be little re- lation between its topography and that of the modern surface. Carbonate sediments were being deposited within the lagoon around 6500 years BP coin- cident with sea level reaching close to its mod- ern level. High-energy open ocean conditions dominated the reef with robust branching corals dominating the developing reef. Sedimenta- tion during this initiation phase strongly re- flected the morphology of the antecedent sur- face. Growth of the reef crest between 6000 and 5000 years BP lead to a reduction in the energy environment of the lagoon allowing for mud deposition. During this period sedimenta- tion occurred at rates of around 5mm/yr, but up to 10mm /yr, which infilled almost all the available accommodation space in the lagoon. By 4000 years BP the reef and lagoon were very close to the modern surface having accu- mulated over 11m, possibly up to 30m, of sed- iment. Sediments younger than 3000 years BP form a veneer over these older units with the main deposition being confined to embayments, the coastal plain and infilling blue holes. Reef growth and lagoonal infill at the south- ernmost environmental limit have been luxu- riant and rapid, comparable with low-latitude reef systems. The main period of growth oc- curred during the mid-Holocene. Modern sedi- mentation appears to be restricted to the lagoon and there is little reef progradation. The reef on Lord Howe therefore appears to be related to luxuriant growth in the mid-Holocene. Dr David M. Kennedy School of Geosciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia (Manuscript received 10.1.2001) Journal & Proceedings of the Royul Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 48 48, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/010048-1 $4.00/1 Studentships WILLIAM ANTHONY HIGGS William Higgs is nearing the completion of a PhD in the Biomaterials Science Research Unit at the University of Sydney. He is working on the development of improved orthopaedic bone cement and already has been able to follow the complex rheological behaviour during the com- plete curing process. His research is leading to improvements in the understanding and clinical application of orthopaedic bone cements. He shows innovative approaches which are yielding notable progess, the outcome of dedicated and energetic work. Already he has published sev- eral papers, presented the results of his work at international conferences and received awards. LOUISE VAN DER WEYDEN Louise van der Weyden is working for a PhD in the faculty of Pharmacy at the University of Sydney. Her studies aim to characterise the phe- notype of ATP-differentiated myeloid cells, and to determine the signal transduction pathway responsible for mediating these effects. A mea- sure of her success is the number of publications already coming from her research. Her initiative has led to seminal contributions in her research areas, especially molecular biology. She has re- ceived several awards. Journal €& Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 49-50, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/010049-2 $4.00/1 Biographical Memotr LEO EMIL KOCH 1903 -2001 Leo Koch was born in Cologne on 4 October 1903. In the early 1920’s he began the study of chemistry, and particularly physical chemistry. at the Universities of Freiburg and Marburg. Hr graduated from the University of Cologne in 1925. He came to geology through muiner- alogy and went on to undertake postgraduate studies in geology (particularly petrology) and mineralogy, being awarded the D.Phil. from the University of Cologne in 1930. In the next three years his petrological and field studies of the volcanic rocks of the Eiffel region of Germany proved of practical value in the use of these ma- terials for construction purposes. In these years he also carried out petrological studies of in- dustrial slags. For his research, Leo Koch was awarded, In 1934, Dr. Habil., from the Univer- sity of Cologne, this being the highest possible research doctorate, In 1935 Leo Koch was ap- pointed lecturer in the Department of Miner- alogy and Economic Geology in the School of Mines at the Technische Hochshule in Aachen. However the call to adventure was there, and political problems were emerging in Ger- many. In 1936 he accepted appointment as in- augural Professor of Geology and Mineralogy at the newly established University of Tehran, Per- sia (now Iran), where the Shah was attempt- ing a process