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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES

VOLUME
103

1969-70

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS, SYDNEY

Royal Society of New South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1969-1970

Patrons

His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA,
THE Ricgut HonouRABLE LORD CASEY, P.c., G.C.M.G., ¢.H.,; D.S.O. M-Cy “sm@stan

His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SouTH WALES,
SIR RODEN CUTLER. Wes3K CGH CBee

President
J. W. G. NEUHAUS, M.sc.

Vice-Presidents

A. A. DAY, Ph.D. (Cantab.) R. J. W. Lz FEVRE, pDiSc., F.R.S., FA
A. KEANE, ph.p. A. i. LOW -ph.p;
YT. E, KITAMURA, B.A.

Honorary Secretaries
J. C. CAMERON, M.a., B.Sc. (Edin.), D.I.c. M. KRYSKO v. TRYST (Mrs.), s.se:;

(General) Grad.Dip. (Editorial)

Honorary Treasurer

W. E. SMITH, Ph.p.

Honorary Librarian

W. H. G. POGGENDORFYF, B.sc.agr.

Members of Council

Re As BURG, AcS2ric. J. P. POLLARD, D.Sc., Dip-App: ches:
B. 4. CLANCY, <nesc. M. J. PUTTOCK, M.Sc.(Eng.), A.Inst.P.
je Ls GRIFFITH, 8.a.,-M-Sc, A. REICHEL, Ph.p., M.sc.
J. W. PICKETT, .se. (N.E:), Dr.phil.nat. W. H. ROBERTSON, B:se.
(Frankfurt/M.) RU Le-STANTON: phew:
NOTICE

The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “‘ Philosophical Society of
Australasia ’’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the
‘“ Australasian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name
was changed to “‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated
by Act of Parlament of New South Wales in 1881.

CONTENTS

Part 1

Astronomy :
A Solar Charge and the Perihelion Motion 1566 Icarus. R. Burman
James Cook and the Transit of Venus. W. H. Robertson oe

Geology :

A Note on Some Non-Calcareous Stalactites from the Sandstones of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W.
BV. Lassak

The Lower Middle Palaeozoic Stratigraphy 0 is the Sagem Tae ee Conte Westen N. 5 W.
V. Semeniuk

Mathematics :
On a Classical Pair of Equations. /. L. Griffith

Palaeontology :
Devonian Stromatoporoids from the Broken River Formation, North Queensland. C. W.
Mallett ; e = : 7

Report of the Council, 31st March, 1969

Balance Sheet

Part 2

Astronomy :
Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1969. K. P. Sims .

Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1969:
Origin of the Moon. A. E. Ringwood

Geology :
Gorceixite-goyazite in Kaolinite Rocks of the a Basin. F. C. Loughnan and C. R.
Ward = = ee 7

Mathematics :
Internal Seiche Motions for One-Dimensional Flow. D. J. Clarke

Palaeontology :

A New Species of Trilobite, Cheirurus (Crotalocephalus) regius n.sp. from the Early Devonian
of Trundle District, Central N.S.W. G. Z. Foldvary 7 a ie ot

Parts 3-4

Astronomy :
Light Tracks Near a Dense Charged Star. R. Burman ;
Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1970. K. P. ee =

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

lk

Or ee

35:

43.

55:

=]

Or

81

85:

87
OF

iv CONTENTS

Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1971:

The Bearing of Some Upper Palaeozoic Devonian Reefs and Coral Faunas on the Hypothesis
of Continental Drift. D. Hill — ae Le es as a a tae Oe

Geology :
Potassium-Argon Ages for Leucite-bearing Rocks from New South Wales. P. Wellman,

A. Cundan and I. McDougall 103
Liversidge Research Lecture, 1970:
Chemistry of Some Insect Secretions. G. W. K. Cavill a un a e 3 sm OS:
Mathematics :
Relativistic Motion in Two Space-like Dimensions. N.W. Taylor and L. McL. Marsh Aga ELS)
The Nature ot Time and Its Measurement. S. J. Prokhovnik a ae ai es 2S
Book Review ee a se z2 a ei ts = th: a man LT
Report of Council, 31st March, 1970 2“. +. We i ne a we t28
Balance Sheet ris i Ae ee ie fn a ce ae ie .. 182
Index to Volume 103 a ah igs is = * ce aes me wn 43
List of Office-Bearers, 1969-1970 = a ee ‘A a) a ~ ven 248

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

fie: ,

ae i Bae et : sie ns ha tek Str ae

oR Burman. | ae ae ! A ee:
W: ‘E. Roberison Pe as ert Bec

( Not ote on Son 1€ | MauCdcateou: Stalactites from the Sandstones 0 of the Sydney :
asi , NS.) N. E. Ce Lassak- se : . PAL

aoe

The’ Lower Middle P Palae ic ic Stratigraphy o of the Bowan Park Area, Central o
| ae oe a pa Ip.

: a Classical Pair of Equations. ca i Gopi ith oe ae 31

Pascale nee es a ee ne :

Fess pooper ‘Stromatoporoids from the Broken. ‘River ‘Formation, ‘North
ahd ee as ue rok allett oS : Z ;

“ISSUED IANUARY 20, 171 ce

WE as “ks

ee Regibered fort ‘posting as a Perlodleal Category A.

grist ere oe oe ie
; aaa 26 pes ais
oS ee aC at we Se eh

“ ¢ ee — =
Se nce se y} <
; ee 2 < 5 : : f
ea ae R et ms 3
Ait Py ceces Pes
‘aL

NOTICE TO AUTHORS a a ne

General. Manuscripts: should be addressed
to the Honorary Secretaries, Royal Society of
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fully

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 1-3, 1970

A Solar Charge and the Perihelion Motion of 1566 Icarus

R. BuRMAN
Department of Physics, University of Western Australia

AgpstrRAcT—If, as suggested by V. A. Bailey, the Sun possesses a net charge, it will induce
a dipole moment in a planet or other body. The resulting electrostatic force leads (using non-
relativistic mechanics) to an. advance of perihelion, which is calculated here for an orbit of arbitrary
eccentricity. The formula obtained is applied to observational results for Icarus.

1. Introduction

Bailey (19602, 1960b, 1960c, 1965) gave explanations of a number of astrophysical and terrestrial
phenomena by postulating the presence of a net electric charge on the Sun, on other stars, and
on planets. Two possible sources for such a charge were suggested, one of which involved a five-
dimensional unified field theory (Taylor and Bailey, 1962). It is thus of interest to discuss the
possible effect of a solar charge on the motions of planets and other bodies.

General relativity appears to account with an accuracy of about 1% (Dicke and Goldenberg,
1967) for the observed residual advance of the perihelion of Mercury left after planetary perturbations
have been accounted for. Various alternative or supplementary explanations have been suggested
from time to time, both before and after the advent of general relativity. For example, it has
been suggested (Dicke and Goldenberg, 1967) that some (perhaps 8%) of the observed residual is
due to solar oblateness, thus threatening the agreement between general relativity and observation ;
agreement with theory is then restored by postulating a long-range scalar field. Non-relativistic
explanations were discussed by Gerjuoy (1956) ; one of these involves an electric charge on the Sun
(perhaps in its atmosphere).

A net solar charge would induce a dipole moment in a planet. The resulting electrostatic
force perturbs the orbit, causing an advance in the perihelion. Gerjuoy (1956) quoted a formula
for this motion, for an orbit of very small eccentricity. Walues deduced by Bailey for the solar
charge lead to quite small perihelion advances for Mercury (Burman, 1970). In this note a formula
is obtained which allows for eccentricity, since this is large in the case of Icarus (minor planet 1566).

2. Basic Theory
Suppose that the Sun is a sphere of mass M, with a net electrostatic charge Q e.s.u. distributed
symmetrically about its centre, and that the planet or other body concerned is an uncharged
conducting sphere of mass MW, and radius « at a distance 7 from the Sun. The solar charge induces
a dipole moment in the planet. -With 7 much greater than both « and the solar radius, the force
on the planet becomes rF (rv), where r is a unit vector directed radially outwards from the Sun
and
GVA MC DyA0702
Te a

F(”)=

Here G is the gravitational constant, and the factor f?, where 0<f<1, allows for partial screening
of the solar charge by the surrounding plasma (Bailey, 1965).
Orbits under a central force rF(r) satisfy
Pu F/M,

d

doe!" tye

2 R. BURMAN

where u=1/r, 0 is the angular co-ordinate, and h is the orbital angular momentum. Using (1),
(2) becomes

gon t= 7 t bu Sei ene; fe eite) ei © 6: ‘e610: al @! aie ok eee ORM (3)
where
2 ay O28
=o and P= GM im a teiie! laivol(en si colle Roll aitcmoMenteate (4a, b)

Neglecting 6 leads, with suitable choice of the origin of 0, to the solution Ju=1-e cos 0,
e being the eccentricity. Substituting this solution into the last term in (3) results in

d2u

qqe tee +D cos 0-+-£ cos 20--F cos 30... 4. ee eee (5)
where
3 3
c= B(1 +3), JB) i +467)" age (6a, b)
Be® pet
De 5/8 and aries sibel ty eke eoleheenan nee (6c, d@)

Equation (5) has the solution

lu=IC +e cos 0+1(4D0 sin 0—3E cos 20—1F cos 30), .......... (7)
which reduces to /u=1-+ecos 0 when @ is neglected. Equation (7) can be written, for small
LDO/2e,

lu==IC +e cos (1 - =) 7 —I(E cos 20+4F cos 30). ............ (8)

This shows that there is a perihelion advance 5 where

S2n| (1 a aD ee (9)

in radians per revolution. The last term in (8) is of period 27, and so does not contribute to the
perihelion motion. Using (60), (4b) and /=b(1—e?), b being the semi-minor axis of the elliptical
orbit, it follows that
202 3 122
soubaie’ (*) — (10)

GE ViENis b (1—e?)3?2 © @ © © © 8 © @ 0 @ elle) stare lemelnene ms

When e=0, this reduces to the result used earlier (Burman, 1970) for Mercury.

3. Application to Icarus
The values of — Q deduced by Bailey were around 10?’ to 10% e.s.u. For Icarus, >=0-186 AU,
e=(0-827, and its orbital period is 409 days. Photometric observations during its close approach
to Earth in 1968 showed Icarus to be nearly spherical (Miner and Young, 1969 ; Veverka and Liller,
1969). Taking it to be spherical with a uniform density of 3-5 gm./cm.’, using Q=—2:-2 x10”8 e.s.u.
(Bailey, 1960c), and neglecting screening, results in a perihelion advance of 27-0 seconds of arc
per century. That predicted by general relativity is 10-05”/century (Gilvarry, 1953).

If Icarus is regarded not as a perfect conductor but as a homogeneous dielectric, of dielectric
constant K, (10) is modified by a factor (K —1)/(K-+2) on the right.

For planets, the observability of the motions of their perihelia can be expressed by a figure
of merit kev (Gilvarry, 1953) ; v is the perihelion advance per unit time, é is the eccentricity, and
the weighting factor k allows for the relative suitability of the planet for making accurate observa-
tions. To include minor planets, Gilvarry (1953) generalized the above figure of merit to ky,
where 7 =e/(1 —e?)3/?, and J allows for the restricted number of observations possible in a period of
revolution. For a planet / is near unity, and =e since e?<1; then klyv reduces to kev. Using
values of v obtained from general relativity, Gilvarry calculated a figure of merit for Icarus of several
times that for Mercury. Icarus could provide a more sensitive test of perihelion motion theories
than Mercury.

A SOLAR CHARGE AND THE PERIHELION MOTION OF 1566 ICARUS 3

Shapiro, Ash and Smith (1968) have analysed observations of Icarus and find a perihelion

motion which agrees with the prediction of general relativity to within 20%.

So if general relativity

is accepted as the correct theory of gravitation, the electrostatic mechanism does not contribute

more than 2”/century ;
eO)| 6 x10?" e.s.u.

taking Icarus to be a perfectly conducting sphere, (10) shows that
The corresponding limit obtained from Mercury is about 10% e.s.u.

4. Conclusion

The values of —Q deduced by Bailey were around 10?’ or 1078 e.s.u.
the perihelion motion of Icarus it has been indicated above that | fQ |<6 x10?’ e.s.u.

From observations on
With

further observational data on Icarus, a more stringent upper limit should be obtainable.

References

BaiLey, V. A., 1960a. Net Electric Charges on Stars,
Galaxies and ‘‘ Neutral’’ Elementary Particles.
j- Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 94, T7-86.

BaIiLEy, V. A., 1960b. Existence of Net Electric
Charges on Stars. Nature, 186, 508-510.

BaliLey, V. A., 1960c. A Unified Theory of Terrestrial
and Solar Magnetization, the Outer Van Allen
Belt and High Energy Primary Cosmic Rays.
J. Aimosph. Tery. Phys., 18, 256-257.

BalILEy, V. A., 1965. Some Nonlinear Phenomena
im the Yomosphere. adio. Sc. Jj. Mes.,
NBS/USNC-URSI, 69D, 9-24.

Burman, R., 1970. A Solar Charge and the Perihelion
Motion of Mercury. /. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W..,
102, 157-158.

DickE, R. H., and GOLDENBERG, H. M., 1967. Solar
Oblateness and General Relativity. Phys. Rev.
Letts., 18, 313-316.

GERJuoy, E., 1956. Feasibility of a Nonrelativistic
Explanation for the Advance of the Perihelion of
Mercury. Amer. J. Phys., 24, 3-6.

GILVARRY, J. J., 1953. Relativity Advances of the
Perihelia of Minor Planets. Publ. Astron. Soc.
Pacific, 65, 173-178.

MINER, E., and Younea, J., 1969. Photometric
Determination of the Rotation Period of 1566
Icarus. Jcarus, 10, 436-440.

SHAPIRO, I. I., AsH, M. E., and Smitu, W. B., 1968.

Icarus: Further Confirmation of the Relativistic
Permheliom™ recession, » Pays. ied. WLerrs.. 20)
1517-1518.

TaytLor, N. W., and BaiLtey, V. A., 1962. Five-

dimensional Cosmology and the Hypothesis of
Negatively Charged Stars. Nature, 194, 647-9.

VEVERKA, J., and LILLER, W., 1969. Observations
of Icarus: 1968. Icarus, 10, 441-444.

(Received 19 June 1970)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 5-9, 1970

James Cook and the Transit of Venus*

W. H. ROBERTSON
Sydney Observatory

ABSTRACT—The history of the use of the transits of Venus in measuring the distance of the
Sun is sketched with emphasis on, the part played by the Endeavour voyage in the 1769 observations.

The prime reason for the voyage of the
Endeavour was to observe from Tahiti the
passage of the planet Venus across the disk
of the Sun. The Royal Society of London had
petitioned the British Government to organize
the expedition. Why was this event so
important as to justify such a long and arduous
voyage ? The reason was that such observa-
tions could be used to measure the distance of
the Earth from the Sun. This distance is
commonly called the Astronomical Unit and
gives the scale for all distances within the
Solar System and the base line from which the
distances of the stars are measured.

Interest in this distance dates back even to
Greek times, and a worthwhile suggestion was
put forward by Aristarchus about 250 B.c.
The way he tried to measure the distance was
to measure the angle between the Sun and the
Moon near the time of first quarter or last
quarter. He based his measurement on the
fact that at the precise time of half Moon
the angle between the Earth and the Sun as
seen from the Moon would be exactly 90°.
He measured the angle between the Sun and
the Moon as approximately 87° at the time of
half Moon. From this he calculated that the
Sun was approximately 20 times as far away
as the Moon. We now know that this was
greatly underestimated; the method is
inherently inaccurate because the rough surface
of the Moon makes it impossible to estimate
when it is exactly half illuminated even when
using a telescope. About 150 years after
Aristarchus, Hipparchus made a very good
measurement of the distance of the Moon by
comparing the apparent size of the Moon
with the size of the Earth’s shadow at the time

* The preparation and printing of this lecture, which
was delivered on 3rd June, 1970, was supported by the
Captain Cook Bicentenary Committee (Arts and
Historical Committee).

of a lunar eclipse. He determined that the
Moon's distance was 59 times the radius of the
Earth, which is quite a good figure. Combining
this with Aristarchus’ result gives the distance
of the Sun as about 1,200 Earth radu or about
8,000,000 kilometres. This is much too small,
but it remained the accepted figure until the
time of Kepler (1571-1630).

From observations made by Tycho Brahe,
Kepler established his laws of motion for the
planets. He showed that the planetary orbits
are ellipses with the Sun at one focus and that
the distances of the planets from the Sun are
related to their periods of revolution around the
Sun. Thus it was possible to produce a scale
map of the Solar System just by observing the
motion of the planets against the background
of the stars. However, it was not possible to
put a scale on the map until the distance of
one object could be measured. Kepler realized
that the distance of the closer planets such as
Mars and Venus could in principle be measured
by observing their positions against the back-
ground of the stars from two places on the Earth
as widely separated as possible. The two
observations could be made by _ different
observers or else one observer could use the
rotation of the Earth to shift him between the
two observations. This kind of observation
is known as the parallax method, and the
parallax of the Sun is often quoted instead of
the distance. This is the angular displacement
of the Sun caused by a movement through a
distance equal to the Earth’s radius, or what
amounts to the same thing, the angle which
the Earth’s radius subtends at the distance
of the Sun. Because the Earth’s orbit is an
ellipse it 1s the mean solar parallax which is
sought. Kepler concluded that since he could
observe no obvious parallactic displacement of
Mars the accepted distance of the Sun must be
underestimated. He considered that the solar

6 W: H. ROBERTSON

parallax must be less than one minute of arc
and that therefore the Sun’s distance must be
at least 22,000,000 kilometres, and was probably
much greater.

The first result with any sort of accuracy was
obtained in 1671-1673 by Richer, who observed
Mars from Cayenne in French Guiana, together
with Picard and Cassini, who observed from
Paris. Their results gave the parallax as 9”-5
and thus the distance of the Sun as about
138,000,000 kilometres, with an uncertainty of
perhaps 30,000,000 kilometres.

The inner planets Mercury and Venus can
pass across the face of the Sun when they are
directly between the Earth and the Sun at
inferior conjunction. A transit occurs only
rarely, especially in the case of Venus, because
the planes of the orbits of the planets are not
quite in the same plane as the Earth’s. This
means that transits occur only when Venus,
for example, at the time of inferior conjunction,
is near to one of the points in its orbit where
the two orbits cross (the nodes). Inferior
conjunctions occur at intervals of 584 days,
the synodic period, and five of these periods are
very nearly equal to eight years. Also, 152
synodic periods are almost exactly equal to
243 years. Consequently, transits can, and at
present do, occur in pairs separated by eight
years, followed by another pair after an interval
of 235 years. In the long interval another pair
of transits occurs at the opposite node, again
separated by eight years. Only five transits
of Venus have so far been observed, namely
in December 1639, June 1761 and 1769, and
December 1874 and 1882. The next pair will
occur in June 2004 and 2012.

Because it is closer to the Sun, transits of
Mercury occur much more frequently. The
longest interval between successive transits is
only about 134 years, and 13 or 14 transits
occur every century. In this case the Earth
is near the nodes in May and November.
Mercury is closer to the Sun at the point in its
orbit corresponding to the November transits,
so these are about twice as frequent as the May
ones.

The first transit of Venus to be observed was
predicted by Jeremiah Horrox, a young man
who, at the time of the observation, was curate
at Hoole in Lancashire. Horrox, although
self-taught, achieved many original discoveries
in astronomy and may well have gone on to
greater heights if his career had not been cut
short by his early death. Kepler, in 1629,
had predicted that Venus would cross the Sun’s
disk in 1631, and not again until 1761.

The transit of 1631 was looked for in Paris by
Gassendi, who had observed a transit of Mercury
in the same year, also predicted by Kepler.
He did not succeed because the transit occurred
at night time in Europe. Horrox, from his
observations and from examination of the tables
of Kepler, detected an error in them and
concluded that another transit would be possible
in 1639. Horrox asked his brother Jonas
at Liverpool and his friend William Crabtree
also to attempt the observation. He prepared
for the observation by setting up his telescope
in a room and projecting the image of the Sun
on to a screen. He had predicted that the
transit would occur on 24th November, 1639
Julian calendar (corresponding to 4th December,
Gregorian calendar), which was a Sunday, but
he began looking even throughout the day
before. On the Sunday he was torn between
his duties in the church and his desire to observe
such a rare phenomenon, and it was not until
after three in the afternoon that he was able to
observe the Sun uninterrupted. Fortunately,
the clouds cleared at just the right time and he
was able to see the disk of the planet just enter
at the edge of the Sun and to continue the
observation until the Sun set about half an
hour later. The only other observer was
Crabtree, who caught a glimpse of the planet
on the Sun’s disk through a break in the clouds
but was unable to make accurate observations.
However, his later recollection agreed with those
of Horrox. Horrox died only a little over a
year later and his results were not published
till almost 30 years after his death.

In the paper “‘ Advice to the Curious in
Things Celestial ’’ (Kepler, 1629), in which he
predicted the 1631 transits, Kepler gave the
first hint as to their use for measuring the solar
parallax.

“The diurnal parallax, if this is going to
happen, will be four times that of the Sun in the
case of Venus and about one and a half times
for Mercury. And in both cases it helps and
prolongs its appearance. For if either planet
grazes the northern edge of the Sun the parallax
in moving it south will move it closer to the
centre of thessun:

[“‘ Parallaxis diurna, si qua futura est, solaris
quadrupla erit in Venere, in Mercurio sescupla
circiter. Atque ea utrobique Gadjpuyvai eer
prolongat suum phaenomenon. Cum enim
septentrionalem Solis oram perstringat uterque
planeta, parallaxis eos in austrum promovens
centro Solis propius admovebit.’’]

James Gregory, the Scottish mathematician,
was rather more explicit when at the end of a

JAMES COOK AND THRE TRANSIT OF VENUS 7

problem on the determination of the parallaxes
of two planets by observations at their con-
junction he stated (Gregory, 1663) :

“This problem has a_ very beautiful
application, although perhaps laborious, in
observations of Venus or Mercury when they
obscure a small portion of the Sun; for by
means of such observations the parallax of the
Sun may be investigated.”

[(“ Hoc problema pulcherrimum habet usum,
sed forsan laboriosum, in observationibus Veneris
vel Mercurii particulam solis obscurantis; ex
talibus enim solis parallaxis investigari poterit.”’ |

The translation is that given by Grant (1852).

The first detailed exposition of the use of
the transits of Venus for measuring the solar
parallax was given by the great English
astronomer Edmond Halley. Halley’s interest
in using the transits of Venus began when he
observed a transit of Mercury from St. Helena
in 1677. He had travelled to St. Helena to
observe and form a catalogue of the southern
stars which are not visible from Europe. He
concluded that observations of the transit of
Venus which would be nearest to the Earth
at the time could yield a reliable figure for the
distance of Venus, and therefore of the Sun, if
they were made from a number of places widely
scattered over the Earth in order to measure
the parallactic displacement of the planet on
the face.of the Sun.

“There remains one observation by which
the problem of the distance of the Sun from the
Earth might be solved. The solution will be
available to astronomers in later centuries
when Venus displays itself for inspection on the
disc of the Sun, which will not happen before
1761 May 26 (Old Style). So if the parallax
of Venus relative to the Sun is observed in the
way just explained it will be almost three times
greater than that of the Sun itself and the
necessary observations are of the simplest
Kander seo (Halley, 1679).

[“‘ Unica manet observatio cujus ope Problema
de distantia Solis a Terra, se Astronomis
insequentis Seculi solutum dabit, wiz. cum
Veneris Stella, se in disco Solari spectandam
praebuerit, quod non accidit ante Annum
1761 Mai 26. St. Vet. Tunc etenim, si
modo nuper explicato Parallaxis Veneris a
Sole inquiratur, erit ea triplo fere major ipsa
Solari, & observationes requisitae sunt omnium
macillimac,... .”’|

He elaborated these ideas (Halley, 1716),
and this paper may be taken as the starting
point for the interest in the transits of 1761

and 1769. Halley particularly proposed that
the displacement of the planet on the Sun’s
disk could be most accurately determined by
measuring at each place of observation the time
interval between the first entering of Venus
on to the Sun’s disk (ingress) and the time when
it moved off (egress). The reason why the
duration would be the most useful measurement
was that the precise time of either ingress or
egress would be difficult to measure in Greenwich
Mean Time because it was difficult to measure
longitudes accurately at that time.

It was realized that the time could most
accurately be observed at the time of internal
contact when the planet’s disk first comes
fully on to the Sun and the corresponding phase
when the planet is leaving the Sun’s disk.
Only from a limited part of the world would it
be possible to see both the ingress and the
egress, and Halley proposed that expeditions
should be sent to those areas, with some
observers as far north and others as far south as
possible in order to get the greatest difference
of duration. In the 1761 transit the part
where the whole of the duration could be seen
included Asia and the northern part of Europe,
part of the Indian Ocean and the East Indies.
For the 1769 transit the favoured area was a
portion of the south and north Pacific Oceans,
the western part of North America and the
northern part of Europe and Asia. Because
both the transits occurred in June the north
declination of the Sun permitted the phenomena
to be observed throughout the North Polar
Zone.

Interest in the coming transits was maintained
especially in France by Joseph Nicholas Delisle.
A number of expeditions were prepared,
particularly in France and England. By the
time of the 1761 transit, England and France
were at war, and this handicapped some of the
expeditions. Partly because of this the distance
of the Sun calculated from the 1761 transit
observations was more uncertain than Halley
had hoped. In any case the timing of the
contacts proved to be much more difficult
than he had expected. It was found that the
internal contact did not appear suddenly but
that different observers at the same _ place
could differ by even 20 or 30 seconds, whereas
Halley had considered that the timing could
be made with an accuracy of one second. Due
to the unsteadiness of the Earth’s atmosphere,
as the dark body of the planet began to pull
away from the edge of the Sun an irregular
zone appeared which was sometimes seen as a
dark drop, the breaking of which was indefinite

8 W. H. ROBERTSON

and not possible to time accurately. As a
result of this, calculations of the parallax
ranged from 8”-3 to 10”-6 and the distance
of the Sun from 159,000,000 to 124,000,000
kilometres.

However, the lack of success did not cause
any slackening of interest in the problem and
plans were soon made to observe the 1769
transit. Once again the principal participants
were the French and the British. Chappe,
who had observed the first transit from Siberia,
this time travelled to California, which was
then a Spanish possession, and observed the
transit successfully. Unfortunately he and
several of his assistants died of an epidemic
disease which broke out in this region. The
British effort was initiated by the Royal Society
of London, who proposed to send observers to
Fort Churchill on Hudson’s Bay, to North Cape
at the northern end of Norway, and to the
South Seas. Dymond and Wales observed from
Hudson’s Bay, Bayley and Dixon observed from
northern Scandinavia.

It was first proposed that the South Sea
expedition would be commanded by Alexander
Dalrymple, but he was unwilling to undertake
the voyage except as commander of the ship.
However, the Admiralty insisted that a naval
ship could be commanded only by a naval
officer, and the choice fell on James Cook, who
had made a name for himself as a navigator and
marine surveyor in the St. Lawrence River
during the Seven Years War, and around the
coast of Newfoundland. Charles Green, an
assistant astronomer at Greenwich Observatory,
was also appointed a member of the expedition.
It was decided that the Endeavour should sail
for Tahiti, which had recently been visited by
Samuel Wallace. The observations of Cook,
Green and Solander at Tahiti in June, 1769,
were quite successful, although Cook reported
that the different observers had widely different
timings.

“1769 Saturday, 3rd June: This day proved
as favourable to our purpose as we could wish.
Not a Cloud was to be seen the whole day, and
the Air was perfectly Clear, so that we had
every advantage we could desire in observing
the whole of the Passage of the planet Venus
over the Sun’s Disk. We very distinctly saw
an Atmosphere or Dusky shade round the body
of the planet, which very much disturbed the
times of the Contact, particularly the two
internal ones. Dr. Solander observed as well
as Mr. Green and myself, and we differ’d from
one another in Observing the times of the
Contact much more than could be expected.

Mr. Green’s Telescope and mine were of the
same Magnifying power, but that of the Doctor
was greater than ours. It was nearly calm the
whole day, and the Thermometer Exposed to
the Sun about the Middle of the day rose to a
degree of heat we have not before met with ”’
(Cook, 1893). The observations were presented
to the Royal Society (Green and Cook, 1771).

The results of the calculation of the solar
parallax from the 1769 observations were again
regarded as disappointing, and to this day some
popular accounts of Cook’s voyage speak of the
transit observations as a failure. In fact the
results obtained by the various calculations
for the parallax ranged from 8 "b\ 10 3-<S;
giving distances of 155,000,000 to 149,000,000
kilometres, which was a great improvement on
any previous result. To give an example,
Hornsby (1771) from a discussion of collected
observations, including those from Tahiti and
using Halley’s method, gave the mean parallax
as 8"-78, as against 8”-794 now accepted by
the International Astronomical Union. The
accuracy which Halley had forecast perhaps
still influenced the thinking of the astronomers
of the period and caused the continuing dis-
appointment. In fact the whole 1761-1769
campaign can be looked on as the first major
international effort in observational astronomy
and the part which Cook, Green and Solander
played in it, by virtue of their geographical
position and careful observations, was no small
one.

The transits of 1874 and 1882 were observed
very widely with the hope of improving on the
results of a century before. It is worth noting
that the 1874 transit was widely observed in
Australia. The New South Wales observations
were initiated by the Government Astronomer,
H. C. Russell, who organized a number of teams
of observers at Sydney Observatory and at
Woodford, Goulburn and Eden. The purpose
of this was to give a greater chance of obtaining
a clear sky. Actually, all sites were favoured
with good conditions and the transit was timed
successfully. The 1882 transit was only partly
visible in Australia; only the egress could be
observed soon after sunrise, and this was not
seen at Sydney because of cloud. Once again
rather disappointing results were obtained when
the distance of the Sun was calculated and the
final result was no great improvement on the
18th century observations.

From then on observations of the Sun’s
distance were concentrated mainly on parallax
observations of outer planets, firstly of Mars

JAMES COOK AND THE TRANSIT OF VENUS 4

and then of a number of minor planets,
culminating in the large-scale observation of
Eros in 1931, which was co-ordinated and
reduced by Spencer Jones. Several other
methods have been used during this century
and they agree in giving a mean distance of the
Sun close to 149,600,000 kilometres. The
most accurate method available now is to
measure the distance of Venus by radar, and
this has led to a mean distance of the Earth
from the Sun of 149,597,893 kilometres,
and this is probably accurate to about 200
kilometres (Muhleman, 1969).

References
Cook, J., 1893. Captain Cook’s Journal. Edited by
W.. J. L. Wharton, p. 76. Stock, London.

GRANT, R., 1852. History of Physical Astronomy,
p. 428. Bohn, London.

GREEN, C., AND CooKk, J., 1771. Astronomical
Observations Made, by Appointment of the Royal
Society, at King George’s Island in the South

Sea. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., 61, 397.
[Abridged 13, 174.]

GREGORY, J., 1663. Optica Promota, p. 130. Hayes,
London.

HALiey, E., 1679. Catalogus Stellarum Australium.
London.

HAa.iey, E., 1716. A New Method of Determining
the Parallax of the Sun, or His Distance from the
Earth. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., 29, 454.
[Abridged 6, 243.]

ELORNSBY,, I. Lifl. hes Ouantity “ot “the “Sums
Parallax, as Deduced from the Observations of
the Transit of Venus, June 3, 1769. Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc. Lond., 61, 574. [Abridged 13, 220.]

KEPLER, J., 1629. Admonitio ad Curiosoe rerum
coelestium excerpta ex Ephemeride anni 1631.
Opera Omnia, ed. Ch. Frisch, 7, 594.

MuUHLEMAN, M. D. O., 1969. On the Radio Method of

Determining the Astronomical Unit. Mon. Not.
PR. ast. Soc., 144, 151.
Woo Lr, H., 1959. The Transits of Venus. Princeton.

This is an excellent general reference to the 1761,
1769 transits.

(Received 16 October 1970)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales Vol. 103, pp. 11-14, 1970

A Note on Some Non-Calcareous Stalactites from the Sandstones
of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W.

E. V. LASSAK
Museum of Applied Aris and Sciences, Sydney, N.S.W., 2007

ABSTRACT Lamellar limonitic stalactites common in Hawkesbury Sandstone consist of

alternating layers of common opal and a mixture of limonitic and sideritic material.

Manganesian

stalactites of lower Narrabeen age also contain common opal but do not exhibit any particular

internal structure.
plant decay processes.
iron in the latter are proposed.

1.0. Introduction

Stalactites apparently of lamellar limonite
are fairly common under ledges and on cave

roofs in the sandstones of the Sydney Basin. _

Well-formed specimens have been collected
near the bottom of Cataract Waterfall at
Lawson in the Blue Mountains, under a rock
ledge on the cliffs behind Little Marley Beach
in the Royal National Park, on a near-vertical
rock face near the confluence of two creeks at
Girrakool Reserve south of Gosford and near
a small waterfall about half a mile upstream
in the valley of Deep Creek at Narrabeen.
However, apart from a brief mention by
Lovering (1952), who noted the thin coating
of common opal on the limonitic stalactites
from Calna Creek north of Hornsby, they do
not appear to have received any further attention
in the literature.

2.0. Limonitic Stalactites

2.1. Description. The stalactites may reach
a length of up to 20cm. Longer specimens
have been observed in places where the stalac-
tites, growing close to vertical or near-vertical
rock face, have actually been joined to it along
their side, thus deriving additional support for
their growing weight. This is_ particularly
important in the case of the faster growing and
consequently rather porous stalactites which
lack internal strength and tend to break apart
under their own wet weight. Elongated crusts,
thick in the centre and thinning towards the
sides exhibiting the same lamellar internal

The formation of the stalactites is believed to be closely associated with
Explanations for the lamellar structure of the former and the absence of

structure co-occur with the _ stalactites.
Occasionally the lamellar structure merges into
irregular patches of rusty-brown earthy material.

Often both the stalactites and the crusts
are coated with a thin film of white or greyish
common opal. In the absence of such a coating
their colour varies from shiny black to dull
rusty-brown. All occurrences of actively
growing stalactites were associated with
extensive areas of decaying vegetation. Some-
times the seepage responsible for their formation
exhibited bright diffraction colours similar to
those displayed by an oil film on water.

2.2. Chemical Examination. A _ chemical
analysis of a dry _ stalactite (“dead”’ in
Lovering’s words) from Cataract Waterfall

near Lawson (Table 1) revealed, in view of the
thinness of the visible coating of opal, a
surprisingly high silica content. Digestion of
some powdered stalactite material with warm
hydrochloric acid yielded an insoluble residue
of pure white opal. The absence of quartz,
such as particles of sand, in this residue was
established by its complete and _ almost
instantaneous solution in cold dilute aqueous
sodium hydroxide. In order to establish the
distribution of this opal a whole stalactite
was immersed for several months in dilute (5%)
hydrochloric acid. The insoluble residue con-
sisted of lamellar opal (Figure 1). Its refractive
index varied between 1:40 and 1-44. Its
average water content was 10:9%. An identical
alternation of limonitic material and opal was
observed in all specimens studied.

12 E. VALASSAK

Material from stalactites actively growing
(i.e. wet) at the time of collection (such as
from Deep Creek, Girrakool and Little Marley)
effervesced strongly with warm dilute hydro-
chloric acid, the gas given off being carbon
dioxide. The solution gave a positive test for
ferrous iron. Since no effervescence was
observed with cold acid, it is suggested that
ferrous carbonate, 1.e. siderite, is present in the
stalactites. No attempt was made to determine
the respective proportions of ferrous and ferric
iron. Owing to the porosity of the stalactites,
aerial oxidation is likely to proceed rapidly
and in a haphazard fashion. Consequently, a
separate determination of the two valency
states of iron would serve little useful purpose.

TABLE 1
Chemical Analyses*

A B C
Ke: as e,O,, ee 79-0 86-8 Trace
Mn as MnO, : ond Trace 8:6
SHOl ae — oe 4-9 Qiu, 58:4
boss on ignition ~~. TOs 7 12:3 33°1
Total” °.. as 100-3 101-87 100-1

A. Limonitic stalactite from Cataract Waterfall,

Lawson.
B. Limonitic stalactite from Deep Creek, Narrabeen:
C. Manganesian stalactite from Neate’s Glen.

* The material was dried at 105°.

+ The sum is greater than 100 owing to the presence
of some divalent iron.

2.3. Mode of Formation. The components
of the stalactites undoubtedly derive trom the
sandstone itself. It is unlikely, though, that a
mechanism involving simple solution followed
by deposition at a suitable site could satis-
factorily explain their formation. The solubility
of ferric hydroxide and of silica gel in water
is too low, of the order of 310-1 g.-moles/l.
(Jellinek and Gordon, 1924; Oka, 1940) and
about 120 p.p.m. respectively (Krauskopf, 1967)
to allow rapid deposition such as that observed,
at Berowra (vide infra).

More significantly, actively growing stalactites
and allied crusts have never been observed on
sites lacking abundant decaying plant matter.
It is therefore suggested that solution of iron
oxides and of silica is facilitated in the presence
of compounds produced during plant decay.

Indeed, Bloomfield (1951), Bétrémieux (1951)
and Ng and Bloomfield (1960) have shown that
sterile plant extracts, and particularly plant
fermentation liquors, are capable of dissolving

considerably greater amounts of ferric oxide
than pure water. In addition, provided
anaerobic conditions are maintained, ferric
iron is reduced to the ferrous state, the latter
being stabilized by complex formation. The
abundant carbon dioxide released during plant
decay no doubt assists in maintaining such
anaerobic conditions as well as in converting
some of the divalent iron to the soluble ferrous
bicarbonate.

Fermentation liquors are also known to
mobilize silica (Bétrémieux, 1951), which is
transported in the form of a negatively charged,
colloidal solution. Colloidal solutions of silica
are very stable and, provided organic colloids
(humic acids, etc.) are present, flocculation by
cations is slow and incomplete (Rankama and
Sahama, 1950). Thus, co-transport with ferrous
iron solutions is possible.

When conditions become aerobic, 1.e. the
seepage leaves the protective cover of decaying
vegetation or during periods of dry weather,
stalactite formation may be initiated by several
simultaneously occurring processes, in particular
loss of carbon dioxide resulting in the pre-
cipitation of siderite and aerial oxidation of
various complexes of divalent iron to the
trivalent state followed by flocculation of ferric
hydroxide. Since observation of a growing
stalactite at Berowra disclosed a fairly constant
and continual flow of water, it is thought that
precipitation of silica on the limonitic surface
is unlikely to be the result of concentration
by evaporation during periods of reduced flow.
Instead, it is suggested that the freshly pre-
cipitated limonitic materal retains some of the
protecting organic matter, such as humic acids,
which cause it to retain a negative charge.
Once aerial or microbiological oxidation has
destroyed all organic matter, the limonitic
surface becomes cationic in nature and will
coagulate the negatively charged silica sol.

The fact that the silica gel layer is deposited
on the external face of the limonitic layer, 1.e.
facing the atmosphere and not in between two
already existing layers, may be inferred from
Lovering’s (1952) finding that particles of clay,
i.e. dust, have been trapped by the gelatinous
silica and also from the uneven, tooth-like
appearance of the internal face of the opal
lamina facing an earlier deposited limonitic
layer as opposed to the smooth external face
(Figure 1). The extreme ease of imtercon-
version between ferrous and ferric iron will
almost certainly complicate the processes just
outlined. Humate-protected ferric colloids will

JOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W.

FiGgurE 1.—Lamellar opal.

(12 x 20 mm.)

LASSAK PILATE

NON-CALCAREOUS STALACTITES FROM SANDSTONES OF SYDNEY BASIN 13

probably accompany divalent iron (Gruner,
1922: Bloomfield, 1969).

Supporting evidence for a microbiological
origin of the stalactites has been obtained
from the Berowra locality. Here the stalactites
are directly due to the action of sewage over-
flowing from the absorption trench connected
to a septic tank. The effluent flows for about
25 ft. along the surface of a slightly inclined
sandstone platform, covered by up to 6in.
of sandy soil supporting the growth of some
grass, but otherwise devoid of decaying plant
matter before flowing over the overhanging
edge. Beneath it, rapid deposition of lamellar
crusts and small stalactites is taking place.
Some of these crusts, composed once again
of alternating layers of limonitic and sideritic
material and opal, grew to a thickness of 2 cm.
in slightly less than three months before breaking
off after a period of particularly heavy rain.
Before the installation of the septic tank system,
when seepage was entirely due to meteoric
waters, no limonitic stalactites had ever been
observed under the ledge.

3.0. Manganesian Stalactites

Near Neate’s Glen, along the path from
Evan’s Lookout to Beauchamp Falls in the
Grose Valley in the Blue Mountains, an isolated
occurrence of black manganese-bearing
stalactites was discovered. The stalactites,
up to 10 cm. long, were found under a sandstone
ledge which, on the basis of Goldbery’s (1966)
map of the area, belongs to the Grose Sandstone
Formation of the Narrabeen Group.

As in the case of the limonitic stalactites,
abundant decaying vegetation was present.
The stalactites, extremely porous, criss-crossed
by roots of ferns and containing considerable
adsorbed water, do not exhibit any particular
internal structure. On air-drying they lose
about 60-70% of their weight and crumble
completely. Leaching in dilute hydrochloric
acid leaves a residue of greyish opal which is
almost completely soluble in dilute sodium
hydroxide solution. An analysis revealed the
presence of manganese. Iron was virtually
absent (Table 1).

Bétrémieux (1951) has shown that manganese
is readily mobilized by fermenting organic
matter, a fact corroborated by Ng and Bloom-
field (1960). The latter authors also suggested
that reduction of quadrivalent manganese is
involved in its solution. Bromfield (1958) has
shown that washings of the roots of oat plants
dissolve manganese dioxide. Once dissolved,

the manganese is transported as the bicarbonate
and, should conditions become aerobic, as a
colloidal solution of quadrivalent hydroxide,
probably stabilized by humic compounds
(Rankama and Sahama, 1950). Since sols of
both silica and quadrivalent manganese oxides
are negatively charged, they will flocculate
together, and thus no zoning within the stalactite
is observed.

The reason for the total absence of iron is not
quite clear. It has been found (Behrend, 1924)
that the addition of an electrolyte to a colloidal
solution of ferric and manganic hydroxide
results in precipitation of all the manganic
hydroxide, leaving most or even all of the iron
in solution. An examination of sandstone
analyses (Joplin, 1965) shows that the alkali and
alkaline earth content (Na,O+K,0 +CaO +MgoO)
rises from about 1—-2-5% in the case of a typical
Hawkesbury sandstone to 3:6% in an example
from the Gosford Formation, and even to 8:2%
in a sandstone obtained at a depth of 1,900 ft.
from a Rose Bay bore corresponding probably
to middle Narrabeen age. It appears, therefore,
that weathering of Narrabeen sandstones will
provide greater amounts of mono- and divalent
cations than Hawkesbury sandstones, and the
resulting solutions may well reach the necessary
electrolyte concentration needed for preferential
precipitation of manganese.

4.0. Conclusion

Whilst it is not possible to assign any definite
stratigraphic significance to these stalactite
occurrences, it can nevertheless be seen that the
chemical composition of the stalactites is related
to the composition of the parent sandstone.
The limonitic variety has been encountered
so far only in the quartz-rich sandstones of the
Hawkesbury Sandstone and upper Narrabeen
Group (Lawson occurrence; Goodwin, 1969).
The rarer manganesian stalactites are confined
to the more lithic sandstones in the middle of
the Narrabeen Group.

Specimens of the limonitic stalactites from
Lawson, before and after leaching with acid,
were exhibited at a meeting of the Geological
Section of the Royal Society of N.S.W. on
21st July, 1967.

5.0. Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to Mr. D. Llewellyn
for the gift of a limonitic stalactite from Little
Marley Beach and to Mr. J. Sigley for photo-
graphic assistance.

14 Eve

References

BEHREND, F., 1924. Z. prakt. Geol., 32, 81, 102.
BETREMIEUX, R., 1951. Ann. Agron., 2, 193.
BLOOMFIELD, C., 1951) J. Sow Sci., 2; 196:
BLOOMFIELD, C., 1969. Chem. and Ind., 1633.
BROMFIELD, S. M., 1958. Plant and Soil., 10, 147.

GOLDBERY, R., 1966. Unpub. B.Sc.(Hons.) thesis,
Univ. N.S.W.

GoopwWIN, RR. H; 1969. | J Proc. Roy. Soe NaS.W.,
102, 137.

GRUNER, J. W., 1922. Econ. Geol., 17, 407.

JELLINEK, (1 cand «GORDON, | Hl.) 1924597. piystk:

Chem., 112, 247.

LASSAK

JopLin, G, A., 1965. Chemical Analyses of Australian
Rocks. Part II. Sedimentary Rocks. Bulletin
No. 78, Department of National Development,
Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geo-
physics, Canberra.

KrauskopF, K. B., 1967. Introduction to Geochemistry.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

LovERING, J. F., 1952. Rec. Aust. Mus., 29.

Ne, S. K., and BLoomFIELp, C., 1960. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta, 24, 206, and references cited
therein.

Oxa, Y., 1940. J. Chem. Soc. Japan, 61, 311.

RANKAMA, K., and SaHAMA, T.G., 1950. Geochemistry,
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

(Received 13 August 1970)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 15-30, 1970

The Lower-Middle Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of the Bowan Park
Area, Central-Western New South Wales

V. SEMENIUK
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W., 2006

Apstract—Basalts, andesites and breccias of the Cargo Andesite (pre-Upper Gisbornian)
are the oldest outcropping rocks in the area. Above them is the Bowan Park Group, a thick
accumulation of shallow water carbonates, which has been correlated with the Upper Gisbornian
(or ? Lower Gisbornian) at its base and the Upper Eastonian at its top. This Ordovician limestone
sequence has been subdivided into three formations which, in ascending order, are : Daylesford
Formation, comprising various lithologies which are thinly bedded in its lower portions and
massive towards the top; the extremely fossiliferous Quondong Formation, consisting of thinly
bedded limestones and marls; and the massively bedded, generally unfossiliferous Ballingoole
Formation.

The Malachi’s Hill Beds (Bolindian) conformably overlie the Bowan Park Group. They
consist of laminated siltstones, brown siltstones, lithic and volcanic sandstones and some andesite
and basalt in their lower portions, and andesite, basalt and breccias in their upper portions.
Silurian rocks (= ‘‘ Panuara Formation ’’) are separated from Ordovician rocks by a major fault,

and consist mainly of mudstones, shale and some limestone.

Emplacement of an intrusive body,

the Marylebone Dolerite, in post-Silurian times appears related to this fault.

Introduction

The area described is situated some 20 miles
to the west of Orange, New South Wales
(Figure 1), and lies within the tectonic unit,
the Molong geanticline (Packham, 1960). The
Bowan Park area first received attention when
Carne and Jones (1919) surveyed the limestone
as part of a major project on New South Wales
limestone deposits. Later, Joplin ef al. (1952)
produced a reconnaissance map of the region
incorporating this area but showing only the
outcrop of the major rock types. Stevens (1956)
was next to study the area. He examined it
in some detail, defined the Malachi’s Hill
Formation, and showed the outcrop distribution
of the various formations.

This paper describes the stratigraphy of the
area and includes new subdivisions of the
Bowan Park Limestone. It is hoped to present
a more detailed account of the limestone in a
later publication.

Cargo Andesite

The oldest rocks cropping out in the area
belong to the Cargo Andesite (Stevens, 1950,
1956). Basalts and andesites (identified by
their texture) and breccias are the main rock
types, but since exposure is poor the lateral
extent and relationships of these rock types is
unknown.

Petrography

Basalts are porphyritic with altered plagio-
clase or altered plagioclase and augite pheno-
crysts in a microcrystalline groundmass. The
plagioclase phenocrysts are euhedral and up to
10 mm. long, while colourless augite occurs as
anhedral or euhedral phenocrysts up to 1 mm.
in size. The groundmass consists of a felt-like
aggregate of felspar laths (now largely altered),
commonly 0:1 mm. long, granules of an opaque
mineral, pyroxene grains, pseudomorphs after
euhedral olivine, and patches of calcite and
quartz. The basalts commonly show ophitic
to subophitic textures.

The andesites also tend to be porphyritic
with phenocrysts of hornblende and plagioclase
in a microcrystalline groundmass. The plagio-
clase occurs as well-shaped crystals up to 3 mm.
long and is altered. Dark green hornblende
occurs as euhedral phenocrysts with a maximum
length of 1-5 mm.; it is commonly rimmed by
an opaque mineral, presumably magmatically
corroded. The groundmass consists of an equl-
dimensional aggregate (average size 0-01 mm.)
of mica, felspar, clay minerals, opaque minerals
and variable amounts of chlorite, quartz and
prehnite; its texture suggests that it has
recrystallized from an original glassy ground-
mass. Less commonly the groundmass consists
of felspar showing trachytic texture.

16

m@_\

eles

i *
sl 2

<-D
“Dp:
Dass

C ae
<
<ik

TOGO 8 ODE OBEE

‘Streptelasma unit’

V. SEMENIUK

LEGEND

QUATERNARY ALLUVIUM

basalt

TERTIARY ROCKS

‘greybilly’, sandstone

MARYLEBONE DOLERITE

shales, siltstones
falspathic sandstone

limestone

limestone

breccias

breccias, andesite, basalt
andesitc, basalt

brown lithic sandstone
dark grey volcanic sandstone
brown silfstone

laminated silkstones

‘calcarcnite unit’

Ballingoole
Formation

massive unit

Quondong Formation

pisolite unit’

‘brachiopod unit’

‘lithic unit’

sandstone

a=

6 “ ”?
Panuara Formation

——|—

MALACHI'S HILL

‘light grey unit’ BOWAN PARK
a GROUP
‘gastropod unit
‘Ischadites unit’ Daylesford
Formation

CARGO ANDESITE

Geological Boundaries Folds
accurate 9 ——— anticlinal axis —@—
approximate ———— synclinal axis —{—
Faults Dip of Beds.
accurate 9 ——__ Known 30°
inferred ~——— strike on

dip directi
only vate patie 4
Graptolite Localities g!,q2etc

Pe Roads

La Creeks

a = Homastcads

LOWER-MIDDLE PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK AREA = 17

MOLONG

{ Mile
be

1 Kilometre

FiGurRE 1.—Geological map of the Bowan Park area.

18 V. SEMENIUK

Breccias are found throughout the sequence
and form massive outcrops. They consist of
well-rounded and angular fragments of effusive
rock (commonly andesite) in a poorly sorted
matrix. The pebbles and fragments of effusive
rock are up to 15cm. in size, though mostly
3-8 cm. in size, and constitute up to 70% of
the rock. The matrix is composed of poorly
sorted volcanic rock (andesitic) and crystals ;
its average grainsize is 0-2 mm. These breccias
represent the rubble derived from a _ pre-
dominantly volcanic terrain, where well-rounded
water-transported volcanic rock pebbles have
been mixed with locally derived pyroclastic
material.

Alteration

The Cargo Andesite has undergone low-
temperature alteration, and the minerals chlorite,
prehnite, pumpellyite, calcite and albite are
found in many thin sections. The groundmass
of the effusive rocks appears to be the most
affected, altered to patches of chlorite, calcite,
pumpellyite, quartz and clay minerals to such
an extent that all original mineral identity is
virtually lost.

Plagioclase is the most altered of the pheno-
crysts. It has either been completely albitized
or suffered heavy alteration to clay minerals,
epidote, and patches of albite or calcite. Augite
seems to have remained relatively fresh as
phenocrysts but it may show patchy or complete
alteration to chlorite. Hornblende, too, is
found partly altered to chlorite and in cases
complete pseudomorphism has occurred.

Veins occur in most of the rocks and contain
calcite, chlorite or quartz. Some are more
complex and contain a mixture of minerals
which may include calcite, chalcedony, chlorite
and a needle-like mineral (possibly apatite).
Amygdules, common in some of the rocks, are
filled with a similar assemblage of secondary
minerals, viz. prehnite, quartz, chlorite.

The secondary mineral assemblage described
above is similar to that described by Ryall
(1965) and Smith (1966, 1968) for Ordovician
volcanic sequences in the Mandurama-Cano-
windra area to the south of Bowan Park. It
indicates a low-temperature grade of meta-
morphism comparable to the prehnite-pumpel-
lyite-metagreywacke facies of Coombs (1960).

Bowan Park Group
The Bowan Park Limestone has been recorded
by a number of workers, including Carne and
Jones (1919), Brown (1952), Stevens (1956),
Phillips-Ross (1961) and Packham (1967, 1969).

Although Stevens (1956) was the first to name it,
no one to date has formally described it. The
writer has been able to subdivide the limestone
into 10 mappable units, using bedding, litho-
logical, and fossil differences. These units
are grouped into three formations (Figure 2),
and the Bowan Park Limestone is elevated
to group status. The proposed formations are
as follows:
(ophe:
Ballingoole Formation: Massive, generally
unfossiliferous limestones; it is 280m.
thick and subdivided into three units.

Quondong Formation: Extremely fossil-
iferous thinly bedded limestones and marls,
34m. thick.

Daylesford Formation : Limestones of various
lithologies, thinly bedded in its lower
portions and massive towards the top;
subdivided into six units and totals 250 m.
in thickness.

Daylesford Formation

The Daylesford Formation takes its name
from a property some three miles to the east
of the area. Its designated type section is
on the property of “ Quondong”’ (Figure 1,
section A-A’). The units within it are, in
ascending order, the “diiiic= ‘mith |) tie
“ brachiopod unit ’’, the “‘ Ischadites unit ’’, the
“gastropod unit’’, the “light grey limestone
unit ’ and the “ pisolite unit ’’ (Figure 2).

Overlying the Cargo Andesite is the “ lithic
unit’’, which has a 4m.-thick sandstone
developed at its base, and is altogether 34 m.
thick. It consists of a variety of thinly bedded,
often nodular, marly lithologies which include
burrowed micrites and biomicrites, biosparites
and pelsparites. Fossils collected include the

algae Solenopora and Gurvanella, corals
Tetradium apertum Safford, Helolites and
Propora, stromatoporoids Stvatodictyon

columnare Webby, S. ozakiu Webby and a
cylindrical labechiid (gen. et sp. nov., Webby,
pers. comm.), brachiopods Catazyga and
Protozyga, gastropods Lophospira and others,
bryozoans, trilobites, and orthoconic nautiloids.

The “brachiopod unit”’ is 16m. thick and
consists of thinly to massively bedded, dark
grey and brown biomicrites. It contains an
abundance of the large, thick-shelled, inarticulate
brachiopod, cf. Eodinobolus, usually occurring
in bands and often in the position of growth
(Figure 3). The commonest fossils in this unit
are cf. Eodinobolus, Tetradium cf. cellulosum
(Hall), JT. apertum, T. compactum Hill, a

LOWER-MIDDLE PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK AREA

Compiled from
B-B,C-C’
D-D's E-E

MALACHI’S
HILL BEOS

‘Streptclasma
unit’

ae
S

ka
:

‘massive unit’

Mae
:
:

i

BALLINGOOLE
FORMATION

iz

QUONDONG
FORMATION

"massive unit’

* pisolite
unit’

DAYLESFORD
FORMATION

‘gastropod
unit’

50m

“brachiopod unit’
‘lithic unit’
* sandstone

ANDESITE

FIGURE 2.—Stratigraphic sections of the Bowan Park Group. For section localities, see
Figure 1.

19

20 V. SEMENIUK

cylindrical labechiid, and Lophospira milleri
(Miller) ; other fossils are less abundant and
include Solenopora, Girvanella, corals Nyctopora
stevenst Hill, Heliolites and Propora, bryozoans
Stictopora and ? Prasopora, brachiopods
Catazyga, Protozyga, bivalves ? Ctenodonta and
indeterminable taxodonts, trilobite Pliomerina
and ostracod cf. Kloedinia. Black chert nodules
occurring along bedding planes and Chondrites
burrows are also found in these limestones.

FIGURE 3.—Bedding plane surface of limestone from
the “brachiopod unit’’. Most of the shells of cf.
Eodinobolus are articulated and in situ.

The “‘ Ischadites unit’ is thinly bedded and
consists of dark grey biomicrites (Pl. II, Fig. 2)
and lithoclast-bearing biosparites and is 16 m.
thick. Its distinctive feature is the occurrence
of the large alga Ischadites cf. lindstroemi Hinde.
Other fossils are relatively scarce and include
Tetradium cf. syringoporoides Ulrich, Nyctopora
stevenst, Lophospira muillerit, Protozyga, cf.
Kloedinia, Solenopora and Girvanella. Chondrites
burrows, chert nodules (Pl. I, Fig. 2), and
dolomite mottling (Pl. I, Fig. 3) are also found
in this unit.

The “Ischadites unit’’ is followed by the
“ gastropod unit’’, comprising thinly bedded,
dark grey biomicrites, which are extensively
burrowed (Chondrites burrows; Pl. I, Fig. 6).
Gastropods and, to a less extent, other fossils
occurs in bands throughout the unit; chert
nodules and dolomitized animal tracks and
burrows (Pl. I, Fig. 4) are found at many
horizons This unit is 64m. thick and may be,
subdivided on a faunal basis. In the lower 30 m.
the gastropod Maclurites is the most conspicuous
fossil; Lophospirva mulleri, Heliolites, large
orthoconic nautiloids (Pl. I, Fig. 5) and
brachiopods also occur. The upper 30m.

contains a more varied fauna which includes
L.millert (abundant), Ectomaria, Hardmanoceras,
Maclurites, large orthoconic nautiloids, Catazyga,
Tetradium cf. syringoporoides, Heliolites, a coral
resembling Pycnostylus, and Pliomerina.

Overlying the “ gastropod unit ”’ is a massively
bedded, strongly outcropping, mottled light
grey limestone which is named the “ light grey
limestone unit’’. Its lithologies include bio-
micrites and biosparites. The unit is fairly
barren throughout its 25m. thickness but has
occasional coral or brachiopod bands. Tetradium
and Plasmoporella have been found but are not
common. In thin sections fragments of
gastropods, trilobites, brachiopods, coral and
calcareous algae have been encountered.

The upper unit of the Daylesford Formation
is the “ pisolite unit ” (Qbam. thiclkay thiniy,
to massively bedded sequence of biointrasparites,
biosparites and biomicrites. The lower portion
consists mainly of pisolitic lithoclast-bearing
biointrasparites which are thinly to massively
bedded ; some beds are finely laminated and
exhibit gently inclined cross bedding. The
upper portion consists of massively bedded
biomicrites and some biosparites and biointra-
sparites ; black chert nodules also occur in this
upper part. Fossils are common, especially in
the lower portion, and the corals Tetradium
cribriforme (Etheridge), Propora, Helholites,
Plasmoporella, Coccoseris, and the stromato-
poroids LEcclimadictyon nestor Webby, E.
amzassensis (Khalfina) and Clathrodictyon aff.
mammillatum (Schmidt) dominate. Less common
fossils include the stromatoporoid Labechia
variabilis Yabe and Sugiyama, the brachiopod
Leptellina, and Lophospira miller.

The contact between the massive, dark grey
limestones of the “ pisolite unit ’’ and the marly
limestones of the overlying Quondong Formation
is abrupt and erosional.

Quondong Formation

The formation is well developed on the
property of “ Quondong”’ (Por. 289, Parish of
Bowan) and its designated type section is A—A’
(Figure 2). It is lithologically distinct from the
other formations and consists of thinly (and
some thickly) bedded marls and limestones
which are extremely fossiliferous. Lithologies
within it include biomicrites, biomicrudites,
biosparites, biosparrudites, intrasparites, pelmi-
crites and micrites.

Previous work on this formation has been
mainly palaeontological and has _ included
descriptions or listings of corals, bryozoans,

LOWER-MIDDLE PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK AREA 21

brachiopods or gastropods. Dun (im Andrews
and Morrison, 1915) determined AHeliolites,
Hormotoma, Lophospira, Naticopsis, Tremato-
spiva, Lituites and ?Columnopora. Although
the exact location from where these were
collected is not given it seems likely that they
were collected from this, the most fossiliferous
formation. Brown (1952) listed Spanodonta
(=Sowerbyites; Packham, pers. comm.) and
Trnitoechia and was first to conclude that the
limestone was Ordovician. Stevens (1956) listed
Propora, Heliolites and Eofletcheria (all deter-
mined by Dorothy Hill) and also Coccoseris
and dasycladacean algae. In 1957 Hill described
Propora bowanensis Hill, Eofletcheria gracilis
Hill and Helolites digitalis Hill from the
formation and suggested an Upper Ordovician
or late Middle Ordovician age for the fauna.
Phillips-Ross (1961) described Homotrypa cf.
fenestrata Phillips-Ross, Stictopora bowanensis
Phillips-Ross and S. guondongensis Phillips-Ross
and commented on the abundance of “ brachio-
pods, corals, gastropods, ostracods, bryozoans,
nautiloids, | stromatoporoids, algae and
trilobites ”’.

Fossils in the formation occur in bands as
shell and coral calcirudites or as shell calcirudites
in a matrix of calcarenite or calcilutite (Pl. I,
Fig. 7); very few fossils are in their position of
growth, unless they occur as encrusting forms
on shells and other fauna. Less fossiliferous
beds are invariably burrowed (Chondrites and
other varieties of burrow).

Brachiopods, corals and, to a less extent,
bryozoans and gastropods dominate the fauna.
Of the forms present Eofletcheria gracilis, E.
contigua Hill, Tetradium cribriforme, Propora
bowanensis, P. mammifera Hill, Heltolites
digitalis, and a tryplasmatid are the common
corals, while Leptellina and Catazyga are the
common brachiopods. Amongst the bryozoans
Stictopora bowanensis, S. quondongensis and
Prasopora simulatrix Ulrich are the most
abundant, while Lophospiva mullert is the
common gastropod.

Other fossils are less abundant and are
determined as follows: Guzrvanella, Solenopora
and dasycladacean algae, corals LEofletcheria
subparallela Hill, Plasmoporella, Coccoseris,
Palaeophyllum cf. rugosum Billings, and an
indeterminate auloporid, §stromatoporoids
Ecclimadictyon nestor and E. amzassensis,
brachiopods Protozyga, Hesperorthis, Stropho-
mena, Ptychopleurella, Hallina, Sowerbyites,
gastropods Hormotoma and Maclurites, bivalves
? Ctenodonta, orthoconic nautiloids, edrioblastoid
Astrocystites, trilobites Pliomerina and other

indeterminate fragments, and the ostracod

cf. Kloedinia.

The boundary with the overlying Ballingoole
Formation is a transitional one. The transitional
rocks are thinly bedded and fossiliferous but
grade upwards within 2m. into massive,
relatively unfossiliferous limestone.

Ballingoole Formation

The Ballingoole Formation is well developed,
though incomplete, along the road which runs
east-west through the area, and takes its name
from a homestead on the north side of this road.
The type section of the formation is designated
at Malachi’s Hill but the complete stratigraphy
has been compiled from sections A—A’, B-B’,
C-C’, D-D’ and E-E’. The formation consists
of massive limestones (mainly biosparites,
biomicrites, pelmicrites, micrites and _ intra-
sparites) throughout its 280m. thickness, but
thinly bedded calcarenites, lithic calcilutites
and a limestone breccia are developed at the
top. The formation is divided into three units
(Figure 2).

Fossils are rare in the lower portion of the
formation, named the “ massive unit’’, but
fragmentary heliolitids and Pseudostylodictyon
inequale Webby have been found near the base.
The more fossiliferous upper portion is termed
the “ Stveptelasma unit”’ and in it are found
Streptelasma, Plasmoporella «inflata Hill,
Plasmoporella, and the — stromatoporoids
Ecclimadictyon nestort, E. amzassensis, Clathro-
dictyon cf. microundulatum Nestor, and
Pseudostylodictyon tnequale. Maclurites and
Sowerbyites are found in horizons near the base,
and Halysites praecedens Webby and Semeniuk,
Palaeofavosites cf. alveolaris (Goldfuss) and
pentamerid brachiopods are found in horizons
near the top. A poorly preserved Tetrvadium sp.
is also found in some horizons throughout the
unit.

In the “calcarenite unit” (Figure 2) the
lower portion consists of thinly bedded
calcarenites which contain the trilobite cf.
Bumastus and less commonly the rugose coral
? Palaeophyllum. The upper portion of this
unit consists of laminated lithic calcilutites
and fossils found in them include graptolites
like those found in the basal portions of the
Malachi’s Hill Beds. A limestone breccia is
developed near the top of the unit with derived
limestone fragments similar to the types
occurring throughout the Bowan Park group.
The only identifiable fossil found to date is
Palaeofavosites cf. balticus (Rukhin). Above

22 V. SEMENIUK

the limestone breccia more lithic calcilutites
are found, and they grade rapidly (within 3 m.)
into siliceous laminated siltstones of the over-
lying Malachi’s Hill Beds. The boundary
between the Ballingoole Formation and the
Malachi’s Hill Beds is drawn at the top of these
higher lithic calcilutites.

Petrography

The Bowan Park Group presents a variable
suite of carbonate rocks and an account of the
rock constituents and commoner rock types is
presented below.

Preservation of original texture and structure
within the limestone is often remarkably good
(despite the age, the proximity to large-scale
thrusting, and the low-temperature regional
metamorphism of the limestone). For example,
skeletal structure is found intact in brachiopods
(Pl. II, Fig. 7), trilobites and some corals,
fibrous calcite cement is found still preserved
(Pl. II, Fig. 3), Gurvanella threads are still
discernible (Pl. II, Fig. 6) and much of the
micrite in these rocks has not suffered appreciable
grain growth.

Alteration and _ recrystallization, however,
has occurred to some extent throughout the
limestones. Some of the more obvious changes
involve dolomitization, brecciation and some-
times intense veining near fault zones. Patchy
to complete recrystallization of micrite to
microspar or pseudospar (Folk, 1965), recrystal-
lization of pore-filling cement fabrics, and
obliteration of skeletal structures either by
recrystallization or leaching are also common
features of these limestones. Finally, calcite
veining and slight to intense stylolitization is
found throughout the sequence.

The variety of rock constituents in the
limestones include terrigenous clay and silt,
lime mud, skeletal silt, skeletal sand and gravel,
pellets, intraclasts, lithoclasts, algally-coated
grains (pisolites), drusy and blocky cements
and replacement minerals such as dolomite,
silica and pyrite.

Biomicrites and biomicrudites dominate the
lithologies in the lower portions of the group
and become less important in the upper parts.
They consist of one or more macro-fossils, such
as a gastropod or brachiopod, set in a slightly
to intensively burrowed (usually dark grey)
lime mudstone. In thin section a high degree
of skeletal fragmentation down to silt size is
evident (Pl. II, Fig. 2). Burrowing, when
present, usually contrasts against its sur-
roundings by its darker colour and/or differing
skeletal content (Pl. II, Fig. 4).

Biosparites and biosparrudites are probably
the second most important group in the sequence,
being best developed in the Quondong
Formation. They may consist of a few or a
variety of skeletal grain types. These can be
recognized by such diagnostic features as
fibrosity of shell (e.g. brachiopods, Pl. II,
Fig. 7, and trilobites), shell shape (e.g. trilobites
and gastropods) and internal structures (e.g.
algal stems, Pl. II, Fig. 5). Often, however,
recrystallization and micritization of grains
has rendered the identification of skeletons
impossible ; only vague shapes and incomplete
alteration suggest that these are not intraclasts.
Cement, for the most part in these rocks, has
been recrystallized to blocky calcite, with some
development of lustre mottling. In many
cases, however, parts of a thin section will show
ghost remnants of drusy calcite, while another
portion has been fully recrystallized to blocky
calcite.

Intrasparites are found in all the members
but have their best development in the “ pisolite
unit ’’. As a group they are less abundant
than the biosparites and biosparrudites. In
thin section some of the rocks contain a reason-
able proportion of skeletal fragments, and these
are termed biointrasparites. The intraclasts,
sand to pebble sized, are mostly micrite (PI. II,
Fig. 8), biomicrite, pelsparite, or pelmicrite
fragments; in some cases Gurvanella-bearing
micrites and dolomite-bearing micrites are
found.

Pelmicrites, found mostly in the Ballingoole
Formation and Quondong Formation, are not
a common rock type throughout the sequence.
They consist of extremely well sorted pellets,
lying in the size range 0:05-0-1mm., which
are ovoid to spherical to irregular in shape and
are composed of dark brown micrite. The
pellets are set in a matrix of lighter coloured
micrite with microspar patches (PI. II, Fig. 1).

Other lithologies form a less significant
proportion of the rock types developed in the
group and will be described in detail in a later
publication.

Age of the Bowan Park Group

The Bowan Park Group is important in this
region because it appears to be the only
Ordovician limestone which spans the three
faunal zones established by Webby (1969).
The faunal zones as they apply in the Bowan
Park Group are as follows (Tentative cor-
relations with the Victorian Stages are taken
from Webby, 1969.) :

LOWER-MIDDLE PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK AREA — 23

Fauna III (correlated with the U. Eastonian) :
Containing the first appearances of Sirep-
telasma, Halysites praecedens, Palaeo-
favosites cf. alveolaris, Plasmoporella inflata.

Fauna II (correlated with the L. East. or
? U. Gisborn.) : Containing the first appear-
ances of Ecclimadictyon, Clathrodictyon,
Palaeophyllum ; and containing Tetradium
cribriforme and Labechia variablis.

Fauna I (correlated with the U. or ?L.

Gisbornian) : Containing Tetradium
apertum, T. compactum, T. cf. cellulosum,
T. cf. syringoporoides, Stratodictyon

columnare and S. ozakit.

Graptolites collected from the lower part of
the overlying Malachi’s Hill Beds are Lower
Bolindian or near the Eastonian-Bolindian
boundary in age and thus essentially agree with
the above correlations.

Malachi’s Hill Beds

Stevens (1956) originally defined the Malachi’s
Hill Formation as the sequence of sedimentary
and volcanic rock, approximately 200 m. thick,
overlying the Bowan Park Limestone and
underlying Silurian limestone and shale. The
formation, however, has a faulted contact with
overlying Silurian rocks, and some of the
limestone lenses in the east of the area
determined by Stevens to be Silurian are, in
part, limestone boulder beds with a fauna
suggestive of an uppermost Ordovician age,
(Bolindian). These boulder beds appear to be
best included in the upper parts of the formation.
Similar limestone boulder beds are found in the
upper parts of the formation and _strati-
graphically well below limestones of a known
Lower Silurian age in the Borenore region
(Partridge, pers. comm., 1970).

The Malachi’s Hill Beds therefore are herein
defined as the sequence of sedimentary and
effusive rocks and breccias, including the
limestone boulder beds, which conformably
overlie the Bowan Park Limestone and have a
faulted contact with Silurian limestone and shale
(Figures 1 and 5)

Stratigraphy and Petrography

The base of the sequence is exposed on the
south-west slopes of Malachi’s Hill and the
basal boundary is drawn at the top of the lithic
calcilutites of the Ballingoole Formation. The
lower part of the formation is exposed as cliff
sections along Oaky Creek, where it is possible
to trace units for hundreds of metres ; north of
Oaky Creek the upper part of the sequence is

poorly exposed and is restricted to several
massive outcrops and numerous boulder piles.
The sequence of units is illustrated in Figure 4.
The fault occurring between Malachi’s Hill and
the “ Malachi’s Hill’’ homestead has resulted
in the loss of an unknown thickness of beds,
possibly not more than 30m.

Finely laminated siltstones dominate the
lower part of the sequence. They are hard,
siliceous, well-jointed rocks fairly constant
in their character vertically and along strike.
An abundance of sedimentary structures are
found within them and small-scale slumps,
minor contemporaneous faults and small-scale
lenticular layering are the most common;
load casts, minor drag folds on the upper
surfaces of laminations, siltstone injections into
overlying layers, small-scale cross laminations
and small-scale graded bedding also occur.
The laminations, due to the alternation of
organic-rich and organic-poor layers, give the
rock a dark grey/buff banded aspect. Lamina-
tions are also defined by thin sandstone layers.
In thin sections grains appear well sorted,
ranging in size from 0-02-0-l1mm., though
most are 0:04 mm. Quartz forms up to 80% of
the rock (which is unusual considering that
most of the other sedimentary grain types in
this formation have been derived from basaltic
to andesitic volcanic rocks); basaltic and
andesitic rock fragments, devitrified glass
fragments, albite, minor amounts of (? syn-
genetic) pyrite, and siliceous sponge spicules
also occur.

The coarse, brown lithic sandstones which are
intercalated with the laminated siltstones
(Figure 4) are massive and do not exhibit any
obvious sedimentary structures or fossils. They
consist of poorly sorted grains, angular to sub-
angular in shape, and mostly 0-4-1-0 mm. in
size. Rock fragments make up the bulk of the
sand grains and consist of basaltic and andesitic
rock and devitrified glass. Pyroxene fragments,
plagioclase and opaque minerals total less than
10% of the rock.

A brown siltstone which is found above the
laminated siltstones (Figure 4) is thinly bedded
and irregularly jointed. It contains small
orthoconic nautiloids but no other fauna. In
thin section the rock consists of plagioclase
(altered), rock fragments, quartz and minor
amounts of opaque minerals. Most of the grains
are too small to identify, grain sizes being
0-05 mm.

Overlying the brown siltstone is a massive,
unfossiliferous, dark grey volcanic sandstone

24

V. SEMENIUK

LEGEND

limestone

felspathic sandstone

pi
“De
D-b

breccia

andesite, basalt

<c
<<
<<

eis

breccias, andesite, basalt

D-
Db

dark grey volcanic sandstone
brown lithic sandstone
brown siltstone

laminated siltstone

Bowan Park Group

HCE

Section between

FiGurE 4.—Stratigraphic sections of the Malachi’s Hill Beds.

For section localities, see Figure 1.

LOWER-MIDDLE PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK AREA 25

(Figure 4) which is fine to coarse grained,
0 -2—0-6 mm. respectively. Basaltic and andesitic
rock fragments and plagioclase make up the
bulk of the sandstone ; pyroxene (15%), opaque
minerals (10%), and minor amounts of horn-
blende and quartz make up the remainder of
the grains.

The two andesitic flows intercalated with the
laminated siltstones in the lower part of the
sequence (Figure 4) are very similar. They are
vesicular in places and porphyritic with laths
of altered plagioclase up to 2-5 mm. in length
forming subradiating groups, comprising 15%
of the rock. Augite (colourless in thin sections)
also occurs as phenocrysts (1-0—1-5 mm. long)
and forms 15% of the rock. The groundmass
consists of patches of relict plagioclase, calcite,
chlorite and granules of an opaque mineral.

A little higher in the sequence a basalt occurs
(Figure 4). It has altered plagioclase laths as
phenocrysts (showing flow orientation) up to
4mm. long and forming 10% of the rock.
The groundmass consists of a felt-like aggregate
of relict plagioclase microlites with interstitial
pyroxene, now chlorite; opaque mineral
granules and patches of calcite (replacing the
groundmass) are also common. Field evidence
(an erosional surface contact with overlying
sediments within an essentially contemporaneous
sequence, Pl. I, Fig. 1), and thin section data
point to an extrusive origin for these volcanic
rocks described above.

Porphyritic volcanic rocks and_ breccias
dominate the upper portions of the sequence
(Figure 4) and at least three different effusive
rock types can be recognized in widely scattered
but different stratigraphic positions. Ihe
upper part of the formation is left, therefore,
largely undifferentiated, but the rock types are
described below. Immediately above the dark
grey volcanic sandstone (Figure 4) a porphyritic
andesite with phenocrysts of altered plagioclase,
augite and relict amphibole crops out. The
plagioclase forms up to 30% of the rock as
phenocrysts 1 mm. in length. Colourless augite
and relict amphibole each form 10% of the rock.
The relict amphibole has been completely altered
to chlorite and biotite and all that remains is
the crystal outline defined by an opaque mineral
rim (originally this may have been a magmatic
corrosion rim). The groundmass of this rock
consists of interlocking grains of calcite, chlorite,
Opaque minerals, felspar and minor amounts
of pyroxene.

An andesite with only pyroxene phenocrysts
occurs somewhat higher above the last described
tock. The pyroxene, of average grain size

1-5 mm., is augite and forms 25°% of the rock.
The groundmass consists of microlites of felspar
0-0lmm. long; opaque mineral granules,
calcite, epidote and chlorite also occur, but make
up less than 10% of the rock. A _ basalt

porphyritic in plagioclase (altered) and augite
outcrops stratigraphically just beneath the
massive volcanic pebble-limestone pebble breccia
near the top of the formation. Plagioclase
laths 1mm. in length form up to 30% of the
rock, while augite phenocrysts up to 1-5 mm.
long form up to 10%. The groundmass consists
of a very fine aggregate of felspar, opaque
minerals, chlorite and calcite; there is a
scattering of pseudomorphs after olivine crystals
(less than 10%). The breccias occurring
throughout this upper portion of the Malachi’s
Hill Beds consist of angular fragments of rock
up to 30cm. in size, and the various types of
porphyritic volcanic rocks described above are
found in them.

The topmost units of the Malachi’s Hill Beds
consist of a massive volcanic pebble-limestone
pebble breccia which is strongly outcropping
and is overlain by 3 m. of thinly bedded brown
felspathic sandstone containing limestone pebbles
in its upper portions. This is overlain by a
limestone band (Figure 4). The lower part of
this imestone is bouldery (this 1s the limestone
breccia referred to in Webby and Semeniuk,
1969, p. 357) ; the upper part is a fine to coarse
calcarenite containing large boulder-like algal
limestone masses.

Alteration

Low-temperature burial metamorphism has
affected the rocks, and secondary mineral
assemblages similar to that described from the
Cargo Andesite (p. 18) are found. Notable
again is the alteration of the groundmass of the
porphyritic rocks to chlorite, calcite, pumpel-
lyite, clay minerals and quartz. In the sedi-
mentary rock suite the plagioclase, pyroxene
and rock fragments which make up a sizeable
proportion of the sandstones show the same
types of alteration features as the igneous
rocks.

Palaeontology and Age

Graptolites and small orthoconic nautiloids
were the only fauna found in the lower portion
of the Malachi’s Hill Beds. The graptolites,
although not extremely abundant in any one
horizon, occur throughout the laminated silt-
stones, and enable the formation to be dated.
Orthograptus truncatus Lapworth, fRetiograptus
aff. pulcherrimus Keble and Harris, and Diplo-

26 V. SEMENIUK

graptus were found in the more calcareous
siltstones at the base of the formation (graptolite
locality g.1—see Figure 1), Climacograptus
bicormis tridentatus Lapworth, C. bicornis (Hall),
C. cf. missilis Keble and Harris, Dicellograptus
complanatus ornatus Elles and Wood, Lepto-
graptus flaccidus Hall, Orthograpius truncatus
Lapworth, Dvzflograptus and indeterminate
dendroids from the overlying laminated silt-
stones (graptolite localities g. 2 and g.3). From
the overlapping ranges of these various forms
(Thomas, 1960) it seems as though the age of
the lower part of the formation is near the
Eastonian-Bolindian boundary or Lower
Bolindian.

The fauna collected from the volcanic pebble-
limestone pebble breccia and the overlying
limestone boulder beds are mainly corals, and
include Catentpora sp. nov., Quepora, Palaeo-
favosites cf. hystrix Sokolov, Palaeofavosites spp.,
Plasmoporella, Heliolites, Palaeophyllum,
Favistina, ? Streptelasma and ? Lambeophyllum.
In addition, trilobites, brachiopods and
pelmatozoan ossicles are found in the limestone
pebbles.

It would appear that these limestone pebbles
and boulders were being formed, eroded and
transported from an adjacent area contem-
poraneous with the deposition of the Malachi’s
Hill Beds, for the fauna in the limestone is
younger than any in the Bowan Park Limestone,
and is obviously derived. From preliminary
work it appears that the assemblage is uppermost
Ordovician (Bolindian) in age.

* Panuara Formation ”

Silurian sediments referable to the “‘ Panuara
Formation’’ (Packham and Stevens, 1954 ;
Packham, 1969) outcrop in the north and
west of the area, and are separated from the
Ordovician rocks by a structure which has been
interpreted as a major fault (Figure 1). The
steepening of Silurian strata and dolomitization
of the Ballingoole Formation near the structure,
the emplacement of the Marylebone Dolerite
in the region of its flexure, and a wide crush
zone in the north of the area, suggests that it
is a major fault rather than an unconformity.

The best exposed Silurian section, consisting
of graptolite-bearing mudstones and _ shales,
crops out in a creek in the north-east extremity
of the area and is illustrated in Figure 5. A
thinly bedded brown felspathic (quartz-rich)
sandstone forms the base of the sequence in
that section. It is overlain by burrow-mottled,
buff-coloured mudstones which have _ thin

felspathic sandstone and grey shale _ inter-
calations, especially towards the base. Frag-
mentary dendroids and retiolitids have been
collected from near the base of this unit, and
Monograptus testis Barrande and WM. cf.
vomerinus (Nicholson) have been collected from
near the top (g. 4 and g. 6, Figure 1). Overlying
this is a green splintery mudstone which contains
small to large calcareous nodules (up to 1:3 m.
in size) ; this is overlain by a crystal tuff bed
5m. thick. Finely laminated grey shales,
containing M. dubius (Suess) and, higher up,
M. bohemicus (Barrande), occur at the top of
the sequence (g.5 and g.7). The graptolites
collected from the formation suggest a Wenlock
to Ludlow age.

The limestone lens outcropping at the
““Marylebone’”’ homestead is surrounded on
most sides by the Marylebone Dolerite (see
below) and is not traceable laterally. It
consists of a lower portion of grey biomicrites
and an upper portion of hematite-rich biospar-
rudites. A fauna including Halysites magnitibus
Buehler and Acanthohalysites gamboolicus
(Etheridge) suggests a Lower Silurian age, and
a correlation with the Rosyth Limestone
(Walker, 1959) further to the east, notably in
the Borenore area (Byrnes, pers. comm., 1970).
The limestone appears to be older than any of
the terrigenous sediments occurring in the
creek section described above. The absence of
the limestone in the eastern portions of the area
may be due to faulting between it and the
Ordovician rocks (Figure 5), or it may have
been erosionally removed prior to the accumula-
tion of the basal brown felspathic (quartz-rich)
sandstone and succeeding beds.

Marylebone Dolerite

It is proposed here to name the large intrusion
in the north-west of the area the Marylebone
Dolerite. It takes its name from the
‘““Marylebone’”’ property on which it is best
developed. The intrusion crops out discon-
tinuously as a series of isolated elliptical pods
in an arc 4:5km. long and 800m. wide; at
both ends of the arc the outcrops become more
widely spaced.

The bodies intrude Upper Ordovician to
Upper Silurian sediments and two features
suggest that its emplacement was structurally
controlled : (i) the parallel trend of the elliptical
outcrops to a major fault separating the
Ordovician and Silurian sequences (Figure 1),
and (ii) the restriction of the intrusion to a
zone about 800m. wide.

,

LOWER-MIDDLE PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK AREA = 27

MALACHI’S
HILL BEOS

. testis and
cf vomerinus

Dendroid and
Retiolitid
graptolitcs.

LEGEND

Laminated grey shales

il

Green spintery mudstones

Buff mudstones

Felapathic sandstone

Calcarzous nodules

a

Burrow mottling

FicurE 5.—Stratigraphic section of the ‘‘ Panuara Formation ’’. This traverse is a continuation of G—G’,
though most of the outcrop is along a creek just west of this line.

The surrounding sediments appear to have
suffered little contact metamorphism and little

or no miuineralization.

slight grain-size increase.

not exposed.

Quartz-rich Silurian

mudstone outcropping within 3m. of the
intrusion is silicified and shows patches of

The actual contact

between the intrusion and the country rock is

Petrography

Three rock types occur within the intrusion.
Over 90% of it is dolerite, consisting of a
medium-grained aggregate of felspar and mafic
minerals. In thin sections it is an equigranular
rock with an average grain size of 2mm.
Plagioclase constitutes about 65% of the rock ;
it shows simple and lamellar twinning as well

28 V. SEMENIUK

as normal zoning. The plagioclase, however,
has invariably been altered. Euhedral grains
of augite (colourless in thin sections) form
about 10% of the rock and they commonly
show subophitic textural relationships with
the plagioclase. In some rocks the augite
has been partly altered to chlorite, while in
others it has remained relatively fresh. Inter-
stitial material forms up to 20% of the rock
and includes prehnite, chlorite, ilmenite and
minor amounts of quartz. Prehnite occurs as
spherulites or as intergrowths with chlorite
and quartz ; in other cases chlorite and quartz
may be intergrown together, or ilmenite may
be graphically intergrown with pyroxene and
plagioclase. Needles of apatite occur throughout
thesrock.

Veins transect the dolerite body. They
may be up to 30cm. wide, but usually are only
5cm. wide. In handspecimen they appear
pink and consist of euhedral crystals of felspar
and patches of mafic minerals. In thin sections
they are equigranular with an average grain
size of 1mm. Mineralogically, they are similar
to the dolerite except that crystals of K-felspar
showing relict perthitic intergrowths form up to
10% of the rock ; the K-felspar is now heavily
altered. Interstitial prehnite and quartz are
also more abundant. Finally, a porphyritic
dolerite occurs within the main intrusion. It
is found as a small boulder (less than 30cm.
across) 7m situ surrounded by weathered dolerite,
so that its relationship to the main mass could
not be determined. It probably represents a
xenolith.

Age of the Intrusion

Similar dolerite bodies intruding Ordovician
to Silurian sediments in central western New
South Wales have been recorded by Basnett and
Colditz (1945), Stevens (1948), Strusz (1960) and
Savage (1968). Packham (1968, p. 151) considers
these bodies as the possible source of dolerite
fragments in the calcarenites of the “ Nubrigyn
Formation’, thereby assigning them an age
of Lower Devonian. The Marylebone Dolerite,
since it intrudes sediments containing WM.
bohemicus (g.7, Figure 1), must be at least
post-Upper Silurian in age. Its upper age
limit is a problem, but its mineral alteration is
similar to that of the Cargo Andesite (p. 18)
and the Malachi’s Hill Beds and suggests
intrusion in the Middle Palaeozoic.

Tertiary Rocks and Quaternary Alluvium

Tertiary rocks are represented by basalt,
“greybilly ’’, silicified earths and massive

hill-capping quartzose sandstones. Of these,
basalt is the most extensive ; it covers a large
part of the central portion of the area (Figure 1)
but it has been deeply weathered to red soil
and bouldery outcrops.

Vesicular and non-vesicular varieties of basalt
have been found. The vesicular variety occurs
in the north-east extremity of the central
outlier. In thin section it consists of euhedral
phenocrysts of olivine and plagioclase (An 50)
set in a groundmass of small plagioclase laths,
clinopyroxene granules and opaque minerals.
Vesicles are commonly unfilled, but may be
partly or (rarely) completely filled with calcite.
The non-vesicular basalt consists of plagioclase
phenocrysts in a groundmass of plagioclase
(An 55), clinopyroxene granules and opaque
minerals. The phenocrysts commonly show
oscillatory zoning and have an inner marginal
zone of opaque mineral and silicate inclusions.
Xenocrysts of orthopyroxene rimmed by
granular clinopyroxene form a minor portion
of this rock.

“Greybilly ’’ is more scattered in outcrop
and is often surrounded by loose pebbles of
silicified earth and jasper. In hand specimen
it is a hard, well-cemented sandstone containing
large angular chips of dark grey mudstone and
pebbles of quartz. Thin sections show that the
sand fraction consists of mainly quartz and some
mudstone grains cemented by fine-grained
silica and iron oxide. The occurrence of “ grey-
billy ”’ at levels always topographically lower
than the basalt suggests it may owe its silicified
nature to the basalt.

Much of the alluvium in the area is incised
and being reworked by the present streams.
In general, it consists of pebbles and boulders
belonging to the various formations in the area
set in a sandy matrix. However, there is an
unusual occurrence of large boulders and pebbles
(up to 60 cm. diameter) of an Upper Devonian
quartzite which crops out on the Black Rock
Range, some four miles to the east of the area.
These boulders may be also found forming
ancient alluvial terraces, some with appreciable
relief.

Geological History

Extensive vulcanicity occurred in pre-Upper
Gisbornian (or ? Lower Gisbornian) times,
probably with the formation of volcanic islands.
This resulted in the accumulation of lavas and
breccias of the Cargo Andesite. After the
cessation of volcanic activity, limestone
deposition commenced on what had become a
broad, shallow, submerged platform. Relative

LOWER-MIDDLE PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK AREA 29

stability was maintained during the accumula-
tion of approximately 560m. of the Bowan
Park Group. Then about Upper Eastonian
times the region sank (? or sea-level rose),
accompanied by submarine ? faulting, which
resulted in slumps producing the limestone
breccia at the top of the Bollingoole Formation,
_and shallow water limestones passed into deeper
water siltstones of the Malachi’s Hill Beds.
These siltstones appear to have lacked benthonic
life and their environment of deposition was
quiet with alternating reducing and oxidizing
conditions. Slope conditions, or instability
of the sea floor, probably produced the abundant
sedimentary structures found in them. Volcanic
activity in the region was intermittent and
contributed the material of the lithic and
volcanic sandstones in the formation.

By Upper Bolindian times the environment
had once again become predominantly volcanic
with a thick sequence of effusive rock and
breccia accumulating. Tectonism towards the
end of the Ordovician, possibly related to the
Benambran Orogeny, produced a difference in
relief and localized slumps, as seen from the
limestone boulder beds at the top of the Malachi’s
Hill Beds. The Silurian sedimentation that
followed consisted predominantly of terrigenous
muds, shallow water accumultations of lime-
stone, and some volcanic activity. The
emplacement of the Marylebone Dolerite,
preceded (or accompanied?) by large-scale
thrusting and faulting, was the last major
event in the Palaeozoic preserved in this area.

In the Tertiary basaltic outpourings from
Mt. Canobolas extended at least as far as Bowan
Park. Subsequently, there has been erosion of
these lavas, leaving the present outliers.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Dr. B. D. Webby
for his helpful criticism and comments while
the manuscript was being written, and for his
help in identifying the stromatoporoids. Thanks
are also due to Professor T. G. Vallance, Dr.
G. H. Packham and Mr. J. G. Byrnes for their
comments and discussions on earlier drafts of
the manuscript.

Finally, acknowledgement is due to Mrs.
J. P. Nielsen for drafting the text-figures, and
to Messrs. K. and B. Watts for providing
accommodation during the field season.

REFERENCES

ANDREWS, E. C., and Morrison, M., 1915. Geological
Survey of the Cargo Goldfield. Mineral Resour.
geol. Surv. N.S.W., 19.

Basnett, E. M., and Cortpitz, M. J., 1945.
Geology of the Wellington District.
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 79, 37—A47.

Brown, I. A., 1952. Ordovician Limestone at Bowan
Park, N.S.W. Aust. J. Sct., 15, 29-30.

CARNE, J. E., and Jones, L. J., 1919. The Limestone
Deposits of N.S.W. Muneral Resour. geol. Surv.
NSW eo.

Coomss, D. S., 1960. Lower Grade Mineral Facies
from New Zealand. Rep. Int. Geol. Congr. XXI
Norden, Pt. 13, 339-347.

Foik, R. L., 1965. Recrystallisation in Ancient Lime-
stones. Spec. Pub. Soc. Econ. Palaeont. Miner.,
13, 14-48.

Hitt, D., 1957. Ordovician Corals from New South
Wales. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 91, 97-106.

JopuLin, G. A., e¢ al., 1952. A Note on the Stratigraphy
and Structure of the Wellington-Molong-Orange-
Canowindra Region. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
77, 83-88.

PackuHaM, G. H., 1960. Sedimentary History of Part
of the Tasman Geosyncline in South Eastern
Australia. Int. Geol. Congr. XXI, 12, 74-83.

PACKHAM, G. H., 1967. The Occurrence of Shelly
Ordovician Strata near Forbes, N.S.W. Aust.
J. Sct., 30, 106-107.

PacKHAM, G. H., 1968. The Lower and Middle
Palaeozoic Stratigraphy and Sedimentary Tectonics
of the Sofala-Hill End-Euchareena Region. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 93, 111-163.

PackHAM, G. H. (Ed.), 1969. The Geology of New
South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, Pt. 1.
PACKHAM, G. H., and STEVENS, N. C., 1955. The
Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of Spring and Quarry
Creeks, West of Orange, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy.

Soc. N.S.W., 88, 55-60.

PHILLIPS-Ross, J. P., 1961. Ordovician, Silurian and
Devonian Bryozoa of Australia. Bull. Bur. Miner.
Resour. Geol. Geophys. Aust., 50.

RYALL, W. R., 1965. The Geology of the Canowindra
East Area. jf. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 98,
164-179.

SAVAGE, N. M., 1968. The Geology of the Manildra
District, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,

General
J. Pree,

101, 159-169.

SMITH, R. E., 1966. The Geology of Mandurama-
Panuara. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 98,
239-262.

SMITH, R. E., 1968. Redistribution of Major Elements
in the Alteration of Some Basic Lavas during
Burial Metamorphism. J. Petrol., 9, 191-219.

STEVENS, N.C., 1950. The Geology of the Canowindra
District, N.S.W. Part 1. The Stratigraphy and
Structure of the Congo-Toogong District. /.
Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 82, 319-337.

STEVENS, N.C., 1956. Further Notes on the Ordovician
Formations of Central Western New South Wales.
J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 90, 44-50.

StRusz, D. L., 1960. The Geology of the Parish of
Mumbil, near Wellington, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy.
Soc., 93, 127-136.

Tuomas, D. E., 1960. The Zonal Distribution of
Australian Graptolites. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W..,
94, 1-58.

WALKER, D. B., 1959. Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of the
Area to the West of Borenore. J. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S.W., 93, 39-46.

WEBBy, B. D., 1969. Ordovician Stromatoporoids
from New South Wales. Palaeont., 12, 637-662.

WEBBY, B. D., and SEMENIUK, V., 1969. Ordovician
Halysitid Corals from New South Wales. Lethaza,
2, 345-360.

30

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

V. SEMENIUK

Explanation of Plates

PLATE I

1.—Laminated siltstones filling an erosional hollow in andesite (mottled rock in lower right-hand corner).
This feature occurs in the section between F—F’ and G—G’ (see Figure 4). The height of the section along
the left margin is 1-3 m.

2.—Thinly bedded limestones of the “‘ Ischadites unit ’’ with dark chert nodules exposed on the bedding
plane surface. The thickness of the bed along the right margin is 18 cm.

3.—Silicified Ischadites cf. lindstroemi and dolomite mottling from the “‘ Ischadites unit ’’.

4.—Numerous dolomitized animal tracks on a bedding plane surface of limestone from the “‘ gastropod unit ’’.
5.—Large silicified orthoconic nautiloid from the lower portions of the “‘ gastropod unit ”’.

6.—Chondrites burrows on a bedding plane of limestone.

7.—Polished slab of biomicrudite showing a lower zone of gastropods and an upper portion, of disarticulated
Leptellina valves. Note the geopetal structures (arrowed) where lime mud has partly filled skeletal cavities
and the remaining pore space has been filled with clear calcite.

PEATE i

. 1.—Gastropod and other skeletal débris in pelmicrite from the Quondong Formation.
. 2.—Biomicrite from the “ Ischadites unit’’, showing a large Ischadites fragment and fragmented skeletal

material in lime mudstone.

. 3.—Fibrous calcite lining a void in limestone from the “ brachiopod unit’’. The remainder of the void

has been filled with blocky calcite.

. 4.—Burrowed micrite from the “ gastropod unit ’’, showing a section across one burrow.

. 5.—Biosparite from the “ Stveptelasma unit’’. The skeletal fragments include molluscan and calcareous
algal débris.

. 6.—Girvanella threads visible in the laminae of a pisolite from the “ pisolite unit ’’.

. 7.—Biointrasparite from the “ pisolite unit’’, showing intraclasts (lower portion of photomicrograph),
gastropod skeleton and algally coated brachiopod valve. Note the fibrous nature of the brachiopod valve.

ig. 8.—An erosional contact between intrasparite and micrite from the Quondong Formation.

OURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W. SEMENIUK PLATE

JOURNAL ROVAL SOCIETY NSW. SEMENIUISC PEATEs

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 31-34, 1970

On a Classical Pair of Equations

JAMES L. GRIFFITH
Depariment of Pure Mathematics, University of New South Wales

Summary
Take the pair of integral equations

I. yita],(yx) f(y)dy=g(x), O0<%<8,
and

; yIviyx)f(y)dy =0, «>d.
with x3g(x) ¢ L?(0,0).

Then in order that there should be a solution f(y) with y2f(y) ¢ L?(0,00) it is necessary and
sufficient that g(x) should have an extension g,(%) with x*g.(%) ¢ L?(0,00). So that

K (odo) =H /P (depart | (ot yee Ha
0
=" TON x0:
When 4am (an integer) the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of g.(%)
are that given by equation (11). In this case g,(%) =0.

When }« is not equal to an integer, then it is necessary that g(x) should satisfy equation (13),
and then ~3g,(%) should belong to L?(b,0oo) where g.(%) is given by equation (14).

In this paper, we consider the classical integral equation pair

I; SWOT) Cy) 2 (Cy) en Og Oot a ncaa uence ten (1)
and

\ y]v(yx)f(y)dy =0, DX, S10 men ee cakes ean eres! (2)
where
(i) a>0, v>—d;
(u) y2f(y) and yitaf(y) ¢ L7(0,00) ;

(i) The notation { in (1) and (2) is used in the following sense :
0

Put gute) =| vita ],(yx) f(y)dy, then x#2,(%) converges in L?(0,00) to %*g(x).
0

We write g(%) as in (1). The definition in (2) follows similarly.

The solution of (1), (2) has been known for many years (see, for example, Titchmarsh, 1948).
Erdelyi and Sneddon (1962) discuss a more general problem than that considered here. Their
paper contains a list of references on our problem. It is not always realized that it is not true
that the equations have a solution for all «*g(x) ¢ L2(0,b). Reference to Awojobi and Grootenhuis
(1965) will show such a situation. We will find necessary and sufficient conditions on g(x) that
there should be an f(y).

32 JAMES L. GRIFFITH

We will assume that the reader is familiar with the classical theory of the Hankel transform —
in L? (see references at the end of this paper).

We will be using a theorem of the author (Griffith, 1955) which states with some change of
notation
G: Suppose that

{ ee) 014) ane
then x? F(x) « L7(0,b) and F(*%)=0 for x>), if and only if
(a) z—-»f(z) is analytic for all z (removable singularity at z=6) ;
(0) ae u) for u>0;
(c) ui f(u) ¢ L°(0,00) ;
(d) 2? f(z) =O(eb+e) Imz) as | z|>00, Imz>0 for all e>0.

We assume that f(y) satisfies (1), (2) and (ii) and that g(x) is defined by equation (1) for all
*>0. We will call this extension g.(x). We will show later, equation (7), that g.(%) can be
formulated directly in terms of g(x). It is immediate that

(iv) x4g,(x) © L2(0,00).

We now define

K(x,8) =(21-8/T'(8))4—»-8 | (42 —22)B-Ipv+ig,(t)dt. ......ee sees eee (3)

0

Then using formula (6) and the work of Erdelyi (1940, section 9, p. 300), we find that K(x,{)
exists almost everywhere for all 8, and

(v) x%24(x,B) ¢ L2(0,00).
We now use formula (2.7) of Erdelyi and Sneddon (1962), which will show that

K(x,8)= i i yite—-87,so(xy\fgidy. ....- eee (4)

We now refer back to equation (2) and Theorem G. We write h(z) =z3«f(z).
So
z—-v—teh(z) 1s analytic for all z (from (a)) ;
h(ue™) =e'rv+20h(u) for u>0 (from (d)) ;
1) uth(u) « L2(0,00) from (ii)) ;
(dy) 2#h(z)=O(el+e) Imz) as | z|-00, Imz>0 for all e>0 (from (d)).
So from equation (4) with B=4a, we see that
(vi) K(%,40)=0 for *—>).
We now suppose that g,(%) satisfies (iv), (v) and (vi).
We define f(y) b

ya (y) -| GJ (KV BAVIEY..2 son. 1e. 24 ee eeeeee (5)
Then again by the method of proof for equation (4) we show that
[. 4 [v+e(ay) IS (~, B)\da—yesB7(y). . 2... = eee (6)

Suppose now that (vi) holds, then h(z) =zif(z) satisfies (a,), (b,), (c,) and (d,)._ It is then immediate
that (@,), (b;) and (d,) imply that (a), (b) and (d) hold. Equations (5) and (6) imply that (c) holds.
So by Theorem G, (2) holds.

We have proved to this point that :

In order that (1), (2) and (ii) should hold, it is necessary and sufficient that g(%) should have ~
an extension g.(%) so that x3g,.(™), ~2K(x,8) « L?(0,00) 8>0 and that K(%,4a)=0 for x>b.

ON A CLASSICAL PAIR OF EQUATIONS 33

If ~*g.(x%) is any L?(0,00) of g(x), then ~%#K(%,8) ¢ L2(0,00) for all 8B >0. We show that there is
only one extension g,(%), so that K(%,5«)=0 for *>b.
With a slight change of variables

Ww

Qtowh-+40) K (w, bar) =(1/T'(4a)) \ | (w—u)ie—turg (ut) ds

Put »=[4«]+1. Then using fractional integral methods (or Erdelyi and Sneddon, 1962, p. 688,

arin | (v—w)”—lwteg.(w*)dw
= (T(t) | (v—w)"— 24-12 tay i(v +40) K (w?,ta)dw.
0
Since K(w?,4a)=0 for w>b?, for v>0?,
i cd ey i y
hy 3 Eee eee | 7) —9p))\n—4a— —_y)4a—lqyahv 3
vivg (v2) = Ree) B [. (v—w) td | (w—u)?¢—luive(u?)du. .... (7)

We now suppose that 4a—m, an integer, then obviously

BU) OW LOND? 102 Maree erences reece ae ere (8a)
It is clear that we will require
i (v—w)"—lwivg,(w?)dw=0 for v>b%, Lk ce eee (8d)
By an examination of the continuity of the integral in (80) we see that
[ (b2—w)”—?-lwhe(w?)dw=0, p=0,1,2,...,m—l1. ....(8c)

By using integration by parts, it is easy to show that (8c) and (8a) together imply (80).
Suppose that 4a is not an integer, then

Ir (v—w)te—liptve,(ww?)dw=0 for v>b% 2.1... eee ee eee (9a)
So again by the continuity of the integral

b2

. (G2 1p tlh yb (202) AO) ene. ene engine snack epee as (90)
for m=0,1,..., [4a]—2,
and

b2

; (vu—u)te—m—lybyg,(u?)du=0, v>-b7, owe ee ee eee (9c)

for m=0, 1, 2,..., [4a]—

Using (9b), equation (7) can be reduced to

hel =r a |, (ow) (w—u)8—lutye(u?)du ww eee (10)

for v>b?, where B=4a—[4«a].

By elementary work it can be shown that if (9b) and (10) hold, then (9a) follows. We will
not show this.

Before reviewing our work, we make the following comments.

If in (10) we put v=0, 4a=6, $< 6 <1, g(w*)=1, we can show that g,(v?)~C(v—b)—-8 as v->b+,
so g-(v?) ¢ L?(b,o0). Thus for }<8<1 additional conditions are required for g,(v?) ¢ L?(b,0o).

If we assume in (10) that | (w—u)®—1usyg(u?)du is absolutely continuous with
0
b2
(b2—u)8—-1utve(u?)du=0,
0
it is easy to show that g.(v*) « L%(b,oo) for all 0<B<1.

Cc

34 JAMES 4 GRIPPITE

Further, for 0<®6<4 it is sufficient to assume that | (w—u)8—lyivg(u?)du is bounded to
0

ensure that g.(v?) « L7(b,o).

Changing the variables to the original variables in the summary, we have shown that the equations ~
(1) and (2) have a solution f(y) with y2f(y) ¢ L?(0,00) if and only if g(x) has an extension g,(%) with

xte-(y) « L2(0,00), so that K(x%,4a)=0 for x>b.

When 4am, an integer, it is necessary and sufficient that

b

(b2—1w?)m—P-lipytlo(w)dw—0, p=—071,...5 Gn—l). aaa (11)
0
In this case
g2(%) =0;) x bs \ 2. eee eee (12)
If de is not an integer, then it is necessary that
b
(b2—w?)t2—m—lypv+lo(jdu—O0... Ja. ee eee ee (13)
0
m=0,1,..., [4a]—2.
In this case
ioe IE 2 a2 ip
se) — sa x? —w?) -8-lwdw w*—u?)B-lyytlo(u)du ........ 14
=r Top), (to? 12/01 +1g (0) (14)

where B=40—([$a].

For a solution, it is sufficient that g(w) should satisfy (13) and that when g,(x) is defined by (14)

payin) (Iba Uioo)

References

Awojosi, A. O., and GrRootTenuuis, P., 1965. J.
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), 287A, 27-63.

ERDELYI, A., 1940. On Fractional Integration and
Its Application to the Theory of Hankel Trans-
forms. Quart. J. Maths. (Oxford), 11, 293-303.

ERDELYI, A., and SNEDDON, I. N., 1962. Fractional
Integration and Dual Integral Equations. Canad.
J. Maths., 14, 685-693.

GRIFFITH, J. L., 1955. Hankel Transforms of
Functions, Zero Outside a Finite Interval. /.
Proc. Roy. Soc. N:S3W;, Sos 108:

TITCHMARSH, E. C., 1948. Fourier Integrals. Oxford.

(Received 6th March 1970)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 35-42, 1970

Devonian Stromatoporoids from the Broken River Formation,
North Queensland

C. W. MALLETT *

ABsTRACT—Family Stromatoporellidae is considered to include all genera with a layer of
cellules in the laminae (ordinicellular tissue) but the microstructure of the pillars is not critical,

and may be compact, vacuolate, or tubulate.
Formation, of which three are new:
S. ? tubulosum sp. nov.

Five species are described from the Broken River
Stictostroma porosum sp. nov., S. pustulosum sp. nov.,
S. 2? tubulosum has tubules piercing the tissue of both pillars and laminae.

The variation in the distribution of pillars and laminae within each coenosteum and within the
whole collection, is given, to enable quantitative comparisons to be made with other collections.

Family Stromatoporellidae Lecompte

Stromatoporoids are common in the limestone
members of the Broken River Formation on
Pandanus Creek Station, Shield Creek Holding,
north Queensland. The collection area is
located on the Clarke River 1 : 250,000 map,
sheet E/55B, Australian National Grid, approxi-
mately at latitude 19°15’S. and _ longitude
144° 45’ E. Pandanus Creek Station is 150
miles north-west of Charters Towers.

Members within the Broken River Formation
have been defined by Jell (1968), who also
described the rugose corals (Jell, 1967). The
stratigraphic distribution of members in various
parts of Pandanus Creek Station is indicated
in Figure 1, and the locations of collections are
Shown. Fossils are stored in the Department
of Geology and Mineralogy, University of
Queensland, and are catalogued with fossil
numbers (e.g., F.47608) and _ fossil locality
numbers (e.g., L. 3018).

The variation in the distribution of the pillars
and laminae is given for the new species
described. The tables have been based on five
measurements of each parameter (number of
laminae in 5 mm. in vertical section, number of
pillars in 5 mm. in vertical section, number of
pillars in 1 mm.” in tangential section) in each
coenosteum. For each parameter the following
data are given.

M =The overall mean of all measurements
in the collection (five measurements
in each coenosteum).

oM=The standard deviation from the
overall mean, of the means of the
individual coenostea.

* Present address: School of Geology, University
of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3052.

Li=The limits of the means of the
individual coenostea.

om=The average standard deviation within
coenostea from their respective means.

This information is sufficient to allow future
comparisons with other specimens which are
thought to belong to these species.

Where species are allocated to previously
described species, only the limits of the means
of values are given, as there are no descriptions
in the literature sufficiently detailed to allow
comparison of dimensions.

The measurements given in the descriptions
are not intended as a key to speciation as the
species are determined on the arrangement and
structure of the skeletal elements as well as
their dimensions. The dimensions and spacing,
in practice, do serve as very good indicators of
Species in a preliminary examination of a
collection, but they must be considered in
association with other features.

Order STROMATOPOROIDEA Nicholson
and Murie, 1878

Family STROMATOPORELLIDAE Lecompte, 1951
Family Stromatoporellidae Lecompte, 1951,
p. 152, 1956, p. F131; Nestor, 1966, p. 81.

Genus Stromatoporella Nicholson, 1886

Stromatoporella Nicholson, 1886, p. 92, 1891,
p. 202 ; Parks, 1936, p. 90; Lecompte, 1951,
p. 152, 1956, p. F131 ; Galloway and St. Jean,
1957, p. 129; Galloway, 1957, p. 436;
Yavorsky, 1963, p. 19; Stearn, 1966, p. 93 ;
St. Jean, 1967, p. 486; Fltiigel and Fligel-
Kahler, 1968, p. 572.

36

Stromatoporella granulata Nicholson
Plate I, Figs. 1-2

Stromatopora granulata Nicholson, 1873, p. 94,
pl. 4, figs. 3-3a@ (pars).

Stromatoporella granulata Nicholson, 1886a, p. 10,
1891, p. 202, pl. 1, figs. 4, 5, 15, pl. 4, fig. 6,
pl. 7, figs. 5-6; Parks, 1936, p. 95, pl. 15,
figs. 6-7, pl. 16, figs. 1-6; Ripper, 1937,
p. 191, pl. 9) -fgs: 3-5; “Lecomptey ingot.
p. 160, pl. 21, fig. 1; Galloway and St. Jean,
1957, p. 131, pl. 7, figs. 34-30; Stearn,
1966, p. 93, pl. 15, figs. 6, 7.

MARTIN’S WELL
AREA

COUVINTAN

Ps
Dip CREEK
LIMESTONE MEMBER

S.p. = Stictostroma pustulosum;
St.g. = Stromatoporetla granulata;

C. W. MALLETT

diameter, with 18-25 in 5mm. Ring pillars
have a diameter 0-20-0-31 mm.

Description of Broken River Specimens

Laminae and pillars are composed of porous
compact tissue. The exact nature of the
microstructure is difficult to determine; the
tissue appears in two modes of preservation.
The most common type is compact tissue
composed of uniformly distributed specks 1-2u
diameter, which is crossed by elongated cellules
0-01 mm. diameter, that open into the galleries.
Sometimes there is a clear axial zone. The

SHIELD CREEK
AREA

CHINAMAN CREEK
LIMESTONE
MEMBER

= S. ponosum; S.t. = S. ?tubulosum

c. = Trupetostroma sp. ahs. cimacense

FOR GEOGRAPHIC LOCALITIES SEE JELL (1968).

FiGuRE 1.—Fossil localities in the Broken River Formation.

Holotype

Nicholson’s specimen, No. 329 British Museum
(Natural History), London, is from the Middle
Devonian of the Hamilton Formation in the
vicinity of Arkona (Givetian ?), Ontario, Canada.

Diagnosis

A non-encrusting species of Stromatoporella
characterized by laminae 0:03-0:14 mm. thick,
with 20-25 in 5 mm., and pillars 0-05—-0-20 mm.

other type of preservation shows the laminae |
bounded at top and bottom and crossed by |
clear tissue (similar to tubules), thus forming |
rectangular to subrounded cellules of compact |
tissue ; in tangential section the laminae appear |
as sheets of compact tissue, but in areas of good |
preservation cross-sections of tubular structures |
can be seen.

In vertical section laminae are 0:03-0:08 mm. |
thick, and there are 22-27 in 5mm. They are |

DEVONIAN STROMATOPOROIDS FROM BROKEN RIVER FORMATION 37

continuous and undulate gently, except where
they are upturned sharply to form ring pillars.
Pillars are short, straight, and spool-shaped.
Galleries are rectangular and have varying
degrees of lateral extension, some up to 10 times
as long as high. Dissepiments are common
and are usually vertical. Astrorhizal systems
are continuous through the whole thickness of
the coenosteum, and are included in mamelons.

The coenosteum is pierced by syringoporids,
but the coral does not disrupt or distort the
laminae.

In tangential section laminae show many
pores corresponding to the ring pillars. Normal
pillars are round in cross-section with a diameter
0:05 mm. Ring pillars have a diameter 0-2 mm.
and a lumen 0-:10mm. The ring pillars are
distributed irregularly, some _ interlaminary
spaces having only rare ring pillars, and others
having up to 80% ring pillars. Approximately
half of the pillars are ring pillars. There are
13-18 pillars and ring pillars in 1 mm.? Curved
dissepiments connect pillars and corallites of
syringoporids, sections of syringoporids are
prominent but are larger than ring pillars.
Astrorhizae, 1-2cm. apart, are contained in
slight mamelons and surrounded by concentric
laminae. From a group of axial canals, 0:3 mm.
diameter, extensive branching networks of
radiating canals, 0-2mm. diameter, extend
along interlaminary spaces, their outline being
defined by dissepiments. The radiating canals
can extend up to 1 cm. from the axial canals.

Genus Stictostroma Parks, 1936

Stictostroma Parks, 1936, p. 77; Lecompte,
1951, p. 182; Galloway and St. Jean, 1957,

p. 124; Galloway, 1957, p. 485; Stearn,
1966, p. 96.
Discussion

The tissue is frequently altered, and the
types of alteration which are found in the
Broken River specimens are listed below.

(1) Compact tissue enclosing one or more
layers of clear cellules (considered as the
least altered); rare (Plate I, Fig. 5;
Plate IL, Fig.\1).

(2) Flocculent tissue enclosing one or more
layers of dark concentrations 10-30u
in diameter ; fairly common.

(3) Transversely fibrous tissue with canals
opening into galleries, or may be bordered
at the top and bottom by dark flocculent
marginal tissue ; common.

(4) Dark flocculent margins surrounding a
clear axial zone; rare.

(5) Laminae composed of flocculent to melano-
spheric tissue, with concentrations of the
specks along the margins of the laminae ;
very common.

Stictostroma pustulosum sp. nov.

Plate II, Figs. 1-3
Holotype

F.47994, from South Chinaman Creek at the
base of the Chinaman Creek Limestone Member,
Broken River Formation, on Pandanus Creek
Station, north Queensland, Couvinian.

Diagnosis

A species of Stictostroma characterized by
laminae with axial cellules 15 x 25y, a thickness
0:06-0:12 mm. and with 19-27 in 5mm.
Pillars are frequently superimposed and have a
diameter 0:06-0:18 mm., with 19-26 in 5 mm.
and 19-30 in 1 mm.? Astrorhizae are pustular
2-4 mm. diameter.

Description

The coenostea are encrusting or irregularly
globular. They are usually enclosed in lime
mud, and frequently incorporate mud in the
structure. Mamelons do not occur on _ the
surface.

Laminae are composed of compact tissue,
with a central layer of cellules 15 x25u; the
cellules are vertically elongated. The membrane
separating the cellules is 5-8y thick. Tissue is
frequently altered and the varying effects were
described above in the discussion of the genus.

In vertical section laminae are continuous, sub-
parallel, and slightly irregularly spaced. Some
specimens show considerable irregularity,
including other organisms and fine sediments.
The average thickness of laminae varies from
0:06-0:12 mm. There are occasional breaks
in the laminae corresponding to large pores.
Pillars are usually superimposed, but this is
variable. The pillars are spool-shaped, and
their tissue frequently spreads on to the laminae.

Laminae are upturned for small areas around
pustular astrorhizal systems, which have a
diameter of 2-4mm. Galleries are rounded,
varying in diameter from 0:08-0:25 mm.

In tangential section laminae occur as sheets
of cellular tissue, which are pierced by pores
0:1-0-:15 mm.indiameter. The relatively thick
laminae occupy a major part of the tangential
sections. In cross-section pillars are approxi-
mately circular. Astrorhizal systems are well
developed, and may be spaced at 5mm.
intervals.

38 C. W: MALLETT

The variation in the distribution of skeletal
elements in 15 specimens is given in Table 1.

ABER al

The Distribution of Pillars and Laminae in Stictostroma
pustulosum sp. nov.

Number of Number of Number of

Laminae in Pillars in Pillars in
5mm. Vertical | 5mm. Vertical Timm:
Section Section Tangential
Section
M= 24:0 Mi 22a M2322
6M 1-73 oM= “1-72 6M 272
Lt= 19-27 Li= 19-26 Lit= 19-30
om— 1+52, om= 1-41 om= 1-59

Stictostroma porosum sp. nov.
Plate I, Figs. 3-5

Holotype
F.48244, from a locality on the Pandanus
Creek-Wandovale Road, 2,000m. south of

Pandanus Creek Homestead, Pandanus Creek
Station, north Queensland, Broken River
Formation, Couvinian.

Diagnosis

A species of Stictostroma characterized by
laminae containing one or more layers of
axial cellules, 10-30u in length, pierced by
pores 0-2—0-5 mm. in diameter ; laminae thick-
ness is 0-1-0-25mm. and there are 9-14 in
5mm. Pillars may be superimposed, with a
diameter 0:05-0:20 mm., and there are 10-15
in 5mm. and 5-11 in 1mm. Astrorhizae are
pustular, 2-5 mm. diameter.

Description

The coenostea are irregularly globular. Small
mamelons occur irregularly over the surface
and contain pustular astrorhizal systems.

Laminae consist of one or more layers of
cellules enclosed in compact tissue. The cellules
vary in shape from square to rectangular, and
are elongated in a vertical direction. The
length of the sides of the square cellules is from
10-204, and when cellules are elongated
vertically may attain 30u. In some states of
preservation lines of cellules appear as dark or
light microlaminae with a thickness 10-20u.
The membranes separating the cellules are
10-20u thick. Thicker laminae, up to 0-25 mm.,
often include several rows of cellules which are
aligned regularly, and the membranes separating
the cellules join to form microlaminae within

the laminae.

There may be as many as four
in one lamina.

Pillars are composed of finely and coarsely
vacuolate and melanospheric tissue, but no
alignment or pattern of the cellules could be
Secure

In vertical section laminae are evenly spaced,
parallel, and gently undulating. There are
numerous breaks in laminae corresponding to
large pores. Laminae sometimes lens out
laterally. The width of the laminae varies
from 0-10-0-25mm. Pillars are spool-shaped
and are frequently superimposed through many
laminae, but in other areas are restricted to one
interlaminary space. Galleries are square or
rectangular. Dissepiments do not occur.
Astrorhizal systems are pustular with an average
diameter of 2mm., but some attain 5 mm.
Axial canals, 0:3 mm. diameter, are occasionally
present, and a few radiating canals 0-02 mm.
diameter are usually seen.

In tangential section laminae occur as sheets
of porous cellular tissue. They are commonly
pierced by pores 0:2—0-5 mm. diameter. Breaks
in the laminae in vertical section are partly
explained by these pores, but discontinuities
up to 1mm. wide occur frequently. Circular
structures resembling ring pillars occur, but they
are always associated with laminae and represent
sections through areas of laminae which have
been thickened by the pillar tissue. The pillar
diameters vary from 0-:05-0-20mm. In the
centre of the interlaminary spaces pillars have
their smallest diameter and are close to circular
in cross-section. Near their junction with the
laminae the pillars increase their diameter, and —
their cross-section alters to elliptical or irregular.
Laminae are concentrically arranged around
astrorhizal systems.

The variation in the distribution of pillars
and laminae in 10 specimens is given in Table 2.

(LABEE ee

Distribution of Pillars and Laminae in Stictostroma
porosum sp. nov.

Number of Number of Number of

Laminae in Pillars an Pillars in
5mm. Vertical | 5mm. Vertical 1 mm.?
Section Section Tangential
Section
M120 M= 11-9 M=8:-1
oM= 0:76 oM= 1-11 oM= 0-93
Li= 9-14 Lt= 10-15 Lit= 5-11
om= 0:6 om= 0:74 om= (0): 66

DEVONIAN STROMATOPOROIDS FROM BROKEN RIVER FORMATION 39

Stictostroma ? tubulosum sp. nov.

Plate II, Figs. 6-8
Holotype
F.47866, from 150 m. north-east of the creek
crossing, 6:8km. south of Pandanus Creek
Homestead, Pandanus Creek Station, north
Queensland ; Dip Creek Limestone Member of
the Broken River Formation, Givetian.

Diagnosis

A species assigned to Siictostroma characterized
by laminae 0:03-0:20 mm. thick with 11-16
in 5mm., which may be compact or have
dark or clear axes, pillars, 0-07-0-18 mm.
diameter, with 13-19 in 5mm. in vertical
section and 11-18 in 1mm in tangential
section. ‘Tissue is normally pierced by vertical
tubules 0:02-0:04 mm. diameter, with 10-15
tubules in 0-5 mm.? in tangential section.

Description

Coenostea can be laminar (non-encrusting),
@-5cm. thick, or globular, up to 15cm. in
diameter. Low mamelons may be present on
ine surface.

Pillars and laminae are composed of compact
tissue. This is all that can be seen in the usual
preservation, but in some specimens there may
be some concentration of specks along the
entre of the lamimae, Several of the better
preserved specimens show the tissue pierced by
vertical tubes 0-02-0:04mm. in diameter.
They are not observed over the whole of the
vertical section, either because they were not
developed or they have been destroyed. In
tangential section they only occur in circular
cross-sections, and are common in sections of
pillars and laminae. There is usually only one
in each pillar and 10-15 in 0-5 mm.? of laminae.
Clear axial zones are sometimes developed in
laminae.

In vertical section the development of the
laminae is variable, some areas having strong
thick laminae and others having thin, almost
discontinuous, laminae between the pillars.
The thickness can vary from 0:03-0:20 mm.
Pillars are spool-shaped and commonly super-
imposed, but may also be restricted to one inter-
laminary space. Their diameter varies from
0:07-0:18 mm. Galleries are rounded, reduced
in size, and vary from elongated vertically to
square and elongated horizontally. Astrorhizae
may be present, and are 0:5mm. high, with
branching radiating canals, giving a diameter
of 0-5mm. Dissepiments may be numerous
but some specimens have none.

The tangential section is occupied by a large
percentage of tissue, due to the reduction in the
size of the galleries. Laminae occur as thick
porous sheets of compact tissue. They are
pierced regularly by small pores 0-1—-0°2 mm.
diameter. In some areas the pores are so
numerous that the laminae are reduced to a
network of processes reminiscent of Actinostroma.
Pillars are very irregular in shape, although in
section they approximate to a circle. Curved,
thin dissepiments less than 0:01 mm. thick
join the pillars in the coenostea, in which they
are present. Astrorhizal systems are spaced
0:5-1:0 cm. apart and have axial canals
surrounded by 6-8 branching’ canals
0-1-0-2 mm. diameter.

The variation in the distribution of pillars
and laminae in 10 specimens is given in Table 3.

TABLE 3

Distribution of Pillars and Laminae in Stictostroma
? tubulosum sp. nov.

Number of Number of Number of

Laminae in Pillars in Pillars in
5mm. Vertical 5mm. Vertical 1 mm.?
Section Section Tangential
Section
M=13°-3 M= 16:1 M= 14:9
oM= 1:6 oM= 1-2 oM= 1:6
Lt= 11-16 Li= 13-11 Lt= 11-18
om= 0:84 om= 0:94 om= 1-02
Remarks

This species has vertical tubules cutting the
laminae and pillars, and the laminae also show
dark and clear axes. Stromatoporoids with this
type of structure have previously been described
by Nicholson and Lecompte and placed in the
genus Stromatoporella. The species showing
this structure are S. ezfeliensis Bargatzky, and
to a lesser extent S. solitar1a Nicholson. The
tubules in the species from Broken River are
usually vertical, but the tubules in the European
Species are in the centre of the laminae, not
transverse across them.

The presence of tubules in S. ezfeliensis has
been reported by Nicholson (1892), Lecompte
(1951) and Stearn (1966). Stearn stated that
the microstructure corresponded to no described
stromatoporoid genus, but that he included the
species, for the time, in Clathrocoilona, until
the tissue structure was found to be more
widespread. It is significant that the structure
of the Broken River species resembles that of
S. etfeliensis in the number and arrangement
of laminae and pillars, and that the tissue is

40

pierced by tubules of a similar size. However,
a new genus to embrace these forms is not at
present proposed, as, firstly, the exact nature
of the tubules is not known, and they could be
the result of a parasitic or commensal relation
with another organism, and secondly, the
tubules are not observed in all specimens,
though this could be due to the mode of pre-
servation, as they are not visible in the holotype,
where there is recrystallization.

If the tubular nature of the laminae and
pillars is neglected, it is still very difficult to
place the species within a genus with any
certainty. The genus which shows the greatest
similarity in arrangement of pillars and laminae
is Stictostroma Parks, but the laminae in the
Broken River specimens do not usually have an
axial row of cellules, but are thin, compact,
tubular, and discontinuous. .Parts of some
coenostea show tripartite laminae and reduced
galleries, and thus conform better to the type
species of Stictostroma. Stearn removed S.
etfeliensis to the genus Clathrocoilona, but that
species and Broken River species resemble
Stictostroma more, particularly in the large,
vertically elongated galleries.

The similarity of Stictostroma? tubulosum
sp. nov. to Stictostroma eifeliensis (Bargatzky)
is quite marked. There is a similar number of
laminae and pillars in 5mm., but the laminae
seem to be thicker and more continuous in
S. etfeliensis. The tubules in the European
species also seem to be in the centres of the
laminae and pillars, whereas in the Broken
River specimens they are usually transverse
in the laminae and may occur at any position
in the pillars.

Genus Tvupetostroma Parks, 1936

Trupetostroma Parks, 1936, p. 52; Lecompte,
1952, p. 219; Galloway, 1957, p. 439;
Yavorsky, 1963, p. 66 ; Stearn, 1966, p. 102 ;
St. Jean, 1967, p. 430.

Discussion

The evidence from the single Broken River
species supports the suggestion of Stearn (1966)
that the clear or dark axial microlaminae
originate from an original ordinicellular tissue.
If this is correct the genus falls naturally into
the family Stromatoporellidae as redefined by
Nestor (1966).

Trupetostroma cimacense Lecompte

TI. cumacense Lecompte, 1952, p. 234, pl. 41,
figowe, plz) fig. 1.

C. W. MALLETT

Holotype

Specimen No. 5137 in the Royal Institute of
Natural Sciences, Brussels, which was collected
from the Frasnian of Chimay, Belgium.

Trupetostroma sp. aff. cumacense Lecompte

Plate I, Figs. 6-8
Description

Coenostea are globular. The laminae are
composed of clear microlaminae 0-02—0-03 mm.
thick, surrounded by porous tissue. Pillars
are composed of similar porous tissue, with
round pores 0:04mm. diameter distributed
irregularly. The tissue is not preserved well,
and is usually flocculent or melanospheric.

In vertical section laminae are continuous,
evenly spaced and evenly curved, with a thick-
ness 0-10-0-20mm. The average number in
5mm. for each coenosteum varies from 13-16.
Pillars are superimposed and_ spool-shaped
between laminae, with a diameter varying
from 0:05-0:20 mm. The average number in
5mm. for each coenosteum varies from 11-16.
Laminae are upturned and grouped irregularly
in the vicinity of astrorhizal systems.

In tangential section amalgamate tissue
occupies a large part of the section, due to the
reduced size of the galleries and the curved
laminae, but areas of free standing pillars occur.
The average number of pillars in 1 mm.” varies
from 8-13. Astrorhizae 0-10-0-:15cm. in
diameter are spaced 8cm. apart, and usually
have a large axial canal 0-5mm. diameter,
with radiating branching canals 0-2—0-3 mm.
diameter, and up to 8mm. long. _ Galleries
are reduced and rounded with a diameter of
0-13-0-18 mm.

Discussion

The specimens of this species show marked
variation in dimensions and arrangement of
skeletal elements, but none corresponds to any
described species of Tvupetostroma. As there
are only three specimens, and they vary among
themselves, there is not enough precise data to
define a new species. Instead, it is compared
with T. cimacense Lecompte, with which it
shares many characteristics. Among the
comparable features are the similar development
of laminae and pillars in vertical section,
amalgamate tissue in tangential section and
prominent astrorhizae with many radiating
branching canals. The main difference les in
the greater number of laminae in 5mm. in
vertical section in T. cimacense, 22-29 compared
with 13-16 for the Australian forms. The
vertical section of this species also resembles

DEVONIAN STROMATOPOROIDS FROM BROKEN RIVER FORMATION 41

T. warren. Parks in the continuous clear
microlaminae, and the distribution of pores and
vacuoles in the pillars, but is clearly distinguished
by the amalgamate tissue in tangential section.

Stearn (1966, p. 105) considered that
Trupetostroma cimacense Lecompte should be
placed in the genus Hermatostroma, but there is
no concentration of vacuoles or cellules near the
borders of the pillars or laminae in Lecompte’s
illustrations.

Acknowledgements

This paper is part of a study of the stromato-
poroids of the Broken River area submitted
for a M.Sc. degree at the University of Queens-
land. The project was suggested and supervised
by Professor Dorothy Hill. Dr. J. Jell kindly
loaned some specimens and indicated many
suitable localities for collecting material.

References
FLUGEL, E., and FLUGEL-KAHLER, E., 1968. Fossilium
Catalogus I. Animalia. Pars 115-116: Stromato-

poroidea (Hydrozoa Palaeozoica).
Hague, 1-681.

GaLLoway, J. J., 1957. Structure and Classification
of the Stromatoporoidea. Bull. Am. Paleont.,
37 (164), 345-480, pls. 31-37.

GaALLoway, J. J., and St. JEAN, J., Jr., 1957. Middle
Devonian Stromatoporoidea of Indiana, Kentucky,
and Ohio. Bull. Am. Paleont., 37 (162), 29-308,
pls. 1-22.

JELL, J. S., 1967. The Geology and Rugose Corals of
Pandanus Creek, North Queensland. Unpublished
thesis, University of Queensland, 1-615, pls. 1-30.

JELL, J. S., 1968. New Devonian Rock Units of the
Broken River Embayment, North Queensland.
Qd Govt Min. J., 49 (795), 6-8.

W. Junk, The

LecompTe, M., 1951. Les stromatoporoides du
Dévonien, moyen et supérieur du Bassin de Dinant.
Mem. inst. vr. Sci. nat. Belg., 116, 1-215, pls. 1-35.

LecompTEe, M., 1952. Les stromatoporoides du
Dévonien moyen et supérieur du Bassin de Dinant.
Mem. Inst. v. Sci. nat. Belg., 117, 216-369,
pls. 36-70.

LEcompPTE, M., 1956. Stromatoporoidea, F107—F144,
text-figs. 86-114, in Moore, R. C. (Ed.), 1956.
Moore, R. C. (Ed.), 1956. Treatise on Invertebrate
Palaeontology, Pavt F—Coelentevata. Geol. Soc.
Amer. and Univ. Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas,

FI1-F498.

Nestor, H., 1968. Wenlockian and Ludlovian
Stromatoporoidea of Estonia. Eesti NSV Tead.
Akad. Geol. Inst., 596, 1-87, pls. 1-24.

NicHotson, H. A., 1873. On Some New Species of

Stromatopora. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., Ser. 4,
12, 89-95, pl. 4.
NicHotson, H. A., 1886, 1889, 1891, 1892. A Mono-

graph of the British Stromatoporoids. Palaeontogr.
Soc. [Monogr.], 1-234, pls. 1-29.

NicHotson, H. A., 1886a. On Some New or Imper-
fectly Known Species of Stromatoporoids. Ann.
Mag. nat. Hist., Ser. 5, 18, 8-22, pls. 1-2.

Parks, W. A., 1936. Devonian Stromatoporoids of
North America. Univ. Toronto Stud. geol. Ser.,
39, 1-125, pls. 1-19.

RIPPER, E. A., 1937. The Stromatoporoids of the
Lilydale Limestone. Part 2—Syringostroma,
Stromatoporva and Other Genera. Proc. R. Soc.

Vict., N.S., 50, 1-8, pl. 1.

ST. JEAN, J., Jr., 1962. Micromorphology of the
Stromatoporoid Genus Stictostroma Parks. /f.
Paleont., 36 (2), 185-200, pls. 31-338.

ST. JEAN, J., Jr., 1967. Maculate Tissue in Stromato-

poroidea. Muicropalaeontology, 13 (4), 419-443,
pls. 1-5.

STEARN, C. W., 1966. The Microstructure of Stromato-
poroids. Palaeontology, 9 (1), 74-124, pls. 14-19.

Yavorsky, V. I., 1963. Stromatoporoidea Sovetskoho
Souza, Chast 4. Tvudy vses. nauchno-issled. geol.
Inst., N.S., 87, 1-160, pls. 1-31.

Explanation of Plates

Prats I

Figs. 1—2.—Stromatoporella granulata Nicholson, F.47611 from locality L.2977, Dip Creek Limestone Member,

Couvinian.
1. Tangential section, x10.
2. Vertical section, x10.

3. Vertical section, x5.
4. Tangential section, x5.
5. Vertical section, x 20.

Figs. 3-5.—Stictostvoma porosum sp. nov., F.48244, holotype, from a limestone rudite on the Pandanus Creek-
| Wandovale Road, 2,000 m. south of Pandanus Creek Homestead, Pandanus Creek Station, north Queensland,
Couvinian or Givetian of the Broken River Formation, locality L.2698.

‘Figs. 6—8.— Trupetostvoma sp. aff. cimacense Lecompte, F.48153 from L.2510, Chinaman Creek Limestone Member,

Givetian.
6. Vertical section, x5.
7. Vertical section, x30.
8. Tangential section, x5.

42 C. W. MALLETT

PLATE II

Figs. 1-4.—Stictostvoma pustulosum sp. nov., F.47994, holotype, from the base of the Chinaman Creek Limestone
Member, in Chinaman Creek South, Pandanus Creek Station, north Queensland, L.2509.
1. Vertical section, x50.
2. Vertical section, x5.
3. Tangential section, X95.
4. Tangential section, x 20.

Figs. 5-8.—Stictostroma ? tubulosum sp. nov., F.47866, holotype, from the ridge, 150 m. N.E. of creek crossing,
6-8 km. south of Pandanus Creek Station Homestead, on Wandovale Road, Givetian.
5. Tangential section, x5.
6. Vertical section, x5.
7. Vertical section, x30.
8. Tangential section, x15.

MOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W.

MALLETT PEATE

|

JOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W. MALLETT PLATE 11@

Report of the Council for the

Presented at the Annual General Meeting of the
Society held 2nd April, 1969, in accordance with
Rule 18 (a).

At the end of the period under review the composition
of the membership was 360 members, 15 associate
members, and 7 honorary members ; 23 new members
were elected. Eleven members and two associate
members resigned ; two names were removed from the
list of members in accordance with Rule 5 (0).

It is with extreme regret that we announce the loss
toy death of:
Mr. William Lindsay Price (elected 1927).
Sir Harold George Raggatt (elected 1922).
Mr. Ethelbert Ambrook Southee (elected 1919).
Dr. Frederick G. N. Stephens (elected 1914).
Dr. Andrew Ungar (elected 1952).
Dr. Hans Samuel Arthur Rosenthal (elected 1961).
(associate member).

Nine monthly meetings were held. The abstracts
of all addresses have been printed on the notice paper.
The proceedings of these will appear later in the issue
of the Journal and Proceedings. The members of
Council wish to express their sincere thanks and
appreciation to the 11 speakers who contributed to the
success of these meetings, the average attendance
being 58.

The May meeting was a combined meeting with
Middle Harbour Group of the N.S.W. Association of
the University Women Graduates.

The September meeting was held at the Wollongong
University College, and the programme included a
\ buffet meal and a tour of the grounds.

The Annual Social Function was held at the Uni-
versity of New South Wales Union and was attended
by 51 members and guests.

The Council has approved the following awards :

The Clarke Medal for 1969 to Professor S. W.
Carey, D.Sc., Department of Geology, University
of Tasmania.

The Society’s Medal for 1968 to Mr. H. H. G.
McKern, Deputy Director, Museum of Applied
Arts and Sciences, Sydney.

The Walter Burfitt Prize for 1968 to Professor
L. E. Lyons, Ph.D., of Chemistry Department,
University of Queensland.

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1968 to Dr.
Robert M. May, of the Department of Physics,
University of Sydney.

The Archibald D. Ollé Prize was not awarded.

The Seventeenth Liversidge Research Lecture was
delivered by Professor R. D. Brown, Ph.D., F.A.A.,
of the Department of Chemistry, Monash University,
Victoria, on 17th July. The title of the lecture was
“Where are the Electrons ? ’’.

| The Society has again received a grant from the
Government of New South Wales, the amount being
$1,500. The Government’s continued interest in the
)work of the Society is much appreciated.

Year Ended 31st March, 1969

The Society’s financial statement shows a surplus of
$2,864.07.

The New England Branch of the Society’s meetings
will be included in the proceedings of the Branch,
to follow.

The President represented the Society at the
Commemoration of the Landing of Captain James
Cook at Kurnell; at the Reception to meet members
of the Administrative Board of the International
Association of Universities; and at the Dinner held
on the occasion of the Tenth Commonwealth Uni-
versities Congress.

The Senior Vice-President, Professor A. H. Low
represented the Society at a State Luncheon held in
honour of His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh.

The President attended the annual meeting of the
Board of Visitors of the Sydney Observatory.

We congratulate Mr. G. P. Whitley, F.R.Z-s.,
Honorary Associate of the Australian Museum, on
the award of the Australian Natural History Medallion
for 1967.

The Society’s representatives on Science House
Management Committee were Mr. H. F. Conaghan and
Mie). W. G. JNeuhaus,

Two parts of the Journal and Proceedings have been
published during the year, and Parts 3-4 are to be
issued before the end of April.

The Centenary Volume, entitled ‘‘ A Century of
Scientific Progress ’’, was issued during October, 1968.

A television programme of half-hour sessions
publicizing the Centenary Volume of the Society
appeared on Channel ATN 7 during the latter part
of the year (1968).

During the year restoration work was carried out
on the portraits of the Rev. W. B. Clarke and Professor
John Smith.

A new Branch, to be called the South Coast Branch
of the Royal Society of New South Wales, was formed
on 29th March, 1969.

Council held 11 ordinary meetings and one special
meeting, and the attendance was as follows: Prof. A.

Keane, 12; Mr. Conaghan, 4; Dr. Day, 9; Prof.
Le Fevre, 6; Prof. Low, 8; Prof. Voisey, 9; Mr.
Neuhaus, 9; Mr. Poggendorff, 7; Prof. Griffith, 11 ;

Mrs. Krysko v. Tryst, 11; Mr. Burg, 4; Mr. Cameron,
10; Mr. Griffin, 3 (resigned from Council in September) ;
Mr. Kitamura, 12; Mr. Pollard, 9; Mr. Puttock, 11;
Mr. Robertson, 7; Prof. Smith, 11; Prof. Stanton
(N.E. representative), 1.

The Libvavy.—During the year a_ referendum
regarding retention or disposal of the Library was
held, the result being 72 for retention and 80 for
disposal. Forty-four voted for disposal by gift, and
93 for disposal by sale.

Periodicals were received by exchange from 393
societies and institutions. In addition, the amount
of $303.57 was expended on the purchase of I1
periodicals. Repairs to the binding of some of the
rarer sets of periodicals amounted to $245.

44 REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1969

Among the institutions which made use of the
Library through the inter-library loan scheme were :

N.S.W. Government Departments: Agriculture ;
Electricity Commission ; Geological Survey; South-
West Regional Library, Young; State Office Block
Library ; Water Conservation and Irrigation Com-
mission.

Commonwealth Government Departments : Australian
Atomic Energy Commission ; Commonwealth
Acoustics; Labour and National Service; National
Biological Standards ; C.S.I.R.O. Divisions: Library,
Canberra ; Animal Genetics, Prospect ; Coal Research ;
Fisheries and Oceanography, Cronulla; Food Pre-
servation, Ryde; National Standards Laboratory ;
Radiophysics Library ; Soils, South Australia ; Textile
Physics, Ryde; Chemical KResearch, Melbourne ;
Tropical Pastures, Brisbane.

Universities and Colleges: Australian National
University ; Macquarie University; University of
New England; University of Newcastle; University
of New South Wales, Main Library; Bio-medical
Library ; University of Sydney; University of

Queensland ; University of Western Australia ; Broken
Hill University College ; Townsville University College.

Companies : A.C.I. Ltd., A.I. & S. Co. Ltd., AMDEL.
C.S.R. Co. Ltd. (H.O.), Commonwealth Steel Co. Ltd.,
International Engineering Service Consortium Pty,
Ltd., Kodak Pty. Ltd., Unilever, A. Webster Pty. Ltd.

Research Institutes : Children’s Hospital, St.
Vincent's Hospital, B.H.P. Co; Ltd? Gass Co. tas
(Research Laboratories), Institute of Dental Research,
Riker’s Laboratory.

Museum: The Australian Museum.

Miscellaneous: Australian Medical Association ;
Geological Survey (Qld.); Institution of Engineers,
Aust. ; Mt. Stromlo Observatory ; Dept. of Primary
Industry, Brisbane ; Royal Society of South Australia
nic:

Total borrowings for the year: 368.

J. L. GRIFFITH,

Honorary Secretary.
2nd April, 1969.

Honorary Treasurer’s Report

I am pleased to report that the Society has had a
good year financially. A deficit of $480 for the year
ended March, 1968, has been converted into a surplus
of $2,864. The main contributing factors were a
substantial increase in the moneys received as the
Society’s share of Science House surplus, namely
$8,415, compared with $5,537 for 1967-68, and the
sale of three sets of the Journal and Proceedings
yielded $1,350.

The long-awaited centenary volume was published
late in 1968. This volume, perhaps the most ambitious
venture in the Society’s history, cost $9,469, excluding
advertising. The Department of Education had made
a grant in 1966 of $4,000 towards the printing of this
book. On delivery of 1,000 copies the Department
made a further payment of $1,000. The generous
attitude of the Department of Education has greatly
relieved the financial burden of publication and has
ensured a measure of success for the book. Neverthe-

less, more than half the volumes remain unsold. As
it is expected that sales will continue, the unsold copies
are shown as an asset.

The policy of repairing rare and valuable books has
been continued, resulting in the expenditure of $245.
The cost of subscriptions to journals has again increased,
and some $310 were spent on this item.

The cost of publishing the Society’s Journal and
Proceedings has continued to rise—$2,165 for the year
ended March, 1969. ‘The increase of $374 was largely
due to increased printing charges.

It should be noted that membership subscriptions
do not cover the cost of publication of the Journal.

The increase noted under the item Salaries in the
balance sheet was due to the increases in the basic
wage.

J. W. G. NEUHAUS,

Honorary Treasurer.

3rd April, 1968

The one hundred and first Annual and eight hundred
and twenty-sixth General Monthly Meeting was held
in the Hall of Science House, 157 Gloucester Street,
Sydney.

The President, Associate Professor A. H. Low, was
in the chair. There were present 30 members and
visitors.

Colin Rex Ward was elected a member of the Society.

The following awards of the Society were announced :

The Society’s Medal for 1967: Mr. A. F. A. Harper.

The Clarke Medal for 1968 : Professor H. G. Andrew-

artha, F.A.A.

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1967: Joint award

made to Dr. D. H. Green and Dr. W. J. Peacock.

The Archibald D. Ollé Award to Dr. J. R. Conolly.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Financial

Statement were presented and adopted.

Office-bearers for 1968—69 were elected as follows :
President: A. Keane, Ph.D.

Vice-Presidents: H. F. Conaghan, M.Sc., Alan A.
Day. Ph.D: (Cantab.), R. Jj. W. Le Fevre, D.Sc:,
ei. 0b AoA, A Hi. Low, Ph.D., A. H. Voisey,
D.Sc.

Hon. Treasurer :

Hon. Librarian :

je NV.G. Neuhaus, MSc:
W. H. G. Poggendorff, B.Sc.Agr.

mon. Secretaries: ~J. L. Griffith, B.A., M.Sc.
(General), (Mrs.) M. Krysko v. Tryst, B.Sc.,
Grad.Dip. (Editorial).

Members of Council: R. A. Burg, A.S.T.C., J. C.

Cameron, M.A., B:Sc. (Edin.), D.I.C., R. J. Griffin,
ipoce tak skhitamura, B-A., B.Sc:Agr:, J. P:
Pollard, Dipp.Appl.Chem., M. J. Puttock,
B.Sc.(Eng.), A.Inst.P., W. H. Robertson, B.Sc.,
ie Es Smith. Ph.D. (N.S.W.), M:Sc. (Syd.),
iB:Sc.-(Oxon.).

Horley & Horley were re-elected Auditors to the
Society for 1968—69.

The following papers were read by title only :

“Mesozoic Geology of the Gunnedah-Narrabri
District’, by J. A. Dulhunty.
“Some Blockstreams of the Toolong Range,

Kosciusko State Park, N.S.W.’’, by N. Caine and
J. N. Jennings.
The retiring President, Associate Professor A. H.
ow, delivered his Presidential Address, entitled
‘Initial Value Problem in Two-Dimensional Water
ave Theory ”’

The retiring eesident then welcomed Professor
/Keane to the Presidential Chair.

Ist May, 1968

The eight hundred and twenty-seventh General

onthly Meeting, which was a combined meeting with
the Middle Harbour Group of the N.S.W. Association
of the University Women Graduates, was held in the
all of Science House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney,
t 7.45 p.m.

Abstract of Proceedings

The President, Professor A. Keane, was in the chair.
There were present 84 members and visitors.

The following were elected members of the Society :
John Hamilton Bryan, Philip Richard Evans, Brian
Bertram Guy, Reginald Leslie Hardwick, Michael John
Randal Mackellar, James Albert Morgan, Peter Joseph
O’Halloran, Ralph William Suters and Albertus
Theodorus van Brakel.

The following paper was read by title only:
““Magnetic Studies of the Canobolas Mountains,
Central Western New South Wales ’’, by R. A. Facer.

An address entitled ‘‘Chemicals and Human
Happiness ’’ was delivered by Professor J. M. Swan,
Professor of Organic Chemistry, Monash University,
Victoria.

5th June, 1968
The eight hundred and twenty-eighth General
Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.
The President, Professor A. Keane, was in the chair.
There were present 52 members and visitors.

The following paper was read by title only: ‘‘ The
Geology of the Narooma Area, N.S.W.’’, by C. J. L.

Wilson.

An, address entitled ‘‘ The Interpretation of Special
Relativity—Its Relevance to Recent Cosmological
Observations ’’ was delivered by Mr. S. J. Prokhovnik,
M.A., B.Sc., of the School of Mathematics, The
University of New South Wales, Kensington.

3rd July, 1968
The eight hundred and twenty-ninth General
Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science
House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor A. Keane, was in the chair.
There were present 62 members and visitors.

It was announced that the Seventeenth Liversidge
Research Lecture would be delivered by Professor
R. D. Brown, Ph.D., F.A.A., of the Department of
Chemistry, Monash University, Victoria. The title
of the lecture is ‘‘ Where are the Electrons ?”’ and
will be held in Lecture Theatre No. 2, School of
Chemistry, University of Sydney, on Wednesday,
17th July, 1968, at 5.30 p.m.

Members were informed that at the meeting of the
Council held 28th May, 1968, it was decided to introduce
a new By-law, reading as follows :

Annual Reports and Inspections.

(a) It shall be the duty of the President, Vice-
Presidents, Hon. Treasurer, Hon. Secretaries and
Hon. Librarian at least once annually to examine
and report to the Council upon the state of

(i) the Society’s house and effects,
(ii) the keeping of the official books and corres-
pondence,
(iii) the library, including maps and drawings,
(iv) the Society’s cabinets and collections.

46

(b) The keepers of the Society’s cabinets and
collections shall give a list of the contents and
report upon the condition of the same to the
Council annually.

The Hon. Secretaries and the Hon. Treasurer
shall see that all documents relating to the
Society’s property, the obligations given by
members, the policies of insurance, and other
securities shall be lodged in a safe deposit, the
receipt for which shall be kept, and such list
shall be signed by the President or one of the
Vice-Presidents at the annual inspection.

(c)

As no resolution to the contrary was moved, the
above, in accordance with Rule 25, now becomes
By-law 15.

The following paper was read by title only: “ The
Petrography of a Coal Seam from the Clyde River Coal
Measures, Clyde River Gorge, N.S.W.”’, by A. C. Cook
and H. W. Read.

An address entitled ‘‘ The National Geodetic and
Topographic Survey of Australia’’ was delivered by
Mr. B. P. Lambert, Director, Department of National
Mapping, Canberra, A.C.T.

7th August, 1968

The eight hundred and thirtieth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.

The President, Professor A. Keane, was in the chair.
There were present 46 members and visitors.

The following were elected members of the Society :
N. Edith Lack and Peter Henry Wilibald Korber.

The following papers were read by title only: ‘“ The
Film Badge Service in New South Wales’’, by A. W.
Fleischmann ; ‘“‘ The Geology of the Manildra District,
New South Wales ’’, by N. M. Savage.

An address entitled “‘ New Foods—A Look in the
Crystal Ball’’ was delivered by Dr. F. H. Reuter,
Associate Professor of Food Technology, The University
of New South Wales, Kensington.

4th September, 1968
The eight hundred and thirty-first General Monthly
Meeting was held at Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, at 8.00 p.m.
The President, Professor A. Keane, was in the chair.
There were present 85 members and visitors.

A paper entitled “‘ A Note on Convex Distributions ’’,
by J. L. Griffith, was read by title only.

The following addresses were delivered: ‘‘ The
Royal Society of New South Wales ’’, by J. L. Griffith,
Hom: Secretary of the Society ; -“ High “Resolution
Observations of Solar Flares’’, by R. G. Giovanelli,
FAA, Co RO? Division of Physics, | Sydmeyvs
“Twentieth Century Breeding’’, by B. J. Doyle,
Director, Artificial Breeding Centre, Berry.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

2nd October, 1968

The eight hundred and _ thirty-second Genera

Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, —

157 Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.

The President, Professor A. Keane, was in the chair_
There were present 35 members and visitors.

The following were elected members of the Society :
Alan Cecil Cook, Ian Harry Hackett, Robert Henry
Goodwin and Robert William Upfold. .

A paper entitled ‘‘A_ Tessellated Platform,
Ku-ring-gai Chase, N.S.W.’’, by D. F. Branagan, was.
read by title only.

An, address entitled “‘ Recent Advances in the Earth
Sciences ’’ was delivered by Dr. J. J. Veevers, of thay
School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, North
Ryde.

6th November, 1968
The one hundred and thirty-third General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Sydney,
at 7.45 p.m.
The President, Professor A. Keane, was in the chair.
There were present 52 members and visitors.

The Chairman announced the death of Sir Harold
George Raggatt, on 2nd November, 1968, a member
since 1922.

The following were elected members of the Society :
James Edgar Osbourne Beale, Arthur Joseph Gilks,
Peter Marcus Martin.

The following paper was read by title only: ‘“ Pro-
gressive and Retrogressive Metamorphism in the
Tumbarumba-Geehi District, N.S.W.’’, by B. B. Guy.

Address.—The President of the Sydney Speleological
Society, Mr. Ben Nurse, gave an address on the caves
at Colong and Church Creek. Faun, geology and
historical background were discussed. The address
was illustrated with films and slides of the caves and
reserve.

4th December, 1968

The eight hundred and thirty-fourth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, Sydney,
at 7.45 p.m.

The President, Professor A. Keane, was in the chair.
There were present 71 members and visitors.

The following were elected members of the Society :
Emery Gellert, Francis Michael Hall, Frances Wheel-
house and Dennis Edwin Winch.

The following papers were read by title only:
“The Martiniacean Species Occurring at Glendon,
New South Wales, the Type Locality of Notospirifer
darwini (Morris)’’, by John Armstrong; ‘‘ Mesozoic
Stratigraphy of the Narrabri-Couradda District ”’,
by. JeeAs Dulhunty-

An address entitled ‘‘ Geology, Mythology and
Classical Buildings in Greece ’”’ was delivered by Dr.
Ilias Mariolakos of the Institute of Geology and
Palaeontology, University of Athens, Greece.

$78,822

6,306

$78,822

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1969

LIABILITIES

Accrued Expenses

Subscriptions Paid in Advance

Life Members’ Subscriptions—Amount carried forward

Trust Funds (detailed aa
Clarke Memorial ae re = .. 4,444.11
Walter Burfitt Prize .. re i ek .. 2,590.34
Liversidge Bequest .. 7 a es i 1,439.10
Ollé Bequest... = a - a ss 630.26

Centenary Volume—Amount held in Reserve .
Accumulated Funds
Library Reserve Account - ee - sie
Contingent Liability (in connection with Perpetual
Lease)

ASSETS

Cash at Bank and in Hand
Investments—
Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock—At Face
Value—held for:

Clarke Memorial Fund ws a as a 3,600.00
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund a ue ie 2,000.00
Liversidge Bequest .. id et SS .. 1,400.00
General Purposes... Se , Ke .. 9,680.00

Fixed Deposit—Long Service Leave Fund 7
Debtors for Subscriptions .. : is — es 314.60
Less Reserve for Bad Debts os = es 314.60

Science House—One-third Capital Cost

Library—At Valuation : -

Library Investment—Special Bonds : a ag

Furniture and Office Equipment — At Cost, less
Depreciation = a.

Pictures—At Cost, less Depreciation

Lantern—At Cost, Jess Depreciation

Centenary Volume:
Stock ve - ae = - oe .. 3,253.28
Reprints = ns ioe oe sae as 201.78

9,103.81

60,011.47
8,898.49

$78,190.37

2,223.66

16,680.00
547.94

30,470.43
13,600.00
9,600.00

1,590.70

20.58
2.00

3,455.06
$78,190.37

48

TRUST FUNDS

Walter
Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Ollé
Memorial Prize Bequest Bequest
$ $ $ $
Capital at 28th February, 1969 .. 3,600.00 2,000.0 1,400.00 —
Revenue—
Balance at 29th ele 1968 668.29 527.61 96.52 605.76
Income for Period 176.32 97.82 69.12 84.50
844.61 625.43 165.64 690.26
Less : Expenditure 0.50 35.09 126.54 60.00
$844.11 $590.34 $39.10 $630.26
ACCUMULATED FUNDS
> $

Balance at 29th February, 1968 57.287.31

Add: Surplus for Period 2,864.07

60,151.38

Less =
Increase in Provision for Bad Debts 114.71
Subscriptions Written Off 25.20
139.91
$60,011.47

Auditors’ Report

The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and
vouchers of the Royal Society of New South Wales and is a correct statement of the position
of the Society’s affairs on 28th February, 1969, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves
that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and registered.

HORLEY & HORLEY,
Chartered Accountants.

65 York Street,
Sydney.
20th March, 1969.

Registered under the Public Accountants
Registration Act 1945, as amended.

(Signed) J. W. G. NEUHAUS,
Hon. Treasurer.

A. KEANE,
President.

$11,491

$11,491

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT

Ist MARCH, 1968, TO 28th FEBRUARY, 1969

Advertising
Annual Social
Audit

Branches of the Society |

Cleaning
Depreciation
Electricity
Entertainment
Insurance :
Library Purchases
Library Binding

Miscellaneous

Postages and Telegrams _
Printing—Journal—Vol.

Binding Vol. 100..
Postages

Printing—General

Repairs

Restoration of Portraits.

Salaries
Telephone .

Surplus for the Period

101, Parts 1-2

- Rent—Science House Management

Membership Subscriptions

Proportion, of Life Members’ Subscriptions

Government Subsidy

Science House Management—Share of Surplus

Interest on General Investments

Donations ..
Sale of Reprints

Subscriptions to Journal, ,
Sale of Back Numbers
Refund—Postages. .

Deficit for

the Period

"$310.17
245.00

$2,041.95
65.00
115.35

2,222.30

180.66

4,159.00

41.42

75.00

3,323.01

87.83

12,360.75
2,864.07

$15,224.82

$

2,267.15
12.60
1,500.00
8,415.66
470.12
6.05
356.55
840.47
1,299.12
57.10

$15,224.82

49

Section of Geology

Abstract of Proceedings, 1968

Five meetings were held during this year, the average
attendance being about 14 members and visitors.

MARCH 15th (Annual Meeting) :

(1) Election of office-bearers : Chairman, Mr. E. K.
Chaffer ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. C. R. Ward.

(2) Address by Mr. K. Glasson, ‘‘ The Iron Ore of
the Hamersley Ranges’’. In his review, Mr. Glasson
covered the early history of exploration of the area
and then proceeded to discuss the stratigraphic sequence
which has been adopted by the Western Australian
Geological Survey in its recent Bulletin, No. 117.

He pointed out that in the Hamersley Group there
were three major iron formations: Boolgeeda Iron
Formation, 700ft.; Hamersley Iron Formation,
2,200 ft.; Marra Mamba Iron Formation, 600 ft.
These iron formations in the Hamersley Group were
part of a vast period of sediments formed by chemical
deposition in the Lower Proterozoic, which followed
the clastic sediments and basic volcanics of the
Fortesque Group.

The Brockman Iron Formation is the most important
from the economic point of view, since both the Mt.
Tom Price and Mt. Whaleback deposits are associated
with this formation in structurally complex areas,
where supergene processes over a long period of time
(i.e. since early Palaeozoic age) have permitted
enrichment of the original iron beds.

Considerable discussion arose as to the origin of the
banded iron formations. The talk was illustrated by
slides, and in addition a collection of various lithologies
were available for examination.

MAY 17th:

Three addresses: (1) Dr. D. F. Branagan, (2) Mr.
L. H. Hamilton, (3) Mr. E. J. Minty.

(1) Dr. D. F. Branagan, ‘‘ Palaeovulcanology in
N.S.W.’’. Volcanic activity in New South Wales has
been a feature of almost every geological period.
Details of the distribution in time and space were
given, and the stratigraphic importance of volcanic
rocks in the geological history of the State was briefly
discussed.

The oldest recognizable volcanic rocks occur north of
Broken Hill, and appear to pre-date the Torrowangee
Group of Proterozoic age. Neither these nor the
Cambrian volcanics to the east are particularly
extensive.

Volcanic activity in the Lachlan Geosyncline in the
Lower Palaeozoic produced thick and _ extensive
sequences and are common along geanticlines. These
were followed by Upper Devonian acid volcanics, and
then by intermediate dacitic and trachytic types in
the Carboniferous.

Permian volcanics and intrusives occur in the
Sydney Basin, but there is very little in the Triassic
except for tuffs in the Clarence Moreton Basin. Basaltic

flows of Jurassic age occur near Merrygoen, and the
alkaline intrusives of the Sydney Basin are also dated
as Jurassic.

The Cretaceous period saw little activity, but Tertiary
volcanics are extensive. Trachytes and basalts were
common, and centres such as Mt. Canobolas, the
Warrumbungle Mountains and Mt. Warning area are
also developed.

Dr. Branagan concluded by indicating a few of the
still unsolved problems of stratigraphic significance in
N.S.W. vulcanicity.

(2) Mr. L. H. Hamilton, “‘ Origin of the Breccia
Pipes in the Region of Sydney ’’. An intrusive origin
was postulated by Wilshire (1961) for the breccia
pipes in the region of Sydney, based mainly on the
occurrence of underformed shale over the Richardson’s
Farm pipe and on the occurrence of folded country
rock. He proposed that fluidization took place at
depth and near their present outcrop positions the
pipes were emplaced by wedging. New evidence does
not support this theory.

Coal fragments in the breccia have not been, carried
upward from Permian strata, but instead are Triassic
age and have moved slightly downward. Centroclinal
dips of the wall rocks in a highly deformed peripheral
zone are much more suggestive of slumping than
compressional folding. At some _ localities where
Hawkesbury sandstone is the exposed wall rock
signs of wall rock deformation are generally lacking.

ee ee eee ee

Many of the volcanic fragments in the breccia are

highly amygdaloidal and fine-grained to glassy. Glass
shales have also been found in the breccia.

The intrusive theory does not adequately account
for the space occupied by the breccia (there is no
evidence of piston-like displacement), or the low
pressure and rapid cooling required by the vesiculation,
fragmentation and supercooling of the magma which
produced the bulk of the material in the pipe.

The breccia pipe at Richardson’s Farm could
represent a buried volcano. This would account for
the shale cover and would imply a Triassic age for the
volcano. Alternatively, and less probably, the cover
may be accounted for by inclined vents. An intrusive
volcanic origin is postulated for the breccia pipes.
The volcanoes were probably similar to those which
have produced Recent maars in western Victoria.

(3) Mr. E. J. Minty, ‘‘ Modern Views on the Prospect
Intrusion’’. The geometry of the igneous intrusion
at Prospect and the distribution of rock types within
it were described using colour slides and geological maps.
A brief review of the historical aspects of the discovery
of the lopolith and its development as a quarry was
presented, covering the period since the first published
notes in the early nineteenth century.

An important feature is the evidence of the sinking
of the roof into the centre of the intrusion, and the
dynamic implications of this were discussed. It was
also noted that the surrounding shales of the Wianna-

SECTION OF GEOLOGY 51

matta Group were indurated to a greater distance
away from the intrusion beneath the lopolith than
they were above it.

The genesis of the various phases was discussed,
including the chilled margin of basalt, the basal picrite
phase and the occurrence of disconnected pods of
pegmatite material.

Petrographical features which have a bearing on
the suitability of the various rock types quarried
included both mineralogy and texture. This becomes
especially important where the rock is to be subject
to alternate exposure to air and water.

It was also noted that a shear zone, lying north-south
in the shales of the Wiannamatta Group, intersects
the Prospect lopolith. This may represent the location
of the feeder channel along which magma was injected.

JULY 29th:

Dr. B. J. Warris, ‘‘ Ordovician Conodonts in Regional
and Intercontinental Correlation’’. The area of
study covered some 10,000 square miles in north-western
N.S.W. and contained a composited section of 68,000
feet of Proterozoic, Cambrian, Ordovician and Devonian
sediments. The Ordovician was marine and richly
fossiliferous, the best locality being at Mount Arrow-
smith, where some 5,000 specimens of conodonts were
extracted.

This conodont fauna was identical to that from the
Horn Valley Siltstone of the Amadeus Basin, and
confirmed the general correlations based on lithology
and the trilobite fauna.

On, a world-wide basis, the fauna contained a mixed
Lower and Middle Ordovician assemblage, and this
created a problem. However, the Middle Ordovician
forms were all new species, while the Lower Ordovician
forms could all be recognized to species level. This
suggested that the fauna was Lower Ordovician,
and that the Middle Ordovician North American
type genera, developed earlier in Australia and migrated
to North America.

At an attempt for finer correlation, the Mount
Arrowsmith succession could be subdivided into three
assemblage zones. These zones were independent of
lithology and the macrofauna and were deemed to be
true evolutionary zones. In ascending order they are:
(i) Scolopodus ex (150 ft.), (ii) Paltodus _ volchoversis
(150 ft.), and (iii) Oepikodus multidentatus-Gothodus
communis (300 ft.). Assemblage zones (i) and (ii)
correlate with conodont assemblage from the Asaphus
broggevt and Megalaspis planilimbata trilobite zonules
(Lower Arenig) of the Baltic Shield, while assemblage
zone (iil) correlates with the Gyvrothodus communes-

Oepikodus muliidentatus faunas from the Upper Arenig
of western North America. By careful analysis an
Arenig age was established for this fauna.

It is believed that conodonts are the internal skeletal
supports of an unknown animal. This animal is not a
fish, annelid worm or any familiar group; it is a
conodont, a unique animal of unknown appearance.
It is probably both benthonic and pelagic, based on
what has been outlined in this lecture.

SEPTEMBER 20th:

Dr. F. M. Quodling, “‘ Rock Types and Landscape
in Norway’’. During this meeting Dr. Quodling
showed coloured slides and specimens of her trip to
Norway for five weeks in 1967.

Of particular interest were various gneisses and
porphyroblastic schists of Verma and Skei; banded
granite gneisses of Hammerfest and North Cape ;
schists quarried as roofing slates, in the Arctic region
near Alta and from the same thrust plate from
Vaenangefjellet ; schists showing conspicuous shear
strain effects with grooving on schistosity planes.
Discussed also were a _ blue quartz rock from
Vatnahalsen, anorthosite mined at special aggregate
and garnet amphibolites from Mjolfjell, all from thrust
sheets on nappes further south, adjacent to Sognefjord.

Then some geomorphological aspects were considered.
Fjord topography was illustrated by the contrased
geiranger and Langs fjords, glacial valleys between
Andalsnes and Dombas in the Western Fjord country
viewed ; valley glaciers, extensions from the Jostedal
Plateau Ice Field were illustrated ; so too were glaciers
at Langs fjord, where, due to high latitude, they
descend to sea-level. Here too cirques, corries and
fantastically ice-sculptured rocks were brought to
members’ attention.

NOVEMBER 13:

Professor F. C. Loughnan, ‘‘ The Tonstein Con-
troversy ’’. The term tonstein as originally proposed
by Bishoff was defined and it was shown that, in its
present usage, the term is ambiguous.

Similarities between the kaolin-coal tonsteins of
Europe and the flint clays of the U.S.A. and South
Africa, and also the bauxitic clays of Scotland and the
Russian Platform, were pointed out. This was
followed by a brief account of the “‘ tonstein ’’ occur-
rences: m1 N.S.

A discussion of the origin of these ricks and their
implications on palaeoclimates was presented.

The talk was illustrated with projector slides and
some specimens.

Report of the South Coast Branch of the Royal Society of
New South Wales

The South Coast Branch was initiated at a meeting
at the Wollongong University College on 26th March,
1969. Nine members of the Society were present,
these being Mr. A. Cooke, Associate Professor E.
Gellert, Mr. J. Gilks, Mr. F. Hall, Professor A. Keane,
Mr. P. O’Halloran, Dr. J. Stephens, Mr. R. W. Upfold
and Associate Professor C. A. Wilkins.

A Committee was elected, consisting of :

Chairman: A. Keane.
Vice-Chairman: E. Gellert.
Secretary: R. W. Upfold.

Treasurer and Kepresentative on the Council:

Mr. P. O'Halloran.

The meeting discussed the possible forms that future
meetings would take and decided that an inaugural
meeting should be held within the next two months.
The Chairman, was asked to investigate means to make
this a memorable occasion.

In addition to those listed above, the following six
members are also within the area of the South Coast
Branch: Mr. C. Chiarella, Mr. E. Beale, Mr. R. Facer,
Professor C. A. M. Gray, Dr. E. Kokot, Emeritus
Professor O. U. Vonwiller and Mr. D. Thompson.

R. W. UPpFo_Lp,
Secretary.

Honorary Member

William Rowan Browne was born in County
Demy, Ireland; on ith” December, 1884. After
migrating to Australia, he attended the University
of Sydney from 1907 to 1909, where he obtained
B.Sc. with First-class Honours in Mathematics and
Geology and the University Medal in Geology. In
1922 the University of Sydney conferred on him the
degree of D.Sc. with the University Medal for his work
on the geology of the Broken Hill district.

After a false start in Astronomy, he joined the
Geology Department of Sydney University as a junior
demonstrator in 1911. From 1913 to 1923 he was a
Lecturer, from 1923 to 1939 Assistant Professor, and
from 1939 to 1950 Reader in Geology at Sydney
University.

Dr. Browne joined the Society in 1913, served on its
Council for many years, and was its President in 1932
and Honorary Secretary in 1934 and 1935. He has
contributed 23 papers to the Journal, many of which
are of such importance in the development of Australian
geological thought that they are still frequently
referred to. Especially is this true of his paper ‘‘ Notes
on Bathyliths and Some of Their Implications ”’ (1931).

For his distinguished contributions to geology to
that time Dr. Browne was awarded the Clarke Medal
by the Society in 1942 and was invited to deliver the
Clarke Memorial Lecture in 1949. Seven years later

the then Council had the pleasure of awarding him
the Society’s Medal in recognition of his scientific
contributions and services to the Society.

Between 1935 and 1950 Dr. Browne gave a lot of
his effort to editing and revising the manuscript on
the Geology of Australia, which the late Sir T. W.
Edgeworth David had started. The Geology of the
Commonwealth of Australia, in three volumes, is a
major contribution to geological literature.

Dr. Browne has given significant service to science
in general, not only by his work in and for the Royal
Society of New South Wales, but also as President
of the Linnean Society of New South Wales on two
occasions (1928, 1944) and as a member of the Council
and in recent years as Honorary Secretary of that
Society. He had a long and fruitful association, with
the National Research Council during its existence,
and was President of Section C of A.N.Z.A.A.S. in
1949. He was elected a Fellow of the Australian
Academy of Science in 1954 and Honorary Life Member
of the Geological Society of Australia in 1957.

Volume 99 of the Journal and Proceedings, which
was published in 1966, was dedicated to Dr. Browne
as a tribute to the long and outstanding service he has
given to Australian science. Tonight, the Society is
pleased to confer upon Dr. Browne its last remaining
honour—Honorary Membership of the Society.

— oe 2 2

53

Citations

The Society’s Medal for 1968

The Society’s Medal is awarded to a member of the
Society for ‘‘ meritorious contributions to the advance-
ment of science. This may include administration and
organization of scientific endeavour.’’ The award
for 1968 is made to Mr. Howard H. G. McKern of
the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney, in
recognition of his valuable contributions in the field of
chemistry and for services to the Society.

Mr. McKern, A.S.T.C., M.Sc.(Chem.), was born at
Sydney in 1917 and educated at Newington College.
He studied Science, receiving the Diploma in Chemistry
at the Sydney Technical College and the degree of
Master of Science of the University of New South
Wales. At the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences,
where he is now Deputy Director, he has been engaged

since 1945 in research into the chemistry of the volatile
oils of the Australian flora, and is author or co-author
of some 30 papers in this field, 11 of which have been
published in the Society’s Journal and Proceedings.

Mr. McKern was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Australian Chemical Institute, 1957; President of the
University of New South Wales Chemical Society,
1960-1961; Chairman, Sixth Australian Phyto-
chemical Conference, University of Sydney, 1962.
Mr. McKern was elected to membership of the Society
in 1943 and was a member of the Council of the Society
during 1959-1960 and 1962-1963; he was elected
President in 1963-1964 and served as Vice-President
from 1964 to 1967.

The Clarke Medal for 1969

The Clarke Medal is awarded each year for distin-
guished work in the Natural Sciences done in, or on,
the Australian Commonwealth and its territories.
The award for 1969 is made to Professor Samuel Warren
Carey of the Department of Geology, University of
Tasmania, for distinguished contributions in the field
of Geology.

Samuel Warren Carey was born at Campbelltown,
N.S.W., in 1911. He graduated from the University
of Sydney with the degree of Bachelor of Science,
gaining First-class Honours in Geology in 1933 and
being awarded also the John Coutts and Deas Thompson
and Commonwealth Scholarships. His thesis, entitled
“Tectonic Evolution of New Guinea and Melanesia ’’,
gained him the Doctor of Science degree in 1938.

In 1934 he went to Papua with Oil Search Ltd., and
remained there to perform outstanding and courageous
service during the Second World War.

He was appointed Government Geologist of Tasmania
in 1944, and from there moved to the Chair of Geology
at the University of Tasmania, a position which he
has occupied since 1947.

Professor Carey has continuously carried out his
research over the years, and he has published a large
number of scientific papers on many aspects of geology,
notably those relating to the growth and relative
movement of land masses. He has travelled widely
and lectured in many continents.

Besides his scientific contributions, Professor Carey
has contributed deeply and extensively to governmental
and industrial organizations. He has been closely
associated with the Tasmanian developments in hydro-
electricity, being Geological Consultant to the Com-
mission from 1946 to 1959.

In 1967 he delivered the Clarke Memorial Lecture,
the title of which was “‘ Tectonics of New Guinea ”’.

He is currently organizing research work on the
tectonic evolution of New Guinea and related aspects
of its geological structure.

Professor Carey was elected to membership of the
Society in 1938, and two of his papers have been
published in the Journal and Proceedings.

Professor Carey has always been an inspiring and
colourful character and is a worthy recipient of a medal
commemorating the Reverend W. B. Clarke.

CITATIONS

Edgeworth David Medal for 1968

The Edgeworth David Medal is awarded to Australian
research workers under the age of 35 years for work
done mainly in Australia or its territories or contributing
to the advancement of Australian Science. The
award for 1968 is made to Dr. Robert M. May of the
School of Physics, University of Sydney, in recognition
of his outstanding contributions in the field of physics,
particularly his work on theoretical plasma physics.

Dr. May was born on 8th January, 1936, in Sydney,
and was educated at Sydney Boys’ High School and
the University of Sydney, where he graduated B.Sc.
(1956) and later was awarded a Ph.D. (1959) after a
brilliant academic record including the Physics Medal.

He has already published 40 papers, making
significant contributions to a number of fields in
theoretical physics.

His early work was in the field of solid state physics,
and included useful contributions to the development
of the basic theory of superconductivity. In his main
field of theoretical plasma physics Dr. May has made
important advances in (a) atomic processes, with
particular relation to charge exchange phenomena ;
(6) magneto-hydrodynamics, particularly non-linear
effects with large amplitude plasma waves ; (c) develop-
ments in the theory of production of highly excited
neutral atoms for plasma injection experiments. He
has also made significant contributions to theoretical
low-energy nuclear physics.

Walter Burfitt Prize for 1968

The Walter Burfitt Prize is awarded every three
years to the worker whose contributions, published
during the past six years, are deemed of the highest
scientific merit, account being taken only of investi-
gations described for the first time and carried out by
the author mainly in Australia and New Zealand.

The award for 1968 is made to Professor Lawrence E.
Lyons of the Chemistry Department, University of
Queensland, for his outstanding contributions to the
understanding of the organic solid state.

Professor Lyons was the first to point out, on the
basis of symmetry and energetic considerations of the
wave functions, the significance of charge transfer
states in the spectroscopy of one-component molecular
crystals. He has contributed significantly to the
knowledge of absolute electron affinities of organic
molecules, and made the first and nearly the only
measurements on the absolute amounts of light
absorption by molecular crystals.

He has provided the only theory of the effect of
high pressure on the number of charges in crystals of
neutral molecules, thus explaining the major effect of
pressure on their electrical conductivity.

Professor Lyons has contributed firm results and
ideas to the theory of the mode of action of tranquil-
lizing drugs.

Also, he has provided basic information on the

electronic properties of purine and pyrimidine bases
and of NADt.

He has contributed significantly to the knowledge
of a factor group splitting in molecular crystal spectra,
proving amongst other things that quadrupole inter-
actions are significant in the anthracene spectrum.

Professor Lyons has been a member of the Society
since 1948, and two of his papers have been published
in the Journal and Proceedings.

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 55-56, 1970

Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1969
K. P. Sims

The following observations of occultations
were made at Sydney Observatory with the
114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used
to record the times on a chronograph. The
reduction elements were computed by the
method given in the occultation Supplement
to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the
reduction completed by the method given there.
Since the observed times were in terms of
coordinated time (UTC), a correction which
was derived from Bureau International De
L’Heure Circulaire D was applied to the 1969
observations to convert them to UT2. In
1969 a correction of +0-01111 hour (=40
seconds) was applied to the time in UT2 to
convert it to ephemeris time with which The
Astronomical Ephemeris for 1969 was entered
to obtain the position and parallax of the Moon.
The apparent places of the stars of the 1969
occultations were provided by H.M. Nautical

Table I gives the observational material.
The serial numbers follow on from those of the
previous report (Sims, 1969). The observers
were W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S),
and H. W. Wood (W). Except for occultation
545, which was a reappearance at the bright
limb, the phase observed was disappearance at
the dark limb. Table II gives the results of
the reductions which were carried out in
duplicate. The star numbers given in Table I
are from the Catalog of 3539 Zodiacal Stars for
Equinox 1950-0 (Robertson, 1940) and the
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory Star
Catalog.

References

ROBERTSON, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the
American Ephemeris, Vol. X, Part II.

Sims, K. P., 1969. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 102,

Almanac Office. 119; Sydney Observatory Papers No. 61.
TABLE I

Serial Sea © Or

No. Z.C. No. Mag. Date. U.T.2 UT2-UTC Observer
535 0850 6-0 1969 Jan. 29 12 40 10-96 +0-04 R
536 1122 3°9 1969 Jan. 31 10 50 33:05 +0-04 R
537 1081 6-2 1969 Feb. 27 11 43 06-05 +0-04 W
538 1032 5:5 1969 Mar. 26 9 17 50-21 +0:-03 S
539 1644 4-1 1969 Apr. 28 7 22 33-53 +0-03 R
540 1886 5:7 1969 Apr. 30 15 31 45-72 +0-03 5
541 1712 3°8 1969 May 26 8 47 09-81 +0-02 R
542 2286 5:4 1969 June 27 11 23 03-15 +0-02 R
543 139026 8-2 1969 July 21 10 31 22-01 +0-02 R
544 2366 1-2 1969 July 25 7 27 13-52 +0-02 R
545 2366 1-2 1969 July 25 8 27 23-73 +0-02 R
546 2373 6-2 1969 July 25 8 34 40-53 +0-02 R
547 2723 6-7 1969 July 27 8 10 50-14 +0-02 WwW
548 2018 6-4 1969 Sep. 15 9 24 29-59 +0-01 S
549 183039 8-9 1969 Sep. 16 8 53 55-61 +0-01 R
550 2134 6-1 1969 Sep. 16 8 54 46-87 +0-01 R
551 2273 5-9 1969 Sep. 17 8 39 06-95 +0-01 S)
552 183968 8:5 1969 Sep. 17 10 04 47-98 +0:01 >
553 186138 8-7 1969 Sep. 19 9 25 20-25 +0-01 S)
554 186286 7-3 1969 Sep. 19 11 42 21-96 +0-01 S
555 186281 8-2 1969 Sep. 19 1] 44 12-05 +0-01 =)
556 2617 4-7 1969 Sep. 19 12 24 12-98 +0-01 S
557 183700 8-4 1969 Oct. 14 9 38 04-73 0-00 Ie
558 183713 7:4 1969 Oct. 14 9 51 32-82 0-00 R
559 165118 8:5 1969 Nov. 17 10 28 19-69 0-00 R
560 3313 6-8 1969 Nov. 17 13 04 11-09 0-00 S

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.

A

103, Pt. 2, 1970 5B

56

KE. SIMs

TABLE II
Coefficient of
Pp q Ba pq q? As pAs qAc
Aa Ads
+100 +6 100 +6 0 —0:'4 —0-4 0:0 +13:-0 +0:-11
+95 +31 90 429 10 —1:9 —1-:8 —0°-6 +13:-1 +0:15
+43 —90 18 —39 82 —0°'9 —0-4 +0°8 +4:°0 —0:95
+95 —3l 90 —29 10 —3:6 —3-4 41-1 +12°-0 —0-40
+84 —54 71 —45 29 +0:°5 +0:°4 —0°3 +7-3 —0-87
+100 —6 100 —6 0 —0°5 —0:5 0:0 412-7 —0-5l1
+99 +15 98 +15 2 +0:2 +0-2 0-0 4+14-] —0-34
+40 +92 16 +37 84 —1:5 —0-6 —1-4 +8:-2 +0:79
+95 —32 90 —30 10 0:0 0:0 0-0 +10°3 —0-72
+91 +42 82 +38 18 —1:0 —0:-9 —0-4 +13-0 +0:24
—69 +72 48 —5O0 52 +0:9 —0°6 +0°6 —7°4 +0-83
+75 +66 56 +50 44 +0°4 +0°3 +0°3 +11-5 +0:-51
+176 +65 58 +49 42 +0°4 +0°3 +0:3 +9°3 +0:72
+92 +38 85 +35 15 —1:0 -—0:9 —0-4 +14-°4 —0-02
+100 —1l10 99 —10 l —2:0 —2-0 +0-2 +12-6 —0:-43
+99 —ll 99 —l1 1 0:0 0:0 0:0 +12-6 —0-43
+97 +26 93 +25 1 —0:9 —0:-9 —0-2 +13:°6 +0:02
+83 +56 69 +46 31 —1-5 —1:2 —0:8 412-7 +0:35
+83 +56 69 +46 31 —1-5 —1-2 —0°8 +10:8 +0:°57
+100 42 100 +2 0 —0°4 —0-4 0:0 +13-2 +0:05
+79 —61 63 —48 37 +1-8 +1:4 —l1-l +10-7 —0:59
+81] —59 65 —48 35 +0:9 +0°-7 —0°5 +10:9 —0-57
+96 — 28 92 —27 8 —3:0 —2-9 +0:8 +11-7 —0-52
+99 Sey 97 +17 3 +1-2 4+1-2 +0-2 +13-7 —0-09
+87 +49 76 +43 24 —1-8 —l1-6 —0-9 +8:°3 +0:82
+69 —72 48 —50 52 12-2 +1°-5 —1-6 +14-0 —0:33

(Received 19 October 1970)

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Sou.h Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 57-75, 1970

The Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1969
Origin of the Moon

A. E. RInGwoop
Department of Geophysics and Geochemistry, Australian National University

1. Introduction

This lecture was delivered at a time when
the only information available to me on lunar
rocks consisted of preliminary chemical data
obtained by the Lunar Sample Preliminary
Examination Team (LSPET, 1969) and some
preliminary investigations on the mineralogy
and petrology of Apollo 11 samples which were
being studied in Canberra. Preparation of
this paper was inadvertently delayed, and a
vast amount of detailed data on the lunar rocks
has since been published, principally in Sczence,
Vol. 167, No. 3918, 1970, and in the Proceedings
of the Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference,
Vols. 1, 2 and 3. In this paper I shall cover
much the same ground as was covered in the
Clarke Lecture, but will incorporate more
recent chemical and petrological information
where appropriate. Fortunately, most of the
more general boundary conditions on which I
based my discussion of the origin of the moon
have been amply confirmed by the new data.
This is a tribute to the excellence of the work
carried out by the Lunar Sample Preliminary
Examination Team.

2. Nature of Apollo 11 Crystalline Rocks

(a) General Properties and Distribution

Perhaps the single most important discovery
of the Apollo 11 mission which landed in Mare
Tranquilitatus was that the crystalline samples
returned were clearly identifiable as mafic
igneous rocks closely related to basalts and
dolerites. The principal minerals were pyroxene,
plagioclase and ilmenite, with smaller amounts
of olivine, other ore minerals, cristobalite, glass
and other minor minerals. The textures were
typically igneous and similar to those of
terrestrial basalts and dolerites (Figure 1).
Major element chemical compositions of nearly
all rocks were very similar. Detailed trace
element and isotopic studies (Compston é al.,
1970a, 1970b) revealed, however, that they

could be divided into two groups with slightly
different average compositions, probably repre-
senting two separate flows (Table 1). These
results gave strong support to the earlier
hypothesis (e.g. Baldwin, 1963), based upon a
variety of observational evidence that the
maria consisted of great floods of basaltic rocks.
Alternative hypotheses, e.g. that the maria
were dried-up lake sediments or deep seas of
dust, could be discarded for all practical
purposes.

TABLE 1

Average Compositions of Group 1 and Group 2 Apollo 11
Crystalline Rocks after Compston et. al. (1670b) compared
with Analyses of Terrestrial Oceanic Tholetite (Engel
et al., 1965) and Typical Basaltic Achondrite (Duke
and Silver, 1967)
Group 1 and 2 compositions represent averages of six
analyses

Apollo 11 Crystalline
Rocks Basaltic Oceanic

Achondrite| Tholeiite

Group 1 | Group 2

SiO, 40-28 40-47 49-54 49-34
TiO, 11-88 10-32 0-68 1-49
Al,Og 8-95 10-41 12-69 17-04
Fe,O, — — — 1-99
FeO 19-91 18-72 18-57 6-82
MnO 0-24 0:27 0-53 0-17
MgO 7-60 6-66 6-86 7-19
CaO 10-53 11-48 10:36 11-72
Na,O 0-64 0-49 0-42 2-73
20 0-31 0:09 0-05 0-16
P,O; 0:18 0-11 — —

é 0-23 0-16 — —

The question is often asked whether we are
entitled to make broad generalizations from a
single grab-sample from one spot on the moon.
What kind of conclusions might we reach if we
attempted to infer the history of the earth from
samples obtained at a single random location ?
The moon is kinder to the scientist in this respect
than the earth. It does not possess a hydro-
sphere or atmosphere; the major geological
cycle which operates on the earth does not

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 57

A. E. RINGWOOD

appear to have operated on the moon. The
evolution of the lunar surface appears to have
been much more simple than that of the earth,
and the principal features were generated more
than three billion years ago and have not been
greatly disturbed since. The principal agent
altering the lunar surface has been meteorite
impact, and this has had the effect of extensively
redistributing and stirring near-surface material,
so that any single sample of “soil’’ contains
small rock fragments which have been derived
from a very large area of the lunar surface.
It is most significant that about 95% of the
recognizable rock fragments in the soil are
composed of the same mineral assemblage as
was found in the larger crystalline rocks of
local origin, and most of the smaller glass
fragments and spheres were also shown after
analysis to be derived ultimately from mafic
igneous rocks. We have also the evidence
(Turkevich e¢ al., 1969) of the Surveyor 5
analysis from a location some tens of kilometres
away on the same mare and the Surveyor 6
analysis from a different and distant mare
(Sinus Medii—Franzgrote e al., 1970). Both
of these chemical analyses yielded compositions
approximately similar to Apollo 11 rocks and
indicated the widespread occurrence of rocks
of this general nature. Finally, the preliminary
analyses of Apollo 12 rocks from Oceanus
Procellarum are generally similar to those of
Apollo 11 rocks (LSPET, 1970). Although there
are some important second order differences
the Apollo 12 rocks are clearly recognizable
as first cousins to Apollo 11 rocks. All of
this evidence strongly supports the overall
characterization of the lunar maria as consisting
of mafic igneous rocks. High resolution Orbiter
photography suggests that the maria may be
composed of large numbers of overlapping thin
flows of basaltic type rocks analogous to
plateau-basalts.

Having recognized lunar basalts as chemically
and petrologically closely related to terrestrial
basalts, it is natural to consider the hypothesis
that their origins are analogous. Terrestrial
basalts are known to form by partial melting
process at substantial depths in the earth’s
mantle, and the chemistry and phase relation-
ships involved in this process are now reasonably
well understood (Green and Ringwood, 1967).
It is tempting to hypothesize that lunar basalts
have formed by analogous partial melting
process in the lunar interior. This hypothesis
has been forcefully advocated by Baldwin
(1963) on the basis of his investigations of the
physiographic relationships between lunar maria

and impact craters. There is, however, an
alternative hypothesis that the lunar maria
have formed by impact melting when large
planetesimals collided with the moon during
its final stages of formation (Urey, 1952;
Opik, 1967).

These two hypotheses have very different
consequences with respect to information which
the lavas are capable of providing about the
lunar interior. If lunar basalts are of internal
origin, we can study their chemistry and phase
relationships in order to place strong constraints
upon the nature of the source regions from
which they were derived, using experimental
methods similar to those employed by Green
and Ringwood (1967). This approach has
been employed by Ringwood and Essene (19700).
On the other hand, if lunar lavas are of impact
origin, we obtain information only about
near-surface material. After studying the
preliminary data provided by the LSPET
team, my colleagues and I formed the opinion
that the Apollo 11 lavas were very probably of
internal origin and proceeded on this assumption.
Nevertheless, several scientists strongly
advocated the impact melting hypothesis at
the Houston Apollo 11 meeting, and a con-
troversy developed. The accumulation of
subsequent detailed evidence has made it prac-
tically certain that the Apollo 11 rocks and
probably all maria are indeed of internal origin.
We will review some of this evidence later.

(0) Major Element Composition

Relative abundances of most major com-
ponents (SiO,, Al,O,, CaO, FeO, MgO) fall
within the same range as are displayed by
terrestrial basalts and basaltic achondrites
(Table 1). There are, however, some significant
differences, notably the abundance of TiO,
in lunar basalt is much higher than in terrestrial
basalts and achondrites. Cr,O, is also much
higher in lunar basalt (av. 0-39 Cr,O;) than in
terrestrial basalt (av. 0:01% Cr,O,), but is
similar to the achondritic abundance (av.
0-3% Cr,O,). On the other hand, Na,O is
much lower in Apollo 11 basalt compared to
terrestrial basalt and is generally similar to the
achondrites. It appears that the very high
abundance of TiO, in the vocks from the Apollo 11
site may be somewhat atypical. The TiO,
abundance in the lunar soz/ was substantially
lower, as were the TiO, abundances in Apollo 12
rocks and at the Sinus Medii (Surveyor 6) site.
Sodium and chromium abundances, on the
other hand, appear to be uniform in samples
from all sites measured.

58 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

WOCRNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W. RINGWOOD PLATE

FiGurRE 1.—Photograph of thin section of a typical Apollo 11 crystalline rock.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

A notable feature is the comparative constancy

f FeO
°* FeO-+MgO
and the high and uniform abundances of Cr,QO,.
Microprobe analyses (Essen e¢ al., 1970) showed

FeO
that the FeO +MeO

ferromagnesian crystals to form from all the
lunar samples were approximately constant and
equal to 0-25.

ratios in nearly all lunar rocks

ratios of the earliest

(c) Incompatible Non-volatile Trace Elements,
e.g. U, Th, Zr, Ba, light rare earths, Ta

Incompatible elements are those possessing
ionic radii and charges which inhibit their ready
substitution in the principal rock-forming
minerals. As a result, these elements tend to
become strongly concentrated in the liquid
phase during crystal-liquid differentiation
processes. Results by the LSPET, amply
confirmed by many other workers, demonstrated
that this class of elements is concentrated in
Apollo 11 basalts by factors of 30 to 100 over
chondritic (primordial) abundances. This implies
that extraordinarily efficient crystal-liquid
fractionation mechanisms were involved during
the formation of Apollo 11 rocks. Most absolute
abundances of these elements fall in the concen-
tration ranges observed for varieties of terrestrial
alkali basalts. However, the relative
abundances differ in important respects from
those of terrestrial basalts. This is seen in
figure 2 from Gast and Hubbart (1970), which
shows the abundances of Ba and some rare
earths in Apollo 11, Apollo 12 and _ basaltic
achondrites normalized to chondritic abundances.
The generally sub-parallel patterns which would
have been reinforced if other incompatible
elements (e.g. U, Th) had been included strongly
imply derivation from source material possessing
the chondritic abundances of this group of
elements. Notice the spectacular depletions
of europium—a feature which has caused a
great deal of discussion. This is primarily due
to the highly reduced state of lunar basalts
(see below) which causes europium to occur
dominantly in the divalent state, Eu*,
possessing different crystal chemical properties
to the neighbouring trivalent rare earths Sm?+
and Gd*+. In more oxidized terrestrial systems
most europium occurs as Eu%+, and europium
anomalies of this magnitude are not observed
in mafic rocks.

An important feature of Figure 2 is the
intermediate position of the Apollo 12 patterns
between the abundance patterns of Apollo 11
rocks and basaltic achondrites. There appears

to be a complete continuum between these two
extremes. These relationships, together with
the very close mineralogical and petrological
resemblances between lunar basalts and basaltic
achondrites which were commented upon by
numerous workers at the Apollo 11 Conference
in Houston, strongly suggest that the basaltic
achondrites might also be derived from the
moon.

(2d) Volatile Metals: Na, K, Rb, Cs, Zn, Cad,
Hg, Bt, Tl, In, Ga, Pb, Sb, As

Preliminary analyses by the LSPET indicated
that, when appropriately normalized, the
elements Rb, K, Na, Zn, Pb and Ga were
systematically depleted in lunar basalts
compared to terrestrial basalts by factors of
3 to9. This group of elements is characterized
by relatively high volatility under high-
temperature, reducing conditions. In the Clarke
Lecture, I placed great emphasis upon the
significance of depletion of this class of elements,
and assumed it to be characteristic of the source
regions from which the lunar basalts were
derived.

Subsequent accurate analyses by Keays et al.
(1970), Baedecker and Wasson (1970), Morrison
et al. (1970) and Smales ef al. (1970) have con-
firmed this fundamental depletion pattern and
extended it to many more volatile elements. It
is now clear that Na, K, Rb, Cs, Zn, Cd, Hg, Bi,
Tl, In, Ge, Pb, Sb and As are depleted relative to
terrestrial basalts by factors which vary from
3to100. Inturn, terrestrial basalts are depleted
in this group of elements compared to primordial
abundances by factors of 3 to 10 (Ringwood,
19662).

At the Houston meeting a _ controversy
developed about the origin of these depletions
in lunar material. One group insisted that the
depletions were characteristic of the source
regions of lunar basalt and accordingly provide
a clue of fundamental importance to the chemical
processes by which the moon formed (e.g.
Ringwood and Essene, 1970a; Ringwood,
1970). The other group claimed that the
volatile elements had simply distilled from the
lunar lava flows after extrusion, and hence
their relative depletions were not characteristic
of the source regions (e.g. O’Hara ef al., 1970a.
19700).

This controversy is now settled for all practical
purposes. Isotopic Rb-Sr studies (Compston
et al., 19700; Albee et al., 1970; Ganapathy
et al., 1970; Gast e¢ al., 1970; Hurley and
Pinson, 1970) and Pb-U studies (Compston
et al., 1970; Tatsumoto, 1970; Gopalan ¢é al.,

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 108, Pt. 2, 1970 59

A. E. RINGWOOD

pee
ig

HI-Rb

12070
———__ 2 BOA

se IGOR

eS 4 10020
w”
s|2 40
AE Pa
BI 30 a :
Sl - ¢ 1205I
| NK, ae le
oe tl Ne ieee) 4 e i ZOOS
= = 20 : —————s —— e
ale o— ee aoa) \ ——— |, = ita eOo
o = a oe ee eee Le
/ +8
. a
ee eee pee o

~ ae

Pek +
=
ie io: £2 ee
+

STANNERN fs)
NUEVO LAREDO ¢
PASAMONTE oF
JUVINAS s

METEORITES

Ba La Ce Na

Sm Eu Gd Dy Er Yb

FIGURE 2.—Rare earth and barium abundances from Apollo 11 and 12 lunar samples and from some basaltic
achondrites. The Hl-Rb group and sample 10020 represent Apollo 11 rocks. Most of the Apollo 11 rocks fall
between these samples, as does the Apollo 11 soil 10084. In contrast, the Apollo 12 rocks 12051, 12053 and 12002
occupy a generally intermediate position between the Apollo 11 rocks and the basaltic achondrites (meteorites).
Apollo 12 soils 12070 and 12044 have much higher rare earth abundances than the corresponding rocks and fall

within the Apollo 11 range.

1970) showed that strong depletion of Rb and
Pb (relative to Sr and U) in lunar basalts as
compared to terrestrial basalts occurred about
4-6 billion years ago during the formation of
the moon and long before the lunar basalts were
erupted. This feature must, therefore, be a
characteristic of the source regions. Additional
arguments by Ringwood and Essene (1970D)

(After Gast and Hubbard, 1970.)

and Goles et al. (1970) showed that the depletions
of Na and K almost certainly did not occur by
volatilization from the lunar lavas during and
after extrusion. If it is accepted that the
depletions of Rb, Pb, Na and K are of primary
origin, it is reasonable to assume that the
corresponding depletions of other volatile metals
are similarly primary.

60 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

(e) Siderophile Elements :
Au, Ir

LSPET preliminary results indicated that
the siderophile elements Ni (strongly) and Cu
(significantly) were depleted in lunar basalt
compared to terrestrial basalts. Subsequent
accurate analyses by Keays et al. (1970) have
confirmed and extended this pattern. Ni, Cu,
Ga, Ag, Au and Ir were found to be depleted
compared to terrestrial basalts by factors of
3 to 10. This is attributed to equilibration
of lunar basalts with metallic iron as a conse-
quence of their lower oxidation states than
terrestrial basalts (see below) followed by partial
removal of the metal phase.

Ni, Cu, Ga, Ag,

(f) Oxidation State

Numerous workers drew attention at the
Houston Conference to the fact that Apollo 11
basalts commenced to crystallize at an oxygen
fugacity of 10-1%> atm. (1200° C.) as compared
to the corresponding oxygen fugacity for
terrestrial basalts at about 10-® to 10-% atm.
As a result, the Fe®* ion is not detectable in
ore minerals and pyroxenes from lunar rocks
(Agrell e¢ al., 1970; Hafner and Virgo, 1970),
whereas it is always a significant component of
corresponding terrestrial minerals. The low
oxidation state is also responsible for the wide-
spread occurrence of free metal in Apollo 11
basalts as well as species such as Ti?+ and Cr?+
inferred to occur in solid solution in some ore
minerals and olivine respectively. A further
consequence of the low oxidation state of lunar
basalts is the absence of any evidence of the
presence of hydrated minerals and carbonates
in the crystalline lunar rocks. The species
CO, and H,O are dominantly reduced to CO
and H, at the oxygen fugacity prevailing.

(g) Melting Relationships at One Atmosphere

Several workers have carried out melting
experiments upon Apollo 11 basalts or upon
synthetic analogues. In general, the results
are closely concordant, although there are a few
discrepancies arising out of inadequate control
of oxidation states during experiments.
Ringwood and Essene (1970a, 1970) showed
that the liquidus phases at 1050°C. were
armacolite (a new mineral: (Fe .;Mg».;)Ti.Os,
with the pseudobrookite structure) and olivine
(Fo,,). With falling temperature, armacolite
reacted with liquid to produce ilmenite (1120° C.)
whilst olivine reacted to form pyroxene
(1120°C.). At this temperature the degree of
crystallization increased rapidly with abundant
cotectic crystallization of pyroxene, plagioclase

and ilmenite. These phases continued to
crystallize until the solidus was reached at
about 1090° C.

The experimental phase relationships closely
matched those observed in natural Apollo 11
basalts. Several workers found armalcolite as
an early phase and inferred a reaction relation
with ilmenite. Likewise, olivine in Apollo 11
samples was interpreted to be in reaction
relationship with pyroxene. The crystallization
sequence of Apollo 11 rocks inferred from petro-
logical criteria was identical with that of
the synthetic specimen.

The relatively late crystallization of plagioclase
is an important feature. In our experiments
plagioclase did not appear until about 30%
of the liquid had crystallized as olivine, pyroxene
and ore minerals. This feature was observed
by all other experimenters. In some experi-
ments on another Apollo 11 basalt slightly
different in composition more than 50% of
the rock crystallized before plagioclase appeared
(Weill e¢ al., 1970). Clearly, the magma was
far from being saturated with plagioclase on
extrusion.

In most experimental work the crystallization
interval between solidus and liquidus was found
to be quite small, between 60°C. and 120°C.
Furthermore, the temperature interval between
entry of the major phases—olivine, pyroxene,
ore and plagioclase—was mostly also found
to be quite small and of the order of 30 to 40° C.

O’Hara et al. (1970a, 19700) have made
much of this feature, claiming that it demon-
strates that Apollo 11 basalts were “ almost
cotectic indicating that lunar basalts are not
primary magma, but the residual liquids of
advanced near-surface crystal fractionation ”’.
This conclusion is clearly wrong. The closeness
of Apollo 11 basalts to a cotectic of major
minerals is to be measured not by temperature
intervals but by the amount of crystallization
necessary to bring the liquid from its observed
composition to the cotectic composition. We
have seen that Apollo 11 basalt must crystallize
30% to 50% of ores and ferromagnesian minerals
before the plagioclase-ilmenite-pyroxene cotectic
is reached. Clearly, they were far from the
low-pressure cotectic when erupted and could
not have undergone extensive near-surface
fractionation. Additional arguments relating
to this point are given later.

(h) Ages
Only two research groups were successful
(by January, 1970) in the difficult task of

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 61

A. E. RINGWOOD

determining accurately the ages of Apollo 11
rocks by Rb-Sr methods. Albee e al. (1970)
obtained an age of 3-65+0-10 billion years,
whereas Compston e al. (1970a) obtained
3°78-+0-10 billion years. These methods were
based on internal mineral isochrons and date
the time of crystallization. Turner (1970)
obtained a group of ages close to 3-7 by using
the argon 40/argon 39 dating method. Ages
obtained by the lead-uranium method were
also consistent with these values (Tatsumoto,
1970). More recently, Papanastassiou and
Wasserburg (1970) have obtained a Rb/Sr age
(internal mineral isochron) for Apollo 12 rocks
of 3-3 billion years.

(1) High Pressure Behaviour

A detailed investigation of high pressure-
phase relationships in typical Apollo 11 basalt
and in possible source materials was undertaken
by Ringwood and Essene (1970a, 19700). Their
results are shown in Figure 3. Less extensive
but generally concordant results on a lunar rock
were reported by O’Hara e¢ al. (1970a, 19700.)
An interesting feature is the relatively low
pressure at which Apollo 11 basalt (density
3°3 gm./cc.) transforms to a very dense eclogite
(3-7 gm./cc.). It was possible to show con-
clusively that the moon could not be composed
entirely of Apollo 11 rock, or indeed, of any
basaltic rock, because these would lead to too
high a mean density and would contradict the
moon’s moment of inertia (Ringwood and Essene,
1970a, 1970b). Thus, the Apollo 11 basalts
must represent differentiates from a more
primitive source material with lower Fe/Mg
ratio. Further studies on possible source
materials by Ringwood and Essene showed that
to satisfy the moon’s moment of inertia
coefficient (I/MR?=0-402+0-002), which is
very close to that of a sphere of uniform density,
the moon could not contain more than 6%
Al,O,, and very probably not more than 6%
CaO. It was concluded that the moon's
interior was dominantly composed of ferro-
magnesian silicates low in Al and Ca.