of westernisation. Despite be- ing contracted to lecture in French, Leo Koch learnt Persian and was able to communicate more readily with students and a wider range of local people. Dr Koch taught mainly engi- neering and architecture students and was con- sultant to various government departments. He travelled widely within the region, climbing the highest peaks and advising on the tunnels and bridges along the Trans-Iranian Railway, then under construction, and on dams and earth- quake zones. Mineral deposits also were not forgotten. In 1941 World War II impinged on Iran, when it was occupied by both British and Rus- sian troops. Leo Koch always considered him- self lucky to be captured by the British, as all his colleagues, save one, taken by the Russians simply vanished without trace, he said. Leo Koch found himself interned at Tatura, Victoria, but he must have used his time well, improving his English and studying local phe- nomena. Very rapidly after the end of the War, he was unconditionally released and, in 1950, granted Australian citizenship. Leo Koch’s great dream was to build a com- plete system to link all aspects of science - a multi-dimensional system. This has been the aim of philosophers from earliest times. Dr Koch knew Greek and Latin and a host of other languages and read widely amongst the litera- ture from ancient to recent times, and in his last years became very interested in the developing field of Mathematical Geology. Following his several years as a Common- wealth Research Fellow, at the University of Sydney, he addressed an ANZAAS Conference (1948) and the Geological Section of the Royal Society of NSW on his ideas (see Abstract of 30 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR Proceedings of the Geological Section of NSW, 1948, vol. 82, p. xxi). He later published a full paper in the Australian Journal of Science. From Sydney, where he taught practical geo- chemistry to senior students in 1950 he joined the staff of the then New South Wales Univer- sity of Technology in the School of Mining En- gineering and Applied Geology, and set about applying his high training and knowledge to the unique geological forms of Australia and to the education of its student geologists. Perhaps more important for Leo was his conviction of the value of the new University’s Humanities program, which was intended to broaden the preparation of science and engineering students. When in 1960, a Faculty of Arts was added to the University of New South Wales, and Hu- manities were matched with a Science for Arts students requirement, Leo enthusiastically vol- unteered to teach not just his specialist engi- neers and scientists, but also the "long-haired" Arts types. He designed a unique course to in- troduce them to the Geology of the Sydney Re- gion. Appointed Senior Lecturer in 1961, despite his many accomplishments he failed to gain pro- motion to Professorial rank. He retired in 1969, but continued his researches Leo Koch loved scientific meetings, where facts and ideas were put forward for information and discussion. For many years. until increasing frailty prevented him, he was a regular atten- der at the Society’s meetings, and those of the New South Wales Division of the Geological So- ciety of Australia. He was always interested in any new information about local geology, which he could readily examine and analyse and then pass on to his students. The meetings of the Royal Society of New South Wales were, and still are, wide-ranging, covering topics in chem- istry, physics, astronomy, botany and geology. It was his habit, at these meetings, to sit and take in both the speaker’s ideas and informa- tion and then the discussions of the various lis- teners. Then, when the chairman thought (per- haps even hoped!) that all avenues of thought on the topic had been exhausted, Leo would ask for permission to speak. He always had much that was pertinent to say, but sadly it was of- ten just too late at night, as we were needful of dinner, or just some fresh air. He had pow- ers of concentration and stamina that were well beyond most of us. In his later years, when confined to his home, he continued to communicate with colleagues, some as eminent as Sir Karl Popper, others local workers, by letter and phone, and to experiment with models of space and time, trying to perfect his integrated system, the Tetraktys, hinted at by the Greeks, but eluding scientists through the ages. He was "seeking form and beauty among the shapeless proliferation of branches of science and their profusion of data and knowl- edge." Perhaps time will tell that Leo Koch was fifty years ahead of his time, but his work in this ficld las yet to be fully acknowledged. A man without pretension, he had a sense of humour, and was not above parodying "Cher- mans" with his jokes about "sausage dogs who are half-a-dog high and two-and-a-half-dogs long". As a former student has written "for those of us whose lives were touched by his teaching, his voice, his energy, his love for the rocks and forms and the life-force that shaped them, all these things remain in our mind’s eye. And they will do so till we see him once again, meeting him perhaps as he once met a wise and holy man on the highest pass of a Persian moun- tain range, who offered the stranger tea, and re- cited a classical poem. In the mountains, you can touch the face of God, Leo told me." Leo IXoch died on 20 January, 2001. David Branagan & Edric Chaffer Achnowledgements: data and information par- tially drawn from SMH (17.3.2001) and material supplied by Jessica Milner Davis. Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 134, p. 51-62, 2001 ISSN 0035-9173/01/010051-12 $4.00/1 Annual Report of Council For the year ended 315* March 2001 PATRONS The Council wishes to express its gratitude to His Excellency the Honourable Sir William Deane, AC, CBE, Governor General of the Commonwealth of Australia, and His Excel- lency the Honourable Gordon Samuels, AC, CVO, Governor of the State of New South Wales for their continuing support as Patrons of the Society during their term of office. The Council also wishes to express its grat- itude to Her Excellency Professor Marie Bashir AC for her gracious acceptance of Vice Regal Patronage. MEETINGS Eight ordinary monthly meetings and the 133"¢ Annual General Meeting were held during the year at various locations. SPECIAL MEETINGS AND EVENTS 14 October 2000: An excursion to the University of Western Syd- ney, Parramatta Campus was undertaken un- der the guidance of Professor Carol Liston, to inspect the historical buildings erected during the 19°? century. They represent some of the oldest three storey masonry buildings in Aus- tralia and include those constructed by Gover- nor Macquarie. 13° February 2001: The Society was co-sponsor with the Australian Nuclear Association, the Australian Institute of Energy and the Nuclear Engineering Panel of the Institution of Engineers Australia, of a meeting held at the Institute of Engineers, Mil- sons Point. Dr Michael Clarke (Griffith Uni- versity) and Mr Sandy Rintoul (Robertson Re- search) spoke to the topic: The Future of Coal— Good Guy—Bad Guy. 15" March 2001: The Annual Dinner of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron, Kirribilli, NSW. The outgo- ing Governor of the State of New South Wales, His Excellency the Honourable Gordon Samuels AC, CVO accepted an invitation to deliver the after-dinner address. His Excellency was ac- companied by Mrs Samuels. MEETINGS OF COUNCIL Twelve Meetings of Council were held, nine at the Society’s office at 134 Herring Road and | three at the new location at Unit 6, 142 Herring Road, North Ryde. Council discussed possible changes to the Rules and By-Laws. PUBLICATIONS Journal Vol. 133 (Parts 1-4 incl.), 2000 was published during the year in two issues: July 2000 and December 2000. Parts 1 and 2 essentially contained 20 peer- refereed extended abstracts of papers presented during the 23™¢ Annual Conference of the Min- eralogical Societies of the various Australian States at Broken Hill, NSW, in June 2000. Also included were the Presidential Address (Foundation of Sydney School of Co-ordination Chemistry), the Annual Report of Council for 1999-2000 including citations for 1999. Part 3 and 4 carried the 32"¢ Liversidge Re- search Lecture, a peer-refereed paper on min- erals from the Queen Sally Mine in Queens- land, Higher Degree Abstracts (physics, com- puter modelling of the human brain, geology- tectonics of South Island, New Zealand, and 52 ANNUAL REPORT geochemistry) as well as obituaries, the Finan- cial Statement for 1999-2000, a list of current members and an index to Vol. 133. Council wishes to thank all voluntary refer- ees for their time and efforts. Bulletin The Bulletin was published during 2000-2001. Council’s thanks are extended to the various au- thors of short articles for their