3. Petrogenesis of Apollo 11 Basalt

The high and variable abundances of the
incompatible elements (Figure 2, section 2c)
in Apollo 11 basalts imply the operation of
efficient crystal-liquid fractionation processes.
Opinion at the Houston meeting was divided
between two views :

(i) Apollo 11 basalts were produced by a
small degree of partial melting in the
lunar interior which permitted strong

concentration of incompatible elements
into the first liquid to form. The liquid
was then separated from the source
region and ascended to the surface (e.g.
Ringwood and Essene, 1970a, 19700).

The strong concentrations of incompatible
elements were produced by advanced
high-level crystallization differentiation
in large lava lakes. The Apollo 11 lavas
are thus regarded as the residual liquids
resulting from this extensive, near-
surface fractionation process (e.g. O’Hara
et al., 1970a, 1970D).

(ii

—

Grounds for further controversy no longer
exist, since the second alternative has been
shown not to be feasible (Ringwood and Essene,
19705). Initially, the argument was _ based
upon the claim that Apollo 11 basalts were
near or at the cotectic of three major phases.
We have seen that this is not correct and that,
to the contrary, Apollo 11 basalts are far
removed from the pyroxene-plagioclase-ilmenite
cotectic. Extensive high-level fractionation
would indeed drive the lavas toward the cotectic.
Conversely, the fact that they are far removed
from cotectic composition means that extensive
low pressure fractionation has not operated.

This conclusion is amply verified by several
other lines of evidence. Consider Figure 2,
which demonstrates the occurrence of a ten-fold
variation in the abundances of incompatible
elements among Apollo 11 and 12 rocks. If
these are to be explained by fractional crystal-
lization, more than 90% of the original magma
must have crystallized to produce the rocks with
the highest incompatible element abundances.
However, this would imply corresponding major

FeO
FeO0+MgO
which serve as an index of the degree of
fractional crystallization. In fact, the variations

changes in the ratios of the rocks

FeO
of FeO +MgO ratios between different rocks
are small. The high concentrations and

relatively uniform distribution of Cr,OQ3 (av.
0:3%) among Apollo 11 and 12 rocks is another
indication that they have not undergone
extensive absolute or relative fractionation by
crystallization differentiation. Chromium is
strongly concentrated in the first crystallizing
opaque pyroxenes. Extensive fractional
crystallization leads rapidly to almost complete
removal of chromium from the magma
(Ringwood and Essene, 19700).

62 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

| 0 800
nb | 200 400 60

MODEL LUNAR BASALT (APOLLO 11)

Pe ®
4
id
5S
> Va
1400 WAY .
: “’GatRu
// *Cpx +Lig
LIQUID ey, :
7
te
t ee :
e y, Mey
1300 ° vate °
e / ;
e e /
e e if °
eo ° Fe
Cox + Li oy :
: : i diaels ee ECLOGITE
1200 = — 3°74 gm fem?
Ga+Cpx + Ru
ee \ ' 5 : : Cpx clinopyroxene
GABBRO Fs felspar
3-36 m/e’ i mee
Ru rutile
Cpx + Fs+ Ilm Ko karooite
Ol olivine
liq liquid
[ L
hae 10 20 30
P Kb

FIGuRE 3.—Stability fields of mineral assemblages and melting equilibria in average Apollo 11 basalt composition
at high pressures and temperatures. Each dot represents a separate experiment. Armalcolite is now the
approved mineral name corresponding to the term ‘“‘ Karooite’’ used in the Figure.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 63

A. E. RINGWOOD

The abundance patterns of Figure 2 combined
with the major element compositions of the
rocks are characteristic of partial melting
processes where the major elements in the liquid
are buffered by equilibrium with residual
unmelted phases in the source regions, whilst
incompatible elements are strongly concentrated
into the liquid phase according to the degree of
partial melting. Haskin e¢ al. (1970) and Gast
and Hubbard (1970) showed that to account
for the enrichment of rare earths shown in
Figure 2 by fractional crystallization at high
levels up to 95% of the original liquid would
need to have crystallized as plagioclase. This
is clearly impossible since plagioclase is not on
the liquidus of Apollo 11 rocks. Several other
arguments showing that Apollo 11 lavas were
formed by a small degree of partial melting of
source material in the lunar interior and not
by extensive high-level crystallization differ-
entiation are given by Ringwood and Essene
(19700).

If we accept that Apollo 11 basalts were
generated by a process involving a small degree
of partial melting of source material, at what
depth in the lunar interior did the partial
melting occur, and what was the nature of the
source material? There are two approaches
to this problem. Ringwood and Essene deter-
mined the compositions of the liquidus and
near-liquidus phases of Apollo 11 basalts as a
function of pressure (Figure 3). Since the
equilibrium between crystals and magma is
independent of the proportions of crystals and
liquids present, it follows that Apollo 11 basalt
could have formed by a small degree of partial
melting of mineral assemblages composed
dominantly of the observed liquidus phases.

From Figure 3 we see three distinct pressure
regimes according to the nature of the liquidus
phase: a low pressure regime, in which the
liquidus phases are olivine and armalcolite, an
intermediate pressure regime in which the liquidus
phase is a highly sub-calcic clinopyroxene (7%
CaO, 4% A103, Fs.,En,,Wo,;) and a high
pressure regime in which clinopyroxene and
garnet are near-liquidus phases. Ringwood
and Essene (19700) showed that the mineral
assemblages of the low pressure and high
pressure regimes were too dense to be repre-
sentative of the lunar interior. On the other
hand, the pyroxenite composition of the inter-
mediate pressure regime (depths of 200 to
500 km.) went much closer towards providing
an explanation of the moon’s mean density and
moment of inertia. Further detailed studies
showed that Apollo 11 basalt was almost

saturated with orthopyroxene at near-liquidus
temperatures between 10 and 15 kb. It was
possible, therefore, that substantial amounts
of orthopyroxene might be present in the
source region in addition to the sub-calcic
clinopyroxene. These studies permitted the
synthesis of a model lunar pyroxenite (Table 2)
capable of yielding the average Apollo 11
basalt composition by a small degree of partial
melting at depths of 200 to 500km. Experi-
mental studies (Figure 4) of the P, T stability
fields of mineral assemblages displayed by this
pyroxenite showed that it was capable of
providing a satisfactory explanation for the
observed mean density and moment of inertia
of the moon.
TABLE 2

Composition of Model Lunar Pyroxenite which 1s
capable of yielding Apollo 11 Basalts by a small degree
of partial melting. If the moon were composed of
material of this composition, the observed lunar density
and moment of inertia would be satisfied. This composition
is not unique, and it is possible that olivine was also a
constituent of the source region. (After Ringwood and
Essene, 1970b)

S103) Cnc oi os Binh 0740)
TiO =. Me 5% v2) E30
ALO sue: ss aes Ae ol!)
Cr-Orae- = oe A
BeQ a .: a2 A . 2 edn
Me@” =. me is Ry 574015)
Ca@r bear of ne va) HAO
Na.O.. sie se sesh) ROLE

The experimental studies thus led to a very
simple model for the origin of the lunar basalts.
Although the experiments permit some vari-
ability in the composition of the source region,
and it is possibe that olivine may be present,
as a separate phase in addition to the pyroxenes,
there can be little doubt that the Ca and Al
contents of pyroxenes and the olivine/pyroxene
ratio in the lunar basalt source region are
substantially lower than in the earth’s mantle.
Within the framework of our present under-
standing of high pressure phase equilibria, it
does not appear possible to generate Apollo 11
and terrestrial basalts from source materials
possessing similar major element abundances.

Further arguments indicating that if the
Apollo 11 basalts formed by a partial melting
process, the source region must lie deep in the
lunar interior are derived from considerations
of the moon’s thermal history and strength.
The Apollo 11 and 12 basalts crystallized 1-0
to 1-3 billion years after the moon had formed.
Regardless of any reasonable assumptions which
can be made about initial temperature distribu-

64 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

DEPTH Km
500

MOV
\

S
\

re FELSPATHIC PYROXENITE
PYROXENITE

a 1000

>

<

ad

Lu

= | opitm | / ~

i

=

500

0 10 20

1000 1500

GARNET PYROXENITE
Opx + Cpx+ Ga

Max. density 3:52gm/cm?

30 40 ~~ 50

PRESSURE Kb
FIGURE 4.—Stability fields and densities of mineral assemblages displayed by model lunar pyroxenite (Table 2)

in relation to the probable range of lunar internal temperature distributions (shaded region).

(After Ringwood

and Essene, 1970b.)

tion and distribution of radioactivity, the
outer 200 km. of the moon would have cooled
by thermal conduction over this period to a
mean temperature of about 500° C. (maximum
temperature at 200km. is about 1000°C.).
Because of its larger area-to-volume ratio,

cooling on the moon is effective to greater
depths than on the earth, and the lunar litho-
sphere 1s accordingly much thicker and stronger
than the earth's. It is most difficult to
understand how any partial melting process
could, therefore, occur in the cool outer 200 km.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pi. 2, 1970 65

A. E. RINGWOOD

of the moon. The source would need to be
deeper, in a region which had not been affected
by cooling and in which increase of temperature
by accumulation of radioactive heat was still
possible. Another argument is connected with
the preservation of mascons-circular regions
characterized by high positive gravity anomalies
which occur in some maria. Urey (1968) and
others have emphasized that these require that
the lunar lithosphere beneath the maria and
mascons has possessed substantial strength
ever since the maria and mascons were formed,
and that, therefore, the lithosphere must have
been quite cool at the time the mascons formed.
It would be difficult to form the maria by partial
melting within the lithosphere and at the same
time have this region sufficiently cool to possess
the considerable long-term strength necessary
to support the mascons.

To avoid these latter difficulties, Urey
appealed to a near-surface origin of the maria
with the melting caused by meteorite impact.
However, we have previously demonstrated
that the maria are strongly fractionated relative
to the average composition of the moon. Urey’s
hypothesis implies that the fractionation must
have occurred by crystallization differentiation
near the surface of the moon. We have pre-
viously shown that the observed fractionation
could not have been caused by crystallization
differentiation and Urey’s hypothesis must,
therefore, be rejected. Additional arguments
against an impact origin for the maria were
given by Ringwood and Essene (19700).

All the evidence discussed so far points to an
origin of the maria by a small degree of partial
melting at a depth greater than 200km. I
should mention one important observation
which is believed by some workers not to be
consistent with this hypothesis. This is the
spectacular europium anomaly shown in Figure 2
which is caused by europium being present in
the divalent state under lunar redox conditions,
so that it has crystal chemical properties rather
similar to Sr?+. Those workers who studied
rare earth distributions in lunar basalts con-
cluded that plagioclase should be present in
the source regions of lunar basalt and that the
deficiency was caused by Eu?+ remaining behind
in plagioclase relatively to the other trivalent,
rare earths, during partial melting. A source
region of plagioclase and high-Mg pyroxenes
was therefore, favoured.

This hypothesis leads to several difficulties.
The most serious is that Apollo 11 basalts were
not saturated with plagioclase when they were
erupted. If plagioclase had been a component

of the residual mineral assemblage remaining
behind after partial melting, all magmas
reaching the surface should have been saturated
with plagioclase, which should, therefore, have -
been on the liquidus. As we saw previously,
this is not the case. The dimicuity@1s: oi
fundamental nature and a solution is not in
sight. Further difficulties arise from the high
pressure observations that the postulated
plagioclase-bearing mineral assemblage is
unstable at a high pressure and would not
persist below about 200 km. I have previously
detailed the arguments against an origin of
lunar basalts by partial melting in the outer
200 km. of the moon.

An explanation of the europium anomaly in
terms of the model of partial melting of a
pyroxenite source region is by no means ruled
out. The relevant partition cofficients for this
system are not yet determined at the redox
state existing on the moon. I think that there
is a good chance that this model will be able to
explain the anomaly. Experiments are now
under way to measure appropriate partition
cofficients, and will provide a key test by the
model advocated here.

4, Some Boundary Conditions for
Theories of Lunar Origin

Some of the more important properties of
lunar basalts have been summarized in the
preceding section. Reasons for believing
that they have been formed by a small degree of
partial melting deep within the lunar interior
have been stated. If we accept this hypothesis,
what are the important points of resemblance
between lunar basalts and terrestrial basalts
and between their respective source regions ?
What are the important differences? What
bearing do these relationships have on theories
of lunar origin ?

(a) Overall Similarities between Earth and Moon

(i) The moon and the earth’s mantle are
both dominantly composed of ferromagnesian
silicates with subordinate CaO and AI,O,.

(ii) The relative abundances of most of the
non-volatile, incompatible class of trace elements
in the source regions of lunar and terrestrial
basalts appear to have been similar and closely
related to chondritic or primordial abundances.

(iii) The absolute abundances of most of the
non-volatile oxyphile elements in lunar basalts
fall within the range of concentrations of these
elements displayed by terrestrial basalts.

(iv) Elements which are comparatively
volatile under high temperature reducing con-

66 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

ditions, e.g. K, Rb, Pb, Tl, Bi, In, are relatively
depleted in the earth (by factors of 5-10)
compared to the probable abundances of these
elements in the primordial solar nebula (Gast,
1960; Ringwood, 1966a, 1966b). Likewise,
this group of volatile elements is also relatively
depleted in the moon.

The above similarities, particularly (iv),
might be taken to indicate that some of the
fundamental chemical fractionation processes
which occurred when the earth and moon
formed from the solar nebula were similar,
and, tentatively, might point in the direction
of a genetic relationship between earth and
moon.

(v) This suggestion is supported by the
history of tidal evolution of the earth-moon
system, which implies that the moon was once
only 2-8 earth radii distant from earth
(Gerstenkorn, 1955). This is almost identical
with Roche’s limit and it does not appear lhkely
that the similarity between these distances is a
mere coincidence as is implied by the capture
hypothesis (Opik, 1961). Additional reasons
for rejecting the capture hypothesis are given
in the next section. If capture is rejected, the
tidal history indicates that the moon was
probably born very close to the earth and,
therefore, a close genetic relationship might be
inferred (cf. Section 7).

(b) Chemical Differences between Earth and Moon

Superimposed on the general resemblances
which exist between moon and earth (above),
there are some very important specific
differences :

(i) The moon is strongly depleted in iron
relative to the earth. Ifacore is present,
it cannot amount to more than a few
per cent. of the mass.

Apollo 11 basalts are strongly depleted
in many siderophile elements relative to
terrestrial basalts (e.g. Ganapathy ef al.
1970).

The moon is much more strongly depleted
in volatile metals (e.g. Na, K, Rb, Cs,
Pb, In, 11, Zn, Hg,-etc.) than the earth
compared to primordial abundances
(Section 2 (d)).
FeO
iy) the P60 MEO
source regions of Apollo 11 basalt is
probably between 0:20 and 0-26, com-
pared to a probable value for this ratio
of 0-12 in the source regions of terrestrial
basalts (Green and Ringwood, 1967 ;
Ringwood, 19700).

(ii

~~

(iit)

molecular ratio in the

(v) The mineralogy of the lunar mantle is
probably pyroxene-dominated as com-
pared to a preponderance of olivine in
the terrestrial mantle. The ratios of
Al,O,; and CaO to total pyroxenes are
smaller in the lunar mantle than in the
terrestrial mantle. Thus, important
differences exist in the _ relative
abundances of the major components,
Si0,, MgO, FeO, Al,O, and CaO, between
the lunar interior and the earth’s mantle
(Ringwood and Essene, 19700; Ring-
wood, 19700).

Studies of the chemistry of rare earths
in lunar and terrestrial basalts (Haskin
et al., 1970; Gast and Hubbard, 1970)
indicate that calcium-rich clinopyroxene
is a less abundant phase in the lunar
mantle than in the terrestrial mantle.
Terrestrial basalts and their source
regions are much more oxidized (oxygen
fugacity of 10-§-10-% atm. at 1200°C.)
than lunar basalts and their source
regions ({O,.=10-135 atm. at 1200° C.)
(Section 2 (f)).

As a consequence of the low oxygen
fugacity in the moon, H,O and CO,
are unstable relative to H, and CO
at magmatic temperatures. Water and
carbon dioxide are, therefore, very rare
in lunar rocks compared to terrestrial
rocks.

(vi

—

(vil

Sa

(viii)

5. Bearing of Apollo 11 Data on
Theories of Lunar Origin

We will consider first the traditional
hypotheses of lunar origin—Fission, Binary
Planet and Capture. The conclusions relating
to the similarities and differences between
earth and moon, which were discussed in the
previous section, have a vital bearing on these
hypotheses. In all hypotheses the first-order
problem is to explain the large difference in
density of earth and moon, which implies a
major fractionation of iron between the bodies.

(a) The Fission Hypothesis

Darwin (1880, 1912) developed a theory
according to which the moon and earth were
originally combined in a single body which
rotated with a period of four hours, so that the
solar sides were raised every two hours. He
estimated that the fundamental mode of the
earth’s free oscillations was one hour, and
suggested that a resonance effect was established
between the solar tides and free oscillations,
leading to the development of an enormous

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pi. 2, 1970 67

A. E. RINGWOOD

tidal bulge. This ultimately became unstable
and the tidal bulge was thrown off from th eearth
to form the moon. Darwin’s theory provided
an elegant explanation for the moon's density
which is similar to the uncompressed density
of the earth’s outer mantle. However, a series
of fatal objections to Darwin’s original
hypothesis was raised by Jeffreys (1930) and
others, and it was generally discarded. See
also MacDonald (1964).

Ringwood (1960) suggested a new variant of
Darwin’s hypothesis arising from a discussion
of the formation of the earth by accretion, as
in Section 6. It was argued that after accretion
the extent of reduction, and consequently the
amount of metal phase, increased from the centre
of the earth towards its margins. This con-
figuration is highly unstable and there is the
possibility that segregation of metal into the
core might have been catastrophic. If, towards
the end of the primary accretion process, the
rate of rotation of the earth was close to the
instability limit, rapid segregation of the core
might have decreased the earth’s moment of
inertia, and accordingly increased its angular
velocity sufficiently to cause instability and
fission. According to Ringwood’s suggestion,
the excess angular momentum of the earth-moon
system was carried away by the large primitive
atmosphere, which was also disrupted and
escaped during the cataclysm. A_ similar
hypothesis was subsequently suggested and
developed in greater detail by Wise (1963).
The modified fission hypothesis has since been
considered favourably by O’Keefe (1966),
Cameron (1966), and others. Although it is
recognized by all concerned that this hypothesis
requires a highly favourable and ad hoc,
combination of initial conditions if it is to be
applicable, and is therefore of low intrinsic
probability, its ability to explain the density
of the moon, and the difficulties faced by
alternative hypothesis of lunar origin, have
combined to keep the fission hypothesis alive.

What, then, is the bearing of the new data
from Apollo 11 on the status of this hypothesis ?
According to earlier versions, either solid or
liquid material was thrown out of the earth’s
upper mantle after the core had formed, and the
moon was formed from this condensed upper
mantle material. It would therefore be
anticipated that the compositions of lunar
basalts and terrestrial basalts formed by the
partial melting of similar source material in
the earth’s upper mantle and in the moon
would be generally similar. The many important
compositional differences between lunar and

terrestrial basalts and between their respective
source regions, as summarized in Section 4,
effectively contradict this consequence. Particu-
larly difficult to explain are the differences in
abundances of volatile elements, siderophile
trace elements, major elements (Si, Mg, Fe, Al,
Ca) and oxidation states. These difficulties are
sufficient in my opinion to dispose of the earlier
versions of the fission hypothesis which require
that the moon formed from solid or liquid
material thrown off by the earth’s outer mantle.

Recently, modifications of the fission theory
have been suggested by Wise (1969) and O’ Keefe
(1969). Both point out that after fission a strong
tidal interaction would ensue between earth
and the newly formed moon. This would
cause the transformation of rotational energy
into thermal energy, resulting in the volatiliza-
tion of the outer regions of the earth and moon
and the formation of a massive primitive
atmosphere, mainly of volatilized silicates,
amounting to 4°%% (Wise) or 10-20% (O’Keefe)
of the mass of the earth. Both authors are
concerned primarily with explaining the
discrepancy between the angular momentum
needed for fission and the total angular
momentum of the present earth-moon system.
They suggest, following Ringwood (1960), that
the excess angular momentum of the earth-moon
system was carried out of the system by escape
of this primitive atmosphere.

Wise suggests that “ Roasting of a newly
formed moon adjacent to a tidally heated
incandescent earth may account for a lunar
magmatic source depleted in volatile alkali
elements and enriched in refractory elements
as suggested by first analyses of Apollo 11
specimens’’. O’Keefe also had something
similar in mind, as indicated in his abstract.

In my opinion, the simple high-temperature
roasting of a condensed moon would be
insufficient to account for the strong selective
depletions of volatile metals in the moon, which
would require a much more intensive high-
temperature processing than indicated. Further-
more, the roasting process does not readily
account for the inferred differences in major
elements and mineralogy between the moon
and the earth’s mantle.

Nevertheless, the model suggested by Wise
and O’Keefe provides an environment in which
the chemical fractionations might well be
explained. Both authors advocate a primitive
atmosphere of volatilized silicates from three
to 20 times more massive than the present moon.
If most of the material now in the moon had

68 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

condensed from that atmosphere and had
fractionated during the process, the observed
composition of the moon might be explained.
A modification of this kind leads to a hypothesis
having many features in common with the
precipitation hypothesis of Ringwood (1966a,
1970a), which maintains that the material now
in the moon was precipitated from a massive,
hot, primitive terrestrial atmosphere to form a
swarm of fractionated moonlets and that the
moon formed by the coagulation of this swarm.
Perhaps one could go a step further than O’ Keefe
and Wise to suggest that rotational instability
during core formation threw off the earth’s
massive, hot, primitive atmosphere (Ringwood,
1960), but did not affect the solid or liquid
upper mantle. The moon then precipitated
in toto from this primitive atmosphere.

Lead isotope data on Apollo 11 rocks (Gopalan
et al., 1970; Tatsumoto, 1970) show that if
the material now in the moon was derived from
the earth by fission or by a related process, the
time of derivation must have been close to 4°6
billion years ago when the earth was formed.
O’Keefe’s (1969) suggestion of delayed fission
some 3:5 billion years ago requires modification.

(b) Binary Planet Hypothests

The mass of the moon is about x of that of

the earth and, moreover, the moon carries
most of the angular momentum of the earth-
moon system. These distributions are unlike
those of all other planets and satellites in the
solar system in which satellites account for
a much smaller proportion of the total mass
and angular momentum. The distribution of
mass and angular momentum between earth
and moon is not unlike those of binary star
systems, and it has frequently been suggested
(e.g. Latimer, 1950; Kuiper, 1954, 1963;
Orowan, 1969) that the origin of the earth-moon
system is analogous to that of a binary star
system.

According to this theory, moon and earth
formed in close proximity, but separately
and independently, by direct accretion
from similar parental material. Instead of
becoming a separate planet, the moon orbited
the earth. This immediately raises the problem
of explaining the moon’s low density. Earlier
attempts (e.g. Ramsay, 1949) to provide an
explanation in terms of a silicate-metal high
pressure phase transformation at the core-
mantle boundary in the earth have been reduced
to a state of negligible probability by recent
high pressure experimental data (e.g. Birch,

1960). It has been postulated that earth and
moon accreted from a mixture of pre-existing
silicate and metallic iron particles in the solar
nebula, and that in some way the earth received
a greater proportion of metal particles. Physical
processes which have been invoked to cause
this metal/silicate fractionation have been vague
and implausible, depending heavily upon ad hoc
assumptions. The latest is the suggestion by
Ganapathy e¢ al. (1970) that a magnetic
interaction between iron particles in the nebula
may have caused preferential accumulation of
iron in the earth. This was based upon a
physical mechanism proposed by Harris and
Tozer (1967), which was, however, shown to
be untenable by Banerjee (1967). Further
difficulties for the binary planet hypotheses
arise from geochemical considerations (Ring-
wood, 1966a, 1966)) which show that it is most
unlikely that the earth accreted from a pre-
existing mixture of metal and silicate particles
in the solar nebula.

Results from the study of Apollo 11 basalts
have a decisive bearing upon this hypothesis.
Let us assume, despite the difficulties mentioned
above, that the earth and moon accreted from
a well-mixed reservoir of metal particles and
silicate particles in the solar nebula, and that
an unknown physical process caused metallic
iron to accrete preferentially upon the earth,
ultimately to segregate into the core. In this
case the earth’s mantle and the moon would
have formed from the same reservoir of silicate
particles in the nebula. We would expect on
this hypothesis that the compositions of the
earth’s mantle and moon should be very similar
and that lunar and terrestrial basalts formed
by partial melting of these similar source
regions should be generally similar. This
consequence is directly contradicted by the
several major chemical differences which have
been inferred to exist between lunar and
terrestrial basalts and between their respective
source regions (Section 4). It does not appear
possible to explain these on the basis of the
binary planet hypothesis.

(c) Capture

The capture hypothesis has become popular
during recent years. This maintains that the
moon was formed as an independent body in
some other region of the solar system and
subsequently passed close to the earth in an
orbit which permitted it to be captured. There
are many versions, the most widely discussed
being those of Gerstenkorn and Urey. For
capture to occur, an extremely favourable and

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 69

A. E. RINGWOOD

critical conjunction of orbits of earth and moon
must be assumed. MKegardless of details, all
capture hypotheses invoke the occurrence of
an event of extremely low intrinsic probability.
Furthermore, the capture hypotheses offer no
explanation of the deficiency of the moon in
iron relative not only to the earth but also to
the other terrestrial planets.

For capture to occur under the least unfavour-
able conditions, moon and earth should move
in very similar orbits, implying that moon and
earth were born in the same region of the solar
system and, presumably, from the same parental
material. Even if it is assumed that the moon
was captured from a highly eccentric orbit, in
which case the probabilities of capture are much
lower, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the
moon was born among the terrestrial planets,
in all of which the abundance of iron is much
higher than in the moon. Indeed, Ringwood
(19665) and Ringwood and Clark (1970) have
shown that the abundance of iron relative to
silicon and magnesium is probably the same in
Mars, Venus and earth, and similar to that in
chondritic meteorites and in the sun. The
relative deficiency of iron in the moon is thus
a problem of the first order, not to be lightly
resolved by postulating an origin for the moon
in some other region of the inner solar system.

Clearly, if the capture hypothesis is to be
taken seriously it must possess some singularly
attractive advantages in other directions in
order to offset these profound disadvantages.

(1) Gerstenkorn Capture Hypothesis. As a
result of tidal friction between earth and
moon, the earth is transferring angular
momentum to the moon, which accordingly is
speeding up and moving further away. At
the same time the earth’s rotation is slowing
down, and the length of the day is increasing.
The rate of increase in length of the day is
known from astronomical observations, and
establishes the present magnitude of tidal
friction between moon and earth. Assuming
that this was constant, Gerstenkorn (1955)
calculated the position of the lunar orbit
backwards in time and showed that about two
billion years ago the moon was only 2-8 earth
radi distant from the earth, which is almost
identical with Roche’s limit. As the moon
closely approached the earth, the inclination
of the lunar orbit increased sharply and,
providing that it was not destroyed at Roche’s
limit, its orbit passed over the poles of the
earth and became retrograde, rapidly moving
away from the earth. Reversing the time sense,
Gerstenkorn accordingly argued that the moon

had been originally captured by the earth on a
retrograde orbit, and its subsequent history
followed (in reverse) the course of the previous
discussion.

Subsequent more elaborate calculations (e.g.
MacDonald, 1964) have generally confirmed
Gerstenkorn’s results, but have shortened the
time of closest approach to a period between
1-8 and 1:2 billion years ago. MacDonald
and others pointed out that the moon and earth
would be strongly heated and extensively
melted at the time of closest approach, and that
surface features on the moon would be
completely obliterated. It follows that the
present topography of the moon must be younger
than the time of closest approach. All con-
clusions of this type rest upon the assumption
that the mechanism of tidal dissipation within
the earth has not changed greatly with time.
Although they would concede some modest
variations, it is probable that most pre-Apollo
11 advocates of the capture hypothesis would
have maintained that the time scale for closest
approach of moon to earth was unlikely to be
in error by more than a factor of two and that
the moon’s features must, therefore, be much
younger than the age of the earth.

The Apollo 11 results have destroyed the
entire basis of this class of hypotheses, including
the MacDonald “many moon” hypothesis.
The ancient ages of Apollo 11 rocks (3-7 billion
years) and the fact that the highlands are much
older than the maria, show that the inferred
time-scales of evolution of the lunar orbit and
close approach of moon to earth are seriously
wrong, apparently because the present rate of
tidal dissipation is atypical.

Alfven and Arrhenius (1969) have recently
advocated a hypothesis based on postulated
spin-orbit resonances according to which the
moon was captured on a retrograde orbit and
evolved into direct orbit without coming closer
to the earth than eight earth radii. In principle,
this would avoid the catastrophic effects of
close approach as in Gerstenkorn’s theory.
However, their mechanism requires a number
of highly speculative assumptions. Recalling
that the original capture event is one of very
low intrinsic probability, these additional
necessary assumptions which are unsupported
by direct evidence necessarily render this
version of the capture hypothesis even more
tenuous and speculative.

Singer (1968) has proposed an extension of
tidal theory based upon the assumption of a
frequency-dependent dissipation _ function.

70 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

His objective was to remove one of the difficulties
of the Gerstenkorn theory—-namely that the
earth would be extensively melted during the
time of closest approach. However, his model
has the moon periodically penetrating inside
Roche’s limit, so that it would be strongly
deformed, heated and perhaps destroyed during
the interval of close approach. Singer (1969)
recognizes that these consequences are tolerable
_ only it the time of closest approach was at about
4-5 billion years ago. Accordingly, he abandons
the Gerstenkorn-MacDonald time-scale for tidal
evolution by assuming that the present rate of
tidal dissipation in the earth is atypical and
much higher than on the average occurred in
the distant past.

As discussed earlier, the Apollo 11 rock ages
imply that this latter assumption is almost
certainly correct. Nevertheless, the primary
reason for preferring the capture hypothesis
in the first place was to live with the short
time-scale of tidal evolution found by
Gerstenkorn. Once this is abandoned the
principal justification (small though it be) for
the capture hypothesis disappears.

We have seen that the capture hypotheses
so far discussed do not explain the low iron
content of the moon compared to the other
terrestrial planets, nor do they provide an
explanation of the other characteristic chemical
properties of the moon which were discussed
in Section 4. Moreover, capture is a process
of very low intrinsic probability. Finally, the
short tidal evolution time-scale which provided
the primary rationale for the capture hypothesis
is almost certainly incorrect. Until these very
serious drawbacks are overcome, the above
capture hypotheses hardly warrant further
serious consideration.

(1) Urey Capture Hypothesis. Urey (1962,
1963, 1965) has attempted to explain the
low iron content of the moon compared to
the earth on the basis of capture of the moon
by the earth during formation of the solar
system about 4-7 billion years ago. Urey
attempts to avoid the intrinsic improbability
of a unique lunar capture by postulating
that a generation of lunar sized “ primary
objects ’’ were present in the solar system before
the planets were formed and that a period of
intense collisions occurred, causing disintegration
of nearly all the primary objects into a mixture
of generally small metal and silicate particles,
which were subsequently subjected to some
kind of physical fractionation in the solar
nebula. The terrestrial planets are supposed

to have formed by accretion from this
fractionated debris. Urey suggested that a few
(out of thousands) lunar sized objects survived
these catastrophes and that the moon is one
of these.

Urey’s original evidence for the existence of
an early generation of lunar sized objects was
based upon conclusions (then shared by many,
including the author) that some kinds of
meteorites had formed at high pressures in the
centres of lunar-sized objects. Subsequently,
these conclusions were shown to be incorrect
by Anders and co-workers and they have been
almost universally abandoned.

A major aspect of Urey’s hypothesis was his
proposal, based upon then-existing measure-
ments of the iron abundance in the sun, that
the moon was a “ primary object ’”’ possessing
the solar abundance of iron (and other metals).
The much higher abundance of iron in the other
terrestrial planets was assumed to have occurred
as a result of physical metal-silicate fractiona-
tions during the collisions and fragmentations
of the primary lunar objects. Recently, new and
improved determinations of the abundance of
iron in the sun (e.g. Garz eé al., 1969) have
shown that the solar iron abundance is in the
same range (relative to silicates) as occurs in
chondritic meteorites, the earth, Mars and
Venus. This removes the basis of Urey’s
hypothesis. Furthermore, the strong depletion
of volatile metals in the moon relative to the
primordial and terrestrial abundances of these
metals (Section 4) is hardly consistent with the
assigned properties of the “ primary objects ”’

6. Towards a New Hypothesis of Lunar
Origin

One of the most important results arising
from the study of Apollo 11 rocks has been that
the “standard” theories of lunar origin—
fission, binary planet and capture—are no
longer tenable in the forms in which they were
earlier stated. They must either be developed
into new forms which are consistent with the
Apollo 11 data, or else they must be totally
abandoned. A start towards developing such
a new form of the fission hypothesis has been
made by Wise (1969) and O’Keefe (1969).

Alternatively, we must explore in a different
direction for a new type of hypothesis. An
acceptable working hypothesis must be capable
of explaining the major chemical similarities
between earth and moon and the tidal evidence
both of which suggest the existence of some
kind of genetic relationship between earth and

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 fal

B

A. E. RINGWOOD

moon (Section 4). At the same time, it must
explain the fractionation of iron and the other
important chemical differences between earth
and moon which were outlined in Section 4.
The “‘ precipitation’ hypothesis developed by
Ringwood (1966), 1970) may provide a possible
framework for interpreting these relationships
This maintains that during the later stages of
accretion of the earth a massive primitive
atmosphere developed which was hot enough
to selectively evaporate a substantial proportion
of the silicates which were accreting. Subse-
quently the atmosphere was driven away by
particle radiation from the sun as it passed
through the T-Tauri phase. The relatively
non-volatile silicate components were pre-
cipitated close to the earth to form a swarm
of planetesimals or moonlets as the atmosphere
was dissipated, and the moon formed by
accretion of these chemically fractionated
planetesimals.

The details have been stated by Ringwood
(1970), and a summary only is given here.
It was proposed that the earth accreted directly
in the solar nebula from planetesimals of
primordial composition resembling the Type 1
carbonaceous chondrites. These contain
completely oxidized iron together with large
amounts of water, nitrogen, sulphur and
carbonaceous compounds, and have retained
the primordial abundances of most elements
except for extremely volatile substances. It
was assumed, furthermore, that accretion of
the earth occurred over a period of the order of
10° years or less, and that accretion was
completed just before the sun entered its T-Tauri
phase characterized by rapid mass loss and the
generation of a solar wind some 10® to 10’
times more intense than the present solar wind.

Formation of the earth under these boundary
conditions is strongly influenced by the gravi-
tational potential energy dissipated during
accretion, which in turn controls the chemical
equilibria in the accreting material. The
accretion energy per gramme is plotted against
radius of the growing earth in Figure 5. It
increases approximately as the square of the
radius, reaching 15,000 cals./gm. during the
final stages.

During the early stages of accretion, the
energy evolved is small and accretion is relatively
slow. The temperature is accordingly low and
is buffered by the latent heat of evaporation
of volatiles, e.g. H,O, in the planetesimals.
During this stage (Fig. 5, I) a cool, oxidized
volatile-rich nucleus of primordial material,

perhaps about 10% of the mass of the earth,
is formed.

As the mass of the nucleus increases, the
energy of infall of planetesimals becomes
sufficient to cause strong heating on impact,
leading to reduction of oxidized iron by carbon
and formation of a metal phase. This is
accompanied by degassing and the formation
of a primitive atmosphere, mainly of CO and
H, (Stage II, Figure 5). With further growth
(Stage III) both the temperature and intensity
of reduction increase and metals which are
comparatively volatile under high temperature
reducing conditions (e.g. Na, K, Rb, Pb, Zn,
Hg, In, Tl) are volatilized into the primitive
atmosphere. During Stage IV the surface
temperatures exceed 1500° C. and the relevant
equilibria (Ringwood, 1966a) show that silicate
minerals are selectively reduced and evaporated
into the primitive atmosphere, whilst metallic
iron continues to accrete upon the earth.
Finally, during Stage V, after segregation
of the earth’s core, which causes a further
evolution of 400-600 cals./gm. of gravitational
energy for the whole earth, silicates from the
outer mantle are directly evaporated into the
primitive atmosphere. The mass of the
primitive atmosphere is about one-quarter of
that of the earth and it is composed mainly of
CO and H, with about 10% of volatilized
silicates.

It is assumed that this primitive atmosphere
was dissipated immediately after accretion or
during the later stages of accretion by a
combination of factors: (i) intense solar
radiation as the sun passed through a T-Tauri
phase, (ii) mixing of the rapidly spinning
high - molecular - weight terrestrial atmosphere
with the low-molecular-weight solar nebula in
which it is immersed, (iii) magnetohydrodynamic
coupling resulting in the transfer of angular
momentum from the condensed earth to the
primitive atmosphere, and more speculatively
(iv) rotational instability of the atmosphere
caused by formation of the core (modified fission
hypothesis) (Ringwood, 1960; O’Keefe, 1969 ;
Wise, 1969). The relative importances of these
processes are not known, but it seems likely
that the intense solar wind from the T-Tauri
phase of the sun played a major role.

As the result of a combination of these
processes, the massive primitive atmosphere
was dissipated. On _ cooling, the _ silicate
components were precipitated to form an
assemblage of earth-orbiting planetesimals
resembling Opik’s sediment ring. A further
fractionation according to volatility occurred

12 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

during the precipitation stage, since the less
volatile components were precipitated first at
relatively high temperatures and close to the
earth, whereas the more volatile components
were precipiated at lower temperatures and
further from the earth. The silicates precipitating
at relatively high temperatures would probably
have grown into relatively large planetesimals
(102-10’ cm. diam.), which would tend to be
left behind by the escaping terrestrial atmos-

15000

ACCRETING PLANETESIMALS
COMPLETELY VOLATILIZED

vy SELECTIVE VOLATILIZATION
OF Si0, Mg

10000

SELECTIVE VOLATILIZATION
OF Na, K, Rb, Cs, Pb,
Il Bi, Tl, In etc. INTO
PRIMITIVE ATMOSPHERE

REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDE
TO METAL
nie PLANETESIMALS DEGASSED
ON IMPACT
FORMATION OF PRIMITIVE
ATMOSPHERE

5000

ACCRETION ENERGY cal/gm

COOL , OXIDISED

I VOLATILE-RICH CORE

2000

4000

for the fractionation of iron and _ silicates
between earth and moon in the context of a
close genetic relationship between earth and
moon. Chemical fractionations within the
cooling primitive atmosphere also provide a
basis for interpreting the strong depletions of
volatile metals in the moon, the fractionation
of some major oxyphile elements between moon
and earth, the relative depletion of siderophile
elements in the moon and the different oxidation

>2000°C

MELTING OF
IRON + SILICATES
FORMATION OF
CORE

LSNSOO ic

6000

RADIUS Km

FIGURE 5.—Relationship between energy of accretion and radius of the growing earth. The principal stages of

accretion are also shown in relation to the energy of accretion and approximate surface temperatures.

(A fter

Ringwood, 1970.)

phere. However, the more volatile components
precipitating at relatively low temperatures
were more likely to have formed fine, micron-
sized particles or smoke, which would be carried
away with the escaping atmosphere by viscous
drag, and hence lost from the earth-moon
system. The moon then accreted from the
sediment-ring of earth-orbiting planetesimals.

Ringwood (1970) showed in greater detail
that this “ precipitation ’’ hypothesis accounted

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

state of the moon, as compared to that of the
earth’s mantle.

Conclusion

The precipitation hypothesis complements
the “‘ sediment-ring ” hypothesis of Opik (1961,
1967), according to which the moon formed
by the coagulation of a swarm or sediment
ring of earth-orbiting planetesimals or moonlets.
Opik’s hypothesis was proposed on the basis

73

A. E. RINGWOOD

of his studies of lunar cratering and tidal
evolution, and was not concerned with explaining
the origin and composition of the planetesimals
which is the principal contribution of the
present hypothesis.

The precipitation and fission hypotheses are
related, since according to the former the
material now in the moon is regarded as having
been derived ultimately from the earth—not
from the solid mantle, but from the massive
primitive terrestrial atmosphere. The latest
versions of the fission hypothesis by O’Keefe
(1969) and Wise (1969) maintain that fission
was accompanied by the development of high
temperatures and the formation of a massive
primitive terrestrial atmosphere of volatilized
silicates. This atmosphere was believed to be
from three to 20 times more massive than the
moon. These hypotheses, although developed
from different premises to those of the pre-
cipitation hypothesis, clearly lead towards an
environment of lunar origin which has important
elements in common with that of the pre-
cipitation hypothesis. Cameron (1970), starting
from yet another direction, finally derived a
model according to which the earth develops
a massive hot atmosphere containing volatilized
silicates and the moon is ultimately formed
from the atmosphere.

Although the hypotheses of Opik, O’Keefe,
Wise, Cameron and the author differ both in
minor and major respects, and have been arrived
at via different paths, it is tempting to see the
beginning of a consensus. I am _ convinced
that in one way or another the material now
in the moon was ultimately derived from a
massive hot primitive atmosphere which once
surrounded the earth and that the chemical
differences between earth and moon can be
interpreted on this basis.

7. Acknowledgements

This paper was prepared at the Lunar Science
Institute under the joint support of the
Universities Space Research Association and
the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion Manned Spacecraft Center under Contract
No. NSR 09-051-001.

. References

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Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 15

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 77-80, 1970

Gorceixite-Goyazite in Kaolinite Rocks of the Sydney Basin

F. C. LOUGHNAN AND C. R. WarpD

ApBsTRAcT—Occurrences of the phosphate mineral, gorceixite-goyazite (Ba,Sr) Al,;(PO,).(OH);,
in a claystone from the Illawarra Coal Measures and in two dyke clays from the southern part
of the Sydney Basin are described. The phosphate mineral is associated with abundant well-

ordered kaolinite and minor amounts of anatase.

The concentration of the phosphate mineral

in parts of the claystone could be attributed to its high specific gravity compared with that of

the associated kaolinite.
the dyke clays.

Introduction

Renewed interest in the nature of soil
phosphate minerals in recent years has shown
that members of the plumbogummite group
with the general formula RAI,(PO,),(OH);
(Palache e¢ al., 1951) including gorceixite
(R=Ba), goyazite (R=Sr), crandallite (R=Ca)
and florencite (R=Ce) have widespread distri-
bution. Thus, Coetzee and Edwards (1959),
Wolfenden (1965), Trueman (1965) and Schell-
mann (1966) have recorded the presence of
these minerals in tropical soils, while Norrish
(1957, 1968), who examined a range of soil
types, concluded that they are common in the
“ less-weathered’”’ terra rossas and rendzinas
as well as the highly-leached laterites and
krasnozens, and that in all these occurrences
the associated clay mineral is kaolinite. Since
both kaolinite and the phosphate minerals are
resistant to chemical breakdown, it would be
expected that their association would persist
in detrital sediments derived from these soils.
However, there has been only a limited number
of references to the presence of plumbogummite
minerals in kaolinite-rich rocks. In the occur-
rences of these minerals cited by Palache e¢ al.
(1951) no mention is made of their association
with kaolinite, while according to Milton e¢ al.
(1959) the gorceixite nodules in the Bashi
Marl, Alabama, are accompanied by glauconite.
Nevertheless, Stadler and Werner (1962), Burger
(1964) and Wilson e¢ al. (1966) have described
crandallite in kaolinite tonsteins of Carboniferous
age from Germany and England, and Loughnan
(1970) has recognized gorceixite-goyazite in the
kaolinite-rich Garie member of the Narrabeen
Group in the southern part of the Sydney Basin
and in a kaolinite claystone (flint clay) of the
basal Pennsylvanian at Olive Hill, Kentucky.
The kaolinite in each of these deposits is
particularly well-ordered.

Recently, gorceixite-goyazite has been found

However, no explanation can be given for the origin of the mineral in

in relative abundance, associated with well-
ordered kaolinite, in three separate deposits
within the Sydney Basin. One of these is
kaolinite claystone of Permian age that crops
out at Fitzroy Falls, and the remaining two
are completely kaolizined igneous dykes that
intersect Permian and Triassic strata at Fitzroy
Falls and at Bullio, approximately 30 miles
north-west of Fitzroy Falls.

Occurrence

At Fitzroy Falls toward the southern end of
the Sydney Basin, an indurated claystone,
approximately 4 ft. thick, forms the uppermost
unit of the Permian Illawarra Coal Measures.
The Narrabeen Group has been overlapped
in this area, and the claystone is separated from
the overlying Hawkesbury Sandstone by an
eroded surface. Angular blocks of the claystone
up to a foot across occur sporadically in the
lower few feet of the sandstone. Below the
claystone the succession is obscured by talus
but, according to Shiels (private communication),
coal occurs within 20 ft. of the base of the
Hawkesbury sandstone in this area.

In structure, texture and mineralogy the
claystone is similar to many of the kaolin coal
tonsteins described by Burger ef al. (1962)
from the Westphalian Coal Measures of the
Ruhr Basin and also to many of the flint clays
of the Pennsylvanian of North America, particu-
larly those occurring in the Olive Hill area,
Kentucky (Patterson and Hosterman, 1958).
The claystone is remarkably indurated, lacks
bedding, and breaks with a pronounced con-
choidal fracture. The texture of the rock varies
from dense to brecciated and oolitic with the
angular fragments and oolites ranging up to
1mm. across. However, vermicular kaolinite
crystals, a common feature of the European
tonsteins and of similar kaolinite claystones
observed elsewhere in the Sydney Basin

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 77

F. C. LAUGHNAN AND C. R. WARD

(Loughnan, 1962), are rare in the material from
Fitzroy Falls.

Well-ordered kaolinite is the dominant
constituent of all textural types of the Fitzroy
Falls claystone and in some samples it comprises
more than 90% of the mineral content. On
the other hand, quartz rarely exceeds 10%
and frequently is absent, while clay minerals
other than kaolinite have not been detected.
Siderite in the form of oolites or pseudoolites
is abundant in some thin sections, and all
samples examined by X-ray diffraction showed
a reflection at 3-51A attributable to anatase
(Figure 1). Gorceixite-goyazite comprises as
much as 15% of the claystone. The presence
of the mineral was detected by X-ray diffraction
and chemical analysis but, because of either a

Degrees

20

35 30 25

very fine particle size or the masking effect of
the associated kaolinite, it was not recognizable

in thin’ sections under the petrological
microscope.
The dyke clay at Fitzroy Falls, where

sampled, has a width of 18 in. and that at Bullio
2ft. Although the parent material is not
evident in either deposit, residual igneous
textures can be observed in thin sections of
these clays. Basalt and dolerite dykes are
prevalent in the Sydney Basin, and where
permeable sandstones form the host rocks they
are generally completely altered down to the
level of the water-table. Control of the depth
of the clay by the level of the water-table
suggests that the alteration of the igneous
rocks is the result of low-temperature leaching

K

UNTREATED

TREATED WITH HF

2°
i5 10 5 2

Pe Pay ST ar te (SecA ON a Ne Pee eT cect CPA A Ea a lt

FicureE 1.—X-ray diffraction traces from the Fitzroy Falls claystone before and after treatment with hydrofluoric
acid.
K=reflections due to kaolinite.
G=reflections due to gorceixite-goyazite.
A=reflections due to anatase.

78

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

———

° 2
6 990% 39.8
18 89. 82S

Paterson

<G

Sf

Ailsa,
/

65

MAP 1
STRATIGRAPHIC MAP OF THE
PATERSON -GRESFORD DISTRICT

SCALE |

N.S.W.

0 | 2 MILES

QUATERNARY

{SEAHAM FORMATION

PATERSON VOLCANICS
Sedimentary Lens

MOWBRAY FORMATION

Breckin Ignimbnte Member

NEWTOWN FORMATION
Vacy Ignimbrite Member

(—GILMORE VOLCANIC GROUP —-

CARBONIFEROUS

WALLARINGA FORMATION

FLAGSTAFF SANDSTONE
Mt. Rivers Ignimbrite Member
Member A

BONNINGTON SILTSTONE

ARARAT SANDSTONE

BINGLEBURRA MUDSTONE

Geological Boundary Accurate
Fault Accurate

Anticline Accurate

Syncline Accurate

Strike and Dip of Bedding

River

Road SSS

Railway
Trig Station

MT. JOHNSTONE FORMATION

Lambs Valley Ignimbnte Member

Martins Creek Ignimbrite Member

Hypersthene Andesitic Pitchstone

3 KILOMETRES

Unconsoldated sands and grave!

Red lithic sandstone, pebble
conglomerate, varve shale
Toscanitic and dellenitic ignimbrite

Lensordal lithic sandstone, conglomerate

Yellow /ithic sandstone, lithic
tuff, conglomerate

Red - purple lithic sandstone , lithic
tuff, conglomerate

Purple and white rhodacitic ignimbrite

Red and grey andesitic ignimbrite

Purple lithic sandstone, conglomerate,
siltstone

Red, white and grey rhyodacitic
/gnimbrite

Grey andesitic ignimbrite

Red /ithic sandstone, conglomerate ,
lithic tuff and :gnimbrite

Yellow and green lithic sandstone,
conglomerate, mudstone

Red - brown vitric ignimbrite

Bedded siltstone and lithic sandstone

Blue - grey siltstone , minor /imestone,
mudstone and sonastone

Yellow lithic sandstone and conglomerate,
minor mudstone , oolitic limestone,ignimbrife

ee Conglomerate bands
Green - brown f1able mudstone, minor
sandstone and limestone

——-——— Approximate
ee ee mee AD proximate

—t— —--— Approximate
—t— —-+— Approximate
sh

t= Dip Slope

= Creek
===—— Track
——+
A

LOCATION MAP

Broken Hil!

NEW SOUTH WALES

o Dubbo

a ee

This map was inadvertently omitted from the article by Hamilton, Hall and Roberts
in Volume 107 (3/4) and should be inserted between pages 78 and 79 of that issue.

|
|
|
|

70

1—970000yN

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Mt oN

i

QUATERNARY

a
>
=
=
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So
o
=
<=
S
|

MAP 1
STRATIGRAPHIC MAP OF THE
PATERSON -GRESFORD DISTRICT

N.S.W.

2 wiLes

3 RILOMETRES

REFERENCE

SEAHAM FORMATION.

PATERSON VOLCANICS
Sedimentary Lens

Uncooked sn on pee

Red lithe sandstone, pebole
conglonerate, vorve stole

Toscorute ond delle ignimbrite
Lento fhe sandstone, conglomerate

MT. JOHNSTONE FORMATION

Yellow lithic sondstone, hithle
Watt, congiomerate

{ wowaRay ForWaTION
Lombs Volley ignimbrite Member
Brechin Ignmbrte Member

NEWTOWN FORMATION.
Vocy ignimbrite Member

FRed- purple Nibe sandstone, ttre
ht, congtemercte
Purple ond white rhedocitic nimble

Red ond grey ondesitic pnumbnte

Piple ithe sandstone, conpiomercte,
witstooe

Red, white 27d grey rhyodeeitic
ignimbrite

Marlins Creek Ignimbnte Member. |.

Grey andesitic rembite

(—GILMORE VOLCANIC GROUF

Hypersthene Andesitic Alchstone

WALLARINGA FORMATION

FLAGSTAFF SANDSTONE
MIL. Rivers kpumbrite Member
Member A

Red lithe sordstone, conglsmerste,
Nihue Wtf ond igasmibate

Yellow ond green litte sandstone,
conghmercte, mudstone
Red- brown wine iimbate

Bedded sltstora ond lithe sandstone

BONNINGTON SILTSTONE

Be. grey sitstone , minor leestooe,

mucsfooe and soncklore

ARARAT SANDSTONE

BINGLEBURRA MUDSTONE

Jill Ittve sandstone ond cogbrercts,
menor medstone, cote kmestone,grambrite

Conglemercte bonds

Green: brown froble micstone, moor
=} sandstone ond limestone

Geological Boundary Accurate
Foul! Accurate —

—=== Approsmate

— Approsimate

Anjicline Accurate —}-— ——f-— Approximate
Synclina Accurate —$—— —-f-— Approximate

Strike and Dip of Bedding

b= Dip Slope

River 9 ——<—

Rood ===

Roilwoy pe

Trig Station a

LOCATION MAP.

| rotas Hit

NEW SOUTH WALES:

This map was inadvertently omitted from the article by Hamilton, Hall and Roberts
in Volume 107 (3/4) and should be inserted between pages 78 and 79 of that issue.

80 -—

CYS rare

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GORCEIXITE-GOYAZITE IN KAOLINITE ROCKS OF THE SYDNEY BASIN

and not hydrothermal activity. As Loughnan
and Golding (1957) have shown, kaolinite is
the dominant alteration product in these dyke
clays, but illite and/or mixed layer clay minerals
may also be present. In the dyke clays at
Fitzroy Falls and at Bullio well-ordered kaolinite
was the only clay mineral detected, and
gorceixite-goyazite is present to the extent of
10% and 15% respectively.

Composition of the Phosphate Minerals

For the specific identification of the phosphate
mineral in the Fitzroy Falls claystone and the
Bullio dyke clay, concentrates were obtained
using the technique described by Norrish (1957,
1968). The rocks were treated with a 20%
solution of hydrofluoric acid for two minutes
and, after dilution and washing, the residue was
neutralized with a normal solution of caustic
soda. Examination of the residue by X-ray
diffraction showed that the kaolinite had been
completely destroyed and that gorceixite-
goyazite and anatase (Figure 1) were the only
minerals present. An elemental analysis of
the residue was made by X-ray fluorescence
through the courtesy of the Australian Atomic
Energy Commission and the results converted
to the oxide forms are given in Table 1. On
the basis of these results, the phosphate mineral
in the Fitzroy Falls claystone consists of
approximately 60% gorceixite, 259% goyazite,
10% crandallite and 5% florencite, whereas
that in the Bullio dyke clay is composed of
45% gorceixite, 40% goyazite, 10% crandallite
and 5% florencite. Other metals detected in the
residues of the clay rocks in amounts less than
1% are magnesium, lead, copper, zinc and, to a
lesser extent, tin, chromium, manganese and
boron. The residues also contained some free
silica released from the kaolinite but not
dissolved by the caustic soda.

TABLE 1]
X-vay Fluorescence Analyses of the Phosphate
Concentrates Expressed as Oxides

Fitzroy Bullio

Falls Dyke

Claystone Clay

SrO 2-09 5:20
CaO 0:58 0°62
BaO 7°37 8-37
CeO 0:50 1-06
TiO, (a) 8-47 23-27
Al,O, 11-22 30-03
P,O,; 8-32 13°74
Fe,O, (5) 19-81 0°21

Remainder undissolved silica.
(a) Present mostly as anatase.
(6) Present as free iron oxides.

Discussion

The origin of the gorceixite-goyazite in these
clay rocks is not fully understood. From the
study of their distribution in soils Norrish
(1968) concluded that they do not represent
residuals of the parent rock that have resisted
chemical breakdown but rather, that they have
formed during weathering. This would imply
that the igneous rocks which formed the parent
materials for the dyke clays at Bullio and at
Fitzroy Falls contained appreciable quantities
of phosphorus, barium and_ strontium, in
addition to aluminium, and that these elements
were concentrated through the loss of more
mobile constituents such as the alkalis,
magnesium and much of the calcium,iron and
silicon. However, in published chemical analyses
of igneous dyke rocks from the Sydney Basin
(e.g. White and Mingaye, 1904) there is no
suggestion of the presence of unusually high
concentrations of phosphorus, barium or
strontium. Moreover, since strontium and to a
lesser degree barium behave in a manner similar
to calcium and magnesium during weathering,
it is difficult to understand the preferential
retention of these ions in the resulting clay.
Possibly the early release of aluminium and
phosphorus during weathering initiated develop-
ment of the gorceixite-goyazite structure and
strontium and barium became entrapped or
“fixed ’’ within this structure.

The origin of the phosphate mineral in the
Fitzroy Falls claystone does not present the
difficulties encountereGé with the dyke clays.
In the Sydney Basin there is much evidence
to support a detrital origin for these claystones.
The common occurrence of conglomeratic and
brecciated textures, perfectly preserved fossil
leaves and sharply defined lower boundaries in
these claystones negates the possibility that
they developed im situ through the intense
leaching of a pre-existing rock. Presumably,
they represent accumulations of detritus that
were derived from highly-leached, kaolinite-rich
soils which also contained gorceixite-goyazite.
Local concentrations of the phosphate mineral in
the sediment probably resulted from its greater
specific gravity (3-1-3-3) compared with that
of the accompanying kaolinite (2-6).

Acknowledgments

The spectrographic analyses were obtained
through a grant from the Australian Research
Grants Committee.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 79

F. C. LOUGHNAN AND C. R. WARD

References

BurGER, K., 1964. Stratigraphic and Petrographic
des neuen Kaolin Kohlentonstein des Flores H,
(EB) in den Oberen Essener Schlichten (Westfal B)
des Ruhrkarbons. Fortschr. Geol. Rheinld. u.
Westfal., 12, 451-472.

BurGER, K., ECKHARDT, F. J., and STADLER, G.,
1962. Zur Nomenklatur and Verbreitung der
Kaolin Kohlentonsteine im Ruhrkarbons.
Fortschr. Geol. Rheinld. u. Westfal., 3, 525-539.

CoETZEE, G. L., and Epwarps, C. B., 1959. The
Mrimba Hill Carbonatite, West Province, Kenya.
Trans. Geol. Soc., Sth. Africa, 62, 373-379.

LOUGHNAN, F. C., 1962. Some tonstein-like rocks
from New South Wales. N. Jb. Miner. Abh.,
99, 29-44.

LouGunan, F. C., 1970. Flint clay in the coal-barren
Triassic of the Sydney Basin, Australia. /.
Sediment. Petrol. (In press.)

LOUGHNAN, F. C., and GoLpiInGc, H. G., 1957. The
mineralogy of the commercial dyke clays in the
sydney district. J. Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W.,
91, 85-91.

MILTON, C., AXELROD, J. M., Carron, M. K., and
McNEIL, F. S., 1958. Gorceixite from Dale Co.,
Alabama. Amer. Mineral., 43, 688—694.

MINGAYE, J. C., and WuitTeE, H. P., 1904. Notes and
analyses of olivine-basalt rocks from the Sydney
District. Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., 7, 228-230.

IF. C. LOUGHNAN,

School of Applied Geology,
University of N.S.W.,

P.O. Box 1, Kensington, 2033.

C. R. Warp,

School of Physical Sciences,
N.S.W. Institute of Technology,
Thomas St., Broadway, 2007.

NorRISH, K.,
Soils.
1-15.

NorrRIsH, K., 1968. Some phosphate minerals in
soils. Tvans. 9th Cong. Soil Sct., 11, 713-723.

PALACHE, C., BERMAN, H., and FRONDEL, C., 1951.
Dana’s System of Mineralogy, 7th Ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1124 pp.

PATTERSON, S. H., and HostTERMAN, J. W., 1958.
Geclogy of the clay deposits in the Olive Hill
district. Clays and Clay Minerals, 7th Nat. Conf.,
Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 178-194.

SCHELLMANN, Von. W., 1966. Die Bildung von
Roterde and Bauxitnollen in Vogelsberg. N. Jb.
Miner. Mb., 11, 321-341.

STADLER, G., and WERNER, H., 1962. Ein Phosphat
Mineral der Crandallit—Gruppe in den Kaolin
Kohlensteinen des Ruhrkarbons. Fortschr. Geol.
Rheinld, Westfal., 3, 261-283.

TRUEMAN, N. A., 1965. The phosphate, volcanic
and carbonate rocks on Christmas Island. Geol.
Soc. Aust., 12, 261-283.

Witson, A. A., SERGEANT, G. A., Youna, B. R., and
HARRISON, R. K., 1966. The Rowhurst tonstein,
North Staffordshire, and the occurrence of
crandallite. Proc. York. Geol. Soc., 35, 421-427.

WOLFENDEN, E. B., 1965. Geochemical behaviour
of trace elements during bauxite formation in
Sarawak, Malaysia. Geochem. et Cosmochim. Acta,
29, 1051-1062.

1957. Some phosphate minerals in
Proc. 2nd Aust. Cong. Sotl. Sct., 1/17,

(Received 29 September 1970)

80 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 81-84, 1970

Internal Seiche Motions for One-dimensional Flow

D. J. CLARKE
Department of Mathematics, Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, N.S.W., Australia

(Communicated by PROFESSOR A. KEANE)

ABSTRACT—The modes of oscillation for the internal waves at a density discontinuity in a
fluid are examined for a variable shaped basin. The flow is considered as one-dimensional, the
equations of motion are linearized, and the rotation of the earth is neglected.

1. Introduction

Internal oscillations in a basin are usually discussed by considering the basin shape to be
rectangular in plan and the depth to be uniform. The early treatment (Lamb, 1932) assumed
two separate layers of uniform densities p, and g2. Later developments have attempted to account
for the variation in density throughout the depth, and the motion of a stratified layer is summarized
by Longuet-Higgins in an Appendix to Mortimer (1952).
| The methods used to discuss surface seiches may probably be extended to treat the internal
seiche. In particular, the Galerkin method as applied to the surface seiche in Clarke (1968) can
be so used. In that article it was demonstrated that the Galerkin method is an easy-to-apply
technique that is valid over a wide range of basin shapes. The form of the solution is ideal in
that it gives both transport and wave height as well as the frequencies of various modes. The
procedure used for examining the surface seiche consisted of transforming the linearized equations
of motion for one-dimensional flow by defining two new variables, horizontal transport and surface
area, and then solving these for the modes of oscillation as a sequence of approximations using
-Galerkin’s method. A similar sequence of approximations may be determined for internal oscilla-
tions if new variables, horizontal transport and surface area, are defined for each layer. The flow
is considered to be one-dimensional and transverse oscillations are neglected. The basin will be
considered to be small enough so that the rotation of the earth can be neglected.

2. Equations of Motion
Choose the origin 0 in the free undisturbed surface at one end of the lake so that 0x is along
the main axis of the lake and 0z vertically upward. The subscripts 7=1 and 7=2 will be used to
denote variables in the upper and lower layers respectively. Then the linearized equations of
motion, neglecting transverse motions, are

0; Ox

where u, is the horizontal velocity in the % direction,

| p; is the pressure at the depth z,

and 9, is the density of the fluid, assumed constant in each layer.

If C, and ©, are the wave heights at the surface and interface respectively, then the equations of
continuity over a transverse section in each layer of the basin are

£6Aj(2)4}= —C;b; (x) +8,1Cabe(%), (eG ce mee (2)

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 81

ee

D. J. CLARKE

where 6;, 18 the kronecker delta,
A,(%) is the area of the transverse section, <

and 06,(%) is the breadth at the surface of the section.

Assuming that the vertical accelerations are negligible the pressure in each layer is given by

Pi=e18(G1—2),
and » aw oe a (3)

Po= 018 (G1 +l — Se) +28 (Sg —2 —My)

where /, is the depth of the upper layer assumed constant and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Eliminating p; from (1) and (3) gives

0G p18 (O01 i)
me ta = se(S ar Ox eee, tells. 6] wis heh oe) oe ecenic ined oMeire (4)
Transport variables, «;, are introduced by .
je A;(*e,,. « Jl, 2, i ons. (5)

Oo:
where &, is the horizontal displacement of a fluid particle from its mean position, and surface area
variables, x; by

1 0 a
Ss, 91, 2. are ik cnet ee (6)
b,(%) Ox dy;
Thus equations (2) and (4) become
Ou; b3(%).
eee +851
Ox; ot Sing bate
. 0a, sae bs 3 te (7)
Le, aggre et Et Sd ens os ap eleleg eee ey ae
Oy; 1*B, (x) >”
the constant of integration being taken as zero from initial conditions,
0; 00, Ce
and = —8hiltlay bye ~Bhal (ra) a -=), a1 15 a eee (8)
where f(7j)=Aj(4)0)(%). oe ne See ee ee ee i ee ne hae (9)
Eliminating ¢,; from (7) and (8) yields
aay se )
inh ays |
and . tree eer (10)
tl 8 se
= ay ta
Xo 8h} O52 ee ao 1 2) (
To find the frequencies, c, of normal modes of oscillation, put
a; =aieilat+e), og Eula te ie oe ee See ee (11)
where
ar ari (x),
giving for (10) the transport equations
o? (oe
gy a(t tes) + Gato,
and ee (12)
) Oud. 21
je) |e (a; +05) + o a3=0
| P2 aya ps a a i Lap :

The boundary conditions applicable to (12) are
ae==0 at y,=O0 and Yjy= Jj eee (13)

where y,;, is the total surface area of each layer.

82 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

INTERNAL SEICHE MOTIONS FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

3. Solution for Modes in a Basin with Vertical Sides

In many basins the sides are sufficiently steep for
Ka es a ay.

Eqs. (12) are then
a2 a
palettes) tat 0, |
1

ay? |
and ee aera Sy hoe (14)
dy* oo ay? gfe

Eliminating «+ from the equations (14) gives

= das o2_, ) om es dag ) o2 (das o? :)=
Aa ge) 2 deel Gap tym oo
Le., L(ag)=0, say
The boundary condition for this equation is now
oh ae a a ey Cee eee a ae eee eee (16)

The Galerkin method (Kantorovich and Krylov, 1958 : 258-262) may be used to find a sequence
of approximations to the solution of (15) subject to conditions (16). Let the at approximation
to the transport as be
n(X) =X(Xu— A) (Gr +4ex+. . -+4,x"—})

SEO te ee a ocean vary Seat atlas oth hae (17)

where each function ¢ satisfies (16), and are continuous over the domain {0, y,|, with the ortho-
gonality conditions

xy
| L(«,)9,4x=9, et VE ah ee a ey ene eg ae (18)
0

The orthogonality conditions (18) for the ‘® approximation, «,(y), yield 1 equations in the 2
unknowns a;._ The coefficients of the a; in these equations are of the form
Wid? tvyA+T;;,

where A=o?/g.
Define square matrices of order » by A=(u,;), B=(v,;), C=(t,;), then the integrated system of
equations (18) is

(A}A=2b)-EO)X=— 07 eee (19)
The solutions A of (19) determine frequency and the x determine transport. It should be noted

that the matrices are of order 1, hence there will be 2m values of 4 and their corresponding x, of
which are associated with a surface seiche and 7 are associated with an internal seiche.

To find the 4 and x multiply (19) by A-1, so that
(101?-+A-1BA+ A-1C)x =0
from which a matrix D may be defined as

Onn —A-1C
(OD oa eee ee ee (20)
I, —A-B

Thus D is of order 2 and its eigen-values are the A of (19).

If the eigen-vectors of D are denoted by (x}xe)’ then it follows that
(JA?-+A-1BA+A-1C)x,=0,
1.€., X_, which is the latter 7 components of the eigen-vector x of D, is the solution x of (19).

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 83

D) J. CLARKE

4. Concluding Remarks
For many lakes and basins the shelving of the boundary will be sufficiently steep to allow the

sides to be taken as vertical, and the theory here will apply. It is pointed out by Clarke (1968)

that a seventh-degree approximation to the transport is sufficient in most cases to give high accuracy
to the approximate solutions for the first few modes of oscillation. Here, the same degree of
approximation will give a matrix D of order 10 and the eigen-value and vector reduction of D will
be considerably longer. Nevertheless an execution time of one or two minutes should be sufficient
on a computer of the speed of a CDC 3200 or IBM 360.

References
CLARKE, D. J., 1968. Seiche Motions for One-dimen- Lams, Horace, 1932. Hydrodynamics, 6th Ed.,
sional Flow. J. Mar. Res., 26 (3), 202-207. Cambridge, 738 pp.
MorTIMmMER, C. H., 1952. Water Movements in Lakes
KanTorovicH, L. V., and KrytLov, V. i, 1958. during Summer Stratification ; Evidence from the
Approximate Methods of Higher Analysis. Inter- Distribution of Temperature in Windermere.
science Publishers, Noordhoff, Holland, 680 pp. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., B, 236, 355-404.

(Received 22 June 1970)

84 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 85-86, 1970

A New Species of Trilobite, Cheirurus (Crotalocephalus) regius n.sp.
from the Early Devonian of Trundle District, Central N.S.W.

G. Z. FOLDVARY
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney

Introduction

Devonian trilobites occurring further west
than Parkes are a considerable rarity in New
South Wales because of the geological, tectonic
and palaeogeographic conditions. However, the
main point of importance of the present material
is the fact that this new species, described below,
has been found in a new formation; strati-
graphically it occurs just below the base of the
Hervey Group, in the top portion of the
“Trundle Group” (to be formally described
elsewhere shortly) on the eastern side of the
Tullamore Syncline, in strata which will be
described as ‘‘ Botfield Formation ”’.

In 1898, W. S. Dun described “a pygidium
of one of the Phacopidae, possibly Coronura ”’
from a collection made by J. W. Watt from a
point 7-5 miles north from Bogan Gate, on the
Bogan Gate-Trundle road. The N.S.W. Depart-
ment of Mines Annual Report (1909) on p. 190
mentions Encrinurus as occurring in Portions
3 and 8, Parish of Plevna, County of Cun-
ningham, four miles north-east of Trundle.
Raggatt (1937), in a list of fossils from this
district, with determinations by W. S. Dun and
F. W. Booker, mentions the genus Proetus.
In more recent years, the author of this paper
(during 1965-1968) found Devonian trilobites
in several places around Trundle (Foldvary,
1969), but this specimen is the first from central
N.S.W. that belongs to the subgenus Chetrurus
(Crotalocephalus).

Systematic Palaeontology
Family CHEIRURIDAE Salter, 1864
Subfamily CHEIRURINAE Salter, 1864
Genus Chetrurus Beyrich, 1845
Subgenus Chetrurus (Crotalocephalus) Salter,
1953
Cheirurus (Crotalocephalus) regius n.sp.
Plate I, fig. 1

TYPE SPECIMEN: Holotype (SUP 13925) from
Por. 25, Par. Milpose, Co. Ashburnham,
15 miles east of Trundle, N.S.W., strati-
graphically below the Hervey Group.
Diacnosis: Glabella with subparallel sides
and bulbous frontal lobe ; transglabellar furrows
moderately V-shaped, curved towards the
posterior end of the cranidium axially. Fixigenae
rather large and deeply pitted. Tubercles well

developed. The shape and large size of the
cranidium is considered to be the distinctive
characteristic of this species.

DESCRIPTION: The cranidium is unusually
large in both dimensions: the length is 35-4 mm.,
the width 50-0mm., therefore the width-to-
length ratio is W/L=1-39. The glabella is
distinctly non-parallel sided, the sides gently
converging towards the posterior end of the
cranidium; thus the greatest width of the
glabella is midway on the frontal lobe (30 mm.).
From the anterior end of the glabella, the first
and second transglabellar furrows are con-
tinuous, crossing the axis, and they are curved
moderately backwards axially; the distance
between them is 5mm. The third, preoccipital
glabellar furrow is bent backwards in the axial
region to the same extent as the occipital furrow
is bent forwards, so as to join, and thereby
forming a distinctive pattern, reminiscent of an
hour-glass lying on its side. The occipital ring
is rather wide (20 mm.) and its axial length is
6mm., possibly wider than the fixigenae,
which are large and have deeply pitted surfaces.
The eyes are very close to the glabella (distance :
1-:5-2mm.), being in line with the second
transglabellar furrow. The tubercles are
unusually well developed, 0:5mm. high and
at the base 1 mm. wide, confined to the glabella,
though they are absent in the axial region of
the glabella, except in the most anterior part.
The genal spines and the librigenae are not
available.

Discussion: Though only a cranidium is
available, the author decided to erect a new
species for it, because of its unusually good
preservation, its distinctness from other species
in terms of size and proportions, and its excellent
surface detail. These are also the reasons for
the specific name given (“‘ regius’”’, Lat. “ regal,
splendid ’’). There is no difficulty in allocating
this species to the subgenus Cheirurus (Crotalo-
cephalus) as a result of the characteristics of
the glabellar furrows described above, following
G. Henningsmoen’s taxonomic criteria (in R. C.
Moore, 1959).

According to Strusz (1964), the two figures of
Etheridge and Mitchell (1917, Pl. 25, fig. 8, and
Pl. 26, fig. 11) depict two different species, one

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970 85

G? Z, FOLDVARY

of which is C. (Crotalocephalus) sculptus (s.s.)
of Etheridge and Mitchell, whereas the other
one he considered sufficiently distinct from the
former and, indeed, regarded it conspecific with
his own C. (Crotalocephalus) packham (holotype,
SUP 6901). This is half the size of, and of
different proportions from, the present species
(W/L=1-21).

C. (Crotalocephalus) silverdalensis Etheridge
and Mitchell (1917) is a different species again,
with more V-shaped first and second trans-
glabellar furrows; the sides of the glabella are
more convergent posteriorly, not even sub-
parallel as C. (Crotalocephalus) regius, or parallel
as in the above species. C. (Cvotalocephalus) sp.
described by Talent (1963) from the Devonian
of eastern Victoria on the basis of a juvenile
specimen appears to be closest to C. (Crotalo-
cephalus) silverdalensis.

Of the most closely related overseas species,
C. (Crotalocephalus) gibbus (Beyrich, 1845),
from the Branik beds of Bohemia is much
narrower across the cranidium, only 32 mm.,
and W/L=1-08. C. (Crotalocephalus) pauper
Barrande, 1852, also from Bohemia, is illus-
trated only by a pygidium and partial thorax
(Barrande, 1852, Pl. 41, fig. 41). C. (Crotalo-
cephalus) pengellat (Whidborne), from the Middle
Devonian of Wolborough, South Devon,
England, is different because of the much more
forward position of the anterior lobe of the
glabella, and because the preoccipital and
occipital furrows do not seem to quite meet in
the axial region.

AGE: Because of the stratigraphical position
of the locality, in the “ Botfield Formation ’’,
where this specimen has been found, the age of
C. (Crotalocephalus) regius is considered to be
Lower Mid-Devonian. This is supported by the
associated fauna, though in the very locality
where this trilobite has been found there is
only a meagre gastropod assemblage, consisting
of Loxonema ? sp. and Scalaetrochus sp. with
indeterminate brachiopod fragments; however,
in the corresponding strata on the western limb
of the Tullamore Syncline, near Botfield (N.W.
corner of Por. 75, Par. Botfields, Co. Cun-
ningham ;_ grid ref. 582918 on the Forbes
1: 250,000 R502 series military map), there is
the following assemblage in the same lithological
facies :

Clathrodictyon sp.

Stromatopora sp.

Favosites sp.

Tryplasma sp., cf. T. liliformis.
Leptaena sp.

Isorthis alpha.

_Airypa sp., cf. A. reticulans.
Buchanathyrts ? sp.

Nicklesopora sp., cf. N. geuriensis
Scalaetrochus sp.

Loxonema sp.

Actinoceras ? sp.

This assemblage, as well as the one
characterized by a somewhat different facies
containing Spinella pittmani, four miles further
south-west, suggests a late Lower Devonian
to early Middle Devonian age, most probably
Eifelian, both assemblages being high up in
the local sequence.

The subgenus Chetvurus (Crotalocephalus)
itself is restricted to Lower and Middle Devonian
(Henningsmoen, 1959, 0431). This agrees with
the age findings, on local material of allied
species, by Strusz (1964), Etheridge and Mitchell
(1917), and Talent (1963).

It is the presence of the rugose coral Plasmo-
phyllum (Mesophyllum) with its well-established
Middle Devonian age, in strata that are below
those of the abovementioned localities, situated
eight miles south of Trundle, that eliminates
the possibility of Lower Devonian age and
leaves us with Eifelian as the age for the
trilobite presently described.

Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank Professor K.S. W.
Campbell (Australian National University,
Canberra) for his kindness of reading the
manuscript and offering valuable suggestions.

References
BARRANDE, J., 1852. Systéme Silurien du Centre de la
Bohéme, Vol. I, Part 1.

Dun, W. S., 1898. N.S.W. Dept. Mines Report,
189-192.

ETHERIDGE, R., Jr., and Mitcuerr, Jc-1917- The
Silurian Trilobites of New South Wales. Part VI.
The Calymenidae, Cheiruridae, Harpeidae,
Bronteidae, etc. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,

XLII, 480-510, xxiv—xxvii.

FoLtpvary, G. Z., 1969. Stratigraphy and Palae-
ontology of the Bogan Gate-Trundle District,
N.S.W. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University
of New South Wales.

HENNINGSMOEN, G., 1959. In Moore, R. C. (Ed.),
Treatise on Invertebrate Palaeontology, Part 0,
Arthropoda, 1, 0431.

RacecatTt, H. G., 1937. Geological Survey of Con-
dobolin-Trundle District. Ann. Rep. Dept. Mines
N.S.W. for 1936, 92-95.

Strusz, D. L., 1964. Devonian Trilobites from the
Wellington-Molong District of New South Wales.
J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 97, 91-97.

TALENT, J. A., 1963. The Devonian of the Mitchell
and Wentworth Rivers. Memoiy 24, Geol. Surv.
Vic., 108.

(Received 20 October 1970)

86 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2,

1970

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD.
71-79 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBE, SYDNEY, N.S.W., 2037

WOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W. POLDVARY PIATE ST

FIGURE 1.—Rubber mould of Cheirurus (Crotalocephalus) vegius n. sp. 2X magnified.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pt. 2, 1970

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 87-90, 1970

Light Tracks Near a Dense Charged Star

R. BURMAN
Department of Physics, University of Western Australia

ABsTRACT—Integrals of the Einstein-Maxwell equations for static spherically symmetric
situations in regions outside matter, with one of the functions in the metric left arbitrary, are used
to investigate light tracks in the presence of a charged body. Conditions for the existence of
circular photon orbits are obtained and non-circular paths are discussed. i

1. Introduction
The general static spherically symmetric
space-time metric can be written
—ds?—=
A (r)dr? + B(r) (d0?2-+sin2 0d?) —C(r) (dx4)?; (1)
here ds is the space-time interval and the co-
ordinates are (v7, 0, o, x), where (7, 9, ) are
spherical polars. Equation (1) corresponds to
a fundamental tensor (g,,) with non-zero
covariant components given by

Cis oe, S33, 4a —A, —B, —B sin® 9, C. (2)

The field equations of general relativity give
two relations between A, B and C, leaving one
function arbitrary ; various particular choices
are listed by Synge (1960). For example,
Bi(r) is often taken to be 7?; then the empty
space outside a static spherically symmetric
uncharged body is described by the Schwarzschild
metric in which 1/A=C=1—2m/r, where m is
a constant. Atkinson (1965a) pointed out
that it is sometimes useful to make no choice
of the arbitrary function, and gave the
appropriate integrals of Einstein’s empty-space
field equations ; the integrals were then applied
to the investigation of light tracks (Atkinson,
1965d).

Light and particle tracks in the presence of a
| static spherically symmetric uncharged body
| have been investigated by Darwin (1959, 1961).
| The purpose of the present paper is to
/generalize results of Atkinson to the case in
| which the central object carries a spherically
|symmetric charge distribution. This topic is
| of interest in view of a number of investigations
|which have dealt with astronomical objects
| possessing net electric charges. In particular,
| Bailey (1960a, 19600, 1960c, 1961, 1963a, 19630,
)1964a, 1965) gave explanations of a number of
}astrophysical and terrestrial phenomena by
| postulating the presence of net electric charges
jon the Sun, other stars, planets and galaxies.
}Two possible sources for such a charge were
|suggested, one of which involved a five-dimen-
|sional unified field theory (Bailey and Bondi,

|

|

A

1959 ; Taylor and Bailey, 1962). Criticisms of
Bailey’s suggestion of a net solar charge were
expressed by Menzel (1964) and replied to by
Bailey (19645). Lyttleton and Bondi (1959)
developed an electrodynamics, based on a
generalization of Maxwell’s equations, relating
to stars and galaxies with net electric charges ;
they discussed the cosmological implications,
as did Hoyle (1960). Charges on stars are also
of interest in connection with the investigations
of Bonnor (1960, 1964, 1965), who showed that
an electric charge could prevent gravitational
collapse from occurring.

2. Basic Theory

Using the metric (1) to describe the empty
space outside a static spherically symmetric
charge qg, the Einstein-Maxwell equations are
found to have the integrals

(BY?/_ 2m, ag?\*
aE (1 BiB (3)
and |
(B’)?
A=TRC (4)

where a dash denotes differentiation with respect
to y and « is a constant which depends on the
units used ; in (3) mis a constant of integration ;
the constant of integration in (4) has been set
equal to unity, without loss of generality.
Elimination of A between (3) and (4) shows
that
2m ag?

The integral (4) does not contain q explicitly
and is the same (in different notation) as one
given by Atkinson (1965a). When q vanishes,
(5) becomes equivalent to Atkinson’s other
integral.

If B is put equal to 7?, (3) and (4) give
C=1—2m/)r + ag?/2r7=1/A,
as for the Reissner-Nordstr6m metric. The

above integrals can be obtained by transforming
the Reissner-Nordstrém solution.

| Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 87

R. BURMAN

The motion of an uncharged test particle,
with co-ordinates x, is described by

fig pvt") —F Lap, yt? 0 (6)
ds

where a dot denotes differentiation with respect
to s. For the metric (1), the fourth equation
of the set (6) integrates to Ca*=68 where 6 is a
constant. Suppose that initially 0=7/2 and
§@=0; the second equation of (6) shows that 0
and all higher derivatives vanish initially,
so the motion is confined to the 0=7/2 plane.
The third equation now integrates to Bo=h,
where / isa constant. Using these two integrals
of (6), the first equation of (6) becomes
ita’ ak pee tee Hee
75(4”) (47 a Rp C2 =)
while the condition %,%—=1 becomes

(7)

i 8
he mae eee ca ed oe
Ay +B C ib (8a)
which leads, after writing
7 =(dr/dg)o =(dr/dq)(h/B),
O
(ae Wee é) ee eae
(¥.) 47 ac —C). (80)

The time has been eliminated, so (8b) describes
the geometry of the path.

Suppose that the moving particle is a photon,
and let a dot now denote differentiation with
respect to a scalar parameter #. Equation (7)
still applies. The condition #%,%¢—0 leads to
(8a), but with the right side zero, while

dv \* B B28?
(7) TA ACR )

replaces (8b). Equation (9) describes the null
geodesics of the static spherically symmetric
metric (1): it holds independently of any field
equations.

In the next two sections, the integrals of the
Einstein-Maxwell equations given above will
be used to investigate light tracks. The
photon, being uncharged, is not affected directly
by the electric field of the central object, ‘but
the presence of the electric charge modifies
the metric and thus the gravitational interaction.

3. Circular Light Tracks
Putting 7=0= 7 in (7) and 7=0 in the equation
for photons corresponding to (8a) shows that
BBC jC. This, condition<for circular null
geodesics of (1) was derived (in different notation)
by Atkinson (19650).
Differentiating (5) logarithmically gives
Cie m/|B?—ag/2B B'

Gyn eo)

Applying the condition B’/B=C’/C, (gj
becomes
B—3mB*+aq?=0, (11)
so that
1 om 3m\*

holds on a photon circle; when g=0, (12)
reduces to B?=—3m, corresponding to C=1/3
(Atkinson, 19650).

In what follows, B will be required to be real
and positive ; m is real and positive and gq is
real. Further, B will be required to be wa
monotonically increasing function of the radial
co-ordinate. It will be supposed that the central
body has a radius less than that calculated for
any photon circle.

Provided

ag?/m*<9/4, (13)
it appears from (12) that the effect of a non-zero
value of qg is to introduce a second photon
circle, as well as to reduce the radius of the first ;
both circles lie inside that which occurs when
g=0. It will be seen later that there is also a
lower limit on «g?/m?, at which the inner circle
ceases to exist. If (13) is violated, there are
no photon circles. To first order in «q?/m?,
(12) gives

Bt=3m—ag?/3m or ag?/3m. (14)

When a co-ordinate system has been specified,
(12) gives the co-ordinate radius 7) of a photon
circle. For example, with the Schwarzschild
metric, 7;=3m (Atkinson, 1965)); with the
Reissner-Nordstr6m metric, (14) becomes

%y==3m — ag?/3m and 7%== ag?/3m.

The time ¢, taken for a photon to complete
a circular orbit can be written 2nt/o, ¢ being
the time co-ordinate and a dot denoting
differentiation with respect to #. Using the
integrals C#4=6 and Bo=h, and writing x4=d
where c is the speed of light in empty space, it
follows that t,=(276/ch)B/C. Putting 7=0 in
the equation corresponding to (8a) for photons
gives A/B=S27/C; hence #,—(27/c)( 5 /Ge
(Atkinson, 1965d). Substitution of the relativistic
integral (5) gives ¢, expressed in terms of B:

(15)
where g(B)=B—2mB?-+ aq?/2=CB.
Using the quadratic (11) to simplify (15)
leads to
27 B

0c (mBi—ag?/2)3
where B? is given by (12). So, to first order
in ag?/m?,

(16)

—m ag
p= 6r/3-— fi a (17)

88 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1976

LIGHT TRACKS NEAR A

for one circle; for the other, to lowest order
in ag?/m?, ty is imaginary.

From (15), g must be positive on a photon
circle, Let g_ and g, denote the values of g(B)
on the inner and outer photon circles
respectively. Substituting (12) into the definition
of g shows that

wes ie)+/()

Hence, because of (13), g,->0. ve 2s
positive or negative according as ag?/m? is
greater or less than two. Thus (12) and (15)
show that the inner circle exists only if
2<ag?/m?<9/4.

(18)

(19)

4, Non-circular Light Tracks
Some information on non-circular light tracks
can be obtained by investigating apses. Putting
y—0 in (7) and using the result 1?/B=38?/C
mentioned in the last section, it follows that

por te: 1G!
ae 9
am ele G ) iy)
Substituting the relativistic result (10), and

using Cct=6 to relate 7 to d?r/di?, (20) becomes
dy CC B—3mB?+aq B'

Geol Be 2mBt+ag?/2 Bo 2p)
Using (4) and (5),
Ger 20"
Fa Bap (B)e(F) (22)

where {(B) denotes the left side of (11).

Equation (12) shows that on one photon

circle 3m/2<B*<3m, while on the _ other,
using (19), m< B?<3m/2.
im lf the outer photon circle exists, then f>0
outside it. If the inner circle exists, f>0
inside it, with f<0 between the two circles.
If there is only one photon circle, then inside
fa) tor b< B,, while (<0 for B-B,, B,
being the inner zero of f(B).

The derivative dg/dB is positive or negative
according as B?>m or B?<m. The minimum
value of g, namely ag?/2—m?, is by (19) positive
or negative according as the inner circle exists
or not. That is, if the inner circle exists, g>0
everywhere. If the inner circle does not exist,
since g must be positive on the existing photon
circle and this lies outside the position of the
minimum of g, g>0 outside the circle. With
only one circle, g>0 for B< B, and for B> Bg,
while g<0 for B,<B<B,, B, and B, being
points inside the photon circle.

When there is an outer but no inner photon
circle, «q?/m?<2; it is easily seen that B,>B,
and that B,<B3.

DENSE CHARGED STAR

When there are no photon circles, (13) is
violated and the minimum values of f and g
are both positive; f>0 and g>0O everywhere.
Then, from (22) dv/di2>0 everywhere: apses
can correspond to minimum values only of 7,
and there are thus no finite photon orbits of
any kind.

If two photon circles exist, d?v/di?>0 outside
the outer one and inside the inner one. So in
those regions, apses correspond to minimum
values only of 7, and there are no finite orbits
there. A photon travelling on the outer circle
will, if slightly perturbed outwards, move off to
infinity. A photon travelling on the inner
circle will, if slightly perturbed inwards, move

further in at first. Between the _ circles,
d?v/dt?<0, so apses correspond to maximum
distances. Any photon reaching this region

from outside of it will travel through it before
reaching an apse. Finite non-circular orbits
appear feasible, with a photon travelling between
minimum values of v inside the inner circle and
maxima between the two circles.

If only one photon circle exists, d?v/dt?>0
outside it. Inside, d?7/di??>0 for B<B, and
by > = be while .d*7/di-<—On ior 25,5 6,
and 6,<6. Three types of finite orbits
appear feasible, with a photon travelling
between minimum values of 7 in B<B, and
maxima in b,<B< B,, or minima in B,<B<B,
and maxima in b > B, (but still inside the photon
circle) or minima in B>B, and maxima in
B> B, (but still inside the photon circle).

The above calculations do not establish the
existence of finite non-circular orbits. For such
an orbit to exist, the time calculated for an
arbitrary change to occur in the co-ordinate
of a photon describing the orbit would have to
be finite, real and positive. It should be noted
that, for the case in which a single photon circle
exists, all the finite non-circular orbits which
seemed feasible above cross one or both of the
apparent metric singularities at which C vanishes
and hence, by (4), A is infinite. When two
photon circles exist, C does not vanish.

The equation describing the geometry of a
light path, namely (9), can be written

du\* 2 Bu?\ ,
(=) +44 1-3) +

where “=1/r. In Euclidean space, the right
side of (23) is replaced by 1/2, where # is
the perpendicular from the origin to the tangent
at the point (v,o) of the path. If the geometry
becomes Euclidean at large 7, so that A->1,
B->r* and C1, the right side of (23) approaches

B252y4

AGh2 (23)

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 89

R. BURMAN

d?/h2: for a light path, the perpendicular p~
from the origin to the tangent at infinity is
h/S (Atkinson, 19650).

For a photon initially describing a photon
circle and then very slightly perturbed outwards,
h can be replaced by its value /, on the photon
circle; SO po=/,/5. Since. #7/6—37/C” holds
on the photon circle, use of C=g/B and (15)
shows that po=ct,/27.

5. Concluding Remarks

In this paper, integrals of the Einstein-
Maxwell equations for static spherically
symmetric situations in regions outside matter
have been applied to the investigation of light
tracks in the presence of a charged body.
Work of Atkinson (1965a, 19655) has thus been
extended to the case of a charged central object.

The coefficients in the Reissner-Nordstrém
metric can be written (Jeffery, 1921) B=?
and

i 2Giujee | Gg-ic
C=— = ee eed —
yee! : y a as
in which G is the Newtonian gravitational
constant and yu. is the mass of the central body.
Comparing (5) with (24), and following Bailey
(1960a) by writing

(24)

q=6Giu (25)
where (3 is a constant, it follows that
2
ah. (26)

In this notation, it was found in Section 3
that, if the central body is sufficiently small,
the number of photon circles is 1, 2 or 0 according
as B2<1, 1<6?<9/8 or 9/8<? respectively.
It was shown in Section 4 that when there are
two photon circles, finite non-circular photon
orbits are feasible.

It may be noted that Bailey (1960a, 19600)
took ® for the Sun to be around 10-°. Bonnor
(1960, 1964, 1965) investigated a solution of the
Einstein-Maxwell equations for a_ static
spherically symmetric body with, in the above
notation, 6=1.

Another possible generalization of Atkinson's
integrals would involve the space outside the
central object being filled with matter. Such
an investigation could be of interest in
cosmology ; also, a model of this kind has been
used to investigate the perihelion motion of
comets in the solar system (Aver’yanova and
Stanyukovich, 1967).

“Bonnor, W. B., 1964.

References
ATKINSON, R. d’E., 1965a. Two General Integrals of
Gi =0. Astron. J., 70, 513-516.

ATKINSON, R. d’E., 19656. On Light Tracks near a
Very Massive Star. Astron. J., 70, 517-523.
AVER’YANOVA, T. V., and STANYUKOVICH, K. P., 1967.
Application of General-relativity Methods to the
Study of Long-period Comet Trajectories. Soviet
Astronomy AJ, 10, 1042-1045.

BaILEy, V. A., 1960a. Net Electric Charges on Stars,
Galaxies and “ Neutral’’ Elementary Particles.
J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 94, 77-86.

BaiLey, V. A., 19606. Existence of Net Electric
Charges on Stars. Nature, 186, 508-510.

BaILeEy, V. A., 1960c. A Unified Theory of Terrestrial
and Solar Magnetization, the Outer Van Allen
Belt and High Energy Primary Cosmic Rays.
J. Atmosph. Terr. Phys., 18, 256—257.

BaILEy, V. A., 1961. Measurement of the Net Electric
Charge on the Sun by Means of the Artificial

Planet “ Pioneer VV”. Planet. “Space (Sa., Ga
70-71.

BalLEy, V. A., 1963a. The Interplanetary Magnetic
Field. Nature, 199, 1029-1031.

BaiLtrty, V. A., 19636. New Evidence that the Sun
Carries a Large Net Negative Electric Charge.
Planet. Space Sct., 11, 1501)-1502.

BaILey, V. A., 1964a. The Sun’s Electrical Charge.
Nature, 201, 1202-1203.

BaILEy, V. A., 1964b. Reply to the “ Remarks by
Donald H. Menzel with Reference to Bailey’s
Comments on Solar Electric Fields’. Radio Set.
J. Res. NBS/USNC-URSI, 68D, 1325-1326.

BaILEy, V. A., 1965. Some Nonlinear Phenomena
in the Ionosphere. Radio Se. jf. Fem
NBS/USNC-URSI, 69D, 9-24.

BaILEy, V. A., and Bonp1i, H., 1959. The Steady
State Universe and the Deduction of Continual
Creation of Matter. Nature, 184, 537-538.

Bonnor, W. B., 1960. The Mass of a Static Charged
Sphere. Zeits. Phys., 160, 59-65.

Gravitational Collapse. Nature,
204, 868.

Bonner, W. B., 1965. The Equilibrium of a Charged
Sphere. Mon. Not. R. Ast. Soc., 129, 443-446.

DaRWIN, SIR CHARLES, 1959. The Gravity Field of a

Particle. Proc. Roy. Soc., A249, 180-194.
DARWIN, SIR CHARLES, 1961. The Gravity Field of a
Particle. II. Proc. Roy. Soc., A263, 39-50.

Hoyte, F., 1960. On the Possible Consequences of a
Variability of the Elementary Charge. Proc,
Roy. Soc., A257, 431-442.

JEFFERY, G. B., 1921. The Field of an Electron on

Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation. Proc. Roy.
Soc., A99, 123-134.
LyTTLETON, R. A., and Bonnpi, H., 1959. On the

Physical Consequences of a General Excess of
Charge. Proc. Roy. Soc., A252, 313-333.
MENZEL, D. H., 1964. Remarks by Donald H. Menzel
with Reference to Bailey’s Comments on Solar
Electric Fields, N.B.S. Technical Note No. 211,

3, 61-62.
SyNnGE, J. L., 1960. Relativity: The General Theory,
p. 270. North-Holland Publ. Co., Amsterdam.

TayLor, N. W., and Bairey, V. A., 1962. Figg
Dimensional Cosmology and the Hypothesis of
Negatively Charged Stars. Nature, 194, 647-649.

(Received 3 February 1971)

90

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 91-92, 1970

Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1970

K.P.

The following observations of occultations
were made at Sydney Observatory with the
114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used
to record the times on a chronograph. The
reduction elements were computed by the
method given in the occultation Supplement
to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the
reduction completed by the method given there.
Since the observed times were in terms of
coordinated time (UTC), a correction which
was derived from Bureau International De
IL’ Heure Circulaire D was applied to the 1970
observations to convert them to UT2. In
1970 a correction of +0-01097 hour (=39-5
seconds) was applied to the time in UT2 to
convert it to ephemeris time with which The
Astronomical Ephemeris for 1970 was entered to
obtain the position and parallax of the Moon.
The apparent places of the stars of the 1970
occultations were provided by H.M. Nautical
Almanac Office.

SIMS

Table I gives the observational material.
The serial numbers follow on from those of the
previous report (Sims, 1970). The observers
were W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S), and
H. W. Wood (W). In all cases the phase
observed was disappearance at the dark limb.
Table II gives the results of the reductions
which were carried out in duplicate. The
Z.C. numbers given in Table I are from the
Catalog of 3539 Zodiacal Stars for Equinox
1950-0 (Robertson, 1940) and the Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory Star Catalog.

References

ROBERTSON, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the
American Ephemeris, Vol. X, Part II.

sims, K. P,, 1970. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 103,
55; Sydney Observatory Papers No. 62.

TABLE I

Serial ».A.0.-or

No. ZC. No: Mag Date pd? UT2-UTC Observer
561 1657 6-7 1970 Apr. 18 10 26 42-18 —Q-02 W
562 1660 6-2 1970 Apr. 18 ll 36 09°38 —0-02 W
563 118865 io 1970 Apr. 18 ll 37 35:28 —Q-02 W
564 1663 5:2 1970 Apr. 18 12 27 56-58 —Q-02 WwW
565 1930 5-6 1970 May 18 12 28 20-75 —0-03 R
566 118546 8-6 1970 June 11 9 31 14-15 —0-03 R
567 1884 5:3 1970 June 14 12 55 13:47 —Q-03 W
568 2505 5-4 1970 July 16 ll 54 34-97 —0-03 WwW
569 184783 Ce 1970 Aug. 12 II 138 21-18 —(:03 )
570 2583 o°8 1970 Aug. 13 9 50 42-47 —0-03 W
571 2864 4-7 1970 Sep. Tl 8 19 26-26 —(Q- 04 >
572 186566 8-3 1970 Oct. 7 9 25 56-19 —0:04 =)
573 2643 6-7 1970. Oct. 7 9 32 20-64 —0-04 5
574 186671 7-4 1970 Oct 7 11 14 52-41 —0-04 S
575 187596 8-2 1970 Nov. 4 9 39 03-95 —Q-05 5
576 2928 6-5 1970 Nov. 5 10 05 44-95 —0-05 WwW
577 188591 8-6 1970 Dec. 2 9 56 25-47 —0-05 S

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 91

K: P. SIMS

TABLE II
Luna- Coefficient of

Serial tion p q p? Pq qe Ac pAc qgao
No. No. Aa AS
561 585 +87 —49 76 —43 24 +2:-4 42:1 —]-2 +8:1 —0-84
562 585 + 84 —55 70 —46 30 +1:-:0 +0:8 —0:6 +7:2 —0-:88
563 585 +83 —56 69 —46 31 +2:°3 +1-9 —1-3 +7:1 —0-88
564 585 +98 —22 95 —22 5 —2-] —2:-1 +0:5 +11:°3 —0-65
565 586 +100 +8 99 +8 ly +0:9 +0-9 +0:1 +13:-7 —0:36
566 587 +99 —12 99 —]2 1 —~—1:0 —1-:0 +0-:1 +12:°3 —0-:56
567 587 +89 +45 80 +40 20 —O0:1 —O-] 0-0 +14:-7 +0:-01
568 588 + 87 —49 76 —43 24 +0-4 +0:3 —0-2 +11-2 —Q-52
569 589 +97 — 24 94 — 23 6 —0:6 —0:6 +0:1 +12:°5 —0-°33
570 589 +99 +11 99 +11 1 +0:9 +0-9 +0:1 +13:-1 +0:13
571 590 +86 +5] 74 +44 26 0-0 0-0 0-0 +9-9 +0-69
572 591 +67 +74 45 +50 935) —0°3 —0-2 —Q:2 +8-1 +0:79
573 591 +89 —45 80 —40 20 —1-5 —1:3 +0:-7 +12:3 —0-°38
574 591 +100 —6 100 —6 0 +2-0 +2-0 —0-1 +13°3 +0-02
575 592 +22 +98 5 +21 95 +0°4 +0:1 +0-4 +0:7 +1-00
576 592 +95 +31 90 +29 10 +0°:3 +0:3 +0:] +11-4 +0-:56
577 593 +87 +49 76 +43 24 —0°7 —0:6 —0-3 +9-9 +0:70

(Received 18 June 1971)

92 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

| Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 93-102, 1970

Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1971

The Bearing of Some Upper Palaeozoic Reefs and Coral Faunas on the
Hypothesis of Continental Drift

Die
Umversity of Queensland

Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen,

I wish first to pay tribute to W. B. Clarke,
to the honour of whose memory this lecture is
given. Wherever he travelled, this pioneer in
Australian geology constantly observed, analysed
and synthesized all the geological data available ;
and he published his conclusions. His example
we follow, each in his own way.

Interest in the hypothesis of continental drift
has been enormously increased in recent years
by geophysical observation and_ speculation.
Palaeomagnetic and_ seismological observa-
tions, deductions and assumptions have led to
the concept of “plate tectonics’’, which
postulates physical conditions in the earth’s
crust and mantle such that very considerable
movement of large or small segments of the
earth’s crust is possible. Segments that are
relatively stable within themselves, such as
continents, are thus assumed to have moved
relative to one another.

The critical evaluation of their evidence, their
assumptions and deductions, is best left to the
geophysicists themselves. Geologists have a
part to play, however, in looking to the tests
their own accumulations of data may apply to
the hypothesis.

Reefs and coral faunas are of use in testing
the hypothesis of continental drift only in so far
as they may be taken as indicators of palaeo-
climates and palaeoclimatic zones.

The reef provinces of today are all located
in the shallow sunlit waters of the tropics and
near tropics. Reef growth in waters of average
annual minimum temperature of less than 15° C.
is greatly restricted or minimal, and so the
present reef provinces tend to be bounded by
this isotherm. Whether past shallow water
reef growth was controlled by this temperature
we still have to establish. Temperature is vital
to our argument. If we can assume that the
reef provinces of past eras were similarly located,
we may use the known distribution of fossil
reef provinces to deduce the position of tropical
(and near-tropical) zones in past times. We

may thus draw lines across the continents
limiting the tropical zones for each geological
age. It should then become apparent whether
the continents have or have not always occupied
their present position relative to the equator
and the poles of rotation of this earth. If
they have, the lines will be very roughly parallel
to the present equator. If they have not,
the lines will have an angular relation to the
present equator, and this angle will vary from
continent to continent according to the degree
to which each continent has drifted.

There are two possibilities that may affect
the width of the climatic zones. One is the
surface temperature of the earth. If this rises,
then the tropical, subtropical and warm
temperate climatic zones may well widen, and
the cold temperate and polar zones may narrow.
The hypothesis that the earth’s surface temper-
ature has varied significantly in past times is
widely accepted amongst earth scientists, but

the assumed variations have not proved
measurable, nor have their causes’ been
established.

The second is a change in the circulation of
ocean currents, particularly the warm surface
currents, brought about by the submergence or
emergence of greater or lesser areas of the
continents as a result either of downwarp or
uplift (which we know to have occurred), or
of variations in the amount of water locked up
in ice caps (which we also know have occurred).
The northern and southern equatorial surface
currents will always have been westward due
to the rotation of the earth, but their deflection
northwards by land masses would differ
according to the shape and position and degree
of submergence or emergence of the land against
which they set. The Gulf Stream is an example.
Such deflections cause the limiting line between
subtropical and warm temperate zones, for
example, to have tongue-like projections towards
the pole. Similarly, the circulation of the cold
bottom currents of the ocean will be affected
by uplift or downwarp of sills or bars to the
Arctic, for example.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 93

Dai

So I accept that the width of the climatic
zones may be expected to vary with time, and
that their boundaries will not always be parallel
to the equator. This means that a fossil reef
found in a high latitude today does not neces-
sarily imply that the continent on which it
occurs has drifted away from the equator.

We now come to the sedimentological and
palaeontological difficulties in the recognition
of reefs in the sedimentary record, difficulties
which must be disposed of or at least evaluated
before we attempt to use reefs in palaeoclimatic
zonation.

Reef construction on a regional scale takes
place today in shallow, sunlit seas of normal
salinity. A primary condition is a food supply
adequate to maintain a profuse growth of
calcareous algae and of algae that precipitate
carbonates from seawater or entrap carbonate
mud, as well as of animals that secrete skeletons
of calcium carbonate. An adequate food supply
is frequently made available where a change of
slope causes nutrient-rich waters to well up from
deeper levels. Thus barrier reefs may be
developed at the top of a change of slope on
shallow continental shelves or ridges, or around
volcanic islands. Reefs today grow most pro-
fusely between low sea level and six fathoms,
but a little less profusely down to 22 fathoms;
they can still be constructed, though less
strongly, down to 30 fathoms. Sunlight is
necessary for the photosynthesis of reef plants,
including the zooxanthellae, that are the
symbionts of so many reef animals. Thus most
reefs grow in shallow waters above wave-base,
and wave or lateral current action tends to fill
the interstices between their framework
organisms with detritus from the reef and, more
importantly perhaps, spreads reef detritus
around the reef. The volume of reef actually
growing at any one time in any shallow reef
region commonly remains small compared with
the volume of detritus derived from its
organisms.

One of our difficulties derives from our
definition of a reef. Many writers bring into
the definition the criterion that the carbonate
mass must grow by the action of its constructing
organisms into the zone of wave action and
maintain its growth against wave action.
Others also insist that the constructing organisms
form a framework that is rigid. But, of course,
there are degrees of rigidity, and degrees of
wave action, and the growth of a reef comprises
both vertical and horizontal components.

What are we to term the bank- or ridge-like
accumulations of coral skeletons and skeletal
debris that are known to form today in dark or

94

dimly lit waters, below wave base, and in
temperatures between 15°C. and 4°C.? Such
accumulations rise well above the level of the —
surrounding sea floor. They have no calcareous
algal component. But in the fossil record they
may well be termed either bioherms or fossil |
coral reefs, and we might make the false

deduction that they were formed in tropical or

near tropical latitudes. Clearly, all so-called

fossil reefs must be sedimentologically evaluated,

firstly to determine their depth of formation,

and secondly, for any clues they might give on

the temperature of formation.

Modern tropical reefs are mostly coral reefs,
but always algae play an important part, as
binders or trappers of debris as well as by
providing much of the calcium carbonate of
the reef. Many other animals are reeg

organisms—either contributing to the rigid or

loose framework or dwelling in the interstices

|

of the framework, and in some reefs they

predominate over corals.
always be present in what we term a reef?
It seems that we must give a negative answer
to this question, though as a group the modern
reef corals are perhaps the best indicators we
have of the temperature of formation of a modern
Teel,

Coming now to the recognition of tropical
and subtropical reefs in the stratigraphic record.
We may interpret as reefs those carbonate bodies
that not only rise up above their depositional
surface, with or without encouragement by
subsidence of the sea floor, but are sharply
demarcated from their enclosing sediments
and can be shown to be formed by organisms.
Some writers, however, would withhold the name
if the body did not project into the zone where
it was attacked by wave action, 1.e. when in its
fossil form it is not surrounded by the detritus
of wave action upon it. Laterally extensive

Must corals therefore |

carbonate bodies with parallel upper and lower —
surfaces, constructed by the same organisms |
that construct reefs, are commonly not accorded |
the name reef by stratigraphers, but are called |

~ biostromes Biostromes may, however,
grow upwards at their outer edges as barrier
reefs, and in this case are clearly back-reef beds.
To some writers all vertically extensive
organically formed carbonate bodies discordant
with and of different textures from their
enclosing sedimentary rocks are “ bioherms “.
The root ‘‘herma’’ means a sunken rock or
reef. But it is not at all sure that all such
bodies are formed in warm waters. Other
writers confine the name “ bioherm ”’ to similar
rock bodies that are not surrounded by debris
outwashed from them and thus did not rise

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pits. 3/4, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

into the zone of wave action. There is thus a
dual and overlapping use of the two words
“reef’’ and “ bioherm’”’. Again, some authors
use “‘ bioherm ”’ for a small discordant carbonate
body formed by organisms, or presumably
formed by organisms, and reserve “reef ’”’ for
larger bodies. The usages given both words
have wide spreads, and as always, where
definitions imply degree, the degree involved
in any one usage should be made clear. Some
authors use the words “ carbonate build-ups ”’
for great masses of sedimentary carbonate
rocks that may (or may not) include reefs.

A recent analysis of the “ carbonate build-
ups ’’ of modern seas suggests that thick neritic
carbonate sedimentation is zonal, more or less
parallel to the equator, and concentrated
between the latitutes of 5° and 30° north and
south of the equator; it has been suggested
that the poor development observed in equatorial
regions is due to the overwhelming quantity of
terrigenous sediment deposited there. It is
perhaps not without significance that the
neritic carbonate sedimentary build-ups of
today, like coral reefs, are almost co-extensive
with the tropics.

All the abovementioned terms have an
historical place, but because of the differing
origins implied for the bodies so named one
needs to examine each fossil example carefully
and evaluate its particular environment of
deposition. If the example is one of many in
a reef-province, it can be far more safely used
in the reconstruction of palaeoclimatic zones
than if it is but a single, isolated example.

Carbonate sedimentology and _ petrography
are today largely concerned with the recognition
and description of the different lithological
types and textures of living and fossil reefs and
their associated sediments. All reefs that rise
above wave-base have, on the side from which
the waves attack (reef-front or fore-reef), an
apron of coarse debris, roughly bedded, with the
bedding planes sloping away from the upward-
growing reef (reef-core or reef-wall); on the
far side (back-reef) bedded sediments of
distinctive character form; reefs with lagoons
have lagoonal sediments also of distinctive
character. The microtextures and micro-
structures of fossil carbonate build-ups and the
diagenetic characters they show are extremely
useful in the interpretation of the micro-
environments of the reef facies.

Reefs have proved to be reservoirs for
petroleum or natural gas, in many parts of the
stratigraphic record, and the studies made on
these subsurface bodies have greatly widened
our knowledge of the distribution within them

of the various orders of plants and animals.
As examples of such studies we may cite the
detailed work on the upper Devonian reefs of
Alberta, Canada, and the complementary work
on the Recent reefs of the Gulf of Mexico.

Fossil reefs are found to have grown on
shallow, stable platforms, and particularly at
the edges of such platforms ; they are also shown
to arise from slightly deeper basins off the edges
of platforms ; examples of fossil reefs on fossil
submarine ridges and of fossil reefs and atolls
on fossil volcanic islands are also known. The
most magnificent fossil atoll so far described is
that (of Akiyoshi) in the geosynclinal environ-
ment of the Carboniferous and Permian of
Japan (Ota, 1968). Again, reefs growing in the
more unstable parts of the Hercynian geo-
syncline of western Europe have different
sedimentary structures from those of the more
stable regions peripheral to or isolated in the
unstable parts (Tsien, 1970).

The topographic and in many cases also the
diastrophic environment of the formation of a
fossil reef can now be fairly accurately deduced
from the sedimentary characters of itself and
its enclosing rocks. But the number of fossil
reefs that have so far been adequately studied
for such strict environmental interpretation is
still infinitesimally small. With continuing
sedimentological work of this precision we shall
eventually know whether any particular fossil
reef was formed below or above wave-base, in
sunlight, on or at the edges of relatively stable
platforms, or on ridges in regions of instability,
or around volcanic islands. Already the general
environment of major reef constructions is
deducible in these terms. But certainty con-
cerning the final physical condition, the one that
alone is useful for reconstruction of the climatic
zones of the past, is still eluding us. I refer
to the temperature of the water in which the
fossil reefs formed. If we could know that some,
even if not all, of the carbonate mud of any
fossil reef facies was physicochemically pre-
cipitated, then we might set limits on the
temperature of formation. But at present
certainty in this is not possible. There are
three main variables: alkalinity, temperature,
and the CO, pressure. If we could use isotopic
methods of temperature evaluation for
Palaeozoic reefs, as widely and as safely as we
can for modern reefs, we would be in a far better
position that we are today, but as yet we cannot.

If we wish to use fossil reefs as indicators of
climatic zones, we must assume that major reef
constructions indicate that they were formed in
tropical or near tropical climatic zones. How-
ever, even today not all tropical and near

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 95.

DILL

tropical shallow waters sustain reefs, due
perhaps to too great a contribution to a region
of terrigenous sediment, or an_ insufficient
primary food supply. Similar gaps must have
existed in the past, and we cannot therefore
say that absence of a reef province from a
region implies a climatic belt too cold for its
growth.

Another important additional assumption
that we must make is that the profusely repre-
sented animals of the fossil reefs were subject
to the same minimal temperature control as
those of the living reefs ; that is, that stromato-
poroids, fenestellid polyzoa, stalked echinoderms,
tabulate corals and rugose corals grew profusely
in a reef environment only above the same
minimal temperatures as the animals dominant
in present reefs ; that is, above 15° to 18°C.

I will now outline briefly the distribution of
reefs or reef-building animals in the various
periods of the Palaeozoic era, and will analyse
in more detail those for two stages : the Frasnian
stage of the upper Devonian and the Dinantian
stage of the lower Carboniferous periods.

In palaeoclimatological work shore-lines are
important because of their deflecting effect on
surface currents. In drawing the boundaries
between land and sea assumed for the different
periods and stages of the Palaeozoic era I have
taken the latest palaeogeographic reconstruc-
tions that I could find. This aspect of geological
work is subject to rapid change as stratigraphic
data accumulate.

In the Cambrian, marine animals with the
ability to secrete skeletons of calcium carbonate
first appeared and we find the sponge-like
Archaeocyatha living in the reef environments
but playing a subordinate part therein to algae.
Cambrian reefs are small relative to those of
the Middle Palaeozoic and later times. Archaeo-
cyathan reefal limestones occur in a notably
wide zone in the northern hemisphere (22 -5° to
70° N.) and in high latitudes in South Australia
and Antarctica (Hill, 1965). Similarly, in the
Ordovician, the reefs are small. The main
organisms found in them are algae, problematical
soft-bodied organisms, sponges, stalked echino-
derms, and the newly-evolved bryozoans,
stromatoporoids, and corals. They are on the
whole developed in carbonate provinces. Again
we see a concentration of the reefs and corals
in a wide belt in the northern hemisphere
(22-5° to 75° N.) and in a high southern latitude
in Tasmania (42°S.).

In the Silurian a major reef province existed
in North America between 30° and 60°N. in
terms of present geography (Lowenstam, 1957 ;
Textoris and Carozzi, 1964); small reefs are

recorded as far north as 75° N. (Fortier e al.,
1963); again England, Gotland (Hadding,
1950) and Estonia formed a reef province
between 50° and 60°N., and in central Asia
there is a reef province between 30° and 60° N.
In the southern hemisphere there was a possible
reef province (not adequately studied as yet)
in Queensland; between (10> Standai.20-s:
Stromatoporoids, tabulate and rugose corals
are all very obvious in Silurian fossil reefs, but
crinoids and bryozoa are also abundant in
places; algae have been recognized in those
reefs subjected to detailed micropetrographic
analysis. Silurian reefs on the whole are of
small vertical extent.

Devonian reefs are a little better known than
those of the Silurian. In the Lower Devonian
thick (up to 300 and 400 metres) light-coloured
and fine-grained limestones are in many places
described as reefal (Deroo, Gauthier and
Schmerber, 1967). They are common in Europe
and North Africa between 20° and 50°N. A
meridional chain of them is known along the
Ural geosyncline (Nalivkin, 1967). In central
Asia they are recorded from south of L. Balkash
(45° N.) and in the Zaisan region (49° N.), near
the U.S.S.R.-Mongolian border about 51° N.
and in north-eastern U.S.S.R. between 65°
and 70° N. The furthest north Lower Devonian
reefs are probably those of Novaya Zemlya.

If we look at the palaeomagnetic latitudes of
Eurasia, we see that the Lower Devonian reefs
all fall between 30° S. and 55° N., which would
give a slightly narrower (better ?) latitudinal
spread for the reefs than with the continents
in their present latitudes.

There are many Lower Devonian coralline
limestones in eastern Australia, between 15°
and 45°S., but strict sedimentological analysis
must be made of them to indicate whether they
are reefal.

In North America the Coblenzian Jefferson-
ville Limestone of Ohio and Kentucky is
described as an organogenic bank of stromato-
poroids, and tabulate and rugose corals. No
Lower Devonian reefs are known in South
America, southern Africa or Antarctica.

With the Middle Devonian we find in many
places in Europe and north-west Africa a
reversion more to the Silurian types of reef,
rather small, discordant bodies not all of which
suffered wave-action. Algae, problematical
soft organisms, stromatoporoids, crinoids,
tabulate corals, bryozoa and rugose corals all
played a part in their construction. In the
Dinant Basin of the Variscan geosyncline of
western Europe, the reefs of the subsiding
basinal areas are small in lateral extent but of

96 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

considerable height; according to whether
they originated below the zone of wave
turbulence or not, they are free of or surrounded
by talus broken from them by wave action.
In the more stable shelf-like regions, the reefs
are of considerable lateral extent, but their
height is great only along the edge of the
platforms where they grew upwards as barrier
reefs. In those parts of reefs formed below the
zone of wave turbulence, crinoids or lamellar
tabulate corals and Stvomatactis are character-
istic ; in the sub-turbulent zone, suffering little
wave action, large lamellar stromatoporoids
are dominant; in the zone of turbulence due
to wave action, massive globular stromatopores
are found. In the back-reef facies on stabler
platforms or shelves behind the barrier, colonial
Rugosa, Thamnopora and Amphipora are
characteristic. In the fore-reef talus, brachio-
pods, solitary corals and conodonts abound.
The general morphology of these Middle
Devonian reefs of the Ardennes (Tsien, 1971)
and the Eifel and the Slate Mts. (Krebs, 1967)
is represented in the Upper Devonian of western
Europe, as well as in other reef provinces of the
Middle and Upper Devonian. Examples are
the Middle Devonian reefs of north-west Africa,
which compare closely with those of western
Canada (Dumestre and I[lling, 1967), the Middle
and Upper Devonian reefs of central Europe
(e.g. Holy Cross Mts., Poland (Pajchlova and
Stasinska, 1967), and the atoll and _ barrier
reefs of the Ural seaway (Nalivkin, 1967)).
Furthest north of the Eurasian Middle Devonian
reefs is one on Norvaya Zemlya at about 71° N.
There are others in north-east Afghanistan,
Ferghana and Zaisan (48°N.) and near the
U.S.S.R. border on 52°N. and between 115°
and 125°EF. No modern sedimentological
studies of the stromatopore and coral biostromes
or reefs of Siberia, China or Indo-China, or of
the coralline limestone of Japan, are known to
me. So far as I am aware, reef-cores have not
been described from the Middle Devonian of
eastern Australia, but biostromal stromatoporoid
back-reef types of coral limestones are common,
as are sub-lagoonal Amphipora limestones. In
the north-eastern part of Western Australia
reefs began to develop in the late Middle
Devonian, and are discussed below.

A splendid Middle Devonian reef province
existed in western Canada between 50° and
68° N.; some of its reefs have proved to be
reservoirs for petroleum or natural gas, and a
great deal of sub-surface work has been carried
out on them (Hriskevich, 1970). All of the micro-
environments of a typical reef of today have
been identified in them, and there can be no

doubt that we are here dealing with a reef
province like that of the Great Barrier Reef of
today (10° to 25° S.). Algae and stromatoporoids
are the dominant organisms of the reefs, but
crinoids, bryozoa, brachiopods, tabulate and
rugose corals also occur in back-reef or fore-reef
or in perireefal environments. A Devonian reef
on Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic is
either late Lower or early Middle Devonian
(Fortier et al., 1963).

No Devonian reef provinces or even single
reefs are recorded from South America, central
or southern Africa, or Antarctica.

I come now to the Frasnian stage of the
Upper Devonian, which I wish to treat in a
little more detail (Figure 1). Reef provinces
are notable as follows: in western Canada
between 50° and 68° N. (Klovan, 1964 ; Martin,
1967 ; Noble, 1970); in western Europe in
Devon, Belgium (Tsien, 1971) and Germany
(Krebs, 1967); in Poland at about 51°N.
(Pajchlova and Stasinska, 1967) ; in the Carnic
Alps (Deroo et al., 1967) ; in the Urals between
56° and 60° N. (Nalivkin, 1967) ; in Asia between

45° and 57°N. and in the Kuznetsk Basin
(Rzhonsnitskaya and Harin, 1967); and in
Western Australia (Playford, 1967, 1969)

between 15° and 20°S. In addition, there was
possibly a reef province in China between 20°
and 30° N.

In all these regions the reef province succeeded
one established in the Middle Devonian,
indicating some stability of climatic conditions.
In yet two other areas, the Carnic Alps (Deroo
et al., 1967) and north-western Africa (Dumestre
and Illing, 1967), small reefs persisted briefly
from an earlier province. No Frasnian reef

provinces are known in South America,
Antarctica, central and southern Africa or
India.

Thus the only known Frasnian reef province
in the Southern Hemisphere (Western Australia)
is well placed if no drift of Australia has occurred.
However, it would be equally well placed for
the palaeomagnetic latitudes deduced for
Australia in the Devonian by Briden and Irving
(1964) ; for the Western Australian reef province
would lie between 0° and 10° S. palaeomagnetic
latitudes.

The Frasnian shallow water reef provinces
known in the Northern Hemisphere would be
inconsistent with the present climatic zones
and the present position of continents, unless
we postulate that the earth’s surface temperature
was higher then, causing expansion of the warm
climatic zones, or unless we postulate that the
extinct invertebrate orders dominating the
Frasnian reefs, the stromatoporoids, and the

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 97

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Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

98

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

tabulate and rugose corals, proliferated in lower
temperatures than the scleractinian reef-corals.

If we look at the Devonian palaeomagnetic
latitudes deduced for Eurasia, one set for Europe
_(Briden and Irving, 1964) and the other for the
U.S.S.R. (Vinogradov, 1969), the reef provinces
including that of north-west Africa would lie
between 30° S. and 30° N. This could perhaps
be regarded as evidence of continental drift
rather than as evidence that the continents in
the Devonian lay in their present positions
relative to the poles of rotation. This view
would also involve the assumption that these
Devonian reefs were tropical or near tropical.
One exception, that of north-eastern Siberia
(69° N., 150° E.), is mapped as a single reef,
and no descriptions are available to me. It
would be near the calculated 50° N. palaeo-
magnetic latitudes.

Next let us turn to the map for the Lower
Carboniferous reef provinces (Figure 2). Here
we find that reefs with cores (or walls), reef-
fronts and back-reef deposits have been distin-
guished in north-western Europe, chiefly in
Great Britain and north-western Africa, and
we may speak of a small British reef province
(Lees, 1964; Ramsbottom, 1969) between
latitudes 50° and 56°N., and a north African
province (Pareyn, 1961) between 30° and 35° N.
Reef cores are aphanitic, with algae or
fenestellids as framework or trapping organisms ;
fore-reef beds contain corals and trachiopods
back-reef beds may be coral (Lithostrotion)
biostromes (Wolfenden, 1958). The great fossil
atoll of Akiyoshi in Japan (Ota, 1968), compar-
able in size to the Cainozoic atolls in the Pacific,
began its growth, it seems, at the end of Viséan
time. Other similar limestone masses in Japan
may well also prove to have been atolls. Groups
of reefs have been plotted for Central Asia
between 40° and 50°N. (Vinogradov, 1969),
and two reefs are mentioned in the Russian
literature for the Caucasus. Lithostrotion
bioherms are mentioned for the northern Urals
at about 62°N., and sub-surface reefs are
mentioned in and near Bashkiria at about
55° N. Nalivkin (1967) has described the Urals
reefs as coastal reefs. A single reef is reported
in north-eastern Siberia at about 62° N.

In North America between 30° and 60°N.
and even into north-western Alaska just within
the Arctic Circle, there are great spreads of
Lower Carboniferous carbonate sediments. In
the U.S.A., among the many sub-environments
in which these formed, there are banks variously
called “ knoll reefs ’’ or “ bioherms ”’ or “‘ Waul-
sortian knolls’’ of fine-grained carbonate of

diverse origin. Some rose several hundred feet
above the sea floor on which they formed.
Some grew in water too deep or too tranquil for
wave action to erode them; others grew into
the turbulent zone and their tops are surrounded
by their own detritus. Some are seen to have
fenestellid bryozoa as one of the agents trapping
carbonate mud and thus building a bank. In
others, algae were trapping and binding or
precipitating agents. Crinoids in some con-
tributed volumes of detritus to the bank. Such
banks seem to have grown on a shallow water
shelf. In western North America, in places
and at times Lithostrotion (or Lithostrotionella)
“prairies ’’ built extensive and sometimes thick
(up to 100 ft.) biostromes; but no reef-cores
to which these biostromes might be back-reef
beds have been documented. How are we to
interpret the temperature under which these
North American “ bioherms’’ and biostromes
formed ? Perhaps they formed only in response
to the presence of nutrients—perhaps warmer
temperatures assisted. Geophysical deductions
for North America at present suggest that these
“bioherms ’’ formed between palaeomagnetic
latitudes 20° S. and 40° N. (Briden and Irving,
1964).

The most interesting Lower Carboniferous
reef is, however, that forming the base of the
great Middle and Upper Carboniferous and
Permian geosynclinal-type atoll of Akiyoshi,
which is 8-1 by 3-8 nautical miles, about
one-third the size of Bikini (Ota, 1968). This
is in latitude 35° N. and compares well with the
north-most Pacific atolls of today, Midway and
Kure, in 28° N. latitude. The position of the
Lower Carboniferous palaeomagnetic pole
deduced for the U.S.S.R. (Vinogradov, 1969)
and for Europe, however, would be quite close
to Akiyoshi, at 44° N., 157° E., and if we accept
this juxtaposition then we are placed in the
same dilemma as we are when we look at fossil
reefs in the present Arctic Circle. We are
forced to admit that either polar waters were
warmer then to support such reef growth, or
that the invertebrates involved in reef formation
could proliferate in colder waters than those of
today. Thus we could not say that the palaeo-
magnetic latitudes deduced for the Lower
Carboniferous give better palaeoclimatic zonal
arrangements than would the undrifted
continents. This does not, of course, prove that
continental drift has not occurred.

The Viséan reef of Old Cannindah in Queens-
land (25°S.) is palaeoclimatically consistent
with present climatic zones or with Australia
drifted from palaeomagnetic latitudes (between
20° and 30° S.), assuming that the same temper-

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 99

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Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

L100

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE

ature controls over reef formation that exist
today.

In the late Lower (or early Middle) Car-
boniferous reefs began to form in north-east
Spain (de Groot, 1963) and in Spitzbergen
(79° N.). The Spitzbergen reefs are described
(Barbaroux, 1968) as small reefs somewhat like
those of the Silurian of Gotland (58°N.). A
reef province is reported near Vladivostok
(64° N.) (Vinogradov, 1969), but no descriptions
are available to me. The Akiyoshi and pre-
sumably the other Japanese atolls continue to
grow through the Middle and Late Carboniferous
and into the Permian. Spitzbergen reefs cease
to be anomalous if we accept the palaeoclimatic
implications usually predicated to _ palaeo-
magnetically deduced latitudes, but the reefs
of Akiyoshi and of Vladivostok are anomalous.

Do the palaeocoral provinces fit palaeo-
magnetically deduced climatic zones better than
they fit the present climatic pattern? A careful
study of the Lower Carboniferous coral faunas
of the world shows that there are three major
regions: (1) Nova Scotia, Eurasia, Western
Australia ; (2) North America ; and (3) Eastern
Australia (Hill, 1971 MS.). The North American
province has a large number of endemic genera ;
according to recent reports four Canadian
genera of solitary Rugosa occur in the Taymyr
region of Siberia, whilst three otherwise Russian
genera of solitary Rugosa are reported to occur
in the North American region. These reports
still require detailed substantiation, but it is
difficult to imagine that migration could have
occurred except by way of Alaska and the
Behring Sea; if so, temperatures must have
permitted this. The Nova Scotia-Eurasia-
Western Australian province shows’ some
endemic genera in western Europe and others
in China; and the ranges of these eastern and
western endemic genera overlap in eastern
Europe. Palaeocoral provinces can be distin-
guished in this great region and it is worthy of
note that the Western Australian fauna, like
the Indo-Chinese fauna, belongs to the Chinese
province. Thus shallow water shelves _pre-
sumably connected Western Australia to Indo-
China and thence to China. Possibly eastern
Australia received its Lithostrotion from Japan
via a shelf east of the Philippines and New
Guinea. So far as we know, no reefs were
constructed in the Lower Carboniferous in those
parts of Eurasia now in the Arctic Circle, except
the small ones at the end of the epoch in
Spitzbergen.

In later Carboniferous times (Middle and
Upper Carboniferous) numerous reefs formed

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

in the Urals, and there are many records of
“bioherms’’ in the Pennsylvanian of North
America: “ bioherms’”’ that on the whole are
like those of the Mississippian. The Akiyoshi
atoll continued to flourish. No Middle or Upper
Carboniferous reefs are known in South America,
Africa, Antarctica or Australia.

The Carboniferous reefs differ notably from
those of the Silurian and Devonian in the
relative unimportance of stromatoporoids and
tabulate corals.

Permian reefs are known in western North
America between 24° and 50°N. They differ
from those of earlier periods, mainly in the
absence of stromatoporoids and in the lesser
importance of the tabulate corals. They are
strongly developed in the Carnic Alps, in the
Urals, and in Japan in the Akiyoshi limestone
(and probably also in several limestone masses
similar to that of the Akiyoshi fossil atoll).
Permian reefs are not known in the Southern
Hemisphere, though colonial Rugosa occur in
northern New Zealand and in Timor.

Looking at the distribution of Palaeozoic
reefs today, we see that in the Northern Hemi-
sphere fossil reef provinces are clustered in the
present temperate zones (between 22-5° and
67-5°N.). Thus, unless the warm climatic
zones were wider in the Palaeozoic than now, or
unless the stromatoporoids and _ Palaeozoic
corals proliferated in reef profusion at lower
temperatures than do the reef corals of today,
the distribution of Palaeozoic fossil reefs is
anomalous. Some of the anomalies appear to be
lessened if we take the presently deduced palaeo-
magnetic latitudes to have had similar climatic
significance to the corresponding latitudes of
today and if we also assume continental drift.
But other difficulties, such as the Japanese
Carboniferous-Permian geosynclinal atoll of
Akiyoshi, can then only be explained if we add
to these two geophysical assumptions the
assumption either that warm water penetrated
into the palaeomagnetic high latitudes of
Akiyoshi or that the Akiyoshi reef invertebrates
proliferated in temperatures lower than those

required by the reef animals of today. It is
simplest to make one of the two _ latter
assumptions only.

References

ApaMs, J. E., 1953. Non-reef Limestone Reservoirs.
Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., 37, 2566-2569.
BARBAROUX, L., 1968. Les formations “ détritiques-
coralligénes ’’ carboniféres de la presquiile de
Brogger (baie du Roi—Vestspitzbergen). Bull.

Soc. geol. Fr., 9 (7), 714-722.

101

D. HILL

BEKKER, Yu. R., 1967. Formations du Dévonien
du versant Ouest des Monts Ourals. Jn Oswald,
D. H., 1967. International Symposium on the
Devonian System, Calgary, 2, 67-77.

BRIDEN, J. C., and IrvinG, E., 1964. Palaeolatitude
Spectra of Sedimentary Palaeoclimatic Indicators.
In Nairn, A. E. M., Problems in Palaeoclimatology.
Interscience Publishers, London, pp. 199-227.

Carozzi, A. V., and TExtToris, D. A., 1967. Paleozoic
Carbonate Microfacies of the Eastern Stable Interior
(U.S5.4.)." Ee J. Brill), Leiden:

DERoO, G., GAUTHIER, J., and SCHMERBER, G., 1967.
Etudes d’environnements carbonatés a propos
du Dévonien des Alpes Carniques. Ju Oswald,
D. H., 1967, International Symposium on_ the
Devonian System, Calgary, 2, 307-323.

DuMESTRE, A., and ILiinc, L. V., 1967. Middle
Devonian Reefs in Spanish Sahara. In Oswald,
D. H., 1967, International Symposium on _ the
Devonian System, Calgary, 2, 333-350.

ForRTIER, Y. O., BLACKADAR, R. G., GLENISTER, B. F.,
GREINER, H. R., McLaren, D. J., McMILran,
IN: Ja. NORRIS, A. W., Roots, -E.. Fo) SOUTHER,
J. G., THORSTEINSSON, R., and Tozer, E. T., 1963.
Geology of the North-Central Part of the Arctic
Archipelago, North-west Territories (Operation
Franklin). Mem. Can. geol. Surv., 320, 1-67].

DE Groot, G. E., 1963. Rugose Corals from the
Carbcniferous of Northern Palencia (Spain).
Leid. geol. Meded., 29, 1-123, pl. 1-26.

Happinec, A., 1950. Silurian Reefs of Gotland.

J. Geol., 58, 402-409.

Hitt, D., 1965. Geology 3. Archaeocyatha from
Antarctica and a Review of the Phylum. Sez.
Rept. Trans-Antarctic Exped. 1955-1958, No. 10,

fslepp., LZ, pls:

Hitt, D., 1971. The Zoogeography of the Lower
Carboniferous Corals. In Hallam, A., Atlas of
Palaeobiogeography. Elsevier, Amsterdam. (In
press.)

HriskeEvicu, M. E., 1970. Middle Devonian Reef
Production, Rainbow Area, Alberta, Canada.

Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., 54 (12), 2260-2281
27 figs.

Jux, U., 1966. Rhabdoporella im Boda-Kalk sowie
in Sandsteinen Dalarnes—(Ashgill, Schweden).
Palaeontogr. (B), 118, 166-183, pls. 41-44.

KLovan, J. E., 1964. Facies Analysis of the Redwater
Reef Complex, Alberta, Canada. Bull. Canad.
Petrol. Geol., 12, 1-100.

Kress, W., 1967. Reef Development in the Devonian
of the Eastern Rhenish State Mountains, Germany.
In Oswald, D. H., 1967, International Symposium
on the Devonian System, Calgary, 2, 295-306.

LrEs, A., 1964. The Structure and Origin of the
Waulsortian (Lower Carboniferous) “ Reefs’’ of
West-Central Eire. -Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond.,
(B), 247, 483-531.

LowENstTaM, H. A., 1957.
Great Lakes Area. Mem.
67 (2), 215-248.

Niagaran Reefs in the
Geol. Soc. Amer.,

MarTIN, R., 1967. Morphology of Some Devonian
Reefs in Alberta: A Palaeogeomorphological
Study. Jn Oswald, D. H., 1967, Inteynational

Symposium on the Devonian System, Calgary,
2, 365-385.

NALIVKIN, D. V., 1967. Devonian Reefs of the Urals.
In Oswald, D. H., 1967, International Symposium
on the Devonian System, Calgary, 2, 331-332.

NosBLeE, J. P. A., 1970. Biotacies, Analysis, . Caimi
Formation of Miette Reef Complex (Upper
Devonian) Jasper National Park, Alberta. Bull.
Canad. Petrol. Geol., 18 (4), 524-543.

Ota, M., 1968. The Akiyoshi Limestone Group.
A Geosynclinal Organic Reef Complex. Bull.
A kiyoshi-dai Sci. Mus., 5, 44 pp., 31 pls.

PajCHLova, M., and StasinskA, A., 1967. Formations
récifales du Dévonien de la Pologne. In Oswald,
D. H., 1967, International Symposium on the
Devonian System, Calgary, 2, 325-330.

PaREYN, C., 1961. Les nassifs carboniféves du Sahara

Sud-Ovanats. 2 vols. Centre nat. MRécherch.
Sci., ‘Paris;
PitcHER, M., 1964. Evolution of Chazyan (Ordo-

vician) Reefs of Eastern United States and Canada.
Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol., 12 (3), 632-691.
PLAYFORD, P. E., 1967. Devonian Reef Complexes in
the Northern Canning Basin, Western Australia.
In Oswald, D. H., 1967, International Symposium
on the Devonian System, Calgary, 2, 351-364.
PLAYFORD, P., 1969. Devonian Carbonate Complexes
of Alberta and Western Australia : A Comparative
Study. Rept. Geol. Surv. W. Aust., (n.s.), 1, 43 pp.
RAMSBOTTOM, W. H. C., 1969. Reef Distribution in

the British Lower Carboniferous. Nature, 222,
765-766.
RAUSER-CHERNOUSOVA, D. M., 1951. [Transl. and

Review by Elias, M. K., 1959, Facies of Upper
Carboniferous and Artinskian Deposits in the
Sterlitamak-Ishimbaevo Region of the Pre-Urals.
Based on a Study of the Fusulinids.] Internat,
Geol. FRev., 1 (2), 39-99.

RZHONSNITSKAYA, M. A., and Harin, G. S., 1967.
Devonian of the Kuznetsk Basin. In Oswald,
D. H., 1967, International Symposium on _ the
Devonian System, Calgary, 2, 85-88.

TExtToris, D. A., and Carozzi, A. V., 1964. Petro-
graphy and Evolution of Niagaran (Silurian)
Reefs, Indiana. Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol.,
48 (4), 397-426.

Toomey, D. F., 1970. An Unhurried Look at a Lower
Ordovician Mound Horizon, Southern Franklin
Mountains, West Texas. J. Sedi. Petrology,
40 (4), 1318-1334, figs. 1-15.

Tsien, H. H., 1971. The Middle and Upper Devonian
Reef-complexes of Belgium. Petrol. Geol. Taiwan,
8, 119-173, 39 figs.

VinoGRADOV, A. P., 1969. Atlas litologo-paleogeo-
grvaficheskikh kavt SSSR, Tom II, Moscow.

WOLFENDEN, E. B., 1958. Paleoecology of the
Carboniferous Reef Complex and Shelf Limestones
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(Received 20-8-71)

102

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 103-107, 1970

Potassium-Argon Ages for Leucite-Bearing Rocks from New South
Wales, Australia

P. WELLMAN
Department of Geophysics and Geochemistry, Australian National University

A. CUNDARI
School of Geology, University of Melbourne

AND

TAN McDouGAaLi
Department of Geophysics and Geochemistry, Australian National University

AgBsTRACT—The central New South Wales olivine leucitites have Miocene K-Ar ages

(14-10 m.y.) that overlap with the ages of the eastern New South Wales volcanic rocks.

The

Murrumburrah leucite monchiquite has a minimum K-Ar age of Early Jurassic.

In this paper we present K-Ar ages on the
two types of leucite-bearing volcanic rock in
New South Wales: olivine leucitite and leucite
monchiquite. These rocks were dated so as
to define their ages more closely than can be
done by stratigraphic geology.

The olivine leucitites have been described by
Mingaye and White (1904) and Harvey and
Joplin (1941) ; they occur in ten rather restricted
areas in central New South Wales (Figure 1)
as flows, minor pyroclastics and rare dykes
(Browne, 1933). The lavas must be younger
than the Lachlan Geosyncline rocks of Devonian
and older age that they rest upon. They are
generally regarded as Cenozoic because locally
they overlie sediments that are thought to be
Cenozoic in age (Branagan, 1969d), and because
they are still extant even though they have never
been protected from erosion by overlying
sediments. The leucite monchiquite is found
only as a small intrusive complex near Murrum-
burrah (Harvey and Joplin, 1941) in the eastern
highlands of N.S.W. (Figure 1). Its age can
only be defined as younger than the Devonian
granite (Evernden and Richards, 1962) that it
intrudes.

The K-Ar ages were determined on a 3-1 mm.
fraction of the crushed whole rock, or, in the
case of one sample, also on 0-25-0-125 mm.
mineral concentrates. The method of potassium
analysis used has been described by Cooper
(1963), and the method of argon analysis by
McDougall (1964, 1966). Analyses done in

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

B

duplicate give a precision for potassium analyses
of 0-5% (coefficient of variation) and for argon
analyses of 5-7%.

The unusually poor precision of the argon
analyses is most likely due not so much to poor
precision of the argon analysis itself as the
difficulty in obtaining representative splits from
such impure mineral concentrates. Details of
the localities of the dated samples are given in
the Appendix.

The reliability of the K-Ar ages obtained
depends both on the precision of the analytical
techniques and on the argon retention properties
of the main potassium-bearing phases in the
rocks. For these samples of olivine leucitite
it is estimated that the potassium is divided
among the minerals approximately as follows :
leucite 50-60%, nepheline and alkali feldspar
combined 30%, phlogopite up to 30%, and
clinopyroxene less than 1%. In flows and
shallow intrusions elsewhere it has been found
that nepheline, high temperature alkali feldspar
and phlogopite are generally reliable minerals
for K-Ar dating (Dalrymple and Lanphere,
1969), but virtually no data are available on the
reliability of leucite. In olivine leucitites the
whole rock age will be greatly influenced by the
leucite age, as over one-half of the potassium
resides in this mineral.

The K-Ar age of leucite in lava flows could be
too low due to loss of argon by diffusion, or too
high due to extraneous radiogenic argon included
in the lattice of the mineral prior to and during

103

P. WELLMAN ET AL

eruption. The rate of argon diffusion from
leucite is high at 500° C. (Evernden eé al., 1960),
probably because of the inversion of leucite to
cubic symmetry that is complete at 625°C.,
but direct measurement of argon diffusion from
leucite at low temperatures has not been made.
Also, leucite has never been tested for dating
by comparing ages measured on it with ages of
other co-existing minerals.

New South Wales

clinopyroxene and iron-titanium ore) which
apart from introducing sampling difficulties
should not unduly bias the phlogopite age. The
clinopyroxene concentrate was 99% pure, but~
because it had a high potassium content the
age may just be a reflection of the age of small
amounts of leucite within the concentrate.
The K-Ar results given in Table 1 show that the
phlogopite concentrate age agrees with that

FIGURE 1.—Map of New South Wales and Victoria to show the distribution of the Miocene olivine

leucitites that were dated (circles), not dated (triangles), pre-early Jurassic leucite monchiquite

intrusion (star), the Palaeocene to Miocene volcanics of Victoria and New South Wales (black) and
the Pliocene to Quaternary Newer Basalts of Victoria (shaded).

In this study both mineral and whole rock
ages were determined on a sample (GA3470) of
coarse grained olivine leucitite with subequi-
granular texture from a flow at Begargo Hill.
The leucite concentrate obtained was about 99%
pure. The phlogopite concentrate contained
about 50% low potassiurn minerals (iddingsite,

104

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal

of the leucite within experimental error at 13-8 |
(2 xs.d.=0-8) m.y. The leucite and phlogopite |
ages both probably reflect the time of crystal- |
lization, as the sample is from a surface flow |
that is unlikely to have been heated after |
extrusion. The pyroxene concentrate and the)
whole rock ages are also concordant within)

Society of New South Wales, Vol. 108, Pts. 3/4, 1970

POTASSIUM-ARGON AGES FOR LEUCITE-BEARING ROCKS FROM N.S.W.

TABLE 1
K-Ar Ages
Rad. Ar Rad.*°Ar Mean
K co SEP Age 2 Xs.d. Age | 2xs.d.
(%) gm.10-° (%) (m.y.) | (m.y.) | (m.y.) | (m.y.)
Olivine Leucitites :
GA 3470 Begargo Hill |
WR 4-869, 4-893 2-673 84-9 13-6 +0°3 13-3 | +0°6
2-520 89-0 12-9 +0°3 |
Pyroxene 0-118, 0-113 0: 066 12:8 14-4 +0:7 14:4 +0°7
Leucite 16-10, 16-42 9-690 95-7 14-9 +0:°6
8-766 96-0 13-4 +0°-5 14-1 +1-4
8-941 94-6 13-7 +0°5 |
Phlogopite |
concentrate 3°389 1-715 Moe) 12-6 +0°7 13-5 +2:-2
1-960 33-6 14 +0°-5
GA 3471] Begargo Hill
WR 3°901, 3-913 1-708 74-0 10-9 +0°-3
1-592 84-8 10-2 +0:-2 10-6 | +0-6
GA 3472 Bygalore WR 5-322, 5-318 2-070 53-2 9-8 +0-3
GA 3473 Bygalore Trig
WR 5-294, 5-270 2-592 49-1 12-3 +0°3
GA 3474 Gorman Hills
WR 4-558, 4-580 2-288 78:9 12-5 +0°3
GA 3475 Tullibigeal
WR 6-074, 6-082 2°437 74-2 10-1 +0-3
GA 3476 Condobolin
WR 4-364, 4-366 2-204 42-5 12-6 +0-4
GA 3478 Lake Cargel-
lico WR 4-575, 4-572 2-071 49-0 11-3 +0-2
2-326 48-0 12°7 +0:2
GA 3479 El Capitan
WR 5:871, 6-044 2-845 91-8 11-9 +0°3 |
GA 3480 Burgooney
3°637, 3-638 1-984 73-1 13-6 +0°3
GA 3481 Flagstaff H.
WR 4-374, 4-366 1-758 82-3 10-1 +0°3
Leucite Monchiquite :
70-139 Murrumburrah |
WR 1-036, — 1-031 8-404 92-1] 194 +3 |
Apg=0-472 10% yr.-1; Ae =0°585 10-M yr.-1; *K/K=0-119 10-3; WR=whole rock.

experimental error.

These limited data are
consistent with the whole rock ages of olivine
leucitite flows being unbiassed estimates of the
time of their extrusion.

The olivine leucitites give whole rock ages

The

that range from 14 to 10 m.y. (Table 1).
‘Measured ages all fall within the Miocene
(Harland e al., 1964), and are consistent with
the Cenozoic age suggested by the field evidence.
The ages suggest that at both Bygalore and
Begargo Hill eruptions of olivine leucitite
may have occurred over periods of the order of
2m.y. However, in both areas, because of

| Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

discontinuous outcrop, the stratigraphic relations
between the outcrops cannot be _ inferred.
Hence we cannot tell whether these age differ-
ences truly represent prolonged periods of
extrusion, or are merely a reflection of differing
amounts of argon loss.

Lavas also of Late Cenozoic age cover large
areas of the coastal highlands of south-eastern
Australia. Those in western Victoria, the Newer
Basalts, have a known age range of 4:5 to 0 m.y.
(McDougall e¢ al., 1966) and hence are younger
than the olivine leucitites, while those in north-
east N.S.W. have a known time range of 24

105

P. WELLMAN ET AL

to 13m.y. (McDougall and Wilkinson, 1967 ;
Webb ef al., 1967; Wellman et al., 1969), so
that they partly overlap the olivine leucitites
in time. The olivine leucitites lie in a separate
belt, are slightly younger in age, and have a
strikingly different composition from these
other volcanic rocks in N.S.W., so a separate
origin for them is postulated. However, the
outcrop pattern of olivine leucitites is approxi-
mately parallel to the main belt of outcrop of
the other Cenozoic lavas of N.S.W., and to the
coast of N.S.W., so that there is probably some
important structural control of the location
of the eruptive centres.

The Murrumburrah leucite monchiquite gives
a minimum whole rock age of 194+3 m.y., and
is therefore earliest Jurassic or older in age
(Harland, 1964). This is consistent with the
post-Devonian age suggested by the geological
control. The minimum age of earliest Jurassic
is similar to the Early Jurassic age measured
for many other small intrusions and flows in
the south-eastern N.S.W. highlands (Evernden
and Richards, 1962; Lovering and Richards,
1964; Dulhunty and McDougall, 1966;
Branagan, 1969a). As the Murrumburrah
leucite monchiquite is similar to these other
intrusions in location, mode of occurrence, and
age, it is probably part of this early Jurassic
period of igneous activity.

The central N.S.W. olivine leucitites differ
from the Murrumburrah leucite monchiquite
in age, in chemical composition, and in location.
The olivine leucitites are probably associated
in some way with the Cenozoic volcanism in
eastern N.S.W., while the leucite monchiquite
is probably associated with the early Jurassic
volcanism in eastern N.S.W.

Appendix
All specimens except No. 70-139 are olivine-leucitites
composed essentially of leucite, clinopyroxene, olivine
and iron-titanium ore. Biotite, nepheline, sanidine
and amphibole in various proportions occur as acces-

sories. The structures are generally microporphyritic

with fully crystallized aphanitic groundmasses.

Pertinent references are summarized by Vallance

(1969).

GA 3470. Begargo Hill. Relatively coarse-grained
(av. grain-size 1~2 mm.) lava with steeply-
dipping jointing from small volcanic
complex.

Long. 146° 22’E. Lat. 33°31’S. G.R.,
SI 55-6: 436857.

GA 3471. Begargo Hill. Fine-grained lava forming
most of the volcano.
Location references as above.

GA 3472. Bygalore. Low, dissected ridge probably
relict of lava flow.

Long. 146° 46°E. Lat. 33°30’S. G.R.,
SI 55-6: 478861.
106

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

GA 3473. Mount Bygalore (The Monument). Steep-
sided dyke structure with prominent
vertical jointing.

Long. 146° 45’E. Lat. 33° 31S, Gig
SI 55-6: 477858. 3

GA 3474. Gorman Hills. Lava flow from small
dissected volcanic complex.

Long. 146° 47°F. Lat. 33°°237S. G.Re
SI 55-6: 480875.

GA 3475. Tullibigeal. Crescentic, dissected ridge,
probably relict of a lava flow.

Long. 146° 39°E. Lat. 33° 27°S. G.Re@
SI 55-6: 467865.

GA 3476. Condobolin (Weebar Hill). Crescentic
ridge, probably remnant of a lava flow.
Long. 147° O1’E. Lat. 33° 10'S. G.R@
SI 55-7: 504900.

GA 3478. Lake Cargellico. Conspicuous, relatively
large remnant of a lava flow forming a
fingered outcrop. Long. 146° 20’ E. Lat.
33°17°S. G.R., SI 55-6: 434886.

GA 3479. El Capitan. Flow remnant of lava infilling
along valleys (Cundari and Ollier, 1970).
Long. 146° 12’E. Lat. 31°11’S. G.Rg
SH 55-14: 420141.

GA 3480. Burgooney. Small, isolated flow remnant,
probably related to the Tullibigeal complex.
Long. 146° 37’E. Lat. 33° 21°S. G.R@
SI 55-6: 464878.

GA 3481. Flagstaff Hill. Lava flow from _ small
volcanic complex with well preserved
scoTia cone.

Long. 146° 05’ E. Lat. 33°47’S. G.Ra
SI 55-6: 408826.

70-139. Murrumburrah. Leucite-monchiquite dyke
described by Harvey and Joplin (1941).
Long. 148° 21’E. Lat. 34° 34’S. ‘G.R@
SI 55-11: 636728.

References

BRANAGAN, D. F., 1969a. Palaeovolcanology in New —
South Wales: A Stratigraphic Summary. Spec.
Publs. geol. Soc. Aust., 2, 155-161. |

BRANAGAN, D. F., 1969b. Cainozoic Rocks Outside
the Murray Basin. (a) West of the Dividing
Range. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 543-545. |

Browne, W. R., 1933. Presidential Address, Part II. |
An Account of the Post-Palaeozoic Igneous |
Activity in New South Wales. J. Proc. R. Soe.
N.S.W., 67, 9-95. |

CooPER, J. A., 1963. The Flame Photometric Deter- —
mination of Potassium in Geological Minerals |
Used for Potassium/Argon Dating. Geochim. |
Cosmochim. Acta, 27, 525-46.

CUNDARI, A., and OLtmrR, ‘C.D. 11970:
Relief Due to Lava Flows along Valleys.
Geogr., 11, 291-293.

DALRYMPLE, G. B., and LANPHERE, M. A., 1969. |
Potassium Argon Dating. W. H. Freeman and |
Company, San Francisco. }

DuLuHuNTy, J. A., and -McDovueat., I., 196RR
Potassium-Argon Dating of Basalts in the Coona- |
barabran-Gunnedah District, New South Wales. |
Aust. J. Sct., 28, 393-394.

EVERNDEN, J. F., Curtis, G. H., KisttEr, R. W., andy

Inverted |
Aust, |

OBRADOVICH, J., 1960. Argon Diffusion in
Glauconite, Microcline, Sanidine, Leucite, and
Phlogopite. Am. Jour. Sci., 258, 583-605.

POTASSIUM-ARGON AGES FOR LEUCITE-BEARING ROCKS FROM N.S.W.

EVERNDEN, J. R., and Ricuarps, J. R., 1962.
Potassium-Argon Ages in Eastern Australia.
J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 9, 1-49.

HARLAND, W. B., SmiTH, A. G., and WILCOCK, B., 1964.
The Phanerozoic Time-Scale. Geological Society
of London.

Harvey, H., and Jopiin, G. A., 1941. A Note on
Some Leucite-bearing Rocks from N.S.W., with
Special Reference to an Ultrabasic Occurrence at
Murrumburrah. J. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W., 74,
419-442.

LovERING, J. F., and RuicHarps, J. R., 1964.
Potassium-Argon Age Study of Possible Lower-
crust and Upper Mantle Inclusions in Deep-seated
Intrusions. Journ. Geoph. Res., 69, 4895-4901.

McDoveaa.t, I., 1864. Potassium-Argon Ages from
Lavas of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., 75, 107-128.

McDovucaLL, I., 1966. Precision Methods. of
Potassium-Argon Isotopic Age Determinations
on Young Rocks. Methods and Techniques in
Geophysics, ed. S. K. Runcorn, 2, 279-304. Inter-
science, London.

McDouGAa.L.L, I., Atitsopp, H. L., and CHAMALAUN,
F. H., 1966. Isotopic Dating of the New Volcanics
of Victoria, Australia, and Geomagnetic Polarity

Epochs. J. Geophy. Res., 71, 6107-6117.
McDovuaa.t, I., and Wirxinson, J. F. G., 1967.
Potassium-Argon Dates on Some _ Cainozoic

Volcanic Rocks from Northeastern New South
Wales. J. geol. Soc. Aust., 14, 225-233.

MINGAYE, J. C. H., and WuiTE, H. P., 1904. Analyses
of Leucite-Basalts and Olivine from N.S.W.
Geol. Surv. N.S.W. Rec., 7, 301-304.

Wess, A. W., STEVENS, N. C., and McDouaGatt, I.,
1967. Isotopic Age Determinations on Tertiary
Volcanic Rocks and Intrusives of South-eastern
Queensland. Pyvoc. R. Soc. Qd., 79, 79-92.

WELLMAN, P., McELHiINNy, M. W., and McDOUuUGALL, I.,

1969. On the Polar-wander Path for Australia
during the Cenozoic. Geophy. J. R. ast. Soe.,
18, 371-395.

VALLANCE, T. G., 1969. Mesozoic and Cainozoic

Igneous Rocks. (a) Central and Southern New
South Wales. J. geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 513-529.

(Received 9. Feb. 1971)

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

107

|

duced by exocrine,
which commonly open to the exterior, and vary
mm number,

|

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 109-118, 1970

Chemistry of Some Insect Secretions*

Ge Welk] CAvice

School of Chemistry, The University of New South Michie
Kensington, N.S.W., 2038

Introduction
A number of the secretions used by insects
and other arthropods for defensive purposes,
as venoms, and as chemical messengers in their
patterns of social organization have been
characterized.!:,3 These secretions are pro-
that is ducted glands,

complexity and location. For

example, Figure 1 illustrates the exocrine gland
system of the primitive Australian ant, Myrmecia

_gulosa.*

Generally, defensive secretions are used by
insects to prevent or discourage their enemies
from interfering in their life patterns.1 The
venoms, communicated by biting or stinging,
are used to kill or incapacitate the prey forming
food for the insect or its young.” The exocrine

secretions used as chemical messengers are

termed pheromones.?

They convey signals

between individuals of the same or closely

related species concerning, for example, food

sources, mating or the presence of enemies.

The broad categories—defensive — secretions,
venoms, pheromones—are not mutually
-exclusive, and a given secretion may have

more than one function.

The pheromones,
as products of ducted endocrine glands, can be
distinguished from hormones, which are products

of ductless endocrine glands.

The chemistry of insect secretions has been
studied, in detail, essentially in the last two
decades. Whilst the work of pioneers such as
Butenandt and his colleagues precedes this

period, their structural studies on the sex

pheromone,
Bombyx mori were not brought to fruition

and the moulting hormone of

until the 1960’s.5 The earliest report of a

chemical investigation on an insect secretion

would appear to be one by the English botanist

- John Wray, who noted® in 1670 that Samuel

Fisher had obtained an acid, formic, by dry
distillation of wood ants. The chemical
characterization of formic acid was undertaken

* The Liversidge Research Lecture, delivered before

the Royal Society of New South Wales, 22nd October,

1970.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

by Berzelius’ and Liebig® early in the nineteenth
century. A number of biological observations
on odoriferous insect secretions—some fragrant
and others repugnant—have since been noted,?
but these observations do not appear to have
been followed up to any great extent by the
chemist interested in natural products. Whilst
the structure of cantharidin was investigated
at the beginning of the twentieth century, this
work does not appear to have been directed
per se to an understanding of insect secretions.”

fr’

a

'
wa’

FIGURE 1.—Exocrine gland system of the bull ant,

(A) Pharyngeal glands; (B) man-
(C) salivary reservoirs; (D) salivary
glands ; (E) metasternal glands ; (F) venom reservoir ;
(G) venom glands; (H) accessory gland; (I) dorsal

abdominal glands (Cavill and Robertson’).

Myrmecia gulosa.
dibular glands ;

109

G. W. K.

In the present lecture emphasis is placed on
aspects of the chemistry of insect secretions
that have interested us since 1952.*

Defensive Secretions, Venoms and
Pheromones

In 1949, in the course of a search for anti-
biotics of animal origin, the Italian entomologist
Pavan isolated iridomyrmecin (3) from anal
glands of the Argentine ant, Ividomyrmex
humits.4 In 1952 he reported to the Ninth
International Congress of Entomology that

0

we

2-METHYLHEPT -2-EN-G-ONE (1)

0

ee gk

HEPTAN - 2-ONE

CHO
a
CHO ne
IRIDODIAL (2)

hs he

ISOIRIDOMYRMECIN (4)

IRIDOMYRMECIN (3)

Pee

2-METHYLHEPTAN -4 -ONE

CAVILEL

Total extraction of the common Australian |

“meat ’
petroleum gave 2-methylhept-2-en-6-one
and iridodial (2),43:14 the then novel 1,54
dialdehyde corresponding to iridomyrmecin.
These anal gland constituents represented
approximately 4% and 1% of body weight,

ant, Iridomyrmex detectus, with light

(Te

|
|
|
|
|
|

respectively. Methylheptenone is now known

to function as an alarm pheromone? as well as
being a defensive secretion. A number of
simple carbonyl compounds have been
characterized from Dolichoderine ants and other

¢) 0)

ee

4-METHYL HEXAN - 2-ONE

(@)
Dee

ISOVALERIC ACID

: CHO

DOLICHODIAL

o¢

ISODIHYDRONEPETALACTONE (5)

FIGURE 2.—Dolichoderine ant extractives.

iridomyrmecin was insecticidal.!2 This observa-
tion has prompted much of the interest since
shown in defensive secretions.

A defensive secretion, often present in a
relatively large amount, may be isolated as a
major component by total extraction of the
insects. The source of the material has then
to be determined, odour and abundance enabling
the rapid location of its glandular origin.

* Studies on insect chemistry in the University of
New South Wales have received generous financial
support from the Commonwealth Bank of Australia
Rural Credits Development Fund, from the U.S.
Public Health Service, and from the Australian
Research Grants Committee.

110 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal

insects (see Figure 2).
unsaturated ketones have ‘ knockdown
insecticidal activity (see Table 1).1° The
activity of these ketones, on the basis of ECs»
values, compares quite favourably with that of
some well-known fumigants, but their volatility
renders their contact toxicity slight when

”

compared with, for example, that of the
pyrethrins.
The cyclopentanoid monoterpenes (see

Figure 2) are also major constituents of the
anal gland secretion of various species of
Dolichoderine ants. The structure and stereo-
chemistry of the iridolactones, iridomyrmecin (3)
and isoiridomyrmecin (4), and of iridodial (2),

Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 |

These saturated and

CHEMISTRY OF SOME

TABLE 1

“ Knockdown’’ Effect of the Vapour of Some
Aliphatic Ketones and Other Fumiganis'®

Compound EG.;7
2-Methylhept-2-en-6-one (1).. 1-33
6-methylheptan-2-one 24]
6-methylhept-3-en-2-one Pole

. 4-methylpent-3-en-2-one 2-6
ethylene dichloride 5
ethyl formate .. 6
ethyl acetate .. 16
* EC, is the vapour concentration in yl./I.

required to give 50% knockdown of female
houseflies in 2-5 hr.

were established in the mid 1950’s.17 More
recently a re-investigation of the anal gland
secretion of Iridomyrmex nitidus gave isodihydro-
nepetalactone (5) in addition to isoirido-
-myrmecin.1® These defensive substances of
insect origin are structurally related to nepeta-
lactone (6), the physiologically active principle
of the catmint plant, Nepeta cataria, through
the nepetalinic acids.19 For example, oxidation
of iridomyrmecin with aqueous potassium
permanganate solution gave the nepetalinic
acid (7),14, 2° which is one of the two acids (7)
-and (8) originally isolated on hydrolysis and
oxidation of nepetalactone (see Figure 3).

The suggested formation of iridodial in nature
from citronellal by a terminal oxidation of the

cis , trans —- NEPETALAC TONE
Lex Nepeta cataria |

| Hydro lysis joxid ation

\ \

COOH COOH

(7) (8)

THE cis ,trans -NEPETALINIC ACIDS
t Oxidation f
IRIDOMYRMECIN (3) — |SOIRIDOMYRMECIN (4)

FicurE 3.—Interrelation of cis,tvans-nepetalactone and
the iridolactones.

(6)

COOH

|

| Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol, 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

INSECT SECRETIONS

isopropylidene group, and then cyclization of
the intermediate unsaturated dialdehyde (17)
was simulated in the first synthesis of iridodial
by Sir Robert Robinson and his co-workers
(see Figure 4).?!_ Citronellal (9), as its ethylene
acetal (10) was oxidized with selenium dioxide
in ethanol, and the product, on treatment with

ele CHO
a
UM ep CHO
c
ll
0 0
H+

(12) (11)
re

FIGURE 4.—Synthesis of iridodial from citronellal (Sir
Robert Robinson and co-workers??).

aqueous acetic acid, gave iridodial (12) together
with the acyclic dialdehyde (17). A likely
mechanism for the cyclization involves an enolic
intermediate of type (13), and hence a ¢rans-
relationship of the adjacent 1- and 2-substituents
would be expected in the resultant iridodials.
Additionally, equilibration of the centres a
to the two formyl groups could occur, so that
the iridodial should contain the ¢tvans,trans-,
trans,cis- and cis,tvans-isomers.*

Iridodial from the “meat” ant I. detectus
was considered to be a mixture of the czs,tvans-
and ¢vans,cis-isomers, with the former pre-
dominating.” However, the tvans,cis-isomers
may have resulted from a partial equilibration
of the czs,tvans-iridodial during isolation and
purification. A stereospecific synthesis of the
cis,tvrans-iridodial (20), that is, the enantiomer
of the czs,tvans-irododial related to _ irido-
myrmecin, was undertaken? so that an iridodial

* In the designation of configuration, the relationship
of the substituents at Cl and C2 is given first, and that
at C2 and C3 second. For example, formula (20)
is a cts,tvans-iridodial.

111

G. W. K.

of established configuration at each of the four
optically active centres, would be available for
comparative gas chromatography and, more-
over, would provide a reference point for the
determination of the stereochemistry of
iridodials, and related enol-lactol tautomers,
of insect and plant origin.

CAVILL

acid. A likely mechanism for this conversion —
is given in Figure 6 (cf. 7).

Epoxidation of the conjugated double bond >
with alkaline hydrogen peroxide solution, thence
fission of the epoxide (27), and loss of a molecule —
of water in the presence of mineral acid, gave -
the hydroxybicyclo-octenone (18a) as a

7CO0H 0
me , a
es 0 EC Cx 3
tas _4
(14) (5) (16)
OH
0
‘ei oo ee ‘ei OR c
ra Le 4
(18a SR] H: (17)
IBb , R=Ac )
OH

(20)

FIGURE 5.—A stereospecific synthesis of iridodial (Achmad and Cavill?9).

This synthesis depended on the availability
of (+)-trans-pulegenic acid (14) which was
obtained from D-(-++)-pulegone by a Favorskii
rearrangement of the freshly prepared dibromide
with sodium ethoxide in ethanol.

Treatment of the (-+)-pulegenic acid (4)
with hydrochloric acid in methanol gave the
y-lactone (15) in good yield. The more stable
cis-fused structure was assigned to this lactone,
whilst the czs,tvans-configuration at the cyclo-
pentane ring is that required in the final product.
The key step in the synthesis was the conversion
of this y-lactone into the corresponding bicyclo-
octenone (16) by the action of polyphosphoric

112

crystalline solid. Hydrogenation of the acetoxy-
bicyclo-octenone, thence hydrolysis of the
acetoxy group with alkali, yielded the inter-_
mediate glycol. On the basis that hydrogen
had been added from the least hindered side of |
(18b), the glycol was assigned structure (19).
The final stop was fission of this bicyclic diol
with sodium metaperiodate, yielding the
cis,trans-iridodial (20). | The stereochemical
assignments were confirmed by oxidation of the
synthetic iridodial (20) with zine permanganate.
The expected nepetalinic acid (21), that is the
enantiomer of (7), was isolated, and identified
by a gas chromatographic comparison of its”

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

|
|
|

|

\linate obtained
| myrmecin.”8

established for the

studied in detail in recent years.?6

CHEMISTRY OF SOME INSECT SECRETIONS

methyl ester with that of the dimethyl nepeta-
via the oxidation of irido-

Further gas chromatographic studies using

| the freshly prepared synthetic iridodial (20),

and natural iridodial from J. detectus, showed

that the natural product is a mixture consisting
_ predominantly of the cis,tvans-isomers corres-

ponding to isoiridomyrmecin and iridomyrmecin.

(15)

: 6)
o1) — ord

(16)

FIGURE 6.—Conversion of the y-lactone (15) into the bicyclo-octenone (16).

,

Iridodial does not show a “ knockdown’
insecticidal effect comparable with that
iridolactones. It was

suggested?* that iridodial may function as a

fixative for the more _ volatile carbonyl
compounds with which it is usually associated ;
in this case it is the ketones that have the
“knockdown” action. More recently, in a
study of the anal gland secretion of Ividomyrmex
mitidiceps, which comprises iridodial and
isovaleric acid, it was noted that iridodial could

be contributing to the alarm pheromonal

pattern for this insect.?5

The venoms of the stinging Hymenoptera,
especially of the bees and wasps, have been
However,

until the recent work in Australia on the venom
of the “ bull-dog”’ ants, knowledge of protein-

| Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 108, Pts. 3/4, 1970

aceous ant venoms was sparse. In particular,
the venom of the primitive red “ bull-dog ”’
ant, Myrmecia gulosa, well known for its
aggressive behaviour and painful sting, has
been characterized.?27_ The venom is synthesized
in the free gland filaments, stored in the venom
sac or reservoir, then delivered by the duct to
the sting barb. The Dufour’s (accessory venom)
gland secretion would also be delivered via

0
//

_-C —OPPA

(PPA =polyphosphoric acid.)

the sting barb. The venom was isolated after
individual collection of these ants, and dissection
of the reservoirs, the yield on a dry weight
basis being 0-5 mg./ant.

The venom is a proteinaceous one, and acid
hydrolysis showed the presence of at least 19
aminoacids.?®& The crude venom was resolved
into eight fractions by paper electrophoresis
(see Figure 7). Fraction I was identified as
histamine ; it comprises 2°% of the venom.??
A histamine-releaser was also identified in the
whole venom of bull-dog ants.?° Fractions II
to VIII were stained by the protein dyes
bromophenol blue and Amidoschwarz 10B.
Of these proteinaceous fractions, IV and V
showed a sustained kinin-like activity,®® whilst
fraction VII contained a direct, heat labile
haemolytic factor,?” this activity being used in

113

Gi Wak:

bioassay. Further, the venom contains a small
protein molecule not associated with a single
electrophoretic fraction, which is an inhibitor
of insect mitochondrial respiration.?® 34
Fractions IV and V also showed hyaluronidase
activity,?’» 28 while phospholipase C activity
was associated with fraction VI.28 Thus the
venom of M. gulosa, and also that of related
“ bull-dog ”’ ants, is typical of the hymenopterous
proteinaceous venoms: it contains a low

2 QW?

I II

NINHY DRIN
STAIN

WW V VIVO Vu

AMIDOSCHWARZ
STAIN

CATHODE

ANO DE

FIGURE 17.—Electrophoretic separation of M. gulosa
venom. (After Cavill, Robertson and Whitfield.?’)

molecular weight physiologically active amine,
biogenic peptides, proteins and toxins, and
enzymes (cf. **). The “ bull-dog’”’ ant venoms
are effective in killing their insect and other
prey, also they are capable of inflicting pain on
predators, including man, and hence are highly
efficient in defence. Injection of saline extracts
of the crude venom of Myrmecia pyriformis into
mice shows that this venom is quite toxic ;
the LD,, was estimated to be 2-10 mg./kg. body
weight.2° The LD,, for M. gulosa venom
injected into the house fly, Musca domestica,
was ~10 ug./g.*3

Recently, a study of the glandular origin and
pattern of pheromonal activity involved in
aggression in the “ bull-dog”’ ant, M. gulosa,
was undertaken.?4 The presence of at least
three pheromones, a minor alarm pheromone
in the rectal secretion which alerts the ant, a
major alarm pheromone in Dufour’s gland which
activates the ant, and an attack pheromone in
the mandibular glands, are involved in the
pattern which results in stinging by these insects.
No pheromonal activity was noted for the
venom.

Some twelve hydrocarbons were reported*®
from the Dufour’s gland, these components
comprising 0:06%% of the body weight of the
insect. The major constituents were penta-
decane (17%), czs-heptadec-8-ene (62°%), and
heptadecane (49%). In passing, it is noted
that these hydrocarbons correspond in structure
and proportion to the major free fatty acids

114

CAVILL

isolated from M. gulosa, that is, palmitic, oleic
and _ stearic. The Dufour’s
carbons, whilst having a minor alarm effect,
do not represent the alarm pheromone.
a complex pattern of pheromonal activity has
been established, but the chemical problem has
yet to be solved.

The characterization of Dufour’s gland
constituents has also been achieved in more
highly evolved ant species. Thus a-farnesene
(22) was isolated from this gland in the
Myrmicine ant Aphaenogaster longiceps.2” This
single constituent represents some 49% of the
body weight of the insect. Current work on the
Dufour’s gland secretion of the Formicine ant,

Camponotus intrepidus, again shows the presence

of aliphatic hydrocarbons, within the range
Cy) to Cy, The normal alkanes are the major
constituents (81°%), together with a series of
3-methyl (16%) and 5-methylalkanes (2-3°%).
Alk-l-enes are minor constituents (~0-29%{).38

There has been, and still is, conjecture as to
the function of the above hydrocarbons. Their
presence in the sting-bearing Myrmeciinae is.
not inconsistent with one of the earlier proposals
that Dufour’s gland secretion may function in
the Hymenoptera, in general, as a sting lubricant.
However, a remarkably wide range of feeding,
foraging and nesting habits is displayed within
the Formicidae and it is considered likely that
the function of Dufour’s gland secretion in
relation to these habits could have undergone
considerable change from the more primitive

Myrmeciinae to the more advanced Myrmicinae |

and Formicinae (cf. *).

HO 1
OH
HO
H
ie)
oc - FARNESE.NE (22) ECDYSONE (23)
Hormones

Whereas pheromones are products of the
exocrine system and convey chemical signals

between members of the same or closely related —
species, hormones are products of the endocrine —
system and convey signals between tissues —

within an individual of the species.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 ©

|

|

gland hydro- |
Thus

f
i
|

CHEMISTRY OF SOME INSECT SECRETIONS

X<

A.
0 ~
A.

te

ho.

fe) ie) S
es Ny Rae COOMe

(38)

OR
COOMe — ~. cs
(24) (39)

FIGURE 8.—Synthesis of the juvenile hormone (Cavill, Laing and Williams‘’).

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 115

GW. OK,

Present knowledge of the hormonal control
of insect development stems largely from the
pioneering studies of Sir Vincent Wigglesworth.?®
At least three hormones, one originating in the
brain, the juvenile hormone, and the moulting
hormone, are involved in the regulation of
post-embryonic development in insects which
is characterized by moulting and metamor-
phosis. The structure of the brain hormone is
unknown. The moulting hormone, ecdysone (28),
isolated from the pupae of the silkworm,
Bombyx mori, is steroidal.®

CAVILL

applicable to the synthesis of homologues andil
analogues.

The structure was built up from three units,
of which the key C,, unit was the tvans- acetonide
of 7 - oxo -3-methylnonane - 3,4- diol (26),
Sequential Wittig reactions were used to add
the C, unit (27) and the C, unit (28). These
steps were modelled in a synthesis of the
bisnor-hormone (25).4° The chain-extending
steps introduced the two olefinic bonds of (24),
and at each step the required ¢vans-isomer was
separated by preparative gas chromatography.

Me
\ Boe

ec
\ No
OH ‘
(29) (30) (31)
‘i ) Me
Et /C — © —. CH, CH, =30=— Et. ae ME pate a0 |
9 CH. Et — C— C— CH= CH—C—Et
| | | Sc ee ee) |
OH 9) OH O Q
| (2)
Me Me Me
ls 4 7 | |
Et — | — i — CH. CH, — CH — Et—»Et — C — CHCH,CH.CH Ete Et — C — CHCHaCHo C Et
OH OH OH 5 OH i 0
(35) (34)
FIGURE 9.—Synthesis of the acetonide of 7-oxo-3-methylnonane-3,4-diol (34).
In 1967 the juvenile hormone from the giant Finally, the intermediate ester (38) was

silkworm moth, Hyalophora cecropia, was shown
to have a modified sesquiterpenoid structure
(24).4° Currently this hormone is attracting
much attention as its action in preventing
maturation to the adult form renders it of
potential value in insect control.” Not
unexpectedly, a number of juvenile hormone
syntheses have now been reported.42 The
synthesis, presently described,*#? follows our
earlier work on «-farnesene (cf. 3”).

Structurally, the hormone may be considered
as a bishomologue of the known sesquiterpenoid,

methyl 10,11 - epoxy - 3,7,11 - trimethyl -
dodeca-2,6- dienoate (25) which shows high
juvenile hormone activitye- That is) ainthe

hormone (24) two ethyl substituents replace the
methyl groups at C7 and C11 in (25). The
method of synthesis is a general one, being

116

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales,

converted into the czs-10,11-epoxide structure
of (24) via the 10,11-diol monomesylate (39).
The C,, unit was synthesized from 2-ethyl-
furan (29). The appropriate substituents were
introduced into the furanoid intermediates,
and importantly the furan (30), provides the
genesis of the oxygen functions for the keto-
acetonide (26). The furan (30), on treatment
with bromine in methanol, gave the dihydrofuran
derivative (37). Hydrolysis of this cyclic acetal
with dilute hydrochloric acid yielded the
dihydropyranone (32). Hydrogenation of (32)
and reduction of the intermediate hydroxy-
diketone with sodium borohydride gave the
triol (33). From the mode of synthesis of this
acyclic triol (33), the centres at C3 and C4 are
racemic, and the derived ketoacetonide (34)
would be a mixture of enantiomeric pairs of

Vol. 108, Pts. 3/4, 1970

/

|

cis- and trans-isomers about the 1,3-dioxalan
_Ting. The threo-form of the triol (35) would
give the trans-ketoacetonide (26), and thence
the cis-expoide (24) (see Figure 10). Separation
of the threo- and erythro-forms of the triol was
achieved using an alumina column impregnated
with boric acid for elution chromatography.
At this stage configuration was assigned to the
_trans-ketoacetonide (26) on the basis of
comparative n.m.r. data (see reference 43).
The chemical shift value (5) of the singlet for
the protons (3H) of the methyl group situated
trans to the hydrogen atom on the dioxalan
ring in 26, was compared with that for the
| equivalent methyl group in the known*é

]

CHEMISTRY OF SOME INSECT SECRETIONS

time was separated from the ¢vans,cis-isomer by
preparative gas chromatography, and subjected
to the second Wittig reaction with the sodium
salt of trimethylphosphonoacetate (28). The
required ¢vans,trans,trans-product (38)* of
longer retention time was separated from the
trans,cis,trans-isomer. Finally, an acid hydrolysis
of the isopropylidene group, and conversion
of the diol into its monomesylate (39, R=Ms),
then treatment with sodium methoxide in
methanol, gave the required czs-epoxide (24).%8

Whether the natural product is one of the
optical antipodes, or the racemate, has yet to
be determined, also resolution of the racemic
hormone, as synthesized, has yet to be reported.

| CH CHy
P cm
bie CH,CH, +H H lH
i ee ee — CH3 --—C—c-—-—Ch3
0

| 0
imHO — Cc —H < So

-CH,— C —0oOH

|

CH.CHy

5, threo] (26, R=CHCH_COCH,CH 3 | (3c)

cis-tetramethyl dioxalan (36). The methyl and
hydrogen substituents at C4 and C5 in this
model dioxalan (36) are, of course, tvans. The
signal for the protons of the tertiary methyl
group appears at approximately 0-1 p.p.m.
upfield from the tvans-ketoacetonide and related
compounds, compared with the equivalent
cis-isomers.

Reaction of the tvans-ketoacetonide (26)
with the Wittig reagent prepared from (27)
gave a mixture of the czs- and tvans-isomers
of the bisacetal. Selective hydrolysis of the
ethylene acetal was achieved using toluene-p-
sulphonic acid in the presence of a large excess
of acetone (cf. ). The required trans,trans-
dodecenone (37) having the longer retention

FiGuRE 10.—Stereochemistry of the acetonide (26). (After Cavill, Laing and Williams. 4?)

Conclusion

In summary, I would refer to more general
aspects of the chemistry and biology of insect
secretions.

The defensive secretions that have been
characterized are broadly grouped as
(a) terpenoids and_ steroids, (b) aliphatics,
primarily simple oxygenated alcohols, carbonyl
compounds, acids and their derivatives, and
(c) aromatics, including 1,4-benzoquinones,
mandelonitrile derivatives and phenolics (cf. +).
Many of these secretions, whilst fulfilling the
defensive needs of the insects which produce

* In the tvans,tvans,tvans-isomer the first tvans refers
to the isopropylidenedioxy group, the second to the
2,3 double bond, and the third to the 6,7 double bond.

| Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970 117

|

|

CG

them, are not necessarily adaptable for other
insecticidal purposes. Studies on insect venoms,
and especially on the proteinaceous venoms of
the Hymenoptera, have a more biochemical and
pharmacological bias. Apart from formic acid,
little is known of the non-proteinaceous insect
venoms. Work on insect pheromones and
hormones is likely to be pursued with increasing
vigour, and it is in this area that the major
problems of isolation, prior to structure
elucidation, have been noted. The need for
satisfactory bioassay procedures is clear.

In studies on chemical communication in
insects, the overall problem is very much an
interdisciplinary one. The chemist is contributing
to the solution of a problem in insect behaviour
in which, say, the use of a given pheromone is
but part of a complex behaviour pattern. The
close collaboration of chemists and _ biologists
is essential. The recent and intense synthetic
studies? in relation to the juvenile hormone are
prompted by potential applications of the
ensuing compounds for insect control.

The advances of the last two decades have
been considerable, and in turn they have relied
on major advances in_ spectroscopic and
chromatographic techniques. Yet, our total
knowledge of insect secretions is meagre.

References

1(a) Rotu, L. M., and EISNER, flees
Rev. Entomol., 7, 107.
(b) WEATHERSTON, J., 1967. Quart. Rev., 21, 287.
2 BEARD, R. L., 1963. Ann. Rev. Entomol., 8, 1.
3 (a) Kartison, P., and BUTENANDT, A., 1959. Ann.
Rev. Entomol., 4, 39.
(b) Witson, E. O., and Bossrert, W. H., 1963.
Recent Progr. Hormone Res., 19, 673.
(c) Butter, C. G., 1967. Butol. Rev., 42, 42.
4CavitLt, G: W. K., and RoBeEertson, P._L.,
Science, 149, 1337.
5 KARLSON, P., 1967. Pure and Appl. Chem., 14, 75,
and references therein.

1962. Ann.

1965,

6 FISHER, S., reported by Wray, J.,-.1670. Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 2063.

7 BERZELIUS, J. J., 1817. Ann. Chim. Phys., 4, 109.

8TIEBIG, J., 1836. Justus Liebig’s Ann. Chem.,
17, 69.

9 For example, see MELANDER, A. L., and BRUEs,
C. T., 1906. Bull. Wisconsin Natur. Hist. Soc.,
4, 22.

10 For a review, see reference | (0).

11 Pavan, M., 1949. La Ricerca Scientifica, 9, 1011.

12 Pavan, M., 1952. Internl. Congr. Entomol. Proc.
9th Amsterdam, 1, 321.

1s CAVILL, ‘Ge We Ke wand FORD...) Ei 95a:
Ind. London, 351.

MCaviLL, G. W. Ke, ForD, DML. and Locksley (Eh, De:

Chem.

CAVILL

16 KERR, R. W. Personal communication. |
17 For a review, see CaAvILL, G. W. K., 1969. Cvyclomm
pentanoid Terpene Derivatives (Ed. W. I. Taylor —
and A. R. Battersby). Marcel Dekker Inc.,
New York, p: 203. 3
18 CaAVILL, G. W. K., and Clark, Di Ne slow
‘Physiol. V3, V3t-
19 BaTES, R. B., EISENBRAUN, E. J., and McEtvain,
S. M., 1958. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 80, 3420 and
references therein.
20 Fusco, R., TRAVE, R., and VERCELLONE, A., 1955;
Chim. e Industr., 37, 251.
41 CLARK, K. J., FRAY, G: I S]AEGERw ine JH) au
ROBINSON, R., 1959. Tetrahedron, 6, 217.

22 CAVILL, G. W. K., and Forp, D. £:,51960... Avsa
J. Chem., 13, 296.

23 ACHMAD, S. A., and CAVILL, G. W. K., 1965. Aust.
J. Chem., 18, 1989.

24 Pavan, M., 1959. Proc. 4th Internl. Congr. Biochem.
Vienna, (1958), 12, 15.

25 ROBERTSON, P. L. Personal communication.

26 For a review, see WALSH, J. H., 1964. Ann. Rev.
Pharmacol., 4, 278.

27 CAVILL, G. W. K., ROBERTSON, P. L., and WHITFIELD,
F. B., 1964. Science, 146, 79.

28 Ewan, L. M., 1967. -Ph.D. thesis, University @
New South Wales.

22 THomas, D, W., and, Lewis, ye Ce
--—-Exp. Biol. Med. Sct., 43, 275:

30 (a) DE LA LANDE, I. S., THomas, D. W., and TYLER,

M. J., 1965. Proc. 2nd Internl. Pharmacol.
Meeting, Prague, (1963), 9, 71.

(b) Lewis, J. C., and DELA LANDE, I. S., 196%
Toxicon, 4, 225.

31 EWAN, L. M., and Itsz, D., 1970. J. Insect Physiol
16, 1531.

32 HABERMANN, E., 1965. Proc. 2nd Internl. Pharmacol.
Meeting, Prague, (1963), 9, 53.

33 Woops, A. Unpublished work.

$* ROBERTSON, P. .L., TOUS i sigsecr
17.691.

85 CaAvILL, G. W. K., and WILLiaMs, P. J., 196%

J. Insect Phystol., 13;2109%,

36 CAVILL, G. W. K., CLARK, D. V., HowDEN, M. E. Hi
and WYLLIE, S. G., 1970. J. Insect Physiokg
16, 1721.

37 CAVILL, G. W. K., WILLIAMS, P. J., and WHITFIELD,
F. B., 1967. Tetrahedron Letters, 2201.

38 Bropuy, J. J. Unpublished work.

39 (a) WIGGLESWORTH, V. B., 1934.
S07. ,usth, LOT.

(b) WIGGLESWoRTH, V. B., 1954.
of Insect Metamorphosis.
versity Press, Cambridge,
therein.

40 ROLLER, H., Daum, K. H., SWEELEy, C. C., ang
Trost, B. M., 1967. Angew. Chem. Int. Edn.,

J. Insect —

1965. Aust.

Physiol.,

Quart. J. Miucr.

The Physiology
Cambridge Uni-
and references

6, 179.

41 For a review, see BERKOFF, C. E., 1969. Quavra
TCU 2S) colon

42 For a review, see Trost, B. M., 1970. Acc. Chem.
eS Onna:

48 CavILL, G. W. K., Laine, D. G., and WILLIAM

P. J., 1969. Aust. J. Chem., 22, 2145.
44 BowErs, W. S., THompson, M. J., and UEBEL, E. C.,
1965." Life Sci., 4, 2323:
45 CavitL, G. W. K., and WILLIAMS eee
Aust. J. Chem., 22, 1737.
46 AneT, F. A. L., 1962. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 84, T4@

1969.

(Received 15 December 1970)

1956. Aust. J. Chem., 9, 288.
15 Cf. REGNIER, F. E., and Law, J. H., 1968. j/. Lipid
Res., 9, 541.
118

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 119-122, 1970

Relativistic Motion in Two Space-like Dimensions

N. W. TayLor

Depariment of Mathematics, University of New England
Armidale, N.S.W.

AND

L. McL. MarsHu

Department of Mathematics, James Cook University of North Queensland
Townsville, Queensland

AspstrAcT—In relativity theory a set of co-ordinate transformations suitable for investigating
conditions experienced directly by an accelerated observer can be found. These transformations
simplify the discussion of topics such as uniform rotation and the Thomas precession.

1. Introduction

In special relativity, any motion other than a
rectilinear one must, as in classical physics, be
accelerated. Any discussion of the kinematics
of reference systems moving in a plane or in
space must therefore take account of the fact
that such systems do not hold the privileged
position of inertial frames in the special theory.
In particular, care must be taken in interpreting
‘measurements made in an accelerated framework
since co-ordinate measurements and physical
measurements will in general be different.

One of the simplest classical accelerated
co-planar motions is uniform rotation, and this
is discussed in some detail below. It is kine-
matically one of the most intriguing types of
motion because it seems at first sight that a
velocity greater than light may be obtained by
moving far enough away from the axis of

‘Totation, no matter how slow this rotation may

be.

_ Before proceeding to the subject of special
relativistic motion in two space-like dimensions,
‘we consider a transformation valid for any
‘motion in a general co-ordinate framework
in special or general relativity.

|

| 2. A General Transformation
_ Consider an initial framework with the metric

ds?=g,.dx ‘dx?
and take

x%'=(x%,t), a=1, 2,3
Make the transformation
| Kino EU) a (1)
Phere pi (é) and Wi(é) are functions of ¢ (or x4)

only. This is an extension of the type of
transformation considered by Marsh (1965).

Cc

ao oy

i Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103 Pts. 3/4, 1970

If the original framework is an inertial system,
the new system will in general be accelerated,
the motion of the space origin being specified
by the functions %(é)
From (1),
dx '=oidx*-+-(x toi + ¢p') Via eee (2)
and the metric in the new co-ordinate system is
ds?=g,9,9ndx*dx*
+2 g;;02 (xo ty) darde
Bis (** 9, +H) (¥?Qh +H’) (de)... (3)
This metric might be required to take some
special form at the space origin, x*=0. Suppose
the fundamental tensor at the origin is to be
g,,(0,t). At that point also,
Ly l% 4) =g;(').
Hence, for all #,
8ij(Y') Paha =Saa(0,t)
Sii(Y') Pu” =Sa4(0,2)
gi(y)y' U =g,,(0,t).
If the motion of the origin is specified by U%(é
there are ten equations to be satisfied by the
other thirteen functions, o)(f) and w4(d).
Hence there remains some arbitrariness allowing
further specification of the new co-ordinate
system.
The sections that follow are concerned with
special relativistic motions in two dimensions.

It is convenient to choose as the initial system
the inertial framework with Lorentz metric

Sam

it

19

N. W. TAYLOR AND L. McL. MARSH

It is also convenient to have the fundamental
tensor in the transformed system reduce to the
Lorentz form at the space origin, so that
(x*,t) should have direct physical significance
there. Hence the equations to be satisfied by
the oi (é) and 4(¢) reduce to
Ni Pa Po= Sup
iPay’ =0
Hayy Y =—C
where, for two-dimensional motion, Latin indices
range over 1, 2, 4 and Greek indices over 1, 2.
There are then six equations to be satisfied by
seven functions.
The transformation given by the equations (1)
and (4) will now be used to discuss some topics

usually treated by means of a continuous system
of Lorentz transformations.

- (4)

3. Rotational Motion
Consider a rotation without a_ translation
of the observer’s origin. If this origin is taken
at the origin of the inertial system, then
x*—(Q when x*=0. Hence, from (1),

Ue) ee ee eee (5a)
and the second and third of (4) give
O20 acest (5d)

Waa
where the positive root has been chosen in the
latter equation since ¢’ increases when ¢ increases.
The equations (4) then reduce to

Oe On eae ares (5c)
Ue ere earn (5d)
A solution to (5c) is
cos wt —sin wi
Oar
sin wt COs wt

If the functions /, wv’ obtained here are
substituted in (1), the classical transformation
between an inertial system and one moving
about a common origin with angular velocity w
is obtained :

x'1=x1 cos wt—x? sin wt |
x’2—x! sin wt+x? cos wt | mus
i

Although the validity of equations (6) may
seem strange in the context of special relativity,
it must be remembered that they represent a
co-ordinate transformation. The co-ordinates
(x1, x?, ¢) have direct physical significance only
at the space origin of the rotating system, and

(6)

120

since the two origins are at relative rest the |
transformation ¢’=¢ is not surprising. Also, —
the apparent possibility of velocities greater —

than that of light relates to co-ordinate velocities
only.

In order to investigate the relation between |

physical measurements made in the two frames
at points other than the axis of rotation, consider
a rotation in which an observer O in the
accelerated frame does not remain at the axis
of rotation but, in the estimation of an inertial
observer O’, moves in a circle of radius a at
uniform speed. Hence try a transformation
such that

x*—=(a cos wt, asin wt) when x*=0.
w is related to the angular velocity in a way
which will be found later (in equation (15)).
From (1)
Y*=(a cos wt, asin wt)
and so the third of equations (4) gives
Y4=t(1 + (aea/e)2)2. (7b)
The six functions o% must satisfy the
remaining five of equations (4) :
Nii Pa P= Sap
—g}, sin wt+¢2 cos wt
—o%(1+(aw/c)?)#c?/aw=0.

Thus there is some freedom of choice for the
rotating co-ordinate framework. For example,
in classical kinematics one convenient set of
moving axes could be those which remain
parallel to the inertial axes. Another set could
be taken in the radial and transverse directions
to the circular path. This latter transformation
would be
x'1—=(x1+-a) cos wt—x? sin wt
x'*—=(xl+-a) sin wt+x? cos wt.
Hence, for the corresponding relativistic case,
choose

(8)

01=B() cos wt, of? =B(é) sin wf.
The five equations (8) then determine the five
functions B, 0%, of. The solution is
p=1

cos wt —(1+(aw/c)?)? sin wt
o}=(sin wt (1+(ae/c)?)* cos at |.. (9)
0 acc?

and the corresponding transformation (1) is
(after writing 7*=x,y)

x'=(x-+a) cos wt—y(1+(ao/c)*)? sin wt

yy’ =(x+a) sin wt+y(1-+(ae/c)”)? cos wt

t’= = yawle? +4(1+(aw/c)?)?

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

RELATIVISTIC MOTION IN TWO SPACE-LIKE DIMENSIONS

From equation (3) with g,—y,,, the metric
in the accelerated system is
ds?=dx?+dy?—2wy(1-+ (aw/]c)?)*dxde
+2ax(1 +(ao/c)?)?dydt
—e?{1 +-(co/c)?[a?—(%-+a)?
—y2(1 + (aco/c)?) Jae.

ij?

eoe ec @ @ © © ©

4, Physical Velocities

The transformation equations (10) enable the
physical measurements made by observers at
the origin in each frame to be investigated.
The velocity of the accelerated observer relative
to the inertial frame is a particularly interesting
quantity, since classically this becomes greater
than c when a is greater than c/w.

Since measurements made at the accelerated
origin have direct physical significance, the
velocity of any point in the inertial system in
the path of the accelerated observer may be
easily evaluated. Consider the motion of the
point % —a, y =0 as seen by O:

x%=a (cos wt—1), aL a2

y=—a(1+(aw/c)?)-? sin wt, f°" )
giving

L=—aw sin wf, ne 13

Y¥=—aw(1+(aw/c)?)-? cos wt. f°’ )

The quantities (13) may be interpreted as
physical velocities if they are measured at
x=0, y=0, 1.e., as the accelerated origin passes

0’

the point x’=a, y’=0. Hence the components
of the physical velocity of this point in the
inertial system as measured by O are
“2=0, y=—aw(1+(ae/c)*)-3.
Thus the speed of an inertial point as measured
by the rotating observer as he passes it is
v=aw(1-+(aw/c)?)-?, which, for given w, tends
to the velocity of light as a tends to infinity.
Similarly, for an observer fixed in the inertial
system the motion of the accelerated origin is

given by
x’ =a cos wt, i
CCS OLN Mle pee
t'=t(1-+(aw/c)*)*, J
so that
dx’ /dt’=—aw sin wt . (1+(aw/c)?)—3,
dy’ /dt’=aw cos wt . (1+(ae/c)?)-.
Thus the measured speed is again
v=aw(1-+(ae/c)?)-*
as must be expected.

If this expression for v is substituted in the
third of equations (14), the usual time dilatation
formula is obtained :

t’ =t(1—(v/c)?)-*.
Also from equations (14), O’ sees the angular
velocity of the moving system to be

Q.=w(1 + (aw/c)?)-?. (15)

From (12), the path of the point moving in
O”’s framework initially coincident with O’s
origin appears to O to move in an ellipse in the

x

FIGURE 1.—Diagrammatic representation of a locally Lorentz
accelerated framework Ovx,y with the axis Oy parallel to the axis O’y’ of
an inertial system.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

121

N. W. TAYLOR AND L. McL. MARSH

(x,y) plane. The length of the path for one
complete cycle as measured by O is

s= (dx2+-dy?)!

2rt/w@
=a0| (1+ (ae/c)? sin? wt) idt

~2ra(1 —4v?/c*) Lowo(v= ic").
The proper time for one cycle as calculated by O
is given by substituting from (12) into (11),
and is found to be 27/Q, agreeing with O’’s
direct estimate of the time.

5. The Thomas Precession

In the general transformation (1), the motion
of the accelerated origin as seen by the inertial
observer depends on the functions y%(é).
There remain seven functions to be determined
and six equations (4) to be satisfied by them.
As in Section 3, an additional condition may be
obtained by specifying the orientation of the
axes of the accelerated system. For example,
in classical mechanics the accelerated axes
could be chosen parallel to the inertial set.
In the present case, however, this would give

two conditions, @i=o3=0. It is convenient
to choose one of these, say oi=0, so that
O'x’* remains parallel to Ox?. The equations
may then be solved to give all the other functions
in terms of the )%(¢) which specify the motion.
For convenience write ~*=,y and #*=z2,y.
In all cases * is the same,

t
va] arora
0)
Then, after some calculation,
o1=(by/e)(1+(/c)?)+.
In a Euclidean space (see Figure 1)
x’ =x cos a+b
yy’ =x sin aty+y.
If these are compared with the equations (1)
it is seen that, when « is small, c~w%. Hence,
the average rotation in the %,y plane is approxi-

mately Aby/c2, which depends only on the
velocity and not the acceleration of the origin O.

Reference
Marsu, L. McL., 1965. Amer. J. Phys., 33, 934.

(Received 25 February 1971)

122

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, pp. 123-126, 1970

The Nature of Time and Its Measurement

S. J. PROKHOVNIK
School of Mathematics, University of New South Wales

ABSTRACT—Einstein’s new approach to space and time stimulated a complete re-evaluation

of these concepts.

In particular, his notion of time-dilatation, with its promise of journeys into the

future (and also into the past ?), stirred the imagination of philosophers and writers of fiction.
In the wake of Minkowski, time became merely a fourth dimension and scientists are still arguing
about the “arrow of time’’ and the possibility of its reversal.

It is suggested that neither Special Relativity (nor any other physical theory) provides

support to most of these speculations.

Indeed Einstein’s approach affirms that time is not an

absolute concept apart from nature, but that it is a property of nature and can only be measured

in terms of natural processes.

Some implications of this viewpoint are outlined, and mention is

made of a cosmological interpretation of the Special Theory which provides a universal measure
of time through the concept of “cosmic time ”’.

Man’s attitudes to time had already passed
through many phases before Newton. An
outline of these attitudes both before and after
Newton is given in Whitrow’s monumental
work “The Natural Philosophy of Time”
(Whitrow, 1961). Whitrow also discusses the
modern tendency to treat time as merely a
fourth dimension whose direction is arguable
(cf. Earman, 1967 ; Narliker, 1965). It would
therefore appear useful to reaffirm and clarify
certain basic propositions, and to examine the
basis for the various views emanating from our
present understanding of nature.

Newton was the first to give time an important
and systematic role in describing the physical
world. He considered phenomena as taking
place on a background of space and time and
in terms of space and time. He assumed
these concepts to be independent and absolute.
The employment of a co-ordinate reference
frame, a device invented by Descartes, appeared
to give to Newton’s interpretation a geometric
and mathematically useful significance.

Leibniz and other philosophers of science
(Locke, Hume, Berkeley, etc.) modified and
refined Newton’s approach. Time (and also
space) came to be seen as a property of nature,
of natural phenomena, rather than the back-
ground to natural phenomena.

For Leibniz, space was the order of co-
existences, time the order of succession of
phenomena. Time was associated with the
succession of ideas in the mind as well as with
the succession of observation of phenomena
in the world, and the direction of time was
automatically defined by the direction of these
successions.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

This view, with certain refinements, was the
one generally accepted at the end of the nine-
teenth century. However, in practice, many
physical scientists still treated space and time
as independent variables having a universal
significance ; the problem of their measurement
was considered a_ subsidiary problem of
methodology.

Finstein (1905) challenged this still basically
Newtonian approach, and proposed a physical
theory based on two empirical assumptions
(the Relativity and Light Principles) and
resting entirely on quantities obtainable by
defined measurements. Time and space as
absolute or universal concepts had no place
in his theory. Instead, he defined conventions
(consistent with his Principles) for obtaining
measures of the time and position* of an event
in terms of clocks, rigid rods and a light-signal
procedure.

Einstein showed that the assumption of his
principles led to the result that observers
associated with different inertial reference
systems (and hence in relative uniform motion)
would, in general, obtain different measures
(as evaluated according to his conventions)
of the time as well as of the space co-ordinates
of a given event. This result was at variance
with all previous notions of simultaneity and
appeared to suggest that clocks in relative
motion ran at different rates.

And indeed the theory does imply that an
observer-cum-clock making an out-and-return
journey from the earth would find that “ time ”’

* His definitions of relative velocity, etc., derive
from those of time and position relative to the observer.

123

S. J. PROKHOVNIK

(according to his clocks and all other physical
and biological manifestations) has passed more
slowly for him than for those who had remained
on earth.

Finstein’s theory was further interpreted by
Minkowski (1908) as signifying that space and
time no longer had any independent existence
and that “ only a kind of union of the two will
preserve an independent reality’. Minkowski
displayed the theory geometrically on a space-
time diagram in which time appears as a fourth
dimension whose direction is arbitrary.

The remarkable consequences of Einstein’s
approach have encouraged many different and
contradictory interpretations of the nature of
time. It has been suggested that the theory
implies that space and time are purely subjective
concepts—that each observer has his own
private time-scale. Another school of thought
takes the line that both space and time are
fictions associated with our movement along
the ‘‘ world-lines ”’ in space-time. The apparent
multiplicity of time-scales has brought forth
the concept of serial time (Dunne, 1927) in
which one time-scale is measured in terms of
another, ad infinitum.

The Minkowski approach has brought the
direction of time under close scrutiny and
encouraged serious speculation about the possi-
bility of travelling in time—as we do in space!
Analysis of “the arrow of time” and the
implications of time-reversal have occupied the
attention of many scientists and philosophers,
whilst the prospect of travelling into the future
and/or back into the past has inspired a consider-
able literary output.

Without wishing to imply that speculation
of this sort should be discouraged,* I feel
that it is important to recognize that such
fanciful notions about time have no basis in
our view of the world, in Special Relativity
or in any other well-founded theory of nature.

It is true that Einstein appeared to dispense
with the concepts of both absolute time and of
universaltime. (The latter implies the existence
of a common measure of time for all observers,
and is a concept quite distinct from the former).
However, Einstein did not treat time as a
subjective concept, but rather as a property of
natural phenomena which could be measured
in terms of natural processes. Events at a
certain locality might appear to occur at different
rates according to different observers, but the
order of these events is invariant for all

* The science fiction, in particular, resulting from
such unfettered speculation, is a very valuable addition
to our literature.

124

observers ; alteration or reversal of this order
is as contrary to the assumptions or results of
Special Relativity as is the possibility of a local
velocity greater than that of light. Indeed, the
very manner proposed by Einstein to measure —
the time of a distant event, employing light-
signals and clocks, implies unambiguously that
time has a single direction—that the return of
a reflected light signal at ¢, is later than its
transmission at ¢,, so that the difference, ¢,—t,,
of the corresponding clock-readings is always
positive.