contribution and to the other voluntary helpers who facilitated the production and distribution of the Bulletin. AWARDS The following awards were made for 2000: Royal Society of New South Wales Medal; Dr Philip Richard Evans (for achievements in science and service to the society) Hon Secretary of the Society. Clarke Medal (Botany); Professor Sarah Elizabeth Smith Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resource, Science, Adelaide University, South Australia Edgeworth David Medal; Dr Michael Soon Yoong Lee Department of Zoology and Entomology, The University of Queensland The following were not awarded for the year 2000: The James Cook Medal The Walter Burfitt Prize The Archibald D. Olle Prize MEMBERSHIP At 318 March 2001 membership of the Society was: Patrons 2 Honorary Members 12 Full Members 243 Associates, Spouse Members 26 TOTAL 281 The deaths of the following members were an- nounced with regret: Dr Leo Koch Sir Mark Oliphant James Lee Heron Sir Rutherford N. Robertson, AC, Rt Fourteen members resigned and five new mem- bers were admitted. OFFICE The Society continued during the year to lease for its office and library a half share of Convo- cation House, 134 Herring Road, North Ryde on the southeastern boundary of the Macquarie University Campus. At the end of 2000 the So- ciety moved into new quarters at Unit 6/142 Herring Road, North Ryde on the northeastern boundary of the Macquarie University Campus. Council greatly appreciates the continuity of its lease by the Macquarie University. LIBRARY Acquisition of journal literature by gifts and ex- changes has been continued during 2000-2001. Exchange material from overseas and some Aus- tralian literature is, as in previous years, for- warded to the Dixson Library, University of New England, where it is made available locally and on inter-library net-work (loan). The remaining literature is added to the col- lection of the Head-Office library at North Ryde where it is available to members and approved visitors. Council thanks Mr Karl Schmude and his staff for their continuing efficient maintenance of the Society’s Collection at the Dixson Li- brary. The Dixson Library advises the Hon. Li- brarian at the Head Office of any missing issues and action is taken by the Hon. Librarian. An accession list of literature received dur- ing the year at the Head Office is compiled and an appropriate notice appears in the Society’s Bulletin for the information of members. ANNUAL REPORT d3 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS 5th April 2000: The 133 Annual General Meeting and the 1089" General Monthly Meeting were held at the City Tattersalls Club, Sydney. The President, Professor A.T. Baker was in the Chair. The Annual Report of Council and the Financial Report for 1999-2000 were adopted. Mr B.E. Holden, Chartered Accoun- tant was re-appointed Auditor for 2000-2001. A/Professor A.T. Baker yielded the Chair to the incoming President Professor P.A. Williams who thanked the outgoing Committee for its work during the preceding year and invited the outgoing President A/Professor A.T. Baker to deliver his Presidential address “The Foun- dation of the ‘Sydney School of Coordination Chemistry’ ”. The following awards for 1999 were announced and presented by the guest speaker Elizabeth Macgregor, Director of Museum of Contemporary Arts, Sydney: The Royal Society of New South Wales Medal 1999 Dr Daniel John O’Connor The Clarke Medal for 1999 The Edgeworth David Medal for 1999 The James Cook Medal 1999 The Archibald D. Ollé Prize Senior Research Studentships 1999 Professor Richard Shine Dr Merlin Crossley Dr Peter Colman Associate Professor Anthony T. Baker Miss Alison Basden Miss Sharon Downes The following members were elected to Council for 2000-2001: President Vice Presidents Dr &.C. Potter Professor P.A. Williams Dr D.J. O’Connor Professor W.E. Smith Professor D.J. Swaine Honorary Secretaries Dr P.R. Evans (general) M. Krysko V. Tryst (editorial) Honorary Treasurer Honorary Librarian Councillors Mr J.R. Hardie Dr M.R. Lake Mr E.D. O’Keeffe A/Professor A.T. Baker Miss P.M. Callaghan Dr D.F. Branagan Mr D.A. Craddock Em. Professor A.G. Shannon Professor R.S. Vagg Branch Representatives Dr M.P. Fewell (N.E. Branch) Mr H.R. Perry (S.W. Branch) 3°? May 2000: The 1090" General Monthly Meeting was held at the University of Technology, Sydney. Dr W. O'Reilly addressed the Meeting on “Foren- sic Dentistry”. 