The interpretation of “ time-dilatation ’”’ has
been the most contentious issue arising out of
Special Relativity. The claim that it is an
absolute phenomenon, as manifested in an
out-and-return journey, appears to contradict
the relativity principle assumption that uniform
motion has no absolute connotation.

The late Geoffrey Builder (1958) pressed the
logical significance of this issue, observing that
“the relative retardation of clocks . . . demands
our recognition of the causal significance of
absolute velocities’. This challenging argument
has been increasingly accepted in recent years ;
Whitrow (1961), Schwartz (1968), Keswani
(1966) and others now consider the universe as
providing a fundamental unique reference
frame, or basic substratum, with respect to
which motion has an absolute significance and
gives rise to absolute effects. Furthermore, it
has been shown by the author (Prokhovnik,
1967) that this approach can be given a credible
quantitative significance.

Astronomical advances in the last few decades
suggest that our observable universe has a
definite though dynamic structure associated
with a set of fundamental particles, these being
the galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Observation
also supports the assumption, known as the
Cosmological Principle, that the appearance
of the universe and the laws of nature are the
same from the viewpoint of any galaxy.

The universe appears to be expanding in so far
as its fundamental particles appear to be receding
from one another. To a first approximation,
for a region of space and time limited by the
scope of our observations, this mutual recession
appears to obey the simple Hubble law

ol

where 7 is the distance, as measured by astro-
nomical data, between a pair of typical galaxies
receding with velocity w deduced from Doppler
effect observations. H is called the Hubble
constant, and its reciprocal, J, has the dimensions
of time; the present estimated value of T is
about 13 x10° years.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pits. 3/4, 1970

THE NATURE OF TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT

The Cosmological Principle implies that this
expansion would be evident to any observer
in the universe, and hence that the observed
rate of the expansion provides a _ universal
measure of time (as well as, for most cosmological
models, a common “ zero-time’’), to which we
can relate other measures of time. This relation
may not be a simple one ; it will depend on the
choice of cosmological model and on the
associated scale-factor R(t) by which we describe
the expansion (Bondi, 1961). For instance, if
the expansion is assumed to be strictly uniform
in all respects, as in a Milne-type model, then
R(t) oct, and T can be considered as the age of
the universe in its present expansionist state.
However, if we accept the Einstein-de Sitter
model with AR(t)cct?/*, then the age of the
universe is less than ZY; on the basis of the
Lemaitre model it is greater than 7; and for
the Steady State model R(t)cocexp (Ht), and
here only the rate of expansion, associated with
the value of H, assumes a universal significance
for the purpose of measuring time.

The set of galaxies constitutes a fundamental
reference frame, and it may be shown
(Prokhovnik, 1967) that the movement of a
system relative to this frame results in a slowing
down of all physical and organic phenomena,
and hence of all clocks which measure the rate
of these phenomena. Thus, as Builder insisted,
it is not time, but rather its measurement,
which is affected by such motion. In terms of
this cosmological viewpoint the relativistic
principles and results emerge on a background
of a universal reference frame and a universal
basis for measuring time.

Landsberg (1970) remarks on the coincidence
that the several arrows of time manifested by
biological, thermodynamic and_ cosmological
phenomena all point in the same direction.
There exists a good case, therefore, that neither
Special Relativity (whether in the form presented
by Einstein or otherwise) nor any other modern
theory of natural phenomena supports any
esoteric concept of time. Rather do they
confirm the standpoint of Whitrow (1961) and
others that time is a property of our universe
associated with the movement and change which
is a feature of it. Without movement and
change time would have no meaning, and only
movement and change provide a basis for its
measurement. The basic fallacy of Dunne’s
hypothesis (1927) of “ serial time ”’ is that time
is not measured in terms of some abstract
“time-scale ’’, but in fact is measured always
in terms of natural phenomena—preferably
recurring—manifesting change and movement.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Most useful for this purpose are the apparently
regularly recurring (i.e. periodic) phenomena
such as the swings of a pendulum, the phases
of the moon, the occurrence of the seasons, etc.
Any more or less periodic phenomenon can be
employed as a more or less accurate clock; the
degree of its accuracy may be estimated by
comparison with other clocks.

This approach to the measurement of time is
also consistent with that of Ellis (1966). Thus
a space-interval has no absolute measure, but
can only be measured in terms of another given
space-interval. In the same way, thinking of
time as duration (the manifestation of our
consciousness of time), such duration, whether
associated with change or movement or not,
can only be measured in terms of the duration
of a given phenomenon which can be employed
to function as a clock. Thus there is no basis
for treating time as an absolute concept ; it is
rather, following Janet (1928), an intellectual
construction which has evolved with man’s
perception of the universe and which he employs
to describe a world in flux.

The nature of time is inseparable from man’s
recognition and consciousness of it. Man is
never merely the neutral observer or economic
unit postulated by scientific or social theories.
For him “time” has a much richer meaning
than the time of physical science. He carries a
““ consciousness ’’ of time in terms of the many
built-in clocks associated with his physiological
and mental activity. Among the most obvious
of these are the pulse-beat, the heart-beat and
recently-discovered alpha rhythm of the
cerebral cortex ; but he has less obvious clocks
which feed his consciousness of time perhaps
even more strongly, for example, the rhythm
of taking meals, of sleeping and waking, and of
many other routine activities. And ever present
is the most inexorable clock of all—the life-span
and its phases.

Thus even when there is no activity around
him man retains a consciousness of time and a
practical capacity for measuring it. This might
easily tempt him to imagine that time is
something independent of the outside world,
and that the world exists in absolute time—
in his time. However, such conviction is a
result of man’s capacity to observe (experience)
the natural rhythms and changes within him
as well as without. Such experience does not
invalidate the thesis that time is a property
of a changing world and would be meaningless
and measureless in the absence of such a world.

This thesis is incompatible with the concept
of time-reversal. Even if the universe were to

125

S. J. PROKHOVNIK

change character (e.g. started contracting instead
of expanding) and exhibited a reversal in the
direction of familiar phenomena, this could
in no sense constitute a reversal of the direction
of time. Phenomena would still have duration
which could be measured by clocks, and events
would still occur in succession the order of which
would define the direction of time. Only in its
geometric representation does time assume
more than one direction. In reality we can only
travel into the future, not into the past. The
past may (more or less) repeat itself, but such
repetition does not constitute a reversal of
time ; we do not go back to the original event,
we go forward to its repetition.

Only in regard to journeys into the future
does Einstein’s theory provide a glimmer of
encouragement. It suggests that motion
relative to the universal substratum is associated
with a slowing down of all natural phenomena
including the process of aging. Thus by
undergoing rapid space trips to ward off old
age, we might conceivably achieve survival
into the future beyond our present dreams.
Not that this would mean a longer biological
life for the speeding traveller; his built-in
clocks, his metabolism and the tempo of his
activities and of his immediate environment
would all slow down at the same rate. He
would not experience a longer life than he might
normally expect ; his lifetime would merely be
“dilated” relative to those staying on earth.
However, the practical difficulties of this form
of time (and space) travelling serve as a formid-
able barrier to its effective realization. Even
if we could achieve and survive velocities half
the speed of light, our aging rate would only
slow down by about 13%! So it may be more
practical to concentrate on diet.

Einstein’s theory does not, after all, hold out
much hope to the purveyors of the fantastic.
However, his contribution has immeasurably
enriched our view of the world and, in particular,
our understanding of time. As a result of his

approach we now appreciate more fully the role
of measurement in the description of nature,
and also the significance of natural properties
in terms of their measurement. Note that
Einstein’s convention for measuring the time
of an event precludes negative times. The
existence of different measures of the time of an
event does not mean that time has no objective
significance, nor need it mean that the measures
refer to a multitude of “times”. Ellis (1966)
recognizes the manifold character of natural
properties and employs the term “cluster
concept ’’ to the set of measurements associated
with a quantity. -Einstein’s approach shows
how we can relate these different measures and
that they manifest different facets of one of
nature’s most important properties.

Acknowledgement

I wish to thank the referee of this paper for
his valuable comments, which served to clarify
and strengthen a number of arguments in the
article.

References

Bonpl, H., 1961. Cosmology. Cambridge.

BuILpDER, G., 1958. Aust. J. Phys., 11, 279-297.

DunneE, J. W., 1927. An Experiment with Time.
London.

EarMAN, J., 1967. Phil. of Sc., 34, 211-222.

EInsTEIN, A., 1905. Ann. der Phys., 17, 891-921.

Evuis, B., 1966. Basic Concepts of Measurement.
Cambridge.

JANET, P., 1928. L’ Evolution de la Memoire et de la

Notion de Temps. Paris.
Krswani, G. H., 1966. Brit. J. Pinlo Sc. 16;
273-294.
LANDSBERG, P. T., 1970. Nature, 225, 1204-1206.
MinkowskI, H., 1908. Space and Time. Dover

translation by W. Perrett and G. B. Jeffery.
NARLIKER, J. V., 1965. Brit. J. Phil. Sc., 15, 281-285.

PROKHOVNIK, S. J., 1967. The Logic of Special
Relativity. Cambridge.
ScHwarTz, H. M., 1968. Introduction to Special

Relativity. New York.

Wuitrow, G. J., 1961.
Time. Edinburgh.

The Natural Philosophy of

(Received 25 March 1971)

126

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Voi. 103, pp. 127, 1970

Book Review

The Impact of Civilisation on the Biology

of Man. S. V. Boyden (Editor). Australian
National University Press. Pp. 233.
August, 1970.

This book, which deals with how man has
endured and adapted to changing conditions,
originated in the proceedings of a two-day
symposium held at the Australian Academy of
Science, Canberra, in 1968. Many of Australia’s
leading biological scientists contributed in
carefully prepared papers, or in discussion.
Professor R. J. Dubos, of the Rockefeller
University, New York, also attended, and very
ably summed-up in the final session. The
opening address was delivered by Sir Macfarlane
Burnet.

Before 10,000 years ago, our ancestors had
been hunter-gatherers for at least 2,000,000
years, moving over much of the earth’s surface
as nomadic bands. ‘Then, relatively settled
villages began to appear with a form of agri-
culture and the domestication of animals.
About 5,500 years ago came irrigated agriculture
and the growth of a few cities, but with most
people still living in small villages. With the
invention of steam power 250 years ago there
developed some cities of 500,000, many of
100,000, and many villages of 1,000 persons.
Thus the major changes in the social organization
of man and his environment (which includes
man) have occurred in recent times—the last
few hundred years.

Infectious diseases such as malaria, tuber-
culosis, cholera, smallpox, measles and those
caused by respiratory and enteric microbes
increased in severity with urbanization. In
affluent societies all the important infectious
diseases of man have responded to improved
hygiene, anti-bacterial chemotherapy and
medical care, but are still important in the urban
slums of developing countries.

Improvements in environmental hygiene and
nutrition which followed in the wake of the
industrial revolution have led to the attainment
of reproductive age by an increasing number
of children, with consequent rapid growth of

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

population. In communities with advancing
technology there has also been an increased
expectation of life and a change in the main
causes of death from infectious diseases to non-
infectious disorders, e.g. coronary heart disease,
cancer of the lung, bronchitis and external
violence, particularly in males. Mortality
records from South Australia reveal that in
1845 few more than 5% of all deaths were in
persons over 50 years of age ; at the turn of the
century this proportion had risen to 40% for
both sexes, while in 1963, 80% of all deaths
in males and 86% of all deaths in females
occurred in the over-50 age group. Today,
cardiovascular disease and cancer account for
two-thirds of the total mortality in both sexes.
Lung cancer accounts in general for between
20% and 40% of deaths from malignant disease ;
the highest rate is in Britain, while low rates
are found in Norway, Sweden and Japan.

Only 300 or 400 generations have passed
since all mankind led a nomadic life. In as
small a number of generations as this, little
genetic change could have occurred in the human
species in response to the new conditions. It
is therefore proposed that man’s relatively
successful adaption to the ever-changing con-
ditions associated with civilization has depended
on learning, and in particular on cultural
processes.

Homo sapiens’ body and brain were shaped
by the environmental influences that prevailed
during his evolutionary development, and his
genetic endowment will remain the same during
the foreseeable future. He has now to live
under the conditions created by social and
technological forces which differ profoundly
from those under which he evolved and to which
he became genetically adapted. Since his
surroundings and ways of life are forever
changing, man can hardly ever achieve a true
state of adaptedness to his environment.

This intensely interesting book is recom-
mended for reading by all who meditate on the
future, so that they may be aware of the trends.

C. J. MAGEE.

127

Report of the Council for the

Presented at the Annual General Meeting of the
Society held Ist April, 1970, in accordance with
Rule 18 (a).

At the end of the period under review the composition
of the membership was 354 members, 12 associate
members and 9 honorary members; 12 new members
were elected. Eight members and 1 associate member
resigned ; 3 names were removed from the list of
members in accordance with Rule 5 (bd).

Two new honorary members were elected during the
year :

Dr. William R. Browne, F.A.A.
Sir Ronald Nyholm, F.R.S.

It is with extreme regret that we announce the
loss by death of:

Dr. Ronald Leslie Aston (elected 1930).
Mr. Walter George Stone (elected 1916).

Nine monthly meetings were held. The abstracts
of all addresses have been printed on the notice papers.
The proceedings of these will appear later in the issue
of the Jouyvnal and Proceedings. The members of
Council wish to express their sincere thanks and
appreciation to the eight speakers who contributed
to the success of these meetings, the average attendance
being 50.

The Council would like to draw attention to the
poor attendances at many of the general monthly
meetings, and in particular to one held on 5th November
when only 42 members and visitors were present to
hear a most excellent address by Dr. E. G. Bowen,
C.B.E., F.A.A., entitled ‘“‘The Anglo-Australian
150-inch Telescope ’’.

The Annual Social Function was held at the
University of New South Wales Union and was
attended by 44 members and guests.

The Council has approved the following awards :
Clavke Medal for 1970: Mr. Gilbert P. Whitley,
IB RGZ Ss
James Cook Medal for 1969:
Berwick and Westminster.

The Society’s Medal for 1969 : Professor R. J. W.
Le Fevre, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.A.A., Professor and
Head of the School of Chemistry, University
of Sydney.

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1969 : Professor
B. W. Ninham.

The Archibald Ollé Prize was not awarded.

The Clarke Memorial Lecture was delivered by
Professor A. E. Ringwood of the Australian National
University, entitled “The Origin of the Moon”.
Two hundred and ninety members and visitors were
present.

The Pollock Memorial Lecture was held at the
University of Sydney on Ist May, 1969. The Lecture
was entitled “Quasars, Exploding Galaxies and
Cosmology ’’, delivered by Dr. A. Sandage.

The Society has again received a grant from the
Government of New South Wales, the amount being
$1,500. The Government’s continued interest in the
work of the Society is much appreciated.

128

Lord Casey of

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal

Year Ended 31st March, 1970

The Society’s financial statement shows a deficit
of $209.01.

The New England Branch of the Society’s meetings
will be included in the Proceedings of the Branch,
which follow.

The first meeting of the newly formed South Coast
Branch of the Society was on 20th June, 1969, held at
Wollongong University College. A report on the
proceedings of the Branch will follow.

The Section of Geology continued to hold regular
meetings, and the Annual Report is tabled.

Subscription.—During the year the Council decided
to raise the annual subscription from $6.30 to $10.00,
except for residents outside of New South Wales and
A.C.T., in which case the subscription was fixed at
$7.00. Associate members, $1.05 to $2.00.

The annual subscription for the Journal and Pro-
ceedings to non-members to be raised from $10.00
to $12.00.

The President represented the Society at a garden
party held at Government House in honour of Her
Majesty the Queen; a reception to meet delegates
to the 22nd International Congress of Pure and Applied
Chemistry and the 12th International Conference of
Co-ordination Chemistry; the commemoration of
the 199th anniversary of the landing of Captain Cook
at the landing place, Kurnell, and the placing of a
wreath on the Banks Memorial; Cook Bicentenary
Symposium of the Australian Academy of Science,
Canberra; meeting of the Citizens’ Council of the
Captain Cook Bi-centenary Celebration.

Professor J. L. Griffith, member of Council, repre-
sented the Society at the annual dinner of the Chamber
of Manufacturers of New South Wales.

Mr. M. J. Puttock, member of Council, represented
the Society at the official opening of the 1969 Jubilee
Engineering Conference and the annual dinner of the
Sydney Division of The Institution of Engineers,
Australia.

The Hon. Secretary, Mr. J. C. Cameron, represented
the Society to meet the Managing Director of Mullard
Ltd., London.

Two parts of the Journal and Proceedings were
published during the year: Volume 101, Parts 3-4,
and Volume 102, Part 1. Volume 102, Part 2, is to
be issued before the end of April.

His Excellency the Governor-General, Sir Paul
Hasluck, has accepted the office of Patron of the
Society.

Council sent a message of congratulation to N.A.S.A.
on 2Ist July, 1969, on the occasion of man’s first
landing on the moon.

Council held 11 ordinary meetings, and attendance
was as follows: Mr. Neuhaus, 11; Prof. Smith, 11;
Mr. Cameron, 9; Prof. Le Fevre, 4; Mr. Clancy, 6;
Mr. Pollard, 7; Mrs. Krysko Vv. dnyst 0 eo
Poggendorff, 10; Mr. Puttock, 10; Mr. Kitamura, 9 ;
Mr. Robertson, 9; Dr. Stanton, 0; Mr. Burg, 7;
Dr. Pickett, 7; Prof. Griffith, 8: Prof) Keane 9;
Dr. Day, 1; Dr. Reichel, 4; Pret. Low, 5:

Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pits. 3/4, 1970

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1970

The Library.—Periodicals were received by exchange
from 395 societies and institutions. In addition the
amount of $140.05 was expended on the purchase of
periodicals.

Among the institutions which made use of the
Library through the inter-library loan scheme were :

N.S.W. Siate Government: Geological Survey of
N.S.W.; Division of Wood Technology ; Electricity
Commission of N.S.W.; State Office Block Library ;
Water Conservation Commission ; Institute of Dental
Research ; Soil Conservation ; M.W.S. and D. Board ;
Department of Education ; State Parliament ; Depart-
ment of Health.

Other State Governments: Department of Mines,
South Australia; State Library, South Australia ;
Geological Survey of W.A.; Department of Forestry,
Queensland; Department of Primary Industry,
Queensland ; Geological Survey of Queensland.

Commonwealth Government: Australian Atomic
Energy Commission ; Defence Standards Laboratory ;
Bureau of Mineral Resources; Joint Coal Board ;
P.M.G.; Experimental Building Station.

C.S.I.R.O.: Coal Research, Prospect, Cronulla ;
Radio Physics; Chemistry (Melbourne) ; Statistics ;
Wool Research ; National Standards Laboratory.

New South
Hill ;

Universities and Colleges:
Wales; Macquarie; Newcastle ;

Sydney ;
Broken

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Trobe ; Monash ; Queensland; Townsville ; Auckland
(photostat sent) ; Otago (N.Z.).

Companies : C.S.R. Research ; C.S.R. Head Office ;
B.H.P., Shortland; Australian Iron and Steel;
Australian Consolidated Industries ; Imperial Chemical
Industries; Mount Isa Mines; Peko-Wallsend ;
Rikers Laboratories (almost weekly borrowing in 1968,
which ceased when we suggested company membership) ;
VN oaks

Museums : The Australian Museum.

Miscellaneous : The Institution of Engineers; N.Z.
Trade Commissioner; Bread Research Institute.

Total borrowings for the year 1969/1970: 333.

It must be recorded that, following the illness of
Miss Ogle, who had served the Society so well over a
long period of time, the Executive experienced consider-
able difficulty in the day-to-day management of affairs
from September, 1969, to January, 1970. In this
regard I would like to pay a tribute to the loyal help
given by Mr. Day during the difficult period.

We are fortunate now in having the services of
Mrs. M. A. Collier as Secretary, and feel sure that the
Society’s business is in good hands.

J. C. CAMERON,

Honorary Secretary.
Ist April, 1970.

Honorary Treasurer’s Report

A ratio of subscriptions to expenses (not including
Journal printing) and a separate statement of Journal
printing costs shows the necessity for increasing
subscriptions in relation to expenditure.

Ratio of subscriptions to expenses :

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Subscriptions 1,920 1,949 1,973 2,267 2,084
Expenses (not
including
Journal

printing) 7,261 8,336 8,205 10,139 9,514

1:3-78 1:4:28 1:4-16 1:4-47 1:4-56

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Statement of “ Journal’ printing costs :

Vol. 101, Vol. 101,. Vol. 101, ~—-Vol.:102,
Part’ I Pari 2 Parts 3-4 Part 1
(60 pp.) (56 pp.) (94 pp.) (108 pp.)
$1,011 $1,088 $1,951 Da Wy

Vol. 101, Parts 1-2 taken to account year ending
28th February, 1969: $2,099.

Vol. 101, Parts 3-4, and Vol. 102, Part 1, taken to
account year ending 28th February, 1970: $4,128.

W. E. SMITH,
Honorary Treasurer.

129

Abstract of Proceedings

2nd April, 1969

The one hundred and second Annual Meeting of
the Society was held in the Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Prof. A. Keane, was in the chair.
There were present 37 members and visitors.

Ernest Kokot and Daryl John McCarthy were elected
members of the Society.

The following awards of the Society were announced :

The Society’s Medal for 1968 to Mr. H. H. G. McKern.

The Clarke Medal for 1969 to Prof. S. W. Carey.

The Walter Burfitt Prize for 1968 to Prof. L. E.
Lyons.

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1968 to Dr. R. M.
May.

Library Referendum.
result of the ballot was:

In favour of retaining the library: Yes, 72; No, 80.

If the decision is to dispose of the Library, by

Gift, 44; Sale, 94.

It was announced that because of the closeness of
the vote no authority was given for the disposal of the
Library.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Financial
Statement were presented and adopted.

The report of the South Coast Branch was presented
by Mr. P. O’Halloran.

Dr. William Rowan Browne, F.A.A., was elected an
honorary member of the Society.

Messrs. Horley & Horley were re-elected Auditors
to the Society for 1969-1970.

Office-bearers for 1969-1970 were elected as follows :

President: J. W. G. Neuhaus, M.Sc.

Vice-Presidents: A. A. Day, Ph.D. (Cantab.),

A; Keanée,.Ph Ds WE itamura SN ik vv.
Le Fevre; D.Sc... F.R-S.; FA.A., AL Ei. ow,abh. Db:

Honorary Treasurer: W. E. Smith, Ph.D.

It was announced that the

Honorary Librarian: W. H. G. Poggendorff,
B.Sc.Agr.

Honorary Secretaries: J. C. Cameron, M.A., B.Sc.
(Edin.), D.I.C. (General), M. Krysko v. Tryst

(Mrs.), B.Sc., Grad.Dip. (Editorial).

Members of Council: R. A. Burg, A.S.T.C., B. E.
Clancy,, M-Sc:,, J)... Gritith,, BA MeSe. ia W-
Pickett, M.Sc. (N.E.), Dr.phil.nat. (Frankfurt/M.),
J. P. Pollard, M.Sc., Dip.App.Chem. (Swinburne),
M. J. Puttock, B.Sc.(Eng:), A-Inst.P., A. ikeichel,
Ph.D., M.Sc., W. H. Robertson, B.Sc., and New
England Branch representative R. L. Stanton,
Ph.D.

The following papers were read by title only:
““ Geology of the Talbragar Fossil Fish Bed Area’’,
by J. A. Dulhunty and J. Eadie; “‘ Granitic Develop-
ment and Emplacement in the Tumbarumba-Geehi
District, N.S.W. (1) The Foliated Granites’’, by
B. B. Guy; “‘ The Nature and Occurrence of Heavy
Mineral Concentrates in Three Coastal Areas of New
South Wales ’’, by J. R. Hails.

130

It was announced that at the meeting of the Council
held 26th November, 1968, it was decided that the
following alteration be made to By-law 12, Publi-
cations (g) : ““ Except in special circumstances material
from non-members will not be accepted for publicaticn ”
should be deletei, and replaced by “‘ Material from
non-members will not be considered for publication
unless communicated by a member of the Society ’’.

As no resolution to the contrary was forthcoming,
the alteration was passed.

The address of the retiring President, Prof. A. Keane,
entitled “The Art of Applied Mathematics ’’, was
delivered.

The retiring President then welcomed Mr. Neuhaus
to the Presidential Chair.

Paper.—The following paper will be read by title
only: “‘‘ Stratigraphy and Structure of the Palaeozoic
Sediments of the Lower Macleay Region, North-
eastern New South Wales ”’, by John F. Lindsay.

Special Notice to Members.—At the meeting of the
Council held Ist April, 1969, Council approved the
following addition to the By-laws: “13 (a) shall
become 13 (a) (aa). The following shall be inserted :
13 (a) (aa). There shall be a South Coast Branch
of the Society whose region shall include the territory
in New South Wales within thirty miles of the coast
south of and including the City of Greater Wollongong.”’

7th May, 1969
The eight hundred and thirty-fifth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 39 members and visitors.

Peter Gerald Flood and Derek K. Griffin were elected
members of the Society.

The Clarke Medal for 1969 was presented to Prof.
S. Warren Carey.

It was announced that at the meeting of the Council
held Ist April, 1969, Council approved the following
addition to the By-laws: “13(a) shall become
13 (a) (ab). The following shall be inserted: There
shall be a South Coast Branch of the Society whose
region shall include the territory in New South Wales
within thirty miles of the coast south of and including
the City of Greater Wollongong.”

As no resolution to the contrary was forthcoming,
this addition was passed.

The following paper was read by title only: “ Strati-
graphy and Structure of the Palaeozoic Sediments of
the Lower Macleay Region, Northeastern New South
Wales ’’, by John F. Lindsay.

An address entitled ‘‘ Operations of the Government
Analyst’s Branch ”’ was delivered by Mr. E. S. Ogg,
recently retired Government Analyst.

4th June, 1969
The eight hundred and thirty-sixth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 55 members and visitors.

Bede Edward Murray was elected a member of the
Society.

The following paper was read by title only : ‘ Lower
Devonian Conodonts from the Lick Hole Limestone,
Southern New South Wales ’’, by P. G. Flood.

An address entitled *‘ World Wide Comfarisons of
Geological Environments ’’ was delivered by Dr. C. T.
McElroy, Director, Geological Survey of New South
Wales, Department of Mines, Sydney.

2nd July, 1969

The eight hundred and thirty-seventh General
Monthly Meeting was held in the Hall of Science
House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 80 members and visitors.

The following papers were read by title only: “‘ The
First Commonwealth Statistician : Sir George Knibbs ’”’,
by Susan Bambrick; “ Triassic Stratigraphy—Blue
Mountains, New South Wales ’’, by R. H. Goodwin.

An address entitled “Experiments on Bedding
Genesis ’’ was delivered by Professor A. V. Jopling,
B.Sc., B.E.(Civil) (Sydney), A.M., Ph.D. (Harvard),
Geography Department, University of Toronto,
Ontario, Canada.

6th August, 1969

The eight hundred and thirty-eighth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 78 members and visitors.

Ronald Walter Wilcox was elected a member of
the Society.

Sir Ronald S. Nyholm, F.R.S., was elected an
honorary member.

It was announced that a cable of congratulations
had been sent to N.A.S.A. on historic achievement of
man’s first landing on the moon.

Notice of motion regarding subscriptions as follows :

1. “ The annual subscription for associate members
shall be $2.00 for those not receiving the Journal,
and $5.00 for those receiving the Journal.”

2. ‘‘ The annual subscription for ordinary members
shall be $10.00 except in the case of members
resident outside the State of New South Wales ;
Canberra, |A.C.1.; or Jervis Bay, A.C.T.; in
which case the subscription shall be $7.00.”

Address—An address entitled ‘The Drift from
Science in Schools—Reasons and Remedies” was
delivered by Professor Sir Ronald S. Nyholm, F.R.S.,
Professor of Inorganic Chemistry, University College,
London.

3rd September, 1969
The eight hundred and thirty-ninth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.
The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 42 members and visitors.
The death was announced of Walter George Stone,
member since 1916.
The following were elected members of the Society :
John Percival Brown.
John Hardy Callender.
Robert John Butler Pearson.
Stephen James Riley.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

It was announced that alteration to the By-laws
had been made as follows:

1. “‘ That the annual subscription for associate
members shall be $2.00 for those not receiving
the Journal, and $5.00 for those receiving the
Journal.”’

2. “That the annual subscription for ordinary
members shall be $10.00 except in the case of
members resident outside the State of New
South Wales; Canberra, A.C.T.; and Jervis
Bay, A.C.T.; in which case the subscription
shall be $7.00.”

As no resolution to the contrary was passed at the
meeting, the abovementioned becomes. operative
from Ist April, 1970.

The Section of Geology will meet Friday,
September, 1969.

Addvess——An address entitled ‘“‘ Sydney—Future
Planning ’’ was delivered by Professor J. H. Shaw of
the Faculty of Architecture, University of New South
Wales, Kensington.

19th

1st October, 1969
The eight hundred and fortieth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.
The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 30 members and visitors.
The death was announced of Ronald Leslie Aston,
member since 1930.
The following were elected as associate members :
Ada Marjory Brown.
Alan Maurice Puttock.

Address——An address entitled “Modern Develop-
ment in Meteorology ’’, by Mr. V. J. Baker, Regional
Director, Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology,
Sydney.

5th November, 1969
The eight hundred and forty-first General Monthly
Meeting of the Society was held in the Hall of Science
House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.
The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 42 members and visitors.
The Section of Geology will meet Friday, 2Ist
November, 1969.

Address—An address entitled ‘The Anglo-
Australian 150-inch Telescope’’ was delivered by
Dr. E. G. Bowen, C.B.E., F.A.A., Chief of the Division
of Radiophysics, C.S.I.R.O., Epping, N.S.W.

3rd December, 1969

The eight hundred and forty-second General Monthly
Meeting of the Society was held in Science House,
l57. Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 38 members and visitors.

The following application for membership was read
for the first time: Mr. A. R. Collins. Proposed from
personal knowledge by B. B. Guy and A. A. Day.

An address entitled “A Practical Guide to Music
Criticism ’’ was delivered by Mr. F. R. Blanks, who is
a contributing music critic for The Sydney Morning
Herald, music critic for the Australian Jewish Times,
and Australian correspondent for the British music
journal Musical Times.

131

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1970

LIABILITIES
1969
$ $ $
— Accrued Expenses .. vs ae ot ate 323.60
61 Subscriptions Paid in Advance .. 32.75
116 Life Members’ Subscriptions—Amount carried forward. 102.90
Trust Funds (detailed Hele
4,444 Clarke Memorial ; Ms 7 ae ae 4,482.28
2,591 Walter Burfitt Prize .. he ie es es 2,547.18
1,439 Liversidge Bequest Me fe, ee ake ae 1,514.83
630 Olle Bequest. 7. an sk ef ah 710.26
—_—_———— 9,254.55
— Miss Ogle Fund me bat ys os ee me 245.13
60,011 Accumulated Funds ae er ane ee sia 59,644.31
8,898 Library Reserve Account .. on ae Bg ae 9,417.83
Contingent Liability (in connection with Perpetual
Lease)
$78,190 $79,021.07
ASSETS
2,223 Cash at Bank and in Hand aS ie age one 3,763.13
Investments—
Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock—At Face
Value—held for :
3,600 Clarke Memorial Fund aes Ae ae ae 3,600.00
2,000 Walter Burfitt Prize Fund ae Me ee 2,000.00
1,400 Liversidge Bequest .. ats ae aA .. 1,400.00
9,680 General Purposes... ay 2a a a 9,680.00
—_ 16,680.00
548 Fixed Deposit—Long Service Leave Fund a ee 168.61
— Debtors for Subscriptions .. : ss sks = 361.20
Less Reserve for Bad Debts. ae ie be 361.20
30,470 Science House—One-third Capital Cost BE Ae 30,470.43
13,600 Library—At Valuation , ff ae ve 13,600.00
9,600 Library Investments—Special Bonds ae e: ae 9,600.00
Furniture and Office Equipment— At Cost, less
1,591 Depreciation .. we ae 1,714.79
21 Pictures—At Cost, less Depreciation ne ar ee 19.56
2 Lantern—At Cost, less Depreciation ae ie on 2.00
Centenary Volume:
Stock’ =. ane = oa v3 ae .. 2,700.52
Reprints a ee - a th ae 38.70
3,455 a 2,739.22
—~ Sundry Debtor—Other ae Es A oe ae 263.33
$78,190 $79,021.07

132 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

TRUST FUNDS

Walter
Clarke Burfitt Liversidge
Memorial Prize Bequest Bequest
$ $ $ $
Capital at 28th February, 1970 .. 3,600.00 2,000.00 1,400.00 —-
Revenue—
Balance at 28th Fe eee Ge 1969 844.11 590.34 39.10 630.26
Income for Period 194.75 108.19 75.73 80.00
1,038.86 698.53 114.83 710.26
Less Expenditure 156.58 151.35 -— —-
$882.28 $547.18 $114.83 $710.26
ACCUMULATED FUNDS
$ $
Balance at 28th February, 1969 60,011.47
Less.
Deficit for Period .. - oe hs 209.01
Transferred to Miss Ogle Fund .. - ne 100.00
Increase in Provision for Bad Debts .. sot 46.60
Subscriptions Written Off. . ae Ee we 11.55
367.16
$59,644.31

Auditors’ Report

The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and
Vouchers of The Royal Society of New South Wales and is a correct statement of the position of
the Society’s affairs on 28th February, 1970, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves
that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and registered.

HORLEY & HORLEY,
Chartered Accountants,

65 York Street,
20th March, 1970.

(Signed) W. E. SMITH,

Registered under the Public Accountants
Sydney. Registration Act 1945, as amended.

Hon. Treasurer.
J. W. G. NEUHAUS,

President.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

133

1969
$
2,267

12
1,500
8,416

470
6

357
841
1,299
57

15,225

$15,225

$15,225

134

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT
Ist MARCH, 1969, TO 28th FEBRUARY, 1970

Membership Subscriptions

Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions
Government Subsidy

Science House Management—Share of Surplus
Interest on General Investments BG
Donations .. a

Sale of Reprints

Subscriptions to Journal _

Sale of Back Numbers

Refund—Postages. .

Deficit for Period

Advertising

Annual Social

Audit : ;
Branches of the Society
Cleaning

Depreciation

Electricity

Entertainment

Insurance :
Library Purchases
Miscellaneous

Postages and Telegrams
Printing—Vol. 101, Parts 3-4, Vol. 102, Part 1
Binding ae
Postages

Printing—General and Stationery
Rent—Science House Ne ce
Repairs ote =

Restoration of Portraits

Salaries is

Wielephone: 2

Surplus for Food ..

$
2,084.25
12.60
1,500.00
7,704.07
539.43
46.40
178.95
762.04
663.03
25.08

13,515.85
209.01

$13,724.86

$4,060.67

70.00
80.72

4,211.39

126.73

4,108.50

17.48

3,649.12

105.54

13,724.86

$13,724.86

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Section of Geology

Abstract of Proceedings, 1969

Five meetings were held during this year, the average
attendance being about 12 members and visitors.

MARCH 21st (Annual Meeting) :
(1) Election of office-bearers: Chairman, Mr. E. K.

Chaffer ; Hon. Secretary: Mr. C. R. Ward.

(2) Notes and exhibits accompanied by _ short
addresses :

(i) Mrs. K. Sherrard: Exhibits from specimens

collected on excursions in connection with 23rd Session
of the International Geological Congress, 1968.

Monograptus dubius from a_ graptolite-bearing
sequence through Upper Wenlock and Lower Ludlow
exposed in Pragowice Gorge, Bardo, near Kielce,
Poland.

Sulphur from Piaseczno, south-east Poland, from
Miocene Chemical Series.

Salt crystal from salt mine of Miocene age at
Wieliczka, Cracow, Poland.

Model of the Venus of Vestonica. The original was
made 25,000 years ago by Palaeolithic man at Dolni
Vestonice, Czechoslovakia.

fie) Mi. 1) Ei. Lamilton: A brief account of the
discovery and exploration of a scheelite deposit near
Attunga, N.S.W., was given. Mr. Hamilton carried
out the geological investigation of the deposit from
when it was discovered in July, 1968, by the Attunga
Mining Corporation, to the end of the year. The
scheelite occurs as disseminated grains in skarn at the
contact of a marble lens with the Inlet Monzonite,
and in disseminated grains in diopside monzonite.
The scheelite is concentrated in some parts of the
diopside monzonite but is absent from other parts.
The diopside monzonite appears to be a lime-con-
taminated contact phase of the Inlet Monzonite. The
occurrence of the scheelite in the skarn is similar to
that in other localities (e.g. King Island), but the
occurrence of the scheelite in the diopside monzonite
is somewhat unusual.

(iii) Mr. G. S. Gibbons exhibited several specimens
from the Gosford Formation at Long Reef, illustrating
Bifferent types of replacement. Firstly, a type of
sand rod consisting of sideritic reed casts preserved in
shale was shown. The sand rods have an _ acid-
insoluble rind at the outer surface which is phosphate-
rich,

Another specimen was exhibited which consisted of
Triassic plant remains, of which the carbonaceous
material had been replaced by metallic native copper.
These were from a newly discovered exposure and
indicate reducing conditions of preservation.

(iv) Mr. R.Goldbery exhibited specimens of a number
of primary and secondary minerals recently identified
from the Berry Formation at several localities through-
out the Sydney Basin. Dawsonite occurs as fibrous
aggregates filling cavities in dolomite and ankerite

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

lenses in the usually shaly formation, this being the
fifth occurrence of this mineral in the world. Occasion-
ally associated with the dawsonite is nordstrandite,
of which there are only two previously reported natural
occurrences.

Yellow coatings and bedding plane concentrations
of jarosite occur in the siltstone of the Berry Formation.
These may be primary or secondary in origin. Thin
lenticles of gypsum are also present. Secondary salts
are mainly sulphates, and include thenardite, hexa-
hydrite, bloedite and pickeringite. The origin of this
overall assemblage is thought to be in evaporitic
conditions in a barred marine basin.

(v) Mr. M. Tuckson: The mechanism of formation
of some types of Wildflysch. Coarse breccias have in
the past been attributed to slides, fluxoturbidity
currents, grain flow or inertia flow and_ turbidity
currents. It is proposed that rock avalanching and
fault scarp erosion may be other mechanisms. With
an increase in clay the mechanisms would be mudflow.

Turbidity currents are likely only to support very
fine grains (Bagnold, 1962) or at least have a pre-
dominance of fine grains. Grain flow or inertia flow
(Bagnold, 1956) is probably the mechanism by which
many so-called fluxoturbidities are formed, but
experiments done by Bagnold were confined to sand
grains. There is no certainty that this mechanism
will apply to coarser particles, especially if not nearly
equidimensional. Possibly with coarser grains, up to
boulders, this mechanism is replaced by avalanching
with a greater degree of individual block sliding or
rolling. This is probably also the case when the sea
floor slope and thickness of the flow are insufficient
to maintain inertia flow.

The term “slide ’’ should be confined to cohesive
masses of rock and blocks that slide as a whole without
internal movement that could either by described as
mudflow or rock avalanche.

Fault scarp erosions partly by waves and traction
currents may account for some deposits.

It is considered that there is a more basic change in
flow type from a laminar to turbulent mudflow than
from a turbulent mudflow to a turbidity current.

It is proposed that submarine block sliding would
occur, without a highly slumped substratum, but with
one having a top layer, above a viscosity disconformity,
eroded.

Bagnold, R. A., 1954: “ Experiments on a Gravity-free
Dispersion of Large Solid Spheres in a Newtonian
Fluid under Shear.’’ Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. A,
Vol. 225, pp. 49-63.

Bagnold, R. A., 1962:
ported Sediment ;
Roy. Soc.
pp. 315-19.

(vi) Mr. C. R. Ward: Photo slides were shown of
features illustrating the sedimentary environment of
several units of the Narrabeen Group on the south coast
of N.S.W. The units are essentially of a fluvial origin,

“ Auto-suspension of Trans-
Turbidity Currents.’’ Proc.
(London), Ser. A, Vol. 265 (1322),

135

SECTION OF GEOLOGY

being made up of lens-shaped sand and conglomerate
bodies having marked evidence of contemporaneous
erosion at the base. Exposures of the Bulgo and
Scarborough sandstones show “fining upwards ”’
cycles described in the literature.

In the middle part of the Bulgo sandstone, south
of Garie Beach, the unit is made up of green coloured
sandstones and shales of the fluvial type interbedded
with layers of coarse granule conglomerate and
horizons of phosphorite nodules. These granule
conglomerates appear to be the product of high energy
or upper regime water flow, but their origin is still
uncertain.

MAY 16th:
Address by Mr. R. O. Chalmers, ‘ Recent
Mineralogical Field Work in Australia and Overseas ’’.

Mr. Chalmers’ address consisted of two parts, the
first section dealing with the occurrence and origin of
tektites and the second part describing the occurrence
of precious and common opal in rhyolitic spherulites
in northern N.S.W.

Tektites are spherical to ellipsoidal pieces of black
glassy rock with a sub-metallic lustre. They have
been found in several parts of the world, mostly in
America and Europe. Photographs were shown of
these localities and of some of the tektites found.
Those occurring in Australia are known as
“ Australites’’. They form the best preserved and
the most widespread occurrence in the world, being
found over a large part of central Australia. The
occurrence and morphology of Australites was discussed
in detail, and the various hypotheses for their origin
were outlined. Evidence available to date seems to
favour an extra-terrestrial origin for this material.

Varieties of both precious and common opal have
been found within rhyolic spherulites at Mullumbimby
and other areas in the Mt. Warning volcanic complex.
These spherulites appear to be related to “ thunder
eggs’, a spherulitic structure with infilled radial
cracks a dominant feature. The origin of these cracks
and of the opal itself was discussed, and slides illus-
trating the field occurrence of this material were
shown.

JULY 18th:

Address by Mr. J. H. Bryan,
Sedimentary Features of the
Antarctica ’’.

The Beacon Group crops out extensively in East
Antarctica, where it attains a maximum thickness of
about 8,000 feet. The essentially flat lying strata,
which range in age from Devonian to Jurassic, have in
general a continental to shallow marine aspect.

The excellent exposures of the Beacon Group in
“dry valleys ’’ such as Arena Valley, permit a detailed
study of the sedimentary structures of these sediments.

Though fossils are rare, there is abundant evidence
of organic life preserved in the sandstones and shales
with worm burrows, tracks and trails preserved on
many horizons. Unusual shaped concretions are
particularly abundant on several horizons, some of
these being up to 6 feet long and 15 inches in diameter.

All manner of planar and trough cross stratification,
desiccation polygons, and cut and fill structures are
evidence of the shallow water environment of deposition.

Within Arena Valley the strata are locally deformed
into a series of moderately to tightly appressed folds.

“Some Unusual
Beacon Group,

136

These folded strata pass laterally into undeformed
strata and are underlain and overlain by undisturbed ©
sediments. This unique occurrence of deformed
Beacon Group strata is considered to be the result of

penecontemporaneous slumping initiated either by — |

some tectonic disturbance or by overloading on the
depositional slope.

SEPTEMBER 19th:

Address by Assoc. Prof. L. J. Lawrence, “ The 1969
Eruption of Kiluea’’.

Professor Lawrence outlined the geographical
arrangement and early history of the Hawaiian
eruptions leading up to the March, 1969, outpourings.
The Island of Hawaii was then considered as a U.S.
National Park and as a vulcanological research centre
of the U.S.G.S. Some of the research work being
carried out by the U.S.G.S. was outlined.

Professor Lawrence then gave an account of the 1969
eruption of Halamaumau and _ illustrated various
aspects by means of colour slides which he took during
the eruption.

NOVEMBER 21st:

Students’ Symposium :
in the Broken Hill Area.

Mr. W. Lang, ““ The Low Grade Metamorphic Facies
of the Willyama Complex ”’’.

Mr. P. Cooper, “The High Grade Metamorphi¢
Facies of the Willyama Complex ”’.

Mr. Cooper has studied the Willyama Complex in
the Euriowie Inlier from Bijerkerno to Cooma in the
Barrier Ranges north of Broken Hill, N.S.W.

In this area the Willyama Complex has undergone
metamorphism before deformation. Metamorphism
reached the sillimanite-muscovite-almandine subfacies
of the amphibolite facies and maximum conditions of
temperature and pressure were approximately 3-5 Kb
and 650° C.

The metamorphic grade increases westward from
Bijerkerno with chloritoid, andalusite and sillimanite
being developed. No staurolite has been detected.

The structural interpretation of the Willyama
Complex has been complicated by the presence of a
foliation parallel to bedding. This foliation has been
ascribed by different workers to transposition, con-
centric shear effects or load metamorphism. Depending
on the interpretation of the bedding foliation, two or
three periods of deformation have been involved.
However, no satisfactory evidence has been presented
to confirm which of the three interpretations is correct.

The structure and metamorphism can be traced
from the Bijerkerno Beds, the low-grade equivalents
of the Willyama Complex. No unconformity exists
between the Bijerkerno Beds and the main Willyama
Complex.

Mr. J. W. Woodhouse, “ The Torrowangee Group ”’.

Unconformably overlying the metamorphic rocks
of the Willyama Complex in the northern Barrier
Ranges is an Upper Proterozoic sequence of siltstones,
boulder beds and carbonates known as the Torrowangee
Group.

In the west, over the so-called ‘‘ Willyawangees ”
(low-grade Willyama Complex) sandstone, chert,
dolomite and epidotized basalt make up the base of the
Torrowangee Group. On the east, over the Euriowie
Inlier, a conglomerate and massive buff dolomite
(neither being everywhere present) are the basal rocks.

Recent Field Work Done

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Berg's We onl

4

'

i)

SECTION OF GEOLOGY

Over these basal rocks—disconformably on the west
and with an overlapping relationship on the east—are
the Yancowinna Beds, Euriowie Beds, and Teamsters’
Creek Beds. These units are predominantly siltstones
with varying amounts of quartzites, boulder beds, and
carbonate.

The environment envisaged is shallow to medium
depth marine-glacial, that is essentially a marine
environment with glacial ice rafts depositing additional
sediment as they melt. Description of the Torro-
wangee Group sediments as “‘tillites’’, as in much
literature, is not satisfactory.

Deformation represents an east-west shortening in
excess of 50%. The shortening has caused both

homogeneous and heterogeneous (folding) strain to
differing degrees in different parts of the sequence.
Second generation structures in the siltstones are to
be found near the Euriowie Inlier. These are thought
to be related to movements of the inlier along basement
faults.

The onlapping relationship between the massive
dolomite and younger sediments, after deformation,
has given an unusual geometric arrangement with
younger beds striking at a high angle to their contact
with older beds. In the past this has been mis-
interpreted as the Corona Fault of some 20,000 feet
displacement. In fact, it is an unconformable
depositional surface along which there has been a little
movement.

Report of the South Coast Branch of the Royal Society of
New South Wales

Two meetings were held during 1969. The inaugural
meeting in June was attended by 57 members and
friends and was devoted to a lecture by Mr. Neuhaus,
moe President of the Society, on “The Role of the
Forensic Chemist ’’ and a panel exposition of Lawrence
Hargreaves’ life and works. The second meeting
took the form of a geological excursion, and included
visits to Minnamurra Falls and the Kiama blowhole.
Seventy-five members and friends attended.

The annual meeting was held on 20th March in the
new Union dining hall. Twenty-seven members and
friends attended the meeting, which was preceded by
a dinner at 7 p.m. Dr. R. W. Upfold was elected

Chairman, and Mr. Rk. A. Facer was elected Secretary-
Treasurer.

Dr. J. L. Symonds, Research Establishment Assistant
Co-ordinator of the Jervis Bay Nuclear Power Station
project, addressed the meeting on various aspects of
the Australian Atomic Energy Commission’s activities
at Jervis Bay.

Of the annual grant of $50 provided by the parent
Society, a total of $27.40 was spent on catering at the
inaugural and annual meetings. The balance of the
account 1s $23.03, which includes 43 cents interest.

R. A. Facer,
Secretarv- Treasurer.

Report of the New England Branch of the Royal Society of
New South Wales |

Officers.—Chairman: N. H. Fletcher; Secretary-
@reasurer: R.L.Stanton ; Committee: J.H. Priestly,
itis Hayle, Ik. H. Stokes, N. T. M. Yeates, H. G.
Royle; Branch representative on Council: R. L.
Stanton.

Meetings were held as follows :

10th April: Professor B. Y. Mills, F.R.S., Professor
of Astrophysics at the University of Sydney and
Director of the Molonglo Radio Observatory : “‘ Pulsars
and Supernovae ’’.

14th July: Professor L. Hamilton, Professor of
Conservation at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York :
“What is Conservation ? ”’

Unfortunately, as in 1968, several (three) other
speakers were unable to fulfil arrangements to come to
Armidale for Royal Society meetings. In this connec-
tion it may be mentioned that the Honorary Secretary

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

receives very little help from members in obtaining
speakers for the Branch. Such help has been frequently
promised, but only occasionally given.

Financial Statement
Balance at University of New

England JBranch, C.B.C.,

Sydney, at 10th April, 1969 $295.34
Credit :
Remittance from Royal Society

of N.S.W., 1969 fe oe $50.

Interest to 30th June, 1969 ..
Interest to 3lst December, 1969

$356.62

Debit | 2: ~~ -
Balance, 2nd April, 1970 $356.62

Rie STANTON,
Secretary-Tyveasurer.

137

Obituaries

Ronald Leslie Aston

Ronald Leslie Aston, who died on 7th September,
1969, was born in Queensland in 1901. He was
educated at Newington College, Sydney, and at the
University of Sydney; later at Trinity College,
Cambridge. He graduated at Sydney first in Science
and then in Engineering (with first-class Honours).
Subsequently he was awarded the degree of Master of
Science at Cambridge for his work on the effect of
boundaries on the deformation of single crystal of
aluminium. In 1932 he was accorded the distinction
of being one of the few people awarded the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy by Cambridge University for
work done outside the precincts of the university :

his work as leader of the Imperial Geophysical Experi-
mental Survey in Australia.

Dr. Aston had a long association with the University
of Sydney, becoming a lecturer in surveying and civil
engineering in 1930, and later became a Professor in
the Department of Civil Engineering. He will be
remembered with affection by the many students who
were fortunate to study under him.

In 1930 Dr. Aston was elected a member of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, and served as
President in 1948-1949. He was a consultant on the
Snowy Mountains Scheme and from 1948 to 1955 was
Editor of the Australian Journal of Science.

Walter George Stone

Walter George Stone, F.S.T.C., A.A.C.I., who died
on 28th July, 1969, was born in 1882. He was a
life member of the Royal Society of New South Wales,
and a member since 1916. On Ist January, 1899,
he became assistant to the then Curator and
Mineralogist of the Mining Museum, Geological Survey
of N.S.W., G. W. Card, A.R.S.M., F.G.S., who was
also a member of this Society. At that time the
Museum was situated behind Sydney Hospital. After
obtaining his diploma as Associate of the Sydney
Technical College, Mr. Stone took a year’s leave of
absence without pay to gain experience in the mining
fields of Australia. He transferred to the staff of the
Chemical Laboratory as Assistant Analyst and Assayer
of the Mines Department in 1911, when the laboratory
was situated at and worked in conjunction with the
State Metallurgical Works at Clyde. After the
laboratory’s transfer to its present site in George Street
North, he collaborated as Chemist with the late member
of the Royal Society C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.5., in a thesis
on the geology and chemistry of the Jenolan Caves

138

area which was published by the Society. For this work
he was awarded one of the very few Fellowships of
the Sydney Technical College in 1915. Ina world-wide
assessment of analytical ability conducted by Dr.
Washington of U.S.A., an eminent authority, he was
graded as an Al analyst: ““ A combination of A and 1
might be called ‘ perfect ’, the word being used subject
to human limitations.’’ Mr. Stone served voluntarily
as Chemist in explosive factories of the Munitions
Department in Great Britain during the 1914-1918
war.

As a part-time teacher in mineralogy at the Sydney
Technical College for 14 years, he saw a period of
expanding interest in geology and mineralogy. In
1935 Mr. Stone became Chief Analyst of the Mines
Department, a position he held during the difficult
war years of 1939-1945. The Fuel Research Committee
formed in 1937 entailed increase in staff, equipment,
space and work for the Laboratory. Mr. Stone retired
in December, 1945.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pis. 3/4, 1970

Medallists, 1969-70

Citations

The Society’s Medal

The Society’s Medal is awarded to a member of the
Society for ““ meritorious contributions to the advance-
ment of science. This may include administration
and organization of scientific endeavour; and for
services to the Society.”

Professor Raymond James Wood Le Fevre, D.Sc.,
F.R.S., F.A.A., was born in London on Ist April, 1905.
He was educated at Isleworth School and Queen Mary
College, London. His wartime activities were many
and varied and included Assistant Director, Research
and Development, Ministry of Aircraft Production,
Head of Chemistry at the R.A.F. Establishment,

Farnborough. He held the rank of Wing Commander.

Among his academic appointments have been
Lecturer and Reader in Organic Chemistry, University
College, London, and Professor of Chemistry, University
of Sydney.

During a very distinguished career, he has found
time to serve on the Developmental Council of New
South Wales University of Technology, Trustee of
Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, and Foundation
Fellow and Member of the first Council of the Australian
Academy of Science (1954). He was President of the
Royal Society of New South Wales in 1961-1962.

The Clarke Medal for 1969

The Clarke Medal is awarded for distinguished work
in the Natural Sciences done in, or on, the Australian
Commonwealth and its territories.

The award for 1969 is made to Professor Samuel

Warren Carey of the Department of Geology, University —
of Tasmania, for distinguished contributions in the
field of geology.

(For further details, see J. Pyoc. oy. Soc. N-S.W
Vol. 103.) a

James Cook Medal for 1969

The James Cook Medal is awarded for outstanding
contributions to science and human welfare in and for
the Southern Hemisphere.

The award for 1969 is made to Lord Casey of Berwick
ema Westininster, P:C., G.C.M.G., C.H., D.S.0., M.C.,
M.A.

The Society was honoured by the presence of Lord
and Lady Casey on 2Ist October, 1970, the occasion
of the presentation of the James Cook Medal for 1969
to Lord Casey.

The following brief biographical sketch draws
attention to some of the highlights in the life and career
of this distinguished Australian.

Richard Gardiner Casey was born in Brisbane in
1890 and subsequently attended Melbourne University,
where he studied mining engineering. Then followed
studies at Cambridge, where he earned the degree of
M.A. with Honours in Mechanical Science.

For a time before World War I he was associated
with the mining industry, first at the Mount Morgan
gold mine in Queensland and then the Laloki copper
mine near Port Moresby, New Guinea.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pits. 3/4, 1970

R. G. Casey enlisted in 1914 and saw active service.
in Europe and Gallipoli. He had an eventful military.
career and was awarded the Listinguished Service.:
Order and the Military Cross. :

After the war he rejoined Mount Morgan and for a
time was associated with Australian Fertilizers at
Port Kembla.

In the early 1920’s S. M. Bruce (later Lord Bruce
of Melbourne) persuaded Casey to join the Public
service and Water to enter politics... Here 10 is periaps
appropriate to note that it is one of Lord Casey’s
clearly expressed views that more men with scientific
and engineering training should be prepared to enter
politics and become involved in the important business
of government.

Subsequent to his entry into Federal Parliament in
1931 Casey became intimately involved in the evolution
of the modern Liberal Party, and at one stage of his
political career was a rival to R. G. Menzies for the
Prime Ministership of Australia.

Between 1940 and 1942 Casey was in Washington,
D.C., fulfilling the role of the first Australian Minister

139

CITATIONS

to the United States during the critical early war
years when America was gradually committing herself
to the Allied cause.

In 1942 Casey was invited by Winston Churchill to
serve as U.K. Minister of State for the Middle East at
Cairo, at the same time becoming a member of the
British War Cabinet. Lord Casey recalls that it was
during this stage of his career that he met Field Marshal
J. C. Smuts, himself a distinguished recipient of the
James Cook Medal of the Society.

From 1944 to 1946 Casey was appointed Governor
of Bengal during the final years of the arduous Burma
campaign and the initial, difficult transition period
before Indian Independence.

On his return to Australia, Casey actively involved
himself in the Australian political scene for the second
time in his career. In 1950, as the first Minister of
National Development, he was associated with the
establishment of the Bureau of Mineral Resources,
under Dr. H. G. Raggatt as its first Director.

Edgeworth David

The Edgeworth David Medal is awarded to Austrahan
research workers under the age of 35 years for work
done, mainly in Australia or its territories, or con-
tributing to the advancement of Australian science.

The award for 1969 is made to Associate Professor
Barry W. Ninham, of the Department of Applied
Mathematics, University of New South Wales, for his
outstanding contributions to applied mathematics,
theoretical physics and, more recently, biophysics.

Professor Ninham was born on 9th April, 1936, in
Croydon, South Australia. He graduated in theoretical
physics at the University of Western Australia, B.Sc.
(first-class honours) (1957), M.Sc. (1958). He was
awarded a C.5.I.R.O. Post-Graduate Studentship
tenable at the University of Maryland, U.S.A., where
he studied for his Ph.D. (theoretical physics and
mathematics) (1962) under Professor Elliott W.
Montroll. He was appointed lecturer at the University
of New South Wales in May, 1962. From 1964 to 1966
he held a Queen Elizabeth IT Post-Doctoral Fellowship

140

Between 1950 and 1960 Casey was Minister in charge
of the C.S.I.R.O. and as Minister for External Affairs
(1951-1960) was largely responsible for the initiation
of Australia’s scientific effort in the Antarctic.

Amongst Lord Casey’s publications we may cite the
following: An Australian in India, Double or Quit
(1948), Friends and Neighbours (1954), and The Future
of the Commonwealth (1963). These reflect his interest
in the future status of the British Commonwealth and
the increasing Australian orientation towards her
neighbours in S.E. Asia.

Lord Casey’s subsequent career, which includes the
Governor-Generalship of Australia from 1965 to 1969,
is well known to members of our Society and does not
require elaboration in this brief review.

The Society is fortunate to have in the person of
Lord Casey a man of stature and wealth of experience
to be the very worthy recipient of the James Cook
Medal for 1969.

Medal for 1969

at the University of New South Wales. In 1969 he
was Visiting Scientist at the National Institute of
Health, Washington, D.C. In 1970 he is to accept the
position of Professor of Applied Mathematics at the
Research School of Physical Sciences, Australian
National University.

Professor Ninham has written two books and
published extensively, making significant contributions
to several fields of theoretical physics and applied
mathematics. He has always had a strong interest
in mathematical analysis, and some of his contributions
have been directly in this field. He has been particu-
larly successful in applying these techniques both to
numerical analysis and to statistical mechanics, which
have been his major area of research. His work here
has been outstanding: always highly original and
thorough. Recently he has shown the relevance of
sophisticated quantum-mechanical and __ stochastic
methods to challenging problems of cell structure and
dynamics in biophysics. He has already made
pioneering contributions to this further field.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Members of the Society, April, 1970

A list of members of the Society up to April, 1969,
is included in Volume 102.

During the year ended 31st March, 1970, the following
were elected to membership of the Society :

Brown, John Percival, Bank Manager, E. S. & A.
Bank, Wollongong, N.S.W., 2500 (1969).

CALLENDER, John Hardy, Schoolteacher, Lot 101,
Dallas Street, Mount Ousley, N.S.W., 2519 (1969).

FiLoop, Peter Gerald, B.Sc.(Hons.), Geologist, Bureau
of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T., 2600
(1969).

GRIFFIN, Derek K., B.Sc., Geologist, Lot 435, McDougall
Avenue, Baulkham Hills, N.S.W., 2153 (1969).

fmoKOT, Ernest, B.Sc., Ph.D. (N.S.W.), A.S.T.C.,
A.R.A.C.I., 4 Cosgrove Avenue, Keiraville, N.S.W.,
2500 (1969).

McCartHy, Daryl John, F.R.M.S., 12 Farrow Street,
Lane Cove, N.S.W., 2066 (1969).

Murray, Bede Edward, B.A., 18 Bulwarra
Keiraville, N.S.W., 2500 (1969).

Street,

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

PEARSON, Robert John Butler, Metallurgist, 25 Burling
Avenue, Fairy Meadow, N.S.W., 2519 (1969).
RILEy, Steven James, B.Sc.(Hons.), Department of
Geography, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006
(1969).

Witcox, Ronald Walter, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 9 Benney
Avenue, Fig Tree, N.S.W., 2500 (1969).

During the same period resignations were received
from the following :

Blunt, Michael H.

Bossom, Geoffrey.

Feather, Norman T.

Henderson, Roger J.

McClymecnt, Vivienne C. (Mrs.) (Associate).

Priddle, Raymond A.

Slade, George H.

Warris, Bevan J.

and the following names were removed from the list of
members under Rule XVIII:

Essex, Elizabeth A.
Flood, Richard W.

/

141

INDEX

Page
A
Abstract of Proceedings, 1968 ae on .. 45
_ Abstract of Proceedings, 1969 a 130
Abstract of Proceedings of Section of Geology,
1968 a 50
Abstract of Proceedings of Section of Geology,
1969 Me .. 135
Annual Report of New England Branch, "1969... 137
Annual Report of South Coast Branch, 1969 .. 52
Annual Report of South Coast Branch, 1970 .. 137
Annual Report, 3lst March, 1969 a .. 43
Annual Report, 31st March, 1970 ae 128
Aston, Ronald Leslie—Obituary 138
Astronomy ik 5, BD, 87
B
Balance Sheet as at 28th February, 1969 .. 47
Balance Sheet as at 28th February, 1970 132

Bearing of Some Upper Palaeozoic Reefs and
Coral Faunas on the Hypothesis of Con-
tinental Drift. Clarke Memorial Lecture,
1971, by D. Hill .. ta ae ag pe2=593

Book Review

Bowan Park Area, Central ‘Western N.S. W.., The
Lower Middle Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of pie.
by V. Semeniuk 15

Broken River Formation, "North Queensland,
Devonian Stromatoporoids from the, By Cc. W.
Mallett .. ep 0

Browne, W. R.—Honorary “Member <- nae De

Burman, TR
A Solar Charge and the Perihelion Motion

1566 Icarus : 1
Light Tracks Near a Dense Charged Star eng
C
Cavill, G. W. K.—Chemistry of Some Insect
Secretions. Liversidge Research Lecture,
1970 . 109

Cheivurus (Crotalocephalus) vegius n.sp. from the
Early Devonian of Trundle District, Central
N.S.W., A New eee of Trilobite, by G. Z.
Foldvary 85

Chemistry : . 109

Chemistry of Some Insect Secretions, Liversidge

Research Lecture, 1970, by G. W. K. Cavill .. 109
Citations a 53, 139
Clarke, D. J Internal Seiche Motions for One-

Dimensional Flow Bs ‘ . 81
Clarke Medal for 1969 a = ae eos
Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1969. Origin of the

Moon, by A. E. Ringwood .. be ei!

Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1971. The Bearing of
Some Upper Palaeozoic Reefs and Coral
Faunas on the Hypothesis of Continental
Drift, by D. Hill ; 93

Classical Pair of Equations, On a, by J. L. Griffith 31

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

Page
Continental Drift, The Bearing of Some Upper
Palaeozoic Reefs and Coral Faunas on the
Hypothesis of. Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1971,

by D. Hill ae 93
Cook, James, and the Transit of. Venus, W. H.
Robertson 5

Coral Faunas on the Hypothesis ‘of Continental
Drift, The Bearing of Some Upper Palaeozoic
Reefs and. Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1971,

by D. Hill es 93
Council :

Annual Report, 3lst March, 1969 .. .. 43

Annual Report, 3lst March, 1970 22, 128

Balance Sheet, 28th February, 1969 .. AT

Balance Sheet, 28th February, 1970 .. 132
Cundari, A., see P. Wellman : .. 103

D

Devonian Stromatoporoids from the Broken River

Formation, North as oe Cc. W.
Mallett 2. ee
E
Edgeworth David Medal for 1968 - .. 54
Edgeworth David Medal for 1969 140

Equations, On a Classical Pair of, by J. L. Griffith 31

F

Faunas on the Hypothesis of Continental Drift,

The Bearing of Some Upper Palaeozoic

Reefs and Coral. Clarke Memorial] Lecture,

1971, by D. Hill ae 93
Flow, Internal Seiche Motions for One- Dimensional;

by D. J. Clarke : 81

Foldvary, G. Z—A New Species of Trilobite,
Cheirurus (Crotalocephalus) vegius n.sp., from
the Early Devonian of Trundle District,
Central N.S.W. oh £2 : 85

G

Geology 11, 15, 57, 77, 103
Geology, Section of, 1968, 1969 ; : 50, 135
Gorceixite-goyazite in Kaolinite Rocks of the
Sydney Basin, by F. C. Loughnan and C. R.
Ward : 77.
Goyazite in Kaolinite Rocks of the Sydney Basin,

Gorceixite-, by F. C. Loughnan and C. R.
Ward oe ba EE
Griffith, J. L._—Ona Classical Pair of Equations aol

143

INDEX

Page
H

Hill, D.—The Bearing of Some Upper Palaeozoic
Reefs and Coral Faunas on the Hypothesis of
Continental Diift. Clarke Memorial Lecture,

1971 Bes me eh)
Honorary Member—W. R. Browne si ena
Hon. Treasurer’s Report, 1968 .. Be .. 44
Hon. Treasurer’s Report, 1969 ... ~ .. 129

I

Icarus, A Solar Charge and the Perihelion Motion
1566, by R. Burman .. as Aa 1

Insect Secretions, Chemistry of Some. Liversidge
Research Lecture, 1970, by G. W. K. Cavill .. 109

Internal Seiche Motions for One-Dimensional

Flow, by D. J. Clarke phe a Be i TkOL
J
James Cook and the Transit of Venus, by W. H.
Robertson iy 5
James Cook Medal for 1969 - as .. 139
K

Kaolinite Rocks of the Sydney Basin, Gorceixite-
goyazite in, a F. C. Loughnan and C. R.

Ward

-~l

ba |

L

Lassak, E. V.—A Note on Some Non-Calcareous
Stalactites from the Sandstones of the Syne
Basin, N.S.W. .. 11

Leucite- -bearing Rocks from New South Wales,
Potassium-Argon Ages from, by P. Wellman,

A. Cundari and I. McDougall 103
Light Tracks Near a Dense pee Star, by R.
Burman .. 87

Liversidge Research ‘Lecture, 1970, Chemistry of
Some Insect Secretions, by G. W. K. Cavill .. 109

Loughnan, F. C., and Ward, C. R.—Gorceixite-
“goyazite in Kaolinite Rocks of the athe
Basin ee ted

M

Mallett, C. W.—Devonian Stromatoporoids from
the Broken River Formation, North Queens-

land 3 a Me 1 £30
Marsh, L. McL., see N. W. Taylor = = Peet!)
Mathematics ane 31, 81, 119
McDougall, I., see P. Wellman .. 103
Measurement, "The Nature of Time and Its, by

Sie Prokhovnik a 123
Medallists sk % 53, 139
Members of the Society, April, 1970s e 141
Member, Honorary .. ae .. 130
Moon, The Origin of the. Clarke Memorial

Lecture, 1969, by A. E. Ringwood . 57
Motion in Two Space-like Dimensions, Relativistic,

by N. W. Taylor and L. McL. Marsh. iO
144

Page
N

Nature of Time and Its Measure by “S. 2].
Prokhovnik ; ae oe -. 138
New Species of Trilobite, Cheirurus (Crotalo-
cephalus) vegius D.sp., from the Early Devonian
of Trundle District, Central N.S.W.5 Dy Gers:
Foldvary 85
Note on Some Non-Calcareous Stalactites from the
Sandstones of the eye Basin, N.S.W., by

Ho We ieassak 11
O
Obituary ; 1338
Occultations Observed at "Sydney Observatory
during 1969, by K. P. Sims .. 55
Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory
during 1970, by K. P. Sims . a OR

Officers for 1969-1970 Back of Title Page

On a Classical Pair of Equations, by J. L. Griffith... 31

Origin of the Moon. Clarke Memorial Lecture,
1969, by A. E. Ringwood _.. y ee 5 //

Pp

Palaeontology. . ° 35, 85, 93
Palaeozoic Reefs and Coral ‘Faunas on the Hypo-
thesis of Continental Drift, The Bearing of
Some Upper. Clarke Memorial Lectrre, 1971,
by D. Hill ptt 93
Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of the Bowan Park Area,
Central Western N.S.W., The Lower Middle,
by V. Semeniuk 15
Potassium-Argon Ages for Leucite-bearing Rocks
from New South Wales, by P. Wellman, A.
Cundari and I. McDougall ty 103
Proceedings, Abstract of .. : 45, 130
Prokhovnik, S. J.—The Nature of Time and Its
Measurement... 123

Q
Queensland, Devonian Stromatoporoids from the

Broken River Formation, North, Leh C. W.
Mallett .. 35

R

Reefs and Coral Faunas on the Hypothesis of Con-
tinental Drift, The Bearing of Some Upper

Palaeozoic. Clarke Memorial Lecture, 197],

by D. Hill sig “Oo
Relativistic Motion in Two Space-like Dimensions,

by N. W. Taylor and L. McL. Marsh . 119
Ringwood, A. E.—Origin of the Moon. " Clarke

Memorial Lecture, 1969 57
Robertson, W. H. eee Cook and the ‘Transit

of Venus ; 5

S

Sandstones of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W., A Note

on Some Non-Calcareous Stalactites from the,

by E. V. Lassak i Ha me aot, Ae
Section of Geology = 50, 135

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 103, Pts. 3/4, 1970

INDEX

Page

- Seiche Motions for One-Dimensional Flow, Internal,
by D. J. Clarke ' Oe i oe

Semeniuk, V.—The Lower Middle Palaeozoic
Stratigraphy of the Bowan Park Area, Central
Western N.S.W. :

Sims, K. P.:

Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory
during 1969

Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory
during 1970

Society’s Medal for 1968

Society’s Medal for 1969 ..

Solar Charge and the Perihelion Motion 1566
Icarus, by R. Burman

Stalactites from the Sandstones of the Sydney
Basin, N.S.W., A Note on Some Non-Cal-
careous, by E. V. Lassak e

Star, Light Tracks Near a Dense Charged, ae R.
Burman ae

Stone, Walter George—Obituary Sa

Stratigraphy of the Bowan Park Area, Central
Western N.S.W., The Lower Middle Palaeozoic,
by V. Semeniuk

Stromatoporoids from the Broken ‘River Forma-
tion, North Queensland, Devonian, by C. W.
Mallett

Sydney Basin, N.S. W.., A Note on Some Non-
Calcareous Stalactites from the Sandstones of,
by E. V. Lassak :

Sydney Basin, Gorceixite- -goyazite in Kaolinite
Rocks of the, es Hee: pene eee and C. R.
Ward

Sydney Observatory |

55,

oo |

77
91

Page

4h

Taylor, N. W., and L. McL. Marsh—Relativistic
Motion in Two Space-like Dimensions.

Time and Its Measurement, The Nature of, by 5. Te
Prokhovnik

Trilobite, Chetrurus (Crotalocephalus) vegius n.sp.
from the Early Devonian of Trundle District,
Central N.S.W., A New Species of, by G. Z.
Foldvary 7

Transit of Venus, James Cook and the, by W. 4H.
Robertson

Trundle District, Central N.S. W., ‘A New Species
of Trilobite, Cheirurus (Crotalocephalus) vegius
n.sp., from the wale Devonian of, ne Go:
Foldvary

vi

Venus, James Cook and the Transit of, a Wei
Robertson ; -

W

Walter Burfitt Prize for 19638

Ward, C. R., see F. C. Loughnan . a5

Wellman, P., Cundari, A., and McDougall, [,—
Potassium-Argon Ages from Leucite-bearing
Rocks from New South Wales

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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

OR TRE

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VOLUME
104

1971

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ili

CONTENTS

| Parts 1-2

Astronomy :

On the Metric of an Astronomical Object in the Lyttleton-Bondi Theory. R. Burman a 1
Precise Observations of Minor Planets at us dney aed pas 1969 and 1970. W. dH.

| Robertson .. : 2 s 5

| Geology :

The Geology of the Coolac Serpentinite and Adjacent Rocks East of Tumut, New South

| P. M. Ashley, B. E. Chenhall, P. L. Cremer and A. J. Irving 38 11

The Phytochemical History of Torbanites. R. F. Cane and P. R. Albion a 31
Potassium-Argon Basalt Dates and Their i ee in the [lford- meee eres Region.

| J. A. Dulhunty .. i : 39

Magnetic Properties of Rocks el the Giles Compe ina Ise, R. A. F acer 45
Palaeozoic Sedimentology and Igneous Geology of the See District, North Coast,

New South Wales. R. J. Korsch .. : = 63
Mineralogical Changes as Marker Horizons for Stone comente in eae Namanees

Group of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W. Colin R. Ward .. - Ae re a CK
Mathematics :
Longitudinal Free Oscillations in Jervis Bay, New South Wales. D. J. Clarke .. Se,
Report of Council, 31st March, 1971 .. Be a ies 2 3 a .. «95
Balance Sheets i; ae e) a ay ae bs Ssh $5 7 .. 101
List of Members __.. — ii a =: ae 2 oe a - .. 118

Parts 3-4

Astronomy :
On Hoyle’s Electrodynamic Version of the Steady-State Cosmology. R. R. Burman .. 121

History :
Words, Actions, People: 150 Years of Scientific Societies in Australia. D.F. Branagan .. 123

Mathematics :
Radiation Pressure and Related Forces. Presidential Address, 7th April, 1971. W. E.

Smith me he - - ne ae - - 4 % ais
Communication to the Editor :
Note on Sandstone Dykes at Minchinbury, N.S.W. G. S. Gibbons .. = sor
Index to Volume 104 i .. Ae _ . a bs me .. 153

List of Office-Bearers, 1971-1972 ae i i re a = - es il

ae

: JOURNAL. AND. PROCEEDINGS
po OR THE

a OY A [ Ss fe) r ae

IETY

ME Miner Ic ehobe : as Marker Hanon ie eee caren in oS
3 dare bee n Sere. ot uthe oe Basin, N. = Ww. Colin R. Ward oe

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te ae ‘Robertson -.. See ee En i eR ae

OM. “Asie, B. £. ‘Chenhall, P. £3 Cremer and

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 1-4, 1971

On the Metric of an Astronomical Object in the Lyttleton-Bondi
Theory

R. BURMAN
Department of Physics, University of Western Australia

Asstract—Lyttleton and Bondi developed a cosmological model in which there is net

imbalance of charge, with matter and hence charge being continuously created.

Here, the

equations of that theory, namely the Proca equations combined with Einstein’s field equations of
general relativity, are used to investigate the space-time outside a static spherically symmetric

object, with a radial outflow sufficient to keep the matter and charge densities constant.

The

situation with zero electromagnetic fields but non-zero potentials is investigated. An expansion
of the metric is obtained which shows that there is no detectable departure from the predictions

of the Schwarzschild metric.

1. Introduction

Lyttleton and Bondi (1959, 1960), and also
Hoyle (1960), investigated the effects of a
possible general charge imbalance in the
universe ; the excess could arise from differing
magnitudes of the proton and electron charges,
or from different numbers of protons and
electrons everywhere in the universe. The
possibility of ascribing the expansion of the
universe to electrical repulsion was discussed.
In the Lyttleton-Bondi theory, creation of
matter implies creation of charge; hence
Maxwell’s equations cannot be accurately valid
and an appropriate modification, the Proca
equations, was used. The postulate of the
conservation of existing charge was retained :
in any volume element, the total charge is
the sum of the charges of all the enclosed
elementary particles existing there at the
instant concerned. Also, charge was regarded
as indestructible once created.

Taking —e to be the charge on the electron,
that on the proton is written (1+-y)e, or alter-
natively, the ratio of number of protons to
number of electrons is (1+) :1.

Consider a_ distribution of non-ionized
hydrogen atoms of uniform density, each atom
having a net charge ye. By considering non-
relativistically the balance of gravitational
and electrostatic forces on any one atom, it
easily follows that the system will expand if
y > G*m,/e, G being the Newtonian gravitational
constant and m,, being the mass of the hydrogen
atom (Lyttleton and Bondi, 1959). The con-
sequent reduction of density can be offset by
continuous creation of matter and hence of
charge ; the ratio of rates of charge and matter
creation is ye/m,. The radial streaming con-
stitutes an electric current, but this need not
imply the existence of electric and magnetic
fields, Maxwell’s equations being inapplicable.

A

The Proca equations, in contrast to Maxwell's
equations, are not gauge invariant: the scalar
and vector potentials have direct physical
significance. These equations were used by
Lyttleton and Bondi to investigate, in Newtonian
space-time, a system having spherical symmetry
about some point specified to be the origin ;
they found a solution with non-zero charge and
current densities and non-zero electromagnetic
scalar and vector potentials, but with zero
electric and magnetic fields. Then, using the
generally covariant form of the Proca equations,
Lyttleton and Bondi obtained a solution with
zero electric and magnetic fields in a space-time
having the de Sitter metric—the metric of the
homogeneous stationary universe of the steady-
state theory. In this case, the current density
3-vector vanishes because of the co-moving
nature of the co-ordinates.

2. Basic Theory

The purpose of this section is to present some
of the basic electrodynamical theory, as
developed by Lyttleton and Bondi (1959).

2.1. Non-covariant Formulation

Let E and H represent the electric and
magnetic fields, while ¢ and A denote the scalar
and vector potentials, so that

B=yxXA and E=—yo— ; = (1a,b)
c being the speed of light in empty space. The

simplest generalization of Maxwell’s equations
is the set of Proca equations

VxE=-— Fie V-H=0, (2a,b)
4503 OB

(3a,b)

2 R. BURMAN

in which j and o are the current and charge
densities ; Maxwell’s equations are obtained
when the constant A vanishes; A? has the
dimensions of length, and Lyttleton and Bondi
suggested that it might have the same order of
magnitude as the radius of the observable
universe. In another interpretation of (2) and
(3), A is related to a possible rest mass of the
photon (Schrédinger, 1943; McConnell and
Schrodinger, 1944; Bass and Schrodinger,
1955 ; Gintsburg, 1964; Patel, 1965; Kozarev
and Okun’, 1968 ; Goldhaber and Nieto, 1968).
Equations (2) and (3) are Lorentz invariant,
but not gauge invariant : » and A have direct
physical significance.

In a situation with continuous creation of
charge, of amount q e.s.u. per unit proper
volume per unit time, the equation of continuity
of charge is replaced by

ae
Vita =4. (4)
Taking the divergence of (3a) and using (30),
it follows that

Ar 1 dg
Avi B)a(yatt 2);
so the Lorentz condition of conventional electro-
dynamics is replaced by

WAT — a2 (6)

2.2. Covariant Formulation

Equations (2) and (3) are Lorentz invariant,
but are not in covariant form. Let (A) and
(/") denote the 4-potential (A,g) and the current
density 4-vector (j,ec) respectively ; g has the
same meaning as above. Partial and covariant
differentiation will be denoted by a comma
and a semicolon, respectively. The electro-
magnetic field tensor (F,,) 1s defined by

1 Re be y— Ay, Us ; (7)
The Proca equations (2) and (3) are, respectively,
: ey iey Si pv tl yeu =0 (3)
which is eae a to (7 i and

Fuy= =] uA. (9)

Equation (6) can me expressed as

u ang

A= oe (10)

Equations (9) and (10) can be written
1 = 4x
ea eae )y = Jug
and
1 —— Ar
a gh)

where g is the determinant of the metric tensor
(Zu)

In this modified electrodynamics, the energy-
momentum tensor has the components

jie
1 y) 5 v
GaP ual Ot gba bo +rAyay—3 pA gA*) |.

(13)
2.3. Solutions with Zero Electromagnetic Fields
When’ F,,,=0, (9) becomes

ch
di w= Au. (14)
Also, (7) then shows that
A,=U ,, (15)
U being a scalar function ;*se (12)scam, be
written
if eae
Tag V BO ar (16)

3. Space-time Outside a Spherically
Symmetric Object

This section and the next deal with the
space-time outside a static spherically symmetric
central object, with a radial outflow sufficient
to keep the matter and charge densities constant
in spite of the continuous ‘creation yiG 1s
assumed that the matter outside the central
object is sufficiently tenuous to have no
dynamical effect on the metric; in particular,
the line element will be taken to be static,
not merely stationary.

The static spherically symmetric space-time
metric can be written
—ds? =

A (r) dv? +-7?(d6? +-sin? Ode?) —C(r)c2dé? ; (17)
ds is the space-time interval, (7, 8, @) are spherical
polar co-ordinates, and ¢ is the time co-ordinate.
Equation (17) corresponds to a metric tensor
(Zuy) with non-zero covariant components given

by
Lu Lo» sa Sg = —A, —, —F sin OC
18)
so that
gil, 922 938, gld
—A-1, —r-*, —(rsin 0)-?, e-1. (19)
Also
= (AC) 272 cman (20)

For the metric (17), the mixed components
Gy of the Einstein tensor can be obtained from
the book by Synge (1960, pp. 270-72) : the only
non-zero components are on the diagonal ;
it is found that

gil | 4 ee
ot-Ale(4) 7

(21)

METRIC OF AN ASTRONOMICAL OBJECT IN LYTTLETON-BONDI THEORY 3

and

ed
rA2C dr
which will be used soon.

In a static spherically symmetric situation,
using the (7,0, , ct) co-ordinate system, (A,)
must have the form given by

(A,,) =(q, 0, 0, ¢) (23)
where a and 9 are functions of 7 only ; for the

Gi Gi— (AC), (22)

Fy, to vanish, @ must be a constant. From
(23),

(At) =(—a/A, 0, 0, o/C), (24)
so A,At=—o*/C—a?/A. The only non-zero
components T,arediagonalones. With F,,,=0,

Vash Ge 2)
= = oye ey
2 A (a ) 3 ;
ty A(§ C =o (26)
and
4 Ala 9
4 ie “rg (27)
Hence
i ye mea (aa
deg meres (3 =) 28)

As mentioned before, the dynamical effects
on the metric of the outflowing matter will be
neglected—that is, its mechanical contribution
to the total energy-momentum tensor is dis-
regarded. So, outside the central body,
Finstein’s field equations of general relativity
are

Gy=—4raT (29)
where « is a constant and the components Ty

are given by (25) to (27). It follows from (21),
(22), (27), (28) and (29) that

idly ae oe
=le(4) -1| a 3(G+F) ey
and
deen a oF
Multiplying (30) through by 7? and _ then
integrating gives
eee (#42 d 32
Wa by NAG 7" a

Multiplying (31) through by 7A and then
integrating results in

In (AC) =ar | vA (S+E)ar. (33)

Using (20) and (24), (12) becomes

a GN Ee = __ —4ng
(AC) #r? AG) ones |= ch a)
which integrates to
__ —4rqg/cr [ sos 6 ©
=A? (AC) #r CTA (35)

dv

where @ is a constant.

4. Expansion of the Metric

Starting with the metric (17), and following
a suggestion of Eddington (1924, p. 105), A-t
and C can be expanded in powers of 1/7. One
coefficient in the expansion is determined by
requiring the geodesics to approximately coincide
with the Newtonian orbits. The remainder are
determined by the field equations of general
relativity ; alternatively, the lowest order of
them, at least for the solar metric, are obtain-
able from observations. Expansions of this
kind, with the metric taken to be in isotropic
form or in the form (17), have received consider-
able attention in recent years (Robertson, 1962 ;
Schiff, 1960, 1962, 1964, 1967 ; Schild, 1960).

For a metric of the form (17), consider the
expansions

9 2m \*
A=1+ p+ 84() eae (36)
and
ny “
ee sc ae ee (37)

m being a constant. The Newtonian orbits are
obtained to a first approximation, provided m is
identified with Gu/c? where G is the Newtonian
gravitational constant and uw is the mass of the
central body. Any other non-zero choice of
the coefficient of 2m/v in C would result in m
being proportional, rather than equal, to
Gu/c2 (Schild, 1962). The resulting formula
gives, to first order, the same gravitational
red-shift as general relativity. The rate of
perihelion rotation of an orbiting particle, which
is assumed to follow a geodesic, is approximately
proportional to (2+6,—2«,), while the angle of
deflection of hight, which is assumed to follow a
null geodesic, is approximately proportional to
(1+6,) (Schild, 1962). The Schwarzschild
metric can be expanded in the above way;
the «’s vanish and the @’s are unity.
Equation (35) gives

_a4ngr |, 9 (2) |, 8 a)
spas) 8 fieo()]

which reduces to the flat space result when
terms involving m are neglected. The first
term dominates at large (i.e., cosmological)

4 R. BURMAN

distances. Near the body, the other term
dominates; neglecting the first term and
remembering that g is independent of 7, it is
found from (32) and (33) that

ef) fe)

and, with suitable choice of the constant of
integration,
(AG)

aout , +0 ()| — 9? 1 +0() 1.
(40)

Since the expansions are to hold near the central
body, the terms in ¢? will be neglected ; thus

1, 2m , ar? 1
4 7 Top +0(5) ve
and
Hic exp = — 11+0(7)]} (42)
ANG? a
1-28 40(2) ns
Using (41), (43) gives
2m i

So the metric can be written in the form given
by (386) and (37), with 8,=1 and «,=0; that is,
the coefficients 8, and «,, which are the only
ones affecting the standard observational tests
of general relativity, have the same values as
in the case of the Schwarzschild metric.

5. Concluding Remarks

This paper has dealt with the space-time
metric outside a static spherically symmetric
body in the presence of continuous creation of
matter and charge, with a radial outflow
sufficient to keep the matter and charge densities
constant. The system has been described by
the Lyttleton-Bondi theory in which there is a
net imbalance of charge. The basic equations
are Einstein’s field equations of general relativity
together with the Proca equations ; it has been
assumed that the outflowing matter is sufficiently
tenuous as to have negligible dynamical effect
on the metric, its mechanical contribution to
the total energy-momentum tensor being
neglected. The case of zero electromagnetic
fields but non-zero vector and scalar potentials
has been investigated. An expansion of the

(Received 21st

metric, applicable near the central body, has
been obtained; this shows that there is no
detectable departure from the predictions of
the Schwarzschild metric.

References
Bass, L., and SCHRGODINGER, E., 1955. Must the
Photon Mass be Zero? Proc. Roy. Soc., A232,
1-6.

EppineTon, A. S., 1924. The Mathematical Theory of
Relativity. Cambridge University Press.

GINTSBURG, M. A., 1964. Structure of the Equations
of Cosmic Electrodynamics. Soviet Astronomy—
AJ, 7, 536-540.

GOLDHABER, A. S., and Nieto, M. M., 1968. New
Geomagnetic Limit on the Mass of the Photon.
Phys. Rev. Letts., 21, 567-569.

Hoy te, F., 1960. On the Possible Consequences of a

Variability of the Elementary Charge. Proc.
Roy. Soc., A257, 431-442.
LYTTLETON, R. A., and Bonpi He 1959s On» the

Physical Consequences of a General Excess of

Charge. Proc. Roy. Soc., A252, 313-333.
LYITTLETON, R. A., and Bonpr, Hi, 71960.) Note
on the preceding paper. Proc. Roy. Soc., A257,
442-444,
KoszareEv, I. Y., and Oxun’, L. B., 1968. On the
Photon Mass. Soviet Physics Uspekhi, 11,

338-341.

McConne_ELL, J., and SCHRODINGER, E. The Shielding
Effect of Planetary Magnetic Fields. Proc. R.
Ivish Acad., A49, 259-273.

PaTEL, V. L., 1965. Structure of the Equations of
Cosmic Electrodynamics and the Photon Rest
Mass. Phys. Letis., 14, 105-106.

RoseErTSON, H. P., 1962. Relativity and Cosmology.
In Space Age Astronomy. Ed. by A. J. Deutsch
and W. E. Klemperer, pp. 228-235. Academic
Press, New York.

ScuirFr, L. I., 1960. Motion of a Gyroscope According
to Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci., 46, 871-882.

ScuirF, L. I., 1962. General Relativity: Theory and
Experiment. J. Soc. Indust. Appl. Math., 10,
795-801.

ScuiFF, L. I., 1964. Proposed Gyroscope Experiment
to Test General Relativity Theory. In Pro-
ceedings on Theory of Gravitation. Ed. by L.
Infeld, pp. 71-77. Gauthier-Villars, Paris; PWN,
Warszawa.

ScuirF, L. I., 1967. Comparison of Theory and
Observation in General Relativity. In Relativity
Theory and Astrophysics. Ed. by J. Ehlers,
Vol. 1, Relativity and Cosmology, pp. 105-116.
American Math. Soc.

ScuHILp, A., 1960. Equivalence Principle and Red-
shift Measurements. Am. J. Phys., 28, 778-780.

ScHILD, A., 1962. Gravitational Theories of the
Whitehead Type and the Principle of Equivalence.
In Proc. Internat. School of Physics, “ Enrico
Fermi ’’ Course XX. Ed. by C. Moller, pp. 69-115.
Academic Press, New York and London.

SCHRODINGER, E., 1943. The Earth’s and the Sun’s
Permanent Magnetic Fields in the Unitary Field
Theory. Proc. R. Ivish Acad., A49, 135-148.

SynGE, J. L., 1960. Relativity : The General Theory,
pp. 270-272. North-Holland Publ. Co.,
Amsterdam.

May, 1971)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 5-10, 1971

Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory
during 1969 and 1970

W. H. ROBERTSON

ABsTRACT—Positions of 1 Ceres, 3 Juno, 11 Parthenope, 18 Melpomene, 39 Laetitia,
40 Harmonia and 433 Eros obtained with the 23 cm. camera are given.

The programme of precise observations of
selected minor planets which was begun in 1955
is being continued and the results for 1969 and
1970 are given here. The methods of observa-
tion and reduction were described in the first
paper (Robertson, 1958). All the plates were
taken with the 23 cm. camera (scale 116” to the
millimetre). [four exposures were made on
each plate except for the one for 433 Eros,
which had two.

In Table I are given the means for all four
images for the separate groups of stars at the
mean of the times. The differences between
the results average 08-024 sec 6 in right ascension
and 0”-44 in declination. This corresponds to
probable errcrs for the mean of the two results
from one plate of 08-010 sec § and 0”:19. The
result from the first two exposures was compared
with that from the last two by adding the
movement computed from the ephemeris. The
means of the differences were 08-012 sec 65 in
right ascension and 0”:19 in declination. It
is expected that the two results from each plate
will be combined into one when they are used.
However, they are published in the present form
so that any alteration of the positions of the

reference stars can be conveniently applied by
using the dependences from Table II. No
correction has been applied for aberration,
light time or parallax, but the factors give the
parallax correction when divided by the distance.
The observers at the telescope were W. H.
Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S) and Harley
Wood (W).

In accordance with the recommendation of
Commission 20 of the International Astronomical
Union, Table II gives for each observation the
positions of the reference stars and_ the
dependences. The columns headed “R.A.”
and “‘ Dec.” give the seconds of time and arc
with proper motion correction applied to bring
the catalogue position to the epoch of the plate.
The column headed “ Star” gives the number
from the Yale Catalogue (Vols. 11, 12, 13, 14,
16,17, 20, 21, 22,28). The plates were measured
by Miss R. Bleakley, Miss A. Davis, Mrs. B.
McLear, Miss R. Stanfield and Miss E. Wiegold,
who have also assisted with the reductions.

Reference
ROBERTSON, W. H., 1958. J. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 92,
18. Sydney Observatory Papers No. 33.

TABLE [
R.A. Dec. / Parallax
No. (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors
hm S g a S i

1 Ceres

1969 U.T.
995 May 29-77177 21 03 54-490 2A Ol bess —0:001 —1:44 §
996 May 29-77177 21 038 54-495 4 ee 2 70)
997 June 12-73643 21 05 10-006 Jono pote +0:006 —1-28 W
998 June 12-73643 21 05 09-896 2592250 34°16
999 June 26-70698 21 O1 33-601 —26 45 09-45 +0:045 —1:08 §S
1000 June 26-70698 21 O1 33-630 —26 45 09-88
1001 July 08 - 66439 20 54 46-886. —28 04 03-84 +0:027 —0°-87 W
1002 July 08 - 66439 20 54 46-958 —28 04 03-66

No.

1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016

1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032

1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046

1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054

1055
1056

1 Ceres—continued
05-
05:
54097
-54097

11
bi
18-
18:

10-
10-
EG.
i6-
24-

24

56870
56870

52066
52066
44386
44386
43393
43393
40770

-40770
03-
03-

40737
40737

3 Juno
1969 U.T.

15-
Ld
29:
29 -
10-
10-
16-
Lo:
05-
05>
11
11
18-
iB:
r2*
12

11

72721
Pye 7 |
68784
68784
56104
56104
53889
53889
46910
46910

-45861
-45861

45296
45296
37307
37307

Parthenope

1969 U7.

iheJe
ioe
16:
16-
28 -
28 -
1d:
15-
2]
21
11
11

O8-
39

73638
73638
65229
65229
61714
61714
55632
55632

- 53436
- 53436
-47405
-47405
08:

40328
40328

Laetitia

HOG SUE le

16-
16-
14-
14-
20:
20:
03:
03-

40

77437
77437
69986
69986
66764
66764
63497
63497

Harmonia

1969 Ged.

16-

16-

69772
69772

h

W. H. ROBERTSON

TABLE I—continued

Rea

m

(1950-0)

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

30
30
25
25
118)
19
O08
08
07
O7
O07
O7
10
10

-058
-050

+03

—J7
—17

28

32

36

15

36

22
22

22.

50-
25:

20:

Bole

32:

51-

‘31
53°

92

Parallax

-010

Factors

-46

Nn

pe el gece ee|as ead oret to: aha ag UN Pe

Bie sie og,

ene ye

PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS

TABLE I—continued

13a Dec Parallax
No. (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors
h m S O° 4 4 S “M

40 Harmonia—continued

1057 May 15: 61004 16 Ill 25-076 —16 49 37-63 +0:007 —2:54 W
1058 May 15-61004 16 ll 25-097 —16 49 37-65
1059 May 19-59624 16 O7 16-517 —16 44 13-90 +0:005 —2:56 R
1060 May 19-59624 16 O07 16-460 —16 44 13-83
1061 June 12-51997 lo 430077379 Somes) Week +0:026 —2-61 W
1062 June 12-51997 1S 43> 07-382 —16 23 14-41
1063 July 08-44313 15 30 50-467 —16eDL (271-82 S20 035) == 2554. sk
1064. July 08-44313 15 30 50-540 =16°75), ~27-28
1065 Aug. 05°37274 15 40 30-498 —18 30 12-09 +0:-033 —2:31 W
1066 Aug. 05-37274 15 40 30-506 —18 30 11-83

1 Ceres

1970 U.T.

1067 Nov. 04-55704 02 00 40-772 —00 25 48-58 +0:040 —4-83 R
1068 Nov. 04.-55704 02 00 40-786 —00 25 48-44
1069 Nov. 27-45974 Ol 44 20-424 =00> 12 16-20 —0-032 —4-86 S
1070 Nov. 27-45974 Ol 44 20-406 —00O 12 16-64
1071 Dec. 17: 42366 Ol 39 04-242 +01 06 09-02 +0:037 —5:03 W
1072 Dec. 17- 42366 01 39 04-270 +01 06 08-88

3 Juno

LOTO-U.T.
1073 Oct. 27- 65034 03> 4 Aa 122 —00 39 53-48 +0-032 —4-80 W
HO74 . Oct. 27- 65034 03 47 43-088 —00 39 53-30
1075 Dec. 17-°47781 03 18 00-648 —04 26 10-45 —0:008 —4:30 W
1076 Dec. 17-47781 03 18 00-686 04 26 10-06

11 Parthenope

LOMO le:
1077 Oct: 07-60135 Ol 34 14-456 +01 29 47-20 —0-003 —5-08
1078 Oct. 07-60135 Ol 34 14-493 +01 29 46-74
HOT9 = Nov. 16-46861 Ol 04 41-305 —00 55 52-35 —Q:012 —4-77 R
1080 = Nov. 16-46861 Ol 04 41-330 —00 55 51-84
1081 Nov. 27-44020 Ol 02 25-830 —00 41 42-16 —0:002 —4-80
1082 Nov. 27-44020 Ol 02 25-858 —O00 41 42-54

18 Melpomene

1970 WoT.
1083 Mar. WS 7OL7 16 35 35-896 —=(09 747 -35D°2Z0 —0:026 —3:°56 R
1084 #£=Mar. 18-77517 16 35 35-892 —09 47 36-38
1085 May 04-67124 16 29 18-539 —O05 45 53-24 +0:063 —4:13 S$
1086 May 04-67124 16 29 18-504 Jo 40° 52-03
1087 June 04-55190 16 OO 18:486 —03 53 15-96 +0-018 —4-36 S
1088 June 04-55190 16 OO 18-497 —03 53 16-31
1089 June 25-48967 lo 4s Tihs —04 06 22-27 +0:039 —4:°33 R
1090 June 25+48967 1 43 11-074 —04 06 22-50
1091 June 29-47042 15 40 58-884 —04 17 41-84 +0-018 —4-30 S
1092 June 29-47042 15 40 58-888 —04 J7 41-86
1093 July 06-44245 15 38 07-792 —04 43 35-84 —Q0-003 —4-25 KR
1094 July 06-4424.5 15 38 07-806 =-04 43° 35-27
1095 July 24-40418 15 36 58-492 —06 19 04-66 +0:-033 —4:03 S
1096 July 24-40418 15 36 58-484 —06 19 03-55

433 Eros

197.0 Wd:
1097 July 02- 60653 18 53 53-457 —33 11 58-49 +0°061 —0-10 R

1098 July 02-60653 18 53 53-437 —33 11 58-98

W. H. ROBERTSON

TABLEVII

996

997

998

999

1000

1001

1002

1003

1004

1005

1006

1007

1008

1009

1010

1011

1012

1013

1014

1015

1016

Star

14564
14590
14611
14548
14600
14607
14578
14589
14639
14569
14602
14632
13833
13910
14569
14539
13838
13903
13756
13791
13828
13753
13810
13826
11189
11211
11238
11179
11227
11237
11136
11179
11188
11131
11169
11189
11083
11105
11131
11075
11125
11127
10967
10996
11030
10988
11000
11022
10973
11007
11009
10962
10988
11030
10964
11009
11015
10958
11017
11022
11007
11021
11026
10975
11028
11049

Depend.

Seco e coe) S Sra S) eS SS) SS SS SSS oe SSeS SSeS SSS SSS eS eS Se SSS SSS SS SS

-374015
» 258250
- 367736
- 281278
-314820
-403903
- 204604
°495382
- 3000) 4
-339497
- 326420
- 334083
- 368586
- 302196
- 329219
- 298209
- 238984
-462807
- 356666
* 245235
-398099
-337810
-372436
- 289754
- 219445
-446896
- 333658
- 264796
-400678
* 334525
- 352008

316408

-331583
- 338958
- 258732

402310

- 305236
- 379652
-315112
-371921
- 294868
-333210
- 292881]
-277950
-429170
- 286381
- 353834
-359785
- 267082
- 288736
-444182
- 280020
-381236
-338774
- 273288
- 376223
- 350488
-414380
- 320457
- 265163
- 178876
-370740
-450384
-329941
- 320620
- 349439

R.A. Dec: No.
53-330 16:98 1017
56-933 24-22
57-139 17-00
06-932 15-84 1018
11-168 42-10
15-177 12-79
16-180 31-56 1019
57-534 14:01
08-118 07-36
30-824 30-50 1020
37-599 29-26
25-449 40-63
54-243 37-88 1021
04-132 37-09
30-824 30-50
56-352 52-36 1022
22-190 15-16
32-865 35-59
36-138 17-84 1023
34-016 11-54
46-436 01-66
20-184 50-06 1024
33°077 04-66
41-582 52-76
01-189 39-64 1025
32-798 19-60
46-126 15-61
24-708 46-00 1026
03-698 16-39
S425 53-26
32-449 08-86 1027
24-707 46-00
24-794 23-73
11-860 24-66 1028
40-213 15:30
01-189 39-64
222002 28-62 1029
45-145 52-83
11-860 24-65
39-698 46-80 1030
mp cae 7 2. 43-60
41-096 02:97
47-655 28-11 1031
22-243 50-60
22-324 30-08
16-462 D7 io 1032
42-166 40-66
36-329 35-05
09-798 03-39 1033
Era) 52-53
26-852 55-483
34-284 06-10 1034
16-462 PAROS,

22-324 30-08
37-951 51-50 1035
26-852 55-43
54-244 18-08
Dee ited, 17-28 1036
12-132 13-52
36-329 35-05
Iieood 52-53 1037
35-711 15-34
48-409 17:34
18-650 05-60 1038
07-110 54-40
11-339 58-30

Star

6508
6571
6448
6516
6562
6441
6459
6403
6441
6388
6448
6475
6162
6182
6193
6148
6192
6199
6118
6148
6160
6125
6166
6162
6091
6095
6121
6096
6105
6109
6083
6091
6109
6079
6094
6107
6079
6086
6091
6071
6077
6107
6172
6181
6102
6171
6173
6189
5359
5371
5375
5353
5383
5394
5307
5315
5325
5306
5314
5333
5256
5278
5279
5254
5273
5286

Depend.

So oqemaoaeqcecqoocecqcoocseoqo@coooqooaooooqooooococooooocooSeoose ooo o ooo Ooo SO oo oo: o 21o'S

- 299358
- 257466
-443176
- 230180
- 358568
-411251
-323544
-377194
- 299262
-379892
- 284840
-335268
-449554

358580

- 198866
-378934
- 259696
-36137]
-336908
-309062
-354030
-367491
- 288220
- 344289
-301898
- 357820
- 340282
- 246418
-490070
* 263513
- 356236
-354764
- 289000
- 338689
-358241
- 303070
-373619
- 366203
- 260178
- 386776

341556

- 271668
- 368442
-426933
- 204625
- 396462
- 266924
-336614
-172162
-604755
- 223083
-483527
- 269561
- 246912
- 278631
-474574
- 246795
- 322570
-482958
-194473
- 290680
-400143
-309177
S00 797
- 325592
- 366611

Dec.

20:
P4T(e
46-
10-
08:
32°
52:
26-
32:
36:
46-
46-
21:
20:
16-
50-
16-
09:
40°
50-
48-
58:
24-
02-
46-
36-
35:
04-
O7-
26:
06:
46:
26-
26°
06-
38:
26:
36°
46-
14:
38:
38:
27°
55-
38°
47:
17
34:
35°
37:
04-
24-
59:
20-
49-
ii
47-
i:
28-
44-
16-
19-
59-
25°
24-
54:

1041

1042

1043

1044

1045

1046

1047

1048

1049

1050

1051

1052

1053

1054

1055

1056

1057

1058

1059

1060

Star

5164
5200
5208
5180
5190
5197
5153
5164
5181
5142
5162
5178
5099
5102
5120
5096
5114
5121
5102
5117
5118
5103
5111
5126
1474
1481
1505
1459
1483
1511
1480
1503
1514
1475
1498
1517
1175
1178
1500
1170
1189
1490
11)4
1142
1152
1118
1130
1153
5962
5972
5983
5946
5973
5986
5886
5898
5910
5876
5889
5921
5867
5876
5886
5854
5889
5895

PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS

Depend.

SSC OO Oo SS SS SO SS SS SO SSS OS COS S'S OS C.S S'S SO CO Soo So oo 2 S'S 2 So 29'S) O'S oO 2 SOOO OO ooo

- 348064
- 297330
- 354607
- 279450
- 247398
-473152
- 308526
- 522049
- 169425
- 191024
- 347734
-461242
- 259396
- 277064
-463540
- 293264
- 389346
-317389
-456935
- 192322
-350743
-325927
-420490
- 253583
- 241873
-396990
-361137
- 258617
- 372030
- 369354
- 234461
- 384944
- 380595
- 288546
- 283250
°428204
- 343584
- 264260
-392156
-461346
-359028
- 179626
- 268911
-481052
- 250037
- 256418
- 328616
-414966
-408096
- 363720
- 228184
-271454
-318288

410258

°312277
- 382100
- 305623

413516
162568
423916

- 278314
- 260597
-461089
*373228
» 322338
-304434

R.A.

21

21

4]

4]

49-
20:
52:
16-
54:
*720

21

38:
12-
09-
14-

11

o

oe

51

58:
44.
09-
or
49-
-499
-650

31
59

43-
50:
-499

31

09-
52:
59>
-478

Ol

-776
23°
59:
45-
05-
36:
33°
-776
03:
33°
LS
-416
42.
30-
LO
O7-
10:
42-
30:
42.
53°
»324

506
475
739
182
731
901

863
397
161

241
246
443
474
514
455
246
754
714

501
268
367
739
173

153
340
907
867

-598
47-
58:
35-
09:
34:
03-
47-
14-
23°
34:
05-
22°
06-
58:
36:
29-
43-
-388
*458

147
308
070
887
314
740
101
104
683
968
164
420
246
605
602
831
761

046
513
902
795
554

754
932

902
218
650

TABLE [I—continued

Dec.

42.
42-
08-
30:
05-
02-
O7-
42-
08-
59:
liG=
O7-
09-
O1-
31-
37:
22°
59-7
Ol-
50:
14-
33°
45-
ate
56:
38:
04-
31-
40)-
30:
31-
32:
41-
02-
23°
49-
31-
44-
47-
Ol-
1:
08-
30:
53°
00-
05:
56:
30:
51-
54:
36:
04:
03:
00:
a9:
30:
49-
O7-
24-
47-
58:
O7-
39-
54:
24-
40-

52

No.

1062

1063

1064

1065

1066

1067

1068

1069

1070

1071

1072

1073

1074

1075

1076

1077

1078

1079

1080

1081

1082

Star Depend. R.A
5745 0- 266856 19-576
5760 0-457108 15-677
5790 0: 276037 13-324
5758 0-539288 08-040
5764 0- 275864 34-203
5774 0- 184848 20-289
5673 0- 228890 55-073
5706 0-370721 28-314
5714 0-400389 38-947
5682 0+ 249556 47-349
5707 0-316758 30-815
5711 0-433686 41-408
5737 0- 285978 31-277
5762 0-357858 11-843
6502 0- 356164 12-104
5735 0-420764 39-355
5763 0+ 273150 28-890
6516 0-306085 10-035
401 0-332910 48-191
402 0-353923 53 + 884
429 0-313167 41-228
394 0+ 229158 54-235
414 0- 468904 58-568
423 0-301938 05-132
347 0-435936 23-188
349 0-378618 56-725
364 0-185446 23°351
342 0- 295676 26 + 223
352 0- 297586 47-449
358 0-406738 07-247
462 0- 256316 48-054
496 0-312156 00-799
330 0-431528 17-432
321 0- 292418 57°325
341 0: 271852 12-692
477 0-435730 09-338
813 0-340551 29-474
821 0-481560 41-081
835 0-177889 09-637
806 0- 267192 35-826
819 0- 503225 13-574
846 0- 229583 25-708
778 0-339152 55-444
798 0: 278336 35-772
824 0-382511 42-265
792 0- 303834 22-483
794 0- 432633 29-511
815 0- 263533 23-795
431 0-428345 42-921
462 0- 270884 48-054
321 0-300772 57-325
294 0- 292348 25-272
327 0- 254141 51-963
454 0-453511 40-417
203 0-382112 35-713
225 0- 242706 17-621
248 0-375182 51-603
231 0- 299182 52-483
209 0- 342750 16-712
224 0: 358067 13-542
198 0- 298774 00-516
209 0- 254116 16-712
214 0-447110 14-138
195 0- 352826 16-210
204 0-358212 43-680
222 0- 288961 22-958

42.

10

No.

1083

1084

1085

1086

1087

1088

1089

1090

Stak Depend. RA

5726 0- 290234 23-050
5773 0- 345074 39) Poy Ws)
5741 0: 364691 51-687
5724 0+ 265600 05-758
5772 0- 168868 49-712
5751 0-565533 33-264
5672 0-491657 40-090
5702 0- 187266 05-146
5738 0-321077 40-878
5674 0- 318686 08-997
5691 0:448379 55-228
5728 0: 232936 31-857
5541 0+ 352608 26 - 804
5557 0+ 384825 33-926
5578 0+ 262567 46-306
5533 0- 289235 59-138
5550 0+ 345087 29-362
5585 0- 365678 30-008
5473 0- 384198 47-972
5489 0-307772 37-176
5491 0- 308029 43-808
5464 0-173958 01-561
5480 0:472167 18-414
5500 0+ 353875 53:361

WOFE ROBERTSON

TABLE II—continued

25:
-56
-00

04-

55:

06-

(Received 3. 9. 1971)

00

-28

78

No.

1091

1092

1093

1094

1095

1096

1097

1098

Star

D471
5473
5481
5460
5472
5489
5453
5460
5480
5445
5473
5474
5452
5472
5465
5449
5470
5466
10247
10310
10314
10264
10272
10336

Depend.

Sooo So SClo SSS S' S'S S' O'S C1 So Soo) O'S

* 287374
-470799
» 241827
» 250561

382150

-367288
» 352652
- 291052
- 356296
-417015
- 291265
- 291720
- 272100
- 356943
*370957
- 229716
-344804
-425480
- 283520
-445704
- 270776
- 243272
°415182
-341546

-05

*35

}
|
)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 11-29, 1971

The Geology of the Coolac Serpentinite and Adjacent Rocks
East of Tumut, New South Wales

Pern
School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, N.S.W., 2113

B. E. CHENHALL

Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
Sydney, N.S.W., 2006

P. L. CREMER

Union Miniere Mining and Development Corporation Ltd., P.O. Box 625,
North Sydney, N.S.W., 2060

AND

A. J. IRVING

Department of Geophysics and Geochemistry, Australian National University,
Canberra, A.C.T., 2600

ABsTRACT—The Coolac Serpentinite, east of Tumut in southern New South Wales, is a
complex, steeply inclined ultrabasic belt 54 km. long and up to 3-5 km. wide occupying a tectonic
zone between the Lower Devonian Burrinjuck Granite to the east and low-grade regionally
metamorphosed sediments and volcanics of possible Ordovician to basal Devonian age to the west.
The sedimentary-volcanic sequence and the Coolac Serpentinite are intruded by the Middle
Devonian Bogong Granite and Killimicat Adamellite. (?) Middle Devonian rhyodacitic ignim-
brites overlie the sedimentary-volcanic sequence in places, and areas of Tertiary sediments and
basaltic rocks occur upon an erosional surface on the Coolac Serpentinite and Burrinjuck Granite.

New and revised data are presented on the stratigraphy and petrology of the area east of
Tumut, emphasizing the ultrabasic belt, which comprises variably serpentinized ultrabasic rocks,
numerous deformed and metasomatized tectonic inclusions of crustal rocks, and local occurrences of
sulphide-rich rocks.

It is suggested that the process of serpentinization of the primary ultrabasic rocks has been
concomitant with the metasomatic changes observed within the tectonic inclusions and at the
margins of the belt, and has been characterized by a large relative loss of Ca from the ultrabasic
rocks to the metasomatic products. Basic, ultrabasic and calc-silicate hornfelses within the
aureole of the Bogong Granite are interpreted as being isochemically derived from rocks which

had undergone prior metasomatic alteration within the serpentinite environment.

Introduction

This paper describes the geology of an area
of approximately 460km.? in the Brungle-
Adjungbilly—Goobarragandra district centred
about 16km. east-north-east of Tumut and
28 km. south-east of Gundagai in southern New
South Wales. It is based on field and laboratory
investigations undertaken by the authors while
completing B.Sc. (Honours) degrees at the
University of Sydney during 1967-68 and
further studies by two of the authors (P.M.A.
mad A.J...) since 1967.

Early work in the area was confined to
chromite, copper and other mineral prospects
by officers of the New South Wales Geological
Survey (Carne, 1896, 1908; Jaquet, 1917;
Harper, 1917, 1920). Reconnaissance mapping
of the southern part was carried out by Adamson
(1960) and the northern part was studied by
Vv Be yarns (1963). More detailed studies of the

Coolac Serpentinite were made by Fraser (1961,
1967) and notably by Golding (1962. 1963,
1966, 1969a, 19695) and by Golding and Bayliss
(1968). The copper prospects of the area were
investigated by Cochrane et al. (1967) and the
McAlpine Mine in particular by Ashley (19690)
and by Lawrence and Golding (1969).

Stratigraphic Summary

Apart from several occurrences of high-grade
metamorphic rocks of unknown age closely
associated with the Coolac Serpentinite,! the
oldest rocks in the sequence east of Tumut are
the folded basic rocks of the Bullawyarra Schist!
and metasediments of the Bumbolee Creek
Beds.1 The relationship between these two
units is unknown but they are possible strati-
graphic equivalents, both unconformably under-
lying the (?) Middle to Upper Silurian Blowering
Beds,? an extensive unit of dacitic volcanics

12 Pave AS Ter Yah wal.

and fossiliferous quartzofeldspathic and
calcareous sediments. Possibly overlying or
contemporaneous with the Blowering Beds is
the Honeysuckle Beds,! a discontinuous unit

TABLE |
Stratigraphic Column

Proposed Unit Name and Rock
Age Types
Quaternary Alluvium
(?) Pliocene Alkali dolerite, olivine basalt,
analcime — basanite, olivine
nephelinite

Sands, gravels, ferruginous sand-

(?) Eocene-Miocene
stone, limonite

BOGONG GRANITE

Biotite adamellite, biotite-horn-
blende micro-adamellite,
adamellite aplite, leuco-adamel-
lite, alaskite

Middle Devonian
(385 million years)

KILLIMICAT ADAMELLITE!
Biotite adamellite, biotite granite,
muscovite granite

Muscovite granite

GATELEE IGNIMBRITE!

(?) Lower to Middle
Banded rhyodacitic ignimbrite

Devonian

COOLAC SERPENTINITE!

Schistose and massive serpent-
inite, partly serpentinized harz-
burgite, clinopyroxenite, wehr-
lite, lherzolite; chromitite,
rodingitic dykes

Tectonic inclusions of rodingitic
rocks, chlorite-rich rocks,
gabbro, metadolerite, meta-
basalt, amphibolitic rocks,
deformed acidic igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks

(?) High-grade foliated meta-
morphics closely associated
with the Coolac Serpentinite :
amphibolite, quartzite, schists,
quartzofeldspathic gneiss

BURRINJUCK GRANITE

Massive to foliated biotite grano-
diorite and adamellite. Quartz,
microgranite, porphyritic
microgranodiorite and micro-
adamellite dykes. Inter-
mediate and basic xenoliths.
Mylonites and breccias

Lower Devonian
(400 million years)

HONEYSUCKLE BEDs!

Metabasalt, spilite, albite dolerite,
porphyritic metadacite, slate,
siliceous and quartzofeld-
spathic-lithic metasandstone.

(?) Middle Silurian—
basal Devonian

Calc-silicate-rich rocks ; basic,
ultrabasic and_ calc-silicate
hornfelses

BLOWERING BEDS2

Porphyritic dacite and rhyo-
dacite, dacitic tuff, andesite,
feldspathic subgreywacke, tuf-
faceous sandstone, siltstone,
mudstone, conglomerate, lithic
calcareous sandstone, lime-
stone

GOOBARRAGANDRA BEDS2

Metadacite and metarhyodacite ;
metabasalt, metadolerite and
spilite ; slaty mudstone, meta-
siltstone, | quartzofeldspathic
metasandstone. Basic, ultra-
basic, calc-silicate and pelitic
hornfelses

BUMBOLEE CREEK BEDS!
Slaty shale, quartz-rich siltstone,

(?) Pre-Middle
Silurian

quartzofeldspathiclithic sand-
stone

BULLAWYARRA SCHIST!

Slightly foliated metabasalt,
greenschist, epidote amphi-
bolite

1 New name reserved by the Stratigraphic Nomen-
clature Committee, Bureau of Mineral Resources,
Geology and Geophysics.

* Variation on previous name: Blowering Porphyry
(Hall and Relph, 1956), Goobarragandra Porphyry
(Adamson, 1960).

of altered basic volcanics and quartzofeldspathic
sediments. The low-grade metamorphosed
dacitic and basic volcanics and minor sediments
of the (?) Middle to Upper Silurian Goobarra-
gandra Beds? in the south of the area closely
resemble rocks of the Blowering and Honey-
suckle Beds. The unit cannot be traced to
the north or west because of the intervening
Bogong Granite and Coolac Serpentinite. Acidic
volcanics of the (?) Lower to Middle Devonian
Gatelee Ignimbrite! unconformably overlie the
Bullawyarra Schist, Blowering and Honeysuckle
Beds in places.

The Lower Devonian Burrinjuck Granite has
intruded and metamorphosed rocks of the
Goobarragandra Beds in the south of the area,
and shows a faulted contact against the (?) Lower
to Middle Devonian Coolac Serpentinite. The
latter, a complex belt of variably serpentinized
ultrabasic rocks associated with numerous
deformed and metasomatized inclusions and
several occurrences of sulphide-rich rocks, also
shows faulted contacts with the Blowering and
Honeysuckle Beds to the west and the Goobarra-
gandra Beds to the south.

GEOLOGY EAST OF
TUMUT N.S.W.

REFERENCE

ST ava

=!) aitati dolerite

Olivine bessi}, analcime bovanite

(7) LoweR To
IDOLE DEY.

Lower
DEVONIAN = >

O)MipoLe sit-
URIAN TO BASAL’
DEVONIAN,

TT) Be arragandre Beds. Melee
OTT reais Beale pllrabasie
eale-ulcate end peaic aratcna

SUMBOLEE CREEK BEDs
Slaly shales, siliceous sitsfore, quarizefeldspae
(7) PRE-MIDDLE. hicliihle: sondstone,

SLR | Roy

oo

ST
elobsscl), greenschist, epic

ptr, As Arsenic,
site

Mies ° 1 2 3 $uies

beet et ———

KILOMETRES | n n i 3 4 S KILOMETRES

Ficure 1.

‘ASN ‘LOWOAL 10 ISVA ALINLINAGNaS IVIOO) AO ADOTOAD

€L

14 Po. ASHBY svar:

The Middle Devonian Bogong Granite has
intruded and metamorphosed the Bumbolee
Creek, Blowering, Honeysuckle and Goobarra-
gandra Beds, and the Coolac Serpentinite, while
the apparently related Killimicat Adamellite?
has intruded the Bumbolee Creek and Blowering
Beds. Tertiary alkalic basaltic rocks associated
with fluviatile sediments overlie the Coolac
Serpentinite and Burrinjuck Granite at several
places in the north of the area (Table 1).

Physiography

The west and north-west parts of the area,
developed on the sedimentary-volcanic sequence,
Killimicat Adamellite and the northern
extension of the Bogong Granite, is undulating
to hilly, but some of the larger streams have
alluviated tracts up to 3 km. wide. Elevations
in the far north-west are less than 250 m. above
sea level and local relief attains 400-450 m.
The eastern section (developed on the Burrinjuck
Granite and Tertiary rocks) and_ southern
section (on the Goobarragandra Beds and
Bogong Granite) comprise a plateau region
rising from 600m. in the north-east to over
1,000 m. in the south. Parts of this region
have been heavily dissected by the antecedent
tributaries of the Tumut River (Adjungbilly,
Spring, Brungle and Bumbolee Creeks, and the
Goobarragandra River). North of the Goobar-
ragandra River, the eastern plateau block is
separated from the lower western zone by a
prominent scarp (the Honeysuckle Range),
which is primarily the topographic expression
of the Coolac Serpentinite (Plate I-1).

Bullawyarra Schist

The Bullawyarra Schist occupies an area of
about 10 km.? centred 8 km. east of Brungle,
and consists of slightly foliated metabasalt
grading to highly deformed greenschist and
epidote amphibolite (with fold axes plunging
at 60° to 70° towards the south-east).

The slightly foliated metabasalt® contains fine-
grained prismatic actinolite and epidote with
minor albite, quartz, chlorite, sphene and
magnetite, and contains amygdales of epidote +
quartz(--albite--calcite+chlorite). The green-
schists are of two types: a minor variety con-
taining fine-grained platy chlorite with quartz,
calcite and epidote, and a more common type
containing fine- to medium-grained, prefer-
entially oriented prismatic actinolite with epidote

3 The prefix meta- is used in this paper to denote a
metamorphic rock in which the original microstructure
is preserved.

and minor chlorite, albite, quartz, sphene and
magnetite. The epidote amphibolite is slightl

foliated and contains medium-grained epidote,
actinolite and albite with accessory green biotite,
chlorite, sphene, magnetite and haematite.

Bumbolee Creek Beds

The Bumbolee Creek Beds is a sequence of
tightly folded slaty shale, quartz-rich siltstone
and sandstone of unknown thickness occupying
at least 50 km.? in the west of the mapped area.
The orientation of bedding, mesoscopic feld
axes and bedding-cleavage relationships indicates
a large antifcrm structure plunging steeply to
the south-east. Similarities in style and
orientation of folding and the metamorphic
grade suggest that the Bullawyarra Schist and
Bumbolee Creek Beds are _ possible lateral
stratigraphic equivalents.

Thinly bedded slaty shale and _ siltstone
(comprising about 80° of the unit) form an
alternating fine-coarse sequence characterized
by cross-bedding, load casts, convolute lamina-_
tion, slumping, worm burrows and a moderately —
well developed slaty cleavage. The siltstone
contains sub-angular to sub-rounded detrital
grains (0:01-0:06 mm.) of quartz (30-70%),
albite (up to 10%), muscovite and partly
chloritized biotite (up to 20%%) in a matrix of
very fine-grained quartz, chlorite, muscovite,
tourmaline and iron oxide. Finer grained rocks
have progressively less quartz and more mica
and chlorite.

The sandstone displays a bedding thickness
of 15-30 cm. (rarely up to 1m.) and exhibits
graded bedding, load casts and slumping. The
sandstone contains subangular detrital fragments
(0-1-1 mm. in size) of quartz (30-60%), albite
(5-30°%%) and rock fragments (10-45% ; come
prising shale, quartzite, quartz-muscovite schist
and fine-grained metabasalt), and_ epidote,
sphene, calcite, muscovite, chlorite, tourmaline,
apatite and iron oxide constitute a matrix of
Lpato 557,

5

Blowering Beds }

The Blowering Beds is the most extensive
unit in the mapped area and also crops out to
the north-east and south of Tumut. The
diverse rock types are intimately associated
and the general lack of good outcrop precludes
ready subdivision of the unit. The rocks are
dominantly acidic volcanic in origin, comprising
porphyritic dacite and rhyodacite, dacitic and
rhyodacitic tuff and minor andesite, with inter-
bedded sandstone (two distinct types), lithic

GEOLOGY OF COOLAC SERPENTINITE EAST OF TUMUT, N.S.W. 1b

calcareous sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, con-
glomerate and minor limestone.

VOLCANIC ROCKS

The porphyritic dacite and rhyodacite are
notable for their content of xenoliths and
almandine garnet megacrysts. The rocks
contain phenocrysts of quartz (15-25°%), plagio-
clase (20-25%), and rarely K-feldspar, with
xenoliths (8-10°,) in a fine-grained groundmass
(40-50°%) of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase,
biotite, chlorite, muscovite, epidote, iron oxide,
sphene, zircon and apatite. The rounded
xenoliths (up to 20mm. across) comprise
rhyodacite, spilite, quartzite, quartz-rich silt-
stone and minor muscovite-chlorite schist.
The rounded quartz phenocrysts show embay-
ments and undulose extinction. K-feldspar
phenocrysts are clouded by fine sericitic mica,
and tabular plagioclase phenocrysts exhibit
normal progressive and oscillatory zoning from
An, », to An,, accentuated by fine inclusions
of chlorite, sericitic mica, biotite, zircon, apatite,
iron oxide, quartz and calcite.

Some of the dacitic volcanics are tuffaceous,
characterized by phenocrystal fragments and
reconstituted glass shards in a matrix rich in
chlorite and greenish-brown biotite. The former
glass shards are represented by elongated curved
patches of fine-grained, polygonal quartz accom-
panied by anastomosing trains of iron oxide,
chlorite and biotite. The apparently massive
dacite and rhyodacite may also be welded tuffs
whose original eutaxitic textures have been
obliterated by devitrification and recrystalliza-
tion (cf. Branch, 1966).

About 10% of the dacitic rocks examined
contain fragmental crystals (up to 6 mm. across)
of pink almandine-rich garnet (7 =1-784--0-005,
a=11-:54A+0-01A), some of which contain
large subhedral quartz grains. Such garnet
megacrysts are not rare in rhyodacitic rocks
(e.g. Edwards, 1936; Ryall, 1965; Taylor
et al., 1969), ard with the embayed quartz
phenocrysts characteristic of these rocks have
been postulated by Green and Ringwood (1968)
to represent possible liquidus phases of their
host rhyodacite precipitated at depth. An
analysis of a porphyritic garnet-bearing
rhyodacite is presented in Appendix II.

Porphyritic andesitic rocks occur sporadically
within the Blowering Beds, and contain pheno-
crysts (2-6mm. across) of greenish-brown
biotite, green hornblende and plagioclase (An,,;)
in a fine-grained groundmass of plagioclase,
(?) K-feldspar, biotite, chlorite and a little
quartz and epidote.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

The sandstone inteicalated with the volcanics
is dark greyish-green in colour and moderately
well sorted (average detrital grainsize
0-1-1 mm.), forming beds up to 15m. thick,
and is composed of subrounded to subangular
detrital quartz (12-65%), lithic fragments
(15-55%), partly albitized plagioclase and
microcline (7-30%%) and minor sphene, biotite,
iron oxide, tourmaline, zircon and chlorite in a
matrix (1-3°%) of chlorite and iron oxide with
rare cement of microcrystalline quartz or calcite.
The lithic fragments are dominantly igneous
(spilite and rhyodacite) with minor siltstone,
mudstone and muscovite-rich schist. According
to the classification of Folk (1954), which is
used throughout the paper, these rocks range
from feldspathic subgreywacke through impure
tuffaceous sandstone to tuffaceous sandstone.

In the north-western part of the mapped area,
where acidic volcanics are rare, the sandstone
of the unit differs, although it is also an impure
tuffaceous type. The sandstone is thinly inter-
bedded with mudstone and the sequences
display graded and convolute bedding, lamina-
tion, slumping, washouts, load casts and
brecciation. The sandstone contains partly
albitized plagioclase (originally Any) 5);
20-50°%), angular lithic fragments (metabasalt,
granitic rocks, mudstone and (?) actinolite-
chlorite schist; up to 20%), hornblende and
augite (up to 15%%) and minor quartz (up to
2°) in a matrix (15-50%) of very fine-grained
chlorite, sericite, epidote and minor calcite and
quartz. lLithic calcareous sandstone from the
Same area contains fragments of calcareous
fossil material, mudstone and _ metabasalt,
partly altered plagioclase and quartz in a very
fine-grained matrix of chlorite, sericite, calcite
and rare quartz.

Siltstone and mudstone are closely associated
with, but subordinate to the sandstone. The
dark green to dark greyish-purple siltstone
contains subangular quartz with minor albite,
iron oxide, green hornblende, tourmaline, biotite,
muscovite, chlorite and epidote in a very fine-
grained matrix of quartz and chlorite, and
exhibits lamination, convolute bedding and
slumping; some fine-grained quartz-rich
examples resemble chert. The dark purple,
greenish-brown and black mudstone contains
fine-grained subangular quartz and muscovite
in a very fine chloritic and micaceous matrix
and displays a weak slaty cleavage.

Lenticular conglomerate beds are associated
with the sandstone accompanying the dacitic
volcanics, especially in an area 1-2 km. north

16 P.) MASHLEY i AL:

of Bumbolee Creek. These rocks contain sub-
angular boulders of rhyodacite, spilite, quartz-
mica schist, siltstone and mudstone in a shaly
matrix. A bed of conglomeratic limestone up
to 170m. thick, displaying an erosional lower
contact with mudstone, contains fragmental
fossiliferous limestone in a lithic calcarenite
matrix. A small body of massive fossiliferous
limestone occurs within sandstone and con-
glomerate about 1 km. north of Brungle Creek
and 5:5 km. east-north-east of Brungle.

The Blowering Beds is the only recognized
fossiliferous unit in the east Tumut sequence.
Macrofossils are generally poorly preserved,
however Monograpius sp. and small spiriferid
brachiopods occur in mudstone exposed along
a tributary of Bumbolee Creek, and the lithic
calcareous sandstone, limestone and _ con-
glomeratic limestone contain AHelvolites sp.,
Acanthohalysites —_pycnoblastoides_ _—_— Etheridge
(1904) and unidentified crinoid stems and
polyzoa. Conodonts including Tviconodella
inconstans Walliser (1964), Ozarkadina cf. jaegert
Walliser (1964) and Belodina sp. have been
found in boulders of the conglomeratic lime-
stone. A tentative Middle to Upper Silurian
age for the unit is indicated.

Honeysuckle Beds

The term Honeysuckle Beds has been applied
to a discontinuous unit (up to 900m. wide)
of low-grade metabasaltic and _ spilitic rocks
with quartzofeldspathic metasediments and
rare porphbyritic metadacite that flanks much
of the western margin of the Coolac Serpentinite
within the area mapped. Relationships with
the Blowering Beds are obscure owing to poor
outcrop. However, the Honeysuckle Beds has
been separated as a unit (possibly overlying or
faulted against the Blowering Beds) on the
basis of distinctive rock types and orientation
of layering features (which parallel the serpent-
inite belt rather than bedding in the Blowering
Beds).

SPILITIC AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS

The characteristic and dominant rock types
of the Honeysuckle Beds, especially in the
south, are low-grade metabasaltic and spilitic
rocks (generally massive but in places brecciated
or schistose) displaying relict intersertal, sub-

trachytic, porphyritic and rarely variolitic
textures. Mineral assemblages are dominated
by albite, chlorite, epidote-clinozoisite and

tremolitic amphibole (each of which are locally
enriched on a small but variable scale) with

less common quartz and calcite, minor sphene,
relict augite and disseminated haematite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and marcasite. Small
bodies of medium-grained albite dolerite with
subophitic textures also occur, and contain
albite, augite, tremolite-actinolite, epidote,
chlorite and minor sphene, “ limonite ’’, calcite,
ilmenite and leucoxene. Patches and mono-
mineralic veins rich in prehnite, epidote, clino-
zoisite, garnet, diopside, tremolite, chlorite,
calcite and albite are associated with the spilitic
rocks, especially in the northern part of the unit
close to the serpentinite belt, where there are
also small areas of low-grade hornblende- and
biotite-bearing porphyritic metadacite (essen-
tially similar to rocks of the Blowering Beds).

METASEDIMENTS

The metasediments are subordinate except
towards the north, where they comprise up to
60% of the unit. They range from fine-grained
slate containing quartz-+epidote--haematite +
albite -sericite -+-chlorite +sphene to fine-
grained quartz-rich sandstone (generally well
sorted and weakly foliated) and medium- to
coarse-grained quartzofeldspathic-lithic sand-
stone (displaying variable grainsize and graded
bedding). The sandstone contains subangular
grains of quartz and albite and in some cases
subangular lithic fragments (quartz-rich silt-
stone) in a matrix (20-30%) containing variable
quartz, epidote, albite, biotite, muscovite,
tremolitic amphibole, garnet, chlorite and iron
oxide. The metasediments, especially in the
north, show similar calc-silicate veins and patches
to the spilitic rocks and are also veined or
replaced by quartz (--epidote).

The mineral assemblages in the basic rocks
are of the type discussed by Vallance (1965,
1967) and Smith (1968). The calc-silicate veins
and patches in both the spilitic and meta-
sedimentary rocks also characterize the altered
basic, rodingitic and other rocks occurring as
tectonic inclusions in the Coolac Serpentinite
and in other alpine ultrabasic bodies (e.g.
Coleman, 1966, 1967). It 1s considered that the
Honeysuckle Beds were originally submarine
basaltic rocks and quartzofeldspathic sediments
which have undergone low-grade metamorphism
and metasomatism, the proximity of the
serpentinite belt being an important factor in
facilitating low-grade major element redistri-
butions.

Goobarragandra Beds

In the Goobarragandra district, soutb-east
of Tumut, a sequence of low-grade porphyritic

GEOLOGY. OF COOLAC SERPENTINITE EAST OF TUMUT, N.S.W. aly;

metarhyodacite, metadacite, basic metavol-
canics and minor arenaceous and pelitic meta-
sediments (together with related higher grade
hornfelses) has been termed the Goobarra-
gandra Beds. The unit has not been sub-
_ divided, although it contains essentially similar
rock types to the Honeysuckle and Blowering
Beds combined, but with much less sedimentary
material. To the east, the unit is continuous
with the Peppercorn Beds (Walpole, 1952,
1964), which is best documented some 25 km.
south-east of Goobarragandra (see also Legg,
1968).

The dacitic rocks are very similar to those
of the Blowering Beds, although no garnet-
iferous or obviously tuffaceous examples have
been noted. The rocks are strikingly por-
phyritic in quartz (embayed grains with undulose
extinction), plagioclase (normally zoned from
ANgo_47 to Anyg_18), biotite (X=light yellowish-
brown, Y =Z=deep red-brown) and very rarely
K-feldspar, with a fine groundmass (45-60°,)
of quartz+K-feldspar with biotite, muscovite,
plagioclase, apatite, zircon, chlorite, epidote
and iron oxide. Those rocks occurring approxi-
mately east of the Yarrangobilly road are
characterized by kinked biotite phenocrysts and
a granophyric groundmass, whereas nearer the
Bogong Granite the biotite occurs as aggregates
(similar in shape to the phenocrysts) of small
unstrained lath-like grains and the groundmass
is microgranular (and contains albite-+ quartz
patches). The latter features are interpreted
as resulting from recrystallization, suggesting
that the rocks experienced some strain (e.g.
regional metamorphism) prior to thermal meta-
morphism by the Bogong Granite. An analysis
of a porphyritic rhyodacite is presented in
Appendix II.

The basic metavolcanics occur in a_ belt
immediately south-west of the Goobarragandra
River and also in the region west of the Bogong
Copper Mine; they are intruded and meta-
morphosed by both the Burrinjuck and Bogong
Granites. Low-grade metabasalt and meta-
dolerite are the most widespread rock types,
characterized by the mineral assemblage blue-
green amphibole (mantling clinopyroxene) +-
albite (An,_,) + ilmenite + epidote + green
biotite + quartz. Of rare occurrence are:
(a) volcanogenic breccias (composed of meta-
basaltic fragments in a fine matrix of volcano-
genic detritus with patchy epidote, albite,
chlorite and quartz), (b) pillows exhibiting
epidote-rich selvedges surrounding a zone of
albite varioles with interstitial amphibole and
cores of lath-like albite, epidote and chlorite ;

Plate II-3), (c) variolites (containing albite
varioles with amphibole and clinozoisite), and
(d) amygdales (containing albite+-tremolite-
actinolite, epidote--_albite and rarely quartz-+-
chlorite +-calcite).

The fine- to medium-grained, grey arenaceous
metasediments (with rare graded bedding)
contain detrital quartz, plagioclase (Ans;_ 49),
perthitic K-feldspar and minor zircon, apatite
and iron oxide in a fine recrystallized matrix
(20°%) of quartz, feldspars and brown biotite
aggregates, containing albite-++quartz patches.
Mica-rich pelitic rocks exhibit a crenulation
cleavage.

Gatelee Ignimbrite

A distinctive purple banded rhyodacitic
ignimbrite at least 100m. thick occurring in
four areas totalling about 10 km.” to the north,
east and south-east of Brungle has been termed
the Gatelee Ignimbrite. The unit, gently folded
about north-south axes, unconformably overlies
the Bullawyarra Schist, Blowering and Honey-
suckle Beds, and is tentatively correlated with
similar rocks of the (?) Lower to Middle Devonian
Boraig Group (Moye e¢ al., 1969) occurring near
Talbingo about 55 km. south of Brungle.

The rocks tend to cap ridges and display sub-
vertical columnar jointing normal to a prominent
fine banding ; they exhibit a hackly fracture and
a dark brownish-purple colour, weathering
to a pale mauve or cream. They contain
5-15°% fragmental and rare partly resorbed
phenocrysts (1-1-5mm. across) of normally
Zoned, plagioclase (An,-4, tO Ans...) and
quartz in a finely laminated quartzofeldspathic
groundmass showing oriented recrystallized
flattened pumice lenticles and glassy shards.
Fine-grained aggregates of iron oxide, sericite
and epidote may be pseudomorphous after
original mafic minerals. An analysis of a rhyo-
dacitic ignimbrite is presented in Appendix IT.

Burrinjuck Granite

The Burrinjuck Granite in the area studied
represents the southernmost portion of a large
batholith (190 km. long and up to 50 km. wide)
extending north to Cowra (where it is termed
the Young Granite). A K-Ar radiometric age
determination (400 million years) at Micalong
Creek 18 km. east of the mapped area (Evernden
and Richards, 1962) tentatively places the age
of the mass near the base of the Devonian.
An age of 382 million years was obtained by
the same authors on a small body allegedly of

18 PM, ASHEN? Eipeaw:

Burrinjuck Granite about 5 km. south of Wee
Jasper, but inspection of this mass reveals
the rocks to be massive adamellites unlike the
“normal ’’ Burrinjuck Granite, but very similar
to rocks of the Bogong Granite (385 million
years). It is proposed that the Wee Jasper
mass is a separate later intrusion.

The Burrinjuck Granite displays clear
intrusive contacts (Plate I1-4) with metabasaltic
rocks of the Goobarragandra Beds (but limited
contact metamorphism), and shows a faulted
contact with the Coolac Serpentinite. The
most common rock type is massive to fohated
biotite granodiorite grading to adamellite,
although xenoliths, veins and dykes of several
types are widespread. Mylonites and breccias
are well developed close to the serpentinite
contact.

GRANODIORITE AND ADAMELLITE

The biotite granodiorite and _ adamellite
(average grainsize 3-4mm.) contain 30-40%
quartz (anhedral grains with undulose extinction
and deformation bands), 25-40°% plagioclase
(subhedral laths, some bent and microfaulted,
with normal progressive and oscillatory zoning
irom, “Atij, 7) tO ATi o9)) OLo 7, a perumiuic
microcline, 20-25%, biotite (deep red-brown,
kinked or bent grains containing abundant ori-
ented fine rutile needles), accessory ilmenite,
apatite, zircon and secondary subradiating musco-
vite, very fine-grained sericitic mica, chlorite,
clay minerals and epidote-clinozoisite. Foliation
is defined by preferred o1ientation of lenticular
quartz aggregates and biotite plates and
aggregates. Incipient foliation is evident even in
rocks remote from the serpentinite belt. Analyses
1-3 in Appendix II are of the “‘ normal ’’ massive
granodiorite ; a mylonitic variety close to the
contact wath “the ‘serpentinite belt; .andasa
tectonic inclusion of Burrinjuck Granite within
the belt.

VEINS AND DYKES

Quartz-rich veins (1-60 cm. wide) composed
of strained quartz with minor chlorite, epidote-
clinozoisite, pyrite or arsenopyrite are relatively
common, as are narrow dykes of microgranite
containing 40-50°% quartz, 35-45% perthitic
microcline (micrographic intergrowths with
quartz are common), 5-10% plagioclase
(Anjo-35) and minor muscovite and_ biotite.
Porphyritic microgranodiorite and micro-
adamellite dykes up to 6 m. wide occur 4-6 km.
north of Billapaloola T.S. and contain pheno-
crysts (up to 20mm. across) of plagioclase
(Anj9-33), quartz and rare perthitic microcline

in a finer-grained granular base of the same
minerals with dark brown biotite, minor
muscovite and iron oxide. All of the veir and
dyke rocks exhibit identical deformation effects
to the enclosing granodiorite.

XENOLITHS
Small, generally ellipsoidal, _ biotite-rich
xenoliths (rarely up to 60cm. across) are

common throughout the Burrinjuck Granite.
Average grainsize is 0-5-1-5mm., and they
contain andesine, red-brown biotite and strained
quartz with minor microcline, apatite and
ilmenite. Of less common occurrence are large,
irregular masses up to several hundred metres
across of dioritic rocks intruded by partly
contaminated granodicrite containing up to
20% green hornblende. The dioritic rocks
(average grainsize 0-5-2 mm., with plagioclase
and quartz phenocrysts up to 10mm. in por-
phyritic examples), contain 30-50% andesine,
up to 15% quartz, up to 5% microcline, 20-50°%

green and brown hornblende, up to 10%
tremolite-actinolite, up to 10% red-brown
biotite and minor apatite, zircon, sphene,

chlorite and iron oxide. Rare metabasaltic
xenoliths containing quartz ocelli occur near
some contacts with the Goobarragandra Beds.

MYLONITES AND BRECCIAS

Narrow, discontinuous zones (up to 100 m.
wide) of mylonitic and brecciated granitic rocks
occur in close proximity and parallel to the
Coolac Serpentinite (although sporadic mylonite
zones occur up to 2:5 km. east of the contact).
The mylonites contain angular to rounded
fragments of deformed quartz and plagioclase
(1-2 mm. across) in a fine, laminated base of
recrystallized quartz and feldspar with minor
chlorite, epidote and muscovite. The breccias
contain angular to rounded fragments of
deformed granodiorite, plagioclase and quartz
in a fine matrix of quartz and chlorite. A
complete gradation exists from foliated grano-
diorite to these highly deformed rocks, which are
considered to have been produced during the

solid-state emplacement of the Coolac
Serpentinite.
It is likely that the Burrinjuck-Young

granitic mass is a large composite intrusion,
with at least parts (east of Tumut, Coolac and
Wallendbeen) exhibiting attributes of the
“Murrumbidgee type’’ of plutonic rocks (cf.
Vallance, 1969): the presence of a foliation,
association with a low-grade metamorphic
environment, rather limited development of

GEOLOGY OF COOLAC SERPENTINITE EAST OF TUMUT, N.S.W. 1,

hornfelses, abundance of biotite and paucity of
hornblende, and association with an ultrabasic
belt.

Bogong Granite

The Bogong Granite occupies about 350 km.?
from Talbingo and Yarrangobilly through the
Bogong Mountains to a point north of Lacmalac.
Within the area mapped the mass has intruded
the Coolac Serpentinite, Bumbolee Creek,
Blowering, Honeysuckle and Goobarragandra
Beds. In the Blowering-Talbingo area to the
west, Hall and Relph (1956) report intrusive
relations with the Blowering Beds and incon-
clusive contacts with the (?) Lower to Middle
Devonian Boraig Group. A Middle Devonian
age is suggested by a K-Ar radiometric age
determination of 385 million years (J. R.
Richards and I. McDougall, 1970, unpublished
data) obtained on cblorite-free biotite from a
coarse-grained adamellite (A.N.U. No. 69-924)
from near Wall’s Creek (S.M.H.E.A. grid
reference 29222052).

The principal rock type is a shghtly porphyritic
adamellite (average grainsize 5 mm.) containing
38-45°% anhedral quartz, about 25°% each of
plagioclase and perthitic orthoclase, 3-89%
biotite and 1-3% accessory apatite, zircon,
muscovite, epidote, iron oxide and _ allanite.
Subhedral grains of plagioclase show normal
zoning from An,; to An,, and some plagioclase-
orthoclase interfaces are mantled by myrmekite.
Tabular orthoclase grains exhibit coarse, well-
developed vein perthite (An;), and at many
orthoclase grain interfaces there are small areas
of intergranular albite (the albite in each
orthoclase grain having the same _ optical
orientation as the perthite of the adjacent
grain). Biotite (X = yellowish _ brown,
Y=Z=deep chestnut brown) occurs as short
tabular grains with apatite and zircon inclusions.
An analysis of a typical biotite adamellite
from the Bogong Granite is presented in
Appendix II.

Micro-adamellite (average grainsize 1-5 mm.)
occurs near the margin of the mass in the
Patton’s Ridge region. Similar rocks have been
described from the Blowering-Talbingo area
(Hall and Relph, 1956). These rocks are veined
by epidote and quartz near the serpentinite
belt, and contain small amounts of hornblende
near contacts with basic hornfelses. Adamellite
containing about 25°% quartz, up to 15%
biotite, and up to 10% hornblende occurs in the
Bogong Mountains west of the Bogong Mine.
Veins and dykes of leuco-adamellite and micro-
graphic quartz-microcline rocks occur in
marginal parts of the mass and in adjacent

hornfelses on Patton’s Ridge. The variation
in rock type indicates the Bogong Granite may
be a composite mass.

Killimicat Adamellite

The Killimicat Adamellite, forming Pine
Mountain to the south of Brungle, is a small
granitic body 6-5 km. long and up to 1-6 km.
wide which has intruded the Bumbolee Creek
and Blowering Beds approximately along their
mutual boundary. The dominant rock type is
an unfoliated, even grained (rarely porphyritic)
adamellite (grading to a granite) with an average
grainsize of 1-3 mm. _ It contains quartz (40°%),
microperthitic orthoclase (35-40% ; rarely as
phenocrysts up to 20 mm. long) and plagioclase
(15-20%; Ang,».;) with slightly chloritized
biotite (2-59; X=pale straw, Y=Z—=deep
orange-brown) and rare muscovite and zircon.
Micrographic quartz-K-feldspar intergrowths are
common and rim myrmekite is developed at
some plagioclase-quartz interfaces. An analysis
of a typical granitic rock from the Killimicat
Adamellite is presented in Appendix II. In
some marginal areas there is a gradation to
coarse-grained (4—5mm.) muscovite granite
containing quartz, K-feldspar and muscovite
with minor sodic plagioclase, biotite and
tourmaline and rare fluorite, molybdenite and
arsenopyrite. Two small bodies of similar
unfoliated, coarse-grained muscovite granite
occur along the approximate boundary of the
Blowering and Honeysuckle Beds 1:5 km.
north of Brungle Creek and 5-5 km. east-north-
east of Brungle.

The Kilimicat Adamellite shows marked
similarities to the Bogong Granite 8 km. to the
south-east and possibly represents a cupola-like
extension of the latter. Both of these masses
differ from the Burrinjuck Granite as_ they
comprise unfoliated rocks, show discordance
with the strike of the enclosing rocks and produce
moderate to high-grade contact metamorphic
effects, and thus fall into the “ Bathurst type ”’
of plutonic rocks of Vallance (1969).

Hornfelses Adjacent to the Granitic
Rocks

BURRINJUCK GRANITE

High-grade thermal effects are evident in
metabasaltic rocks of the Goobarragandra Beds
adjacent to the Burrinjuck Granite, but only
within about 20 metres of the contacts and in
xenoliths. The lower-grade parts of the aureole
are indistinguishable from the low-grade regional
metamorphism imposed on the rocks of the unit.
The hornfelses preserve subophitic textures and

20 Pe MM. ASHLEY Et AE:

contain brown hornblende, andesine and minor
iron oxide. Small ovoid ocelli of quartz
(-Eminor biotite) rimmed incompletely by green
then brown hornblende are abundant in some
examples.

KILLIMICAT ADAMELLITE

The small Killimicat Adamellite has produced
only a limited contact aureole. The more
pelitic rocks of the Blowering and Bumbolee
Creek Beds show development of micaceous
spots and close to the granitic body contain
quartz +muscovite + biotite -cordierite. The
porphyritic dacitic rocks of the Blowering Beds
display recrystallized biotite phenocrysts and
groundmasses, and a tuffaceous sandstone shows
patchy development of diopside, garnet, green
hornblende, epidote and chlorite.

BOGONG GRANITE

In the region south of Lacmalac the Bogong
Granite has produced extensive high-grade
thermal metamorphism in rocks of the Coolac
Serpentinite, Honeysuckle and Goobarragandra
Beds. The narrow tongue of granitic rocks
extending north from Lacmalac displays weak
effects, possibly owing to its limited dimensions
in this region.

The high-grade hornfelses of the Honeysuckle
and Goobarragandra Beds display a_ large
variety of mineral assemblages (see Table 2)
which have extremely patchy development.
The calc-silicate and ultrabasic hornfelses of the
Goobarragandra Beds occur either adjacent to
or within metaserpentinite, and in both units
basic, ultrabasic and calc-silicate hornfelses
may all occur within small outcrops or single
thin sections.

Field relationships and bulk chemical com-
positions of the ultrabasic hornfelses indicate
they are not metamorphosed serpentinites.
Evidence suggests that the basic, ultrabasic
and calc-silicate hornfelses have all been derived
by essentially isochemical high-grade meta-
morphism of rocks which had previously under-
gone local low-grade metasomatic alteration in
the serpentinite environment. Such meta-
somatic rocks are found in the Honeysuckle
Beds away from the Bogong Granite and within
the Coolac Serpentinite to the north, and similar
low-grade major element redistribution has been
observed elsewhere in basaltic rocks (e.g.
Vallance, 1967; Smith, 1968). Likely parent
materials for the calc-silicate and ultrabasic
hornfelses are the variably rodingitized inclusions
and chlorite-rich rocks associated with the
serpentinite. Such assemblages were apparently
present adjacent to the serpentinite belt in the

Honeysuckle and Goobarragandra Beds _ prior
to the intrusion of the Bogong Granite.

TABLE 2
Mineral Assemblages of the Honeysuckle
Goobarragandva Beds Within the Bogong
Granite Aureole

High-grade
Beds and

Type Assemblaget Occur-
rencet
Basic Hb+P1+ Di(+Sph+Ap-+Mt-+Ep) h, g
Calc- Act+Cz-+Di(+Musc) g
silicate* | Act+Cz(+Di+Ga-+Scap) g
Act + Pl+Cz(-+Sph) hye
Cz+Di(+Sph + Musc) hee
Di+ Act + Pl(+Sph) h
Di+Pl1+Ep+Ga(-+Sph) h
Di+Pl+Sp+Mt(+Chl) g
Cz g
Ep+ Pl h
Ga h, g
Ga+Cz h
Ga+ Pl h
Di(+Sp) g
Ultra- Act+Ol+Sp+Mt(-+_Chl) h, g
basic Anth+Ol+Sp+Mt(-+ Hy) g
Cum+Ol+Sp+Mt g
Hb+Cum(+ Anth+Mt) g
Act+Sp+Mt g
Act+Pl1+Di+Sp+Mt h
Anth+Hb+Di+Sp+Mt h
Di+Act+Sp+Mt h
Cord+ Anth+Sp+Mt(+Hy+
+ Phl) g
Cord + Anth(+Otz-+ P1+ Phl) g
Act(+Scap+Cz) g
Ol+Hy+Sp+Mt g
Pelitic Otz+Cord + Bi(+Musc) g
* Many calc-silicate assemblages show extensive

secondary replacement by prehnite.
t Abbreviations :

h = Honeysuckle Beds.
g =Goobarragandra Beds.
Hb: “hornblende:

Pl = plagioclase:
Di) diopside:

Sph =sphene.

Ap -= apatite.

Mt “maenetite:

Ep =epidote:

Act =tremolite-actinolite.
Cz == clinozoisite:

Musc= muscovite.

Ga =garnet.

Scap =scapolite.

Sp) "—ereen spinel.

©l- olivine:

== CMl@nite:
Anth=anthophyllite.
Hy =hypersthene.
Cum =cummingtonite.
Cord =cordierite.

Phl =phlogopite.
Otz> — quartz,
Bi — biotite:

GEOLOGY OF COOLAC SERPENTINITE EAST OF TUMUT, N.S.W. 21

Coolac Serpentinite

The Coolac Serpentinite, the southern half of
which is described in this paper, represents a
continuous outcrop of ultrabasic and associated
rocks over a distance of 54 km., extending from
a point 5 km. north-east of Coolac in the north
to Patton’s Ridge (4:5km. north-west of
Goobarragandra) in the south. The belt dips
steeply (75°-90°) to the east with an average
strike of 340°, and ranges in width from 3:5 km.
at Red Hill to as narrow as 10m. near the
southern end. Lenticular satellitic bodies of
serpentinite (Plate I-2) flank the main belt,
and some occur beyond its northern and southern
extremities. The Coolac belt is the largest of a
series of discontinuous bodies of ultrabasic rocks
trending west of north across south-eastern and
central New South Wales from Cabramurra to
Girilambone.

A problem of age arises with the Coolac
Serpentinite (as with many other alpine-type
ultrabasic masses) owing to possible repeated
and incremental movements along the zone of
emplacement (cf. Wilkinson, 1969). However,
at least part of the Coolac Serpentinite must
post-date the (?) Middle Silurian to basal
Devonian sedimentary-volcanic sequence and
the Lower Devonian Burrinjuck Granite, as
fault-bounded satellitic serpentinite masses occur
completely enclosed by both. Since the Bogong
Granite shows intrusive relations with the
serpentinite, at least part of the belt must
pre-date this granitic body. Thus a tentative
age between those of the Burrinjuck and Bogong
Granites is envisaged (i1.e., Lower to Middle
Devonian), but it must not be overlooked that
serpentinite emplacement could have occurred
before or after this time in some sections of the
belt. The Tertiary alkali dolerite at Red Hill,
overlying the serpentinite-Burrinjuck Granite
contact, shows no evidence of faulting, and it is
assumed that this contact has been stable since
the formation of the alkali dolerite.

In the mapped area, serpentinite and partly
serpentinized harzburgite are the dominant
rock types of the Coolac Serpentinite. There
are also widespread small occurrences of
wehrlite, lherzolite, clinopyroxenite and
chromitite; narrow, discontinuous dykes of
rodingitic rocks; and numerous __ tectonic
inclusions of variably deformed and meta-
somatized basic, intermediate and acidic igneous
and metamorphic rocks, and minor sedimentary
material. Metamorphic mineral assemblages
are developed in serpentinite in the Bogong
Granite aureole and around some _ tectonic

inclusions, and sulphide-rich rocks occur at
several localities.

SERPENTINITE AND PARTLY SERPENTINIZED
HARZBURGITE

Both massive and schistose serpentinite occur
in the belt, and in places grade to almost
unserpentinized harzburgite. North of Brungle
Creek, a zone 100-800m. wide of mostly
schistose serpentinite occurs along the western
margin of the belt, while the massive variety
occupies a wider eastern zone. South of Brungle
Creek this subdivision is not readily observable,
and narrow zones of schistose serpentinite
occur randomly through massive serpentinite.

The serpentinite contains lizardite with
subordinate chrysotile (antigorite develops
locally in proximity to inclusions and in the
aureole of the Bogong Granite) with accessory
magnetite and chromite and minor tremolite,
talc, chlorite, magnesite or garnet.

Much of the massive serpentinite contains
relict olivine (F0,,), orthopyroxene (Eng, ; con-
taining thin diopside lamellae) and diopsidic
clinopyroxene. Serpentine minerals, fine-grained
magnetite and tiny grains of heazlewoodite,
millerite, pentlandite and awaruite replace the
primary silicates, producing “ mesh ”’ textures
after olivine and bastite pseudomorphs (com-
posed of lizardite) after pyroxenes. Veining by
chrysotile is common on a microscopic scale,
but fibres exceeding 8 mm. in length have not
been observed.

Most of the serpentinized rocks were derived
from a coarse-grained (4-6 mm.) harzburgitic
parent (approximately olivine 55-80%, ortho-
pyroxene 10-35%, clinopyroxene up to 10%
and chromite 1—2°%), and were possibly emplaced
as fault-bounded slices of partly serpentinized
(or serpentinizing) material (cf. Hess, 1955 ;
de Roever, 1957; Raleigh and Paterson, 1965 ;
Hostetler ef al., 1966), although incremental
movements and serpentinization have almost
certainly continued since initial emplacement.

METASERPENTINITE

Adjacent to the Bogong Granite thermally
metamorphosed serpentinite shows patchy
development of antigorite, talc, amphiboles
(colourless clinoamphibole, anthophyllite and
(?) gedrite) and olivine (Fo,;), but in contrast
to analogous cases described by Durrell (1940),
Taubeneck (1957) and Seki (1951), no green
aluminous spinel (only minor magnetite) has
been noted. Rocks composed largely of talc
with clinoamphibole and/or anthophyllite (and

22 Po ASHP EYE exe,

magnetite) are also present. Elsewhere in the
Coolac Serpentinite, in close proximity to
tectonic inclusions which have undergone
mineralogical readjustment, it is found that the
serpentinite contains the assemblages
tremolite + talc -- serpentine + chlorite + calcite
(+chromite) ; serpentine + chlorite + garnet +
tremolite-+-clinozoisite (-+-chromite) ; chlorite-+-
garnet-+-vesuvianite (-+chromite) and tremolite
chlorite (+chromite+magnetite). Some ofthe
assemblages are “‘rodingitic’’, but the presence
of relict chromite and rare chlorite or talc pseudo-
morphs after pyroxene demonstrates the original
ultrabasic nature of the rocks. At localities
about 3:5km. east-south-east of Lacmalac
and 1km. west of the Bogong Mine, antho-
phyllite-bearing metaserpentinite is veined and
partly replaced by magnesite (-+chalcedony)
rocks.

CLINOPYROXENITE, WEHRLITE AND LHERZOLITE

A series of discontinuous bodies (up to 30 m.
wide) varying from clinopyroxenite through
wehrlite to rare lherzolite, and in_ places
associated with gabbro and diorite (described
later), crop out within schistose serpentinite
over a distance of at least 6 km. close to the
western margin of the Coolac Serpentinite north
of Brungle Creek. The rocks are equigranular
or porphyritic (average grainsize 2-6mm.,
rarely up to 30 mm. in some clinopyroxenites),
and contain clinopyroxene (close to Ca,,Mg,,Fe,;
40-90°%) with variable olivine (Fo,,; 5—-40%),
orthopyroxene (En, ), brown hornblende and
chromite. Secondary serpentine minerals,
magnetite, tremolitic amphibole, chlorite and
garnet are also present. These rocks are similar
to the wehrlite associated with serpentinized
dunite and gabbro in the North Mooney Complex
near Coolac (Golding, 1966, 19690).

CHROMITITE

Chromitite forms small, steeply-dipping,
lenticular bodies subparallel to the strike of the
Coolac Serpentinite. They contain 30% to
nearly 100% chromite with interstitial
serpentine minerals and chlorite, and minor
chromian garnet, clinopyroxene, tremolite,
magnesite, chalcedony, haematite, magnetite,
awaruite, heazlewoodite, chalcopyrite and pent-
landite. Primary layered and mosaic textures
are displayed together with brecciation and
slickensiding. Chromite from these rocks in the
Red Hill-Brungle Creek area contains 38-79%
to 60-19% Cr,O, and about equal amounts of
FeO and MgO (Golding, 1966). Partial alteration
of chromite has produced dark, variable thick-

ness rims, which Golding and Bayliss (1968)
have shown to be richer in Cr,O, and Fe,O,
and poorer in FeO, MgO and AI,O, than the
unaltered spinel; such partly altered chromite
grains are usually surrounded by chlorite.

SUBSIDIARY ROCKS

Narrow rodingitic veins and dykes are common
in the massive serpentinite and a variety of
subsidiary rock types occur as tectonic inclusions
throughout the belt (Plate II-1, II-2). The
serpentinite in contact with inclusions is
invariably schistose and commonly shows
evidence of metasomatic readjustment.

Rodingitic and Chlorite-rich Rocks

The rodingite forming veins and dykes is
medium- to very coarse-grained and contains
garnet, relict clinopyroxene and pale green
chlorite as essential minerals; minor vesu-
vianite, tremolitic amphibole and sphene are
present in some examples (see Appendix I for
determinative data on garnets).

Other rodingitic rocks occur as small tectonic
inclusions and as marginal zones to larger
inclusions of metabasic, amphibolitic and granitic
material. Most are fine- to medium-grained,
but mineral assemblages and microstructures
are very variable. Some examples preserve
parent rock microstructure (e.g. intersertal,
ophitic, gabbroic, foliated, brecciated), whereas
others are new grain aggregates. The most
common mineral assemblage is garnet-++pale
green chlorite + vesuvianite + clinopyroxene,
although rocks very rich in garnet cr vesuvianite
are widespread. Prehnite, clinozoisite, tremolitic
amphibole and sphene are locally abundant and
relict chromite, apatite, zircon as well as
leucoxene, magnetite or (?) zeolites occur as
accessories.

Intimately associated with and forming
discontinuous marginal zones around some
rodingitic bodies are rocks consisting of fine to
medium-grained pale green chlorite, with
accessory garnet, vesuvianite, diopside, tremolitic
amphibole, clinozoisite, prehnite, sphene,
chromite, magnetite and (?) zeolites.

Rodingitic rocks have been recorded in the
northern part of the Coolac Serpentinite
(Golding, 1962, 1966, 19695) and are character-
istic of most alpine-type ultrabasic belts (e.g.
Coleman, 1966, 1967; Suzuki, 1953; Baker,
1958; Benson, 1913-18). The metasomatic
alteration of basic to acidic igneous and sedi-
mentary material within ultrabasic rocks has
been discussed in detail by Coleman (1966, 1967),

GEOLOGY OF COOLAC SERPENTINITE EAST OF TUMUT, N.S.W. 23

and the rodingitic rocks of the Coolac Ser-
pentinite are readily interpreted as meta-
somatized basic dykes and tectonic inclusions
of various types, while the less common but
intimately associated chlorite-rich rocks may
represent complementary products of this
metasomatism, being transitional between the
altered inclusions and enclosing serpentinite
(cf. Thayer, 1966).

The much greater amount of rodingitic
compared with that of chloritic rocks and the
widespread occurrence of calc-silicate-rich
secondary alteration and veins in the inclusions
and in rocks bordering the serpentinite belt
suggests a larger contribution and _ greater
mobility of Ca over Mg in the metasomatic
processes. This relationship can be logically
linked with the process of serpentinization of
ultrabasic rocks, which is characterized by a
very large loss and migration of original Ca
relative to Mg (Page, 1967 ; Barnes and O’Neil,
1969 ; Coleman and Keith, 1971).

Gabbro, Diorite, Trondhjenute, Albitite Complexes

Bodies containing some or all of these rock
types occur at intervals along the western
margin of and within the serpentinite belt.
These bodies are up to 2 km. long and 500 m.
wide; a common field associate is wehrlite.
Internal relations are complex, with gabbro
pegmatite and the more silica-rich_ rocks
apparently intruding the dominant gabbro.
At a number of localities, gabbro and diorite
are seen to invade spilitic rocks and metadolerite
of the Honeysuckle Beds (similar to the relations
in the North Mooney Complex ; Golding, 1966,
19696). Small tectonic inclusions of variably
metasomatized gabbro, diorite and albitite are
of sporadic occurrence throughout the belt,
except in the far south.

Gabbro contains brown hornblende, clino-

pyroxene and_ partly albitized plagioclase
(originally An,;_5,), with minor ilmenite,
pyrrhotite and apatite. Diorite contains

greenish-brown hornblende, plagioclase (An49_,;)
and minor ilmenite and quartz. Pegmatoid
gabbroic rocks intruding the above types contain
brown hornblende (up to 15cm.), plagioclase
(An;;) and minor ilmenite. Trondhjemite is
medium- to coaise-grained, ccntaining partly
albitized plagioclase (Angjo_3;), interstitial quartz
and minor biotite, whereas the albitite displays
an equigranular or porphyritic texture and
contains albite (An;_~) with minor green amphi-
bole and quartz.

All these rock types show gradations with
one another, especially gabbro to diorite to

quartz-bearing albitite. They also display
extensive metasomatic replacement by low
temperature phases typified by clinozoisite,
tremolitic amphibole, prehnite, albite, chlorite,
diopside, sphene, microcline, garnet and sericite.

The albite-rich rocks do not appear to be
soda-metasomatized basic inclusions (cf.
Leonardos and Fyfe, 1967) but the association
with the rocks of the complexes indicates they
may be members of the “ alpine mafic magma
stem ’”’ of Thayer (1963).

Metabasic Inclusions

Small inclusions of metabasalt and meta-
dolerite occur rarely as small inclusions in the
serpentinite belt and close to contacts with the
Honeysuckle and Goobarragandra Beds. Mineral
assemblages and textures are the same as the
metabasics in these units although variable
alteration to rodingitic assemblages is prevalent.

Ampmbolitic Inclusions

Numerous amphibolitic inclusions (up _ to
400 m. long and 100 m. wide) occur in the Coolac
Serpentinite, especially in the Red Hill-Brungle
Creek area. The rocks are medium- to coarse-
grained, commonly foliated, and exhibit variable
development of metasomatic assemblages. Two
parental types can be recognized : (a) a greenish-
brown hornblende-+ plagioclase (-+quartz+K-
feldspar) type and (b) a brown hornblende-+-
plagioclase (+clinopyroxene) type. In both
types the plagioclase compositions are Ang x5
and accessory apatite, magnetite, ilmenite and
pyrrhotite are present.

Deformed Acidic Igneous Inclusions

Tectonic inclusions of deformed acidic igneous
rocks, some several hundred metres long, are
common throughout the Coolac Serpentinite
(Golding, 1962, 1966, 19695 ; Veeraburus, 1963).
Within the area mapped these _ inclusions
comprise deformed biotite granodiorite, “‘ soda
granite ’’ and porphyritic metadacite. The
rocks contain variable quartz, plagioclase
(Ango_3; and An;_,), microcline and biotite, with
accessory muscovite, apatite, zircon and rutile.
Alteration to calc-silicate assemblages is not
prevalent, but some inclusions show development
of the assemblages tremolite +prehnite +sphene
and clinozoisite-+chlorite +-sphene.

Inclusions of deformed biotite granodiorite
tend to be located nearer the eastern contact
of the belt and appear to be infaulted blocks of
Burrinjuck Granite. The medium- to coarse-
grained “‘soda granite’’ occurs as_ isolated

24 PMY AS EY ea

inclusions across the width of the belt and also
as dykes and masses in the Honeysuckle Beds
immediately adjacent to the western contact.
These rocks are probably related to the gabbro-
diorite-trondhjemite-albitite complexes. In-
clusions of porphyritic metadacite have probably
been derived from the Blowering Beds.

Sedimentary Inclusions

Sedimentary inclusions are uncommon in the
belt. Inclusions of slaty mudstone and quartz-
rich siltstone (derived from the Honeysuckle
Beds) display little metasomatism with only
slight development of chlorite and epidote.
Inclusions of conglomerate and_ tuffaceous
sandstone (derived from the Blowering Beds)
have undergone partial metasomatic replacement
by epidcte, tremolite-actinolite, calcite, chlorite,
sericite, albite and sphene.

High-grade Foliated Metamorphics

Apparent high-grade regional metamorphic
rocks comprising amphibolite, quartzite, gneiss
and schist occur flanking the serpentinite belt
in the Patton’s Ridge area; at a locality
immediately west of the belt about 2-5 km.
east of Lacmalac ; and in two very small bodies
adjacent to the main serpentinite belt near the
Wee Jasper road.

The amphibolite contains brown-green
hornblende + plagioclase (An,,_3;) -- minor
ilmenite, apatite and epidote, and in places is
characterized by narrow pink bands
(vesuvianite + garnet + diopside + sphene or
zoisite-+-diopside+garnet) and _ green bands
(diopside + plagioclase + epidote ++ sphene).
Although these bands roughly parallel the
amphibolite foliation, they are transgressive in
detail and are believed to represent contact
metamorphosed rodingitic veins. The foliated
quartzites contain assemblages with dominant
quartz (70-90%) and minor hornblende, garnet,
apatite, plagioclase (Any) 49), K-feldspar, iron
oxide, biotite and muscovite; and an unusual
quartzite containing up to 15% graphite
with minor pink (?) almandine garnet, chlorite,
epidote, magnetite, pyrite and chalcopyrite
comprises the Wee Jasper road occurrences
and another on Patton’s Ridge. At the locality
about 2:5km. east of Lacmalac, there is in
addition to amphibolite, quartzofeldspathic

gneiss (quartz -- oligoclase ++ orthoclase +
biotite + muscovite + (?) sillimanite + iron
oxide) and mica-rich_ schist (biotite--mus-

covite--quartz+plagioclase+iron oxide). It
appears possible these rocks represent wedges

of an exotic basement terrain tectonically
introduced during the serpentinite emplacement.

Sulphide-rich Rocks

Rocks rich in sulphides occur locally in the
Coolac Serpentinite, Killimicat Adamellite,
Honeysuckle and Blowering Beds. The occur-
rences are small, and production of ore, where
recorded, has been minor.

COOLAC SERPENTINITE
McAlpine Copper Mine

The McAlpine Mine is situated in an altered
serpentinite wedge within a large tectonic
inclusion of “ soda granite ’’ and diorite. All the
rocks show variable foliation, brecciation and
metasomatic readjustment. The major sulphide
assemblage is sphalerite + chalcopyrite +
cubanite, accompanied by galena, niccolite,
pyrrhotite;— magnetite, chromite, ‘pyrite,
arsenopyrite, maucherite, native bismuth, tetra-
hedrite, covellite, chalcocite, marcasite, bis-
muthinite, breithauptite and mackinawite with
malachite, azurite, smithsonite, goslarite and
‘““limonite ’’ as oxidation products. Lamellar
chalcopyrite-cubanite intergrowths and cubanite
breakdown to lamellar chalcopyrite-+magnetite
are characteristic. Mutual boundary relations
occur between sphalerite, chalcopyrite, cubanite,
niccolite, galena and some of the more minor
constituents. Further details of mine geology
and ore petrology are given by Ashley (19696)
and Lawrence and Golding (1969).

Copper Prospects South of Brungle Creek

Five small prospects occur in_ schistose
serpentinite in the area south of Brungle Creek.
They contain dominant magnetite, with minor
chromite, haematite, ilmenite, chalcopyrite,
pentlandite, violarite, chalcocite, covellite,
cuprite, tenorite, native copper, malachite,
azurite, chrysocolla and “ limonite ”’.

Goobarragandra Copper Mine

Mineralization at the Goobarragandra Mine
occurs within tremolite (--olivine-++spinel +-mag-
netite) hornfels enclosed by almost unmineralized
metaserpentinite in contact with the Bogong
Granite. The ore exhibits polygonal aggregates
of pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and minor
sphalerite. Traces of pentlandite, mackinawite
and violarite occur in the more massive sulphides.
Pyrrhotite breakdown to secondary pyrite
and/or marcasite-+“‘ limonite ”’ is characteristic,

GHOEROGY OF COOLAC SERPENTINITE BAST OF TUMUT, N-S.W. 25

Bogong Copper Mine

The Bogong Mine is situated in the most
southerly isolated serpentinite body in the map
area. Sulphides occur in a foliated metadacite
inclusion in weakly mineralized metaserpentinite
near the Bogong Granite. The inclusion
contains plagioclase (An,_,;), chlorite and minor
phlogopite, tremolitic amphibole, quartz and
clinozoisite. Bornite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
millerite, siegenite, (?) wittichenite and (?) galena
with secondary chalcocite, covellite, cuprite,
tenorite, malachite and azurite are also present.
Stringers of chalcopyrite in bornite and coarse
subgraphic or vermicular intergrowths of bornite
in chalcopyrite are well developed. The meta-
serpentinite contains disseminated chalcopyrite,
magnetite, chromite, millerite and pentlandite.
Ashley (1968) describes this mine and its ore in
more detail.

KILLIMICAT ADAMELLITE

-At the Pine Mountain Mine sulphides occur
in a quartz-rich aplitic dyke in adamellite.
Ashley (1969a) describes arsenopyrite, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, covellite, digenite, (?) bismuthinite,
galena, molybdenite and (?) native bismuth
together with scorodite, “ limonite ’’, malachite
and azurite occurring in quartz with minor
chlorite, muscovite and small greisen patches.

HONEYSUCKLE AND BLOWERING BEDS

Sulphides occur at two localities each in the
Honeysuckle and the Blowering Beds. Immedi-
ately west of the serpentinite belt, 1-2 km.
south-west of McAlpine Mine, quartz veins in
sericitized and chloritized metadacite of the
Honeysuckle Beds carry sparsely disseminated
pyrite and chalcopyrite with “ limonite’”’ and a
little gold and galena. At the Tumut Gold
Mine, on Bumbolee Creek, 13 km. east of Tumut,
disseminated to massive pyrite and minor
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, covellite
and marcasite with “Jimonite’’, malachite,
azurite and chalcanthite occur within schistose
metabasalt of the Honeysuckle Beds showing
variable alteration to magnesite-pyrite rocks.
A small working 500m. to the north shows
disseminated arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, marcasite and (?)electrum with
chalcocite, digenite, covellite, ‘‘ limonite’’ and
malachite in quartz veins in_ fine-grained
epidote-rich siltstone of the Blowering Beds.
A prospect 1 km. south of the Wee Jasper road,
16 km. north-east of Tumut, contains dis-
seminated to massive arsenopyrite and minor
pyrite and chalcopyrite in tourmalinized dacite

and quartz-tourmaline veins in the Blowering
Beds.

ORIGIN OF THE SULPHIDES

The sulphide assemblages of the region are
of two main types: (a) As, Fe and Cu sulphides
with minor gold, galena, molybdenite and Bi
minerals occurring in a quartz-rich host, with
sporadic tourmaline and muscovite; (6) Cu,
Zn and Fe sulphides with Ni minerals restricted
to the Coolac Serpentinite (commonly associated
with tectonic inclusions).

It is proposed that the former association is
related to the intrusion of the Middle Devonian
Bogong Granite and Killimicat Adamellite ;
since the assemblages are suggestive of an acidic
plutonic origin. The latter association displays
distinctive features—the association of Cu-Fe
sulphides and nickel minerals and the structure
and composition of the host rocks (originally
chlorite-rich rocks, schistose serpentinite and
altered inclusions)—indicating a relationship to
the metasomatic process of serpentinization of
the ultrabasics cf the Coolac Serpentinite.

Tertiary Rocks

Lying on top and to the east of the Honey-
suckle Range scarp are (?) Tertiary terrestrial
sediments overlain by alkalic basaltic rocks.

SEDIMENTS

Fluviatile sediments occur as a veneer (up
to 30 m. thick) over a peneplain surface formed
on the Coolac Serpentinite and Burrinjuck
Granite. Poorly consolidated sandy silts, sands
and gravels, ferruginous sandstone and pisolitic
to massive laterite are most common ; quartzite
bas been produced locally through thermal
metamorphism by overlying basaltic rocks.

The sandy sediments contain angular, strained
quartz with a matrix of clay minerals,
“limonite ’’ and rare plant fragments; in
the quartzite, quartz overgrowths occur on
original detrital grains. The gravels have a
sandy matrix with subangular to rounded
pebbles of quartz, deformed granitic rocks,
serpentinite, chert, pink adamellite, hornblende
andesite, pelitic hornfels, metadolerite and
quartz sandstone, indicating an apparent
provenance within 50km. to the south and
west.

BASALTIC ROCKS
Alkali Olivine Basalt-Analcime Basanite-Olivine
Nephelinite

Erosional remnants (generally less than 30 m.
thick) of alkali olivine basalt, analcime basanite

26 PY MASH EEY (Ea ox

and olivine nephelinite overlie the (?) Tertiary
sediments and Burrinjuck Granite. The flows
are best developed around Adjungbilly T-.S.
and the northern part of Red Hill (where
thicknesses lccally attain 80m.). The alkali
clivine basalt contains small phenocrysts of
olivine and titaniferous clinopyroxene in a fine
groundmass of plagioclase (An;, 55), titanaugite,
titanomagnetite, alkali feldspar and apatite.
It is associated with analcime basanite (con-
taining minor plagioclase (An;,) and significant
analcime) and olivine nepheline (containing
abundant nepheline and lacking plagioclase).
The analcime basanite and olivine nephelinite
are very fine-grained, holocrystalline and
contain slightly iddingsitized, euhedral to
subhedral olivine phenocrysts up to 1-5 mm. in
a groundmass of titaniferous clinopyroxene,
titanomagnetite and apatite, with analcime and
a little plagioclase in the former and nepheline
in the latter. (See analyses 10-12, Appendix IT.)

Alkali Dolente

A mass about 5 km. long, up to 1-2 km. wide
and 30-80 m. thick of alkali dolerite crops out
on Red Hill overlying Tertiary sediments and
basaltic flows (see above), the serpentinite belt
and Burrinjuck Granite. The rocks have sub-
ophitic textures and are notably porphyritic
(and glomeroporphyritic). The average grainsize
is 1-2-5 mm. Phenocrysts of olivine, plagioclase
and clinopyroxene average 2°5-4mm., some
clinopyroxenes attaining 9mm. _ Finer-grained,
slightly porphyritic dolerite with an average
grainsize of 0-5 mm. occurs in some basal parts
of the mass.

The alkali dolerite contains 22 to 9% olivine,
36 to 10°%% titaniferous clinopyroxene, 36 to 64%
plagioclase, 2 to 5% analcime, 2 to 8% alkali
feldspar, 4 to 79% titanomagnetite (and a little
ilmenite) and 1 to 2% apatite. Modal and
cryptic variation occurs from base to top within
the mass: the olivine composition changes from
about Fo,, near the base tc about Fo,, near the
top ; clinopyroxene changes from a pale brown
variety to one heavily rimmed with a deep mauve
variety ; plagioclase changes from An,;, to
An,;; the alkali feldspar and primary analcime
contents increase ; and very small amounts of
aegirine-augite (in places rimming interstitial
titanaugite), titaniferous biotite and
(?) kaersutite appear. An analysis of a typical
alkali dolerite from the Red Hill mass is
presented in Appendix II.

The texture, grainsize, thickness, modal and
cryptic variation, and the moderate differentia-

tion with enrichment in Fe, Ti and alkalis
in the higher level indicate the body is possibly
an unroofed sill.

Geological Synthesis

The geological history revealed east of Tumut
can be tentatively summarized as follows :

(1) Possibly in the Ordovician to Middle
Silurian, deposition of sediments of the Bumbolee
Creek Beds and extrusion of parent basaltic
rocks of the Bullawyarra Schist took place.
Burial, metamorphism and deformation were
followed by uplift and erosion.

(2) In the Middle Silurian to basal Devonian
a period of acidic to basic volcanism (at least
partly submarine) was accompanied by
deposition of marine sediments (chiefly deep
water). The volcanism, recorded in the
Blowering, Honeysuckle and Goobarragandra
Beds, may be continuous with that northwards
in the main part of the Cowra Trough (e.g. the
Canowindra Porphyry of Ryall, 1965).

(3) Burial, folding and low-grade regional
metamorphism of the sedimentary-volcanic
sequence was followed by the intrusion of the
Burrinjuck Granite at relatively low temperature
about 400 million years B.P.

(4) In the lower to Middle Devonian fault-
controlled emplacement of the Coolac
Serpentinite as a partly serpentinized ultrabasic
belt containing numerous tectonic inclusions of
various crustal rocks (including large slices of
high-grade foliated metamorphic rocks) occurred.
Mylonites were produced in the adjacent
Burrinjuck Granite. Serpentinization and
metasomatism in the serpentinite environment
affected both the tectonic inclusions and the
immediately adjacent sedimentary-volcanic
units.

(5) The Gatelee Ignimbrite was extruded in
a possible terrestrial environment, then gently
folded, just prior to or contemporaneous with
the intrusion of the Bogong Granite and the
Killimicat Adamellite about 385 million years
B.P. These were emplaced as relatively high
temperature, fluid magmas and_ produced
thermal metamorphism of the Coolac Ser-
pentinite and the sedimentary-volcanic sequence
(including previously metasomatized rocks).

(6) Since the intrusion of these granitic
masses there was apparently little deposition,
igneous activity or deformation, with the
development of a peneplain surface, until the
Tertiary fluviatile sedimentation, basaltic
volcanism and uplift.

(7) Continued erosion and fluviatile sedi-
mentation gave rise to the present configuration.

GROLOGY OF COOLAC SERPENTINITE EAST OF TUMOUT, N.S.W. 27

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their gratitude
to Associate Professor R. H. Vernon and Dr.
R. H. Flood, of the School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University, for critically reading
the manuscript, and thank Associate Professor
T. G. Vallance, of the Department of Geology
and Geophysics, University of Sydney, and
Mi ~€. Offenberg; of McDonald Street,
Harbord, for helpful discussions.

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Potassium-argon ages in eastern Australia. /.
Geol. Soc. Aust., 9, 1-49.

FoLtk, R. L., 1954. The distinction between grain
size and mineral composition in sedimentary rock
nomenclature. j. Geol., 62, 344-359.

FRASER, W. B., 1961. Geology of the Lacmalac
district. B.Sc. thesis, Univ. of N.S.W. (unpubl.).

FRASER, W. B., 1967. Studies in serpentinite and
associated rocks near Tumut, New South Wales.
M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of N.S.W. (unpubl.).

GoLpiInG, H. G., 1962. MRodingitic and _ aplitic
inclusions in the Coolac-Goobarragandra Ser-
pentine Belt. Aust. J. Scr., 25, 63.

GOLDING, H. G., 1963. The occurrence of terrestrial
nickel-iron in serpentinite near Coolac, New South
Wales. Aust. J. Sci., 26, 152-153.

GoLpING, H. G., 1966. ‘The constitution and genesis
of the chrome ores of the Coolac Serpentine Belt,
New South Wales, Australia. Ph.D. thesis,
Univ. of N.s.W. (unpubl.).

GoLpING, H. G., 1969a. Some problems of the Coolac
chromitites. Unpubl. lecture (1967). Abs. in
J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 102, 94-95.

GOLDING, H. G., 1969b. The Coolac-Goobarragandra

Ultramanc. Belt, N.s.W. J. voc. [toy.2 Soc.
N.S.W., 102, 173-188.
GOLDING, H. G., and Baytiss, P., 1968. Altered

chrome ores from the Coolac Serpentine Belt,

New South Wales, Australia. Am. Mzuner.,
53, 162-1838.

GREEN, T. H., and RinGwoop, A. E., 1968. Origin of
garnet phenocrysts in calc-alkaline rocks. Contr.
Mineral. Petrology, 18, 163-174.

Hatt, L. R., and Repu, R. E., 1956. Snowy
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Harper, L. F., 1917. Mineral-bearing areas north-

east of Tumut.
for 1916, 208.
HARPER, L. F., 1920.

Ann. Rep. Dep. Min. N.S.W.,

Report on arsenical ore, Tumut

district. Ann. Rep. Dep. Min. N.S.W.., for 1919,
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Hess, H. H., 1955. Serpentinites, orogeny and
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HOSTETLER, P. B., CoLEMaANn, R. G., Mumpton, F. A.,
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Kose, P., and Taytor, S. R., 1966. Geochemical
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Mountains area, New South Wales. /. Geol.
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28 P. MASHLEY ch oak

LEONARDOS, ©. H:, Jr. and. Pyne, Wiis. (19692) sen
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609-618.

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PAGE, Nv }s 2967,
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On the chemistry of pillow
spilites. Muineralog.

Appendix I

GARNET DATA

The mineral name “ garnet”7 es auseay in
this study implies a variety close to grossular,
Ca,Al,(SiO,)3, in composition unless other-
wise specified. Garnets occurring within
the rodingites and other metasomatized tectonic
inclusions rich in calc-silicate minerals have
nm from 1-728 to 1-738--0-003 and a from
11-86A to 11-90A+0-01A. Garnet in a calc-
silicate hornfels from Patton’s Ridge has
n=1-746+0-003 and a=11-86A+0-01A.
According to data of Deer, Howie and Zussman
(1962), the former garnets range from a slightly
hydrated variety (containing up to 10% of the
hibschite, Ca,Al,(Si0,),(OM)g =moleenie sto
almost pure grossular containing little andradite
and uvarovite in solid solution. The latter
garnet has a composition close to Grog,And,.

Appendix II

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF ROCKS FROM THE
TumMuT AREA

Twelve chemical analyses of rocks from the
mapped area (except analysis 7) are tabulated
below.

Analyses 1, 2 and 3 reveal little compositional
variation in rocks of the Burrinjuck Granite
from three different environments. The Burrin-
juck Granite shows the attributes of the
“Murrumbidgee type’’ of plutonic rocks of
Vallance (1969) and is similar chemically to the
massive and foliated granodiorites and adamel-
lites described from the Snowy Mountains area
of New South Wales by Kolbe and Taylor
(1966). The rocks are characterized by a high
Fe?+/Fe®+ ratio. Analyses 2 atid=-3 show
higher Fe,O, and lower FeO than analysis 1,
attributed to the slight alteration (weathering)
observed in thin section. Marked chemical
similarities exist between typical samples of the
Bogong Granite and Kiullimicat Adamellite
(analyses 4 and 5). These masses are character-
istic of the ‘“‘ Bathurst type ”’ of Vallance (1969).
Chemically they are similar to the leucogranites
from the Snowy Mountains described by Kolbe
and Taylor (1966). Analysis 6 shows the
Gatelee Ignimbrite to be rhyodacitic in com-
position and chemically similar to the Bogong
Granite and Killimicat Adamellite, except for
much higher Fe,O, (probably a function of its
pyroclastic origin). A garnetiferous porphyritic
rhyodacite from the Blowering Beds compares
closely with a porphyritic rhyodacite from the
Goobarragandra Beds (analyses 7 and 8).

NOUnRNAL SOY AL SOCIETY NS.W. Asi LEY Hl Abe P LATE

Liem

1. View to the east across the Blowering Beds and Honeysuckle Beds to the Honeysuckle Range, the topographic
expression of the Coolac Serpentinite. The McAlpine Mine is situated at the top of the scarp near the centre of the
photograph.

2. Satellitic serpentinite belt within slates and metabasalts of the Honeysuckle Beds : on the Wee Jasper Road, about
250 m. west of the main ultrabasic belt and 17 km. north-cast of Tumut.

ASHLEY ET AL BiiAgea wil

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GEOLOGY OF COOLAC SERPENTINITE EAST OF TUMUT, N.S.W. 29

Chemically the rocks show many similarities
to the Burrinjuck Granite, and differ from the
Gatelee Ignimbrite in containing lower SiO,
and alkalis, and higher CaO, MgO and total
Fe. Analyses 9 to 12 are of the Tertiary basaltic
focksa (ihe alkali dolerite trom Ked Hill
(analysis 9) is comparable with the alkali
olivine basalt from near Adjungbilly T-S.
(analysis 10). From the alkali olivine basalt
there appears to be a trend to strong under-
saturation, and to a moderately potassic nature,
with high P,O,, through the analcime basanite
(analysis 11) to the olivine nephelinite (analysis
ye

1 2 3 4 5 6
SiO, .. | 68-76] 69-87; 69-92] 75-87| 76-53] 73-27
TiO, 0-63) 0-56] 0-59] 0-19) 0-15} 0-35
Al,O, .. | 14-14) 14-21] 13-58] 12-68] 12-06] 14-36
Fe,O, .. | 0-35} 0-87| 0-74| 0-15! 0-26] 1-50
FeO 4-08] 3-09} 3-19] 1-17] 0-97] 0-60
MnO 0-10} 0-08) 0-10] 0-06} 0-05} 0-11
MgO 2-69) 2-24/ 2-16] 0-95} 0-64] 0-99
CaO 2-61) 3-24! 2-03} 0-65] 0-55] 0-40
Na,O 2-19) 2-68] 2-46} 3-32] 3-16] 3-37
K,O 3-03) 2-33] 3-70] 4-35] 4-73] 4-14
P.O, 0-21} 0-19) 0-18] 0-11] 0-08} 0-13
H,O+ 0-97; 0-68} 0-75] 0-70] 0-33]. 1-12
H,O- 0-08} 0-14] 0-11] 0-15) 0-13) 0-27
CO; 0-10} 0-00} 0-02] 0-06} 0-17) 0-14
Total | 99-95|100-18| 99-53/100-41| 99-81)100-75

C.I.P.W. Norms

QO -. | d2°81| 33-73] 32-43) 36-76) 37-98] 36-26
Or -. | 17-90) 13-77) 21-86) 25-70) 27-95) 24-46
Ab .. | 18-52) 22-67) 20-81) 28-08] 26-73) 28-50
Ne oo = — — — —
An 10-94) 14-83) 8:77); 2-13) 1-13) 0-25
C 3°25|-1-85| 2:32) 1-73) 1-33) 4-25
Di — os a

Hy 13-04; 9-76) 9-84) 4-19) 3-00) 2-46
Ol — = = reas aes aes
Mt Osol), L-26) 1-07) 0-22; . 0-38; 1-28
Hm -— = —— a --- 0-62
Il 1-20} 1-06) 1:12) 0-36; 0-28) 0:66
Ap 0-49| 0-44) 0-42; 0-25) 0-19| 0-30
Cc 0-23) — 0-05) 0:14) 0:39} 0:32
H,O 1-06) 0-82) 0-86) 0-85) 0-46; 1-39

7 8 8) 10 ai | 12
S10, 67-36) 69-82) 46-27| 45-70) 42-94! 40-64
TiO, 0-66, 0-49) 2:26) 2-02) 2-23) 2-65
AlI,O; 14°38) 13-94) 13-30] 14:42} 14-09! 13-98
He, 0; 0-67| 0-69) 3-02) 2-35) 5-25) 4-94
FeO 3:74, 3-03} 6:91; 8-72} 7-04) 7-46
MnO 0-07; 0-07; 0:20) 0-21) 0-23) 0-22
MgO 2-23) 1-49) 10-50) 11-14] 10-81} 8-15
CaO 1-86) 2-53) 11-88} 9-83) 9-47) 10-89
Na,O 3:23) 2-96) 2-68) 2-60) 3-12} 4-80
K,O So ab Soo) E=30) P21) 21-68] 2-22
EeOr 0-15} 0-12} 0-85) O-79| 1-21} 1-81
H,0# 0-86; 1-02) O-72} 1-29) 0-65) 1-31
H,O- O- 12), (Oe 12|" 0-26)". 0-51)> 1-05)" OF b7
CO; 0:34) 0-12} 0-00} 0-02} 0-08) 0:87
Total 99-38) 99-73)100-15|100- 81} 99-85'100- 71

C.I.P.W. Norms

O .. | 26-00] 30-94) — — — —
Or .. | 21-92] 19-67) 7-68) 7-15) 9-93) 13-29
Ab .. | 27-32) 25-03) 15-97) 18-60] 14-42) 4-40
Ne - — — 3:73) 1-84) 6:48) 19-61
An a 6-10} 11-01] 20-42) 24-11) 19-48) 10°18

GC at 2°82) 1-43) — = —- —
Di - — — 26-26) 15-59) 15-13) 21-77

Hy f. 10:91} 8-02; — = aon —
Ol ae — — 14:65} 22-62) 17-87) 11-35
Mt 0-97; 1-00) 4:38} 3-41] 7-61) 7-10

Hm — — — — SS —
Il ets 1-25) 0-93) 4-29) 3:84) 4-24) 4-98
Ap a2 0:35} 0-28) 1-97) 1-83) 2-80) 4:17
Ce ; 0-77; O-27| — 0:05} 0-18} 1-98
H,O 0-98) 1:14) 0-98; 1-80) 1-70} 1-88

Analyst: P. M. Ashley.

Analyses by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, flame
photometry (Na,O), titrimetry (FeO) and gravimetry
(EO) <CQ;):

1. Massive biotite granodiorite (Burrinjuck Granite) :
4-3 km. north-north-east of Billapaloola T-.S.

2. Mylonitic biotite granodiorite (Burrinjuck Granite) :
about 20 m. from contact with Coolac Serpentinite,
400 m. south-west of Mundongo T.S.

3. Partly recrystallized, foliated biotite adamellite :
inclusion in Coolac Serpentinite, 4-8 km. west-
south-west of Adjungbilly T.s.

4. Granite (Killimicat Adamellite) : western side of

Pine Mountain, 5 km. south of Brungle.

. Biotite adamellite (Bogong Granite): Bogong
Mountains, 5-6 km. west-south-west of Goobarra-
gandra.

6. Rhyodacitic ignimbrite (Gatelee
3:5 km. north-north-west of Brungle.

. Garnetiferous porphyritic rhyodacite
Blowering Beds) : Carey St., Tumut.

8. Porphyritic rhyodacite (from Goobarragandra
Beds): 2:5 km. south of Goobarragandra.

9. Porphyritic alkali dolerite: Red Hiuill,
east-south-east of McAlpine Mine.

10. Porphyritic alkali olivine basalt :

east of Adjungbilly T.S.

11. Porphyritic analcime basanite: Adjungbilly T.S.

12. Olivine nephelinite: Red Hill, 2-8 km. north-east

of McAlpine Mine.

Or

Ignimbrite) :

a |

(from

232 Ke

about 300 m.

(Received 29. 10. 1970)

~

Fed

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 31-37, 1971

The Phytochemical History of Torbanites
R. F. CANE AND P. R. ALBION

Queensland Institute of Technology, Brisbane

Communicated by PrRorEessor D. P. MELLOR

ApBstract—Recently, considerable advances have been made to an understanding of the
chemistry of torbanite kerogen. Phytochemical research has shown that the present-day
equivalent of the algal source of torbanite produces, not fats, but hydrocarbons of peculiar
structure. This paper discusses the nature and chemistry of this alga in relation to the
inadequacies of previous hypotheses of the origin of torbanite kerogen.

Experimental work using coorongite and model compounds as kerogen precursors has demon-
strated that the conception of an exclusively hydrocarbon source for kerogen is untenable, and
that, after deposition, microbial action has had an important secondary effect on the character of
the original deposit. The hypothesis is here put forward that coorongite, and hence torbanite,
has had a dual origin. It is believed that the primary source was the botryococcenes, but that
there has been considerable later modification, and additions, arising from microbiological action.
High pressure experiments on coorongite and models have shown that overburden pressure has not

been a major factor in the diagenesis of the polymeric material.

Introduction

The nature of oil shale kerogen, its origin and
mode of deposition has long been a topic of
scientific investigation; indeed, the subject
can be said to date its published literature
from 1693 with the issue of British Patent 330.
In general terms, kerogen may be described as
an heterogeneous organic rock-forming material,
differing in composition from area to area, and
originating in many instances in algal or similar
residues.

Although it seems unlikely that an entirely
satisfactory hypothesis will ever be forthcoming
to explain the formation and nature of such
complex organic matter as that of the Green
River oil shale or Kukkersite kerogen, the
particular problem of the genesis of torbanite
now seems much nearer solution.

The structural complexity and polymeric
stability of kerogen renders it intractable to
chemical attack. Conventional analyses will
show only average values for the multitude of
micro-structures which must be present.
Degradative methods such as pyrolysis or
oxidation have similar inadequacies and may,
in fact, be characteristic of only certain labile
entities within the polymer matrix. Analyses
based on kerogen extracts are also of limited
usefulness as the soluble portion may be
exogeneous, having no intimate relation to

insoluble kerogen itself, but arising from
extraneous non-kerogen matter associated with
the sedimentation process.

Because of the inertness of algal kerogen
(torbanite), it was believed rewarding to take
“a step backwards in time’”’ and search for a
juvenile kerogen in the hope that, being
immature, it might be more amenable to
chemical examination. Under these circum-
stances, useful results might be obtained and
then extrapolated in terms of the fully lithified
material.

While this work was proceeding, important
information became available on the phyto-
chemistry of certain algae as well as an
additional study on algal physiology. In view
of the significance of all these findings to an
understanding of the origin of torbanite, it
would seem fitting at this time to present
further information on this subject.

The Evolution of Torbanite

Compared with true oil shales, torbanite has
inherent advantages in any study of kerogen
diagenesis. Specimens may be selected nearly
free from mineral matter, and biological evidence
demonstrates that torbanite arose mainly from
a single plant source uncontaminated by
animal and other residues. From a study of the
stratigraphy of the deposits and their lenticular

32 R. F. CANE AND PR. ALBION

section, it is apparent that the source organisms
grew in quiet stratified shallow fresh-water
lakes containing both aerobic and anaerobic
aqueous zones. As “pure protokerogen ”’
nearly certainly had a density less than that of
water, from a study of the rock structure it
must be assumed that either the lakes
periodically dried up and the organic residue
became mixed with silt or, alternatively, the
floating algae became associated with
adventitious mineral matter and was caused to
sink to the lake’s bottom, where it became
mixed with further fine mineral detritus.

As aresult of bacterial, chemical and geological
action in an anaerobic environment, the organic
matter was deprived of much oxygen content,
while the less resistant components were
removed altogether. Thereafter, the pressure
of overburden and passage of time induced
lithification of the residue to a tough polymeric
rock of extraordinary chemical stability. As
hand specimens, which have been slowly
calcined often show a_ coarse large-celled
alveolate structure, it appears that local concen-
trations of pure organic matter occur throughout
the rock matrix. Chemical studies during the
present work have shown that most of the
active chemical changes took place within a
few decades of deposition and the succeeding
aeons served only to solidify and toughen the
polymer matrix with little subsequent major
chemical change.

Microscopic examination of torbanite sections
show a heterogeneous brownish orange matrix,
in which are countless irregular yellow areas
of organized structure and definite boundaries.
Although the source material for these “ yellow
bodies ’’ of torbanite was a subject of consider-
able speculation for over a century, the
exhaustive examinations by Thiessen (1925)
and by Blackburn and Temperly (1936) con-
vincingly demonstrated that torbanite contains
recognizable remains of pre-existent algal
organisms, virtually identifiable with the extant
alga Botryococcus brauni (Kutzing). Later
work by Dulhunty (1944) and by Cane (1967)
left little doubt that the sequence alga—>
coorongite—>+torbanite are definable steps in the
diagenesis of the rock. After deposition, the
main chemical processes appear to be initial
oxidation and then polymerization, but, until
recently, workers have failed to identify the
monomeric units or to explain the exact nature
of the gelosic matter of the kerogen precursor.
Recent research has clarified many obscure
points, and it is now possible to provide informa-

tion on most aspects of the overall trans-
formation from alga to rock.

The Occurrence and Growth of
B. braunti

The genus Botryococcus is of wide distribution,
and although its taxonomy has been a subject
of contention the genus has now been firmly
placed in the Chlorophyceae by Belcher and
Fogg (1955). The principal species in cool
climates 1s B. brauni.

Like some other phytoplankton, B. braunii
can exhibit more than one growth pattern and
phytochemical make-up. In the initial fast-
growing stage, the algal mass is green, while at
alaterstage of development growth becomes very
slow. At this resting stage chlorophyll pigmen-
tation decreases and the colony appears reddish
from -carotene. The transformation from
the green fast-growth form to the rust-coloured
resting stage is usually brought about by an
unfavourable environment, such as desiccation
or by an adverse nutrient supply. Sporadically
and under restricted conditions in a few isolated
places in the world, this species colonizes to
form thick water blooms which give rise to
extensive rubbery deposits on the edges of
lagoons or on the beds of almost dry lakes.

The change in colour and growth pattern is
accompanied by an extraordinary increase in
lipid content, the extent of which has been
commented upon by many observers. Until
recently, it was believed that the lipids were
essentially fatty ester and, although fats
undoubtedly make some contribution, Maxwell
et al. (1968) have shown that the algal “ oil ”’
is not ester, but nearly entirely a mixture of
two isomeric hydrocarbons of novel structure.
Although some algal mat communities are quite
rich in fatty acids of high unsaturation, the
production of such large amounts of hydro-
carbons is quite exceptional. After the death
of the plant, this hydrocarbon mixture resists
decay and the residue remains floating on the
water until it is blown to the shore or deposited
by other agency.

The desiccated material is termed coorongite,
and it seems very likely indeed that coorongite
is a modern representative of the immature
kerogen mentioned earlier. The discovery of
the botryococcenes and the physiological studies
of Belcher (1968) have radically altered previous
thinking on the chemistry of coorongite and
torbanite kerogen. The actual formation of
coorongite has already been described by
Broughton (1920), and reference should be made

PHY TOCHEMICAL HISTORY OF TORBANITES 33

to papers by Thiessen (1925) and by Cane (1969)
for further information on its mode of occurrence
and the nature of the deposit.

Phytochemistry of B. braunii

As mentioned above, B. braunii is a strange
alga and exhibits different physiological
behaviours, depending on the environment and
food reserves. There seems little doubt that
the spectacular build-up of lipids is a defense
mechanism, to provide a suitable energy source,
as well as to act as a protection from desiccation.
In the green exponential-growth form, Brown
et al. (1969) have shown that the unsaponifiable
lipids (up to 15% of dry weight, but usually
much less), consist mainly of n-alkadienes and
n-alkatrienes in the C,,-C,, range, together
with lesser amounts of n-alkenes between Cj,
and C33. Moreover, Knights e al. (1970) have
demonstrated that the three predominant
hydrocarbons correspond to one general formula :

CH,=CH-(CH,)n—-CH =CH-(CH,),-CH,
with n=17, 21, 19 in imcreasing order of
abundance. The saponifiable lipids consist
mainly of esters of oleic, palmitic and other
alkanoic acids.

At the orange resting stage, the alga contains
a small amount of saponifiable lipids of orthodox
composition, consisting mainly of palmitic,
oleic and a C,, ester, together with less quantities
of esters of C,,-C3, straight chain acids. The
unsaponifiable lipids, which may amount to
nearly 90% of the algal dry weight, consist
nearly entirely of two isomeric C,,H;, hydro-
carbons. These botryococcenes—so called by
Maxwell (1968)—are believed to contain six
double bonds, six methyl groups, four exo-
methylenes and a vinyl side-chain per molecule.

The elemental composition of the botryo-
eoccenes corresponds exactly to the C,,H,,
dimeric alkyl residue of the model trienoic acid
discussed by Cane (1967) and closely resembles
Aarna’s “ kerogen unit’ C,,H,, (1956). Both
Cane and Aarna arrived at their conclusions by
investigating the chemistry of kerogen itself,
and their postulates reasonably fitted the known
facts at that time. If the botryococcenes are
indeed the main final metabolite of B. braunit,
then the conclusion seems inescapable that
coorongite, and presumably torbanite, were
formed by oxidation and polymerization of
these hydrocarbons. However, certain experi-
mental facts do not completely fit this hypothesis
and the only explanation in accord with the
observations is to conclude that coorongite
has a dual origin. There is no doubt that the
primary source is the botryococcene hydro-

carbons, but it is equally certain that a secondary
contribution comes from lipoid matter of more
normal composition. Spectroscopic studies point
very strongly to fatty esters originating, either
directly or indirectly, from microbial activity.

Coorongite and the Botryococcenes

There is no doubt that coorongite has its
botanical genesis in growths of B. braunit,
and for many years it has been assumed that
highly unsaturated acids played a major role
in its formation. The original premise arose
partially from the work of Stadnikov (1929),
who believed that the “ hydrocarbons’’ of
torbanite and coorongite resulted from the
transformation of unsaturated fatty acids.
Stadnikov postulated an initial oxidation and
polymerization followed by bacterial decarboxy-
lation under anaerobic conditions. Stadnikov’s
hypothesis is still probably partially valid, as
coorongite may contain up to 14% saponifiable
matter, composed mostly of fatty ester.

In contradiction to Stadnikov’s hypothesis,
it has now been established that B. brauni
secretes very little fatty acid, but produces two
reactive hydrocarbons which readily polymerize.
Furthermore, recent observations (personal
communication, Dr. J. Maxwell, University of
Bristol) have shown that B. brauwni in laboratory
cultures can give rise to a rubbery residue
(hereafter designated “‘ B.b. rubber ’’) having
most of the physical properties of coorongite.
It would be facile to believe that coorongite
represents simply an aged “ B.b. rubber” ;
the extraordinary feature is that neither
coorongite, “ B.b. rubber ”’ nor the total lipids
of 6. brauni are identical one with the others,
and although all have some common chemical
configurations, each has chemical features absent
in the other two.

Because of similarities between the tentative
structure of botryococcene and that of squalene
(see Figure 1), the use of squalene as a model
compound was explored. Polymerization and
oxidation experiments with squalene were not
particularly successful, and no rubbery product
was produced, even after prolonged incubation.
Trienoic fatty acids, on the other hand, produced
“rubbers ’’ very similar to coorongite, but with
an infra-red spectrum somewhat different from
it, and different again from the botryococcenes.
Gentle pyrolysis of both types of synthetic
polymeric models yielded oils similar to shale
oil, the least akin being that from polysqualene.

Within the general biological background
given above, assisted by infra-red and n.m-r.
spectra, the tentative chemical evolution of

34

torbanite can now be traced. An examination
of ““B.b. rubber’’ shows that the three-stage
transformation mentioned earlier is not the

BOTRYOCOCCENE

SQUALENE

K.. Fo CANE AND PS Ro ALBION

and in the case of coorongite the 1467 cm.—}
absorption peak is augmented by a multiple
“square trough” (see Figurey=2)o%im the
1350+40 cm. region. The interpretation to
be applied throughout is that all compositions
are essentially aliphatic unsaturated hydro-
carbons containing many small side alkyl
groups of various configurations, some of which
are unsaturated. In the case of the botryo-
coccenes and “ B.b. rubber” the absorption
at ca. 1376 is quite sharp, whereas in coorongite
and torbanite there is a wide absorption band
made up of four distinct peaks at 1310, 1349,
1367, 1377. This shows that the gem. dimethyl
terminal configuration suggested for the botryo-
coccenes is supported by a plurality of small
alkyl groups of various types. The occurrence
of the latter is interpreted as the result of
microbiological agencies.

Table 1 shows differences in chemical
groupings which occur as the various stages

Eset develop, and Figure 2 illustrates the more
full story, but rather five distinct steps important region of the infra-red spectra of
can be isolated and defined. The stages each stage.

See eas
5 NY. ciSdS. Micke ieee cate mCneN AG selene amr dee at) fo
® : ah Arash: eee ‘ 5 \ Cad < ne
\ Say) eee ee ee ee ey IN. fe Td
. A \7 aie te epee —“ N\. 2 | ; :. y
y ae et ) * C a
“ ; oes S ‘ a :
(ee We, |
i “J \ Ne ’ ; | {
; i we
1 - | iI
\ }
7 | i B
A
D
botryococcenes
——_—s- coorongite
—<——*) Bb rubber,
1800 1600 1400 wavenumber 1200 1000 800
FIGURE 2.—Infra-red spectra of coorongite and precursors.
are: alga—>botryococcenes—“ B.b. rubber ’’—> Three evolutionary trends can be clearly
coorongite—torbanite. At all stages, the observed from the spectra : |

following major ir. absorption bands (cm.~—?)
occur: 2850-2962 (v C-H), 1647 (v C=C),
1467 (5 CH,, 3 CH) and 917, 1002 (y C-H
vinyl). There are slight shifts in frequency

(i) The progressive disappearance of the
reactive disubstituted carbon-carbon
double bonds and the exomethylene|

PHYTOCHEMICAL HISTORY OF TORBANITES 35

groups (A), although much _ general
unsaturation still remains.

arise from chemical changes, and it must be
accepted that these originate by means of

(ii) The appearance, after deposition, of biological processes.
oxygen linkages as hydroxyl and as N.m.r. studies (Figure 3) of the various stages
carbonyl (fatty acids) as well as some in kerogen diagenesis support the infra-red
clearly defined aromatic structures (C evidence discussed above. Examinations by
and D. Mass spectra indicate that these n.m.r. leave little doubt that the main con-
are probably alkyl benzenes). The tributors to “ B.b. rubber” (n.m.r. trace A)
presence of alkyl aromatics is strange, are the botryococcenes, but these are not the
but they have already been noted by _ sole progenitors. Differences are even more
Douglas (1969). Their presence is pronounced between coorongite and the botryo-
supported by overlapping absorptions coccenes. In coorongite (n.m.r. trace B) the
at ca. 1500 cm.—!. bands between 4 and 5-5t, arising from
TABLE 1
Diagnostic Infra-red Absorptions
Botryo- Botryo-
Wave Number Assignment coccenes coccene Coorongite Kerogen
Rubber
SoA .. oaks. Ci. + at = =
979 i - - 10 ++ os — —
3310 in ree Om = a ie ms
725 (B) bas 4 — (CH,)a— _ + + +
1745, 1710 - “ C=0 = - Bi 4
1154, 1147, 1091 a =o = = ae et
1589, 1592 (D) ; C=6m = = iy oy
840 (C) C—Car — — ae ais
— =absent.
+ = present.

(i111) The development of substantial amounts
of straight-chain methylene (B) as well
as oxidation products (coorongite contains
up to 15% oxygen). The relative ratio
of 1376 : 1467 cm.—! bands also point to
increased straight-chain structures in
coorongite.

Some structural changes show up quite
early in the transformation to “ B.b. rubber ’’,
for example, the development of -—(CH,)n—
at 725cm.—!, completely absent in_ botryo-
coccene. Also, the wide bands in the 1080-1160
region which correspond to oxygen-containing
products arising probably from chemical oxida-
tion as well as esters and alcohols of micro-
biological origin. The oxygen and straight-chain
linkages are even more developed in coorongite.

In the later stages of transformation, the
extent of the exomethylene structures (A)
decreases and, spectrally, they are entirely
absent in coorongite and kerogen (the spectrum
of kerogen is not shown in Figure 2, but see
Cane (1967)). | Concomitant with the dis-
appearance of the exomethylene groups, a
pronounced aromatic component shows up. It
does not seem feasible that such aromatics

B

unsaturation, were barely developed (shown
amplified in trace C), and there was virtually
no resonances between 8-9 and 9-17 arising
from methyl groups attached to alkyl chains.

The resonance at 8-7t in the coorongite
spectrum (B) is probably caused by the effect of
oxygen on a neighbouring methyl group, possibly
methoxy. Most n.m.r. features of coorongite
show a _ general contribution from _ botryo-
coccenes, but allow substantial additions from
straight-chain and oxygen compounds.

The Origin of Torbanite

Although the evidence is conclusive that the
prime source for coorongite is algal and it seems
reasonable to extend the explanation to
torbanite kerogen, one must not assume a
single source material. Just as in some
petroleums, it is now believed that both animal
and plant debris contributed, the present study
has shown that both straight-chain compounds
(ex micro-organisms) and branched-chain hydro-
carbons (ex alga) contribute to the chemistry
of coorongite, and hence to the kerogen of
torbanite itself.

36 RK, FF. CANE AND Pe KE ALBION

FIGURE 3.—N.m.r. spectra of coorongite and precursors.

There seems no doubt that micro-organisms
play an important role after the “‘ B.b. rubber ”’
stage, and it seems equally likely that anaerobic
bacteria cause the decrease in oxygen in the
coorongite—-kerogen transformation. Bacteria
certainly can alter the composition of organic
material and they are capable of preferentially
attacking and removing specific chemical con-
figurations. Undoubtedly, purely chemical
reactions cause the initial oxidation and
polymerization of the algal lipids, and one
might surmize that ‘B.b. rubber’ could be
made under sterile conditions. One would
expect, however, a somewhat different chemical
composition from that occurring naturally.

By the very nature of the reactions leading
to the fully polymerized substance, only traces
of relatively unreactive residues are likely to be
identified by solvent extraction and chemical
analysis. The more characteristic reactants
will have lost all identity by the complex
hardening process, involving oxidation, poly-
merization and condensation, assisted and
modified by bacterial attack. After the cessation
of active chemical change, further transformation
will have taken place under the overburden.

A study of models of the later stages in the
coorongite—>kerogen transformation has been

of doubtful merit. Samples of polymers of
trienoic acids and coorongite have been exposed
to pressures up to 15,000 atms. without change
to a rigid solid. There seems to be some evidence
that pressures exceeding 22,000 atms. does
induce solidification, but this so far exceeds
any likely overburden pressure as to have little
useful interpretation. Nevertheless, rigid solids
similar to torbanite have been produced by
maintaining coorongite and the acid gels under
28,000 atms. at 250°C. for 16 hours. There
was no observable change under the same
conditions at 30° C.

Although one can conjecture the likely final
stages in the transformation to kerogen, all
attempts so far to effect this change under
laboratory conditions have been unsuccessful.
As in many other similar processes, it would
seem there is no substitute for geological time.

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgement is made to the donors of
The Petroleum Research Fund, administered
by the American Chemical Society, for partial
support of this work. We also acknowledge the
assistance of Professor G. R. Hill, of the
University of Utah, for the high-pressure
experiments.

PHYTOCHEMICAL HISTORY OF TORBANITES 37

References

AARNA, A. Y., and Kasu, K. A., 1956. Properties of
Pyro-bitumen from Baltic Combustible Shale.
Zhur. Priklad. Khim., 29, 764.

BELCHER, J. H., 1968. Notes on the Physiology of
Botryococcus braunii Kutzing. Archiv. fur Micro-
biology, 61, 335.

' BELCHER, J. H., and Foae, G. E., 1955. Biochemical

Evidence of the Affinities of Botryococcus. New
Phytologist, 54, 81.

BLACKBURN, K. B., and TEMPERLEyY, B. N., 1936.
Botryococcus and the Algal Coals. Tvans. Roy.
Soc. Edin., 58, 841.

BroucutTon, A. C., 1920. Coorongite. Tvans. Proc.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 44, 386.

Brown, A. C., Knicuts, B. A., and Conway, E..,
1969. Hydrocarbon Content and Its Relationship
to Physiological State in the Green Alga, B.
braunii. Phytochem., 8 (3), 543.

CaNnE, R. F., 1967. The Constitution and Synthesis
of Oil Shale. Pyvroc. 7th World Petm. Congress,
Vol. III, p. 681. Elsevier, London.

CANE, R. F., 1969. Coorongite and the Genesis of Oil
Shale. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 33, 257.

Douaetas, A. G., EGLINTON, G., and MAxwELt, J. R.,
1969. The Hydrocarbons of Coorongite. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta, 33, 569.

DuLuunty, J. A., 1944. Origin of the New South
Wales Torbanites. Proc. Linn. Soc. (N.S.W.),
64, 26.

KniGcHTs, B. A., Brown, A. C., Conway, C., and
MIDDLEDITcH, B. S., 1970. Hydrocarbons from
the Green Form of the Freshwater Alga, Botryo-
coccus braunii. Phytochem., 9, 1317.

MAXWELL, J. R., eé al., 1968. The Botryococcenes—
Hydrocarbons of Novel Structure from the
Alga B. braunii. Phytochem., 7, 2157.

STADNIKOV, G. L., 1929.
Acids over Geological
10, 81, 401.

THIESSEN, R., 1925. Origin of Boghead Coals.
Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper, 132, 121.

Transformation of Fatty
Periods. Brenn. Chem.,

Os.

(Received 13 September 1971)

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 39-44, 1971

Potassium-Argon Basalt Dates and Their Significance in the
Ilford-Mudgee-Gulgong Region

J. A. DULHUNTY
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney

AgpstTrRAcT—Three different topographical environments occur in separate areas of the
Ilford-Mudgee-Gulgong Region. Tertiary basalts varying in mode of occurrence were selected
from each area for potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating. Results revealed flows of upper Eocene-lower
Oligocene and middle Miocene ages, resting on two different erosion surfaces regarded as Eocene
and upper Miocene, respectively. An intermediate and prominent erosion level forming
undissected upland surfaces along the Main Divide, and extending across deeply dissected country
to the west, is believed to be of lower Miocene age. The auriferous gravels of the Gulgong deep
leads were probably deposited between late-lower and early-middle Miocene time and buried

beneath middle Miocene basalt flows.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to record K-Ar
dates obtained for basalts at five places in the
Ilford-Mudgee-Gulgong Region, and to consider
the significance of results in relation to the age
of auriferous deep leads at Gulgong and the
geomorphology of the Cudgegong Valley and
the areas through which the Cudgegong River
passes.

Relations between different basalt occurrences
and their topographical environments, and the
geomorphological significance of the relations,
have posed long-standing problems. The present
investigation by K-Ar dating of selected basalts
was undertaken with the object of throwing
more light on such problems, as well as gaining
more exact knowledge of the age of the Gulgong
Gold Field.

The history and geology of the Gulgong Gold
Field has been described by Jones (1940); the
occurrence of Permian sediment in_ the
Cudgegong Valley has been recorded by
Dulhunty and Packham (1962); Mesozoic and
Tertiary history of the region has been discussed
by Dulhunty (1962); and the general geology
has been summarized by Offenberg, Rose and
Packham (1968). For geomorphology and
Tertiary igneous history of central-eastern
New South Wales bearing on the Mudgee-
Gulgong Region, reference should be made to
Browne, Wilkinson and others in Packham
(1969).

All geological periods referred to in this paper,
as equivalent to K-Ar dates in millions of years,
are in accordance with the times scale by
Funnell (1964).

Topographical Environments and Occur-
rence of Tertiary Basalt Flows

The Mudgee-Gulgong Region is situated on
the Western Slopes of central-eastern New South
Wales, to the west of the Main Divide. It
includes three distinctly different topographical
environments, which, for the purpose of the
present paper, may be described as the Gulgong
Surface, the Hargraves-Yarrabin Block and the
Rylstone-Ilford Level, as illustrated in the
locality map, Figure 1, and the topographical
sections in Figure 2.

Tertiary basalt flows occur in all three
topographical areas of the region. In each area
the mode of occurrence is different.

The Gulgong Surface

A low undulating surface at about 1,500 to
1,750 feet above sea level, lying to the north of
Mudgee. Basalt flows fill old valleys excavated
in the general surface of the country. In places
gold-bearing gravels occur beneath the basalt
forming deep leads, as illustrated in Section C—D,
Figure 1. In some cases the upper surfaces of
the basalt flows now outcrop more or less level
with the present surface, whilst in others the
basalt is covered by up to 30 feet of alluvium.

The old deep lead valleys were excavated
mainly in Middle Palaeozoic basement rocks, but
in places along the Cudgegong Valley near
Guntawong they cut through Permian sediments
occurring on the valley floor and extending
some depth beneath the present river bed.
From sub-surface data (Jones, 1940) and surface
elevation, it is evident that the deep-lead valleys
were excavated to at least 70 feet below the

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POTASSIUM-ARGON BASALT DATES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE AL

RYLSTONE - ILFORD LEVEL

MAIN DOIV/IDE

MT. CARCALGONG

MT. VERNON

ARYLSTONE ~- {LF ORD LEVEL

MT. fe MT. oe

=> Permian
=>

Scdiments

TA aa
Compliex

HARGARAVES - YARRAB/N BLOCK
S52 5 ot

CUVOGEGONG VALLEY

a
Mt. BOCOBLE ENTRENCHMENT

CUDGEGONG
RIVER

Upper Hel Hartt
Miocene Basalt HEHREHHH Early Oligocene Basalt

GULGONG . SURFACE

CUDGEGONG GULGONG
EEP

FIGURE 2.—Geological sections across topographical areas in the Mudgee-Gulgong-Ilford Region showing occurrence

of basalts selected for potassium-argon dating.

present bed of the Cudgegong River, and that
basalt flows, which filled the old valleys, now
occur up to at least 50 feet below present river
level.

The Hargraves-Yarrabin Block

An elevated area lying to the south and
_ south-west of Mudgee at between 2,200 and
2,800 feet above sea level with erosional residuals
to 3,200 feet. It is extensively and deeply
dissected by streams flowing in valleys from
700 to 1,000 feet deep.

Basalt flows occur on the floors of valleys
_ occupied by tributaries of the Cudgegong, and

by the river itself downstream from Beryl.

In the valley of Macdonald Creek, a small outlier
of basalt 80 feet thick occurs on a rise of Permian
sediments 150 feet above the valley floor, which
is 500 to 700 feet below surrounding hills of
basement rock (Dulhunty and Packham, 1962).
Residuals of flow also occur on the floor of the
valley of Two Mile Creek near the Gulgong-
Wellington road crossing, one mile above its
junction with the Cudgegong River, within the
area of the Hargraves-Yarrabin Block. The
valley which is carved entirely from basement
rock is about 600 feet deep. Erosional residuals
of basalt 10 to 30 feet thick lie on auriferous
gravel level with the alluvium of the present
valley floor. as illustrated in Section C-—D,
Figure 2. This represents a basalt flow across

42 J. A. DULHUNDY

the valley floor at its present level, and subse-
quent removal of most of the basalt without
further deepening of the valley.

The Rylstone-Ilford Level.

An upland surface at 2,500 to 3,000 feet with
residuals rising to 3,600 feet, situated along the
Main Divide and immediately to the west,
between Rylstone and Ilford, as illustrated in
Figure 1, and Sections A-B and E-F, Figure 2.
This level is undissected by entrenchment due
to late Tertiary elevation, as it is situated above
the heads of rejuvenation in the valleys of the
Cudgegong River and Pyramul Creek.

Flows of fine-grained olivine basalt, up to
500 feet thick covering Tertiary wash and soils,
occur as erosional residuals at Mts. Boiga and
Carcalgong on the western side of the Rylstone-
Ilford Level, and at Cherry Tree Hill, Mt.
Vernon and Kandos along the Main Divide.
They rise to 3,600 feet and rest upon isolated
pedestals of country rock standing some 300 to
500 feet above the average surface of the
surrounding country. Such — occurrences
represent extrusion of basalt flows across an
old erosion surface largely removed by
subsequent erosion during the development of
the present Rylstone-Ilford Level.

A coarser grained olivine basalt, or fine-
grained dolerite, occurs on a pedestal of country
rock at Mt. Bocoble, four miles west of
Cudgegong Village. Its general mode of occur-
rence resembles that of the nearby basalt
flows resting on pedestals, but it may be either
a sill or a flow, as conclusive field evidence of
its mode of origin is lacking. It is, however,
not a plug.

The Cudgegong Valley

The Cudgegong River rises on the upland
surface of the Rylstone-Ilford Level to the east
of Rylstone. It flows west to its head of
rejuvenation near its junction with Carwell
Creek, midway between Rylstone and the village
of Cudgegong. In this vicinity, at the upper
limits of entrenchment due to late Tertiary
elevation, the river descends into a deep, steep-
sided valley carved out of the old upland surface
(see Section A-B, Figure 2). It then flows
north-west down through a deep, steep-sided
valley to Mullamudy, where its valley floor
widens and merges with the widespread valley
alluvium extending along streams throughout
the Gulgong Surface to the north and north-west.

Downstream from Mullamudy the receding
valley wall on the north-eastern side of the

Cudgegong River terminates in the isolated hills
of Mt. Frome and Mt. Buckaroo. On the other
side of the river the south-western valley wall
continues to the south of Mudgee, and becomes
the north-eastern escarpment to the Hargraves-
Yarrabin Block separating it from the Gulgong
Surface.

From Mudgee the Cudgegong River flows
north-west through a wide valley, across the
scuth-western side of the Gulgong Surface,
parallel and close to the escarpment of the
Hargraves-Yarrabin Block. At Beryl, near
Gulgong, the river turns sharply to the south-
west, flows into the Hargraves-Yarrabin Block
through a deep, steep-sided valley, then south
towards Burrendong Dam, where it joins the
Macquarie River.

Selection of Basalts for Potassium-Argon
Dating

Basalt specimens suitable for K-Ar dating
(see Table 1), and typical in mode of occurrence
for each of the three topographical areas, were
collected at the localities shown on the map,
Figure 1, and in the sections of Figure 2, as
follows :

TABLE 1
Potassium-Argon Basalt Dates

Syd. Geo- Geol.
Umi. | chron Calculated Age
Spec. Lab Locality Age (Funnell,
No. No. (m.y.) 1964)
K 8 R1216 Ford’s 14-8+1-2 | Middle
Creek Miocene
Gulgong
ee) R1341 Two Mile | 13-8+1-1 | Middle
Creek, Miocene
Gulgong
K10 R1267 | Mt. Bocoble, | 35:6+2-1 Lower
Cudgegong Oligocene
K12 R1676 | Mt. Vernon, | 33-7+2-1 Lower
Ilford Oligocene
K13 R1745 Mt. 41-6+2-6 | Upper
Carcalgong, Eocene
Pyramul

The Gulgong Surface

Specimen K8 was collected from the north
bank of Ford’s Creek, on the eastern side of the
Gulgong-Wellington road, 3-2 miles from the
Gulgong Post Office. Basalt at this point is
portion of the flow which, in places, filled the
valleys of the Main or Gulgong Deep Lead and
its tributaries to depths of 130 feet below the
present general erosion surface.

POTASSIUM-ARGON BASALT DATES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 43

The Hargraves-Yarrabin Block

Specimen K9 was collected from an outcrop
on the western side of the Gulgong-Wellington
road, 0-35 mile north from the Two Mile Creek
crossing, where basalt forms an erosional residual
covering auriferous wash level with the upper
surface of present-day alluvium on the floor of
the valley.

The Rylstone-Ilford Level

Specimen K12 was collected on the eastern
side of the road from Ilford to Running Stream
via Mt. Vernon, at a point six miles from Ilford,
where the basalt is approximately 500 feet
thick. This flow and others in the vicinity of
Mt. Vernon and Cherry Tree Hill rest on a
pedestal of country rock standing 400 to 600
feet above the average surface of the adjacent
surrounding country. The old erosion surface
beneath the basalt exhibits some 200 feet of
topographical relief, and carries auriferous
Tertiary wash (Booker, 1938).

Specimen K13 was collected at the summit of
Mt. Carcalgong from an outcrop 25 feet south-
west of Carcalgong Trig. This occurrence
probably consists of two flows amounting to
about 300 feet of medium to fine-grained basalt
resting upon what appears to be Tertiary
soil overlying country rock.

Specimen K10 was collected from a level
200 feet above the base of coarse-grained basalt,
or fine-grained dolerite, capping Mt. Bocoble
at a point 0-2 mile west of Bocoble Trig. The
erosional residual is about 400 feet thick and
may represent either a flow or sill.

Results and Conclusions

K-Ar age determinations were carried out on
the five selected specimens of basalt by Geochron
Laboratories, Cambridge, U.S.A. Results are
set out in Table 1.

After consideration of K-Ar dates in relation
to mode of occurrence of basalts and topo-
graphical environments in which they occur,
the following conclusions were drawn :

1. The high-level basalt flow residuals, such
as Mt. Carcalgong and Mt. Vernon, set on
pedestals of country rock above the general
surface of the undissected Rylstone-Ilford
Level, are late Eocene to early Oligocene in
age, and very much older than the low-level
“valley basalts’? near Mudgee and Gulgong.

Similar occurrences of high-level basalts
capping isolated pedestals of country rock,
such as Mt. Bodangora on the western side of the

Mudgee-Gulgong Region, and Nulla Mountain
to the east of Rylstone, are almost certainly
of similar history.

The pre-basalt erosion surface on which the
“pedestal basalts ’’ were extruded must have
developed during Eocene time, and the early
stages of its development may even date back
to late Cretaceous.

The “‘ pedestal basalts ’’ would seem to have
been extruded progressively at different times
over a relatively long interval during late
Eocene and early Oligocene, as suggested by
results of Wellman, McElhinny and McDougall
(1969) and McDougall and Wilkinson (1967)
for basalts from the Liverpool and Barrington
Ranges, and other occurrences in eastern New
South Wales.

2. The K-Ar date obtained for the basalt,
or fine-grained dolerite, at Mt. Bocoble suggests
that it originated during the period of time in
which nearby flows at Mt. Vernon and Mt.
Carcalgong were extruded. It rests on country
rock at about the level of the erosion surface
on which the flows occur. If Mt. Bocoble is a
flow, it belongs to the same general flow series
as Mt. Carcalgong and Mt. Vernon. If it isa
sill, it would appear to have been intruded
between the surface of the pre-existing country
rock and the base of earlier flows of the same
series since removed by erosion in the immediate
vicinity.

3. The upper surface of the dissected
Hargraves-Yarrabin Block would appear to be
continuous with, and a western extension of, the
Rylstone-Ilford Level. The dissection of this
block by the Cudgegong and Macquarie River
systems must have taken place during lower
Miocene time, as middle Miocene basalts lie
upon the valley floors.

4. The widespread dominant surface of the
Rylstone-Ilford Level must have developed
during middle and upper Oligocene time, as
remnants of the Eocene surface carry upper
Eocene-lower Oligocene basalts, and the dissec-
tion of the Hargraves-Yarrabin Block occurred
during lower Miocene time.

5. The basalt flows filling deep-lead valleys
on the Gulgong Surface and those lying on
valley floors in the adjoining Hargraves- Yarrabin
Block are essentially the same age. They
average 14:3 m.y.—equivalent to middle
Miocene, and almost certainly belong to the
same flow series.

6. The deep leads of the Gulgong Gold Fields
occurring as auriferous gravel in relatively
narrow entrenched valleys up to 250 feet deep

44 JA. DUEHUNTY

(Jones, 1940) were buried beneath basalt flows
in middle Miocene time. The auriferous gravel
was probably deposited between late-lower and
early-middle Miocene time.

7. The removal of estuarine Permian
sediments from their original basement valleys,
during re-excavation, to form the present valleys
of the Cudgegong River and some of its
tributaries, such as Macdonald Creek and the
Two Mile Creek (Dulhunty and Packham, 1962),
must have been completed almost to its present
stage by middle Miocene time.

Acknowledgements

In conclusion, the writer wishes’ to
-acknowledge the assistance of Associate Professor
‘T. G. Vallance and Dr. E. A. K. Middlemost
an petrological examination of basalts selected
ifor K-Ar dating; helpful discussion with Dr.
W. R. Browne; and also research facilities
provided by the Department of Geology and
Geophysics of the University of Sydney.

References

BooKkER, F. W., 1938. The Cherry Tree Hill Alluvial
Deep Lead. Ann. Rpt. Dept. Mines, N.S.W.,
119.

Dutuunty, J. A., and PackHam, G. H., 1962. Notes
on Permian Sediments in the Mudgee District,
N.S.W. |. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S3Weoe, ol.

DuLuunty, J. A., 1962. Our Permian Heritage in
Central Eastern New South Wales. J. Proc.
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 97, 145.

FUNNELL, B. M., 1964. The Tertiary Period in the
Phanerozoic Time Scale. Q:. J. Geol. Soc. Lond.,
1208S, 179.

Jones, L. J., 1940. The Gulgong Gold Field. Geol.
Sur., Dept. Mines, N.S.W:, “Mino ixess No; 38;
Pett.

McDouaca.Lt, I1., and WILKINSON, J. F. G.,~ 1967.
Potassium-Argon Dates on some Cainozoic Volcanic
Rocks from Northeastern New South Wales.
J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 14, 225.

OFFENBERG, A. C., Rose, D. M., and Packuaw, G. H.,
1968. Dubbo 1: 250,000 Geological Series Sheet
S1 55-4. Geol. Sur., Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Sydney.

PackHamM, G. H., 1969. The Geology of New South
Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 513.

WELLMAN, P., McELuiInny, M. W., and McDouGALt, I.,

1969. On the Polar-Wander Path for Australia
during the Cenozoic. Geophys. J. R. Astr. Soc.,
18, 371.

(Received 24 August 1971)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 45-61, 1971

Magnetic Properties of Rocks from the Giles Complex,
Central Australia

R. A. FACER*
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006

Axspstract—The Giles Complex is a series of coarse-grained layered mafic and ultramafic
intrusions about 1,100 m.y. old. Densities of the samples from the Complex (2:8 gm. cm.~? to
3:3 gm.cm.~%) span the range for rocks of this kindred.

The measured N.R.M. directions were widely scattered, and hence partial A.F.
demagnetization was carried out. Since the magnetic susceptibility anisotropy ellipsoid was,
on the average, triaxial, anisotropy effects on magnetization direction were ignored.

The partial A.F. demagnetization results correlated strongly with other stability tests such
as the Koenigsberger ratio. After these stability tests 479% of the samples were shown to possess
stable magnetization and gave a mean direction of magnetization which is statistically non-random
at the 99% level, and which diverges from the present geomagnetic field direction. The results
established that the Giles Complex was in its present position at the time of acquisition of its
T.R.M. The magnetic properties tended to correlate with the state of exsolution and oxidation of

the iron-titanium oxides.

Assuming the stable T.R.M. direction to correspond to that of a dipole, the position of the
Earth’s North Magnetic Pole 1,100 to 1,000 m.y. before the present, relative to Australia, was

latitude 68° N., longitude 343° E. (semi-axes of the ellipse of 95% confidence :

1. Introduction

The Precambrian Giles Complex is a series
of layered mafic and ultramafic intrusions
extending over an area of at least 25,000 sq. km.
of central Australia (Figure 1 and Nesbitt
et al., 1970). Palaeomagnetic data from the
Precambrian is sparse, and hence the oppor-
tunity was taken to investigate the magnetic
properties of the Giles Complex. In addition
to filling a gap in the history of the geomagnetic
field, it was expected that information could be
added to the study of the structural relationships
(and history) of the Complex. Further facets
of the investigation include study of magnetic
properties of the rocks and certain aspects of
petrological/mineralogical properties. Pre-
liminary studies (Facer, 1967) had indicated
that detailed investigations were warranted.

In general, the Giles Complex intrusions, and
many of the metamorphic rocks into which
they were emplaced, have given rise to inselbergs
-and domed inselbergs which rise out of desert
lowlands to form extensive arid upland regions.
‘Mount Davies, the highest point shown in
Figure 1, is, at 1,068 metres above sea level,
about 500 metres above the lowland plain.
These uplands are part of a series of mountain

| * Present address: Department of Geology, Wol-
|longong University College, Wollongong, N.S.W., 2500.

23° and 29°).

ranges extending in a broadly east-west direction
through central Australia.

Present weathering of rock in the region is
characteristic of arid regions, being mainly
physical breakdown giving rise to boulder-
strewn slopes and uplands, with some talus
slopes (Plate I). However, there is some
chemical weathering, which has emphasized
the strongly-developed mineralogical layering
cf the Giles Complex (Plate I (2)
and (3); and figures 3 and 4 in Nesbitt and
Talbot, 1966). Because of these mainly physical
weathering processes many of the Giles Complex
rocks, especially the mafic portions, have only
a thin weathering rind (at times less than a
millimetre).

In 1963, the Department of Geology and
Mineralogy, University of Adelaide, began the
continuing Giles Project (Nesbitt and Kleeman,
1964). This is concerned mainly with a study
of the “‘ major intrusions of the Giles Complex ””
(Nesbitt and Talbot, 1966, p. 3), although at
present most work is being carried out on the
South Australian intrusive bodies. A similar
programme is being conducted by the Geological
Survey of Western Australia (the ‘‘ Blackstone
Project ’’) on the Western Australian intrusive
bodies (Horwitz and Daniels, 1967: Horwitz:
et al., 1967 ; Daniels, 1967).

46 R. A. FACER

eR
W

BLACKSTONE R13)
Ve =~ y
, > 6

/

£2 ena i

MORGAN R,

a

—_ _—

‘ce 28 00'E a 128°30'E

SURFACE DEPOSITS AND
ISOLATED OUTCROPS

VOLCANICS AND SEDIMENTS
GILES COMPLEX

BASEMENT GRANULITES
ACCESS ae

—_—.

N.T

ae ¥. i EWARARA, 3
A”

— ~KALK
ae an it. -

y§

w.als.a.

129°00'E

Fic. 1.—Simplified geological map of the part of the Giles Complex sampled, based on fig. 1 of Nesbitt and Talbot

(1966) and on field observations. “ R”’
indicates the number of oriented samples taken.

is an abbreviation of ““ Range’’ and the number following the name
The outcrops of the Giles Complex extend both to the east and

to the west of the area shown here.

2. Geological Setting

The mafic and ultramafic rocks now known as
the Giles Complex were first recorded by Streich
(1893) and later by Basedow (1905). The area
forms part of the Musgrave Block, and was
briefly discussed in a regional interpretation
of this Block by Sprigg and Wilson (1959),
who considered the separate portions of the
Complex to be parts of “a once continuous
basic and ultrabasic (?) lopolith”’ (p. 536).
Later work has modified this idea (Nesbitt
et al., 1970), the Complex now being considered
as a series of separate, although related,
intrusions.

2.1. Regional Geology

The only rocks from the area of Figure 1 for
which radiometrically-determined ages have
been published are the volcanics from Tollu.

These volcanics have been dated at 1,060+140
m.y. (95% certainty limit) by Compston and
Nesbitt (1967). South Australia Geological
Survey geological map sheets for the area of
Figure 1 show that apart from the intrusions
no rocks were mapped with ages between
Archaean and Tertiary. The Giles Complex
and dolerite dykes were not dated on these
maps. However, Nesbitt e¢ al. (1970) considered
the metamorphic terrane into which the Giles
Complex has been emplaced to have an age of
between 1,300 and 1,600 m.y. If this is the
case, then the ages should be given as Pro-
terozoic (Middle Proterozoic or Carpentarian)
on the time-scale proposed by Dunn ef al.
(1966). Similarly, if the Giles Complex is
related to the Tollu Volcanics (Nesbitt, 1966),
then it too is Proterozoic (Upper Proterozoic
or Adelaidean). In Figure 1 the lower three
units of the legend may thus be considered

47

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS FROM GILES COMPLEX

‘98G— UOlVUI[OUL pue “AY op UOTeUT[ep :¢-9961 YOodY je vere UOTZdeT[OO

94} JO} pjey ojouseur s,yzIVe OY} JO UOT}OOIIP oY} sozvoIpur srenbs pros ayy, ‘(e1oydstwiay 9Moy ‘passaAeyq)
suor}eUr[oUT aAr}Isod sossoio pue (oroydsturoy oddn oy} 0} uo poqo]d ‘teu10N) suoreurpour oatyeSau oyvorput so]

‘TeyUOZIIOY 0} SuLIOART oY} Sur}VeIOI 4azfp suOT}OeIICG (q)

‘[e}UOZIIOY 0} SUTIOALT OY} SUT}Ze}OI a40f/aq suOT}OIICE (Vv)
"(q) yzed ur poz07d 0q jou
P[ttos Asy} souls po}}1UIO Use GALY I[QeANSvaUT SLM SULIOAL] SNOOUSI OU YOIYM 7v So}IS MOF OY} JO pure soxAp a} LI0[Op
oy} JO suOoToIIp oY, ‘UoTefo1d o[suv-jenba orydeis0eI0}s & UO pozjofd ‘UOT}ezI}OUSeW “WYN JO suoroIIC

‘G “DIY AO NOILVNV1dX 7

Fic. 2.

48 R. A. FACER

Proterozoic. In the Western Australian portion
of the area a similar situation obtains, although
some rocks may extend in age to the Palaeozoic
(Horwitz, 1967).

When visible, contacts of the Giles Complex
with the metamorphic terrane are sharp.
Tectonism had caused considerable deformation

1:0 Jn®370.x10 emufem®

0:5

0 200

oe

prior to intrusion, but post-intrusion tectonic
processes appear to have been limited to broad
warping with rotation of “ blocks’’, some of
which are separated by shear zones up to half a
kilometre in width and tens of kilometres in
length. Despite these latter deformations, there
has only been “granulation’’ or recrystal-

RN

800

e

Fic. 3.—Partial A.F. demagnetization behaviour of the stable sample GCNF3B, with respect to variation in

direction of, and intensity of, magnetization.

The direction variations are relative to the sample orientation,

and the intensity after each ‘‘ A.F. step ’’ has been normalized (to the N.R.M. intensity, which is shown). Direction

symbols are as in Figure 2.

The fuller results are for specimen 1C, and the abbreviated results are for the check

specimen 4A.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS FROM GILES COMPLEX 49

lization, without any appreciable formation of gabbro and serpentinite. As well, there are
mew minerals, in the Giles Complex rocks. olivine gabbros, troctolites, picrites and (olivine)

Mafic and ultramafic intrusive rocks of the pyroxenites (both clino- and ortho- varieties).
Giles Complex are mainly layered rocks, the The main characteristics of the separate isolated
main rock types being anorthosite, norite, masses were summarized in Nesbitt and Talbot

\ 1-61
R,N
O/
rOR Jn
ho oN
(oe) —
Jn
0-5
(o)
(e)
-4 3
Ja 2o x40 emu/cm
(e)
0) 200 800

Cad

Hp, oe
Fic. 4.—Partial A.F. demagnetization behaviour of the unstable samples GCNBI1IA and GCNB12A (B12A
symbols circled), with respect to variations in direction of, and intensity of, magnetization. Symbols as in

Figure 2, and explanation as in Figure 3. The fuller results are for specimens B11A4A and B12A1B, and the
abbreviated results are for the check specimens BIIA5A and B12A2A.

R. A. FACER
T™N

50

ay} pue ‘sjoquiAs [TV
UOTJIOIIP URS SIG,

al

‘9P+=1 “L6IO=C ‘Voroenp uve (4)

sS9+ =I “L 0S8=C ‘orp uve (v)

*Z oInSIq Ul se oie ‘oINSy oy} JO ,, UOISIATP ,,
‘uotjoertp-ueutoeds uveut pue -o[dures uevow TeTIWIsS oY} JO a8eroAe oy} se poqord st
UOTPIOIIP P[Ey oryouseUloss) 9Y} FO FEU} OF ajtsoddo ‘a't) sroydstutoy 4amo] 94} 0} WO sjo[d #1

—sso1o poposro e Aq UMOYS SI UOTPOeIIP UPOUT OY ‘uoTyezToUseUlop “JV Telyred Joze uoryeztjyouseUI FO SUOTPIOTI
"¢ ‘OI dO NOILVNV1dxX J

Fic. 5.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS FROM GILES COMPLEX BI

(1966, table 1, p. 4). Nesbitt and Talbot (1966)
noted that basic rocks make up approximately
90% of the Complex, and these have undergone
least weathering.

The very noticeable development of layering
in several of the intrusive bodies is on several
scales. Large-scale mineralogical layering is
very evident in the field (Plate I (2) and (3)).
On the smaller scale (order of a few centimetres),
layering is developed which shows distinct
“sedimentary ’’ structures such as_ graded
bedding, cut and fill structures, ripple marks
and slump structures. Nesbitt and Talbot
(1966, p. 7) summarized the various types of
layering thus: ‘“‘ The types of layering occurring
in the Giles Complex include cryptic, rhythmic,
phase and... igneous lamination.”

Conflicting evidence exists concerning the
depth of intrusion of the Giles Complex. Unfor-
tunately only a few contacts are visible, but these
generally indicate only slight metamorphic
effects. Nesbitt (1966, p. 274) suggested a
“shallow surface origin’’. However, Goode
and Krieg (1967) noted an aureole around
Ewarara which is “ physically visible over a
width of the order of metres”’ (p. 187), and
suggested a relatively deep intrusion. Moore
(1968, p. 235) discussed his observation of rutile
exsolution in orthopyroxene from Gosse Pile,
and also suggested crystallization at depth.

2.2. Densities of the Giles Complex Rocks

The densities of the samples collected in this
present investigation range from near 2°8
gm. cm.~* to 3-3 gm. cm.~’, which almost com-
pletely spans the range of densities for basic and
ultrabasic intrusive rocks given in Birch e¢ al.
(1942, p. 14).

This density range contrasts noticeably with
the metamorphic terrane, and this has facilitated
gravity studies of the contacts. Steele (1966)
discussed results of gravity surveys across
Mount Davies and Gosse Pile. The Geological
Survey of South Australia has used gravity
techniques as an aid to geological studies in the
area.

3. Rock Magnetic Study

Rock magnetic study is here considered as a
general concept covering palaeomagnetic and
complementary studies, such as petrology (and
mineralogy) of whole rocks. In a recent review
article Wilson (1966) summarized advances in
palaeomagnetism and rock magnetism, and this
complementary nature of magnetic and petro-
logical studies of rocks was used in this
investigation.

Considerable data are _ presently being
assembled on the possibility of correlation
between the magnetic properties and the
mineralogy and petrology of basalts. That
it is still only a “ possibility of correlation ’’ is
made evident by the still active discussion in
the literature by those who have found correla-
tion and those whose results are in less accord.

Further work on basalts and, perhaps even
more importantly, other igneous rock types, is
necessary. The correlations observed to date
are far from conclusive, and further evidence
may in fact show that there is no definite
correlation. There are as yet few results from
non-extrusive ‘“basaltic’’ rocks, although
recently Watkins and Haggerty (1968) studied
some Icelandic dykes as well as basalts. An
extension of such studies to other intrusive
rocks such as the Giles Complex could therefore
contribute significantly to a solution of this
problem.

4. Field and Laboratory Preparation
4.1 Field Procedures

Information gained during the preliminary
study (Facer, 1967) enabled a programme of
sampling to be formulated, although minor
modifications were made in the field. Where
possible, sampling traverses were planned to be
perpendicular to the strike of the layering of
the Complex. Surface exposure was known to
be good, although man-made exposures were
negligible. Sampling procedures generally con-
sisted of traversing on foot (although in a few
cases four-wheel drive vehicle access was
possible) to collect oriented samples. Lack of
water prevented field-drilling.

Oriented samples were removed from outcrop
after at least one face had been oriented. Since
the Giles Complex rocks generally exhibit
visible layering, the orientation of this layering
was also noted at each sampling site—or in the
case of a dyke sample, the orientation of the
dyke was determined. Orientation was effected
using a clinometer and a magnetic compass.
The influence of the outcrop on the compass
was estimated by a simple comparison of the
declination of a line (e.g. layering) at the outcrop
with its declination one to two metres from
the outcrop. If the “line ’’ measured was the
layering, a further check could be made using
aerial photographs and/or geological maps, if
available. At the few “ disturbed”’ sites an
auxiliary method of orientation by sighting to
distant objects beyond the zone of magnetic
influence was used. The topography and the
general lithology were noted in an attempt to

52 Ro A. RACER

avoid sites of lightning strokes and/or very rich
magnetite concentrations.

The sampling information is summarized in
Table 1 and Figure 1. Time limitations restricted
the number of samples that could be collected
from a site, hence many sites were represented
by one sample only.

TABLE 1
Summary of Sampling

Number Number
Range Name of of

Sites Samples
Ewarara sie se ov, 2 3
Mount Davies Y bee 28 37
Kalka .. ar Sh be 11 14
Hinckley Range a + 6
Blackstone Range - 3 3
Cavenagh Range oe 5 3 5
Michael Hills .. 53 2 5
Gosse Pile 9 13
Bell Rock Range 1 1

This table summarizes the sampling activity, and
indicates the distribution of material collected for
magnetic investigation.

The localities of these sampled intrusions are shown
in Figure 1. The Morgan and Murray Ranges were
visited, but outcrops were not found to be suitable for
taking oriented samples.

The Bell Rock Range sample was collected by
Dr. R. W. Nesbitt. Five hundred and forty specimens
were prepared from the samples, being as evenly
distributed as the sample shapes and sizes permitted.

At some sites dykes were sampled to provide
control in the study of the reheating effects
of the dykes. Samples of the dyke rock, the
host rock at or very close to the contact, and the
host rock a few metres from the dyke were
collected.

4.2. Laboratory Preparation

Laboratory preparation procedures varied
little from those in common use. Diamond-
impregnated phosphor-bronze cutting tools were
used throughout all stages in the preparation
of the cylindrical specimens from the samples.
Density determinations and thin and polished
section studies have also been carried out for
all samples.

Polished section studies of opaque oxides in
whole rocks is a very important aspect of rock
magnetic studies, as it provides a good indication
of the carrier of the magnetism. Results of
this study have been summarized in Facer
(19710).

5. Results
5.1. N.R.M. Measurements

All specimens were measured on an astatic
magnetometer constructed by Kazmi (1960)
and briefly mentioned by Manwaring (1963).
The measurement procedures were those
described by Kazmi (1960) and Manwaring
(1960). Directions of magnetization could not
be adequately measured when the intensity of
magnetization was below about 10-° e.m.u. cm.-?

In addition to correcting for sample orienta-
tion, directions of magnetizations were adjusted
for layering orientation because layering was
the only common reference horizon within the
Giles Complex. These direction changes were
effected by construction using a stereographic
equal-angle projection (“‘ Wulff net’’), or by
using the computer programme DIRNCHANGE.
written for this investigation.

Figure 2 shows the N.R.M. directions (north-
seeking) both before rotating the layering to
horizontal and after. Not all samples (especially

TABLE 2
Fisher Analysis of N.R.M. Directions

Number Declination Inclination
Group of Units, R of of Ags k
N R R
N.R.M. before 75 10-48 012° T — 52° 42° 1-15
N.R.M. after 75 4°77 236° T — 60° 67° 1-05
N.R.M. before: N.R.M. directions before rotation of the layering to horizontal.
N.R.M. after: N.R.M. directions with the layering horizontal.

N indicates a unit weight of a sample, including five samples which possessed two different directions.
R is the resultant vector, its direction representing the mean direction of the group.
gy, is the half-angle of the cone of 95% confidence.

k is Fisher’s estimate of precision.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS FROM GILES COMPLEX 53

of the pyroxenites) possessed measurable direc-
tions. The distribution of directions in Figure 2
was assessed using the computer programme
PALMAGFISHERANAL., based on Fisher’s
(1953) method. Table 2 contains the results of
this analysis.

-Fisher’s (1953) & and o,, indicate that little
significance can be attached to the mean
direction of the N.R.M.’s. In addition, the
length of R indicates a random distribution of
directions at the 95% level according to Watson’s
(1956) criterion. Watson’s (1956, p. 161)
approximation gives a value for Ry of 13-94
for N=75, which is well above the values of R
in Table 2. However, the slight decrease in
precision following adjustment of the layering
could indicate that at least some of the N.R.M.
was acquired with the layering in its present
position.

It is quite possible that the N.R.M. includes
a significant secondary component, perhaps
directed along the Recent or present Geo-
magnetic field. At D=004°T., 2=—58° for
epoch 1966-5 the present field is rather close
to the mean direction before rotation of layering,
a good indication of secondary magnetization.

The N.R.M. directions of the dolerite dyke
samples were too scattered for Fisher analysis,
and did not show any direct relationship with
dyke orientation. Nor is there any marked
indication of significant dyke contact effects.
These effects are probably restricted because
of the narrow dyke widths (30 to 50 cm.).

Since the N.R.M. results appear to be of
limited value for palaeomagnetic considerations,
a variety of “ stability tests ’’ have been carried
out.

5.2. Stability Tests and Their Results

It would be unusual if rocks of such age as
the Giles Complex, collected at the surface,
did not require some study to detect unwanted,
perturbing magnetizations, and an attempt to
remove these secondary magnetizations.

As a preliminary check on the stability of
magnetization, shelf-tests were carried out on all
samples. Apart from keeping all cylinder axes
parallel and horizontal, storage of the specimens
wasrandom. They were measured over a period
of up to two years, there being only small
variations in N.R.M. intensity and direction.
These variations were difficult to detect because
of intra-sample scatter, but were more noticeable
in samples cf lower magnetic intensity. A
check was made on inclinations as measured on

the magnetometer. This showed that slightly

more samples than would be expected had an
inclination close to that of the present Geo-
magnetic field at Sydney, and thus appear to
have acquired a small V.R.M. component in the
laboratory. Many of these samples also have a
low value of the Koenigsberger ratio.

A slightly better estimate of N.R.M. stability
than the shelf-test is that afforded by the
Koenigsberger ratio “ QO”:

he
Ce :
where J, is the N.R.M. intensity and x the
magnetic susceptibility of the specimen
measured, and fF is the total intensity of the
magnetic field. A similar ratio is that termed
the “proportional Q value’”’ by Zijderveld
(1968, p. 3775) (here designated “QN”’ to
avoid confusion with “ Q”’’):

le
eee: +],

where the symbols are as for Q. Using a simple
computer programme, both Q and ON were
computed for all samples for which J, was not
less than 0-15x10-4e.m.u.cm.-? As would
be expected in such a widespread sample
population, both Q and QN show considerable
variation. About 30% of the samples have
Q-values less than unity and QN-values less
than 0-5 (or 50%), this latter having been a
minimum value indicative of stability in
Zijderveld’s (1968) study of Antarctic intrusions.
Some samples have Q-values in excess of 100,
and QN-values of up to 0-99 (99%). These
indicate a high degree of stability.

Since many samples appeared to possess
secondary magnetizations, the more rigorous
stability test of partial demagnetization was
employed. Partial A.F. demagnetization was
used in this investigation, the instrumentation
being that constructed by Chan (1963). Pilot
specimens from each sample with J, of not
less than 0-4x10-4e.m.u.cm.-? (46 samples)
were partially demagnetized at various close
steps, the maximum peak demagnetization
field used being slightly in excess of 1,000
oersted.

The variation in intensity during A.F.
demagnetization was graphed as normalized
ratio J;,,/J, versus peak demagnetization field
H,, and the variation in direction was plotted
on an equal-angle projection.

On the basis of intensity and direction changes
separate estimates were made of the A.F. peak
field most likely to indicate the T.R.M. direction.
These two estimates, based on change of slope
of the graph towards parallelism with the

54 RAS DAC

abscissa, a method considered by Creer and
Valencio (1970), and on minimum direction
change, showed good agreement. The necessary
peak field to remove unstable components
was generally 100 to 200 oersted.

A second set of specimens was then partially
demagnetized at these selected fields. Figures
3 and 4 contain examples of stable and unstable
demagnetization characteristics respectively.

The directions of magnetization after partial
A.F. demagnetization of the samples for which
stable magnetization directions were indicated
have been plotted in Figure 5.

The values of Q and QN were compared with
the partial A.F. demagnetization _ results.
Arbitrary groupings of Q and QW indicative of
stability were chosen, those for QN being chosen
to provide a comparison with Zijderveld’s (1968)

observations. These results are summarized
in Table 3.

TABLE 3
Comparison of Koenigsbergeyr and “‘ Proportional

Koentgsberger’’ Ratios with Partial A.F. Demagnetiza-
tion Results

Percentage Percentage
of Samples of Samples
Range With Without
Stable Stable
Directions Directions
(49 Samples) (89 Samples)
QO<0-50 12 54 \ 99
0-50<Q0<1:00 + 26 f
1-00 0=95-00 21 34 13
Q>5-00 63 f 7
ON <0-50 14 80
0-50<QN<0-75 79 ¥ 86 10
QON>0-75 72 10
Notes :

Q and QW are the Koenigsberger ratio and the
“proportional Q value ’’ respectively.

One sample (GCNB6A) incorporated two rock types
and so appears twice in this table.

It can be seen. that there is very good
agreement between indications of stability given
by Q and QW as compared with partial A.F.
demagnetization results. Of those samples for
which apparently stable directions (A.F.) were
found about 85% have Q-values and QN-values
which indicated stability. The remaining 15%
of samples have been omitted from subsequent
palaeomagnetic analysis. Similarly, of those
samples for which no directions could be listed
following partial A.F. demagnetization, only
20% have Q- and QN-values which would

otherwise suggest stability. In the former
group several excluded samples showed slightly
more weathering than normally acceptable in
magnetic studies. In the latter group several
samples in the 20% fraction were from sites
whose topographic position could expose the
outcrop to lightning strokes.

Very extensive Fisher analysis was carried
out on the stable sample directions after partial
A.F. demagnetization. Analyses assigning unit
weight to specimens were also carried out.
The results of the Fisher analysis of the entire
population are shown in Table 4, in which six
Giles Complex sample directions have been
adjusted for probable reversals. Various
combinations of groups (e.g. intrusive bodies)
were also analysed for comparative studies.

The mean direction fer the dolerite dykes is
significant (Watson’s, 1956, 95% level), using
specimen unit weight, although barely so using
sample units. It is probable, therefore, that
this mean direction represents the Geomagnetic
field direction at the time of the intrusion of
these dolerite dykes, the spread perhaps
reflecting shght time-intervals between intrusion
of the separate dykes.

Means for the Giles Complex in Table 4, apart

from sample units “after rotation’’, have
values of R which indicate that “the null
hypothesis of randomness’”’ (Watson, 1956,

p. 161) can be rejected at the 959% and 999%
levels. The specimen unit weight means show
tighter grouping than the sample unit means,
although the directions are not dissimilar.

As a guide to the efficacy of the rotation of
the layering to horizontal, comparisons were
made of the Fisher parameters FR, a; and k
of those groups for which mean directions before
and after rotation could be computed. If
R and k increased and a, decreased after
rotation, it was considered that Graham’s
fold-test was at least potentially significant—
and vice versa. In most cases these parameters
indicated an increase in scatter, and hence a
rejection of the fold-test. Of the eight pairs
which showed a slight reduction in scatter,
not one pair could be considered to show
significant reduction at the 95% level using the
values given by McElhinny (1964). Graham’s
fold-test can therefore be rejected for rotation
of the layering to a horizontal position.

Geographic groupings within the population
(cf. Table 5) show good agreement between the
South Australian and the Western Australian
groups before rotation of the layering, this
agreement being much reduced by rotation.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS FROM GILES COMPLEX 55

The computed means for which Watson’s
(1956) chi-squared test indicated non-randomness
were used to calculate palaeo-pole positions.
Because of their greater precision, specimen unit
means were used to provide a basis for pole
determination. The calculation of the position
of the virtual palaeo-pole was facilitated by the
computer programme %S.PALPOLECALC.
Table 5 contains a summary of the South
palaeo-pole positions computed from mean
directions of magnetization before rotation of
the layering to horizontal.

anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility might
reveal a magnetic foliation which could be
related to either this primary layering or to
that subsequently impressed on the rocks by
tectonism. Such measurements were carried
out at the Australian National University
(with the kind permission of Professor J. C.
Jaeger) on an instrument similar to that
described by Granar (1958). The measurement
procedure has been described by King and Rees
(1962).

TABLE 4
Fisher Analysis of the Dolerite Dykes and the Entive Population

Number | Declina-
Group Unit of tion of
Units R

Dolerites Sample 3 003° T.

Dolerites Specimen 5 009° T.
Giles Complex,

before =.=] Sample 39 346° T.
Giles Complex,

after .. | Sample 39 OOTe at:
Giles Complex,

before . | Specimen 68 343° T.
Giles Complex,

after Specimen 68 005° T.

The Group indicates that part of the population which was used in the analysis.
The Giles Complex directions have been analysed both before

one sample (GCNB6A) because it is weathered.
and after rotation of the layering to horizontal.

Inclina-

tion of R hos Rk Ro
R
+78° 2°51 71° 4-08 (257)
+ 83° 4-03 43° 4-33 4-02
+61° 15-6 29° 1-63 13-27
+15° 11-8 36° 1-39 (10-04)
+ 62° 30:8 19° 1-80 15-89
+21° 20-6 26° 1-4] 15-89

The dolerite group excludes

R, is Watson’s (1956) minimum value of FR for rejection of the null hypothesis of randomness at the 99%

level (and the 95% level).
Other symbols are as in Table 2.

5.3. Magnetic Susceptibility Studies

The magnetic susceptibility of each sample
was measured using a commercial magnetic
susceptibility bridge.

The wide range of magnetic susceptibility
shown by the sample population reflects the
variation in rock type. In general, suscepti-
bilities show greater consistency within any
rock type than do N.R.M. intensities—an
indication of secondary magnetizations. The
magnetic susceptibilities of some pyroxenites
overlap the range of susceptibilities for pyroxenes
summarized in Vernon (1961). Some rocks of
gabbroic composition also possess magnetic
susceptibilities of similar magnitude, reflecting
the low opaque iron(-titanium)-oxide content
of much of the Giles Complex. Except for
sample GCND1B (from the Hinckley Range)
the magnetic susceptibilities of the dolerite
dyke samples are considerably higher than those
of the Giles Complex host rocks.

Because the Giles Complex bodies are layered,
it was thought that measurements of the

Distribution of the three axes of the magnetic
susceptibility ellipsoid were investigated by
Fisher analysis. This analysis was carried out
using all measured specimens, apart from the
dolerites and those Giles Complex rocks for
which it was not possible to adjust for layering
orientation. Results were non-random at the
95°% level (Watson, 1956).

The directions of maximum and minimum
magnetic susceptibility are the more tightly
clustered. As Girdler (1961) and Khan (1962)
found, the mean maximum principal direction
lies along the strike of the layering and the mean
intermediate principal direction is approximately
at right angles to this. However, the mean
minimum susceptibility is not near-vertical.
This discrepancy is not likely to be a specimen
Shape effect, even though the specimens had
not been prepared for these anisotropy studies
and therefore did not have Porath et al.’s
(1966) Z/d ratio of 0-85.

The discrepancy may have arisen out of the
influence of “‘ secondary fabrics ’’ (Stacey e¢ al.,

56 RA. BAGER

1960, p. 40), impressed on the initial layering
fabric by mild tectonic deformation. However,
since it is possible that specimen shape, instru-
mental or data reduction effects are significant,
this matter is receiving attention.

TABLE 5
Position of the South Palaeo- Pole

Longi- Lati-
Group tude tude & )
oF, oS, Dp m

Mount Davies 242 58 29 54
Kalka : 133 27 Very large
Blackstone

Range ea 138 57 35 39
Cavenagh Range; 192 71 9 14
South Australia 153 58 44 52
Western Aust-

ralia a 171 70 12 16
Ewarara,

Kalka and 118 24 53 53

Gosse Pile )
Ewarara, 4

Kalka |

Hinckley } 108 33 50 52

Range and |

Gosse Pile J
Dolerites 126 40 Very large
BM) i: Ss 163 68 23 29

The group indicates that part of the population
which was used in the computation—the dolerites
were not included in “ All’’, the entire population.

dp and §,, are the semi-axes of the elliptical error
area around the pole (95% probability level).

The value for Mount Davies is included here for
comparative purposes only, since the mean direction of
magnetization cannot be considered non-random on
Watson’s (1956) criterion.

With this reservation, it was noted that of
the 35 samples measured for magnetic suscepti-
bility anisotropy nine are prolate, 14 triaxial
and 12 oblate using Khan’s (1962, p. 2879)
convention. Khan (1962, p. 2882) found a
similar variation in “‘ oblateness”’ in the six
gabbro samples that he studied. Girdler (1961)
did not give “oblateness’’ values for the
Skaergaard samples which he _ studied.
However, a rough mean value (O=2-4) can be
calculated using his mean values of magnetic
susceptibility (Girdler, 1961, p. 200). This
value is above the mean value (1:7) of the
‘“oblateness”’ for the Giles Complex rocks
(excluding sample GCNB25A, which had been
strongly crushed by a shear zone). Because the
magnetic susceptibility ellipsoid is triaxial, the
direction of magnetization was not adjusted
for possible anisotropy effects.

6. Discussion
6.1. Stability and Acquisition of the T.R.M.

The agreement of the Koenigsberger ratio,
Q, and the proportional Q-value, QN, with
their partial A.F. demagnetization character-
istics, shows that about 47° of the samples
are stable. This percentage is not too low,
since many of the samples are pyroxenites
containing negligible primary iron-titanium
oxides and hence are of little value for magnetic
studies. Additionally, since the Giles Complex
is Precambrian in age, it is likely that some of
the rocks have had their original T.R.M.
destroyed. For example, Zijderveld (1968)
found 31% of the 500 m.y.-old samples that he
studied possessed stable T.R.M.’s.

The stability mdex, S:1., of Tatiite and
Symons (1967, p. 446) was determined for
several samples to check other stability tests.
For example, the partial A.F. demagnetization
results for samples GCNF3B and GCNB11A and
GCNB12A (Figures 3 and 4) were used to
determine the S.I. for each possible sequence
of demagnetization steps. The computer
programme PALMAGFISHERANAL. was used
for these determinations. Samples GCNB11A
and GCNB12A did not give any values of S.I.
above 0-5, and therefore possessed unstable
remanence using the criterion of Tarling and
Symons (1967). Of all possible sets of steps
for sample GCNF38B, only one (incorporating
N.R.M. directions) indicated instability. The
most stable set (after the 100, 200 and 300
oersted steps) gave a stable S.I. of 3-8. This
range of steps fits in with the fields considered
most useful in this investigation, and also found
to give the best indication of stable directions
in the preliminary investigation (Facer, 1967).
There is thus good agreement between the results
of Figures 3 and 4 and S.I. values.

The mean direction of magnetization is
divergent from that of the present Earth’s
field at the sampling region, the mean direction
of magnetization (based on specimen unit mean)
being D=343°T., I=-+62°, and the present
Geomagnetic direction D=004°T., J=—58° (for
epoch 1966-5). The angular difference between
these directions is 121° (they are in opposite
hemispheres). This large divergence suggests
that the mean direction is that of a stable
magnetization (following Strangway, 1967,
p. 209). Also, another test proposed by
Strangway (1967, p. 210)—called by him
Separation of sampling sites—depends on a wide
areal distribution of sample sites. In this
investigation the non-random mean direction
of apparently stable magnetization of the

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS FROM GILES COMPLEX 57

population represents samples distributed over
an area of 8,000sq.km., and this indicates
stable magnetization in the Giles Complex.

Of the six sites which were rejected on the
basis of their A.F. demagnetization character-
istics, but which would have been accepted on
the basis of their Q- and QN-values, four could
be sites of lightning strokes. Strangway (1967)
noted that high Q-values could indicate lightning
re-magnetization. However, since many stable
samples (e.g., those from the Cavenagh Range)
have very high Q-values, it seems that A.F.
demagnetization properties (rapid decrease in
magnetic intensity) give better indications of
lightning stroke re-magnetization.

Fisher analysis of the entire population
(Table 4) and of various groups within the
population showed that a more precisely defined
mean direction is achieved by assigning unit
weight to specimens rather than to samples.
Little difference exists between samples and
sites as units since, by coincidence, most of the
multi-sample sites were rejected following partial
A.F. demagnetization. This disagrees with
previously reported observations (Roy, 1966),
and is possibly due to the scatter of directions,
which requires a greater number of units to
increase population density. Such a possibility
is also suggested since Fisher analysis using
igneous bodies as units showed negligible sig-
nificance. This is why the specimen unit mean
direction (for the entire population) was used
as a basis for the calculation of the palaeo-pole
position.

It is possible that the mean direction of
magnetization just referred to is that of a
moderate temperature V.R.M., which would be
expected to be stable (Irving, 1964, pp. 33-34).
This would fit with Storetvedt’s (1968) opinion
that remagnetization by V.R.M. is more
important than T.R.M., which it can replace.
However, for the Giles Complex it is more likely
that the stable magnetization is a T.R.M.,
since it does not agree with the present Geo-
magnetic field direction for Australia as would
be expected if magnetization was caused by
viscous build-up. Another alternative to T.R.M.
isC.R.M. Apart from minor weathering effects,
however, no evidence of chemical alteration of
opaque grains was observed in the rocks post-
dating the high-temperature oxidation. The
stable magnetization of the Giles Complex is
thus considered to be a T.R.M.

6.2. Correlation of Petrology|Mineralogy with
Magnetic Properties

Correlation of petrology and mineralogy with

magnetic properties is not as good as has been
observed by others (e.g. Wilson and Watkins,
1967). Using the “ magnetite oxidation number,
M ” of Ade-Hall e¢ al. (1968, p. 377), the state of
oxidation of the iron-titanium oxides was
considered in this study as “high” if M was
two or larger, and “ low” if M was below two.
M was compared with the partial A.F. demag-
netization results, considering sites as units
rather than samples to avoid possible bias of
multi-sample sites. Some sites were omitted
since no definite indication of stability was
given. There is a tendency for stable sites
to correspond to high values of M. Of 34 stable
sites, 19 have high M values, and similarly, of
22 unstable sites 12 have low M values. Of the
18 stable sites with a “Normal” sense of
magnetization direction (using Irving’s (1964)
convention), 11 have low values of M and of 16
stable “‘ Reversed ”’ sites, 11 have high values
of M. Although these correlations are not
strong, they do agree with previous studies of
Wilson and Watkins (1967) and Wilson e¢ al.
(1968). In this investigation no obvious cor-
relation was apparent between magnetic para-
meters and the weathering of the silicate
minerals. Obviously, much more work on
coarse-grained mafic intrusive rocks is necessary,
but there is at least an indication of some
correlation of petrology with magnetic properties
similar to that observed for fine-grained mafic
extrusive rocks.

6.3. Structural Implications

Implications concerning the time of acquisition
of magnetization of the Giles Complex have
been summarized (Facer, 1971la). The pre-
liminary results (Facer, 1967) had indicated
slightly better grouping after rotation of the
layering to horizontal. However, since only
seven samples of the preliminary study possessed
stable magnetization, this small population
apparently gave misleading results.

Although no heating experiments were carried
out, the generally low titanium content of the
rocks suggests that the Curie temperature is
probably in excess of 300°C. Nesbitt (1966,
table 1) gave the average Mount Davies TiO,
content as 0-18%, and the titanomagnetite
grains do not show a high TiO, content. Since
the Giles Complex was apparently intruded at
depth (Goode and Krieg, 1967 ; Moore, 1968),
and the gravitational layering would probably
have been approximately horizontal, it is likely
that tilting and uplift occurred soon after
intrusion and consolidation, but before final
cooling of the bodies. The Tollu Volcanics

58 RA PACER

of Western Australia are thought to be related
to the Giles Complex (Nesbitt, 1966), and they
may have found their way to the surface during
this period of uplift.

The post-tilting acquisition of magnetization
prevents any conclusions being drawn about the
relationships between the igneous bodies. It
can be seen that, since the overall mean direction
of magnetization for all Giles Complex bodies
(excluding the unstable samples from Michael
Hills) is non-random (Table 4), all Giles Complex
intrusions were probably emplaced and uplifted
at about the same. time, Ihe scatter (in
directions could indicate a time lag of several
million years in cooling across the Complex as
a whole.

6.4. Aspects of Australian Precambrian

Palaeomagnetism

Reheating of the intrusions following T.R.M.
acquisition would probably affect both isotopic
dating and palaeomagnetic observations in a
similar manner. The palaeomagnetic directions
thus indicate the direction of the Geomagnetic
field at the time indicated by the radiometric
dating techniques. Compston and Nesbitt (1967)
dated the Tollu Volcanics of Western Australia
at 1,060--140 m.y. Since Nesbitt (1966) noted
that these are probably related to the Giles
Complex, its age is about 1,100 to 1,000 m.y.

Assuming that the stable T.R.M. was acquired
in an axial dipole field, the position of the
South magnetic pole at the time of cooling of

TABLE 6
Australian Precambrian Palaeomagnetically-determined Pole Positions

Pole Position (2) (3)

Rock Unit Age (1)
Latitude
er
Edith River volcanics Lower P,, 6
Nullagine lavas ian 5]
Buldiva quartzite Toprol le 30
Lower Marinoan sand- | Adelaidean 49
stones
Upper Marinoan sand- mH 74
stones
Iron Monarch I.F. <1,800 m.y. 15
” a9 ” a» 64
iron Prince iF. BA Ps 39
Widgiemooltha dykes 2420+30 m.y. 8
Mt. Goldsworthy lode | Pre-P uge
ore Gl
Mt. Gecldsworthy lode - 304
ore G3
Mt. Goldsworthy crust | Younger than 214
ore G2 lode ore
Mt. Goldsworthy B.I.F. | Pre-P —
Dowd’s Hill ore body, 43
Koolyanobbing
Mt. Tom Price ore body | 2100 m.y. (?) 22
Mt. Newman ore body : 59 LE 7,
Giles Complex ~1100 m.y. 68

Notes :

(1) The age is that given in the reference noted, standard stratigraphic symbols being used here.
this age has not been checked with more recent data.

a”

© Bees

References
Longitude dp dm

°E. (95)

014 15 24 Irving and Green (1958),
p- 66

342 10 13 3 3 a

239 8 14 Fe - ‘

149 — Briden (1967), p. 18 (see
note 4)

178 ay ” a9 ”

272 (12) Chamalaun and _ Porath
(1968), p. 455

267 (9) ” ” »

247 (95) ” 9 5

337 1g 9 Evans (1968), p. 3269

084 (6) Porath and Chamalaun
(1968), p. 256

3293 (123) » ” m

259 (19) 3 a Pa

356 (83) Porath and Chamalaun
(1968), p. 257

057 (12) Porath and Chamalaun
(1968), p. 261

066 (93) i i” ”

343 23 29 This study

As much as possible the list is in order of publication.

In general,
In the case of the iron formations (“‘I.F.’’) the

were determined from palaeomagnetic results (Porath, 1967).

(2) In all but the results of Irving and Green (1958) and Briden’s (1967) Lower Marinoan results, partial
demagnetization (with or without various additional tests) has been used to establish stability of

remanence.

(3) 8p and $m are the radii of the ellipse of 95% confidence (Irving, 1964, pp. 69-70), and a, is the radius of

the circle of 95% confidence.

(4) The pole positions were taken from McElhinny (1968) since Briden (1967) gave mean remanence directions
only. The Lower Marinoan results are for natural remanence directions.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS FROM GILES COMPLEX 59

the Giles Complex was latitude 68° S., longitude
163° E. This is the pole calculated using the
overall population, and agrees with the pole
corresponding to the South Australian and
Western Australian groups when calculated
separately. The magnetization direction is
thus negative, or Normal, using Irving’s (1964,
p. 71) convention.

The pole position calculated here is close
to two other Precambrian palaeo-poles for
Australia. Table 6 summarizes palaeomag-
netically-determined pole positions for the
Australian Precambrian, being based on all
data known to the author.

The size of the ellipse for the Giles Complex
probably results from slight scatter caused by
time lags in cooling across the Complex and
possibly to minor anisotropy effects associated
with the several convection cells within the
Giles Complex (Daniels, 1967, p. 59).

It can be seen in Table 6 that three pole
positions are in close agreement (with over-
lapping ellipses of 95% confidence)—the
Nullagine lavas, the Koolyanobbing hematite
ore body, and the Giles Complex. Irving and
Green (1958) did not carry out partial demag-
netization of the Nullagine lavas, and so it is
possible that the Nullagine results are in error.
These three palaeo-poles represent Precambrian
field directions, but the age of the magnet-
izations warrants clarification.

Recent mapping and stratigraphic studies of
the area of sampling of the Nullagine lavas have
resulted in some adjustments to earlier ideas
on the stratigraphy, and in re-naming of units.
The lavas sampled may in fact belong to the
Wyloo Group, or perhaps the Bangemall Group.
Horwitz (1967) gave a provisional subdivision
of the Precambrian of Western Australia, and
considered the base of the Bangemall Group to
be at 1,000 m.y. This age corresponds well
with that indicated for the Giles Complex.
However, even if the samples of Irving and
Green (1958) were “‘ Nullagine ”’ (current nomen-
clature ‘‘ Fortescue Group ”’), it is possible that
subsequent extrusion of lavas (e.g. of the
Bangemall Group) could have re-magnetized
the older, buried Nullagine lavas. Porath and
Chamalaun (1968) did not ascribe an age to
the Koolyanobbing hematite, but tentatively
correlated its magnetization with the results
given for the Nullagine lavas. Porath (1967,
p. 409) noted that hydrothermal activity formed
hematite in the ore and “ has been responsible
for the remanent magnetization’”’. If such is
the case, then this early Precambrian rock
could have been re-magnetized.

It was noted previously that the radio-
metrically-dated Tollu Volcanics could represent
the final stage of igneous activity in the Giles
Complex area. Since the Giles Complex cooled
slowly, the age of the T.R.M. is likely to be no
more than about 1,100 m.y., and with the error
in the date for the Tollu Volcanics (+140 m.y.,
Compston and Nesbitt, 1967), may be about
1,000 m.y.—which is the age ascribed to the
base of the Bangemall Group (Horwitz, 1967).

In summary, therefore, it 1s considered that
the palaeo-pole position determined for the
Giles Complex corresponds to a T.R.M. direction
acquired about 1,100 to 1,000 m.y. ago. This
palaeo-pole is not dissimilar from two other
Australian Precambrian poles for which less
definite ages are known.

7. Concluding Remarks

During this investigation it has been possible
to establish that the layered mafic and ultra-
mafic intrusive Giles Complex acquired a stable
T.R.M. about 1,100 to 1,000 m.y. before the
present. The stability of the magnetization
was established from a variety of tests which
gave consistent results. It has been shown that
the Giles Complex acquired its T.R.M. after
consolidation, tilting and probable uplift of
the intrusions, and that most, if not all, bodies
were magnetized over the same period of time
(which is likely to be of the order of several
million years). The Complex has undergone
tectonic deformation, but as this is localized,
it is possible to detect those parts of the Complex
that have had their T.R.M. adversely affected.
Post-tilting (?) intrusion of dolerite dykes has
apparently had no effect on the magnetic
properties of the Giles Complex as a whole.

The ancillary petrological and mineralogical
study of the Giles Complex rocks has established
a tendency for correlation of the state of
exsolution/high-temperature oxidation of the
iron-titanium oxides with the magnetic
properties. Such a correlation in coarse-grained
mafic and ultramafic rocks complements the
correlation already observed by others in the
magmatically equivalent fine-grained rocks.
However, further results from other coarse-
grained intrusions are required to confirm the
general validity of the correlation in such rocks.

The palaeo-pole corresponding to the magnet-
ization of the Giles Complex (latitude 68° N.,
longitude 343° E. or 17° W., with semi-axes of
the 95% confidence ellipse of 23° and 29°)
provides a useful control on other similar
Australian Precambrian poles which are less
precisely dated.

60 Ko Ay RACER

8. Acknowledgements

The assistance of Professor C. E. Marshall,
Dr. A: A. Day and Dr. K. M. Chan*ot the
Department of Geology and Geophysics of the
University of Sydney is gratefully acknowledged.
Dr. R. W. Nesbitt of the Department of Geology
and Mineralogy, the University of Adelaide, has
graciously assisted this investigation, both in
the field and at Adelaide. Professor R. L.
Wilson of the University of Liverpool has been
most helpful in discussion of procedures and
results. The measurement of the anisotropy of
magnetic susceptibility was carried out at the
Australian National University with the permis-
sion of Professor J. C. Jaeger, and the assistance
or.Ors. HH: Porath, F. H. ‘Chamalaun, M: EF:
Evans and M. W. McElhinny.

Financial assistance provided by the
University of Sydney and the tenure of a
Commonwealth Post-graduate Research
Studentship have materially assisted this investi-
gation, as has the indirect assistance of the
Nuffield Foundation through its support of the
“ Giles Project ’”’ of the University of Adelaide.
The extensive use of facilities provided by the
Wollongong University College is gratefully
acknowledged.

9. References

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Paleomagnetism and Its Application
John

JOURNAL ROY AL SOCIETY NeSAVe PACE Pil Aina

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS FROM GILES COMPLEX 61

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(Received 12 May 1971)

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
1. View of the north side of the Blackstone Range at its western end. The metastable rock mantles (outlined)
cover much of the very steep slopes, which in this photograph rise 50 to 70 metres above the level of the sandy

pediment of the foreground.

2. Photograph showing the layering (layering orientation: strike 125° M., dip 86° N.E.) in north Mount Davies

from just west of site GCNB2.

The view is to the north-west, with Kalka on the right horizon.

The surface

cover consists mainly of spinifex (Tviodia sp.) and loose boulders.

3. View to the south-west in south Mount Davies, site GCNB9 being in the shadow, left centre.

The approximate

orientation of the layering is strike 110° M., dip 70° N. to 75° N. The bluffs in the centre rise some 15 metres

above the general slope.

In the foreground can be seen the rough surface cover of loose blocks of rock.

= \
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= .
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; Lee:
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;
7 ~~
7 7
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.
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of a leuco-adamellite stock and

‘into two units:

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 63-75, 1971

Palaeozoic Sedimentology and Igneous Geology of the Woolgoolga
| District, North Coast, New South Wales

R. J. Korscu
Department of Geology, University of New England.

ABSTRACT—The sedimentary rock units in the Woolgoolga District are the Coffs Harbour
Beds, probably upper Palaeozoic in age, and the Redbank River Beds, possibly Silurian in age.

The Redbank River Beds consist of cherts, jaspers with some biogenic contribution of radio-

laria, and a submarine basic lava flow.

The Coffs Harbour Beds are a thick sequence of turbidites.

Greywackes consist of lithic

fragments, quartz, feldspar, opaques and secondary minerals such as chlorite, epidote and

carbonate.
feldspathic greywackes.

Younger rocks of the northern half of the sequence are hornblende-bearing litho-
In the lower half of the sequence hornblende detritus is lacking. A

megabreccia occurs in the sequence at Mullaway. The geometrical style of slump folds as a facing
indicator, and stratal thicknesses to determine source direction have been used.

A stock of leuco-adamellite occurs to the north of Signal Hill, where the quickly cooled
comparatively low-temperature magma was intruded into the highest levels of the crust by

permitted emplacement.

Orientation of the xenoliths indicates a vertical flow direction.

Meta-

morphic grade in the contact aureole of the stock only reached the albite-epidote-hornfels facies.

Introduction

The area studied covers a 32-kilometre strip
of the coastline of northern New South Wales
just south of Grafton (Figure 1). Although
Mesozoic and Quaternary sediments occur,
only the Palaeozoic rocks were examined, and
they occur as part of one of the upthrust blocks
described by Voisey (1959). The purpose of
this paper is to describe and discuss the sedi-

_mentological features of a geosynclinal suite of

greywackes and argillites, and also the geology
its contact

aureole. Localities to which reference is made

-are shown on Figure 1.

The Palaeozoic sediments have been divided
the Redbank River Beds and
the Coffs Harbour Beds. These units are
bounded in the south by the Cross Maglen Fault
(Leitch e¢ al., 1969), and in the north and west
by the Mesozoic Clarence Basin (McElroy, 1962).

No detailed description of the geology of this
area has been published. Pittman (1880),
Wilkinson and Slee (1889) and Carne (1895)
briefly mentioned the area and attempted to
assign an age to the beds. Other workers to
discuss the area include Denmead (1928),
Voisey (1934, 1959), Kenny (1936) and McElroy
(1962). Recent reconnaissance work by the
Geological Survey of New South Wales has been
published in three maps (Rose, 1968; Leitch
et al., 1969 ; Brunker et al., 1969).

Subdivision of the Palaeozoic Sediments

Jaspers and altered basic lavas at Red Rock
have been separated from the more widespread
Coffs Harbour Beds on the basis of distinctive
lithology and different structural pattern. Other
Jaspers from northern New South Wales (.e.
in the Woolomin Beds—Chappell, 1961) are
thought to be Silurian in age, and this may be
the case of the Redbank River Beds at Red
Rock. Similar rocks occur at Jackadgery
(north of Grafton), where Whiting (1950)
reported a Silurian limestone interbedded with
sandstone, quartzites and silicified claystones.
McElroy (1962) assigned the rocks south of the
Mesozoic Clarence Basin to the Silurian, but the
writer envisages a similar situation to that in
New England, where two geosynclinal sequences
have been recognized (Binns and others, 1967).
The older sequence is more complexly deformed,
contains prominent bars of jasper with laminated
cherts, horizons of altered basic lava and minor
Silurian limestones. The second sequence lacks
jaspers and laminated cherts and contains only
rare basic lavas. These rocks appear to be
structurally less complex than those of the first
sequence and contain Permian marine fossils
at several localities (Binns and others, 1967),
and a Carboniferous Lepidodendron (Crook,
1958).

The Coffs Harbour Beds are comparable
with the Upper Palaeozoic sequence of New

64

R. J. KORSCH

Arrawarra

>Ocean View
Mullaway

4
oe Woolgoolga

Pn
A)
4G o Stack Rock

Graftoneg

Kilometres

Bare Bluff
Granite” Head

ie Signal Hill

Look-at-me-now

FiGuRE 1.—Location and general geology of area, and localities mentioned in text. Geology: Redbank River

Beds (stripes) ;

Coffs Harbour Beds (blank) ;

leuco-adamellite stock (black) ; Mesozoic Clarence Basin (stippled) ;

and Quaternary alluvium (m).

PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTOLOGY OF WOOLGOOLGA DISTRICT 65

England in that no jaspers or altered basic
lavas have been found, and these rocks are
structurally less complex than the cherts and
jaspers at Red Rock (Korsch, in preparation).
The field evidence is inconclusive but suggests
that the Coffs Harbour Beds are younger
than the rocks at Red Rock and that they
might be Upper Palaeozoic in age.

Redbank River Beds

Synonymy: New name, derived from the
Redbank River, near Red Rock village.

Type Locality : The headland at the south side
of the mouth of the Redbank River.

Iithology : Red to white well bedded jaspers
and cherts, with an interbedded altered
basaltic lava.

Thickness : Not determined, owing to intense
folding.

Age and Structural Relations: Silurian (?).
These beds appear to be the oldest exposed
rocks in the Woolgoolga district, and are
possible equivalents of the jaspers of the
Woolomin Beds (Chappell, 1961). Regional
considerations suggest an unconformity or
fault between these beds and the Coffs
Harbour Beds, but in the absence of direct
evidence other structural possibilities are
conceivable, such as Red Rock headland
being a giant breccia block, or the Redbank
River Beds being a diaper piercing the Coffs
Harbour Beds.

Sedimentation : The origin of cryptocrystalline
cherts and jaspers is problematical. Davis
(1918), Bryan and Jones (1962) and Jones
(1963) believe cherts are formed from silica
derived from hot springs in the ocean floor
and that radiolaria flourished in this siliceous
environment.

Dewey and Flett (1911) invoke actual
submarine eruptions, especially of spilitic
extrusions. This hypothesis is preferred for
the Redbank River Beds because of the
altered basaltic lava present. Hence cherts
and jaspers of the Redbank River Beds
formed by the precipitation of silica accom-
panying submarine vulcanism of a_ basic
nature. The silica provided an opportunity
for the growth of radiolaria, and thus their
inclusion in the sediment.

Coffs Harbour Beds

Synonymy : Coffs Harbour schists (Denmead,
1928) ; Coffs Harbour Series (Voisey, 1934) ;

Fitzroy Series (Kenny, 1936) ; Fitzroy Beds
(McElroy, 1962) ; Coffs Harbour Beds (Voisey,
1969).

Type Section: Denmead (od. cit.) mentioned a
type section in the Coffs Harbour “ schists ”’
but stated no location. Therefore, by
tautonomy it is the cliffs and quarry on the
south side of Coffs Harbour (sensu stricto).

Members : No members could be differentiated
in the field, but in thin section two distinct
greywacke types were recognized. Volcanic
lithic greywackes occur in the southern part
of the area and underlie hornblende-bearing
ereywackes to the north.

Lithology : Dark grey volcanic greywackes with
interbedded mudstones, siltstones and some
siliceous units.

Thickness : Unknown, but thought to be very
thick (? 3,000 metres).

Age: Upper Palaeozoic (?). No fossils were
found, but the Coffs Harbour Beds are of
similar lithology to the Upper Carboniferous
rocks at Halliday’s Point (Leitch and Mayer,
1969). The east-west strike, if projected
inland, could suggest that the beds are part
of the same Upper Palaeozoic geosynclinal
pile as the Carboniferous and Permian meta-
sediments of New England (Binns, 1966).

Sedimentation

The Ceffs Harbour Beds consist of interbedded
units of two tvpes:

(1) Well bedded units of fine sandstones,
siltstones and mudstones, with the beds
ranging in thickness from less than 25 mm.
to about 75 cm.

(2) Massive units of greywackes and _ finer
grained sediments occasionally containing
imperfect graded bedding or traces of
bedding.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

Graded beds in the massive units are common,
with an average thickness of 60cm., but
occasionally up to 300cm. Delayed grading
(Ta and Ta-b of Bouma, 1862) is very common.

Convolute laminations occur abundantly at
Signal Hill and Look-at-me-now, but not at
other localities. Figure 2 (a), (0), (c) illustrates
the styles of the convolute folds seen. Cross-
bedding occurs, but is not common and exists
only on a small scale (i.e. less than 50 mm.
thick).

Sedimentary boudins are common and are
usually highly siliceous in nature. At Stack

66 R. J. KORSCH

Rock thick siliceous beds (100-130 cm.) have
been boudined and in places even fractured and
pulled apart.

Slumping is extremely common with good
examples at Mullaway, Moonee Beach and
Korora Basin. The beds are, in places, very
intensely folded, but gentle folds also occur.

FIGURE 2.—Styles of convolute laminations at Signal
Hill (a) and Look-at-me-now (b), (c). In each case
the scale is 10cm. (d) Style of a slump fold, at Korora
Basin, used as a facing indicator. Scale is 20cm.

STYLE OF SLUMP FOLDS

There appears to be a dearth of literature
considering specifically the style of slump folds
and their use to determine facing direction.
A typical style is one where a rounded anticline
has been forced over the sediments in which a
narrow syncline was forming (Figure 2 (d)).
A shear or thrust often develops along the axial
plane of the syncline (the “slip plane” of
Fairbridge, 1947). At Korora Basin slump folds
are exposed in a sequence of siliceous sandy beds

and thinner cherty beds all with a vertical dip
and strike of approximately 130°. No primary
facing structures were visible but the style and
attitude of the slump folds are interpreted to
mean they face to the north-east.

THICKNESS OF INDIVIDUAL BEDS, AND

DIRECTION OF TRANSPORT

For headlands where well bedded sediments
occur, sections of at least 3m. were measured
noting the thickness and lithology of each
individual bed and apparent thicknesses recalcu-
lated to true thicknesses. The average thickness
of individual beds was used to determine the
transportation direction, assuming that down-
current there is a decrease in the thickness of
individual beds (cf. Pettijohn, 1962). The
thickness diminishes towards the south after
attaining a maximum thickness at Mullaway
(Figure 3), and thus it may be concluded that
the current flowed from a “ northerly quadrant ”’
toward a “southerly quadrant ”’.

OTHER DIRECTIONAL INDICATORS

At Signal Hill and Look-at-me-now several
orientations of the fold axes of convolute folds
were measured. Such fold axes are approxi-
mately normal to the current flow (Crowell,
1955). Potter and Pettijohn (1963) believe
that anticlinal convolutions exhibit down-
current overturning. Hence the convolutions,
after ‘“‘ unfolding ’’, indicate a current direction
from the west because the orientations are
consistently around 268°-L5°. This result differs
from that obtained by the measurement of
stratal thicknesses.

The slump folding at Korora Basin indicates
a movement direction from the north-west, 1.e.
about 330°. The slump megabreccia at
Mullaway indicates movement from a northerly
direction.

Because of the absence of good directional
indicators such as flute or groove casts, the
palaeogeography during deposition of the Coffs
Harbour Beds is imperfectly known, but it may
be tentatively concluded that the current
flowed from a north-west quadrant to a south-
east quanrant.

MULLAWAY SLUMP MEGABRECCIA

Two lithological types were seen at the
headland of Mullaway :
(a) Well bedded units of alternating fine
sandstones and mudstones, the products
of turbidity currents.

PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTOLOGY OF WOOLGOOLGA DISTRICT 67

)

m
NO
n

(o}

4 8 72
Kilometres

Average thickness of individual beds (c

NX
Red Rock

oo

16 20 24 28

Korora Basin

FiGuRE 3.—Graph showing average thickness of individual beds from the Coffs Harbour Beds versus distance
from Red Rock.

(6) Similar units containing large blocks of
sedimentary material.

These units represent second-cycle mass-
movement deposits resulting from the mobiliza-
tion of the turbidites. They are megabreccias
formed by submarine slumping of the open-face
type. The matrix of the slump breccias consists
of medium- to fine-grained sandstones, and
contains blocks of massive, muddy cherts.
These muddy cherts also form part of the bedded
sequence at the southern side of the headland.

The blocks and matrix existed together as
interbedded units prior to movement and the
megabreccias resulted from _ gravitational
Instability and mass-movement of the pile of
stratified rocks. The mechanisms by which a
stack of soft wet sediments may be brought
into a condition of instability are numerous, but
tectonic steepening of the sea floor (Waterhouse
and Bradley, 1957; Grant-Mackie and Lowry,
1964; Leitch and Mayer, 1969), increase of
excess fluid pressure in the sediments (Carey,
1963) and oversteepening as a result of
differential compaction (Snyder and Odell,
1958) are thought to be common.

Cc

The movements giving rise to the slump
breccias appear to have occurred in rocks
possessing little if any cover. The strata above
the breccias are not disrupted, and the slight
folding now seen is the result of a period of
tectonism post-dating their deposition and
diagenesis.

The slump breccias are the result of
movements within a stratified mass in which
certain horizons acted as viscous fluids while
others remained rigid and fractured, or “‘ pulled
apart’, or deformed plastically to a limited
extent. In the remobilized horizons the matrix
material is silty, siliceous sandstone, and the
blocks are very fine-grained cherty rocks. This
contrasts with most previously described
products of subaqueous mass-movement where
the fine-grained material is considered to have
failed first, to form the matrix of the resultant
deposits. However, Carey (1963) postulated
failure of coarse material first, due to increased
water pressure in the sediments. At Mullaway
(Figure 4) the coarser material in the matrix is
similar to that of Leitch and Mayer (1969) at
Halliday’s Point, where the matrix is a coarse-
medium grained greywacke.

68 R. J. KORSCH

The thick siliceous siltstones and sandstones
(15-45 cm.) are crumpled and contorted and
show pull-apart structures. The chert beds,
6m. or more thick, are pulled apart into big
blocks, with contorted beds in between. Very
little transportation of the blocks has occurred.
The formation of the blocks could have occurred
during soft-sediment deformation or could be a
result of a tectonic disturbance while the beds
were still in a wet soft state. The trans-

Ze

FIGURE 4.—Mullaway slump megabreccia.

(a) General setting showing tectonic folds to either side
of the megabreccia. Scale is 50 metres.

Detailed sketch showing a tectonic fold and the
megabreccia. In the megabreccia crumpled and
contorted siltstones and sandstones end to the
north at a fault zone, and abut a massive chert
block to the south. Movement of the chert block
has been from a northerly direction. Scale is
IQ’ metres. (Sketch after Dr.-H. J. Harrington)

(b

—

portation has been from a pcsition somewhere
to the north.

Gentle folding occurring on either side of the
slump megabreccia may have formed during
gravity sliding, but the writer believes these
folds are products of the period of tectonism
that also produced a syncline at the eastern
end cf this headland. Evidence for the
deformation being tectonic is seen in the
cleavage. The fracture cleavage, which is
axial plane in other localities in the Woolgoolga
district, is also in the axial plane of the gentle
folds at Mullaway.

TURBIDITE ORIGIN OF THE COFFS HARBOUR
BEDS

Turbidites are commonly deep-water deposits,
transported into bathyal depths away from the
influence of bottom traction currents. <A
comparison of turbidites described in the
literature (particularly Kuenen and Carozzi,
1953) with the sediments of the Coffs Harbour
Beds shows that the latter are also turbidites.

The graded bed is considered to be a funda-
mental sedimentary unit, being deposited by a
single turbidity current, and each graded bed
may contain one to five layers (Ta-e of Bouma,
1962). In the Woolgoolga district complete
graded beds along with truncated and _ base-
cut-out sequences occur, indicating that there
was a high degree of turbidite activity during
the formation of the sediments. Because of the
presence of repeated graded bedding and other
features characteristic of turbidites, it is con-
cluded that the Coffs Harbour Beds are ancient
turbidite deposits.

Sedimentary Petrology

Modal analyses (volume percent.) of 12
representative thin sections of the Coffs Harbour
Beds have been determined using a Swift
Automatic Point-counter, following the method
of Bayly (1960). All detritus smaller than
0:05 mm. was counted as matrix. Refractive
indices for several plagioclases were determined.
using conventional oil immersion techniques —
and an Abbe refractometer, and the refractive
indices are considered correct to -+-0-002.

The classification of Pettijohn (1957) has
been used to distinguish the sediments according
to grainsize. Sandstones are further classified
using the scheme of Dott (1964), the term
““ sreywacke’”’ being substituted for ‘‘ wacke ”’.

Mudstones and siltstones, although common,
have not been examined in detail. Two petro-
graphic types of greywacke have been noted
and are characterized by an abundance of lithic

PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTOLOGY OF WOOLGOOLGA DISTRICT

fragments and the presence of hornblende.
These are here referred to as lithic greywackes
and hornblende-bearing litho-feldspathic grey-
wackes respectively. Both greywacke types
will be described together.

69

(Figure 5 (a)) shows that the greywackes of the
Coffs Harbour Beds fall in a restricted com-
position field. The hornblende-bearing litho-
feldspathic greywackes contain more plagioclase
and fewer volcanic lithic fragments than the

TABLE 1
Modal Analyses of Greywackes from the Coffs Harbour Beds

Specimen number 89201| 8924 | 8932 | 8927 | 8936 | 8943 | 8949 | 8950 | 8955 | 8958 | 8963 | 8967
Grid reference? 756326745326 | 744328 742329/727324 692333 635326 634324 618311 617311 611308 608307
Plagioclase 23-3 | 60-0 | 30-0 | 29-2 | 17-1 | 28-6 | 14-4 ell] 9-7 | 16-4 | 14-7 | 13-3
K-feldspar 0-3 0-1 — ~~ os 0-4 0-3 —- — 0-2 0-5 | O-1
Quartz .. 16-9 Sod Loa 6:9 | 138-5 | 12-9 | 10-2 4-5 7:5 9-9 8-8 | 10-6
Hornblende 1-2 | 11-0 6-0 4°4 0:4 3°9 — ~ = tr — | —
Volcanic lithic fragments 25:4 5-2 | 17-9 | 23-9 | 30-7 | 30-2 | 39:9 | 52:7 | 50-3 | 45-9 | 41-9 | 44-9
Other lithic oe 22 ae 1-1 3:0 2-8 0:9 2-2 4-2 5-1 1-9 2-4 | 2-3
Matrix .. . | 24°3 8:8 | 23-1 | 26-1 | 19-9 6-7 | 27-8 | 27-1 | 19-8 | 16-6 | 22-5 | 18-8
Cement.. 1-7 3°6 4-9 1-6 6°7 | 12-5 2-4 227 5:6 4-4 4-2 a2
Chlorite 0-3 | 2:3 3°5 2-0 5:1 1-7 0:6 0:8 0-3 1-3 1-6 3°8
Epidote 0-8 | 0-2 2:0 0:4 nea 0-1 0:8 0:2 0-1 1-3 eo? 0-3
Opaques Delis ©Os7 1-4 1-0 2-2 ey 1-3 0-8 1-3 1-9 2-0 2:7
Biotite .. 0-4; — — 1-2 0-5 — — — 0:3 0-2 0-2 —
Prehnite 0-3 — — — — — 0-1 —-s — = == —-
Carbonate 0-8 —- — 0:3 — 0-4 cas a= — — — |
Percentage intraforma- |

tional mudstone chips; ] | 3 3 15 10 i 5 5 ] 4 2 5

1 Numbers refer to thin sections housed in the U.N.E., Geology Department Collection.
“ Woolgoolga’’ Zone 8,

2 Grid references refer to the 1 : 63,360 series

The hornblende-bearing litho-feldspathic grey-
wackes occur in the northern half of the area
from Arrawarra to Woolgoolga, while the lithic
greywackes occur to the south from Bare Bluff
to Korora Basin. Both rock types occur mainly
as massive units exhibiting poor grading and
almost no bedding traces. This contrasts with
the well bedded nature of the finer grained
siltstones and mudstones.

In hand specimen the rocks are hard, compact
and non-porous. They occur as unsorted dark
grey sediments with fragments of lithic debris,
mudstone and quartz up to 5mm. in size. In
thin section the rocks contain lithic fragments
which are mainly acid to intermediate volcanics,
and occasionally metasediments and _ cherts
occur. Mudstone fragments, which are thought
to be intraformational in origin, have not been
included in the modal analyses, but have
been estimated visually (Table 1). The mud-
stone chips have been elongated, indicating
deformation during compaction.

Detrital minerals include quartz, plagioclase,
minor K-feldspar and hornblende. Secondary
minerals include chlorite, epidote, opaques
(sometimes sulphides such as pyrite), prehnite
and carbonate (rare). MLO and QFR diagrams
were constructed for the modes (Figure 5 (a)
and (b)). Inspection of the MLQ diagram

Sheet No. 296.
lithic greywackes and hence occur closer to the
feldspar apex in the OFR diagram (Figure 5 (b)).

LITHIC FRAGMENTS
(a) Volcanics

The majority of lithic fragments indicate
derivation from one parent rock type—an acid
to intermediate volcanic rock. The relatively
few phenocrysts present in some lithic fragments
are quartz, feldspar and rarely hornblende and
biotite. The volcanic fragments are very
angular to sub-angular in outline, are porphyritic
andesite in composition, and occur as pheno-
crysts set in a_ devitrified groundmass
occasionally exhibiting a plumose texture. The
fragments are fine-grained holo- to hemi-hyaline
rocks, now devitrified, commonly showing flow
texture. Pyroclastic fragments also occur, but
are less common. They are welded tuffs with an
almost eutaxitic texture, and the secondary
minerals having a pectinate texture.

(b) Others

Lithic fragments other than volcanics comprise
only a small amount of the total volume of the
rock (less than 5%). These are fragments of
sedimentary and low-grade metamorphic rocks.
Fragments of radiolarian chert occur.

70 R. J. KORSCH

MATRIX
x
x
SP o
LABILES QUARTZ
a

QUARTZ

FELDSPAR

ROCK FRAGMENTS
b

FicurE 5.—MLQ diagram (a) and QFR diagram (b) for hornblende-bearing litho-feldspathic greywackes (o) and
lithic greywackes (x) from the Coffs Harbour Beds.

QUARTZ

Quartz is fairly common, averaging around
10%, and varies in size from greater than 2 mm.
to less than 0:05mm. Single equant grains
are dominant but occasionally composite grains
occur. The grains are generally unclouded in
appearance, sub-angular to angular, with minor
subrounding. Extinction is uniform with the
occasional undulose grain occurring. Quartz
with §-outlines (resorbed pyramidal) commonly
occur, indicating an acid volcanic source.
Rarely, a well-rounded grain of detrital quartz
is seen, and this may indicate that at least some
of the detritus was derived from older sedi-
mentary material (cf. Chappell, 1968).

FELDSPAR

Detrital feldspar is a very common constituent
in both the lithic and hornblende-bearing
greywackes. Plagioclase is the dominant
feldspar present but K-feldspar occurs as
orthoclase and to a lesser extent as microperthite
and microcline. Myrmekite occurs in minor
quantities, indicating some contribution from an
acid plutonic source. The feldspars vary in
size from 2 mm. to less than 0:05 mm. and vary
from euhedral and subhedral crystals to the
occasional anhedral grain.

Most grains have a cloudy appearance and
have been partially replaced by flakes of sericite,

chlorite, carbonate and _ epidote. (Epidote
occurs as single grains or as a composite group
up tol mm. wide.) Zoning is common and there
is some evidence of deformation in the form of
bent lamellae and rare fractured grains.
Inclusions frequently occur aligned along
cleavage planes. In zoned feldspars the zones
are marked by rings of chlorite and epidote

inclusions. This is similar to that found by
Mayer (1969).
Refractive indices (8=1-552 to 1-555)

indicate a composition of about Ab,,Angp, 1.e.
andesine. This is consistent with derivation
from andesite.

HoORNBLENDE

Hornblende is very common in the northern
half of the district. It occurs up to 11%.
The mineral occurs as both euhedral and
anhedral grains up to 2mm. long with the
average size being less than 0-5mm., and as
very small flakes in the matrix. The grains are
fresh and also partially or completely altered
to chlorite and epidote (minor). The horn-
blendes, with extinction angles varying from
14° to 24°, are frequently twinned, very highly
cleaved, and strongly pleochroic from pale
yellow to green. A yellow to brown variety
occurs only rarely.

PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTOLOGY OF WOOLGOOLGA DISTRICT 71

MATRIX

The matrix abundances range from 7% to
28%, and is composed of very fine (less than
0:05 mm.) chips of quartz and feldspar. There
has been some recrystallization to produce
chlorite, epidote and (rarely) calcite and biotite.

CEMENT

The cement comprises a mixture of the
secondary minerals calcite, chlorite, epidote,
albite and quartz, and in most cases is too fine
grained to allow identification of the individual
mineral components.

MUDSTONE FRAGMENTS

These fragments are thought to be intra-
formational, and with occasional silt-sized
particles of quartz occurring, are less well sorted
than the bedded mudstones.

ACCESSORIES

Opaques are a fairly common constituent
and are detrital in origin, but rare grains appear
to have formed by secondary processes. Biotite
is rarely developed and appears as phenocrysts in
the volcanic lithic fragments. Zircon is very
minor in occurrence.

SECONDARY MINERALS

Chlorite is formed by the alteration of horn-
blende and glassy volcanic fragments. Epidote
is produced by the alteration of plagioclase.
Feldspar is formed in association with quartz
as a product of devitrification of the volcanic
rock fragments. These minerals have been
counted as volcanic lithic fragments in the
modal analyses. Prehnite is rarely developed
and occurs mainly in veins with quartz or calcite.
Carbonate is common.

Siltstones

_ The siltstones and fine-grained sandstones

(average grain size less than 0-2 mm.) have a
composition of quartz, feldspar and volcanic
lithic fragments set in a fine-grained matrix and
cement. Small detrital fragments of opaque
minerals are present and in the northern part
of the area occasional small crystals of horn-
blende occur.

Mudstones

These were not examined in detail in thin
section but are faintly laminated and more well
sorted than the intraformational mudstone
chips which occur in the greywackes.

Siliceous Sediments

These rare silica-rich rocks appear to be
almost cherts and occur interbedded with the
well-bedded sandstones, siltstones and mud-
stones. They consist of fine grains of quartz
set in a groundmass of cryptocrystalline quartz.
Occasionally mud and small clasts of feldspar
occur. Veins of later quartz and prehnite are
common.

Provenance

Volcanic detritus is the most important
constituent of the greywackes. The abundance
of hornblende, andesine-plagioclase and quartz
as detrital grains suggests that the volcanic
source is intermediate to acid, probably an
andesite. The volcanic lithic fragments are
almost entirely intermediate in composition.
The presence of hornblende in the younger
sediments indicates that there has been a slight
change in composition of the source area during
deposition. However, vulcanism has had a
continuous influence on sedimentation through-
out the period of deposition.

The abundance of euhedral and subhedral
detrital feldspars and hornblendes indicates
that the grains have suffered very little abrasion
during transportation. Some rocks (e.g. T.S.
8924) could possibly be slightly reworked tuffs
which have not been transported far from their
original site of deposition. The composition
now is probably very close to the composition
of the original igneous rocks from which these
sediments were derived.

There is a very mincr amount of pyroclastic
rock fragments in the form of welded tuffs
(e.g. T.S. 8950), indicating a minor contribution
from an ash fall source. However, the dominant
provenance is that of an andesitic terrain.

A contribution from metasedimentary,
plutonic, low-grade metamorphic, acid
hypabyssal and chert basement sources persists
throughout the sequence, but is of minor
importance.

Burial Metamorphism

Common mineralogical reconstitution of the
lithic and mineral detritus occurs throughout
the Coffs Harbour Beds. This formation of
secondary minerals is considered to be due to
burial metamorphism as defined by Coombs
(1961). In the sedimentary rocks of the area
the burial metamorphic assemblages are :

(1) Quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote.
(2) Quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-prehnite.

72 R. J. KORSCH

(3) Quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-carbonate.

(4) Quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-carbonate-
prehnite.

These mineral assemblages are similar to the
mineral facies assemblages described by
Packham and Crook (1960) from the Parry
Group, south of Tamworth.

Igneous Geology

An acid stock crops out at the headland
between Bare Bluff and Signal Hill, its contacts
with the Coffs Harbour Beds being knife-sharp
and almost vertical.

In hand specimen the rock has no obvious
lineation or foliation. Most specimens exhibit
a slight porphyritic texture which is more
strongly developed near the northern margin
of the intrusion, and this could be due to one of
two factors: there is a chilled zone at the
margin of the intrusion; or, a later phase of
magma has been intruded along the contact.
A very distinct boundary parallel to the
intrusion-sediment contact separates the por-
phyritic from the more massive rock.

PETROGRAPHY

Quartz is common (up to 20°) and normally
occurs as equant grains. Micrographic texture,
undulose extinction and granophyric quartz
occur, but in minor amounts.

Feldspar is the dominant mineral and occurs
as large phenocrysts up to 5 mm. long, and as a
very common constituent of the finer-grained
material. Most of the feldspar occurs as
randomly oriented laths exhibiting a_ well-
developed xenomorphic-granular texture. The
composition cannot easily be determined because
of alteration to sericite and kaolinite. Several
extinction angles of the poorly developed
multiple twinning in the feldspars were
measured, indicating a composition of oligoclase.

Biotite is a common constituent and most
has been altered to penninite, frequently with
a pseudomorphous ragged outline. Accessories
include apatite and opaque oxides, presumably
magnetite and ilmenite. Epidote, probably a
breakdown product of biotite and plagioclase,
is also present in small amounts.

This acidic intrusion exhibits a noticeable
textural variation from medium grain size with
occasional porphyritic feldspars to a porphyritic
texture.

The sericitization and kaolinization makes
it exceedingly difficult to determine relative
amounts of plagioclase to alkali-feldspar but
judging from the number of crystals showing

poorly developed multiple twinning (approxi-
mately half the total feldspar) the rock
approaches a leuco-adamellite in composition.

XENOLITHS

The xenoliths occur as elongate to lens-shaped
bodies and are more abundant near the margins
of the intrusion. They are much more melano-
cratic than their acidic hest but in thin section
appear to be fine-grained equivalents of the
coarser host rock. They are composed of laths
of feldspar with intergranular quartz, and
penninite after biotite. These xenoliths are
cognate and were probably formed at an early
stage of crystallization. Xenoliths of country
rock such as mudstone are also present in the
intrusion as accidental xenoliths, and they
formed by fracturing at the contact during
emplacement of the intrusion.

A detailed study was made of the orientation
of the xenoliths. This was done by measuring
the pitch, in the plane of exposure, of the longest
axis of the xenolith. These lineations (Figure
6 (a)) indicate a strongly preferred orientation
to the south-east of 77° to 156°. The section
in which the intermediate and least axes should
occur would be nearly horizontal and several
measurements of the longer axis in these
horizontal sections were recorded and plotted
as a rose diagram (Figure 6 (b)). This figure
exhibits a dominant orientation of north-west
to south-east.

Because both the longest and intermediate
axes lie in the north-west to south-east vertical
plane, there exists a real preferred direction
of the xenoliths in the rock. The preferred
planar and linear orientation of xenoliths can
be taken to indicate that there is a kinematic
ac or ab plane, and the possible existence of a
cryptic ac or ab fabric plane in the intrusion,
that is, a primary flow plane (Balk, 1937).
The fabric plane is not defined by the lineation
and will only be found by microfabric work.

Simus

To the north of the intrusion there are several
very narrow sills 5-60 cm. wide intruded along
bedding planes in the country rock. To the
south only one sill was noticed. The sills
appear to be slightly more mafic than the main
stock, but contain xenoliths.

JOINTS

The orientations of joints in the intrusion are
pletted on an equal area projection (Figure 6 (c))

PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTOLOGY OF WOOLGOOLGA DISTRICT 73

N

©)

a

FIGURE 6.
(a) Poles to the long axes of 28 xenoliths from the leuco-adamellite stock at
0, 4,°8, 12% per 1% area.
(b) Rose diagram showing strikes of the intermediate axis of 79 xenoliths, measured in horizontal planes.

(c) Poles to 102 joints from the leuco-adamellite stock at ‘“‘ Granite Head ’’.

where two dominant orientations occur. These
are a sub-horizontal jointing and a near vertical
joint system.

The joint pattern found in the intrusion can
be compared with the joint pattern in the
sediments of the whole district (Korsch, in
preparation) and the two patterns are very
dissimilar. Hence it is inferred that the joints
of the sediments were not formed at the same
time as those in the intrusion. Possibly the
joints in the sediments were produced before
the emplacement of the intrusion.

Because the xenoliths have an almost vertical
orientation, it follows that the cross joints are
nearly horizontal. These cross joints are among
the earliest fractures to develop in a cooling
mass and are thought to be tension fractures
(Price, 1966).

EMPLACEMENT

The principal characters of the intrusion are :
the general massive nature of the material, with
a slight porphyritic texture and a preferred
alignment of xenoliths ; the discordant contacts
with the surrounding country rocks; the
presence of thin sills in the country rock, as
offshoots from the main stock; and a poorly
developed thermal aureole in which the degree
of metamorphism only reached the albite-
epidote-hornfels facies. These features indicate
that the intrusion is an epizonal pluton
(Buddington, 1959).

Contours

“Granite Head ’’.

Contours 0, 1, 2, 3, 5% per 1% area.

The intrusion appears to have had a permitted
emplacement (Pitcher and Read, 1963) because
the emplacement has produced no structural
effect cn its envelope; knife-sharp contacts
cut across the metasediments; and the meta-
morpbic aureole is very poorly developed,
indicating that little heat was available during
the emplacement. The low-grade metamorphic
aureole could also be a result of the small size
of the intrusion.

In conclusion, it is thought that this small
leuco-adamellite stock formed from a relatively
quickly cooled comparatively low-temperature
magma emplaced in the highest levels of the
crust by permitted emplacement.

Contact Metamorphism

The narrow-contact metamorphic aureole
surrounding the leuco-adamellite stock consists
of mcderately baked greywackes, siltstones and
mudstones. Traces cf bedding are still visible
in the field.

Biotite is ubiquitous in every thin section.
Forty-five metres from the contact alteration
is limited to reconstitution of the cement and
parts of the matrix to biotite. Recrystallization
of quartz and feldspar also occur. Closer to the
contact (30 _m.) biotite is extensively developed
and muscovite is a minor constituent.

There appears to be less biotite developed
nearer the contact (150cm.), possibly because
the parent sediments were better sorted and

74

hence possessed a lower percentage of matrix
and cement. In these rocks the matrix appears
to have been mere quartzose, and has been
recrystallized to fine-grained granoblastic
aggregates. Fragments of detrital quartz have
been recrystallized to finer-grained granoblastic
aggregates also, but these are coarser grained
than those formed by recrystallization of the
matrix.

Epidote occurs throughout the aureole but
is most abundant close to the contact. It has
a slightly pleochroic green colour, which is in
contrast to the almost colourless variety
developed in unmetamorphosed sediments else-
where in the area. Feldspar also occurs
throughout the aureole and is thought to be
albite because of its biaxial positive interference
figure.

In all thin sections there still remains a visible
relict texture indicative of a very low grade of
metamorphism. The assemblage is quartz-
albite-epidote-biotite-opaques-muscovite-sphene.
It is difficult to assign the aureole to any
particular metamorphic facies because no
diagnostic minerals formed. However, the
co-existence of albite and epidote rather than the
stability of calcic plagioclase suggests a tentative
classification within the albite-epidote-hornfels
facies (Turner, 1968) and is placed in the No. 1
assemblage.

No contact metamorphic effects were detected
in specimens collected from neighbouring head-
lands, and hence the contact metamorphic
aureole is very limited in extent.

Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to Dr. H. J. Harrington
for his supervision of the project. The work
for this paper was undertaken for an honours
thesis during the tenure of a New South Wales
Department of Education Teachers’ College
Scholarship at the University of New England,
Armidale.

References
Back, R., 1937. Structural behaviour of igneous
rocks. Mem. geol. Soc. Am., 5, 177 pp.

Bayty, M. B., 1960. Modal analysis by point-
counter—the choice of sample area. J. geol. Soc.
Aust., 6 (2), 119-129.

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(Received 23 August 1971)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 77-88, 1971

Mineralogical Changes as Marker Horizons for Stratigraphic Correlation

in the Narrabeen Group of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W.

CoLIN R. WARD

School of Physical Sciences, N.S.W. Institute of Technology, Thomas Street,
Broadway, Sydney, 2007

ABSTRACT—Detailed petrological analysis of arenites and lutites of the Lower Triassic
Narrabeen Group in the southern part of the Sydney Basin has provided additional marker
horizons for stratigraphic correlation. Up to three such horizons can be recognized in various
parts of the basin, corresponding to short stratigraphic intervals over which the composition of
the sediments undergoes a sudden and significant change. These changes are best illustrated by
following the variation, throughout the vertical succession, of the ratio between quartz grains and
rock fragments in the sandstones, so that borehole and outcrop sections can be represented
diagrammatically by petrological profiles. Comparison of such profiles for sections across the
basin suggests a number of modifications to previously published correlation schemes, particularly

those put forward for the coastal regions.

Introduction

The Narrabeen Group is the lowermost of
three Triassic rock units in the Sydney Basin,
lying more or less conformably between the
Permian Illawarra Coal Measures and the locally
distinctive Hawkesbury Sandstone. The
sequence has been subdivided into formations
in three separate areas, the Illawarra or South
Coast district, the Grose Valley or Western
Margin district, and the Narrabeen-Wyong or
North Coast district, but because these areas
are separated from each other by either extensive
cover of overlying strata or by poorly accessible
mountainous country, correlations between them
are largely tentative, aided only by the results
of petroleum and coal drilling in the central
part of the basin.

Stratigraphic Subdivisions

Formal stratigraphic nomenclature for the
subdivisions of the Narrabeen Group in the
coastal districts was introduced by Hanlon,
Osborne and Raggatt (1953), and an inde-
pendently based subdivision for the western
districts was laid down by Crook in 1956.
Crook’s subdivision, in which three formations
were recognized, has since been applied over an
area extending from the Burragorang Valley
(Helby, 1961) to the Glen Davis district
(Goldbery, 1970) and the Upper Colo-St. Albans
region (Galloway, 1968), but in the north and
south coast districts, particularly the former,

the original proposals of Hanlon e¢ al. (1953)
have been modified as a result of further studies
(Stuntz, 1961 ; Bradley, 1964). These changes
in nomenclature are summarized by Herbert
(1970) and are embodied in a tabulation of
currently accepted rock unit names in Table 1.

In the Illawarra district, the subdivision of
Hanlon (1952) has been retained for the present
study, although the original ‘‘ Gosford Forma-
tion ” has been replaced by the term ‘‘ Newport
Formation ’’, following the work of Bradley
(1964). Detailed study of the Bulgo Sandstone
in the coastal exposures between Werrong and
Garie North has shown the possible need for a
further subdivision of this unit (Ward, 1971),
but because these subdivisions cannot be carried
very far to the west, formal stratigraphic names
have not been applied. Instead, the Bulgo
Sandstone has been broken up into three
distinctive facies, details of which are given
below.

The lower or pebbly facies contains a high
proportion of rudaceous material and consists
mainly of pebbly sandstone. The beds closely
resemble the underlying Scarborough Sandstone,
with a wide variety of pebble types including
red, green, black, and grey siliceous materials
loosely referred to by previous workers as
“chert ’. A few thin beds of grey shale are
also present, while at the base of the pebbly
facies a distinctive dark green coloration of the
sandstones is apparent. The pebbly facies

78

COLIN R. WARD

crops out on the coast between Werrong and
Era Beach and is 216’ 9” thick in the nearby
bore, Coal Cliff D.D.H. 17.

The middle facies of the Bulgo Sandstone,

by virtue of its composition and distinctive

colour in the field, is also known as the “ green
facies’’ or “‘volcanic facies’’. It consists
mainly of medium grained, dark green sand-
stone, with a number of beds of friable granule

conglomerate and a few grey-green lutites.

TABLE 1

Rock Units of the Narrabeen Group
Showing lithological correlation

North Coast South Coast and

(Bradley, 1964)

Newport Formation
Gosford

Bald Hill
Claystone
Formation

— Shaley facies

Collaroy—Palm Beach

Western District
(Goldbery, 1966)

Burralow

Formation

Banks Walls

Patonga Claystone |— — — — — <= Sandstone
S
g
Volcanic facies a Member
Tuggerah =
ESP SENS ee rk GAR, SANs SOON MMe SOc 2 ap
Formation Menai Claystone ° Mt. York Claystone
Member = ; Member
ae a ee ee me eee ia) S Ss
2s
Pebbly facies as Burra Moko
a
= pink Sears ow = nN
4s Head
Stanwell Park S
Munmorah &
Claystone
—_—~- - —— Sandstone
Scarborough
Sandstone Member
Hartley Vale
Claystone Member
Wombarra
3 Govett’s Leap
2 Sandstone Member
Conglomerate S
2 Victoria Pass
Shale ce Claystone Member
al
< Clywdd
——— ee S) Sandstone Member
Coal Cliff
Beauchamp Falls
Sandstone Shale Member
Newcastle Illawarra Coal Measures

Coal Measures

MINERALOGICAL CHANGES AS MARKER HORIZONS 79

The facies attains an overall thickness of 165’ 4”
and crops out on the headlands between Era
and Garie Beaches. The sandstones and granule
conglomerates consist chiefly of intermediate
to basic volcanic rock fragments, and owe their
distinctive colour to alteration of this material
to chlorite, mixed layer clay, and iron oxide
minerals.

The sandstones of the upper facies are medium
to fine grained, and mainly light grey-brown
colour. They occur in fairly thin and frequently
lenticular beds separated from each other by a
considerable proportion of shaley material.
Near the top of this facies the shales contain
numerous red-brown laminae as the sequence
passes up into the Bald Hill Claystone. The
upper facies of the Bulgo Sandstone, also known
as the shaley facies, is 147’ 11” thick in Coal
Cliff D.D.H.17 and crops out on the headland
north of Garie Beach.

In areas away from the coast, the volcanic
facies gradually degenerates into a number of
scattered beds, and finally, the Woronora
district, disappears from the sequence. How-
ever, the pebbly facies can be recognized over
much of the southern part of the basin and in
the Liverpool-Heathcote district the top of this
facies is marked by a very persistent bed of
grey-green siltstone and claystone named herein
the Menai Claystone Member. The type section
of the Menai Claystone Member is taken from
D.M. Port Hacking D.D.H. 92, sunk near Lucas
Heights, where the unit was intersected at depths
between 1759’ 1” and 1776’ 0”. The complete
log of this bore, giving details of the section, is
available from the N.S.W. Department of Mines.

Lithological Correlation

Almost all the published correlations of the
Narrabeen Group have used the prominent, but
not always persistent red-beds of the sequence
as marker horizons. Hanlon, Osborne and
Raggatt (1953) considered from such a criterion
that the Bald Hill, Collaroy and Patonga
Claystones were stratigraphically equivalent,
while Herbert (1970) suggests that the Mount
York and Stanwell Park Claystones are equi-
valent and that the latter can be correlated with
the Tuggerah Formation in the north. However,
the work of Stuntz (1961) and Bradley (1964)
indicates that the correlation put forward by
Hanlon e¢ al. (1953) was not valid, while the
results of the present study suggest that the
Stanwell Park Claystone occurs at a lower level
in the sequence than do the Mt. York and
_ Tuggerah units.

The Bald Hill Claystone has a _ unique
mineralogy, consisting almost entirely of
haematite and well-ordered kaolinite (Loughnan,
1963). It thus differs markedly from the other
red-beds of the sequence, which contain quartz,
illite and mixed layer clays, as well as haematite
and a less well-ordered kaolinite (Loughnan,
Ko Ko and Bayliss, 1964). The kaolinite-
haematite rock crops out in the [lawarra
district and in the area between Port Jackson
and Broken Bay, thus providing further con-
firmation that these exposures represent the
same unit, but in the area north of the
Hawkesbury River no material of this type has
yet been identified. The Patonga Claystone
consists of quartz, feldspar, haematite, kaolinite,
well-ordered and degraded illite, and appears
both from its composition and stratigraphic
relationships to represent a completely different
horizon, while red-beds in the Gosford Formation
at Bouddi Head, although situated at approxi-
mately the same horizon as the Bald Hill (300’
below the base of the Hawkesbury Sandstone),
consist of quartz, illite, kaolinite and haematite,
resembling, except for their red pigment, the
other lutites in that part of the sequence.

Although the unit cannot adequately be
identified in the North Coast district, the unique
composition of the Bald Hill Claystone enables
it to be traced westwards from the [lawarra
type area to Brimstone Gully, in the Burragorang
Valley, where a thin kaolinite-haematite clay-
stone bed can be seen in the Burralow Formation
immediately overlying the Grose Sandstone.
However, investigations further to the north
near Warragamba Dam (Loughnan é al., 1964)
failed to reveal a continuation of this horizon,
and the only red-beds in the sequence here
contain quartz and illite in relative abundance
as well.

The Stanwell Park Claystone, although also
somewhat different in composition from the
associated lutites, does not persist over as large
an area as the Bald Hill, and is thus of limited
value in correlation. However, the top of the
pebbly facies of the overlying Bulgo Sandstone
can clearly be recognized in outcrop and. sub-
surface data, since it represents in most areas
the topmost occurrence of rudaceous sediment
in the Narrabeen Group and is frequently marked
by the Menai Claystone Member. The top of
this conglomeratic succession can be traced
northwards using borehole data, and it appears
to correlate with the top of the Munmorah
Conglomerate (Figure 3). In addition it can
be traced westwards to the Kurrajong Heights
bore, from which it can be correlated with the

80 COLIN R. WARD

top of the Burra Moko Head Member of the
Grose Sandstone (Goldbery, 1966).

Thus it appears from lithological correlation
that the Mt. York Claystone Member is
equivalent to the Menai Claystone Member of
the Bulgo Sandstone rather than to the Stanwell
Park Claystone and that the Menai Member
can be correlated with the lowermost shales of
the Tuggerah Formation. The Stanwell Park
Claystone becomes interbedded with polymictic
conglomerates in the Woronora district and
merges with the Scarborough and lower Bulgo
Sandstones to form a thick succession of rudites
and coloured claystones in the Port Hacking
and Sydney areas.

Lateral facies changes of this type, combined
with the wide spacing of boreholes in the central
regions, renders a detailed lithological correlation
of the Narrabeen Group extremely difficult.
Except for the Bald Hill Claystone, with its
unique composition, the red-beds of the sequence
are of limited value as stratigraphic markers,
but the topmost occurrence of pebbly material
appears to constitute a useful reference horizon.
Thus a marker is available within the lower part
of the sequence, the use of which necessitates
some modification to inter-regional correlations
proposed previously. Detailed study of the
petrology of the sediments themselves, especially
of the sandstones, provides a means of recog-
nition of this marker and suggests the presence
of two additional markers as well.

Petrological Correlation

The composition and texture of the sediments
of the Narrabeen Group were first studied in a
systematic manner by McElroy (1954). This
study, as well as that of Loughnan (1963),
indicated that a progressive change in sandstone
composition took place throughout the succession
as lithic sandstones in the lowermost beds gave
way to quartzose sandstones at the top of the
sequence, which were in turn overlain by the
extremely quartzose Hawkesbury Sandstone.
However, a more detailed investigation of
Narrabeen Group petrology by Ward (1971) has
shown that this change does not proceed at a
more or less uniform rate, as had previously
been supposed, but that it consists of a number
of sudden changes at well-defined horizons,
with the sediments between these horizons
maintaining a fairly constant composition. It
appears from comparison between adjacent
boreholes and outcrop sections that the levels
in the sequence where these changes take place
may be used as marker horizons for stratigraphic
correlation.

Method of Investigation

Petrological samples have been taken from a-
total of 17 localities in the southern and central
parts of the basin, mostly from fully cored
diamond drill holes, but including outcrop
sections and the cored intervals of petroleum
exploration wells. Although samples in the
fully cored holes were taken from every
significant change of lithology, the sandstones
and shales were studied using samples spaced
at approximately 50’ intervals except where
more detailed information was required, so that
the considerable time involved in thin section
preparation and examination could be reduced.

The sandstones were examined under the
microscope and a quantitative evaluation of
their composition carried out using a Swift
Automatic Point Counter with a spacing of
0-3 mm. and counting 500 points per slide. A
study of the dependence of composition on
grainsize was not carried out, but the effect of
any such relationship was kept to a minimum by
using, as far as possible, only sandstones of
medium grainsize (approximately 0-25 mm.) in
point counting.

A semi-quantitative estimate of the com-
position of the lutites of the sequence was
obtained with the aid of X-ray diffractograms,
chiefly of powdered samples, using cobalt Ka
radiation. Although these results are not as
amenable to detailed study as the point count
data, they provide valuable supporting evidence
for a number of conclusions.

The conglomerates and pebbly sandstones
of the sequence were not studied quantitatively,
although thin sections cf a number of individual
pebbles were examined. However, the results
of this investigation, as well as the data obtained
from a study of heavy minerals in the sandstones,
are of limited value in assisting stratigraphic
correlation.

General Features of Narrabeen Group Sandstones

The sandstones of the Narrabeen Group
consist chiefly of quartz grains, rock fragments
of various types and interstitial clay, both
detrital and authigenic in origin. Small amounts
of mica, siderite and feldspar are also present,
the latter being particularly common in the
North Coast district. Ward (1971) has recognized
three separate suites or natural associations of
sediments within the Narrabeen Group, each
with distinctive compositional properties.

The sandstones were studied quantitatively
by determination of the ratio between quartz
grains and rock fragments from point count data.
In the western part of the basin the Narrabeen

MINERALOGICAL CHANGES AS MARKER HORIZONS 81

Group sandstones are mostly quartzose in
composition and the value of this ratio is high,
usually exceeding 10 : 1. However, in the coastal
districts sandstones from the middle part of the
sequence have ratios between 1 and 3, dropping
to less than 0-5 in the lowermest units. This
lateral variation in composition appears to be
related to the provenance of the sediments
(Ward, 1971), so that the gradation across the
basin represents mixing of up to three different
kinds of clastic debris.

A study of the vertical variation in the value
of this ratio provides an opportunity to examine
in detail the nature of the upward transition
in the Narrabeen Group from lithic to quartzose
sediments encountered throughout the Sydney
Basin, particularly in the coastal districts. In
the discussion below, the ratio is designated
by the symbol R.

Vertical Variation of Sandstone Composition

Table 2 shows the R values or quartz : rock
fragments ratios for sandstones in the fully cored
boreholes and well exposed outcrop sections of
the area studied. In all sections and _ bores
examined the R values are considerably lower

TABLE 2
Vertical Variation 1n Sandstone Composition

Abbreviations for Reck Units:
Np =Newport Formation
BH=Bald Hill Claystone
Bg =Bulgo Sandstone
SP =Stanwell Park Claystone
Sc =Scarborough Sandstone

Wo=Wombarra Shale
CC =Coal Cliff Sandstone

Bu=Burralow Formation

Gr =Grose Sandstone

Ca =Caley Formation

Go =Gosford Formation

Pt =Patonga Claystone

Tu =Tuggerah Formation
Mu=Munmorah Conglomerate

at the bottom than at the top of the sampled
interval, with the greatest variation being
encountered in Elecom Ourimbah Creek
D.D.H. 5, where the value ranges from approxi-
mately 0-3 to 67-0 over 2,000’ of strata.

D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 44

Depth R
(ft.) | Value Rock Unit Remarks
648 2°31 530— 560 Np
704 2:37 560— 625 BH
756 1-24
780 2-80
837 Ot 625-1085 Bg
908 2°38
980 2-88 980-1066
1066 0-76 | 1085-1130 SP “Step ’’ B
1162 0-45 | 1130-1230 Sc
1249 0-75 | 1230-1390 Ca
1388 0-53
D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 35
746 3°46 610— 640 Np
811 4-50 640— 723 BH
880 4-00
923 4-14
971 2-65 723-1290 Gr
1025 4-45
1080 3°56 1080-1135
1135 2-00 step 5
1190 0-65
1281 0-30
1335 1-85 | 1290-1470 Ca
1395 0-86
D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 31
631 {30-0 575— 623 BH
665 |14-0
719 |10-4
773 9-6
823 |10-2
872 6-3
900 {11-4 623-1149 Gr 900-965
965 3:6 Step 16
1000 4-0
1065 1-95
1096 2°85
1221 1-85 | 1149-1289 Ca
1305 0-41
D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 6
550 3°75 490-535 BH
590 {11-8
641 9-50
690 9-33 535-836 Gr 690-795
745 2°87 step. is
795 0-87
840 0-64 836-962 Ca
891 1-54

eee

82

SOOO COCCOCOOCOrF KH COCOOF bp eK pw

64
-08
-09
-56
-44
-97
°42
“59
°43

80
67

-42
-22
“18
-32
°35
-22
*47
-57

COLIN R. WARD

Coal Cliff D.D.H. 17

275— 322 Np
322— 395 BH
395-— 932 Bg
Volcanic sediments
between 500-750
and at approx.
900 ft.
774-832
“SStepy eb
932-1091 SP

1091-1195 Sc
1195-1288 Wo

1288-1364 CC

oo

no oS

SIS C1 |S OO Rati WN OO OOO OS

Ourimbah Creek D.D.H. 5

Top of exposed
Section 525 ft.
+500-122 Gos. a.s.l.

Bore Collar 28 ft.

asi.

80-146

ce Step >”) C
122-579 Pt.
579-945 Tu

1094-1161

ce Step x3 B
945-1619 Mu

453
461
545
561
575
602
633
663
673
712
741
754
760
762
785
814
830
855
880
900
925
945
1010
1078
Li
1203
1226
1257
1295
1325
1374
1390
1400
1423
1459
1488

A.I.S. Metropolitan D.D.H. 6
(Data from Loughnan, 1963)

<4 426— 475 Np

475— 537 BH | 461-545
-41 Me &
“04

86

-28

-50

itd)

-60

*85

-53

-26

‘53 | 537-1094 Bg

-09

-10

66

82

-63

-92

-50

73 900-945
35 ‘Stepia ©
36

-49

-18 | 1094-1247 SP

-23

-29

-28

-12 | 1247-1356 Sc

oy ly

°15

“17

‘10 | 1356-1470 Wo

12

*32 | 1470-1514 CC

-36

—
SOOO OCOOOCOOCOOCOCOCOOCOCOCOOR CO OCOOFM KE EF REF OF kK SE RN KOFWO

Brimstone Gully—Burragorang Valley

217 0-— 22 Bu Top of Narrabeen
Group at 0 ft.

29-5 Sample depths
shown in brackets

23-5

19-3 230-280

11-3 22-445 Gr. 7 “Step

5:8

10-4

2-81 398-475

0:76 | 445-535 Ca ‘Stepe x

MINERALOGICAL CHANGES AS MARKER HORIZONS 83

D.M. Port Hacking D.D.H. 92

750 4-68 724— 884 Np
790 3:70
850 5:25 884-1107 BH 850-1265
1119 2°88 hy poLepa CC
1265 1-83
1378 1-61
1485 2-24
1556 2-30 | 1107-1935 Bg
1700 2°22
1803 2°71 1803-1971
1900 1-07 “ Step’ B
1971 0-75
2023 0-41 | 1935-2474
2136 0-51 | Other units—
2219 1-38 exact correla-
2329 0:30 tion uncertain
2451 0:50

Jamberoo Pass—Stratigraphic Section

25 1-75 | O- 10 Np

35 | 2-32 10- 25 BH

135 | 0:46 25-165 Gr

160 | 0:86

D.M. Huntley D.D.H. 5

533 | 3-20 | 493-511 BH

567 3°25 567-604
604 | 0-93 “Step ’’ B
646 | 0-68 | 511-718 Gr

696 | 0-65

A.O.G. Cecil Park No. 2

1105 {13-5
1168 tice
1201 8-1 1127-1310 Np
1267 3°28
1308 {10-0
1435 oe) 1310-1460 BH
1506 00
1556 |36-5 1556-1606
1606 | 5-36 “Step ’’ C
1655 3-16
1703 | 5-45
1751 5-10
1805 | 4-16
1853 | 4-40
1887 2-48 | 1460+ Gr
1925 | 4-36
1966 | 5-79
2005 | 3-75
2062 | 2:68
2090 | 3-12
2160 | 4:07
2219 2°70 Basal portion of
2254 2°58 Narrabeen Group

not sampled

Because the R value is a numerical ratio,
changes in sandstone composition do not produce
a uniform change in R values. Thus sandstones
in which the percentage of quartz is greater than

that of rock fragments have R values between
1 and oo, but for those in which rock fragments
are in excess of quartz the R values vary between
0 and 1 only. Experience with Sydney Basin
sediments has shown that the sandstones cover
the whole possible range of compositions, from
nearly pure quartz sandstone to extremely
lithic varieties, and hence the R value only
changes slowly if the sediments are of lithic
composition but may fluctuate very sharply
with small changes in quartz-rich sediments.

Graphic representations of the _ vertical
variations in R value for typical borehole sections
are given in Figure 2. In these plots the depth
or stratigraphic position of each sample is
plotted on a uniform linear scale, while the value
of R for each sample is plotted on a non-linear
scale similar in part to a logarithmic scale,
which has been constructed by a _ graphic
technique (Ward, 1971). The line joining the
representations of the samples may be considered
as a “ petrological profile’ of the Narrabeen
Group at each locality.

Study of such profiles shows that the upward
increase in R value for the Narrabeen Group
sandstones does not take place at a uniform rate,
but is in fact brought about by sudden changes
in composition which occur at certain levels in
the sequence, and that the sediments between
these horizons are of relatively constant com-
position. For example, data from D.M. Port
Hacking D.D.H. 92 (Table 2) show that a depth
of approximately 1,800’, just below the Menai
Claystone Member, the composition of the
sandstones changes from lithic material with
R values between 0-3 and 0-5 to significantly
more quartzose sediment with the average R
value of approximately 2-0. Such a sudden
change is herein referred to as a “ step ’”’ in the
sandstone composition profile for the bore or
section in question. Similar “steps’’ can be
recognized from X-ray diffraction data of the
lutites in the sequence, but although they appear
to be at approximately the same levels as those
in the sandstone profiles they cannot be fixed
with the same degree of precision.

Three such “steps” have been recognized
in the Narrabeen Group from modal analysis
data of the arenites, but not all of these “‘ steps ”’
are necessarily present in any one profile. They
are designated, from the base upwards, by the
letters A, B and C, and the approximate position
of each is given.

The lowermost of these, “step ’’ A, can only
be recognized in the western part of the basin.
It is situated at or very near the top of the Caley

84 COLIN R. WARD

FIG. 1. b
LOCATION OF BORES

AND OUTCROPS SAMPLED

af BROKEN BAY

KATOOMBA = NARRABEEN

SYDNEY

MH
e CAMDEN

GE1Z
M6

COAL GLIFF

6
e

e
MITTAGONG WOLLONGONG

OC5 Elecom Ourimbah Creek D.D.H. 5 M6 A.I.S. Metropolitan D.D.H. 6 {
Kl miO:.G, Kenthurse Now! MM12 Mt. Murray D.D.H. 12 I
CP2 A.O.G. Cecil Park No. 2 H5 D.M. Huntley D.D.H. 5 |
M2 A.O.G. Mulgoa No. 2 6 D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 6

MH A.O.G. Mt. Hunter No.l 31 D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 31

B.G. — Brimstone Gully Stratigraphic Section 35 D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 35

M.K. Mt. Keira Stratigraphic Section 44 D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 44

EE. Jamberoo Pass Stratigraphic Section 92 D.M. Port Hacking D-D2Hy92

CC17. Coal Cliff D.D.H. 17 |

MINERALOGICAL CHANGES AS MARKER HORIZONS 85

FIG: 2

SANDSTONE COMPOSITION PROFILES FOR TYPICAL

SECTIONS THROUGH THE NARRABEEN- GROUP.

—/Qtz:Rk Riatio—

a. BORE D.M. WOLLONGONG DDH 44

FOR KEY TO LITHOLOGY SYMBOLS

SEE

Formation, and although not called by that name
has been traced by Goldbery (1970) as far as
the Glen Davis district.

“Step” A is present in the section studied
at Brimstone Gully, in the Burragorang Valley,
where it occurs at a level somewhat above the
base of the Grose Sandstone. This apparently
anomalous position may indicate that the basal
beds of the Grose Sandstone are, in fact, to be
correlated with the Govett’s Leap Sandstone
Member of the Caley Formation, a situation
brought about by the disappearance of the
Hartley Vale Claystone Member. Such lensing

ee 4 OO HO 2 34 610 o

— Qtzi: Rk Ratio) —-

b. BORE D.M. WOLLONGONG DDH 31

EsiGies

C.R.W. 1971

out is common in marginal areas of the basin
(Goldbery, 1966) and appears to be supported
in this case by correlation with borehole data
to the east.

39:

‘Step’ B can be recognized over a large
part of the basin, extending from Wyong to
the Huntley and Mittagong districts and possibly
as far west as the Burragorang Valley. It
occurs at or near the top of the pebbly facies
of the Bulgo Sandstone and can still be
recognized at approximately the middle of the
Grose Sandstone where the Stanwell Park
Claystone pinches out in the southern and

86 COLIN R. WARD
HUNTLEY = MT. MURRAY WOLLONGONG METROPOLITAN PT. HACKING CECIL PARK KENTHURST
D0.H.5 D.D.H. 12 DO.H.44 0.D.H.6 DDH.92 No.2 No.1
— — —
=| NEWPORT = FORMATION

CLAYSTONE

°C
SANDSTONE

LEGEND

FEET
fe} or
*.| CONGLOMERATE
100 SS
SANDSTONE
200
SHALE
300 7
4 CLAYS TONE
400
le}
500 5 10 15
MILES

NARRABEEN GROUP CROSS SECTION
DAPTO TO WYONG

SHOWING MINERALOGICAL MARKERS

DATUM: BASE OF HAWKESBURY SANDSTONE

OURINBAH cx

0.0.H

GOSFORD

FORMATION

PATONGA

CLAYSTONE

TUGGERAH

FORMATION

MUNMORAH

CONGLOMERATE

a:

35 MILES

5

86 COLIN R. WARD
CECIL PARK KENTHURST OURINBAH CK.
Noa No.1 = D.D.H.5
FORMATION [7-7] wile
=
e Y)
Z GOSFORD
‘LAYSTONE Y =
Zi. :
ZZA +e
ea = FORMATION
Ee
yale Bore
a Collar
: PATONGA
CLAYSTONE
EMBER
LP)
ie TUGGERAH
W
i ee a FORMATION
oe, oe : Se
hae i
[7
Z.
=a MUNMORAH
a B
ian CONGLOMERATE
a as :
35 MILES
C.RW.

MINERALOGICAL CHANGES AS MARKER HORIZONS 87

south-western portions of the basin, but it
becomes indistinct in the extremely quartzose
sandstones of the western districts. Although
insufficient data are available from the central
districts, the ‘step ’’ appears to persist to the
North Coast area, where it occurs at approxi-
mately the top of the Munmorah Conglomerate
in Ourimbah Creek D.D.H. 5.

Although the occurrence of a “step ”’ at the
top of the conglomeratic lower section of the
Narrabeen Group in both the northern and
southern parts of the basin suggests that a
significant petrological charge occurs at this
level across the basin, insufficient samples are
available from the intervening area to confirm
this correlation. A.O.G. Cecil Park No. 2 bore
did not penetrate the whole of the Narrabeen
Group, but only reached the top of this con-
glomeratic succession. As a result too few
samples are available from the lower beds to
indicate the existence of a “‘step’’. Other
bores in the central part of the basin have either
been cored at intervals too widely separated for
adequate study or else the core is no longer
available.

‘““Step’”’ C is situated very near the collar
level of Elecom Ourimbah Creek D.D.H.5,
where it corresponds closely with the top of the
Patonga Claystone or the base of the Gosford
Formation. In A.O.G. Cecil Park No. 2 a
“step ’’ can be recognized at a depth of 1,600’,
approximately 200’ below the base of the Bald
Hill Claystone, but data from the intervening
area 1s not yet available to substantiate correla-
tion of these “‘ steps ’’. However, the persistence
of “step” B in the underlying succession
further south suggests that such continuity is
possible. Samples from A.O.G. Kenthurst
No. 1, situated between these two bores, indicate
that a substantial thickness of quartzose
sediment underlies the Bald Hill Claystone and
suggests that the profile would be similar to
that of the Cecil Park bore, if sufficient closely
spaced samples were available.

Some difficulty is encountered in recognition
of ‘‘steps’’ in the petrological profile in areas
where the “ green sandstone ”’ or volcanic facies
is present in the Bulgo Sandstone. The arenites
of this facies are extremely lithic in composition,
so that their presence in any quantity interferes
with the systematic upward transition towards
more quartzose detritus.

Thus in Coal Cliff D.D.H.17 the samples
taken from above the projected level of ‘ step ”’
B are considerably more lithic in composition
than those of bores only a short distance to the
west, and “step’”’ B is largely unrecognizable.

However, these locally anomalous sandstones
can readily be recognized both in hand specimen
and under the microscope by their abundant
content of trachytic volcanic grains and the
intense alteration of such material to green
chloritic clay. In addition to disrupting the
profile of Coal Cliff D.D.H.17, these volcanic
sandstones are responsible for minor anomalies
in the profiles of several other bores in the
coastal regions, especially A.I.S. Metropolitan
D.D.H. 6, D.M. Wollongong D.D.H. 44, and
Mount Murray D.D.H. 12.

Conclusions

At the present time it is not possible to obtain
a sufficient number of subsurface samples from
the central part of the basin, so that any
conclusions on north-south correlation drawn
from the petrological data presented above are
advanced on a tentative basis only. It is
apparent that a “‘step”’ in the _ petrological
profile, once recognized, can be traced from bore
to bore over many miles, providing an additional
aid to lithological correlation in doubtful areas.
An extension of this concept may also be applied
to inter-regional correlation, for example that
between the Hlawarra and North Coast districts
of the Sydney Basin, and may also hold true for
units other than the Narrabeen Group.

Lithological correlation of the Narrabeen
Group across the basin indicated firstly that the
Grose (Colo Vale) Sandstone in the west is
equivalent to the Bulgo and Scarborough
Sandstone on the coast, which merge as the
Stanwell Park Claystone pinches out (Dickson,
1967). Tracing the top of the conglomeratic
sequence further indicates that the Burra Moko
Head Sandstone Member is the lateral equivalent
not only of the Scarborough Sandstone, as
suggested by Herbert (1970), but of also the
lower or pebbly facies of the Bulgo Sandstone,
thus implying that the Mount York and Menai
Claystone Members occur at the same general
stratigraphic horizon. The Munmorah Con-
glomerate of the North Coast district may also
be correlated with these units, so that the Menai
Member is probably equivalent to the thick
shaley succession at the base of the Tuggerah
Formation.

¢

A “step ”’ in the petrological profiles (“‘ step ”’
B) occurs at the top of the Munmorah Con-
glomerate in the north, the top of the pebbly
facies of the Bulgo Sandstone in the south, and
possibly, although this is uncertain, at the
middle of the Grose Sandstone in the west.
The presence of a major “step’”’ at each of

88 COLIN R. WARD

these horizons appears to support the lithological
correlation described above.

The suggestions of Stuntz (1961) and Bradley
(1964) that the Bald Hill and Patonga Claystones
are not equivalent is further supported by the
clay mineralogy of the _ respective units
(Loughnan e al., 1964) and by the position of
“steps ’’ in the sandstone composition profile
of the sequence. A “step” occurs at the top
of the Patonga Claystone at Ourimbah Creek,
but 200’ below the Bald Hill Claystone in the
Cecil Park bore. If these two “steps’”’ are
equivalent, as appears to be the case, the Bald
Hill Claystone, with its distinctive mineralogical
composition (Loughnan, 1963) is situated some
distance above the Patonga, and thus further
negates the correlation of Hanlon ef al. (1953),
which indicates physical continuity.

The origin of such “ steps ”’ in the petrological
profiles, corresponding to sudden changes in
the composition of the sediments being deposited
at a particular point, appears due to fluctuations
in the debris coming from the principal source
areas. Regional studies suggest that the
transition from lithic to quartzose sediments
in the Narrabeen Group is the result of a shift
in the source of the material from the north,
the recently folded New England Geosyncline
to the west, where the older Lachlan Geosyncline
was exposed. The sudden changes in sediment
composition suggest that this shift in source
areas took place in a number of separate stages,
probably in response to tectonic movements,
and thus the effect of a “step ’’ was felt over a
large part of the basin more or less simul-
taneously or at least as soon as the sediment
was dispersed.

Acknowledgements

The work described in this paper forms part
of the author’s Ph.D. thesis submitted to the
University of N.S.W. in 1971. Core samples
were made available by the N.S.W. Department
of Mines, Australian Oil and Gas Corporation
Limited, Kembla Coal and Coke Proprietary
Limited, and the Joint Coal Board, to whom the

author would like to record his thanks.
Particular thanks are also due to Associate
Professor F. C. Loughnan, who acted as
supervisor for the doctoral study, and to Mrs.
K. M. Ward for the typing of the manuscript.

References

BRADLEY, K., 1964. Stratigraphy of the Narrabeen
Group, Sydney Basin. Unpubl. Report, Aust.
Oil and Gas Corp. Ltd.

Crook, K. A. W., 1956. The Stratigraphy and
Petrology of the Narrabeen Group in the Grose
River District. J. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 90, 61.

Dickson, T. W., 1967. Stratigraphy of the Narrabeen
Group in the Southern Coalfields, N.S.W. Abstr.,
2nd Symp. on Advances in the Study of the Sydney
Basin, Univ. of Newcastle.

GaLLoway, M. C., 1968. The Stratigraphy of the
Putty—Upper Colo Area, Sydney Basin, N.S.W.
J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 101 (1), 23-36.

GoOLDBERY, R., 1966. The Geology of the Upper
Blue Mountains Area. Unpubl. B.Sc. (Hons.)
thesis, Univ. of N.S.W.

GoLDBERY, R., 1970. Stratigraphy and Sedimentation
of the Triassic Units in the North-western Sydney
Basin. Unpubl. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of N.S.W.

Hanton, F. N., 1952. Geology of the Southern Coal-
field, Illawarra District. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines
N.S.W., 95-104.

Hanton, F. N., OSBORNE, G. D., and Raaceatt, H. C.,
1953. The Narrabeen Group—Its Subdivisions
and Correlations between the South Coast and the
Narrabeen-Wyong District. J. Roy. Soc. N.S.W..,
87, 106-120.

HELBY, Re J, 22961.
of the Lower Burragorang District.
M.Sc. (qual.) thesis, Univ. of Sydney.

HERBERT, C., 1970. A Synthesis of Narrabeen Group
Nomenclature, Sydney Basin. Quart. WNotes.,
Geol. Surv. N.S.W., No. 1, Oct., 1970.

LouGHNAN, F. C., 1963. A Petrological Study of a
Vertical Section in the Narrabeen Group at
Helensburgh, N.S.W. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 10 (1)
177-192.

LouGHNAN, F. C., Ko Ko, M., and Baytiss, P., 1964.
The Red Beds of the Triassic Narrabeen Group.
J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 11, 65-78.

McE.troy, C. T., 1954. Petrology of Sandstones of
the Southern Coalfield. Unpubl. M.Sc. thesis,
Univ. of Sydney.

StuNnTz, J., 1961. Stratigraphic Notes to Accompany
Narrabeen Group Cross-sections, Sydney Basin.
Unpubl. Rept. Aust. Oil and Gas Corp. Ltd.

Warp, C. R., 1971. Mesozoic Sedimentation and
Structure in the Southern Part of the Sydney
Basin—the Narrabeen Group. Unpubl. Ph.D.
thesis, Univ. of N.S.W.

Contributions to the Geology
Unpubl.

(Received 15 November 1971)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 89-93, 1971

Longitudinal Free Oscillations in Jervis Bay,
New South Wales

D. J. CLARKE

Department of Mathematics, Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, N.S.W., Australia

AspstTRAcT—The longitudinal free oscillations in Jervis Bay are calculated theoretically

by the Galerkin method applied to a one-dimensional flow model.
modes of the model are given together with the corresponding horizontal transports.

The periods of the first six
Two power

spectra of wave heights measured at one end of the Bay during southerly storms have been
compared with the theory. Excellent agreement is obtained for the fundamental mode with a

theoretical period of 33-6 minutes.

The possible existence of transverse oscillations in the Bay

during the time of measuring the wave height obscures the matching of other theoretical harmonics,
but, since the excitation is caused by strong winds along the main axis of the Bay, some comparisons

are speculated.

1. Introduction

Not many lakes or bays in Australia have been
analysed for their free oscillations. Model
studies of harbours have been carried out, e.g.,
Port Kembla harbour by the Public Works
Department (1962), and both theoretical and
experimental studies have been made on The
Coorong, South Australia, by Clarke (19650)
and Noye (1967). A theoretical and experi-
mental study of Jervis Bay has been undertaken
and will now be described.

The methods of theoretical analysis of longi-
tudinal oscillations in lakes and bays are mostly
summarized by Defant (1961). Some variations
of these have been made recently by Bottomley
(1956), Darbyshire and Darbyshire (1957) and
Raichlen (1965). Bottomley examined the free
oscillations in Lake Wakatipu, New Zealand,
from the behaviour of a laboratory model of the
lake, while Darbyshire and Darbyshire applied
the method of Chrystal (1906) to Lough Neagh
by representing the lake as a series of coupled
rectangles and matching boundary conditions
at the junctions of the rectangles. They also

‘used an interesting impedance approach with
reasonable results. Raichlen transformed the
shallow-water wave equations into a set of
difference equations which were then solved
numerically to obtain the periods and modes of
oscillation.

_ Another method was given by Clarke (1968),
who applied the Galerkin method (Kantorovich
and Krylov, 1958) to the boundary value
problem posed by the longitudinal oscillations
of a lake or bay, and showed that it is an easy-
_to-apply technique which is valid over a wide

range of basin shapes provided the flow in the
transverse direction is negligible. The nature of
the solution is a feature of the method in that
it gives both transport and wave height as well
as the frequencies of various modes. It is this
method which is applied to Jervis Bay.

2. Application of the Galerkin Method
to Jervis Bay

Jervis Bay (Figure 1) is about 100 miles south
of Sydney and is on the New South Wales
coastline. It is somewhat oval in shape and
measures 9 miles along the longitudinal axis
and 434 miles in the transverse direction.

The Bay is open to the sea, but the oscillations
through the entrance were omitted from
consideration by assuming a closed entrance
from Bowen Island to Longnose Point. In
terms of longitudinal oscillations along the main
axis it is hence assumed that the loss in energy
through the entrance is small over the time cycle
of an oscillation. The Bay was divided into
44 stations along the main axis and transversals
drawn for each station. The area of cross-
section and the breadth in the surface for each
station were then calculated.

If the origin O is chosen at the southern end
of the Bay and the axis Ox along the main axis,
which is almost due north, then the area of
cross-section and the breadth at a station distant
x from O is A(x) and b(x) respectively. The
linear equations of motion are transformed by
introducing a horizontal transport variable, a,
and a surface area variable, y, where

a=A (x),

90 D. J. CLARKE

-
sa ‘
Seca NS
wet \
pene ete ‘
j i
Maa r
U KL
qd weeny
/ X
| .
\ U
u iy
‘ r]
( !
( ’
t}
’
|
‘ i]
/
{
’ i]
‘ }
4 /
\ een |) Se /
- =e
‘ ee N
7 /
i} 7. \ /
4 4 \\ /
\ ? \ |
/ \ t]
/ \ 1
Se / \ !
i ers / \ \
— , y \ \
Pi ‘if \ )
7, \ !
/ t !
/ \
/ / \ \
ri / NN rama
\
? / \ a a
f aia
Longnose en a
Se

Pt.

4000 YDS
[cd

FicurE 1.—Jervis Bay, with dotted lines indicating the 10- and 6-fathom lines.

LONGITUDINAL FREE OSCILLATIONS IN JERVIS BAY 91

with wu being the horizontal velocity in the x
direction, and

=| b(x')dx’.
0

By assuming periodic oscillations,

aosakeltte) lll... (3)
the transformed equations become

2 ak 2

ine Ole ger ae (4)

de afl)

AY A Ui) erence (5)

At the north end of the bay, «=/, say, the
variable y has the value y,. The boundary
conditions are then

70, y—0 and-y—y,, .... (6)
i.e., there is no transport across the ends.

The approximate solution of the problem
(4) and (6) is based on the Galerkin method,
where the transport, «*, is approximated as a
polynomial satisfying the boundary conditions,
ie.,

a = a.,(¥) =

KW Haye Fase. any")

where

= Di 0:0}:
i=1
The functions 9; must then satisfy ortho-
gonality conditions

XL (d2y G2
—— +——-a, Jo,dy=0,
J (Se ey)
[all Io ee 5
The coefficients of the a; are computed for each
j value and are of the form —u,,--Av,,, where
“A=c7/g. Thus if A=(u,) and B=(v,,) then

values A when 1 was equal to 8, 1.e., the approxi-
mation for the transport was a polynomial of
degree 10. The periods of the first six harmonics
were then calculated and are given in Table 1,
together with the coefficients, a;, of the corres-
ponding transports. These coefficients have not
been normalized in any way and lead directly
to wave height, for

day
dy =r
where € is the wave-height.

3. Comparison of Theoretical Results
with Experimental Evidence

Wave height recordings were obtained from
Jervis Bay over a period of several months in
1968. Two of these records were chosen for
analysis as they measured the effects of strong
southerly winds along the Bay. One of these
records was taken on 15th May and has been
published by Clarke, Keane and O'Halloran
(1968), the other was taken on 19th April. The
recording instrument was situated on the Royal
Australian Naval College SAR wharf at the
southern end of the Bay.

The duration of the records chosen for
analysis was five hours on 19th April and nine
hours on 15th May. The data were read
manually at intervals of three minutes and
processed by the Time Series Analysis Program
FSAPS of the User Group G6 CSIR (Clarke,
1965a). This programme computes either a
Fourier series spectrum by the algorithm in
A. P. Clarke (1964) or a Power spectrum by the

TABLE 1
The Periods and the Coefficients, a,, of the a Eqn. (7), for the First Six Longitudinal Harmonics
of Jervis Bay

Transport Coefficients

Har- | Period

monic | (mins.) ay ae az
1 33°6 |—0-1786 0:0002 |—0-0099
2 20-0 00-1445 |—0-0015 |—0-0252
3 14-2 |—0-1472 0:0560 |—0-0088
4 10:8 0-1808 |—0-J435 0-0643 |—0-
5 8:7 |—0-3959 0-3449 0-0371 |—0O
6 7-2 |—0-2017 0:3205 |—0-1175 j|—0-:

the integrated system (8) is (4—AB)x=0,
where x is the column vector of the a,. Hence
dX and x are the eigen-values and eigen-vectors
mi BA.

In the analysis of Jervis Bay sufficient
accuracy was obtained for the first six eigen-

SoS

a, as oe | ay as
0047 |—0-00]1 0-0002 0-0000 0-0000
-0179 | —0-0069 0-0013 |—0-0001 0- 0000
-0029 0-0003 |—0-0003 0-0001 0-0000

0417 0-0172 |!—0-0035 0-0003 0-0000
‘0876 | 0:0278 |—0-0045 0-0004 0-0000

0035 0-0067 |—0-0005 |(—0-0001 0-0000
method of Blackman and Tukey (1958). The

Fourier series spectrum was computed for both
of the records and is shown in Figure 2.

In this Figure the periods corresponding to
local maximum energy have been marked and
are expressed in minutes. The two spectra

92 D. J. CLARKE

show close agreement with each other for these the period 15-8 minutes on the 19th April
period times except for the periods 24:0, 20-0 spectrum, which will now be discussed. The
and 17:4 minutes on 15th May spectrum and possibility of finding a maximum energy peak ~

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ot = om os fon) —?
' i ' t t i ' 1 ‘ 10
ENERGY/
FREQUENCY
BANDWIDTH
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19-4-68

io 12

FREQUENCY AS MULTIPLES OF 217/60.T RADIANS/MINUTE WHERE T = 5 HOURS

10!
ENERGY /
FREQUENCY
BANDWIDTH

$6 84 78 72 66 60 54 48 42 36 30 24 18 7 6 0

FREQUENCY AS MULTIPLES OF 21/60.T RADIANS/MINUTE WHERE T= 9 HOURS

Fic. 2.—Fourier series energy spectrum for Jervis Bay, with maximum energy peaks marked to show the period
in minutes.

LONGITUDINAL FREE OSCILLATIONS IN JERVIS BAY 93

near 24-0 minutes on the 19th April record is
eliminated by the large density at the 33:3
minute period. The energy peak corresponding
to 20-0 minutes on the record is plainly absent,
which suggests that the conditions over the Bay
were not conducive to an excitation of this
harmonic, while the energy peak at 17-4
minutes for the 15th May spectrum is a broad
peak and may well represent a peak nearer
16-0 minutes. Further experimental data are
required in order to ratify the discrepancies.

When the theoretical periods are compared
with the spectra it is clear that the peaks at
33°3 and 33-75 minutes correspond to the
model’s fundamental period of 33-6 minutes
and that this figure is within the resolution
factor for each spectrum.

Further comparisons are purely speculative,
but it may be possible to match the model’s
second harmonic period of 20-0 minutes with the
energy peak at 20-0 minutes on the 15th May.
This would assume that the peak corresponds
to a longitudinal oscillation and not to a
transverse one. Other comparisons are obscured
by the probable existence of resonant oscillations
having a node at the entrance. More investi-
gation is necessary to resolve these points.

Concluding Remarks

The free oscillations in Jervis Bay have been
calculated theoretically by the Galerkin method
applied to a one-dimensional flow model. The
periods obtained were 33:6. 20-0, 14-2, 10:8,
8:7 and 7-2 minutes and correspond to the first
six longitudinal harmonics of the Bay, where
it is assumed that no motion takes place through
the entrance. Two power spectra obtained from
wave records for the 19th April and 15th May,
1968, show energy peaks which are in close
agreement with each other. Peaks at 33:3

and 33-75 minutes are in close agreement with
the theoretical fundamental period of 33-6
minutes. The matching of other energy peaks
with the theoretical model would be only
tentative, and subject to further investigation.

References

BLACKMAN, R. B., and TuKey, J. W., 1958. The
Measurement of Power Spectra. Dover Publica-
tions, New York, 190 pp.

BoTToMLeEy, G. A., 1956. The Free Oscillations of
Lake Wakatipu, New Zealand. Tvans. A.G.U..,
37 (1), 51-55.

CHRYSTAL, GEORGE, 1906.
Theory of Seiches.
41, 599-649.

CLARKE, A. P., 1964. Computation of the Coefficients
of a Fourier Series Expansion of a Function
Defined by Sampled Data Points. TM, TRD 7],
ADDS, W.R.E.

CLARKE, D. J., 1965a.

On the Hydrodynamical
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb.,

Time Series Analysis Program

FSAPS. User Group G6 CSIR, C.S.I.R.O.,
Adelaide.

CLARKE, D. J., 1965b. Seiches in Inland Lakes and
Harbours. M.Sc. thesis, University of Adelaide.

CLARKE, D. J., 1968. Seiche Motions for One-dimen-
sional Flow. J. Mar. Res., 26 (3), 202-207.

CLARKE, D. J., KEANE, A., and O’HaLioran, P. J.,
1968. A Marine Physics Project. Bull. No. 19,
Woll. Univ. Coll., Univ. N.S.W.

DARBYSHIRE, J., and DARBYSHIRE, M., 1957. Seiches
in Lough Neagh. Roy. Met. Soc. Qtyl. J., 83,
93-102.

DEFANT, ALBERT, 1961. Physical Oceanography, V2.
Pergamon Press, New York, 590 pp.

KANTOROVICH, L. V., and Krytov, V. I., 1958.
Approximate Methods of Higher Analysis. Inter-
science Publishers, Noordhoff, Holland, 680 pp.

Nove, B. J., 1967. A Limnological Study of The
Coorong. Research Paper No. 11, Horace Lamb
Centre, South Australia.

PuBLIC WoRKS DEPARTMENT, N.S.W., 1962. Port
Kembla: Inner Harbour Long Period Wave
Investigation: Report on Model Studies (A. H.
Lucas), 15 pp.+Appendices.

RAICHLEN, FREDRIC, 1965. Long Period Oscillations
in Basins of Arbitrary Shapes, Ch. 7, Specialty
Conf. on Coast. Eng., Santa Barbara (ASCE).

(Received 14 July 1971)

Report of the Council for the

_ Presented at the Annual General Meeting of the
Society held on 7th April, 1971, in accordance with
Rule 18 (a).

At the end of the period under review the composition
of the membership was 346 members, 12 associate
members, and 10 honorary members.

During the year 13 new members, two associate
members and one honorary member were elected.
One associate transferred to full membership. Fifteen
members and one associate member resigned.

Honorary member elected: Dr. Thomas Iredale.

It is with regret that we announce the loss by death
of :

Professor Albert E. Alexander (elected 1950).
Mr. Arthur J. Lambeth (elected 1939).

Miss Joan A. Marsden (elected 1954).

Dr. Henry S. H. Wardlaw (elected 1913).
Professor W. L. Waterhouse (elected 1919).

Nine monthly meetings were held. The abstracts
of all addresses have been printed on the notice papers.
The proceedings of these will appear later in the issue
of the Journal and Proceedings. The members of
Council wish to express their sincere thanks and
appreciation to the nine speakers who contributed to
the success of these meetings, the average attendance
being 36.

The Annual Social Function was held at the Uni-
versity of New South Wales Union, and was attended
by 53 members and guests.

Clarke Medal for 1971:
D.Sc.

The Society’s Medal for 1970: Dr. J. A. Dulhunty,
D.Sc.

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1970: Dr. D. A.
Buckingham, Ph.D., M.Sc., B.Sc.

The Archibald Ollé Prize for Vol. 102:
Guy, B.Sc, Ph.D.

The Liversidge Research Lecture for 1970, entitled
“ Chemistry of Some Insect Secretions ’’, was delivered
by Professor G. W. K. Cavill, of the School of Chemistry,
University of New South Wales.

At the General Monthly Meeting on 6th June, 1970,
a lecture entitled “‘ James Cook and the Transit of
Venus ”’ was delivered by Mr. W. H. Robertson of the
Sydney Observatory. Acknowledgement is given to the
Captain Cook Bi-centenary Committee for their
support of this lecture and for a grant towards printing.

In conjunction with the Australian Institute of
Physics, a special lecture was held at the University of
Sydney, entitled ‘‘ The Scientific Experiments Planned
for Apollo 14 on 31st January, 1971’. The lecture
was delivered by Dr. P. K. Chapman, N.A.S.A.
Astronaut.

The Society has again received a grant from the
Government of New South Wales of $1,500. The
Government’s continued interest in the work of the
Society is much appreciated.

Dr. Nancy T. Burbidge,

1B, ened seen se

Year Ended 3lst March, 1971.

A sub-committee was set up during the year to look
into the Kole of the Society for the future . A
report from this committee follows.

A most successful Summer School, ‘‘ Mathematics
Alive ’’, was run by the Society in January, 1971.
It has been recommended that the Summer School
become an annual event.

The Society’s financial statement shows a surplus of
$3,550.44.

The New England Branch of the Society’s meeting
will be included in the Proceedings of the Branch to
follow.

A report of the Proceedings of the South Coast Branch
will also follow.

The Section of Geology continued to hold regular
meetings, and the Annual Report is tabled.

The President represented the Society at the Bi-
centenary Celebrations of the Captain Cook Landing
at Kurnell, and placed a wreath on the Banks Memorial.
The celebration was held in the presence of Her Majesty
the Queen.

Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, Vice-President, represented
the Society at the Sydney Harbour Carnival and
Fireworks Display arranged by the Citizens’ Committee
of the Captain Cook Bi-centenary Celebrations
Committee.

Mr. M. J. Puttock, member of Council, represented
the Council at the Annual Dinner of the Institution of
Engineers, Australia, Sydney Division, and Annual
Dinner of the Chamber of Manufactures of New South
Wales.

Four parts of the Journal and Proceedings were
published during the year: Volume 102, Parts 2, 3/4,
and Volume 103, Part 1.

At a special meeting of Council Lord Casey cf
Berwick, accompanied by Lady Casey, received the
James Cook Medal for 1969 and was entertained at a
reception in the Society’s rooms, where he inspected the
library and viewed early records and documents from
the archives of the Society.

Council held 11 ordinary meetings, and attendances
were as follows : Professor Smith, ]1; Dr. Pickett, 10;
Mr. Chaffer, 11; Mrs. Krysko v. Tryst, 11; Mr.
Puttock, 11; Mr. Humphries, 6; Mr. Poggendorff, 11 ;
Mr. Robertson, 7; Mr. Clancy, 10; Professor Le Fevre,
6; Mr. Neuhaus, 7; Professor Griffith, 7; Mr. Pollard,
9; Mr. Kitamura, 10; Dr. Day, 3; Mr. Cameron, 6 ;
Dr. Reichel, 1; Dr. Watton (leave of absence), 3 ;
Professor Stanton, nil.

The Library.—Periodicals were received by exchange
from 395 societies and institutions. In addition the
amount of $156.68 was expended on the purchase of
periodicals.

Among the institutions which made use of the
Library through the inter-library loan scheme were :

New South Wales State Government: Geological
Survey of New South Wales; Department of Agri-

96 REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1971

culture; Electricity Commission; M.W.S. and D.
Board; Water Conservation and Irrigation Board ;
Department of Health ; Department of Conservation ;
Department of Mines.

Other State Governments: Northern Territory
Administration; Animal Industry and Agriculture
Branch; Department of Forestry, Queensland ;

Geological Survey of Queensland; Department of
Primary Industry, Brisbane ; Queensland Herbarium ;
Department of Mines, Hobart.

Commonwealth Government: Atomic Energy Com-
mission; Department of National Development ;
Joint Coal Board ; Royal Military College, Duntroon ;
C.S.I.R.O.: Mineral Chemistry, Coal Research,
Prospect, Cronulla, Textile Physics, National Standards
Library.

Universities and Colleges : Sydney Technical College ;
Universities of Sydney, New South Wales, Newcastle,
New England, James Cook of Northern Queensland,
Melbourne, Flinders, Macquarie, Australian National
University, Queensland, Adelaide, Wollongong Uni-
versity College, La Trobe, Tasmania. Universities of
Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury and Otago supplied
with Xerox copies.

Companies : C.S.R. Research; C.S.R. Head Office ;
B.H.P., Shortland; B.H.P., Newcastle; B.H.P. Oil
and Gas, Melbourne; Australian Iron and Steel;
Blue Metal and Gravel Co. Pty. Ltd. ; Peko-Wallsend ;
Arnotts Biscuits; Union Carbide; Australian Ccn-
solidated Industries; Cyprus Mines Corp.; Eastern
Nitrogen Ltd.; I.C.I. ; Bonds Industries; James
Hardie & Co.

Museums : Western Australian Museum ; Australian
Museum.

Miscellaneous : Institution of Engineers; Linnean
Society of New South Wales; St. Vincent’s Hospital ;
Royal North Shore Hospital; National Library of
Australia.

Borrowings for the year 1970/71:
others, 439; total, 518.

Our Assistant Librarian, Mr. A. F. Day, retired in
November. Mr. Day had the Society’s well-being
very much at heart, and he rendered many extra
services. One area in particular where this was evident
was the very efficient manner in which he reorganized
the Society’s library during his period of service.

It is with pleasure that we are able to report the
appointment of Mrs. G. Procter as the new Assistant
Librarian.

The Council also wish to extend their thanks to Mrs.
Collier, our Assistant Secretary, who has, under difficult
circumstances, so efficiently conducted the daily affairs
of the Society.

In the period under review we were informed that
Science House was to be resumed by the Sydney Cove
Redevelopment Authority. This was officially gazetted
on 18th December, 1970. Your Council has been
most active in taking all possible measures to oppose
resumption, and later in seeking professional advice in
the compiling and lodging of the claim for compensation
with the Authority.

It may well be that this enforced change is the most
important event in the Society’s long history, and
provided we work together in the course of improving
our illustrious Society it could lead to the brightest
possible future.

members, 79 ;

E. K. CHAFFER,
Hon. Secretary.
7th April, 1971.

Summer School, 1971

‘¢ Mathematics Alive ”’

A four-day Summer School, ‘“‘ Mathematics Alive ’’,
was organized by Council members for sixth form high
school students and a few first year university students
to give the coming generation of scientists some insight
into the way mathematics and computers are used in
scientific research work. The School was held from
Monday, 18th January, to Thursday, 21st January, in
Science House. On the last day the students used
computers at the I.B.M. Centre, Sydney, and they
visited the Australian Atomic Energy Commission
Research Establishment, Lucas Heights.

About 400 students sought admission to the School
following distribution of application forms through the
principals of metropolitan high schools. A selection
of 95 students was made on the basis of advice from
the school mathematics masters and 92 finally attended
the School.

The subject-matter for the School was chosen to
show the students the way computers are used in
mathematical problem solving and the need for solidly
based mathematical theory was emphasized. The
lectures covered such subjects as abstract spaces,
matrices, numerical analysis and FORTRAN coding
and were given by Council members as well as staff
from the A.A.E.C. Research Establishment and the
I.B.M. Centre. (Thanks have already been expressed
to these establishments for their generous help.)

One theme developed throughout the School con-
cerned whether fuel in a nuclear reactor would melt,

and centred around a study of the time-dependent (?)
first-order non-linear differential equation

p=[p—1—b exp (—2)]p, p(0)=1,
which approximately describes the influence on reactor
power (p) of a disturbance b to the steady state
(p(t)=1). We sought numerical solution of the given
equation so that we could calculate the maximum
power surge
h(b) =max p(?).

The solution precess involved the students in mathe-
matics, numerical analysis as well as FORTRAN
computer programming. Almost all the students were
able to show from their computer results that the fuel
melting condition

h(b) >1-2
was not achieved when b=0-5.

From comments received from the students they
really enjoyed the School. Many of the students have
shown an interest in our Society. The Council suggest
that it is up to the Society to maintain this interest
with activities which show the coming generation the
vital role of Science in our community—Science the
servant of man.

JOHN POLLARD,
Director,
Summer School.

Role of the Society

Report Presented at the Annual General Meeting of the Royal Society of New
South Wales on 7th April, 1971

During 1970 the Council agreed to consider the role
and activities of the Society in the past and for the
future.

The present activities of the Society include :

(i) Organization of occasional specialist lectures.
(a) Clarke Memorial Lecture (Geology).
(b) Liversidge Research Lecture (Chemistry).
(c) Pollock Memorial Lecture (Mathematics
and Physics).
(ii) Organization of the programme of monthly
lectures on a variety of scientific topics.
(iii) Maintenance of the Society’s library.
iv) Publication of the Journal and Proceedings.
(iv) g
(v) Recognition of the merit of outstanding scientists
by the award of medals and prizes:
(a) The Society’s Medal.
(6) The Clarke Medal.
(c) The James Cook Medal.
(d) The Edgeworth David Medal.

(e) The Walter Burfitt Prize.
(f) The Archibald D. Ollé Prize.

(vi) Organization of symposia, summer schools and
conferences.

The Council believes that these activities are of
value to the scientific community in New South Wales
and believes that they must be continued.

At the same time the Council feels that the Society
should—where the state of its finances allows—do
more to serve the members, and to this end it is
investigating the possibility of undertaking additional
activities.

Now that Science House has been resumed, the
Society has the task of finding a new home. The type
of activity which the Society is to pursue in the future
must in part determine the sort of premises best suited
for our new home, and the new Council will have to
consider the two matters together.

All members will be affected in some measure by the
decisions to be arrived at by the Council, and in its
deliberations any opinions transmitted to it by members
will be most useful.

Honorary Treasurer’s Report

There was a surplus for the period of $3,550, as
against a deficit for the previous year of $209, resulting
in a total increase of $3,759, made up as follows :

$
Increase in Subscriptions received .. 1,130
Increase in General Interest* 529
Increase in Donations received 353
Increase in Sale of Reprints ae 401
Increase in Subscriptions to Journal 360
Increase in Sale of Back Numbers 538

Surplus from Summer School ‘e 17

Reduction in Printing Costs 692
Reduction in Salary Costs 544
4,564
IESS: =
Reduction in Science House
Surplus s a $488
Increase in Rental Paid 16
Increase in General Expenses 301
a 805
Total increase $3,759

* The increase in general interest is largely a result
of the Council’s decision that the interest on library
investments be credited to the General Interest
_ Account.

In the lhght of the recent increase in members’
subscriptions, a sounder position is reflected in the
following table.

Ratio of Subscriptions to Expenses

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Subscriptions 1,949 1,973 2,267 2,084 3,222
Expenses (not in-
cluding Journal

printing) 8,336 8,20510,139 9,514 9,427

1 to 1to 1to Ito 1 to

4:28 4-16 4:47 4-56 2-93

JAW. PICKETT,

Hon. Treasurer.

Abstract of Proceedings

Ist April, 1970

The one hundred and third Annual Meeting of the
Scciety was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. W. G. Neuhaus, was in the
chair. There were present 34 members and visitors.

Angus Robert Collins was elected a member of the
Society.

The following awards of the Scciety were announced :

The Society’s Medal for 1969 to Professor R. J. W.
Le Fevre.

The Clarke Medal for 1970 to G. P. Whitley, F.R.Z.S.
The James Cook Medal for 1969 to Lord Casey of
Berwick and Westminster.

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1969 to Professor
B. W. Ninham.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Financial
Statement were presented and adopted.

Messrs. Horley & Horley were re-elected Auditors
for the Society for 1970-1971.

Office-bearers for 1970—1971 were elected as follcws :
President: W. E. Smith, Ph.D.

Vice-Presidents; J... W...G., Newhaus, M.Sc.;" A. A.
Day eh. D.(Cantab ek: J. a... le Bevre, Di Se;
ERAS pee AcA. of... Katamura, BoA VV.
Robertson, B.Sc.

Hon. Secretaries: E. K. Chaffer (General), (Mrs.) M.
Krysko v. Tryst., B.Sc., Grad.Dip. (Editorial).

Hon. Treasurer : W.. Picketé,. M.Sc. (N.E.);
Dr.phil.nat. (Frankfurt/M).

Hon. Librarian: W. H. G. Poggendorff, B.Sc.Agr.

Members of Council: J. C. Cameron, M.A.; B.Sc.
(Edin,)) D.C... B.. Clancy, M.Se.,.J. de. Gritith,
B.A. M.Sc.; Mo.) ..Puttock, B:Se.(Eng,), A Inst 2,
A. JReichel,,, Ph.D. M:Sc: J. ©. Pollard; NUSc.,
Dip: App-Chem., J]... W. Hlumphries;” B.Sc; E.7C-
Watton, Ph.D., B.Sc.(Hons.), A.S.T.C.

The following papers were read by title only :

“Radio-Carbon Datings of Ancestral River Sedi-
ments on the Riverine Plain of South-eastern
Australia and Their Interpretation ’’, by Simon
Pels,

“The Occurrence and Significance of Triassic Coal
in the Volcanic Necks near Sydney. ~, i. H.
Hamilton, R. Helby and G. H. Taylor.

The address of the retiring President, Mr. J. W. G.

Neuhaus, entitled ‘‘ Chemicals in Food ’’, was delivered.

The retiring President then welcomed W. E. Smith,
Ph.D., to the Presidential Chair.

6th May, 1970

The eight hundred and forty-third General Monthly
Meeting of the Society was held in the Large Hall of
Science House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the
chair. There were present 33 members and visitors.

The following were elected as members: Jeannette
Adrian, Helen Elizabeth Andrews, Paul Michael
Ashley, Helena Basden, Keith Phillip Tognetti.

The following papers were read by title only :

“A Solar Charge and the Perihelion Motion of
Mercury ’’, by R. Burman.

“The Distribution of Eupatorium adenophorum
Speng. on the Far North Coast of New South
Wales ’’, by Bruce A. Auld.

Address.—An address entitled ‘“‘ This Man-Made
World ”’ was delivered by Dr. G. C. Lowenthal, Tutor
in Science, the Department of Adult Education,
at the University of Sydney.

3rd June, 1970

The eight hundred and forty-fourth General Meeting
of the Society was held in the Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the
chair. There were present 57 members and visitors.

The Chairman announced the deaths of Professor
A. E. Alexander and Professor W. L. Waterhouse.

The following members were elected : Anthcny John
Irving, Kathleen Harvison Barwick, Viera Scheibner.

The Chairman announced the election of honorary
member Thomas Iredale, B.Sc. (Syd.), D.Sc. (Lond.),
HAR EC. FERAL Gal:

The following papers were read by title only :

“Meson Field Potential in Fundamental Theory ’’,
by A. H. Klotz. (Communicated” by Dr: 2%
Reichel.)

“The Coolac-Goobarragandra
N.5.W.”, by H. G. Golding;

Address.—An address entitled “‘The Transit of
Venus ’”’ was delivered by Mr. W. H. Robertson of
the Sydney Observatory. The evening was arranged
in co-operation with the Captain Cook Bi-centenary
Committee (Arts and Historical Committee), and is
to be published.

Ultramafic Belt,

Ist July, 1970

The eight hundred and forty-fifth General Monthly
Meeting of the Society was held in the Hall of Science
House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the
chair. There were present 23 members and visitors.

The Chairman announced the death of Dr. Henry
S. H. Wardlaw.

A letter was tabled from Miss M. Ogle thanking all
for the presentation and good wishes.

Announcement of the Nuffield Foundation Australian
Advisory Committee that the 1971 award Nuffield
Commonwealth Travelling Fellowship in Medical

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

Sciences was awarded to Anthony R. Mocre, M.B.,
B.S., F.R.C.S., of the University of Melbourne at the
Royal Melbourne Hospital.

Applications requested for next award in the fields
of Natural Sciences and the Humanities and Social
Sciences to Australian university graduates between
the ages of 25 and 35 years.

Section of Geology to meet 17th July, 1970.

'Address.—An address entitled ‘‘ Chemical Educa-
tion—Problems of Innovation and Change’’ was

delivered by Professor H. F. Halliwell, Professor of

Chemical Education in the School of Chemical Science,
University of East Anglia, Norwich, England, who is
visiting Australia under the Commonwealth Scheme.

5th August, 1970

The eight hundred and forty-sixth General Monthly
Meeting of the Society was held in the Large Hall of
Science House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the
chair. There were present 51 members and visitors.

No meeting of the Section of Geology for the month
of August.

The following paper was read by title only :

“Devonian Stromatoporoids from the Broken River
Formation, North Queensland ’’, by C. W. Mallett.

Addvess.—An address entitled “‘ Drift Theory and
Fossil Non-marine Evidence from Antarctic and
Neighbouring Continents and Islands’’ was delivered
by Professor P. Tasch, Professor of Geology at Wichita
State University in Kansas, U.S.A.

2nd September, 1970

The eight hundred and _ forty-seventh General
Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Large
Hall of Science House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the
chair. There were present 11 members and visitors.

The following members were elected: Stephen
Sydney Sampson, Bruce Runnegar.

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1969 was presented
to Professor B. W. Ninham.

The next meeting of the Section of Geology will be
18th Deptember, 1970.

The following paper was read by title only:
“The Lower-Middle Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of the

Bowan Park Area, Central Western New South
Wales ’’, by V. Semeniuk.

Addvess.—An address entitled “‘Dynamic Aspects
of Plant Breeding’’ was delivered by Dr. K. S.
McWhirter, Senior Lecturer in Genetics and Plant
Breeding at the University of Sydney.

7th October, 1970

The eight hundred and forty-eighth General Monthly
Meeting of the Society was held in the Large Hall of
Science House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the
chair. There were present 28 members and visitors.

The Chairman announced with regret the death of
Joan Audrey Marsden, member since 1954.

99

The following member was elected: Ronald Rion

Burman.
There will be no meeting of the Section of Geology
in October.
The following papers were read by title only :
‘““A Solar Charge and the Perihelion Motion of 1566
Icarus’’, by R. Burman.
“On a Classical Pair of Equations’’, by J. L.
Griffith.

Addvess.—An address entitled “‘ Blood Transfusion ”’
was delivered by Dr. G. T. Archer of the Red Cross
Blood Transfusion Service, York Street, Sydney.

4th November, 1970
The eight hundred and forty-ninth General Monthly
Meeting of the Society was held in the Large Hall of
Science House, 157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the

chair. There were present 31 members and visitors.

The Chairman announced with regret the death of

Arthur James Lambeth, member since 1939.

Barry William Ninham was elected a member.

David Alastair Wadley was elected an associate

member.

The Section of Geology will meet on Friday, 20th

November, 1970.

The following papers were read by title only :

‘““A Note on Some Non-calcareous Stalactites from
the Sandstones of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W.’,
by E. V.. Lassak.

“ Occultations Observed at Sydney
during 1969’’, by K. P. Sims.

‘“ James Cook and the Transit of Venus’’, by W. H.
Robertson.

“Origin of the Moon’’, Clarke Memorial Lecture,
1969, by A. E. Ringwood.

Addvress.—An address entitled ‘‘ Metric Conversion
in Australia ’’ was delivered by Mr. A. F. A. Harper,
Executive Member, Metric Conversion Board.

Observatory

2nd December, 1970

The eight hundred and fiftieth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the
chair. There were present 52 members and visitors.

Archivedes Kalokerinos was elected a member.

It was reported that Council had informed members
of notice of resumption of Science House by the Sydney
Cove Redevelopment Authority.

Action had been taken in a letter of objection to the
resumption addressed to the Minister for Local Govern-
ment based on three points :

Financial hardship by loss of income and low
rental cost of Society’s rooms.

The acknowledged architectural merit of the
building.

The contribution cf members of the Society
to the progress of the State.

A copy of this letter was sent to the Premier, the

Minister for Education and Science, and the Member
for King, Mr. A. R. Sloss.

100 ABSTRACT OF

Notice was given of a lecture by Dr. P. K. Chapman,
N.A.S.A. Astronaut, to be held in conjunction with the
Australian Institute of Physics, on Tuesday, 8th
December, 1970, at 7.45 p.m., entitled “‘ The Scientific
Experiments Planned for Apollo 14 on 3lst January,
1971 ’’, to be held in the Stephen Roberts Theatre,
University of Sydney, preceded by a dinner, to which
all members were invited, in the Staff Club of Sydney
University, at 6 p.m.

PROCEEDINGS

It was announced that the next meeting of the Section
of Geology would be the Annual Meeting, to be held on
19th March, 1971, at 7.15 p.m., in the Small Hall of
Science House.

An address entitled “‘ Before Captain Cook: Some
Recent Results of Archaeology on the Coast of South-
eastern Australia ’’ was delivered by Mr. J. V. S. Megaw
of the Department of Archaeology, University of
Sydney.

1970
$
324

33
103

4,482
2,547
1,515

710

245
59,644
9,418

$79,021

3,763

$79,021

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1971

LIABILITIES

Accrued Expenses
Subscriptions Paid in Advance
Life Members’ Subscriptions—Amount carried forward.
Trust Funds (detailed seal ;
Clarke Memorial
Walter Burfitt Prize
Liversidge Bequest
Ollé Bequest

Miss Ogle Fund
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Library Reserve Account os oe Re of
Contingent Liability (in connection with Perpetual
Lease)

ASSETS

Cash at Bank and in Hand
Investments :
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Value—held for:

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Liversidge Bequest .. :
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Fixed Deposit

Deposits at Call—held for :
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Long Service Leave Fund
General Purposes

Science House—One-third ees Cost ne third 1968
V.G. $100,000) ‘ : a ae
Library—At 1936 Valuation :
Furniture and Office Equipment —At ‘Cost, less De-
preciation ; ; ae
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Centenary Volume :
Stock
Reprints

Debtors for Subscriptions .. :
Less Reserve for Bad Debts

Sundry Debtors :
Reprints a oe
Other = .. oe oe

4,669.12
2,650.98
1,523.33

810.26

3,600.00
2,000.00
1,400.00
9,680.00

9,600.00

2,653.69
630.96

4,082.22

2,480.85
38.70

699.80
699.80

283.35
90.53

$
326.96
59.80
98.70

9,653.69

63,361.59
8,898.49

$82,399.23

107.52

26,280.00

7,366.87

30,470.43
13,600.00

1,660.40

18.58
2.00

2,519.55

373.88
$82,399.23

102

TRUST FUNDS

Walter
Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Ollé
Memorial Prize Bequest Bequest
$ $ $
Capital at 28th February, 1971] 3,600.00 2,000.00 1,400.00 —
Revenue :
Balance at 28th Arey 1970 882.28 547.18 114.83 710.26
Income for Period 186.84 103.80 72.66 100.00
1,069.12 650.98 187.49 810.26
Less Expenditure a es — — 64.16 —
$1,069.12 $650.98 bt 28 es $810.26
ACCUMULATED FUNDS
$
Balance at 28th February, 1970 59,644.31
Add :
Transferred from Library Reserve 519.34
Surplus for Period .. ai ; 3,550.44
63,714.09
Less:
Increase in Provision for Bad Debts 338.60
Subscriptions Written Off 13.90
352.50
$63,361.59

Auditors’ Report

The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and
Vouchers of the Royal Society of New South Wales and is a correct statement of the position
of the Society’s affairs on 28th February, 1971, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves
that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and registered.

HORLEY & HORLEY,
Chartered Accountants.
Registered under the Public Accountants
Registration Act 1945, as amended.

65 York Street,
Sydney.
24th March, 1971.
(Signed) J. W. PICKETT,
Hon. Treasurer.
W. E. SMITH,
President.

13,516
209

——_—__

$13,725

4,211
127
4,108
17
3,649
105

13,725

$13,725

DD

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT
Ist MARCH, 1970, TO 28th FEBRUARY, 1971

Membership Subscriptions. ;
Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions
Government Subsidy
Science House Management—Share ‘of Surplus
Interest on General Investments ie
Donations 3
Sale of Reprints :
Subscriptions to Journal
Sale of Back Numbers
Refund :

Postages

Xerox Copying
Summer School Surplus

Deficit for Period

Accountancy
Advertising

Annual Social

Audit

Branches of the Society
Cleaning .

Depreciation

Electricity
Entertainment
Insurance sie
Library Purchases
Miscellaneous

Postages and Telegrams

Printing—Vol. 102, Parts 2, 3 and 4; Vol. 103, Part 1 $3,287.55
Binding ne vy - im —-
Postages 233.88

Printing—General and Stationery
Rent—Science House Management
Repairs

Salaries

Telephone

Surplus for Period

$
3,222.00
4.20
1,500.00
7,216.20
1,068.74
400.00
580.43
1,121.55
1,200.79

136.92
29.30
16.81

16,496.94

$16,496.94

$
285.00
110.63
59.43
110.00
100.00
110.40
85.72
62.67
15.40
115.49
156.68
232.40
416.86

3,519.43
204.03
4,124.00
5.77
3,105.44
127.15
12,946.50
3,550.44

$16,496.94

103

104

Section of Geology

Abstract of Proceedings, 1970

Five meetings were held during this year, the average
attendance being about 10 members and visitors.

MARCH 20th (Annual Meeting) :

(1) Electicn of office-bearers: Chairman, Dr. B. B.
Guy ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. E. V. Lassak.

(2) Address by Dr. P. R. Evans, ““ Late Mesozoic
Geological History of Eastern Australia ’’.

It is possible to divide the Late Mesozoic into a
series of zones based on the sequence of microfloral
assemblages in the containing streta. Plcts of the
distribution, variations in thickness and sedimentary
types associated with these zones express the pro-
gressive evolution of the area during Mesozoic times.

The Early Jurassic sequences appear to be the
product of a large river system which crossed southern
Queensland to debouche in an eastern sea located
beyond the present continental margin. The blocks of
Palaeozoic and Early Mesozoic rock which currently
divide the Great Artesian Basin from the Clarence-
Morton and Marybcrough Basins had little influence
on the deposition at the time. Uprising of the Nebine
Ridge to divide the Eromanga from the Surat areas
of sedimentation began in late Middle or Upper
Jurassic time. Minor downwarping during early
Middle Jurassic time developed into the Laura Basin
in northern Queensland. A major transgression by
marine environments moved southwards from the
Papuan Basin during Early Cretaceous times. The
transgression extended at least as far south as the centre
of the Murray Basin in the Aptian. Foundering of the
Gippsland-Otway lineament commenced in early
Cretaceous time, but open marine conditions failed to
enter the region. The late Albian-early Turonian was
a period for regressicn of the sea to the north and for
eventual break-through of marine conditions into the
Otway Basin. From mid-Turonian time onward
deposition was restricted to the continent’s borders
and sediments of this age are known only in the
Gippsland Basin and Otway Basin. However, open
marine conditions were never fully developed in those
portions of the three basins which have so far been
investigated.

MAY 15th:

Address by Mr. D. Taylor: “ Tertiary History of
the Southern Australian Continental Shelf ’’.

Foraminiferal studies on the Tertiary deposits of
southern Australia (from Esperance to Melbourne)

have revealed a developing series of environmental
events. From late Cretaceous into early Tertiary
times sedimentation was in estuarine, lagoonal and
marsh situations with occasional ingressions of marine
conditions marked by the presence of planktonic
foraminifera. Even drilling offshore has not pene-
trated a continuous marine sequence. A _ southern
Australian seaway was not established until the late
Eocene, when carbonate deposition commenced with
influxes of planktonic foraminifera. Carbonate sedi-
mentation, rich in both foraminifera and bryozoa,
persisted to the present day with occasional localized
disruptions, especially during the Oligocene. Generally,
the Tertiary seas were temperate and the prevailing
hydrological system was apparently identical to that
operating today, i.e. West Wind Drift. During the
upper Eocene and lower Miocene there is faunal evidence
of brief periods of oceanic warming which are more
evident in the west than in the east. This series of
environmental events and speculations on _ paleo-
hydrology are consistent with current theories on the
rifting of Australia from Antarctica. This rifting
reached its zenith in late Eocene times and the dilation
was apparently greater in the west than in the east.

JULY 17th: |

Address by Dr. H. G. Golding: ‘‘ Volcanics of
Arran, Antrim, etc. (a Geological Travelogue) ’’.

Dr. Golding first illustrated features encountered
mainly in Iran, Turkey and the Balkans. These |
included the Quaternary andesite peak of the
Demavend, Elburz Mts., Iran; the chromite workings
at Guleman, Anatolia; the Radusa chromite mine,
Macedonia; the magnesite deposits at Goles, Serbia ;
chrysotile asbestos in the Ozren herzolite, Bosnia ;
the Karstic Dinarides, Herzegovina; the Kassariani
schists on Hymittos near Athens; leucitite and

piperino, near Rome; the Barrandian limestone,
Prague; mixed granite-diorite of the Bohemian
Massif; and Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Tertiary

beds in south and central England.

Dr. Golding then outlined aspects of the geology of |
Arran, where Dalradian schists are intruded by Tertiary |
granite, and flanked by Arenig pillow lavas and)
Devonian and Carboniferous beds; while Tertiary
pitchstones, crinanites and other rocks intrude Permian ;
strata. Occurrences of these rocks, and views of Holy |
Island (riebeckite trachyte), Pladda Island (dolerite) H
and Ailsa Crag (riebeckite microgranite) were illustrated
by slides. |

4

|

L

SECTION OF GEOLOGY

In the north of Ireland the contact of the Mourne
Granite with Palaeozoic sediments and the contact
of a cone sheet with hornfelses near Carlingford were
illustrated. Slides were shown of pipe and _ spike
amygdules, vesicle cylindres,
structures in the Antrim basalts at Belfast, Island
Magee and Giant’s Causeway localities.

Specimens exhibited included leucite crystals from
the Appian Way, chrome diopside from Dubostiéa,
Bosnia, elaterite from Derbyshire, pitchstones from
Arran, plombierite from Scawt Hill, and_ perlitic
obsidian from Sandy Braes, Antrim.

SEPTEMBER 18th:
Address by Mr. C. R. Ward:
Narrabeen Group Sedimentation ’’.

The sediments cf the Narrabeen Group were deposited
principally by fluvial activity, although a lower deltaic

plain environment appears to be represented in the
Studies of cross-
bedding in the sandstones indicate a southerly to south-

topmost formations of the sequence.

easterly direction of transport for most of the sequence,

with significant departures from this trend at certain

stratigraphic horizons.

In the south coast district, the middle part of the
Bulgo Sandstone consists of very distinctive, dark green

columnar and _ other

““Some Aspects of

105

sediments made up of grains and granules of altered
intermediate volcanic rock, together with a quartz-poor
clay assemblage. Analysis of the cross-bedding in
this part of the sequence shows that the material was
derived from the east, beyond the present coastline.
Geophysical data from this area, as well as the petrology
of the sediments themselves, appear to indicate that
the underlying Gerringong volcanics had been uplifted
and were sufficiently exposed during the Lower Triassic
to supply sediment to several parts of the Narrabeen
Group. Information such as this is of great importance
in palaeogeographical interpretations of the Sydney
Basin.

NOVEMBER 20th:

Address by Dr. A. D. Albani: “A Study of the
Bedrock in Jarvis Bay and Broken Bay ’’.

Dr. Albani discussed first his recently concluded
work on the bedrock of Jarvis Bay. It shows the
presence of two separate drainage systems. A major
one including most of the central and southern portion
and a minor one in the northern part cf the bay.

Present work in the Broken Bay area shows that
Pittwater is a separate drainage system. Anomalies in
the bedrock levels in the northern area adjoining
Brisbane Water are as yet unexplained.

Report of the South Coast Branch of the Royal Society of
New South Wales

It is with pleasure that I report on the activities of
the small South Coast Branch.

The Annual Dinner and Annual General Meeting
was held in the Union, Wollongong University College,
on 20th March, 1971. Twenty-seven members and
their guests attended. The guest speaker was Dr. J.
Symonds, who gave an address on the prorosed nuclear

power station development at Nowra. The address
was well illustrated and most informative, as was shown
by the keen interest of the members and guests.

Subsequent to this meeting two attempts to arrange
a general meeting were not successful.

_ Luring the year potential members were introduced
_to the Society, and one member resigned due to a move
interstate.

R. A. Facer was nominated as South Coast Branch
_Tepresentative on the Council early in 1971. The next
meeting (Annual Dinner and Annual General Meeting)
will be held on 28rd April, 1971.

The only changes in the financial position were the
addition of the $50.00 subsidy from the main branch
and $1.00 interest. However, expenses of the 197]
Annual General Meeting and Annual Dinner will have
to come out of the current balance.

$
Balance as in last report 23.03
Add—
Subsidy 50.00
Interest }.00
Balance as at Jst April, 1971 $74.03

RICHARD FACER,

Secretary- Treasurer.

Citations

The Society’s Medal for 1970

The Royal Society of New South Wales’ own medal
for service to science and to the Society is awarded to
Dr. John Allan Dulhunty.

Dr. Dulhunty’s contributions to Australian geology
are widely known and tespected. His researches have
dealt chiefly with coal and torbanite (the so-called
“oil shale’’) and with the Permian and Mesozoic
geology of the Mudgee-Gilgandra-Gunnedah region of
northern New South Wales. He has also made
significant contributions to the study of Coal Measures
polynology, and the glacial geomorphology of the
Snowy Mountains. The scope of his investigations
may be illustrated by two widely differing examples :
one, research into the causes of instantaneous outbursts
of the working face in coal mines, and another, the
plumbing of the depth of the Blue Lake in the Snowy
Mountains, establishing its glacial origins.

For twelve months during the Second World War
Dr. Dulhunty undertook special work for the Govern-
ment on the technology of torbanites. For this period
he was granted leave from his research position with the
Linnean Society of New South Wales, which he held
from 1940 to 1944. In 1946, a mere eight years after
gaining his Bachelor’s degree, he was awarded a
Doctorate of Science by the University of Sydney for
his thesis on “‘ The Classification and Origin of the New
South Wales Torbanites ”’.

Dr. Dulhunty’s diverse research has been recorded in
56 publications to date, in Australian and overseas
journals. The importance of his work brought him

this Scciety’s recognition in 1961, when he was invited
to deliver its Clarke Memorial Lecture, and in 1964,
he was elected Federal President of the Geological
Seciety of Australia for the customary one-year term.

After a period shortly after graduation as University
Demonstrator, and a later period, 1951 to 1957, as
Senior Lecturer in Geology, Dr. Dulhunty in 1957 was
made Reader in Geology at the University of Sydney, a
post which he still adorns. He has acted for three
separate and none-too-easy years as acting head of
his department. Known to generations of students
by the acronym of his initials as “‘ Jad ’’, he is always
a lucid and popular lecturer. For many years he has
contributed substantially to the appreciation and
understanding of geology in the community at large
through his ever-popular Adult Education lectures.
In the sphere of secondary education he was Chief
Examiner in Geology in the old Leaving Certificate
Examination for some ten years.

John Dulhunty’s services to the Society have
extended over a lengthy period. Following his
election to membership in 1937, he became a member of
Council in 1942, continuing to 1947, when he was
elected President. He again served on the Council
of the Society from 1956 to 1959, and has given much
unrecorded help over the years in advice, and latterly
in writing the Society’s Centenary Volume.

It gives me and the Council great pleasure in
conferring on Dr. John Dulhunty the Society’s Medal
for 1970.

The Clarke Medal for 1970

Gilbert Percy Whitley, F.R.Z.S., entered the service
of the Australian Museum, Sydney, on 18th April, 1922.
He was appointed as a cadet in the Department of
Ichthyology. By 1925 he was Acting Ichthyologist
during the extended absence on sick leave of his senior,
A. R. McCulloch. McCulloch died at an early age,
and by the end of 1926 the young Whitley was appointed
Ichthyologist, a position he held until his retirement
in August, 1964.

Whitley, while still in his teens, came with his family
from England to Australia at the beginning of 1921.
The first of many records of his activity as a collector
is in Bombay and Ceylon on the outward voyage,
where he collected shells. In 1923 he spent a holiday
on Lord Howe Island, the first of many visits there to
collect insects, with his friend and colleague the late
Anthony Musgrave, for many years Entomologist
at the Museum.

Space will not permit one to give a complete account
of his field work. Up to April, 1971, he had undertaken
86 separate field trips. Some of these were short
collecting trips in the Sydney district and elsewhere
in New South Wales. In others he ranged much further
afield. Whitley has visited the Great Barrier Reef
eight times, including three months on Low Isles
with the British Great Barrier Reef Expedition under
the leadership of Professor C. M. (now Sir Maurice)
Yonge, in 1928. A spectacular trip fraught with
certain danger due to bad weather was in 1936 with
Sydney yachtsmen who sailed from Sydney to Lord
Howe Island and then 120 miles north to the little
known Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs. There he
gathered extensive collections, not only of fish but of
many other types of marine life.

From 1942 to 1949 Whitley did a tremendous amount
of marine biological work at sea with the C.S.I.R.

CIEATIONS

(now the C.S.I.R.O.). From 1942 to 1946 he was
seconded to the C.S.I.R. on full-time service. In
C.S.I.R. research vessels he sailed the coasts of
Tasmania, Queensland, Western Australia, the Northern
Territory and Papua-New Guinea. Numerous islands
and reefs were visited, including many shoals in the
Timor Sea.

He was a guest worker on two Danish research
vessels, the Dana under the command of Professor
Johannes Schmidt in 1929 and the Galathea under the
command of Anton Bruun in 1951. In 1956 he was
awarded a commemorative Galathea silver medal by the
King of Denmark.