7°» June 2000: The 10918 General Monthly Meeting took place at the University of Technology, Sydney. A/Professor R.W. (Bob) Jones delivered an ad- dress on “Conservation and the Scientist”. 54 ANNUAL REPORT 5¢ July 2000: The 1092nd General Monthly Meeting was held at the University of Technology Sydney. Pro- fessor Michael Wilson delivered the 32nd Liver- sidge Research Lecture entitled: “Funeral Ar- rangements for Plants: An Essay in Organic Chemistry”. 2°¢ August 2000: The 1093"? General Monthly Meeting was held at the Coles Room, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney. Dr Tony Collings delivered our address entitled: “Drugs and other Measure- ments for the Olympics 2000”. 6'* September 2000: Because of the proximity of the Sydney Olympics 2000, no General Monthly Meeting took place. 4th October 2000: The 1094** General Monthly Meeting took place in the rooms of the City Tattersalls Club, Sydney, Professor Stephen Leeder delivered an address on “Genetically Modified Foods—Dinner with the General Manager (GM)”. sth November 2000: The 1095*" General Monthly Meeting was held at the University of Technology, Sydney. The evening was devoted to the RSNSW Stu- dentship Awards 2000. The two award winners addressed the meeting: Louise Van Der Weyden (University of Syd- ney) spoke on “ATP Stimulated White Cell Maturation via the P2Y11 Receptor and AMP Signalling Pathway”. William Higgs (University of Sydney) spoke on “The Development of New Biomaterial for Orthopaedic Surgery”. SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS The Southern Highlands Branch held eleven well attended meetings. A special event was held for year 10 students in the district. Some 330 students attended and were entertained and challenged by Dr Mike Gore. 16** March 2000: Dr Kirsten Benkendorff, a Postdoctoral Re- search Fellow, Biological/Chemistry Sciences. University of Wollongong addressed the meet- ing on conservation of Marine Biodiversity. 20'" April 2000: Professor Ian Hendry, Developmental Neurobi- ology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, spoke on “Development and Redevelopment in the Nervous Systems”. 18'* May 2000: Dr Elizabeth Chua, Research Fellow, Depart- ment of Medicine, University of Sydney, spoke on the epidemic preparations of Thyroid Cancer in New Caledonia. 15" June 2000: James Moody, engineer in Vipac Scientists and Engineers Ltd, gave a brief historical overview of Australia’s space involvement. 20'° June 2000: Dr Mike Gore gave his ‘quick-fire’ series of demonstrations on “Science in Action“ to our audience of 330 year 10 students. 20°" July 2000: Dr Matthew Morell addressed the meeting on “The Australian Wheat Crop—Meeting the In- ternational Competition by Exploiting Innova- tive Science”. 17'> August 2000: Dr K.G. McCracken, AO, a member of the Branch, spoke on “The Secret Life of the Sun”. 21° September 2000: Professor Daniel T. Potts, Edwin Cuthbert Hall, Professor in Middle Eastern Archaeology, University of Sydney, spoke about his exca- vations at Tell Abroq, United Emirates, from 1989-1998, researching the Life of inhabitants around 2000BC. 19'® October 2000: James Woodford, Science and Environment writer for the Sydney Morning Herald, talked about. the “unbelievable” genetic make up of the trees from three different stands now discovered. 16‘" November 2000: ANNUAL REPORT 55 Dr Tony Fischer, Plant Physiology, University of California, DAHS, presently a Research Pro- gression Manager at ACIAR, spoke about the challenge of feeding the world over the next 20 years. 15*° February 2000: Dr Fred Watson, Anglo-Australian Observa- tory, spoke on “Australia and the Telescope Su- per League”. Winner of the Grandi’s 1999 Science Prize for year 11 students was Miss Clare Roxburgh from Frensham School. Thanks are offered by the Committee to Winifred West School Ltd for the use of their Lecture Theatre during the year for a nominal fee and to all voluntary workers of the Branch. NEW ENGLAND BRANCH The Branch reported a minimum of activity for the year. 56 FINANCIAL STATEMENT The Royal Society of New South Wales Council's Financial Report for 2000 Your Council Members submit the following financial statements of the Society for the year ended 31 December 2000 COUNCIL MEMBERS The names of Council Members throughout the year and as at the date of this report are: Prof A T Baker Mr R Perry Dr D F Branagan Dr E C Potter Miss P M Callaghan Dr A Shannon Mr D.A. Craddock Prof W E Smith Dr