Whitley is an indefatigable traveller, mostly at his
own expense and in his own time, be it noted. His
travels are not mere sightseeing jaunts. Wherever
there is collecting to be done and museums and other
research institutes to be visited, these take prior place.
Nonetheless he savours to the full the cultural stimulus
of countries abroad. He is keenly interested and well
versed in music and other arts.

A list of the places he has visited reads like a travel
agency's guide book. He visited Europe, the U.K.
and the U.S.A. for six months in 1938-1938. In 1958
he again visited the U.S.A., mainly to attend a con-
ference in New Orleans on the shark menace, but he
managed to see other parts of the U.S.A. and to collect
shells at Canton Island on the way over. In the
Pacific area he has made collections on the New Guinea
mainland, on New Caledonia, the Solomons, New
Hebrides, Tonga, Fiji, Rarotonga in the Cook Islands,
Tahiti and other islands in French Polynesia and
Hawaii. He has visited New Zealand several times
and has collected there.

In 1962 he attended an ichthyological symposium
in southern India, but managed also while away to spend
some time in Ceylon, Singapore and Indonesia.

His attendances at various science congresses are
too numerous to mention. Worthy of note was his
attendance at the Pan-Indian Ocean Science Congress
in Perth in 1954 and the Pacific Science Congress in
Tokyo in 1966. He managed on this occasion to fit
in some shell collecting at Guam and he also visited
Taiwan, the Philippines, Thailand and Singapore.

The writer, not being a zoologist, cannot do full
justice to his scientific publications. His entire
publications number in all 519. This of course includes
many articles in the Museum publication Australian
Natural History (formerly The Australian Museum
Magazine), encyclopaedia articles and _ letters to
newspapers, including one about a ticket-of-leave man
John Roach, employed from 1834 to 1841 at the
Museum as “collector and bird stuffer’’. Although
Roach had ability and skill, he was not very well liked
by certain zoologists of the time, who referred to him
as the “rascally bird stuffer’’. Whitley also wrote
an excellent article on the history of the Museum in
Austrahan Natural History, entitled ‘The First
Hundred Years’’. He has also written a much more
comprehensive history of the Museum, which unfor-
tunately remains unpublished. For some time he
occupied an additional unpaid post at the Museum,
that of Archivist.

He has written several authoritative books, and his
scientific papers in journals of learned societies must
be numbered in the hundreds.

Another of Whitley’s notable interests is reflected in his
studies on the scientific work carried out by expeditions

107

in Australia and the nearby Pacific Islands. One may
cite as a few examples his scholarly, profusely docu-
mented articles on the scientific work of the very early
Dutch explorers and those of Tasman, Dampier and
de Vlamingh. His article “‘ Naturalists of the First
Fleet ’’ was written in 1938 to commemorate the
sesquicentenary of the founding of the colony of New
South Wales. To commemorate the bicenternary of
the discovery of the east coast of Australia by Cook
in 1770, he wrote a comprehensive and authoritative
handbook, Early History of Australian Zoology,
published by the Royal Zoological Society of New
South Wales, and a shorter article, ‘“ The Endeavour’s
Naturalists ’’, in Australian Natural History.

Whitley shows the tenacity of a Sherlock Holmes
unravelling the tangled skeins of crime in his seeking
of information on little-known early naturalists. He
literally haunts the Mitchell Library.

In one of his articles, Whitley gives an account of
George Tobin, who is not at all well known. He was
third lieutenant under Bligh on the voyage of the
Providence (1791-1793) to Tahiti to collect breadfruit.
On the way the Providence anchored in Adventure
Bay, South Bruny Island, Tasmania, for a fortnight,
where Tobin proved himself an able observer and a
first-rate artist. He made fine paintings of the scenery,
birds, fish and the rare monotreme the Porcupine
Ant-eater, which are now in the Mitchell Library.
Bligh himself also found time to make a drawing of
the ant-eater. It is characteristic of Whitley that he
visited Adventure Bay and collected one.

Another example of Whitley’s combined historical
and scientific researches was when he visited two of
Cook’s landing spots on the Queensland coast on the
1770 voyage. To quote his own words: “‘ My late
friend, the entomologist, Anthony Musgrave, and I,
made a pilgrimage in May 1957, to Thirsty Sound and
its environs, at the same time of the year as Cook’s
visit, 180 years previously.’’ They collected ants
from an ant tree identical with one described by Banks
at this very spot. They also visited Seventeen Seventy,
Bustard Bay, another of Cook’s landing places. This
was the first landing after Botany Bay, and the place
where Cook and his men supplemented their dreadful
shipboard diet with several fine big bustards. Bustard
Bay is 40 miles south-east of Gladstone and Thirsty
Sound is 80 miles south-east of Mackay.

For a total of 22 years in the period 1947-1971
Whitley edited the publications of the Royal Zoological
Society of New South Wales and on two occasions
was the President of the Society. He has also been
President of the Linnean Society of New South Wales
and has served on the Councils of the Royal Australian
Historical Society and the Anthropological Society of
New South Wales.

Since retirement, Gilbert Whitley has been an
Honorary Associate of the Australian Museum. He
works and publishes scientific papers probably at a
greater pace than ever, since he is uninterrupted by
the routine matters that plague the life of a scientist
in a government position. He has also managed to
fit in two or three periods of travel each year since
retirement. As recently as April, 1971, he returned
from an extensive four months trip to Europe, the
U.K. and South Africa. Characteristically, on his way
home he squeezed in enough time to collect shells at
Mauritius.

108

CITATIONS

Edgeworth David Medal for 1970

The Edgeworth David Medal is awarded for
distinguished contributions by young scientists, under
the age of 35, for work done mainly in Australia or its
territories or contributing to the advancement of
Australian science.

David Anson Buckingham was educated at the
University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand,
and the Australian National University, Canberra.
He obtained his degree of Doctor of Philosophy from
the A.N.U. in 1962, held a Post-doctoral Fellowship
at the University of North Carolina in 1963, and became
an Assistant Professor of Chemistry at Brown
University in 1964. Subsequently he rejoined the
Biological Inorganic Chemistry Unit in the John
Curtin School of Medical Research, Canberra. Currently
he is a member of the Research School of Chemistry
in the Australian National University.

Dr. Buckingham has an established reputation as
an inorganic chemist with specialized interests in the

wide field of metal-containing cc-ordination compounds.
He is the author or part-author of more than 60
research papers.

In 1963 Dr. Buckingham discovered that a cobalt
chelate could effect selective N-terminal hydrolysis
of simple peptides. He has brilliantly investigated the
scope and usefulness of this type of reaction. As a
result, a new and valuable synthetic procedure, whereby
glycine units can be added to the molecules of a variety
of amino-acid and peptide esters, is now available to
biological organic chemistry.

The implications of the full range of Dr. Buckingham’s
published works are far-reaching ; they extend beyond
the traditional boundaries of inorganic chemistry,
and touch many questions, concerning complex reaction
mechanisms, enzymes, stereo-structures, ligand
reactivities, etc., which are topically important.

Archibald D. Ollé Prize for 1970

This prize is awarded by the Council to a member of
the Society who has submitted the best paper during
the year.

Dr. Brian B. Guy receives this award for the papers
entitled ‘‘ Granitic Development and Emplacement
in the Tumbarumba-Geehi District, N.S.W.: (i) The
Fohated Granites ; (ii) The Massive Granites ’’,
published in Parts 1 and 2 of Volume 102 of the Journal
and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales. The major section of the work for these papers
was undertaken during the years 1961-1964, whilst
Dr. Guy was enrolled for a Ph.D. degree at Sydney
University. Additional investigations were carried
out during 1967-1968.

Dr. Guy graduated B.Sc. with honours in 1961 and
was awarded Ph.D. in 1964, both degrees from Sydney
University.

From 1964-1965 he filled the post of Post-doctoral
Research Associate, Crystallography Laboratory, Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh.

During the years 1966-1970 Dr. Guy was Senior
Tutor in the Department of Geology and Geophysics
at the University of Sydney.

Present research interests include the crystallo-
graphy of phase transformations in silicates and
sulphide minerals. Dr. Guy is now engaged as
Research Petrologist with a private commercial venture.

Obituaries

Walter Lawry Waterhouse

Walter Lawry Waterhouse joined the Royal Society
of New South Wales in 1919 and served as President
in 1937. His distinguished career and service to the
Society were recognized in the award of the Clarke
Medal in 1943, the Society’s Medal in 1948, and the
James Cook Medal in 1952.

The following report on the life and work of Prouessor
Waterhouse is published by kind permission of the
Editor, The Gazette, University of Sydney, and of the
writers of the obituary for the Gazette.

Walter Lawry Waterhouse, Emeritus Professor of
Agriculture, died on the 9th December, 1969, at the age
of eighty-two years. Professor Waterhouse, perhaps
more than any other man, was responsible for the
establishment of the Faculty of Agriculture of the
University of Sydney as a recognized centre of teach-
ing and research in agricultural science. He was one
of its first eight graduates ; he was the first recipient
of the degree of Doctor of Science in Agriculture,
and he was a member of its teaching staff from 1921]
(when he was the third permanent appointment to the
faculty) until his retirement in 1952.

In the eyes of almost two generations of students,
Waterhouse epitomised the faculty. Without detract-
ing in any way from the contribution of Sir Robert
Watt, it can be said that “ Wally ’’, as he was affec-
tionately known to these students, introduced them by
precept and example to the essence of the scientific
way of life. The fact that Sir Robert Watt, himself,
acknowledged the key role which Waterhouse played
in the development of the faculty is evidenced by the
generous encomiums which he was wont to shower on
Professor Waterhouse in the course of public
addresses.

Waterhouse’s primary teaching responsibility lay in
three courses, plant pathology, genetics and plant
breeding and agricultural botany, which formed part
of the third-year curriculum in the faculty. Though
scheduled as lectures at 11 a.m. Monday to Friday and
two afternoons of practical work throughout the
academic year, these courses tended to cccupy the
students’ whole working hours, much to the great
annoyance of other members of the teaching staff of
the faculty. If the Monday lecture fell on a public
holiday, it was invariably made up at some other time.
Students could be found in the so-called ‘“‘ Plant Path.
Laboratory ’’ well before 9 a.m., at lunch-time, after
5 p.m., and at periods when they should have been
attending other lectures or practical classes. Water-
house’s lectures were carefully and methodically
prepared and delivered, but he firmly believed that
scientists were made by doing things rather than
by mere exposition. He set assignments for students
which could never have been completed in the
scheduled hours.

In the first term of the third year, for instance,
students were required to prepare a set of permanently-
mounted microscopic slides showing diseased plant
tissue. Modern pedagogues are wont to dismiss such
activity as just so much “‘ busy work ”’ that contributes
little to scientific education, but the students who
carried out Waterhouse’s assignment learned a great
deal not only about the techniques involved, but some
of the older virtues of the pride of craftsmanship, the
rewards of industry and the inadequacy of the second-
best. Likewise, a significant component of second-term
practical course consisted in inducing reluctant
Drosophila flies to mate and in examining the genetic
consequences.

Those were the days when members of the University
were accustomed to seeing the wheat plot at the
Ross Street entrance overrun each October with
eager students learning from the master the art of
crossing wheat; or Dr. Waterhouse leading the third-
year class around the university grounds on a spring
afternoon in search of the numerous pasture plants
and weeds with which the grounds are still surprisingly
well-endowed. With Black’s Flova of South Australia
under one arm and magnifying glass in his pocket,
Wally would pause periodically to extol the character-
istics of “little Poa annua’’ as he was wont to call it
or some other plant which came to light in the course
of these voyages of discovery. Alternatively, he would
ask some student whose interest was waning under the
influence of the afternoon sun to expound what he
had been taught in the course of earlier perambulations.

Waterhouse was equally an exacting and yet
inspiring task-master to those students who were
fortunate enough to undertake specialised honours
work with him in the final year. Whether it was the
fact that for a long time in the faculty he had no
rival as a research worker or because he selected his
students carefully in the principle that investment of
time and energy with the brighter students was likely
to bring greater rewards, the fact is that many distin-
guished agricultural scientists, who have subsequently
made their mark in the profession, passed through
Waterhouse’s hands and are the first to acknowledge
his contribution to their subsequent success.

Waterhouse not only taught his students the virtues
of industry; he practised them himself. What he
accomplished in the way of teaching and research
(with in many cases very primitive facilities), if
reported on the A.U.C. forms, would bring cries of
“impossible ’’ from the administrators of today.

In his research activities, Professor Waterhouse
made substantial contributions of both a fundamental
and an applied nature. From the time of his appoint-
ment as Walter and Eliza Hall Agriculture Research
Fllow in 1918 until his retirement in 1952, his research

110

attention was focussed on wheat rust. In this he
set the pattern for much of the work which is still
going on in the faculty and which has over the years
contributed so much to the reputation of the faculty
as a research centre. At the time, of his retirement
the Research Committee of the University took the
rather unusual step of writing to him and stating,
“ During the whole history of the University your
work is considered by many to be one of its out-
standing contributions ’’.

Waterhouse pioneered the assessment of annual
changes in the pathogenic variability of the important
cereal rusts. These studies, which are still being con-
tinued at this University, were, and are, of inestimable
value to wheat breeders in planning programmes aimed
at breeding varieties possessing resistance to stem and
leaf rust. Perhaps Waterhouse’s most notable original
contribution was his demonstration that new races of
wheat rust could arise on the alternate hosts of
both stem and leaf rust of wheat—namely Berberis
vulgaris and Thalictrum sp. respectively. The possi-
bility of this phenomenon had earlier been hypo-
thesised by E. C. Stakman at the University of
Minnesota, but Stakman himself had been unable to
demonstrate it. Waterhouse’s investigation of the host
range of the various sub-species of stem rust on
Australian grasses indicated the importance of these
hosts in the persistence over the summer of economically
important rusts.

To the farmers of Australia, however, Waterhouse
is Chiefly remembered as a breeder of highly successful
wheat varieties. In the late 1930’s he released varieties
such as Hofed and Fedweb, which rapidly gained
acceptance among wheat-farmers. But it was the
variety Gabo, released in 1945, which had the greatest
impact on the wheat-growing industry both in
Australia and abroad. It proved to be adaptable to
a wide range of environmental conditions and
possessed outstanding quality. At one period it was
the leading variety grown in Australia and it also
gave high yields in other parts of the world, including
Mexico. Indeed, Dr. Borlaug, the Director of the
Rockefeller wheat improvement programme in Mexico,
records how, to his great embarrassment, he was given
a new Chevrolet car by a grateful Mexican farmer to
whom he had given some seed of the high-yielding
Gabo. Though its popularity has now declined, Gabo
has figured prominently in the pedigrees of wheat
varieties more recently released on the local scene.
Its broad adaptability has also resulted in its wide-
spread use as a parent in the production of improved
varieties in such countries as India and Mexico.

Walter Waterhouse was born in Maitland in 1887
and was educated at Sydney Boys’ High School, of

OBITUARIES

which his father was the first headmaster. He subse-
quently attended the Hawkesbury Agricultural College,
and after spending two years in Fiji entered the
Faculty of Agriculture in 1911. In 1914, on graduating
with First-Class Honours and the University Medal,
he was awarded the 1851 Science Exhibition, but he
did not take it up, enlisting instead in the A.I.F. In
1916 he was awarded the Military Cross for con-
spicuous gallantry at Pozieres. He was _ seriously
wounded in 1916 and invalided back to Australia. On
his recovery he was awarded the Walter and Eliza
Hall Agriculture Research Fellowship. During his
tenure of this fellowship, he worked at the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, from which he
obtained the diploma, and at the University of
Minnesota, where he established links with the American
rust workers. On his return to Australia in 1921 he
was appointed Lecturer and Demonstrator in the
faculty. He was promoted to the grade of Reader in
1937 and to that of Research Professor in 1946.

In 1929 Waterhouse was awarded the degree of
Doctor of Science in Agriculture for his work on wheat
rust. He was the recipient of the Farrer Memorial
Medal in 1938 and again in 1949, the Clarke Medal
of the Royal Society in 1943, the medal of the
Australian Institute of Agricultural Science in 1948,
the James Cook Medal of the Royal Society in 1952
and the E. C. Stakman Medal from the University of
Minnesota. On the establishment of the Australian
Academy of Science, Waterhouse was elected a Fellow
and in 1955 was made a Companion of St. Michael
and St. George by Her Majesty the Queen. He retired
from the service of the University in 1952 and subse-
quently became an emeritus professor.

As a person, Waterhouse was a dignified, self-
effacing, extremely kind and devout man. In 1924 he
married Dorothy Hazlewood, who with his three
daughters survives him. His devotion to his family
carried over to his relationships with his students.
He had a tremendous personal interest in the subse-
quent careers of those students who passed through
his hands, and was ever ready to give them the benefit
of his advice when they requested it. He was the
embodiment of courtesy and good manners. No man,
so far as is known, ever succeeded in following Walter
Waterhouse through a doorway, no matter how hard
he tried. But despite his modesty and gentle manners,
Waterhouse was a man of action when the occasion
demanded it.

When future historians assess the contributions of
scientists to the development of Australian agriculture
in the twentieth century, there can be no doubt that
the name of Waterhouse will be well to the fore.
Indeed, it would not be surprising if he were given
pride of place.

Albert Ernest Alexander

Albert Ernest Alexander was born at Ringwood,
in Hampshire, England, on the 5th January, 1914.
In 1934 he graduated B.Sc. with First-class Honours
in Chemistry from the University of Reading and
moved to the University of Cambridge, where, after
taking his B.A. in 1935, he entered the research group
headed by Professor (now <Sir)) Eric Ridéaly HiKcs:
His interests were already strongly directed toward

colloid chemistry. The Ph.D. degree was awarded
in 1938. For nine months he continued his Cambridge
researches in the Department of Medical Chemistry of
the University of Uppsala, in Sweden, but the cutbreak
of war made necessary a return to Britain. He became
a Fellow of King’s College in 1939, and in 1944 an
Assistant Director of Research in the Department of
Colloid Science.

OBITUARIES

During the war Alexander was a member of a
Ministry of Supply “extra-mural’’ research team
formed at Cambridge to consider problems associated
with smoke-screening, incendiary devices, etc.; most
of such work was then classified as ““secret’’. He also
managed to continue his own researches.

In 1947 the Chemical Society of London invited
Alexander to give the annual Tilden Lecture. In this
he surveyed the results of his years at Cambridge.
The text of the lecture (“‘ Some Applications of Surface
Chemistry to Problems in Colloid Science ’’) reveals
not only the experimental ingenuity of the author but
also the wide usefulness of his techniques for the
investigation of many biological and other systems in
which proteins, enzymes, bile acids, soaps, etc., are
present at air-water and oil-water interfaces.

In 1949, Alexander accepted the Foundation
Professorship of Applied Chemistry in the New South
Wales University of Technology (now the University
of New South Wales) ; in 1956 he resigned and moved
to the Chair of Physical Chemistry in the University
of Sydney.

In both universities the departments formed around
him gained international reputations for their activities
in the general fields of surface chemistry and colloids.
Alexander has been the author or part-author of more
than 130 papers dealing directly or indirectly with
chemical and physical phenomena and properties at
surfaces and interfaces. He was the first to place the
study of mono-layers at oil-water boundaries on a
firm foundation, and to recognize the importance of
hydrogen bonding as a factor often determining film
stability.

Alexander had a conviction that knowledge should
be fruitfully applicable to practical situations. This
belief shows in the Liversidge Lecture (‘‘ Surface
Chemistry in the Service of Man’’) delivered to the
1954 meeting of A.N.Z.A.A.S., in his relations with
C.S.I.R.O. and the industrial research associated
concerned with bread and leather, and in many of the
topics he chose for his own investigations (e.g. cattle
dips, kidney stones, vegetable tanning, wool problems,
etc.).

111

In 1960, Alexander was elected into the Fellowship
of the Australian Academy of Science. He has loyally
supported the Royal Australian Chemical Institute,
being its N.S.W. President in 1955 and serving many
years on its committees. He has been a member of
the Royal Society of New South Wales since 1950.

In both the Australian universities where he was a
Professor he conducted campaigns which drew public
attention to situations which he thought were wrong
or unwise. He spoke forthrightly—clearly, loudly,
and often, with fear of no man. The first of these
campaigns concerned the organization of the University
of N.S.W., the last has concerned the Wyndham
scheme for science teaching in schools. Alexander’s
66-page booklet, “‘ Education and Alchemy ’’, published
in May, 1969, was to be his final contribution to an
argument started back in 1966.

He had ideas, too, for the reforming of universities :
they are set out in the A. D. Ross Lecture delivered
at the University of Western Australia in March, 1965.
Entitled ‘‘ University Organization and Government :
A Century Out-of-Date ?’’, the case is developed for
more democratic systems of control through elected
representatives of the academic staff on all bodies
involved in policy making, for more decentralized
administrations, and for a scrapping of the present
Faculty and Departmental divisions.

Yet behind and during all his public campaigning,
Alexander remained a most agreeable colleague, never
angry and never speaking in an unfairly critical way of
another person. He had many friends in many
countries.

He was amongst us in apparently normal health
and vigour during August, 1969, when the [.U.P.A.C.
Congress was meeting in Sydney. He became ill a
few weeks later. Towards the end of the year a brain
tumour was diagnosed, located, and operated upon,
but without lasting success. He died peacefully in
the evening of the 23rd May, 1970.

Joan Audrey Marsden

Joan Audrey Marsden was born in Sydney on 8th
April, 1926, the oldest of seven children. She received
_her secondary education at St. Scholastica’s College,
Glebe, and gained a Diploma in Chemistry in 1957.
Miss Marsden was elected a member of the Royal
Society of New South Wales in 1954.

___ After 25 years’ service with Dunlop Australia Ltd.,

Miss Marsden was presented with a gold watch and

became a member of the exclusive “‘ 25 Years and Over
Club’’. Joan Marsden had served 26 years with this
firm at the time of her death on 5th August, 1970.
Her hobbies were photography, learning of languages
(in particular Japanese and Italian), also an interest
in lapidary and travelling, the latter culminating in
an extensive tour of the Pacific in 1969.

Members of the Society, April, 1971

The year of election to membership and the number of papers contributed to the Society’s Journal are shown in

*BAKER,

brackets, thus: (1934:

P8), * indicates Life Membership.

Honorary Members

BLACKBURN, Sir Charles Bickerton, K.C.M.G., O.B.E.,
B.A., M.D., Ch.M., 152/177 Bellevue Road,
Double Bay, 2028 (1960).

Braac, Sir Lawrence, O.B.E., F.R.S., The Royal
Institution of Great Britain, 21 Albemarle Street,
Piccadilly, London, W.1., England (1960).

Browne, William Rowan, D.Sc., F.A.A., 363 Edgecliff
Road, Edgecliff, 2022 (1913: P23; President
1932).

Pee, Frank Macfarlane, O.M., Kt., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., F.A.A., c/o Department of Microbiology,

University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria,
3052 (1949).
FirtH, Raymond William, D.Litt., M.A., Ph.D.,

Professor of Anthropology, University of London,
33. Southwood Avenue, London, N.6, 5.SA,
England.

IREDALE, Thomas, D.Sc., 41 Addison Avenue, East
Roseville, 2069 (1943).

NYHOLM, Sir Ronald Sydney, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor
of Inorganic Chemistry, University College,
Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England (1940:
P26; President 1954).

OIGONNELL, Kev Daniel” [eo 7S.)., Wisce Pps
F.R.A.S., Borgo S. Spirito 5, 00193 Rome, Italy
(1953).

OLIPHANT, Sir Marcus L., K.B.E., Ph.D., B.Sc.,
F.R.S., F.A.A., Emeritus Professor, Research
School of Physical Sciences, Australian National
University, Canberra, A.C.T., 2600 (1948).

ROBINSON, Sir Robert, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S.,
F.I.C., Professor of Chemistry, Oxford University,
England (1948).

Members

ADAMSON, Colin Lachlan, B.Sc., 43 Holt Avenue,
Cremorne, 2090 (1944).

ADKINS, George Earl, A.S.T.C., A.M.Aus.I.M.M.,
A.M.I.E.(Aust.), Dip.App.Sc., School of Mining
Engineering, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1960).

ADRIAN, Jeannette, B.Sc., Geological Survey of New
South Wales, Box R216, P.O., Royal Exchange,

N.S.W., 2000 (1970).

*ALBERT, Adrien, D.Sc., F.A.A., Professor of Medical

Chemistry, Australian National University,
Canberra, A.C.T., 2600 (1938: P4).

ANDERSON, Geoffrey William, B.Sc., c/o Box 30,
P.O Chatswood, 2067 (1948).

ANDREWS, Helen Elizabeth, B.Sc., 33 Hillcrest Avenue,
Gladesville, 2111 (1970).

ANDREwsS, Paul Burke, B.Sc., 50 Melbourne Road,
East Lindfield, 2070 (1948: P2).

ARNOT, Richard Hugh Macdonald, B.A., B.Sc.Agr.,
3 Eleanor Court, Donvale, Victoria, 3111 (1963).

ASHLEY, Paul Michael, B.Sc., 2 Fernhill Avenue,
Epping, 2121 (1970).
*AUROUSSEAU, Marcel, M.C., B.Sc., 229 Woodland

Street, Balgowlah, 2093 (1919: P2).

Bapuam, Charles David, M.B., B.S., D.R. (Syd.),
M.C.R.A., ““ New Lodge ’’, 16 Ormonde Parade,
Hurstville, 2220 (1962).

Stanley Charles, Ph.D., Department of
Physics, University of Newcastle, 2300 (1934:
P4).

BANFIELD, James Edmund, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Melb.),
Department of Organic Chemistry, University
of New England, Armidale, 2350 (1963).

Banks, Maxwell Robert, B.Sc., Department of
Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart,
Tasmania, 7000 (1951).

Barwick, Kathleen Harvison, 21 Lower Fort Street,
Miller’s Point, 2000 (1970).

BaspEN, Helena, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 3 Norfolk Avenue,
Collaroy Beach, 2097 (1970).

BasDEN, Kenneth Spencer, Ph.D., B.Sc., Department
of Fuel, University of New South Wales, Ken-
sington, 2033 (1951).

BAXTER, John Philip, K.B.E., C.M.G., O.B.E., Ph.D.,
F.A.A., Australian Atomic Energy Commission,
45 Beach Street, Coogee, 2034 (1950).

BEADLE, Noel Charles William, D.Sc., Professor of
Botany, University of New England, Armidale,
2350 (1964).

BEALE, James Edgar Osborne, Solicitor, 166 Keira
Street, Wollongong, 2500 (1968).

Beavis, Margaret, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 3 Rosebank Avenue,
Epping, 2121 (1961).

BELL, Alfred Denys Mervyn, B.Sc.(Hons.), School of
Applied Geology, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1960).

*BENTIVOGLIO, Sydney Ernest, B.Sc.Agr., 41 Telegraph
Road, Pymble, 2073 (1926).

Binns, Raymond Albert, B.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (Cantab.),
Professor of Geology, University of Western
Australia, Nedlands, W.A., 6009 (1964; Pl).

*BisHop, Eldred George, Box 13, P.O. Mosman, 2088

1920).

ages Fred Roy, B.Sc., 19 Innes Road, Greenwich,
2065 (1948).

BLAYDEN, Ian Douglas, B.Sc.(Hons.), 73 Abingdon
Road, Roseville, 2069 (1966).

Bott, Bruce Alan, Ph.D., Professor of Seismology,
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, U.S.A. (1956:
P3).

Booker, Frederick William, D.Sc.,
Street, Roseville, 2069 (1951: PI).

1] Boundary

114

Booru, Robert Kernml, B.Sc., Dip. Ed. i(Syd:); Science
Teacher, 6 Jellicoe Street, Hurstville, 2220 (1964).

BRADLEY, Edgar David, M.B., 8:5. (Syd,)," D.O.,
Ophthalmologist, 107 Faulkner Street, Armidale,
2350 (1964).

BRANAGAN, David Francis, M.Sc., Ph.D., Senior
Lecturer, Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney, 2006 (1967: P2).

BRENNAN, Edward, B.E.(App. Geology), P.O. Box 5,
Mount Morgan, Queensland, 4714 (1962).

BRIDGES, David Somerset, 19 Mount Pleasant Avenue,
Normanhurst, 2076 (1952).

*BRIGGS, George Henry, D.Sc., 13 Findlay Avenue,
Roseville, 2069 (1919: P1).

Brown, Desmond J., D.Sc., Ph.D., Department of
Medical Chemistry, Australian National Uni-
versity, Canberra, A.C.T., 2600 (1942).

Brown, Kenneth John, A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., 3 Karda
Place, Gymea, 2227 (1963).

Brown, John Percival, 40 Woolgoolga Street, North
Balgowlah, 2093 (1969).

Browne, Ida Alison, D.Sc., 363 Edgecliff Road,
Edgecliff, 2227 (1935: P12; President 1953).

Bruce, Colin Frank, D.Sc., Physicist, 17 Redan
Street, Mosman, 2088 (1964).
Bryan, John Hamilton, B.Sc.(Hons.), Geologist,

9/90 Raglan Street, Mosman, 2088 (1968).

BucKLEy, Lindsay Arthur, B.Sc., 131 Laurel Avenue,
Chelmer, Queensland, 4075 (1940).

BULLEN, Keith Edward, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.A.A,,
Professor of Applied Mathematics, University of
Sydney, 2006 (1946: P3).

BurG, Raymond Augustine, Senior Analyst, Depart-
ment of Mines, N.S.W.5 p.r. 17 Titania Street,
Randwick, 2031 (1960).

BuRMAN, Ronald Rion, M.Sc., Ph.D., Physics Depart-
ment, University of Western Australia, Nedlands,
W.A., 6009 (1970: P2).

Burns, Bruce Bertram, D.D.S., Dental Surgeon,
Suite 607, T. & G. Building, Park Street, Sydney,
2000 (1961).

BuTLAND, Gilbert James, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.G.S.,
Professor of Geography, University of New
England, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

CALLENDER, John Hardy, Schoolteacher, Lot 101,
Dallas Street, Mount Ousley, 2519 (1969).

CAMERON, John Craig, M.A., B.Sc. (Edin.), D.I.C.,
15 Monterey Street, Kogarah, 2217 (1957).

CAMPBELL, Ian Gavan Stuart, B.Sc., c/o Barker

College, Hornsby, 2077 (1955).

*CAREY, Samuel Warren, D.Sc., Professor of Geology,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania,
7000 (1938: P2).

CavILL, George William Kenneth, Ph.D., D.Sc.,
Professor of Organic Chemistry, University of
New South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1944).

*CHAFFER, Edric Keith, 66 Victoria Avenue, Chats-
wood, 2067 (1954).

*CHALMERS, Robert Oliver, Australian Museum, College
Street, Sydney, 2000 (1933: Pl).

CHAMBERS, Maxwell Clark, B.Sc., 58 Spencer Street,
Killara, 2071 (1940).

CHIARELLA, Carl, M.Sc., 28 Curban Street, Balgowlah,
2093 (1967).

*CHURCHWARD, John Gordon, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., 12
Glen Shian Lane, Mount Eliza, Victoria, 3930
(1935: P2).

CLANCY, Brian Edward, M.Sc., Australian Atomic
Energy Commission, Lucas Heights, 2232 (1957).

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

CoaLstaD, Stanton Ernest, B.Sc., Metallurgical
Chemist, 16 Station Street, Marrickville, 2204
(1961).

COHEN, Samuel Bernard, M.Sc., 46 Wolseley Road, —

Point Piper, 2027 (1940).

CoLE, Edward Ritchie, B.Sc., Associate Professor of
Organic Chemistry, University of New South
Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1940: P2).

CoLeE, Joyce Marie (Mrs.), B.Sc., 7 Wolsten Avenue,
Turramurra, 2074 (1940: Pl).

CoLLETT, Gordon, B.Sc., 16 Day Road, Cheltenham,
2119 (1940).

CoLiins, Angus Robert, B.Sc., 16 Hull Road, Beecroft,
2119 (1969).

CoNAGHAN, Hugh Francis, M.Sc., Chief Analyst,
Department of Mines, N.S.W.; p.r. 104 Lancaster
Avenue, West Ryde, 2114 (1960).

ConoLiy, John Robert, B.Sc. (Syd:)) Ph.D. (Nes. Wil
Department of Geology, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, 20908,
U.S.A. (1963: :- PA):

Cook, Alan Cecil, M.A. (Cantab.), Wollongong Uni-
versity College; p.r. Lot 19, Dallas Street, Mt
Ousley, 2519 (1968: P2).

Cook, Cyril Lloyd, Ph.D., c/o Propulsion Research
Laboratories, Box 1424H, G.P.O., Adelaide,
S.A., 5001 (1948).

CorTIS—JONES, Beverley, M.Sc., 65 Peacock Street,
Seaforth, 2092 (1940).

Coss, .Paul, B.Sc., 2 Alarna Place; St. Ives;
(1968).

Cox, Charles Dixon, B.Se:,'51 Darley Street, Poresm
ville, 2087 (1964).

CRAWFORD, Edwin John, B.E., 7A Battle Boulevarde,
Seaforth, 2092 (1955).

*CRESSWICK, John Arthur, 101 Villiers Street, Rockdale,
2216 11921": Pye

CroFt, James Bernard, B.E., Ph.D., Watts, Griffis
and McQuat (Aust.) Pty. Ltd., 56 Pitt Street
Sydney, 2000 (1956).

2075

Crook, Keith Alan Waterhouse, Ph.D., Geology
Department, Australian National University,
Canberra, A.C.T., 2600 (1954: P9).

CRUIKSHANK, Bruce Jan, B.Sc.(Hons.), 16 Arthur

Street, Punchbowl, 2196 (1965).

DavIiEs, George Frederick,
Kingsford, 2032 (1952).

Davis, Gwenda Louise, B.Sc., Ph.D., Associate
Professor, Department of Botany, University of
New England, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

Day, Alan Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1952: Pl; President 1965).

DENTON, Leslie A., Bunarba Road, Miranda, 2228
1955).

Bae aes Engineer Agronom. (Yugoslavia),
Engineering Analyst, 90 MHighclere Avenue,
Punchbowl, 2196 (1960).

DouERTY, Gregory, B.Sc.(Hons.), Australian Atomic
Energy Commission, Lucas Heights, 2232 (1963).

*DoNEGAN, Henry Arthur James, M.Sc., F.R.A.C.L.,
F.R.1.C., 18 Hillview Street, Sans Souci, 2219
(1928: Pl; President 1960).

DRAKE, Lawrence Arthur, 3B.A.(Hons.), 3B.Sc.,
Director, Riverview College Observatory, River-
view, 2066 (1962: Pl).

DuLHUNTY, John Allan, D.Sc., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1937: P22; President 1947).

57 Eastern Avenue,

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

EpGar, Joyce Enid (Mrs.), B.Sc., 12 Calvert Avenue,
Killara, 2071 (1951).

*Exikin, Adolphus Peter, C.M.G., Ph.D., Emeritus
Professor, 15 Norwood Avenue, Lindfield, 2070
(1934: P4; President 1940).

ELLISON, Dorothy Jean, M.Sc., 45 Victoria Street,
Roseville, 2069 (1949).

EMERSON, Donald Westland, M.Sc., B.E.(App.Geo.),
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Uni-
versity of Sydney, 2006 (1966: Pl).

EMMERTON, Henry James, B.Sc., 37 Wangoola Street,
East Gordon, 2072 (1940).

ENGEL, Brian Adolph, M.Sc., Geology Department,
University of Newcastle, 2308 (1961: Pl).

Evans, Phillip Richard, B.A. (Oxon.), Ph.D. (Bristol),
Esso Palynology Laboratory, School of Applied
Geology, University of New South Wales, 2033
(1968).

Facer, Richard Andrew, B.Sc.(Hons.), Department
of Geology, Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, 2500 (1965: Pl).

FALLon, Joseph James, Loch Maree Place, Vaucluse,
2030 (1950).

FAaYLE, Rex Dennes Harris, Pharmaceutical Chemist,
141 Jeffrey Street, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

FISHER, Robert, B.Sc., 3 Sackville Street, Maroubra,
2035 (1940).

FLEISCHMANN, Arnold Walter, 5 Erang Street, Carss
Park, 2221 (1956: PI).

*FLETCHER, Harold Oswald, M.Sc., 131 Milson Road,
Cremorne, 2090 (1933).

FLETCHER, Neville Horner, B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D.,
Professor of Physics, University of New England,
Armidale, 2350 (1961).

FLoop, Peter Gerard, B.Sc.(Hons.), P.O. Box 52,
Spit Junction, 2088 (1969).

FoLpvary, Gabor Zoltan, B.Sc., 267 Beauchamp
Road, Matraville, 2036 (1965).

FRENCH, Oswald Raymond, 6 Herberton Avenue,
Hunters Hill, 2110 (1951).

FRIEND, James Alan, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry,
University of West Indies, St. Augustine,
Trinidad, W.]. (1944: P2).

GALLoway, Malcolm Charles, B.Sc., Geologist, c/o
Department of Geology, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, 29208,
Urs: A* (19602 _P 1).

GARRETTY, Michael Duhan, D.Sc., Box 763, G.P.O.,
Melbourne, Victoria, 3001 (1935: P2).

GASCOIGNE, Robert Mortimer, Ph.D., Department of
Philosophy, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1939: P4).

GELLERT, Emery, Dr.phil. (Basle), 38 Toorak Avenue,
Wollongong, 2500 (1968).
GIBBONS, George Studley, M.Sc.,
Lane Cove, 2066 (1966).
Gipson, Neville Allan, Ph.D.,

Ashfield, 2131 (1942: P6).

*GILL, Stuart Frederic, 45 Neville Street, Marrickville,
2204 (1947).

GLAsson, Kenneth Roderick, B.Sc., Ph.D., 70
Beecroft Road, Beecroft, 2119 (1948: Pl).
GoLtpiInG, Henry George, M.Sc., Ph.D., School of
Applied Geology, University of New South

Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1953: P5).

GooDWIN, Robert Henry, B.Sc., M.Sc., Geologist,
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Uni-
versity of Sydney, 2006 (1968: P1).

8 Marsh Place,

103 Bland Street,

115

GoRDIJEW, Gurij, Engineer Hydro Geology (Inst.
Hydro Meteorology in Moscow, 1936), 41 Abbots-
ford Road, Homebush, 2140 (1962).

Gow, Neil Neville, B.Sc.(Hons.), 168 Mica Street,
Broken Hill, 2880 (1966).

GRAHAME, Mervyn Ernest, B.A., Schoolteacher, 161
Parry Street, Hamilton, 2303 (1959).

GRANT, John Guerrato, Dip.Eng., 37 Chalayer Street,
Rose Bay, 2029 (1961).

Gray, Charles Alexander Menzies, B.E., M.E., Pro-
fessor of Engineering, Wollongong University
College, Wollongong, 2500 (1948: P1).

Gray, Noel Macintosh, B.Sc., 1 Centenary Avenue,
Hunters Hill, 2110 (1952).

GRIFFIN, Derek K., B.Sc., Lot 435, McDougall
Avenue, Baulkham Hills, 2153 (1969).

GRIFFIN, Russell John, B.Sc., Unit 3, 17-19 Grasmere
Road, Cremorne, 2090 (1952).

GRIFFITH, James Langford, B.A., M.Sc., Associate
Professor of Mathematics, University of New
South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1952: P17;
President 1958).

GRODEN, Charles Mark, M.Sc., c/o Department of
Mathematics and Sciences, Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, Fla., 32901, U.S.A.
(1957: P3).

GUTMANN, Felix, Ph.D., 70a Victoria Road, West
Pennant Hills, 2120 (1946: Pl).

GUTSCHE, Herbert William, B.Sc., School of Earth

Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde,
2133 (1961).
Guy) Brian, Bertram, y Bsc. (Syd:),, Ph.D. (syd.),

c/o Union Miniere Development and Mining
Corporation, Golden Fleece House, 100 Pacific
Highway, North Sydney, N.S.W., 2060 (1968:
P2).

Hackett, Ian Harry, B.Sc.(Chem.Eng.), Research
Chemist, 5 Wyralla Avenue, Epping, 2121 (1968).

HALL, i brian. Kerth. Ph. DU. NE.) B.oc.(Elons.):
Assistant Professor of Biology, Dalhousie Uni-
versity, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (1967).

Hatt, Francis Michael, Ph.D., M.Sc., A.S.T.C.,
Chemistry Department, Wollongong University
College, Wollongong, 2500 (1968).

*HaLtt, Norman Frederick Blake, M.Sc., 164 Wharf
Road, Longueville, 2066 (1934).

Hamitton, Lloyd, B.E., c/o Mining Geology Depart-
ment, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College,
London, S.W.7 (1965: Pl).

Hancock, Harry Sheffield, M.Sc., 16 Koora Avenue,

Wahroonga, 2079 (1955).

HANLON, Frederick Noel, B.Sc.,
Street, Mosman, 2088 (1940:
1957).

HarpDwick, Reginald Leslie, B.Sc., 12/38-40 Meadow
Crescent, Meadowbank, 2114 (1968).

Harper, Arthur Frederick Alan, M.Sc., National
Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City
Road, Chippendale, 2008 (1936: Pl; President
1959).

Harris, Clive Melville, Ph.D., Associate Professor of
Chemistry, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1948: P6).

HARRISON, Ernest John Jasper, B.Sc., 8 Fernhurst
Avenue, Cremorne, 2090 (1946).

Haypon, Sydney Charles, M.A., Ph.D., F.Inst.P.,
Professor of Physics, University of New England,
Armidale, 2351 (1965).

*Hayves, Daphne (Mrs.), B.Sc., 412/108 Elizabeth
Bay Road, Elizabeth Bay, 2001 (1943).

21/43 Musgrave
P14; President

116

Hersy, Robin James, M.Sc., 344 Malton Road,
North Epping, 2121 (1966: P2).

Hices, Alan Charles, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co.
Ltd., Building Material Division, 1-7 Bent Street,
Sydney, 2000 (1945).

Hitr, Dorothy, D.Sc. 1 .R.S., F-A0A., | Protessor ot
Geology and Mineralogy, University of Queens-
land, St. Lucia, Brisbane, 4067 (1938: P6).

Hitt, Helen Campbell (Mrs.), 14 Miowera Road,
North Turramurra, 2074 (1951).

Hopains, Reginald William, A.S.T.C., B.Sc.,
Engineering Analyst, Department of Main
Roads; (N-S:W.; p:t.. Lot. 89). Savoy, Street,
Port Macquarie, 2444 (1967).

*HoGARTH, Julius William, B.Sc., 4 “ Hillsmore ’’, 20
Joubert Street, Hunters Hill, 2110 (1948: P6).

Horne, Allan Richard, 1494 Hawkesbury Road, North
Springwood, 2777 (1960).

Howe, Bernard Adrian, c/o Exploration Physics,
265 Old Canterbury Road, Dulwich Hill, 2203
(1963).

HuMPHRIES, John William, B.Sc., Physicist, National
Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City
Road, Chippendale, 2008 (1959: Pl; President
1964).

*Hynes, Harold John, D.Sc.Agr., 7 Futuna Street,
Hunters Hill, 2110 (1923: P3).

IrvinGc, Anthony J., B.Sc.(Hons.) (Syd.), Department
of Geophysics and Geochemistry, Australian
National University, Canberra, 2600 (1970).

JAEGER, John Conrad, D.Sc., F.A.A., Geophysics
Department, Australian National University,
Canberra, A.C.T., 2600 (1942: Pl).

JENKINS, Thomas Benjamin Huw, Ph.D., Department
of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1956).

Jones, James Rhys, 25 Boundary Road, Mortdale,
2223 (1959).

*JOPLIN, Germain Anne, D.Sc., Geophysics Depart-
ment, Australian National University, Canberra,
A.C.T., 2600 (1935: P10).

KALOKERINOS, Archivides, M.B., B.S., F.A.C.M.T.,
Walgett Street, Collarenebri, 2383 (1970).

KEANE, Austin, Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics,
Wollongong University College, Wollongong,
2500 (1955: P4; President 1968).

KIMBLE, Jean Annie, B.Sc., 2/163 Homer Street,
Earlwood, 2206 (1943).

*KIRCHNER, William John, B.Sc., “ Fairways ’’,
Linkview Avenue, Blackheath, 2785 (1920).
KiTamuRA, Torrence Edward, B.A., B.Sc.Agr., 18
Pullbrook Avenue, Hornsby, 2077 (1964).
Kocu, Leo E., D.Phil.Habil., School of Applied
Geology, University of New South Wales,

Kensington, 2033 (1948).

KoKor,. (Ernest,. 5 .Se.)) Ph.Do (NS. We);
A.R.A.C.I., 4 Cosgrove Avenue,
2500 (1969).

KoORBER, Peter Henry Wilibald, B.Sc., Analytical
Chemist, 7/24, Cammeray Road, Cammeray,
2062 (1968).

Krysko v. Tryst, Maren (Mrs.), B.Sc., Grad.Dip.,
School of Applied Geology, University of New
South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1959).

Lack, N. Edith (Mrs.), 471 Sailors Bay Road, North-
bridge, 2063 (1968).

LANDECKER, Kurt, D.Ing. (Berlin), Department of
Physics, University of New England, Armidale,
2351 (1961).

ASS HEC:
Keiraville,

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

Lassak, Erich Vincent, M.Sc. (N.S.W.), B.Sc.(Hons.),
A.S.T.C., Research Chemist, 167 Berowra Waters
Road, Berowra, 2081 (1964: P2).

LAWRENCE, Laurence James, D.Sc., Ph.D., Associate
Professor, School of Applied Geology, University
of New South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1951:
P4).

LEAVER, Gaynor Eiluned (Mrs.), B.Sc. (Wales),
F.G.S. (Lond.), 30 Ingalara Avenue, Wahroonga,
2076 (1961).

Le FEvrRE, Raymond James Wood, D.Sc., F.R.S.,
F.A.A., Professor of Chemistry; pa. & Aubrey,
Road, Northbridge, 2063 (1947: P4; President
1961).

*LEMBERG, Max Rudolph, D.Phil., F.R.S., F.A.A.,
Assistant Director, Institute of Medical Research,
Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, 2065
(19386: P3; President 1955).

*Lions, Francis, Ph.D., 934 Mona Vale Road, Pymble,
2073 (1929: P56; President 1946).

Lions, Jean Elizabeth (Mrs.), B.Sc., 934 Mona Vale
Road, Pymble, 2073 (1940).

LLoyp,. James Charles; sex
Turramurra, 2074 (1947).

Lockwoop, William Hutton, B.Sc., Institute of
Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital,
St. Leonards, 2065 (1940: PI).

LOVERING, John Francis, Ph.D., Professor of Geology,
University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria,
3052 (1951: P4).

Low, Angus Henry, Ph.D., Associate Professor,
Department of Applied Mathematics, University
of New South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1950:
P4; President 1967).

LOWENTHAL, Gerhard C., Ph.D., M.Sc., 17 Gnarbo
Avenue, Carss Park, 2221 (1959).

Lyons, Lawrence Ernest, Ph.D., Professor of
Chemistry, University of Queensland, St. Lucia,
Brisbane, 4067 (1948: P38).

1 Spurwood Koad,

MacCoLt, Allan, M.Sc., Department of Chemistry,
University College, Gower Street, London,
W.C.1, England (1939: P4).

McCartuy, Daryl John, F.R.M.S., 29 Johnson Street,
Chatswood, 2067 (1969).

McCartuy, Frederick David, Dip.Anthr., Principal,
Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies,
Box 553, City P.O., Canberra,” A.C.T., 260
(1949: Pl; President 1956).

McCoy, William Kevin, 86 Ave Da Republica, Macao,
via Hong Kong (1943).

McCuLtaGcu, Morris Behan (1950).

McE roy, Clifford Turner, Ph.D., M.Sc., 6 Boyne

Place, Killarney MHeights, Forestville, 2087
(1949: P2).
McGrReEGor, Gordon Howard, 4 Maple Avenue,

Pennant Hills, 2120 (1940).

McKay, Maxwell Herbert, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of
Mathematics, University of Papua and New
Guinea, Boroko, T.P.N.G. (1956: Pl).

McKeErn, Howard Hamlet Gordon, M.Sc., F.R.A.C.I.,
Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris
Street, Broadway, 2007 (1943: P12; President
1963).

McMauon, Barry Keys,
Lindfield, 2070 (1961).

McManon, Patrick Reginald, Ph.D., Professor of
Wool Technology, University of New South
Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1947).

McNamara, Barbara Joyce (Mrs.), M.B., B.S., c/o
Dr. B. Burfitt, Callan Park Hospital, Rozelle,
2039 (1943).

B.Sc., 58 Bent Street,

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

MacKELtar, Michael John Randal, B.Sc.Agr. (Syd.),
B.A.(Hons.) (Oxon.), 21 Mulgowrie Crescent,
Balgowlah Heights, 2093 (1968).

MaGEE, Charles Joseph, D.Sc.Agr., 57 Florida Road,
Palm Beach, 2108 (1947: P2; President 1952).

MAJSTRENKO, Petro, M.Sc. (Copenhagen), Lecturer in
Mathematics, University of New England,
Armidale, 2351 (1966).

Mates, Pamela Ann, 13 Gelding Street, Dulwich Hill,
2203 (1951).

MANSER, Warren, B.Sc. (Syd.), Department of Earth
Sciences, University of Papua and New Guinea,
Boroko, T.P.N.G. (1964).

MARSHALL, Charles Edward, D.Sc., Professor of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1949: Pl).

Martin, Peter Marcus, M.Sc.Agr., Dip.Ed., Lecturer,
Botany Department, University of Sydney,
2006 (1968).

Meares, Harry John Devenish, 9 Raymond Road,
Neutral Bay, 2089 (1949).

*MELLOR, David Paver, Professor of Inorganic
Chemistry, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1929: P25; President 1941).

MILLERSHIP, William, M.Sc., 18 Courallie Avenue,
Pymble, 2073 (1940).

Minty, Edward James, M.Sc., B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 155
Willoughby Road, Naremburn, 2065 (1951: P2).

MoELLE, Konrad Heinrich Richard, Absolutorium
(Innsbruck), Ph.D. (Innsbruck), Lecturer in
Geology, University of Newcastle; p.r. 2 Hill-
crest Road, Merewether, 2308 (1967).

Moore, Laurence Frederick, B.A. (N.E.), Teacher,
21 Cavendish Avenue, Blacktown, 2148 (1967).

Morrissey, Matthew John, M.B., B.S., 152 Marsden
Street, Parramatta, 2150 (1941).

Mort, Francis George Arnot, 29 Preston Avenue,
Fivedock, 2046 (1934).

MosHER, Kenneth George, B.Sc., 9 Yirgella Avenue,
Killara, 2071 (1948).

Move, Daniel George, B.Sc., 36 Sylvander Street,
North Balwyn, Victoria, 3104 (1944).

*MurpuHy, Robert Kenneth, Dr.Ing.Chem., 68 Pindari
Avenue, North Mosman, 2088 (1915).

Murray, Bede Edward, B.A., Lecturer in Mathe-
matics, Wollongong Teachers’ College, Wollon-
gong; p.r. 18 Bulwarra Street, Keiraville, 2500
(1969).

Morray, Jascha Ann (Mrs.), M.Sc., 42 Sherlock
Close, Cambridge, England (1961).

NasHER, Beryl, Ph.D., Professor of Geology, Uni-
versity of Newcastle, 2308; p.r. 15 Princeton
Avenue, Adamstown Heights, 2289 (1946: P2).

*NaytLor, George Francis King, Ph.D., Department
of Psychology and Philosophy, University of
Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, 4067 (1930:
7).

*NEUHAUS, John William George, M.Sc., 32 Bolton
Street, Guildford, 2161 (1943: Pl; President
1969).

*NEWMAN, Ivor Vickery, Ph.D.,
Wahroonga, 2076 (1932).
Ninuam, Barry William, Ph.D., M.Sc., Department
of Mathematics, Research School of Physical
Sciences, Australian National University,

Canberra, A.C.T., 2600 (1970).

Noakes, Lyndon Charles, B.A., Bureau of Mineral
Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Canberra,
A.C.T., 2601 (1945: Pl).

1 Stuart Street,

117

*NOBLE, Robert Jackson, Ph.D., 32a Middle Harbour
Road, Lindfield, 2070 (1920: P4; President
1934).

O’FARRELL, Antony Frederic Louis, A.R.C.Sc., B.Sc.,
Professor of Zoology, University of New England,
Armidale, 2351 (1961).

O’HALLoRAN, Peter Joseph, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., M.Sc.,
52 Bindaga Street, Aranda, A.C.T., 2614 (1968).

OLp, Adrian Noel, B.A., B.Sc.Agr., Senior Chemist,
N.S.W. Department of Agriculture; p.r. 13
Fallon Street, Rydalmere, 2116 (1947).

OXENFORD, Reginald Augustus, B.Sc., 10 Greaves
Street, Grafton, 2460 (1950).

PACKHAM, Gordon Howard, Ph.D., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1951: P4).

PEARCE, Marcelle Gordon Ivy, M.Sc. (Melb.), Experi-
mental Officer, C.S.I.R.O., Division of Applied
Physics; p.r. 108 Burns Road, Wahroonga,
2076 (1967).

PEARSON, Robert John Butler, Metallurgist, 25
Burling Avenue, Fairy Meadow, 2519 (1969).
*PENFOLD, Arthur Ramon, Flat 516, Baroda Hall,
6a Birtley Place, Elizabeth Bay, 2011 (1920:
P82; President 1935).

Perry, Hubert Roy, B.Sc.,
Bowral, 2576 (1948).

PETERSON, George Arthur, B.Sc., B.E., 55 Roseville
Avenue, Roseville, 2069 (1966).

PuHitip, Graeme Maxwell, M.Sc. (Melb.), Ph.D.
(Cantab.), F.G.S., Professor of Geology, University
of New England, Armidale, 2351 (1964: P1).

PHILLIPS, Marie Elizabeth, Ph.D., 16 Lawley Place,
Deakin, A.C.T., 2600 (1938).

Puipps, Charles Verling Gayer, Ph.D., Department
of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1960).

PIcKETT, John William, M.Sc. (N.E.), Dr.phil.nat.
(Frankfurt/M), Palaeontologist, N.S.W. Geological
Survey, Mining Museum, 28 George Street,
North, Sydney; p.r. 112 Blues Point Road,
McMahons Point, 2060 (1965).

PINWILL, Norman, B.A., The Scots College, Victoria
Road, Bellevue Hill, 2023 (1946).

POGGENDORFF, Walter Hans George, B.Sc.Agr., 85
Beaconsfield Road, Chatswood, 2067 (1949).

POLLARD, John Percival, NMESc. (N.S...)
Dip.App.Chem. (Swinburne), Mathematician,
Australian Atomic Energy Commission; p.r.
25 Nabiac Avenue, Gymea, 2227 (1963).

PRATT, Boyd Thomas, B.Sc.(Hons.) (N.S.W.), 11
Harbourne Road, Kingsford, 2032 (1967).
PRIESTLEY, John Henry, M.B., B.S., B.Sc., Medical
Practitioner, 137 Dangar Street, Armidale, 2350

(1961).

PROKHOVNIK, Simon Jacques, M.A., B.Sc., School of
Mathematics, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1956: P38).

*PROUD, John Seymour, B.E., Finlay Road, Turra-
murra, 2074 (1945).

PutTtocK, Maurice James, B.Sc.(Eng.), M.Inst.P.,
C.S.I.R.O. National Standards Laboratory, Uni-
versity Grounds, City Road, Chippendale; p.r.
2 Montreal Avenue, Killara, 2071 (1960).

74 Woodbine Street,

*QUODLING, Florrie Mable, Ph.D., B.Sc., 145 Midson
Road, Epping, 2121 (1935: P95).

118

RADE, Janis, M.Sc., Box 28A, 601 St. Kilda Road,
Melbourne, 3004 (1953: P6).

Ramm, Eric John, Experimental Officer, Australian
Atomic Energy Commission, Lucas Heights,
2232 (1959).

RaTTIGAN, John Herbert, Ph.D., M.Sc., Geophoto
Resources Consultant, 30 Herschel Street,
Brisbane, Queensland, 4000 (1966: P2).

*RAYNER, Jack Maxwell, O.B.E., B.Sc., 5 Tennyson
Crescent, Forrest, Canberra, A.C.T., 2603 (1931 :
PL).

READ, Harold Walter, B.Sc. (1962: PI).

REICHEL, Alex, Ph.D., M.Sc., Department of Applied
Mathematics, University of Sydney (1957: P4).

Rice, Thomas Denis, B.Sc., 5 Harden Road, Artarmon,
2064 (1964).

RicBy, John Francis, B.Sc. (Melb.), Geological Survey
of Queensland, 2 Edward Street, Brisbane,
Queensland, 4000 (1963).

Riacs, Noel Victor, B.Sc. (Adel.), Ph.D. (Cantab.),
F.R.A.C.I., Associate Professor of Organic
Chemistry, University of New England, Armidale,
2350 (1961).

RiLEy, Steven James, B.Sc.(Hons.), Department of
Geography, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006
1969).

eee Arthur Sinclair, M.Sc., Associate Professor
of Geology, University of Newcastle, 2308
(1947: P2).

RitcHI£, Ernest, D.Sc., F.A.A., Professor. of
Chemistry, Chemistry Department, University
of Sydney, 2006 (1939: P19).

Rossins, Elizabeth Marie (Mrs.), M.Sc., 21 Palm

Street, St. Ives, 2075 (1939: P38).

RosBeErtTs, Herbert Gordon, B.Sc., Anaconda Aust.,
Inc., 34 Hunter Street, Sydney, 2000 (1957).
RoBeErts, John, Ph.D., School of Applied Geclogy,
University of New South Wales, Kensington,

N.S.W., 2033 (1961; P38).

RoBERTSON, William Humphrey, B.Sc., c/o Sydney
Observatory, Sydney, 2000 (1949: P30).

RosBInson, David Hugh, A.S.T.C., Chemist, 12
Robert Road, West Pennant Hills, 2120 (1951).

Roop, i.

ROSENBAUM, Sidney, 5 Eton Road, Lindfield, 2070
1940).

Tee cer ee, Ilse, Ph.D., 48 Cambridge
Avenue, Vaucluse, 2030 (1948).

Ross, Victoria (Mrs.), M.Sc., B.Sc.(Hons.), “‘ Meroo ’’,
Mill Road, Kurrajong, 2758 (1960).
ROUNTREE, Phyllis Margaret, D.Sc., 7
Street, Paddington, 2021 (1945).
RoyLe, Harold George, M.B., B.S. (Syd.), 161 Rusden

Street, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

RUNNEGAR, Bruce, B.Sc., Ph.D., Department of
Geology, University of New England, Armidale,
2351 (1970).

Windsor

SAMPSON, Stephen Sydney, 16 Amelia Place, North
Narrabeen, 2101 (1970).

SAPPAL, Krishna Kumar, M.Sc., Geologist, c/o
Department of Geology, Nagpur University,
Nagpur, India (1966).

*SCAMMELL, Rupert Boswood, B.Sc., 10 Buena Vista
Avenue, Clifton Gardens, 2088 (1920).

SCHEIBNER, Viera, Dr.Nat.Rer., Geologist, 10 Landy
Place, Beacon Hill, 2100 (1970).

ScHOLER, Harry Albert Theodore, M.Eng., Civil
Engineer, c/o Harbours and Rivers’ Branch,
Public Works Department, N.S.W., Phillip

Street, Sydney, 2000 (1960).

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

SEE, Graeme Thomas, B.Sc., School of Nuclear
Chemistry, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1949).

SELBY, Edmond Jacob, P.O. Box 121, North Ryde, —

2113 (1933).

*SHARP, Kenneth Raeburn, B.Sc., Engineering Geology
Branch, Snowy Mountains Authority, North
Cooma, 2629 (1948).

SHAW, Stirling Edward, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., F.G.A.A.,
School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University,
North Ryde, 2113 (1966).

SHERRARD, Kathleen Margaret (Mrs.), M.Sc., 43
Robertson Road, Centennial Park, 2021 (1936:
P6).

SHERWIN, Lawrence, B.Sc.(Hons.) (Syd.), 186 Sylvania
Road, Miranda, 2228 (1967).

SimMMons, Lewis Michael, Ph.D., The Scots College,
Victoria Road, Bellevue Hill, 2023 (1945: P3).

Sims, Kenneth Patrick, B.Sc., 25 Fitzpatrick Avenue
East, French’s Forest, 2086 (1950: P15).

SLADE, Milton John, B.Sc., Dip.Ed. (Syd.), M.Sc.
(N.E.), Armidale Teachers’ College, Armidale,
2350 (1952).

SMITH, Ann Ruth (Mrs.), B.Sc.(Hons.), Box 134,
P.O., Queenstown, Tasmania, 7467 (1959).

SMITH, Glennie Forbes, B.Sc. (Syd.), Box 134, P.O.,
Queenstown, Tasmania, 7467 (1962).

SMITH, William Eric, Ph.D. (N.S.W.), M.Sc. (Syd.)j
B.Sc. (Oxon.), Associate Professor of Applied
Mathematics, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1963: P2; President, 1970).

SMITH-WHITE, William Broderick, M.A., Associate
Professor of Mathematics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1947: P4; President, 1962).

SoutH, Stanley Arthur, B.Sc., Geologist, 47 Miowera
Road, Turramurra, 2074 (1967).

STANTON, Richard Limon, Ph.D., Associate Professor
of Geology, University of New England, Armidale,
2351 (1949: P2).

STEPHENS, James Norrington, M.A. (Cantab.), Ph.D.,
170 Brokers Road, Mt. Pleasant, Wollongong,
2519 (1959).

STEVENS, Eric Leslie, B.Sc., Senior Analyst, Depart-
ment of Mines, N.S.W., 20 Myra Street, French’s
Forest, 2086 (1963).

STEVENSON, Barrie Stirling, B.E.(Mech. and Elec.)
(Syd.), 21 Glendower Street, Eastwood, 2122
(1964).

Stock, Alexander, D.Phil., Ph.D., Professor of

Zoology, University of New England, Armidale,
2351 (1961).

StoKEs, Robert Harold, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.AcA., 4a
Garibaldi Street, Armidale, 2351 (1961).

Strusz, Desmond Leslie, Ph.D., B.Sc., Bureau of
Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics,
Canberra, A.C.T., 2601 (1960: P93).

STuUNTz, John, B.Sc., 11 Jackson Crescent, Pennant
Hills, 2120 (1951).

SuRRY, Charles (1961).

SUTERS, Ralph William, B.Sc. (N.S.W.), Science
Master, Berkeley High School; p.r. 49 Walang
Avenue, Figtree, 2500 (1968).

SwANSON, Thomas Baikie, M.Sc., Flat 4, 112 Walsh
Street, South Yarra, Victoria, 3141 (1941: P2).

SWINBOURNE, Ellice Simmons, Ph.D., 30 Ellalong
Road, Cremorne, 2090 (1948).

TayLor, Nathaniel Wesley, M.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (N.E.),
Department of Mathematics, University of New
England, Armidale, 2351 (1961).

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

THEw, Raymond Farly, 88 Braeside Street,
Wahroonga, 2035 (1955).

THomas, Penrhyn Francis, A.S.T.C., Optometrist,
Suite 22, 3rd Floor, 29 Market Street, Sydney,
2000 (1952).

THompson, Don Gregory, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., Master,
R.A.N. College, Jervis Bay, 2540 (1967).
THomson, David John, B.Sc., Geologist, 61 The

Bulwark, Castlecrag, 2068 (1956).

THomson, Vivian Endel, B.Sc., 1/171-177 Rokeby
Road, Howrah, Tasmania, 7018 (1960).

THWAITE, Eric Graham, B.Sc., 8 Allars Street, West
Ryde, 2112-(1962).

TICHAUER, Erwin R., D.Sc.(Tech.), Dipl.Ing., Research
Professor of Biomechanics; p.r. Apt. 12J, Kips
Bay Plaza, 330 East 33rd Street, New York,
N.Y., 10016, U.S.A. (1960).

fircey, Philip Damien, B.A.;-Dr.Phil., Department
of Geography, University of Sydney, 2006 (1967).

TOMPKINS, Denis Keith, Ph.D., M.Sc., 14 Warrowa
Road, Pymble, 2073 (1954: Pl).

UPpFOLD, Robert William, B.E., M.E., Department of
Engineering, Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, 2500 (1968).

VALLANCE, Thomas George, Ph.D., Associate Pro-
fessor, Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney, 2006 (1949: P38).

VAN BRAKEL, Albertus Theodorus, B.Sc.(Hons.),
Geologist, 7 Bruce Street, Glendale, 2285 (1968).

WAN Digk, Dirk Cornelius, D.Sc.Agr., c/o C.S.1.R.O.,
Division of Soils, Cunningham Laboratory, St.
Lucia, Queensland, 4067 (1958).

VEEVERS, john James, Ph.D., School. of Earth
Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde,
2113 (1953).

VERNON, Ronald Holden, Ph.D., M.Sc., School of

Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, North
Ryde, 2113 (1958: Pl).
WICKERY, Joyce Winifred, M.B.E., D.Sc., 15 The

Promenade, Cheltenham, 2119 (1935).
VoisEy, Alan Heywood, D.Sc.; p.r. 9 Milton Street,
Carlingford, 2118 (1933: P13; President 1966).
*VONWILLER, Oscar U., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., F.A.I.P.,
Emeritus Professor, ‘“‘ Rathkells’’, Kangaroo
Valley, 2577 (1903: P10; President 1940).

WALKER, Donald Francis, Surveyor, 13 Beauchamp
Avenue, Chatswood, 2067 (1948).

*WaLkom, Arthur Bache, D.Sc., 5/521 Pacific Highway,
Killara (1919 and = previous membership
PONOSNOIS- P2; President 1943).

Warp, Colin Rex, Ph.D., B.Sc.(Hons.), Geologist,
School of Physical Sciences, N.S.W. Institute of
Technology, Broadway, 2007 (1968).

WARD, Judith (Mrs.), B.Sc., 16 Mortimer Avenue,
Newtown, Hobart, Tasmania, 7008 (1948).
Wass, Robin Edgar, Ph.D. (Syd.), B.Sc.(Hons.) (Qld.),
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Uni-

versity of Sydney (1965: PI).

119

*WATERHOUSE, Lionel Lawry, B.E. (Syd.), 112 Brown’s
Road, Wahroonga, 2076 (1919: PI).

Watton, Edward Charlton, Ph.D., B.Sc.(Hons.),
A.S.T.C., Associate Professor of Chemistry ;
p.r. 17 Malory Avenue, West Pymble, 2073
(1963).

WEBBY, Barry Deane, Ph.D., M.Sc., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1966).

West, Norman William, B.Sc., c/o Department of
Main Roads, Sydney, 2000; p.r. 9/62 Murdock
Street, Cremorne, 2090 (1954).

WESTHEIMER, Gerald, B.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D., F.S.T.C.,
Professor of Physiology, University of Califcrnia,
2575 Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, California,
94720, U.S.A. (1949).

WHEELHOUSE, Frances, Senior Laboratory Technician,
School of Biological Sciences, University of New
South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1968).

WHITLEY, Alice, M.B.E., Ph.D., 39 Belmore Road,
Burwood, 2134 (1951).

WHITLEY, Gilbert Percy, F.R.Z.S., Honorary Associate
of the Australian Museum, College Street,
Sydney, 2000 (1963).

WHITWORTH, Horace Francis, M.Sc., 31 Sunnyside
Crescent, Castlecrag, 2068 (1951: P4).

WILcox, Ronald Walter, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., Lecturer,
Wollongong Teachers’ College, Wollongong, 2500,
p.r. 9 Benney Avenue, Fig Tree, 2500 (1969).

WILKINSON, John Frederick George, M.Sc. (Qld.),
Ph.D. (Cantab.), Professor of Geology, School of
Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, North
Ryde, 2113 (1961: Pl).

WILLIAMS, Benjamin, 30 Croft Road, Eleebena, 2280

(1949).
WILLIAMSON, William Harold, M.Sc., 6 Hughes
Avenue, Ermington, 2033 (1949: Pl).
Witson, Christopher John Lascelles, B.Sc., c/o

Geologisch en Mineralogical Instituut, Garen-
markt 16, Leiden, Netherlands (1967: Pl).
WINcH, Denis Edwin, Ph.D., M.Sc., Senior Lecturer
in Applied Mathematics, University of Sydney,

2006 (1968).

Woop, Clive Charles, Ph.D., B.Sc. (1954).

Woop, Harley Weston, D.Sc., M.Sc., Government
Astronomer, Sydney Observatory, Sydney, 2000
(1936: P16; President 1949).

WricuT, Anthony James, Ph.D., B.Sc., Department

of Geology, Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, 2500 (1961).

WYLIE, Russell George, Ph.D., M.Sc., Physicist,
National Standards Laboratory, University

Grounds, City Road, Chippendale, 2008 (1960).

YEATES, Neil Tolmie McRae, D.Sc.Agr. (Qld.),
Ph.D. (Cantab.), Associate Professor of Livestock
Husbandry, University of New _ England,
Armidale, 2351 (1961).

Associates

Brown, Ada Marjory (Mrs.), 40 Woolgoolga Street,
North Balgowlah, 2093 (1969).

DENTON, Norma
2228 (1959).
DONEGAN, Elizabeth (Mrs.),
Sans Souci, 2219 (1956).

(Mrs.), Bunarba Road, Miranda,

18 Hillview Street,

Emery, Hilary May Myvanwy (Mrs.), c/o Dr. F. W.
Clutterbuck, 234 Bay Terrace, Wynnum, Queens-
land, 4178 (1965).

GRIFFITH, Elsie A. (Mrs.),
Caringbah, 2229 (1956).

9 Kanoona Street,

120 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

GUNTHORPE, Robert John, B.Sc.(Hons.), Department
of Geology, University of New England, Armidale,
2350 (1965).

LEAVER, Harry, B.A., B.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., M.R.C.O.G.,
F.G.S., 30 Ingalara Avenue, Wahroonga, 2076
(1962).

LE FEvRE, Catherine Gunn, D.Sc. (Lond.), 6 Aubrey
Road, Northbridge, 2063 (1961).

Puttock, Alan Maurice, 5/52, Martin Street, Harbord,
2096 (1969).

STANTON, Alison Amalie (Mrs.), B.A., 35 Faulkner
Street, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

STOKES, Jean Mary (Mrs.), M.Sc., 45 Garibaldi Street,
Armidale, 2350 (1961).

WADLEY, David Alastair, Department of Human
Geography, Research School of Pacific Studies,
Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T.,
2600 (1970).

Obituary

1968-1969

William Lindsay PRICE (1927).

Sir Harold George RAGGATT (1922).

Ethelbert Ambrook SOUTHEE (1919).

Frederick G. N. STEPHENS (1914).

Andrew UNGAR (1952).

Hans Samuel Arthur ROSENTHAL (Associate 1961).

1969-1970

Walter George STONE (1915).
Ronald Leslie ASTON (1930).

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 121-122, 1972

On Hoyle’s Electrodynamic Version of the Steady-State Cosmology

R. R. BURMAN

ABSTRACT—Hoyle once published a version of the steady-state cosmology, based on Proca’s
equations, in which separation of matter and anti-matter produces an intergalactic magnetic
field. Here, the constants in that theory are evaluated by using recent results on intergalactic

Faraday rotation.

1. Introduction

Lyttleton and Bondi (1959) investigated the
effects of a possible general charge imbalance
in the universe; the excess could arise from
differing magnitudes of the proton and electron
charges or from a difference in the numbers
of the two particles. In their theory, con-
tinuous creation of matter and charge occurs ;
hence Maxwell’s equations cannot be valid and
an appropriate modification, the Proca
equations, was used. The postulate of the
conservation of existing charge was made:
in any volume element, the total charge is the
sum of the charges of all the enclosed elementary
particles existing there at the instant concerned.
Also, charge was regarded as indestructible
once created. Taking —e to be the charge on
the electron, that on the proton is written
(1+y)e; alternatively, the ratio of number of
protons to number of electrons is (1+) : 1.

Hoyle corrected and modified Lyttleton and
Bondi's calculations (Hoyle, 1960; Lyttleton
and Bondi, 1960; Bondi, 1961) and obtained
a version of the steady-state theory based on the
Proca equations and the field equations of
general relativity with no cosmological term.
In Hoyle’s electrodynamics, electrical forces
reverse direction when charges are sufficiently
far apart, and he suggested that electrical forces
might bring about separation of matter and
anti-matter; matter and anti-matter are
created in pairs, and the process of separation
generates a magnetic field.

2. Some Equations of the Theory

In Hoyle’s theory, the strength B of the
cosmic magnetic field is estimated by

eee (=)
where c is the speed of light in vacuum, H is
Hubble’s constant, p is the average proper
density of matter in the universe, M is the
proton mass, and A is a negative constant ;

A

(—d)-* has the dimensions of length and the
scale of the separation between matter and
anti-matter is 7(—A)~#. The proper mass
density e of cosmological matter is given by

G being the Newtonian gravitational constant.
The relations (1) and (2) give
3
pwoeee ly
McG (—A)
The theory involves an equation which can
be written

wanes feH
in which f is the fraction of the cosmological
material separated. The relations (3) and (4)

give
mel
(—A)- ~(§) Lf poe cae (5)
and
Mc H
| y I~ Fp ia ae (6)

Hoyle mentioned that the theory could be
freed from (4) by introducing the C-field ;
then A and v would be independent.

With H-1=3x10!"sec., corresponding to
H =100 km. sec.-! Mpc.-!, (3) becomes

-aly|
B~10-8 =
(—A)
while (2) shows that p=4 10-29 gm. cm.-3 ;
(5) and (6) become
(—A)-!~1031fB
and

3. Use of Observations
Sofue e¢ al. (1968), Kawabata et al. (1962)
and Reinhardt and Thiel (1970) have presented
evidence that Faraday rotation occurs in extra-

122

galactic space. Kawabata ef al. took H to be
100 km. sec.-! Mpc.1,. and deduced _ that
N .Bb=—2 X10°* gaussicum, 4, NV, beme the
electron density. If the cosmological medium
is fully ionized, then the value of o calculated
above implies that N,=2x10-5cm.-%. With
B=1x10-° gauss and f=1, the relations (7),
(8) and (9) give

IY] 932 ci.-,

(aay OMA, ees (10)
(—d)-4~10” cm.~3 kpc...... (11)

and.
Big Og Roe (12)

This value of | y| is far too large for the charge
imbalance to arise from a discrepancy between
the magnitudes of the proton and electron
charges.

Arp (1971) has re-analysed the Faraday
rotation data using his interpretation of quasar
red shifts in which they do not entirely owe to
the cosmological expansion. He found N,B
to be ~10-} to 10-" gauss cm.-* ; this means
that, with NV -—10-2cmi->, (B-~10-9 to 10-7
gauss, and so, with f=1, (7), (8) and (9) give

1y| 1088 to 1034 cm.?2,

3) (13)
(—)-2-~1073 to 1024 cm. . (14a)
~30 to 300 kpc. . (146)

and
vila x 1051? to: 3101: oe (le)

Department of Physics,
University of Western Australia,
Nedlands, W.A., 6009.

R. R. BURMAN

4. Concluding Remarks

In this note, some recent information on the
intergalactic magnetic field has been used to
evaluate constants which occur in an electro-
dynamic version of the steady-state cosmology.
The scale of the separation between matter and
anti-matter has been found to be several kilo-
parsecs or greater. The magnitude of the
charge imbalance has been found to be far too
large to be explicable in terms of a discrepancy
between the magnitudes of the proton and
electron charges.

5. References

H., 1971. Extragalactic Faraday Rotation.

Nature, 232, 463-465.

Bonp1i, H., 1961. The Electric Universe.
Astrophysics. Ed. by W. Liller.
pp. 179-184.

Hove, F., 1960. On the Possible Consequences of a
Variability of the Elementary Charge. Proc.
Roy. Soc., A257, 431-442.

KAWABATA, K., Fuyimoto, M., SoFrukz, Y., and
Fuxkul, M., 1969. A Large-scale Metagalactic
Magnetic Field and Faraday Rotation for Extra-
galactic Radio Sources. Publ. Astr. Soc. Japan,
21, 293-306.

LYTTLETON, R. A., and Bonpi, H., 1959. On the
Physical Consequences of a General Excess of
Charge. Proc. Roy. Soc., A252, 313-333.

LyTTLETON, R. A., and Bonpi, H., 1960. Remarks
on the Preceding Paper. Proc. Roy. Soc., A257,
442-444,

REINHARDT, M., and THIEL, M. A. F., 1970.
Primaeval Magnetic Field Exist ?
Lett., 7, 101-106.

SOFUE, Y., Fujimoto, M., and KAawaBatTa, K., 1968.

Faraday Rotation by Metagalactic Magnetic

Field. Publ. Astr. Soc. Japan, 20, 388-394.

ARP,

Space
McGraw-Hill,

Does a
Astrophys.

(Received 13 December 1971)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 123-141, 1972

Words, Actions, People: 150 Years of the Scientific Societies
in Australia*

D. F. BRANAGAN

‘““ Upwards of thirty years have now elapsed,
since the colony of New South Wales was
established in one of the most interesting parts
of the world—interesting as well from the novel
and endless variety of its animal and vegetable
productions, as from the wide and extending
range for observation and experiment, which
its soil and climate offer to the agriculturist.
Yet little has been done to awaken a spirit of
research or excite a thirst for information
amongst the Colonists...It is therefore pro-
posed to form a Society, for the purpose of
collecting information with respect to the
Natural State, capabilities, productions, and
resources of Australasia and the adjacent
regions, and for the purpose of publishing, from
time to time, such information as may be likely
to benefit the world at large.

The undersigned individuals therefore
subscribe their names as original Members of a
Society, to be called THE PHILOSOPHICAL
SocIETY OF AUSTRALASIA.”” Thus on the 4th
July, 1821, James Bowman, Henry Grattan
Douglass, Barron Field, Frederick Goulburn,
Francis Irvine, John Oxley and Edward Woll-
stonecraft set in motion the first of our scientific
societies, with Dr. Douglass named as Secretary.
(Philosophical Society’s Minute Book.)t+

The regulations drawn up by the seven
pioneers in 1821 were challenging indeed. Each

* Address given in commemoration of the sesqui-
centenary of the foundation of the Philosophical

_ Society of Australasia.

t+ According to Phillips (1909), an earlier attempt

was made in 1818 to set up an Agricultural Society ;
_ this failed because of Governor Macquarie’s opposition

to Judge Advocate Wylde’s idea of balloting for
_ Membership. Macquarie wished emancipists to be

freely admitted.

member in rotation was to produce a monthly
paper on some subject connected with the
objects of the Society under penalty of ten
pounds! This was perhaps the beginning of
our present “ publish or perish’ syndrome.

“ Polemical divinity and party politics shall
be excluded from such papers.”

“No paper shall be printed without the
authour’s (sic) permission. The selection of
papers for publication shall be determined by
ballot—two black balls to exclude ’’—perhaps
as satisfactory a way to referee papers as any
presently in operation !

“No refreshment to be introduced, except
tea and coffee, under penalty of Five Pounds.”’

“The Society was to meet every Wednesday
at each other’s Houses in Sydney, alphabetically,
at 7 o'clock in the evening. Fine for non-
attendance at a quarter of an hour after that
time, five shillings. No excuse to be allowed
but sickness, public business, or non-residence
in Sydney.’ Major Goulburn seems to have
been the chief offender as a late-comer, being
fined no less than thirteen times, and Dr.
Douglass was not far behind during the period
till August, 1822! Mr. Wollstonecraft was
excused from one meeting because ‘“‘ he was
called upon to attend the funeral of a friend in
the country ’’, but on another occasion when he
was “‘ engaged to dine at Government House ”’
it was “resolved, that such excuse is not
sufficient ”’ !

Each member paid in five pounds to help set
up a Museum, purchase a few books of reference
and other incidental expenses, and Major
Goulburn offered the use of a room in the
Colonial Secretary’s Office for the proposed
Museum and Library.

124

In the next few months Mr. Patrick Hill
(Surgeon of the Royal Navy), Reverend Samuel
Marsden, William Howe, Esq., Lt. Phillip
Parker King, R.N., and Alexander Berry, Esq.,
were proposed as new members, all but Marsden
accepting ; while on 24th October, 1821, Mr.
Bowman resigned.

There was no meeting on the 7th November,
the day of Governor Major-General Sir Thomas
Brisbane’s arrival in the colony, but on the
following Wednesday (14th November) the
Society approved a letter prepared earlier
by the secretary, Dr. Douglass, to be sent to
Governor Brisbane together with the minutes
of the Society.

oir

.a few individuals of the Colony,
anxious to obtain information, in the
several branches of science and natural
history, which this extensive and interesting
quarter of the globe offers to industry and

research, agreed to meet and form a
Society .
I...express the anxious wish of this

Society, that you would ce og the Presi-
dency of their infant body .

Brisbane’s letter of acceptance is ceed 16th
November. He attended his first meeting on
2nd January, 1822.

Up to August, 1822, when detailed records of
the Society cease, three other members were
gained, viz. M. C. Rumker, Esq. (as listed in
the minutes of the Society—this is of course
Charles Stargard Rumker), Donald Macleod,
Esq., Staff Surgeon to Brisbane and his family,
and Robert Townson, LL.D. (the latter was
nominated in August and his final acceptance
is not known).

The cessation of the minutes in August, 1822,
is almost certainly due to Douglass’s clash
with other Magistrates and with Dr. James Hall
over the convict girl Ann Rumsby (Aust. Dict.
of Biography, Vol. 1, p. 314) which started a
long chain of litigation and other events.
During all of this Governor Brisbane and Dr.
Douglass remained friendly, as did Douglass
and Goulburn, but relations between Brisbane
and Goulburn became strained and Field and
Douglass fell out. Evidence of at least one
later meeting is given by Barron Field in his
Geographical Memoirs (1825), where the paper
by P. P. King “ on the Maritime Geography of
Australia’ is labelled “‘ Read 2nd October
1822’ before the Society.

DUFFY BRANAGAN

Whether the Society continued to be active
beyond this date I have not yet found out, but
it is listed among the Institutions of Sydney
in the Australasian Almanac for 1825 and not
afterwards. Field’s preface to his Geographical
Memoirs, dated 28th February, 1825, sets out
the oft-quoted “ that infant society soon expired
in the baneful atmosphere of distracted politics ”’

Achievements of the Society

So far I have dealt with the personalities
involved in this first society. Those interested
in these quite fascinating characters can find
further details in the notes by Cambage (1922)
and in the Australian Dictionary of Biography
(Vols. 1 and 2).

Just what scientific work did the Society
try to do? The letter to Brisbane, quoted
above, indicates that the Society was concerned
to gather facts and carry out original work
rather than just discuss already known material.
At one of its early meetings it set out to make
contact with many overseas societies. Apart
from those to be expected in Europe and the
United States of America, societies in India
(Calcutta, Madras, Bombay), Ceylon and Java
were to be approached asking for their co-
operation in various ways. In particular, the
Society would offer to exchange duplicate
materials from its Museum as “it would be
desirable to compare these specimens with others
resulting from the same natural kingdoms in
different parts of the world ”’

When, and even if, the circular letter was sent
I cannot ascertain. The “ draught of a circular
letter to the several scientific Societies of the
different quarters of the globe’ was presented
to the meeting of 26th September, 1821, and
adopted. However, on the 10th October it
was

Institutions of the Globe, be altered...”
and on 2nd January, 1822, it was “ resolved,
That the following paragraph be added to the

Society's intended circular Letter to the different _

Scientific Institutions, throughout the world:

‘IT am desired to add, that quarterly meteoro- |
with astronomical |
observations, will be regularly transmitted to
This last addition is clearly the work)

logical tables, together

DE BH

you ’.
of Governor Brisbane.

During the first year of the Society material F
for the Museum was obtained from various!
sources—the major emphasis being geological.

“ Resolved, That the first sentence of the |
Society's Letter to the various Philosophical |

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE

A collection of minerals, fossils and petrifications
came from Rev. Mr. Youl at Port Dalrymple
(now Launceston, Tasmania), “specimens of
the different stratifications of coal’’ from
Major Morisset, Commandant at Port Hunter
(Newcastle), and mineral specimens were brought
from Port Macquarie by Mr. Oxley. Further-
more, members were requested “to transmit
to the Museum, specimens of the different
soils in their respective districts of the country,
noting the depth at which each specimen was
taken, and such other particulars as they may
deem proper’. Contacts likely to obtain
suitable articles for the Museum were eagerly
sought. Captain Raine of the Swrry, sailing
for Macquarie Island, and Mr. Kent, bound for
the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), were given
written Instructions and Queries, and Raine’s
report* proved particularly interesting. Assistant
Surgeon Fenton at Port Macquarie was requested
to obtain “‘ specimens of the timber and natural
history of that port ’’ which were apparently
later transmitted through Captain Allman, the
Commandant there. In April, 1822, Mr. Field
presented “‘ two Peruvian bottles of great rarity
and antiquity’. The hand of Douglass, of
Irish origin and a graduate of Trinity College,
Dublin, can be seen in the request to the Museum
Committee “ to report what specimens of natural
history the Society can spare to the Museum of
Trinity College, Dublin’. The Museum also
housed a Catalogue prepared by Field, “‘ digested
into one volume ”’ of the respective libraries of
eight of the members.

Perhaps of most interest 1s a specimen the
Society did not obtain. At the meeting of
19th December, 1821, “‘ Mr. Wollstonecraft
informed the Society, that Mr. [Hamilton]
Hume reported the existence in Lake Bathurst,
of an animal supposed from his description to
be the manatee or hippopotamus’’. Conse-
quently it was “ Resolved, that Mr. Wollstene-
craft be authorized to reimburse Mr. Hume
any expense he may incur, on the part of
himself or any black natives, in food or labour,
for the purpose of procuring a specimen of the
head, skin or bones of this animal; and that
the Treasurer do make good the same ’’.

Papers of the 1821 Philosophical Society
How effective was the resclution of the first
meeting concerning monthly papers and fines ?
*See J. S. Cumpston (1968), MacQuarie Island

Antarctic Division, Department of External Affairs,
Melbourne, pp. 50-53.

125

The records give the answer. At this first
meeting Dr. Douglass was at the head of the
list to give a paper, but this seems to have been
forgotten later in the year when after the
period devoted to organizing the Society it was
resclved (14th November, 1821) “‘ that the first
peremptory paper be produced and read, on the
first Wednesday in January next’’. In the
January minutes we find “‘ Mr. Berry, who stood
first in order of the Society’s Rules to furnish a
paper to be read before the Society, not being
prepared to do so, Mr. Field read a paper on
the Aborigines of New Holland and Van
Diemen’s Land, and it was consented that Mr.
Berry’s turn should be postponed till the first
Wednesday in next month ”’.

Field’s paper was preceded at the December,
1821, meetings of 19th and 26th by two from
non-members. On the 18th was “ Read the
Journal of an Expedition from Lake Bathurst to
the Pigeon Hcuse, on this Coast, performed last
month by an European Native of the Colony,
Mr. Hamilton Hume ’’, while on the 26th ‘‘ Read
the Journal of a Tour to Jervis’s Bay from the
County of Argyle, performed by Charles Throsby,
Esqr. in November last and December instant ’’.

At the 7th February, 1822, meeting when
Berry was due to speak we find in the minutes
“Mr. Berry, whose turn it was to read a paper
before the Society, was reported as unaccount-
ably detained on an exploratory voyage to
Bateman’s Bay, the result of which he intended
to make the subject of his paper’’. However,
at the 13th February meeting “ Mr. Berry read
a Narrative of his late Voyage of Discovery to
Jervis’s and Bateman’s' Bays’. It was
“resolved, that by reason of Mr. Berry’s
detention from the last meeting by the perils
of the seas, his paper be now accepted as a
satisfaction for his fine’’. On 6th March Berry
followed this up with a second paper on the
Geology of the Coastline between Newcastle
and Bateman’s Bay.

At the 13th March meeting Mr. Rumker
read a paper on the importance of astronomical
observations in the southern hemisphere, and
some weeks later the President (Governor
Brisbane) “‘ presented to the Society various
Memoirs and Tables of astronomical and other
calculations ”’ for its use.

McLeod was apparently next on the list, but
at the 10th April meeting “ Mr. Macleod not
having laid before the Society a paper, according
to the laws of rotation, and having, by this
default, incurred a fine of Ten pounds, Resolved,

126

That, for special reasons, the said fine be
remitted upon the production of the paper on
the first Wednesday in the next month’”’. The
question of Mr. McLeod’s paper was adjourned at
subsequent meetings and on 5th June, 1822, we
find a new resolution on the books “ that
the Society’s Rule making it compulsary (szc)
upon each Member in his turn to write a monthly
paper, be suspended for the next six months ;
and that it be left to the interest and zeal which
it is hoped each Member has in the objects of
the Society, to lay before them a paper at such
time as he may think proper, without any
penalty for default. At the same meeting it
was decided that the first meeting of each month
should be held at the Secretary's house at
Paramatta (sic) and that ‘henceforth all
Members absent from such meetings be fined
ten shillings ’.”’ However, for the July meeting
“ His Excellency the President requested the
favour of the Society’s company at a dinner...
being the anniversary of the institution of the
Society ”’.

Although much of this is amusing, we must
acknowledge that at least 30°% of the Society’s
members contributed papers in a period just
over a year—a figure certainly not approached
by our present societies |

What was the quality of these papers?
Rumker’s paper setting out the work which
could be done in astronomy was the first product
of the group setting up Brisbane’s observatory
at Parramatta. The three workers involved,
Brisbane, Rumker and James Dunlop, in a few
years carried out an extraordinary amount of
important work. Regular observations began
in May, 1822, but some observations were made
soon after the arrival of Brisbane in November,
1821 (Wood, 1966). Berry’s geology paper (1825)
contains some very perceptive material indeed.
He recognized the unconformity between the
rocks of the Sydney Basin and the older rocks
in the Bateman’s Bay area; he had more than
an inkling of the significance of the Lapstone
Monocline, and described in some detail the
character of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. Field’s
paper, as Hedley (1921) says, ~ did net
appreciate that the ragged and despised black-
fellow at his kitchen door was a treasury of
ethnological information’, but MHedley’s
comment that Field “‘ produced a trashy and
pedantic memoir” is rather unkind at this
early attempt at ethnology when one considers
the general attitude of Europeans to natives
in the early 19th century. Governor Brisbane

D. F. BRANAGAN

was appreciative and moved at the 6th March,
1822, meeting “ that the thanks of the Society
be given to Mr. Field for his valuable paper —
on the Aborigines of New Holland’. King’s
paper (King, 1825), as one would expect, is a
competent one which describes many features
of Australia’s coastline.

As a final note to the papers presented, it is
apparent that they all deal with rather broad
topics. This may have been caused by an
early resolution of the Society “ That every
experiment, related in any paper laid before
the Society, shall (if possible) be performed
and verified at the reading of the paper, or
if not possible at the time, that the Society
shall take the best means to determine the truth
and value of such experiment, and that the
means and result of such verification be deposited
in the Society’s Museum ’’. Perhaps there would
be some merit in introducing a similar resolution
today !

The Commemorative Tablet at Kurnell

One other activity of the Society still remains
to be mentioned. This is the setting up of a
memorial tablet at Kurnell to commemorate the
landing of Cook and Banks.

Barron Tield first brought up the matter at
the 18th July, 1821, meeting when he “ laid
before the Society a Latin Inscription by a
friend, commemorating the landing of Capt.
Cook and Sir Joseph Banks, K.B. on this coast,
for the purpose of being engraved on brass and
erected on the spot, by this Society ’’. Captain
Irvine took up the proposal but suggested some
amendments, and on 8th August, 1821, it was >
resolved “that an English Inscription...
would be preferable’’. Major Goulburn is
next on the scene, and his inscription, presented
15th August, was adopted. However, there were
second thoughts on the inscription, which were
finally thrashed out at the 29th August meeting,
and “the language of the Inscription was
finally settled ”’.

Messrs. Field and Oxley were deputed to
“form a Committee to procure the Inscription
to be engraven on brass, with a view to its
erection by the Society, against a rock, on the
south shore of Botany Bay ”’.

On 23rd January, 1822,

“The Inscription Committee reported
that the Tablet was now ready, and that
they had ascertained a proper place, for its

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE 127

erection ; and they therefore requested the
honour of the Company of the President and
Members to a little collation on the spot,
upon the affixing of the Inscription, on such
day as the President and Members shall

appoint.”’
The meeting of 6th March announces that
“the day for affixing the tablet...was

appointed ”’ but gives no details. However, the
Sydney Gazette of Friday, 15th March, 1822,
has the following—

“On Wednesday morning his Excellency
the Governor came to town for the purpose
of accompanying the Philosophical Society
to the south head of Botany Bay to erect
an inscription to commemorate the first
landing of Captain Cook and Sir Joseph
Banks ; but when the party arrived at the
north shore, the state of the wind forbade
their crossing the bay. The excursion was
therefore postponed till the following
Wednesday, and the President and members
dined where they were, and were honoured
by the company of the principal officers of
the ‘Dauntless’, together with Captain
Elliott and Captain Piper.”’

The minute book gives no mention of this
activity, but records a meeting at Major
Goulburn’s that evening at which Rumker’s
paper wasread. There is a hint of some changes
in organization, however, in the statement
“The Minute Book being accidentally left at
Parramatta the proceedings of the last Meeting
were not read ”’.

The rough weather had abated the following
week and the Society was successful in its efforts.
The Sydney Gazette (Friday, 22nd March) once
again records the activity

“ His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief
came to town on Tuesday last, and returned
to Parramatta yesterday. On Wednesday
last his Excellency the President and
members of the Philosophical Society of
Australasia, made an excursion to the
south head of Botany Bay, for the purpose
of affixing a brazen tablet, with the following
inscription, against the rock on which
Captain Cook and Sir Joseph Banks first
landed.

A.D.—MDCCLXX.

“Under the auspices of British science,
these shores were discovered by JAMES
Cook and JosEPH Banks, the Columbus

and Mecenas of their time. This spot
once saw them ardent in the pursuit of
knowledge. Now, to their memory, this
tablet is inscribed, in the first year of the
Philosophical Society of Australasia.

“Sir THOMAS BRISBANE, K.C.B. and
F.R.S.L. and E., (Corresponding Member
of the Institute of France),

President.

A; D.—MDCCEX x1,

“On this interesting occasion the Society
had the good fortune to be assisted by
Captain Gambier and several of the officers
of His Majesty’s ship ‘ Dauntless’; and
after dining together in a natural arbour
on the shore, they all repaired to the rocks,
against which they saw the tablet soldered,
about twenty-five feet above the level of
the sea, and they there drank to the
immortal fame of the illustrious men whose
discoveries they were then met to com-
memorate. ’

The Society’s minutes (27th March, 1822)
record the matter more formally—

‘The Inscription Committee reported
that the President and Members were
engaged all day on Wednesday last, in
affixing the tablet to the memory of Cook
and Banks, at the South head of Botany
Bay, and that the Society had the honour
to be assisted in that duty by Captain
Gambier, and several of the Officers of
His Majesty’s Ship Dauntless, now refresh-
ing at this port, on her way from South
America to India, with specie. They
reported the tablet to be pinned and
soldered into a beetling rock, twenty-five
feet above the level of the sea, and to bear
from Cape Banks, . . ., and from the Barrack
Tower on the north shore,...”

[Apparently the compass bearings were not
made available to the Secretary.] Barron
Field was moved. by the occasion to write several
sonnets, which he later published (1825).

On the 15th May, 1822, the Treasurer was
“authorized to pay five guineas to Stewart,
the Engraver of the Inscription-plate’’. But
the matter was not quite closed then because
at the same meeting it was

“ Resolved, That it be referred to Capt.
King and Mr. Wollstonecraft, to enquire
into the state of the Inscription-plate and

128

to consider whether, with the assistance of
public subscription, a pillar might not be
erected for the reception of it, out of the
reach of the sea-spray.”’

There is no further reference to the plate in the
minutes.

Apparently it was not moved, and its existence
was only periodically noted by the scientific
societies (e.g. in 1862, 1880, 1921), while there
was no comment about it during the Bicentenary
Celebrations held at Kurnell in 1970.

An interesting sidelight on the preparation of
the plaque is that the earlier versions each made
provision for insertion of the name of the
President, although none had been elected. It
seems likely that the Society had made up its
mind quite early to ask Brisbane to become
President, despite the absence of any comment
in the minutes.

Final Comments on the 1821
Philosophical Society

A Museum created, papers given and
published, a monument erected, and even an
anniversary dinner—these are solid achieve-
ments for a society which operated for somewhat
less than two years.

In a sense, the Society probably started
too early. Just a few years later and there
might have been a stronger body of more active
scientists ready to keep things going—Alexander
Macleay, John Busby, Archdeacon Scott, Rev.
C. P. N. Wilton, Thomas Mitchell to name but
a few.

Even at the time of formation there are
obvious gaps in the potential membership.
Why did not James Dunlop become a member ?
Did Brisbane keep him out of the way? Was
Allan Cunningham away too much? What
about Hamilton Hume and Charles Throsby
(related to Surgeon Hill by marriage)—did
they live too far out of town? Why did not
Townson come in at the start—did the Society
not know of him? And what about John
Dickson the engineer ?

Douglass did not arrive in Sydney until May,
1821, and Goulburn less than a year earlier,
and these were undoubtedly the prime movers
in getting the Society going. Perhaps Douglass
wanted to build up a good image quickly in
the colony following his rather ? irregular
departure from England. All in all there is no
doubt the Society started very rapidly before

D. F. BRANAGAN

Douglass and Goulburn could have _ been
acquainted with a wide circle of people.

Perhaps I have dwelt too long with the infant _

Society, but I feel that in many senses its affairs
have been rather poorly treated by earlier
writers, many of whom lacked the Society’s
records. On the other hand, despite our
commemoration this year, I feel, like J. H.
Maiden (1918), that its links with our present
society are tenuous indeed, despite the re-
appearance in Sydney of a _ widely-travelled
Dr. Douglass early in 1848.

Other New South Wales Activities,
1822-1850

Whereas philosophical affairs in New South
Wales quickly declined, earthier matters were
surer of attention, and a series of agricultural
and horticultural societies was established with
gay abandon between 1822 and 1856. Maiden
(op. cit.) has dealt with these societies in some
detail. Suffice it to say that Governor Brisbane,
Frederick Goulburn, Barron Field, Robert
Townson, Alexander Berry, Edward Wollstone-
craft, H. G. Douglass, Captain King and William
Howe appear in the list of officers of the first
Agricultural Society, which first met on 5th
July, 1822, and followed up with an inaugural
dinner on 16th July. This society seems to
have had its demise in 1836, as did the semi-
rival Australian Society formed in 1830.

Smith (1881) believed that the Australian
Society was “An attempted revival’’ of the
Philosophical Society, but there is no evidence
to support this view.

These societies were followed by the Australian
Floral and Horticultural Society (sometimes
called the Sydney Horticultural Society
1836-1848) supported apparently by professional
gardeners, and the “ Australasian Botanic and
Horticultural Society 1848-1856 ”’, which joined
with the “ Horticultural Improvement Society
of New South Wales ”’ to form the “ Australian
Horticultural and Agricultural Society ’’ in the
latter year. The 1848 society had amongst
its officers E. Deas-Thomson, Alexander Macleay,
Charles Nicholson, George Bennett, Rev. W. B.
Clarke, William Macleay, Charles Moore and
Thomas S. Mort. The Horticultural Improve-
ment Society had an independent life only from
late 1854 to December, 1856, under its President
Sir William Denison and Vice-Presidents Sir
Charles Nicholson and Sir Thomas Livingstone
Mitchell.

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE 129

The Australian Horticultural and Agricultural
Society, formed on 8th December, 1856, was the
precursor of the present separate Horticultural
and Agricultural Societies of N.S.W., and its
President Sir William Denison. Its meetings
were regular and covered a wide variety of
topics, mainly concerned with plant varieties
useful for cultivation and properties of soils.

Scientific Activities in Tasmania,
1821-1855

Mention of Sir Wiliam Denison provides a
link with the distant scientific societies of
Tasmania.

Scientific societies in Tasmania can also be
dated from 1821 (Piesse, 1914). In that year
The Van Diemen’s Land Agricultural Society
first saw the light in Hobart under the Presidency
of Governor Sorell. The major object of the
Society seems to have been to put down sheep-
stealing! but it was also concerned with
improvements in husbandry. The Society
prospered at least till 1829, when the Van
Diemen’s Land Scientific Society was formed
“ constituted ...in imitation of the Royal &
other literary & scientific societies of Europe &
India’’. Among the Society’s objects was to
be a museum of natural history and an
“Economic or Experimental Garden . . . a piece
of ground set apart for eliciting and discovering
the properties and uses to which the vegetable
productions of the island may be applied and to
ascertain the improvements which may be
adopted in their cultivation’”’. In this Society
the Governor (Colonel Arthur) was Patron
and its first President Dr. John Henderson.
This gentleman, in his inaugural address,
“proceeded to remark on the present state of
the natural sciences, particularly as regards their
nomenclature ’’ and suggested in place of the
existing nomenclature the substitution of certain
syllables and letters, of which might be “ com-
pounded names expressive of the diagnostic
marks of each particular plant’’. This seems
to have been an attempt to introduce the then
recently developed chemical formulae technique
into botany (but see Hoare, 1968). Henderson’s
remarks did not go unchallenged at the time,
Dr. James Ross, defending the “ excellent
classification which learned men had adopted in
the old world ’’. Henderson seems to have had
a penchant for the unorthodox in science as
witness his ideas about the Canobolas Mountains
made during his trip in search of the inland
sea in 1831 (Henderson, 1832).

On the same evening, 16th January, 1830, the
Society entertained its Patron at dinner, where
the chef “‘ had done his best to cover the table
of our philosophers with the first specimens cf
our fish, flesh & fowl ”’.

The Society met monthly, discussed many
matters and established a museum, but did not
last.

In 1837 Sir John Franklin came to Hobart
and the following year created the Tasmanian
Society, which published an excellent journal
largely on natural science. Rev. John Lillie
was its first Secretary. The setting up of the
Franklin Museum at Ancanthe, Kangaroo Valley,
in 1842 was closely associated with this Society.
Franklin was still in Tasmania when his
successor, Sir Eardly Wilmot, arrived in 1843.
Wilmot wished to reconstitute the Society and
put the Colonial (botanical) Gardens in its care.
Consequently, on 14th October, 1843, he formed
“The Botanical & Horticultural Society of
Van Diemen’s Land’”’, which in 1844 became
“The Royal Society of Van Diemen’s Land for
Horticulture, Botany and Advanced Science ’’.
Eardly Wilmot as Governor was still technically
President of the older ‘‘ Tasmanian Society ’’.
In November, 1843, he resigned from this
Presidency, thinking perhaps that the Society
would fold, but it turned and re-elected Franklin,
who must have been rather embarrassed.

However, Franklin soon departed and the
Tasmanian Society, in the guise of its most
active member, R. C. Gunn, retired to
Launceston.

[Fuller details of these early societies are
given in Piesse (op. cit.) and Morton (1901). ]

Eardly Wilmot was followed as Governor in
1847 by Sir William Thomas Denison.

There is no doubt that Sir William Denison
(1804-71) deserves more than a passing mention
in the history of science in Australia. He
was trained as an army engineer at the Royal
Military Academy (1819-23) and was employed
in Canada between 1827 and 1831 on the
construction of the Rideau Canal. In February,
1833, he became instructor of engineer cadets
at Chatham, where he established an observatory,
and in 1836 he was employed as an observer
at the Greenwich Observatory. In 1837 he
was in charge of works at Woolwich Dockyard,
and remained with the Admiralty till June,
1846. During this period he was made a
Fellow of the Royal Society (Aust. Encyel.,

130

Vol. 3, p. 232). He was appointed Governor
of Tasmania early in 1847.

Soon after his arrival, he interested himself
in the affairs of the Royal Society of Van
Diemen’s Land. (The Society had obtained
royal consent in 1844. In 1855, when the name
of the colony was changed, it became the Royal
Society of Tasmania.) In February, 1849,
Denison wrote to Admiral Beaufort “‘I have
set on foot a scientific society ; that is, I have
succeeded in making a society, which had been
nominally established several years, perform
some work, and I hope to be able to forward
home a specimen of its labours shortly ’”’.

Farly in 1848, Dr. Joseph Mulligan was
appointed paid Secretary of the Royal Society
“in its proper and originally intended character
of a Scientific Society ’’, in succession to Dr.
Lillie. Sir William Denison made it possible
for the Society to secure Dr. Milligan’s services
by giving him at the same time an appointment
under the Government.

The Society prospered under Milligan’s
secretaryship and Denison’s patronage. Volume
1, Part 1, of Papers and Proceedings appeared in
May, 1849, printed at the Government Printing
Office, and similar volumes appeared in following
years.

In September, 1853, a northern branch was
set up at Launceston and fluorished till about
1860. <A collection of rocks and minerals was
gathered by the northern members. These
afterwards went to the Mechanics’ Institute of
Launceston and formed the nucleus of collections
in the Victoria Museum and Art Gallery about
1880.

In June, 1848, Denison gave permission for
the Society to use free of charge “the large
Committee Room at the Legislative Council
Chamber ’’ in Hobart as a museum, library
and society meeting room. This arrangement
continued till 1852.

During his time in Tasmania Denison read
papers to the Society on a wide variety of topics.

Denison in New South Wales

In 1855 Denison went to Sydney as Governor
of New South Wales. On 30th July that year
Sir William presided when members of the
“ Australian Society’’ met with a view to
reactivating that Society, which had _ been
formed in 1850 (largely as a result of Dr.
Douglass’s activities). Some information about
this Australian Society is given in Clarke (1867)

D: F. BRANAGAN

and Maiden (of. cit.). On 9th May, 1856, the
newly constituted Philosophical Society of New
South Wales, which included many members of
the Australian Society, had its first meeting, at
which Denison presided and read a paper on
“The development of the railway system in
England, with suggestions as to its application
to the colony of New South Wales ’’.

Writing to Colonel Harness in February,
1857, Denison said “The work of the
Government is taken out of my hands...
[a local legislative body now governed] but I
manage to make work for myself. I am
President of a Philosophical Society, and I have
succeeded in organising an Agricultural Society.
For both of these I have to write.”’

In a letter to Sir Roderick Murchison, 25th
June, 1856, Denison wrote :

“T have got my Philosophical Society
to work at last...I determined I would
not be President of an effete body, so I
called the members together, read a paper
on Railroads, got them to agree to meet
regularly once a month for eight months in
the year, and shall now, by the help of
occasional papers from myself, and of
suggestions to others, manage, I dare say,
to generate, first an appetite for writing,
and then a taste for observation, in order
to have something to write about.”

Denison’s next paper, “On the Moon’s
Rotation ’’, was read on 8th July, 1857, together
with a paper “On a New Sun Gauge or New
Actinometer ”’ by Mr. (W. S.) Jevons and “ On
Sanitary Reform of Towns and Cities” by
Dr. Bland. On 12th August, 1857. Denison
continued his earlier topic “On Railways ”’.
He mentions this paper in a letter from Braid-
wood to Sir Roderick Murchison, in which ke
notes that his practical knowledge of the colony,
gained in the past two vears, has given him a
clearer understanding of the best type of railway
for the colony. [He proposed wooden rails
and horse-drawn carriages initially.} On 8th
December, 1858, his subject was “On the
Filtration of Water through Sand’. This is
only a short time after the important work of
Henri Darcy on water movement was carried
out and published in France. At the Council
meeting, 16th September, 1859, there is mention
of Sir William Denison’s paper “‘ On the Dental
System of Mollusca’’ (see Siphonaria etc. below)
being published in the Empire. At the 19th
September, 1860, meeting his topic was “ Bridge

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE

Building ”’, “‘ which he illustrated by numerous
drawings and plans of bridges”. The last
meeting of the Society he attended was on 19th
December, 1860, when he was presented with a
farewell address in which, among other things,
mis stated...‘ We are indebted for the
reorganisation of the Society on a satisfactory
basis, also...particularly for the valuable
papers treating of the special capabilities and
requirements of the Colony, which you have
contributed from time to time... .”’ Denison
capped this address by reading two communi-
cations he had received from Mr. Thomas Hale
of Bellambi, giving particulars of the horse
tramway he had constructed from the coal-mine
to the harbour.

The construction of Sydney Observatory in
1857 followed Denison’s work in the Executive
Council two years earlier. Writing to Murchison
on 21st May, 1855, he said, “‘ I am going to try
to persuade the Council to vote a sufficient sum
to re-establish the observatory here, and I have
written to Airy to ascertain whether he can find
me a competent observer’’. He ensured that
the activities of the Observatory ‘“‘ would extend
beyond the work connected with the running
of a time ball for purposes of Navigation ”’
(Wood, 1967). He maintained a close association
with the Rev. William Scott, first astronomer,
who contributed a number of papers to the
Philosophical Society.

In May, 1859, Sir William suggested that a
Microscopical Committee be elected. This soon
took the form of a special section of the Society,
but it was active only till September the

following year. His Excellency exhibited
various features at meetings, and at the
September, 1859, meeting read a _ paper

“explanatory of the microscopic objects he had
mounted and laid before the meeting, viz :—
Tongues of two Siphonaria, Chiton, Chitonellus,
Risella, Turbo, Radius, Nerita, and two Patellas.”’

This is an appropriate point in the history of
the New South Wales sccieties to deal briefly
with some developments in Victoria.

Victorian Societies

The formation of the Philosophical Institute
of Victoria (later the Royal Society of Victoria)
out of the two societies “‘ The Victorian Institute
for the Advancement of Science”’ and “‘ The
Philosophical Society of Victoria’? has an
fnteresting link with the Tasmanian societies,
as its first president was Andrew (later Sir
Andrew) Clarke (1824-1902).

131

Clarke was a military engineer who had the
good fortune to be sent to Hobart with Sir
William Denison in 1847. He later (1849)
became Denison’s private secretary and was
always appreciative of Denison’s help and
friendship. He was an active member of the
Royal Society in Tasmania, but in May, 1853,
moved to Melbourne as Surveyor-General.
Denison’s influence may be discerned in Clarke’s
planning of Victoria’s first railways, installation
of the electric telegraph, and initiation of the
Museum of Natural History. Clarke held office
in both of the foundation societies (President of
the Philosophical Society in 1855) and became
President when they amalgamated in July,
1855. He left the colony in 1858.

From the outset, the Victorian society took
an interest in sponsoring exploration, the first
expedition being that of Burke and Wills.

The Royal Society of Victoria (as it became in
1859) was lucky to have the patronage of Sir
Henry Barkly, Governor of Victoria from 1856
to 1863. Barkly, who also helped to found the
Acclimatisation Society and the “ National
Observatory ”’ (in Melbourne), was by no means
a figurehead.

An important feature of the Society’s early
years was the fairly regular appearance of its
transactions. In 1860 a very interesting (and
geologically quite important) controversy was
commenced in the Transactions. This was the
long-continued verbal battle between Rev.
W. B. Clarke and Professor Frederick McCoy
on “‘ the Question of the Age of Australian Coal
Beds ”’. Four exchanges of opinion and
information occur in the 1860 volume alone,
following McCoy’s original description of a
fossil fern found by Richard Daintree as
Taemopteris and of Mesozoic age. Clarke
maintained that the Australian coal measures
were Palaeozoic. Although Clarke’s opinion
proved generally correct, this controversy was
not really solved till much later. Aspects of
the later history of the Royal Society of Victoria
are discussed by Prescott (1961) and will not
be repeated here.

I will now move on to the important year
1874, passing without comment over the period
when the Philosophical Society of New South
Wales changed its name (1866) and became the
Royal Society of New South Wales. This
period has been adequately treated by others,
particularly Rev. W. B. Clarke in his inaugural
address of 1866 and by Smith (of. cvt.).

132

1874—The “ Challenger ’’ Expedition,
William Macleay and the Linnean
Society

1874 was an important year for Australian
science, not least because of the visit of the
famous “‘ Challenger ’’ expedition which set the
science of oceanography on a firm footing.
The scientific part of the expedition was under
the charge of Professor (later Sir) Wryville
Thomson. The Challenger reached Sydney
somewhat earlier than expected on 6th April,
and remained till 8th June. Several long
articles in The Sydney Morning Herald describe
the results of the Expedition’s work up to its
arrival in Australia. Before coming to Sydney,
Challenger spent two weeks in Melbourne, where
it was well received.

Magnetic observations were also carried out
at the Melbourne Observatory. Thomson wrote
that their “stay was greatly enlivened by the
receptions and excursions arranged for the
members of the Expedition by the inhabitants
of Victoria ”’.

In Sydney, Thomson, and other scientists
were made welcome at Elizabeth Bay House
by Wiliam Macleay, and at other houses, both
in Sydney and the surrounding country, and the
local zoologists organized an enjoyable collecting
“picnic ’’ around the shores of Port Jackson on
23rd April. This was reciprocated by the
Challenger, which took invited guests out to
sea to show off its dredging equipment on 3rd
June. The Empire (4th June, 1874) gives an
excellent account of this excursion.

Discussions with Sydney scientists influenced
Thomson’s activities. He wrote, “‘ it seemed to
us from what we heard in Sydney there was a
chance of making valuable additions to the
natural history of north east Australia, by
examining carefully the faunae of some of the
rivers. Those in which Ceratodus had lately
been discovered had the greatest interest.”
Thomson thought it possible that other forms of
Dipnoi might be found. Consequently Thomson,
Lt. Aldrich, John Murray, Mr. Pearcey and
others, armed with information and _ intro-
ductions, went by ship to Brisbane and thence
to Maryborough, reaching there on 11th May.
The party, with the help of Mr. Sheridan, the
customs officer, an enthusiastic and knowledge-
able amateur naturalist, camped some miles
up the Mary River, where “‘ Barramunda’’ (as
the natives called the lung-fish) had been caught
before.

D. F. BRANAGAN

Orthodox line fishing, netting, and even
dynamiting (!) produced a considerable variety
of specimens, but it was not till the tenth day, ©
just before the party was due to return, that
three specimens of the lung fish were caught on
lines.

During the absence of Thomson and party in
Queensland, H. N. Moseley made two excursions
to “‘ Browera Ck.” (i.e. Berowra Ck.), where he
observed in detail the physical character of the
valley, the complex nature of the water environ-
ment varying from fresh to salt with its great
variety of fauna, and the extensive kitchen
middens which stretch for some miles along the
banks.

The ageing Rev. W. B. Clarke, senior Vice-
President of the Royal Society, had* been if
and unable to prepare an Anniversary Address
for the annual meeting of the Society on 20th
May, so following a short introductory paper
the Challenger officers exhibited some of their
sampling apparatus and_ discussed their
expedition in an informal conversazione which
attracted a big audience. The Council of the
Society was embarrassed to hear indirectly at
its 27th May meeting that a bale of 40 yards of
canvas belonging to the Expedition had “ gone
off ’’ at the conversazione ! The Council meeting
of 24th June records that 40 yards of canvas
had been purchased and sent to catch H.M.S.
Challenger at New Zealand.

Clarke met Thomson on his return from the
successful trip to Queensland and discussed some
of the results of the expedition, at that time
known in detail only for the Atlantic and Indian
Ocean sections. Clarke’s Anniversary Address
of May, 1875, and his additional paper given in
December, 1875, is an excellent summary of the
Expedition’s work. Macleay also met Thomson
at the end of May and discussed his Queensland
work.

Earlier in the year (28th March) Sydney
University announced the acceptance of William |
Macleay’s offer to bequeath the Macleay collec-_
tions and library to the University. In view of
the long association of the Macleay family with
the Australian Museum (Alexander, Wiliam
Sharp and William were all at some time
Trustees), it may seem curious that the bequest
was not offered to the Museum. Many years
before (about 1852) the University had put out |
feelers to have the Australian Museum trans- |
ferred to its charge, but this move was rejected |
(Etheridge, 1916).

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE

Probably the main factor in the bequest
going to the University was the friendship
between William Macleay and his father-in-law,
Sir Edward Deas-Thomson, at that time
Chancellor of the University. Deas-Thomson
believed that the announcement of the bequest
at this time would be a stimulus to the formation
of a medical school at the University, and the
setting up of a hospital (Prince Alfred) adjacent
to the University.

Macleay was keen to spend more time on his
scientific work, particularly his collections, but
his seat in Parliament prevented him. He had
intended to resign at the end of the session, but
the sudden resignation of the Government in
November, 1874, gave him the opportunity to
leave earlier than he had expected. He began
immediately to devote himself full time to the
pursuit of ‘‘ Natural Science ”’

In 1862 William Macleay, with the support
and approval of W. S. Macleay, had commenced
one of Australia’s earliest specialist societies—
the Entomological Society. Like most groups,
it started enthusiastically, but attendances
waned and it seems that no meetings were held
from May, 1865, to December, 1866, or in 1871
or 1872, while only one or two were held in other
years. Despite William Macleay’s own state-
ment that the Society closed in 1869, the
minutes of several later meetings are available
and indicate that sporadic meetings were held
until 1874 (Fletcher, 1893).

Although very small, the Entomological
Society was important (1) because it focussed
some attention on biology, a topic generally
neglected by the Philosophical Society in the
1860’s ; (2) because it issued its own publica-
tions, the first issued by a specialist scientific
society in New South Wales; and (3) because
it almost certainly helped to stimulate workers
like Gerard Krefft, E. P. Ramsay, Dr. J. C. Cox
and Count Castelnau, all of whom expanded
their work into other biological fields. It should
be noted that of the 24 members only six offered
papers to the Society.

There is no doubt that the Challenger visit
stimulated considerable activity among the
“Natural Scientists’ residing in Sydney. The
original idea of forming a wider-ranging natural
science society than the defunct Entomological
Society seems to have been due to Commander
Stackhouse, R.N., and Dr. Alleyne, then the
Health Officer, but known around the town as
“the curious old gentleman with the shocking

133

hat who used to frequent the Australian Club ”’.
Alleyne had in 1852 been the first medico to
administer chloroform in the colony. Of
Stackhouse I know little, but he is probably
commemorated in the genus Stackhousia (which
includes about 16 species of herbs with rather
woody rhizomes).

During October, 1874, Stackhouse and Alleyne
“sounded out ’”’ the opinions of persons likely
to be interested and then, in association with
Macleay and W. J. Stephens, they proceeded
to draw up a constitution. Macleay, in fact,
missed the vital meeting on Thursday, 24th
October, because of the threat of rain and some
indisposition, but despite this was informed
next day that the members wanted him for
President. The name chosen for the new
society was the ‘“‘ Linnean Society of New South
Wales ’’, proposed by W. J. Stephens, while
Stackhouse proposed “‘ The Banksian Society ”’.
The first activities of the Society were Linnean
“picnics ’’ or field days on the harbour (similar
to the Challenger picnic) on 21st November
and 19th December, when a good time was had
by all—some samples were obtained for collec-
tions, others were capably cooked by W. B.
Dalley to provide a pleasant repast, and all
returned suitably sunburnt.

In his Chairman’s Address to the Linnean
Society (31st January, 1876) outlining the first
year of its activity, Macleay, while speaking
kindly of the Royal Society, justifies the
formation of the new body “...I allude
particularly to the Royal Society of Sydney
(sic)... .a number of valuable papers have been
read at its meetings. But mingled with those
scientific papers have been others not of a
scientific character, and possessing certainly no
interest except of the most local kind. The
publications of its proceedings also have not
been conducted with the celerity and regularity
to be expected from a society not deficient in
point of means, and it is that irregularity and
uncertainty in publication which makes it as a
society useless as a record of zoological, botanical
or geological discovery. Concerning the
Linnean Society Macleay went on to say, “‘ The
proceedings of the monthly meetings, with the
papers read, have been printed as soon as the
matter in hand was sufficient for an octavo sheet.
And the only regret I have to express, is, that
the numbers of those contributing papers are
not greater, and that Zoology seems to turn the
scale upon Botany and Geology ”’

134

I have not found any comment about the
formation of the Linnean Society in the records
of the Royal Society at the same time. Despite
the Challenger visit, the Royal Society was not
very lively. Rev. W. B. Clarke was in rather
poor health, and Professor Liversidge, relatively
new to the colony, was no doubt a little hesitant
to start things moving. Two general meetings
late in 1874 lapsed for want of papers, and the
30th September Council meeting lapsed for
want of a quorum. However, the Council sent
out letters asking for papers to be offered and
shortly after decided that regular meetings
would be held whether or not papers had been
offered and that notes and exhibits would be
welcomed.

Despite the shortage of papers, the Society
still had standards to maintain. At the 27th
June, 1874, Council meeting a letter from Mr.
Martin Gardiner was received offering to read
a paper on “ Geodesic Investigations ’’. How-
ever, Council refused to entertain his paper when
“Hon. Treasurer informed Council Mr. Gardiner
had not paid any subscription to the Society
for the last eleven years !”’

Comparison of the membership lists of the
Royal and Linnean Societies in 1875 shows 49
members common to both, including Stackhouse,
the first Secretary of the Linnean Society, W. J.
Stephens, Liversidge, James Cox and E. P.
Ramsay. Although Macleay was elected a
member of the Philosophical Society of New
South Wales in August, 1856, he did not continue
into the Royal Society in the 1860's. E. C.
Merewether, Deas-Thomson and Sir William
MacArthur belonged only to the Linnean
Society in 1875, although the last-named was
in the Royal Society in 1872. The Royal
Society had an additional 106 members, the
Linnean Society a separate 75.

Both societies began to develop rapidly,
whether under the stimulus of competition as
well as changing social conditions I cannot be
positive. There was generally a separation into
topics of Natural Science on the one hand
(Linnean Society) and Physical Sciences on
the other (Royal Society), although some
overlap is apparent.

The organizing abilities of Liversidge, backed
by his sustained efforts, were most important
to the Royal Society, while there is no doubt
Macleay’s personal backing of the Linnean
Society both with energy and cash helped it to
consolidate.

D. F. BRANAGAN

The importance of regular printing of the
Royal Society’s journal by the Government
Printer should also not be overlooked. This ©
commenced in 1873 but needed Liversidge’s
editorial capabilities to give the journal a new
format.

A further stimulus for science occurred late
in 1874, when a number of observation stations
were set up in New South Wales to observe the
transit of Venus. Details of this highly
successful activity are given by Russell (1892).

The Garden Palace Fire

One of the tragedies for the historians of
Australian Science occurred on 22nd September,
1882. This was the destruction of the Garden
Palace by fire. The building had been used for
the very successful International Exhibition
of 1879-80 and must be considered one of the
most remarkable achievements of James Barnet,
the Colonial ~ Architect. It ‘certainly “is - ag
indication of the level which technology had
achieved in the colony at that time. Barnet
was given his first instructions for preparation
of plans about the middle of December, 1878,
building commenced on 13th January, 1879,
“yet on the 17th September, exactly erohn
months afterwards, the building was finished,
and the Exhibition was opened)... ‘ie
accomplish the work ...much of it had to be
done at night, with the aid of the electric light.”
It covered a site of more than five acres, was
800 ft. north to south, 500 ft. east to west:
the main dome 100 ft. in diameter reached a
height of 210 ft. above the ground. In addition
there were four entrance towers and 10 minor
towers. Construction was largely of brick and
timber, and the cost a little over £198,000.

Following the highly successful Exhibition,
the building was converted for use by various
Government departments and societies. On the
ground floor was the new Technological and
Sanitary Museum, office of the Mining Depart-
ment, the office and museum of the Linnean
Society, and “a very extensive museum of
Geological specimens arranged by the officers
of the Department of Mines”, (iihemiine
destroyed many precious documents and
specimens. “‘It is estimated by Mr. Moore,
the Curator of the Botanic Gardens, that about
20,000 or 30,000 plants are nearly all destroyed ”’.
Along with all the fossils, minerals and rocks
collected by the Mining Department was “ the
collection of the late Rev. W. B. Clarke, which,

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE

with Mr. Clarke’s maps and library, cost the
Government £7,000.’ The whole collection
had an estimated value of £50,000.

The Linnean Society suffered to the extent of
over £2,500. It lost the whole of its lbrary,
comprising donations and exchanges and about
£1,200 worth of books recently purchased by
William Macleay, together with its collection
of plants and all its publications, while the
Rev. Tenison-Woods lost books worth £1,500.
Along with many works of art, the results of the
1881 census were also lost ; The Sydney Morning
Herald wrote caustically “ there can be no doubt
that a feeling of the utmost indignation will
pervade all classes of the community when it
is realized that that information which has
cost so much to collect. ..is now irreparably
lost ’’.

The Council of the Linnean Society met the
same day as the fire to consider what action to
take, and a general meeting of members was
called to discuss the Society’s situation. In
the event the Society decided on a policy of
“business as usual ’’.

The Geographical Society of Australasia—
The First Australia-wide Society

It is not generally remembered that this
Society was closely related to the Royal Society
of New South Wales. One of Liversidge’s
changes introduced into the Royal Society was
the provision of specialist sections. These first
became active in 1876. [Similar specialist
sections were introduced about the same time
in the Royal Societies of Victoria and South
Australia.] Initially, allowance was made for
nine sections— Astronomy and _ Physics,
Chemistry and Mineralogy, Geology and Palae-
ontology, Zoology and Botany (including
Entomology), Microscopical Science, Geography
and Ethnology, Literature and Fine Arts
(including Architecture), Medical Science, and
Sanitary Science (and Statistics). These had
varying success, but by 1882 only two, the
Microscopical and Medical sections, were active.
There were, however, later section renewals and
developments.

The Geographical section was one which had
lapsed after some activity. However, on 2nd
April, 1883, a meeting took place, at the home
of Dr. Belgrave, “‘for the purpose of either
reorganising the Geographical Section of the
Royal Society, or forming a new and entirely
independent organisation on a_ co-operative

135

’

basis to apply to all the Australasian Colonies ’’.
Among those present were Mr. Gerard and
Mr. Du Faur, secretary and chairman respectively
of the “defunct Geographical Section ”’
Du Faur “related in considerable detail the
efforts made by the Council of the Royal Society
for establishing a Geographical Section. In
spite of every effort it lapsed, the Chairman and
Secretary becoming ultimately the only
attendants at meetings ’’. Du Faur was inclined
to think the geographers should stick to the
Royal Society largely because of its healthy
bank balance.

However, the others at the meeting thought
that the time had come for an Australia-wide
society as they had received a favourable
reaction from interested persons in other
colonies.

The original name chosen was The Federal
Geographical Society of Australasia, and (Pro-
fessor) W. J. Stephens was careful to define
Australasia: ‘“‘ the Australian region as defined
by W. Wallace shall be recognised by this
Society as the space within which the operations
Shall be concentrated’’. The enthusiastic
Frenchman FE. Martin La Meslée was elected as
Secretary, while Stephens became Vice-
President. No President was named.

Political pressure existed even in those days,
and Sir John Robertson’s comment at the final
organizational meeting that the word “‘ Federal ”’
in the Society’s title could lose it many friends
did not go unheeded: the title became merely
“The Geographical Society of Australasia ”’

The inaugural meeting of the Society was a
“ grand spectacular ’”’ held on 22nd June, 1883,
at the Protestant Hall in Castlereagh Street.
After an introduction by Professor Stephens,
Meslée presented a long paper on the Exploration
of New Guinea. Between 700 and 800 packed
the hall to get the Society off to a good start.

However, the organizers were determined on
a continent-wide society which could sponsor
exploration—especially of the unknown parts
of New Guinea. Interested persons in Melbourne
met on 13th August, 1883, to discuss the
formation of a Victorian branch. J. Cosmo
Newbery. Director of the Victorian Museum,
pointed out that the Royal Society of Victoria
had a geographical section which it might be
better to join while still maintaining affiliation
with the Geographical Society of Australasia.
A committee was appointed to confer with the

c¢

Council of the Royal Society (of Victoria) “as

136

to the practicability of amalgamation ’’. How-
ever, this does not seem to have eventuated and
a separate organization, with Baron Von Mueller
as Vice-President and A. C. MacDonald as
Secretary, was created. Developments were
slower in other States, but in July, 1885, both
Queensland and South Australia set up branches.

Two “ Federal Council ’’ meetings were held.
The first, called “‘ The Australian Geographical
Conference ’’, met at the Melbourne Town Hall
between 17th and 23rd December, 1884. At
this meeting Sir Edward Strickland (from the
New South Wales branch) was named President
and Baron Von Mueller Vice-President. The
meeting also decided that similar conferences
should be held by a combination of branches
“for the purpose of discussing periodically
important matters affecting the interests of

)

geographical science in Australia ”’.

The second interstate meeting appears under
the title “‘ Second Interprovincial Geographical
Conference ’’’, held at the rooms of the South
Australian branch of the Royal Geographical
Society of Australasia in Adelaide during
September, 1887. At this meeting, attended by
delegates from New South Wales, Victoria and
South Australia, there was considerable
discussion on the need for incorporating the
Society and for drawing up a satisfactory Federal
constitution which had not yet been achieved.
The general opinion of the meeting was that
the Society needed to be kept united.

The New South Wales branch persisted at
jieast till 1898. In 1893 we find its proceedings
published as the Journal and Proceedings of
the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
and there is little or no mention of other
branches. However, there was apparently still
co-operation between the branches.

The Victorian branch persisted as an
independent body till about 1918, after which it
incorporated with the Victorian Historical
Society. The Queensland and South Australian
branches have continued to the present as an
important heritage of this first attempt to link
scientists in an Australia-wide — scientific
society.

Attempts to form a Geological Society of
Australasia were less ambitious, but likewise
aimed at a _continent-wide representation
(Branagan and Vallance, 1967).

The Geological Society might well have
become Australia’s first permanent professional
specialist scientific body similar to those

DF. BRANAGAN

operating today. However, it was thwarted
to some extent by the formation in Broken Hill
in 1893 of the Australian Institute of Mining
Engineers. Coinciding with the growth of
mining, this institute grew rapidly and soon
received company support.

When the institute moved to Melbourne
it and the Geological Society had their offices
in the same building. However, both retained
their separate identities. While the Institute
continued to grow, the Geological Society did
not. The Society finally ceased to function
in 1905.

Shortly after the formation of the Geographical
and Geological Societies, a more _ successful
Federal body came into being. This was the
loosely-inked Australian Association for the
Advancement of Science (A.A.A.S.—later
A.N.Z.A.A.S.), the “brainchild” of Archibald
Liversidge. The A.A.A.S., which first met in
1888, has proved surprisingly effective. Its
formation has been adequately described by
Russell (1888).

Professional Societies

(i) The Engineers

It is not possible to go into the development
of these societies in any detail, but a few
interesting aspects deserve mention. As we
have shown earlier, engineers such as Denison
and Clarke (as well as Professor William Henry
Warren) contributed to the various learned
societies during the 19th century, and in fact
have continued to do so until the present.

The first separate engineering society was the
“Engineering Association of New South
Wales’, established in 1870 (Pugh, 1970).
A separate similar society was established in
1883 in Melbourne.

The first moves for amalgamation of the
various State bodies (which were many) were
made in 1910, and final agreement was reached
in 1917 (Corbett, 1957). One of the largest
groups of engineers—the Northern Engineering
Institute of New South Wales based in New-
castle—was hesitant about joining a federation,
but finally decided to join.

The objectives of the Federal body were very
different from those of the 19th century societies.
First and foremost it was concerned with
professional objectives, such as qualifications,
ethics, conditions of work, and_ salaries.
Technical and scientific matters, although not
neglected, were subordinate.

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE

(ii) Organization of the Chemists

The Australian Chemical Institute was formed
in 1917 largely through the efforts of Sir David
Orme Masson of Melbourne (Leighton, 1954).
The co-operation of societies in other States
was not won easily. Masson realized the need
for winning over the.New South Wales chemists,
and spent considerable time in Sydney during
1916 and 1917 working with Professor Charles
Fawsitt to build up support.

The Australian Chemical Institute achieved
incorporation by Royal Charter in 1932. From
1917 to 1934 the headquarters of the Council
were in Sydney, during which time the Institute
grew to a membership of nearly 1,000. This
contrasts with a total number of about 200
Australian chemists in 1904.

In 1934 the headquarters were moved to
Melbourne with the idea that a periodic transfer
of central responsibility from State to State
would prove stimulating. At the same time
publication of a journal was commenced to
replace the earlier use of the pages of the

Australian Chemical and Mining Journal.

From its inception, the Institute showed its
concern for qualifications, professional conduct
and service to the community. Likewise the
Institution of Engineers and the Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (originally
the Australian Institute of Mining Engineers—
reorganized in 1918) directed their attention
to these matters with subordinate interest in
matters of research.

At this time the lot of the scientist, and
particularly the chemist, was not good.

About 1917 the Victorian Department of
Mines advertised for a B.Sc. graduate with a

137

sound knowledge of chemical analysis for
research on the distillation of brown coal. The
salary offered was £72 per annum! Willsmore
(1921) remarks drily that the then Victorian
Minister for Mines, in a lecture given to the
Royal Society of Arts in London, claimed for
his department great credit for its zeal in
stimulating chemical research !

However, it must be sadly confessed that it
was the Great War which proved the major
stimulus to chemistry in this country. The
drastic shortage of chemists in Britain at the
beginning of the war in 1914 left the country
far behind the German war effort. The result
of this was a massive recruiting campaign in
Australia and other parts of the Commonwealth.

There can be little doubt that the return of
many of these chemists to Australia, aware of
their capabilities and their usefulness in the
developing economy, helped to create an efficient
professional body out of the Australian Chemical
Institute.

There is clearly a relation between the growth
of a professional spirit amongst engineers and
scientists and the development of the new
universities of Queensland (1911) and Western
Australia (1913). In both of these institutions
Engineering and Chemistry and other science
professorships were among those first created,
taking precedence over more classical topics—
something which would have been unthinkable
30 years earlier.

Something of the pattern of growth of
Australian Science is shown in Table 1, which
must still be regarded as a preliminary list of
the scientific societies which have existed
within Australia.

KEY TO TABLE

The ? at the foot of this line refers to the

6. Australian Philosophical Society.

7. Australian Botanic and Horticultural Society.

8. Philosophical Society of New South Wales.

9. Horticultural Improvement Society of New South

10. Australian Horticultural and Agricultural Society.
11. Zoological Society of Sydney.

Note 1: No attempt made to list Societies formed since 1950.
Note 2: Societies 21, 22 and 23 have been studied up to the 1880’s.
continuation of 23. 23 did not join the Geographical Society of Australasia.
New South Wales Societies

1. Philosophical Society of Australasia.

2. Agricultural Society of New South Wales.

3. Agricultural and Horticultural Society of New

South Wales. Wales.
4. Australian Floral and Horticultural Society.
5. The Australian Society to Promote the Growth

and Consumption of Colonial Produce and

Manufactures.

12. Acclimatisation Society.
13. Royal Society of New South Wales.

D. F. BRANAGAN

138

eL/LEe/Nr

OL

© 20g ub0eD

a
A 1) ae eae eee IL!

VITVaLISNyY Ni SSILSINOS JISILNSIDS JO SNIMING AUVNIWI add

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE

. Entomological Society of New South Wales.

. Linnean Society of New South Wales.

. Engineering Association of New South Wales.

. Zoological and Acclimatisation Society of New

South Wales.

. Botanic Society of Sydney.
. Geographical Society of Australasia (New South

Wales Branch).

. Naturalists Society of New South Wales.

. Mechanics Institute of Sydney.

. Mechanics Institute of Newcastle.

. Sydney Mechanics School of Arts.

. Australasian Association for the Advancement

of Science.

. St. George’s District Natural Science Society.

. Naturalists Union of New South Wales.

. New South Wales Naturalists Club.

. Electrical Association of New South Wales.

. Electrical Club of New South Wales.

. Northern Engineering Institute of New South

Wales.

. Bathurst Scientific Society.
. Australian Institute of Mining Engineers (Broken

Hill).

. Broken Hill Scientific Society.
. Sydney University Engineering Society.
. Northern Engineering Institute of New South

Wales.

. Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.
. Wild Life Preservation Society of New South

Wales.

. This number not used.
. Maitland Scientific

and Historical Research

Society.

. Naturalists Society of New South Wales.

. Australian Chemical Association.

. Microscopical Society of New South Wales.

. Australian Chemical Institute.

. Institute of Engineers, Australia.

. Amalgamation of Electrical Club of New South

Wales and Electrical Association of Victoria (74).

. Electrical Association of Australia.

. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
. Barrier Field Naturalists Club.

. Geographical Society of New South Wales.

. Royal Australian Chemical Institute.

. Anthropological Society (of New South Wales).
. Royal Society of Australia (later of Canberra).

Victorian Societies

. Mechanics Institute of Melbourne.

. Victorian Institute for Advancement of Science.
. Philosophical Society of Victoria.

. Philosophical Institute of Victoria.

. Royal Society of Victoria.

. Brunswick Ornithological Society.

. Mechanics Institute (? of Victoria).

. Geological Society of Victoria.

. Zoological Society of Victoria.

. Zoological and Acclimatisation Society of Victoria.
. Microscopical Society (of Victoria).

. Zoological Acclimatisation Society.

. Geographical Society of Australasia (Victorian

Branch).

. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (Melbourne).
. Geelong Naturalists Club.
. Geological Society of Australasia.

70.
ad;
ee
73.
74.
75.

76.
deus
78.

doe
80.

81.
82.

83.
84.
85.

86.
87.
88.
89.

90.

91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
7.
98.
ae

100.
101.

102.
103.
104.

105.
106.
LO7.

108.
109;
110.
tT ea
1Y2.

113.
114.
115.

116.
] Ep
ULES;

139

Victorian Institute of Engineers.
Melbourne University Engineering Society.
Bird Observers Club of Victoria.
Australasian Ornithologists’ Union.
Electrical Association of Victoria.

Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union.

Tasmanian Societies

Van Diemen’s Land Agricultural Society.

Van Diemen’s Land Scientific Society.

Mechanics Institute of Hobart (? Van Diemen’s
Land Mechanics Institute).

The Tasmanian Society.

Franklin Museum (Arcanthe) Botanical and
Horticultural Society of Van Diemen’s Land.
Launceston Horticultural Society.

Royal Society of Van Diemen’s Land for Horti-
culture, Botany and the Advancement of Science.
Hobart Town Agricultural Society.

The Midland Society.

Royal Society of Tasmania for Horticulture,
Botany and the Advancement of Science.
Ornithological Society of Tasmania.

Tasmanian Field Naturalists’ Club.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Astronomical Society of Tasmania.

South Australian Socteties

South Australian Literary and Scientific Associa-
tion.

Adelaide Mechanics Institute.

South Australian Subscription Library.

South Australian Library and Mechanics Institute.
The Mechanics Institute (of Adelaide).

Adelaide Philosophical Society.

South Australian Institute.

Public Library and Museum of South Australia.
Royal Society of South Australia.

[Royal] Geographical Society of Australasia
(South Australian Branch).

[Royal] Zoological Society of South Australia.
Astronomical Section (Royal Society of South
Australia).

South Australian Astronomical Association.
South Australian Ornithological Association.
South Australian Institute of Engineers.

Queensland Societies

Queensland Philosophical Society.

Royal Society of Queensland.

[Royal] Geographical Society of Australasia
(Queensland Branch).

[Queensland] Mechanical Engineering Association.
Queensland Institute of Engineers.

Queensland Electrical Association.

North Queensland Naturalists’ Club.
Rockhampton Scientific Society.

Western Australian Societies

Mueller Botanical Society of Western Australia.
Western Australia Natural History Society.
Natural History and Scientific Society of Western
Australia.

Engineering Institute of Western Australia.
Royal Society of Western Australia.

Western Australia Naturalists’ Club.

140

My aim has been to show something of the
growth of a community spirit among Australian
scientists and to point to a few of the people
who were responsible.

I have attempted only to give an inkling of the
threads which can be traced through our history.
We have seen some of the achievements of the
infant societies, the effects of organization,
wise Vice-regal patronage and Government
assistance, the desire for and achievement of
Australia-wide organizations, the successful
linking of widely separate disciplines, and the
professional organization of scientists both for
their own benefit and the good of society.

Perhaps I have not shown the humanity of
the people who make up this fascinating web.
This topic must be left to another occasion.

Acknowledgements

The Council of the Royal Society of New
South Wales kindly allowed me access to their
archives. Mrs. Collier and Mrs. Proctor, of the
Royal Society staff, helped me considerably
in using the Society’s library facilities.

I wish also to thank Miss Pam Green, Fisher
Library Rare Books, the Librarian, Public
Library of New South Wales, and the staff of
the Mitchell Library and Professor T. G. Vallance
and Mr. Gilbert Whitley. Funds from the
University of Sydney Research Grant were used
in the preparation of this paper.

References

I have not attempted to reference every
statement and quotation in this paper. However,
apart from the references given in the text, I
have included others which should prove useful
to those seeking information about the various
societies mentioned.

An overall basic list, although lacking some
important references, is given in Mozley, Ann,
1962. A Check List of Publications on the
History of Australian Science. A.J.S., Vol. 25,
No. 5, pp. 206-214, November, 1962.

AUSTRALIAN DICTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY. Volumes lI,
2, 3 issued so far include information on Douglass,
Goulburn, Bowman, Alleyne, Andrew Clarke
and others.

BRANAGAN, D. F., and VaLLanceE, T. G., 1967. The
Geological Society of Australasia 1885-1905.
J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 14 (2), 349-351.

BROWNE, W. R., and Browne, I. A., 1961.
Society of New South Wales.
Chem. Inst., 28, 100-109.

The Royal
Proc. Roy. Aust.

D. F. BRANAGAN

CAMBAGE, R. H., 1921. In ‘“‘ Commemoration of the
Centenary of the Foundation of the Philosophical
Society of Australasia.’”’ J. Proc. Roy. Soe.
N.S.W., 55, xxxil-xlii.

CHALLENGER EXPEDITION 1885.
Expedition, 1, Pts. I, II.

CLARKE, Rev. W. B., 1867.
Tvans. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1.

CorBETT, A. H., 1957. The History of Engineering
and Engineering Education in Australia. A.J.S.,
(March, 1957), 101-115.

DENISON, SIR Wo., 1870. Varieties of Vice-Regal Life.
2 vols. London.

ETHERIDGE, R., Jnr., 1916. The Australian Museum.
Fragments of Its Early History. Aust. Mus.
Rec. (1916-17), 11, 67-79.

FIELD, BARRON, 1825. Geographical Memoirs on New
South Wales. London.

FLETCHER, J. J., 1893. Macleay Memorial Volume.
Proc. Linn. Soc. NS We

FLETCHER, J. J., 1921. The Society’s Heritage from

Narrative of the

Inaugural Address.

the Macleays. Part I. Pyroc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W..,
45, 567-635.

FLETCHER, J. J., 1929. The Society’s Heritage from
the Macleays. Part II. Pvoc. Linn. Soc. N.S.WH
54, 185-272.

GARDEN PALACE FIRE, 1882.
September 23, p. 7.
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AUSTRALASIA, THE, 1883-84.

Proceedings, 1. (N.S.W. Branch.)

HEDLEY, C. A., 1921. Commemoration of the Cen-
tenary, etc., pp. xxvi-xxix. (See Cambage.)
HENDERSON, J., 1832. Observations on the Colonies
of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land.

(Calcutta.)

Hoare, M. E., 1967. Learned Societies in Australia :
The Foundation Years in Victoria, 1850-60.
Rec. Aust. Acad. Sct., 1 (2), 6-28.

Hoare, M. E., 1968. Dr. John Henderson and the
Van Diemen’s Land Scientific Society. Ree.
Aust. Acad. Sci., 1 (3), 7-24.

Kinc, P. P., 1825. On the Maritime Geography of
Australia. In “‘ Geographical Memoirs ’’ (Field).

LEIGHTON, A. E., 1954. A History of the Australian
Chemical Institute. Proc. Roy. Aust. Chem.
Inst., 21, 127-134, 145-154, 167-184.

MaIpEn, J. H., 1918. A Contribution to the History
of the Royal Society of New South Wales, with
Information in Regard to Other New South Wales
Societies. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 52, 215-361.

Morton, A., 1901. Some Account of the Work and
Workers of the Tasmanian Society and the Royal
Society of Tasmania from the Year 1840 to the
Close of 1900. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 109-126.

PuiLuips, M., 1909. A Colonial Autocracy, p. 270.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF AUSTRALASIA, 1821-22.
Minute Book. The original is in the Mitchell
Library. A facsimile is in the possession of the
Royal Society of New South Wales. The minutes
were reprinted as an appendix to the Royal
Society’s Proceedings, 1921. J. Pyroc. Roy. Soc.
N.S.W., 55, xxiv-xliv.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF NEW SouTH WALES,
1856-1866. Cutting books in Royal Society of
New South Wales Archives.

Presse, E. L., 1913. The Foundation and Early Work
of the Society; with some account of earlier
institutions in Tasmania.
117-166.

Sydney Morning Herald,

Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas.,

|
|

POURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W.

8

Barron Field.

Frederick Goulburn.

BRANAGAN PLATE I

Patrick Hiil.

neregunereeeceaeesnsesn

William Howe.

JOURNAL (ROVAL SOCTETY Nos WW, BRANAGAN PLATE II

Phillip Parker King. C. S. Rumker.

|

AAKKS

Alexander Berry. Robert Townson.

WORDS, ACTIONS, PEOPLE

Prescott, R. T. M., 1961. The Royal Society of

Victoria from Then to Now. 1854-1959. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vic., 73, 1-40.
PucH, Ann, 1970. One Hundred Years Ago—

Foundation of the Engineering Association of
New South Wales. /. Institn. Engrs. Aust.,
42, 83-91 (July-August).

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SoutH WALES, 1866-1971.
Minutes of Council and Society Meetings. Royal
Society Archives.

RusseELt, H., 1888. Ausivalasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, 1, 1-21. (Published
1889.)

Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney,
Sydney, 2006,
Australia.

141

RUSSELL, H., 1892. Observations on the Transit of
Venus. N.S.W. Govt. Printer.
SMITH, J., 1881. Anniversary Address.

Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 15, 1-20.
Watckom, A. B., 1925. The Linnean Society of New

J. Pree.

South Wales, 1874-1925. Linnean Society,
Sydney.
WILLSMORE, N. T., 1921. The Present Position of

Chemistry and Chemists.
19-42.

Woop, H., 1967. The Sky and the Weather. Chapter
13 in A Century of Progress. Royal Society
New South Wales, Sydney.

AiNsZ AGA poe Oo:

(Received 16 October 1971)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, pp. 148-149, 1972

Radiation Pressure and Related Forces*

WILLIAM E. SMITH

Agpstract—The phenomenon of radiation pressure is introduced and briefly surveyed. The
Larmor theorem and the adiabatic theorem are used to deduce expressions for radiation pressure,
and to show that radiation pressure is a normal concomitant of wave propagation.

Electromagnetic radiation pressure is discussed in some detail using the author’s generalized

steady force theory for arbitrary loss-free systems.
radiation pressure, and quasi-stationary forces, regarded here as related forces.

This approach emphasizes the unity of
It is shown

that the generalized adiabatic theorem includes the content of much previous theoretical work.

Practical applications are also discussed.

A similar formulation is given for acoustics leading to a corresponding generalized adiabatic
theorem. Radiation pressure effects in oceanography are mentioned briefly but not discussed

in detail.

I. Introduction

When a wave is physically reflected or
absorbed, a mean pressure is exerted on the
reflector or absorber. This pressure is known as
radiation pressure. For electromagnetic waves
(e.g. light) it arises as a time average of the
Maxwell stress tensor, while for acoustics (sound)
or surface waves on fluids it is due to second
order terms from the non-linear equations of
hydrodynamics. The effects are intimately
connected with the assignment of linear
momentum to wave motion ; radiation pressure
then being the result of reversal or absorption
of the linear momentum of the radiation. We
shall see from the Larmor and adiabatic theorems
that radiation pressure is to be expected from
waves of almost any kind, although detailed
attention will be given only to electromagnetic
and sound waves with a brief mention of surface
waves on fluids.

We might ask for situations where radiation
pressure is directly observable. Consider firstly
electromagnetic radiation. Optometrists for
many years displayed a device which was
supposed to illustrate radiation pressure from
sunlight. A set of paddles was delicately
suspended in an evacuated glass container so
that pressure on the paddles would cause the

* Presidential Address delivered to the Royal Society
of New South Wales at Science House, Gloucester
Street, Sydney, on 7th April, 1971.

paddle wheel to rotate. One side of the paddles
was shiny and reflecting and the other sides
blackened and absorbing. Radiation pressure
on the reflecting side would be approximately
twice as great as on the absorbing side leading
to a rotational torque when placed in sunlight.
Unfortunately these devices rotate in the
opposite direction from that first expected.
The resolution is with the secondary effects
due to residual gas molecules in the evacuated
container. The blackened side becomes hotter
than the reflecting side and the counter rotational
torque is the result of recoil momentum from
the heated gas molecules leaving the paddles.
Another classic case can also be quoted. A
comet’s tail is deflected away from the sun on
close approach. Radiation pressure from
sunlight will contribute to this bending. How-
ever, the effect of radiation pressure is far
outweighed by the solar wind. Several romantics
in the early days of the space exploration era
proposed the use of sail boats using radiation
pressure rather than wind for voyages through
space. (The parallel is not complete since the
keel plays an essential réle with conventional
craft.) Presently, we shall see that under mest
circumstances radiation pressure for the wave
regime is an exceedingly small effect.

Accurate measurements confirming the
existence of radiation pressure were made for
light by Lebedew (1901) and Nichols and Hull
(1901, 1903). Beth (1936), in a set of classic

144

experiments, measured the angular momentum
of suitably polarized light. Practical applications
for electromagnetic radiation pressure effects
have been found in the microwave part of the
spectrum. Carrara and Lombardini first made
microwave radiation pressure measurements in
1949. A whole series of microwave radiation
pressure power meters resulted from the work
of Cullen and his collaborators in the 1950’s.
In fact, many familiar measuring instruments
(electrostatic voltmeters, moving-iron ammeters
or current dynamometers) may be regarded as
limiting cases of radiation pressure devices.
The general theory for the production of steady
forces in electromagnetic systems (Section IV)
makes no sharp distinction between the quasi-
static and wave regimes.

In acoustics, too, radiation pressure may be
used for the absolute measurement of energy
flux. A circular disc suspended by a fibre along
a diameter as axis experiences a torque from
radiation pressure when placed in a sound field.
This device, known as the Rayleigh disc, and
other devices based on radiation pressure,
have been supplanted, except for ultrasonics,
by the development of the reciprocity technique,
largely because of their inconvenience, fragility
and poor accuracy.

The above examples indicate that although
radiation pressure is a widespread phenomenon,
it usually gives rise only to small effects, and
often very great care is required to detect it at
all. There is no fear of being knocked over by
the radiation pressure from sunlight or by the
heat of radiation from a furnace. We shall
see from Sections II and III that for a plane
wave the radiation pressure P is of the order of
the energy density U, allowing us to estimate
magnitudes. The solar flux at the surface of
the earth is about 1-4kW/m?. To obtain the
corresponding energy density we must divide
by the wave velocity c (==3 x108 m/sec).

P= Ai XO ea.
(4; Pascal— Nj me).

On noting that atmospheric pressure is about
10° Pa, we see why radiation pressure is usually
negligible. Even at the surface of the sun
P==0-2 Pa, while a powerful laser beam with a
Poynting vector of 10’?kW/m? produces a
pressure of only 33 Pa. However, when we
regard quasi-stationary electric and magnetic
forces as related forces, significant pressures
arise from accessible fields. The magnetic
pressure in vacuo from a magnetic induction of

WILLIAM3E. SMITH

0-5T (5,000 gauss) is about 10° Pa (@&1 atmos-
phere). For an electric field of 3x105V/m@
the pressure is about 40 Pa.

Electromagnetic radiation pressure also arises
in equilibrium thermodynamics from the
presence of black body radiation. For isotropic
radiation P=U/3, and classical thermodynamics
leads to the form of the Steffan-Boltzmann law
(the constant of proportionality requires
quantum statistical mechanics).

Equilibrium —

black-body radiation pressure is very small at |
ordinary temperatures (containment pressure —
~w2x10-§ Pa at 300K), but because of its”
proportionality to the fourth power of temper- |
ature it increases dramatically with temperature —
provided the hypothetical containment vessel —
provides a sufficient barrier to the increasingly —

shorter wavelengths constituting the radiation.

For sound, a given energy flux will produce a —
much larger radiation pressure because the |

velocity of propagation is so much smaller.

Since c#330 m/sec for sound, this factor is
about 108, so that a flux of 1 kW/m? gives |

oleae

In Sections II and III the Larmor anda
adiabatic theorems are used to assess the —

magnitude of radiation pressure forces, and to
show that radiation pressure is a natural
concomitant of wave propagation. Section IV
discusses electromagnetic radiation pressure
forces in some detail and shows how radiation
pressure and quasi-stationary electromagnetic
forces can be integrated into a single generalized
average force theory. Section V deals with a
similar formulation for acoustics and Section VI
briefly mentions the occurrence of radiation
pressure effects in oceanography.

II. The Larmor Theorem on Radiation
Pressure

An elementary energy conservation argument
leads to the radiation pressure developed by
reflection of a plane wave. Consider a plane
wave travelling in the x direction incident
normally on a reflector which itself is moving
very slowly with velocity —w in the x direction.
The position of the reflector at time ¢ is x= —ut.

Suppose the incident wave is represented by
the wave amplitude

a; CoS w;(t—x/c) (1)
where c is the phase velocity and w,; the angular
frequency of the incident wave. The reflected
wave amplitude may be taken as

a, COS w,(£-+x/c)

RADIATION PRESSURE AND RELATED FORCES

with w,4w; to account for the Doppler shift in
frequency brought about by the moving reflector.
The wave propagation is assumed non-dispersive
in regarding c as unchanged, and in these
circumstances no distinction need be made
between group and phase velocities.

At the reflector surface (x=—wt) the total
amplitude is zero for all ¢, Le.
a, COS w;(¢-+-ut/c) +a, cos w,(¢—ut/c) =0 eB
ie. @,+a,—0 (4)
and w,/@;=(c+u)/(c—x) (non-relativistic
Doppler formula) (5)

Now suppose the radiation pressure exerted
on the reflector is P. We consider the energy
balance between the incident and _ reflected
waves, and the rate of work done against the
radiation pressure in moving the reflector. The
reflected wave has a different energy flux from
the incident wave because, although it has the
same amplitude, it has a different frequency.
We suppose as for mechanical waves (e.g. sound),
that the energy density U is proportional to
the square of the velocity of wave motion, i.e.
w?. The rate at which energy hits the
reflector/m? in a long train of the incident

wave 1S
U(w;)(¢+) (6)
The rate at which energy goes into the reflected

wave is
U(w,)(¢—u) (7)
The difference in these two fluxes is main-
tained by the work done against the radiation
pressure force.
Le., U(w,)(c—u) —U(a,)(c+u)
=rate of work done against the
radiation pressure
= Pu (as u->0)

But U(0,)/U(w,) =?/0%=(w-+0)2/(u —c)2

esceeresee ec ee eee © © oe eB we we we we ew

eoece ees eee ee ® © eo ee © @

oeee ec 8 @ @

BRR Steer lie on) Siti <a de eee « (9)
*. from (8)
2uU(w,)(c+u)/(c—u)=Pu . (10)
and as u->0
[Eel CUS 0 ae ree eee oa rn (11)
=total energy density (Larmor

theorem).

For electromagnetic waves, modification is
required since U(w) is independent of frequency
for constant field amplitude. Equation (4)
must be modified in this case. The electric
field E should be transformed to the moving
frame of the reflector before setting the total

amplitude zero.

145

The transformed fields (non-relativistic since
u-—>0) are

E;=E,(1+ujc) .... (12)
E,=E,(1—u/|c)
giving
—E,/E;=(c+u)/(c—u) .. (18)
after setting £;+£,=0.
Then
U,/U;=(c+u)?/(c—u)? .. (14)

which is the same as equation (9) and the same
radiation pressure is obtained.

It is clear that energy flux arguments of the
above type could be applied to any wave motion,
and unless very special conditions are fulfilled,
radiation pressure will result. The limitation
of the discussion to non-dispersive waves is not
essential to this conclusion. However, the
discussion is based on energy conservation, so
the wave propagation must be sensibly loss-free.
The same requirement appears in the other
approaches to follow.

III. Radiation Pressure from the
Adiabatic Theorem

Another general approach to the deduction
of radiation pressures is provided by the
adiabatic theorem (Brillouin, 1964). The
adiabatic theorem, otherwise known as the
Boltzmann-Ehrenfest theorem, or in electro-
magnetism as the resonator action theorem
(Maclean, 1945), was obtained in mechanics by
Boltzmann (1904). For our application to
linear oscillatory systems it may be simplified
to

5(Wr) =0 (15)
where W is the energy and rt the period of some
oscillatory mode, and $ denotes a small adiabatic
variation generated by a slow change in some
parameter of the system. A simple mechanical
example illustrating the theorem is provided by
a pendulum formed when a weight is suspended
on a string from a fixed point. Ifa ring slipped
over the string is held steady, and slowly (ie.
over many periods of the pendulum) moved
vertically so as to alter the effective length of
the pendulum, the period and energy of the
motion of the pendulum will satisfy (15), ie.
W-+=constant, for small amplitudes of vibration.
The change of energy results because work is
done in moving the ring, and this work is related
by the adiabatic theorem to the change in period.

For our application to radiation pressure, we
consider a resonator formed by the reflection of

146

plane waves between two plane parallel reflectors
separated by a distance /. The reflector
separation is to be slightly changed very slowly
to (l+68x) (ie. adiabatically). Suppose w is
the resonant angular frequency, A the wave-
length, and c,,c, the phase and group velocities
of the waves. For resonance

Lah. Aah oaeee hae (16)
where 1 is some integer,
re: VNC). = parte peieere (17)

When / is changed to (/-+8x) adiabatically,
the frequency will change so that (17) 1s still
satisfied with the same m. Allowing for the
possibility of dependence of c, on w, we obtain
from (17)

dx =nr{c, —w(dc,/dw)}d(1/w) .... (18)

However, equation (15) is equivalent to

SW +oWd(1/w) =0 (19)

Eliminating d(1/m) from equations (18) and

(19) gives
SW +oWdx/nr(c,—wdc,/dw)=0 .. (20)

In the adiabatic displacement, dW arises
because of the work done by radiation pressure
on the reflectors. If F, is the total radiation
pressure force on the reflectors

OW == SO. Geer ee (20)
Substitution in (20) gives
F=oW |nx(c,—wde,/dw) .... (21)
= (WAUNCC A Caceres (22)
.. Radiation pressure P=U,(c,/c,) .. (23)

where U, is the total radiation density in accord
with the result of Section II, but this time the
possibility of dispersion has been allowed for.
Because energy is transported at the group
velocity, the linear momentum flux associated
with an energy flux N is N/c,. A simple case
of dispersive waves complying with this result
occurs when electromagnetic waves travel along
a waveguide. If a material medium is present,
there are additional problems in applying the
adiabatic theorem because of compression or
displacement of the medium (Brillouin, 1964).

IV. Electromagnetic Radiation Pressure
Forces

Having discussed radiation pressure in a
general way from the Larmor theorem and the
adiabatic theorem in the previous two sections,
we return to the specific problem for electro-
magnetic radiation. It will be shown that an
integrated formulation for the production of
radiation pressure forces gives an expression
valid for all regimes from free or confined wave

WILLIAM E. SMITH

propagation to the quasi-static forces more
usually regarded as solely magnetic or electric
in origin. In this formulation there is no sharp —
division between wave pressures and quasi-
stationary magnetic or electric pressures. The
results are summarized in the _ generalized
adiabatic theorem.

In electromagnetic theory radiation pressure
results from time averages of the Maxwell stress
tensor (Panofsky and Phillips, 1962). Conse-
quently, in the general case there is a tensor of
radiation pressure which is not an isotropic
pressure at all. This aspect of the misnomer
“radiation pressure’’ has been consistently
emphasized by L. Brillouin (1964). However,
in simple contexts the companion concepts of
linear or angular momentum of radiation
(Panofsky and Phillips, 1962) may lead to simple
physical derivations of radiation pressure pro-
duced forces. For example, if a plane wave
impinges on a simple scatterer, conservation of
the total linear wave momentum of the incident
plane wave and the scattered waves leads to the
average force exerted on the scatterer. A
slightly more involved calculation (especially
so because of the various possible polarizations)
using the conservation of angular momentum
would lead to the average torque exerted on the |
scatterer. This type of approach tends to be
useful only for single scattering, although its |
application is not confined to free waves. It
can be applied equally well to guided wave
situations (Cullen, 1966, and accompanying
papers).

Cullen (1952) considered another approach to |
a considerably more general system, where two |
wave guides (an input and an output) trans- |
mitted radiant energy through a general loss-free
system in which some generalized mechanical |
co-ordinate x was a parameter. Cullen was able
to apply the resonator action theorem (adiabatic |
theorem) (Maclean, 1945) to provide a means |
for deducing the average generalized force F; |
corresponding to the parameter x. The formula |
obtained involved only variations in the |
behaviour of the total system as observed from |
the waves in the input and output wave guides, |
as the parameter x was varied. This work |
resulted in the development of a series of absolute
microwave power meters (Cullen and Stephenson, |
1952; Cullen, Rogal and Okamura, 1958; |
Cullen, 1966). |

To generalize further, we consider an arbitrary |
loss-free electromagnetic system excited from |

RADIATION PRESSURE AND RELATED FORCES

the exterior. It has been shown (Smith, 1961)
that the average generalized force f, corres-
ponding to a generalized co-ordinate x of the
system can be expressed as

2ioFd=| | (OE < H*+E* x dH) .dA
s

(inward normal positive) .. (24)

where w is the angular frequency of excitation
(time dependence exp (twi)), E and H are
complex r.m.s. electric and magnetic field
vectors on a mathematical surface S enclosing
the system, and 6 denotes changes resulting
from a small adiabatic variation of the parameter
x. Equation (24) provides a general relationship
between radiation pressure type forces and
observable exterior behaviour for a _ general
loss-free electromagnetic system. Appropriate
specialization (Smith, 1964@) leads to Cullen’s
formula.

It is often convenient to describe an electro-
magnetic system by reactance X, susceptance B,
or scattering S, parameter matrices (Mont-
gomery, Dicke and Purcell, 1948) in which case
equation (24) can be written in any of the
forms

F,=(1/2e)It(0X/0x)I (25)
F,=(1/2w)V}(dB/dx)V ...... (26)
iw F,=—kbt(dS/axja .......00. (27)

where I, V, a and b are complex r.m.s. column
vectors of current, voltage, incoming wave
amplitudes and outgoing wave amplitudes
respectively, and + denotes hermitian conjugates.

There are some very important features of
equations (24) to (27). Firstly, only exterior
behaviour and not internal details are required
for their application. Secondly, by making use
of suitable impedance, etc., standards, they may
be used as the basis for an absolute calibration.
Finally, from a theoretical point of view they
make absolutely no distinction between wave
and quasi-stationary force production. The one
formulation gives results for both arbitrarily
small and arbitrarily large frequencies. From
this angle the family of radiation pressure and
related forces is a very large one. Two simple
limiting cases will show the correspondence
between this general formulation and electro-
statics or magnetostatics. If the system con-
sidered behaves as an inductor of inductance L
excited by a current J, then equation (25)
becomes the familiar magnetostatics formula

F,=1}120L /ax (28)

147

Similarly, for a capacitor C excited by a
voltage V equation (26) reduces to the electro-
statics formula

ipa 20G 0% (29)

There is, in fact, an intimate connection
between the adiabatic theorem of Section III
and the force formulation giving equation (24).
This interrelation can be expressed in the
generalized adiabatic theorem (Smith, 1967)

oF ,dx+Wao== | | (dE xH*+E* xdH) . dA
S)

(30)
where W is the average electromagnetic energy
stored by the system. In addition to the
adiabatic theorem and the steady force formula
(eqn. (24)), this theorem also covers as special
cases (1) the expression of energy storage W in
terms of exterior behaviour and (ii) inter-
connections between forces and energy storage
(Smith, 1966), e.g.,

F,+0(0F,/0m),=(OW Jax), .... (31)

FOOL 2100); —(OW /OX), «22 (a2)
Equations (31) and (32) reduce to well-known
electrostatic and magnetostatic force/energy
formulas if the second terms of the right-hand
sides of equation (31) and (32) tend to zero
as w+>0. Equations (31) and (32) have been
used to discuss the frequency dependence of
some idealized measuring instruments (Smith,
1969).

To conclude this section, some _ incidental
applications of steady forces in electromagnetic
systems will be mentioned. As noted earlier,
forces produced in this manner can be made the
basis for the absolute calibration of electrical
measuring instruments (e.g. microwave power
meters in the wave regime). For many years
low-frequency electrical standards have been
based on the ampere derived from magneto-
static forces of the type described by equation
(28). At the present time there are at least
two standards laboratories (N.B.S. in U.S.A. and
N.S.L. in Australia) working on the precision
establishment of standards from electrostatic
forces of the type described by equation (29).

Radiation containment of plasmas for fusion
reactions has received some attention over the
years of fusion device research. Proposals
require enormous powers coupled with super-
conducting resonant cavities to reach the
required magnetic inductions to give sufficient
containment pressure. Why bother when static
fields can be attained so much more easily ?

eo ee © © © © © © ee

148

The theoretical advantage of high-frequency
fields is that the magnetostatic equation
vV XB=0 in the containment region does not
have to be satisfied. This opens the possibility
of field configurations having a well of B which
is desirable for containing a conducting plasma
(Hatch, Hasan and Smith, 1969). There has
been no thorough examination of the theoretical
problems of radiation containment of dense
plasmas and the technological problems are
immense.

Eddy-current levitation forces (Okress e¢ al.,
1952) where the levitation force is provided by
average magnetic stresses are also related forces.
In a loss-free idealization the generalized force
theory is directly applicable. Unless the
levitated body is superconducting, the loss-free
idealization is unreasonable. Nevertheless the
levitation force in the lossy case is still given by
equation (28), where L is the effective inductance
(Smith, 1965a, 1965b). This is an unexpectedly
simple result in view of the problems connected
with forces and radiation pressure when losses
are not negligible. All of the previous theorems
mentioned have required the loss-free condition
somewhere in their derivations.

V. Acoustic Radiation Pressure

Much of what has been said for electromagnetic
radiation pressure applies for acoustic radiation
pressure. The problems are similar, but initially
more complicated because of the non-linearities
of the equations of hydrodynamics. A linear
approximation is usually adequate in acoustics.
Radiative pressure then arises as a second order
non-linear correction. An enlightening way of
looking at radiation pressure, which gives the
appropriate tensor formulation and at the same
time parallels the use of the Maxwell tensor in
electromagnetism, is to consider the momentum
flux density tensor (Landau and Lifshitz, 1959).
The radiation pressure tensor is then obtained
by time averaging this tensor using quantities
derived from the linear approximation. In
this way the tensor nature of radiation pressure
follows directly.

Investigations of acoustic radiation pressure
have centred around the average mechanical
effects on a single scatterer. The historically
important Rayleigh disc was treated by solving
a hydrodynamical flow problem (Lord Rayleigh,
1945). The general form of the force exerted
on a single scatterer is contained in Westervelt’s
(Westervelt, 1957) formula. Similarly, Maidanik

WILLIAM E. SMITH

(1958) has obtained an expression for the
radiation pressure torque in terms of scattering
amplitudes. |

A generalized force theory (Smith, 19640,
1965c) has been developed for arbitrary acoustic
systems excited from the exterior in the same
spirit as that in electromagnetism. Although
the details of the derivation are naturally very
different, the final result is very similar to
equation (24).

oF dx=ti| { (pdv*+vdp*) .dA.. (33)
s

(inward normal positive)
where # and v are the complex r.m.s. pressure
and velocity fields on a mathematical surface
enclosing the system and 6 denotes an adiabatic
variation of the generalized co-ordinate. When
expressed in parameter matrix forms (Smith,
1964), 1965c), equation (33) gives the same
results as in electromagnetism (i.e. equations
(25)-(27)). (There are some errors of detail
in the cited references, but the results are
nevertheless true). Equation (33) can be used
as the starting point for alternative derivations
of the formulas of Westervelt and Maidanik
for single scattering (Smith, 1972).

A generalized adiabatic theorem for acoustics
has also been propounded (Smith, 1971) :

wF,dx+Wdw= uff (pdv* +vdp*) .d

(34)
Analogously to the corresponding electro-

magnetic theorem (equation (30)), this theorem
includes the ordinary adiabatic theorem, the
steady force theory above, the expression of the
average energy storage W in terms of exterior
behaviour and interrelations between force and
energy storage.

F,+o(0F ,/0x) , =(@W/0x) , . (35)

F,+(0F;,/0x), =(@W/ex),,.. .. (36)
As in electromagnetism, the theory assumes
loss-free conditions, but otherwise the system is —
arbitrary. There are severe difficulties in the |
way of extensions to dissipative systems. |

VI. Radiation Pressures in
Oceanography !

Effects associated with radiation pressure also |
occur with ocean waves. Second-order terms in |
the non-linear equations of motion, which are |
ignored in the wave propagation, give changes |

RADIATION PRESSURE

in the mean level or lead to gross mass transport
akin to streaming in acoustics. (For a dis-
cussion of these effects for gravity waves, see
Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (1962), Whitham
(1962).) We shall not attempt to discuss any
details of such effects, but we note that here is
yet a further example of the universality of
radiation pressure.

VII. References

BETH, R. A., 1936. Phys. Rev., 50, 115.

BoLtzMAnn, L., 1904. Vorlesungen tiber die Prinzipe
dey Mechanth, 2, Sec. 48. J. A. Barth, Leipzig.

BRILLOUIN, L., 1964. Tensorvs in Mechanics and
Elasticity. Academic, New York.

CuLLEN, A. L., 1952. Proc. Instn.
99. 1V, 112.

CuLteNn, A. L., 1966. The Measurement of Microwave
Power Using the Momentum of Radiation.
Colloquium on the Problems of Radiation Pressure
and Associated Mechanical Forces. Instn. Elect.
Engrs., London (January).

CuLLEN, A. L., RoGAaL, B., and OkamurRa, S., 1958.
Trans. IRE, MTT-6, 133.

CuLLEN, A. L., and STEPHENSON, I. M., 1952.
Instn. Elect. Engrs., 99, IV, 294.

Hatcu, A. J., Hasan, M., and Smitn, W. E., 1968.
Potential-Well Theory of Confinement of Plasmas
in Nonuniform Radiofrequency Fields. Col-
loquium on the Interaction of Stationary and
Progressive Electromagnetic Fields with a Plasma.

Elect. Engrs.,

Proc.

French Atomic Energy Commission, Saclay,
France (January).
LANDAU, L. D., and Lirsuitz, E. M., 1959. Fluid

Mechanics, Sec. 7, p. 64.
LEBEDEW, P., 1901.

Pergamon, Oxford.
Ann. dev Phys., 6, 433.

Department of Applied Mathematics,
University of New South Wales,
Kensington, Australia, 2033.

(Received 29

AND RELATED FORCES 149

LonGUET-HIaeIns, M. S., and STEWART, R. W., 1962:
J. Fluid Mechs., 12, 481.

MacLean, W. R., 1945. Quart. Appl. Math., 2, 329.

MAIDANIK, G., 1958. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 30,
620.

MontTGOMERY, C. G., DICKE, R. H., and PURCELL,
E. M., 1948. Principles of Microwave Circuits.
McGraw-Hill, New York.

NICHOLLS, E. F., and Hutt, G. F., 1901. Phys. Rev.,
13, 307.

NIcHo.ts, E. F., and HuLi, G. F., 1903. Phys. Fev.,
17, 26.

OxrEss, E. C., WRouGHTON, D. M., CoMENETz, C.,
Brace, P. H., and KEtty, J.C. R., 1952. J. Appi.
Phys., 23, 545, and errata 1413.

PANoFsky, W. K. H., and PHILLIpPs, M.,
Classical Electricity and Magnetism, Sec.
11.3. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.

RAYLEIGH, Lorp, 1945. The Theory of Sound, 2.
Dover, New York. (Reprint of 1894 edition.)

SMITH, W. E., 1961. Aust. J. Phys., 14, 152.

1962.
10.6,

SMITH, W. E., 1964a. Aust. J. Appl. Sct., 15, 65.

SMiTH, W. E., 19646. Aust. J. Phys., 17, 389.

SMITH, W. E., 1965a. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.s
98, 151.

SMITH, W. E., 19656. Aust. J. Phys., 18, 195.

SMITH, W. E., 1965c. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 37,
932.

SMITH, W. E., 1966. Aust. J. Phys., 19, 709.

SMITH, W. E., 1967. Canad. J. Phys., 45, 3422.

SMITH, W. E., 1969. Electronics Letters, 5, 349.

SMITH, W.E., 1971. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 50, 386.

SMITH, W. E., 1972. Acoustic Radiation Pressure
Forces and Torques from Elastic Scattering.
Aust. J. Phys. 25, 275.

WESTERVELT, P. J., lya7. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer.,
29, 26.

WHITHAM, G. B., 1962. J. Fluid Mech., 12, 135.

March 1972)

re
~~.
=
————

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 104, 151-152, 1972

Note on Sandstone Dykes at Minchinbury, N.S.W.

G. S. GIBBONS

(Communication to the Editor)

ABSTRACT—The geometry and petrology of a sandstone dyke formerly exposed in a basalt-
breccia pipe at Minchinbury (N.S.W.) indicate that a mass of sand behaved as a fluid shortly

after the breccia was formed.

If the breccia now exposed represents the vent of a volcano,

it may be that similar flow processes occurred within the breccia itself.

Introduction

The nature of the breccia pipes around Sydney
has aroused considerable controversy for many
decades. Hamilton, Helby and Taylor (1969)
have presented evidence that they are volcanic
pipes, possibly representing a level a small
distance below the vent itself. This differs
from the interpretation of Wilshire (1961),
who described them as layered diatremes.

In 1959, the writer was a student of Wilshire
and made a number of observations in
Minchinbury quarry which seemed consistent
with Wilshire’s concepts, and were in fact
regarded by him as confirmatory evidence.
In view of the newer concepts, the observations
are somewhat anomalous, and it is for this
reason that the present note has been prepared.

Description

Minchinbury neck is situated 35 km. west
of Sydney, grid reference 383824 on the Sydney
1: 250,000 Military sheet. A large quarry has
been opened in the neck, which consists
essentially of a breccia of highly altered basaltic
fragments, vesicular in part, generally with
vaguely defined margins. The matrix is largely
composed of clays and chlorites with some
calcite ; in parts the matrix is very dark grey
and contains 20-50°% granular quartz. Scattered
through the breccia are fragments, to boulder
size, of sandstone, coal, and other rock types.

In 1959 a dyke-like sandstone body could be
seen in the eastern wall of the quarry’s upper
bench. Three exposures of this feature were
carefully sketched at the time, as shown in
Fig. 1. It is estimated that these vertical
exposures were about 2m. apart—i.e. the
three exposures cover about 4 m. along strike.

The dyke material consists mainly of angular
fragments of quartz (75°%) and fine-grained,
rounded rock fragments (159%) in a matrix of
crystalline calcite. Many quartz grains are
fractured in place; there is no significant
parallelism of long axes, and no grains show

overgrowth effects. Broken feldspar grains
are present, and both albite and cross-hatch
twin types can be seen. Some of the rock
fragments appear to consist of chloritized,
vesicular basic rock. Locally, fragments of coal
and even of breccia are visible. A foliation
was visible in the dyke, consisting of narrow
carbonaceous zones parallel to the dyke wall.

Discussion

Reference to Figure 1 shows clear evidence of
mobility of the dyke material, in the veinlets
extending as tongues into the surrounding
breccia, and in bifurcation of the dyke.
Enclosure of coal and breccia fragments provides
confirmatory evidence. That the dyke was
formed shortly after deposition of the original
breccia is strongly suggested by the off-sets
and slickensides.

There is a problem in the very loose-packed
nature of the sand grains; unless the enclosing
calcite was present as solid particles originally,
it would appear that other minerals—perhaps
clays—were formerly present. Associate Pro-
fessor T. G. Vallance has suggested that such
clays might well have been replaced by calcite,
especially as carbonitization is very strong
in the surrounding breccia.

Conclusion

If it be assumed that the breccia consists of
ejectamenta which have fallen back into a
volcanic vent, the tabular form and foliations
of the dyke cannot be explained in terms of
relict bedding, even assuming a high degree of
plasticity. It must be accepted that the sand
flowed into a vertical fissure, either from the
wall of the pipe or from a particularly large
block within the breccia. Some further move-
ment occurred within the breccia, and then (or
perhaps concurrently) the whole mass—basaltic
breccia and sandstone dyke—was carbonitized.

The main problem with this explanation is
the question: what will cause sandstone to

152

flow? In the first place, the sandstone may
have been only weakly compacted. Secondly,
it was probably very argillaceous. Thirdly, it
almost certainly had a high water content,
and was heated to perhaps 200°C. under
probably less than 100m. of sediment cover.
Water has a vapour pressure of 15 atmospheres
at 200°C., and even without vaporization
expands by more than 10% from 20°C. to
200° C. under (say) 20 atmospheres pressure
(Clark, 1966, pp. 374-376). Such expansions
might well be adequate to convert a weakly

DARK
SHEARED
BRECCIA

VESICULAR ROCK

—_——

—

6 METRES

22-3-59

CALCITE VEINS

G. S. GIBBONS

described. The importance of this isolated
feature is that the indicated mobility must also
be possible within the breccia mass (or at least
its fine-grained phases), where it would be far
more difficult to recognize.

Acknowledgements

Among many discussions which the author
has had on this subject, the most useful have
been those with H. G. Wilshire, T. G. Vallance
and L. H. Hamilton.

BRECCIA BLOCK

6 METRES

29-3-S9

Fic. 1.—Sketches of successive exposures of sandstone dyke in Minchinbury quarry.

cemented argillaceous sandstone to a_ thick
slurry which would migrate readily towards a
zone of lower pressure. Re-solidification might
follow from loss of water, from decrease in
temperature and _ resulting compaction, or
even by recrystallization of clays initiated by
the increased temperature.

The above discussion, necessarily speculative,
considers the implications of the sandstone dyke

New South Wales Institute of Technology,
Broadway, N.S.W., 2007,
Australia.

(Received 23

References

CLARKE, S. P, Jr. (Ed.), 1966. Handbook of Physical —
Constants. Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem., 97, 587.

Hamitton, L. H., HEtsy, R. J., and Taytor, G. Hig)
1969. The Occurrence and Significance of Triassic
Coal in the Volcanic Necks near Sydney. J. —
Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 102, 167-171.

WILSHIRE, H. G., 1961. Layered Diatremes near |
Sydney, New South Wales. J. Geol., 69, |
473-483.

March 1972)

INDEX

Page
A
Abstract of Proceedings, 1970... : 98
Abstract of Proceedings of Section of Geolog By,

1970 Si are a . 104
Albion, P. R., see R. F. Cane 31
Annual Report of the South Coast Branch, 1971 105
Annual Report of the New England Branch, 1970 = 97
Annual Report of Council, 3lst March, 1971 .. 96
Ashley, P. M., Chenhall, B. E., Cremer, P. L., and

Irving, A. J.—The Geology of the Coolac

Serpentinite and ie aie Rocks East of

Tumut, N.S.W. : 11
Astronomy 1, 5, 121

B
Balance Sheet as at 28th February, 1971 101
Basalts and Their Significance in the Mudgee-

Gulgong-Ilford Region, Potassium-Argon

Dating of, by J. A. Dulhunty : a 39
Branagan, D. F.—Words, Actions, People: 150

Years of Scientific Societies in Australia .. 123
Burman, R. R.—On Hoyle’s Electrodynamic

Version of the Steady-State Cosmology PAI
Burman, R.—On the Metric of an Astronomical

Object in the Lyttleton-Bondi Theory 1

C
Cane, R. F., and Albion, P. R.—The Phyto-

chemical History of Torbanites 31
Central Australia, Magnetic Properties of Rocks

from the Giles Complex, by R. A. Facer 45
Chenhall, B. E., see P. M. Ashley a 1]
Clarke, D. J.—Longitudinal Eree Oscillations i in

Jervis Bay, N.S.W. 89
Clarke Medal for 1970 106
Communication to the Editor 151
Coolac Serpentinite and Adjacent Rocks East

of Tumut, N.S.W., The Geology of the, by

P. M. Ashley, B. E. Chenhall, 2. Le Cremer

and A. J. Irving ; 11
Cosmology, On Hoyle’s Electrodynamic Version

of the Steady-State, by R. R. Burman 12]
Council :

Annual Report, 3lst March, 1971 .. 95

Balance Sheet, 28th February, 1971 101
Cremer, P. L., see P. M. Ashley ; 11

D
Dykes, Note on Sandstone Dykes at Minchinbury,

N.S.W., by G. S. Gibbons 151
Dulhunty, 1 A.—Potassium-Argon Dating of

Basalts and Their Significance in the uaa

Gulgong-Ilford Region : ‘ 39

E

Edgeworth David Medal for 1970 ; a
Electrodynamic Version of the Steady- State
Cosmology, On Hoyle’s, by R. R. Burman ..

F

Facer, R. A.—Magnetic Properties of Rocks
from the Giles Complex, Central Australia. .

G

Geology ;

Geology, Section of, 1970 ie

Gibbons, G. S.—Note on Sandstone Dykes at
Minchinbury, NGS: W.

Giles Complex, Central Australia, Magnetic
Properties of Rocks from the, by R. A. Facer

H

History :

Hon. Treasurer’s Report, 1970 ae

Hoyle’s Electrodynamic Version of the Steady-
State Cosmology, On, by R. R. Burman

I

Igneous Geology of the Woolgoolga District,
North Coast, N.S.W., Palaeozoic Sedi-
mentology and, by R. J. Korsch

irvine, A. je secu. Mer Ashley 7

J

Jervis Bay, N.S.W., Longitudinal Free Oscilla-
tions in, by D. J. Clarke ae Pe

K

Korsch, R. J.—Palaeozoic Sedimentology and
Igneous Geology of the So cia District,
North Coast, N.S.W.

L

Longitudinal Free Oscillations in Jervis eee
N.S.W., by D. J. Clarke

Lyttleton- Bondi Theory, On the Metric of an
Astronomical Object in the, by R. Burman.

Page

108.

121

45

.. II, 31, 39, 45, 63, 77, 151

104
151

45

123

63
11

89

63

89

154
Page
M
Magnetic Properties of Rocks from the Giles
Complex, Central Australia, by R.A. Facer.. 45
Marker Horizons for Stratigraphic Correlation in
the Narrabeen Group of the Sydney Basin,
INGS..Wi Be epee Changes as, by
Colin R. Ward “ ao Bite SON,
Mathematics : 89, 143
Medallists ae LOd
Members of the Society, April, 197 Le es 113
Minchinbury, N.S.W., Note on Sandstone Dykes
at; by G.. S: Gibbons. 151
Mineralogical Changes as Marker Horizons for
Stratigraphic Correlation in the Narrabeen
Group of the oer Basin, N.S.W., by
Colin R. Ward ce

Minor Planets at Sydney “Observatory during
1969 and 1970, Precise Observations of, by
W. H. Robertson ‘a ae a he 5
Mudgee-Gulgong-Ilford Region, Potassium-
Argon Dating of Basalts and Their Sig-

nificance in the, by J. A. Dulhunty 39

N

Narrabeen Group of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W.,
Mineralogical Changes as Marker Horizons
for Stratigraphic Correlation in the, by
Colin R. Ward ia

Note on Sandstone Dykes at -Minchinbury,

N.S.W., by G. S. Gibbons 151
O
Obituaries ; 109, 120
Officers for 1970-1971 ' Back of Title Page
Olle Prize for 1970. sek =L0S
Oscillations in Jervis Bay, ‘N.S W., Longitudinal
Free; by D. J. Clarke ‘ 89
Pp
Palaeozoic Sedimentology and Igneous Geology
of the Woolgoolga District, North Coast,
INS .W aby AX. Ji; Korsceh 63
People : 150 Years of Scientific Societies in
Australia, Words, Actions, by D. F. Branagan 123
Phytochemical, The History of Torbanites, by
Ko’. Cane and: PB. R. Albion : 31

Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1969 and
1970, Precise Observations of Minor, by
W. H. Robertson Oe 5
Potassium-Argon Dating of Basalts and Their
Significance in the Mudgee-Gulgong-Ilford

Region, by J. A. Dulhunty 39
Presidential Address, 7th April, 1971, Radiation

Pressure jand’ kelated™ Porces, by, W. E-

Smiths =: is a 143
Proceedings, Abstract of, 1970 98

INDEX

R

Radiation Pressure and Related Forces, Presi-
dential Address, 7th April, 1971, by W. E.
Smith

Robertson, W. H. —Precise Observations ‘of Minor
Planets at Sydney etc! nee 1969
and 1970 See

Role of the Society—Report

S

Sandstone Dykes at Minchinbury, N.S.W.,
Note on, by G. S. (Gibbons=

Scientific Societies in Australia, Words, ‘Actions,

People: 150 Years of, by D. F. Branagan ..
Section of Geology
Sedimentology, and Igneous Geology ‘of the

Woolgoolga District, North Coast of N.S.W.,
Palaeozoic, by R. J. Korsch

Smith, W. E.—Radiation Pressure and Related
Forces, Presidential Address, 7th April, 1971

Societies in Australia, Words, Actions, People :
150 Years of Scientific, by D. F. Branagan ..

Society’s Medal for 1970 .. Bb ne Ef

Stratigraphic Correlation in the Narrabeen
Group of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W.,
Mineralogical Changes as Marker Horizons
for, by Colin R. Ward cas

Summer School, 1971—‘“‘ Mathematics Alive ”

Sydney Basin, N.S.W., Mineralogical Changes as
Marker Horizons for Stratigraphic Cor-
relation in the Narrabeen Group of the, by
Colin R. Ward

Sydney Observatory during 1969 and 1970,
Precise Observations of Minor Planets at,
by W. H. Robertson

ck

Torbanites, The Phytochemical History of, by
R. F. Cane and P. R. Albion ;
Tumut, N.S.W., The Geologyvot the Coolac
Serpentinite and Adjacent Rocks East of
Tumut, N.S.W., by P. M. Ashley Beh:

Chenhall, P. L. Cremer and A. J. Irving

Ww

Ward, Colin R.—Mineralogical Changes as Marker
Horizons for Stratigraphic Correlation in the
Narrabeen Group of the Sydney Basin,
IN: S: Wier ne he

Woolgoolga District, North Coast
Palaeozoic Sedimentology and
Geology of the, by R. J. Korsch ;

Words, Actions, People: 150 Years of Scientific
Societies in Australia, by D. F. Branagan

Igneous

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD.
71-79 ARUNDEL ST , GLEBE, N.S.W., 2037

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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES

VOLUME
105

1972

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS, SYDNEY

Royal Society of New South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1971-1972

Patrons

His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA,
THE RiGHT HONOURABLE SIR PAUL HASLUCK, G.c.M.G., G.c.v.o.

His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SoutTH WALES,
SIR: RODEN CUTLER, V.c¢.; K.C.M.G., K.C.V-0:, _C. BE;

President
M. J. PUTTOCK, B.Sc.(Eng.), M.Inst.P.

Vice-Presidents

W. E. SMITH, ph.v. R. J. W. Le FEVRE, DSc: yiriss eeaeae
J. L. POLLARD, M.sc., Dip.App.Chem. J. C. CAMERON, M.a., B.Sc. (Edin.), D-1.c.
W. H. ROBERTSON, B.sc.

Honorary Secretaries

E. K. CHAFFER (General). M. KRYSKO v. TRYSD? (Mis: hepa ses
Grad.Dip. (Editorial).

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Members of Council

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W. B. SMITH-WHITE, o.a. L. J. LAWRENCE, D.se:, Php:

New England Branch Representative: R. L. STANTON, ph.p.
South Coast Branch Representative: A. KEANE, Ph.p.

NOTICE
The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “‘ Philosophical Society of
Australasia ’’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the

“ Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was
changed to ““ Philosophical Society of New South Wales ’’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most
Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated by
Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881.

CONTENTS

Parts 1-2

Astronomy :

On the Motion of Particles in Conformally Flat Space-Times. Rk. Rk. Burman .
Astronomical Objects Embedded in Matter. I. External Metrics. R. R. Burman
Astronomical Objects Embedded in Matter. Il. Light Tracks. R. R. Burman
Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1971. kK. P. Sims

Geology :

A Gabbro-Troctolite-Anorthosite Intrusion at Dirnaseer, near Temora, New South Wales.

P. M. Ashley and A. J. Irving

Ripple-Drift Cross-Lamination in the Hewkanuny Seen! New! Shatlt Wvalese Cake

Ward

Palaeontology :
Late Devonian (Irasnian) Conodonts from Ettrema, New South Wales. /. W. Pickett

Communication to Editor :
A Study of Root Concretions at Kurnell, N.'S.W. G. S. Gibbons and J]. L. Gordon ..

Report of Council, 31st March, 1972

Balance Sheet

Parts 3-4

Geology :
A Method for the Exact Orientation of the Plane Table. A. D. Albani ..
The Geology of the Mt. View Range District, Pokolbin, N.S.W. A. T. Brakel

Potassium-Argon Dating and Occurrence of Tertiary and Mesozoic Basalts in the Binnaway

District. J. A. Dulhunty ae .. a
The Stratigraphy of the Bowan Park Grou New ent WwW ales V. Semeniuk

Palaeontology :

The Palaeomagnetism of Some Palaeozoic Sediments from Central Australia. B. J. J.

Embleton .

Pollock Memorial Lecture, 1972:

Special Maps in Banach-spaces: p-summing, p-radonifying, p-integral, p-nuclear Maps.

L. Schwartz

Physics :
The Measurement Revolution. M. J. Puttock .

Index to Volume 105

il

bo
“I

31

39

43

46

86

94

606,744

Joums and
Proceedings
ot tie

Roel Societ ty
New ScuthWeles

VOLUME 105 1972. PARTS 1 and 2

Published by the Society
Science House, Gloucester and Essex Streets, Sydney
Issued 16th April, 1973

NOTICE TO AUTHORS

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 1-2, 1972

On the Motion of Particles in Conformally Flat Space-Times

R. R. BURMAN

ABstTRACT—The Papapetrou-Pirani equation of motion for a spinning particle is specialized

to conformally flat space-times.

In de Sitter space, this equation, and the DeWitt-Brehme-Hobbs

equation of motion for a non-spinning charged particle in an electromagnetic field with radiation
reaction allowed for, have the same forms as in special relativity.

Papapetrou (1951) investigated the motion
of a spinning test particle in general relativity
in the absence of non-gravitational fields.
Equations of motion for its centre of mass and
for its spin were obtained and expressed in
covariant form. Since there are three equations
for the six independent components of the skew-
symmetric spin tensor (S##), some conditions
must be imposed. Pirani (1956) suggested
requiring “,S*8 to vanish.

Consider the four-dimensional Riemannian
space-time of general relativity with coordinates
x« and interval ds; ds*=g,,dxudx’, (guy) being
the metric tensor. The speed of light in empty
space will be put equal to unity. A particle
with mass m is at (x*) and has 4-velocity
(uv) =(dxe/ds). With the condition u,gS+*8—0,
Papapetrou’s equations combine to show that m
is a constant of the motion and to give

SS aE veg SPU)... cs on. s (1)

where a dot denotes total covariant differentia-
tion following the world-line of the particle and

Pe buy) is - the
tensor.

muy =

Riemann-Christoffel curvature

In a conformally flat space-time, Suy =e" u
where (yy) is the flat space metric tensor and ¢ U
is a function 2 the x*; also (Petrov, 1969)

rab sV.e—Yaie—s aaa
at (Y.81.0 34,31.)
where a comma ators ees differentiation.
With (2), using the skew-symmetry of (Suv)
and the condition UpS2—0,
Ra pysSSu8 = ($0, 0),8—Y,0,8) Sa 08 ; AD (3)
hence (1) is specialized to conformally flat
space-times. If

Y «,0=3 a, aM swom silieu's’ ete!) (e (4)
then the part of the effective 4-force which

depends explicitly on the Riemann-Christoffel
tensor vanishes.

ie aya =

A

DeWitt and Brebme (1960) and Hobbs (1968a)
investigated the motion of a _ non-spinning
charged particle in an electromagnetic field in a
Riemannian space of arbitrary hyperbolic metric,
with the effect of electromagnetic radiaticn
reaction included. The resulting equation of
motion consists of the generally covariant
form of the Lorentz-Dirac equation, together
with extra force terms. The force term found
by DeWitt and Brehme is non-local in time, but
does not depend explicitly on the curvature
tensor ; the term found by Hobbs contains the
Ricci tensor. The former term vanishes in
conformally flat space-times ; the latter vanishes
in conformally flat space-times satisfying (4)
(Hobbs, 19685). So, in conformally flat space-
times satisfying (4), the curvature tensor, in its
full or contracted forms, does not explicitly enter
either the DeWitt-Brehme-Hobbs or the
Papapetrou-Pirani equations of motion: the
equations have the same forms as in Minkowski
space.

Conformally flat spaces which obey (4) have
been discussed by Laugwitz (1965). When
(4) is satisfied, (2) gives

Len
where K=—tgod os: ) has the form for a
space-time of constant Risnannian curvature K
(Synge, 1960) ; 1n general relativity, the space-

time must therefore be de Sitter space (Synge,
1960).

Acknowledgement

I thank the referee for pointing out that a
conformally flat space-time which satisfies (4)
must, in general relativity, be de Sitter space.

References

DEWITT, B. S., and BREHME, R. W., 1960. Radiation
Damping in a Gravitational Field. Ann. Phys.,
9, 220-259.

2 R. R. BURMAN

Hosss, J. M., 1968a. A Vierbein Formalism of General Relativity. I. Pyvoc. Roy. Soc., A209,
Radiation Damping. Ann. Phys., 47, 141-165. 248-258.
Hosss, J. M., 1968. Radiation Damping in Con- Pertrov, A. Z., 1969. Einstein Spaces. Pergamon,
formally Flat Universes. Ann. Phys., 47, Oxford, section 34.
166-172. PrrANI, F. A. E., 1956. On the Physical Significance
LauGwiTz, D., 1965. Differential and Riemannian of the Riemann Tensor. Acta Phys. Polon., 15,
Geometry. Academic, New York and London, 389-405.
section 12.5. SynGE, J. L., 1960. Relativity : The General Theory.
PAPAPETROU, A., 1951. Spinning Test-particles in North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 256.

Department of Physics,
University of Western Australia.

(Received 27 March 1972)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New. South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 3—8, 1972

Astronomical Objects Embedded in Matter
I, External Metrics

R. R. BURMAN

ABSTRACT—This series deals with bodies, which may be charged, embedded in matter which
has density varying with the radial coordinate. In this Part, the external material is represented
by uncharged incoherent matter ; static spherically symmetric integrals of the Einstein-Maxwell
equations are obtained with one of the functions in the metric left arbitrary. For the case of
homogeneous external matter, one integral is obtained in closed form and expansions of the other
integral are given which are valid near the central body, if it is uncharged, or well away from it ;
for an uncharged central body, the second integral also is expressed in closed form.

1, Introduction
The general static spherically symmetric space-time metric can be expressed by
—ds*=A (r)dv? + B(r)(d0?-+-sin? Ode?) —C(r)(dx4)? 5 6. wee eee eee (1)

here ds is the space-time interval and the co-ordinates are (7, 0, 9, x*), where (7, 9, ¢) are spherical
polars. The field equations of general relativity give two relations between A, B and C, leaving
one function arbitrary ; various particular choices have been listed by Synge (1960). For example
B(r) is often taken to be 7? ; then the empty space outside a static spherically symmetric uncharged
mass is described by the Schwarzschild metric in which 1/A =C =1—2ml/r, where m is a constant.
Atkinson (1965a, 19655) pointed out that it is sometimes useful to make no choice of the arbitrary
function, and gave the appropriate integrals of Einstein’s empty-space field equations. The
integrals were then applied to the investigation of light tracks (Atkinson, 19650). Corresponding
results for the more general case in which the central object carries a static spherically symmetric
charge distribution have been obtained (Burman, 1970).

The purpose of the present series is to generalize the work further by taking the charged central
body to be surrounded by matter. In this Part, the external material is taken to be a static
spherically symmetric distribution of uncharged incoherent matter; the Einstein-Maxwell
equations are integrated to give two relations between A, B and C: one function is left arbitrary.
Particular attention is paid to the case in which the matter is homogeneous.

The model treated in this series could represent a star, or other astronomical object, together
with matter surrounding it ; such a model has been used to investigate the perihelion motion of
comets in the solar system (Aver’yanova and Stanyukovich, 1967). Models consisting of objects
embedded in matter have been discussed in cosmological investigations, for both static (Horak,
1969 ; Ejisenstaedt, 1970; Leibovitz, 1970) and expanding (McVittie, 1933; Gilbert, 1956 ;
Pachner, 1961; Vaidya and Shah, 1967) distributions of the external matter ; Vaidya and Shah
allowed for a charge on the central body.

2, Integrals of the Einstein-Maxwell Equations
If (G,,) denotes the Einstein tensor, then, for the metric (1),
IN2
and
eRe ee teed Cod
9A? BC dr| (B’)?
a dash denotes differentiation with respect to 1.
The electromagnetic field tensor is defined by Fyy=o, .—,,, where (o,) is the 4-potential
and a comma denotes partial differentiation. The electromagnetic energy-momentum tensor has
components FE; where (Eddington, 1924)

J eee Oe aoa ig chee ck a a (4)

ee ee eee (3)

i R. R. BURMAN

Outside regions containing current or charge, the Maxwell equation

. | 4/2 FP) gO bolo bi (5)
is applicable ; here g=det (g,,y) where (g,,) denotes the fundamental tensor.

In static problems, only the fourth component 9, of the 4-potential is non-zero, and with
spherical symmetry this is a function of 7 only. The only non-zero components F,,, are then F,,

and F\,, which equal 9, and —q, respectively. Hence Fl4=—F*=@4/AC. Equation (5)
integrates to

= F(AC)! hae eee (6)
where q is a constant. The only non-zero components EF, are given by
Bji=—Bb=— ESE )/2B. °... 2. eee (7)
Einstein’s field equation is
Gi —AS(=— RE, AM, |. oo os el pee (8)

where A is the cosmological constant, k and h are positive constants, and (M,) is the matter tensor.

For incoherent matter, M,=pu,uv where pe is the proper density and wx=cdx/ds where c is the

speed of light in empty space; (w+) is the 4-velocity. For static incoherent matter, the only

non-zero component of (M;) is Mj, which equals c2o.
It follows from (8), (7) and Mj=c%e that

Gi=A—hetp—kgj2B? ., 2.6. se. a (9)
and
Gi— Gah 0. cn ciedcan ee (10)
With o a function of 7 only, (2) and (9) oa to
y ame la ee a “JeBiaB) ee (11)
4B 2B
Substituting (3) into (10), and writing
fo (12)
TAB tines ssssssee
results in
nee Lae ) det scalig: 2) tlk a eke, 6 aes Sth ee (13)
1G GBNyy) ae
which integrates to
G=fexp (she*[pf dB). Sn 2 (14)
If p is regarded as a function of 5, then a pet A e terms of B; then, from (12),
dwialelas's) oy eellenaeen acta ean: 1
pail 43p— 2S jeBian (15)
which expresses f in terms of B, and so an gives C as a function of B.
3. Dust of Constant Density
If p is constant, (11) becomes
oe 2m kg? ie
= — 4+ —aB] , ow. eee eee. 16
ASB Bie eee oe
where m is a constant of integration and
as=t(he*e—-A), 3 cnien. . ieee, eee (17)
while (14) becomes
C=fexp (4hc*e (fd B) 12.522 43-4. eee (18)
where now
2m , kq
oar el onde er 19
ap oP (19)

The function B will henceforth be required to a to zero as 7->0.

ASTRONOMICAL OBJECTS EMBEDDED IN MATTER 5

If there is no central body, m=0=q and

[raa—— - Drags us) SCONSL.. aya:ows as ae ec eeere donee (20)
so (18) gives
Coc(L—aB)-O+ NO, eee eee eee ee (21)
Also, (16) reduces to
Cs ey (22)
TB Se eee eee Cer er er
Writing x for B+, equation (16) becomes
Ae 2m kq 5 “a
A =(x’)?| 1 — - ioe —o ee Cre Terre (23)
and, if J denotes the integral in (18),
—2x?*dx
oe oeoceeeeceesvr eee eee ee eee oe © (24)
4. An Uncharged Central Body
When g=0,
=) — A/3a ( A
= — (ax —v +2 —{1it—]f/| ..............
C : (ax —x +2m) exp | +A)7| (25)
where
Ax
lS 5 GoUoOo obpbobton eg doouee Gob Go6 (26)
also,
2m e
A =(wy(1- a | Ware ee eee ee ee (27)

Let x,, %, and x, denote the roots of ax’—x-+2m and let D denote the discriminant
(27am*—1)/(3a)>.
If 0<27am?<1, corresponding to A<hc?e<A+1/9m?, then D<0 and the roots are real
and distinct, so

A
exp |-( +4), ool Cdr 0 Lal Cer 79 La eee, 9 | (28)
where
an ee ee Seer ee coe (29a, b)
1—30%x] O(%_ —%)(%1—%Xs)
jp ee ee (29c, d)
1—3a%5 a(%1 —%Xg)(%_—X3)
and
pe RS ae (29¢, f)

1—3ax3 ~ 0(%_—%g)(%3—%y)

If «<0 or >1/27m?, corresponding to hc?o <A or hc?e >A+1/9m?, respectively, then D>0
and there is one real root, say x,, and two complex conjugate roots; writing x, as d—ie and x,
as d—1e, where d and ¢ are real, it follows that

ae | (1 ra)? ac { (wv —a4) [(x—d)?--67]-"

exp jo(—*) arctan 2] Se ee eee Seer eer eee (30)

6 R. R. BURMAN

If 27am?—1, corresponding to hc?9 =A+1/9m?, then D=0 and there are three real roots, one
pair of which, say x, and x3, are equal; thus

A %—X_\? a) :
exp |-(1 +E) oc(2=*2) exp (= eee eee es (31)
where
_1+A/3a
p= CM Oe ee gt SS (32)
If «=0, then

Coc(1— =) exp {$hc?p[x?+4mx+8m? In (x—2m)]}. .......... (33)

If the cosmological term is neglected, then

em

G eee p [8 Oe) © © 10:fe ofa 10's, © le otehoneke leteieucle ci tenenasens (34)

also, a=hc*o/3 so that D<0, >0 or =0 according as 9m*hc*9 <1, >1 or =1.
If m=—0, then
C oc(ax®#—1)i-hepi2e, ss. ee (35)
If A<0 and he*p <2| A |, then C vanishes on the circle x=a-#. If hc?p >A or >2| A |, according
as A>0O or <0, then C is infinite on the circle x=a-!: for any non-zero co-ordinate time interval,
the corresponding proper time interval on that circle is infinite.

5. Some Approximations

Sufficiently near the central body, the metric is dominated by the presence of that body: the
metric is slightly disturbed from what it would be if » and A were zero. Hence it is to be expected
that terms proportional to « can be treated as small perturbations about the case in which «=0.

Sufficiently well away from the central body, the gravitational effect of the matter outside the
body predominates over that of the body: the metric is slightly disturbed from what it would be
if m were zero. Hence it is to be expected that terms proportional to m can be treated as small
perturbations about the case in which m=0.

As illustrated by the Reissner-Nordstrém metric, the gravitational effect of charge falls off
more rapidly with increasing distance than that of mass: sufficiently well away from the central
object, the metric is slightly disturbed from what it would be if g were zero. Hence it is to be
expected that terms proportional to g? can be treated as small perturbations about the case in which
g=0, and that terms proportional to mg? will be small compared with those proportional to m
or q’.

5.1. Near an Uncharged Central Body

In this sub-section, an approximate closed-form expression for C will be obtained which is
valid near the central object ; attention will be restricted to the case of an uncharged body.

Equation (26) can be written

ae -| (ie a = — Li Se (36)

Sufficiently near the central body, the term in « should be of secondary importance. Expanding,
integrating term by term and retaining terms to first order in « leads to

exp ee +A), oC (x —2m)4mPhe2p +1 + A/3a

x exp | viet [ste 20) 2-6 —2m) — - : rs is - (37)

x—2m

This expression is valid near the central body, with the proviso that, for | a body inside the circle
x=2m, it fails in the vicinity of that circle if p40.

ASTRONOMICAL OBJECTS EMBEDDED IN MATTER i

Near the central body, but well outside the circle x=2m, so that «x3/(x—2m) is small, approxi-
mating the factors preceding the exponential in (25) and using (37) gives

Ca (1 a 2 +h) (x — 2m) 4m*hc*e

xexp } thet E (x —2m)2-+-6m(x 2— 2m) — Pm | eee (38)

5.2. Well Away from an Uncharged Central Body

In this sub-section, an approximate closed-form expression for C will be obtained which is
valid well away from the central body, which is taken to be uncharged.

Equation (26) can be written

Ey ee =| (1- a Cee eee (39)

At sufficiently large distances from the central body, the term in m should be of secondary
importance. Expanding, integrating term by term and retaining terms to first order in m leads to

Os aaa pk ne | 4(1+ A/a)
exp Ee +h) ce i

x1 —(1 +e) eet nC ene eee (40)

1—ax*

‘This expression is valid well away from the central body, with the proviso that, if «>0, then it will
fail in the vicinity of the circle x=a7}.

Well away from the central body, but not near the circle x=a-?, so that (2m/x) +(1—ax?)
is small, approximating the factors preceding the exponential in (25) and using (40) gives

al 40+ A/saigabm

— ax?) —4(1+ A/a)
C oc (1 —ax?) (2

fic te een
XxX

1—ax?

When m=0, expression (41) reduces to (35).
5.3, Well Away from a Charged Central Body

The effect on the metric of a charge on the central object decreases more rapidly with increasing
distance than does the effect of the mass. Writing

2x8 kq?/2x \
i a ax, SORE CEO LOOM BOs One (42)

expanding, and integrating term by term, gives, to first order in kq?/2, I=I,—4kq?K where I,
denotes the value of J when ¢g=0 and

Hence

2
C= (1 — ae —a1*) (2x3 —x +2m) —(1+A/3a)

xexp | —(1 +e) CRD (FRG UIC OIC) o toate te see aie ee eae ars (44)

8 R. R. BURMAN

Well away from the central body, but, if «>0, then not near the circle «=a-?, so that

(2m/x) —(1—ax*) and (kq?/2x?) +(1—ax?) are both small, approximating the factors preceding the

exponentials in (44) and using (40) gives

C oc (1 —ax2) - 40 +.A/e) —

3(1+ A/3a)3a%m

1—atx
2m kq?/2x? m(hc29 +2A)x/3
x (1 ez ae 1—2ax2 ee Ge ae oo ee eee eee eee we ewe ee oe (45)

<exp (—4kq*hc*ok).

Sufficiently well away from the central body

to which approximation products of m and kg? in I are neglected, and the last factor in (44) or (45)

is approximately proportional to

Lege ees —khgq*hc*o/4
(eae exp =e RESO GonS)O GOO O.0 C605 6 (47)
Hence, on expanding the exponential in (47), expression (45) gives, using (17),
C ocx —3ha*he*e (1 — ox?) 8(Bh97hc?o —1 — A]ax)
1 eacty\ #0 +-A/Ba)808m 2m — kq?\1 —hc2ox?/2
Ries iDefense 1 —he*px*/2 (48)
1—a?x L x 2x7} 1—ax?

If « >0, then this approximation will fail in the vicinity of the circle x=a-?.

}

6. Concluding Remarks
This paper has been concerned with obtaining static spherically symmetric integrals of the

Finstein-Maxwell equations for the metric outside a body which is embedded in matter.

Some

exact and some approximate solutions have been obtained. These results will be applied, in Parts

II and III of this series, to the investigation of light tracks.

One way of extending the work of

this paper would be to allow the external matter to have non-zero pressure.

References
ATKINSON, R. b’E., 1965a. Two General Integrals of

G,*=0. Astron. J., 70, 513-516.

ATKINSON, R. D’E., 1965b. On Light Tracks Near a
Very Massive Star. Astron. J., 70, 517-523.
AVER’YANOVA, T. V., and STANYUKOVICH, K. P., 1967.
Application of General-Relativity Methods to the
Study of Long-Period Comet Trajectories. Sovzet
Astronomy AJ, 10, 1042-1045.

BurRMAN, R., 1970. Light Tracks Near a Dense

Charged Star. J. Proc. Roy. Soc." NeSaWe,
103, 87-90.
EppincTon, A. S., 1924. The Mathematical Theory of

Relativitv. 2nd edition, p. 182.
versity Press, London.

EISENSTAEDT, J., 1970. Champ de gravitation statique
d’une masse sphérique plongée dans un univers
cosmologique. C.R. Acad. Sc. Paris, A, 270,
422-425.

Cambridge Uni-

Department of Physics,
University of Western Australia,
Nedlands, W.A., 6009.

GILBERT, C., 1956. The Gravitational Field of a Star
in the Expanding Universe. Mon. Not. R. Asty.
Soc., 116, 678-683.

HorAk, Z., 1969. Space-time Metric about a Local
Condensation in a Nonempty Universe. Phys.
Lett., 30A, 83-84.

LEIBoOVITz, C., 1970. A Point Mass in an Ejinsteml
Universe. Commun. Math. Phys., 17, 177-178.
McVitTTiE, G. C., 1933. The Mass-particle in an
Expanding. Universe.
93, 325-339.

PACHNER, J., 1961.
punktes im expandierenden Kosmos.
164, 574-580.

SYNGE, J. L., 1960. Relativity: The General Theory,
p- 270. North-Holland Publ. Co., Amsterdam.

VaIpyA, P. C., and SHaH, Y. P., 1967. The Gravi-
tational Field of a Charged Particle Embedded
in an Expanding Universe. Curr. Sct., 36)
N20:

Das Gravitationsfeld eines Massen-
Z. Phys=

(Received 31 May 1972)

Mon. Not. R. Astr. Soc., |

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 9-14, 1972

Astronomical Objects Embedded in Matter
II. Light Tracks

R. R. BURMAN

ABSTRACT— This paper deals with the space-time region, outside a static spherically symmetric
object, occupied by a continuous distribution of matter. Integrals of the Einstein-Maxwell
equations, with one of the functions in the metric left arbitrary, are used to investigate light
tracks ; conditions for the existence of circular photon orbits are obtained. Particular attention
is paid to the case in which the external matter is homogeneous and the central object is uncharged.

1. Introduction

Light and particle tracks in the presence of a static spherically symmetric uncharged body
have been investigated by Darwin (1959, 1961). Light tracks were also investigated by Atkinson,
who used integrals of Einstein’s empty-space field equations obtained leaving one function in the
metric arbitrary (Atkinson, 1965a, 19655). His results have been generalized so as to apply for a
central body with a static spherically symmetric charge distribution (Burman, 1970).

The purpose of this paper, and of a subsequent part of the series, is to extend the work
further to include the effects of a continuous static spherically symmetric distribution of matter
outside the object. Integrals of the Einstein-Maxwell equations obtained in Part I (Burman, 1972)
will be used.

2. Basic Theory
The general static spherically symmetric space-time metric can be expressed by
—ds*=A (r)dr?+ B(r)(d0?-+sin? Odo?) —C(r)c*dt® 5 2... eee. (1)
here ds is the space-time interval, (7, 0, @) are spherical polars, ¢ is a time co-ordinate, and c is the

speed of light in empty space. The null geodesics of (1) have been investigated (using different
notation) by Atkinson (1965d). In particular, when *=0, with a dot denoting differentiation with

respect to ?/, it is found that
= 2 By pp
le ae sr =| eo ee eee reer nee (2)

QA\B OC
where a dash denotes differentiation with respect to 7 ; this equation describes the nature of apses.

If *=0=,7, corresponding to a circular null geodesic, then

oe
Pia Soe) fe) <8 oie iw ie 6 6 © fe 6 6 NS 5 6 6.0 0 lice i816 3 0 0 1 cee 6 (3)
The time for a photon to describe such a circle is ¢) where
27 ({ B\?
ie eh (4)

These results hold for all metrics of the form (1), independently of any field equations, if, in the
case of (4), null geodesics can be interpreted as light tracks.

For the model treated previously (Burman, 1972) and described in the Introduction,

and

10 R. R. BURMAN

where

= he2 (® o
j= a 0B2dB 5 #8 8 wie oo he Rene eee (7)

the notation of the previous paper has been used. The function B approaches zero as 7 does,
but is otherwise an unspecified positive function of 7. |
|

3. Use of the Relativistic Integrals |

In this section, the relativistic integrals will be substituted into (2), (3) and (4), and some |
special cases will be discussed. |

3.1. The General Case
From (6),
Cae Ga een ek
Ga +3hc?pB’),

and use of (7) results in

C' lim ke? AB, he? , sex
ce =(% —so+4 4B} ye aB ye ©.) ee. 6h: 0.xeyle! ‘eiheiuaiieseireu's (8)
Substituting the relativistic result (8), equation (2) becomes
ig OY 05 1(/m kg AB he? (? .,
~ 9AB (4 Se | ob aB)}. eoeceree (9)

‘Use of (5), (6) and (7) results in

cal 3m kg? 3h? (” - ip

The condition for a photon circle becomes

3m kg? 3he is Z
1— | ob2db. 3 6 6 0, wie «re 4 6 6 8 eine oj lelto tevon eh eiatiaie (11)
Substitution of the relativistic integral (6) into (4) gives the orbital time in terms of B:
2n/ B\* cas a
1 se (2) exp (- ie lof iB) Ae os Aca rase dd o-0-0 (12)

ft) will be real provided f>0 on the circle concerned. Use of the condition (11) in (7) shows that,
on a photon circle,

3.2, Homogeneous External Matter
If o is constant, (11) becomes

B= 3mBttkhe saab.» oot a eee eee (14)
where
A=, Saki ae ae Pht ee eee (15)
Equation (12) becomes
2n/ B\* GAS
i=*(2) exp i= an ‘4B RR ION RENE is iy os ie (16)
where f is evaluated on the photon circle and is given by (13). Equation (10) becomes
2
(1 = ee ~aB) exp (2{f/ 30d B). 4. .k. 2 eee (17)

ASTRONOMICAL OBJECTS EMBEDDED IN MATTER. II 11

_ From (7),
2
f=1- Bitgg tA —2a)b. Bra trehcah vod onic ease! to weitere oie oes ear ve Sescette, Sots (18)

In the following, B will be required to be real and positive ; hence m and gq are real. Further,
B will be required to be a monotonically increasing function of ry. It will be supposed that the
central body has a radius less than that calculated for any photon circle.

3.3 No External Matter
When there is no matter external to the central body, (14) reduces to a quadratic in B* with

~ solutions

_ 3m 3m\?
Bia 4 | (=) ee a ee (19)

If g=0, then there is a single photon circle; it is at B?=8m, corresponding to C=4+3Am?, as
found previously (Burman, 1971). If A=0, then the effect of a non-zero gq is, if kg?/m?< (3/2)?,
to introduce a second photon circle, and both circles lie inside that which occurs when g=0; there
is a lower limit on kg?/m?, at which the inner photon circle ceases to exist, since the time taken for
a photon to describe that circle is real only if kq?/m?>2 (Burman, 1970).

4, Circular Light Tracks about an Uncharged Body in Homogeneous Matter

This section will deal with photon circles for the case in which the external matter is homo-
geneous and the central body is uncharged.

4.1. The Basic Cubic
When g=0, (14) becomes a cubic in B?:
OBES a a SI Oe, ass tee iy ea Weatolouer a aia ties se (20)

For a photon circle occurring sufficiently near the central body, Bb!+3m, or, to a higher
approximation,
5 OI OUR Ve a5 oh pa Gide ots aleve arece «teeta s 3 (21)

As is to be expected, (21) shows that the radius of the photon circle is increased by the presence of
the matter external to the central body. Well away from the central body, (20) is satisfied by |

CES pe ae DE ee cB haat S igo einer ate geek ee Ace (22)
which becomes exact when there is no central body; to a higher approximation,
1 3m
fof i Re ee eee 2
a* 7 ts oe)

as is to be expected, the radius is reduced by the presence of the central body.
The discriminant A of the cubic (20) is

a ea) Pe ne. ce ene aA ere ae (24)

According as A>0, =0 or <0, corresponding to (3a)?9m/2>1, =1 or <1, there are one real and
a pair of complex conjugate roots, three real roots with at least two of them equal or three distinct
real roots. So in these three cases there are at most one, two and three photon circles, respectively.
For any of these possible photon circles to be realized, the root concerned must be positive and the
time calculated for a photon to describe the orbit must be real. -

Aid. The Roots of the Cubic
The quantities £, and #_ are defined by

3 3am A a ,
ps =p and Dare batt a vosgioe tae eure, t.aheae C (25a, b)

12 R. R. BURMAN

The three roots of (20) are given by
Bi=¥bs +p_) Vip, 5 ) leh eo (26a)
Bi=— (0,47). Ue ere (260)

When A>0, p, and p_ are both real and positive ; B is the only real root and it is negative,
so there are no photon circles.

When A=0, #, and p_ both equal (3m/2a)+, which is equal to 9m/2 or (3a)—2, so
Bi=BS=—Om)2) 3... oo. ee (27)
==(Ba)TE yi eke se eee (275)
B3 is negative. The double root could correspond to a photon circle.

When A<0, #, and p_ are complex and there are three distinct real roots ; they are given by
(26) but can also be written as

2 o+2kr
= 92
(Bay! Os ( 3 k=0, 1,2 .- eee (28a)
in some order, where
9
cos 9 = —(3a) pity Pe eS 6S es Sic 4 os (28D)

Choosing ¢ to lie in the second quadrant, it follows that the argument of the cosine in (28a) lies in
(7-/6, 7/3) for k=0, in (57/6,7) for R=1 and in (37/2, 57/3) for R=2. Hence
0<B?<1/(3a)? forsk=2 «eee ee (29)
and
1/(8a)?< B?<1/a? for k=0 : > a5 eee (30)
the root corresponding to k=1 is negative.

If (3a)29m/2 is small, then (25) gives

3 +4 9m
so that
By pS SBM is hawt are eine ee (31a)
and
—21
Pi —?P_= a bls aes ar gana ie aia’'s apaette eRe (31)
Hence, from (26),
Bi 3 Se ee eee (32)
and
i 1 3m
Bice lie, w coe es (33)

corresponding to possible photon circles close to the central body and well away from it,
respectively ; B3 is negative.
If (3a)*9m/2=1—x where x is a small positive quantity, then

so that

and

ASTRONOMICAL OBJECTS EMBEDDED IN MATTER. II 13

Hence, from (26),

B3 is negative.

4.3. Orbital Periods
With g=0, equation (11) shows that

on a photon circle. Use of (36) in (16) gives

27 3b :
seen (for A#0) Sao hoo oon 6 OtG Oc (37)
Or
=F (3B): exp (- *p) (ROT N= 09 Weare (38)

If the cosmological term is neglected (so that f=4), then f) is real. If AO, then ¢, is real if
A>-—1/B on the circle ; in particular, if A>0, then ¢) is real; if A< —1/B, then é will be real
only if 3a/A is equal to an odd integer. For the solutions b?=3m and B?=1/a*, ty is real if

AZ —1/(3m)? and if AZ—a, respectively.

To summarize, when (3a):9m/2>1, there are no photon circles. When (3a)?9m/2<1, there
are photon circles at Bi and Bi, where 0<Bi<Bi<a-, provided A>—1/B on them; in
particular, if (3a):9m/2<1, then Bi=3m and Bi=1/a, with better approximations given by (21)

and (33) respectively ; if (3a)#9m/2 is near 1, but slightly less, then Bi, and B} are given by (35).
When (3a)?9m/2=1, there is a single photon circle at b!=(3a)—?, provided A > —3a. :

5. Non-Circular Light Tracks
With g=0, equation (18) becomes

2m

f=l1— Bi a(A—2a) B. Pe ee ee (39)
Hence, (17) becomes

fe = py 2.6 0 (031) ha 7) 6) ame eee oe ieee rae eat (40)
where

Clea oii teee) OL. 1, haar ee are preg ree eee (41)
and

vy=4(2a—A) B3?—B?4+2m=—BYf. oe. eee (42)

The function 8 is the left side of (20) ; y is the left side of the cubic equation (34) of the previous
paper (Burman, 1972).
Let I denote the integral in (40) and let
ea ee NY se Reed pern ON Aemuean oe eee eee (43)

Oy?
r=| 2x2dx

ax®—x-+2m

Writing x fer B,

=e E
aon [In (ax8—wx+2m)+J] oo. eee eee eee (44)

where

14 R. R. BURMAN

which has been evaluated previously (Burman, 1972). The exponential factor in (40) becomes

(ax? —x +2m) —(1+A/3«) exp (1 +E]. 2 ej -et eee (46)
So (40) can be written
7 20? A
a earl ie ex feeder 1 aes eee (47)
If A=0, equation (47) reduces to
= 207
7= pp exp (— f)}> sella. alc (48)

where J is given by (45) with «a now equal to 2a/3.

An apse corresponds to a minimum or maximum in the co-ordinate distance from the central body
according as 7>0 or <0. The nature of apses, and hence the feasibility of finite non-circular
orbits, could be studied with the above equations.

6. Concluding Remarks

In Part I (Burman, 1972) integrals of the Einstein-Maxwell equations were obtained
for a static spherically symmetric situation consisting of a charged body embedded in a continuous
distribution of uncharged incoherent matter. In the present paper the integrals have been applied
to the study of light tracks ; particular attention has been paid to the case in which the external
matter is homogeneous and the central body is uncharged. Let M and 9 denote the mass of the
central object and the density of the external matter. It has been shown that if Mp? exceeds a
critical value, then there are no photon circles ; if Mo? equals the critical value, then there is at most
a single photon circle ; if Mp? is less than the critical value, then there are at most two photon
circles.

Part III will deal with light tracks about a charged central body embedded in homogeneous
matter.

References
ATKINSON, R. D’E., 1965a. Two General Integrals of BURMAN, R., 1971. On Light Tracks in the Presence
v of a Massive Body. Curr. Sci., 40, 61-62.
Oi et ee ae AU ete o te: Burman, R. R., 1972. Astronomical Objects
ATKINSON, R. DE, 1965b. On Light Tracks Near a Embedded in Matter. I. External Metrics. fi

Wer Massivectan . aioe. TOMI 623. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 105, 3-8.
CEY PSS Ven atat Soe. Darwin, C., 1959. The Gravity Field of a Particle.

Burman, R., 1970. Light Tracks Near a Dense Proc. Roy. Soc., A249, 180-194.

Charged Star. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 103, Darwin, C., 1961. The Gravity Field of a Particle:

87-90. Il. Proc. Roy. Soc., A263, 39-50.

Department of Physics,
University of Western Australia,
Nedlands, W.A., 6009.

(Received 23 June 1972)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 15-18, 1972

Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1971

K. P. Sims

The following observations of occultations
were made at Sydney Observatory with the
114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used
to record the times on a chronograph. The
reduction elements were computed by the
method given in the occultation Supplement
to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the
reduction completed by the method given
there. Since the observed times were in terms
of coordinated time (UTC), a ccrrection for
1971-5 of +0-01155 hour (=41-6 seconds)
was applied to these times to convert them to
ephemeris time with which The Astronomical
Ephemeris for 1971 was entered to obtain the
position and parallax of the Moon. The
apparent places of the stars of the 1971 occulta-
tions were, except for numbers 631 and 641,
extracted from occultation data issued by the
U.S. Naval Observatory. For occultation No.
631 the apparent place of Z.C. 3198 was taken
as 215 48m 428-021 in R.A. and —11° 28’ 26”-41
in Dec. whilst for occultation No. 641 the
apparent place of companion B to the star
S.A.O. 187106 was taken as 182 38™ 075-899
in R.A. and —25° 32’ 03”-31 in Dec.

Table I gives the observational material.
The serial numbers follow on from those of the
previous report (Sims, 1970). The observers
were W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S), and
H. W. Wood (W). For occultations 580,
632-640, and 647 the phase observed was
reappearance at the dark limb. With the
exception of occultation No. 579, which was a
disappearance at the bright limb, the phase
observed in the remaining cases was dis-
appearance at the dark limb. Table II gives
the results of the reductions which were carried
out in duplicate. The Z.C. or S.A.O. numbers
given in Table I are from the Catalog of 3539
Zodiacal Stars for Equinox 1950-0 (Robertson,
1940) and the Smuithsoman Astrophysical
Observatory Star Catalog.

References
RoBeErtson, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the
American Ephemeris, Vol. X, Pt. IT.

SIMs, IS. P., 197k, |. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S:W 4103;
91; Sydney Observatory Papers No. 64.

TABLE I

Serial SAO). Or

No. Z.Ca ING: Mag Date OP ba @ Observer
578 0221 327 1971 Feb. 1 9 52 48-30 W
579 2366 12 1971 Mar. 18 1233-21275 ge
580 2366 1-2 1971 Mar. 18 13 25 31-69 R
581 1635 5-4 1971 May 5 12 33 02-81 S
582 1637 6-0 1971 May 5 14 04 42-01 S
583 079688 7:8 1971 May 28 a OO 324d S
584 098020 8-3 1971 May 29 8 11 26-16 Si
585 1298 6-5 1971 May 29 8 14 13-31 ‘Ss
586 080351 8-6 1971 May 29 8 21 50-15 S
587 080352 8-9 1971 May 29 8 29 12-15 S
588 1299 6°3 1971 May 29 8 37 10-15 S
589 080353 8-7 1971 May 29 8 37 39-26 S
590 1303 6-8 1971 May 29 8 38 58-05 5
591 098018 7-4 1971 May 29 8 39 59-68 5
592 098043 8-4 1971 May 29 8 49 22-84 S
593 118218 8:3 1971 May 31 1] 50 46-74 S
594 118221 8-4 1971 May 3l 1] 57 42-61 S
595 118219 8-2 1971 May 2l 12 08 35-40 5

16

Serial S.A.O. or
No. L2G. No:
596 080094
597 080099
598 118460
599 1845
600 138862
601 138888
602 2558
603 138739
604 157707
605 182754
606 2098
607 2360
608 2366
609 2373
610 185295
611 186770
612 2823
613 158051
614 1958
615 158072
616 158540
617 158542
618 184935
619 184957
620 2449
621 184987
622 185021
623 185020
624 186029
625 187465
626 187490
627 187532
628 2761
629 2767
630 Pid L
631 3198
632 1292
633 1293
634 1294
635 098014
636 098018
637 098020
638 1298
639 1299
640 1302
641 ——
642 187106
643 187130
644 188333
645 3017
646 3134
647 3134
648 3142
649 164408
650 188071
651 188083
652 188098
653 145823
654 146380
655 3501

<
de

NW DW WOH WH WAD AUN DO DH WAaqaDBAWDWAIDWAADPASTCUMUAHDwWwS3SASHSAIMSSAOGMAMAAAAGHKIMOSMCMOSHGHOSeTHO 3H

COP OMHANNAUNUWOAANONTOSCCR

enti
— —

WOODSTOWN WHOWAWOMNAWTAWPRPSTOHANTN AEP AEAKTADS MAAS

K. P. Sims

TABLE I—Continued

Date

1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
197
1971
1971
197%
1971
1971
1O7L
FOWL
1971
1971
1971
1971
LOT
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
O71
1971
Oa
1971
O71
1971
1971]
1971
1971
LOT
1971
1972
1971
1971
1971
LAS A
1971
TOT
RO
LOTT
Loa
1971
197]
nO
1971
1971
1971
Lom
1971
1971
1971
OW
1971

June

June

June :

July

July :
July 2

Aug.

Aug. :
Aug. 2

Aug.
Aug.

Aug. 4
Aug.

AWg se;

Aug.
Aug.
Ep.
Sep.
Sep:
Sep.
Ep;
Sep:
Ep:
Sep.
Sep.
SED.
Dep.
Sep.
Sep.
Dep:
Sep:
Sep.
Sep:
Sep:
SED:
Oct:
Oct.
Oct.
Oct:
Oct.
OGE:
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct
Oct.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.

—
Cmmom CO aOmweqos+i

Observer

ORNS Sema DOU DODD

So;

HANNA MUN

A
=a

OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1971 EG

TABLE II
Luna- Coefficient of
Serial tion p q p? Pq q? Ao pAc qAc a =
No. No. Aa Ads
578 595 +72 —69 52 — 50 48 +1:-2 +0:9 —Q:8 +13:6 —(0-34
579 596 +83 — 56 69 — 46 31 —0-2 = (O2 +0-1 +9-9 —0-67
580 596 —96 —27 93 + 26 7 —2-] +2:0 +0-6 —13°:3 —Q-13
581 598 +61 —79 Be —48 63 +0°-8 +0:5 —0:6 +2°7 —0:98
582 598 +44 — 90 19 —40 8l +0:-4 +0:2 —Q:4 —0-4 —1-00
583 599 +88 —47 78 —41 22, +1-4 +1-2 —0:7 +10:-1 —0-68
584 599 + 84 — 54 71 —45 29 +2-9 +2:-4 —1-6 +8:6 —(0-80
585 599 +81 — 58 66 —47 34 +1-9 +1:-5 —l-1 +8-:1 —(Q-82
586 599 +78 +62 61 +49 39 —1:0 —0-8 —0-6 +13°3 +0-32
587 599 +94 +35 88 +33 12 +1:3 +1:-2 +0:5 +14:] +0-02
588 599 +48 —88 23 —42 ae +1-8 +0:9 —1-6 +2-3 —0-99
589 599 +65 +76 42 +49 58 —]-1 —O0:7 —0:-8 +12-2 +0-50
590 599 +82 —58 67 —47 33 +1]-7 +1-4 —1-0 +8-1 —(Q-82
591 599 +30 —95 9 = 29 91 0-0 0-0 0-0 —0-5 —1-00
592 599 +100 —] 100 —] 0 +1-:9 +1-9 0-0 +13°3 —0:35
593 599 +99 +17 97 +17 3 +0:°:8 +0:8 +0:-1 +14-2 —Q-28
594 599 +83 +56 69 +46 53 —0-4 —0°3 —Q:2 +14-6 |-Q- 14
595 599 +88 —A4S8& 7h —42 ae +1:7 +1:°-5 —0-8 +8:-6 —O0°82
596 600 +100 —] 100 —l 0 +0°8 +0:8 0-0 +13-2 —0*32
597 600 +42 —9] 18 — 38 82 —l1:1 —0-5 +1-0 +1-5 —(0-99
598 600 +98 +19 96 +19 4 +0:-3 +0:3 +01 +14-4 —0-:27
599 600 +57 —$§2 32 —47 68 Seb +1-2 —1-7 +2-4 —0-99
600 601 +79 —6l 63 —48 a, +2-2 +1-7 —1-3 +6:6 —0-90
601 601 +86 + 52 71s; + 44 rae +0:3 +0:3 +0-:-2 +14-8 +0-09
602 601 +47 +88 pape +41 78 —Q:°4 —Q-2 —0-4 +5:8 +0-90
603 602 +71 =F) 51 — 50 49 oe Om | —0-:1 +0:1 +4-8 —0-95
604 602 +90 +44 81 +40 19 == (ie, —Q-2 —0:1 +14-7 + 0-02
605 602 +80 +60 64 +48 36 —l-1 —0-9 —O0:7 +13°2 +0:-33
606 602 + 96 —28 92 —27 8 —0-6 —0-6 +0-2 +11-6 —0-56
607 602 +78 +62 61 +49 39 +0°3 +0:2 +0:-2 +11-5 +0-53
608 602 +100 —9 99 —9 1 +1:0 +1-0 —(Q-1 +13-2 —(:20
609 602 +77 — 64 59 —49 4] +1-9 1-5 —]-2 +9:-3 —0-72
610 602 +81 — 59 65 —48 35 +0:2 +0:2 =O) +10-6 —(0-60
611 602 +99 +15 98 15 4 +0:-5 +0°5 +0-1 +13-0 +0-25
612 602 +73 +68 53 +50 47 —0:4 —0-3 —0:3 +7:°7 +082
613 603 +98 il 96 Bey) 4 +0-7 10:7 +0-1 14-3 —0-18
614 603 +31 +95 10 +29 90 —0-8 —0-2 —0:8 +9-4 +0:76
615 603 +85 =H? 73 —44 Pag —Q:8 —Q:-7 +0:°-4 -+8:°5 —(Q-8l
616 603 +77 = 64 59 —A49 4] +0:-5 +0:4 —0:3 +7-4 —O0-85
617 603 +96 —2ZS 92 —27 8 —2-9 —2-8 +0-8 +11°-4 —():58
618 603 +100 —h 100 —5 0 +1:-6 +1:6 —OQ-:] +13°3 —(Q-1l
619 603 +99 —15 98 =—15 2 +1-9 Bey lea —Q:3 +13-1 —0-20
620 603 +64 = 77 4] —49 59 +0:8 +0:5 —0-6 +8:-0 —0-:80
621 603 +99 —16 97 —16 3 +0-5 +0:5 —O0-1 a —()-2]
622 603 +88 —47 78 —4] yA Jy ess BE oy +11-5 —(0-50
623 603 +44 +90 19 +40 81 +0:-1 0-0 +0:1 +6-4 +0-88
624 603 +99 +12 99 “212 1 +]-] +1-1 +0-1] +13-2 +0-18
625 603 --]2 +99 1 SEK |i 98 == +2 —O-] | oY —O0-8 + 1-00
626 603 +64 —T7T 4] —49 59 +0:6 +0-4 —0:5 +10°3 —0-65
627 603 +100 —3 100 —3 QO 1-4 +1-4 0-0 +13:-4 +0:15
628 603 +31 +95 10 +29 90 —()=5 —0-2 —0-5 +1-8 +0-:99
629 603 +98 +18 97 +18 3 —O0-8 —0-8 —Q-1 +12-7 +0:35
630 603 +99 —16 97 —16 3 +1-5 +1-5 —0:2 +13-6 +0:02
631 603 +84 +55 70 +46 30 —2-6 —2:2 —1-4 +7-8 +0: 84
632 603 —99 +14 98 —14 2 —0:4 +0:4 —O0-:-1 12>) +0-46
633 603 —12 —69 52 +50 48 =i 2 +0:9 +0:8 —12-9 —0:4]
634 603 —79 —61 63 —48 37 —0-6 +0:5 +0-4 —13-4 —0°3l1
635 603 —76 =65 58 +49 42 —]-] +0:8 +0:7 —13:-2 —0-35
636 603 —83 —56 69 +46 31 +0-3 —(Q-2 —0:2 —13-7 —()=25
637 603 —100 +2 100 —2 0 0-0 0-0 0-0 —13-2 +0:-36
638 603 —100 —3 100 +3 0 —0°3 +0:°3 0-0 —13-4 +0:31
= 639 603 —89 —46 79 +4] 2 +0:1 —0-:-1 0-0 —14-0 —0:-13
——- 640 603 —96 +28 92 ==) 8 —0-4 +0:°4 —0:1 —11-4 +0-59
ee eS en

18

Serial

No.

641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655

Luna-
tion
No.

604
604
604
604
604
604
604
604
604
605
605
605
605
605
605

Ke PR: Sims

TABLE II—Continued

pq q? Ac
+9 1 +0°7
+10 1 +0°7
Bay 0 +0:6
+36 1s =0-5
297] B4ee tet
= 739 82 1 E09
12) 1000) 053
+24 6.29 065
—40 19 eee
—50 Soe eis
34 13. 23088
=6 Os 2295
445 230 Coal
+46 31 —0-4
—29 9 0-0

(Received 10 July 1972)

CWE NIOCWNORRIAD

Q
>
Qa

ODED WHOEWOONOHE

Coefficient of

DWOOIMAMNOHOOOANN

AS

level, boat-shaped magma chamber.

basic intrusions.

Introduction

Several small bodies comprised of gabbroic,
‘troctolitic and anorthositic rocks crop out near
\the village of Dirnaseer, about 25 km. south-east
‘of Temora, New South Wales. The rocks,
designated as late- or post-Devonian olivine
dolerite on the first edition (1967) of the
‘Cootamundra 1: 250,000 Geological Sheet,
“appear to intrude (?) Silurian low grade quartz-
‘rich metasediments and are partly mantled
by Cainozoic alluvium. In the present work,
‘field, petrographic and geochemical studies
have been undertaken with the aim of explaining
some features of the origin of these rocks and
similar rocks elsewhere.

Geological Setting

_ The best exposed rocks of the intrusion occur
on a low hill covering about 3 km.? near the
village of Dirnaseer. Several areas of poor
outcrop occupy a similar area on a low rise
fabout 5km. to the west (see Fig. 1). The
eastern, roughly crescentic mass is composed
chiefly of plagioclase-rich olivine gabbro, with
less abundant troctolite and olivine gabbro and
rare anorthosite (Some occurring as veins up to
2cm. wide in troctolite). The gabbroic and
troctolitic rocks locally exhibit layering defined
by varying proportions of plagioclase and mafic

minerals, although no_ regular, persistent
layering is evident on a large scale. Dips on
the layering are predominantly (but not

exclusively) westerly and strikes are sub-parallel
to the outline of the body (see Fig. 1). Finer
grained, altered doleritic rocks (possibly repre-
senting a chilled facies of the intrusion) occur
near one contact with recrvstallized muscovite
quartzite (which grades away from the intrusion
into indurated micaceous sandstone).

| Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 19-26, 1972

A Gabbro-Troctolite-Anorthosite Intrusion at Dirnaseer,
near Temora, New South Wales

P. M. ASHLEY AND A. J. IRVING

Agpstract—The Dirnaseer basic intrusion, consisting largely of crudely layered gabbroic,
troctolitic and anorthositic rocks, is interpreted as representing the exposed portion of a high
Marginal doleritic rocks are interpreted as a chilled facies
of the intrusion, and xenoliths of granular plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene hornfels are considered
to be recrystallized fragments of previously emplaced gabbros.
affinities, being relatively poor in Ti, P, K and Na and relatively rich in Mg. Apart from some
chemical differences, the Dirnaseer intrusion shows particular similarity to the Somerset Dam
Intrusion and Eulogie Park Gabbro in Queensland, and has many features in common with other
New data are also given for a quartz-bearing two-pyroxene gabbro from
Wyalong and a metadolerite from Reefton, New South Wales.

The rocks display tholeiitic

The three areas of outcrops on the west
possibly represent surface exposures of a mass
similar in shape to, but a rough mirror-image
of, the eastern body. The western rocks
comprise olivine gabbros (some _ displaying
easterly-dipping layering) together with minor
plagioclase-rich gabbro (transitional to anortho-
site), marginal altered dolerite and fine-grained
plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene hornfelses. The
granular hornfelses, which have not been
observed among the eastern rocks, are found
both as small, discrete xenoliths within the
gabbros and also as larger bodies. The xenoliths
(up to 1 m. in length) are lenticular and elongate
parallel to the layering in the gabbros; the
larger hornfels bodies, which exhibit crude
relict layering and variable grainsize, show all
gradations to normal gabbroic rocks.

Petrography and Chemistry

The nomenclature adopted for the Dirnaseer
rocks follows that of Jackson (1968, fig. 2),
except that limiting boundaries have been set
as 5% rather than 10% by volume. Qualifying
terms such as olivine-rich and plagioclase-rich
have been used where appropriate; thus, the
name plagioclase-rich olivine gabbro refers to
olivine gabbros containing more than 75%
plagioclase and encompasses rocks designated
as “leucogabbro”’ by Mathison (1967) and
Wilson and Mathison (1968).

The relative abundances and average primary
modal compositions of the various rock types
of the intrusion are summarized in Table 1.
Major element chemical analyses, trace element
data and C.I.P.W. norms for six rocks from the
Dirnaseer intrusion, and for two rocks from basic
masses near Reefton and near Wyalong (see
location map in Fig. 1) are presented in Table 2.

20

P. M. ASHLEY AND A. J. IRVING

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF GABBRO-TROCTOLITE-

ANORTHOSITE BODIES SOUTHEAST OF

TEMORA, N.S.W.

Meslay SYDNEY

- Reefton

Temora ®. e Cootamundra

eAdelong

MAP AREA

-€
x
moe)
a5
aa 2)
Be {Ss
aS 2
wt
ie)
mete
ere)
Le

Cainozoic alluvium, laterite, silcrete

Gabbro-troctolite- anorthosite bodies

Chilled marginal phase

(?)Silurian pelites, micaceous arenites

Hornfels zone adjacent to intrusion
Plagioclase - olivine -clinopyroxene hornfels locality
Location of analysed sample

General dip of layering in intrusion
Approximate geological boundary

Inferred geological boundary

Road

Fic. 1.—Geological map of gabbro-troctolite-anorthosite bodies south-east of Temora, N.S.W.

A GABBRO-TROCTOLITE-ANORTHOSITE INTRUSION AT DIRNASEER 21

Primary minerals observed in the rocks are
plagioclase, olivine, clinopyroxene, ortho-
pyroxene, brown amphibole, biotite, sphene,
iron oxides, and sulphides. The silicate minerals
show variable but generally slight alteration to
secondary hydrous phases.

_ Plagioclase is the dominant primary phase in
all the rocks of the intrusion (ranging from about
50% to nearly 100% by volume). Grainsize
ranges from an average of 0-5 mm. in the mafic
hornfelses to 2-3 mm. in the troctolites, some

Olivine occurs in all the rocks of the intrusion
except the anorthosite veins in troctolite and
in some of the dolerites, and constitutes up to
35% by volume of the more olivine-rich gabbros
and troctolites. The olivine grains (0-2 mm.
across in the mafic hornfelses and up to 3 mm.
across in the troctolites) are usually subhedral
and enclosed in clinopyroxene and plagioclase,
although in some troctolites they are interstitial
to plagioclase laths. A weak preferred dimen-
sional orientation of olivine is present in some

TABLE 1
Relative Abundances and Average Primary Modal Compositions of the Main Rock Types

Plagioclase- Plagioclase-
Olivine rich olivine- Dolerite
Rock Type Gabbro Olivine Troctolite | Anorthosite clino- (Chilled
Gabbro pyroxene Margin)
Hornfels
Eastern Body Common Dominant Common Rare Absent Rare
Western Body Dominant Rare Absent Rare Rare Rare
Average Modal Proportions of Primary Minerals (Volume Per Cent.)!
Plagioclase ae om 65 85 70 Sl 55 DD
Olivine om Ss 7 15 8 25 2 15 5
Clinopyroxene.... Me jth 6 3 1 29 39
Orthopyroxene : <0°5 —0eD = — <0°-5 os
Brown amphibole e 1 <0" <0-5 — <0°5 <0°5
Biotite a - = <0°5 =—0"5 <0°5 oo — i
Sphene --- — a <0°5 — —
Oxides 0-5 ——0"0 0-5 =a) <0°5 1
Sulphides .. 0-5 =< 0-5 0-5 = =.0<0 <0°5

1 Minor amounts of secondary alteration products have been assigned to the appropriate primary phases.

elongate grains attaining 6 mm. in the latter.
The grains are mostly subhedral, although those
enclosed by clinopyroxene are commonly
euhedral and lath-shaped. In the troctolites,
a weak preferred orientation of plagioclase
laths is apparent, and, in these rocks and the
anorthosites, the grains display slight bending
and there is some tendency for their boundaries
to meet at interfacial angles of 120°. There is
no marked difference in plagioclase composition
among the various rock types, nor does the
mineral show compositional zoning, except in
the dolerites (where it is zoned from Ang, to
An,;, and averages An;;). In the plagioclase-
rich olivine gabbros, the plagioclase composition
ranges from An,, to An, , whereas in the
troctolitic rocks the range extends to Ang.
Alteration of plagioclase to fine-grained prehnite,
clinozoisite, albite, calcite and sericitic mica 1s
minor, except in the dolerites.

of the layered troctolites. The composition
is Fo,;;, for all rock types. Olivine has been
partly to completely altered to secondary phases.
The common secondary assemblage is lizardite +
pale green (pleochroic) chlorite-+magnetite, but
minor talc, phlogopitic mica and_ pyrrhotite
also occur. Plagioclase surrounding partly
altered olivine shows radial cracking, probably
caused by expansion during the alteration of the
latter (Plate I).

Clinopyroxene is present in all the rocks of the
intrusion except for anorthosite veins in
troctolite and in some of the very altered
dolerites. Only trace amounts occur in the
troctolites, but some of the mafic hornfelses,
gabbros and dolerites contain up to 40% by
volume of clinopyroxene. In all rocks except
the granular mafic hornfelses, clinopyroxene has
an ophitic to poikilitic texture, enclosing both
olivine and plagioclase, and some very poikilitic
grains measure 6mm. across. In the mafic

22 P.M. ASHLEY AND A, IRVING
TABLE 2
Chemical Analyses
1 2 3 4 5 6 ff 8
S10, 42-88 43-79 45-94 45-40 46-24 46-94 51-36 48-88
Ti0, 0-09 0-13 0-20 0-18 0-20 0-40 1-54 2-29
Al,O, 22-99 22-77 22-26 27-35 29-01 15-28 17°19 14-77
Fe,O, 1-43 1-22 0-79 0-72 0-52 120 2°28 3°98
FeO 4-89 5:10 3°38 2-70 1-58 671 6-82 7-53
MnO 0-10 0-10 0-08 0-06 0-04 0-16 0-19 0-24
MgO 13-23 10-83 9-13 5:59 3:08 12-61 5:18 5:28
CaO 11-89 12-26 15-19 15-11 15-68 15-08 9-45 9-28
Na,O 1-03 1-47 1-16 1-44 1-84 0-97 3°07 4-42
K,O 0-05 0207 0-07 0-05 0-11 0-05 0-45 0-62
B20; 0-02 0-00 0-02 0-02 0-04 0-02 0-32 0-29:
H,O+ 2°09 3-13 2-12 1-75 1-62 1-59 1-15 2-31
H,O- 0-11 0-07 0-09 O-17 0-02 0-11 0-01 0-14
CO, 0-10 0-16 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-07 0-08 0-15
Total .. -| 100-90 101-10 100-53 100-64 100-08 101-19 99-09 100-18
Analyses by X.R.F. spectrometry (fused borate button technique), flame photometry (Na,O) and
classical methods (FeO, H,O and CO,)
Trace Elements (p.p.m.)
Se as me 4] 42 56 50 49 74
Vv a esi 8 21 59 30 27 106
Cr ia ae 165 118 776 143 113 45]
Ni a 123 139 73 71 33 57
Cu 7 a 44 26 44 43 35 85
Zn ils us 50 50 32 28 18 51
‘S) an - 53 254 444 21 21 938
Mn an ite 774 766 573 416 300 1,074
Ti sie ie 436 779 1,236 1,085 1,043 2,237
K - me ~— ~-- 576 453 848 —
Analyses by X.R.F. spectrometry (pressed powder technique)
C.I.P.W. Weight Per Cent. Norms
QO fe ys 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 3°98 0-00
Or Ms ce 0-30 0-41 0-41 0-30 0-65 0-30 2-68 3°67
Ab S e 8:61 11-72 9-8] 12-18 15-14 8-20 26-00 35-60
Ne - de 0-06 0-38 0-00 0-00 0-23 0-00 0-00 0-97
An Rs oe 57-96 55-32 55-32 68-01 70-57 37-19 31-82 18-64
Di a3 - 0-20 3°58 15-32 4-93 5-04 29-71 10-20 19: 97
Hy 0-00 0-00 2°73 1-25 0-00 4-16 16-04 0-00
Ol 29-06 24-10 12-93 10-39 5:36 17-23 0-00 7°13
Mt 2-07 ead I-15 1-04 ORD 1-74 3°33 5:78
1 a te 0-17 0-25 0-38 0-34 0-38 0-76 2:93 4-36
Ap a ee 0-05 0-00 0-05 0-05 0-09 0-05 0-77 0-67
Cc ae a 0-23 0-36 0-23 0:23 0-23 0-16 0-18 0-34
EO - 2-20 3:20 2-21 192 1-64 Moi 1-16 2-45
Percentage An
(Plag) =. Sie 82-5 84-9 84-8 82-3 81-9 55-0 34-4
Percentage Fo
(OL) 4 “ad 84-7 81-0 84-8 81-4 82-0 19-0 — 62-2

DE 95. roctolite:
DW 5. Olivine gabbro (transitional to troctolite).
DW 2. Olivine gabbro.
DE. 2. Plagioclase-rich olivine gabbro.
DWI10. Plagioclase-rich gabbro (transitional to anorthosite).
DW23. Plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene hornfels xenolith.
. Orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-hornblende-biotite-quartz gabbro, ] km. north of Wyalong (“ norite-rock ”*
locality of Watt (1899)).
8. Low grade metadolerite, 4km. east of Reefton.
Sample localities for analyses 1-6 are indicated in Figure 1.
Samples are housed in the collection of the School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University (catalogue numbers,
MU 2144-2151 inclusive).

a eee ale ms

A GABBRO-TROCTOLITE-ANORTHOSITE INTRUSION AT DIRNASEER 23

hornfelses the clinopyroxene forms equant
grains averaging 0-4mm. across. It contains
rare inclusions (some vermicular) of ilmenite
and magnetite, and is commonly rimmed by
brown amphibole and/or a green actinolitic
amphibole with chlorite and sphene.
_Orthopyroxene occurs as rare, small subhedral
grains (up to 0-5 mm. across) in some of the
olivine gabbros, closely associated with clino-
pyroxene and olivine. It is generally exten-
sively altered to fine-grained aggregates of talc
and chlorite.

Brown amphibole, besides rimming clino-
pyroxene, also forms discrete grains poikilitically
enclosing plagioclase. It comprises up to 3%
by volume of some olivine gabbros and is
commonly fringed by (apparently altered to)
pale green actinolitic amphibole.

Biotite is a rare accessory mineral in some
olivine gabbros where it occurs as small plates
usually associated with olivine, and as narrow
rims on some ilmenite grains.

Sphene is a rare accessory phase in some
anorthosites and transitional plagioclase-rich
gabbros.

Ilmenite and magnetite amount to about 1%
by volume of the more mafic gabbros and
dolerites, but are very rare in plagioclase-rich
rocks. Ilmenite, the dominant oxide mineral,
occurs discretely, or in composite grains with
magnetite, the grains showing irregular outlines
(occurring interstitially to plagioclase, olivine
and pyroxenes) and attaining a maximum
grainsize of 1mm. Ilmenite shows narrow
rims of sphene in some of the more altered
rocks. Magnetite has not been observed as
independent primary grains but only in
composites with ilmenite.

Sulphide minerals comprising pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, pentlandite, sphalerite, marcasite
and mackinawite, are sparsely distributed
through the olivine gabbros and _ troctolites,
forming up to 0-5°%, by volume of some mafic
gabbros. Pyrrhctite is by far the most dominant
sulphide mineral and occurs as droplike grains
interstitial to the silicate minerals (Plates
III and IV). Some pyrrhotite-rich aggregates
measure 15 mm. across. Both monoclinic and
hexagonal polymorphs of the mineral occur, the
dominant monoclinic type containing exsolved
lamellae of the hexagonal type. Pyrrhotite
contains lamellae, “‘flames’’ and_ irregular
grains cf pentlandite, chalcopyrite and rare
sphalerite, and in places displays slight alteration
to marcasite. Pyrrhotite and less abundant
chalcopyrite are intergrown locally with
secondary actinolitic amphibole (Plate I), and

the alteration of olivine has produced a little
pyrrhotite associated with magnetite. Rare
tiny wisps of mackinawite occur in some chalco-
pyrite grains.

Discussion

The rock types at Dirnaseer bear a striking
resemblance to those described from two layered
basic intrusions in Queensland—-the Somerset
Dam Intrusion (Mathison, 1967) and the Eulogie
Park Gabbro (Wilson and Mathison, 1968).
The only notable differences are the imperfect
layering and apparent absence of “ ferri-
gabbros’”’ (magnetite-rich gabbros) in the
Dirnaseer occurrence.

Mathison (1967, fig. 9) has interpreted the
Somerset Dam Intrusion as representing the
exposed portion of a high-level, dish-shaped
magma chamber. The diversity of rock types is
considered to be the result of crystallization of
periodically renewed batches of basic magma,
with factors such as the composition of the
magma, the limited range of crystallization
temperature, diffusion processes and the control
of water vapour pressure playing important
roles in the preventicn of progressive differ-
entiation by gravitational crystal settling.
Despite its poor exposure, the Dirnaseer
occurrence can alsc be interpreted to have
formed in this way. Although the two separate
areas of outcrop at Dirnaseer could conceivably
represent independent intrusive bodies, it is
suggested, in view of the complementary outcrop
patterns and dips of layering in the two areas,
that the rocks constitute a single, crudely
layered, elongate saucer-shaped or boat-shaped
intrusive unit, which is exposed only at each
end.

Despite the probable close similarity in form
and structure, the rocks of the Dirnaseer
intrusion are systematically different in chemical
composition from those in both of the Queens-
land occurrences. The troctolites, olivine
gabbros, plagioclase-rich olivine gabbros, and
xenoliths of plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene
hornfels at Dirnaseer are all much poorer in Si,
Ti, P, K and Na, but richer in Mg and Ca than
their counterparts at Somerset Dam. The
chemical composition of the doleritic chilled
marginal phase of the Eulogie Park Gabbro is
quite similar to the estimated bulk composition
of the Somerset Dam Intrusion and again unlike
that of the Dirnaseer intrusion. These chemical
features, especially the poverty in Ti, P, K and
Na, are consistent with the hypothesis that the
Dirnaseer rocks have been derived from a
magma even more tholeiitic in character than
that which gave rise to the Queensland examples.

24 P. M. ASHLEY AND Al IRVING

The closest rocks similar to the Dirnaseer
gabbros, although characteristically richer in
orthopyroxene, are those of the small, layered
norite-gabbro body at Adelong, about 100 km.
south-south-east of Dirnaseer (Vallance, 1954 ;
Chaffer, 1957), and the noritic rocks associated
with diorites around Wyalong, about 80 km.
north-north-west of Dirnaseer (Watt, 1899).
The analysed orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-
hornblende-biotite-quartz gabbro from Wyalong
exhibits a plagioclase lineation and chemically
(analysis 7, Table 2) is notably richer in Si, Ti,
Na, K and P and poorer in Ca than the Dirnaseer
gabbros. A small basic body located about
4km. east of Reefton (40 km. north-north-west
of Dirnaseer) contains low-grade metadolerite
composed of albite, clinopyroxene and actinolitic
amphibole, with minor chlorite, pumpellyite,
clinozoisite, sphene, ilmenite and tourmaline.
The metadolerite is chemically dissimilar to the
Dirnaseer rocks in having higher Ti, Na, K,
P and Fe and lower Ca and Al (analysis 8,
Table 2).

The plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene hornfels
xenoliths associated with the gabbros at
Dirnaseer have been the subject of particular
study in view of the differing interpretations
placed on such rocks in gabbroic intrusions
elsewhere. The terms beerbachite, gabbro-
aplite, granulite, etc., have been used to describe
some of these rocks; however, Phillips (1969)
recommends that the term beerbachite be
reserved for rocks occurring as dykes rather
than xenoliths. Basic granular hornfelses very
similar to those at Dirnaseer are found as
xenoliths and/or marginal zones in the Scmerset
Dam Intrusion, Evlogie Park Gabbrc, Mt.
Samson Complex (Phillips, 1959), Carlingford
Complex (Harry, 1952; Le Bas, 1960), Girvan-
Ballantrae mafic-ultramafic belt (Bloxam, 1955),
Insch Gabbro (Sadashivaiah, 1950), Ardna-
murchan Hypersthene-Gabbro (Wells, 1951,
1953 ; Brown, 1954), Ben Buie Gabbro-Complex
(Bailey e¢ al., 1924; MacGregor, 1931), Skye
Gabbro-Complex (Harker, 1904; MacGregor,
1931), Frankenstein Gabbro (Klemm, 1926 ;
MacGregor, 1931), Duluth Gabbro (Grout, 1933)
and Freetown Complex (Wells, 1262). Some
authors (e.g. Grout, 1933 ; Sadasbivaiah, 1950 ;
Harry, 1952; Phillips, 1959) have interpreted
these rocks as_ extensively metasomatized
(“ gabbroized ’’) sedimentary country rocks,
whereas others (e.g. Wells, 1962) have considered
them tc be recrvstallized earlier gabbroic rocks.
Wells (1953) has also noted two other hypotheses,
viz. the xenoliths represent (1) thermally meta-
morphosed basaltic or doleritic rocks, cr

(2) fragmented basic dykes initially intruded
into hot gabbro.

With regard to the hornfels xenoliths in both
the Dirnaseer intrusion and the Somerset Dam
Intrusion, their commonly tabular form and the
crude layering shown by some examples are
inconsistent with derivation from the largely
massive country rocks. Furthermcre, the
occurrence in both intrusions of zones of rocks
transitional between hornfelses and _ olivine
gabbros (cf. Mathison, 1967, p. 60) 1s considered
to be convincing evidence that the xenoliths
hornfels are virtually isochemically recrystal-
lized fragments of gabbroic rocks emplaced
previously. The two analysed hornfels xenoliths
from the Somerset Dam Intrusion are similar
in chemical composition to the weighted average
of the layers in Zone 4 of that mass. However,
in contrast, the analysed Dirnaseer xenolith
(analysis 6, Table 2) is chemically different
from the associated coarse-grained rocks (e.g.
poorer_in. Al>-richer m Fey iit) Museen Gm
and S), although it is certainly of broadly
gabbroic composition.

The proportion of secondary (alteration)
minerals (such as actinolitic amphibole, chlorite,
prehnite and clinozoisite) in the Dirnaseer and
Queensland rocks reaches a maximum in the
most leucocratic representatives, and, as pointed
out by Mathison (1967), this consistent assccia-
tion suggests that a late magmatic or deuteric
process, rather than a regional metamorphic
one, has given rise to such phases in all the rocks.
Nevertheless, in the Dirnaseer intrusion, which
is probably older than the Queensland intrusions,
part of the observed alteration, notably in the
finer grained, marginal dolerites, can possibly
be ascribed to low-grade regional metamorphism.

The status of the brown amphibole found in
small amounts in most of the rocks is, however,
ambiguous. By analogy with similar amphiboles
in rocks of the Somerset Dam Intrusion, it is.
most likely to be a titaniferous hornblende.
Mathison (1967, p. 70) deduces from textural
relationships that the Somerset Dam amphibole
(which is a kaersutite) has two distinct modes.
of origin: solid state replacement of augite
(mainly in leucogabbros), and late magmatic
crystallization from the intercumulus liquid
(mainly in olivine gabbros). In the Dirnaseer
rocks, this distinction also holds, in that brown
amphibole forms both optically continuous
overgrowths (commonly closely associated with
actinolitic amphibole) on clinopyroxene in
plagioclase-rich olivine gabbros, and also inter-
stitial poikilitic grains in olivine gabbros and.
troctolites.

CHAFFER,

CHAMBERLAIN, J. A.,

CLARK, A. H., 1966.

A GABBRO-TROCTOLITE-ANORTHOSITE INTRUSION AT DIRNASEER

The sulphide minerals are, for the most part,
interstitial to, and do not appear to replace the
primary silicate minerals (Plates III and IV).
It appears probable that they have segregated
as an immiscible sulphide liquid phase within a
crystallizing silicate magma. According to
Naldrett (1969), the crystallization of Fe-Ni-Cu
sulphides interstitial to plagioclase and unaltered

pyroxene is indicative of a relatively low water

content of the magma, under which conditions
the silicate liquidus is reached before that of the
sulphides.

At the time of initial crystallization of the
sulphides, a homogeneous sulphide solid solution
probably existed. Subsequent unmixing of
minor chalcopyrite, pentlandite and sphalerite
from a pyrrhotite host apparently then occurred
with decreasing temperature. The occurrence
of intergrowths of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite
with euhedral secondary actinolitic amphibole
(Plate II), and of pyrrhotite as an alteration
product of olivine, suggest both a recrystal-
lization of some of the primary sulphides and a
moderately high fugacity of sulphur during the
relatively low temperature alteration of the
primary minerals. The formation of mackinawite
also may have occurred at temperatures compar-
able to the alteration cf the primary silicates
(cf. Chamberlain and Delabio, 1965; Clark,
#266; Genkin, 1971).

Acknowledgement
The authors wish to express their gratitude to
Associate Professor R. H. Vernon of the School
of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, for
his helpful comments.

References

BAILEY, E. B., and OTHERS, 1924. Tertiary and Post-
Tertiary Geology of Mull, Loch Aline, and Oban.
Mem. Geol. Survey Scotland.

Broxam, T. W., 1955. The Origin of the Girvan-
Ballantrae Beerbachites. Geol. Mag., 92, 329-337.

Brown, G. M., 1954. A Suggested Igneous Origin for
the Banded Granular MHornfelses within the
Hypersthene-Gabbro of Ardnamurchan, Argyll-
shire. Miner. Mag., 30, 529-533.

ieee Es 1957. The Mineralogy and

Petrology of the Adelong Norite-Gabbro Intrusion,

New South Wales. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. Sydney.

(Unpublished.)

and DeEraBio, R. N., 1965.

Mackinawite and Valleriite in the Muskox In-

trusion. Am. Miner., 50, 682-695.

Some Comments on the Com-

position and Stability Relations of Mackinawite.

Neues Jahrbuch. Mineral., Monatsch., 6, 300-304.

P. M. Ashley,
School of Earth Sciences,

Macquarie University,
North Ryde, N.S.W., 2113.

25

COOTAMUNDRA 1: 250,000 GEOLOGICAL SHEET, 1967.
Ist ed. Geological Survey of N.S.W.

GENKIN, A., 1971. Some Replacement Phenomena in
Copper-Nickel Sulphide Ores. Mineral. Deposita,

6, 348-355.
Grout, F. F., 1933. Contact Metamorphism of the
Slates of Minnesota by Granite and Gabbro

Magmas. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 44, 989-1040.

HARKER, A., 1904. The Tertiary Igneous Rocks of
Skye. Mem. Geol. Survey Great Britain.

Harry, W. T., 1952. Basic Hornfels at a Gabbro
Contact near Carlingford, Eire. Geol. Mag.,
89, 411-416.

JACKSON, EH. D7 1968. ° the Character of the Lower

Crust and Upper Mantle Beneath the Hawaiian
Islands. 23rd Inter. Geol. Congr., Prague, Proc.
Sect., 1, 135-150.

KLemM, G., 1926. Petrographische Mitteilungun aus
dem Odenwalde. WNotizbl. Vrr. Evrdk. Darmstadt,
V Folge, 9, 104-117.

Le Bas, M. J., 1960. The Petrology of the Layered
Basic Rocks of the Carlingford Complex, County
Louth. Tvans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 64, 169-200.

MacGreoGcor, A. G.,, 1931.) scottish oS Pyroxene-
Granulite Hornfelses and Odenwald Beerbachites.
Geol. Mag., 68, 506-521.

Martuison, C. I., 1967. The Somerset Dam Layered
Basic Intrusion, Southeastern Queensland. /.
Geol. Soc. Aust., 14, 57-86.

NALDRETT, A. J., 1969. A Portion of the System
Fe-S-O between 900° and 1080° C and Its Applica-
tion to Sulfide Ore Magmas. /. Petrology, 10,

171-201.
PuHILtuips, E. R., 1959. An Olivine-bearing Hornfels
from South-eastern Queensland. Geol. Mag.,

96, 377-384.

PHILLIps, E. R., 1969. On the Rock Name Beerbachite.
Geol. Mag., 106, 281-283.

SADASHIVAIAH, M.5S., 1950. Oliving-bearing and Other
Basic Hornfelses Around the Insch Igneous Mass,
Aberdeenshire. Geol. Mag., 87, 121-130.

VALLANCE, T. G., 1954. Studies in the Metamorphic
and Plutonic Geology of the Wantabadgery-
Adelong-Tumbarumba District, New South Wales.
Part II. Intermediate-basic Rocks. Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., 78, 181-196.

Watt, J. A., 1899. Report on the Wyalong Goldfield.
Mineral Resour. N.S.W., 5, 40pp.

WELLS, M. K., 1951. Sedimentary Inclusions in the
Hypersthene-gabbro, Ardnamurchan, Argyllshire.
Miner. Mag., 29, 715-736.

We tis, M. K., 1953. The Structure and Petrology
of the Hypersthene-gabbro Intrusion, Ardna-
murchan, Argyllshire. Q. J. Geol. Soc. London,
109, 367-397.

Weis, M. K.,; 1962. Structure and Petrology of the
Freetown Layered Basic Complex of Sierra Leone.

Overseas Geol. Miner. Resour. Suppl. Ser., 4,
115pp.
Witson, M. M., and Maruison, C. I., 1968. The

Eulogie Park Gabbro, a Layered Basic Intrusion
from Eastern Queensland. J. Geol. Soc. Aust.,
15, 139-158.

A J. living,

Department of Geophysics and Geochemistry,
Australian National University,

Canberra, A.C.T., 2600.

(Received 24 March 1972)

26 P.M. ASHLEY AND A. FT RvaNG

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE I.—Olivine (pale grey, centre) partly altered to lizardite, chlorite (both dark grey) and magnetite (white)
with radial cracking in surrounding plagioclase (medium grey) : troctolite. Reflected light. x55. Sample
DE5.

PLaTE II.—Secondary euhedral actinolitic amphibole (dark grey) enclosed by chalcopyrite (white) and pyrrhotite
(pale grey): olivine gabbro. Reflected light. «150. Sample DW2.

Puiate III.—Pyrrhotite (white) interstitial to plagioclase (darkest), clinopyroxene and olivine (medium grey) :
olivine gabbro. Reflected light. 75. Sample DW2.

Piate IV.—Pyrrhotite (almost white) interstitial to clinopyroxene (dark grey). Note minor wavy lamellae of
hexagonal pyrrhotite (pale grey, right) and inclusions of pentlandite (white, lower left) within the dominant
monoclinic pyrrhotite: olivine gabbro. Reflected light. 75. Sample DW2.

S I—IV

ALE

D IRVING PL

AN

cY
a

ASHLE

4

W

)

N

WOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY

~~

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 27-29, 1972

Ripple-Drift Cross-Lamination in the Hawkesbury Sandstone,
New South Wales

CoLIn R. WarD

ABSTRACT—Ripple-drift cross-lamination (climbing ripples) is present in the bottomset

of a cross bed unit in the Hawkesbury Sandstone, west of Garie, N.S.W.

The structure has been

formed by a combination of vertical settling and traction transport of coarse grained sand in a
manner similar to that described by Boersma (1967) for modern sediments of the Rhine delta
in Holland. The direction of current flow was opposite to that of the adjacent cross bed unit
because of the influence of a zone of reverse circulation in the bottomset area.

Introduction

Although cross bedding is a prominent feature
of the Middle Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone,
other sedimentary structures are relatively
rare. In a detailed survey, Standard (1969)
recorded only six occurrences of ripple marks,
with wavelengths of approximately 30 cm. and
amplitudes slightly in excess of 2-5 cm.
Branagan (1971), however, suggests that there
may also be many poorly preserved mega-ripples
or dune structures with wavelengths of more
than 5 m. and amplitudes up to 1 m.

Ripple-drift cross-lamination, a
known also as climbing ripples,

structure
has been

To To
Waterfall Audley

LOCATION OF
RIPPLE - DRIFT
STRUCTURE

ot

Fic. 1.—Locality map.

described from a number of sedimentary environ-
ments, including the top of fluvial point bars
(Visher, 1965), turbidites (Walker, 1963) and
fluvioglacial deltas. It is common in_ fine-
grained sediment, such as silt and fine sand, and
is considered to be formed by a combination of
traction transport and vertical settling from
suspension (Jopling and Walker, 1968; Allen,
1970). Although this sedimentary structure
has not previously been reported from the
Hawkesbury Sandstone, an excellent exposure is
preserved in a road cutting west of Garie Beach,
within the Royal National Park, approximately
32 km. (20 miles) south of Sydney (Fig. 1).

Description

The ripples are larger than those described
by Standard (1969) and have an amplitude of
approximately 5cm.; their wavelength is
difficult to estimate because of contemporaneous
erosion (Plate I). Superposition of successive
sets of ripples has been preceded by almost
complete erosion of the stoss or upcurrent
side, so that the structure corresponds closely
to type A of Jopling and Walker (1968). A
zone of smaller ripples, with a tendency towards
development of sinusoidal ripple lamination
(Jopling and Walker, op. cit.) is present as a
minor feature.

The sediment which contains the ripple-drift
structure is a medium- to coarse-grained sand-
stone, with sporadic pebbles of white vein quartz
up to 1cm. in diameter. The sandstone is
fairly friable, and following soaking and gentle
crushing can be subjected to sieve analysis.
The results of such an analysis (Fig. 2) show a
graphic mean grainsize (Folk, 1968) of 0-830
(0-56 mm.) and an inclusive graphic standard

28 COLIN R. WARD

deviation of 0-89¢@, indicating a moderate degree
of sorting. The inclusive graphic skewness is
+0-29, indicating an excess of fine material.
Because many of the quartz grains have suffered
secondary enlargement, and a certain amount of
authigenic clay is present (Standard, 1969),

99-99
“= 99-95
(a0)
YU
99:8
> 99:5
= 99:0
r= 98
O
e
= 95

90

80

50

COARSER THAN GIVEN GRAINSIZE

CUMULATIVE %
ro)

few metres east of a prominent set of easterly
dipping high angle cross beds. The ripple-drift —
horizon lies in front of and slightly below the |

toe of these cross beds, and rests upon a bed of |
similar pebbly sandstone containing very low ©
angle cross stratification.

Additional poorly ©

5 units

GRAINSIZE

Fic. 2.—Cumulative grainsize distribution curve (probability ordinate) for ripple-drift sandstone.

these data should not be subjected to excessively
detailed analysis. However, the sediment is
unusually coarse-grained for one exhibiting
ripple-drift cross-lamination, since the structure
appears to be most common in silts and fine
sands.

The horizon containing the ripple-drift cross-
lamination is situated in the same bed as, and a

exposed ripples, although not of the climbing
type, are present towards the base of this bed
(Plate II) and are in turn underlain, beneath a
sharp contact, by a further high angle cross
bed unit. The top of the ripple-drift horizon
is covered by a thick accumulation of talus and
weathered debris, and cannot be examined in
detail.

MOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W

WARD: PLATES

I AND

s WSK § Oe
ot Se SS ae io ee
at ~ —— oe : ees
or a ee ge

A we 3 wane
s . eh US

Ss ON

Was

RS

© ow

MGR

WA
uN

g « = SN
SWE \ &
SSSTS CES :
< ERO Ke ESS
: ~. . NW ek
Qn WAL SAKE QQ Qe SONS oo
: OTE Raw
WS See
wae ww SQN
~ SS Se

Ripple-drift cross-lamination grading down into massive

Sats . Se < W.. Re

ee ot . : eT ge
SECRET ORR =
‘ KK aoe: SSNS WSs ae

SEN

SSNS

QW

. TINA es
= NS WEES — WSS
*

LSE

: os ee — Se

SRI SASS &
Ae Re ae

Rents
Bs iam

ant

‘5 — Ww

7

ek ow CEN
BOew’” Ga GN

S SEE

SESE Se

A . Se <~ ON

os RSS LEK
<< EW :

RARSAMRAWBVWWH

Seo oA as RRR RE RIGS SG Soenaeumienenincat :

and horizontally bedded bottomset sediment.

Saw a CRE

NR

RRR
SEVEN

SSS,

General view of ripple-drift horizon and underlying sediment.

ZONE ae

SS

REVERSE
CIRCULATION

CRS

BOTTOMSET CLIMBING

Origin

Similar climbing ripples and other sedimentary
structures in Recent sediments of the upper
Rhine delta in Holland are described by Boersma
(1967). In this case the climbing ripples are
thought to have formed in the lee of advancing
mega-ripples or dunes in the river channel
(Fig. 3). As the mega-ripple advances, it forms
high angle cross beds. The finer sediment settles
out from suspension, and at the same time is
transported by a traction current flowing in the
opposite direction to the main stream because
of back flow in the lee of the advancing mega-
ripple (Jopling, 1964).

The model described by Boersma (1967)
appears to explain the ripple-drift cross-
lamination, low angle cross bedding and other
ripple marks in the Hawkesbury Sandstone at
Garie; it also accounts for the directions of
sediment transport. The coarse grainsize of the
-ripple-drift sediment is probably a reflecticn of
active flow conditions and an abundant supply

of suspended sediment form avalanches on tbe
foreset slope of the advancing mega-ripple.

|

School of Physical Sciences,
N.S.W. Institute of Technology,
Thomas Street,
Broadway, 2007.

BACKFLOW

Fic. 3.—Mechanism of ripple-drift formation.

RIPPLE-DRIFT CROSS-LAMINATION IN HAWKESBURY SANDSTONE 29

PLUS

TRACTION ee

ADVANCING RIPPLES

SETTLING

(After Boersma, 1967.)

References
ALLEN, J. R. L., 1970. A Quantitative Model of
Climbing Ripples and Their Cross-laminated
Deposits. Sedimentology, 14, 5-26.

BoErRSMA, J. R., 1967. Remarkable Types of Mega
Cross-stratification in the Fluviatile Sequence of a
Subrecent Distributary of the Rhine, Amerongen,
The Netherlands. Geologie Mijnb, 46, 217-235.

BrRANAGAN, D. F., 1971. Ripples and Mega-ripples
in the Hawkesbury Sandstone. Abstr. 6th
Symposium on Advances in the Sydney Basin,
University of Newcastle.

FoLk, R. L., 1968. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks.
Hemphill’s, Austin, Texas.

Jopiine, A. V., 1964. Interpreting the Concept of

the Sedimentation Unit. /. Sedim. FPetrol.,
34, 165-172.
Jopiine, A. V.,and WALKER, R.G., 1968. Morphology

and Origin of Ripple-drift Cross-lamination with
Examples from the Pleistocene of Massachusetts.
J. Sedim. Petrol., 38, 971-984.

STANDARD, J. C., 1969. The Hawkesbury Sandstone.
In Packham, G. H. (ed.), The Geology of N.S.W.
J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16 (1), 407-419.

VISHER, G.S., 1965. Use of Vertical Profile in Environ-
mental Reconstruction. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol.
Bull., 49 (1), 41-61.

WALKER, R. G., 1963.
Drift | Cross-lamination.
173-188.

Distinctive Types of Ripple
Sedimentology, 2 (3),

(Received 23 June 1972)

considered to be late Frasnian (tol6).
is described.

Introduction

During preparation of correlation tables for
‘the Devonian System of Australia and New
Zealand (Pickett, 1972), a number of units
remained only doubtfully correlated, due to
insufficient data regarding their precise age.

' An occurrence of limestone near Ettrema
Mine, on Jones Creek (GR 207780 Nerriga
1: 31,680 sheet, 35 km. ESE of Nowra), one of
these, had been reported initially as Silurian
in age (Rose, 1966), then as mid-Devonian
(Croft et al., 1970). Because of its palaeo-
graphical implications, a mid-Devonian age
seemed questionable. Accordingly, the locality,
which is most difficult of access, was visited, and
samples taken.

The most obvious elements of the macro-
fauna in the limestones in Jones Creek are
large, inflated atrypid brachiopods, and rare
plocoid phillipsastreid corals. The limestones
‘themselves are well-bedded, with occasional
inmterbeds of shale which may dominate the
‘sequence over a vertical distance of up to
20 metres. The beds are strongly folded and in
places much sheared. The area has not been
‘mapped in any detail because of the rugged
topography and the blanket of Permian sedi-
Ments which obscure the older Palaeozoic
rocks everywhere but in the gorges. The
locality is important because it is the first
limestone occurrence in New South Wales of
proven Frasnian age. It is probable that the
sediments will be referable to a horizon in the
Merrimbula Group. Other fossil localities within
the Merrimbula Group, notably locality UP. 4
of Wood (in McElroy and Rose, 1962), appear
to be Frasnian also. Specimens from this
locality in the Mining Museum collections
contain abundant Productella, Cyrtospirifer and
Tentaculites, with some Tenticospinifer and a
large coarsely ribbed pectenoid. These are
preserved in a well-washed orthoquartzite. The

ABSTRACT—Conodont faunas from two localities are discussed and illustrated.
One new subspecies, Polygnathus nodocostatus ettremae,

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 31-37, 1972

Late Devonian (Frasnian) Conodonts from Ettrema,
New South Wales

JOHN PICKETT

Their age is

presence of the four named genera is good
evidence for a Frasnian age for this fauna.
In Ettrema Creek, on a horizon very close to
that of conodont fauna 2, are occasional shale
bands with abundant fossils, sheared to a
varying extent. One of these contains a few
specimens of Productella ? sp., another contains
crowded Cyrtospirifer sp.

Nomenclature

Recent advances in conodont research have
been towards description of conodont
assemblages, “‘natural’’ genera, and species.
While it is not the intention of the author to
become involved in the current debate on
nomenclatorial procedures, some justification
for the procedure adopted is warranted. Poly-
gnathids make up 39% of the present fauna.
It is thus apparent that if a given conodont
apparatus contains only two _ polygnathid
elements and a number of others (as suggested
by Klapper and Philip, 1971) there must have
been some winnowing of the fauna, especially
considering that a further 3°4 of other platform
types occurs in the fauna, and that icriodids
constitute another 7%. Apparently, therefore,
the fauna contained a number of species of
Polygnathus (sensu Klapper and Philip, 1971),
le. of apparatuses of their type 1. The
sorting of the fauna (and probably also the
number of specimens available) precludes deter-
mination of which other elements belonged to
the natural species. Hence, although it is
possible to identify to “‘ species ’’’ most of the
discrete elements present, it is not possible to
apply a specific name to the natural species,
and only possible in two cases for the genera
(and this with some doubt). Furthermore, since
ranges of natural species are in general not
established, these can only be determined from
those of the discrete elements. The examina-
tion of the present fauna was undertaken for

32 JOHN PICKER

stratigraphic reasons rather than for information
on the conodonts themselves. Thus I am in
support of the standpoint clearly enunciated by
Rhodes (1962), since the — stratigraphical
palaeontologist is in most cases forced to use
a terminology for the discrete units. Until
the natural taxonomy becomes refined to a
point where the various elements can _ be
confidently referred to their natural species, the
present morphological taxonomy remains the
most useful means of designation.

TABrE f
Occurrences of Conodont Species

Locality 1

Bed of Jones Creek, + mile upstream from Ettrema

Mine. GR 207780 Nerriga 1 : 31,680 sheet :
Ancyrodella curvata (Branson and Mehl)
Ancyrognathus asvmmetrica (Ulrich and Bassler)
Angulodus walrathi (Hibbard)
A patognathus varians Branson and Mehl
A patognathus sp. nov.
Bryantodus sp.
Hindeodella germana ? Holmes
Hindeodella subtilis Bassler
Icriodus brevis angustulus Seddon
Icriodus expansus Branson and Mehl
Ligonodina magnidens Ulrich and Bassler
Ligonodina sp.
Lonchodina robusta ? Branson and Mehl
Lonchodina tvpicalis Bassler

zavkodina elegans (Stauffer)

Ozarkodina immersa Hinde
Palmatolepis hasst Miller and Miller
Pelekysgnathus cf. planus Sannemann
Polygnathus nodocostata ettremae subsp. nov.
Polygnathus normalis Miller and Youngquist
Polvgnathus xvlus ? Stauffer
Roundya aurita Sannemamn
Roundya sp.
Synprioniodina alternata Ulrich and Bassier

Locality 2
East bank of Ettrema Creek | mile upstream of junction
with Jones Creek. GR 197798, Touga 1: 31,680
Sheet =
Hindeodella sp.
Icriodus cf. expansus Branson and Mehl
Polygnathus normalis Miller and Youngquist

Age of the Strata
The faunas from the two localities are given

in Table 1. The fauna from Ettrema mine
contains as important species Ancyrodella
curvata, Ancyrognathus asymmetrica, Palmato-

lepis hassi, Polygnathus normalis and Poly-
gnathus nodocostatus ettremae. The ranges of
the first four species in Western Australia as
given by Glenister and Klapper (1966) are
conodont zones 5-11, 8-9, 5-11, 6-18,
respectively. The best fit with the present
samples is given by the range of Ancyrognathus

asymmetricus, 1.e. Zones 8-9, upper gigas-zone,
lower told. Seddon (1970a) reports Polygnathus
normalis and Palmatolepis —hassi-subrecta
occurring together in samples BC 23-3, for
which he gives no age, and BC 25-5, for which
he determines a toly age. Ancyrodella curvata
he reports from the lower gigas-zone. The told
interval is poorly represented in Seddon’s
material, the only samples being BC 76-6 and
BC 76-7. The species recorded by him are very
different from those of the present samples,
which according to Glenister and Klapper’s:
ranges fit best into this interval. Ziegler (1962),
indicates that Ancyrognathus asymmetricus is
restricted to the upper gigas-zone. The fauna
Se many species in common with that described.

vy Seddon (1970b) from crack fillings in the
Pile, Bluff area, notably that from locality
TE-294, which is correlated with Ziegler’
upper gigas-zone.

Acknowledgements
This work was carried out as a project of the
Geological Survey of New South Wales. It is
published with the permission of the Under
Secretary, New South Wales Department of
Mines.

Systematic Palaeontology
Genus ANCYROGNATHUS Branson and Mehl
1934
Type species: Ancyrognathus symmetricus
Branson and Mehl 1934.
Ancyrognathus asymmetricus (Ulrich and Bassler
1926).
Plate I, Figs. 3-6
Palmatolepis eat Ulrich and
Bassler, p. 50, Pl. (lie as:
1966. Ancyrognathus sn Glenister and
Klapper, p. 801, Pl. 87, Figs. 1-5. (cum syn.).
1967. Ancyrognathus asymmetrica Adrichem
Boogaert, p,_ 178, PR aAg rics 2

1926.

1968. Ancyrognathus asymmetrica Huddle, p. 7,
Pl 13 ies, iva:

1969. Ancyrognathus asymmetrica Polsler,
p. 405.

1970b. Ancyrognathus asymmetrica Seddon,

Pl. 8, Figs. 12-14.

Material: Seven more or less complete
specimens. |
Remarks : The specimens referred by various

authors to this species show a range of variation
in the ornament of the oral surface and the
position of the blade in relation to the margin
of the anterior limb. In typical A. asymmetricus

LATE DEVONIAN (FRASNIAN) CONODONTS FROM ETTREMA 33

surface of the unit, although the carina below
is more or less median. This situation pertains
in the holotype, the Iowa specimens of Miller
and Miiller (1957), the Kellerwald specimens of
~Miiller (1956) (‘‘ Ancyroides cf. uddeni’’), the
“Western Australian material (Glenister and
Furnish, 1966) and the present specimens. In
this respect the specimen from the Western
Sahara figured by Ethington and Furnish (1962)
differs from the type, as the blade is approxi-
mately median. Bischoff’s (1956) material from
the Kellerwald shows specimens of both types,
and he considers the non-marginal condition
to be characteristic of gerontic specimens.
Glenister and Furnish remark (1966, p. 800)
that the exact position of the blade on the
anterior lobe is highly variable. Within the
present population (seven specimens only) this
feature is consistent, as is also the surface
ornament with its median row of nodes on each
lobe of the unit. The greatest variation is in
the width of the external lobe at its base. The
tip of this lobe is markedly deflected aborally,
as in the Western Australian material (Glenister
and Klapper, 1966, Pl. 87, Fig. 3), Bischoff’s
material (1956, Pl. 8, Figs. 7, 8), and that of
Seddon (19700) from Texas. The paratype
of Ancyroides uddent Miller and Youngquist
(1947), figured on Pl. 74, Fig. 16, and subse-
quently referred to Ancyrognathus asymmetrica
by Ethington and Furnish (1962), differs in
the median position of the blade, as well as
having a surface ornament of nodes which are
less well differentiated into median rows of
larger and lateral rows of smaller nodes.

The species is apparently confined to the
upper part of the Manticoceras zone of the Late
Devonian (told), according to Ziegler (1962)
to the upper part of the P. gigas zone. In
Western Australia it occurs in the lower part
of the Virgin Hills Formation.

|
| the blade lies at the interior edge of the oral

Genus APATOGNATHUS Branson and Mehl
1934

Type species: Apatognathus varians Branson
and Mehl 1934.

Apatognathus sp. nov.
Plate I, Figs. 8-10

Remarks : The few specimens of this species
are fragmentary, so no formal description is
undertaken. The species differs from A. varians
chiefly in the presence of denticles of two sizes,
smaller ones occurring notably between the
main cusp and the first lateral denticles, but also
between the other larger denticles of the bars.

B

Genus Icriopus Branson and Mehl 1938

Type species: Icriodus expansus Branson
and Mehl 1938.

Icriodus brevis angustulus Seddon 1970
Plate I, Figs. 16-17

1968. Icriodus angustus Stewart and Sweet,
Mound, Pl. 6, Figs. 23, 33.

1970a. Icriodus brevis angustulus Seddon, Pl. 11,
Figs. 16-24.

Remarks: The present specimens are more
similar to the Canadian ones figured by Mound
in the consistent arrangement of the denticles
into strong transverse rows, whereas in the
Western Australian specimens “the median
denticles alternate with the lateral denticles
in immature specimens but bear no regular
mutual alignment in mature ones’. The
Canning Basin material also tends to be higher
posteriorly, while the Canadian and New South
Wales material maintains much the same height
over the full length of the unit. The outline of
the basal cavity is nearly symmetrical, and
rounded posteriorly, just as described by Seddon
for the Canning Basin specimens. In the
arrangement of denticles in transverse rows the
specimens from Ettrema and those from Canada
come closer to the types of J. angustus Stewart
and Sweet. In the holotype of this species,
however, the denticles of the posterior blade are
directed obliquely backwards, while those of
specimens from the other three occurrences are
approximately vertical.

Icriodus expansus Branson and Mehl 1938
Plate I, Figs. 18, 19

1938. Icriodus expansus Branson and Mehl,
Pl. 26, Figs. 18-31.

1968. Icriodus expansus Mound, p. 488, Pl. 66,
Figs. 38-39 (sum syn.).

1970a. Icriodus expansus Seddon, p. 736, Pl. 11,
Figs. 30-32, Pl. 12, Figs. 1-2.

Remarks: On Seddon’s figured specimen of
this species the denticles of the median row are
not alternate with those of the lateral rows,
as is the case with the present specimens and
that figured by Mound (1968); the type
specimens show both conditions. Branson and
Mehl remark that younger representatives of
the species tend to have the three rows of nodes
reduced to transverse ridges, a condition
Seddon’s specimen approaches. The Ettrema
specimens are markedly alternate. The basal
cavity of the present specimens and of those

34

from Western Australia is very much expanded,
being much broader than in most specimens
referred to the species by other authors.

Genus PALMATOLEPIS Ulrich and Bassler
1926
Type species: Palmatolepis perlobata Ulrich
and Bassler 1926.

Palmatolepis hasst Miller and Muller.
Plate II, Fig. 12

1957. Palmatolepis hasst Miller and Miller,
p. 1102, Pl. 139, Fig. 2, Pl. 140, Figs. 2-4.

1970a. Palmatolepis hassi Seddon, p. 738, Pl. 12,
Fig. 27 (cum syn.).
19706. Palmatolepis hassi

Figs. 5-6.

Remarks: This species is represented by a
single, rather small specimen, which is virtually
identical with the paratype figured by Miiller
and Miller on Pl. 189, Fig. 2. In Western
Australia it occurs commonly, chiefly in samples
of toly age. Muller and Miller report the
species from the Amana beds, the Independence
Shale and the Sweetland Creek Shale. Seddon’s
specimens from Texas range well into told
time.

Seddon, Pl. 10,

Genus PELEKYSGNATHUS Thomas 1949

Type species: Pelekysgnathus «inclinatus
Thomas 1949.

Pelekysgnathus cf. planus Sannemann 1955.
Plate II, Figs. 13-16

1955. Pelekysgnathus planus
p. 149, Pl. 4, Figs. 22, 28.

1970a. Pelekysgnathus planus Seddon, p. 738,
Pl. 11, Figs. 1-12 (cum syn.).

Remarks : Seddon describes a wide range of
variations for Western Australian representatives
of this species. Many of his remarks are applic-
able here. The species is morphologically very
close to Icriodus brevis angustulus, but the
variation is not continuous between the two.
In general, the degree of posterior taper is less
than in Seddon’s specimens. The Ettrema
specimens are also narrower.

Sannemann,

Genus POLYGNATHUS Hinde 1879

Type species: Polygnathus dubius Hinde
1879.

Polygnathus nodocostatus ettremae subsp. nov.
Plate II, Figs. 17-19; Plate III, Figs. 1-5

Holotype : MMMC 0309.

Other Maternal: Figured paratypes
MMMC 0322, 0323, 0324; 25 other specimens.

JOHN PICKETT

Diagnosis: Polygnathus nodocostata with a
carina of fused nodes, a deep furrow on either
side, bounded internally and externally by a
submarginal ridge which may be slightly nodose,

and which begins at the anterior edge of the |

platform but fades out posteriorly. A much
lower row of nodes may be developed marginally.

Description: Polygnathus nodocostatus with

very short blade and a platform which is only —
weakly arched in juvenile forms, but strongly —
The outline —

arched in gerontic individuals.

of the platform is ovate-lanceolate or a little —
truncate anteriorly. The posterior third of the ©
platform is deflected inwards, scarcely in juvenile —

specimens, strongly in gerontic individuals.
The free portion of the blade is from 0-24 to 0°31
of the total length of the unit. It bears usually
three denticles, the second being the tallest.
The blade is continued as a carina over the full
length of the unit. Frequently, though not
invariably, the first denticle on the carina is as
strong or nearly as strong as the second one on
the blade. The carina is formed of a row of
10-15 fused denticles, those at the posterior
of the unit being more discrete and represented
as rounded nodes, about four in number. On
either side of the carina is a wide deep furrow,
progressively less well defined posteriorly. The
abcarinal side of the furrow is formed by a fairly
straight ridge, made up of a row of nodes,
sometimes so fused as to be almost indistin-
guishable. Marginal to this is a narrow aborally
curved zone which usually bears another row
of smaller nodes. In the inward deflected
posterior portion of the platform the lateral
ornament disappears, the carina being flanked
by a narrow smooth area or a few small nodes.
In profile the unit is deepest anteriorly, the
aboral surface arching up strongly to its highest
point at the pit, near the centre of the unit,
turning again aborally at the posterior. The
highest point of the platform profile is just
posterior of the pit. The platform is moderately
arched in both longitudinal and transverse
directions, the degree of arching being greatest
in gerontic specimens. The aboral surface
bears a strong keel occupying a median position
over the full length of the unit. The pit is
small, situated slightly forward of centre. The
pit is tapered at both front and back, but no
extension of it along the keel can be made out.
A pronounced crimp is present. Ornament of
growth lines may occur.

Remarks: Of those specimens of P. nodo-
costatus of which figures have been published,
the two which approximate most closely to the
norm of the present population are that of

LATE DEVONIAN (FRASNIAN)

Glenister and Klapper (1966), Pl. 94, Figs. 8-9,
and the juvenile specimen figured by Helms
(1961), Pl. 1, Fig. 13. The figure of the earliest
representative of the group in Helms’ Text-fig. 17
(P. nodocostatus nodocostatus) is also fairly
close.

The Western Australian occurrence is of a
single specimen from borehole Wapet C, sample
C 44’-66’; the stratigraphic level is high in
the Virgin Hills Formation. Here it is associated
with Palmatolepis minuta minuta, Pa. glabra
glabra, Pa. glabra pectinata, Scutula bipennatia
and Palmatodella delicatula, an assemblage
referred by Glenister and Klapper to the lower
Pa. quadrantinodosa zone. Helms’ figured
specimen is from the upper part of the lower
Cheiloceras-Stufe, high toll«. Both of these
occurrences are substantially younger than that
at Ettrema, which is the earliest occurrence of
P. nodocostatus.

The species shows the most resemblance to
P. nodocostatus nodocostatus Branson and Mehl
as described by Helms (1961). Glenister and
Klapper (1966, p. 829) point out that the
lectotype of P. nodocostatus showed an x-shaped
convergence of the rows of nodes on the platform,
so that Helms’ subspecies P. mnodocostatus
imcurvatus 1s a junior synonym of the type
species. The present material exhibits no such
incurving of the rows of nodes, and is in this
respect most similar to those specimens assigned
by Helms to the nominate subspecies. Points
in which P. n. ettremae differs from P. n. nodo-
costatus are the greater arching of the unit, the
strong furrows, the ridge-like rows of nodes and
the three or four prominent posterior nodes on
the carina.

Polygnathus normalis Miller and Youngquist
1947

Plate III, Figs. 6-9

1947. Polygnathus normalis Miller and Young-
quist, p. 515, Pl. 74, Figs. 4-5.

1968. Polygnathus normalis Mound, p. 509,
Pl. 69, Figs. 30-31, Pl. 70, Figs. 1, 2, 5
(cum syn.).

1969. Polygnathus normalis Druce, p. 102,

Pl. 19, Figs. Ta—-10b.

1970a. Polygnathus normalis Seddon, Pl. 16,
Figs. 19-22.
19706. Polygnathus normalis Seddon, Pl. 15,

Figs. 8-10.

Remarks : Mound (1968) indicates that the
two species P. normalis and P. webbi occur
together. To judge by his figures, the major

CONODONTS FROM ETTREMA

35

point of difference is the depth of the free part
of the blade (Pl. 70, Fig. 7). The present
specimens cover the range of variation shown in
Mound’s figures, but I am unable to separate
them into two groups. The original figures
of the types of P. webbi show no details of the
profile of the blade. In material from Western
Australia Seddon appears to have experienced
difficulty in separating the species, and speaks of
the “ P. webbi-P. normalis complex ’’. In the
range of variation he describes for the Western
Australian material, those from Ettrema conform
most closely to his group 2, “ typical specimens
of P. normalis’’, even including the tendency
for the ornament of transverse ridges to break
up into nodes on the posterior third of the
platform. Mound (1968, p. 510) also mentions
nodose ornament, but does not indicate that this
is confined to any part of the platform. His
specimen figured on Pl. 69, Figs. 30 and 31 has
a virtually entirely nodose surface, and is quite
different from all specimens in the present
population.

References
ADRICHEM BOOGAERT, H. van, 1967. Devonian and
Lower Carboniferous Conodonts of the Cantabrian
Mountains (Spain) and Their Stratigraphic Applica-

tion. Leidse geol. Medelingen, 39, 129-192,
3 pl., 68 text-figs, 6 charts.
BIscHOFF, G., 1956. Oberdevonische Conodonten

(told) aus dem rheinischen Schiefergebirge. Notizbl.
hess. Landesamt Bodenforsch., 84, 115-137, pl.
8-10.

BRANSON, E. G., and MEHL, M. G., 1934. Conodonts
from the Grassy Creek Shale of Missouri. Missouri
Univ. Studies, No. 3, 171-259, pl. 13-21.

BRANSON, E. B., and Ment, M. G., 1938. The
Conodont Genus I[criodus and Its Stratigraphic
Distribution. J. Paleont., 12 (2), 156-166, pl. 26.

CrorT, J. B., WiLiiams, N., Cumso, R. P., and
Tacaska, A. M., 1970. Broken Hill Proprietary
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Mapping of Areas 3a, 3b and 3c, Ulladulla, N.S.W.
Watts, Griffis and McOuat (Aust.) P/L, Sydney.
(Unpublished.)

Druce, E. C., 1969. Devonian and Carboniferous
Conodonts from the Bonaparte Gulf Basin,
Northern Australia. Buy. Min. fRes., Geol.
Geophys., Bull. 98, 1-242, pl. 1-43. Canberra.

ETHINGTON, R. L., and FurNisH, W. M., 1962. Silurian
and Devonian Conodonts from Spanish Sahara.
J. Paleont., 36 (6), 1253-1290, pl. 172-173.

GLENISTER, B. F., and KLAppEer, G., 1966. Upper
Devonian Conodonts from the Canning Basin,
Western Australia. J. Paleont., 40 (4), 777-842,
pl. 85-96.

HeEtms, J., 1961. Die “ nodocostata-Gruppe’’ der
Gattung Polygnathus, Oberdevonische Conodonten.
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HuppLe, J. W., 1968. MRedescription of Upper
Devonian Conodont Genera and Species Proposed
by Ulrich and Bassler in 1926. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Pap. 578, 1-55, pl. 1-17.

36 JOHN PICKETT

KLAPPER, G., and Puirtip, G. M., 1971.
Conodont Apparatuses and _ Their
Skeletal Elements. Lethaia, 4 (4), 429-452.

McE troy, C. T., and Rosz, G., 1962. Reconnaissance
Geological Survey: Ulladulla 1-mile Military
Sheet, and Southern Part of Tianjara 1-mile
Military Sheet. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Bull. 17,
1-66.

MiLLER, A. K., and YounGguist, W. L., 1947.
Conodonts from the Type Section of the Sweetland
Creek Shale in Iowa. J. Paleont., 21 (6), 501-517,
pl. 72-75.

Mounp, M. C.,

Devonian
Vicarious

1968. Upper Devonian Conodonts

from Southern Alberta. J. fPaleont., 42 (2),
444-524, pl. 65-71.
MULLER, K. J., 1956. Taxonomy, Nomenclature,

Orientation and Stratigraphic Evaluation of
Conodonts. J. Paleont., 30 (6), 1324-1340, pl. 145.

MULLER, K. J., and MULLER, E. M.,-1957. “Early
Upper Devonian (Independence) Conodonts from
Iowa, Part I. J. Paleont., 31 (6), 1069-1108,
pl. 135-142.

PICKETT, J. W., 1972. Correlation of the Middle
Devonian Formations of Australia. J. geol. Soc.
Aust., 18 (4), 457-466.

PO6LSLER, P., 1969. Conodonten aus dem Devon der
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Geological Survey of New South Wales,
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36 George Street,

Sydney.

RHODES, F. H. T., 1962. Recognition, Interpretation,
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Rose, G., 1966. Geological Map 1: 250,000. Ulla- |
dulla SI/56-13. N.S.W. Geol. Surv.

SANNEMANN, D., 1955. Oberdevonische Conodonten |
(toIIa). Senck. leth., 36 (1-2), 123-156, 6 pl.

SEDDON, G., 1970a. Frasnian Conodonts from the |
Sadler Ridge-Bugle Gap Area, Canning Basin, |
Western Australia. J. geol. Soc. Aust., 16 (2)
723-754, pl. 11-16.

SEDDON, G., 19706. Pre-Chappel Conodonts of the —

Llano Region, Texas. Bur. Econ. Geol. Univ.
Texas, Rept. Inv. No. 68, 1-130, pl. 1-19.
STEWART, G. A., and SWEET, W. C., 1956. Conodonts

from the Middle Devonian Bone Beds of Central

and West-Central Ohio. J. Paleont., 30 (2),
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fication of the Toothlike Fossils, Conodonts, with
Descriptions of American Devonian and Missis-
sippian Species. U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc., 68 (12),
1-63, pl. 1-11.

ZIEGLER, W., 1962. Taxionomie und Phylogenie
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(Received 17 August 1972)

JOVIAL aa by,

JOCRNAT ROYAL SOCIETY

MOURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W. PCE EAE eh

mic
Supey

-

—_—
5

LATE DEVONIAN (FRASNIAN) CONODONTS FROM ETTREMA 37

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

All Figures are x40. Specimen numbers refer to the micropalaeontological type collection of the Geological
Survey of New South Wales, housed at the Geological and Mining Museum, Sydney. Unretouched photographs
except Pl. I, Figs. 1, 2, Pl. II, Fig. 14, and Pl. III, Figs. 2, 4, 5, in which the background only has been blackened.
Unless otherwise stated, the specimens are all from Jones Creek, upstream from Ettrema Mine.
|

PEALE, |
: Figs. 1-2.—Ancyrodella curvata (Branson and Mehl). Oral and aboral views of specimen MMMC 0325.

Figs. 3-6.—Ancyrognathus asymmetricus (Ulrich and Bassler). Oral views of specimens MMMC 0296, 0297,
| 0293, respectively ; aboral view of MMMC 0295.

1 Fig. 7.—Angulodus walvathi (Hibbard). Inner lateral view of MMMC 0331.

Fig. 8.—Apatognathus varians Branson and Mehl. Inner lateral view of MMMC 0317.

| Figs. 9-10.—A patognathus sp. nov. Inner lateral views of specimens MMMC 0333, 0329.

Fig. 11.—Bryantodus sp. Inner lateral view of specimen MMMC 0326.

Fig. 12.—Hindeodella germana ? Holmes. Inner lateral view of MMMC 0302.

1 Figs. 13—14.—Hindeodella subtilis Bassler. Inner lateral views of MMMC 0303 and 0304.

Fig. 15.—Hindeodella sp. Inner lateral view of specimen MMMC 0310 from locality 2, Ettrema Creek.

| Figs. 16-17.—Icriodus brevis angustulus Seddon. Oral view of MMMC 0313, inner lateral view of MMMC 0314.
| Fig. 18.—Icriodus expansus Branson and Mehl. Oral view of MMMC 0319.

| Fig. 19.—Icriodus cf. expansus Branson and Mehl. Oral view of MMMC 0311 from locality 2, Ettrema Creek.

PLATE II

| Figs. 1-3.—Ligonodina magnidens Ulrich and Bassler. Inner lateral views of MMMC 0289, 0292, 0307
respectively.

Fig. 4.—Ligonodina sp. Inner lateral view of MMMC 0328.

Fig. 5.—Ligonodina >? sp. Inner lateral view of MMMC 0308.

Figs. 6-7.—Lonchodina robusta ? Branson and Mehl. Inner lateral views of MMMC 0294 and 0298.
| Fig. 8.—Lonchodina typicalis Bassler. Inner lateral view of specimen MMMC 0306.

Fig. 9.—Lonchodina sp. Inner lateral view of ? juvenile specimen MMMC 0301.

Fig. 10.—Ozarkodina elegans Stauffer. Outer lateral view of specimen MMMC 0299.

Fig. 11.—Ozarkodina immersa Hinde. Inner lateral view of MMMC 0290.

Fig. 12.—Palmatolepis hassi Miiller and Miiller. Oral view of specimen MMMC 0300.

‘Figs. 13-16.—Pelekysgnathus cf. planus Sannemann. Oral aboral, outer lateral and inner lateral views of the
same specimen, MMMC 0318.

Figs. 17-19.—Polygnathus nodocostatus ettvremae subsp. nov. Oral, aboral and somewhat oblique inner lateral
| views of paratype MMMC 0324.

PLATE III

Figs. 1-5.—Polygnathus nodocostatus ettremae subsp. nov. 1, 2, Inner lateral and oral views of holotype
MMMC 0309. 3, 4, Aboral and inner lateral views of gerontic individual, paratype MMMC 0322. 5, Oblique
inner lateral view of juvenile, paratype MMMC 0323.

Figs. 6—-9.—Polygnathus normalis Miller and Youngquist. 6, 7, Oblique and aboral views of specimen
MMMC 0321. 8, Inner lateral view of specimen MMMC 0312 from locality 2, Ettrema Creek. 9, Outer
lateral view of individual with deep blade, MMMC 0320.

Fig. 10.—Polygnathus xylus ? Stauffer. Inner lateral view of specimen MMMC 0332.

Figs. 11-13.—Roundya aurita Sannemann. 11, Oral view of MMMC 0305. 12, Oblique aboral view of
MMMC 0315. 13, Lateral view of MMMC 0291.

Fig. 14.—Roundya sp. Posterior view of specimen MMMC 0316.
Pig. 15.—Synprioniodina alternata Ulrich and Bassler. Lateral view of MMMC 0327.

a

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 39-42, 1972

A Study of Root Concretions at Kurnell, N.S.W.

G. S. GIBBONS AND J. L. GORDON

AspstTRacT—At Kurnell, 16 km. south of Sydney, N.S.W., there is a large wind-blown
dune area consisting of sand blown from an adjacent beach. Within these dunes can be seen old
soil profiles with which are associated tube-concretions of carbonate-cemented quartz grains,

apparently following former root systems.

Experiments indicate that the concretions develop

over a long period by evaporation of carbonate-saturated ground water in the region of the decaying

root.

Introduction: The Geological Setting

The Kurnell Peninsula (Figure 1) covers
some 13sq.km., 16km. south of Sydney
on the central coast of New South Wales,
Australia. To the south and east is the Pacific
Ocean, while to the north is Botany Bay, a
shallow, land-locked area of some 36 sq. km.

SOB E TN

MAROUBRA

BOTANY BAY

” VCAPE BANKS

CAPE SOLANDER

A KURNELL
“1 PENINSULA

feo ee
eee e ee eee

YCRONULLA BEACH
RONULLA

PACIFIC OCEAN

Oren oee

SAND HILLS sini"

SCARE Ea
Oo 1 2 3K

Figure 1.—Map of the district around Kurnell,

aNe .

The Peninsula itself has a rocky cliffed
headland in the east, consisting of white,
quartzose Hawkesbury Sandstone; while the
main part of the Peninsula is an area of 5 km?.
of rolling wind-blown dunes, part of which is
stabilized by scrubby vegetation. Sand extends
to as much as 60m. below sea-level, and rests
on a Hawkesbury Sandstone base in the east
and on clay elsewhere (G. R. Wallis, pers.
comm.).

tf]

At the time of the last glaciation the sea-level
was some 100m. below that at the present
and the coast line was approximately 16 km.
east of its present position (Griffin, 1963 ;
Bird, 1964; C. V. G. Phipps, pers. comm.).
A deep valley cut through Botany Bay and
the present dune area. Following the post-
glacial rise in sea-level 6,000 years ago (Fair-
bridge, 1961), this valley area filled with
sediment ; Botany Bay became shallow, and
areas to the north and south became dry land.
The Kurnell Peninsula area grew as winds added
sand from North Wanda Beach immediately
to the south; this process can be seen today
near Quibray Bay (Figure 1).

Quarrying of sand has exposed sections of
the dunes to nearly sea-level, and as many as
three separate soil profiles (including that
associated with the present surface) can be seen.
These profiles are essentially humic layers of
about 30cm. depth, with 60-120cm. of the
underlying sand showing iron oxide staining.
These layers need not correspond to climatic
changes ; at the present time, vegetated dunes
are being overrun by active sand in parts of
the Peninsula, while elsewhere dunes are
becoming more stabilized.

Description of Concretions

The concretions studied occur beneath a
buried soil profile about 2 m. below the present-
day surface of a stabilized dune 10m. above
sea-level. They are nearly vertical, up to 1 m.
long and 1-4 cm. in diameter (Figure 2).

In terms of cross-sectional area, the outermost
three-tenths is cemented quartz sand ; one-half
is micro-crystalline calcite (by X-ray duiffrac-
tion); and the central one-fifth is fibrous
humic material. If the fine calcite is replacing
original root material, the root would have
initially taken up half of the present volume of
the concretion.

A size analysis of quartz grains within the
concretion was compared with analyses of

40 G. S. GIBBONS AND J. 1 GORDON

FINE CARBONATE

QUARTZ

SECTION THROUGH ROOT CONCRETION

Figure 2.—Diagrammatic section of a large root con-
cretion from Kurnell. (Carbonate is almost pure
calcite.)

nearby dune-sand (Figure 3); cementing of
quartz grains 7m situ has apparently produced
the outer crust of the concretions.

Initial Observations
(1) The concretions follow root systems, possibly
similar to the present Banksia flora (Banksia
collina).

(2) They form after the plants die, and above
the water table.

(3) Absence of concretions from live or recently-
dead trees suggests slow formation (rather
than changed conditions).

(4) Movement of ground-water (or soil-water)
is the obvious mechanism for transport of
carbonate: shell fragments in the sand
would provide the source.

(5) Water movement could be gravitational
(Figure 4 (2)) or capillary (Figure 4 (1), (3)).

Because the concretions are shallow and only
a few thousand years (at most) are available
for their formation, temperature and pressure
gradients cannot be the cause of the carbonate

transport, while chemical and biological effects —
around a rotting root would increase (not
decrease) carbonate solubility. However,
evaporation and CO,-release could simul-
taneously precipitate carbonate and maintain
water movement.

Experimental Evaluation

The evaporation theory outlined above has
been tested in terms of its competence to
produce the observed phenomena in available
time.

The present sea-level dates from 6,000 years
B.P.; the landform from 3,000 years. Climate
may be assumed to have been constant over
this period.

There is about 9g. of added carbonate per
centimetre in depth in the larger concretions.
Ground water contains 200p.p.m. CaCO.
Assuming total deposition and time 3,000 years,
a total of 1-51. per year must be evaporated
for a concretion 100 cm. long with root area
5 cm.?, corresponding to 4ml water per day.
Such a concretion can hold 6ml./cm. by
capillarity ; saturating it and then drying it
just five times every two years would provide
adequate evaporation.

Experiments

The end of a coarse string was suspended in
carbonated water saturated with respect to
solid calcite. Solid CaCO, was deposited among
the fibres through capillary rise and evaporation.
A string was then suspended in a tube filled
with dune sand. After one day equilibrium
was reached, moisture having travelled much
further up the string than up the sand column.

A dry section of concretion like that of Figure 2
was suspended vertically with one end just
below a free water surface. It took up more
than 200ml. in 24 hours, corresponding to
saturation (6ml. per cm.) to 30cm. above
free water level. Ultimately moisture climbed
the full height—48cm.—of the concretion.
The concretion was then buried in air-dried
sand. It lost 2 ml. per cm. by capillary action
into the surrounding sand, which became damp
for 0:5cm. from the concretion surface. The
saturated concretion was then jacketed with
plastic wrapping. Evaporation from one end
was at a rate exceeding 2ml./day, slowly
dropping to 1:8ml./day after a week, in a
sheltered indoors location. Under similar
conditions, a short (15cm.) length of similar
concretion lost an average 26 ml. per day from
its exposed surface when tested over a five-week
period.

| Finally, a tube of air-dried dune sand packed
to 35°% porosity was erected vertically with the
lower end in water. After 24 hours a steady
| state had been reached. Capillary water had
‘reached a height of 24cm., with moisture
‘content decreasing from saturation near the
base to 79% v/v (normal field capacity) at the
top.

QUARTZ

Om Ou 0. 15 20 25 3:0 35 4:0

A STUDY OF ROOT CONCRETIONS AT KURNELL N.S.W. 41

24 cm. into dry sand, perhaps with a free end
exposed or very close to dune surface. Such an
evaporation rate is close to the upper limit
of reasonable assumption, even assuming that
the local water table was generally close to the
lower ends of the concretions. If the larger
concretions formed in a shorter time interval—
say, a couple of centuries—some other mechanism

CARBONATE

O09) 0:5) 105,525, 257 2:5:—3:07°35 40

RANGE OF QUARTZ & CARBONATE SIZE DISTRIBUTION, S SAMPLES NEAR
CONCRETION

Figure 3.—Size analyses of Kurnell dune sand. Full line in quartz diagram represents carbonate-cemented
quartz grains from the outer zone of a concretion. (Refer Figure 2.)

Inferences from Experiments

The type of large concretion tested can absorb
over 150 ml. per week from a water-saturated
region. This would vary as the concretion
developed, but indicates the approximate rate
of absorption. The water needed for a concretion
of length 100 cm. could be absorbed in
30,000 weeks. The experiments show that
capillarity draws water more than 24 cm.
above the vadose zone. In a temperate area
of widely divergent (60cm. to nil) monthly
rainfall, with bare or sparsely vegetated dunes,
an inference of 30 weeks per year active water-
rise seems reasonable. A total time of 1,000
years would thus be indicated.

The question of evaporation rate within a
dry, porous sand is very complex, but the
experiments suggest evaporation of some 20 ml.
per day from a damp concretion extending some

0

would be required. For any more definitive
data on rates, however, field tests would be
required ; uncontrolled variables would render
these difficult.

Conclusions

The kind of carbonate concretion found around
decayed root systems in coastal sand-dunes at
Kurnell are formed by evaporation of soil-
water or ground-water. This precipitates
calcium carbonate (derived from shell fragments
in the sand), which cements a zone of normal
dune-sand enveloping the original root, and
replaces the root as it withers and rots. The
microcrystalline carbonate, like the original
root material, has strong capillary effects ;
these promote the movement of water, which is
drawn considerably higher in the root system
than it is in the surrounding sand.

42

G. S. GIBBONS AND J. L. GORDON

Figure 4.—Possible movement paths of carbonate-bearing solutions leading to development
of concretions.

Carbonate solutions are drawn from below
the water table ; lateral movement might occur
from surrounding sand when it is wet beyond
normal field capacity by percolating rain-water
(diagrams 1 and 2 of Figure 4). Occasional
flushing by heavy rain is indicated, since
sulphates and chlorides are absent from con-
cretions observed.

Experiments indicate a minimum age for
the concretions of order 1,000 years; the
absolute upper limit is 6,000 years.

Acknowledgements

Dr. C. T. McElroy and Mr. R. Horne drew
the Kurnell root concretions to our attention ;

Department of Geology,
N.S.W. Institute of Technology,
Thomas St., Broadway. N.S.W. 2007.

Mr. J. Herlihy assisted with experimentation
and draughting ; and Mr. J. Bogi carried out
X-ray studies on concretion material. Very
useful discussions have been had with Mr. G. R.
Wallis and Dr. C. V. G. Phipps. To all these
we express thanks.

References

Birp, E. C. F., 1964. Coastal Landforms.
National University, Canberra.

FAIRBRIDGE, R. W., 1961. Eustatic Changes in Sea
Level. Physics Chem. Earth, 4, 99-185.

GRIFFIN, R. J., 1963. The
Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 18.

Australian

Botany Basin. Bull.

(Received 23 March 1972)

Report of the Council for the Year Ended 31st March, 1972

Presented at the Annual General Meeting of the
Society held on 5th April, 1972, in accordance with
Rule 18 (a).

At the end of the period under review the composition
of the membership was 345 members, 13 associate
members and nine honorary members.

During the year 10 new members, one associate
-member and one honorary member were elected.
Seven members and one associate member resigned,
one member and one associate member were written

off under Rule 5 (bd).

Honorary member elected at Council meeting held

on 23rd February, 1972:

Sir J. Philip Baxter.

It is with regret that we announce the loss by death
of :

Mr. E. J. W. Hampton (elected 1949).

Dr. Thomas Iredale (elected 1943).

Dr. F. Lions (elected 1929).

Professor Sir Ronald S. Nyholm (elected 1940).
Mr. R. Boswell Scammell (elected 1920).

Both Professor Sir Ronald Nyholm and Dr. Thomas
Iredale were esteemed honorary members of the
Society.

Nine monthly meetings were held. The abstracts
of addresses have been printed on the notice papers.
The proceedings of these will appear later in the issue
of the Journal and Proceedings. The members of
Council wish to express their sincere thanks and
appreciation to the nine speakers who contributed to
the success of these meetings, the average attendance
being 39.

The sesqui-centenary of the Philosophical Society of
Australasia, forerunner to The Royal Society of New
South Wales, was celebrated at the general monthly
meeting on 7th July, 1971, when Dr. D. F. Branagan
gave an address entitled ‘“‘ Words, Actions, People :
150 Years of the Scientific Societies ’’. Members were
invited to a display of letters, minutes and original
drawings from the Archives of the Society held in the
Society’s rooms in Science House.

The Annual Social Function was held at the Pitt
Club, Sydney, and was attended by 59 members and
guests.

The Society’s Medal for 1971:
Griffith, B.A., M.Sc.

Professor J. L.

The Walter Burfitt Prize and Medal for 1971: Dr.
Max R. Lemberg, D.Phil., F.R.S., F.A.A.
The Edgeworth David Medal for 1971: Dr.

William F. Budd, Ph.D., Dip.Ed.

The Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1971, entitled ‘‘ The
Bearing of Palaeozoic Corals on the Continental Drift
Hypothesis ’’, was delivered by Professor Dorothy Hill
of the Department of Geology and Mineralogy, Uni-
versity of Queensland.

In conjunction with the Australian Institute of
Physics a special lecture was held in Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney, entitled ‘‘ Physics and
Music’’. The lecture was delivered by Dr. H. R.
Allan, Reader in Physics at the University of London.

The Society has again received a grant from the
Government of New South Wales of $1,500. The
Government’s continued interest in the work of the
Society is much appreciated.

The Summer School was once again a significant
success. This year the subject was Earth Sciences,
with the title of ‘““Down to Earth’’. The Society
expresses thanks and appreciation to Professor J. J.
Frankel for permission to allow the School to be held
in the School of Applied Geology, University of New
South Wales, in January, 1972. The Council records
its thanks to the organizers and lecturers for their
effort in making the Summer School a worthwhile
venture. A report of the Summer School will follow.

The Society’s financial statement shows a surplus of
$2,900.44.

The New England Branch of the Society held
meetings and activities which will be included in the
proceedings of the Branch, to follow.

A report of the proceedings of the South Coast Branch
will also follow.

The Section of Geology continued to hold regular
meetings, and the annual report is tabled.

The President represented the Society at the
celebrations of the Captain Cook Landing at Kurnell
and placed a wreath on the Banks Memorial; the
Annual Dinner of the Chamber of Manufactures of
New South Wales; the Annual Dinner of the Sydney
Division of The Institution of Engineers, Australia ;
Dinner and Pawsey Memorial Lecture arranged by the
Australian Institute of Physics; opening of forecourt
to Law Courts in Liverpool Street, Sydney ; and the
Annual Dinner of the New South Wales Division of the
Institution of Surveyors, Australia.

Three parts of the Journal and Proceedings were
published during the year: Volume 103, Parts 2
and 3-4. Volume 104, Part 1-2, is expected from the
printer in April, 1972. Council decided to publish
the Journal and Proceedings twice yearly, i.e. Farts 1-2
and 3-4, due to increase in postage costs and
change in Post Office regulations regarding ‘‘ Periodical
Registration ’’.

Council held 11 ordinary meetings, and attendances
were as follows: Mr. M. J. Puttock, 11; Mr. E. K.
Chaffer, 10; Dr. J. Pickett, 7; Mrs. M. Krysko v. Tryst,
10; Mr. W. H. G. Poggendorff, 10; Professor W. E.
Smith, 7; Professor R. J. W. Le Fevre, 10; Professor
W. B. Smith-White, 9; Mr. W. H. Robertson, 8;
Mr. J. C. Cameron, 8; Professor L. J. Lawrence, 6 ;
Mr. D. S. Bridges, 9; Mr. J. W. Humphries, 9; Dr.
P, Dp. tilley, 8; Dr. BoE Clancy, 3; Mr. J. P. Pollard,
o, Mrs. S. Sampson, 2; Dr. A. Reichel, mil; Pro-
fessor R. L. Stanton, nil; Professor A. Keane, nil.

The Library.—The number of items received and
processed in the Library was 2,791. These were
periodicals received by exchange from 394 societies
and institutions, donations, and by the purchase of
periodicals, on which $264.41 was expended.

44 REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1972

Among the institutions who made use of the Library
through the inter-library loan scheme were :

New South Wales State Government Departments :
Geological Survey of N.S.W.; Department of Agri-

culture; Electricity Commission; M.W.S. and D.
Board; Water Conservation and Irrigation Com-
mission; Department of Health; Department of
Conservation ; Department of the Attorney-General

and Justice ; Division of Wood Technology ; Depart-
ment of Mines ; Public Service Board ; State Planning
Authority.

. Other State Government Departments: Geological
Survey of Queensland; Department of Primary
Industry, Queensland; Department of Agriculture,
Western Australia; Department of Agriculture and

Stock, Territory of Papua and New Guinea.

Commonwealth Government Departments : Atomic
Energy Commission; Department of Customs and
Excise; C.S.I.R.O.; Mineral Chemistry; Animal
Physiology, Prospect ; Coal Research ; Textile Physics;
National Standards Laboratory; Animal Genetics,
North Ryde ; Food Research ; Canberra Laboratories ;
Tasmanian Regional Laboratory ; Wild Life Research,
Canberra.

Universities and Colleges : Sydney Technical College :
University of : Sydney, New South Wales, Macquarie,
Newcastle, New England, James Cook University of
North Queensland, Melbourne, Queensland, La Trobe,
Wollongong University College, Australian National
University, Monash, Tasmania, Papua and New Guinea,
Broken Hill University College, Wagga Wagga Teachers’
College, Wollongong Teachers’ College.

Companies: C.S.R. Research; C.S.R. Technical
Library; B.H.P., Shortland; B.H.P., Newcastle ;
Australian Anglo-American Ltd.; Peko-Wallsend ;
Australian Consolidated Industries; I.C.I.; Amal-
gamated Wireless Australasia Ltd.; British Tobacco
Co. (Aust.) Ltd. ; Electrolytic Zinc Co. of Australasia
Ltd., Hobart ; Eastern Copper Mines ; Roche Products
Pty. Ltd.; John Lysaght (Aust.) Ltd.; W. D. Scott
& Co. Pty. Ltd.; Planet Management and Research
Pty. Ltd.

Research Institutes ; Reserve Bank Research Library,
Sydney ; Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen

Osmond ; Queensland Institute of Technology,
Toowoomba; Australasian Food Research Laboratories,
Coorangong ; National Biological Standards
Laboratory; Australian Coal Industry Research

Laboratories, Sydney; Western Australian Institute
of Technology, Kalgoorlie ; Sugar Research Institute,
Mackay.

Museums : Australian Museum.

Miscellaneous : The Institution of Engineers; St.
Vincent’s Hospital ; Prince of Wales’ Hospital; Royal
Newcastle Hospital.

Borrowings for the year 1971-72: members, 62 ;
others, 445 ; requests for photocopies, 52; total, 559.

During the year a photocopier was purchased jointly
by the Society and the Linnean Society of New South
Wales. This has enabled the Library to fill requests
for material before 1900, and in circumstances where
it is impractical to despatch the periodical. The
total number of pages copied was 660, from 52 requests.

Mrs. G. Proctor, the Assistant Librarian, with her
wide knowledge and library experience, has continued
to keep the Library in excellent order and regularized
many library procedures.

Resumption of Science House.—The resumption of
Science House by the Sydney Cove Redevelopment
Authority was reported in the previous annual report. —
Your Council submitted a claim for compensation on —
the Authority, and to date this claim is still awaiting
consideration by the Authority. Council has, however,
applied for an advance on the compensation money,
and has been advised that this will be forthcoming
very shortly.

Science Centre Project—In September, 1971, the
President wrote to all members informing them of the
steps being taken by Council to provide for the future
of the Society, and particularly to provide a new home
for the Society. The Council, in conjunction with the
Council of the Linnean Society of New South Wales,
has formed a Planning Committee for a Science Centre.
This Centre will provide a suitable home for the two
Societies and at the same time provide appropriate
accommodation and facilities at low cost for other
similar societies and groups. This Planning Committee
has been very active, and with the aid of consultants
appointed by the two Societies—Messrs. Jones, Lang,
Wootton as property consultants and Messrs. Stephen,
Jaques & Stephen as legal advisers—a considerable
amount of investigation and preliminary planning
has been accomplished.

Your President, in conjunction with the Vice-
President of the Linnean Society, has had two inter-
views with the Minister for Cultural Activities in relation
to the proposed Science Centre, and has received
encouragement to go ahead with the project. The
secretary of the Planning Committee, in conjunction
with the consultants, has met with representatives
of the Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority, the
Treasury, and the Public Service Board to discuss the
possibility of Government involvement in the project.

It is hoped that during the coming year the financial
aspects of the project will be satisfactorily resolved
and that progress will be made in the detailed planning
of the Centre.

Act of Incorporation.—One outcome of the investi-
gations into the proposed Science Centre was that for
the Royal and Linnean Societies to operate the Centre
satisfactorily it will be necessary for the Societies
jointly to form a company for this purpose. To enable
the Society to do this, amendments to the Act of
Incorporation are required. The matter is currently
in the hands of the Parliamentary Draughtsman, and
the Minister for Cultural Activities has offered his
assistance in bringing forward an enabling Act.

Report of the South Coast Branch of the Royal Society of
| New South Wales

During 1971 the Illawarra Branch of the Royal
Society held only one meeting—on 22nd October,
1971. At that meeting, which was jointly sponsored
by the Branch and the Wollongong University College,
the lecturer was Professor L. C. Woods, Professor of
Mathematics (Plasma Physics) at Oxford University.
Professor Woods spoke on “ The Art of Physical and
Mathematical Modelling ’’ to an audience of approxi-
mately 100, which was followed by a luncheon at the
Y.M.C.A. The Annual General Meeting followed the
luncheon, and at the meeting Professor A. Keane was

elected Chairman, Dr. D. Thompson was elected
Secretary, and Dr. R. A. Facer as Representative on
Council.

The financial report of the Branch for 1971 is that at
the beginning of the year the Branch had $20.95 in
its account. After a payment of $25 to Professor
L. C. Woods and the receipt of $50 from the Society,
the account now stands at $49.95.

A. KEANE,
Chairman.

Honorary Treasurer’s Report

There was a surplus for the period of $2,900 as
against a surplus of $3,550, resulting in a total
decrease of $650, made up as follows:

ii $

Increase in General Interest = 482
Increase in Commission received .. 20

Increase in Subscriptions to Journal 409
Increase in Surplus from Summer
School eee 226
Reduction in Printing Costs 1,873
$3,010
Less
, $
Increase in Salary Cost 807
Reduction in Subscriptions
received ee 42
Reduction in Donations
received Lee” sie, Seo nae 400
Reduction in Sale of Reprints 473
Reduction in Sale of Back
Numbers RIP NOC omen! INT ie{s)
Increase in General Expenses 709
aa $3,660
Total Decline $650

As a result of the resumption of Science House
by the Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority, the
share of the original cost ($30,470) has been
excluded from the Balance Sheet. It is understood
that the compensation likely to be obtained will be
in excess of this figure.

In accordance with Council’s direction that
expenses towards establishment of the proposed
New Science Centre be debited against the advance
on Science House Compensation Funds, when
received, and not from accumulated funds, an
amount of $559 being expenditure to date is shown
in the Balance Sheet.

J. W. RIcKETT,
Honorary Treasurer.

46

327
60
99

4,669
2,651
1,524

810

63,362
8,898

$82,400

198

3,600
2,000
1,400
9,680
9,600

2,654
631
4,082

30,470
13,600

1,661
19

2
2,520

283

$82,400

Science House:

Sundry Creditors and Accruals
Subscriptions Paid in Advance
Life Members’ Subscriptions—Amount carried forward |
Trust Funds (detailed ee :

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 29th FEBRUARY, 1972
LIABILITIES

Clarke Memorial

Walter Burfitt Prize
Liversidge Bequest

Ollé Bequest

Accumulated Funds

Library Reserve Account

ASSETS

Cash at Bank and in Hand

Investments—

Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock—At Face
Value—held for:

Clarke Memorial Fund

Walter Burfitt Prize Fund

Liversidge Bequest

General Purposes ..

Library Fund

Deposits at Call—held for :
Trust Funds Reserve
Long Service Leave Fund
General Purposes ..

Science House—One-third Capital Cost

Library—At 1936 Valuation

Furniture and Office Equipment At “Cost, less De-
preciation ;

Pictures—At Cost, less Depreciation

Lantern—At Cost, less Depreciation

Centenary Volume :

Debtors for Subscriptions ..
Less Reserve for Bad Debts |

Sundry Debtors—Other
Science Centre Project

Stock
Reprints

4,165.33
2,717.49
1,606.63

852.26

3,600.00
2,000.00
1,400.00
9,680.00
9,600.00

2,341.71
672.58
5,256.51

2,380.75
38.70

654.60
654.60

Redevelopment Authority a claim for compensation has been submitted.

Science Centre Project :

9,341.71
35,769.45
8,898.49
$54,578.62

1,226.52

26,280.00

8,270.80
13,600.00
1,864.97

17.65
2.00

2,419.45

337.64
559.59

$54,578.62

Following the resumption of Science House by the Sydney Cove

The Society is currently planning a joint venture with the Linnean

Society for the establishment, in the Sydney Cove Redevelopment Area, of a Science Centre for
New South Wales.

TRUST FUNDS

Walter
Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Ollé
Memorial Prize Bequest Bequest
$ $ $ $
Capital at 29th February, 1972 .. 3,600.00 2,000.00 1,400.00 —-
Revenue :
Balance at 28th hese Se 1971 1,069.12 650.98 123.33 810.26
Income for Period 214.20 119.00 83.30 102.00
1,283.32 769.98 206.63 912.26
Less Expenditure 717.99 52.49 — 60.00
$565.33 $717.49 $206.63 $852.26
ACCUMULATED FUNDS
$ $
Balance at 28th February, 1971 63,361.59
Add:
Surplus for Period .. me 2,900.44
Reduction in Provision for Bad Debts .. 45.20
66,307.23
Less :
Subscriptions Written Off .. 3 67.35
Science House—One-third Capital Cost 30,470.43
—_—_—— 30,537.78
$35,769.45

Auditors’ Report

The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and
Vouchers of the Royal Society of New South Wales and is a correct statement of the position
of the Society’s affairs on 29th February, 1972, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied ourselves
that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and registered.

HORLEY & HORLEY,
Chartered Accountants,
Registered under the Public Accountants

65 York Street,
Registration Act 1945, as amended.

Sydney.
29th March, 1972.
J. W. PICKETT,
Hon. Treasurer.

M. J. PUTTOCK,
President.

47

48

3,519
204
4,124
6
3,105
127

12,947
3,550

$16,497

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT
Ist March, 1971, to 29th FEBRUARY, 1972

Membership Subscriptions
Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions
Government Subsidy
Science House Management—Share of Surplus
Interest on General Investments
Commission
Donations ,
Sale of Reprints 4
Subscriptions to Journal,
Sale of Back Numbers
Refunds :

Postages :

Xerox Copying

Summer School Surplus

Accountancy
Advertising
Annual Social
Audit ‘ae
Branches of the Society
Cleaning
Depreciation
Electricity
Entertaining
Insurance
Library Purchases
Miscellaneous 5
Postages and Telegrams
Printing :
Vol. 103, Parts 2, 3 and 4
Guide to Authors .. :
Binding
Postages

Printing—General and Stationery
Rent—Science House Management
Repairs ies 8 a
Salaries

Telephone

Surplus for Period

$
3,176.00
8.40
1,500.00
7,215.14
1,551.93
20.45
107.18
1,531.04
62.25

191.12
11.26
243.38

$15,618.15

1,645.64
474.19
4,150.00
28.39
4,001.54
135.65

12,717.71
2,900.44

$15,618.15

—_—.

Abstract of Proceedings

7th April, 1971

The one hundred and fourth Annual Meeting of the
Society was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Professor W. E. Smith, was in the
chair. There were present 36 members and visitors.

The awards of the Society were announced as
follows :

The Society’s Medal for 1970: Dr. J. A. Dulhunty.

The Clarke Medal for 1971: Dr. Nancy T.
Burbidge.

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1970: Dr. D. A.
Buckingham.

Archibald D. Ollé Prize, 1970: Dr. B. B. Guy.
The Annual Report of the Council and the Financial
Statement for the year ended 28th February, 1971, were
presented and adopted.
Messrs. Horley & Horley were re-elected Auditors
of the Society for 1971-1972.
Office-bearers for 1971-1972 were elected as follows :

President: M. J. Puttock, B.Sc.(Eng.), A.Inst.P.

Wice-Presidents: W. E.. Smith, Ph.D.; J. L.
Pollard, M.Sc., Dip.App.Chem.; W. H.
Robertson, B.Sc.; R. J. W. Le Fevre, D.Sc.,
FR S.A Acs; J. C. Cameron, M.A., B.Sc.
(Edin.), D.I.C.

Hom. Secretaries: FE. K. Chaffer (General) ;
M. Krysko v.Tryst (Mrs.), B.Sc.Grad.Dip.
(Editorial).

Hon. Treasurer: J. W. Pickett, M.Sc. (N.E.),
Dr.phil.nat. (Frankfurt/M.).
Hon. Librarian : W. 'H. G.,
B.Sc. Agr.
Members of Council: B. E. Clancy, M.Sc.; A.
Reichel, Ph.D., M.Sc. ; J. W. Humphries, B.Sc. ;
W. B. Smith-White, M.A.; S. S. Sampson ;
Eos tilley, -3.A., Ph.D. > 9D. S. Bridges; L. J.
Lawrence, D.Sc., Ph.D.; R. L. Stanton, Ph.D. ;
A. Keane, Ph.D.
The retiring President then welcomed Mr. M. J.
Puttock to the Presidential Chair.
The address of the retiring President, Professor W. E.
Smith, entitled ‘‘ Radiation Pressure and Related
Forces ’’, was delivered.

Poggendorff,

5th May, 1971

The eight hundred and fifty-first General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock, was in the chair.
There were present 22 members and visitors.

The following were elected members of the Society :
Philip “W. Thompson, Alfred J. van der Poorten,
Geoffrey Isaacs, James P. Lucas, Frederick W. Brown,
Joseph Moldovan (associate member).

An address entitled ‘“‘ The Forces Between Biological
Cells’? was delivered by Professor B. W. Ninham,
Department of Mathematics, Research School of
Physical Sciences at the Australian National University,
Canberra.

During the course of the meeting Mr. T. E. Kitamura
asked if the Council would keep all members informed
of the position regarding the compensation for Science
House and also the progress in negotiations for the
re-housing of the Society.

The President, in reply, stated that an approach
was being made to the Government for the provision
of a site within the Rocks Area of Sydney upon which
it was proposed that a new Science Centre be erected.

The present proposition was that such a centre
would provide ample space for letting to other societies
and organizations at preferential rates and also for
additional space to be let at normal commercial rates.
It was envisaged that such a centre would provide
services such as accounting, secretarial, editorial and
library facilities, etc. Further information would be
conveyed to members as developments occurred.

The cost of the proposed new Centre was too great
for any one society to finance independently, therefore
the Royal Society of New South Wales and the Linnean
Society of New South Wales were obtaining legal
advice on a partnership. It was proposed that the
compensation money from the resumption of the
present Science House be re-invested in the construction
of a new Science Centre, and that any additional finance
required for the project be raised by borrowing.

Mr. Kitamura, expressing his own opinion, felt that
the Royal Society of New South Wales and the Linnean
Society of New South Wales should have exclusive
ownership of the new centre, and that it would be
preferable to operate it in this manner rather than to
form a piecemeal ownership among many organizations.

2nd June, 1971

The eight hundred and fifty-second General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock, was in the chair.
There were present 70 members and visitors.

The following application for membership was read
for the first time: Russell John Korsch.

An address entitled “‘ Extinction and Man” was
delivered by Mr. Ronald Strahan, Director of the
Taronga Park Zoological Trust.

7th July, 1971

The eight hundred and fifty-third General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock, was in the chair.
There were present 43 members and visitors.

Russell John Korsch was elected a member of the
Society.

The sesqui-centenary address to commemorate the
forming of the Philosophical Society of Australasia
in 1821, the forerunner of the Royal Society of New
South Wales, was delivered by Dr. David Branagan
of the Department of Geology and Geophysics at the
University of Sydney, entitled ‘‘ Words, Actions,
People: 150 Years of the Scientific Societies ’’.

50 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

An exhibition of archival material was held in the
Society’s rooms.

In reply to a question asked by Mr. T. E. Kitamura
on the progress of the proposed new Science Centre,
the President stated that a letter had been forwarded
to the Deputy Premier and Minister for Education
and Science, Mr. C. B. Cutler, outlining the proposal
for the Science Centre. This was to be a joint venture
between the Royal Society of New South Wales and the
Linnean Society of New South Wales. At the present
time we were awaiting the pleasure of a reply from
the Government, which was anticipated in the near
future.

The two Societies had also set up a Planning
Committee, which had sought expert advice in the
establishment of the proposed scheme. Members
would be informed as further developments occurred.

4th August, 1971

The eight hundred and fifty-fourth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock, was in the chair.
There were present 33 members and visitors.

The death was announced with regret of Dr. Thomas
Iredale, an honorary member of the Society and member
since 1943.

The following papers were read by title only :

“ Relativistic Motion in Two Spacelike Dimensions ”’,
by N. W. Taylor and L. McL. Marsh.

“ Potassium-Argon Ages for Leucite-bearing Rocks
for N:S.W., Austraha”, by BP. Wellman,. “A.
Cundari and I. McDougall.

“ Occultations Observed at Sydney
during 1970 ’’, by K. P. Sims.

“The Nature of Time and Its Measurement.’’, by
>. J. Prokhovnik.

“On the Metric of an Astronomical Object in the
Lyttleton-Bondi Theory ’’, by R. R. Burman.

“Light Tracks Near a Dense Charged Star’’, by
R. R. Burman.

An address entitled ‘“‘ Current Redevelopments
Around the World ’”’ was delivered by Colonel D. O.
Magee, Deputy Chairman, Sydney Cove Redevelopment
Authority.

Observatory

Ist September, 1971

The eight hundred and fifty-fifth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock, was in the chair.
There were present 43 members and visitors.

The following applicant was elected a member:
William Francis Budd.

The following paper was read by title only :

““Magnetic Properties of Rocks from the Giles
Complex, Central Australia’’, by R. A. Facer.

An address entitled “The Value of Communicating
Science to the General Public ’’ was delivered by Dr, |
P. Pockley, Head of Science Programmes for the
Australian Broadcasting Commission.

6th October, 1971

The eight hundred and fifty-sixth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock, was in the chair.
There were present 22 members and visitors.

The following paper was read by title only :

“ Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney —
Observatory during 1969 and 1970’, by W. H. |
Robertson. |

An address entitled ‘“‘ Australian Cretaceous in a

Broader Context ’’ was delivered by Dr. Viera Scheibner
of Mining Museum, Geological Survey of N.S.W.

3rd November, 1971

The eight hundred and fifty-seventh General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock, was in the chair.
There were present 50 members and visitors.

The death was announced with regret of Rupert
Boswood Scammell, life member and member since
1920.

The following were elected members of the Society :
Cynthia G. Young, Patrick Arthur Price and Ronald
Robert Staer.

Paper (read by title only): ‘* Potassium-Argon
Dating of Basalts and Their Significance in the Mudgee-
Gulgong-Ilford Region ’’, by J. A. Dulhunty.

An address entitled ‘‘ Potential and Problems of
Spacecraft Resource Evaluation: Remote Sensing in
the Seventies’’ was delivered by Professor D. S.
Simonett, Department of Geography at the University
of Sydney.

Ist December, 1971

The eight hundred and fifty-eighth General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock, was in the chair.
There were present 40 members and visitors.

The following new member was elected:
Aquinas Lambert.

Papers (read by title only) :

“ Longitudinal Free Oscillations of Jervis Bay,
New South Wales ’”’, by D. J. Clarke.

‘“The Phytochemical History of Torbanites’’, by
R. F. Cane and P. R. Albion.

An address entitled “‘ Developments in Nuclear
Power and Their Relation to Australia ’’ was delivered
by Sir J. Philip Baxter, Chairman, Australian Atomic
Energy Commission.

Thomas

Abstract of Proceedings, 1971

_ Five meetings were held during this year, the average
attendance being about 17 members and visitors.

MARCH 19th (Annual Meeting) :

(1) Election of office-bearers: Chairman, Dr. B. B.
Guy ; Hon. Secretary, E. V. Lassak.

(2) Address by Dr. B. McMahon,
Engineering Geology ?”’.

Engineering geology is a border subject and requires
competence in both geology and engineering, supple-
mented by bona fide’ construction experience.
Examples of the application of engineering geology
in both civil and mining engineering projects were
given.

“What is

MAY 21st:

(1) Address by Mr. G. Z. Foldvary, “‘ Geology of the
Bogan Gate-Trundle District ’’.

The sequence of Upper Silurian to Lower Mid-
Devonian strata near the centre of New South Wales,
previously known as the “ Trundle Beds’’, is now
called the Trundle Group. It has been subdivided into
three main units: the Edols Sandstone (most probably
of late Silurian age), the Yarrabandai Formation
(almost entirely Lower Devonian), and the Botfield
Formation.

The rocks of the Trundle Group are very rich in
fossils. Amongst these three new species have been
identified and described.

(2) Address by Dr. E. R. Phillips, ““ Myrmekite
from Broken Hill’’.

Myrmekite is believed to be essentially an exsolution
phenomena and it is formed by the release of oligoclase
from alkali felspar to rim positions on adjacent plagio-
clase grains or to intergranular positions between two
adjacent alkali felspar crystals. Concomitant with the
exsolution of the plagioclase quartz 1s formed and its
amount is usually governed by the initial calcium
content of the alkali felspar, giving proportionality
relationships between the basicity of the plagioclase
and the volume of intergrown quartz vermicules.
Work on retrograde gneisses from Broken Hill has
‘suggested, however, that destruction of potash felspar
may lead to the development of muscovite and quartz,
which may supplement the amount derived by

exsolutior. Thus an association of myrmekite with
muscovite may indicate the development of a
myrmekite somewhat different from “primary ”’

myrmekite seen in many igneous rocks.

Section of Geology

JULY 16th:

(1) Address by
Cainozoic Drift ’’.

Stratigraphic evidence indicates a late Eocene
inception of Australia’s southern and eastern continental
margins in conformity with continental motion inferred
from sea floor and continental magnetic data. The
dilation of the southern ocean and Tasman Sea are
viewed as a simple consequence of Australia’s cainozoic
drift.

(2) Address by Mr. A. Hossein,
Bacteria in Beach Sand ”’.

Grains of pyritized bacteria (size 105-74 microns)
from East Pakistan provide an example of metal
sulphide transformation in the beach or coastal
environment. The marshy and waterlogged regions
in the back-dune area, containing enough entrapped
sea-water rich in sulphides, are ideal places for the
precipitation or transformation of metal sulphides by
sulphate reducing bacteria such as Desulphurovibris
desulphuricans.

Dr. J. G. Jones, “ Australia’s

‘“ Mineralized

SEPTEMBER i7th:

Address by Dr. A. Ritchie, “‘ Devonian Fossil
Fishing in Australia and Antarctica ”’.

Research into Devonian fish faunas was initially
based on Northern Hemisphere discoveries. Rather
belatedly, Australian and Antarctic Devonian sediments
are vielding rich fish faunas with many new and
interesting taxa. The speaker described his own
research work into Devonian fish from western N.S.W.
and gave some details of the beautifully preserved
material now available from the Kimberley Devonian
reef complexes. The latter part of the talk concerned
an expedition to southern Victoria Land, Antarctica,
between November, 1970, and January, 1971, to
prospect known and suspected Upper Devonian fish
sites—with considerable success.

NOVEMBER 19th:

Address by Professor L. V.
Tectonics and Continental Drift ”’.

The speaker reviewed present knowledge of plate
tectonics.

The earth’s crust is divided into a number of rigid
plates, tae boundaries of which can be inferred from
seismic activity data. Continents are embedded in
these plates and move on them.

The differences between plate tectonic theory and
classical continental drift were outlined.

Hawkins, “ Plate

Citations

The Society’s Medal for 1971

The Society’s Medal is awarded to a member of the
Society for “‘ meritorious contributions to the advance-
ment of science. This may include administration
and organization of scientific endeavour; and for
services to the Society.’’ Considered annually. First
awarded 1884.

The award for 1971 is made to Associate Professor
J. L. Griffith of the School of Mathematics, University
of New South Wales.

James Langford Griffith became a member of the
Royal Society of New South Wales in 1952. He
joined the Council of the Society in 1954, and except
for his year on sabbatical leave has remained on it
continuously until 1968. During this time he was

President in 1958 and has also served three terms as
Honorary Secretary, covering a period of eight years.
Throughout his membership, he has rendered most
valuable and distinguished service to the Society in
helping to direct and conduct its business and in
helping to carry out its aims and exert its influence
on the scientific community in this State.

Professor Griffith has contributed numerous papers
on his subject to the Society’s Journal and Proceedings.
His mathematical interests have been in the direction
of integral transforms and certain branches of functional
analysis. His paper on the Gibbs phenomenon in
n-dimensional Fourier transforms, published in Vol. 97
(1963/64) shared the Ollé Prize of the Society.

The Clarke Medal for 1971

The Clarke Medal is awarded for distinguished work
in the Natural Sciences done in, or on, the Australian
Commonwealth and its territories.

Nancy Tyson Burbidge has made distinguished
contributions to the fields of Australian taxonomic
botany and ecology. She graduated from the University
of Western Australia, and her early researches were
concerned with the ecology, taxonomy, morphology
and anatomy of plants of that State. About 1947 she
was appointed a Research Officer in C.S.I.R.O., working
in the herbarium of the Division of Plant Industry at
Canberra. She rose in the reconstituted C.S.I.R.O.
to the position of Senior Principal Research Scientist
in charge of the herbarium.

Her published taxonomic studies have made notable
contributions to knowledge of a number of plant
families. A very significant paper dealt with the
phytogeography of the Australian region. To facilitate
identification of grasses by field workers and land-
holders, she has published three volumes with copious
illustrations on grasses respectively of the Southern
Tablelands, Northern Tablelands and Coast districts
of New South Wales. She is joint author ot the
excellent Flova of the Australian Capital Territory.

Apart from her own numerous research studies, Dr.
Burbidge has performed outstanding and unselfish
service to all Australian taxonomists in laboriously
assembling and making readily availabie in printed or
duplicated form information which would otherwise
be difficult and time-consuming to obtain. While
Australian Liaison Officer at the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, she secured photographs of the Lindley collection
at Cambridge, listed type specimens of Australian
plants in the Kew herbarium, and arranged for the
microfilming of the unpublished manuscript descriptions
of Australian plants by Robert Brown (who collected
in Australia during 1802-1805 and made the first
major contribution to the botany of the Australian
mainland) as well as producing a monumental index to
the 22 reels of film. She has published accounts of
the plants of Cook’s second voyage, the collecting
localities of Robert Browr, and G. F. Hills’ collecting
localities on the Barclay Expedition to the Northern
Territory. In 1963 she published a Dictionary of
Australian Plant Genera.

To her taxonomic colleagues in Australia, Dr.
Burbidge has always been helpful and generous in
assistance with their problems, and she has proved a
devoted worker in her chosen field.

Edgeworth David Medal for 1971

The Society awards the Edgeworth David Medal
annually to scholars under the age of 35 years for
distinguished work contributing to the advancement
of Australian science done mainly in Australia or its
territories.

The award for 1971 is made to Dr. William Francis
Budd, of the Antarctic Division, Commonwealth

Department of Supply, in Melbourne, in recognition of
his ov tstanding contributions to the field of glaciology.

Dr. Budd was born on 16th October, 1938, at Mt.
Hope, New South Wales. He graduated B.Sc. in
mathematics at Sydney University in 1959, M.Sc.
in 1966 and Ph.D. in 1968 in glaciology at the University
of Melbourne. Since joining the Australian National

CITATIONS 53

Antarctic Research Expeditions as_ glaciologist to
Wilkes Station in 1961 and to Mawson Station in 1964,
Dr. Budd has assumed increasing responsibility for the
Australian glaciological research programme in
Antarctica. He is now Senior Glaciologist of the
Antarctic Division. Dr. Budd represents Australia
on the Co-ordinating Council of the International
Antarctic Glaciological Project (IAGP). In 1971
he was a Visiting Professor of the University of
Washington at Seattle, and was elected a member of
our Society.

Using his own field observations, together with those
of his Antarctic colleagues, Dr. Budd has greatly
improved our knowledge of the Wilkes Ice Cap and the
Amery Ice Shelf regions of eastern Antarctica. He
also shared in the pioneer survey of snow drifting at

Byrd Station on the western side of the continent.
Such work will be a notable part of the Atlas of the
derived physical characteristics of Antarctica on which
Dr. Budd is now actively engaged. At the same time
his studies of snow and ice accumulation, movement
and ablation in these areas has contributed to the
knowledge of ice-mass dynamics in general, especially
of the longitudinal velocity profiles formed when ice
bodies move over irregular bedrock surfaces. His
paper on the drifting of non-uniform snow particles
remains as noteworthy today as it was when first
published six years ago. In his singular ability to
combine painstaking field work with fruitful theoretical,
often mathematical, interpretation, Dr. Budd may
justly be considered a worthy successor to Edgeworth
David in Antarctic research.

Walter Burfitt Prize for 1971

The Walter Burfitt Prize is awarded at intervals of
three years to the worker in pure or applied science,
resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose papers
and other novel and original contributions published
during the previous six years are deemed to have been
of the highest scientific merit.

The award for 1971 is made to Max Rudolph Lemberg,
.Phil., F.R.S., F.A.A.

Max Rvdolph Lemberg, Head of Biochemical
Research since 1935, and Assistant Director of Medical
Research since 1953 at the Royal North Shore Hospital,
more than fulfils the requirements for this prize.

He is internationally known for his researches and
writings on bile pigments, porphyrin derivatives,
Tespiratory enzymes, phycobilins of photo-synthetic
algae, etc.

He joined this Society in 1936 and is now a life
member. He has served on the Council, and was
President in 1955. He delivered the Liversidge
Research Lecture in 1954 and was awarded the Society’s
James Cook Medal for 1964.

Curriculum Vitae.—Dr. Lemberg was born in Breslau
on 19th October, 1896, and became a Ph.D. of his
home university in 1921, an occasion which marked
the beginning of a most distinguished scientific career.
He was: 1929-33, Privatdozent at Heidelberg Uni-
versity ; 1930-32, Rockefeller Foundation Fellow at
the Biochemistry Institute, Cambridge, U.K., and
from 1935 has been at the Royal North Shore Hospital,
Sydney. During 1966 he was a Visiting Professor at
the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Recog-
nition of his work has resulted in the following honours :
the Coronation Medal and election to the Royal Society
Fellowship in 1952; the H. G. Smith Medal of the
Royal Australian Chemical Institute in 1949 ; Founda-
tion Fellowship of the Australian Academy of Science
in 1954; Professor Emeritus of the University of
Heidelberg in 1956; the James Cook Medallist of the

Royal Society of N.S.W. for 1964 ; and he was awarded
the Australian Britannica Award for Science in 1965.
He is an honorary member of many famous scientific
societies througnout the world, has been an invited
participant at Gordon Research Conferences in 1966
and in 1968, and has been President and Guest of
Honour at many International Symposia.

Publications.—Dr. Lemberg is the author, or part-
author, of three books: Haematin Compounds and Bile

Pigments, Interscience, 1949; Haematin Enzymes,
Editor (with J. Falk and R. K. Morton), I.U.B.
Symposium, Pergamon Press, 1961; Cytochromes

(with J. Barrett), Academic Press, London (with the
printers). He has published many Reviews and over
120 original Research Papers.

General.—Following his earlier studies of the
haematin compounds, during the last 15 years Dr.
Lemberg’s interests have widened from investigations
on the prosthetic group to a study of the cytochrome
as a whole. He prepared compounds resembling the
natural haemoproteins a and demonstrated the
importance of lipids in the natural cytochrome complex,
and, more recently, through his work on _ native
cytochrome oxidase, has greatly contributed to the
clarification of the nature and mode of action of the
cytochrome enzyme.

The contributions which he and his research team
at the Royal North Shore Hospital have contributed
to this branch of biochemistry have established him
as one of the world’s greatest biochemists, added
considerably to the international status of Australian
science, and attracted distinguished overseas workers to
his research laboratories.

Any citation of Dr. Lemberg’s work would be
incomplete without reference to his deep interest in
the relationship between religion and science and the
influence his own religious beliefs have had on his
scientific life.

Obituaries

Dr. Thomas Iredale

Dr. Thomas Iredale, honorary member of the Royal
Society of New South Wales and member since 1943,
died at his home in Sydney on 28th July, at the age of
75. After 35 years’ distinguished service in the
Department of Physical Chemistry, University of
Sydney, he enjoyed a quiet retirement for some 10
years, punctuated by occasional forays into his old
haunts to renew friendships with former research
associates.

Born on 1]th June, 1897, he was educated at Sydney
Grammar School and the University of Sydney. He
was awarded the Caird Scholarship in 1918 and a
N.S.W. Government science research scholarship in
1920. In 1921 an 1851 scholarship took him to the
University of London, from which he subsequently
graduated D.Sc. After a brief period as a lecturer at
the University of Durham (1925-1927) he returned to
his alma mater, where he rose from Lecturer to Senior
Lecturer (in 1944) and finally to Reader (in 1947).

Tom’s contribution to the undergraduate teaching
of the department depended not so much on his

lecturing skills, which he made little attempt to
develop, but on his continuing concern for and involve-
ment in the personal problems of his students. His
dignified, almost military, bearing would generate an
awe-struck silence in all but the most ebullient under-
graduates, bvt a disarming question from Tom
(delivered as part of the continuous sociological survey
he conducted throughout his career) would quickly
establish rapport.

He retained a lively interest in new research
developments right through his career, venturing into
the burgeoning area of nuclear spectrometry only five
years before his retirement. This continuing vitality
was reflected in his decision to accept a visiting
professorship in the West Indies in the early ’60s,
and to announce on his return that the pace of life
was too slow there for his liking.

Thomas Iredale served his university and the inter=
national scientific community in a variety of ways with
considerable distinction, and his departure leaves his
former colleagues with a deep sense of personal loss.

Sir Ronald Nyholm

The death of Sir Ronald Nyholm in a road accident
near Cambridge on 4th December, 197], cut short, at
its height, a distinguished career.

Ronald Sidney Nyholm was born in Broken Hill
on 29th January, 1917. At the age of 17 he left that
city to take up an Exhibition at Sydney University,
where, four years later, he graduated with First-class
Honours in Chemistry.

It was in his honours year that, as a result of the
influence of the late G. J. Burrows, he became interested
in the co-ordination chemistry of arsenic, a subject
that was to become a constantly-recurring theme in
many of his later researches.

After graduation, he spent a brief period in industry,
but it was not long before he decided that his future
did not lie in that direction and joined the staff of the
Sydney Technical College. Here, in collaboration
with his close friend the late Frank Dwyer, he began a
long series of researches on the arsine complexes of
some of the platinum metals.

He became a member of the Society in 1940, and
much of this work is described in the 24 papers he
contributed to the Journal and Proceedings.

In 1947 he took up an Imperial Chemical Industry
Fellowship at University College, London, where some
of his most outstanding work, for which he was awarded
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and later the D.Sc.,
concerned among other subjects the metal complexes of
di-tertiary arsines.

After a short period as lecturer in chemistry at
University College, he accepted the position of Associate
Professor at the University of Technology (now the
University of New South Wales). There he laid the
foundations of a vigorous and active Department of
Inorganic Chemistry and left behind him a lasting
reputation for being able to acquire, by means of his
great drive, persistence and persuasive powers,
unusually ample funds for the support of chemical
endeavours.

He served on the Society’s Council from 1944 to 1954,
holding the office of President during the last year of
this period.

In 1955 he returned to University College, London,
as Professor of Chemistry. Eight years later he became
Head of its Department of Chemistry, a position he
held at the time of his death.

In the years immediately following the Second World
War, inorganic chemistry underwent a period of
unusually rapid development in which new physical
techniques and theories were applied with increasing
success to this branch of chemistry. It was to these
developments that Nyholm made his most important
contributions. His studies of the synthesis, properties
and structure of tertiary arsine, phosphine, perfluoro
and carbonyl complexes of the transition metals did
much to increase our understanding of the oxidation
states, co-ordination numbers, and stereochemistries
of these elements. In the course of these investigations,

OBITUARIES 55

he applied the techniques of magnetochemistry to great
advantage, especially in unravelling the nature of the
| metal-ligand bond. It was to the subject of magneto-
chemistry that he devoted his Presidential Address.
| His interest in the Society did not lapse with his
_ departure to the United Kingdom. He kept in constant
| touch with it on many matters, and was especially
interested in the subject of the resumption of Science
| House and the future home of the Society.

He received many awards: the Corday Morgan
| Medal and Prize (1952), the H. G. Smith Memorial
Medal of the Royal Australian Chemical Institute
(1955). and the Medal of the Royal Society of New

South Wales.

He became a Fellow of the Royal Society (1958),
the Tilden Lecturer (1961), Vice-President of the
Chemical Society (1966), the Dalton Lecturer (1966),
President of the Chemical Section of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science (1966),
the Liversidge Lecturer (1967), Dwyer Lecturer
(1968), Presidert of the Chemical Society (1968),
and President of the Twelfth International Conference
on Co-ordination Chemistry, Sydney (1968).

In 1967 he was knighted for his distinguished services
to science and was elected an honorary member of the
Royal Society of New South Wales in August, 1969.

In recognition of his outstanding contributions to
chemistry, the University of New South Wales conferred
on him the honorary degree of Doctor of Science, the
third such degree he had received, the two previous
ones having been conferred by the City University
(London) and the University o1 East Anglia.

An unusual distinction conferred on him, but one
which pleased him greatly, was his election in 1959 as a
corresponding member of the Finnish Chemical Society.
His paternal grandfather, Erik Nyholm (1850-1887),
a coppersmith, was born in Nykaleby, Finland. Hehad
migrated to Adelaide in 1873.

Ron Nyholm was a man of boundless energy and
great political skill, as those who served with him on the
Council will recall. His interests ranged widely.
He was, for instance, Chairman of the Chemistry Grants
Committee of the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, a member of the Science Research
Council, and a Trustee oi the British Museum.

Throughout his career, he took an active interest in
chemical education not only in the university but also
in the secondary school. He was a member of a small
group in the University of New South Wales that
began to co-operate with secondary school science
teachers during the early fifties. He continued to
develop these interests in the United Kingdom. He
was President of the Science Education Association,
Vice-Chairman of the Nuffield Foundation Committee
on the 0-level chemistry programme, and one of the
founders of the Royal Institute of Chemistry’s journal
Education in Chemistry.

Nyholm was a man of great personal warmth and
friendliness, infectious enthusiasm, good humour
and tolerance—dqualities that endeared him to his
many friends in many parts of the world. His untimely
death is a source of great sadness to them. Their
sympathy is extended to his wife Maureen and three
children, Peter, Elizabeth and Rosemary.

Rupert Boswood Scammell

Rupert Boswood Scammell was born in Adelaide
on 28th December, 1896. He came to Sydney at the
age of 11 years and lived in Sydney for substantially
the rest of his life. He completed his schooling at
Sydney Church of England Grammar School (“‘ Shore ’’)
and later studied at Sydney University, from which
he graduated as a Bachelor of Science. Upon leaving
University he joined F. H. Faulding & Co. Limited,
and his early experience with that company was in the
laboratories in Sydney and Adelaide. He later became
Managing Director of the company and held that
position until he retired in 1952.

He became a member of the Royal Society in 1920
and was a life member of the Society at the time of his
death. From 1937 to 1939 he was the New South
Wales Branch President of the Royal Australian
Chemical Institute, and during his presidency the
Institute held its first exhibition. For many years,
and up to his death, he was a Trustee of the New
South Wales Division of the Liberal Party of Australia.
He served as President of the New South Wales Club
and as a member of the Council of the Royal Common-
wealth Society at various times. He was also for some
years a member of the New South Wales Government’s
Poisons Advisory Committee. In 1935 he joined the
Council of the Standards Association of Australia.

He was a member of the Association’s Mark Committee
for many years, and its Chairman from 1966 to 1968.
When he died, he was a member of the Executive
Committee of the Association and one of the Trustees
of the Association’s staff superannuation funds.

For many years Scammell was closely associated with
Dr. Barnardo’s Homes in Australia, first as Chairman
of Attorneys in Australia and later as Honorary
Treasurer of the Australian Committee, which he was
instrumental in establshing at the request of Jr.
Barnardo’s Homes in London. It was very largely his
work which put Dr. Barnardo’s Homes in Australia
on a firm financial footing. In recognition of his many
services to the community he was awarded the O.B.E.
in the 1971 Queen’s Birthday Honours List.

As a man, he was modest, kind and generous and
devoted to his family. He had many hobbies, particu-
larly gardening, photography and painting. Shortly
before his death he completed a manuscript for a
comprehensive book on gardening, accompanied by
his own illustrations. In everything he did he was
thorough, and earned the respect of his colleagues in
all spheres for his wisdom and commonsense. In 1930
he married Dagmar, and in 1936 had a son, Peter.
Both survived him. He died suddenly on 24th October,
LOW:

56 OBITUARIES

Dr. Francis Lions

Dr. Francis Lions, a life member of the Royal
Society of New South Wales since 1929, passed away
suddenly at his home in March, 1972, at the age of
70 years.

Dr. Lions, a former pupil of Sydney Boys’ High
School, graduated in 1923 as Bachelor of Science with
First-class Honours and the University Medal from the
University of Sydney. He obtained the Doctor of
Philosophy at Manchester University and subsequently
undertook post-doctoral research work at Brasenose
College, Oxford. He was appointed lecturer and
demonstrator in the Department of Chemistry, Uni-
versity of Sydney, in 1926. His distinguished academic
career included a Senior Lectureship (1944) and a

Readership (1946) at the same university. During
the years 1930 and 1937 Dr. Lions served as Acting
Professor of Organic Chemistry. In 1947 he became
a Research Fellow at the University of Illinois, and in
1964 he obtained a similar position at Manchester
University. From 1949 to 1959 Dr. Lions was a Fellow
of the Senate, and he retired in 1966 from the University
of Sydney after having served 40 years as a member of
the teaching staff.

Dr. Lions actively supported the Royal Society of
New South Wales, publishing 56 papers in the Journal,
and was awarded the Society’s Medal in 1965. He
served the Council loyally for many years, presiding
over the Society during 1946.

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Contents

Astronomy : .
On the Motion of Particles in Conformally Flat Space-Times. R. R. Burman

Astronomical li Embedded in Matter. I. External Metrics. R. R.
Burman as : oss

Astronomical Objects Embedded in Matter. II. Light Tracks. *Ae
Burman .. oe ;

Occultations Observed at eis oneal re 1971. K. Po Seas

Geology :

A Gabbro-Troctolite-Anorthosite Intrusion at Dirnaseer. near Temora. New
South Wales. P. M. Ashley and A. J. Irving

Ripple-Drift Cross-Lamination in the ee Sandstone, New South
Wales. C. R. Ward . Ss

Palaeontology :

Late Devonian (Frasnian) Conodonts from Ettrema, New South Wales.
oes “Picker

Communication to Editor :
A Study of Root Concretions at Kurnell, N.S.W. G. S. Gibbons and Ts ibs

Gordon
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pum oe

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 57-60, 1972

A Method for the Exact Orientation of the Plane Table

A. D. ALBANI

Introduction
The method for the exact orientation of
the plane table may have numerous applications,
although in modern practice the Plane Table

is advantageously replaced by other instruments.

The graphic determination of the station
point by means of three known points and,

consequently, the correct orientation of the
Plane Table, is known as the Snellius Problem
-or the Three-point Problem.

Many methods have been presented to solve
this case, which is indeterminate only if the

three known selected points and the station
point lie on the same circumference (the great
circle). Therefore, the known points are gene-
rally selected so that the station point, which is
to be determined, lies either inside or outside
the triangle formed by the three known points
(the great triangle).

Among the many methods normally described
in surveying textbooks, the “ Tracing Paper
Method” and the “ Similar Triangle Method ”’
lack accuracy and the “ Intersecting Circle
Method ’’, as well as the “ Bessel’s (Italian)

ww
Nn

ee ee A ee
N
:

4
7 —r
a
oft

Fic. 1.

58 DS DAN

Fic. 2.

Method ’’, although accurate, require construc-
tions which sometimes may fall off the sheet.

The method here described is accurate and,
at the same time, its construction falls always
within the sheet ; it has been derived from the
graphic solution of the intersecting circles here
briefly reconsidered.

The Graphic Solution
The graphic solution of the intersecting
circles has been shown and analytically studied
by Albani (1942, 1948) and later simplified and
applied in aerial phogrammetry (Albani, 1964).

The three known ground points A, B, C and
the unknown station point S are represented
on the plane table by the points a, b, c and s
(Fig. 1 (1)). The station point s forms the
angle « with the known points a and 5, and
the angle 8 with the known points 0 and c.

By disorienting the plane table of the amount
+ with respect to the line of sight 0B (Fig. 1 (2))
the triangle of error a, b,, c, is obtained; the
table is then disoriented of the amount 6 in
the opposite direction with respect to 0B
(Fig. 1 (3)) and a second triangle of error a2, Dg, C2
is similarly obtained.

A METHOD FOR EXACT ORIENTATION OF PLANE TABLE 59

Fie.

At this stage on the plane table both triangles
of error are present (Fig. 1 (4)) and the angles
In a,, 6, and c, as well as those in ay, b, and c,
could be considered to be equal to those in s
because the small excentricity which exists
between the vertices of the triangles of error
and the station point s is neutralized by the
graphic method itself.

It is possible, therefore, to draw three circles
(Fig. 2) each subtending the angles :

a-+( subtended between c and a, at b, and b,
(circle: 1);
8 subtended between b and c, at a, and a,
(circle 2), and
a subtended between a and }, at c, and c,
(circle: 3).
The station point s is determined by the
intersection of the three circles.

The operational method, object of this study,
is based on the following considerations.

(1) The line joining s and b meets the circle 1
in the auxiliary point s, and, because angles
at the circle subtended by the same chords, the
following relationships exist :

(circle 1) sS,b,=sab,=¥
and s$,by —scb, 5
(circle 2) sCay=Sba,=y
and sta, =sba,=3 ;
(circle 3) saCy—=sbCo="/
A

sac,=she, =S.
In particular SS,b9=Sbes=y and
sb, =sba,=8 ;
consequently s,b, is parallel to bc, and s,b, is
parallel to ba,.

It is possible, therefore, to determine the
auxiliary point s, by the intersection of the lines
parallel to c,a,b and a,c,b conducted from 0,
and 0b, respectively.

60

(2) Similar construction can be applied to the
other auxiliary points s, and s,, obtained joining
s with a and c.

The point s, is determined, at the same time,
by the intersection of the lines drawn from the
point a, and parallel to ac, and from the point
a, and parallel to ab,; similarly, the auxiliary
point s, by the intersection of the lines drawn
from c, and c, and parallel to bc, and cb,
respectively.

It is important to note that such auxiliary
points are obtained with an angle of intersection
equal to that imposed by the operator in dis-
orienting the plane table y+.

The Operational Method

A, B and C are three known ground points,
their plotted position on the table being a, 0
and c. Object of the exercise is to determine
graphically and accurately the position of the
station point s.

The method can be described, simply, as a
step-by-step operation (Fig. 3).

1. Having placed the instrument on station
at S, the table is disoriented with respect
to DB and the line of sight DB is drawn
(Pig. 34),

. The point A is sighted with the pin in a,
obtaining c, at the intersection with dB.
3. ad is similarly obtained sighting at C

with the pin in c.

4. Through the points a, and cy, two lines
are now drawn parallel to ac, and ca,
respectively.

It is along these lines that the auxiliary
points s, and s, will be located.

5. The table is now disoriented in the
opposite direction (Fig. 3 (2)) and another
line of sight DB is drawn.

bo

School of Applied Geology,
The University of New South Wales,
Kensington, N.S.W., 2033.

(Received 22

A. D. ALBANI

6, 7, 8. Steps similar to 2, 3 and 4 are now
repeated.

9. The intersections of the (s,) and (s,) lines”

obtained from the two constructions
(Fig. 3 (3)) will determine the position
of the auxiliary points s, and s..

The lines s,a and sc (Fig. 3 (4)) will
determine the lines of sight s,aA and
s.cC and their intersection will position
graphically the station point s.

10.

ik
of sight sdB.

The auxiliary points s, and s, can be obtained
even if the disorientation of the table is carried
out both times on the same side of DB and thus
preventing the possibility of one of the vertices
to fall outside the table itself.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank his father, whose
wide and profound experience in surveying has
supported and guided the present study.

References

ALBANI, F., 1942. Sull’orientamento della tavoletta
pretoriana ottenuto con determinazione dei punti
ausiliari. L’Universo, No. 1, pp. 71-75.

ALBANI, F., 1948. Condizioni di optimum per
Vorientamento della tavoletta pretoriana col
metodo dei punti ausiliari. L’Univeryso, No. I,
pp. 1-8.

ALBANI, A. D., 1964. Some applications of aerial
photographs to the solution of topographic and
cartographic problems. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. Journ.
and Proc., 97, 117-119.

BANNISTER, A., and RAYMOND, S., 1959.
Pitman & Sons, London.

CLaRK, D., 1964. Plane and _ geodetic
V ed. Constable & Co., London.
KissaM, P., 1956. Surveying for Civil Enewneers.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., London, New York.
Low, J. W., 1952. Plane Table Mapping. MWarper

& Bros., New York.

Surveying.

surveying.

March 1973)

An immediate control is given by the line |

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 61-70, 1972

The Geology of the Mt. View Range District, Pokolbin,
N.S.W.

A. T. BRAKEL

ABSTRACT—A re-examination of the geology of the Carboniferous Mt. Bright Inlier of the
Mt. View Range, near Pokolbin, N.S.W., has led to modification of previous maps and the
definition of formal stratigraphic nomenclature for the suite of volcanic and sedimentary rocks

exposed therein.

This succession consists of a “‘ Kuttung’”’ sequence of the Pokolbin Hills

Volcanics and Seaham Formation overlying non-conformably the Lower Carboniferous Mt. View

Range Granodiorite.

Within the Pokolbin Hills Volcanics, the Mt. Bright Rhyolitic Ignimbrite

Member, Flying Fox Gully Trachyandesite Member, Vineyard Lookout Volcanic Agglomerate
Member, and Matthews Gap Dacitic Tuff Member have been named. The Carboniferous rocks
are overlain by Permian sediments and basalt, and Triassic sandstones.

Introduction

The Carboniferous Mt. Bright Inlier of the
Mt. View Range district occupies approximately
20 km? of country 6 km west of Cessnock,
N.S.W. Details of the physiography have been
described previously (Browne and Walkom,
1911). The dominant landform is a steep scarp
which forms the eastern side of the Mt. View
Range, facing the lowlands of the Hunter Valley.
The scarp line turns westerly near Matthews
Gap, and then northerly to form the slopes of the
Brokenback Range. This study has indicated
that the scarp near Mt. Bright is composed of
rhyolitic ignimbrite, a hard siliceous rock, which
overlies granodiorite at the foot of the range.

The purpose of this paper is to define new
units and describe the geology in the area. The
grid references given to localities in the text are
taken from the 1954 Cessnock One-Mile Military
Sheet.

Stratigraphy

To date the Carboniferous rocks of this district
have not been defined as stratigraphic units
although Browne and Walkom (1911) and
others have regarded the volcanic sequence to be
“ Upper Kuttung ’’inage. Since the correlation
of these rocks with defined units north of the
Hunter Thrust is impractical, the writer proposes
to set up stratigraphic nomenclature for the units
concerned. Those named are shown in Table 1
and their distribution in Figure 1.

Mt. View Range Granodiorite
Synonomy : Granodiorite and “ quartz diorite
with zircons’”’ (David, 1907); granodiorite
(Browne and Walkom, 1911).
Derivation: Mt. View Range.

Iithology : Granodiorite, and minor aplite and
schorl rock.

Type Outcrop: An exposure in a creek
(292422) in the south-western corner of Mt.
Pleasant Vineyard property, at the foot of the
Mt. View Range.

Age and Relationships: The biotite in this
rock has given a minimum K-Ar age of 336
million years (Harding, 1969, p. 15), indicating
that it was emplaced in Lower Carboniferous
times. The granodiorite is nonconformable
with the overlying Mt. Bright Rhyolitic Ignim-
brite Member of the Pokolbin Hills Volcanics
and the writer has confirmed the presence of
granodiorite pebbles in the basal breccia of the
latter. first reported by Browne and Walkom
(1911).

Petrology: The granodiorite is a holocrystal-
line, medium and relatively even-grained rock
with a typical granitoid texture. The average
grain size is 2mm. The minerals present and
their average proportions, in their apparent
order of crystallization, are: apatite and
zircon, magnetite and sphene, hornblende
(5-5%), augite (2-5%), biotite (11%), plagio-
clase (Any) (51%), orthoclase (138%), quartz
(16%). The proportions of minerals in indi-
vidual rock specimens vary. Examples of
Bowen’s reaction series can frequently be seen.
Augite is almost invariably surrounded by a rim
of hornblende, which may in turn be in contact
with biotite. Much of the pyroxene and
amphibole has been altered to greenish chlorite,
while the biotite is altered to epidote, penninite,
and magnetite.

In the type outcrop, the rock consists of leuco-
cratic and melanocratic phases, between which
is asharp contact. A pinkish coloured albitized
phase, usually developed along joints, is also
common. Albite comprises about three-quarters
of this rock and chlorite the remainder. Quartz
is usually absent. There are minor occurrences

62 AT. BRAKEL

of pink aplite and schorl rock, but pegmatite
veins are rare. At the northern extent of the
unit, some copper and iron mineralization is
present in some old prospect shafts.

As the granodiorite does not crop out in the
southern half of its extent, mapping of the rock
here was based on the characteristic micaceous
soil it produces on weathering.

in the Pokolbin region, and it is proposed that it
Should include the volcanics of the Drake’s Hill
district not dealt with in this paper. The unit
overlies nonconformably the Mt. View Range
Granodiorite and is in turn overlain in apparent
unconformity by sediments equivalent to the
Seaham Formation and the Permian Dalwood
Group.

TABLE 1]
Stratigraphic Nomenclature

Age

Lower Triassic

Upper Permian

Branxton Formation (Pmb)

Lower Permian

Upper Carboniferous

Upper or Middle Carboniferous

Lower Carboniferous

Group/Formation
Singleton Coal Measures (Ps)
Dalwood Group (Pd)

Pokolbin Jiills Volcanics (Cp)

Mt. View Range Granodiorite (Cgv)

Named Members

Gosford Formation (Rng)

(Unconformity)

Muree Sandstone Member (Pmm)
(Matthews Gap Fault) -——————.

Seaham Formation (Cus)

— (Unconformity) oo

Matthews Gap Dacitic Tuff Member
(Cpm) ;

Vineyard Lookout Volcanic Agglom-
erate Member (Cpv)

Flying Fox Gully Trachyandesite
Member (Cpf)

Mt. Bright Rhyolitic Ignimbrite Mem-
ber (Cpb)

—-— (Nonconformity) ——

Pokolbin Hills Volcanics

Synonomy : The Carboniferous volcanic rocks
and interbedded sediments of the Pokolbin
region mentioned by David (1907), Browne and
Walkom (1911) and Walkom (1913).

Derivation: The Pokolbin Hills, between the
Brokenback and Mt. View Ranges.

Lithology : Ignimbrites, tuffs, trachyandesites,
trachytes, andesite, pitchstone, agglomerate,
and some sediments.

Type Section: From the Mt. View Grano-
diorite contact (288420) in a gully above the
type outcrop of the latter, along section line AA
in Fig. 1 to the upper contact with Seaham
Formation sediments (266427).

Thickness: 950 m measured in type section.
This section is interrupted by the Moogering
Fault, an easterly-dipping normal fault estimated
to have a displacement of about 50 m at Grid
Reference (275436). Assuming the displacement
in the type section to *be ‘the: same) theytrue
thickness will be 900 m.

Age and Relationships: This formation em-
braces the entire Carboniferous volcanic sequence

The sequence was assigned an “Upper
Kuttung ’”’ age by Browne and Walkom (1911),
on the basis of scanty remains of Rhacopteris
and Cardiopteris found in some of the tufts.
While it is certainly a terrestrial, and therefore
“ Kuttung’’ sequence (Engel, 1965), the only
definite statement that can be made regarding
its age is that it is post-Lower Carboniferous
and pre-Permian. Its nonconformable relation
with the Mt. View Granodiorite indicates that
sufficient time must have elapsed for the pluton
to be exposed at the surface by erosion before
the volcanics were extruded. An Upper Carbon-
iferous age therefore seems most likely. How-
ever, the Miocene batholiths of Alaska (Pitcher
and Flinn, 1965, p. 34) and the Pleistocene
plutons of the Himalayan region and New
Guinea show that the time for erosion and
exposure can be very short, so a Middle Carbon-
iferous age cannot be excluded. Consequently,
the correlation of this unit with the Carboniferous
rocks on the northern side of the Hunter Valley
is uncertain. It may be the time equivalent
of the Paterson Volcanics, the volcanic members
of the Seaham Formation, or the Gilmore
Volcanics.

GEOLC

64

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62

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28 23

|. GEOLOGICAL
MAP. OF THE
MT. VIEW
RANGE

DISTRICT

44 V2 mile

Pokolbin

OH j-Moogering Fault

1
— I
I

Geological Boundaries

accurate
‘opproximole

established
inferred

=~ = pBranaton
ona q

| 38
To Bellbird
29

Fic. 1—Geological map of the Mt. View Range district, N.S.W.

LEGEND

QUATERNARY

Alluvium, soil and talus Ch ees

TERTIARY?

Talus breccia and TTTTIT
lateritized soil T

TRIASSIC

Gosford Formation

PERMIAN

Singleton Cool Measures
Muree Sandstone Member
Branxton Formation :

Marine sandstones

Basalt with interbedded
conglomerate lenses

Dolerite io)
pees
Conglomerate

CAR BONIFEROUS

Seaham Formation

Pokolbin Hills Volcanics:

Pitchstone

5 |

€9

Tuffs

&
=

Leucocratic
trachyandesite

N

Andesite

Trachyte Cp<

Conglomerate
and sandstone
Matthews Gap Dacitic
Tuff Member
Vineyard Lookout Volcanic
Agglomerate Member
Flying Fox Gully
Trachyandesite Member
Mt. Bright Rhyolitic
Ignimbrite Member

AR

Mt. View Range Granodiorite Cv

ae

‘WSN ‘NIATONMOd ‘LOIMISIG ADNVA MAIA “UW AO 490109

64

pPmb

FLYING
FOX GULLY

SS

AAaAaAaS
Asha ba

GAP

MATTHEW'S

Cpm

aaad
Ww ww ww
aaCpvaa

S

V

Vv

al

A. T. BRAKEL

SECTION B-C

trachyandesite
dyke

ans

MT VIEW

RANGE

n
MATTHEW'S GAP FAULT

Fic.2.—Cross-sections to accompany the geological map of the Mt. Vie

MATTHEW'S GAP
FAULT

basalt dyke

SECTION D-E

FLYING FOX

MT. BRIGHT

fod
$eett

+++4
+444
$Htttete LT

+
yy
++

yitttttto

tuff

MT. VIEW FAULTS

trochyandesite

tttttttottt

SECTION F-G

JERUSALEM ROCK FAULT

‘4 mile

“

1km

MT. VIEW

w Range district

A. T. BRAKEL

SECTION Ee

FLYING MATTHEW'S MT. VIEW
FOX GULLY GAP RANGE

trachyandesite

+++
$44.9

ATTHEW'S GAP FAULT MT. VIEW FAULTS

SEC RON

FLYING FOX MT. BRIGHT
GULLY
Cof ip
P Qa ; E
; trachyandesite
Vv Virgie iP Vv V dyke
TS as
V V V V Vv \ V V Y] y
/ J ‘
+++4+
: Sy at
TFN i NT Ne NON? NU We Nie SV eee mei wee cre eye
Ae FEE EE EEE SE HHH SEES SESE tees testes Cette
MATTHEW'S GAP DHE EEE HEHEHE EE HSS ttt tsetse tsetse sete TVTttT
V PRE OR CE POOR EEOD EC OR One er & yittttt+o +++
FAULT Z FFE hho o$d4dd sods eeeeeeees GI t4¢4¢¢4¢55 fen
MT. VIEW m
basalt dyke Co

JERUSALEM ROCK FAULT

4 mile
° Yq 4km

3.2.—Cross-sections to accompany the geological map of the Mt. View Range district.

GEOLOGY OF Mr. VIEW RANGE DISTRICT, POKOLBIN, N.S.W.

Description : The Mt. Bright Rhyolitic Ignim-
brite Member forms the basal unit of the
formation, and is succeeded by a sequence of
tuffs, tuff breccias, sandstones and conglomer-
ates, which in some places had apparently been
removed, by erosion before later units were
deposited. In the type section only 20 m of
the upper part of this sequence are present. In
the deep gully east of Vineyard Lookout
(282428), the basal beds consist chiefly of coarse
lithic tuffs and tuff breccias. Occasionally they
contain rounded pebbles and an abundance of
fragments from the underlying rhyolitic ignim-
brite, showing that a proportion of the tuffs
is sedimentary in character. Next in the
sequence is a distinctive fine pale green tuff
which weathers to a light brown colour. It is
overlain by coarse to medium grained, poorly
sorted lithic sandstone, which is pebbly in places.
West of the old Matthew’s Gap Road the rock
is a conglomerate composed of volcanic, sub-
angular to rounded clasts up to 15 cm in
diameter, set in a poorly sorted matrix of
coarse to medium grained sandstone with a clay
cement. The unit is overlain by the Flying Fox
Gully Trachyandesite Member, except at its
north-western extent, where acid tuffs and
intermediate extrusives comprise the younger
rocks.

Elsewhere in the Mt. View Range district the
tuff sequence has developed differently. For
example, near Grid Reference (270410) it
comprises an estimated 30 m_ of rhyolitic
conglomerate, consisting entirely of pebbles and
fragments of rhyolitic ignimbrite, overlain by
35 m of mainly coarse tuffs and tuff breccias.
The sequence here is overlapped by Permian
conglomerate. Small occurrences of tuff breccia
also exist on the western side of Jerusalem Rock,
and in the creek at Grid Reference (284405).

Above the Flying Fox Gully Trachyandesite
Member there is developed a further sequence
of volcanics in the Moogering Creek district.
The stratigraphy of the individual members,
being restricted in lateral and vertical extent, is
complex. Near Matthews Gap the sequence is
simplest and consists of the Vineyard Lookout
Volcanic Agglomerate Member overlying the
Flying Fox Gully Trachyandesite Member,
followed by the Matthews Gap Dacitic Tuff
Member. To the north of Matthews Gap the
sequence is more complicated and the afore-
mentioned members are absent. Instead, the
tuff sequence previously described is overlain by
trachyte, acid tuffs, leucocratic trachyandesites,
minor ignimbrites, conglomerates, andesite, tuff
breccias and andesitic pitchstone. These mem-

65

bers are usually developed as tongues and lenses.
Large amounts of secondary calcite often
occur in the lava flow rocks. In the extreme
north of the district there are outcrops of volcanic
rocks which may form a small inlier separated
from the main one by Permian basalt and con-
glomerate, or alternatively may link up with
the main inlier by a narrow isthmus-like
connection. The true situation is obscured by
soil.

The members of the Pokolbin Hills Volcanics
named above are formally defined below.

Mt. Bright Rhyolitic Ignimbrite Member

Synonomy: The “ rhyolite’ of David (1907)
and Browne and Walkom (1911).

Derivation: Mt. Bright (283418).
Lithology : Rhyolitic ignimbrite, tuffs, breccia.

Principal Section: From the granodiorite
contact (289417), in an abandoned prospect
shaft, to the top of the ridge (285416) and thence
to the contact with the overlying Flying Fox
Gully Trachyandesite (283415).

Thickness: Estimated at approximately
460 m in the principal section. The upper
contact is concealed by thick soil and the section
may have been affected by faulting. In the
Pokolbin Hills Volcanics type section, the
thickness measured is 440 m.

Relationships and Petrology: At the base of
the member is a tuff breccia developed as lenses,
resting on an irregular surface of the Mt. View
Granodiorite. The rock contains clasts, up to
8 cm in diameter, of granodiorite, granite,
aplite, and volcanics. The roundness of the
clasts varies from place to place in the rock body
as does the dominant clast size and abundance.
The matrix is a green tuff consisting of unsorted
angular fragments of quartz and feldspar ranging
down, to less than one micron in size.

The 34 m of the unit overlying the basal
breccia is dominated by light green rhyolitic
rocks, weathering pink or light brown, with a
variety of ignimbritic textures. This rock
contains lithic and pumice fragments up to
16 mm long, and white or pinkish-brown
euhedral feldspar crystals up to 3 mm long,
comprising mainly potash feldspar and some
plagioclase. Under the microscope the matrix
is revealed as slightly welded glass shards, which
have devitrified to axiolitic, granular or spheru-
litic aggregates. The green colour of the rock
is due to secondary celadonite, formed by
alteration of rock glass. This mineral decom-
poses during weathering, resulting in a rock
which is pink or light brown in colour. Thin

66 A. T. BRAKEL

lenses of tuffaceous material, similar to some
parts of the basal breccia, are interbedded with
these ignimbrites.

The remaining 420 m of the unit consists of
rhyolitic ignimbrite which varies in colour,
probably due to weathering, from white to
cream and sometimes dark red. The texture in
handspecimen varies from massive to a well-
developed pseudo-flow fabric. Devitrified glass
shards form “ flow-lamellae’’, which bend
around lithic and pumiceous fragments, and
phenocrysts. The phenocrysts are usually no
larger than 2 mm and consist of subhedral
quartz, albite and potash feldspar, rounded and
embayed by resorption. Microscopic examina-
tion discloses that the rock has undergone
extreme welding, since most of the shards and
pumice fragments have been compressed into
thin lenses and streaks. In places small lenses
of light grey to reddish opaque chalcedony occur.

Ross and Smith (1961) made the general
observation that ignimbrite units usually have a
densely welded central zone which grades to
poorly welded zones above and below it. The
absence of a slightly welded or non-welded top
zone in this member is probably due to its
removal by erosion. As mentioned previously,
tuffaceous sediments and tuffs containing an
abundance of rhyolitic ignimbrite fragments
overlie the member in a number of places, thus
providing evidence of such erosion. The ignim-
brite at Jerusalem Rock is unusual in that it
often contains a high proportion of plastically-
flattened, lenticular pumice fragments, which
are usually less than 2 cm in length but may
exceed 4 cm. Some of these still have some of
their original pore space remaining, demon-
strating the start of a trend to less extreme
welding.

Flying Fox Gully Trachyandesite Member

Synonomy: Browne and Walkom’s (1911)
leucocratic trachyte west of Mt. Bright.

Derwwation: The headwaters of Flying Fox
Gully.

Lithology: Leucocratic trachyandesite.

Thickness: About 45 m in the Pokolbin Hills
Volcanics type section, thinning northwards.
Elsewhere the thickness cannot be determined.

Relationships and Petrology : The unit overlies
disconformably the Mt. Bright Rhyolitic Ignim-
brite Member, except in the gully east of the
old Matthews Gap Road, where it is conformable
on. tuffs and tuffaceous sediments and underlies
the Vineyard Lookout Volcanic Agglomerate
Member. West of the Mt. View Range the
member probably fills a valley in the Mt. Bright

Rhyolitic Ignimbrite Member and may be
underlain by tuffaceous sediments. Elsewhere

it underlies unconformably Seaham Formation

sediments and Permian sediments of the Dalwood
Group. The small area of trachyandesite at
Grid Reference (267414) is probably the cross-
section of a single, narrow lava flow.

Macroscopically, the fresh rock is a light grey
trachyandesite, which may contain subhedral
dark pink plagioclase phenocrysts up to 4 mm
long. Usually the rock is weathered to a
yellowish-brown or light brown colour. Thin
sections reveal subhedral phenocrysts of andesine

(An,;) and occasional potash feldspar set in a _

trachytic groundmass of laths of potash feldspar
and some andesine (An,)). Apatite and magnet-
ite are accessory minerals. Practically no
ferromagnesian minerals remain in the rock, but
rare biotite and a few instances of chlorite and
magnetite replacing a euhedral rectangular
crystal were observed. Chlorite also occurs
interstitially, often as spherulites. Secondary
silica is present in the groundmass as micro-
crystalline aggregates.

Vineyard Lookout Volcanic Agglomerate
Member

Synonomy: Browne and Walkom’s (1911)
volcanic agglomerate, trachyandesite, and some
nearby “ andesite ’’’ and trachyte.

Derivation: Vineyard Lookout (276427).

Principal Section : An east-west section across
Vineyard Lookout Hill from (279423) to (270426),
which is part of the Pokolbin Hills Volcanics
type section.

Thickness: About 190 m in the principal
section, assuming a displacement of 50 m on
the Moogering Fault.

Lithology: Conglomerates, agglomerates of
trachytic and _ trachyandesitic composition,
trachyte and trachyandesites.

Relationships and Petrology : This member of
the Pokolbin Hills Volcanics overlies the Flying
Fox Gully Trachyandesite Member near
Matthews Gap. At the base of the member is
a melanocratic trachytic unit, which is usually
agglomeratic. This unit shows considerable
variation, from a massive, dark grey trachyte
to fragmentary rocks with irregular blocks of
pumice, trachyte and rhyolitic ignimbrite set
in a lava or tuff matrix. The blocks may be
up to one metre in length. There is an irregular
lithofacies variation from massive trachyte south
of the principal section to agglomeratic trachyte
northwards.

This basal unit is overlain by an agglomerate
with rounded clasts, which vary greatly in size,

GEOLOGY OF Mr. VIEW RANGE DISTRICT, POKOLBIN, N.S.W. 67

and may exceed one metre in diameter. There
is a lateral facies variation from south to north.
In the south, rounded boulders of melanocratic
trachyte, some trachyandesite, and occasional
banded rhyolite are set in an epiclastic matrix.
Northwards, this epiclastic subdomain grades
irregularly into a rock consisting of blocks set
in dark grey trachyte. Some lithic tuff and

-roundstone conglomerate occur in places in this

northern extent (277428).

A younger unit, forming the top of Vineyard
Lookout, is of melanocratic trachyandesite and
lenses out to the north. The rock is altered and
is dark purple in colour. It is massive but
contains rare, small, lithic fragments. The
texture varies from almost aphyric to porphyritic
with andesine (An,,) laths up to 5 mm long.
The laths are white in colour, but often have a
light pinkish tint due to alteration of the rock.

Overlying the trachyandesite is another
agglomerate unit with many lateral and vertical
facies variations. The largest clast observed
was a boulder 110 cm across at its greatest
dimension. The base of this unit consists
mainly of trachyandesite and trachyte enclosing
fragments and rounded pebbles of similar com-
positions, while along the new Matthews Gap
Road the rock is composed of boulders set in an
epiclastic matrix. A trachyandesite flow in the
sequence along the road has a similar appearance
to the trachyandesite of Vineyard Lookout, but
the feldspar laths are more abundant. Above
this trachyandesite the rock is a coarse con-
glomerate similar to the rock below it. The
top of the unit is composed of a melanocratic
trachyte with occasional clasts. It is overlain
by the Matthews Gap Dacitic Tuff Member.

Matthews Gap Dacitic Tuff Member

Synonomy: “Dacite” of Browne and
Walkom (1911).

Derivation: Matthews Gap (270425).

Principal Section : An east-west section across
the ridge west of Moogering Creek, from (270426)
to (265427). This is part of the Pokolbin Hills
Volcanics type section.

Lithology : Dacitic crystal vitric tuff.

Thickness :
section.

Relationships and Petrology: The unit is a
member of the Pokolbin Hills Volcanics and
directly overlies the Vineyard Lookout Volcanic
Agglomerate Member and andesite to the east.
To the north-west it underlies tuffs while to the
south-west it is overlain by conglomerates and
sandstones of the Seaham Formation.

About 205 m in the principal

The rock is composed of a high proportion of
crystal fragments, mainly quartz and plagioclase,
set in a fine ash matrix containing reddish-brown
glass shards. The crystals are up to 4 mm long.
The rock usually has a weathered reddish-brown
colour, but fresher samples are olive-green.
Inclusions of brown, devitrified ignimbrite, up
to 25 mm in diameter, occasionally occur.

Seaham Formation
Synonomy : The conglomerate and chocolate
shales below the base of the “‘ Lower Marine
Series ’’ reported by David (1907), and the
““ Carboniferous conglomerates, shales, and sand-
stones ’’ of Browne and Walkom (1911).

lithology: Varvoid laminites, mudstones,
diamictite, sandstones and conglomerates.

Thickness : 170 m south-west of Mt. Bright
Lookout.

Age and Relationships: The formation was
regarded as having a Carboniferous age by
David (1907) and Browne and Walkom (1911).
An analysis of the microflora in a specimen of
fine standstone by R. Helby (B. Runnegar,
pers. comm.) has revealed the presence of the
Potometsporites microflora known to occur in
the Seaham Formation, usually regarded as
Upper Carboniferous.

Although the succession here differs from that
at Seaham, the setting up of a new formation
to include the sequence in this district is
hampered by the absence of available geographi-
cal names. However, since the Seaham
Formation west of Seaham shows great varia-
tions in stratigraphy, its extension to this
district may be justified.

The unit directly overlies different members
of the Pokolbin Hills Volcanics, thereby indi-
cating an unconformable relationship. This is
confirmed by the measurement of a dip of 15°W
near its base in the embayment at Mt. Bright
Lookout (288406) whereas the eutaxitic lamina-
tion in the underlying Mt. Bright Rhyolitic
Ignimbrite Member dips at 40° to 60°W near
this spot. The formation is conformably over-
lain by Permian conglomerate, but there is no
sharp boundary between the two, as the upper
volcanic conglomerate member grades into the
polymictic Permian conglomerate due to the
introduction of clasts of exotic derivation. The
Permo-Carboniferous boundary was arbitrarily
set at the first appearance of pebbles of a distinc-
tive quartz-feldspar porphyry which is not of
local provenance.

Description : South-west of Mt. Bright Look-
out, the basal members vary from pebbly sand-

68 po Dy BRAK

stones to volcanic cobble conglomerates with
coarse sandy lenses. These basal members are
not everywhere present. The _ overlying
sequence, of which there are some good outcrops
in the unnamed south-flowing creek, consists
of varvoid laminites and sandstones, minor
diamictite, and mudstone with dropstones,
chocolate brown or light grey in colour. Fine
sandstone comprises the greatest proportion of
the varvoid laminites. The laminations vary
in thickness from less than 1 cm to 5 cm, and
occasional dropstones of volcanic rock up to
13. cm. in diameter are found in it. The fine
sandstone contains an abundance of indetermin-
ate plant remains in places.

The top portion of the formation consists of
cliff-forming coarse conglomerates and some
interbedded coarse sandstone. The conglomer-
ate phenoclasts are rounded, range from pebbles
to boulders, and are composed entirely of local
volcanic rock, except for rare jasper which is
probably derived from secondary silica infillings
in the underlying Mt. Bright Rhyolitic Ignim-
brite Member. The conglomerate frequently
contains a high proportion of rhyolitic ignimbrite
fragments where it is adjacent to this Member,
suggesting that it was deposited against cliffs of
the ignimbrite from which the debris was derived.
The transition to the overlying Permian con-
glomerate occurs in the second cliff west of the
creek.

Dalwood Group

At the assumed base of the Permian succession
is a polymictic conglomerate containing clasts
of quartz-feldspar porphyry, quartzite, hornfels,
schist, chert, jasper, quartz, granite, aplite, and
Carboniferous volcanics. The unit contains
lenses of medium-grained lithic sandstone. At
(271405) and (274396) the rock is fine sandstone
and contains large plant stems. Next in the
succession is a basalt with an interbedded con-
glomerate member in its south-western outcrop
and often containing amygdules of a wide
variety of secondary minerals. Microscopically
the rock consists of some phenocrysts of labrador-
ite (An,,), augite and olivine set in a groundmass
of labradorite (An,;) laths, augite, olivine and
magnetite. The ferromagnesian minerals are
almost invariably found to be altered to chlorite,
calcite, and clay minerals.

The succeeding Dalwood Group sediments are
chiefly fine sandstones with marine fossils, and
minor siltstones, tuff, and conglomerate,
described by previous workers.

Publications by David (1907), Browne and
Walkom (1911), Walkom (1913), and Osborne
(1950) differ in their conclusions as to the
correlations of the Lower Permian rocks with

formations defined in the Lower Hunter Valley.
These correlations are still uncertain, but the
polymictic conglomerate, basalt, and an over-
lying lens of tuff containing Eurydesma cordatum
may be correlatable with the Lochinvar and
Allandale Formations, while the succeeding
sandstones are probably correlatable with the
Rutherford and Farley Formations.

Upper Permian and Triassic

West of the Matthews Gap Fault, rocks of the
Branxton Formation (including the Muree
Sandstone Member), Singleton Coal Measures,
and Gosford Formation crop out. The Muree
Sandstone Member forms poor outcrops in most
of the area mapped and is not exposed on the
spur just north of Flying Fox Gully. This is in
contrast to the good marker horizon it usually
provides to the south in the Millfield area. Dips
of 60°W in the Singleton Coal Measures and
16°W at the base of the Gosford Formation
agree with the observations of David (1907)
that there is an unconformity between the
Permian and Triassic Systems at this locality,
and this would seem to be further supported by
the absence of the Munmorah Conglomerate,
Tuggerah Formation, and Collaroy Claystone,
which comprise the basal formations of the
Narrabeen Group near the coast. It is also
possible that the absence of these units is due to
facies changes towards the coast, and that the
difference in dip readings between the Triassic
and the Singleton Coal Measures is the result
of the latter having undergone greater disturb-
ance through being closer to the Matthews Gap
Fault. However, the observations of David
(1907), Jones (1939) and McIntosh (1968) of a
marked unconformity between the Muree Sand-
stone Member and Gosford Formation about
20 km to the south support the interpretation
of an unconformity in this area.

Tertiary to Recent Deposits

Portions of the area are covered by uncon-
solidated alluvium, talus and soils. Talus fans
have formed along the scarp of the Mt. View
Range and are composed of angular blocks of
ignimbrite derived from the cliffs of the Mt.
Bright Rhyolitic Ignimbrite Member. The
largest block encountered was 5 m_ across.
The talus has been lithified in places along the
foot of the Mt. View Range to form superficial
deposits of talus breccia. The age of this rock
is uncertain. Similar formations were thought
to be Quaternary by Browne (1926, pp. 249-251),
and some of the deposits do seem to be of this
age, but others may date back to Tertiary times.
Small areas of lateritized granodioritic soil,
probably of Tertiary age, also occur.

GEOLOGY OF Mr. VIEW RANGE DISTRICT, POKOLBIN, N.S.W. 69

Dykes and Plugs

Several isolated, elongated occurrences of
leucocratic trachyandesite in the district are
thought to be dykes related to the Flying Fox
Gully Trachyandesite Member and the other
leucocratic trachyandesites of the Pokolbin
Hills Volcanics.

West of Jerusalem Rock there is a discordant

body of basalt which is interpreted as a dyke,
near Matthews Gap (273422) there is a dolerite
body exposed in a road cutting which could be a
volcanic plug, and south of it (274418) there is a
small occurrence of basalt boulders which may
indicate another dyke. These rocks are
mineralogically similar to the Permian basalt,
and probably represent feeders to the basalt
flows.

Faulting

The area is situated on the central west
portion of the Lochinvar Anticline which has a
roughly meridional axis. Consequently, the
dips of all the rock units are westerly or south-
westerly. The Mt. Bright Inlier is part of a
horst, bounded on the east by the Mt. View
Faults and on the west by the Elderslie (David,
1907) or Matthews Gap (Raggatt, 1929) Fault.
Both sides of the latter fault have been affected
by drag along the fault plane, and dips of 65°W
and 60°W were recorded near its eastern and
western sides respectively. The Jerusalem Rock
Fault may be a continuation or branch of the
Matthews Gap Fault. Its existence was postu-
lated by Browne and Walkom (1911) on the
basis of physiographic evidence, and has been
confirmed by the finding of a line of calcite
boulders south of Jerusalem Rock, and a shear
zone with some slickensiding. It is more likely,
however, that the fault runs along the eastern
side of Jerusalem Rock, as there is no evidence
of it on the western side where the sequence is
similar to that in other parts of the district.

If this interpretation is correct, it will require
a younger fault to offset the main fault. Sucha
fault could also explain why the base of the
basalt in the outlier to its east is topographically
above the top of the basalt to its west, and this
fault may continue along the outlier to join up
with a fault to the north.

The position of the two Mt. View Faults has
been modified from that given by Browne and
Walkom (1911). The Mt. View No. 1 Fault
can be seen in a cutting on the Mt. View Road
(294385), and has been extended northwards
on the evidence of discontinuities in formation
outcrops. The Mt. View No. 2 Fault has been
inferred from the displacement of basalt, but its
extension northwards along the Mt. View Range
is uncertain.

Browne and Walkom (1911) postulated an
east-west fault along the headwater tributary
of Flying Fox Gully south of the Matthews Gap
Road on the grounds that a sharp boundary
existed between the Flying Fox Gully Trachy-
andesite Member and the Vineyard Lookout
Volcanic Agglomerate Member. This discon-
tinuity has been confirmed, but no fault zone
could be observed.

The Moogering Fault extends along the eastern
side of the valley of Moogering Creek. The fault
plane or breccia zones are exposed in cuttings
at several places along the new Matthews Gap
Road. At Grid Reference (275436) it dips 75°
in the direction S60°E with an estimated throw
of 50 m, assuming that the conglomerates on
either side of the fault are the same unit. This
assumption is a reasonable one, as the lithologies
are the same and both are underlain by a thin
ignimbrite unit, although on the eastern side
the ignimbrite is very weathered and unrecog-
nizable in hand specimen.

Near Matthews Gap two smaller faults of
unknown displacements form a small graben
structure.

The faulting in the district was almost
certainly associated with movements which
formed the Lochinvar Anticline at the end of
the Permian.

Concluding Discussion

The high mica content of the Mt. View Range
Granodiorite indicates that the rock is of the
peraluminous type which Kleeman (1965) con-
sidered to be derived from sediments near the
base of a geosyncline by partial melting. The
rock fits Buddington’s (1959) description of the
characteristics of epizonal plutons, and a high
level of crustal emplacement would explain its
exposure at the surface during a period of erosion
before being covered by the Pokolbin Hills
Volcanics.