P R Evans Prof D J Swaine Mr J Hardie Emer Prof R S$ Vagg Mrs M Krysko von Tryst Emer Prof R Vernon Dr M R Lake Prof P A Williams Dr D J O’Connor Mr C M Wilmot Mr ED O'Keeffe PRINCIPAL ACTIVITIES The principal activities of the Society during the year were: organisation of meetings and publica- tion of the Journal & Proceedings and the Bulletin. SIGNIFICANT CHANGES No significant change in the nature of these activities occurred during the year. OPERATING RESULT The surplus for the year amounted to $15,623 Signed in accordance with a resolution of the members of the Committee. Presiclenntiiisst) cits, CARIBOO NOIR IN GINAGE coe cr ate ee 0 et eae [Original signed by P.A. Williams (President)] Acting Hon. Treasuner iv its ee i oe agai tee ee ee [Original signed by P.R. Evans] Dated this 28°" day of March 2001 FINANCIAL STATEMENT The Royal Society of New South Wales Income & Expense at 31 December 2000 2000 1999 $ $ INCOME Membership Subscriptions 14,503 15,12 Application for Membership 0 152 Journal Subscriptions 12,022 Sy el Reprints & Other Publications 110 525 Investment Income 6,216 6,681 Summer School ) 1,445 Annual Dinner 172 (268) Other 0 39 TOTAL INCOME 33,023 29,863 EXPENSES Accounting & Auditing Fees A75 D795 Bank Charges & Govt Dutics 46 118 Bulletin 132 1,765 Depreciation 1,000 A74 Insurance 082 842 Journal & Procecdings 7,023 10,901 Miscellaneous 247 14 Monthly Meetings 729 (oa Office 710 837 Provision for Doubtful Debts 2,066 1,(43 Rent 1,818 2,000 Salaries 686 6,184 Superannuation 0 508 Telephone 286 407 TOTAL EXPENSES 17,400 27,095 SURPLUS FOR - THE YEAR 15,623 2,768 Balance at 1 January 115,472 112,704 Balance at 31 December 131,095 115,472 Transfer from Library Reserve Toit 0) 138,406 115.472 08 FINANCIAL STATEMENT The Royal Society of New South Wales Balance Sheet at 31 December 2000 ASSETS Current Assets Cash Investments Receivables Cash on Hand Total Current Assets Non-Current Assets Investments Property & Equipment Total Non-Current Asscts TOTAIT#ASSETS LIABILITIES Current Liabilities Sundry Creditors & Accruals Other Total Current Liabilities Non-Current Liabilities Creditors & Accruals Total Non-Current Liabilitics TOTAL LIABILITIES NET ASSETS MEMBERS’ FUNDS Accumulated Funds Library Reserve Library Fund Trust Funds NSW Centenary of Fed. Fund Studentship Fund TOTAL MEMBERS’ FUNDS The accompanying notes form part of these financial statements Notes 2000 139, 790 16,481 156,201 185,531 4,735 180,817 138,406 0 13,754 ZaelGl 5,000 486 180,817 1999 17,470 132,000 17,481 149,481 166,951 4,098 2, COM Ooo G € 6,806 160,145 115,472 Tous 13,909 22,088 0) 865 160,145 FINANCIAL STATEMENT The Royal Society of New South Wales Notes to and Forming Part of the Accounts for Year Ended at 31 December 2000 STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTING POLICIES These financial statements are a special purpose financial report prepared for use by the Council and Members of the Society. the council has determined that the Society is not a reporting entity. The statement has been prepared in accordance with customary accounting practices on an accruals basis and on historic costs, taking no account of changing money values, or, except where specifically stated, current valuations of non-current assets. Where required, comparative figures have been adjusted to conform with changes in pre- sentation for the current financial year. Council determined that the Society be registered for the GST with the ATO. The ATO’s reporting requirements necessitated changing the accounting method to a full accrual sys- tem. Late dues are retained as Receivables, when previously they had been written off as Doubtful Debts at year end. Only sums owing by members who have resigned or died or who have been removed from the membership list under Rule 5(b) are expensed under Provision for Doubtful Debts. 2000 ($) 1999 ($) APPLICATIONS FOR MEMBERSHIP Council waived charges for Applications for Membership in 2000. CASH Cash on Hand 6 28 Cash at Bank 17,184 11,380 17,190 11,409 INVESTMENTS Current Deposits at Call 5,808 5,641 Non-Current St George 551555467 139,790 132,000 PROPERTY Office Equipment & Furniture At Original Valuation of: 12,400 12,400 Less Accumulated Depreciation 9,519 8,519 2,881 3,881 Library at 1936 Valuation 13,600 13,600 16,481 17,481 LIABILITIES Current - Other Journal Subscriptions Pre-Paid 4,369 2,002 Life Members Subscriptions Pre-Paid 0 16 Membership Subscriptions Pre-Paid 0 133 Tax Payable 87 87 4,456 2,701 Non-Current - Creditors & Accruals Life Members Subscriptions In Advance 0 7 o9 60 10. 