The volcanic sequence is a complex of inter-
tonguing lenses and lithofacies variations diag-
nostic of an environment near a_ volcanic
centre, which therefore must have been nearby.
Measurement of dips in the volcanic rocks is
often difficult and imprecise, and calculations
of unit thicknesses based on these dips may
consequently be only approximate.

The rock analyses given by Browne and
Walkom (1911) show that the Pokolbin Hills
Volcanics belong to a Carboniferous suite of the
calc-alkaline association. Nashar (1969) has
plotted the chemical analyses of Carboniferous
volcanic rocks from the northern side of the
Hunter Valley and from this district on the
alkali-(Fe?+ + Fe**)-Mg triangular diagram of

70 A. T. BRAKEL

Nockolds and Allen (1953), and both groups of
rocks lie within the belt of calc-alkaline variation.
Wilkinson (1971) investigated selected volcanic
rocks from the northern side of the Hunter
Valley and concluded that the available data do
not favour the derivation of the rocks from a
basaltic parent magma, but suggest instead that
the dacites were generated by the dry partial
melting of high alumina quartz eclogite in the
upper mantle, and that some of the more salic
volcanics are low pressure differentiates of the
dacitic melts. It is likely that the eruptives of
the Pokolbin Hills Volcanics had similar origins.

After the cessation of Carboniferous vol-
canicity, an interval of erosion resulted in the
volcanic rocks forming a hill which supplied
debris for the overlying Seaham Formation.
By Lower Permian times the hill appears to
have formed an island or rise in a shallow sea.

The Mt. Bright Inlier is an important one in
that it provides a specimen of the Carboniferous
rocks underlying the Permian System in this
region, and is one of the few localities in the
Hunter Valley where the Permian-Carboniferous
boundary is not a faulted contact or obscured
by Quaternary deposits.

As a result of the re-examination of this
district, the previous geological maps have been
revised, and ignimbrites have been recognized
in the inher for the first time.

Acknowledgements

The writer wishes to express his thanks to
the staff of the Geology Department of The
University of Newcastle for their assistance and
encouraging interest throughout the duration
of the work. In particular he is indebted to
Dr. J. H. Rattigan, a former member of staff,
for his assistance in the field, and to Professor
B. Nashar and Mr. B. A. Engel, for their en-
couragenent and constructive criticism of the
manuscript. Helpful discussions were also had
during the preparation of this paper with
Dr. B. Runnegar of the University of New
England, concerning the southern portion of the
district. Finally, the writer gratefully acknow-
ledges the co-operation of the local residents.

Department of Geology,
University of Newcastle,
New South Wales.

Present Address :

Geological Survey of Western Australia,
66 Adelaide Terrace,

Perth, W.A., 6000.

References

Browne, W. R., 1926. The geology of the Gosforth
district.

BrowneE, W. R., and Watrkom, A. B., 1911. The
geology of the eruptive and associated rocks of
Pokolbin, N.S.W. jj. Pyvoc. Roy. "Soe. N.S.Wa
45, 379-408.

BupDDINGTON, A. F., 1959. Granite emplacement with
special reference to North America. Geol. Soc.
Am. Bull., 70, 671-747.

Davin, T. W. E., 1907. The geology of the Hunter
River Coal Measures, New South Wales. Mem.
geol. Surv. N.S.W., No. 4.

ENGEL, B. A., 1965. Carboniferous studies in New
South Wales, Australia. Pyvoc. Min. Geol. &
Metall. Inst. of India (Wadia Commem. Volume),
197-216.

HarpDING, R. R., 1969. Catalogue of age determina-
tions on Australian rocks, 1962-1965. Bur. Min.
Resour. Geol. Geophys., Rep. No. 117.

JonEs, L.. J., 1939. The coal resources of the southern
portion of the Maitland-Cessnock-Greta Coal
District (Northern Coalfield). Mineral Resources
No. 37. N.S.W. Dept. Mines Geol.. Surv.

KLEEMAN, A. W., 1965. The origin of granitic magmas,
J. geol. Soc. Aust., 12, 35-54.

McIntosuH, J. L., 1968. The geology of the Paxton
district. Unpubl. B.Sc.(Hons.) thesis, Univ. of
Newcastle.

NasHar, B., 1969. Petrological aspects of the Upper
Palaeozoic volcanic rocks in New South Wales.
Spec. Publ. geol. Soc. Aust., 2, 169-175.

NocKoLps, S. R., and ALLEN, ike 19532:
chemistry of some igneous rock series.
cosmochim. Acta., 4, 105-142.

OsBorRNE, G. D., 1950. Stratigraphy of the Lower
Marine Series of the Permian System in the
Hunter Valley, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
75, 203-223.

PITCHER, W. S., and FLiInn, G. W., (Editors), 1965.
Controls of Metamorphism. Oliver and Boyd,
Edinburgh and London.

RaGGatTr, H. G., 1929. Note on the structural and
tectonic geology of the Hunter Valley between
Greta and Muswellbrook with special reference to
the age of diastrophism. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
54, 273-282.

Ross, C. S., and Smitu, R. L., 1961. Ash-flow tuffs :
their origin, geologic relations and identifications.
U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 366.

Watkom, A. B., 1913. Stratigraphical geology of the
Permo-Carboniferous System in the Maitland-
Branxton district. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 38,
114-145.

WILKINSON, J. F. G., 1971. The petrology of some
vitrophyric calc-alkaline volcanic rocks from the
Carboniferous of New South Wales. J. Petr., 12,
587-619.

The geo-
Geochim.

(Received 9 February 1973)

J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 60, 213-277.

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 71-76, 1972

Potassium-Argon Dating and Occurrence of Tertiary and Mesozoic
Basalts in the Binnaway District

J. A. DULHUNTY

ABSTRACT—TIwo Miocene and three Mesozoic K-Ar dates are recorded for basalts occurring
in the Castlereagh River Valley. Miocene flows co-extensive with Warrumbungle Mountain
basalt flows, indicate a pre-Warrumbungle Castlereagh Valley, similar to, but deeper than, the
present valley. Mesozoic Garrawilla lavas, inter-bedded between Purlawaugh and Napperby
sediments extend 16 km south of Binnaway to the southern margin of their area of extrusion,
beyond which the Garrawilla horizon has been followed into southern areas where no lavas occur.
A tuffaceous mudstone bed associated with late Garrawilla volcanism is described partly as an
inter-flow sediment and partly as an open-topped deposit, disconformably overlain by Purlawaugh

sediments.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to record results
of K-Ar dating of Tertiary and Mesozoic basalt
flows in the Castlereagh River Valley between
Ulamambri, Binnaway and Neilrex (see Fig. 1),
and to consider results in relation to Tertiary
geomorphology and Mesozoic stratigraphy.

Field studies were carried out in the Binnaway
district with the object of obtaining data bearing
on the correlation of Mesozoic stratigraphy in
the Coonabarabran-Gunnedah-Narrabri region
in northern New South Wales, with that of the
Dubbo-Dunnedoo-Wollar region in the central
west of the State. The Binnaway district was
selected for this purpose as it provides an area
of more or less continuous outcrop, along the
Castlereagh Valley, linking the two regions.

Inter-bedded Mesozoic olivine basalts, well
known as the Garrawilla lavas (Kenny, 1963,
Dulhunty and McDougall, 1966, Dulhunty,
1967) occur extensively in the Coonabarabran-
Gunnedah district north-east of the Binnaway
area, but are unknown in the central-western
region to the south. The probable extension of
Garrawilla lavas south from Ulamambri into
the Binnaway district was originally suggested
by Kenny (1963), and certain areas of basalt
were mapped as Garrawilla lavas occurring in
association with Tertiary basalts, by Offenberg
(1968). In the present investigation it was
necessary to distinguish reliably between Ter-
tiary and Mesozoic basalts in the Binnaway
district, and to establish with certainty the
occurrence of Garrawilla lavas south of
Binnaway, and so confirm the southern limits
of occurrence whence their horizon could be
followed into the Mesozoic sequence of the
central west. Potassium-Argon dating was used
for this purpose, as the two basalts frequently
occur together, with Tertiary basalt at times

lying on eroded surfaces of Mesozoic lava. The
two are so similar in constitution that they
cannot be separated with certainty by petro-
graphy, and field studies are not reliable owing
to poor outcrops and difficulties in distinguishing
between inter-bedded Mesozoic flows and Ter-
tiary basalts lying in valleys eroded into outcrops
of Mesozoic sediments.

The general sequence of Mesozoic sediments in
the Binnaway district is similar to that of the
Coonabarabran-Gunnedah district (Kenny,
1963). Large areas of upper Jurassic, yellow-
red, coarse quartz sandstone, generally referred
to as Pilhiga sandstone, overlie shales, lithic
sandstones, coal seams and ferruginous mud-
stones with “red bed” outcrops, generally
known as the Purlawaugh beds, almost certainly
of mid or lower Jurassic age. Beneath the
Purlawaugh beds there occur light grey, sandy,
micaceous shales, fine white flaggy sandstone
and massive, light grey quartz sandstone,
probably of Triassic age and referred to by
Kenny (1968) as the Napperby beds. In the
Coonabarabran-Gunnedah district the Garrawilla
lavas occur between the Purlawaugh and
Napperby beds.

The foregoing stratigraphical terms have been
used, more or less informally, by Kenny (1963),
Offenberg (1968) and Dulhunty (1967) in the
Coonabarabran-Gunnedah district and northern
parts of the Binnaway district. They are names
by which the main subdivisions of the Mesozoic
are well known in the areas concerned. It is
intended to use such names, informally, for the
purpose of the present paper, and to postpone
proposals for formal nomenclature until relations
of units in different regions are better understood,
and they can be properly defined.

For the general pattern of outcrop geology
of the Binnaway district, reference should be

72

made to the Gilgandra 1: 250,000 geological
sheet by Offenberg (1968), although some amend-
ments to this map will be necessary in the light
of results recorded here and as an outcome of
field studies at present in progress.

Selection of Basalts for K-Ar Dating

The Mesozoic sediments of the Binnaway
district outcrop along the broad valley of the
Castlereagh River which runs generally from
north to south, from Ulamambri to Neilrex.
Near Ulamambri the valley has dissected the
Piliga sandstone, exposed the full thickness of
Purlawaugh beds and revealed underlying
Garrawilla lavas. Some 5 km downstream the
top of the Napperby beds outcrops on the floor
of the valley. Dissection becomes progressively
deeper as the valley runs south, and at Neilrex
the full section is exposed from Piliga sandstone
down through Purlawaugh and Napperby beds
to Palaeozoic basement. Residuals of basalt
flows occur on erosion surfaces on Piliga sand-
stone, on the low plateau either side of the
Castlereagh Valley, and on the sides and floor
of the valley where Purlawaugh and Napperby
beds outcrop. The flows on Piliga sandstone are
undoubtedly of Tertiary age, but those within
the valley are of both Tertiary and Mesozoic
age. At Ulamambri Kenny (1963) mapped
Tertiary basalt lying on eroded surfaces of
Garrawilla lava, and at Binnaway Offenberg
(1968) mapped the two in close proximity.
East of Neilrex, however, along the valley of
Butheroo Creek there occur good exposures of
full sections of Purlawaugh and Napperby beds,
but no Garrawilla lavas are present.

The present investigation required accurate
distinction between Tertiary and Mesozoic
basalts at places along the Castlereagh Valley
where stratigraphical relations of Garrawilla
lavas could be studied in the Mesozoic sequence,
and their southern limits of extrusion deter-
mined. With this purpose in view, basalts
suitable for K-Ar dating were selected from five
critical points along the valley, where results
would be of greatest significance (Fig. 1).
Potassium-Argon age investigations were carried
out at Tohoku University, Japan. Specimen
numbers (Syd. Uni. K-Ar dated specimens),
localities as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, and results
are as follows: (see also Appendix).

Specimen K23. Ulamambn. Age 171-5 m.y.

Collected from an outcrop on a low rise at a
point 185 m south from the Coonabarabran-
Ulamambri road, and 370 m west from the
bridge where this road crosses the Castlereagh

JO. DULEUNTY

River at 12 km by road from Coonabarabran —

Post Office.

Specimen KS. Ulinda Creek. Age 197 m.y.

|
|

Collected from an outcrop on a steep slope —

110 m west from Ulinda Creek, at a point 300 m
upstream from the Binnaway-Coolah road bridge
at 4-9 km by road from Binnaway Post Office.

Specimen K22. Dandaloo. Age 201-5 m.y.

Collected from an outcrop on a steep slope
100 m west from the Binnaway-Ringwood road
at 5-8 km from Binnaway Post Office, on the
western side of the Castlereagh River.

Specimen K7. Piambra. Age 14-5 m.y.

Collected from a roadside cutting on the
eastern side of the Binnaway-Neilrex road at
1:3 km north from Piambra Rail Siding, and
104 m from the eastern bank of the Castlereagh
River.

Specumen K6. Toogalan. Age 17 my.

Collected from the steep western bank of the
Castlereagh River, 1:25 km upstream from
Toogalan Homestead and 2-1 km by road from
Neilrex Post Office.

The Ulamambri flow (K23) was selected for
dating, to confirm Kenny’s original mapping
of Tertiary basalts lying on Mesozoic lavas, and
to determine the age and relations of ferruginous
sediments associated with upper Garrawilla
lavas, (Sect. A-B, Fig. 2). The Ulinda flow
(K5) was dated, to confirm the occurrence of
Garrawilla lavas in the vicinity of Binnaway as
mapped in part by Offenberg, and to assist in
detail studies of relations between Purlawaugh
beds and ferruginous sediments occurring in
association with the flow, (Sect. C-—D-—E-F,
Fig. 2). The Dandaloo, Piambra and Toogalan
flows (K22, K7 and K6 respectively) were
dated, to distinguish between Tertiary and
Mesozoic basalts occurring on the floor of the
Castlereagh Valley beneath the present river bed,
and to determine the southern limits of extrusion
of Garrawilla lavas in the Binnaway district.

The five specimens were all alkali olivine
basalts very similar petrographically, consisting
essentially of olivine, plagioclase clinopyroxene
and iron oxide. They were virtually free from
atmospheric weathering and very low in inter-
sertal poorly-crystallized felsic material. Speci-
mens K6 and K7 showed very little dueteric
alteration, whilst K5, K22 and K23 were
somewhat more altered but within acceptable
limits.

POTASSIUM-ARGON DATING IN BINNAWAY DISTRICT

TO GUNNEDAH
a

Be RARAERAN

ae |
PKS YS ES SPRINGS
A ULAMAMBRI PURLAWAUGH

a ~LEGEND-

\ olf
As

Section Line

NX @ 422 = Specimen
\ Locality for
ly K-Ar Dating
‘ ‘ ae AKC Geological
B
Lit

—-~~— 7 Road

TO GILGANDRA

Not Railway
een Town or Village |

O -

ss G

BINNAWAVAAT |

[ J

A

=

TO MENDOORAN

E
2 Nee CaO ae CK.
TO MERRY GOEN

—~

FIGURE 1.—Locality map of the Binnaway district.

74

Significance of Results

From the foregoing results it is evident that
the Piambra and Toogalan flows (K7 and K6

Je A DULAUNTY

New South Wales. Their erosional residuals
occur mainly in the lower areas of the eastern
Highlands, and in old pre-basalt valleys now

undergoing re-excavation as in the Cudgegong
Valley near Gulgong (Dulhunty, 1971). The
Miocene basalts of the Binnaway district, occur
at all levels in the Castlereagh Valley from
beneath the present river bed, up over the
valley sides to positions on the low plateau
surfaces on either side, as illustrated in the
section of Fig. 2. West of the valley, between
Ulamambri and Coonabarabran (Sect. A-—B,
Fig. 2) the Miocene basalt flows increase in
thickness and become more continuous as they

respectively) are of Tertiary age, and that the
Ulamambri, Ulinda and Dandaloo flows (K23,
K5 and K22 respectively) are of Mesozoic age
and belong to the Garrawilla Lavas.

Tertiary Geomorphology

The Tertiary flows occurring in the Castlereagh
Valley, dated at 14:5 my. and 17 m.y. in this
investigation, belong in general to a group of
Miocene basalts extruded at many places over
a wide area of central-western and eastern

“WARRUMBUNGLE" FLOW

CASTLEREAGH RIVER

ALLUVIUM

PURLAWAUGH AREA

MIOCENE

ULAMAMBRI AREA

Se eanewssesene sageee7ee

JURASSIC PILLIGA
SANDS IONE

JURASSIC
PURLAWAUGH BEDS —

|] FERRUGINOUS TUFF
ACEOUS MUDSTONE ~

GARRAWILLA

TRIASSIC
NAPPERBY BEDS

©—— © —O] peRMiAN CONGLOM ~
o——o—| ERATES & SHALES

BASEMENT
COMPLEX

DANDALOO FLOW ULINDA

ULIND.
FLOW CREE}

PIAMBRA FLOW CASTLEREAGH RIVER

CASTLEREAGH RIVER

TOOGALAN FLOW

CASTLEREAGH RIVER NEILREX AREA

ae am
450 [— e On
K6 oe ee
saan eee ee oe |
—— YR ee eee
a eee wes Be ee ee ee
Saran 0) es > </ SS SS ee ea eS eres —o fe
. eee en a e ee 5 — |
a ee ea .————— O SS j
350-2 jo SS : Sa ee ee a |
G b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 i 8
[es Sa Ss [ns / Sst Ce, |

KILOMETRES
HORIZONTAL SCALE FOR ALL SECTIONS

FIGURE 2.—Geological sections illustrating the occurrence of basalt flows in the Binnaway district.

POTASSIUM-ARGON DATING IN BINNAWAY DISTRICT 75

pass towards the Warrumbungle Mountains,
where they are associated with trachyte lavas,
forming part of the Warrumbungle volcanics.
At two localities along the Coonabarabran-
Gilgandra road, similar Miocene basalt flows on
the southern slopes of the mountains, were
previously dated at 13:5 my. and 13-8 my.
(Dulhunty and McDougall, 1966). The similar-
ity in K-Ar ages of the Warrumbungle Mountain
Miocene basalts and those of the Castlereagh
Valley, and their close field relations, is sufficient
to correlate the two as co-extrusive. This
suggests a pre-Miocene basalt, and pre-Warrum-
bungle Mountain, drainage pattern in the
Binnaway district similar to the present upper
Castlereagh system, with a valley of similar profile
and even a little deeper than the present river
valley. All east-west sections across the valley,
including those illustrated in Fig. 2, show
broad synclinal warping with the river situated
approximately in the centre of the structure.
This suggests that the north-south trend of the
Castlereagh River, from Coonabarabran to
Mendoran was originally determined by pre-
Miocene basalt warping which confined the
Miocene ancestor of the present Castlereagh
River to the syncline.

Mesozoic Stratigraphy

The results obtained for the Ulamambri,
Ulinda and Dandaloo flows, 171 m.y., 197 m.y.,
and 201 m.y. respectively, confirm that they
belong to the Garrawilla lavas. The dates
agree very well with results of 181 m.y. and 193
m.y., previously obtained for Garrawilla lavas
between Coonabarabran and Gunnedah (Dul-
hunty and McDougall 1966) the averages being
187 m.y. for the previous results and 190 for the
present dates.

The result obtained from the Ulamambri flow
confirms Kenny’s mapping of Miocene basalt
on Garrawilla lava between Coonabarabran and
Ulamambri, as illustrated in Sec. A-B, Fig. 1.
It also suggests that the highly ferruginous, and
probably tuffaceous mudstone between the
Ulamambri flow and the lower Garrawilla lavas
is a contemporary inter-flow deposit. It occurs
near the top of the Garrawilla lavas, and is
» distinct from the overlying Purlawaugh beds,
which normally exhibit a disconformable relation
to the lavas, onlapping eroded flanks of lava
piles and flows.

The Mesozoic age obtained for the Ulinda flow
confirms Offenberg’s mapping of the basalt as
a Garrawilla Lava, but a similar result for the
Dandaloo flow, which he had mapped as
Tertiary, means that the Ulinda flow dips west,
passes beneath the Castlereagh River and out-

crops low on the western side of the valley.
Higher on the valley side the Garrawilla lava is
concealed beneath Miocene basalt (Sec. C-D—-E-
F, Fig. 2) which passes up over outcrops of
Pilliga sandstone to the west.

In the vicinity of Binnaway there is evidence
of a very ferruginous, basic tuffaceous mudstone
occurring in association with the top of the
Garrawilla lavas and beneath the Purlawaugh
beds. It is similar to the Ulamambri occurrence
but more strongly developed. Outcrops occur
along the northern side of Gamble Creek,
between 1 and 3 km above its junction with the
Castlereagh River. It also outcrops close to
the northern side of the Binnaway-Coolah road,
about half-way between Ulinda Creek bridge
and Binnaway, where it reaches some 9-3 m
in thickness, and lies between the Purlawaugh
beds and the top of the Garrawilla lavas. From
this point it passes west towards the main
outcrop of the Ulinda flow on the western side
of Ulinda Creek, but is largely obscured by
alluvium, and then it appears to wedge out
into the Ulinda flow, as illustrated in Sect.
C-D-E-F, Fig. 2. It may be concluded that
the basic tuffaceous mudstone was deposited
contemporaneously with the closing stages of
extrusion of the Garrawilla lavas, occurring
partly as an inter-flow bed and partly as an
open deposit, prior to disconformable deposition
of the Purlawaugh beds. Whilst this bed is
believed to be more closely related in time to
Garrawilla lavas than Purlawaugh sediments,
it is not intended to propose a formal name
until more is known of its relations and extent.

The abundance of Garrawilla lavas im-
mediately south of Binnaway, and their complete
absence from sections exposed along Butheroo
Creek, east of Neilrex on the southern side of
the district, confirms Offenberg’s mapping (1968)
which places the southern margin of Garrawilla
lavas between Piambra and Neilrex, some
15 km south of Binnaway.

Acknowledgements

In conclusion it is wished to acknowledge
research facilities of the Department of Geology
and Geophysics, University of Sydney, and the
helpful co-operation of landholders in the
Binnaway district, over whose properties the
investigations were carried out, in particular
Messrs. Jones and Watson of Hawthorne Station.

References

Dutuounty, J. A., and McDouGALt, I., 1966. WPotas-
sium-Argon Dating of Basalts in the Coona-
barabran-Gunnedah District. Aust. J. Sci., 28,
393.

76 J. A. DULHUNTY

DuLuunty, J. A., 1967. Mesozoic Alkaline Volcanism KrENnNy, E. J., 1963. Geological Survey of the
and Garrawilla Lavas near Mullaley, N.S.W. Coonabarabran-Gunnedah District with Special
J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 14, 133. Reference to the Occurrence of Subsurface Water.
DuLtuHuntTy, J. A., 1971. Potassium-Argon Basalt Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Min. Res., No. 40.
Dates and their Significance in the Ilford-Mudgee- OFFENBERG, A. C., 1968. Gilgandra 1 : 250,000 Geo-
Gulgong Region. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 104, logical Series Sheet SH55-16. Geol. Sur., Dept.
39. Mines, N.S.W., Sydney.

Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney.

(Received 1 December 1972)

Appendix
Syd. Uni. Potassium

K-Ar Dated Analysis Artie 20 Atmos. Argon. Age
Specimen No. He, Contam. % m.y.
K7 1-67 0- 000846 57-01 14
1-67 0-000920 58-18 15

K6 1-48 0:001013 68-81 17
1-48 0-001002 78-21 17

K23 0-92 0-010494 25-01 172
0:92 0-010427 15-29 LE

K22 1-47 0:012413 10-18 201
1-47 0-012439 3°32 202

K5 1-09 0-012073 5-21 197

Constants used:
Ae=0-584 x 10719 yr
Ag=4: 2X L040 vir

|

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 77-85, 1972

The Stratigraphy of the Bowan Park Group, New South Wales

V. SEMENIUK

Communicated by Dr. B. D. Webby

ABsTRACT—The Ordovician Bowan Park Group, 560 m. thick, disconformably overlies Cargo
Andesite and contains three limestone formations. The lower unit, Daylesford Limestone, contains
six members at its type section; in ascending order, these are: Ranch Member, Bourimbla
Limestone Member, Manooka Limestone Member, Gerybong Limestone Member, Glenrae Lime-
stone Member and Davys Plains Limestone Member. In eastern parts of the Bowan Park area
the Oakley Limestone Member is equivalent to Manooka and Gerybong Limestone Members.
The Quondong Limestone, the most fossiliferous formation in the sequence, disconformably overlies
the Daylesford Limestone. The Ballingoole Limestone, which conformably overlies Quondong
Limestone, contains three members; in ascending order, these are: Corner Limestone Member,

Clearview Limestone Member and Downderry Limestone Member.

The contact of Bowan Park

Group with the overlying Malachi’s Hill Beds is redefined and placed at a disconformity.

Introduction

This paper describes the stratigraphy of
Ordovician limestones throughout the area of
outcrop of the Bowan Park Group and formally
names the member subdivisions in the group.
It also redefines the contact between Bowan
Park Group and overlying Malachi’s Hill Beds.
Preliminary work on limestones of the Bowan
Park Group, and general stratigraphy of the
Bowan Park area have been published by
Semeniuk (1970). The present work is based
on a study of 820 samples collected from the
Bowan Park Group at 10 localities (Appendix I).
Classification of Dunham (1962) is used for
nomenclature of the limestones.

General Geology

The Bowan Park area, located in the Central
Fold Belt (Packham, 1969) of New South Wales,
contains Ordovician rocks (Cargo Andesite,
Bowan Park Group, Malachi’s Hill Beds), which
are separated from Silurian rocks by a major
strike fault (Figure 1). On the western margin
of the area, a large north-trending thrust fault
that is probably the northern extension of the
Canangle Thrust south of Cargo (Ryall, 1965),
separates Silurian sediments from Ordovician
limestones of the Bowan Park Group (Semeniuk,
1970). In the vicinity of the ‘‘ Marylebone ”’
homestead (Figure 1), this thrust fault curves
and splits into a complex of east-west trending
strike faults (possibly wrench faults). The strike
faults join a major north-trending fault system
in the east portion of the area (Figure 1). These
strike faults cause east-west wedging-out of
some rock units. Faulting also may have flexed

the Palaeozoic rocks from the regional north-
south strike into an east-west strike position.

The Bowan Park Group disconformably
overlies the Cargo Andesite and is disconform-
ably overlain by the Malachi’s Hill Beds. The
Cargo Andesite (Stevens, 1950, 1956), the oldest
formation in the Bowan Park area, is composed
of andesites, basalts and volcanic breccias.

The Malachi’s Hill Beds (Stevens, 1956 ;
Semeniuk, 1970) are composed mainly of
laminated siliceous siltstones, volcanic and

lithic sandstones, volcanic breccias and lavas ;
volcanic rocks and breccias are most abundant
in the upper half of the unit (Figure 1).

The contact between Bowan Park Group and
Malachi’s Hill Beds previously was considered
to be gradational (Stevens, 1956, 47 ;
Semeniuk, 1970, pp. 21-22) with the top of the
Bowan Park Group defined by the uppermost
carbonate horizons. However, a disconformity
separates thinly-bedded skeletal grainstones
(Bowan Park Group) from laminated lithic
calcilutites and minor limestone breccia. The
contact between Malachi’s Hill Beds and Bowan
Park Group is redefined and placed at this
disconformity (Figure 2) as the laminated calcilu-
tites grade vertically into siliceous siltstones of
the Malachi’s Hill Beds, and contain graptclites
and sedimentary structures similar to those of
the Malachi’s Hill Beds.

Bowan Park Group
The Bowan Park Group (Semeniuk, 1970;
redefined here) disconformably overlies the
Cargo Andesite and is disconformably overlain
by the Malachi’s Hill Beds. The group consists

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78

STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK GROUP, N.S.W. 79

(3) Horizons of gravel- and sand-sized litho-
clasts and reworked fossils above erosional
surfaces.

predominantly of limestone and contains in
descending order—

(3) Ballingoole Limestone, 280 m._ thick ;
mainly massive, generally unfossiliferous (4
limestone ; disconformably overlain by
Malachi’s Hill Beds ; conformably overlies

(2) Quondong Limestone, 34 m. thick ; fossili-
ferous, thinly to thickly bedded limestone
and marl; disconformably overlies

(1) Daylesford Limestone, 250 m._ thick ;
terrigenous sediment and marl in basal
part, thinly bedded to massive limestone
in middle part, and mainly massive
limestone in upper part ; disconformably
overlies Cargo Andesite.

Solution cavities with or without fill of
diagenetic sediment (mainly “crystal
silt ’’) below the erosional surface.

——

(5) In situ soils, composed mainly of litho-
clasts with limonite-stained cryptocrystal-
line calcite rinds, and calcrete-ooids (Read,
1971).

Daylesford Limestone

The Daylesford Limestone disconformably
overlies Cargo Andesite and is disconformably

TABLE |
Stratigraphic Units, Bowan Park Group
Units of Semeniuk, 1970

Formation. This Paper

* calcarenite unit ”’
“ Streptelasma unit ”’
““massive unit ”’

Downderry Limestone Member
Clearview Limestone Member
Corner Limestone Member

Ballingoole Limestone

Quondong Limestone No formal subdivision

—

“ pisolite unit ”’
“light grey unit ”’
not in area

“ gastropod unit ”’
“ Tschadites unit ’’

Davys Plains Limestone Member
Glenrae Limestone Member
Oakley Limestone Member
Gerybong Limestone Member
Manooka Limestone Member

Daylesford Limestone

“brachiopod unit ’’

SS Mehic. Waite:

The names Daylesford Limestone, Quondong
Limestone and Ballingoole Limestone are pro-
posed for the Daylesford Formation, Quondong
Formation and _ Ballingoole Formation of
Semeniuk (1970), as the formations are mainly
limestones with minor terrigenous sediments.
Informal subdivisions of these formations
(Semeniuk, 1970) are formally named in this
paper (Table 1).

Evosional disconformities

Erosional disconformities are common in the
Bowan Park Group. Major erosional breaks
separate many of the limestone units, and
numerous minor breaks occur within most
members. The following criteria were used to
recognize breaks—

(1) Irregular karst surfaces, characterized by
depressions and cracks with relief in the
order of a few centimetres to several metres
and filled by soil or marine sediment.

(2) Pinching-out of units.

Bourimbla Limestone Member
Ranch Member

overlain by the Quondong Limestone. At the
type section the unit is 250 m. thick and contains
six members ; these are in descending order—

(6) Davys Plains Limestone Member (95 m.
thick), composed mainly of massive
skeletal lithoclast grainstone, skeletal
packstone and wackestone and_ pellet
packstone ; disconformably overlain by
Quondong Limestone and disconformably
overlies

Glenrae Limestone Member (25 m. thick),
composed of intercalated grainstone, light
grey skeletal wackestone and lime mud-
stone in the lower part and massive light
grey, mottled limestone in the upper part ;
conformably overlies and grades into

(4) Gerybong Limestone Member (64 m. thick),
composed of thinly bedded, dark grey
lime mudstone and skeletal wackestone ;
equivalent in the east to upper part of
Oakley Limestone Member; at type
section conformably overlies

cS

80 V. SEMENIUK

(3) Manooka Limestone Member (16 m. thick),
composed of skeletal grainstone, skeletal
lithoclast grainstone, skeletal packstone
and wackestone, lime mudstone ; equiva-
lent to lower part of Oakley Limestone
Member in the east ; at type section dis-
conformably overlies

(2) Bourrmbla Limestone Member (16 m.
thick), composed of thinly bedded to
massive skeletal wackestone and packstone,
and lime mudstone; *faulted contact with

(1) Ranch Member (34 m. thick), composed
of thinly bedded marl, terrigenous mud-
stone, and towards the base, lithic sand-
stone and mudstone; disconformably
overlies Cargo Andesite.

A unit of massive skeletal grainstone and
skeletal lithoclast grainstone, totalling 90 m.,
is recognized in the eastern part of the area and
is termed Oakley Limestone Member. This unit
is facies equivalent to the Gerybong and Manooka
Limestone Members.

Erosional disconformities are common in the
Daylesford Limestone, separating some members
and occurring within units.

Laminated
siliceous siltstone

= Laminated
lithic limestone

4 d Limestone
breccia

FCT Thinly bedded
tease calcarenite

=) Massive
limestone

—™ Erosion interval

Section at Section at
“th =

Section 1 mile SW i Corner

of Malachi'’s Hill

Hit BEos

4
>
uv
<
i
<
=

BALLINGOOLE
LIMESTONE

Fic. 2.—Detail of contact between Ballingoole
Limestone and Malachi’s Hill Beds. Covered
interval immediately below breccia at section S.W.
of Malachi’s Hill is weathered Marylebone Dolerite.

Ranch Member

The unit consists of strongly outcropping,
thickly bedded, lithic sandstone (3-6 m. thick)
overlain by 7-8 m. of thinly bedded green and
red mudstones, passing up into thinly bedded
limestones, marls and some terrigenous mud-

* At Paling Yard Creek, Bourimbla Limestone
Member (24 m. thick) disconformably overlies Ranch
Member.

stones. Carbonate lithologies include skeletal
grainstone, skeletal pellet grainstone, marly
skeletal packstone and wackestone and lime
mudstone. Thin beds of lithoclastic grainstone
also occur in some _ horizons, especially in
localities to the west. The Ranch Member
apparently thins from west to east.

Bounmbla Limestone Member

This unit consists of thinly bedded te massive,
brown to grey skeletal wackestones, packstones
and lime mudstones, and a horizon of marly
limestone in the middle of the member. Skeletal
limestones characteristically contain the brachio-
pod FEodinobolus, cylindrical stromatoporoid
Alleynodictyon and coral Tetradium. The mem-
ber attains a maximum thickness of 24 m. at
Paling Yard Creek; the type section is strike
faulted at the base and is only 16 m. thick.

Manooka Limestone Member

The Manooka Limestone Member consists of
intercalated, thick bedded to massive, light
grey to brown grainstones and thinly to thickly
bedded dark grey packstones, skeletal wacke-
stones, and burrowed lime mudstones. Grain-
stones in the unit contain algal, echinoderm
and molluscan fossils, whereas skeletal wacke-
stones and packstones mainly contain algal
debris. The large dasycladacean alga Ischadites
is characteristic of skeletal wackestones in the
unit. East of the type section, the member
interfingers with massive grainstones of the
Oakley Limestone Member.

Gerybong Limestone Member

The unit consists of thinly to thickly bedded,
dark grey limestones, mainly burrowed lime
mudstones and skeletal wackestones. Lime
mudstones are dominant in lower sections, and
skeletal wackestones are more common in the
upper parts. Skeletal wackestones contain
Tetradium tenue, ?Tetradium (large species), and
a variety of gastropods including Lophosfira,
Macluntes, Ectomaria, Hormotoma and others.
The Gerybong Limestone Member interfingers
with grainstones of the Oakley Limestone
Member at “The Ranch’ homestead and
further east.

Oakley Limestone Member

This unit is composed dominantly cf massive
grainstones and is laterally equivalent to the
Manooka and Gerybong Limestone Members.
Lithologies include skeletal grainstones and
skeletal lithoclast grainstones. :

STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK GROUP, N.S.W. 81

A creek section illustrating facies relationship
between muddy limestones (of western localities)
and grainstones of this unit occurs 1 km. east
of ‘The Ranch” homestead. The transitional
sequence consists of rapidly alternating thickly
bedded to massive, skeletal grainstone, wacke-
stone and packstone, pellet packstone and lime
mudstone. Contacts between different sediment
types are commonly burrowed.

Glenrae Limestone Member

The Glenrae Limestone Member is massive
light grey limestone that is best developed on
the “‘Quondong’”’ property where it varies in
thickness from 25 m. (at the type section of the
Daylesford Limestone) to 21 m. and 30 m.
along strike from the type section. The lower
part of the unit grades into underlying Gerybong
Limestone Member and consists of light grey
burrow-mottled skeletal grainstone, skeletal
wackestone and lime mudstone. The upper
part of the unit is altered (in patches) to
microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline calcite,
and contains abundant solution cavities and
cracks filled with internal sediment ; the original
lithology of the upper Glenrae Limestone
Member appears to have been predominantly
grainstone. In eastern localities the Glenrae
Limestone Member overlies Oakley Limestone
Member, but the alteration of the unit is not as
well developed.

Davys Plains Limestone Member

The Davys Plains Limestone Member mainly
contains massive pisolitic skeletal lithoclast
grainstones, skeletal wackestones and pack-
stones, and pellet packstones; a 3 m. thick
horizon of thinly bedded fossiliferous marl
occurs in the middle of the unit. Erosional
disconformities are common in the member.
Between disconformities the following sediment
associations occur—

(1) pisolitic lithoclast* grainstone and skeletal
lithoclast* grainstone that grade vertically
into and are interbedded with burrowed
pellet packstone (or skeletal wackestone/
packstone), and some lime mudstone,

skeletal wackestone/packstone interbedded
with lime mudstone,

homogenous sections of burrow-mottled
packstone and wackestone that grade
down into partly burrowed sections of
sediment associations 1 and 2.

Pr Ee
ie) bo
— ~~

* Lithoclasts in these sediments were misidentified
as intraclasts in Semeniuk (1970).

The Davys Plains Limestone Member is
important because it contains first appearances
in the sequence of corals and stromatoporoids
belonging to Fauna II of Webby (1969).

Palaeontology

Fossils of the Daylesford Limestone have been
listed by Semeniuk (1970). More detailed
studies of fauna and flora have been carried out
by Webby (1969, 1971a, 1971b), Webby and
Semeniuk (1971), and Semeniuk and Byrnes
(1971). A more complete list of fossils is given
in Table 2.

The coral-stromatoporoid fauna in the Ranch,
Bourimbla, Manooka and Gerybong Limestone
Members belongs to Fauna I of Webby (1969),
and includes Stratodictyon ozaku, S. columnare,
Alleynodictyon nicholson, Tetradium compactum,
I’. apertum, IT. bowanense, IT. tenue and Labechia
veguiaris. Fauna II commences in the Davys
Plains Limestone Member and continues into
the overlying Quondong Limestone: Fauna II
in the Davys Plains Limestone Member is charac-
terized by Ecclimadictyon neston, E. amzassensis,
Clathrodictyon, Labechia variablis and Tetradium
cribriforme.

Quondong Limestone

The Quondong Limestone (34 m. thick at the
type section) disconformably overlies Daylesford
Limestone with a pebbly lithoclast skeletal
grainstone veneering the disconformity surface.
The formation is conformably overlain by
Ballingoole Limestone with a gradational con-
tact: thinly bedded marly lime mudstones
grade vertically within 2 m. into massive
grainstone and packstone.

The Quondong Limestone consists of lime-
stone, marl and minor terrigenous mudstone ;
lithologies alternate rapidly and sediments occur
in thin units. Numerous erosional breaks occur
and cause pinch-out of beds towards the east.

The formation may be subdivided into a
lower and upper unit. The lower 20 m. is
composed dominantly of thinly bedded skeletal
grainstone and lithoclast skeletal grainstone ;
other lithologies include pellet packstone, skeletal
wackestone and packstone, burrowed lime mud-
stone and intraclast grainstone. Sediments
rapidly alternate and numerous breaks occur.
The upper 10 m. of the Quondong Limestone is
composed mainly of thinly bedded, marly lime
mudstone and pellet packstone ; other lithologies
include skeletal wackestone and packstone and
thin terrigenous mudstone. Sediments are more
uniform in the upper unit and do not alternate

82 V. SEMENIUK

TABLE 2
Fossil List, Daylesford Limestone

Davys
Ranch | Bourimbla}| Manooka | Gerybong | Oakley Glenrae Plains

————————————

ALGAE
Girvanella
Solenopora
Pavachaetetes
Dasyporella Sys
Vermiporella a om x x
Ischadites .. : ms
indet. codiacean .. ie x

x xX X
x
TX
x X
xX
x X

x X
x
x
aK

CORALS
Tetradium apertum Be x x
I. tenue .. we “ x x
T. bowanense os ne x
T. compactum .. a x
T. cribriforme .. he
rE sp. one oe ete x
Lichenaria ie bs
Helhtolites ..
Propovra
Coccoseris ..
Plasmoporella .. oe
Nyctopora es as x x
Eofletcheria Sire Be

x

XK X
XX X
eX OK

x
x xX X

x

STROMATOPOROIDS
Stratodictyon ozakit ape x
S. columnare ns ais x
Labechia vegularis 2 x
L. variablis : io
Alleynodictyon nicholsont x x
Cystostroma cliefdenense. . x
Clathrodictyon
Ecclimadictyon nestort
E. amzassensis

x

xX X

BRYOZOANS
Prasopora sive ae x x
Strictopora She zs x
indet. bryozoans ae x

x
x

BRACHIOPODS
Eodinobolus es
Protozyga .. ar oer x
Catazyga .. sve bie x
Leptellina .. : a

x X X
x xX X
x X
x X
IS = 0x

MOLLUSCS
Lophospiva a aes x x x
Ectomaria
Hormotoma , he
Maclurites.. sy at »<
indet. gastropods as x x x
Hardmanoceras 5 aS
indet. pelecypods ibe x x
?Ctenodonta he a x
orthoconic nautiloids .. » x

IS DS, TS DE OK OX
x
x

IS eS x

x
x
x
x

ARTHROPODS
cf. Kloedinia
Pliomerina or ye
indet. trilobites .. se x

xx xX
xX X
x xX &X
x
x
x

STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK GROUP, N.S.W. 83

as rapidly as in lower sections of the formation.
The formation thins to the east where lower and
upper subdivisions are still recognized.

Palacontology

The Quondong Limestone contains the most
abundant and diverse fauna and flora of rocks
in the area (Semeniuk, 1970). Fossils occur in
the grainstones, skeletal packstones and wacke-
stones. Skeletons composing the grainstones
are mainly an algal-echinoderm-mollusc as-
semblage, but other skeletons are locally
abundant in horizons and produce distinctive
gravel layers ; e.g. Girvanella pisolites, stropho-
menid brachiopod gravel, heliolitid coral and
stromatoporoid gravel, bryozoan and brachiopod
gravel. Fossils in skeletal wackestones and
packstones are mostly gravel-sized and whole
and consist of one of the following assemblages :
(1) gastropod-coral (Lophospira, Macluntes, and
corals Heliolites, Propora, AHullophyllum),
(2) brachiopod-gastropod (brachiopods Leptel-
lina, Strobhomena and other strophomenids,
Catazyga), (3) bryozoan-brachiopod (Stricto-
pora and Catazyga), and (4) coral-stromatoporoid-
algal (with Tetradium cribriforme, heliolitids and
clathrodictiids).

The coral-stromatoporoid assemblage in the
formation belongs to Fauna II (Webby, 1969).
Elements of Fauna II that are restricted to
the Quondong Limestone (in this area) include
Ailllophyllum and Palaeophyllum.

Ballingoole Limestone

The Ballingoole Limestone, 280 m. thick,
conformably overlies the Quondong Limestone,
and is disconformably overlain by the Malachi’s
Hill Beds. The formation consists mainly of
massive limestone with thinly bedded limestone
at the top. Three members occur in the
Ballingoole Limestone ; these are in descending
order—

(3) Downderry Limestone Member (7-5 m.
thick), composed of thinly bedded skeletal
grainstone ; disconformably overlain by
Malachi’s Hill Beds, disconformably over-
hes

(2) Clearview Limestone Member (152 m.
thick), composed of massive skeletal
grainstone, skeletal wackestone, lime mud-
stone ; disconformably overlain by Down-
derry Limestone Member, disconformably
overlies

(1) Corner Limestone Member (120 m. thick),
composed of massive skeletal grainstone

with minor skeletal and pellet packstone ;
disconformably overlain by Clearview
Limestone Member, conformably overlies
OQuondong Limestone.

Corner Limestone Member

The Corner Limestone Member is well
developed at ‘“‘Quondong”’ and Paling Yard
Creek. Limestones are typically massive, and
four sediment types occur in the unit. Well
sorted grainstones are dominant; they are
skeletal or lithoclast skeletal grainstones, bedded
in units up to 2 m. thick. Overlying and inter-
bedded with grainstones are either algal (Vermi-
porella) wackestones or pellet packstones ;
contacts between packstones/wackestones and
grainstones are commonly burrowed. Lime
mudstone forms a minor part of the unit.
Erosional breaks are common and spaced (on
average) every 10-15 m.

Clearview Limestone Member

The Clearview Limestone Member is well
exposed along the road near the “ Ballingoole ”’
homestead (Figure 1), and in the eastern part
of the area. The unit is composed mainly of
skeletal grainstone, pellet packstone, skeletal
wackestone, lime mudstone and minor skeletal
pellet grainstone and intraclast grainstone.
Two sediment associations occur in the member—

(1) skeletal grainstone/pellet packstone (or
algal wackestone)
(2) skeletal wackestone/lime mudstone.

Skeletal grainstone and minor skeletal litho-
clast grainstone grade into and alternate with
pellet packstone or algal (Vermiporella) wacke-
stone ; this is a similar succession of rock types
to the Corner Limestone Member. Laminated
skeletal pellet grainstone and intraclast grain-
stone are interbedded with skeletal grainstone
in some horizons of this member. The skeletal
pellet grainstones contain birdseyes or “‘ laminoid
fenestral fabrics ’’ (Tebbutt, e¢ al., 1965) and flat
intraclast pebbles. Skeletal pellet grainstone
horizons are generally only thin, but a 1-5 m.
thick section, occurs near the top of the member
near “‘ The Corner ’’ homestead.

The second sediment association consists of
Tetradium wackestone intercalated with coral-
stromatoporoid wackestone and light grey lime
mudstone ; these occur at several levels in the
unit ; some light grey lime mudstones exhibit
desiccation features. Skeletal wackestone hori-
zons are separated from the main grainstone/
pellet packstone or algal (Vermiporella) wacke-
stone sequence by erosional breaks.

84 V. SEMENIUK

The palaeontological characteric of the Clear-
view Limestone Member is the occurrence of
Streptelasma in grainstones and skeletal wacke-
stones. This rugose coral makes its first
appearance in New South Wales above the
disconformity at the unit’s base and marks the
commencement of Fauna III of Webby (1969).

Downderry Limestone Member

The topmost unit of the Ballingoole Limestone,
the Downderry Limestone Member, consisting
of thinly bedded skeletal grainstones, dis-
conformably overlies the Clearview Limestone
Member. Solution cavities are common beneath
the contact, and lithoclast pebbles occur above
it. The unit is 7-5 m. thick at Malachi’s Hill
and thins shghtly eastwards (Figure 2). The
Member is disconformably overlain by laminated
lithic limestones (calcilutites) of the Malachi’s
Hill Beds (Figure 2).

Palaeontology

Fossils are rare in the Corner Limestone
Member, though fragmentary heuvutids occur
throughout, and molluscan debris, echinoderm
ossicles and calcareous algae (mainly Vermi-
porella) occur in the grainstones. The Clearview
Limestone Member is more fossiliferous and
contains elements of Fauna III of Webby
(1969), including corals Streptelasma, Plasmo-
porella inflata, Plasmoporella sp., Tetradium and
Nyctopora, and stromatoporoids Ecclimadictyon
nestort, E. amzassensis, Clathrodictyon cf. micro-
undulatum, and Pseudostylodictyon inequale.
Towards the top of the member corals Halysites
praecedens and Palaeofavosites make their first
appearance in the sequence. The Downderry
Limestone Member to date has yielded few
fossils other than trilobites and fragmentary
echinoderm skeletons.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank B. D. Webby and
J. F. Read for critically reading the manuscript.

Department of Geology,
University of Western Australia,
Nedlands, W.A.

This work, carried out at the University of
Sydney, was supported by a Commonwealth.
Post-graduate Scholarship. Costs of manuscript
preparation were partly met by a University of
Western Australia Research Grant.

References

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Wessy, B. D., 1969. Ordovician stromatoporoids
from New South Wales. Palaeont., 12, 117-129.

Wespy, B. D., 197la. Alleynodictyon, a new Ordo-
vician stromatoporoid from New South Wales.
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WEBBY, B. D., 1971b. The tribolite Plhomerina
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(Received 6 December 1972)

STRATIGRAPHY OF BOWAN PARK GROUP, N.S.W.

85

Appendix I

Section localities referred to in Figure 1. Thickness

of units are given where practicable.

Locality 1; “‘ Quondong ”’

Thickness
Unit (metres)
Corner Limestone Member 66
Quondong Limestone 34
Davys Plains Limestone Member 95
Glenrae Limestone Member 25
Gerybong Limestone Member 64
Manooka Limestone Member 16
Bourimbla Limestone Member 16
strike fault
Ranch Member 34
Cargo Andesite
Locality 2
Thickness
Unit (metres)
Lower Gerybong Limestone Member
covered interval
Manooka Limestone Member ?
Bourimbla Limestone Member 29+
covered interval
Cargo Andesite
Locality 3; Paling Yard Creek
Thickness
Unit (metres)
Corner Limestone Member 74
Quondong Limestone 35
Davys Plains Limestone Member 78
Glenrae Limestone Member 6
Gerybong Limestone Member ca. 60
Manooka Limestone Member ca. 16
Bourimbla Limestone Member 24
Ranch Member 34
Cargo Andesite
Locality 4
Thickness
Unit (metres)

Corner Limestone Member
Ouondong Limestone
Davys Plains Limestone Member ?
strike fault
Gerybong Limestone Memberx intercal-
ated with Oakley Limestone Member 60+

Bourimbla Limestone Member 6+
Strike fault
Ranch Member 9

Cargo Andesite

Locality 5; “‘ Daylesford ’’ property

Thickness
Unit (metres)
Tertiary basalt cover
Glenrae Limestone Member 45
Oakley Limestone Member 9
Bourimbla Limestone Member ?
covered interval
Cargo Andesite

Locality 6; “‘ The Corner ’’ homestead

Thickness
Unit (metres)
Malachi’s Hill Beds
Downderry Limestone Member 6
Clearview Limestone Member 37+

Locality 7; south of “ Ballingoole ’’ homestead

Thickness
Unit (metres)
Clearview Limestone Member 120+
Locality 8; south of Malachi’s Hill
Thickness
Unit (metres)
Downderry Limestone Member 11
Clearview Limestone Member 128
Locality 9; Malachi’s Hill
Thickness
Unit (metres)
Malachi’s Hill Beds
Downderry Limestone Member 7:5
Clearview Limestone Member ca. 60

Locality 10; 1 mile SW of Malachi’s Hill

Thickness
Unit (metres)
Malachi’s Hill Beds
covered interval
Downderry Limestone Member ?
covered interval
Clearview Limestone Member 72+

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 86-93, 1972

The Palaeomagnetism of Some Palaeozoic Sediments from
Central Australia

B. J. J. EMBLETON
Communicated by Dr. K. A. W. Crook

ABSTRACT—Stable components of magnetic remanence have been isolated (using the partial
thermal demagnetization technique) in rock samples collected from the Middle Ordovician
Stairway Sandstone and the Siluro ?-Devonian Mereenie Sandstone: The stable magnetic
remanence is interpreted to be of primary origin. The Stairway Sandstone, sampled over about
350 metres, yields a palaecomagnetic south pole situated at 2°S, 50-5°E (a,=—8:5°) and the
Mereenie Sandstone sampled over the lower 100 metres of a 300 metre succession, yields the pole
position 41-5°S, 40-5°E (a ,;=10-5°). The Ordovician pole supports previous results but the
Siluro ?—Devonian pole is situated on an older portion of the Australian polar wander curve than
would be expected when compared with published Silurian data.

1. Introduction investigations by Irving and Green (1958), few

This paper deals with the palaeomagnetism results have been obtained from Lower Palaeo-
of the Stairway Sandstone (of Middle Ordovician Zoic rock formations within Australia. The
age) and the Mereenie Sandstone (at least in polar wander curve for Australia, beyond the
part Devonian but possibly extending back into Carboniferous, is based on Cambrian data from
the Silurian) and complements previous work the Northern Territory (McElhinny and Luck,
reported by Embleton (1972). Since the early 1970 and Embleton, 1972), a single Ordovician

TABLE la
Stairway Sandstone : summary of directions of remanent magnetization with respect to bedding, before cleaning (NRM)
and aftey treatment (600-630°C).

NRM 600-630°C

Sample N R 18)s iis Int. x 10-® Gauss N R IDS ie

A70 2 1-932 | 297-5 | +15-5 10-7 2 1-941 | 259-0 | +20-0
AT 3 2-962 | 327-0 | +16-5 ea 3 2-961 | 268-5 sp miei4sG
AT2 3 2-999 | 273-5 | 429-5 73 3 2-998 | 277-0 | +23-0
AT3 4 3-966 | 299-0 | -+28-5 9-8 3 2-970 | 259-5 —0-5
AT74 3 2-970 | 282-0 +8-0 12-9 9 1:998 | 976.5: eeen ie
AT5 3 2-999 | 297-0 | +13-0 5-6 3 2-960 | 274-5 | +16-0
AT6 2 1-999 | 308-5 | +20-5 156 2 1-990 | 281-0 | +34-0
ATT 4 3-989 | 316-0 | +30-5 16-4 3 2-707 | 266-0 | +14-5
A78 3 2-956 | 292-5 | +25-0 10-7 3 2-904 | 251-0 i530
ATS 3 2-990 | 324-5 | 417-5 58-7 9 1:965 | 298-0 16.0
A80* 3 2-999 | 353-0 eee 86-3} atts 349-5 ee
A8l* 2 1-999 | 360-0 aes 85-2 | = 358-5 iat
A82* 3 2-999 | 358-0 BPA 75-31 ie 6-0 49-0
A83* 3 2-990 | 350-0 es 98-5 J ae. 348-0 | 419-5

* Samples “‘ remagnetized ’’, contain a thermally stable secondary component.
t Pilot specimens.

TABLE 1b
Formation mean direction and pole position after thermal treatment.

n R IDE T Os at: Long. X95
(1) 600-630°C 10 9-636 271-0 +14-5 10-0 2°S 50-5°E 8-5
(ii) 630-660°C 10 8-714 275-0 +22-5 19°5 0° 59-0°E 16-0

Symbol notation: N-number of specimens, n, number of samples, R=resultant of N or n unit vectors,
D°=declination, I°=inclination, Int.=intensity of NRM, a,,=semi-angle of the cone of
confidence at the 95% probability level.

PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SOME PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS

result from the Northern Territory (Luck, 1970)
and a result for the Silurian from eastern New
South Wales (Briden, 1966). Several recent
interpretations of the data can be seen in
McElhinny and Luck (1970), Creer (1970) and
Embleton (1972).

87

about 60 percent of fine and medium grained
quartz grey-wacke, sometimes quite silty and
about 40 percent of cleaner quartz sandstone.
Ten oriented samples (A70—A79) were collected
from five deep red siltstone bands, (4 metre—
14 metres thick) which occur at intervals

Reference

PC-- Precambrian:

-~ Fault

2 Syncline

Prot--Proterozoic: 4b P--Lower Palaeozoic:

2b Anticline

$?D--Siluro?-Devonian. D<--Devonian to Carboniferous:

@ Sampling Locality

FIGURE 1.—Geological sketch map of the sampling locality. Dots
indicate the localities from which samples were obtained.

Localities in which to sample material for
palaeomagnetic investigation were chosen remote
from south-east Australia in view of the complex
geological history that region suffered (Brown
et al., 1968), and following some modern ideas
which question the relative geological antiquity
of south-east Australia and the physical integrity
of the region during the Lower Palaeozoic
(Oversby, 1971).

2. Brief Geology of the Area Sampled

The Stairway Sandstone and the Mereenie
Sandstone occur as successive stratigraphic units
in the Ellery Creek section of the Palaeozoic
sedimentary sequence in the Amadeus Basin,
central Australia (23-8°S, 133°E). Palaeo-
magnetic results have been described from the
Arumbera Sandstone (Proterozoic-Cambrian)
and the Hugh River Shale (Lower-Middle Cam-
brian) from the same locality by Embleton
(1972). According to Prichard and Quinlan
(1962) the Stairway Sandstone is about 350
metres thick at Ellery Creek and consists of

throughout the middle and upper beds of the
sequence. Four samples (A80-A83) of fine-
grained sandstone, rather pinkish and poorly
cemented, were collected near the top of the
formation. The beds dip uniformly southwards
at about 60°. The age of the Stairway Sand-
stone is well established palaeontologically
(Wells e¢ al., 1970), and ranges from Upper
Llanvirnian to Llandeilian.

The Mereenie Sandstone unconformably over-
lies the Stairway Sandstone. The beds again
dip uniformly southwards but with a somewhat
shallower inclination—about 55°. Twenty-eight
oriented samples (A84—A112, A93 was not
collected) were collected from the lower beds
where it forms a prominent “... red wall on
the north side of the curve in the Creek (Ellery)
just before the stream enters the congolmerate
hills (Pertnjara Group) ” (Madigan, 1932, p. 690).
In the sampling locality, the formation is about
300 metres thick, and approximately the lower
100 metres were sampled for palaeomagnetic
study. Itisa fine to medium grained, red-brown

88 B. J. J. EMBLETON

sandstone with cross-bedding more conspicuously
developed in the middle and upper beds of the
sequence. Few fossils have been found in the
Mereenie Sandstone, but Milton (1967) has
reported the presence of some Devonian fish
fragments, so that it is in part Devonian. The
overlying Parke Siltstone (basal member of the
Partnjara Group) is also Devonian in age

Range about twenty-five miles south-east of
Ellery Creek. A geological sketch map of the
sampling locality is shown in Figure 1. :

3. Palaeomagnetic Results
Cylindrical specimens (2:8 cm. dia., 2:8 cm.
high) were cut from the oriented samples and
measured for directions

and intensities of

1390

170

FIGURE 2.—Sample-mean directions of remanent magnetization measured

in the Stairway Sandstone.

Parts A and B show the NRM directions

referred to the present horizontal and palaeohorizontal (bedding plane)
respectively ; the NRM distribution is streaked through the present field
direction denoted by the open star in A. Part C shows the 600-—630° C

population ; the streaking has been eliminated.

Open symbols represent

negative (upward pointing) directions and closed symbols positive (down
pointing) directions.

(Wells e¢ al., 1970). In sections through the
Palaeozoic sequence further west, the Mereenie
Sandstone apparently rests conformably on the
Carmichael Sandstone. The latter formation is
considered Upper Ordovician in age. It there-
fore seems probable that the Mereenie Sandstone
could extend back into the Silurian—hence the
designated age of Siluro >-Devonian—but as yet
there is no fossil evidence to support this. A
further five samples (A144—A148) were collected
from north-dipping beds in the Waterhouse

magnetization using a high sensitivity spinner
magnetometer. The partial thermal de-
magnetization technique was employed to
(i) test the stability of the magnetic remanence
and (ii) remove secondary components of
magnetization. Directions of magnetization
were analysed following the method devised by
Fisher (1953) and palaeomagnetic pole positions
were calculated by assigning unit weight to each
sample. In Figures 2, 4 and 5, the directions
are plotted stereographically on a Wulff net.

PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SOME PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS 89

3.1 The Stairway Sandstone

Sample-mean directions of natural remanent
magnetization (NRM) exhibit a streaked distri-
bution which, when plotted with respect to the
present horizontal, are approximately directed
along a great circle passing through the present
field axis (see Figure 2A). The four samples
that were collected near the top of the formation
(numbers A80—-A83) group close to the direction
of the present field, and their NRM intensities
(Table 1a) are also much higher than the NRM
intensities of samples A70-A78. Although
sample A79 also had a high NRM intensity, it
did respond to thermal treatment—whereas
samples A80—A83 maintained their initial direc-
tions of magnetization up to temperatures in
the region of 650° (Table 1a lists their directions
up to 630°C and since no apparent change has
occurred, they are classed as ‘‘ remagnetized ”’).
Streaking was almost eliminated from the
remainder of the samples after partial thermal
demagnetization at about 500°C. They were
treated at two further steps to effectively isolate
the primary component of magnetic remanence.
Sample-mean data after treatment at 600—630°C
is listed in Table la and Table 1b compares the
600-630°C sample population with the 630-660°C
population. The demagnetization-intensity
curves shown in Figure 3 illustrate the relatively
lower stability of magnetic remanence of samples
A80-A83 compared with samples A70-A79,
although some overlap in stability is apparent.
The isolated component of remanence (reversed
polarization, Figure 2c) is strongly oblique to
the present geomagnetic field direction and is
quite stable up to the blocking temperatures of
magnetic mineral phases (probably in the region
600-650°C). The position of the south palaeo-
magnetic pole computed from sample virtual
geomagnetic poles (VGPs), after treatment at
600-630°C, is 2°S, 50-°5°E (a ,=8-5°).

3.2 The Mereemie Sandstone

Relatively strong secondary components of
magnetic remanence have been acquired in the
direction of the present geomagnetic field—
Figure 44 shows the thirty-three sample-mean
directions tightly grouped about the present
field axis (situated at 005°, —58°). After
correction for bedding tilt two populations
emerge: (i) comprised of samples from south-
dipping beds (A84—A112), and (ii) of samples
from the north-dipping beds (A144—-A148).
None of the samples from the latter group res-
ponded successfully to thermal treatment, so
precluding the possibility of applying the fold
test (Graham, 1949) after treatment. Eleven

of the twenty-eight samples from the south-
dipping beds were successfully “‘ cleaned’’.
Fourteen of the remainder (samples A84—A88
and A95—A103) maintained their NRM directions
up to 650°C, and the three samples A91—A94
behaved erratically. Sample-mean intensities of
remanent magnetization varied in such a way
that those samples which ultimately responded

i) 100 200 300 400 300 600 700

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temp°C
FIGURE 3.—Normalized demagnetization-intensity
curves for pilot specimens of Stairway Sandstone.
(J/Jo is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization
at a particular temperature to the NRM intensity
value).

90 B. J. J. EMBLETON

successfully to treatment had the lowest NRM
values. The arithmetic-mean NRM values of
intensity for each group were 2:8 x10-° gauss
(accepted samples, n=11) and 1-1 x10-+* gauss
(rejected samples, 1=22).

Pilot specimen data from the accepted samples
is shown in Figure 5—only after high-tempera-
ture treatment did they reveal any tendency to
group significantly away from the present field
axis. Further specimens were then treated at
590-620°C and at 620-650°C. Figures 4c and D
indicate the reduced scatter achieved at the
higher of the two temperatures. Specimen
directions from two samples (A89 and A109)
rotated into a position reversed with respect to
the main population—they were not collected
from a common stratigraphic horizon so the

implication of the reversal remains obscure.
However, the presence of both _ polarities,
approximately anti-parallel and oblique to the
present field axis, lends weight to the significance
of the result even though the origin of the
phenomenon is uncertain. Table 2 lists the
sample-mean data after “‘cleaning’’ and the
corresponding palaeomagnetic south-pole calcu-
lated from sample VGPs is situated at 41-5°S,
40°5°E (%,=10-5°).

4. Discussion

Interpretation of the results reported here
will be restricted to the implications they have
for the existing palaeomagnetic record of Aus-
tralia. All samples of Stairway Sandstone
which were judged to have retained a proportion

FIGURE 4.—Directions of remanent magnetization measured in the Mereenie Sandstone.
show NRM sample-mean directions referred to the present horizontal and the palaeohorizontal respectively.
The cluster around the present field axis at about 005°, —58° (part A) indicates that the bulk of the
remanence is of recent origin—this is fully substantiated by the two groups of directions revealed after

applying the bedding correction (part B); the folding is late Palaeozoic.

Parts A and B

Samples collected from the

south-dipping limb are denoted by circles (A84—A112) and those from the north-dipping limb by squares

(A144-A148),

Parts C and D show the specimen populations after treatment at 590-620° C and 620—650° C

respectively. Triangles denote specimens with reversed polarity.

PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SOME PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS JE

of their primary remanence were reversely
magnetized. The computed mean pole position
agrees reasonably well with the Lower Ordovician
pole position reported by Luck (1970). The
Jinduckin Formation, sampled at locality 14°S,
132°E, yielded a palaeomagnetic south pole
position at 16°S, 29°E (a%);=17°). Both poles
are shown in Figure 6 and lie close to the
apparent polar wander curve connecting the
Lower-Middle Cambrian and the Siluro ?-
Devonian polar regions. No other investiga-
tions have successfully produced palaeomagnetic
poles from rocks of Ordovician age in Australia.

primary remanence, (11) the rock ages are
incorrect, or (ili) relative displacements of the
crustal regions containing each rock unit have
occurred since their formation, either by local
block rotation or by translation. With regard
to possibility (i), the directions of magnetic
remanence are believed to be primary in both
cases, but a further point is whether the secular
variation of the geomagnetic field has been
accounted for by sampling over a sufficient time
interval. Explanation (ii) certainly does not
appear as a likely solution—the physical age
of the Mugga Mugga Porphyry, determined

TABLE 2

The Mereente Sandstone, summary of sample-mean data after partial thermal demagnetization.
Directions ave vestored to the bedding planes.

590-620°C 620—650°C
Sample N R D° I° N R De iby
A89 2 1-513 243°5 +47°5 2 1-870 257-0 +18-5
A90 2 1-949 81:5 — 50:5 2 E970 80-5 — 60-0
A104 2 1-984 61-0 —2-0 2 1-997 56-0 —9-5
A105 2 1-805 33-0 —6°5 2 1-898 41:5 — 32-0
A106 3 2+737 31-0 —17°5 3 2: 869 42-5 —14-5
A107 3 2°338 28-0 —27:0 3 2-678 37-0 —18-5
A108 3 2°727 44-5 —4-0 3 2-809 24:5 —35-0
A109 3 2-728 237-5 +23:-0 3 2-867 236-0 +20-0
A110 3 2-621 54-0 +0°5 3 2-818 51-0 —13-0
Alll 2 1-891 41-0 —34-0 2 1-789 48-2 —37°5
All2 3 2+472 35-0 —18-5 3 2-714 46-5 —7-0
Mean n=11 10-226 47-0 —21°5 10 10-353 50:0 — 24-5
Mean of sample VGPs after 620-650°C treatment: (samples A89 and A109 reversed)
n R Lat. Long. Qos
11 10-474 41-5°S 40:5°E 10-5°

Symbol notation as for Table 1.

Much palaeomagnetic work has been carried
out on Devonian rock formations, but the
absence of laboratory stability tests has led to
the results being omitted from the polar-wander
curve (for example see Creer (1970) and
McElhinny and Luck (1970)). Results from two
rock sequences which were “ cleaned ”’ (viz. the
Housetop Granite plus aureole (Briden, 1967)
and the Dotswood red beds (Chamalaun, 1968))
indicated that their magnetic remanence is
younger than the rock ages, so they also have
been omitted. There are therefore no results
with which to compare directly the pole yielded
by the Mereenie Sandstone. A Silurian pole
position is available from the Mugga Mugga
Porphyry, reported by Briden (1966), but the
pole obtained from the Mereenie Sandstone, can
be seen from Figure 6 to lie on an older portion
of the apparent polar-wander curve. This
discrepancy may be explained by one of the
following possibilities: (i) one or the other,
or even both rock units have not retained their

B

using the Rb-Sr isochron method (Bofinger e¢ al.,
1970) is 423+9 My (®’Rb decay constant
1-39 x10-" yr—1) and the Devonian age for the
Mereenie Sandstone is based on the presence
of diagnostic fish fragments which occur in the
sequence (see section 2). Furthermore, there
is no suggestion that the Sandstone could be
older than Silurian. The Mugga Mugga Por-
phyry is located in south-east Australia, a region
whose suitability as a collecting ground for
Lower Palaeozoic material has been questioned
by the author on the basis of arguments which
raise doubt about the physical integrity of
south-east Australia at that time. It may be
that possibility (11) has contributed to the
disparity between the results. It is unlikely
that central Australia has suffered significant
translational or rotational movements relative
to the main shield areas, at least since the upper-
most Pre-Cambrian (Embleton, 1972). Until
further investigations are made, however, it
remains premature to reach a definite conclusion

92

B. J. J. EMBLETON

FiGuRE 5.—Mereenie Sandstone pilot specimen populations; directions are referred to the present
horizontal. <A letter is allocated to each specimen for comparison of its direction after treatment at the
various temperatures indicated in the Figure.

1B.

PERMO-CARB.

FicureE 6.—The polar wander curve for Australia. All Lower Palaeozoic pole positions are plotted with
their respective circles of confidence at the 95 per cent probability level (P=0-05), Fisher (1953).
APV=<Antrim Plateau Volcanics, McElhinny and Luck (1970) ; AS=Arumbera Sandstone and HRS=
High River Shale, Embleton (1972) ; HF=Hudson Formation, Luck (1972) ; J=Jinduckin Formation,
Luck (1970) ; SS=Stairway Sandstone and MS=Mereenie Sandstone, this paper. The Upper Silurian
pole position was reported by Briden (1966) from a study of the Mugga Mugga Porphyry. The Upper
Palaeozoic and younger portion of the curve has been described by Irving (1966) and McElhinny and Luck
(1970).

PALAEOMAGNETISM OF SOME PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS 93

about the Silurian and Devonian palaeomagnetic
pole position which is valid for the main shield
area of Australia.

Acknowledgement

The author expresses his thanks to Mr. D. J.
Edwards for the competent assistance he offered
in the field.

References

BoFINGER, V. M., Compston, W., and GuLson, B. L.,
1970. A Rb-Sr study of the Lower Silurian State
Circle Shale, Canberra. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,
34, 433-445.

BRIDEN, J. C., 1966. Estimates of directions and
intensity of the palaeomagnetic field from the
Mugga Mugga Porphyry, Australia. Geophys. J. R.
asty. Soc., 11, 267-278.

BRIDEN, J. C., 1967. Secondary magnetization of
some Palaeozoic rocks from Tasmania. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 101, 43-48.

Brown, D. A., CAMPBELL, K. S. W., and Crook,
K. A. W., 1968. The geological evolution of
Australia and New Zealand, Pergamon Press.

CHAMALAUN, F. H., 1968. The magnetization of the
Dotswood red-beds (Queensland), Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett., 3, 439-443.

CREER, K. M., 1970. A review of palaeomagnetism.
Earth Sci. Rev., 6, 369-466.

EMBLETON, B. J. J., 1972. The palaeomagnetism of
some Proterozoic-Cambrian sediments from the
Amadeus Basis, central Australia. Farth Planet.
Set. Lett., 17, 217-226.

FISHER, R., 1953. Dispersion on a sphere.
Soc. London, Serv. A, 217, 295-305.

Proc. Roy.

Research School of Earth Sciences,
Australian National University,
Canberra, A.C.T.

GRAHAM, J. W., 1949. The stability and significance
of magnetism in sedimentary rocks, J]. Geophys.
Res., 54, 131-167.

IrvING, E., 1966. Paleomagnetism of some Carboni-
ferous rocks from New South Wales and its
relation to geologicalevents. J. Geophys. Res., 71,
6025-6051.

IrvING, E., and GREEN, R., 1958. Polar wandering
relative to Australia. Geophys. J. R. astr. Soc., 1,
64-72.

Luck, G. R., 1970. The palaeomagnetism of some
Cambrian and Ordovician sediments from the
Northern Territory, Australia. Geophys. J. R.
astr. Soc., 20, 31-39.

Lucx, G. R., 1972. Palaeomagnetic results from
Palaeozoic sediments of Northern Australia.
Geophys. J. R. astr. Soc., 28, 475-487.

MapiGan, C. T., 1932. The geology of the western

MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia. Quarvi. J.
geol. Soc. Lond., 88(4), 672-711.
McEtuinny, M. W., and Luck, G. R., 1970. The

palaeomagnetism of the Antrim Plateau Volcanics
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Mitton, D. J., 1967. Gosses Bluff crater study: in
Bur. Miner. Resour. Aust. Rec. 1967-134, 11-14,
unpublished.

OvERSBY, B., 1971. Palaeozoic plate tectonics in the
southern Tasman _ geosyncline. Nature, Phys.
Sci., 234, 45-47 and 60.

PRICHARD, C. E., and QUINLAN, T., 1962. The geology

of the southern half of the Hermannsburg
1: 250,000 sheet. Bur. Miner. Resour. Aust.
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WELLS, A. T., Forman, D. J., RANForD, L. C., and
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(Received 26 June 1972)

BB

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 94-96, 1972

Special Maps in Banach-spaces: p-summing, p-radonifying,
p-integral, p-nuclear Maps*

L. SCHWARTZ

Many types of linear continuous maps between
Banach spaces have been studied in the past
years, all having the so-called “‘ ideal property ”’ :
(1) if «# and v are such special maps from EF
into F, so are u+v and ku, k scalar; (2) if
“ is such a special map, and if v and w are
continuous linear maps, vuw is a special map
of the same kind. Examples: the compact
maps, the integral maps, the nuclear maps,
the Hilbert-Schmidt maps in the case of Hilbert
spaces. The aim of this lecture is to study some
special maps having the ideal property, and
depending on an index p>0.

§1. The p-summing Maps
Let E be a Banach space. A sequence
e=(é,)nen Of elements of E is said to be
1? (p>0), if

00 1
etl=( 2 eI)?
(Sup || ¢, las + cofor b= 00).
It is said to be'scalarly 7’, 1f, for every Ge.2 ;
(F <ayg> pcre;
in this us one sees easily that

+00 z
l| e ||p= Sup ( yi) ee 1")? <+o.
Eek’ n=0
|Ell<1

Of course a sequence which is /? is scalarly /?,
and the converse is not true. A continuous
linear map: E - G is said to be f-summing,
p>, if it transforms every scalarly 1? sequence
into an J? sequence. In that case there exists
a constant M >0 such that, for every sequence
e=(é,)nen Of elements of E£,|| u(e) ||,<M]| e ||p ;
the smallest possible M is denoted by 7,(z).

<+0,

Observations and Examples

(1) If w(£) is finite dimensional (in particular
if G is finite dimensional), u is always
p-summing.

(2) If & and G are Hilbert spaces, and f< +0,
u is p-summing if and only if w is Hilbert-

* Pollock Memorial Lecture, delivered on 3rd August,
1972.

Schmidt, and the Hilbert-Schmidt norm of
is 7,(¢). This is not at all a trivial result.
(3) Every continuous linear map is + o-
summing, and 7+ o(#)=|| w ||.
(4) One has the ideal property,
inequalities :
Te, (4+) <r,(#) +70,(v) op Al,
(1,(-+0))? <(re,(u))? +-(re4(0))?
if P<,

and the

T(vuw) <|[ o |[rp(#)|| wf
(5) There exists a useful generalization, intro-
duced by Maurey, for —1<p<0.

Pietsch’s theorem. Letu: E ~G be linear
continuous.

(1) Lf u ws p-summing, it 1s q-summing, and
Tq(u)<7p(u), for q>p.

(2) For p<-+oo, for u to be p-summing, it is
necessary and sufficient that there exists a
Radon probability v on a compact space Z,
and a continuous linear map v from E into
L“(Z,v), such that || u(x) ||¢<|| v(x) ee .

mY)

for every x cE.
In this case, mp(u)=IJnf || v|| for all the
possible v.

Observations and Consequences

(1) From (1) it results that there exists a fp,
—1<p<+o, such that uw is p-summing
for p>pp,, and is not for p< py A cons
jecture by Pietsch is that =—1 or fy) >1:
if u is (1l—e)-summing, <¢>0, then it is
p-summing for every f>—1. This con-
jecture has been proved recently by Simone
Chevet and Bernard Maurey.

From (2) it results that, if v is a Radon
probability on a compact space Z, the
canonical injection 7: L”(Z,v) 4, L?(Z,v) is
p-summing, and 7,(j) <1.

S

§2. The p-integral Maps

A map 4: £ ~+G is said to be #-integral,

p-0, if it factorizes in the following way :
ES LY" (2Z,9) 2 LA eee

where v is a Radon probability on a compact
space Z, and 7 the canonical injection. “Phe
p-integral norm wu is the infimum of |] v |], for
all these possible representations for which

SPECIAL MAPS IN BANACH-SPACES 95

Meee|i< 1: For p=—1, it is very near to
the notion of integral map introduced by
Grothendieck. By the ideal property, a
p-integral map is f-summing; the converse
is true for f=2, not in the other cases. But
let us say that u is f-subintegral if it factorizes
in the wus way:

“(Z,y)

the diagram being commutative, 7 being the
canonical injection, S being a closed vector
subspace of L?(Z,v) with the induced norm and
k the canonical injection. The /-subintegral
norm will be the infimum of || v ||, for all these
representations for which || wz, || <1.

Then Pietsch’s theorem of §1 is equivalent
to saying that, for f<-+00, uw is p-summing
if and only if it is f-subintegral, and its f-sub-
integral norm is exactly 7,(z).

§3. The p-nuclear Norms
We call diagonal map from 7” into /l? a
multiplication: (,)nen — (a,¢,)nen by a
sequence a=(a,)nen € l?.
A map u: E +G is said to be #-nuclear,
p-0, if it factorizes in the following way :
eee 2G, with qe’.
The p-nuclear norm is the infimum of || « ||,»,

for all the possible factorizations with
[|v ||<1, ||, ||/<1. For p=1, one obtains
exactly the nuclear maps introduced by
Grothendieck. In the same direction, u will be

called p-subnuclear if it factorizes as u=w,u,,
with the commutative diagram :

Uv a
[eS | ey

with the same kind of conditions as in §2 for
the p-subintegral maps ; the f-subnuclear norm
of « is the infimum of || « ||,2, when || v || <1,
|| %||<1. One sees easily that a p-nuclear
(resp. p-subnuclear) map is a fortiori f-integral
(resp. sub-integral), therefore p-summing. The
converse is not true, but

Persson’s theorem. Jf E 1s reflexive, every
p-integral map (resp. p-subintegral map) from E
into G 1s p-nuclear (resp. p-subnuclear).

§4. The p-radonifying Maps
Let A be a Radon ee on £. One puts

1 Mp>=(Cell * [ed wy and.
A a= eup (Sel he \pdr(x))?

<1
atie onaiiy is said to be of order # if
|| A|l,< +00, of type p if || A||,p<+-o0. If it
is of order #, it is of type p, and |] A ||5<|| A ||,-
If A is a countable discrete sum of point-masses,
the previous notions are very similar to those
of /? sequences and scalarly /? sequences of §1.

It is possible to generalize considerably the
notion of Radon probability 4 on E by that of
cylindrical probability on E. We shall not give
here the complete definition, which is rather
abstract. Let us simply say that the order and
|| A |], cannot be extended to cylindrical prob-
abilities, but that the type and || a||$ can be.
Let us mention also that if & is a Hilbert space,
the Gauss probability, well known if £ is finite
dimensional, can always be defined in the
infinite dimensional case as a cylindrical prob-
ability, related to the white noise and to Wiener
measure.

A continuous linear map uw: £ > G is said
to be p-radonifying, if it transforms every
cylindrical probability on £, of type #, into a
Radon probability on G, of order p. A
p-radonifying map is trivially p-summing. The
converse is not true, but

Theorem. The two following properties are
equivalent :

(1) u zs p-summing from E into G;

(2) u ts approximately p- vadonifying from E

into the bidual o(G",G’).

We shall not define the precise meaning of the
word “ approximately ’’. Let us simply point
out the following improvements.

The word “‘ approximately ’’ can be dropped
if E’ has the Banach approximation property
[i.e. there exists a net (w,)icy of continuous
linear maps from £” into itself, of norm<1,
of finite rank, such that lim w,;(&)=€ for every

6¢’. It had been conjectured by Banach
that every Banach space has this property.
It has been proved just a few weeks ago that
this conjecture is false], or if f>1. The bidual
o(G",G’) can be replaced by G itself, if @ is
reflexive, or if 1<p<-+oo. In particular, for
1<p<+o, uw is p-radonifying if and only
if it is p-summing.

The #-radonifying maps have a lot of applica-
tions in probabilities, so that functional analysis
may apply to probabilities in a new way.
Conversely, some results of probabilities can

96 L. SCHWARTZ

prove theorems of functional analysis, about
p-summing or f-nuclear maps.

§5. Radonifying Maps between the
Spaces I’

Set a’ the conjugate exponent of a, 1 <a<-+ 00.
Let a=(a,)nen, and consider the diagonal
map defined by «, (¢,)new > (,,)nen-. Then

Theorem. The diagonal map a is p-
radomfying, —1<p<1, from 1’ into 1, if and
only uf

oc |
(nee c=, dee nl oe, 12 (1+ log | )<+00,
n=0 n
i =D <2
(2) ael*, if azb>2;
FU Mee Wek name
(3) ael, nares — > isa 220 ;

(4) a e /Min(2,5) in the other cases.

$6. Radonifying Maps between Spaces
of Distributions

Let us call (Li.)* the space of distributions
on RR”, whose derivative of order a les in
Lye (1<a<-+oo, ae R; the derivatives of
non-integer order are defined by suitable con-
volutions). By Sobolev’s inequalities,
(Licc)* © (Lioc)® when

es b(t ~3)"=max i 0).

n a b a b’
Then
Theorem.
oO flee Pi
(1) If aan. D (* =) , Ll<p<+oo, the in-

jection from (L*)* into (L?.)® ts p-radoni-
fying ;
(2) If 2 P> Max (1 = Min (3 t) ), te same
injection is p-radonifying for every p> —1.
Let us give an application to the brownian
motion. The white noise corresponds to the
Gauss cylindrical probability on L? (in the
case m=1); it is of type p for every finite #.
The primitive of the white noise is exactly the
brownian motion ; it is defined by a cylindrical
probability y on Gireyy, of type # for every
finite /.
Is the brownian motion almost surely con-
tinuous, hdlderian of order 8B? This would

Ecole Polytechnique,
Centre de Mathématique,
17, Rue Descartes,
Paris V, France.

(Received 11

imply that y is a Radon probability on (Ly.)* —<,
and would be implied by y being a Radon prob-

ability on (Ly.)8+*, whatever be « > 0. There-
fore, this will be assured if the injection of
(Li,.)! into (Lie)? is p-radonifying, for some p
finite because y is of type p. By the first part
of the previous theorem, this will be true if

i ef Se
er for some / finite; it is true for

1 ii
1—8> 5 OF B= 5° the brownian motion is
almost surely continuous, hdlderian of any order

1 Pk
8<5. It is known that it is almost surely not

holderian of order =

a

Bibliography

The p-summing maps have been introduced by
Kwapien. The first main properties have been
proved by Pietsch in “Absolut p-summierende
Abbildungen in Normierten Raumen’’, Studia Mathe-
matica, 28 (1967), pp. 333-353. <A lot of very refined
results have been found by Pelczynski, Lindenstrauss,
Persson, Kwapien, Saphar, Garling, Dudley, Simone
Chevet, Maurey, Rosenthal, etc.

The integral and nuclear maps have been introduced
by Grothendieck in his thesis “‘ Produits tensoriels
topologiques et espaces nucléaires’’, Memoirs of the
American Mathematical Society, 1955; the p-integral
and p-nuclear maps are a generalization. Persson’s
theorem of §3 is published in Studia Mathematica,
33 (1969).

The theorem of §4 is due to me, partly in collabora-
tion with Kwapien, and has been published in the
Séminaire de l’Ecole Polytechnique, 1969-70, and in
“ Probabilités cylindriques et applications radoni-
fiantes ’’’, Journal of the Faculty of Science, The Uni-
versity of Tokyo, 18 (1971), pp. 139-286.

The theorem of §5 has been published in “ Mesures
cylindriques et applications radonifiantes dans les
espaces de suites’’, Laurent Schwartz, Proceedings
of the International Conference in Analysis and Related
Topics, Tokyo, 1969, pp. 41-59. It concerns only the
case —l<p<l. The case of arbitrary p has been
partly solved by Pietsch, Séminaire de 1l’Ecole Poly-
technique, 1970-71, exposés 29 and 31, and improved
by Garling in a paper to appear shortly ; however, it
is not yet completely solved. The properties of the
brownian motions are well known; I published the
proof given here in the Séminaire de l’Ecole Poly-
technique, 1969-70, exposé 15. The #-radonifying.

maps from (Ly,,)* into (Eee on R”, depending on

the six quantities a, a, 6, 6, p, n, still pose a lot of
open problems !

January 1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 105, pp. 97-102, 1972

The Measurement Revolution*

M. J. Putrock

1. Introduction

Two previous Presidents of this Society have
given an address dealing with measurements
and standards of measurement. I venture to
speak also on the same topic since it is the one
which has absorbed my interest and in which |
have been engaged for the best part of a lifetime.
I choose tonight to comment on some of the
significant developments in the field of measure-
ment science which have occurred in recent
times.

I am indebted for the title of my address to
Dr. A. V. Astin. who was the Director of the
National Bureau of Standards in the U.S.A.
from 1952 to 1969. Dr. Astin used this term
in an address to a Conference on Standards,
and he was referring to the period roughly from
the turn of the century to the present time.
During this period quite astonishing progress
has been made not only in the accuracy of
physical measurements but also in the extent
and range over which measurements can be
made and in the very standards of measurement
themselves. As an example—at the beginning
of the century long distances were measured
by survey tape and theodolite triangulation
with an accuracy of about one part in 100,000—
now we can measure the distance from a point
on earth to a point on the moon to an accuracy
of two parts in one million (about 800 metres)
and we can measure changes in this distance to
better than one part in 100 million (4 metres).

It was Lord Kelvin, one of the most illustrious
scientists of the last century, who once remarked
in a lecture: “I often say that when you can
measure what you are speaking about and
express it in numbers you know something
about it; but when you cannot measure it,
when you cannot express it in numbers, your
knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory
kind.”” He could also have added that the
more accurate your measurement the greater
your knowledge and the greater your under-
standing. It cannot be denied that the out-

* Presidential Address delivered to the Royal Society
of New South Wales at Science House, Gloucester
Street, Sydney, 5th April, 1972.

standing technological progress made _ this
century stems directly from our ability to
measure more precisely.

There are two contributory factors to
measurement. The standard, which is a physical
representation of the unit, and the process by
which we compare our unknown quantity with
the standard. This comparison process may
involve a number of “steps’’, and it often
happens that the difference between two
quantities may be determined more accurately
than their individual values in terms of the
standard. In this address I will in general be
more concerned with the realization of the unit
of measurement, that is, the physical standard,
though I do not propose to ignore the measure-
ment process. It will also be necessary for
me to be selective in the topics and to restrict
the depth of discussion in most instances.

2. Time and Frequency

The measurement of time is one of the oldest
branches of science and it is appropriate that
it should be considered first.

There are two concepts of time to be con-
sidered. First there is the concept of duration
from a particular epoch, the measurement of
which locates an event on some arbitrary scale,
such as the calendar, so that the position in
time of that event is unambiguously identifiable.
Secondly, there is the concept of time interval,
the measurement of brief (relatively) intervals
of time. From the dawn of civilization until
quite recently the solar day, that is, the rotation
of the earth about its axis, has provided (by
subdivision) the unit of time interval. In
conjunction with the solar year, the rotation
of the earth around the sun, it has also provided
the unit for the time scale of duration. Unfor-
tunately, these bases for the measurement of
time have many shortcomings, some of which,
such as perturbations in the earth’s movements,
are beyond our control and variations of the
order eight parts in 10° (0-007 second in a day
or 2:5 seconds in a year) have occurred during
the last two centuries. This may seem very
small, but not only does it present difficulties

98 Mie J. PUITOCK

in the preparation of astronomical tables, it is
also a very serious limitation in precise time and
frequency measurements ; the unit of frequency
is, of course, the reciprocal of the unit of time
interval.

At the beginning of this century time interval
was measured using pendulum clocks having an
accuracy of the order of about two parts in 10’.
Then came the clock based on the vibration
of a tuning fork, which achieved an accuracy
of one in 10’. In the 1930’s the quartz-ring
oscillator was developed, and _ subsequent
improvements in design and control circuitry
led to the achievement of an accuracy of about
one part in 10° over periods up to two years
with short-term accuracy of one in 10!°

In their search for a more precise unit for
time interval and for frequency, scientists turned
to the atom. Electromagnetic radiation is
emitted or absorbed whenever the energy level
of the atom is changed.

The “atomic ’”’ clock (which first arrived on
the scene in the 1950’s) is based on the
phenomenon that two atoms otherwise identical
but at different energy levels behave as if they
have different magnetic polarity and will be
deflected along different paths when passed
through a magnetic field. A stream of atoms,
all of identical mass (that is from an isotope),
are fired through a strong magnetic field which
induces a magnetic moment in the atcms, and
these are deflected from the axis. The atoms
then pass through an oscillating electromagnetic
field (controlled by an R.F. oscillator). If
the frequency of this field is not in resonance
with the transition frequency of the atoms they
are unchanged, and on passing through a second
magnetic field they are further deflected away
from the axis. If, however, the oscillator
frequency is in resonance with the transition
frequency, the effective moment of the atoms
is reversed and they are deflected on to the
detector. A feed back loop to the oscillator
controls the frequency at the precise value
required for the energy level transition. Since
this energy level transition is independent of
conditions external to the atom, the associated
frequency is unique. An accuracy of one part
in 10'° (0-Lus in one day) can now be achieved,
and the unit of time interval, 1 second, is defined
as “the duration of 9192 631 770 periods of
the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the caesium-133 atom ”’.

In just over half a century we have seen a
100,000-fold increase in the accuracy of our
standard of time interval and frequency, and

frequencies can now be compared with accuracies
of a few parts in 10.

Examples of developments stemming from
the ability to measure time interval, frequency
and frequency changes so accurately are the
equipment used to measure the speed of space
rockets (by doppler frequency shift), ‘“‘ radar ”’
speed traps, an aircraft navigation system (also
doppler shift), microwave and electro-optical
distance measuring equipment for the surveyor
(I shall mention these again later) and many
others.

3. Length

Now let us consider the measurement of
length, a branch of science which has also been
around for a long time. I believe that the
oldest length standard still in existence is a
length scale made of shell dating from approxi-
mately 3000 B.c. At the beginning of this
century our standards of length were still scales,
bars of metal with lines engraved upon them.
As you might expect, after 5,000 years these
line standards had been developed into very
precise standards, and they could be considered
to have an effective accuracy of about one part
in one million. In actual fact the two funda-
mental standards, the Imperial Standard Yard
and the International Prototype Metre, were, by
definition, absolutely precise. However, since
they were metal bars there was always an
uncertainty in their length due to lack of
knowledge of their precise temperature. Also,
the special equipment (micrometer micro-
scopes, etc.) used to transfer the length of the
fundamental standard to a working standard
introduced uncertainties. So you see that
although by definition the fundamental standards
had absolute precision, immediately they were
used uncertainties were introduced. Additionally,
there was the problem of the instability of the
fundamental standards. Few if any materials
can be considered to be 100% stable, almost
all undergo dimensional changes with time.
The International Prototype Metre, made of a
90% platinum-10% iridium alloy, proved to
be very stable ; at least no significant changes
in length had been detected up to a few years
ago. The Imperial Standard Yard (made of
Mr. Bailey’s metal—16 parts copper, 24 parts
tin and 1 part zinc) was, however, unstable ;
it was (still is) shrinking by approximately
one millionth of an inch per annum—not very
much, but decidedly important when measure-
ments of the highest accuracy are required.

Another problem with these material
standards, of course, is that they are liable to

THE MEASUREMENT REVOLUTION 99

be damaged or lost—in fact one of the earlier
yard standards was lost in the fire in the Houses
of Parliament in 1834.

Once again scientists in their quest for a more
satisfactory standard turned to the atom as
in the case of frequency, and the emission of
radiation due to a change in energy level induced
in the atom supplied the answer. The electro-
magnetic radiation in this case, however, is in
the visible region—lght waves.

As early as 1827 a French scientist, Babinet,
suggested that the wavelength of a mono-
chromatic (i.e. single frequency) light source
might be used as a standard of length. The
techniques of using light waves as length scales
is known as interferometry. At the end of the
last century the first successful measurements
of the length of the metre in terms of the red
radiation from a cadmium lamp were made by
a very involved technique. One of the main
complicating factors was that natural cadmium
was used, and this contains several isotopes of
slightly different masses (i.e. several slightly
different atoms), each emitting a red radiation
slightly different from the others. The net
result is that the direct interference effects
can only be obtained over relatively short
distances, in the case of cadmium about 100 mm.
If a single isotope is used, however, the inter-
ference effects can be obtained over much greater
lengths.

Production of single isotopes, suitable for and
in sufficient quantities for use as light sources,
was achieved some 30 years ago, and after much
research and development led to the redefinition,
in 1960, of the metre as being “equal to
1,650 763-73 wavelengths, in vacuum of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between
the levels 2p,, and 5d; of the krypton-86
atom’. This radiation is in the orange-red
part of the spectrum. The effective accuracy
of this standard is one in 108, an improvement
by a factor of 100 over the old metal bar
standards.

One of the most dramatic advances in the
field of length measurement occurred with the
development (1960) of the laser (an acronym
for light amplification by stimulated emission
of radiation). This is a device by means of
which a substance (gas, solid or liquid) is
stimulated to emit light (usually by microwave
radiation) in the form of a very narrow beam
having a single frequency and an extremely
narrow line width. For measurement of length
by interferometry it is necessary to have a
continuous emission of light, and the He-Ne
gas laser is currently the most commonly used

laser for this purpose, the atoms involved in
the lasing action being those of the neon (about
10% of the mixture).

The lasing action which gives the light
emitted its unique properties of coherence
(i.e. all waves emitted are exactly in phase),
intensity, directionality and narrow line width
arise from the physical shape of the glass
envelope containing the He-Ne mixture. It is
essentially a glass tube at the ends of which are
optically flat, semi-transparent mirrors which
are mutually parallel (this is the form most
readily understood, but curved mirrors may also
be used). The gas mixture inside the glass
envelope is excited, most commonly by means
of a microwave field.

When an atom, in this case of neon, is excited
to a higher energy level and then drops to a
lower level, it emits a photon (or wavelength
packet if you like). This photon travels down
the tube and is reflected from the mirror.
When it encounters another excited atom it
triggers that atom to fall to its lower level and
emit another photon. This happens repeatedly
as the photons are reflected back and forth and
on every occasion the new photon is precisely
in phase with the triggering photon. In this
way the intensity of the beam is built up until
surplus photons are emitted through the semi-
transparent mirror as an intense coherent beam.
Because multiple reflections are needed to
effect the lasing action, the mirrors have to be
very closely parallel, and only those photons
whose paths are normal to the mirror surface
take part—hence the emergent beam is extremely
parallel (divergence is of the order of only a
few minutes of arc).

The precise value of the wavelength emitted
by a laser is a function of the physical separation
of the mirrors at each end of the laser cavity.
Since this separation may vary due to a number
of factors—temperature, instability of material,
pressure changes—the laser at the moment
cannot replace the radiation from the Kr-86
atom as the standard of length. However,
there appears to be a reasonable certainty that
before long we will have a laser the separation
of the mirrors of which may be automatically
controlled by a unique atomic feature (probably
an absorption line of an isotope of iodine).
This will make the laser a true “ atomic ”’
standard of length and the expected precision
is 100 times that of the Kr,, standard.

The use of a laser for the measurement of
length is not confined to the laboratory. Laser
interferometers are commercially available, and
these permit the measurement of the movement

100

of the reflector (mounted, say, on a machine
tool table) to an accuracy approaching one in
106 and with a range up to 60m (200 ft).
For measuring even longer distances (including
the distance to the moon) a different technique
is used. The laser light is emitted in pulses
and the time of travel (there and back) measured.
Half of this time multiplied by the velocity of
light (299,792-5 km/sec im vacuo) gives the
distance.

This introduces another concept into the
measurement of length—the use of the velocity
of light (or more correctly of electromagnetic
radiation) as a standard in conjunction with the
standard of time interval (frequency). The
latter, as we have seen, is usable to an accuracy
of one in 1044. The velocity of light has been
the subject of a large number of experimental
determinations (there were 27 in the years
1947-1967) and it is considered that it is now
known to an accuracy of about 14 parts in a
million. The main problem has been that of
measuring frequency in the visible or near
visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
There are signs, however, of an impending
break-through in this area, and it could well be
that in the not too distant future length will be
defined in terms of an absolute value for the
velocity of light and of frequency.

The activities of surveyors, particularly the
geodetic and topographic surveyors, have been
revolutionized by the development of instru-
ments using time interval (frequency) and the
velocity of light as the bases for length measure-
ment. Only arelatively few years ago surveying
was by triangulation out from a carefully
measured (by tapes) base line a few miles long.
By the time the triangulation had been extended
a hundred miles the effect of small errors in the
hundreds of theodolite measurements involved
became quite significant. Also, the process
was extremely time-consuming.

In 1949 Bergstrand (Sweden) produced the
first survey distance measuring instrument
using light waves—the Geodimeter. In 1957
Wadley (South Africa) produced the first
instrument using microwaves—the Tellurometer.
Both instruments operate on essentially the
same principle. A transmitter sends out a
beam of electromagnetic radiation (light or
microwave) modulated by an imposed frequency
(rather like the way radio is transmitted by a
signal frequency imposed on the carrier
frequency), which is crystal controlled. A
reflecting unit at the far end of the distance
to be measured sends the beam back to be
received at the transmitter. The phase of the

M. J. PUTTOCK

incoming signal is compared with that of ‘the
outgoing, and the fractional difference is a
function of the distance travelled by the beam. —
There are, of course, techniques for determining
the number of whole phases that have to be
added to the fraction of a phase to give the true
total time of travel. The accuracy achieved is
of the order of three parts in 10°. The significant
point, however, is in the time saved. The
distance between two points, say, 50 miles
apart can be measured by Tellurometer in about
one hour (including set-up time)—by triangula-
tion it could take weeks.

4. Mass

The third most important quantity to be
considered is that of mass. This is the one
quantity which has not been the subject of
spectacular advances either in the fundamental
standard or in measuring equipment or
technique. It is true that, by attention to
detail, measuring equipment and_ techniques
have shown an improvement of about one order
during this century, and masses may now be
compared to an accuracy of one in 108. The
standard itself is (and has been for almost
a century) a kilogram of platinum-iridium
(90° Pt, 10% Ir) in the form of a polished
cylinder of diameter and height equal to 39 mm.

A significant improvement in the lower
grade working standards was made in 1947
with the introduction of masses made of stainless
steel (25% Cr, 20% Ni) which have much
improved stability over those of brass or
nichrome. As a previous President, Mr. J. W.
Humphries, pointed out in his address, the
possibility of an “‘ atomic ’’ standard of mass is
decidedly remote; Mr. Humphries estimated
that if one counted the atoms in a kilogram
of a gas (about 1076) at a rate of 10 million
per second the task would take 101° seconds,
which is longer than the estimated life of our
universe. So it seems that for some time to
come we must accept our material standard.

5. Electric Potential

A unit which has quite recently had a “ shot
in the arm ’’, so to speak, is the unit of electrical
potential, the volt. The universally used
reference standard of voltage is the Weston
cadmium cell, the original patent for which
dates from 1891. The Commonwealth standard
of voltage is in effect the mean value of a bank
of Weston standard cells held at the National
Standards Laboratory. Every three years these
cells are intercompared, at the B.I.P.M.,
Sévres, with similar cells from other countries,

THE MEASUREMENT REVOLUTION

The International standard of voltage deter-
mined; and values are assigned to each national
standard. The precision of these inter-
comparisons and of the values assigned to the
National standards is limited by factors inherent
in the cells themselves. These factors are :

Sensitivity to temperature changes
(40 p.p.m./° C).

Sensitivity to temperature gradient
(300 p.p.m./° C).

Sensitivity to mechanical disturbance.
Sensitivity to electrical loading.

Long-term instability (the main reason for
frequent intercomparisons).

Standard cells may be compared with a
precision of one in 10°, but the accuracy of a
national standard volt is estimated to be seven
in 10°,

Once again the step forward is “ down ”’ to
the atom. In 1962 B. D. Josephson predicted
two basic phenomena related to the electrical
properties of a weak link (or barrier) between
two superconducting materials maintained at
a low temperature (about 4K). One, the
d.c. Josephson effect, is that a current will pass
through such a junction with zero potential
difference. The other, the a.c. Josephson
effect, in which a potential V established across
the junction results in the generation within the
junction of an alternating current having a
frequency f given by

fat - V~483 MHz/uV

where ¢ is the electron charge and / is Planck’s
constant. Both effects have been confirmed
experimentally, and it is the a.c. Josephson
effect which is of interest to us here.

Since both e and / are atomic constants which
are completely independent of conditions
external to the atom, 2e/h is likewise constant
and independent. Now since we can measure
frequency to one in 101, then in theory we
should know the volt to much the same accuracy.
Unfortunately, we need to know the volt before
we know the precise value of 2e/h,an apparent
impasse. What we can do, however, and this
is the important point, is to monitor the standard
volt and maintain it at an agreed (international)
value to a much greater precision than before—
the N.S.L. standard is regularly monitored to
a precision of one in 10’. The next move is
for international agreement on the value to be
assigned to 2e/h and for all national volts to
be based on this and the standard of frequency.

101

In a practical realization, a Josephson junction,
a point contact formed by pressing a sharpened
niobium wire against a flat niobium anvil
or a sandwich of two lead films separated by a
thin insulating layer of lead oxide is immersed
in liquid helium (4-2 K) and irradiated with
a precisely known microwave frequency. This
causes steps of constant voltage to appear in
the current/voltage characteristic of the
junction — these steps occur whenever the
junction frequency is a multiple of the frequency
of the microwave source. By appropriate
techniques the junction voltage is related to
the voltage of a standard cell and the value of
the standard cell voltage can be monitored as
frequently as desired.

6. Conclusion

It has not been possible in this address to
cover all the fields of measurement science, and
there are many developments which I have not
had time to discuss, some of which are:

(1) The development (at N.S.L.) of the
calculable capacitor which has revolu-
tionized the measurement of capacitance
by providing a standard accurate to two
in 106 and reproducible to three in 108 ;

(2) the developments in the field of thermo-
metry, particularly the continual improve-
ments being made in the International
Practical Temperature scale ;

(3) the developments (at N.S.L. in particular)
of a new method for realizing the candela
(unit of luminous intensity). In 1969 an
international comparison showed dis-
crepancies between national laboratories
of 16 in 103. The new method should
reduce these discrepancies by at least
one order ;

(4) the new fundamental determinations of
the acceleration due to gravity (one has
just been completed at N.S.L.) which will
improve the accuracy of this ‘‘ constant ”’
to about two in 10” and enable the
realization of the unit of force to five in
Oe.

(5) the development of sophisticated measur-
ing devices capable of accurately indicating
minute changes in a given quantity—
for example, a probe-type surface
measuring instrument with a magni-
fication of 1,000,000 x and capable of
discriminating surface irregularities of 5A
(a few molecules) in height ;

(6) the new technique of holography whereby
by rather special photography, using a

102 We qj. PUTTOCK

laser as light source, it is possible to
compare an object with an image of itself.
If the comparison is made between an
object first undistorted then distorted
the resultant image exhibits interference
fringes which are contours of the distortion.

It is unfortunately true that most people
take this business of measurement very much

National Standards Laboratory,
CSIRO,

University Grounds,

City Road,

Chippendale, 2008, N.S.W.

for granted. In actual fact it is a field in which
quite spectacular advances are currently being
made and which will inevitably lead to a better
understanding of the multitude of natural and
man-made processes that make up the world
around and within us.

The address was illustrated by a selection of
slides.

(Received 31 March 1973)

A

Abstract of Proceedings, 1971 ..

Albani, A. D.—A Method for the Exact Onent
tion of the Plane Table : oa

Annual Report of South Coast Branch ..

Ashley, P. M., and Irving, A. J.—A Gabbro-

Troctolite-Anorthosite Intrusion at Diurna-

seer, near Temora, New South Wales

Astronomical Objects Embedded in Matter.
{. External Metrics, by R. R. Burman ..
Astronomical Objects Embedded in Matter.
II. Light Tracks, by R. R. Burman ..
Astronomy .. See 3, ¢
Australia ; Palaeomagnetic Results from Some

Mid-Palaeozoic Sediments from Central Aus-
traha, by B. B. J. Embleton

B

Balance Sheet as at 29th February, 1972

Banach-Spaces: p-summing, p-radonifying, p-
integral, p-nuclear maps, Special Maps in, by
L. Schwartz, Pollock Memorial Lecture, 1972

Basalts in the Binnaway District; Potassium-
Argon Dating and Occurrence of Tertiary and
Mesozoic, by J. A. Dulhunty

Binnaway District ; Potassium-Argon Dating and
Occurrence of Tertiary and Mesozoic Basalts
yethe, by J. A. Dulhunty : ee an

Bowan Park Group, N.S.W., Stratigraphy of, by
V.Semeniuk =...

Brakel, A. T.—The Geology of the Mt. View
Range District, Pokolbin, N.S.W. ..

Burman, R. R.—Astronomical Objects Embedded
in Matter—I. External Metrics :

Burman, R. R.—Astronomical Objects Embedded
in Matter—II. Light Tracks.

Burman, R. R.—On the Motion of Particles in
Conformally Flat Space-Times

Cc

Citations
Clarke Medal, 1971 . :
Communication to Editor ..
Conodonts from Ettrema, New South Wales, Late
Devonian (Frasnian), by J. W. Pickett
Council :
Annual Report, 31st March, 1972
Balance Sheet, 29th February, 1972
Cross-Lamination in the Hawkesbury Sandstone,
New South Wales; Dee one -Drift, ay C. R.
Ward ss

D

Dating and Occurrence of Tertiary and Mesozoic
Basalts in the Binnaway District; Potassium-
Argon, by J. A. Dulhunty

Devonian (Frasnian) Conodonts from Ettrema,
New South Wales, by J. W. Pickett .

86

46

bo
~I

71
31

Dirnaseer, near Temora, New South Wales; A
Gabbro-Troctolite-Anorthosite Intrusion, by
P. M. Ashley and A. J. Irving :

Dulhunty, J. A.—Potassium-Argon Dating and
Occurrence of Tertiary and Mesozoic Basalts
in the Binnaway District

E

Edgeworth David Metal for 1971 . me
Embleton, B. B. J. _-Palaeomagnetic Results
From Some Mid-Palaeozoic Sediments from
Central Australia =e os a
Ettrema, New South Wales; Late Devonian
(Frasnian) Conodonts from, by J. W. Pickett

G

Gabbro-Troctolite-Anorthosite Intrusion at
Dirnaseer, near Temora, New South Wales,
by P. M. Ashley and A. J. Irving

Geology

Geology of the Mt. View Range District, Pokolbin,
N.S.W., by A. T. Brakel

Gibbons, G. S., and Gordon, J. L.—A Study of
Root Concretions at Kurnell, N.S.W. ae

Gordon, J. L., Gibbons, G. S. and,
Root Concretions at Kurnell, N.S.W.

H

Hawkesbury Sandstone, New South Wales;
Ripple-Drift Cross-Lamination in the, eye C,
R. Ward ,

Honorary edonren S Report

I
Irving, A. J., Ashley, P. M., and—A Gabbro-
Troctolite-Anorthosite Intrusion at Dirna-
seer, near Temora, New South Wales
K
Kurnell, N.S.W.; Study of Root Concretions at,
by G. S. Gibbons and J. L. Gordon ..
L
Light Tracks, Astronomical Objects Embedded in
Matter, I, by R. R. Burman
M
Maps in Banach-Spaces : p-summing, p-radonify-
ing, p-integral, p-nuclear maps; Special

Maps in, by L. Schwartz, Pollock Memorial
Lecture 1972

19, 27, 57, 61, 71,

Page

19

71

86
31

fe

39

oO

94

104

Mathematics :
Matter, Astronomical Objects Embedded in, i

External Metrics, by R. R. Burman 3
Matter, Astronomical Objects Embedded in, I
Light Tracks, by R. R. Burman .. 9
Metrics, External, Astronomical Objects Em-
bedded in Matter, I., by R. R. Burman _... 3
Measurement Revolution, by M.. J. “Puttock;
Presidential Address, 5th April, 1972 97
Medallists 1971 a oe age - S002, 97
Mesozoic Basalts in the Binnaway District;
Potassium-Argon Dating and Occurrence of
Tertiary and, by J. A. Dulhunty _.... WW
Method for the Exact Orientation of the Plane
Table, by A. D. Albani 57
Motion of Particles in Conformally Flat Space-
Times, On the, by R. R. Burman .. 1
Mt. View Range District; Pokolbin, N.S.W.,
Geology of the, by A. T. Brakel 61
N
New South Wales,
A Gabbro-Troctolite-Anorthosite Intrusion at
Dirnaseer, near Temora, by P. M. Ashley
and A. J. Irving . te bs 19
Ripple-Drift Cross-Lamination in the
Hawkesbury Sandstone, by C. R. Ward 27
Late Devonian (Frasnian) Conodonts from
Ettrema, by J. W. Pickett 31
Study of Root Concretion at Kurnell,
N.S.W., by G. °S: Gibbons and J. L.
Gordon |. 39
Geology of the Mt. View Range ‘District,
Pokolbin, by A. T. Brakel 61
Potassium-Argon Dating and Occurrence of
Tertiary and Mesozoic Basalts in the
Binnaway District, by J.A. Dulhunty .. 71
O
Obituaries 54
Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory
during 1971, by K. P. Sims .. 15
Officers for 1971-1972 (Parts I and II) Back of
Title Page
Orientation of the Plane Table, A Method for the
Exact, by A. D. Albani 57
ie
Palaeomagnetic Results from some Mid-Palaeo-
zoic Sediments from Central Australia, by
B. B. J. Embleton ss a 5 86
Palaeontology ‘81, 86
Palaeozoic (Mid-) Sediments from Central Aus-
tralia, Palaeomagnetic, Results from some,
by B. B. J. Embleton 86
Particles in Conformally Flat Space- -Times, On
the Motion of, eh R. R. Burman — 1
Physics 97

INDEX
Page
94 Pickett, J. W.—Late Devonian (Frasnian) Cono-

donts from Ettrema, New South Wales

Plane Table, A Method for the Exact Orientation
of the, by A. D. Albani :

Pokolbin, N.S.W.; Geology of the Mt. View Range
District, by A. J. Brakel .

Pollock Memorial Lecture 1972, Special Maps in
Banach-Spaces: p-summing, p-radonifying
p-integral, p-nuclear maps, by L. Schwartz

Potassium-Argon Dating and Occurrence of Ter-
tiary and Mesozoic Basalts in the Binnaway
District, by J. A. Dulhunty .. = c Ne

Presidential Address, 5th April, 1972—The
Measurement Revolution, by M. J. Puttock

Proceedings, Abstract of, 1971

P-summing, p-radonifynig, p-integral, p- -nuclear
Images; Special Maps in Banach-Spaces, by
L. Schwartz, Pollock Memorial Lecture, 1972

Puttock, M. J.—The Measurement Revolution,
Presidential Address, 5th April, 1972

R
Ripple-Drift Cross-Lamination in the Hawkesbury
Sandstone, New South Wales, by C. R. Ward

Root Concretions at Kurnell, N.S.W.; Study of, ie
G. S. Gibbons and J. L. Gordon

Ss

Schwartz, L.—Special Maps in Banach-Spaces :

p-summing, p-radonifying, p-integral, . p-
nuclear maps, Pollock Memorial Lecture,
1972 “Ae ate re

Section of Geology ..

Semeniuk, V.—The Stratigraphy of the “Bowan
Park Group, New South Wales sigs

Sims, K. P.—Occultations Observed at Sydney
Observatory During 1971

Society’s Medal, 1971

Space-Times, On the Motion of Particles in Con-
formally Flat, by R. R. Burman ..

Stratigraphy of the Bowan Park Group, by V.
Semeniuk

Sydney Observatory, Occultations Observed
during 1971, by K. P. Sims .. oe a

ali

Temora, New South Wales; A Gabbro-Troctolite-
Anorthosite Intrusion at Dirnaseer, near, by
P. M. Ashley and A. J. Irving

Tertiary and Mesozoic Basalts in the Binnaway

District;Potassium-Argon Dating and Occur-
rence of, by J. A. Dulhunty .. 3

Ww

Walter Burfitt Prize for 1971 x

Ward, C. R.—Ripple-Drift Cross- Lamination in
the a ee Sandstone, New South
Wales :

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD.
71-79 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBE, N.S.W., 2037
1973

Page

31
57
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94

fe

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94
97

27
39

19

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

The Society originated in the year 1821 as the Philosophical Society of Australasia. Its
main function is the promotion of Science through the following activities: Publication
of results of scientific investigation through its Journal and Proceedings; the Library; award
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Contents

Geology :
A Method for the Exact Orientation of the Plane Table. A.D. Albani ..

The Geology of the Mt. View Range District, Pokolbin, N.S.W. A. T.Brakel ..

Potassium-Argon Dating and Occurrence of Tertiary and Mesozoic Basalts in
the Binnaway District. J. A. Dulhunty

The Stratigraphy of the Bowan Park Group, New South Wales. V. Semeniuk

Palaeontology :

The Palaeomagnetism of Some Palaeozoic Sediments from Central Australia.
B. J. J. Embleton

Pollock Memorial Lecture, 1972:
Special Maps in Banach-spaces: p-summing, p-radonifying, p-integral,
p-nuclear Maps. L. Schwartz ae ae ae o os

Physics :
The Measurement Revolution. M. J. Puttock

Index to Volume 105

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD.
71-79 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBE, N.S.W., 2037

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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES

PARTS
1-4

VOLUME
106

1973

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIE
SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX * STREETS, SYDNEY

Royal Society of New South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1973-1974

Patrons
His ExXcELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA,
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR PAUL HASLUCK, G.c.M.G., G.c.v.o.
His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEw SouTtH WALES,
SIR RODEN CUTLER, v.c., K.c.M.G., K.C.V.O., C.B.E.

President
J. P. POLLARD, M.sc., Dip.App.chem.

Vice—-Presidents
J. C. CAMERON, .a., B.Sc. (Edin.), D.I.c. W. E. SMITH, Ph.v.
M. J. PUTTOCK, B.sc. (Eng.), M.Inst.P., A.A.Inst.P. B. E. CLANCY, M.Sc., Ph.D.
R. J. W. LE FEVRE, D.sc., F.R.S., F.A.A.
Honorary Secretaries
J. W. HUMPHRIES, B.sc., M.Inst.P., A.A.Inst.P. M. KRYSKO v. TRYST. (Mrs.), B.Sc.,
(General) Grad.Dip (Editorial).

Honorary Treasurer
J. W. PICKETT, M.sc., Dr.phil.nat.

Honorary Librarian
W. H. G. POGGENDORFF, B.Sc.agr.

Members of Council

D. S. BRIDGES P. D. TILLEY, B:A:, Ph-D:

E. K. CHAFFER E. C. WATTON, Ph.D., B.Sc.(Hons.), A.S.T.C.
L. J. LAWRENCE, D.sc., Ph.pD. A. A. DAY, Ph.D., F.R.A.S.

W. B. SMITH-—WHITE, o.a.

New England Branch Representative: R. L. STANTON, Ph.p.
South Coast Branch Representative: G. DOHERTY, Ph.p.

Executive Secretary: VALDA LYLE, A.1.P.s.aA.

NOTICE
The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of
Australasia’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the

‘“‘ Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was
changed to ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales’”’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most
Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated by
Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881.

CONTENTS

Parts 1-2

; The Sydney Opera House:

_ Preface “i a le se ae oh os ss as sr os
_ The Sydney Opera Honee. The Contractor and Some Aspects of Stage III. H. R. Hoare
- Roof Cladding of the Sydney Opera House. Michael Lewis 25 ,

- Acoustical Design Considerations of the Sydney Opera House. V. L. Jordan

The Design of the Concert Hall of the Sydney Opera House. Peter Hall

- The Grand Organ in the Sydney Opera House. Ronald Sharp

Parts 3-4

Astronomy :
Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1972. K. P. Sims

Precise Observations of Minor Planets at eae ae aed ee 1971 and 1972. W.H.
Robertson : es

Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1973:

The Late Precambrian Glaciation, with Particular Reference to the Southern Hemisphere.
Kalervo Rankama ais - ie He 3 oe se - es oe

Geology :

Structural Analysis of the Palaeozoic Sediments in the Oe UES District, North Coast,

New South Wales. R. J. Korsch

Potassium-Argon Basalt Ages and their Significance in the Macquarie Valley, New South
Wales. J. A. Dulhunty : ;

Mathematics :
Slow Transport as a Criterion for Synchronizing Clocks. S. J. Prokhovnik

A Note on Recurrence Sequences. A. J. van der Poorten

Report of Council, 31st March, 1973
Balance Sheet
Index to Volume 106

List of Office-Bearers, 1973-1974

81

84

89

98

104

111
115

118

121

133

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‘Science : House, Gloucester and Essex Streets, Sxaney, 1H ae ea AG tr EE a
Cae pesued 21st aa et | a ies ae Paka: ‘ hoe

Royal Society of New South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1973-1974

Patrons
His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA,
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR PAUL HASLUCK, G.c.M.G., G.c.v.o.
His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES,
SIR RODEN CUTLER. V.c.,-K-C.M.G,., K.CiV.0., C/E VE;

President
J. P. POLLARD, M.sc., Dip.app.chem.

Vice-Presidents

J. C. CAMERON, o.a., B.Sc. (Edin.), D.I.c. W. E. SMITH, Ph.p.
M. J. PUTTOCK, B.sc. (Eng.), M.Inst.P., A.A.Inst.P. B. E. CLANCY, M.sc., Ph.D.
R. J. W. LEFEVRE, D.sc., F.R.S., F.A.A.
Honorary Secretaries
J. W. HUMPHRIES, B.sc., M.Inst.P., A.A.Inst.P. M. KRYSKO v. TRYST. (Mrs.), B.sc.,
(General) Grad.Dip (Editorial).

Honorary Treasurer
J. W. PICKETT, M.sc., Dr.phil.nat.

Honorary Librarian
W. H. G. POGGENDORFF, B.sc.Agr.

Members of Council |
D. S. BRIDGES P. D. TILLEY, 834:, Php.
E. K. CHAFFER E. C. WATTON, Ph.D., B.Sc.(Hons.), A.S.T.C.
L. J. LAWRENCE, D.sSc., Ph.D. A. A. DAY, Ph.D., F.R.A.S.
W. B. SMITH-WHITE, m.a.

New England Branch Representative: R. L. STANTON, pPh.p.
South Coast Branch Representative: G. DOHERTY, Ph.p.

Executive Secretary: VALDA LYLE A.1.P.s.a.

NOTICE
The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of
Australasia ’’’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the
‘* Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was
changed to ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales ’’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most
Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated by
Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881.

PREFACE

Nearly twenty years ago, during the Premiership of the late
Mr. J. J. Cahill, the Government of New South Wales decided that
Sydney, in keeping with other major cities of the world, ought
to have a music centre. The location chosen was Bennelong Point—
an area in itself of historical significance and within sight of Sydney’s
famous Harbour Bridge. The resulting activities that led to the
design and construction of this centre, the Sydney Opera House,
are now part of Sydney’s history. Most of us will forget the
frustrations and difficulties associated with the project as we stand
in admiration of the completed work, a monument to the achieve-
ments of modern technology. Along with the Harbour Bridge, it will
remain a continuing source of pride for Australia, and especially
the people of Sydney.

On the occasion of the opening of the Opera House by Her
Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, the Royal Society of New South Wales
is proud to publish this special issue of the Journal and Proceedings
to commemorate the event. The issue is devoted to the contributions
by those people responsible for the various aspects of the Sydney
Opera House design and development.

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 3-17, 1973

The Sydney Opera House

The Contractor and Some Aspects of Stage III

ABSTRACT—The article briefly recounts the history of the area known as Bennelong Point,
and then describes in some detail the Sydney Opera House project from the time of the architectural
competition when the design of the now famous shells was chosen, to its completion as a complex

catering for many forms of arts and sciences.

The paper deals with the various activities of the

main contractor’s site organization, the difficulties of design and construction posed by this unique
building, and the resultant solutions gained by the teamwork of the architect, consultant and

builder.

The Site

When the First Fleet arrived in 1788, it
landed its small herd of cattle on an isthmus
they named Cattle Point. Later the name was
changed to Bennelong Point after the aboriginal
who lived there with his wife and achieved some
fame by his services to Governor Phillip.

The site had its first association with the
performing arts when it was the locale for the
first corroboree performed by aboriginals for the
entertainment of white men on 3rd August,
1811.

The first structure on the point was a
fortification consisting of a small redoubt with
two guns completed on New Year’s Day, 1789.
This was later superseded by Fort Macquarie,
built by convict labour with stone from the
Domain during the period December, 1817, to
November, 1819. The structure was in the
form of a square and became a Sydney landmark
until it was demolished to clear the site for the
construction of the Opera House. Its guns were
never fired in defence. In 1903 the interior of
the fort was converted into a tramway depot,
which it remained until demolished.

The point has been described as an isthmus

with a narrow approach at high tide. Although
the earlier pictorial records do not clearly
illustrate this, it is a fact that all manner of
filling material was dumped on the approaches
to the point. Apart from what is reputed to
be ship’s ballast, namely river gravel and some
highly corrosive slag, the debris from con-
struction works in the new Colony was deposited
here, no doubt to form a serviceable wharf
from the original jetty—Man-of-War Steps—
which is still used and recently repaired. Rubble

from the rock excavation to the Quay, and es-
pecially from the large excavation of the Argyle
Cut in the Rocks, was deposited here. It has
been encountered in all the excavation for the
substructure work of the Opera House, as well
as at least three stone sea walls that formed
the early limits of Circular Quay.

This, then, was the site chosen for the Sydney
Opera House by a committee appointed by the
New South Wales Government in 1954.

The Architects and Engineers

On the basis of a design submitted as a result
of a world-wide competition, Mr. Jgrn Utzon
of Denmark was appointed architect for the
Opera House in 1957.

The consulting structural engineers appointed
on his recommendation were Ove Arup and
Partners.

Jorn Utzon resigned in 1966 following dis-
agreements with the New South Wales
Government at a time when the erection of the
concrete shells was substantially complete.

A consortium of Australian architects, Messrs.
Hall, Todd and Littlemore, was commissioned.
to complete the building, and commenced a
review of the project in the latter part of 1966.

The Construction Contracts

The work has been carried out by private
contractors under the supervision of the New
South Wales Government and appointed
architects and engineers.

There have been three main contracts, three
separate contracts, and with fees and charges
the project has cost approximately $100M,
as follows:

4 H. R. HOARE

$
Stage I, 1959—Podium, Civil & Civic
Pty. “etd: approx. 5:5M
Stage II, 1962—Roof Shells, M. R.
Hornibrook (N.S.W.)
Pty... Ltd: approx. 12-5M

y :
Stage III, 1966—Completion, The Horni-

brook Group . - 56-5M

Separate contracts — Stage Equipment,
Stage Lighting, Organ eee 9 M
Fees and other costs 16-5M
$100 M

Stage I was let by competitive tender, and
work commenced before the superstructure and
the roof design had been finalized. Modifications
to the plan and uncertainty regarding the roof
structure extended contract time and cost.

Stage II. Whilst Stage I was under con-
struction the engineers and architects investi-
gated many different ways in which the roofs
could be constructed.

Originally intended by Utzon to be a system
of parabolas built in off-form concrete, it finally
appeared that the only viable solution would
be precast and stressed concrete, using pairs of
balanced shells, necessitating modification of
the geometry to spheroid in curvature. Utzon
redrew his design, making use of a constant
radius of 246 ft (75 m) for all shells, and gained
the volume or shape that he desired by a
variation in the pitch of the arches.

More than two years of work, involving the
use of digital computers and extensive model
tests, was necessary to evolve a practical design.
Even during construction computer programmes
designed to check the erection procedure
required access to the computer used by the
Weapons Research Establishment in South
Australia. It is estimated that computer work
undertaken would have required 100,000
man-years of mathematicians’ time.

Construction of the roof shells involved
techniques never before attempted in building
construction, and in the words of Ove Arup,
“on the boundaries of what is technically
possible’. For this reason it was not considered
that the contract could be the normal firm
price system, and M. R. Hornibrook (N.S.W.)
Pty. Ltd. entered into a cost plus fixed fee
arrangement to undertake the work.

Stage III. In 1966, with the end of the Stage
IT contract in sight, and coincident with a change
in the architects, the New South Wales Govern-
ment entered into a further contract with
Hornibrook, by then a division of Wood Hall
Ltd., to complete the remainder of the building.
This was by far the greatest value of the main

contracts placed, and whilst it consisted of
more traditional building works and services,
did include work unique to the Opera House.

The infill walls between the concrete shells
such as the bronze walls and glass walls had not
been designed, and the whole concept of the
Opera House as a Performing Arts Centre was
under review by the new architects.

Separate contracts let by Utzon for stage
machinery to Waagner-Biro of Vienna, and
stage lighting to Siemens Industries Ltd. had
also to be revised.

Revision of Use

Utzon’s scheme envisaged two main halls,
namely :
(1) A dual-purpose Concert Hall and Opera
or, Ballet) Theatres
(2) a Drama Theatre.

A small chamber music room and rehearsal and
experimental halls were also provided.

Peter Hall, the design architect in the new
consortium, was not satisfied that the dual
purpose hall could be achieved in view of the
conflicting demands of concert and theatre
in both seating arrangements and acoustic
qualities. Thus he and his partners eventually
proposed to the Government that the project
be revised to provide

(1) a Concert Hall,

(2) an Opera and Ballet Theatre,

(3) a Drama Theatre,

(4) Music Room and Cinema.

In addition, a Recording and Rehearsal Studio,
a large Rehearsal Theatre, an intimate Recital
Room, as well as an Exhibition area, were to be
incorporated.

Utzon’s scheme had depended upon the
isolation of the two main halls to overcome
sound attenuation, but in Hall’s scheme the
auditoria were much closer to each other (in
fact they are not only cheek by jowl but overhead
as well), so that reliance had to be placed upon
engineering structural design to achieve the
sound isolation that was necessary for the
extremely high acoustic criteria.

Furthermore, the original concept had only
intended to air condition the main hall or the
smaller hall, but not both together. There was
no air conditioning to the dressing rooms.
The proposal to air condition all the areas
within the complex not only meant designing
a much larger plant but called for its installation
within a concrete structure of such complexity
that to cut any hole more than 9 in square
(5,800-0sqmm) called for a _ structural
engineering decision.

THE CONTRACTOR AND SOME ASPECTS OF STAGE III 5

However, the New South Wales Government
was convinced of the advantages of the proposal,
and in 1967 authorised the revision to proceed.

Revision Work

As a result of the revised plan, some structures
already partly complete had to be demolished
or modified. Principally these were:

(a) The stage tower steelwork to the main
hall already complete was dismantled
and removed ;

(0) the minor hall pit structure was pro-
gressively demolished and reconstructed
further south to provide a larger orchestra
pit ;

(c) the experimental theatre stage area was
remodelled to provide a revolving stage
structure as well as a thrust forestage for
drama.

(d) the mechanical stage and lighting equip-
ment was redesigned to accommodate the
revised areas in the minor hall and the
Drama Theatre.

At this time, however, the problems of the
infilling external bronze and glass walls were
still unresolved as well as the major decision
regarding the ceiling structures within the two
main auditoria.

Target Programme

When the review of programme was under-
taken in mid-1967, it was decided that the target
completion date was to be December, 1972.

To realize this, it was apparent that progress
must be such as to expend in excess of $1M
per month at peak production, and this to be
maintained for some months. Doubts were
expressed that this could be achieved on such a
complex project, for such an output had only
been possible on one previous project in
Australia: a large airport terminal which was
more suited to concentrations of labour and
repetitive construction.

Not only was the project used for a full-scale
concert in December, 1972, but as is reported
later, the rate of output was more than double
the anticipated $1M per month due to greatly
Increased budgets and requirements.

Site Management
From the contractor’s point of view, the
biggest difficulty in the early months of Stage ITI
was to weld together a construction team that
had to work hand in glove with architects and
consultants as the design progressed on the

board and who had to start work as soon as
the drawings came out of the printing machine.

The production task was subdivided into five
main responsibilities :

(1) Co-ordination. This was the team who
from initial co-ordination with the
designers checked out and overcame the
inevitable physical conflicts in design,
the routes of pipes, the preference of one
service over another, etc.

(2) Planning. This team worked alongside
the co-ordinators and from network
diagrams of each area built up the overall
programme.

(3) Field Supervision. This was the labour
control under a Project Superintendent,
who on average had five area superin-
tendents answering to him.

(4) Subcontractors’ Control. This team
administered the whole of the sub-
contractors other than the field control.
As the subcontracts were valued at more
than the direct labour component, this
administration accounted for the greater
part of the project.

(5) Administration. This control dealt with
all clerical work, stores, wages, book-
keeping and accounts, as well as the formal
industrial matters not handled by the
field office.

All these site executives reported to the Project
Manager, who was resident on site (Figure 1).
Their duties are recorded in more detail later
in this paper.

Apart from numerous day-to-day meetings
at all levels, the continuity of communications
and control was maintained by the following
regular assemblies :

(a) weekly management meeting of Project

Manager and his staff,

(0) weekly meeting of Project Manager with
Architects and Client Authority on policy
and technical matters,

(c) fortnightly meeting with Architect and
Client on administrative matters,

(d) weekly meeting (later fortnightly) with
Architect, Client and Quantity Surveyor
on Cost Control,

(ec) monthly meeting of Architect and all
contracting firms on progress.

Co-ordination of Services

The Co-ordination Group was initially set
up during September, 1970, between the

6 H. R. HOARE

Architects (Hall, Todd and_ Littlemore),
Mechanical Consultants (Steensen and Varming),
Electrical Consultants (Julius Poole and Gibson)
and the Head Contractor (the Hornibrook
Group) to handle all aspects of the co-ordination
of services throughout the complex. All parties
worked together as a complete team.

The Hornibrook Group section of the team
participated in the design co-ordination of all
areas in checking combined service layouts as
regards their feasibility for installation. All the
relevant subcontractors were consulted in detail
at this stage prior to the preparation of their
shop drawings. This enabled direct information
to be given to them so that they were aware of
all other services that could conflict with their
own.

There were two main criteria in these solutions :
economics and job progress. Site sketches were
prepared as a result and approved by all parties.
These sketches were issued under site instruc-
tions from either the consultants and/or the
architects.

Each member of the Hornibrook section
worked in with the relevant area site supervisor
on site matters and also the area programmer
on the programming of the services. They also
helped in site clearances such as areas above
ceilings, together with the Clerk of Works
prior to the erection of any ceilings and partition
walling surrounding service ducts.

One of the main areas of activity was the
co-ordination of services and equipment in the
kitchen and bar areas. Hornibrook worked in

PROJECT
MalAgec

ASSISTA

Os eCT
MANAGER

man

COMMON CONCERT.
SERVICES HALL

FIELD
UPPER VI SION

SUB CONTACT
CONTKOL

ADMINISTRATION

SPECIAL CREKA, MINOZ
FEATURES THEATRE THEATIES

FIGURE 1.—Site staft organization.

There were many very complex areas and it
was necessary in direct consultation with the
subcontractors to prepare detailed combined
service drawings with enlarged cross-sections at
strategic points to sort out the “jungle” of
services.

The main area of activity was in direct site
control and liaison with subcontractors. Each
member of the Hornibrook section was directly
responsible for a set area. They would make
regular site inspections and check the levels and
positions of all services against both the shop
drawings and the combined services drawings.
They were also responsible for the initial
approval of shop drawings before they were
approved by the architects and consultants.
If a “ foul ’’ were encountered, then the group
gathered all the interested parties together and
resolved the problem in the best way possible.

direct conjunction with the architectural design
office, and drew up set-out points for kitchen
ceilings, electrical points and equipment
together with all the cool rooms.

The team functioned very well and the results
bear witness to the effectiveness of the partici-
pation of all the consultants, architects and
subcontractors in this aspect of the project.

Planning Phase III

Planning for Stage III was unlike most
contracts because there were no definite start
dates, no detailed design for majority of the
works, few output activity rates, as most design
entailed new, or relatively new concepts. The
only programme criteria in most cases were
design start dates and target completion.

The three major programming steps were
as follows :

THE CONTRACTOR AND SOME ASPECTS OF STAGE III 7

Major Overall Job Network

This was a very broad network, splitting the
job into five sections (Concert Hall, Opera
Theatre, “A’’ Areas, “B” Areas, “C”,
“D”, “E” Areas) and showing overall
priorities.

_ Major Section Networks

These were still very broad networks, but
projected the design, construction and finished
durations of major trades.

Detailed Programmes

This stage of the planning saw the setting up
of a large programming/co-ordination team to
compile and progress these programmes. Sections
of the job were split into smaller areas (total 64)
and a detailed programme compiled for each
area, group of areas, or in some cases part of
an area. These programmes covered all phases,
i.e. architectural and consulting engineers’
preliminary and final design, shop drawings and
all relevant approvals, and checking off site
fabrication. Planners and co-ordinators liaised
with all parties, endeavouring to meet this
design and construction programme.

The use of a computer programme was
considered and was initially commenced but
soon abandoned as so much flexibility was
required due to the continued changing and
updating resulting from the design, that the
staff necessary to handle this operation success-
fully could produce progress and action sheets
with more accuracy and regularity than would
have been probable with a computer.

Furthermore, the use of the computer to
produce a print-out programme appeared to
make the logic too remote when considering the
innumerable variations that were necessary,
nor was the available experience and assistance
from the trade supervision readily forthcoming
when a computer programme was produced.

Field Supervision

As can be seen from the organization chart,
the supervision of works was a key post and
thus was filled by the Project Superintendent.
His control in the field was through five super-
intendents, consisting of four area supervisors
and one general services supervisor. The former
was responsible for an area of the project, e.g.
the Concert Hall, and the latter for support
services such as concrete batching, rigging crew
and survey, etc. Each area supervisor controlled
work similar in value to a large size city building
of some $5-10M.

In addition, and from time to time, a
supervisor would be appointed to oversee special
features; e.g. the suspended ceilings in the
main halls, which were the responsibility of one
supervisor to maintain continuity with the
subcontractor and to take advantage of the
experience gained.

Liaison and co-ordination with the mechanical
and electrical consultants and subcontractors
were maintained by the main contractor’s
Mechanical and Electrical Engineer. This was a
particularly demanding task in view of the
magnitude of the installations, especially since
commencement of one trade depended upon the
progress of another. For instance, the central
heat pump was needed for hot or chilled supplies
to the air conditioning, which had to function
before the vast timber linings could be installed
in the auditoria, and all of which needed
transformers and electrical power to supply
energy.

Subcontract Control

This division dealt with the documentation,
calling of tenders, entering into contracts and
the general administration of contractual matters
including payments.

Documentation was _ subdivided
headings, viz. :

(a) Tender Conditions.
(b) General Conditions of Subcontract.
(c) Specification.
(2) Appendix to the General Conditions.

A Bill of Quantities was usually part of the
above documents, either as information to
tenderers or as a measured basis if conditions of
tender called for remeasure on completion.

into four

(a) Tender Conditions

These generally set out the requirements of
the tender, such as lodgment of documents,
tender closing date, what hours and/or days are
worked, etc.

(b) General Conditions of Subcontract

These were the rules and regulations under
which the subcontract would be administered,
and were of a general nature as it was impractic-
able to write special conditions for every
subcontract. The conditions dealt with
insurance, drawings, method of payment, sub-
mission of claims, arbitration procedure,
subletting, time for completion, etc. However,
because these conditions were of a general
nature there was a specific appendix.

8 H. R. HOARE

(2) Appendix to the General Conditions

In the appendix reference was made to the
particular clauses under the General Conditions,
and then pertinent facts were given, such as:

Time for completion: The exact date was
given.

Payment: The exact date of submission of
claims and payments was given.

Liquidated damages: The exact formula was
stated.
Drawings: To be supplied or not.

Defects Liability Period: The exact period
was given.
Fic.

(c) Specification

This part of the documentation dealt
exclusively with the technical aspect of the
job and, in combination with the tender
drawings, enabled the tenderers to arrive at a
proper tender price. It was usually imperative
to inspect the site during the tender period.

(e) Tender Form

The documents contained a special tender
form on which the contractor stated his price
and any schedules of rates if applicable. The
form was signed, witnessed and submitted on
or before the due date.

(f) Selection of Subcontwactors

Invariably the tenderers for sections of the
work were selected and invited. Having invited
tenders, it became almost obligatory to accept
the lowest bid unless there was some grave error
in pricing, in interpretation of the requirements,
or if there was some qualification to the offer.

It was therefore necessary to carefully
investigate the potential stability of the
subcontractor before inviting tenders. This
scrutiny was not only concerned with financial
stability but also with the availability to the
subcontractor of proper and adequate super-
vision and whether their work load was such
that they could cope with the Opera House
demands within the given time.

Not the least consideration was the labour
force engaged by the subcontractor, whether
he could sufficiently augment it, and whether
the terms of engagement and rates of pay
by the subcontractor were such as to cause
dissatisfaction with other terms existing on site.

(g) Variations

It was imperative that the financial position
between main contractor and subcontractors
was up-to-date, and the regular placing of

variation orders ensured this. Issuing first as
a request for pricing, a standard form of variation
was utilized that enabled the contract value to
be recorded in a monthly statement to the client.

(h) Payments

Payments on account and in finalization of
subcontracts were made through the normal
accounts section of the project, but only after
checking and authorization by the Subcontract
Controller. This necessitated a form of book-
keeping and ledgers in the Subcontract Con-
troller’s division dealing solely with those
contractual accounts and their adjustments,
containing more detail of variations, etc., than
that usually contained in a set of company
accounts.

Administration

Administration of the project covered the
fields of accounting incorporating actual cost
control, personnel and industrial relations,
insurance, security and sundry items of a general
administrative nature.

To maintain and report progressive costs,
a computer programme was designed to produce
a purchase journal, general journal, list and
value of goods received and not yet invoiced,
list of outstanding commitments, list of current
outstanding orders, labour and material used
in both hours and value, and finally a cost
summary produced on a monthly basis. To
enable the examination of costs against
estimates, these accounting returns were broken
up into areas and subdivisions to cover all
breakdowns of work performed. A series of
progressive code numbers was used to denote
the various functions. The cost summary then
gave a period (monthly) and an accumulative
total for the overall job to date.

By feeding in orders as placed with estimated
values, it was always possible to obtain fairly
accurate costing of goods delivered by using a
percentage of the total order represented by
the delivery, thus ensuring the inclusion of
costs on items for which no creditor’s charge
had been received.

The programme was based on the minimum
number of account dissections commensurate
with the detailed costing required, bearing in
mind that much of the work on this project was
of a “one off’’ nature and historical costing
would be of little value.

The use of the computer enabled monthly
costs to be available for examination within
7-10 days of the conclusion of the period.
Whilst a staff saving results from the use of the

THE CONTRACTOR AND SOME ASPECTS OF STAGE III 9

computer, it does not obviate the detailed
preparation of weekly input, which still requires
personnel, though not necessarily all qualified.

The computer has also been used for the
calculation of wages for several hundred
employees. This was a great time saving.

Industrial relations on a project such as this
have called for constant attention. Following
as we did from Stage I of the project, during
which a site allowance was agreed with the
unions, considerable industrial unrest was
experienced when it was made known that
Stages II and III would be completed under
award conditions and that no allowance would
be paid unless appropriate rates or conditions
were recognized by the Industrial Commission
and inserted in the various awards. Despite
constant pressure this condition has been
achieved.

Insurance cover on such a complex project
required special attention, calling for a very
comprehensive Contractor’s All Risks cover,
including Latent Defects and Legal Liability.
Because of the amount of cover required and the
unusual features of the construction, the under-
writing had to be spread over world markets,
and some proportion of this insurance is under-
written in every continent of the globe.

The safety record is one of which we are
very proud, considering the difficulties
encountered in construction. Special attention
to safety has been the constant concern of both
the company’s Safety Officer and employee
safety representatives. This has paid handsome
dividends in the prevention of lost time and
insurance claims. The site boasts a full-time
Industrial Nursing Sister and a well equipped
First Aid post.

Security on such a large site, with both land
and water frontages, has been a constant source
of concern, but the use of private security guards
and special site procedures covering entree and
inspection of vehicles, has enabled us to protect
the structure and keep losses within reason for
the industry. Losses cannot be stopped, but
they have been reasonably contained.

Area Definition

The whole project was subdivided into areas
for the purpose of identification and control.
In broad principle, the Concert Hall and
ancillary areas became “ A ”’, the Opera Theatre
and support areas became “B’”’, and common
areas were “C’’, “D” and “E”.

These broad divisions were further divided
into operational areas indicated by a number ;
for instance the Concert auditorium was known

as A.25, whilst the foyers around it became
A.23 and A.26.

This system of area coding proved so successful
that the system has been adopted as the
permanent code and is incorporated in all
signals manuals and operational signs.

In addition, each room had a construction
number and each door opening was scheduled.
This facilitated the door scheduling and the
group master keying system which has been
adopted.

Industrial Condition

When the contractor for Stage I commenced
work he faced a demand for special site
allowance. In those days a site allowance was
a new form of reimbursement and generally
confined to isolated projects or hazardous or
unpleasant work. To expect a site allowance
on a job in the heart of the city of Sydney was
unexpected, but eventually the contractor
established such an arrangement.

With the commencement of Stage II on a cost
basis, the New South Wales Government was
emphatic that only proper award rates should
be paid, and there began a protracted and
sometimes bitter industrial fight to obtain at
least the over-award payments enjoyed on the
previous contract. No agreement was reached
to pay a site allowance but an award by Mr.
Commissioner Menser made payable certain
rates for disabilities and hazard when working
above ground, on, and in the concrete shells.

During the period of Stage III this agreement
was observed by all parties and was instrumental
in bringing about a state of comparative
harmony in industrial relations.

The site suffered from being involved in most
of the disputes in the city, as well as a few
peculiar to itself.

It also received much more than its share of
publicity in this regard, especially from the TV
news teams—due no doubt to the photogenic
qualities of the building.

However, bearing in mind the scope of the
work and the enormous number of man-hours
involved, lost time was reasonable, as the
following figures indicate. (Period 1st April,
1970, to 31st July 1973.)

Hornibrook Labour :
Total effective hours
Total spread hours
Total lost hours

2,147,482 (92-10%)
49,071 (2-12%)
134,886 (5-°78%)

Total available hours 2,331,439

Note: Spread time is that time spent in general

services, e.g. gate control, stores, off loading.
etc.

H. R. HOARE

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THE CONTRACTOR AND SOME ASPECTS OF STAGE III 11

Labour Force and Rate of Progress

The target programme had envisaged a work
force of approximately 1,000 men, and it was
considered that this would only be recruited
with difficulty. For a number of reasons the
anticipated rate of progress was not achieved
in the years 1968 and 1969 and it became obvious
that the work force needed to be well in excess
of 1,000 in the years 1970-1972 to achieve the
completion date.

Furthermore, costs and estimates were con-
stantly increasing, not only because of the
escalation in cost of labour and materials but
also in the anticipated prices of some services.
For this reason the budgets and designs were
carefully controlled and it is a satisfaction to
record that the work was completed within the
framework of the 1967 estimate, but escalation
in wages and material had inevitably and con-
tractually to be met, which increased that
estimate of $85M to $100M in the space of five
years.

There were many nationalities employed on
the works. All important signs on the site were
in four languages. When a count was made on
one occasion for a news article a total of 14
languages was recorded without distinguishing
between the Australian tongue and the English.

The following graphs indicate the labour force
engaged (Figure 2) and the progress that was
recorded from the actual wages and accounts
paid (Figures 3 and 4). It should be remembered.
that these amounts paid do not include work
executed but not paid, retentions, and the like.

The labour force peaked at approximately
1,350 site operatives. An exact tally was not
possible as some subcontractors and _ their
supervision did not accurately record their
attendance.

The maximum expenditure in one month was
$2,450,000 approximately.

Both these figures are well in excess of any
other similar construction performances in
Australia.

Safety

As is generally found, those tasks that appear
dangerous are treated carefully and usually
are completed without mishap.

The whole of Stage II, the roof construction,
was completed without one fatality and with
very few serious accidents. This excellent record
persisted into the latter period of Stage III
when, unfortunately, a fatal accident occurred
to a crane operator while rigging his machine.

Safety precautions were an important con-
sideration in planning and supervising the work.

A resident Industrial Nursing Sister was
located in the central First Aid station, and
other First Aid posts were established throughout
the building.

Personnel holding First Aid certificates were
responsible for each post, and their names and
locations were prominently displayed at the
post.

A supervisor was appointed Safety Officer
and two safety representatives were detailed
from the work force. Their job was to correct
minor breaches of safety, receive safety com-
plaints from the men, and bring these to the
attention of the Safety Officer.

Statistical records were kept by the Nursing
Sister and detailed analyses of the types of
injuries and circumstances under which they
occurred were made. During the currency of
Stage III full accident compensation became
operable in the trade, but it is pleasing to report
that the accident rate causing lost time was
remarkably low and despite fears that full
compensation may be abused there was little
evidence of this.

Subcontracting

When awarding the contract to Hornibrook
as main contractor for Stage III, the Minister
for Public Works had assured the building trade
that as much of the specialist work as was
practical would be offered to subcontractors so
that opportunities for participating in the
project would be available.

It was therefore the intent from commence-
ment of Stage III to subcontract as much work
as was practical and economical, and the project
was divided into sections and trades that
enabled tenders to be called and subcontracts
to be let.

The decision whether to sublet a particular
section or to execute with directly employed
labour generally revolved around the likelihood
of obtaining satisfactory offers. It was soon
found that the Opera House complex had
engendered a hesitancy in the various trades,
due, no doubt, to the involved geometry, the
large scope of the work, and in some cases the
unenviable reputation for industrial disputes
that had surrounded the work in the early
stages.

Some work could not be pre-priced. It was
either too complicated and novel or the extent
of the work was unpredictable. In such cases
directly employed labour was invariably used,
as it was if quotations received appeared to be
excessive and unacceptable.

12 H. R. HOARE

IFA Fe IFS (92

WS =A SM TT

We FA aD IAT 912 a

FIGURE 4.—Sydney Opera House accumulative expenditure.

All other work was sublet, but even then the
terms of subcontract were drawn with a view to
removing from the contract unusual risks or
liabilities, thus attracting a more acceptable
offer.

For instance, the original intent with the
timber ceilings to the main halls was to leave to
the subcontractor the responsibility for all

survey, setting out, checking of panel sizes, etc.
From preliminary discussions with the short-
listed tenderers, it was evident that these
responsibilities were causing considerable concern
and being over-valued accordingly.

For the survey and setting out, one company
intended using a firm of surveyors at a cost
of $30,000, and other firms had not even reached

THE CONTRACTOR AND SOME ASPECTS OF STAGE III 13

that solution. There was not a shop large
enough for a full-scale shop layout of the ceiling.

The conditions of subcontract eventually
issued omitted all these requirements of the
subcontractors—the main contractor’s surveyors
carried out the instrument work, the engineers
computer defined the panel sizes—so that the
subcontractor was left with work he well

understood and could bid competitively.
Some subcontracts were let on a cost and
material basis and one, the cutting and framing
of the glass, was on a fee basis to a consortium
of major glazing companies. These were
negotiated with a view to obtaining the services
of selected tradesmen and supervision.

The following is a list of the major sub-
contractors, with approximate values of the
work executed in Stage III:

$
Angus & Coote Acoustics Pty. Ltd.—

Acoustic Doors : 250,000
Arcos Industries Pty. Ltd. —Stage Tower

Steelwork 300,000
A.W.A. Ltd. —Closed Circuit TV and Sound

SYStemMs (7). 1,250,000
Aygee (Merchants) “Pty. ‘Ltd. —Dressing

Room Furniture : 135,000
J. W. Broomhead Pty. Ltd. — Steel Mullions 450,000
S. A. Butler Pty. Ltd.—Internal Painting. . 75,000
Carpet Manufacturers Ltd.—Carpets to

non-Public Areas 130,000
Cemac Brooks Pty. Ltd. —Plywood Ceilings

and Panels 1,250,000
Co-ordinated Design & Supply Pty. Ltd.—

Auditoria Seating : 1,250,000
E.I.L. Special Projects—Signals and Inter-

communications : 275,000
®.P.M. Concrete Pty. Ltd. — Precast

Cladding . 2,750,000
Fire Control Pty. Ltd.—Fire and Timber

Doors Be 250,000
Frigrite Limited—Heat Pump ‘ 700,000
F. & T. Carpets—Carpets to Public Spaces 200,000
G.E.C.-Philips Pty. Ltd.—Lighting .. 2,500,000
George Hudson Pty. Ltd.—Timber Flooring 650,000
J. Goldstein Pty. Ltd.—Kitchen and Bar

Equipment 380,000
Haden Engineering Pty. Ltd.—Air Con-

ditioning and Hydraulic Fire Protection 4,750,000
J. M. Hargreaves & Son Pty. Ltd.—

Plumbing Services : 800,000
Hawker de Havilland Aust. Pty. “Ltd. —

Glass Wall Brackets .. 100,000
Indent Wall & Floor Tiles Pty. “Ltd.—

Ceramic Tiling .. 150,000
Instalrite Plastics Pty. Ltd. PVC Piping... 40,000
John M. Thomson & Co. Pty. Ltd.—

Plastering ne 45,000
John Deck & Sons—Bronze Doors : 40,000
Melocco Bros. Pty. Ltd. — Granolithic

Paving .. 250,000
Nonoys Pty. ILiwtel: —Sliding Acoustic Doors 140,000
Nonporite (N.S.W.) Pty. Ltd.—Waterproof

Rendering an 45,000
Nucrete Pty. Ltd. —Pneumatic Concrete om 200,000
O’Donnell Griffin Pty. Ltd.—Electrical

Design and Installation 2,275,000

$

Permasteel Windows Pty. Ltd.—Bronze

Architectural Metalwork - 1,600,000
G. Polhill & Sons Pty. Lid. —Internal

Painting 50,000
Premier Joinery Pty. Ltd.—Timber Flooring

and Wall Panelling.. 900,000
Quick-steel Engineering Pty. Ltd. —Glass

Wall Maintenance Equipment ; 60,000
Roof & Building Service ye Ltd.— Water-

proof Membrane 180,000
S.T.C. Pty. Ltd.—P.A.B.X. “System 95,000
Vasob Glass Pty. Ltd.—Glazing 450,000

Bronze and Glass Walls

Both of these sections of the work posed
problems concerned with infilling the spaces
between the overlapping concrete shells, and
the solutions by both the architect and engineer
were ingenious and intricate. Having devised
the schemes, the designers looked to the
contractor to implement them, which was done,
but not without some misgivings and anxious
moments until the unusual became common-
place.

Fortunately, there were still at hand the
supervision and skills that had erected the
concrete arched shells and had later threaded
huge steel members through inadequate holes
in the structure to form the internal steel
skeleton from which the massive ceilings were
suspended.

In the case of the bronze walls, the first
problem consisted of providing access by way of
working scaffold. The walls consist of an inner
steel structure with vertically ribbed bronzed
cladding externally, and sprayed concrete
forming aninner face. The whole is warped and
wreathed as the walls curve over the roof shells
and twist forward as they rise.

To construct a scaffold on each side of the
future wall necessitated surveyors constantly
controlling the scaffolders so that an adequate
and accurate working space was formed.

This and the subsequent construction of the
steel and bronze work had to be executed high
over and under the roof shells which form
natural tunnels for wind currents and turbulent
conditions.

The same crews of men were responsible for
the erection of the steel mullions to the glass
walls. These members were fabricated in
lengths as long as practicable, pre-finished off
site, so that handling and site working had
to be with care.

The working tolerances allowed the manu-
facturer were more than could be permitted in
the true line of the assembled structure as the
depth of the rebate holding the glass was
limited.

14 HRV ROARE

These unwieldy components had to be trans-
ported in special cradles, hoisted up and hung
from the concrete shells, and then cross-braced
and trued up by adjustable bracings until the
line and position were within the acceptable
tolerance of }in. This tolerance was reduced
to +; in for bronze and glass.

All the glass sizes and shapes were computed,
and although frequent checks from site measure-
ments were made these were generally confined
to abutments against the concrete structure
or at intersections. The accuracy of the steel
structure was of paramount importance.

Mechanical Services

The whole project is air conditioned or
mechanically ventilated at a cost of $4M. The
basic design principle was as far as practicable
to provide localized plant rooms with heating
and cooling coils throughout the building, thus
reducing the amount of duct work and causing
heat gains and losses to be kept to a minimum.
Use is also made of vertical concrete shafts and
double floor arrangements for air distribution.
The air conditioning comprised installation of
over 70 separate air handling systems, located
in 24 plant rooms around the building and fed
with heated and chilled water from a central
refrigeration system. The air handling side
consists of 120 fans (many of them two-speed
fans), which move more than 1,000,000 c ft
of air per minute when all the systems are
running. —

The conditioned air is distributed through
approximately 12 miles of duct work to some
3,000 grilles and diffusers. The majority of
rooms, and there are over 800 in this complex,
are provided with individual temperature
selection.

Ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration
machinery are all controlled by an electronic
monitoring system located in the control room
of the main plant room. This is the system’s
nerve centre. It automatically records an
alarm when critical points of the system go
outside predetermined limits. It raises an
audio/visual alarm signal and automatically
prints out, on a line printing machine, the source
of the fault and the limit which has been
exceeded.

Particular attention has been given to the
problem of sound attenuation. All of the plant,
equipment, duct work and piping is fixed with
resilient mountings to prevent the transmission
of vibrations, while ducts are internally lined
and provided with silencers at strategic points.
In addition, much of the duct work is fabricated

in sandwich construction form (consisting of a
number of layers of metal with rubber sheets in >
between) as an added sound-deadening barrier
to prevent the entry of noise from outside into
the system and hence to the auditorium. This
causes the duct work to be very heavy—large
pieces weigh anything up to half a ton each.
To obtain an indication of the size of some of
the ducting, it is no exaggeration to say that a
car could be driven through it.

The installation in the Drama Theatre is
unusual in that here is installed the first cooled
ceiling in Australia. The intention is to give
to a large group of people in a small space the -
feeling of comfort without moving large
quantities of air with the attendant noise and
draught problems.

The refrigeration plant which supplies heated
and chilled water to the various air conditioning
systems cost approximately $800,000. This
plant incorporates a heat pump system, which
through heat exchanger vessels uses the harbour
as a heat source whenever the heating load
exceeds the cooling load, and as a heat sink
whenever the cooling load exceeds the heating
load. The plant has a capacity of 1,500 tons
of refrigeration, generated from three centrifugal
hermatic machines, and with its associated sea
water and fresh water circulating pumps has an
electrical load of over 2,000hp. The same
control system previously mentioned auto-
matically adjusts the output of the plant to
maintain the desired water temperatures.

Lifts for the Opera House worth about
$250,000 comprise seven electric lifts and three
oil hydraulic lifts. Because of the Opera
House design, these lifts are all driven from the
bottom of the lift shafts.

Electrical Services

The main power for the site comes via high-
voltage 11 kV mains to feed two substations
at ground floor level. The installation comprises
six 1,000kVA dry type Tyree transformers,
each of which weighs nearly four tons and is
again mounted on resilient pads to reduce
sound transmission.

Directly beneath the substation is the Main ©
Switch Room where, at a cost of $100,000, |
has been installed a 60ft long switchboard —
which houses all the tariff meters, switch gear
and distribution equipment for machinery,
light and power.

Emergency lighting and panic light systems
are installed for use if the mains supply from
both substations is interrupted. The huge
battery comprises two banks of 190 cells each,

THE CONTRACTOR AND SOME ASPECTS OF STAGE III 15

operating in parallel with a capacity of 1,000
ampere hours. The nickel cadmium batteries
weigh12tons. They are designed for a two-hour
sustained load of 95 kW.

The principal electrical subcontractor has
installed 250 miles of wiring.

The lighting installation, worth over $2M,
has been handled by a consortium company
especially formed for this project. The lighting
is designed to highlight the internal and external
features of the Opera House. There are nearly
14,000 lighting fittings installed. Incandescent
fittings are used generally throughout the public
areas, with some small halogen lights for accent
purposes. Most of the working areas employ
fluorescent lighting. Workshops are illuminated
by colour-corrected mercury lamps. There are
about 1,200 incandescent fittings for the dressing
rooms.

Stage Equipment

Stage lighting and control equipment was
the subject of a separate contract, for a little
over $1M. Much of the basic equipment is of
German origin. A contract was let some years
ago for the supply and installation of stage
machinery and, of course, it was essential for
the stage erection and the stage lighting
organizations to work in close collaboration
with each other. Both the Drama and Opera
Theatres have 50 ft diameter revolving plat-
forms. The Opera Theatre Stage is some 35 ft
above the set changing and preparation area.
A vertical transport platform can travel up
from the set change area to the performers’
level, change over a set, and disappear again
whilst a performance is still continuing on the
front of the stage.

Fire Precautions

All the usual safety and fire precautionary
measures are built into the project, and particu-
larly the stage areas. It would be true to say
that more precautions have been taken here
than with any other theatrical building in use
anywhere. Drencher curtain systems are
installed to protect the fire safety curtains for
the stage openings of Opera and Drama Theatres.

The more conventional fire protection facilities
are worth nearly $1M and cover hydraulic
sprinkler installations in most areas of the
building, totalling nearly 7,000 sprinkler heads
and 140 hydrant stations. Areas housing
expensive electrical equipment, where damage
from water could be as disastrous as that caused
by fire, are protected with total flood B.C.F.
gas-extinguishing systems. Kitchen areas have

extract systems associated with cooking equip-
ment, protected by CO, gas systems.

Communication Systems

Worthy of particular mention are some of the
complex and advanced electronic systems
associated with this project. There are electro-
acoustic and simultaneous interpretation systems
worth over $1M.

The electro-acoustic system provides compre-
hensive sound amplification and distribution
in the various theatres and public areas. The
equipment incorporates features which allow
producers to control sound reproduction to suit
their individual requirements.

Of particular interest is the electrically
tapered speaker column used in the Concert
Hall, which is the first of its kind in the world.

As performing arts do not normally occupy a
total yearly season within the building,
provisions have been made for extensive
conference facilities. The simultaneous inter-
pretation system allows multi-lingual conferences
to be held. Speeches from either the dais or
the body of the hall will be translated simul-
taneously to conference members and relayed
over a radio induction loop under the floor of
the auditorium. Delegates are provided with
pocket radio receivers and may listen to any
language they wish by selecting the appropriate
channel on their receiver. In the Concert
Hall and the Opera Theatre there is provision
for five languages, and in the Drama Theatre,
Cinema and Recital Hall for three languages.
These head-sets have a jack incorporated which
allows a patron to tape record a conference in
any language being used. The system can also
be used for patrons with hearing problems.

Part of the conference facilities is an Optronic
Paging Device: a sign which allows a message
to be illuminated on stage. This sign has a
built-in memory so that the message can be
repeated at given intervals until the call is
answered.

The importance of communication between
stars, stage administration technicians and
patrons has led to the installation of many
sophisticated electronic communications systems
within the Sydney Opera House complex.

Apart from the systems which are available
to normal occupants of the building, there are
special systems which centralize around the
Stage Doorkeeper’s Office. All security services,
alarm bells, fire warning lights, etc., terminate
in the Doorkeeper’s Office on a large mimic
display panel. This panel is manned 24 hours
a day and all building alarms are recorded on

16 H. R. HOARE

the panel. The lights throughout the project
are indicated on mimic panel plans of the Opera
House so that a constant monitor of lighting
can be kept. Lights can also be switched from
this panel when control is released from the
local switch panels.

There is a Radio Paging Service throughout
the building which can be initiated from the
Stage Door or the telephone switchboard. If
the Doorkeeper or the telephonist wishes to
reach persons who are not at their telephone
points, they can initiate a radio paging message
which will be picked up by portable receivers
issued to key personnel upon their arrival in
the building.

In the case of key technical personnel, these
radio signals are coupled with critical alarms.
For example, a critical fault occurs in the
mechanical ventilation system and records an
alarm at the Doorkeeper’s Office; it auto-
matically sends a warning signal to the Chief
Engineer, who carries one of the receivers.

Security was a major consideration in the
planning of this project. All external doors
to the building are monitored for forced entry
and automatically show whether the door is in
an open or closed position or has been tampered
with. This is recorded on the panel in the
Doorkeeper’s Security Office.

Facilities are located in the offices of key
personnel and in stars’ dressing rooms. All
other dressing rooms and many other staff
offices within the building have similar systems,
but on a less comprehensive scale. The
facilities are centralized in a wall unit called a
“Room Service Module ”’.

Perhaps the best way to explain the
capabilities of some of these systems is to take
the example available in a conductor’s room.

A conductor may wish to tune up an instru-
ment in his room without having to resort to a
tuning fork or calling in a passing oboist. He
simply walks to his Room Service Module
and presses a button. Through a speaker in
this module a four forty cycle “A” tone is
produced with all the overtones of a normal oboe.
He is also linked through this module to the
Stage Manager’s call system. In each of the
theatres the Stage Manager can call dressing
rooms which are preselected to occur on an
indicator on his desk. As there can be many
performances at any one time, the dressing rooms
for each of the theatres are allocated beforehand,
so that each Stage Manager knows where the
personnel for his performance are _ located.
The allocated dressing rooms show up on his
desk in the form of illuminated buttons. During

a concert the Stage Manager might wish to call
his conductor, and he does this by pressing a
button and speaking into his microphone, which
automatically reproduces his voice in the
conductor's suite. The conductor, from any-
where in his suite, can speak at a normal voice
level, his voice being picked up by a sensitive
microphone and relayed to the Stage Manager’s
desk. A red light flashes over the Room Service
Module when the area is being listened in to by
the Stage Manager.

A conductor may wish to see how many
people are attending his particular concert
that evening, or watch a performance in another
hall. He can do this by selecting the channel
on his module, which will display on a 21 in
television monitor screen in his room a closed
circuit television picture of the selected
auditorium. After the performance, or whilst
relaxing, he may wish to watch normal television
channels. These can also be picked up on his
monitor by a selection made at the Room
Service Module.

The conductor also has facilities to tune in
and listen to the music or activities in any
of the major rehearsal rooms or auditoria. This
allows the conductor to get a high quality
reproduction of sound of the activities in those
rooms. He can listen to his orchestra warming
up or rehearsing in his absence.

Attached to the module is a house telephone
system which enables him to dial, without
going through the operator, any other room in
the building. There are facilities in each of
these suites to have separately metered telephone
calls, so that he may call any part of the world
and have the charge debited against his personal
account. He has the facility of using the main
telephone operator for local calls or, for example,
ordering a meal from the catering service.

The closed circuit television system previously
briefly described, in the conductor’s suite, has
many other uses. Late-comers unable to enter
the auditorium after the start of a performance
can watch the performance in a Bar Area on
the closed circuit television system. In the
halls where a conductor will be operating there
is a separate camera covering the conductor’s
movements. These are relayed to various
rehearsal rooms and to the back stage area, so
that artists who are awaiting their cue can come
in on the correct beat. The major rehearsal
room is coupled with the Opera Theatre through
the sound system. An off stage choir can
perform in this theatre and its sound be trans-
mitted to the auditorium whilst having a visual
display of the conductor.

THE CONTRACTOR AND SOME ASPECTS OF STAGE III 17

Integrated with this system is a tele-cine
machine. This allows any messages which need
to be passed to the patrons, such as calling for a
specific person or notification of changes of cast,
to be put on to the television sets in exactly
the same way as credits are given on commercial
television at the end of programmes. It can
also be used to transmit foreign language
messages, 35 mm slides and 16 mm projection
film.

Within the closed circuit television network
provision is made for a videotape recording unit.
This unit comprises a mobile trolley equipped
with closed circuit television camera, a videotape
recorder and monitors. The unit can be used
for staff training, for example in the replacement
of complicated pieces of machinery or in the

setting up of scene sets for opera, for training

performers during rehearsals by recording their
sections on stage and replaying them after the
production. It has potential also for use by
visiting producers. In the past we have had
producers from Covent Garden jetting to and
from Australia whenever their time permits
them, to produce an opera in Sydney. The
frequency of these visits could be diminished
and the production could be improved by
sending videotapes to the producer overseas at
significant stages during the rehearsals.

For overflow crowds at performances or big
conventions, the closed circuit television network
can be linked to other auditoria, indicating to
them the activities in the hall of their choice.

Facts and Figures

Height of tallest shell
Weight of roof :
Weight of building

(Excluding granite paving and cladding)
Width of external approach stairway .
Ground area of building .. a2 is
External dimensions up to Bs
Number of precast tile panels ..
Number of precast segments in roof
Surface area of roofs ae
Total length of stressing cables in roofs ..
Unsupported span of concourse beams
Area of granite paving and cladding ..
Supporting piers and columns

221 ft above sea-level
26,800 tons
125,000 tons of concrete
6,000 tons of steel
282 ft
42 acres
611 ft x379 ft
4,253 (containing over 1,056,000 tiles)
2,194 (weighing up to 15 tons each)
About 200,000 sq ft
217 miles
From 136 ft to 164 ft
10 surface acres
The building is supported on about 550 3-ft diameter

concrete piers, many sunk to more than 70 ft below

sea level.
than 234

End to end, they would extend for more
miles. The roofs are supported on 32

columns, ranging in size from 4 ft to 8 ft square

Electrical installations

400 miles of cable in 60 miles of conduit with supply
governed by 120 distribution switchboards.

A bank

of 12 tons of batteries is installed for emergency
lighting

Air conditioning

The plant rooms will supply 20 tons of air per minute

throughout the building

H. R. Hoare, F.I.0.B., F.A.I.B.,
Director, Wood Hall Ltd.,
Project Manager, Stage III,
223 Pacific Highway,

North Sydney, 2060.

(Received 27 August 1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 18-32, 1973

Roof Cladding of the Sydney Opera House

MICHAEL LEWIS

Asstract—tThe tiled roof cladding of the Sydney Opera House is probably the most important

visual element of the building.

It has been designed and constructed within the constraints

of a strong geometric discipline which dominates the form of the Opera House structure. The
paper outlines the design development and details, methods of construction used, and the
techniques which were evolved to construct these elements by employing factory production
methods to take advantage of the repetitive geometric forms which make up the roof structure.

Introduction

Much has been written about the Sydney
Opera House, and numerous books and papers
have been published (see References). Some
describe the more controversial aspects of
this unusual building, whilst others deal with
technical considerations. The building is
extremely complex, and in a paper such as this
it is possible to highlight only a particular
aspect of the structure. The roof cladding or
“tile lids”, as they came to be described
during the construction, constitute the most
important visual element of the building. The
selection of the tiles, the way in which they were
fabricated into large pre-cast components, the
accuracy of manufacture and placing, as well
as the intricate pattern formed by the arrange-
ment of tiles on the lids introduces a strong
sense of geometric unity which is the central
theme of the whole of the roof structure and its
cladding.

The Opera House is located on a peninsula
jutting into Sydney Harbour on the northern
end of the high-rise buildings in the central
business area; it is adjacent to the harbour
bridge and botanical gardens. It is a building
which is seen in the round and from above—
the sculptural form has been designed with this
in mind and the selection of a material to cover
that form was made by the Architect with great
imagination and perceptiveness, producing a
surface which expresses liveliness and interest
under differing conditions of light—it is a form
which is disciplined but never monotonous.

The Tiles

The tiles were manufactured in Hoganas,
Sweden, after extensive research by the Architect

to achieve a white ceramic tile with glazed finish
and an underlying rough texture. There are
two types of finish, “matt” and “ glazed ”’
which have been arranged in a specific pattern
on the lids—although a close scrutiny of the
tiles shows a marked difference between the two
materials, the difference in reflectiveness creates
a subtle pattern on the surface which defines the
edges of the tile lids and introduces the under-
lying anatomy or structural form of the load-
bearing elements beneath. Standard tiles are
42x42in (120x120mm) and 3in (10mm)
thick—there are approximately 1,000,000 tiles
cast on to 4,253 tile lids and eight different tile
types. All tiles were cut to size in the factory
before firing, packing and shipping from Sweden
to Australia.

Tile Lids

In the original design submission, the Architect
had expressed his intention to tile the roof,
but the structure at that time was conceived
as a cast im situ reinforced concrete shell
comprising two thin concrete membranes
separated by a cellular void. The geometry
of the outer surface was defined by an elliptical
paraboleid which was unsuitable for repetitive
precasting. On such a surface, the tiles would
have to be laid by traditional methods involving
serious risk of tiles falling off due to thermal
strain and inadequate bedding of individual
tiles. It was inconceivable that this vast
number of small tiles could be laid in a satis-
factory manner by tilers working on the surface
of the roof. This was an important consideration
in the decision to change the geometric definition
of the roof surface.

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POURNAL ROYAL SOCIETY N.S.W.

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View of completed roof

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ROOF CLADDING OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

Geometry of the Roof Structure and
Tile Lids |

The roof structure covers the two main halls
and the restaurant. There are three main
elements forming each roof structure (Figure 1)—
main shells (Al, A2, A3, A4), side shells (D5,
D6, D7, D8) and louvre shells (C9, C10). Each
shell is made up of two half-shells symmetrical
about the central axis of the hall. Each half is
a mirror reflection of the others about a vertical
plane along the central axis of the hall. Some
leading dimensions give an indication of the
scale of the roof structure. The height to the
top of the largest shell from its springing point
is 179 feet (54-6 m). The longest rib is made
from 13 segments covered with 26 tile lids ;
the arc length measured along its centre line
is 210 ft (64m). Each half main shell (Al, A2,
A3, A4) appears in elevation as a curvilinear
triangle standing on a vertex. Each triangle
which forms the outer surface of the shell is a
portion of a sphere whose radius is 246 ft (75 m).

SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
MAJOR HALL SHELLS

UT

—

SS

19

Each half main shell consists of a series of
concrete ribs (B). The centre line of each rib
is a great circle of the sphere. Centre lines are
spaced 3-65° apart throughout each main shell.
Each centre line passes through the pole of the
sphere. In this way ribs and tile lids radiate
from the podium and become wider up the shell,
successive ribs becoming longer or shorter as
the case may be. The cross-section of each rib
varies by smooth surfaces from a solid T to an
open Y at the upper end (Figure 2). The ribs
coalesce into a reinforced concrete pedestal (J)
which provides a common spring point for all
the main shell precast concrete segments. This
arrangement of ribs and tile lids comprising
similar elements forming part of a spherical
geometry made it possible to develop a sensible
construction process embodying the maximum
use of repetitive elements.

The louvre shells (C) are identical in principle
to the main shells (A).

ony,
-
- Z
ee

oF

\((u
\

FicurE ].—Isometric view of roof structure and cladding.

20 MICHAEL LEWIS

Side shells (D) are spherical triangles which
link main and louvre shells—geometric deriva-
tion is shown in Figure 4. Here again each
shell forms part of the surface of the same
sphere. The “ meridian’’ passes through the
vertex of each shell; the boundaries of the side
shells are small circles. Great circles intersect
this meridian at right angles at 7 ft 6 in (2-28 m)
intervals. Although each spherical triangle
forming a side shell is different, the geometric
principles are the same and hence fabricating
elements of the side shell structure and tile
lids could be planned on a repetitive basis.

The space between the side shells and main
shells is formed by a warped surface (G) described
by two points which move up each shell
boundary circle at the same rate and are joined
by straight lines.

Main Shell Tile Lids

The arrangement of main shell tile lids (Figures
1, 2 and 3) follows the geometry of the main
shell ribs. There are altogether 3,646 main
shell lids and 26 types numbered from the lowest
lid upwards varrying in overall dimension from

7 it 6inX1 ft 6in to11 ft6inx12ft6in. The
theoretical diameter of the spherical surface is
246 ft 84in. The tiles are arranged in a manner ~
sympathetic with the chevron shape of the lids
with matt tiles on the outer edges and standard
glazed tiles covering the inside surface. The
tiles are backed by a layer of “‘ ferro cement ”’
approximately 14 in thick, which is cast mono-
lithically with the tiles to make a slab of 13 in
total thickness stiffened by 6in deep ribs
(see Figure 5). The backing slab of “ferro
cement’ is reinforced with three layers of
galvanized steel mesh, comprising two layers of
4inxX4inX16 gauge mesh with a separating
layer of 3inxX3inX16 gauge mesh. This
represents a very heavily reinforced section,
the cross-sectional area of the steel being 1-2%
of the 141n thick concrete slab. |

Laboratory tests on panels revealed a flexural
deformation pattern which would be expected in
a homogeneous, uncracked, flexible material
rather than the characteristic behaviour of
reinforced concrete where the deformation
varies significantly between the uncracked and
cracked conditions.

CROSS-SECTION THROUGH MAIN SHELL RIB

Y

1 REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN 6 TEMPORARY SUPPORT FOR RIB SEGMENT
2 PRESTRESSED REINFORCED CONCRETE TIE 7 TEMPORARY STRESSING CABLES

3 CAST-IN-SITU SHELL PEDESTAL 8 PRECAST CONCRETE RIB SEGMENT

4 TEMPORARY RUBBER BEARING 9 SPECIAL TOP SEGMENT

5 LOWEST RIB SEGMENT WITH ANCHORAGES FOR TEMPORARY STRESSING CABLES

FIGURE 2.—Diagrammatic section through shell showing detail ot rib cross-section.

10 PERMANENT STRESSING CABLES

ANCHORAGE FOR PERMANENT
12 CAST-IN-SITU CONCRETE JOINT
13 PRECA

SEGMENT @& TILE LID (oucrweunc )

akwnr =

PRECAST
10 MILD STEEL REINFORCING BARS TO RIB SEGMENT

Y,

4

Yi,

STRESSING CABLES

ROOF CLADDING OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

SS

Se ———e

G WARPED SURFACE TILE LIDS
SX
eer
SE
ESR
ane
ieee
———

A MAIN SHELL TILE LIDS
D SIDE SHELL TILE LIDS

os
AEN |
LOSSES SSSR
f SSSSSSS SES sk SAN

FIGURE 3.—Western elevation of Concert Hall showing arrangement of tile lids.

21

MICHAEL LEWIS

22

MAIN SHELL SPHER

RADIAL SECTION

OF ARCH

\A
és

MAIN SHELL SURFACE

SIDE SHELL
SURFACE

Ha) 7

Hl

ARCH WARPED SURFACE

WM
iin A

dn

RADIAL SECTION OF ARCH~

OS (CENTRE OF SIDE SHELL SPHERE)

FIGURE 4.—Geometric relationship between main shell, side shell and warped surface.

LINTER-RIB

BOUNDARY

=<
w
>
w
w
a
”
N
g
«
@

DETAIL OF TILE-LID 16

THE -LID LAYOUT ON

(58 No. OFF)

HAL

FiGuRE 5.—Main shell tile lids.

ROOF CLADDING OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

Oss
es

Bi 4,

FIGURE 6(a).—Production techniques for main shell tile lids.

23

24

MICHAEL

7.

FIGURE 6(b).—Production techniques for

main

Y/Y Shi,
Yi
j//fy,

8.
shell tile lids.

ROOF CLADDING OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 25

The lids were manufactured in a factory which
was established on site—refer to Figure 6.

(1) A concrete form for each of the standard
main shell tile lids was ,built with the concrete
surface made concave to a spherical form of
radius 246 ft 84in. A grid of +1in square
aluminium strip was fixed to the concrete mould
to locate tiles; grooves were formed in the
concrete surface to drain condensate resulting
from the steam curing operation. Side forms
were made of + in steel plate with edge shaping
to form a groove for the waterproofing backing
strip between adjacent tile lids.

Tiles were placed face down in the mould
between the aluminium ribs—this operation
did not require traditional tiling skills and was
done by builders’ labourers.

Some of the tile lids types are repeated as
much as 276 times—providing an excellent
opportunity for re-use of the special forms.

(2) When all the tiles had been placed in
position, the joints between tiles were partially
filled with heated animal glue, which set on
cooling (melting point 90-95°F) to prevent
grout penetration on to the surface of the tile lids.

(3) Three pre-cut layers of galvanized steel
mesh were placed on top of the tiles, using small
pieces of asbestos cement as spacers to give
#; in nominal cover of concrete between the
mesh and the underside of tiles. Reinforcement
in the ribs had been cut, bent and galvanized
before fixing into position.

(4) Sand cement mortar was compacted by a
heavy float vibrator and pencil vibrators. The
surface was wood trowelled. The concrete mix
was designed to a minimum cube crushing strength
of 6,000 lb/in?. The mortar had to be capable
of penetrating through the fine mesh created
by the reinforcement mats; the mix used
consisted of one part cement, two parts Nepean
sand of maximum size BS7. ‘“ Pozzolith’”’
additive was used to maintain workability,
with a water/cement ratio of 0°38. Average
strength of 8,500 psi, with a standard deviation
of 1,100 psi, was achieved. Internal rib forms
were placed in position after the “‘ ferro cement ”’
slab had been cast. Quarter-inch diameter
dowels were used for screeding in order to control
the thickness of concrete cover on the trowelled
underside of the tile lid.

(5) Steam curing was introduced by covering
each tile lid with a tent-like PVC hessian hood
to a maximum temperature of 170° F with a
rate of temperature rise not greater than

40° F/hr. Steam curing did not start until
three hours after pouring concrete, which
meant that this was done at night to facilitate
production on a daily repeating cycle. In the
morning internal steel forms for the ribs were
removed, which was followed by stripping of
side forms.

(6) Heat from the steam curing had melted
the animal glue, and tile lids were cleaned with
steam prior to storage. The concrete cube
strength at the time of stripping was a minimum
of 5,000 psi.

(7) Storage on a “ butcher’s rack’’ basis
prevented distortion due to stack loading.

(8) The finished tile surface has recessed
grooves formed by the casting technique.
Because the animal glue formed and hardened
aS a concave meniscus, the mortar in the joints
was formed to a convex shape in cross-section.
A sharp re-entrant angle between the mortar
and the tile edge resulted, which gave concern
that water penetration to the mesh reinforcement
could take place; this could lead to eventual
corrosion of the galvanized mesh reinforcement
and rust staining on the tile lids. To prevent
this, all recessed joints were sealed with an
epoxy compound comprising “ Epikote 815”
Epoxy and Titanium Oxide filler in the ratio
20:3. The material was applied by squeezing
through a nozzle in a plastic container directly
into the recessed tile joint—the result was a
concave meniscus leaving the recessed
appearance, but ensuring maximum surface
area for adhesion between tile edge and epoxy
to seal the surface of the concrete.

Cut Off Tile Lids

At the top of each shell the pattern of standard
tile lids is terminated when the curved surface
of the shell intersects a vertical plane parallel
to the centre plane of each building. This
introduced a special “ cut-off’ lid at the top of
each rib. There are altogether 276 “ cut off”
lids on the main shells—the largest covers an
area of 11 ft 6in x21 ft—although they follow
the chevron form of the standard lids, each
lid is different and it was necessary to set up
two special forms for manufacturing these units.
This involved work by skilled tradesmen, who
set up the forms for casting each lid—a process
generally not required in the tile yard.

Side Shell Tile Lids
The side shell tile lids were limited to a size
which could be handled and erected without
suffering excessive stress or deformation due to

26 MICHAEL LEWIS

self weight. To accommodate this requirement,
the side shell lids at the lower levels are split
at an angle 45° to the meridian, sympathetic
with the tile pattern. The maximum size of
the side shell lids is 7 ft 6in x30 ft approxi-
mately—as in the main shell lids, it is made
up of 14in composite slab of tiles and “ ferro
cement ”’ stiffened by 6in deep ribs.

Casting for all side shell lids was done on one
mould with the need for individual setting up
for each edge condition; the great circles
forming the top and bottom boundaries of the
lids were identical for all lids.

Warped Surface Lids

Each warped surface lid is a composite
concrete and tile slab 24in thick; although
the lateral dimensions vary and are different
for each lid, the distance along the great circle
boundary of the main shell is constant at
7ft 54in. The “rate of twist’ varies as the
distance from the lower end of the tile lids
increases, so that an adjustable form was devised

TILE LD CAST
FACE DOWN

which made it possible to cast the 358 warped
surface tile lids on four identical casting beds—
see Figure 7. The warp could be formed by
casting the lid with three corners on a horizontal
plane, the fourth corner set at a height to this
plane. Close-spaced battens deflected relative
to one another to form the surface ; these were
lined with heavy-duty fibre reinforced aluminium
foil and then small moulded crosses were fixed
on the form to locate the tiles. All dimensional
data for this work were produced by three-
dimensional geometric analysis and programmed
so that the print-outs from the computer were
issued to the site as working drawings. Dimen-
sions were checked by the provision of
dimensions across the diagonal of each tile lid.
The composite slab is reinforced with two layers
of galvanized 3 x3 in welded mesh of 8 gauge—
1-8% of the concrete cross-sectional area. The

tiles on the warped surface lids are all matt.
After steam curing the tile lids, the lids were
removed from the form and stacked vertically
for curing.

is PROP

SHELL BOUNDARY

FIGURE 7.—Warped surface lid casting bed (diagrammatic).

ROOF CLADDING OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 27

An early trial erection of four lids revealed
that differential shrinkage strain, a result of
the restraint caused by the tiles on the one
surface of the slab and an exposed face on the
other, had resulted in bowing of the slabs by
4in to 2in on all edges. This was visually
unacceptable, particularly along the side shell
and main shell boundaries where a scalloped
effect was evident. This had not occurred in
main shell or side shell lids because of the
stiffening effect of the ribs. The lids which had
already been cast were corrected by pre-cutting
cracks in the lid, bending and repairing with
epoxy. All remaining tile lids were cast with
an initial deflection of +in, which was then
compensated by the shrinkage strain which
took place during curing. Some lids were
damaged due to incorrect storage techniques—
the damage generally resulted in “ flattening ”’
of the warp. This was corrected by using the
same process which had been adopted for
eliminating the effect of differential shrinkage
strain.

Insulation and Waterproofing

In order to reduce stresses in the super-
structure caused by the differential of conditioned
air at constant temperature on the inside surface
and variable temperature conditions on the
outside, a layer of insulation was applied to the

thickness with a maximum enduring K factor
of 0-11.

The side shell structure was waterproofed by
applying a sprayed PVC _ waterproofing
membrane on the surface of the concrete.
Joints between main shell ribs were rendered
waterproof by caulking a lead sheet across
adjacent flanges. In addition to making the
structure waterproof, the tile lids were made
waterproof by sealing the joints between tile
lids with a two-part acrylic compound—
“Monolastomeric ’’. This material was chosen
after an extensive survey and test programme
involving numerous available sealants and
methods of application. The acrylic sealant
was gunned into the joints after a PVC backing
strip had been installed. The gunning of mastic
into joints less than +in wide was found to
be unsatisfactory, and this was established as a
minimum joint width between tile lids. The
cavity between the main and side shells is open
at the top and bottom of the shells, but flashed
to prevent the entry of rain.

Production and Cost
All tile lids were produced on site. The
number of beds used for casting was related to
the demands of the programme for completing
the roof structure. The following rates of
production were achieved :

TABLE 1.

Number of

Weekly Production Rates

Man-Hours per square foot

Type of Tile Lid Casting
Beds Maximum Average Minimum Average
Main shell .. pe s 19 65 50 0°33 0-40
Cut-off due es - 2 6 0:38 0-40
Side shell ia - a is 4 0-40 0-50
Warped surface ae te 4 10 6 0-55 0-75

*The casting bed was large enough to cast two small lids at a time.

underside of all main shell and side shell tile
lids. This was first done by spraying self-
foaming polyurethane on the underside of the
tile lids. However, after a few months’
exposure in the storage racks there were signs
that the foam appeared to be expanding
laterally and adhesion to the concrete surface
had failed. To prevent this happening in
service, the polyurethane was cut into 2x2 ft
sections and a “safety net ”’ of fibre glass mesh
fixed to the concrete using brass screws and PVC
or Neoprene strip washers. After this experience
the self-foaming polyurethane was replaced by
pre-cut “self-extinguishing’’ foamed poly-
urethane of density 0-2 lb/ft? in sheets-of 3 in

Because the production man-hours spent
was concentrated on the edges of the lids, the
larger side shell and cut-off lids tend to reflect
a lower cost rate of man-hours per square foot.

The direct cost of producing the pre-cast tile
lids, excluding epoxy sealing of joints, was
$3.95 per square foot. The cost is made up of

Permanent materials 50-2%
Tiles 45 -8%
Concrete .. 8:1%
Reinforcing steel 21°5%

Bronze fixings NG
Miscellaneous 3%

28 MICHAEL LEWIS

ALUMINIUM BRONZE
FRRACKET

PHOSPHOR BRONZE

BOLT
SOCKET
LOCATING SPIGOT
MAIN SHELL SURFACE
SECTION
FIGURE 8.—Diagrammatic arrangement of main shell tile lid fixings.
ILE LIDS Z
|
ACRYLIC SEALANT a
ADJUSTABLE eas
RADIAL PROP

iN. PLAN VIEW OF FIXING

PROP BOLT NOT SHOWN

SIDE SHELL SURFACE

SECTION
FIGURE 9.—Side shell lid fixing detail—diagrammatic.

ROOF CLADDING OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

Temporary materials used in manu-

facture - Me 62%
Forms, hardware, lifting gear, etc... 4°3%
Sub - contractors (polyurethane

supply and spray) yh Sou

_Labour used in manufacture 29-0%
Labour used in setting up yard and
casting beds 76%

Work was completed in March, 1967.

Fixing and Erecting Tile Lids
Each tile lid is designed to be fixed inde-
pendently of adjacent lids in a manner which
permits thermal expansion and contraction to
take place without impinging on adjacent lids.
Interaction between lids could result in over-

stressing of fixing brackets and bolts as well as
possible damage to lids and tiles.

SIDE oF a ge

WARPED SURFACE

MAIN SHELL

SECTION THROUGH WARPED
SURFACE TILE LID

SUPPORTING STRUCTURE

BOTTLE FIXING (ALUMINIUM
BRONZE) SCREWED INTO
THREADED SOCKET

29

terms, see Figure 11.) The rib-to-rib width
was not expected to vary a great deal, although
it was expected that relative radial displacements
between main ribs could create “‘ steps’”’ in the
radial direction.

These requirements resulted in the design of a
fixing which provided a reasonable degree of
radial adjustment of tile lids to reduce the
radial stepping effect at the boundary plane,
but provided in the normal and tangential
direction for only small casting errors in the
bolt position. The rib-to-rib joint was fixed
nominally as lin; the lid-to-lid boundary
plane joint was fixed nominally at #in; the
chevron joint was fixed nominally at - in.
This appeared to satisfy the requirements of a
continuous surface with minimal radial steps
between adjacent lids.

TILE PLACED AND GLUED
IN AFTER ALIGNMENT

BRASS PLATE
CAST IN LID

O

FIGURE 10.—Warped surface tile lid fixing—diagrammatic.

The design was initially prepared with the
intention that the main shell tile lids should
be fixed to the supporting ribs along a common
great circle plane. It was considered generally
undesirable to fix tiles after erection of lids and
by introducing the concealed spigot and socket
system of interconnection (see Figure 8) a
continuous surface in the tangential direction
was made possible. (For definition of geometric

Side shell fixing bolts were cast into side shell
beams. The normal plane joints of the side
shells were made in wide and “split ’”’ side
shell lids were separated by joints of 3 in width
(this was later increased to 2in). A typical
fixing detail is shown in Figure 9.

Warped surface tile lids were originally
designed to follow the surface of the supporting
structure. However, in mid-1963 it was decided

30 MICHAEL LEWIS

to introduce a step at the junction between each
warped surface and adjacent side shell. This
introduced a restraint on the location and
erection of tile lids, namely that warped surface
lids had to be erected before side shell lids.
Warped surface lid fixings were developed with
a view to providing maximum fixing tolerance,
and this method required that the tiles above
the fixings were laid after the lids had been
erected.

warped surface lids as they were formed in the

casting yard. Adequate tolerances were built —

into the design of each fixing. Final adjustment
was made on site because the warped surface
fixings, unlike the other tile lids, were exposed
during erection. After all the lids had been
satisfactorily aligned the fixings were concealed
by gluing in place with epoxy, the tiles which
had been left out to accommodate the fixing
plates.

FicurRE 11.—Diagram showing spherical ordinates and terminology.

The location of “ bottle”’ fixings (see Figure
10) on the superstructure warped surfaces was
established by survey and the amount of
projection of the fixing established. This
information was translated back to give a
location for the fixing plates in the pre-cast

In order to test and prove the principles and
details of connection which had been developed
for the main and side shells, it was decided to
carry out a series of prototype erections. These
trial erections, culminating with the erection of
tile lids on part of the completed structure,

ROOF CLADDING OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 31

revealed that the fit between adjacent lids along
the “chevron joint’ had a serious impact on
both normal and tangential accuracy (see
Figure 11). Furthermore, manufacturing errors,
although very small, tended to result in lids
which were generally slightly larger than the
form size. This made the original design
requirement of a nominal 3 in chevron joint
impracticable ; forms for the remaining tile
lids had to be adjusted to compensate for this
“ growth ’’ in dimension. All the tile lids which
had already been cast could be utilized in the
structure, together with smaller tile lids which
were made so as to increase the nominal chevron
joint sizeto2in. The compounding of a multi-
plicity of minor errors in casting of tile lids,
location of fixing bolts in ribs, and distortion
of the ribs during construction was such as to
make it impossible to erect the tile lids to follow
the surface of the structure and at the same time
maintain the basic demands for a continuous
surface free of steps between lids. The require-
ments of a minimum joint width for water-
proofing, together with the desire for visual
continuity of joints, had to be accommodated.
This resulted in a complete loss of tolerance
for adjustment after a number of consecutive
lids had been erected on this basis.

Consequently, fixing systems were adapted
and erection techniques developed in order to
place each tile lid in its theoretical position in
space without regard to the location of adjacent
lids. Each tile lid was checked for accuracy of
casting by means of measuring templates ; the
surface being spherical or twisted meant that
there was no easy reference plane for measure-
ment—all templates were three-dimensional.
Tile lid fixings were designed to allow for
adjustment in any direction, and since each tile
lid was located inside the envelope of acceptable
tolerances the fit between adjacent lids was
assured. This system of fixing necessitated a
detailed and accurate survey of the actual
location of all the tile lid fixing bolts on the
structure—a total of approximately 10,000. A
computer programme had already been written
and was operative as a method of controlling
the position of ribs as they were constructed.
This survey programme related the spherical
geometry of the theoretical shell surface and
the location of stations around the site in such
a way as to eliminate all the tedious calculations
which would normally follow survey measure-
ments. The programme was further advanced
so that adjustments to brackets were fed out
from the computer and used by the field con-
struction teams to set and adjust brackets on

tile lids prior to erection. In this way it became
unnecessary to make adjustment to the position
of lids after release from the crane and a very
high level of sophisticated preplanning resulted
in speedy and efficient site erection work.

With the exception of warped surface lids, the
brackets and bolts are totally inaccessible
after erection—they are located in a void
between the outer surface of the structure and
the undersurface of the tile lids. In such a
location they are exposed to the atmosphere
but not visible, so that it was necessary to use
a metal which would be free from risk of
corrosion. Many alternatives were investigated
and it became apparent that the selection of
materials and suitable stress levels would be
determined by conditions of stress corrosion.
Copper, brass and manganese bronze are all
susceptible to stress corrosion and were
eliminated. The materials chosen for use were
phosphor bronze (BS. 369—hard) for rods and
bolts, and aluminium bronze (BS. 1400 AB2-C)
for castings. Working tensile stresses were
limited to 9 tons/in? and 6 tons/in? respectively
in order to keep within the range of 0-25-0-50
of the 0-:1% proof stress. Account had to be
taken of possible stress concentrations and
residual stresses in castings.

The fixing of the tile lids on the spherical or
twisted surfaces of the Opera House roof was
virtually unprecedented—in most buildings there
are plane surfaces which form a simple base for
measurement ; in some structures at least the
generator of a curve is a straight line. The
solution of the problem lay in the use of accurate
and sophisticated surveying techniques coupled
with design of versatile adjustable fixing brackets
so that the tile lids could be located accurately
in their theoretical position in space with the
fixings taking up inaccuracies in casting and
construction of the main structure. This was
accompanied by extensive detailed pre-planning
so as to eliminate almost entirely the need for
adjustment of the position of each lid after it
had been released from the crane.

Acknowledgements

The work was carried out under the general
direction of the Minister for Public Works
for the Government of New South Wales.

Jorn Utzon was the architect appointed for
the project until his resignation in February,
1966.

32 MICHAEL LEWIS

Hall, Todd and Littlemore were the architects
in charge of Stage III, responsible for the
completion of the project.

D. C. Gore, B.E., M.I.E.(Aust.) was the
director and project manager for M. R. Horni-
brook (N.S.W.) Pty. Ltd., who, together with
his colleagues, built the roof structure.

H. R. Hoare, F.I.O.B., F.A.1.B., was the
director and project manager for the Hornibrook
Group for the third and final stage of con-
struction.

The structural and civil engineering work
described in this paper was carried out in the
London and Sydney offices of Ove Arup and
Partners, Consulting Engineers, and is the

Michael Lewis, B.Sc., F.I.E. (Aust.),
Senior Partner,

Ove Arup & Partners,

41 McLaren St.,

North Sydney, N.S.W., 2060,
Australia.

product of years of effort by many members of
the firm.

The photographs were taken by Max Dupain.

References

ARuP, Ove, and Zunz, G. J., 1969. The Sydney
Opera House. The Structural Engineer, March.

ARUP, Ove, and JENKINS, R. S., 1968. The Evolu-
tion and Design of the Concourse at the Sydney
Opera House. Proceedings I.C.E., 39, Aptil.

Nutt, J. G., 1966. Influence of Corrosion on Some
Aspects of Design of the Sydney Opera House.
Australian Corrosion Engineering, November.

Nutt, J. G., 1967. Grouting Prestressing Ducts at
the Sydney Opera House. Australian Prestressed
Concrete Group, August.

YEomaANS, J., 1968. The Other Taj Mahal: What
Happened at the Sydney Opera House. Longmans.

(Received 29 August 1973)

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD
71-79 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBE, N.S.W., 2037

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 33-53, 1973

Acoustical Design Considerations of the Sydney Opera House

V. L. JORDAN

AxsstTRAcT—The Opera House, which is now completed (inauguration October, 1973) has

a unique history of construction.

While actual construction started in 1959, a subsequent change

in administration led to a complete reprogramming and redesign of the interior spaces including

the acoustical designs.

The large halls were tested with the aid of models during both periods.

The results of the

model tests are compared with the results obtained from tests of the completed halls.

Other features of the designs such as the smaller halls and sound isolation are reported too.

. Introduction.
. The first Programme and the first Design.
Major Hall and Minor Hall, several Alternatives.
Reprogramming and Redesign.
Model Research of the Concert Hall and the Opera
Theatre.
. Various other Design Features of the Opera House.
6.1. The Chamber Music/Cinema.
6.2. The Drama Theatre.
6.3. The Rehearsal/Recording Studio.
6.4. Examples of Sound Isolation Design.
6.5. Electro-acoustical System (ELA).
. Testing of the completed Large Halls.
. Acknowledgements.

CUR ON

CO =]

1. Introduction

A time period of more than sixteen years lies
between the very first design of the complex
and the actual completion of the Sydney Opera
House. Construction of interior shapes and
spaces began four years ago.

No wonder that this unique situation has
involved several major changes of the general
design, and also corresponding changes of the
acoustical design of the interiors.

Design changes occurred frequently in the
early period (the Utzon period) as consequences
of the changing concepts of the architect.
Changes in design in the later period (the
Peter Hall period) were motivated mainly by
the complete change of the whole programme
for the uses of the building, although some
changes also occurred as a result of the acoustical
model testing of the large halls.

It may therefore be well worth the effort to
give an account of this “acoustical design
development’, thus exposing some of the
problems encountered during the whole period.
Most of these problems refer to the two larger
halls, but the design of the smaller halls and
the aspects of sound isolation are included.

2. The First Programme and the First
Design

The main emphasis of the first programme was
assigned to the two large halls, ‘‘ Major Hall ”’
and ‘“‘ Minor Hall’’, although requirements for
an experimental theatre, an orchestra rehearsal
room and a chamber music room were also
included.

Several uses of the Major Hall were listed,
but most important was “‘ symphony concerts ”’
(approx. 2,800 seats), closely followed by
“ grand opera ’’ (approx. 1,800 seats). It has
never been queried that this dual purpose could
be achieved with reasonably good acoustical
quality for both uses of the hall, provided that
the general design was adapted in accordance
with acoustical requirements. It is obvious,
however, that a dual purpose hall may never
reach that level of perfection which a single
purpose hall can aim at and probably achieve.
This is particularly true of the Opera House
design by Utzon, where the boundaries of the
shells and the areas encompassed by the shells
define, to a large extent, a specific category
of interior shape which is only remotely
associated with acoustical requirements of large
halls. It must be admitted, however, that
these requirements, generally speaking, are
much better known today than they were
sixteen years ago.

The first design of the Major Hall is shown in
Figure 1 (two alternatives, with and without
balcony) in long section as well as in plan
(Utzon, 1958). The ceiling shape was influenced
by the idea of an even distribution of ceiling
reflection from the stage, whereas the shape in
the plan expressed the thinking that parallel
side walls (in sections) were advantageous in

V. L. JORDAN

————————— SSS = =

SS

SH
Ei INN
SV TE
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ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE = 35

FIGURE 1.—First design of Major Hall.

(A) Longitudinal section (case of ‘“‘ Grand Opera’’). (D) Cross-section at the rear.
(B) Longitudinal section (case of Concert Hall, alt. 1). (E) Plan, seating.
(C) Longitudinal section (case of Concert Hall, alt. 2).

36

order to obtain multiple reflections crosswise.
The same thinking influenced the nearly vertical
side walls.

It should be noted, however, that at this
early stage of the design it was not fully realized
that the near vertical side walls would actually
pierce through the limiting boundaries of the
shell system. The design was unrealistic.

With regard to the uses of the Minor Hall,
the first programme indicated two main
purposes: (1) drama, and (2) intimate opera,
with a seating capacity of about 1,000—1,100.

V. L. JORDAN

Hall at a scale of 1:10. The design in plan —
was as shown, whereas the ceiling design had

been changed to a stepping ceiling with hori-
zontally oriented sections.

The choice of the scale factor (1:10) was
guided by the fact that the influence of sound
absorption in the air increases rapidly with
frequency, so that model frequencies in excess
of 30-40 kHz would not permit a reasonably
good simulation of the acoustical properties
without including a complicated dehumidifying
procedure of the air inside the model. The

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FicuRE 2.—Second design of Major Hall. North elevation.

The first design proposals of the Minor Hall
were very sketchy and did not really attack the
problems of acoustics. At this stage, in 1958,
it was agreed that a prejudgment of the acoustics
of both halls should be aimed at, not only by
calculations of reverberation time (RT) and
geometric constructions of reflections, but by
acoustical model testing. It may very well be
argued that at the time scientific evidence of the
validity of acoustical testing on scaled models
was only about to be established and also that
there hardly existed quantitatively defined
criteria (other than RT) which could be measured,
either in halls or in models.

However, the importance of the acoustical
design for the Opera House overshadowed these
hesitations and it was recommended and
decided to start off with a model of the Major

instrumentation for model testing included a
high quality tape recorder with a speed relation-
ship of 1:10, thus making it possible to obtain
direct listening tests as well as objective testing.
A reasonably good agreement between absorption
of the model boundaries and the expected wall
and ceiling panelling of the hall (wooden panels)
at corresponding frequencies was achieved by
shaping the model of hard fibre boards (varnished
on the inside). To simulate an audience
absorption at model frequencies blankets of
fibre glass material of 4in. thickness were
applied. This crude approximation was later
to be refined in several steps. The similarity
of the model to the projected hall was checked
by measurements of RT in the model and by
comparing the measured values with the
calculated values of RT in the hall.

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE © 37

The problem of establishing quantitative
criteria had previously been approached by
the author in another context. The Concert
Studio in the Radiohus and the Tivoli Concert
Hall in Copenhagen had been used as objects
for a study of the so-called “ Rise Time”
(Jordan, 1959). A similar method was adopted
for the model testing of the Major Hall model,
but the loudspeaker instrumentation was a
limiting factor at the time. Electrostatic
speakers with twelve membranes mounted on
a sphere were not sufficiently uniform in
radiation pattern at model frequencies to give
reliable readings for the building-up process of
pulses of random noise.

The third and final phase of the Utzon design
period showed still another approach to the
interior design of the two large halls. Here
the Major Hall design became radically changed
compared with previous attempts. The original
idea used the stage area proper for the seating
of no less than 1,000 persons during concert
performances, the remaining 1,800 seats being
located in the auditorium proper, while when
used for opera the 1,000 seats on the stage
should disappear.

This concept made it necessary, in case of
concerts, to establish a very large reflecting
ceiling to shield off the stage loft. The mechanics
of introducing an immense movable ceiling were

FIGURE 3.—Second design of Minor Hall.

Longitudinal section (showing interior

elevation).