1. FINANCIAL STATEMENT 2000 ($) 1999 ($) LIBRARY RESERVE Distinction of this reserve has served no useful purpose for many years and so it has been transferred to Accumulated Funds Balance at 1 January (eae 7,311 Transferred to Accumulated Funds (7,361) 0 Balance at 31 December 0 Tou LIBRARY FUND Balance at 1 January 13,909 1S1i3 Donations and Interest 879 774 14.784 13,947 Library Purchases and Expenses (1,030) (38) Balance at 31 December 13.704 13,909 TRUST FUNDS Included in Trust Funds are Clarke Memorial Fund 10 3.442 Dyood Walter Burfitt Prize 11 3,203 2101 Liversidge Bequest Fund 12 8.799 8,846 OlléBequest Fund 13 T,020 7,300 Total Trust Funds 230171 22,588 CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND Capital 5.000 5,000 Revenue Income 169 134 Expenditure (18) (10) Surplus (Deficit) soa 124 Balance at 1 January (1,709) (1,833) Balance at 31 December (1558) (1,709) Total Fund Capital & Expenditure Oey, 3,291 WALTER BURFITT PRIZE FUND Capital 3,000 3,000 Revenue Income Ore 308 Expenditure () (510) Surplus (Deficit) Sie (202) Balance at 1 January 4.350 4,502 12. 13. 14. 15. FINANCIAL STATEMENT LIVERSIDGE BEQUEST FUND Capital Revenue Income Expenditure Surplus (Deficit) Balance at 1 January Balance at 31 December Total Fund Capital & Expenditure OLLE BEQUEST FUND Capital Revenue Income Expenditure Surplus (Deficit) Balance at 1 January Balance at 31 December Total Fund Capital & Expenditure CENTENARY OF FEDERATION FUND Revenue Income Expenditure Surplus (Deficit ) Balance at 1 January Balance at 31 December STUDENTSHIP FUND Revenue Income Expenditure Surplus (Deficit ) Balance at 1 January Balance at 31 December 5,000 5,000 0) 5,000 1,865 (1,000) 869 61 62 FINANCIAL STATEMENT The Royal Society of New South Wales Statement by Members of the Council In the opinion of the committee the financial statements: 1. present fairly the financial position of The Royal Society of New South Wales at 31 December 2000 and the results for the year ended on that date in accordance with Australian Accounting Standards and other mandatory professional reporting requirements. 2. at the date of this statement, there are reasonable grounds to believe that the Society will be able to pay its debts as and when they fall due. This statement is made in accordance with a resolution of the council and is signed for and behalf of the Council by: President ... | .eeotesGe Ueno a a ee [Original signed by P.A. Williams (President)] Acting fon, Preasurer 4.0 .5.Su.ceae de care ta rae ka ante ee ee ee [Original signed by P.R. Evans] Dated this 28°” day of March 2001 The Royal Society of New South Wales Independent Audit Report to Members SCOPE I have audited the financial statements, being the Statement of Income and Expenditure, Balance Sheet and Notes to and forming part of the financial statements of The Royal Society of New South Wales for the year ended 31 December 2000. The Council is responsible for the financial statements. I have conducted an independent audit of these financial statements in order to express an opinion on them to members. My audit has been conducted in accordance with Australian Auditing Standards to provide reasonable assurance as to whether the financial statement are free of material misstatement. My procedures included examination on a test basis of evidence supporting the amounts and other disclosures in the financial statements and the valuation of accounting policies and significant estimates. These procedures have been undertaken to form an opinion as to whether, in all mnaterial respects, the financial statements are presented fairly in accordance with Australian Accounting standards and other professional reporting requirements so as to present a view which is consistent with my understanding of the Society’s position and the results of its operations. The audit opinion expressed in this report has been formed on the above basis. AUDIT OPINION In my opinion, the financial statements present fairly in accordance with Australian Accounting Standards and other mandatory reporting requirements the financial position of The Royal Society of New South Wales as at 31 December 2000 and the results of its operation for the year then ended. { Original Signed by Mr B.E. Holden on 28 day of march 2001 | B.E. Holden FCA Chartered Accountant Chatswood wn —_ NOTICE TO AUTHORS Manuscripts should be addressed to The Hon- orary Secretary, Royal Society of New South Wales, PO Box 1525, Macquarie Centre, NSW 2113. Manuscripts submitted by a non-member (through a member) will be reviewed by the Hon. Editor, in consultation with the Editorial Board, to decide whether the paper will be further considered for publication in the Journal. Manuscripts are subjected to peer review by an in- dependant referee. In the event of initial rejection, manuscripts may be sent to two other referces. Papers, other than those specially invited by the Editorial Board on behalf of Council, will only be considered if the content is substantially new ma- terial which has not been published previously, has not been submitted concurrently elsewhere nor 1s likely to be published substantially in the same form elsewhere. Well-known work and experimental pro- cedure should be referred to only briefly, aud exten- sive reviews and historical survevs should, as a rule, be avoided. Letters to the Editor and short notes may also be submitted for publication. Three, single sided, typed copies of the manuscript (double spacing) should be submitted on A4 paper. Spelling should conform with “The Concise Oxford Dictionary” or “The Macquarie Dictionary”. The Systéme International d’Unites (SI) is to be used, with the abbreviations and symbols set out in Aus- tralian Standard AS1000. All stratigaphic names must conform with the In- ternational Stratigraphic Guide and new names must first be cleared with the Central Register of Australian Stratigraphic Names, Australian Geo- logical Survey Organisation, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia. The codes of Botanical and Zoological Nomenclature must also be adhered to as necces- sary. The Abstract should be brief and informative. Tables and Illustrations should be in the form and size intended for insertion in the master manuscript - 150 mm x 200 mm. If this is not readily pos- sible then an indication of the required reduction (such as ‘reduce to 1/2 size’) must be clearly stated. Half-tone illustrations (photographs) should be in- cluded only when essential aud should be presented on glossy paper. Maps, diagrams and graphs should generally not be larger than a single page. However, larger figures may be split and printed across two opposite pages. The scale of maps or diagrams must be given in bar form. Half-tone ilustrations should be included only when essential and should be presented on glossy paper. All tables and illustrations should be numbered con- secutively with Arabic numerals in a single sequence and each must have a caption. References are to be cited in the text by giving the author’s name and vear of publication. References in the Reference List should be listed alphabetically by author and then chronologically by date. Titles of journals should be cited in full ~ not abbreviated. MASTER MANUSCRIPT FOR PRINT- ING The journal is printed from master pages prepared by the ETpXtypesctting program. When a paper has been accepted tor publication, the author(s) will be supplied with a guide to acceptable electronic format for the submission of the revised manuscript. Galley proofs will be provided to authors for final checking prior to publication. REPRINTS An author who is a member of the Society will re- ceive a number of reprints of their paper free. Au- thors who are not a members of the Society may purchase reprints. t) 908 i CONTENTS Vol. 134 Parts 1 and 2 WILLIAMS, PETER A. Colour and Cash: The Exquisite Minerals of the Oxidized Zone Presidential Address 2001 BILEK, MARCELA M.M Surface Modification: Advancing the Functionality of Materials Pollock Memorial Lecture in Mathematics and Physics ILLERT, C.R. The Centenary of Mary Everitt’s “Gundungurra” Grammar ABSTRACTS OF THESES GRAHAM, I.T. - The Genesis and Tectonic Significance of Chromitite-bearing Serpentinites in Southern NSW ILAYPERUMA, I. Characterisation of Sperm Surface Antigens in the Guinea Pig KENNEDY, Dr D.M. Reef Growth and Lagoonal Sedimentation at High Latitude Lord Howe Island, Australia STUDENTSHIPS Higgs, W.A. and van der Weyden, L. BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR Leo Emil Koch ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR. ENDED 31% MARCH 2001 FINANCIAL STATEMENT ADDRESS Royal Socicty of New South Wales, PO Box 1525, Macquarie Centre, NSW 2113, Australia DATE OF PUBLICATION June 2001 LU 13 19 45 46 47 48 49 ol 56