3. Major Hall and Minor Hall,
Several Alternatives

The model of the Major Hall became out-
dated when the architect introduced quite
different concepts for both halls. The Major
Hall in the second design had a ‘‘ diamond ”’
ceiling, no doubt with a high degree of sound-
diffusing capacity, but it also had extremely
low side walls which certainly had the advantage
that they would not pierce through the
shells (Figure 2) (Utzon e¢ al., 1962). The Minor
Hall in this design had a vault-like ceiling shape
which had little relation to the acoustical design
(Figure 3). Neither of these designs was tested
acoustically by model testing.

never really attacked. The new design tried to
avoid this problem altogether by moving all
seats (even in the case of concerts) out in front
of the proscenium frame, thus changing the
stage into a normal theatre stage with an
orchestra shell for housing the orchestra.

For this purpose the auditorium had to be
widened with side terraces and the seats had to
be closed up. Nevertheless the seating would
still fall short of the design goal of 2,800 seats
by several hundred.

The shape of the ceiling of the Major Hall
was changed once more, this time into strips of
saw-toothed profiles in the long section (Figure
4 (A)). The side walls became elements of

V. L. JORDAN

38

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ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 39

focal oriented planes interrupted by radial
concave segments.

This design was subsequently tested in two
different models, one located at Professor
Cremer’s institute in West Berlin and one
located in Gevninge, Denmark. Testing methods
were not similar, so that results were difficult
to compare. The method used at the author’s
laboratory in Denmark was a development of
the previously applied method using the “ Rise
Time”’ criterion. A new concept called “ the
Steepness ’’ was introduced. This was defined
as the steepness at a certain level of a recorded
random noise pulse radiated into the model, or
auditorium, and picked up by a microphone at
different locations.

The method had been tried out in another
case, the New York State Theater (completed
in 1964), of which a 1: 10 scale model had been
tested in Gevninge, Denmark (Jordan, 1964).
Results obtained on this model had been
compared with results later obtained in the
completed theatre auditorium, and the agree-
ment was found to be reasonably good.

Whether the suspension of vertically oriented
baffles along the ceiling profiles could be used to
improve measured values of steepness at certain
locations in the auditorium, especially in the
centre locations of the orchestra level, repre-
sented a special problem of model testing in this
third design of the Major Hall. The model tests
indicated that this might be feasible (Jordan,
1965).

Figure 4 (B) shows long section and plan of
this model with the suspended baffles indicated.

It is worth noting that in this model the
audience plus seats simulation had been improved
compared with previous models. The individual
persons were simulated by small blocks of
neoprene and the seat-backs by continuous
strips of fibre board. Two views of the model
are shown in Figure 4 (C) and (D).

The Minor Hall design, too, was a radical
departure from previous attempts. It was
characterized by ceiling profiles of large, convex
elements oriented along radii from a focal point
on the stage. This design was tested ina 1:10
model at Professor Cremer’s institute in West
Berlin. Oscilloscopic pictures of short pulses
in different locations were applied to evaluate
the influence of the various reflections from the
ceiling and the walls. Subsequently, minor
corrective measures were suggested (Cremer,
1965).

Although acoustical model research was
applied to evaluate this final Utzon design of
the Major and Minor Halls, the results of these

tests did not adequately support the design
which at least partly had been adopted for
aesthetical reasons. Moreover, other aspects
(e.g. such as the available volume of the Major
Hall auditorium per seat) indicated that the
value of RT with capacity audience would be
rather low for a concert hall of this size.

However, at this stage events quite irrelevant
to any of the acoustical problems led to a
complete change of the administration of the
project. During the year 1966 a new team of
architects had taken over the responsibility of
completing the design and construction of the
Opera House. Since most of the exterior design
had been completed and constructed, this
responsibility concerned mainly the interior
design. In fact, there appears to be a rather
clear cut between the two design periods:
while the exterior design was almost exclusively
founded on Utzon’s concepts, the interior design
subsequently developed into something
absolutely different.

4. Reprogramming and Redesign

The new Design Architect, Peter Hall, assisted
by the late Theatre Architect, Ben Schlanger,
and the author formed a small study group in
order to take a new look at the problems,
starting with the following question: Given
the empty spaces below the shells, what does
the City of Sydney most urgently need to
accommodate in its arts centre ?

What should the programme of the building
be like? About ten years had elapsed since
the original programme was edited, did it need
a thorough revision ? The answer was yes, and
out of the discussions and considerations the
following main items evolved :

(1) The Major Hall to be the Concert Hall

(approx. 2,800 seats).

(2) The Minor Hall to be the Opera Theatre
(approx. 1,600 seats).

(3) The empty “under stage’’ below the
previous Major Hall to be the Orchestra
Rehearsal and Recording Studio.

(4) The Experimental Theatre to be the
Drama Theatre (approx. 550 seats).

(5) Empty workshop space to be the Chamber
Music/Cinema and the Exhibition Area.

(6) The space previously intended to house
the Chamber Music Room to be the
Recital Hall.

Out of a session in London during mid-1967,
the first redesign of the Major Hall developed
(Called now the Concert Hall). To integrate

40

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ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 41

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FIGURE 5c.

FIGuRE 5.—-First design of the Concert Hall.

(A) View of the model towards the organ.
(B) View of the model towards the rear.
(C) Plan of the outlay and seating (terrace level).

completely the volume under the main A-shells,
the stage and the auditorium were merged
and the ceiling was pushed upwards to increase
the total volume. The gross shape in plan
became essentially a double spade, which has
certain inherent acoustical merits. The orchestra
stage, originally intended to be at the extreme
end of the hall, was moved towards the centre,
thereby creating seating behind the orchestra
not only for a choir but for an audience as well.
The complete wall behind this seating was to be
the organ facade. Never before in the design
development had there been a solution to the
problem where to locate an organ when a
theatre stage had to be included. The seating
in front of the orchestra stage consisted now of
the orchestra level, the first and second terraces,
and side-boxes along the periphery to the left
and right.

The shape of the ceiling in Peter Hall’s first
design showed faint reminiscences of Utzon’s
latest design of the Minor Hall: large convex
surfaces in a kind of catenary succession.
The side walls represented a problem: how to
obtain the benefit of vertical elements to give
side reflections and at the same time adapt them
to the shape of the shells. The result became
a staircase arrangement where the horizontal

steps defined the catenaries of the ceiling (in

the direction of the long axis) (Figure 5 (A), (B)
and (C)).

5. Model Research of the Concert Hall
and the Opera Theatre

The idea of evaluating the acoustics of large
halls by pretesting models was still maintained,
and it was decided to build 1:10 scale models
of the Concert Hall and the Opera Theatre.
This time the models would be located at the
Opera House site in an empty rehearsal space
in the basement.

The models were built of thick plywood and
varnished on the interior surfaces. Further
progress in audience simulation had been
developed for use in other models. The seats
were made of continuous strips of neoprene,
while persons were represented by individual
neoprene blocks topped with small squares of
cardboard simulating the heads.

The instrumentation, too, had advanced.
Pulses were now generated by a high-tension
spark source which radiated sound pulses of
very short duration. The signal was picked
up by small condenser microphones with # in.
diameter and recorded on high-speed tape
recorders. The tapes were later analysed in
the author’s laboratories in Gevninge, Denmark.

The method of applying short pulses to test
the acoustics of a room had been developed by
applying M. R. Schroeder’s theory (Schroeder,
1965) and had been used in a 1:10 model of
the New Metropolitan Opera House, Lincoln
Center, New York) (Jordan, 1969, 1970).

42

V. L. JORDAN

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FIGURE 6B.

FIGURE 6.—Second (and final) design of the Concert Hall.

(A) View of the model towards the organ.
(B) View of the model towards the rear.

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 48

The early criteria of “ rise time ’’ and “ steep-
ness ’’ were gradually being replaced by a new
emicerion, “Early Decay Time” (EDT). This
criterion was known to be correlated with
subjective impressions of reverberation as found
in the investigation undertaken by M. R.
Schroeder and his co-workers (Atal e¢ al., 1965).
Furthermore, a working hypothesis was
developed on the assumption that values of
EDT should not be much lower than values of
statistical RT (no more than 10-20% lower).
This would be applied to individual locations
throughout a model or a hall.

Averaging values of EDT, measured in the
audience area and comparing it with the average
value of EDT measured on the orchestra stage,
produces a coefficient termed “ Inversion
Index’’. This index should never be less
than 1-0, ie., the EDT should be at a higher
level in the audience area than the average
level in the stage area. This hypothesis has
developed with the different criteria starting
with rise time, which preferably should be
shorter on the stage than in the auditorium,
followed by steepness, which preferably should
have higher values on the stage than in the
auditorium. Incidentally, a certain relationship
of reciprocity exists between steepness and
EDT, as became evident from the considerations
of M. R. Schroeder (Schroeder, 1966).

A complete survey and evaluation of modern
acoustical criteria has been given by W.
Reichardt (Reichardt, 1970).

The results of the model testing for the first
design of the Concert Hall were reported upon
early in 1968 and were followed by subsequent
reports, including the testing of the Opera
Theatre model, 1968-69 (Jordan, 1968-69).

In accordance with the working hypothesis
mentioned above, the measured values of EDT
were compared with the average value of RT
for different locations in the model. The
inversion index was calculated for two different
cases: (a) with the circular, convex reflectors
of plexiglass suspended above the orchestra
stage; (b) with the reflectors removed. A
definite indication of higher values of inversion
index was observed with the reflectors above
the orchestra platform.

Generally speaking, deficiencies in EDT
values were observed in the orchestra level
seating. Certain improvements, e.g. increasing
the ceiling height to some extent above the
terrace area, did not result in any considerable
overall improvement of these deficiencies.

Obviously, only a quite radical departure from
this first design could improve conditions at

the orchestra level. An improvement could
only be obtained if side reflections were increased
in strength compared to reflections from the
ceiling. One way of decreasing the dominance
of ceiling reflections would be to move the
ceiling further up and to straighten it out.
Furthermore, if at the same time the side walls
lost their step-like arrangement and were
brought closer together the side reflections
would take more dominance. An arrangement
with side boxes meant that the side walls above
the boxes could come closer together and the
boxes would become as recessed into these
walls. The ceiling design resulted in a crown
piece above the stage and a beam-like structure,
above the main body of the hall, radiating from
the crown (Figure 6 (A) and (B)).

These changes were subsequently carried out
on the model and a new test series was under-
taken. The values of EDT in the orchestra
level seating increased quite considerably due to
the changes, while the inversion index still
showed adequate values.

This design became adopted as the final
design for the Concert Hall. Certain modi-
fications of the crown above the stage and of
diffusing boxes along the ceiling beams were
included without too noticeable effects on the
main results. The fact that the reflectors
improved the general conditions was repeatedly
experienced.

In most of the test series only one octave
band (16 kHz octave) had been tested, but in
the final test series the octave bands 2 and
8 kHz were included. It was noted that at
2 kHz the values of EDT in the orchestra level
seating were lower, which was interpreted as
due to a not quite sufficient ceiling diffusion.
It was recommended to include more of the
diffusing boxes in the final design of the hall
itself.

The first design of the Opera Theatre was
ready for testing early in 1969. This design
(shown in Figure 7) had a relatively low flat
ceiling (Hall, Todd and Littlemore, 1968).

In the model of the Opera Theatre the sound
source (spark gap) had to be located alternatively
in the orchestra pit and upon the stage or fore-
stage, so that EDT values at different micro-
phone locations could be measured in both cases.
In addition to the evaluation already explained,
the closeness of the values of the inversion index
in these two cases was now included as a specific
characteristic of the Opera Theatre design.

All the test series undertaken in the Opera
Theatre model have shown values of EDT in
excess of the values of the statistical RT. The

44

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V. L. JORDAN

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FIGURE 7.—First design of the Opera Theatre.

(A) Plan.

(B) Longitudinal section.

calculated values of the inversion index, however,
showed considerable spacing between the pit
case and the stage case, the pit values being
highest, the stage values actually being below
1:0. In subsequent designs of this model the
ceiling of the auditorium was gradually moved
upwards, the tests indicating each time an
improvement in values of the inversion index.
In the final design the ceiling was moved
upwards as far as the shell structure permitted.

Figure 8 shows a picture of the model of this
design. Testing of the final design showed
better agreement between the values of the
inversion index for the two cases, both having
values exceeding 1-0.

This design was finally adopted for the Opera
Theatre with minor alterations such as the
placing of suspended reflectors above the
orchestra seating area.

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE § 45

6. Various other Design Features of the
Opera House

6.1. The Chamber Music/Cinema

The Reception Hall was in the first design
period known as the Chamber Music Room.
The seating capacity of 250 seats, however,
was found insufficient and at the time of
reprogramming a separate area, adjacent to
the Central Passage, was preferred for housing
a Chamber Music Hall of 400 seats. However,
it was also felt that the Arts Centre of Sydney

At a far too late stage the authority which
eventually had to run the complex (the Opera
House Trust) requested a compromise to be
made. The feasible, but not very significant,
increase of reverberation was implemented
and a musician’s platform was designed and
constructed.

The hall has now received its name: ‘“ The
Music Room ’’, a somewhat dubious choice of
name for what will remain in the future a
last-minute compromise solution.

FicurE 8.—Final design of the Opera Theatre.

would need an arts cinema, and therefore the
difficult combination of Chamber Music and
Cinema was proposed. After struggling for a
number of years with the problems inherent in
such a dual purpose hall (variable acoustics,
movable stage, etc.), the following recommenda-
tion was made—this hall should be exclusively
an arts cinema and chamber music should be
played in the other halls (Concert Hall, Opera
Theatre and Drama Theatre). This recom-
mendation was accepted, but unfortunately a
certain ambiguity in terms lingered on and the
term ‘‘ Chamber Music/Cinema ”’ was even used
in pre-publications, although the design and
construction of a hall exclusively for cinema use
proceeded.

View of the model towards the rear,

6.2. The Drama Theatre

This area, originally the space for the Experi-
mental Theatre of the Utzon period, has a
seating capacity of 550 seats and a reverberation
time close to 0-9 sec which must be considered
ideal for a drama theatre of this size. No
problems of dual purpose have troubled the
design of this addition to the original programme.

6.3. The Rehearsal|Recording Studio (R/R)

Due to the reprogramming, the immense
understage of the previous Major Hall was
changed into a sizeable Orchestra Rehearsal
Hall (Figure 9) which has a volume of approx.
5,200 m? and a reverberation time of 2-0 sec.

46 V. L. JORDAN

FIGURE 9.—View of the completed Rehearsal/Recording Studio.

RT

FIGURE 10.—Reverberation time (RT) v. Frequency (0-063—8 kHz) for
Rehearsal/Recording Studio. 4 octave values.

Incidentally, this value of RT brings R/R on
to the same level as the Concert Hall, which has
RT close to 2-1 sec.

The much discussed variation of RT with
frequency has not been of too great concern.
A slight increase of RT towards low frequencies
is strongly advocated by some authorities,
and has in fact been aimed at, although the
author does not share this opinion.

Far more important, in the opinion of the
author, is the frequency dependence of the
medium frequencies to the higher frequencies.
It has often been experienced that a certain
suppression of the range between 400 and
1,000 hz (and a corresponding emphasis of the
range above 1,000 hz) has decidedly a merit for
studios and concert halls (Jordan, 1947).

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

47

FIGURE 11.—WNoise levels in the Concert Hall due to helicopter outside the

building (200 ft above sea-level).

Noise level with helicopter present.

Ambient noise level.

FicurE 12.—Transmission loss between Rehearsal/Recording Studio and

Concert Hall.

(Values in brackets influenced by ambient noise level.

True

values greater than or equal.)

In the case of the R/R, a special type of
panelling (thick, slot-perforated plywood with
backing of mineral wood) has been used to
obtain this particular RT dependence of
frequency. Figure 10 shows the RT v. frequency
characteristic measured in one-third octave

steps.

For the benefit of using this area for television

production, curtain tracks along the periphery
of the balcony fronts have been installed in

|

order to achieve a lower value of RT.

6.4. Examples of Sound Isolation Design

The problem of excluding exterior noise,
especially from the large halls, has been a
constant worry throughout the design period.
The large halls have large areas exposed to the
exterior, directly at the shells, indirectly at the
glass facades and at the louvre walls.

In the first design period it was attempted to
arrive at an acceptable if not ideal solution to
this problem. Inner ceiling constructions were
thought of as sandwich combinations of two

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13’ column.

layers of plywood with an intervening layer of
mineral wool. On account of the revision of
programme and design it became possible to
redesign the ceiling also with regard to sound
isolation. An interior “cocoon”’ of sprayed
concrete on a supported steel mesh (under the
Shells) forms a separate sound isolating barrier
on the inside of which the actual panelling (a
plaster/ply combination) is mounted. Several
glass constructions were tested for the large
glass walls and finally a laminated construction
with two layers, totalling ?in. thickness, was
selected.

Actual testing of noise isolation from exterior
noise by means of a helicopter hovering at a
constant level of 200 ft above sea-level has
shown that the interiors of the halls are very
well protected against noise. Figure 11 shows
a diagram to support this statement.

Sound isolation between various areas inside
the complex have received much attention.
Especially worth mentioning is the difficult
case of separating the Concert Hall from the
Rehearsal Hall underneath. Double slabs of
heavy concrete isolated mutually by neoprene
pads were used in conjunction with separate
isolated walls of the Rehearsal Hall. Figure 12
shows a diagram of the results obtained.

(Applied in the Concert Hall.)

6.5. Electro-acoustical System (ELA)

The design of the electro-acoustical system
has developed considerably since the first design
period, especially when it was decided to include
Simultaneous Interpretation (SI) and_ to
integrate this system with the ELA system.

Only a few features need to be mentioned
here: those which are directly related to the
acoustical design problems of the large halls
(the Concert Hall and the Opera Theatre).

To incorporate a loudspeaker system in a
concert hall with a reverberation time of 2-1 sec
entails certain well-known difficulties, e.g., a
narrow margin between feedback level and
maximum permissible speech level.

The ways to overcome these difficulties are
different, and in the case of the Concert Hall
it was decided to use a centrally located speaker
system with very highly directional sound
columns. A thorough investigation of large
sound columns led to the following two different
solutions. Suspended above the stage in the
Concert Hall, both were tried out with pro-
totypes, one with acoustically tapered speakers
and another with electrically tapered speakers.

Although the preliminary investigations had
supported the first alternative, the final practical
test showed clearly the superiority of the second.

;

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

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FIGURE 14.—Views of the completed Concert Hall.

(A) View towards the organ.
(B) View towards the rear.

50

A diagram of polar patterns is shown in Figure
13. The second system was finally adopted
after testing it for announcements at the second
test concert.

The Opera Theatre system of speakers is
inserted into the proscenium frame as shorter
sound columns, right, centre and left, following
the profile of the proscenium. Additional
speakers in the ceiling may be used for special
effects, e.g. delays or reverberation. Under
the balcony soffit delayed speakers assist in
increasing the sound level of the spoken word.

These speaker systems are of course not used
for voice or music amplification, but only for
auxiliary purposes.

V. L. JORDAN

Symphony Orchestra, were recorded on
tape at a number of locations in the
Concert Hall. The locations corresponded
to those used in the model of the Concert
Hall during the model testing. Later
the tapes were analysed by filtering
through 1/3 octave or 1/1 octave filters
and recording on a level recorder. This
method is only reliable in the case of
very precise playing, which was obtained
due to the skill of the conductor (Sir
Bernard Heinze) and the Sydney
Symphony Orchestra.

Incidentally, this method has some
historical background. It was used for

FIGURE 15.—View of the completed Opera Theatre.

7. Testing of the Completed Large
Halls

During a special testing session (at New
Year, 1972-73) including actual musical per-
formances in the presence of an audience, the
acoustical results were measured and _ later
evaluated.

Pictures of the completed Concert Hall and
Opera Theatre are shown in Figures 14 (A)
and (B) and 15.

Two different testing methods were applied :

(1) To measure statistical RT: The music

from the very first bars of the Beethoven
Coriolanus overture, played by the Sydney

View towards the stage.

the first time in 1934-35 to test the RT
of the old Philharmonic Hall of Berlin
(now destroyed) (Meyer and Jordan,
1935).

The method, previously used to measure
statistical RT as well as EDT, was also
used for the testing of the halls. Instead
of the high-voltage spark (used in the
models as a sound source) a pistol or a
shotgun was fired (using blanks) from the
stage of the Concert Hall as well as from
the stage and the pit of the Opera Theatre.
The shots were recorded at the same
locations as used in the models.

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
RT

CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 51

FIGURE 16.—Reverberation time (RT) v. Frequency (0:063—5 kHz) in 4

octave values.

(A) ————— Concert Hall, capacity audience.

Concert Hall empty.

(B) ————— Opera Theatre, capacity audience.

The tapes were later analysed by filtering,
reverse recording of the tape, and by integrating
the signal. The integrated signal was fed to a
level recorder and the values of EDT measured
from the curves recorded. The same method,
minus the integration, was used to obtain the
values of RT.

Both methods were used in the empty halls
as well as in the halls with near capacity
audiences present; in the Concert Hall test

Opera Theatre empty.

concerts were held on 17th December, 1972, and
21st January, 1973; in the Opera Theatre
one test concert was held on 21st January, 1973.
The results cannot be recorded in detail here,
but examples of RT characteristics are shown
in Figure 16 (A) and (B). Further, it should
be mentioned that the detailed analysis of EDT
values has shown a general consistency with
values measured in the model, although some
individual locations may show discrepancies.

52 V. L. JORDAN

A few locations in the Concert Hall have values
of EDT which at low frequencies fall a little
short of the RT value. This, however, varies
with the elevation of the reflectors above the
stage. The shape of the reflectors in the final
design has been changed from circular (spherical)
to toroidal for two reasons: to reduce the area
and to achieve more diffusion in the horizontal
direction.

None of the locations in the Opera Theatre
have values of EDT short of the average RT
value.

Most interesting results have been obtained
by calculating the inversion index for the
different cases and a quite convincing agreement
between model values and hall values can be
seen in Tables 1 and 2.

TABLE 1
Inversion Index for the Concert Hall

16 kHz Average
Octave Value
2-8-16 kHz
Model, first design :
Reflectors at sidebox
soffit level .. ay 1; 10 =
Without reflectors .. 108 —
Model, second design :
Reflectors at sidebox
soffit level .. ae 1, 19 1G BE
Reflectors just below
the crown .. ae rs 1, 05
2kHz | Average Values
Octave |—————_,_—_
125—4000/500—4000
Hall empty :
Reflectors at sidebox
soffit level .. oa 1, 14 1, 14 1, 18
Reflectors just below
the crown .. are 1, 10 1, 09 Let kA
Hall capacity audience :
Reflectors at sidebox
soffit level .. oe 1, 00 0, 97 0, 99
Reflectors just below
the crown We 1, 04 1, 05 1, 05
Reflectors at 34 ft
above stage 1, 10 — 1, 1l

From the values for the Concert Hall it seems
legitimate to conclude that the intermediate
position of the reflectors has the greatest merit.
Why the sense of variation of inversion index
with the elevation of the reflectors is reversed
in the hall with capacity audience is not readily
explainable. Maybe the lack of orchestra
musicians simulation in the model can explain
this result.

TABLE 2
Inversion Index for the Opera Theatre

Model 16 kHz Octave Average Value
8-16 kHz
With sound
source at .. Pit Stage Pit Stage
Flat ceiling de-
sign. . a 1,15 0, 90 — —
Stepped ceiling Lets 0, 97 — —
High ceiling,
balconies 1, 26 1, 15 1.17 1.11
Average value
2—4—-8-16 kHz
Final design .. 1, 27 1, 10 1.22 1.13

a

Opera 2 kHz, Octave Average value
Theatre 125-4000 Hz
With sound
Source at .- Pit Stage Pit Stage
Capacity audi-
ence, oe 1, 28 1, 15 1.22 1.10

For the various model designs of the Opera
Theatre it is seen that the values of inversion
index for the pit and the stage series approach
each other as the design advanced.

The values of inversion index of the Opera
Theatre with capacity audience are very close
to values of the final design model. Average
values and values at one of the highest octaves
used do not seem to disagree very much.

As for the musical judgments of all auditoria,
the author wishes to refrain from citing any
comments. Let the results speak for themselves.

8. Acknowledgements

The documentation exposed in Jgrn Utzon’s
two reports (“ the red book” of 1958 and “ the
white book ”’ of 1962) has been used repeatedly
to reproduce the designs of “ Major Hall ”’ and
“Minor Hall ”’ of the Utzon period (1957-66).

For the account of the early model testing
during the same period the author has used his
own files, in a single instance supplemented
with information from an unpublished report by
Lothar Cremer.

The later adopted method of pulse testing,
which became vital in testing of models as well
as of completed halls, is based on the general
theory of M. R. Schroeder.

The development of acoustical criteria over
the whole period is only partly exposed in this
article, but interested readers can gain much
supplementary information from the references
given. Especially, the survey of W. Reichardt
is most valuable in this respect.

ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE _ 53

The documentation relating to the second
design period (the Peter Hall period, 1966-73)
is based on pictures and drawings of models and
designs available to the author due to his close
co-operation with the architects, Peter Hall,
Lionel Todd and David Littlemote.

A considerable part of the instrumentation
for the model testing was put at the author’s
disposal through the co-operation of the Project
Officer, Philip Taylor (of the Public Works
Department).

The actual construction of the very exact
plywood models was undertaken by Hornibrooks
Ltd. (in charge of model teams: Frank Daniels).

During the model testing Peter Knowland
assisted the author in extended investigations.

Never shall the author forget the co-operation
with Peter Hall and the late Ben Schlanger
during the period of reprogramming, the
outcome of which became the basis for all
subsequent interior designs of the Opera House.
A majority of the joint recommendations were
accepted and were closely followed up by the
redesign of the interior.

The former Minister for Public Works, Davis
Hughes, took a vivid interest in the acoustical
design problems of the Opera House during
these seven years.

As professional architect, Lionel Todd
supported the author strongly in aiming at the
very best solution to the problems of sound
isolation, especially of the large halls.

The excellent preparation of the test concerts
was due to the co-operation of several organiza-
tions in a special committee.

It is appropriate to emphasize the contribution
of Sam Hoare and his co-workers of Hornibrooks
who were responsible for all practical arrange-
ments. The acoustical testing team was
organized by Niels Jordan, who manned the
taping locations with volunteers.

The Sydney Symphony Orchestra, conducted
by Sir Bernard Heinze, performed at the very
first concert given in the Concert Hall. For
the benefit of the acoustical tests they patiently
repeated the first bars of the Coviolanus several
times.

Gevninge, Roskilde,
Denmark.

The ABC National Training Orchestra,
conducted by Robert Miller, together with the
soloists Elizabeth Fretwell and Donald Smith,
all performed at the subsequent test concert in
the Concert Hall and in the Opera Theatre.

Illustrations, diagrams and tables for this
article have been prepared by Niels V. Jordan
at short notice.

References
ATAL, B. S., SCHROEDER, M. R., and SESSLER, G. M.,
1965. Vth I.C.A. Congress Proceedings, 1b,
G 32.

CREMER, L., 1965. Unpublished report from Tech-
nische Universitat, Institut fiir Technische Akustik,
Berlin.

HAtit, P. B., Topp, L. M., and LirrLemMore_E, D., 1968.
Sydney Opera House, Stage 3.

MEYER, E., and Jorpan, V. L., 1935. Die Nach-
hallzeit von Konzertsale und die Schallschluckung
von der ZuhoGrerschaft. Elektrische Nachrichten-
technick, 12, 213.

Jorpan, V. L., 1947. The Application of Helmholtz
Resonators to Sound Absorbing Structures.
J.A.S.A., 19, 972-981.

Jorpan, V. L., 1959. The Building-up Process of
Sound Pulses in a Room and Their Relation to
Concert Hall Quality. Proceedings IlIvd I.C.A.
Congress, 2, 922-925.

Jorpan, V. L., 1965. Acoustical
Concerning New York State Theater.
Eng. Soc., 13, 98-103.

Jorpan, V. L., 1965-66. Einige Messungen der
‘* Einsatzsteilheit ’’ in Raumen und in raumak-
ustischen Modellen. Acustica, 16, 187-189.

Jorpan, V. L., 1968-69. Unpublished reports.

Jorpan, V. L., 1969. Room Acoustics and Archi-
tectural Acoustics—Development in Recent Years.
Applied Acoustics, 2, 77-99.

Jorpan, V. L., 1970. Acoustical Criteria for Auditoria
and Their Relation to Model Techniques. /.A.S.A.,
47, 408-417.

REICHARDT, W., 1970. Vergleich der Objektiven,
Raumakustischen Kriterien fiir Musik. Hoch-
frequenztechnik und Elektroakustik, 79, 121-128.

SCHROEDER, M. R., 1965. New Method of Measuring
Reverberation Time. J.A.S.A., 37, 409.

SCHROEDER, M. R., 1966. Complementarity of Sound
Build-up and Decay. J.A.S.A., 40, 549-551.

Utzon, J., et al., 1958. Sydney National Opera House.
Urzon, J., e¢ al., 1962. Sydney Opera House.

Considerations
J. Audio.

(Received 8 August 1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 54-69, 1973

The Design of the Concert Hall of the Sydney Opera House
PETER HALL

ABSTRACT—This paper deals with the Concert Hallonly. It sets out initially the most important
design criteria influencing the architecture of rooms for music, then deals with the Client Brief
and its resolution in terms of volume, audience arrangement, ceiling design and choice of materials.
The room is designed to seat 2,690 people with good seating and viewing conditions, to accommodate
a large orchestra and choir and to have a reverberation time in the middle frequencies of the order

of two seconds.

recognized as desirable in large concert halls.

Design Criteria Generally

I believe architectural design, or any other
design for that matter, is impossible without
constraints and without a set of requirements,
the needs for which have to be resolved.
Architects are trained essentially as problem
solvers, consequently one must not complain
at the complexity of the problem set. A
building for music in itself is about the most
complex modern architectural problem.

It was not always so. The designers of
Concertgebouw, Amsterdam, or Musikvereinssaal
in Vienna faced only some of the problems of the
Sydney Opera House. Noise levels in the cities
in general would have been much lower: no
buses, no jet aircraft, much less efficient ships’
sirens, no air conditioning, smaller audiences,
fewer alternative entertainments. The large
audience is a modern economic necessity, not
always conducive to the best quality in a room.
Neither, apparently, were people so critical
about their bodily comfort. It was quite
possible to sit them close together (e.g. in
Concertgebouw, with 28-5in row spacing and
20-5in chair width) in hard, uncomfortable
chairs, which probably rattled even when they
were new when people moved in them. Sight
lines and vision also would not have been nearly
so critically looked at as they are now. Further-
more, the buildings were given time to achieve
a reputation through the performances and the
bad halls were torn down. Some of the world’s
great halls are great because great companies
have performed in them and they have acquired
reputation and glamour as they have aged and
as the number of great performances has
increased. Covent Garden, for example, would
not be regarded as an ideal theatre. There are
seats there, conspicuously the gallery slips,
from which it is possible to see very little.

In addition it is designed to satisfy the subjective criteria of musical quality.
It describes the solutions chosen to achieve these ends.

The hall embodies the attributes currently

TABLE 1
Tvpical Overall Noise Levels, Expressed in Decibels,
Measured at a Given Distance from the Noise Source
(Levels below 85dB are weighted)
(L. Doelle, 1965)

Noise Level,

Noise Source dB, ve 0:0002
Microbar

Ticking of watch ee ce of 20
Quiet garden .. ae 30
Average residential environment ae 43
Light trafiie (1007 pe. = 45
Average private business office .. 50
Accounting office s 5 Ee 65
Average traffic (100’) 67
Boeing 707-120 es at touch-down

(353007). 4.¢ 70
Automobile (20’) ar fe 74
Heavy traffic (25’ to. 50’) : mn 75
Average light truck in city (20’) ae lie
Lathes (3’) : f Ye 80
Cotton spinning machines (3’) bg 85
Inside sedan in city traffic .. : 86
10 hp outboard (50’) 88
Boeing 707-120 jet at take- off gi 300) 90
Inside motor bus... : : 91
Train, whistles (500’) ase ss 92
Average heavy truck (20’) .. ie 93
Subway train (20% ... see si 95
Sewing machines (3’) sae he 96
Looms (3’) ae Ie “ie a ai
Riveting gun (3’) ; ae a 100
Wood saw (3’) ue 100
Inside DC-6 airliner .. 105
Chipping hammer (3’) 108
Automatic punch press (3’) 112
Car horn (3) =. ae 114
Pneumatic chipper (5’) as 123
Large pneumatic riveter (4’) 128
Hydraulic press (3’) es vee 129
F84 jet at take-off (80’ from tail) 132
50 hp siren (100’) fe 7% 138

But if there is a notable performance (and
most of the opera performances at Covent Garden
have fallen into this category since the days of

DESIGN OF CONCERT HALL

Sir Thomas Beecham) people are glad to be
there, to see part of the stage, if any, but to
hear, to stand when they really feel they must
see, and, most important of all, to have been
there while the event happened. Professor
Cremer, the celebrated German acoustician, who
worked for a time on Stage II of the Sydney
Opera House, made exactly such a comment.
He said he believed the reputation of the old
Berlin Philharmonic had been made for it by
the performances there, that Furtwangler made
the reputation of the old Philharmonic Hall,
and he hoped that von Karajan was about to
do the same for his new Philharmonic.

OF SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 55

any serious acoustical defect, however good the
excuses offered by the designers.

Let us look at some of the problems con-
fronting the designer of any building for music
and then let us multiply their complexity by
some special Opera House factor arising from
the peculiar internal geometry of the volumes
under the shells, by the weight restrictions
arising partly from the extraordinarily difficult
engineering task of building those shells at all,
and the statically indeterminate podium,
designed on inadequate information about
sound transmission and sound isolation, with
the result that its load carrying capacity was

TABLE 2
Vocabulary of Subjective Attributes of Musical-Acoustic Quality
(Beranek, 1965)

Quality

Noun Form Adjectival Form

intimacy, presence

intimate
liveness, fullness of tone live
reverberation reverberant
resonance resonant
warmth warm

loudness of the direct sound loud direct sound

loudness of the reverberant loud 3.4
sound

definition, clarity clear

brilliance brilliant

diffusion diffuse

balance balanced

blend blended

ensemble

response, attack responsive

texture

no echo echo-free

anechoic

quiet quiet

dynamic range

no distortion undistorted

uniformity uniform

But in a new hall one cannot expect to be
allowed this ingredient of time to evaluate it.
In the case of the Sydney Opera House (which
had a formidable reputation when my partners
and I took over from Jgrn Utzon in 1966)
there was every reason to expect that there
would be a great focus of critical attention on
the building, consequently every possible
scientific means of prediction should be used to
ensure that the building would meet high
standards of quality. Neither the audience nor
a professional critic could be expected to excuse

Antithesis

Noun Form Adjectival Form

lack of intimacy, non-intimate

lack of presence

dryness dry

deadness dead

lack of reverberation unreverberant

dryness dry

lack of bass brittle

faintness... faint...

weakness... weak...

faintness... faint oe

weakness... weak...

poor definition muddy

dullness dull

poor diffusion non-diffuse

imbalance unbalanced

poor blend unblended

poor ensemble

poor attack unresponsive

poor texture

echo with echo
echoic

noise noisy

narrow dynamic range

distortion distorted

non-uniformity non-uniform

less than desirable. Add to this the considera-
tion that practically every surface or projection
which is designed into a room has some effect
on its acoustics. The audience must be arranged
in such a way that it is comfortable, and that
its relationship to other parts of the audience is
satisfactory. The audience must see and hear
the performers and the performers must be
able to hear themselves. Both audience and
performers must be brought in and taken out
of the auditorium safely. The noise level inside
the room must be low and the sound inside the

56 PETER HALL

room controlled and distributed so that there
are no places where people do not hear well.
Finally, both performers and audience should
enjoy the whole experience. The solution of
this design problem placed extraordinary
demands on the consultants and client and all
submitted patiently to the long period of
investigation, testing and design development
involved.

seating and good sight lines. The staging
requirements for concerts should be sufficient
to accommodate a large choir, preferably an
organ of adequate proportions for concert work
and capable of the performance of the large-scale
works in the standard repertoire. The per-
formers and the audience should be in the same
acoustical space. Presumably this point was
made to express the ABC’s reluctance to have

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FIGURE 1.—Ground floor.

. Car concourse.

. Stage door.

. Central services passage.

. Exhibition hall.

. Cinema/Chamber music hall foyer.
. Cinema/Chamber music hall.

. Catering stores.

. Rehearsal/Recording hall.

. Drama theatre foyer.

© CO a1 SH OP 09 DO

The Brief for the Concert Hall

The Concert Hall design was done first and
was fundamental to the whole project, because
from a decision on the use of this room all other
decisions flowed in 1966. The basis for the
brief was contained in a letter written by the
General Manager of the Australian Broad-
casting Commission on 7th June, 1966, to the
N.S.W. Government Architect, Mr. Farmer.
The stated requirements of the ABC were a
seating capacity of 2,800, with comfortable

10. Drama theatre.

11. Drama theatre stage.

12. Administrative offices.

13. Dressing rooms for drama theatre.
14. Staff areas.

15. Set storage and scene changing area.
16. Opera theatre below stage.

17. Rehearsal rooms.

18. Broadwalk restaurant.

the orchestra perform on a stage with a
proscenium opening between it and the audience.
This produces the effect of the orchestra playing
in a coupled room and does not give the audience
the effect of actually sitting in the music which
is desirable if the quality of intimacy is to be
experienced. Aesthetically the acoustics required
were stated as having a reverberation time in
the middle frequencies in the region of two
seconds when fully occupied and electronic
assistance was specifically not required. The

DESIGN OF CONCERT HALL OF SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

character of the sound considered desirable was
such as is found in the Boston.Symphony Hall,
Concertgebouw, Amsterdam, Old St. Andrew’s
Hall, Glasgow, and the Grande Salle of Place
des Arts in Montreal. Two other desirable
attributes were stated to be the exclusion of all
extraneous sounds from the Hall, and a quiet,
well-designed system of air conditioning. In
terms of Beranek’s noise criteria this should be
no greater than N.C. 25.

57

The two most readily identifiable objective
criteria are clearly seating and reverberation
time, since seats can be counted and reverbera-
tion time can be measured. Clarity, diffusion,
brilliance, etc., form part of the subjective
experience of the listener and the performer, and
are not so readily identifiable. In fact, I believe
there is as yet no satisfactory way of measuring
these and it will be some time before they can
be stated as design criteria, although it can be

FIGURE 2.—First floor.

Ic Foyer; 11
2.-Cloak rooms and toilets. 12
3. Box office. 13
4. Recital/Reception room. 14
5. Main Iitchen. 15
6. Artists’ lounge and buffet. 16
7. Upper part rehearsal hall. 17
8. Cinema/Chamber music hall. 18
9. Rehearsal room. 19
10. Administrative offices.

These requirements were formulated by the
ABC’s competent acoustic staff and present a
good summary of currently accepted acoustic
standards for large concert halls generally.
A great deal of subsequent research, the findings
of Beranek (1962) and Doelle (1965), the
experience of Kosten and deLange in the new
de Doelen Hall at Rotterdam, of Professor
Cremer in the new Berlin Philharmonic, and the
writings and views of many other authorities
confirm this.

. Conductors’ suites.

. Orchestra dressing rooms and instrument store.
. Music library.

. Opera theatre below stage.

. Orchestra pit.

. Chorus and orchestra dressing rooms.

. Principals’ dressing rooms.

. Costume stores.

. Rehearsal rooms.

said that many of the attributes of a room
capable of producing this good subjective
response have been identified. In Christopher
Gilford’s article, he writes:

“Thus it appears that the sound quality
of a hall may be determined not only by the
reverberation time, the diffuseness of the
sound field, and the distribution of early
reflections, but also on the height-to-breadth
ratio and the shape of the ceiling zone. Clearly,

58

H= G9 bo

COTY G9 DO

PETER HALL

FIGURE 3.—Second floor.

. Concert hail. 5. Opera theatre foyer.

. Orchestra assembly. 6. Concert hall promenade lounge.

. Concert hall foyer. 7. Opera theatre promenade lounge.
. Opera theatre stage, lower level. 8. Main restaurant.

11

FIGuRE 4.—Third floor.

. Concert hall. 7. Opera theatre stage.
Orchestra assembly. 8. Opera theatre foyer.
Concert hall foyer. 9. Toilets.
Toilets. 10. Opera theatre promenade lounge.
Concert hall promenade lounge. 11. Main restaurant.

. Opera theatre.

DESIGN OF CONCERT HALL OF SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

59

iinwnae

FIGURE 5.—Main auditorium plans.

3. Opera theatre.
4. Opera theatre

1. Concert hall.
2. Concert hall foyer.

this requires further investigation, but the
general excellence of the Elizabeth Hall lends
support to the idea.

Conclusions

The lessons to be learnt from the Elizabeth
Hall are:

1. Reverberation time still remains the
best indicator of the general acoustic
quality and the fullness of tone: it is
largely determined by the volume of
hall per square foot of seating area, and
accurate calculation on this basis is
now possible.

Satisfactory tonal quality and definition
is obtained without deliberate produc-
tion of early reflections, provided that
the diffusion is good.

The reason for the characteristic ‘ singing
tone’ of the best traditional halls is still
not fully understood; it may require
the existence of an appreciable height
above the highest seating bounded by
substantially vertical surfaces, as in
this hall.”

5. Main restaurant.
foyer.

The 2,800 seat requirement of the ABC is,
of course, a commercial one. Many of the great
halls are smaller and the Berlin Philharmonic
seats only 2,200. The classic way to achieve
greater numbers of seats is to use balconies which
give in effect a multi-floor situation. The inward
taper of the shells at the Sydney Opera House
severely limited this possibility. In the case
of the Concert Hall, where the number of seats
clearly meant an enlarging of the seating area
already available, this was done by building out
with cantilevered galleries over the side foyers
and with a very large cantilever at the north
end of the building which contains the terrace
seating.

The Effect of Volume on Reverberation
Time

In the case of reverberation time, it is well
established that volume is the single most
critical factor in achieving long reverberation
time. Many of the concert halls built in the
1950’s fell short of their target reverberation
time because the effect of audience seating area
in relation to volume was not realized. It is
not only the number of people in the room, but

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DESIGN OF CONCERT HALL OF SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

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62

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PETER HALL

FIGURE 6.—Concert hall axial section.

1. Car concourse. 6.
2. Staircase to foyer. ie
3. Foyer, box office, cloak rooms. 8.
4. Concert hall foyer. 9.
4a. Promenade lounge. 10.
5. Organ loft. 11

rae
a.

S
Fa
iS
A

—y Pane tas
BELL LY SS ed

Concert hall.

Rehearsal room.

Drama theatre.

Drama theatre stage.
Rehearsal/Recording hall.

. Cinema/Chamber music hall and exhibition hall foyer.

FIGURE 7.—Opera theatre axial section.

1. Car concourse. AA.
2. Staircase to foyer. 5.
3. Foyer, box office, cloak rooms. 6.
4. Opera theatre foyer.

it is the area they occupy which has to be taken
into account in considering the volume-per-
person ratio. Depending on the surfaces used
and the shape of the room, the necessary
volume per person would lie in the range of
320 ft? to approximately 400 ft? per person.
In de Doelen the figure is as high as 400, but in
Dr. Jordan’s opinion this is a little too much
volume. Beranek’s table (Table 3) provides
useful comparative data to which we can now
add these figures for the Concert Hall in the
Sydney Opera House :

Promenade lounge.
Opera theatre stage.
Opera theatre.

7. Opera theatre lounge.
8. Below stage area.
9. Broadwalk restaurant.

Vv Sa So NA
Volume Audience Orchestra Seats V/NA
Area Area
870,000 13,590 2,000 2,690 325
ite ft? {t®
T500-1000
(occup.)
Reverberation Seat Spacing Stage
Time Height
T mid Row to Seat to (In)
2.1 Row Seat
36”-38” 20’—22” 50

HALE PLA ie

WOUKNAL ROYAL SOCIETY-N.S.W.

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Concert Hall with the Sydney Symphony Orchestra.

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JOURNAL KOVAL, SOChETY INS. HALL PEAS Sa

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voanenncennanennennee
serneonnnentoncene?

3.—Northern foyer to the Concert Hall.

DESIGN OF CONCERT HALL OF SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 63

Seating

A fundamental early decision taken was to
use continental seating. When the seats are
arranged in this way, there are no longitudinal
aisles. Obviously, when aisles run the length
of the hall, in the centre they occupy some of
the best area available for viewing. It is
common sense to put seats in these positions.
The second great advantage of continental
seating is that better advantage can be taken of
irregular shapes since the circulation space is
located at the edge of the hall. The third great
advantage is that there has to be room for
people to get past those already seated, albeit
at the expense of the possible movement of their
knees as somebody passes. But the rest of the
time that a person is sitting in the chair, which
is after all a much longer time than that taken
by people to get past, there is more leg room
available than is normally provided in multi-
aisle arrangements. Further, continental seating
offers a safety advantage. Ben Schlanger, our
consulting theatre architect, had, shortly before
we engaged him to work on the Sydney Opera
House, recently completed a draft for a new
code for places of public assembly for New
York City. In the course of his research for
this he had observed that the history of theatre
disasters showed that loss of life was caused
not by people being overcome by smoke or
flames, but by being trampled because of poor
exit and safety arrangements. He concluded
that it was not desirable that a row of seats
should quickly discharge into an intersection
at aisles, neither was it necessary that a room
be cleared instantly. What was important
was that people should get, in reasonably
fast time, from their seats to a safe area and
that some control of the rate at which they
reached the doors and entered that safe area
was desirable. Continental seating introduces
virtually a queueing condition, and unless rows
are spaced extraordinarily far apart people will
not try to overtake other people, with the
consequent risk that somebody will be knocked
down, but they will proceed in an orderly
manner to doors the width of which is calculated
to be adequate for the number of people using
them and to empty the hall quickly. The test
concerts so far held in the Opera House have
confirmed that the auditoria in fact emptied
much faster than others in the city and that
the audience dispersed through the foyers at a
very quick and comfortable rate.

The dimensions of the seats themselves range

from 20 in to 22 in and the row spacing varies
from 36in to 38in (Table 4 shows surveyed

comparative dimensions for existing theatres in
Sydney). Special attention has been paid to the
design of the individual chairs. A hydraulic
tilting mechanism has been chosen because of
greater quietness and reliability than springs
and slower action than weights. One of the
least satisfactory qualities of most theatre
seating is that it is visually disorderly. Tip-up
chairs do not all return to the same angle, and
the individual chairs with gaps between look
like a collection of postage stamps. An acoustic
requirement of Dr. Jordan that there should be
some exposed hard surface above the shoulders
of the audience helped in the solution of this
visual problem, which resulted in placing the
upholstered back of the chair in a curved
plywood shell. The same plywood as for the
ceiling of the hall is used. This material is
used extensively throughout the building,
helping to achieve a unity of material difficult
to attain in such a large and complex building
as the Sydney Opera House. From both front
and back the rows of seating take on the
character of continuous arcs, not a collection
of individual postage stamps.

The upholstery material is a polyurethane
foam chosen because of its firmness and because
it could be well contoured to support the
important areas of the small of the back and the
popliteal muscles under the thighs. The
upholstery does not readily yield when people
sit on it, but most experience shows that this
produces longer lasting comfort than soft
upholstery, which compresses to the shape of the
user's body and as a result does not give support.
This thinking is now evident in the design of
seating for motor and racing cars in which
driver fatigue and comfort are critical. There
are also modern classics of furniture design,
for example by Breuer and Tobia Scarpa,
which are very firm indeed. Although the fire
risks associated with it are slight, the poly-
urethane is encased in a flameproof wrapper
and then covered, in the Concert Hall (and all
auditoria other than the Opera Theatre), in
pure wool. In the Opera Theatre the covering
is leather. The reason for the difference is
that the absorption of the chairs in the Concert
Hall is designed to be close to that of a person,
whereas in the Opera Theatre, where there is a
very much lower volume ratio per person, Dr.
Jordan wanted empty seats to add to the
reverberation through the use of a reflective
upholstery fabric, hence the leather.

The seats, arranged in this system, are
subdivided into relatively small areas. This is
made necessary partly by sight line considera-

PETER] HALL

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DESIGN OF CONCERT HALL OF SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 65

tions, because in the side terraces the closer
one is to the platform the steeper the rake of
the seats has to be, partly because subdivision
of any audience of 2,700 into smaller groups is
psychologically desirable and partly by the
requirement that the furthest seat should not be
too far from the source of sound, which is why
there are some audience seats behind the
platform. Provided the sound is good in such
a location, these are not objectionable seats,
giving an excellent view of the conductor.

The Ceiling

While seating is determined by capacity,
comfort and sight lines, the design of the ceiling
is the area in which collaboration of architect,
acoustician and engineer becomes of the greatest
importance, since it is here that the acoustics
of the room will really be determined. Within
the limits set by the shells (some 1,000,000 cu ft
in all) its overall volume is determined by the
volume/audience area relationship and by the
need to arrange surfaces in such a way as to

TABLE 4
Sydney Theatre Seat Spacing (1966)

Theatre Row to
Row
St. James :
Stalls) i. oh ww = 2
Lounge ae at ss oe Oe
Dress Circle .. e ee Se
Royal :
Lounge re - des 3’ 0”
Phillip :
Main Floor 2114
Rear IRIAN
Tivoli :
Lounge os ae ad a 0"
Gallery ee oe Ka TRS eM
Town Hall:
Main Floor 2
(approx.)
Side Gallery .. Bevin’
Back Gallery .. 2’ 9”-2’ 10”
Barclay :
Stalls’. 7 - os 3’ 1h”
Gallery oe os ee Be
Her Majesty’s :
Lounge a Zi ay 3’ «5”
Stalls: ¥. Ba — a 5a a
Gallery 2’ 8”-2’ 9”

Centres of Comments
Arm Rests
|’ Ur
38” Fairly comfortable
1’ 8” >») 29
1’ 8” 1H LP
(4 Fie
1’ 6” Tight, especially in width
Rare Fairly comfortable
1’ 5” Excessively tight, both ways
ul Q”
1’ 9” Reasonable, not much leg room
1’ 9” Tight for leg room
aie New seating (four years old).
87 Comfortable, especially as
regards leg room
1’ 9” Very comfortable — Manager
thinks these are the largest
seats in Sydney
| Dae ig Comfortable
1’ 8”-1’ 9” Too tight as regards leg room

Aisles vary between 3’ 6” and 3’ 8”

The seating arrangement has some of the
qualities of de Doelen and the Berlin Phil-
harmonic, which has an even less regular
arrangement of seats than we have and is a
room which it is good to experience. The
plan form at Sydney was of course largely
dictated by what was already built during
Stages I and II.

allow a build-up of reverberation and a distri-
bution of sound evenly over the seating area.
The ceiling is supported from the shells by
trusses hanging between the arches. On the
outside is the layer of thin concrete referred to
by Dr. Jordan. In the void between the outer
and inner layers run the services. The inner
layer is made up of 4 in plywood with a backing

PETER HALL

66

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FIGURE 9.—Rotterdam—de Doelen.

DESIGN OF CONCERT HALL OF SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 67

of lin plasterboard. Plywood was chosen
because the steel trusses will inevitably flex a
little and a continuous envelope such as plaster
would not have been practicable, even had it
been thought aesthetically desirable. Thin
plywood by itself, however, would not retain
the bass sufficiently well for the music to have
enough warmth, hence the plasterboard backing,
a system developed with Dr. Jordan to retain
the bass without exceeding the very stringent
weight restrictions. This material was capable
of complete prefabrication off the site, and of
the use of dry jointing techniques using plastic
gaskets.

It is not easy to achieve a relationship between
the ceiling of a hall and the audience because
when the audience is broken up into its individual
seats it is rather small in scale, whereas the
ceiling of a hall with a volume of the order of
850,000 cu ft is of necessity very large. The
plywood ribs have accordingly been arranged
in a way related to Japanese paper folding,
with two major bends in them as they radiate
from the platform zone. They follow the
audience’s sight lines to the chosen arrival
points of sight. On the way they have a number
of protrusions, some of which accommodate
lighting and which act like the coffering of a
Victorian hall. The planes step in relationship
to each other, and this stepping gives much the
character of pilasters in the old halls, with
resulting improvement in diffusion and sound
quality.

Materials

Since heavy materials like off-form concrete
or marble, as used at de Doelen, were out of the
question the important lower surfaces surround-
ing the orchestra and separating the various
seating groups had to be both reasonably light
but retentive of the bass. For these surfaces
and the floor solid thick timber, laminated
brush box, was chosen. Like the ceiling, this
could be prefabricated off-site, with the
advantages of time-saving and improved quality
control implicit in prefabrication in a factory.
The result is an all-wooden room which is
designed, because of the small number of
materials used, to offer little to distract the
observer from appreciating the volume, the
forms enclosing it, and the bright facade of the
impressive Sharp organ over the choir.

Conclusion

So far, objective and subjective assessment of
the room has been good. Oddly enough, I
believe the shells themselves, although a sort

of restrictive straitjacket and the source of
much design difficulty for architects and
consultants alike, have contributed to this
result. While their shapes, volume limitation
and load capacity posed difficulties, they forced
on us a long, narrow room with greater than
normal height which is certainly contributing
to people’s visual experience and may well
assist in producing Gilford’s “singing tone’”’.
Certainly the room embodies much current
philosophy on concert hall acoustics and shows
promise of achieving in use many of the
characteristics thought desirable. It is now for
the performers, over an extended period, to
find out whether it fulfils this promise.

Acknowledgements

Important contributions were made by all
those acknowledged by Dr. Jordan. In addition
much useful information and advice was given
in the early stages by Warwick Mehaffey,
acoustic engineer with the ABC, and Dean
Dixon, then Musical Director of the ABC.

The realization of the design made necessary,
because of the interaction of every component,
an extraordinarily close collaboration between
architects and consultants. Special mention
should be made of Michael Lewis, Ian Mackenzie
and Frank Manly (Ove Arup and Partners),
Arne Larsen and Edvard Mortensen (Steensen
and Varming), Frank Matthews (Julius, Poole
and Gibson), Dick Chappell and David McKellar
(lighting).

In the execution of the work the sub-
contractors made every effort to achieve
standards of workmanship and quality rare in
building anywhere in the world. In particular,
the work of Cemac Brooks, who tackled the job
of building the ceiling on a firm price basis and
performed splendidly, deserves special com-
mendation. This sub-contract did much to
dispel the then prevalent belief that prediction
and planning were so difficult as to make firm
prices and programmes impossible on the Opera
House.

Phil Peach, of Co-ordinated Design and
Supply, the seating suppliers, collaborated with
us in developing the design of the chairs through
successive prototype stages. Continental seating
had not previously been used in N.S.W. and at
the time of its design was not legal. Aden
MacFarlane, of the Chief Secretary’s Depart-
ment, made a careful study of its advantages
and formulated dimensional criteria resulting
in its acceptance by his Department. Not only
was this vital to us, but it will prove an important
milestone in theatre design here.

68

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DESIGN OF CONCERT HALL OF SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 69

References

Architectural Review, 1951. Special Number on the
Royal Festival Hall, 109, No. 654, June.

BERANEK, L., 1962. Music, Acoustics and Architecture.
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.

CREMER, L., 1965. Die Akustichen Gegebenhciten
in der neuen Berliner Philharmonie. Deutsche
Bauzeitung, Heft 10, p. 3, October.

DELANGE, P. A., 1966. Summary of article, Poly-
technisch Tijdschrift (PT 27-4-66), B21E, 365B.

Peter Hall, B.A., B.Arch., F.R.A.1.A.,
Design Partner,

Hall, Todd & Littlemore,

Architects for Stage III,

Sydney Opera House,

116 Miller Street,

North Sydney, N.S.W., 2060.

DoELLE, L., 1965. Acoustics in Architectural Design.
National Research Council, Canada.

GILFORD, C., 1968. The Elizabeth Hall and Trends in
Concert Hall Acoustics. Musical Times, 109,
No. 1499, 20, January.

Jorpan, V. L., 1965. Acoustical Considerations
Concerning New York State Theatre. Journal
of the Audio Engineering Society, 13, 98.

SCHLANGER, B., 1966. Unpublished draft—New York
City Code, Article A-7, Places of Assembly.
(This draft was subsequently made law.)

(Received 13 September 1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 70-80, 1973

The Grand Organ in the Sydney Opera House

RONALD SHARP

ABpsTRACT—The building of the Opera House Organ is a milestone in the world of music.
The Concert Hall has provided 2 unique opportunity for the installation of what will be the world’s
largest mechanical action pipe organ in the best position possible, acoustically and visually.

The organ specification includes all schools of organ building that are considered to have
aesthetic and historical validity so as to be able to demonstrate these characteristics to the people

of Sydney. Every family of stops is represented, but no stop is redundant.

The organ will not

only be able to interpret these various schools but will have an overall character and musical

unity of its own.

1. Introduction

From an early stage it was decided to have a
large fixed organ in the Concert Hall, which
could be used for solo work or with orchestra,
choir or chamber music groups. It would also
be used at ceremonies and conventions and
must be able to play popular music.

The organ would therefore have to be a large
comprehensive instrument. It must be suitable
both for solo use and as an accompanimental
instrument. To be successful it must be able
to demonstrate to people in Sydney the best
characteristics of the different national schools,
past and present, that are considered to have
aesthetic or historical value.

Despite its versatility in being able to play
music in the correct tone for these different
national schools the organ must have a musical
unity and be able to succeed for itself as a solo
instrument. It cannot be purely imitative but
must have an overall character and musical
unity of its own.

It is hoped that an organ with the above
characteristics will excite the attention of
Australian composers. The Concert Hall in
the Opera House provided a unique opportunity
to install such an organ in the best musical,
acoustical and visual location high up on the
front wall. Asin many of the famous cathedrals
in Europe, this has always been considered the
optimum position.

To achieve these musical aims, it is necessary
to use relatively low wind pressure and
mechanical playing action throughout. The
nature of the project is such that only the finest
of pipe metals and materials have been used.

In an organ of this size, operating convenience
becomes an important element. An unusually
versatile system of stop control and registration

aid has been devised using the latest develop-
ments in electronic technology.

The organ is scheduled to be completed in
1976.

2. Overall Design of the Organ

The organ is contained in a specially built
shell-shaped concrete chamber 15m (46 ft)
high and stands on a cantilevered steel platform
which overhangs the audience seating. The
front pipes of the facade are in line with the
walls of the Concert Hall and the depth of the
organ is approximately 6 m (18 ft). The console
is located on an extension of the organ platform
and is approximately 2m (6 ft) in front of the
organ. On either side of the console is the
Ruckpositiv division, so divided to allow the
audience to see the organist.

The Brustwerk division, with its 4ft show
pipes, is situated in the main case immediately
above the console.

The Hauptwerk division, with its 16 ft show
pipes, is situated above the Brustwerk.

The Oberwerk is above the Hauptwerk and
behind the top group of show pipes, and the
Kronwerk at the very top of the organ.

The large pedal pipes are contained in the
front on each side and at the rear of the organ
chamber, the smaller pedal pipes are on each
side of the organ chamber.

The frame of the organ is of special steel
sections and welded on the site. It contains
stairways and a spiral staircase for easy access
to the different divisions.

Access to the organ is from outside the Hall
via a spiral staircase to the rear of the organ
chamber. The organist then walks through
the organ to the console, some 10m (80 ft)
above the main floor of the Hall.

THE GRAND ORGAN IN THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

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71

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FiGURE 1].—The facade of the organ showing the position of console and disposition of the various
departments.

The largest pipes of the organ belong to the
Prinzipal 32 ft, the biggest four are constructed
of 50 mm (2 in) thick marine plywood and are
hung on the rear wall.

Because of the distance of the console from
the conductor, a number of communication
aids are built into the console. These include

two closed circuit television screens giving the
organist views of the conductor and of the stage,
a speaker from the stage to the organist, a
telephone from the organist to the conductor
and stage manager and a microphone to enable
the organist to speak over the public address
system.

72 RONALD SHARP

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FIGURE 2.—Front view of steel frame showing position of pipe windchests of the various departments.
Some of the larger pipes are shown in position.

3. National Tone Characteristics
Examples of some of the national schools of
organ building as represented in the Opera
House organ are shown by the following speci-
fications. By comparison, it is possible to see
how these have influenced the total design of
the organ.
Examples represented are :
English : Trinity College, Cambridge, 1860—
Hill.

Classical French: Ste. Gervais, Paris, 1768—
Cliquot.

Romantic French: Ste. Clothilde, Paris,
1858—Cavaiullé-Coll.

Italian: St. Guiseppe Brescia, 1581—
Antegnati.

North German: St. Jacobi, Hamburg, 1688—
Schnitger.

THE GRAND ORGAN IN THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE 73

Great Organ

Double Open Diapason

16’
Open Diapason 8’
Open Diapason 8’
Salicional 8’
Gamba 8’
Stopped Diapason
8’

Quint 53’
Principal 4’
Wald Flute 4’
Nason 4’

ENGLAND

Typical Specification of Organ by William Hill, 1860

Choir Organ

Dulciana 8’

Open Diapason 8’

Claribel 8’

Viola da Gamba 8’

Stopped Diapason
8’

Stopped Flute 4’
Principal 4’
Flautino 2’
Cremona 8’

Solo Organ

Harmonic Flute 8’
Harmonic Flute 4’
Vox angelica 8’
Lieblich Flute 4’
Piccolo 2’

Tuba mirabilis 8’
Vox humana 8’
Orchestral Oboe 8’

Swell Organ

Double Diapason
16’

Open Diapason 8’

Salicional 8’

Cone Gamba 8’

Stopped Diapason
8’

Suabe Flute 4’
Principal 4’
Fifteenth 2’
Mixture III
Double Trumpet 16’

Twelfth 23’ Trumpet 8’
Fifteenth 2’ Cornopean 8’
Full Mixture III Oboe 8’
Sharp Mixture II Clarion 4’
Trumpet 8’

Clairon 4’

Pedal Organ

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Double Dulciana 16’

Sub-bourdon 32’
Open Diapason 16’
Open Diapason 16’
Violon 16’
Bourdon 16’
Principal 8’

Bass Flute 8’
Fifteenth 4’
Mixture II]
Trombone 16’
Clarion 8’

The Sydney Town Hall organ, built in 1886, represents the culmination of English romantic organ building
by William Hill and is an entirely different concept to the Opera House organ.

FRANCE
Typical Specification of Organ by Cliquot, 1768
Grand Orgue Positif Bombarde | Récit Echo Pedale
Montre 16’ Flite 8’ Bombarde 16’ Cornet III Flite d’echo 8’ | Flite 16’
Bourdon 16’ Bourdon 8’ Hautbois 8’ Trompette 8’ Flite 8’
Montre 8’ Prestant 4’ Flaite 4’
Bourdon 8’ Nazard 2%’ Bombarde 16’
Flite 8’ Doublette 2’ Trompette 8’
Prestant 4’ Tierce 15/,” Clairon 4’
Nazard 23’ Plein jeu IV
Doublette 2’ Trompette 8’
Quarte de Nazard | Cromorne 8’
2’ Basson-Clarin-
Mierce 15/,/ ette 8’
Grand Cornet V Clairon 4’
Plein jeu VI
I. Trompette 8’
II. Trompette 8’
Voix humaine 8’
Clairon 4’
FRANCE
Typical Specification of Organ by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, 1858
Grande Orgue Positiv Récit Pedale

Montre 16’
Bourdon 16’
Montre 8’
Gambe 8’
Flite Harmonique 8’
Bourdon 8’
Prestant 4’
Octave 4’
Quinte 2%’
Doublette 2’
Plein Jeu V
Bombarde 16’
Trompette 8’
Clairon 4’

Bourdon 16’
Montre 8’
Gambe 8’

Flite Harmonique 8’

Bourdon 8’
Salicional 8’
Prestant 4’

Flate Octaviante 4’

Quinte 22’
Doublette 2’
Clarinette 8’
Trompette 8’
Clairon 4’

Bourdon 8’

Flite Harmonique 8’
Voile de Gambe 8’
Voix Céleste 8’
Flite Octaviante 4’
Octavin 2’
Basson-Hautbois 8’
Voix Humaine 8’
Trompette 8’
Clairon 4’

Quintaton 32’
Contrebasse 16’
Flaite 8’
Octave 4’
Bombarde 16’
Basson 16’
Trompette 8’
Clairon 4’

74 RONALD SHARP

ITALY
Tvpical Specification of Organ by Antegnati,
1581

. Principale 16’

. Principale 16’

. Ottaua 8’

. Decima quinta 4’

. Decima nona 22’

. Vigesima seconda 2’
. Vigesima sesta 12’

. Vigesima nona 1’
. Trigesima terza %
10. Flauto in quintadecima 4’
11. Flauto in duodecima 5}’
12. Flauto in ottaua 8’

13. Fiffaro (voce umana) 8’

CO CH OP OO NW

,

As the keyboard extended into the bass
one octave lower than present-day organs
(it was coupled to the pedals), the above
specification should be read as one octave
higher, i.e. Principale 8’, etc.

musical point of view; from the position of a
listener accustomed to orchestral and recital
concerts rather than from the position of an
organ enthusiast or that of a trained organist
who expects certain traditional concepts; a
view of balance, blend, freedom from harshness
and extraneous noise, a singing quality.

The voicing of the Hauptwerk and Positiv
will be similar except that the Hauptwerk is
larger scaled and on a higher wind pressure,
therefore being slightly louder; so that by
selection of the appropriate Hauptwerk mixtures,
e.g. Scharff and Zimbel with the foundation
stops, an Italian-like plenum is possible, though
without the possibility of adding individual
ranks of upper pitches.

The speech and tone of the whole organ is
unforced, so tending to be inoffensive and not
tiring to the ear. Adequate loudness and the

NORTH GERMANY
Typical Specification of Organ by Arp Schnitger, 1688

Hauptwerk Ruckpositiv

Brustwerk

Oberwerk

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Prinzipal 16’ Prinzipal 8’

Holzprincipal 8’

Prinzipal 8’ Prinzipal 32’

Quintat6n 16’ Gedeckt 8’ Oktave 4’ Holzflote 8’ Oktave 16’
Oktave 8’ Quintatén 8’ Hohlfléte 4’ Rohrfléte 8’ Sub-bass 16’
Spitzfléte 8’ Oktave 4’ Waldfléte 2’ Oktave 4’ Oktave 8’
Gedeckt 8’ Blockfléte 4’ Sesquialter 2 ranks Spitzfléte 4’ Oktave 4’
Oktave 4’ Nasat 22’ Scharff 4-6 ranks Nasat 22’ Nachthorn 2’
Rohrfléte 4’ Oktave 2’ Dulzian 8’ Oktave 2’ Mixtur 6-8 ranks

Superoktave 2’
Flachflote 2’
Rauschpfeife 3 ranks
Mixtur 6-8 ranks
Trompete 16’

Siffléte 12’
Sesquialter 2 ranks
Scharff 4-6 ranks
Dulzian 16’
Barpfeife 8’
Schalmei 4’

4. Tonal Design

4.1. Frequency Range of the Organ

A stop is labelled in terms of the type of tone
it produces, e.g. Prinzipal, Flute, Trompet,
and the pitch of the sound in relation to piano
pitch. The pitch is specified in terms of the
longest pipe in the rank. Thus a stop labelled
8’ pitch represents a rank of open pipes ranging
from 8 ft in length two octaves below middle C
through five octaves to a } ft pipe.

A stop labelled 4’ would sound an octave
higher and 16’ an octave lower.

The frequency range of the organ is from
16-35 Hz (32 ft) to 16,744 Hz at 4 ft 10mm
(3 in).

4.2. The Overall Concept
The overall concept was to approach the
design and voicing of the organ from a detached

Trechterregal 8’

Gemshorn 2’
Scharff 4-6 ranks
Zimbel 3 ranks
Trompete 8’
Vox humana 8’
Trompete 4’

Rauschpfeife 3 ranks
Posaune 32’
Posaune 16’
Dulzian, 16’
Trompete 8’
Trompete 4’
Kornett 2’

effect of fulness is obtained by the fact that most
upper ranks break back at the 4 ft pipe to the
+ ft pipe. This concentrates the highest pro-
portion of energy of sound in the fundamental
pitch range 2,000-5,000 Hz which, on the
Fletcher-Munson curves is the area of greatest
sensitivity of the ear. This breaking sequence
spreads the pitch range 2,000-5,000 Hz over the
entire compass of the keyboard.

4.3. The Purpose of the Upperwork

(a) To duplicate the harmonics cf the foundation
ranks and so increase their power and
loudness.

(0) By giving emphasis to different harmonics,
formats are produced which alter the
character of tone, as well as the loudness.

(c) The pitches and breaks of the Upperwork
mixtures may be arranged to vary these

THE GRAND ORGAN IN THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

SOUTH GERMANY

Weingarten Abbey

COngan by Joser, Gabler ILS ya

(Plan und Anordnung der Register nach dem Spieltisch)

I, Manual (Haupwerk}

Praestant 7 a ae 16’
Principal a a — 8’
Rohrflaut es. a a 8’
Oktav 1—2 f. awe m 4!
Superoktav 2 f. - oe 2p
Hohlflaut 7 — a De
Mixtur 9—10 f. a ae 2!
Cimbalum 12 f. nae a i
Sesquialter 8-9 f. .. 7 1%’
Piffaro 5—7 f. a oe 8’
Trombetten .. Ls _ 8’

(’ = FuSlange der Pfeifenreihe})
II. Manual (Echowerk)

‘Borduen ate ae we. kG:
Principal 23 - ae 8’
Flauten a8 ae _ 8’
Quintaton .. #2 a 8’
Violon douce a we 8’
Octav i ae a 4’
Hohlflaut 2 f. = - 4’
Piffaro douce 2f. .. — 4’
Superoctav... aur = aM
Mixtur 5—6 f. — vs pH
Comet o-6 f 77) .. —- ly
Hautbois fer — a 8’

Pedal (Haupt-}

Contrabafs 2 f. La onroos
Subba — <n Oo?
OctavbagS .. es a 1G"
Violonbaf 2 f. . - yet!
Mixturbai 5-6 f. .. whe 8’
Posaunenbaf a ee Gs
Bombardbaf a ee wou!
La force (C) ics aoa
Carillon ped. AS a phe

II. Manual (Oberwerk)

Borduen2—3f. .. oe JGE
Principal Tutti 8’
Violoncell 1—3 f. 8’
Coppel 8’
Hohlflaut 8’
Unda maris . 8’
_Solicinale 8’
Mixtur 9—12 f. 4’
*Oktav douce 4’
*Viola2 f: ; Be 4!
*Gimbaluma 21. (+ oi.) pH
*Nasat : mae On:
(*stehen im Kronpositiv)

IV. Manual (Brustpositiv)
Principal doux 8’
Flaut douce .. 8’
Quintaton 8’
Violoncell 8’
Rohrflaut 4’
Querflaut a
Flaut travers 2 f. 4’
Flageolet phe
Piffaro 5—6 f. 4’
Cornet 8—11 f 2
Vox humana 8’
Hautbois 4’
Tremulant

(Brustpositiv-]
Quintaténbafs a mom oes
SuperoctavbafS 8’
Flaut douce.. 8’
Violoncellbafs 8’
Hohl flautbag : 4!
Cornetbaf§ 10—11 f. 4)
Sesquialter 6—7 ff... a!
Trombetbaf 8’
Fagotbafs 8’

Nebenregister: Cuculus, Rossignol, Cymbala, Tympanum, Carillon Man. (IV).

Copplungen: I.zu II. Man., Il. zu. III. Man., III. zu IV. Man., P. zuI. Man.,
P. zu Il. Man., Cronpositivcopplung.

75

76 RONALD SHARP

formats according to the different positions
in the compass, so producing a human
singing quality which may have a different
character on different manual departments.

4.4, Hauptwerk Division

In the Hauptwerk (main organ chorus) the
provision of many mixtures of different com-
position will allow formats resembling those of
the Italian, French and German schools to be
produced. Basically, this division is the author’s
own concept of organ chorus and tone, con-
taining elements of French, Italian and German
character.

4.7. Brustwerk

This division with swell shutters is enclosed
within the lower case of the organ and is basically
a Cornet depicting the classical French echo
Cornet. It also contains examples of early
German short length reeds, the Brustwerk of
the Gothic organ in St. Jacobi, Liibeck and
modern mutations.

4.8. Kronwerk

This division is situated above the Oberwerk
right at the top of the organ and is basically a
solo department. It contains three ranks of
brilliant sounding trumpets and a Vox Humana

CHESTS

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FiGcuRE 3.—Plan view of organ layout.

4.5. Oberwerk

This large division is contained in a swell box
which has, as well as the main front shutters, a
separate set of shutters opening at the rear of
the box for echo effect. Essentially it is North
German Schnitger in tone, with elements of
French romantic school.

4.6. Ruckpositiv

This division is basically Italian in concept
but contains elements of French and German
characters.

all ‘‘ en chamade ’’, that is, lying horizontal and
pointing directly into the Concert Hall. There
is also a powerful twelve-rank Cornet and an
Ophicleide of sonorous quality.

4.9. Pedal

This division contains a cross-section of the
elements of typical French, English and German
classifications, plus additional and separated
synthesizing upper partials of the fundamental
pitch in order to produce, in the ear of a listener,
a resultant fundamental of high power.

17

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The author feels that this is musically
preferable to gaining fundamental strength in
the bass by the use of excessively energized
large pipes. In the latter case, the absorption
of the room acoustics in the very low organ bass
range would require such a large energy input
to the large pipes that the upper harmonics
would become harsh and unblending. The
pedal does in fact have large scaled heavyweight
32 ft and 16 ft ranks, but the energy input to
these is sufficient only to provide a pure founda-
tion of moderately low power which may be
used with the softest stops of the organ. Increase
in power is then obtained by reinforcement of
the harmonics by the upper ranks.

5. Accessories and Controls

5.1. Accessories

A tremulant is provided for each department,
including the pedal organ, and there are controls
to adjust the tremulant speed and depth. A
Glockenspiel of 73 bronze hand bells, 24 of
which are visible, and a Carillon of 24 bronze
hand bells are operated electrically and playable

from the keyboard and pedal board. The
Carillon or Zymbelstern is comprised of six
bells selected from the 24 and struck one after
the other in a preselected order. They may be
selected for the appropriate key signature. The
speed at which these bells are struck is also
adjustable. The Glockenspiel is fitted with a
reiterating control, which may be adjusted to
give from one stroke to many strokes per key
operation.

Balanced swell pedals control the Oberwerk
main and echo shutters and the Brustwerk
shutters. Direction reverse switches are fitted.
Digital displays give an indication of the position
of each of the swell shutters.

A crescendo pedal operates on all the registers
of the organ. It controls the stops directly
with no movement of the draw stops or rocking
tablets on the console. It operates in addition
to the stops already in use and provides a gradual
build up from the softest stop on the organ to
full organ when the normal crescendo piston is
pressed. Three pre-set pistons are available
to allow the organist to move to a crescendo

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80 RONALD SHARP

setting independently from the stops selected
by the draw stops and rocking tablets. The
crescendo pedal, then, will control the stops
from this pre-set position and the organ will
return to normal stop operation when the
crescendo off piston is pressed. A_ digital
display indicates the state of the crescendo
at all times and allows accurate control to any
of the 171 positions. The crescendo pedal itself
gives a rate control rather than the positional
control of the swell pedals. This allows easier
control of slow build ups.

5.2. Controls

Because of the large number of stops, a very
versatile system of stop control and registration
aids has been included. These allow easy and
instant operation of the stops and couplers.
The drawstop action is electric and the combina-
tion piston action is electronic.

Four manual to pedal couplers operate by
mechanical key action, as does the Brustwerk
to Oberwerk coupler. The other manual and
pedal couplers are operated by electric action.
Rocking tablets above the top keyboard operate
octave couplers and two couplers connecting
manual and pedal pistons.

The piston mechanism is a full capture unit
which allows the organist to select any required
number of stops on any piston. Fifteen pistons
control the whole organ and each division has
nine independent pistons. The piston unit
has a tape recorder fitted which allows all the
piston settings to be recorded on cassette tapes.
One cassette will record approximately 100
complete settings, and to record, or re-set, the
organ takes approximately 12 seconds.

The player unit is a new development which
enables the organist to record his performance
on cassette tape, which can then be played back
on the organ itself. This is possible through
the additional fitting of electric action, as
well as the mechanical key action. On replay
the organ operates by electric action but
simulates the timing of the original performance
as accurately as is possible, considering the
limitations of the recording medium. The
organ faithfully follows all stop changes, piston
operations, swell and _ crescendo pedal
movements.

The organist can control the replay of the
organ from a position in the audience seating.

Ronald Sharp,
Pipe Organ Builder,
4 Hearne Street,
Mortdale, N.S.W.,
Australia.

He can, from this position, alter the stop
settings, swell positions and piston settings,
if he feels it necessary. These new settings
remain programmed in the organ.

By recording one part of the score, e.g.
orchestral accompaniment, the organist may play
the organ through its normal mechanical action
against this recording, to practise, e.g., organ
concertos. It will also be possible for the stage
manager to play the organ from tapes during
conventions and conferences and for the benefit
of visitors, if an organist is not available.

6. Technical Details—Summary

The organ has five manuals and pedal and
contains approximately 10,500 pipes, of which
109 are visible. There are 205 ranks of pipes
grouped into 127 speaking stops, with 28
couplers. The front show pipes are of 95%
tin, 5% lead and are burnished to a mirror-like
finish. The largest front pipe is E in the 32 ft
octave with a diameter of 430 mm and a length
of 9-26m. It weighs 340 kg.

There is a Glockenspiel of 73 bronze hand
bells, 24 of which are visible, and a Carillon of
24 small bronze hand bells. The Tympanon
operates a soft bass drum roll and there is an
imitation cuckoo and nightingale.

Power for the organ is via two DC (direct
current) rectifiers supplying 400 amps at 17
volts. The wind supply is by nine electric
centrifugal blowers, each one contained in a
silencing box equipped with BCF (bromo-
chlorodifluoromethane) gas fire extinguishers
and temperature sensing alarm. A sprinkler
system is also built into the organ chamber.

The total weight of the organ is 37 tonnes.

Acknowledgement

The diagrams in this article were reproduced
by kind permission of Hall, Todd and Littlemore,
Architects.

References

GEER, H. K., 1957. Organ Registration in Theory and
in Practise. J. Fischer and Bro., New Jersey.

FESPERMAN, John, 1962. The Organ as a Musical
Medium. Coleman-Ross Company Inc., New
York.

SUMNER, W. L., 1952.
Principals of Construction and Use.
London.

ANDERSON, P. G., 1969. Ovgan Building and Design.
George Allen and Unwin, London.

The Organ, Its Evolution,
Macdonald,

(Received 5 September 1973)

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD.
71-79 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBE, N.S.W., 2037

\

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

The Society originated in the year 1821 as the Philosophical Society of Australasia. Its
main function is the promotion of Science through the following activities: Publication
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Membership is open to any interested person whose application is acceptable to the Society.
The application must be supported by two members of the Society, to one of whom the applicant
must be personally known.

Membership categories are:

Full members: $10 p.a. plus $3 application fee.

Associate members (students and spouses): $2 per annum plus $1 application fee or
$5 p.a. to receive the Journal plus $1 application fee.

Absentee members: $7 p.a. plus $3 application fee.

Subscription to the Journal, which is published in four Parts per year, for non-members is
$A12 p.a. plus postage (and bank charges for overseas subscriptions).

For application forms for membership and enquiries ve subscriptions, enquire from

The Executive Secretary,

The Royal Society of New South Wales,
Science House,

157 Gloucester Street,

Sydney, 2000, N.S.W.

The Society welcomes manuscripts of research (and occasional review articles) in all branches
of science, art, literature and philosophy, for publication in the Journal and Proceedings.

Manuscripts will be accepted from both members and non-members, though those from the
latter should be communicated through a member. Manuscripts should be sent to the Honorary
Editorial Secretary at the above address.

Contents

Preface .. Pe ay. ae wy oe re a = my bi 1

The Sydney Opera House. The Contractor and Some Aspects of Stage IIT.
H, R. Hoare nid ae os ste a sis a ws a 3

Roof Cladding of the Sydney Opera House. Michael Lewis .. us a, 38
Acoustical Design Considerations of the Sydney Opera House. V. L. Jordan 33
The Design of the Concert Hall of the Sydney Opera House. Peter Hall .. 54

The Grand Organ in the Sydney Opera House. Ronald Sharp Be » ade

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD.
71-78 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBE, N.S.W., 2037
1973

’ { .
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‘ septs ova

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VOLUME 106

e , . F icy Fs

“

ae pam Published by the Society Shek Sy
Science House. Gloucester and Essex Streets, Sydney
oe Issued 6th February, 1974 7°) | a

! 1973 : PARTS 3 and 4_

NOTICE TO AUTHORS

A comprehensive “Guide to Authors” is
available on request from the MHonorary
Secretary, Royal Society of New South Wales,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000.
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General. Manuscripts submitted by a non-
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Manuscripts should be addressed to the
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at the address given above. Two copies each
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Manuscript—including title, author’s name,
address, and establishment where work
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Abstract.

Reterences

alphabetical list.
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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 81-83, 1973

Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1972

| OE eg

The following observations of occultations
were made at Sydney Observatory with the
114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used to
record the times on a chronograph. The
reduction elements were computed by the
method given in the occultation Supplement
to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the
reduction completed by the method given there.
Since the observed times were in terms of
coordinated time (UTC), a correction for
occultations prior to the 30th of June, 1972 of
+0-01134 hour (=40-84 seconds) was applied
to these observed times to convert them to
ephemeris time with which The Astronomical
Ephemerts for 1972 was entered to obtain the
position and parallax of the Moon in terms of
the FK, coordinate system. For occultations
observed between the Ist of July, 1972 and
the 31st of December, 1972, the corresponding
correction was -+0-01162 hour (41:84
seconds). The apparent places of the stars of
the 1972 occultations were provided by H.M.
Nautical Almanac Office.

SIMS

Table I gives the observational material. The
serial numbers follow on from those of the
previous report (Sims, 1971). The observers
were .W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S),
and H. W. Wood (W). Except for occultations
667, 668, 684, 685, 686, 687, which were re-
appearances at the dark limb, the phase observed
was disappearance of the dark limb. Table II
gives the results of the reductions which were
carried out in duplicate. The Z.C. or $.A.0.
numbers given in Table I are from the Catalog
of 3539 Zodtacal Stars for Equinox 1950-0
(Robertson, 1940) and the Smithsonian Astro-
physical Observatory Star Catalog.

References
ROBERTSON, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the
American Ephemeris, Vol. X, Part IT.
Sims, K. P., 1972. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 105,
15; Sydney Observatory Papers No. 66.

TABLE [|

Serial S.A.O. or

No. LC NO: Mag Date Uc: Observer
656 077960 7:6 1972 Apr. 18 9 07 21-1 W
657 077974 7°5 1972 Apr. 18 9 23 02-0 W
658 926 7-0 1972 Apr. 18 9 32 43-6 W
659 1335 6:3 1972 Apr. 21 09 08 36-1 R
660 0844 5+7 1972 May 15 07 57 30-0 S
661 078629 8-0 1972 May 16 7 41 15-0 R
662 1030 oo! 1972 May 16 9 05 48-6 R
663 079628 Tel 1972 May 17 8 28 21-4 S
664 1167 6-3 1972 May 17 8 39 01-2 S
665 097996 8-5 1972 May 18 9 02 43-7 R
666 138395 Ted 1972 May 22 8 46 27-0 S
667 092278 8-5 1972 Jul. 4 16 42 32-0 R
668 092320 8-4 1972 ful. 4 19 06 23-6 R
669 118318 8-6 1972 Jul. 14 8 21 28-3 R
670 118331 7°8 1972 Jul. 14 9 16 13-1 R
671 118751 8-4 1972 Jul. 15 9 09 09:0 W
672 138935 7:6 1972 Jul. 17 7 32 03-4 S
673 138945 8-6 1972 Jul. 17 8 01 39-7 S
674 157965 8-9 1972 Jul. 18 8 25 35-5 R
675 157983 8-8 1972 Jul. 18 9 42 54-5 R
676 1944 5-6 1972 Jul. 18 10 29 10-0 R
677 158047 8-5 1972 Jul. 18 13 12 58-7 W
678 158542 7-9 1972 Jul. 19 13 14 35-4 W
679 183168 6-9 1972 Jul. 20 7 44 47-9 R
680 2157 6-1 1972 Jul. 20 7 55 31-8 R
681 2286 5:4 1972 Jul. 21 8 23 05-1 S

89 K. P. SIMS
TABLE I—continued
Serial S.A.O. or
No. Z.C. No. Mag Date UAC Observer
682 2295 7:0 1972 Jul. 21 11 25 59-7 S
683 2299 6-4 1972 Jul. 21 12 10 56-4 S
684 076267 9-1 1972 Aug. 3 17 48 14-8 R
685 0574 6-8 1972 Aug. 3 18 18 54-8 R
686 076281 8-4 1972 Aug. 3 18 22 28-0 R
687 076296 8-6 1972 Aug. 3 18 56 16-5 R
688 138356 9-0 1972 Aug. 12 8 21 41-9 W
689 183671 8-3 1972 Aug. 17 8 06 41-0 R
690 183673 8:7 1972 Aug. 17 8 27 56:6 R
691 2237 5-1 1972 Aug. 17 8 41 01-5 R
692 183725 8-4 1972 Aug. 17 10 54 26-5 R
693 2822 5:6 1972 Aug. 21 11 38 11-3 S
694 1967 ay 1972 Sep. 11 8 41 55-1 S
695 158142 8:8 1972 Sep. I1 9 06 30-2 S
696 2194 8:7 1972 Sep. 13 8 39 16-7 S
697 183419 8-3 1972 Sep. 13 8 52 00-0 S
698 183446 8:5 1972 Sep. 13 10 14 39:3 S
699 185134 8:3 1972 Sep. 15 11 39 59-7 S
700 185140 8°7 1972 Sep. 15 11 50 07-7 S
701 184027 7:8 1972 Oct. 11 10 35 ‘32-3 S
702 184678 8-0 1972 Oct. 12 8 58 27-1 Ss
703 184700 8-2 1972 Qct:—12 9 15 07°6 S
704 184743 8°8 1972 Oct. 12 10 24 17-9 S
705 184750 8-6 1972 Oct. 12 10 28 18-9 S
706 185698 8-7 1972: Oct 23 10 12 16-4 R
707 185743 8-7 1972 Oct. 13 11 12 48-2 R
708 185830 8-0 1972 Oct. 13 12 41 21-0 W
709 2714 6-1 1972 Oct. 14 12 11 14-8 W
710 163217 8-9 1972 Nov. 12 9 18 46-8 W
711 163240 9-0 1972 Nove iZ 9 45 12-3 W
712 163244 9-0 1972 Nov. 12 9 56 37-9 W
"13 163260 8-3 1972 Nov. 12 10 18 12-2 W
714 146513 9-0 1972 Dec. 13 10 29 52-0
TABLET
Luna- Coefficient of
Serial tion P q Dp? pq q? Ac pAs qAc
No. No. Aa Ad
656 610 +91 —4] 83 — 37 17 —1:0 —0:9 +0:4 +11:7 —0:-49
657 610 +97 +26 93 +25 i 0-0 0-0 0-0 +13-2 +0-17
658 610 +93 +37 86 +34 14 —0°5 —0°5 —0-2 +12-8 +0-28
659 610 +7] +70 51 +50 49 —0-8 —0:6 —0-6 +13:-1 +0-40
660 611 +90 +43 81 +39 19 —l]-] —1-0 —0-°-5 +12-2 +0-40
661 611 +88 —47 78 —4] 22 +1-0 +0:9 —0°5 +10:°9 —0:60
662 611 +95 —3l 90 — 29 10 —0:6 —0-6 +0-2 +12-1 —0-45
663 611 +86 — §2 ae —44 27 +3:4 +2°9 —1-8 + 9-7 —0:-72
664 611 +95 +32 96 +30 10 +0:-1 +0:-1 0-0 +13-8 +0:07
665 611 +176 — 65 58 —49 42 +1-4 +1-1 —0-9 + 7-1 —0:87
666 611 +55 — 83 31 — 46 69 +1-7 +0-9 —1-4 + 2-0 —0:99
667 612 —99 —16 97 +16 3 +0:8 —0:8 —0:1 —12-4 —0-53
668 612 — 64 —77 4] +49 59 —0:4 +0°3 +0°-3 — 4-2 —0-96
669 613 +98 +18 97 +18 3 —0-9 —0-9 —0-2 +14-4 —0-26
670 613 +48 +88 23 +42 fii, —0°8 —0:-4 —0-7 +12-0 +0:-59
671 613 +73 +68 53 +50 47 —1:6 —]-2 al +14:-3 +0-29
672 613 +54 +84 29 +45 ql —0:6 —0:°3 —0:5 +12-4 +0-54
673 += 613 +99 al 99 nei) l +0245 --0-4 0-0 414-1 —0-30
674 613 +49 — 87 24 — 43 76 +1-0 +0°5 —0-9 + 1-9 —0:99
675 613 +74 — 67 55 — 50 45 +0-4 +0-3 —0:3 + 6:4 —0-90

Serial
No.

676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714

OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1972

—85
—99

+100

+100

+21
+88

+100

+72

TABLE [I—continued

p? Pq q? Ac pAs
17 —42 23 —0-1 —0O1
97 +16 3 —0-2 —0-2
86 = 35 Pals - ho 8
50 —50 50 Se eGe ee 163
23 +42 77 —0-9 —0-4
52 —50 48 42-0 41-4
15 — 43 25 —0-2 —0-2
47 +50 53 —0-3 —0-2
54 —50 46 4+1-0 —0-7
73 +44 27 40-4 —0-3
98 2-19 2 —0:8 +0-8
73 —44 27 —0-1 +0-1
63 —48 37 aI (ee: ee e|
73 444 27 a) ee)
22 Seay 78 2007.<=0-3
61 +49 39 = 10: ,—0-8
42 —49 58 +1-2 +0-8
14 +35 86 =0:95 70-1
90 —29 10 = eee Ba
28 +45 72 = Oso = 0"3
100 ae 0 0-0 0-0
89 e3i 1l —0-5 —0-5
73 4144 27 ee
98 a8) 2 oe gees a ee
100 a7 0 SER Mae BIE:
73 da 27 +1+1 +0-9
4 421 96 —0:9 —0-2

77 — 42 23 =0:8 0-7
85 —36 15 330
99 =10 1 psd E14
59 240 41 0-0 0-0
46 +50 hae, BO 2 208!
92 +28 8 ee, ae a9
45 — 50 55 +0-6 +0-4
26 4144 74. 40-4 +0-2
79 +41 21 —0:5 —0-4
66 +47 34. at eee
94 124 6 Pai) 0st
5 -8

51 — 50 49 +2:

(Received 2nd August, 1973)

DOMDNWKRRHEOHWRODOHDANORWWOROOHHHNAY

Coefficient of

Aw

CHOW RADAHOUNATNANROUTRADNOHAHAANWRAUIWRN ONY

AS

83

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 84-88, 1973

Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory
during 1971 and 1972

W. H. ROBERTSON

ABstTRACT—Positions of 2 Pallas, 3 Juno, 4 Vesta, 6 Hebe and 7 Iris obtained with the 23 cm.

camera are given.

The programme of precise observations of
selected minor planets which was begun in 1955
is being continued and the results for 1971 and
1972 are given here. The methods of observa-
tion and reduction were described in the first
paper (Robertson 1958). All the plates were
taken with the 23 cm. camera (scale 116” to
the millimetre). Four exposures were made on
each plate. The plates for 4 Vesta were taken
with a coarse wire grating in front of the lens.
The side images were measured for the planet.

In Table I are given the means for all four
images for the separate groups of stars at the
mean of the times. The differences between the
results average 08-030 sec 8$ in right ascension
and 0”-43 in declination. This corresponds to
probable errors for the mean of the two results
from one plate of 08-012 sec § and 0”-19. The
result from the first two exposures was compared
with that from the last two by adding the
movement computed from the ephemeris. The
means of the differences were 08-010 sec 6 in
right ascension and 0”-09 in declination. It is
expected that the two results from each plate
will be combined into one when they are used.

the reference stars can be conveniently applied
by using the dependences from Table II. No
correction has been applied for aberration, light
time or parallax, but the factors give the
parallax correction when, divided by the distance.
The observers at the telescope were W. H.
Robertson (R), K. P. Sims (S) and Harley
Wood (W).

In accordance with the recommendation of
Commission 20 of the International Astronomical
Union, Table II gives for each observation the
positions of the reference stars and the depen-
dences. The columns headed “R.A.” and
“Dec. ”’ give the seconds of time and arc with
proper motion correction applied to bring the
catalogue position to the epoch of the plate.
The column headed “ Star” gives the number
from the Yale Catalogue (Vols. 11, 12, 13, 14,
16, 17, 20, 21, 22,28). The plates were measured
by Miss K. Luxton, Miss R. Stanfield, Miss
M. Telfer and Miss E. Wiegold who have also
assisted with the reductions.

Reference
However, they are published in the present Rosgrrson, W. H., 1958. J. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 92,
form so that any alteration of the positions of 18. Sydney Observatory Papers No. 33
TABLE I
R.A. Dec Parallax
No. (1950-0) (1250-0) Factors
h m Ss S 4 Ss ”

7 Iris

1971 U.T.
1099 Mar. 18:61671 12 23 45-825 —l1l 29 51:92 +0:022 -—3-30 R
1100 Mar. 18-61671 12 23 45-854 —ll 29 51:68
1101 Mar. 30:57047 12 12 36-297 —10 15 11-82 +0:004 -—3-48 W
1102 Mar. 30-57047 12-12 -36-382 —10 15 10-88
1103 Apr. 14:51698 ll 59 57:441 —08 31 27-92 —0:008 —3:-72 S
1104 Apr. 14-51698 1l 59 57-426 —08 31 27:99
1105 Apr. 27:48163 1l 52 05-136 —07 09 09:75 +0:009 —3-91 R
1106 Apr. 27°48163 Il 52 05-112 —07 09 10:40
1107 May 24-42309 11 48 14-882 —05 26 07-82 +0 064 -—4-15 §
1108 May 24-42309 11 48 14-904 —05 26 08-58

PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY 85

TABLE I—continued

ee ee

R.A. Dec. Parallax
(1950-0) (1950-0) Factors
h m S te) 4 4 S aw
2 Pallas
1971 UT.
Sep. 13-77978 04 24 13-322 —ll 05 50-50 —0:020 —3:38 R
Sep. 13-77978 04 24 13-386 —ll 05 49-92
Sep. 21-76378 04 30 15-240 —13 21 05:94 —0°015 —3-06 S$
Sep. 21-76378 04 30 15-321 —13 21 05-85
Oct. 11-73049 04 38 51-679 —19 35 13-50 —0°035 —2-15 R
Oct 11: 73049 04 38 51-729 —19 35 13-23
Oct 25-67807 04 38 24-500 —24 O01 06:38 —0°-011 —1°48 W
Oct 25-67807 04 38 24-502 —24 Ol 06-57
Nov 08 - 63960 04 32 25-720 —27 55 14-64 +0:003 —0°89 R
Nov 08- 63960 04 32 25-606 —27 55 14:64
Nov 22-58709 04 22 02-559 —30 42 58-40 —0:023 —0°47 W
Nov 22-58709 04 22 02-588 —30 42 58-40
Dec 29-48107 03 54 40-798 —30 37 42-39 +0:027 —0-47 S
Dec 29-48107 03 54 40-794 —30 37 42-23
1972 U.T.
Jan 21-43227 03 53 42-967 —26 04 51-54 +0:076 —1-20 §S
Jan 21-43227 03 53 42-930 —26 04 50-48
4 Vesta
1971 U.T.
Jun 21-70090 20 31 55-518 —20 10 02-26 +0°040 —2-07 S
Jun 21-70090 20 31 55-491 —20 10 01-36
Jun 29-67633 20 28 06-460 —21 00 13-03 +0°-043 —1:95 W
Jun 29-67633 20 28 06-446 —21 00 13-56
Jul 12-61746 20 18 18-570 —22 33 25-92 —0-:014 —1-71 R
Jul. 12-61746 20 18 18-594 —22 33 25-11
Jul. 20-59245 20 10 48-239 —23 32 17-92 —0°:008 —1°56 §S
Jul. 20-59245 20 10 48-250 —23 32 18-38
Jul. 28-57620 20 02 59-290 —24 27 25-14 +0°:029 —1:-42 W
Jul. 28°57620 20 02 59-269 —24 27 25-42
Aug. 09-52351 19 52 24-598 —25 35 42-80 —0:0138 —1°25 §S
Aug. 09:52351 19 52 24-588 —25 35 42-64
Aug. 18-49791 19 46 28-220 —26 12 53-06 —0:003 —1°15 R
Aug. 18:-49791 19 46 28-268 —26 12 52-50
Aug 23-48667 19 44 11-378 —26 28- 02-20 —0-:011 —1-11 S
Aug. 23- 48667 19 44 11-414 —26 28 03-60
Aug. 31-47995 19 42 15-144 —26 44 29-03 +0:067 —1°10 R
Aug. 31-47995 19 42 15:178 —26 44 28-34
Sep. 13-43560 19 43 40-493 —26 52 35-10 +0:034 —1:06 §S
Sep. 13-43560 19 43 40-560 —26 52 36-25
Sep. 22-41540 19 47 47-532 —26 46 24-12 +0:039 —1:07 R
Sep. 22-41540 19 47 47-490 —26 46 24-18
Sep. 28-40106 19 51 49-592 —26 37 23-10 +0:°036 —1:10 R
Sep. 28-40106 19 51 49-650 —26 37 23-60
3 Juno
1972 U.T.
Mar. 13-65586 13 06 39:848 —00 35 34-44 +0°015 —4:78 §
Mar. 13- 65586 13 06 39-831 —00 35 34:17
Apr. 12-55987 12 44 01-616 +03 33 26-28 +0:020 —5:30 R
Apr. 12°55987 12 44 01-658 +03 33 27-09
Apr. 20-52758 12 38 24-648 +04 25 58-76 —0:001 —5:-41 §S
Apr. 20-52758 12 38 24-646 +04 25 59-22
May 18-°43751 12 26 50-142 +06 03 08-16 —0°018 —5-60 R
May 18-43751 12 26 50-118 +06 03 08-72
6 Hebe
1972 U.T.
Jun 13-73776 21 09 25-493 —07 18 31-26 +0:-011 —3:92 §S
Jun 13-73776 21 09 25-479 —07 18 30-80
Jul. 04-67200 21 09 28-890 —08 41 12-64 —0°105 —3-73 R
Jul. 04-67200 21 09 28-896 —08 41 12-68
Jul. 12-65722 21 06 19-287 —09 43 07-52 +0°013 —3-58 S

86 W. H. ROBERTSON
TABLE I—continued
R.A. Dec. Parallax
No. (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors
h m Ss ° / ” s a”
6 Hebe—continued
1972 U.T.
1162 Jul. 12-65722 21 06 19-256 —09 43 07:46
1163 Jul. 18: 62798 21 02 54-112 10 “40 223-72 —0:019 —3:45 W
1164 = Jul. 18-62798 21 02 54-070 —10 40 23-72
1165 Jul. 31-60194 20 53 07-200 =—=E3 61 §27 205 +0:032 —3-09 R
1166 = Jul. 31-60194 20 53 07-135 —13 11 26-78
1167 Aug. 08-50825 20 46 16:°348 —14 55 49-72 +0:049 -—2-85 §S
1168 Aug. 08 - 58025 20 46 16-411 —14 55 49-76
1169 Aug. 17:-54928 20 38 50-534 —16 54 43-96 +0:044 —2°56 W
1170 =Aug. 17-54928 20 38 50-538 —I16 54 44-22
1171 Sep. 04- 48103 20 28 °838:746 —20 26 38:30 +0:005 —2-02 R
1172 Sep. 04-48103 20°28 C33: 768 —20 26 38-40
1173. ~— Sep. 14-44996 20 27 05-202 —?1 57 418-24 —0:004 —1-80 W
1174 = Sep. 14-44996 20 27 05-154 —21 57 17-95
1175 Oct 03 - 40852 20 34 01-835 —23 46 07:56 +0:015 —1:53 W
1176 § Oct 03 - 40852 20 34 01-808 —23 46 07-72
1177 Oct. 12-40494 20 41 30-926 —24 09 23:49 +0:068 —1:49 W
1178 Oct. 12-40494 20 41 30-958 —24 09 24-64
1179 Oct. 23-39477 20 53 47-328 94 140 147-16 +0:016 —1-51 R
1180 Oct 23°39477 20° 53 47°322 —24 14 46-90
1181 Oct. 30:°39428 21. 03. 07:462 —24 05 49-76 +0:146 —1°59 R
1182 Oct. 30-39428 21 03 07-490 —24 05 50-32
7 Iris
1972. U.2.
1183 Jun 08- 62079 18 03 °33°757 —22 28 21-98 +0:005 —1-71
1184 Jun 08 - 62079 18 03 33-784 —92 28 21-40
1185 Jun 13-60673 17 58 27-613 —22 18 52-89 +0:015 —1:73 S$
1186 =Jun 13-60673 17 58 27-596 —22 18 53-04
1187 Jul. 05-52457 17 35 21-898 —21 31 59-99 —0:005 —1-°85 R
1188 = jul. 05°52457 17 °35\, 21-816 —21 32 00-24
1189 = Jul. 12-50721 17 29 03-055 =21l 17 02-60 +0:015 —1-89 §
1190s Jul. 12-50721 17 29 03-022 =P FT 02-32
1191 Jul, 18:-47323 17 24 29-808 —21 05 10-18 —0-032 —1-92 R
1192 Jul. 18° 47323 17 24 29-820 —21 05 10-00
TABLE II
No Star Depend. gegen Dec No. Star Depend. R.A Dec
1099 4517 0-306125 01-582 13-74 1105 4404 0- 336670 30°351 42°13
4524 0-464163 47-152 06-91 4416 0-358264 09-073 29-45
4534 0- 229712 01-983 19-60 4418 0: 305066 41-150 38-26
1100 4503 0: 364994 57-278 13-80 1106 4405 0-320770 03-092 21-43
4523 0-272860 31-492 34°59 4412 0:-475484 50-306 10-30
4540 0-362146 48-312 19-91 4433 0- 203746 51-554 05-66
1101 4491 0: 408386 57-969 16-39 1107 4418 0: 344300 19-911 00:84
4525 0:-313921 05-397 32-66 4423 0-300714 55-685 42-71
4481 9-277692 08-474 54-56 4443 0-354987 11-718 13-61
1102 4462 0- 309722 17-144 14-82 1108 4411 0-353499 36-474 09-42
4490 0:315147 14-281 06:27 4433 0- 335304 30:333 42-90
4503 0:-375131 27-515 24°54 4437 0-311197 01-970 26°44
1103 444] 0-453194 05-706 51-03 1109 1056 0-338694 32-236 00-71
4459 0-087964 39: 763 24-95 1062 0:-322470 38-080 47-70
4463 0-458842 27-343 56-11 1099 0-338836 24-770 49-39
1104 4439 0- 247286 35-469 01-77 1110 1064 0-318591 16-789 58:33
4443 0: 348908 40-583 20°51 1067 0-329296 38:284 55°24
4467 0: 393806 09-526 54°15 1080 0-352114 37°523 01-86

PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY 87

TABLE II]—continued

No. Star Depend. R.A. Dec. No. Star Depend. R.A. Dec;
1111 1098 0-270178 15-697 53-15 1133 =: 13967 0-425776 02-582 40-94
1113 0- 364378 30-240 17-10 13994 0:257718 06-661 07-90

1121 0-365444 28-725 55-36 14000 0-316506 41-242 41-89

1112 1090 0-381175 39-998 10-96 1134 13972 0- 385802 27-842 29-31
1120 0-434614 27-318 54°94 13980 0- 286408 13-378 04-72

1267 0-184211 50-712 02-30 14005 0-327790 26-713 45-24

1113 1435 0-382480 16-754 58-73 1135 ~=13839 0-371585 43-350 27-45
1488 0- 366080 07-590 13-94 13858 0-350977 09-996 24-59

1467 0-251440 31-289 06-07 13928 0-277438 35-016 28-05

1114 1448 0-341192 42-318 05-81 1136 =—.:13841 0- 293048 49-241 06-82
1490 0+ 285248 20-220 15-78 13878 0-335922 48-752 49-65

1461 0-373560 10-309 31-56 13893 0-371031 05-479 24-88

1115 2208 0-217754 55-179 37-61 1137 =: 13783 0-277790 56-710 50-78
2216 0-369729 29-784 14-13 13789 0-322540 37-009 03-31

2222 0-412517 06-879 52-71 13839 0-399670 43-350 27-45

1116 2182 0- 231568 48-813 20-49 1138 13781 0- 257520 38-844 11-81
2219 0-406715 38-209 53-87 13809 0-410164 18-261 34:07

2241 0-361717 05-365 43-54 13815 0-332316 37-717 59°73

1117 1856 0: 205462 12-067 26-28 1139 13748 0-413478 21-880 37°51
1871 0-481999 19-777 54-82 13789 0- 244629 37-099 03-31

1884 0-312538 02-892 17-89 13809 0-341893 18-261 34-07

1118 1865 0-421436 35-362 54-81 1140 =12953 0-320176 48-250 34°54
1874 0- 406220 36 - 262 47°53 13763 0- 237128 22-725 14-57

1883 0-172344 03-569 03-50 13807 0-442695 53-129 18-94

1119 1606 0-541968 11-316 36-89 1141 12896 0- 322206 43-251 45-40
1634 0- 234100 13°87] 35°23 13763 0-401379 22-725 14-58

1635 0+ 223932 14-551 42-65 13809 0-276415 18-263 34°05

1120 1609 0-261979 39-511 06-70 1142 13728 0- 288824 19-647 46-03
1611 0- 408496 00-883 38-36 13781 0-350438 38-845 11-83

1638 0°329525 25-448 21-92 12965 0-360738 14-632 17-84

1121 1416 0+ 229392 13-396 47-49 1143 =13748 0-317586 21-880 37-51
1426 0-445407 31-774 19-31 13804 0-400819 48-560 07-25

1443 0-325201 36-392 30-40 12965 0-281595 14-630 17-89

1122 1404 0- 302650 05-351 58-15 1144 12942 0-335109 16-761 43-43
1432 0- 234469 37-383 38-83 13781 0-441846 38-844 11-81

1442 0-462881 33-947 51-23 13809 0+ 223045 18-262 34-07

1123 1817 0- 328332 35° 237 22-12 1145 12994 0:274317 22-114 12-67
1831 0- 208292 16-387 23-36 13054 0+ 285276 21-049 26-05

1850 0- 463376 25-264 57-39 13814 0-440407 38-613 55-08

1124 1811 0-368375 54-040 42-80 1146 =. 18783 0: 215264 56-710 50-79
1826 0:274254 42-349 31-87 13839 0-444140 43-350 27-45

1861 0-357371 23-870 05-15 13021 0- 340596 41-827 41-78

1125 8796 0-331949 54-749 02-84 1147 =$13839 0-376442 43-350 27-45
8830 0-390896 26-963 16-79 13894 0:301121 12-680 09-19

8838 0-277155 36-005 40-92 13070 0-322437 03-510 30-24

1126 8806 0-499763 41-230 22-32 1148 13814 0- 342498 38-613 55-09
8821 0-216731 30-893 21-96 13921 0-308899 52-550 59-26

8844 0- 283506 24-667 09-73 13065 0-348603 36-920 09 -39

1127 8764 0-341118 57-342 33-80 1149 3527 0- 258506 36-984 ie
8807 0- 282534 53-838 26-03 3538 0-389248 20-376 16-24

8809 0-376348 31-871 49-48 3540 0-352246 09-273 11-51

1128 8779 0- 449730 37-751 42-60 1150 3525 0-310582 36-994 52-57
8792 0-305588 28-593 53-41 3537 0-388940 52-929 07-25

8830 0-244682 26-964 16-80 3546 0-300478 33-906 46-36

1129 = 14103 0-351124 15-489 06-90 1151 4554 0- 281612 26-272 21-12
14130 0-438178 27°287 22-36 4561 0-346757 56-792 16-47

14156 0-210698 25-537 43-36 4575 0-371631 59-833 05-34

1130 = 14107 0:385772 38-472 21-55 1152 4550 0-397127 13-074 18-68
14134 0-458598 47-416 48-13 4565 0-335704 50-971 03-46

14153 0- 155630 01-393 24-37 4581 0- 267169 25-602 11-88

1131 14025 0- 425324 54-357 06-68 1153 4519 0-356029 05-775 25-09
14049 0-307026 20-698 40-48 4559 0-257945 48-212 50-40

14097 0- 267651 56-313 04-45 6209 0-386026 22°977 27-68

1132 14010 0- 240776 52-197 26-33 1554 6181 0-366511 15-392 38-10
14035 0-426996 01-489 42-31 4534 0-340238 59-191 59-46

14107 0+332228 38-473 21-55 4560 0-293251 50-552 05-88

88 W. H. ROBERTSON
TABLE II—continued
No. Star Depend. R.A Dec. No. Star Depend. R.A Dec
1155 6116 0- 280147 44-297 06-44 1174 8779 0- 343916 37-749 42-62
6129 0-291885 03-489 48-63 8809 0- 204524 31-872 49-50
6161 0-427968 43-948 26-70 14216 0-451560 38-039 05-66
1156 6117 0-345070 49-651 04-97 1175 =: 14268 0- 332126 40-293 22-53
6148 0- 300326 09-871 02-31 14314 0- 255186 07-693 31-31
6156 0-354604 36-591 04-29 14326 0- 412688 03-437 15-18
1157 7583 0- 275592 05-191 23°57 1176 =14280 0-136186 01-489 32-65
7604 0- 217822 11-471 04-63 14290 0-534406 37-748 10-23
7619 0- 506587 20-433 37-23 14336 0-329407 07-614 42-29
1158 7590 0-379906 03-257 26-15 1177 =: 14366 0-416324 40-089 03-91
7591 0- 226574 23-412 21-04 14384 0-333667 43-390 08-75
7629 0-393520 52-916 16-81 14420 0- 250009 18-945 31-19
1159 7584 0: 248988 52-883 47-86 1178 14374 0-325938 36-851 23°22
7609 0-448670 59-418 59-01 14376 0-350518 43-483 03-52
7610 0- 302342 02-614 55-78 14405 0-323543 16-653 56-48
1160 7593 0-276158 45-727 47-81 1179 =14484 0-320142 05-210 15-45
7601 0-344141 32-153 00-17 14519 0-418215 58-506 32-15
7620 0-379701 35-309 10-69 14520 0- 261643 11-319 59-75
1161 7477 0-371820 40-164 46-90 1180 14500 0-288194 22-732 33°95
7522 0-347355 58-171 07-63 14510 0- 439623 07-558 28-84
7581 0- 280825 24°247 37°52 14515 0-272183 44-177 57°54
1162 7470 0- 264012 02-342 16-70 1181 14573 0-207715 01-554 54-01
7508 0-335536 02-266 50-45 14583 0- 499732 05-888 38-45
7592 0-400451 42-294 21-81 14590 0- 292553 56-925 24-26
1163 7458 0-440857 05-029 20-59 1182 14559 0-355660 27-625 53-44
7487 0-318447 50-555 39-43 14589 0-310890 57-545 14-18
7494 0- 240696 30-089 16-52 14600 0-333450 11-166 42-13
1164 7459 0-356908 09-877 59-45 1183 12449 0-392650 12-348 52-24
7470 0- 302346 02-342 16-70 12479 0- 269026 10-454 43-10
7499 0-340745 32:021 55-55 12491 0-338324 39-037 03-94
1165 7390 0-397354 45-626 31-30 1184 7412 0-317344 21-292 50-16
7421 0-370214 21-358 31-60 12492 0- 303304 42-130 59-08
7890 0- 232433 17-647 24-64 12516 0-379351 11-180 32-96
1166 7398 0-404898 12-981 55-27 1185 12324 0-315050 38-669 43-94
7430 0-334024 20-246 37°13 12449 0- 292362 12-348 52-24
7869 0- 261078 57-603 23-94 7390 0-392588 07-729 52-51
1167 7816 0- 268704 35-574 02-53 1186 12298 0- 463623 42-792 45-37
7843 0: 298737 43-253 26-53 12405 0-214812 40-936 32-09
7851 0:432559 14-856 41-43 7448 0-321565 22-486 38-24
1168 7823 0-461488 21-671 03-96 1187 =12071 0- 213332 33-863 15-96
7846 0- 285860 48-239 53-13 12115 0-329318 49-350 39-04
7848 0- 252625 02-378 16-78 7235 0-457350 49 -922 45-48
1169 7775 0-390286 17-695 50-61 1188 7214 0-374749 22-531 52-73
7790 0: 273054 29-370 40-19 7223 0-353922 32-035 37-44
7812 0- 336660 04-676 01-37 7255 0-271329 12-364 07-03
1170 7768 0-457118 52-732 29-16 1189 7162 0- 262700 16-644 22-42
71799 0-327742 57°357 19-90 7179 0-381516 39-320 18-82
7818 0-215140 26-229 39-34 7184 0-355784 26-949 43-59
1171 8779 0- 258368 37-749 42-62 1190 7158 0-377693 34-897 43-32
8780 0- 259323 45-896 26-99 7178 0-322759 06-579 49-16
8817 0- 482308 37-925 00-18 7214 0-299458 22-531 52°73
1172 8776 0-334886 27-187 41-22 1191 7148 0-358698 44-035 18-52
8796 0-188988 54-753 02-86 7149 0-354050 49-589 55-26
8814 0-476127 00-757 38°17 7162 0- 287252 16-644 22-42
1173-14184 0- 215647 04-757 19-58 1192 7139 0- 257302 34-455 02-50
14254 0: 275036 20-062 54-96 7153 0- 263446 24-347 32-47
8790 0:509317 08-551 31-93 7158 0-479252 34-897 43-32

(Received 24-5-1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 89-97, 1973

The Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1973

The Late Precambrian Glaciation, with Particular Reference to the
Southern Hemisphere

KALERVO RANKAMA

Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen,

We are assembled here tonight in commemora-
tion of the Reverend William Branwhite Clarke,
the “ Founding Father”’ of the Royal Society
of New South Wales, a great citizen and scientist
justly called the ‘Father of Australian
Geology’. I feel greatly honoured to have
been asked by the Council to deliver the Thirty-
seventh Clarke Memorial Lecture. In fact,
this is a double honour because, insofar as I
know, I am the second non-Australian—the
second alien that is, ever invited to deliver this
lecture.

When I was checking some information for
my lecture, I was astonished to find that, 25
years ago almost to the day, on 15th July, 1948,
Sir Douglas Mawson delivered the Clarke
Memorial Lecture. His topic was the Late
Precambrian Ice Age and the glacial record of a
part of the Flinders Ranges in South Australia.
This is a most remarkable coincidence.

I shall today deal with more or less the same
topic, a topic not appreciated and explored by
geologists in Clarke’s day. I shall talk about
some current research that has been sponsored
by the Subcommission on Precambrian Strati-
graphy of the International Union of Geological
Sciences and by the International Geological
Correlation Programme. This research deals
with the Late Precambrian glaciation.

Introduction

The last glaciation is not a thing of a remote
past. Right now, we are living in an interglacial
period, at a time between two glaciations. It
has been customary to assume, for the Northern
Hemisphere, the existence of four Pleistocene
glaciations, each as long as 100,000 years, or
kiloyears (ka), separated by warm interglacial
periods with a length of 100-300 ka.

At the time when the Pleistocene ice sheets
grew and diminished in the Northern Hemi-
sphere, highlands in eastern Australia were also

glaciated. At the same time, the sea level in
the Southern Hemisphere changed many times.

However, in the Northern Hemisphere, results
obtained only a year ago have considerably
changed the picture. Emiliani (1972) reported
in his studies, by oxygen-isotope thermometry,
on foraminifers in sediment cores from the
Caribbean. His results, and those of David
Ericson and Goesta Wollin, show that the
glaciations lasted for only 10-20 ka. Emiliani
concluded that, geologically speaking, the warm
intervals between the glaciations were also
brief. His results indicated at least eight
glaciations and seven warm intervals in the
Northern Hemisphere during the past 400 ka.

The present warm period has lasted already
12 ka and might end soon, perhaps within the
next 2 or 3 ka, which means that there is a new
glaciation knocking at the door.

The global cooling that reversed the warm
trend of the 1940’s still continues. Perhaps, as
during the Pleistocene glaciation, Australia is
going to have a much wetter climate than now,
along with a drop in the sea level.

I shall next give some background information.

In 1966, the International Union of Geological
Sciences decided to establish the Subcommission
on Precambrian Stratigraphy, and I was asked
to act as the President of the new Subcommission
which operates as a part of the Commission on
Stratigraphy. The Subcommission has nine
titular members from various countries with
Precambrian bedrock in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. It also has 19 corres-
pondents from many countries.

In 1970, the Subcommission decided to start
a research project called Project Hemispheres,
for comparison and correlation of sequences
of Late Precambrian unmetamorphosed sedi-
mentary rocks from the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. This project was sponsored by
the International Geological Correlation Pro-
gramme, and its ultimate purpose is the

90 KALERVO

establishment of world-wide Precambrian
chronostratigraphic units. The first stage of
the project was completed during my third
stay in Australia in 1970-1971. A small ad hoc
working group was established, consisting of
Mr. P. R. Dunn, at that time with the Bureau
of Mineral Resources in Canberra, Mr. B. P.
Thomson of the Geological Survey of South
Australia, and myself.

To briefly summarize our results, we think
that the widespread occurrence of Late Pre-
cambrian glaciogenic rocks provides an ideal
situation for the establishment of a world-wide
Precambrian chronostratigraphic unit (Dunn,
Thomson and Rankama, 1971). We propose,
for use in Australia, a chronostratigraphic unit
based on the well-exposed and well-documented
Late Precambrian glaciogenic rocks of the
Continent. We also hope that the unit will
eventually be accepted for use throughout the
world.

Glaciations in General

A glaciation is a major geological event. The
distinguishing geological features produced by
a glaciation are glacial abrasion, transportation
of abraded rock material, and its deposition
as glaciogenic sediments that form in a cool or
cold climate. They incorporate also glacial-
marine sediments in addition to sediments
deposited on land areas.

A moving ice sheet polishes and grooves
rock surfaces to form glaciated pavements.
Material transported by ice will be deposited on
such pavements and elsewhere in the glaciated
environment. Such deposits are non-layered,
unsorted, and pressed tightly together. They
are moraines, and their material is called till.

Tillite, again, is indurated till that was
produced by an ancient glaciation. Till contains
much rock flour and silt, and in tillite these
materials are indurated. Till and tillite also
contain, in a haphazard arrangement, small and
large, angular, subangular, and rounded clasts,
that is, pebbles, cobbles, boulders, and blocks.
The clasts consist of both local rock material
and rocks transported by the ice from remote
localities. This material is crushed, or polished
and grooved, by the ice sheet.

A glaciation also produces large exotic boulders
transported by the ice sheet for long distances,
and finely bedded and fine-grained sediments
containing dropstones transported by ice floes
and icebergs and dropped during the melting
of the ice. Some of the clasts and dropstones
are striated. Incidentally, the dropstones
deposited in an aqueous environment furnish

RANKAMA

one of the best kinds of evidence of ancient
glaciations, because they survive for very long
periods of time.

There exists still other evidence of glaciations,
such as the glacia]-marine sediments deposited
on the bottom of the sea. They are typical
argillaceous sediments that contain gravel
transported to salt-water bodies by ice, and
some sand and silt.

As to terminology, the term tillite is a compre-
hensive genetic term incorporating both
continentally deposited and ice-rafted indurated
tills. The glaciogenic origin of any rock called
tillite must, of course, have been proved beyond
doubt. The term mixtite refers to sedimentary
rocks that resemble tillites but are of uncertain
or unknown origin. Other terms, including
tilloid, have been used for such rocks but are
unsatisfactory and unacceptable (Kréner and
Rankama, 1972).

Stratigraphic Boundaries in the
Precambrian

One of the basic problems in the study of the
Precambrian is its chronostratigraphic and
geochronologic subdivision. The Precambrian
covers 85% of the total length of geological time
and thus is the longest division of geological
time extant. Numerous regional and continent-
wide schemes of subdivision exist, but there is
still no generally accepted global subdivision
of the Precambrian into sections of System
(Period) or higher rank. It goes without saying
that a standard subdivision serving the purposes
of both pure and applied geology needs to be
established.

The establishment of global chronostrati-
graphic and geochronologic subdivisions for the
Upper (Late) Precambrian, or the so-called
Proterozoic, is a particularly important task.
I think that much progress can be made by
comparing well-preserved sequences of Late
Precambrian sedimentary rocks between the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres for the
establishment of stratotypes. Late Precambrian
sedimentary rocks that underlie Cambrian
sequences without a significant stratigraphic
break form a natural starting point for strati-
graphic studies in the Precambrian.

My two Australian colleagues and I propose
to use the beginning of the Late Precambrian
glaciation in Australia as a_ stratigraphic
boundary to define a continent-wide strati-
graphic unit. Late Precambrian strata in many
parts of Australia contain plenty of well-
established and reliable evidence of a long and

CLARKE MEMORIAL

uncommonly severe ice age towards the end of
Precambrian (Adelaidean) time. A large part
of Australia is known to have been glaciated
about 700 million years (Ma) ago or, to be more
exact, about 750-650 Ma ago. The ice age
consisted of at least two major glaciations
and left immense deposits of glaciogenic
sediments and other evidence, including glaciated
and striated pavements, as a striking record
of a great glaciation. The sedimentary sequence
connected with the ice age extends from pre-
glacial sediments through glacial and interglacial
sediments to postglacial ones, all now present
as relatively unmetamorphosed sedimentary
rocks. In fact, the Late Adelaidean sedimentary
sequences in the East Kimberley region in
Western Australia and in South Australia
contain some of the best exposed, most extensive,
and least disturbed Precambrian glaciogenic
rocks in the world.

The Late Precambrian Glaciation
Outside Australia

Several glaciations have been reported in the
Precambrian. The oldest known, the Gowganda
Glaciation, recorded in southern Canada, took
place about 2,300 Ma ago (Young, 1970). The
most widespread Precambrian glaciation is
represented by Late Precambrian glaciogenic
sedimentary rocks, including tillites, with an
assumed aze of about 750-600 Ma. Such rocks
occur in Scotland, Ireland, Scandinavia,
Spitsbergen, and East Greenland in the North
Atlantic area, in France and Czechoslovakia in
western and central Europe, in various parts
of the U.S.S.R., and in eastern Canada, the
Appalachians, the Rocky Mountains and,
perhaps, in western Canada in North America.
Similar rocks of assumedly the same age occur
in many parts of Africa, in north-eastern Asia,
and probably in South America.

The world-wide Late Precambrian ice age
appears to have been longer and of a more severe
climate than any of the Phanerozoic glaciations.
Mawson (1948) was the first scientist to reach
this conclusion. The most widespread among
the Late Precambrian glaciations is probably
the oldest, which is characterized by a double
tillite horizon in several parts of the world.

The Late Precambrian glaciation ranks as
one of the outstanding and exceptional physical
events in the history of the Earth. In Australia,
the ice age was definitely very long, covering
a time span of about 100 Ma. Therefore, it is
to be expected that different ages will be
obtained for Late Precambrian glaciogenic

LECTURE FOR 1973 91

rocks in different parts of the world. It is
also to be expected that the glacial periods, or
the maxima of glaciation, in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres were not necessarily
synchronous.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the Late
Precambrian glaciation has been variously
called the Infracambrian or Eocambrian
Glaciation or the Varanger (Varangian) Ice Age.
The last name is derived from the Varanger
Peninsula in northern Norway, where the
Norwegian geologist H. Reuschin 1891 discovered
a tillite, called ‘“ Reusch’s moraine ’’. However,
the name, the Varanger Ice Age, is not suitable,
because this glaciation has not yet been definitely
dated, and the proper name to be used is the
Late Precambrian glaciation.

Pringle (1973) published an age of about
670 Ma for this glaciation. He dated inter-
glacial shales lying between the two tillite
horizons. This age allows a tentative correlation
with the younger glaciation of the two discovered
in Australia, or the so-called Egan (Marinoan)
Glaciation. Eric Welin (personal communica-
tion, 1973), who is currently carrying out an
extensive radiometric dating programme to
obtain ages for glaciogenic rocks in northern
and central Scandinavia, reported 630 Ma as
the minimum age of deposition of the Ekre
Shale overlying the Moelv Tillite in southern
Norway.

Glaciogenic rocks of Late Precambrian age
have been described, in great detail, from the
Inner Hebrides in Scotland (Spencer, 1971), but
the exact age of these rocks is still unknown.

No radiometric ages are available for the Late
Precambrian tillites in East Greenland. In
fact, radiometric ages of Late Precambrian
glaciogenic rocks are too few, and many of them
are unreliable.

In the U.S.S.R., the Late Precambrian
(Vendian) glaciation is placed halfway between
680 and 570 Ma ago. In China, four Late
Precambrian glaciations plus an Early Cambrian
glaciation are claimed to have ages in the range
950-570 Ma. Norin (1937) described from
north-western China a sequence of Late Pre-
cambrian sedimentary rocks that appears to be
very much similar to the glaciogenic rocks in
Australia and in southern Africa.

The two Late Precambrian — glaciations
recognized in Australia have also been registered
in southern and central Africa, but no definite
radiometric ages have yet been reported. Kroéner
and Rankama (1972) published an account
on Late Precambrian glaciogenic rocks in
southern Africa, noting that the stratigraphic

92 KALERVO RANKAMA

sequence in South West Africa, as far as the
glaciogenic sedimentary rocks are considered,
is astonishingly similar to the sequence in
Australia. According to Alfred Koner (personal
communication, 1971), the Numees Glaciation,
which is the first Late Precambrian glaciation
recorded in southern Africa, appears to
correspond closely in age to the older Late
Precambrian glaciation in Australia. The age
of the Numees Glaciation is estimated as
720-700 Ma. The second glaciation, called the
Nama-Damara Glaciation, is probably not very
much younger than the Numees Glaciation and
may have an age of about 650 Ma. Compre-
hensive radiometric dating of Late Precambrian
glaciogenic rocks in southern Africa is now in
progress (John de Villiers, personal communica-
tion, 1973). The results available at this time
indicate that both glaciations in southern Africa
fall within the age span of 750-650 Ma, which
is the age span for the glaciations in Australia.

TABLE 1

Some Precambrian Glaciations
(Ages in Ma)

South
Africa
North and
America |Brazil| Australia South- Norway
West
Africa
(Overall 750-650)
> 600
S. Norway
> 630
Marinoan Nama-
and Damara
Egan ~650
~650
N. Norway
(‘ Var-
anger ’’)
~670
Numees
720-700
Sturtian
and
Moonlight
Valley
750-740
Gowganda
~2,300
{

Actually, Late Precambrian glaciogenic
sedimentary rocks indicating the existence of
two or more glaciations occur in many parts of
Africa. Most of them have not been adequately
dated, and only a few tentative ages are avail-
able. However, it appears possible that the
Late Precambrian glaciations in both Australia
and Africa were coeval. At least, it is possible
that two continent-wide glaciations took place
in Africa during Late Precambrian time.

There are also indications of a Late Pre-
cambrian glaciation in Brazil. Ellert (1973)
suggested that there exist three Precambrian
rock sequences in various parts of Brazil that
may be glaciogenic. Isotta, Rocha-Campos
and Yoshida (1969) described, from the Jequitai
Formation in northern Minas Gerais, an extensive
glaciated pavement in a Precambrian quartzite,
directly overlain by a mixtite of probable Late
Precambrian age. The basal shales of the Bambuf
Group overlying the mixtite have an age of
about 600 Ma (A. C. Rocha-Campos, personal
communication, 1972). Other radiometric ages
are not available, but an age dating programme
is currently being carried out (Reinholt Ellert,
personal communication, 1973).

The more satisfactorily dated Precambrian
glaciations and their ages are listed in Table 1.

The Late Precambrian Glaciation in
Australia

General Comments

Evidence of Late Precambrian (Adelaidean)
ice ages is widespread through the central part
of Australia from the Kimberley region in the
north-west to the Adelaide Geosyncline in South
Australia. The so-called King Island Tillite
in the Bass Strait appears not to be glaciogenic,
according to observations made by Jago (1973)
and myself.

At several places a sedimentary sequence,
with probably only minor interruptions, passes
up from the uppermost glaciogenic strata into
fossil-bearing Cambrian strata. The thickness
of this sequence ranges from about 300 m in the
Amadeus Basin to about 6,000m in the once
rapidly subsiding trough of the Adelaide
Geosyncline.

The principal evidence of the glaciations is
the presence of glaciogenic sedimentary rocks—
mostly containing faceted, striated and polished
pebbles, cobbles and boulders—and glaciated
pavements, particularly in the Kimberley region.

Two separate periods of glaciation are
represented. The older glaciation is called the
Sturtian Glaciation in South and Central

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE FOR 1973 93

Australia and the Moonlight Valley Glaciation
in the Kimberley region. It is the more
widespread of the two glaciations and is com-
monly represented by two tillite units. The
younger glaciation is called the Marinoan
Glaciation in the south and the Egan Glaciation
in the Kimberley region. It has generally
produced thinner and more localized tillites
than has the older glaciation.

A feature that many tillite exposures ee in
common is the presence of a remarkably
persistent pink laminated dolostone unit that
crops out immediately above the tillite. The
significance of the dolostone is not known, but
similar rocks have been noted in the Congo-
Zambia region and in southern Africa. In
addition, calcitic limestone or dolostone is a
common associate of Late Precambrian tillites
in the Northern Hemisphere.

Radiometric age determinations have been
carried out on shales within, above, and beneath
the tillites in the Kimberley region, the Amadeus
Basin, and the Adelaide Geosyncline. The
most definitive ages were obtained from the
Kimberley region. The radiometric datings
indicate for the lower tillites an age of about
750 Ma and for the upper tillites an age of about
670 Ma.

The Kimberley Region

In the Kimberley region, the Late Precambrian
glaciogenic rocks have been studied in detail by
geologists of the Bureau of Mineral Resources.
A summary of the Late Adelaidean glaciogenic
successions was given by Plumb (1973).

Two distinct sequences of glaciogenic rocks
that grade into marine shales and siltstones
occur in the Kimberley region. They are
separated by an unconformity. The tillites
have a maximum thickness of about 200m.
They are noteworthy for the prevalence of
striated, faceted, and polished cobbles and
boulders, the remarkably fresh and unmeta-
morphosed state of the matrix, and the presence
of underlying glaciated pavements. According
to Plumb (1973), already 20 separate glaciated
pavements have been discovered in the Kimberley
region. Pavements are most common beneath
the lower tillite but have also been noted
beneath the upper tillite. Most of the pave-
ments show that the ice sheet moved from
north to south, but pavements beneath the
lowermost older tillite show local variations in
the direction of the movement.

The state of preservation of glaciogenic
features in the Kimberley region is almost
unbelievable.

Glaciogenic sedimentary rocks with faceted
and striated cobbles and boulders occur also in
the Ngalia Basin, the Georgina Basin, and the
Amadeus Basin in Northern Territory.

The Adelaide Geosyncline

In the Adelaide Geosyncline in South Australia
the Late Precambrian glaciogenic sedimentary
rock-units are thicker than elsewhere in
Australia.

The study of Late Precambrian glaciogenic
rocks in South Australia started already in 1884,
when H. P. Woodward recognized the glaciogenic
origin of sedimentary rocks in the northern
Flinders Ranges. In 1901 Walter Howchin
obtained first evidence of the glaciogenic origin
of rocks, previously considered conglomerates,
in the Sturt Gorge near Adelaide. In 1912
Sir Douglas Mawson correlated the Sturtian
glaciogenic rocks in South Australia with those
in the Broken Hill area in New South Wales.
Finally, in 1922, E. C. Andrews, the distinguished
Government Geologist of New South Wales,
first suggested a Precambrian age for the
Sturtian Glaciation.

According to Coats (1973), the Sturtian
Glaciation consisted of two phases, separated
by a period of tectonic activity and erosion.

The type area of the Sturt Tillite is near
Adelaide, and there the tillite is about 300m
thick. There is an excellent exposure of the
tillite in the Lockler quarry near Kulpara, about
130 km north-east of Adelaide. In the Mount
Painter area, in the northern Flinders Ranges,
the tillite and the glaciogenic sedimentary rocks
of the Sturtian Glaciation have a thickness
of more than 6,000m, according to Coats
(1973). He thinks that the Sturt Tillite is
probably of glacial-marine origin.

A glaciated pavement has been discovered at
Merinjina Creek in the northern Flinders
Ranges (Mirams, 1964), but its glaciogenic
origin is doubted by some geologists.

In New South Wales a Sturtian sequence
containing mixtites occurs in the Broken Hill
area. It has a thickness exceeding 2,000 m
(Tuckwell, 1973). The only unquestionable
glaciogenic sedimentary rock occurs in the
Mount Woowoolahra area, about 100 km north
of Broken Hill. At this locality a tillite contains
hundreds, perhaps thousands, of striated clasts
of various sizes (Cooper, 1973). This is a unique
locality and, in my opinion, should be preserved
as a geological site.

The Sturtian Glaciation abraded a large belt
of crystalline basement, called the Willyama
Land, along the eastern flank of the Adelaide

94 KALERVO

Geosyncline. The area was probably ice-capped
and assumedly extended northwards about
1,400 km, from Adelaide to the Georgina Basin.

In the Adelaide Geosyncline, the Sturtian
Glaciation was followed by the deposition of a
dolostone-siltstone sequence about 3,000-5,000 m
thick. This interglacial sequence is_ very
widespread and persistent in Australia and
apparently marks an abrupt change in climate
at the close of the Sturtian Glaciation. According
to the results of Glaessner, Preiss and Walter
(1969), stromatolites in the interglacial sequence
may be correlated with Russian genera and
species that occur in the 950-570 Ma age range.

The effects of the Marinoan Glaciation in
southern Australia, and in central and northern
Australia, are less intense and widespread than
those of the Sturtian Glaciation. The Marinoan
glaciogenic sedimentary sequence in South
Australia is confined to the eastern part of the
Adelaide Geosyncline and has a maximum
thickness of 1,500m. The maximum observed
thickness of the Marinoan Tillite is about 200 m.
The tillite contains faceted and striated clasts.

The Marinoan postglacial sequence is remark-
ably consistent in facies in its lower part
throughout Australia. In the Adelaide Geo-
syncline, the sequence consists of dolostone,
shale, siltstone and sandstone. The maximum
thickness of the sequence in the northern
Flinders Ranges is about 6,500m, and a
comparable thickness of the possible equivalent
is known in New South Wales. In the northern
Flinders Ranges the Pound Quartzite, the
uppermost unit of the sequence, is the host of
the remarkable Ediacara fauna that comprises
megafossils of a variety of soft-bodied Pre-
cambrian marine animals. They are of consider-
able biostratigraphic value.

It is possible that sedimentation was
continuous from the Adelaidean into the
Cambrian in the central part of the Adelaide
Geosyncline.

The Sturtian and Marinoan glaciogenic and
interglacial sedimentary rocks extend over the
Adelaide Geosyncline and north-westwards into
Western Australia. In the Officer Basin in
Western Australia and in South Australia, two
tillite localities have been discovered.

The Sturtian (Moonlight Valley) Glaciation
as a Stratigraphic Boundary
Harland (1964, 1965) proposed the creation
of a new ‘‘System”’ in the Precambrian,
starting with the onset of the great “ Infra-
cambrian’”’ Glaciation and concluding before
the introduction of recognized Cambrian faunas.

RANKAMA

He proposed the name Infracambrian System or
Varangian System for this unit. He also
thought that glaciogenic sedimentary rocks
might be the best basis for the establishment of
Precambrian “‘ Systems ”’ that would be inter-
nationally recognized.

My two Australian colleagues and I have
elaborated on Harland’s suggestion and propose
to use the body of rocks accumulated between
the deposition of the oldest Sturtian (Moonlight
Valley) glaciogenic sediments and the deposition
of the basal unit of the Cambrian to define a
chronostratigraphic unit in Australia. It is
well to remember, however, that the basal unit
of the Cambrian still remains to be established.
In other words, the boundary between the
Precambrian and the Cambrian still remains to
be defined. My colleagues and I propose to
mark the base of the suggested unit by a
reference point that we call the Sturt Marker
(Marker Horizon) and have provisionally placed
in the type section in the Mount Painter
region in the northern Flinders Ranges, on the
eastern flank of the Adelaide Geosyncline.
The sequence in the Mount Painter region is
the thickest known glaciogenic sequence in
Australia and is believed to incorporate the
earliest sedimentary record of the Sturtian
Glaciation.

As to giving a formal name to the proposed
chronostratigraphic unit, at this stage we prefer
only to define its lower boundary by the Sturt
Marker reference point. In other words, we
define a boundary stratotype.

The corresponding continent-wide geo-
chronologic unit represents the time between the
onset of the Sturtian (Moonlight Valley)
Glaciation and the beginning of the Cambrian
Period (end of the Precambrian). We propose
to refer to it provisionally in Australia as the
Late Adelaidean.

The geochronologic unit proposed by us has
a time span of about 180 Ma, or somewhat
longer than the duration of the Mesozoic Era.

Tentatively, we place the beginning of the
Sturtian (Moonlight Valley) Glaciation at about
750 Ma ago, based on the probable age of the
early phase of the Moonlight Valley Glaciation.
Tentatively, we also place the beginning of the
Cambrian Period, and the end of Precambrian
time, at 570 Ma ago, pending a more accurate
age for the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary.
According to Martin Glaessner (personal com-
munication, 1973), 570 Ma is still the most
acceptable age of the boundary.

The age relationships of the Late Precambrian
glaciations in Australia are presented in Table 2.

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE FOR 1973 95

TABLE 2
Age Relationships of the Late Precambrian Glaciations in Australia

Age
(Ma)
CAMBRIAN
570
ei Egan Glaciation 650
: Subunit 1 and
foe Marinoan Glaciation
A qo
Jp iene 700
4c) Gite A ae oe ae re eS
= ors Moonlight Valley 740 (Late phase)
< o » Glaciation
we Subunit 2 and
4 Sturtian Glaciation 750 (Early phase)
se 750 (Sturt Marker Horizon)

My Australian colleagues and I propose to
place the Sturt Marker in South Australia largely
because of the completeness of the sedimentary
record there and because there may be no
significant stratigraphic break between the
start of the Sturtian Glaciation and the Cambrian
in some parts of that State. Even though more
accurate age data are available from the
Kimberley region, several unconformities exist
there between the glaciogenic sedimentary
rocks and the Cambrian strata. When more
radiometric ages for the sedimentary rocks
underlying and overlying the tillite units become
available, the beginning of the glaciation can
be dated more accurately.

Incidentally, some geologists may wonder why
we have placed a stratigraphic boundary at the
beginning of a glaciation. In fact, there is nothing
remarkable in doing so. It has been done
previously, when the boundary between the
Pliocene and the Pleistocene—or between the
Tertiary and the Quaternary—was once placed
at the abrupt and severe onset of the first
Pleistocene glaciation. Global glaciations no
doubt are major geological events and mark the
beginning of episodes of cold-facies sedimenta-
tion. Therefore, they are “‘ natural boundaries ”’
or ‘‘natural breaks’’ indicating important
geological events and are inextricably tied to
the rock record.

My Australian colleagues and I think that
dating a glaciation produces more definite and
accurate information about the age of a
geological event than can be obtained by dating
an orogeny that has a hazy beginning and a
vague end. We hope that, when the age of the
lower boundary of the unit has been established
more accurately by radiometric dating and
when the problem of the age of the Precambrian-

Cambrian boundary has been solved, the corres-
ponding geochronologic unit will be found
favourable for world-wide correlation and will
be accepted as a global unit. Then it can be
used as a global standard of reference, whether
or not exactly similar rock sequences exist
elsewhere.

The coevality of the Late Precambrian
glaciation in the Northern and the Southern
Hemispheres has been doubted by some
geologists (Crawford and Daily, 1971; Cloud,
1972). Cloud, as a matter of fact, thought that
global freezing is impossible. He suggested that
the Late Precambrian glaciation reflects an
episode of relatively rapid drift of the continents
over the polar regions, or a clustering of con-
tinental crust around a pole, or around both
poles. However, because of the long duration
of the glaciation, it is not necessary that the
glacial ages, or the maxima of glaciation, were
synchronous in the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. Other students of this glaciation,
including Harland (1964) and Crowell and Frakes
(1970), have previously reached the same
conclusion.

Future Research

From all available evidence one may conclude
that the Southern Hemisphere was extensively
glaciated during Late Precambrian time. The
next stage in the study of this glaciation will be
the extension of correlations to cover Australia,
much of Africa, and parts of South America,
when the necessary age data have been obtained.
Attempts are now being made to correlate the
Late Precambrian glaciogenic rocks in the
Northern Hemisphere with those in the Southern
Hemisphere on the basis of detailed geochrono-
logic, sedimentologic and tectonic data. So far

96 KALERVO

this work has been carried out under the auspices
of the International Geological Correlation
Programme, as a part of the activities of the
Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy.

The Subcommission met in Adelaide in May,
1973, and a part of its programme consisted of
field trips to study the Adelaidean glaciogenic
sequences. After the meeting, a symposium
dealing with the Late Precambrian glaciation,
with particular reference to the Southern
Hemisphere, was held in Adelaide. The Sub-
commission discussed the use of the Late
Precambrian glaciation as a_ stratigraphic
boundary and recommended the determination
of the location of palaeopoles at the time of
deposition of the glaciogenic sediments. While
the Subcommission felt that many more
radiometric ages pertaining to the glaciation
are necessary, it was hopeful that the Late
Precambrian glaciogenic sequences can be used
to establish chronostratigraphic units.

There are several other possibilities of
correlation, among which I shall mention only
the correlation based on stromatolites, calcareous
algal sediment growths attributed to blue-green
and green algae. I feel that, in general, not
only correlations between the Northern and the
Southern Hemispheres are important, but also
correlations within the Southern Hemisphere
and within the Northern Hemisphere. There is
currently much interest in carrying out cot-
relations in several parts of the world.

* o% % *

It has been a great privilege and pleasure
for me to deliver tonight the Clarke Memorial
Lecture for 1973. The Reverend Clarke
concluded his Inaugural Address to the first
meeting of the Society under its Royal title
on 9th July, 1867, by saying, among other
things: ‘‘ We have in this Colony a vast region,
much of which is still untrodden ground. We
have, as it were, . . . a new earth for geology.’

His statement has not lost any of its validity.
Australia, even today, is a new Earth for
geology. Clarke’s accomplishments will certainly
inspire future generations of Australian
geologists. I, for one, am fascinated by the
possibilities offered by Australia for Precambrian
research. I have tried to call the attention of
overseas Precambrian geologists and _ strati-
graphers to the unique Late Precambrian
sedimentary rocks in Australia, hoping to
promote their comparison and correlation with
corresponding sequences in other parts of the
world. An increasing number of geologists

RANKAMA

all over the globe realize the great importance
of the Precambrian in all fields of geological
research.

I should like to conclude my lecture by quoting
the slogan of the Subcommission on Precambrian
Stratigraphy, an age-old Finnish proverb:
“Nothing is so plentiful as Time ”’.

Postscript

My research dealing with Precambrian strati-
graphy in Australia, started in 1965 and now
completed, would not have been possible without
the goodwill, help and hospitality of many
Australian individuals, universities, Government
organizations and mining companies, too
numerous to be listed here. With particular
reference to my studies of the Late Precambrian
glaciation, I wish to extend my thanks to the
Australian Academy of Science, the Bureau of
Mineral Resources in Canberra, and_ the
Geological Surveys of New South Wales and of
South Australia. No other names _ are
mentioned, but nobody is forgotten.

References

General Note.—Some of the principal results reviewed
in this lecture have been published and discussed in
detail in the papers by Dunn, Thomson and Rankama
(1971) and by Kroner and Rankama (1972) listed
below. These papers, and the paper by Crawford and
Daily (1971) also contain comprehensive bibliographies
to which the reader is referred. Abstracts of papers
presented at a meeting and Symposium of the Sub-
commission on Precambrian Stratigraphy in Adelaide
in 1973 are marked thus: (Adelaide abstract).

Coats, R. P., 1973. Late Precambrian Glaciations in
South Australia. (Adelaide abstract.)

CLoup, Preston, 1972. A Working Model of the
Primitive Earth. Am. J. Sct., 272, 537.

CoopER, Paul F., 1973. Striated Pebbles from the Late

Precambrian Adelaidean. Quart. Notes, Geol.
Survey N.S.W., 11, 13.
CRAWFORD, A. R., and Dairy, B., 1971. Probable

Non-synchroneity of Late Precambrian Glacia-
tions. Nature (London), 230, 111.

CROWELL, John C., and FRAKEs, Lawrence A., 1970.
Phanerozoic Glaciation and the Causes of Ice
Ages. Amer. J. Sci., 268, 193.

Dunn, P. R., THomson, B. P., and RaAanKAmA, Kalervo,
1971. Late Pre-Cambrian Glaciation in Australia
as a Stratigraphic Boundary. Nature (London),
231, 498.

ELLerT, R., 1973. Precambrian Tillite-like Deposits
in Brazil. (Adelaide abstract.)

EMILIANI, Cesare, 1972. Quaternary Paleotemper-
atures and the Duration of the High-temperature
Intervals. Science, 178, 398.

GLAESSNER, M. F., Preiss, W. V., and WALTER, M. R.,

1969. Precambrian Columnar Stromatolites in
Australia: Morphological and _ Stratigraphic
Analysis. Science, 164, 1056.

CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE FOR 1973 97

HARLAND, W. B., 1964. Evidence of Late Pre-
cambrian Glaciation and Its _ Significance.
Problems in Palaeoclimatology. Proc. NATO
Palaeoclimates Conf., 1963 (edit. by Narrn,
A. E.M.), 119. (Interscience, London, 1964.)

HARLAND, W. B., 1965. Critical Evidence for a Great
Infra-Cambrian Glaciation. Geol. Rundschau, 54,
45.

Tsorra, Carlos A. L., RocHa-Campos, A. C., and
Yosuipa, R., 1969. Striated Pavement of the
Upper Pre-Cambrian Glaciation in Brazil. Nature
(London), 222, 466.

Jaco, J. B., 1973. The Origin of the “ King Island
Tillite’’. (Adelaide abstract.)

KRONER, Alfred, and RanKama, Kalervo, 1972. Late
Precambrian Glaciogenic Sedimentary Rocks in
Southern Africa: A Compilation with Definitions
and Correlations. Precambrian Research Unit,
Univ. Cape Town, Bull. 8, 7. (Published in
Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland, 45, 79, 1973.)

Mawson, Douglas, 1948. The Late Precambrian
Ice-Age and Glacial Record of the Bibliando
Dome: * /. Proc. Roy. Soc..N-S.W., 82, 150.

Institute of Geology and Mineralogy,
The University of Helsinki,
Snellmaninkatu 5,

00170 Helsinki 17,

Finland.

Mirams, R. C., 1964. A Sturtian Glacial Pavement
at Merinjina Well, near Wooltana. Quart. Geol.
Notes, Geol. Survey S. Aust., 11, 4.

Norin, Erik, 1937. Geology of Western Quruq Togh.
Repts. Sino-Swedish Expedition to Northwestern
Provinces of China, 3.

PLums, K. A., 1973. Late Adelaidean Glacial Suc-
cessions of the Kimberley Region—Northwestern
Australia. (Adelaide abstract.)

PRINGLE, I. R., 1973. Rb-Sr Age Determinations on
Shales Associated with the Varanger Ice Age.
Geol. Mag., 109, 465.

SPENCER, Anthony Mansell, 1971. Late Pre-Cambrian
Glaciation in Scotland. Mem. Geol. Soc. London,
6.

TUCKWELL, K., 1973. International Union of Geo-
logical Sciences Subcommission on Precambrian
Stratigraphy. Field excursion of Broken Hill,
3rd—5th June, 1973: Tate Precambrian Strati-
graphy, Adelaidean System. (Privately dis-
tributed.)

Youne, Grant M., 1970. An Extensive Early Pro-
terozoic Glaciation in North America ? Palaeogeog.,
Palaeoclimatcl., Palaeoecol., 7, 85.

Address : Delivered 12th July, 1973

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 98-103, 1973

Structural Analysis of the Palaeozoic Sediments in the Woolgoolga
District, North Coast, New South Wales

R. J. Korscu

ApstRAct—Mesoscopic folds in the Coffs Harbour Beds are upright equant planar cylindrical
folds with straight hinges. Folds are open in the north and adpressed to isoclinal in the south.
Plunges change from subhorizontal in the north to steep in the south. These progressive changes
can be explained by the simple theory of a southward increase in the dip of bedding relative to a
stress field (and cleavage) of constant orientation. The theory is applicable if the strikes of bedding
and cleavage are slightly different.

A reticulate cleavage, parallel to the axial planes of the folds, is present and one intersection
with the bedding is homogeneous with the fold axis.

The beds have been affected by three phases of deformation. The first was a soft-sediment
slumping and the other two were tectonic in origin, both being related in time to the Hunter-
Bowen Orogeny. The second deformation produced mesoscopic folds and the axial-plane
reticulate cleavage whereas the third deformation formed small scale monoclines in the bedding

and cleavage.

The Redbank River Beds have suffered two tectonic deformations but these cannot be related

to the deformations in the Coffs Harbour Beds.

The first deformation produced tight folds,

often isoclinal in style, and the second formed gentle warps on the limbs of the tight folds.

Introduction

The aim of this paper is to present a descrip-
tion of the mesoscopic structures of the Wool-
goolga district and a macroscopic structural
analysis. Sedimentological aspects of this area
have been described previously (Korsch, 1971).
Data for five mesoscopic structural elements are
presented, these being bedding (So), fracture

cleavage (S,), axes of minor folds (B's), bedding-
cleavage lineation (Lisoxs,)) and jointing (in-
cluding quartz veins). The descriptive symbols
follow Turner and Weiss (1963). The attitudes
of the structures are shown on z-diagrams on an
equatorial net of the Lambert projection
density-contoured by the squared-grid method
(Stauffer, 1966).

Coffs Harbour Beds

Mesoscopic Structures

Bedding and Lithological Layering (So). Bed-
ding varies from a strike of 090° with a moderate
dip in the north, to a strike of about 135° with
a steep dip, to the north, in the southern part
of the area. In almost every case the facing
direction is upwards.

Fracture Cleavage ; Variety: Reticulate Cleav-
age (S,). Cleavage occurs mainly in mudstones
and siltstones and is commonly spaced at
intervals of 3 mm. to 12 mm.; it is quasi-
planar and anastomoses and bifurcates. It is
parallel to the axial-planes of the mesoscopic

folds. There is no visible neocrystallization or
orientation of mineral fabric parallel to the
cleavage surface, and none has been recognized
in microscopic studies.

Crook (1964) describes reticulate cleavage in
mudstones near Tamworth. However, in the
Woolgoolga district the cleavage is non-penetra-
tive on the scale of the outcrop.

The fracture cleavage with an average orienta-
tion of 089°/N/82° (Figure 1a), the fold axes
with a girdle of average attitude 096°/N/87°
(Figure 1b) and the bedding-cleavage lineation
with a girdle of average orientation of 100°/verti-
cal (Figure 1c) are almost identical, which
indicates that the fold axes always lie within
the plane of the cleavage which therefore must be
an axial-plane cleavage.

Mesoscopic Folds. The sandstone beds have
a relatively constant orthogonal thickness and
hence have an approximate concentric geometry
(Ramsay, 1962). The intervening shales form
less regular structures and these incompetent
beds appear to have flowed between the more
competent sandstone layers.

In describing the component parts of the folds,
the terminology of Fleuty (1964) has been
followed. The hinge is straight in most cases.
The axial plane is parallel to the fracture cleav-
age and is quasi-planar in form. Most of the
folds are equant with amplitudes of 15 cm. to
90 cm. and wavelengths of 30 cm. to 5 metres.
A distinct and progressive tightening of the

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS 99

folds occurs with the inter-limb angles varying
from those of open folds in the north to those of
tight folds in the south (Figure 2a). This
suggests that there was an increase, towards
the south, in the intensity of the deformation
which produced the folds. The anticlines and
synclines are also cylindrical because So, when
plotted as z-poles defines a great-circle girdle.
There is a gradual increase in the plunge of the
fold axes (Figure 26), from sub-horizontal in
the north at Arrawarra to steep in the south at
Korora Basin. This change may be correlated
with a decrease in the inter-limb angle. A small
inter-limb angle occurs with a steeply plunging
fold axis (Figure 2c).

Bedding-cleavage Lineation Lysoxs,. This
lineation is found only in the mudstones and
siltstones, and its attitude was determined
by plotting accurate measurements of bedding
and fracture cleavage from the same small area
on a stereographic projection and finding their
intersection point.

Joints. There has been no differentiation
between various types of joints in Figure 1d.
The maximum defines a plane of attitude
005°/E/78°, which is perpendicular to the axis
of the mesoscopic folds in the northern portion
of the area where the fold axes are subhorizontal
and hence in that area they are ac-joints. These
joints are best developed in the coarser-grained
sediments and frequently do not penetrate the
finer-grained beds. It is concluded that the
mesoscopic tectonic folds and the ac-joints have
a consistent geometrical pattern and are possibly
related to a common stress system.

A synoptic diagram of z-plots of quartz
veins (Figure 1e) and rose diagram (Figure 1h)
exhibits a point maximum thus defining a plane
of attitude 002°/vertical. The veins have the
same orientation as the ac-joints which provided
spaces for easy access and deposition of quartz.

Macroscopic Analysis

Composite diagrams for the whole area have
been compiled. The synoptic So diagram
(Figure 1f) has a point maximum which defines
an average attitude for the bedding in the whole
area of 093°/N/79°.

There is a swing in the strike of the cleavage
from 085° in the north to nearly 140° in the south
of the area. The trend of the fold axes varies
from about 080° in the north to about 135° in
the south.

Structural Evolution of the Woolgoolga District

The major problem of the Woolgoolga district
is to account for the variation in the plunge of

the fold axes from north to south. Why does
this change in plunge occur? The fold axes
plot on a girdle (Figure 1b) and this could be
explained by the following hypothesis :

If one assumes that bedding was once hori-
zontal, then, as the intensity of folding increases
the dip of the bedding must become steeper
until the bedding is vertical and isoclinal folds
occur. This can be represented by the theoreti-
cal graph (Figure 2d), where a constant vertical
axial-plane cleavage is intersected by a bed of
constant strike at an angle of 5° to the cleavage.
If the dip of this bed progressively alters from
0° to 90° then the plunge of the fold axis also
varies from 0° to 90°. This is part of a general
theory which has been developed and will be
published elsewhere. The real situation in the
Woolgoolga district (Figure 2b) traces a similar
curve to the theoretical curve and hence the
variation in the plunge of the fold axes can be
accounted for by this hypothesis. Hence there
has been a change in the attitude of the marker
horizon (bedding) relative to a stress field of
constant orientation. This hypothesis is sup-
ported by the joint pattern which probably
resulted from uniform stress system operating
during and after folding.

A second period of tectonic deformation has
also occurred. This is seen in gentle flexuring
of the fracture cleavage and in the formation of
small monoclines which show a consistent verg-
ence (Wood, 1963) indicating a dextral sense of
rotation throughout the area. Another feature
of this deformation is the rotation in the vertical
plane, of an originally parallel cleavage from a
strike of 085° in the north to about 140° in the
south. If the monoclines are mesoscopic folds
on the limbs of a macroscopic fold then only one
limb of the large fold occurs in the Woolgoolga
district.

In the Woolgoolga district the first tectonic
deformation was produced by a north-south
compression and there was no_ substantial
regional metamorphism associated with it at
visible tectonic levels in the area. There could
be a major fault near Red Rock headland if the
Jaspers there are an autochthonous part of the
basement beneath the Coffs Harbour Beds, but
the fault need not be postulated if the Red Rock
sequence is a huge exotic block emplaced by
gravity sliding.

The evidence seems to indicate that the Wool-
goolga district 1s part of one limb of a
synclinorium which has its hinge or trough line
striking east-west somewhere to the north of
the area.

100 1 Ry f. KORSGH

See next page for Legend.

SIRUCTURAL ANALYolS OF PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS

Regional Implications. The Coffs Harbour
Beds occur in one of the upthrust blocks mapped
by Voisey (1959) and are bounded to the north
by the Mesozoic Clarence Basin, and in the south
by the Cross Maglen Fault (Leitch e al., 1969).
Voisey (1959) inferred that a fault bounds the
west of the beds, but in fact they may be part
of the Upper Palaeozoic sequence that has been
studied at Wongwibinda by Binns (1966) and
elsewhere in New England by Binns and others
(1967).

Age of the Tectonism. The preferred hypo-
thesis is that the Coffs Harbour Beds are late
Palaeozoic in age, rather than older Palaeozoic
(Korsch, 1971). The Clarence Basin contains
fresh-water sediments deposited during and
after the Triassic Period, and they are only
gently deformed and rest unconformably on the
underlying Coffs Harbour Beds. Hence the
tectonism probably occurred during the Permian
or Early Triassic periods.

During late Palaeozoic time the following
events occurred in the Woolgoolga district :

(1) Deposition of a thick sequence of sedi-
ments under unstable geosynclinal condi-
tions by turbidity current media. Soft
sediment deformation such as slumping
occurred frequently.

(2) A period of tectonism that :

(a) tilted the sequence northwards ;_ pro-
duced open to tight mesoscopic folds,
possibly of slump or sliding origin,
with an axial-plane fracture cleavage ;
and increased in intensity towards the
south ;

(6) produced monoclinal flexuring of both
the bedding and cleavage, and rotated
the cleavage ;

(c) produced both oblique and ac-joints
and deposited quartz preferentially
along some ac-joints ; and

101

(zd) aided the emplacement of the leuco-
adamellite stock at ‘“‘ Granite Head ”’’.

Conclusion. The Coffs Harbour Beds of the
Woolgoolga district have been deformed by
three periods or phases of deformation, at least
two being tectonic in origin. The two tectonic
phases occurred during one major period of
tectonism in late Palaeozoic time and can be
regarded as part of the Hunter-Bowen orogeny.

Redbank River Beds

The headland of Red Rock is considered to be
a rock unit distinct from the Coffs Harbour Beds
(Korsch, 1971), and hence a separate structural
analysis of it was attempted. It appeared at
first that the jaspers and associated rocks are
chaotically deformed. Consequently the area
was divided into five domains separated by
supposed shear zones, and the attitudes of
bedding, fold axes and axial planes were
measured in each domain. It was surprising
to find that the domains are not chaotic but
homogeneous with respect to bedding and fold
axes, so that the whole headland could be studied
as one field.

Two distinct styles of folding are seen, one
being very tight and often isoclinal, the other
being a gentle warping of the limbs of the iso-
clinal folds.

Tight Folds

These folds very from folds with parallel
limbs (true isoclinal folds), through folds with
angular hinges to folds with rounded hinges.
The rounded hinges occur in the thicker beds
which were less able to bend on angular hinges.
The zx-plot of bedding (Figure 1g) consists
mainly of beds forming the limbs of the tight
folds. Two distinct maxima occur at 34° to
290° and 55° to 302°, these possibly being the
orientations of each limb. The axial planes of
several tight folds have an orignetation of

FIGURE 1.

(a) Composite cleavage for the Coffs Harbour Beds.
(6b) 83 fold axes from the Coffs Harbour Beds.

556rnSo from the Coffs Harbour Beds.

Coe

veins per circle.

—_ ON Oe
Sy
—

~-=
Las.
———

Beds.
@ Nine axial planes for the tight folds.
© Six axial planes for the gentle warps.
+ Six fold axes for the gentle warps.

175rS1.
Contours 0, 1, 2, 6% per 1% area.
c) 140 bedding-cleavage intersections from the Coffs Harbour Beds.
d) 129 poles to joints from the Coffs Harbour Beds.
e) 104 poles to quartz veins from the Coffs Harbour Beds.

92 fold axes for the tight folds in the Redbank River Beds.
Axial planes and fold axes for the gentle warps and axial planes for the tight folds from the Redbank River

Contours 0, 1) 6,.17% “per 1%, area:

Contours 0, 1, 2, 6% per 1% area.
Contours 0, I, 3,.5% per 1% area.
Contours 0, 1, 4, 9% per 1% area.

Contours) 25-4. 69, per 1% area.
297 poles to bedding from the Redbank River Beds.
Rose diagram for strikes of 105 quartz veins from the Coffs Harbour Beds.

Contours 0, I 3, 6% per 1%, area.
Interval for bearings 10°, two

Contours 0, 1, 4, 6% per 1% area.

(k) 24 poles to bedding from the limbs of gentle warps in the Redbank River Beds.

102 R. J. KORSCH
120
an
iw
la
ec
o
{ve}
2
80
ad
: =
ts =
cz 20 a
3 | 2
a =
oa) [ea 40
2M 2 c
z A =
C4 =
[==]
xs 40
>
ce
ee)
=
a 0 30 60 90
0 8 16 24 32
N KILOMETRES S PLUNGE OF FOLD AXES (DEGREES)
0 eo
ws
c :
had w
= e
o
ad
240 “ 30
=<
nA <
w B D
Pd
= =
2 a 60
© 60 u
i. =
° uw
o
rr) ae
2 5
z 90 a 90
0 8 16 24 32 0 30 60 0
N KILOMETRES S DIP OF BEDDING (DEGREES)
FIGURE 2.

(a) Variation from north to south in inter-limb angles of folds from the Coffs Harbour Beds.
indicate the number of measurements averaged to produce the mean value.

(6) Variation from north to south in the plunge of fold axes of mesoscopic folds in the Coffs Harbour Beds.

Values in parentheses

Values

in parentheses are number of individual measurements.
(c) Graph of inter-limb angles versus plunge of fold axes for the mesoscopic folds in the Coffs Harbour Beds.

(d) Graph showing the variation in plunge of a fold axis from 0° to 90° in a theoretical situation where (i) the
axial plane cleavage maintains a constant strike and constant vertical dip, and (ii) the bedding maintains
a constant strike at an angle of 5° to the cleavage and the dip varies from 0° to 90°.

024°/E/45°. Fold axes define a girdle (Figure 17)
which is very similar to the orientation of the
bedding. Fold axes for both types of folds
(Figure 17) define a similar girdle with an orienta-
tion of about 032°/SE/50°.

Gentle Warps

The gentle warps occur on the limbs of the
tight folds. The z-plot for bedding for areas
influenced by the gentle flexuring (Figure 1)

exhibits a pattern similar to that of the bedding
for the tight folds, which proves that the warps
are very gentle and cause no marked change in
the orientations of bedding. The axial planes
however appear to be scattered about a girdle
with an approximate orientation of 026°/E/33°
(Figure 17). The fold areas for the warps appear
to be scattered over a similar girdle to that for
the fold axes of the tight folds.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF PALAEOZOIC SEDIMENTS

Discussion

Because the axial planes of the tight folds are
non-planar and have been bent by the gentle
flexuring, it is clear that the tight folds were the
first to form. Moreover, the axial planes of
the gentle folds appear to be straight and hence
have not been deformed by later tectonic
activity.

The axial planes of the tight folds have, by
comparison with the axial planes of the gentle
warps, a fairly uniform orientation and this
suggests, falsely, that the tight folding was later
than the gentle folding. Because of the very
gentle nature of the second deformation only
slight changes in the orientation of the axial
planes of the tight folds resulted and hence the
axial planes are uniform (Figure 17). The vari-
able orientations of the axial planes for the gentle
flexures remains unexplained. The variation
could be a result of the highly incompetent
nature of cherts and their ability to become
highly contorted (Bryan and Jones, 1962).

The axial planes of the tight folds with an
average orientation of 025°/E/45° can in no way
be related to the axial planes of the folds in the
Coffs Harbour Beds which have an orientation
parallel to the fracture cleavage of 089°/N/82°.
The axial planes of the gentle warps also cannot
be related to the folding in the Coffs Harbour
Beds. Hence it is thought that the cherts and
jaspers of the Red Rock Beds were subjected to
a period of tectonism that occurred some time
before the deposition of the Coffs Harbour Beds.

Conclusion

The cherts and jaspers have been subjected to
two phases or periods of folding:

(1) An intense period of deformation of
tectonic origin that produced tight folds
often verging on isoclinal in places, with
an average orientation of their axial planes
as 025°/E/45°.

(2) The second less intense period of tectonic
deformation produced gentle flexures on
the limbs of the tight folds.

It is highly probable that both sets of folds
were related as phases of one major period of
deformation but because of the highly folded
nature of the rocks and lack of correlation with
the Coffs Harbour Beds it is thought that this

Department of Geology,
University of New England,
Armidale.

103

tectonism occurred before the Coffs Harbour
Beds were formed.

Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to Dr. H. J. Harrington
for his supervision of the project and to Dr. E. C.
Leitch for many helpful discussions. The work
for this paper was undertaken for an Honours
thesis during the tenure of a N.S.W. Department
of Education Teachers College Scholarship at the
University of New England.

References

Bruns, R. A., 1966. Granitic Intrusions and Regional
Metamorphic Rocks of Permian Age From the
Wongwibinda District, North-eastern New South
Wales. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 99, 5-36.

Binns, R. A. and OrTHeErs, 1967. New England
Tableland, Southern Part, with Explanatory Text.
Geol. Map of New England 1: 250,000 U.N.E.,
Armidale, N.S.W.

BRYAN, W. H., and Jones, O. A., 1962. Contributions
to the Geology of Brisbane: No. 3. The Bedded
Cherts of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group of
South-eastern Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qd.,

73 (2), 17-36.
Crook, K. A. W., 1964. Cleavage in Weakly Deformed
Mudstones. Am. J. Sct., 262 (2), 523-531.

FLeuty, M. J., 1964. The Description of Folds.
Proc. geol. Assoc., 75 (4), 461-492.

KorscuH, R. J., 1971. Palaeozoic Sedimentology and
Igneous Geology of the Woolgoolga District,
North Coast, New South Wales. J. Proc. Roy
Soc. N.S.W., 104, 63-75.

LeEitcH, E. C., Nertson, M. J., and Hosson, E., 1969.
Dorrigo-Coffs Harbour 1: 250,000 Geological Series
Sheet SH56-10 and 11. Dept. of Mines, Sydney.

Ramsay, J. G., 1962. The Geometry and Mechanics
of Formation of ‘‘ Similar ’’ Type Folds. J. Geol.,
70, 309-327.

Ramsay, J. G., 1967. Folding and Fracturing of Rocks.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 568 pp.

STAUFFER, M. R., 1966. An Empirical-Statistical
Study of Three-Dimensional Fabric Diagrams as
Used in Structural Analysis. Can. J. Earth Sci.,
3, 473-498.

TURNER, F. J., and WeEIss, L. E., 1963.
Analysis of Metamorphic Tectonites.
Hill Book Co., New York, 545 pp.

VorisEY, A. H., 1959. Tectonic Evolution of North-
eastern New South Wales, Australia. J. Proc.
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 92, 191-203.

WHITTEN, E. H. T., 1966. Structural Geology of
Folded Rocks. Rand, McNally and Co., Chicago,
678 pp.

Woop, B. L., 1963. Structure of the Otago Schists.
N.Z. Jl. Geol. Geophys., © (5), 641-680.

Structural
McGraw-

(Received 30.3.72)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 104-110, 1973

Potassium-Argon Basalt Ages and their Significance in the
Macquarie Valley, New South Wales

J. A. DULHUNTY

ABsTRACT—Potassium-Argon ages and modes of occurrence are recorded for Tertiary basalt
flows in and near the Macquarie Valley region, and considered in relation to Tertiary volcanism
geomorphology. Two age groups of Tertiary basalts occur. An older, mainly Eocene group,
of the order of 40 to 55 m.y. was extruded in eastern areas of the region and now rests on
remnants of an early or pre-Eocene surface along and near the Main Divide. A younger, or
middle Meocene group, of the order of 11 to 15 m.y., was extruded across the region before tilting
of the Western Slopes and subsequent removal of basalt from eastern areas, entrenchment of
the Macquarie River to 60 m below the base of the basalt at Bathurst, and burying of basalt
beneath river alluvium in western areas near Dubbo. Results for the Macquarie region
correspond with similar results previously recorded for regions to the north along the

Western Slopes.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to record K-Ar
ages obtained for basalts in and near the region
of the Macquarie Valley (see Figure 1), upstream
from the vicinity of Dubbo to Bathurst and
across the headwaters of the Abercrombie,
Macquarie and Turon Rivers (excluding the
Orange-Canowindra and Lachlan River districts),
and to consider the significance of results in
relation to Tertiary volcanism and geomorph-
ology. The paper is not a complete study of
either Tertiary volcanism or geomorphology of
the region, but rather a record of some results
and deductions, as a contribution to these
subjects.

Recent studies of the age (see Table 2) and
mode of occurrence of Tertiary basalt in the
upper Castlereagh Valley near Coonabarabran
(Dulhunty, 1973; Dulhunty and McDougall,
1966) have shown that middle Miocene flows
of the order of 13 to 14 m.y. old and coextensive
with Warrumbungle Mt. flows, occur on valley
sides and extend down to within 40 m of the
level of the Castlereagh River bed. Further
down the valley, between Binnaway and
Mendooran, it was shown that similar flows,
of the order of 14 to 17 m.y. old, extend down
the valley sides to levels of about 6 m below
the river bed. These results were interpreted
as indicative of a pre-middle Miocene “‘ Castle-
reagh Valley ’’, once filled with middle Miocene
basalt, but now almost completely re-excavated
by the Castlereagh River, as a consequence of
late Tertiary elevation to form the present
Castlereagh Valley representing a restoration of
its Miocene ancestor. No Tertiary basalts older
than Miocene were recorded in the Coona-
barabran-Binnaway-Mendooran region.

Studies of K-Ar ages (see Table 2) and
distribution of basalts in the Gulgong-Mudgee-
Ilford region (Dulhunty, 1971), have shown two
age groups of flows representing separate epochs
of extrusion. The older flows of lower
Oligocene-upper Eocene age, of the order of
31-45 m.y., occur on the eastern side of the region
as small residuals on high isolated remnants of
an early or pre-Eocene surface, along the strongly
elevated country of the Main Dividing Range
between Rylstone and Ilford. The younger
flows of middle Miocene age, of the order of
12-16 m.y., occur along the western side of the
region, on the Western Slopes of the Eastern
Highlands, near Gulgong in the valleys of the
Cudgegong River and its tributaries, extending
in places to 15 m below the present river bed.
They partly filled the pre-Miocene valleys, but
have now been largely removed by erosion to
form the present valleys.

The present study of ages and modes of occur-
rence of basalt flows in the Macquarie Valley
region, was undertaken to extend further south
along the Western Slopes, the kind of results
referred to above in the Castlereagh and
Cudgegong Valleys.

For the purpose of this paper, the regions of
the Macquarie, Cudgegong and Castlereagh
Valleys, within the geographic limits indicated
above for each, will be referred to as the
Macquarie region, Cudgegong region and Castle-
reagh region. The term Western Slopes is used,
with traditional meaning, in referring to the
country sloping to the west from the Main
Dividing Range down to the Western Plains.

All geological periods and epochs referred to
in this paper, as equivalent to K-Ar dates in
millions of years, are in accordance with the

POTASSIUM-ARGON BASALT AGES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

time scale by Funnell (1964), which was also used
in the papers dealing with the Castlereagh and
Cudgegong regions.

For detail outcrop geology of the Macquarie
region and adjoining areas, reference should be
made to 1: 250,000 Geological Series Sheets
(Geol. Surv., Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Sydney)—
Bathurst SI 55-8, Dubbo SI 55-4 and Goulburn
SI 55-12.

For previously recorded information bearing
on the general setting of the Macquarie Valley
region in relation to Tertiary volcanism and
geomorphology of the Eastern Highlands of
New South Wales, reference should be made, in
the first place, to Vallance (1969), Wilkinson
(1969) and Browne (1969).

105

These flows together with the plateau on which
they rest, are being actively dissected on either
side of the Main Divide by the headwaters of
both eastern and western flowing streams.

No. 2: Some 25-50 km west of the Main
Divide, small outliers of basalt capped erosional
residuals of country rock on elevated country
between the headwaters of western flowing
streams, as at Big Brother Hill (Figure 2, Sec. 2,
K-—M) and Monkey Hill (Figure 1).

No. 3: In central areas of the region, basalt
flows occur on broad valley floors and across
lower country within the Macquarie watershed.
Such flows, as at Mt. Panorama and Dunkheld
near Bathurst (Figure 2, Sec. 2, K—O) and along
the Macquarie Valley between the junction of

TAsrE I
K-Ar Ages of Macquarie and Cudgegong Region Basalts

Syd. Uni. | Geochron. Average Rad. 40-Ar % Calc. Age
Spec. No. | Anal. No. Locality % K+2SD_ | (10-* Std. cc/gm) | Rad. 40-Ar | m.y.+1SD
K-17 R-1929 | Taralga- 1-097-+0-001 1-934 34-66 43°542-1
Richlands
X
eZ, K-25 R-2227 | Big Brother 0-960+0-009 1-962 19-40 51-0+42:°-5
Ae) Hill
Hh
OR K-16 R-1868 | Bathurst- 1-886+0-019 0-936 42-65 12-4+40:9
zh Dunkheld
=
K-15 R-1795 | Dubbo- 2-564+0-011 1-412 29-90 13-9+0-9
Talbragar
K-8 R-1216 | Fords Creek 1-211+0-011 Oa 55-60 14-8+1-2
Z Gulgong
2 K-9 R-1341 | Two Mile Crk. 1-530+0-040 0-852 45°40 13-8+1:1
0 Gulgong
2
0 K-10 R-1267 | Mt. Bocoble 1-361+0-020 1-949 69-90 35-642:-1
7 Cudgegong
fe)
oO K-12 R-1676 | Mt. Vernon 1-329+0-017 1-810 60-46 33°74+2:1
z Ilford
Q
PR K-13 R-1745 | Mt. Carcalgong | 1-040+0-002 1-750 61-60 41-6+2-6

Pyramul

Constants used: Ag=4:72 x 10-1/year ;

Occurrence of Tertiary Basalt Flows

In the Macquarie region (Figure 1) basalt
occurs in four different topographical settings.

No. 1: In eastern areas, residual sheets of
basalt rest on remnants of the high undissected
plateau surface along the Main Dividing Range,
across the headwaters of the Abercrombie,
Macquarie and Turon Rivers, from Taralga to
Oberon and Capertee (Figure 2, Sec. 2, F—K).

Ae=0-585 x 10-19/year ;

K/K = 1-22 x 10-4 g./g.

the Turon River and Burrondong Dam, occur
at levels down to 60 m above present river
levels.

No. 4: In western areas, basalt flows extend
across undulating country, down over gently
sloping valley sides to levels below the present
river bed. Such flows occur between Tongi,
Wongarbon, Dubbo and Mogriguy, across the
valleys of the Macquarie and Talbragar Rivers
(Figure 2, Sec. 1, A—E).

106

Selection of Basalts for K-Ar Dating,
and Results

Basalt specimens suitable for K-Ar dating
were collected from flows typical in mode of
occurrence for each of the four topographical
settings described above. Localities at which
Specimens were collected are shown by specimen
numbers on the map in Figure 1, and in sections
of Figure 2. Localities are also given by grid
references on the 1: 250,000 topographical
sheets, series R502 for New South Wales, in the
following specimen descriptions, together with
the results of K-Ar age determinations on
“whole rock ’”’ samples, carried out by Geochron
Laboratories, Cambridge, U.S.A., as also set out
in Table 1. All material selected for K-Ar
dating was fresh in regard to atmospheric
weathering and free from macroscopic evidence
of deuteric alteration or amygdaloidal texture.

J. A. DULHUNTY

a high outlier of basalt resting on an erosional
remnant of country rock rising some 120 m
above surrounding country. Medium-grained
holocrystalline olivine basalt with numerous
small phenocrysts of olivine showing marginal
alteration, and minor feldspar alteration.

Specimen K-16. Bathurst-Dunkheld (SI 55-8,
248872). Age 12-440-9 my.

Collected from floor level of “‘ blue metal ”
quarry 2-4 km north-east from Dunkheld at
8:9 km by road from Bathurst. The flow,
typical of topographical setting No. 3, rests on
an erosion surface 60 m above the bed of the
nearby Macquarie River. Medium-fine grained
olivine basalt with small olivine and feldspar
phenocrysts. Minor feldspar alteration and less
than 5% of poorly crystallized interstitial
material.

TABLE 2

Basalt
Region Age Group
Macquarie younger
older
Cudgegong younger
older
Castlereagh .. younger
older
Overall-Coonabarabran, younger
Dubbo, Bathurst older

Microscopic evidence of feldspar alteration and
degree of crystallinity is noted in the following
specimen descriptions.

Specimen K-17. Taralga-Richlands (SI 55-12,
280759). Age 43-5+2-1 my.

Collected from outcrop on eastern side of
Taralga-Oberon road, 9-7 km from Taralga.
Flow typical of topographical setting No. 1,
forming a residual sheet on remnant of un-
dissected plateau near the Main Dividing Range.
Fine-grained holocrystalline olivine basalt with
numerous small phenocrysts of olivine, minor
alteration of feldspars and less than 10% of
well crystallized interstitial material.

Specimen K-25. Big Brother Hill (SI 55-8,
237842). Age 5142-5 my.

Collected from old quarry floor, 9m above base
of flow, on the northern side of the hill, 1-3 km
west of the Georges Plains-Trunky Creek road,
at 21 km by road from Georges Plains. Flow
typical of topographical setting No. 2, forming

K-Ar Age Range—of
the order of—m.y.

Geological Age
(Funnell, 1964)

11-15 middle Miocene

41-54 lower Oligocene ?—Eocene
12-16 middle Miocene

31-45 lower Oligocene—upper Eocene
13-17 middle Miocene

not recorded

11-17
31-54

middle Miocene
lower Oligocene—Eocene

Specimen K-15. Dubbo-Talbragar (SI 55-4,
155017). Age 13-9+0-9 m.y.

Collected from road cutting on Newell
Highway, at the northern side of the Talbragar
River Bridge, 2-1 km upstream from the
Macquarie River junction, and 8 km by road
from Dubbo Post Office. The flow, typical of
topographical setting Nol 4, extends to about

9 m beneath the beds of the Talbragar and —

Macquarie Rivers. Fine-grained olivine basalt,
slight feldspar alteration and less than 5% of
poorly crystallized interstitial material.
Analytical data for the K-Ar age determina-
tions of the four selected basalts in the Macquarie
region, described above, are shown in Table 1
under their specimen numbers and_ locality
names. Data for five additional specimens,
K-8, 9, 10, 12 and 13, from the adjoining
Cudgegong region are also shown in Table 1,
as their K-Ar ages were recorded in a recent
publication (Dulhunty, 1971) but analytical
data was omitted. Also their ages and modes
of occurrence are cited in the present paper in

;

POTASSIUM-ARGON BASALT AGES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 107

s / FIGURE 1

SENG ELD ee LOCALITY MAP
Be EE OF THE

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108

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POTASSIUM-ARGON BASALT AGES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

connection with the interpretation of results
for the four flows in the Macquarie region.
Macroscopically the five Cudgegong basalts were
free from atmospheric weathering, deuteric
alteration and amygdaloidal texture. Their
micropetrographic features are as follows:
K-8: Fine grained olivine basalt with large
laths of plagioclase, slight feldspar alteration
and less than 5% of isotropic interstitial glass.
K-9: Fine-grained olivine basalt, very little
pyroxene, very slight alteration of feldspars and
about 8% of isotropic glass. K-10: Coarse-
grained holocrystalline olivine basalt, minor
feldspar alteration, and about 10% of well
crystallized interstitial material. K-12:
Medium-coarse grained holocrystalline olivine
basalt, minor feldspar alteration and about 10%
of well-crystallized interstitial material.
K-13: Medium-grained holocrystalline olivine
basalt, slight feldspar alteration and less than
5% of poorly crystallized interstitial material.

It is understood that P. Wellman, in col-
laboration with I. McDougall of the Australian
National University, Canberra, carried out
K-Ar age determinations on basalts from flows
in the Macquarie region during the period of the
present investigation. Wellman’s results, em-
bodied in a Ph.D. thesis, at the Australian
National University, have not yet been pub-
lished, but it is anticipated that some of his
results will carry interpretations similar to those
based on K-Ar age determinations recorded
here. It is wished to acknowledge Wellman’s
contemporary investigations.

Conclusions

After consideration of the K-Ar ages of the
four selected basalt flows from the Macquarie
region, in relation to their topographical settings
and geographical positions, and in conjunction
with previously recorded results for the
Castlereagh and Cudgegong regions to the
north (Dulhunty, 1971 and 1973) reviewed
earlier in this paper, the following conclusions
are drawn.

The Macquarie Region

1. Two age groups of Tertiary basalt flows
occur in the region. A younger, middle Miocene
group, with a range of the order of 11 to 15 m.y.,
and an older, lower Oligocene ?-Eocene group
with a range of the order of 40 to 54 m.y.
(See Table 2.)

2. The older age group was extruded over a
late Cretaceous or early Tertiary erosion surface.
Differences in elevation of the base of the basalt
on the erosion surface (Figure 2, Sec. 2, F-L)

109

are due largely to subsequent regional warping,
and smaller movements, associated with the
late Tertiary uplift of the Eastern Highlands.
There appears, however, to have been some
degree of mature pre-basalt topography on the
Eocene or early Tertiary erosion surface.
Careful field studies of the levels and general
nature of the surfaces on which the basalts
rest, between Taralga and Big Brother Hill,
and also between Oberon, Hampton and
Capertee, leave little doubt that the now dis-
continuous erosional residuals of basalt, along
the Main Dividing Range, were once more or
less continuous flows of the older age group.

3. The basalt flows of the older age group
occur in eastern areas of the Macquarie region,
whilst those of the younger age group occur in
central and western areas.

4. Flows of the younger age group were ex-
truded over an early Miocene erosion surface
with undulating topography (Figure 2, Sec. 1)
very similar to the present country in the
Dubbo district. These flows extended down
to levels beneath the present rivers in western
areas near Dubbo, and down to within some
60 m above the river in central areas at Bathurst,
but do not occur in eastern areas along the Main
Dividing Range. This suggests (a) that the
younger basalts may have been extruded, at
places, across the whole of the Macquarie region
which was later tilted to form the Western
Slopes, and (b) that subsequent erosion removed
all the younger basalts from the strongly
elevated eastern areas of the region ; entrenched
the Macquarie River in central areas, near
Bathurst, to a depth of some 60 m below its
pre-basalt level; but did not deepen the valley
at all in western areas near Dubbo where eleva-
tion was minimal. In fact, the occurrence of
basalt below the present river bed near Dubbo,
suggests a slight rise in river level as a result of
over-alluviation, or dumping of products of
erosion at the change of river gradient on the
western side of the region, where the Western
Slopes merge into the Western Plains.

5. Extrusion of the older basalt flows would
appear to have been restricted to eastern areas
of the Macquarie region, where elevation and
erosion were maximal, and the flows now occur
only as erosional residuals. Had they been
extruded over the western areas, where elevation
and erosion were minimal, ample evidence of
their occurrence would be expected to have
remained to the present day. The western
limits of their extrusion may have been some-
where between the eastern and central areas of
the region, where high outliers of basalt, on

110

remnants of country rock at Big Brother and
Monkey Hills represent the most westerly
evidence of the occurrence of older, or mainly
Eocene basalts.

Correlation with Adjoining Regions

The younger basalt age group, of the order
of 11 to 15 m.y., in the Macquarie region is
equivalent in mode of occurrence to the basalt
age groups of the order of 12 to 16 m.y. in the
Cudgegong region, and 13 to 17 m.y. in the
Castlereagh region (see Table 2). This suggests
a general range of the order of 11 to 17 m.y.,
or middle Miocene age, for all the younger basalts
with similar modes of occurrence and similarly
situated in the Castlereagh, Cudgegong and
Macquarie regions, along the lower, western side
of the Western Slopes between Coonabarabran,
Dubbo and Bathurst.

The older basalt age group, of the order of
41 to 54 m.y., in the Macquarie region is
equivalent in mode of occurrence and geo-
graphical position, to the group of the order of
31 to 45 m.y. in the Cudgegong region (see
Table 2). Also, the high outliers of older basalt
resting on remnants of country rock, at Big
Brother and Monkey Hills, are equivalent in
mode of occurrence and geographical position
to similar occurrences of older basalt at Mt.
Boiga and Mt. Carcalgong in the Cudgegong
region. These features suggest a general range
of the order of 31 to 54 m.y., of lower Oligocene
to lower Eocene age, for the older basalts of the
Cudgegong and Macquarie regions, situated

Department of Geology

and Geophysics,
University of Sydney,
Sydney, 2006.

J. A. DULHUNTY

along the upper, eastern side of the Western
Slopes between Rylstone, Oberon and Taralga.

Acknowledgements

In conclusion the author wishes to acknow-
ledge research facilities, and assistance from the
University Research Grant, Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney ;
valuable discussion with Dr. J. R. Richards,
Australian National University, in presentation
of analytical data; and the assistance of
Associate Professor T. G. Vallance, University
of Sydney, in selection of basalt specimens for
K-Ar dating.

References

Browne, W. R., 1969. Notes on the Geomorphology
of New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 559.

DuLtuunty, J. A., 1971. Potassium-Argon Basalt
Dates and their Significance in the Ilford-Mudgee-
Gulgong Region. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W..,
104, 39.

Dutuunty, J. A., 1973. Potassium-Argon Dating and
Occurrence of Tertiary and Mesozoic Basalts in the
Binnaway District. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
105> 71.

DutuHunNtTy, J. A., and McDouaear, I., 1966.
Potassium-Argon Dating of Basalts in the
Coonabarabran-Gunnedah District, N.S.W. Aust.
Ji Set, 28; 39a.

FUNNELL, B. M., 1964.
Phanerozoic Time Scale.
1208S, 179.

VALLANCE, T. G., 1969. Mesozoic and Cainozoic
Rocks of Central and Southern New South Wales.
J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 513.

WILKINSON, J. F. G., 1969. Mesozoic and Cainozoic
Rocks of Northeastern New South Wales. . Geol.
Soc. Aust., 16, 530.

The Tertiary Period in the
Q. J. Geol. Soc., Lond.,

(Received 17.1573)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 111-114, 1973

Slow Transport as a Criterion for Synchronizing Clocks

S. J. PROKHOVNIK

Asstract—lf a clock is transported slowly from one point to another of an inertial system,

the time-dilatation effect is small and varies with the velocity of transport.

This variation

permits detection of and compensation for the effect, thus providing a procedure for synchron-

izing separated clocks, which is equivalent to Einstein’s light-signal convention.

However,

clocks so synchronized, with respect to a given inertial system, will not appear synchronous with

respect to any inertial system.

It is shown that the substratum formulation of Special Relativity
provides a satisfactory interpretation of this phenomenon.

Consideration is also given to the

relation between the criteria for clock-synchronization and the status of light-velocity

measurements.

1. Introduction

Einstein’s convention for synchronizing two
clocks stationary at locations A and A’ ina given
inertial system, J,, depends on the following
light-signal procedure. Imagine observers A
and A’ associated with the two clocks and their
respective locations. At time ¢,!, according to
his clock, observer A transmits a light-ray which
reflects a reading ¢,, on the clock at A’ and
returns to A when his clock reads ¢,3. Then
the clocks are taken to be synchronous according
to the observer A if

t4/=3(¢ 4° +1 4°).

This convention (like his other measurement
conventions) is consistent with Einstein’s basic
assumption (the Light Principle) that the
measured velocity of light is constant and iso-
tropic with respect to any given inertial system.
It follows that if the clocks are synchronous
according to A, then they will also be syn-
chronous according to A’, that is, they are
synchronous with respect to the system I ,.

There has been considerable argument, on a
number of planes, about the significance of this
convention and its relation to other possible
criteria of synchronization. Reichenbach,
Grunbaum and others consider that Einstein’s
criterion is quite arbitrary, that it merely lends
descriptive simplicity to the relationships of
Special Relativity. They also reject “slow
transport’ as an alternative method for syn-
chronizing separated clocks. Following an
article by Ellis and Bowman (1967), the problem
has attracted considerable attention. However,
it has been analysed mainly in terms of
theoretical-philosophical arguments. We wish
here to consider the slow transport criterion in
the context of a substratum formulation of
Special Relativity.

2. The Slow Transport Criterion

The slow transport criterion is based on
transporting a clock M (similar to clock A)
from A to A’. Let the clock M be transported
by an associated observer M. At zero time
(according to both clocks A and M), M departs
from A with velocity v towards A’ which is
distant d , from A, v and d , being the J , Einstein
measures, that is according to observer A.

Let AT, be the time taken, according to A,

for M to reach A’; then
AD au.

However, on account of the time-dilatation

result of Special Relativity, the transported

clock M will read AT, on reaching A’, where

AT y=AT ,(1—v?/c?)4 1

Sapa fw

The difference between the two readings is given

by
AT ,—AT y=(d,2){1——v/e)9}

gud ,/c? } 2)
if v is small compared to c.

It is seen that since d, and c are constants,
we can make vd,/c? as small as we like by
making v sufficiently small. In practice, v
cannot be made too small since the time of
transport would then become inordinately long.
However, if a number of similar clocks, M, M’,
etc., are synchronized with clock A and then
transported over the same straight-line path
from A to A’ but with different velocities,
then on account of (2) they will be non-
synchronous when compared at their destination
A’. In this way the variation of (AT ,—AT ,)
with v is revealed and so provides a basis for
estimating and compensating for the time-
dilatation factor responsible for the variation.

112

Ellis and Bowman (1967) propose a practical
extrapolation procedure for determining the
required compensation and hence achieving
“slow transport synchrony ”’ of two separated
clocks stationary in a given inertial system.
Bridgman (1962) proposes an alternative pro-
cedure based on taking the limit of the transport
times as the “ self-measured velocities’ (of M,
M’, etc.) approach zero.

3. The Measurement of the Velocity of Light

The problem of criteria for synchronism is
closely related to the status of measurements
of the velocity of light. Einstein defines a two-
way light-path procedure for this measure in-
volving only a single clock. Clearly this
provides a measure of the average velocity of
a light-ray travelling over an out-and-return
path. Measurements of one-way velocities
require two separated synchronous clocks.
However, as shown by Builder (19582), if these
clocks are synchronized in accordance with
Einstein’s convention, then the one-way measure
remains equivalent to Einstein’s out-and-return
path procedure since the synchronization of the
clocks is carried out on the assumption of light-
velocity isotropy ; the method of synchroniza-
tion ensures the same measure for the velocity
of light for both directions, so under these con-
ditions one-way measurements will not disclose
any anisotropy of light propagation, even if
such exists.

It might be imagined that the method of slow
transport provides an alternative and indepen-
dent criterion for synchronism, and so might be
the basis of disclosing the “true’’ one-way
velocity of light. However, further considera-
tion shows that the independence of the two
criteria is illusory, that the slow transport
procedure achieves a synchronization which is
identical with that achieved by Einstein’s
convention. After all slow transport synchron-
ism is also defined and determined within the
framework of the assumptions and results of
Special Relativity. The time-dilatation effect
eliminated by the extrapolation procedure is an
effect considered relative to a set of clocks
synchronous in I ,—a set of clocks synchronous
precisely according to Einstein !

It follows, as originally claimed by Builder
(19584), that clocks in slow transport synchrony
can yield no more information about one-way
light-velocities than clocks synchronized accord-
ing to Einstein. Now this has an interesting
and apparently paradoxical implication. Clocks
which are Einstein synchronous in respect to a

S. J. PROKHOVNIK

given inertial system are not synchronous (in the
same sense) In respect to any other inertial
system, and this result must also apparently be
true for clocks in slow-transport synchrony.

The substratum approach to Special Rela-
tivity provides a satisfactory interpretation
(Prokhovnik, 1967) of this phenomenon for
Einstein-synchronous clocks. It results from
an anisotropy effect which applies, in different
measure, to every inertial system except the
basic one. This effect is manifested, through
Einstein’s synchronism criterion, in the different
inertial systems. However it is by no means so
obvious why this should apply when slow-
transport synchrony is made the criterion of
simultaneity, since such synchrony is ostensibly
based on eliminating any effect of motion or
change of motion associated with the transport,
in respect to any inertial system. One might
imagine that slow transport would provide a
universal criterion of synchronism—equally valid
for all inertial systems. Yet, as we have seen,
this is not the case; clocks in slow transport
also appear to manifest the anisotropy effect.
This is indeed puzzling from the substratum
(or any other) viewpoint, and it will be instruc-
tive to further examine the problem from this
viewpoint.

4. The Substratum Approach to the
Problem

We will employ the approach and results of
previous publications (e.g., Prokhovnik, 1967),
assuming a basic reference frame, J, in respect
to which light propagation is isotropic. Con-
sider an observer A, associated with the reference
frame J ,, moving with velocity u relative to I —
that is, according to the Einstein measurements
of an observer S stationary inJ,. Consider also
an observer M who departs from A, at zero time
according to the (then) synchronized similar
clocks of A and M, and with relative velocity v
according to the Einstein measurements of either
of these observers. It will be sufficient for our
purposes to consider the case when u and v
are in the same direction according to S so that
the velocity, w, of M relative to the reference
frame I, is given by

utv
pure +uv/c? (3)
The relative velocity of A and M, according to S,
will then be*

* Measurements considered in respect to a single
reference frame (I, in this case) are related according
to ordinary vector algebra.

SLOW TRANSPORT AS A CRITERION FOR SYNCHRONIZING CLOCKS

_v(1—u?/c?)
~— 1+w/c?

(4)

We note in accordance with our assumptions
and their consequences, that. when A syn-
chronizes (according to Einstein) a set of similar
clocks, stationary in J,, along M’s path, the
synchronization procedure incorporates an aniso-
tropy effect of magnitude Bud/c?, where p=
(1—u?/c?)-4 and d is the I, distance between
A and a particular clock. Thus according to S,
clocks synchronous in J ,, are retarded (relative
to A’s clock) by an interval of Bud/c? propor-
tional to the distance d.7

Now imagine that a time AT (according to a
similar clock used by S) has elapsed since M
departed from A. According to A’s clock the
corresponding duration of time may be denoted
by AT, where

AT ,=AT(1—4?/c?)4 (5)
on account of the absolute time-dilatation effect.
M is now at a point A’ whose I, distance from
A is given by

d=(w—u)AT, (6)
so that (according to S) the corresponding
reading AT , of a clock at A’ synchronous with
A’s clock in I ,, is given by
AT v=AT ,—fu(w—u)AT/c? \ (7)
=AT ,|(1+-u0/c?)
on account of the anisotropy effect and invoking
(5) and (4).

Also the reading of M’s clock when he passes
A’ (as observed by S or A or any other observer)
is given by

AT yw=AT(1—w?|c?)#
AT(1—u?/c?)3(1—v/c?)?
= 5 ae eo using (3).
Hence, using (5)
AT ,(1—v?/c?)#
aes 1+uv/c? (8)
—AT 4’ (1—v?/c?)?, on account of (7).
The result is in full conformity with A’s expec-
tation that his inertial system can be considered
as one in which light propagation is isotropic
and for which the Lorentz transformation applies
exactly in terms of Einstein’s measurement
definitions.

Note that according to S, M’s clock has

become retarded by the amount
(1—v/c?)!

a ele Commas rrr rca ' from (8)

=AT ,—(AT ,—fodu/c)(1—v?/o?)4,
+ Reciprocally, clocks synchronous in J , appear non-
_ synchronous to A in the same manner.

C

113

using (7) and (6)

Hence AT ,—AT ,,—>Gdu/c? as v0.

Thus in terms of the I, time-scale, no matter
how slow the transport, M’s clock will lose time
relative to A’s clock by a factor proportional to
the separation distance. It is seen that this
transport effect is identically equal to the
anisotropy effect associated with clocks syn-
chronized according to Einstein. It follows that
A can never detect the transport factor since
it is exactly compensated by the anisotropy
effect incorporated in the J, set of Einstein-
synchronous clocks. By the same token, clocks
in slow-transport synchrony will not enable A
to detect any anisotropy of light propagation in
respect to his inertial system. The two criteria
of synchronization are theoretically mutually
dependent and indeed identical when viewed
from the substratum approach.

The emergence of this characteristic transport
effect for a moving reference frame is not as
contrary as may appear at first sight. Accord-
ing to S we may take A’s and M’s velocities in
I, as close enough to u and u+v respectively.
Hence approximately—

AT ,—AT y=AT((L—u?{02) !—(1 —(u+0) 8/02)
~AT(}(u-+0)?/c2—h?/c?]
=AT (uv/c*#+4v?/c?),

if # and v are small compared to c.

Hence AT ,—AT ,,>ud/c? as v0.

Thus the result depends essentially on the
arithmetical cliché that

(u+v)?—u?2A~v?
but =v2+2uu,
involving a first order term in v.

5. Comparisons and Conclusions

It is seen that the substratum approach pro-
vides an interpretation of the nature and
relationship of the two methods of synchroniza-
tion. The approach is formally similar to that
of Winnie (1970), who shows that if we assume
the isotropy of light-propagation with respect
to any given inertial reference frame, then the
anisotropy with respect to all other inertial
systems leads to a complex of associated effects
which conceal the anisotropy and render all
inertial systems Lorentz-equivalent. Thus he
is able to show also that the slow transport and
light-signal criteria for synchronism of clocks
are not independent. Indeed in section 2 and
section 3 of Einstein’s original paper (1905) the
anisotropy of light-propagation in all inertial
systems, other than the “stationary’”’ one, is
also invoked to display the relativity of length
and time measurements and to deduce the
Lorentz transformation which relates such

114

measurements for different inertial systems.
However, this treatment is hypothetical and
ambiguous without the existence of one
particular reference frame relative to which
light propagation can be assumed to take
place. In terms of such a reference frame the
anisotropy effect, and the resultant absolute
effects (e.g., time-dilatation) assume an un-
ambiguous meaning. As Builder (1958) in-
sisted, the assumption of a fundamental reference
frame for light-propagation is logically necessary
as a basis for the existence of absolute relativistic
effects, and as has been shown elsewhere
(Prokhovnik, 1967) the assumption provides a
sufficient basis for Special Relativity and its
intelligible physical interpretation. Moreover,
recent astronomical observations have now made
it possible to distinguish in two separate ways
(Prokhovnik, 1973) a fundamental cosmological
reference frame: the consequences of motion
relative to this frame remain concealed with
respect to local observations and experiments
(on account of the interaction of mutually-
compensatory anisotropy effects) but not with
respect to cosmological observations and laws
such as the Hubble Law.

School of Mathematics,
University of New South Wales,
Kensington, N.S.W.

S. J. PROKHOVNIK

It follows that no local experiments can enable
us to discern the anisotropy of light-propagation
with respect to our reference frame. Neither
Einstein’s light-signal procedure, nor the slow-
transport method for synchronizing clocks can
provide any different measure of the velocity
of light than that obtained by timing a light-ray
over an out-and-return path. Only astron-
omical observation of the universe at large
can disclose the anisotropy and make us aware
of a fundamental reference frame which gives
meaning to absolute effects associated with
uniform motion.

References

BRIDGMAN, P. W., 1962. A Sophisticate’s Primer of
Relativity. Middletown, Conn.

BUILDER, G., 1958a. Aust. J. Physi wiay4o7.

BUILDER, G., 19586. Aust. J. Phys., 11, 279.

Ettis, B. D., and Bowman, P., 1967. Phil. of Sc.
34, 116.

E1nstEIN, A., 1905. Ann. der Phys., 17, 891.

PROKHOVNIK, S. J., 1967. The Logic of Special
Relativity. Cambridge.

PROKHOVNIK, S. J., 1973. Found. of Phys., 3, 351.

Winnie, J. A., 1970. Phil. of Sc., 37, 81 and 223.

(Received 24.7.73)

I ee ee

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 106, pp. 115-117, 1973

A Note on Recurrence Sequences

A. J. VAN DER POORTEN

ABSTRACT—Sequences satistying linear homogeneous difference equations (recurrence sequen-
ces) over a commutative ring R are investigated with a view to demonstrating without appeal to
analytic techniques that the set of all such sequences is an R-algebra with respect to termwise

operations. Explicit formulae are provided.
1. In this note we generalize well known
results on sequences satisfying linear homo-
geneous recurrence relations of arbitrary order.
Hereafter we refer to such sequences as recur-
rence sequences. Without the usual appeal to
analytic techniques we show that the set of
recurrence sequences over an arbitrary commuta-
tive ring R with unity forms an R-algebra with
respect to the termwise operations on sequences.
In particular, the termwise product of recurrence
sequences is again a recurrence sequence. We
provide an explicit expression for the auxiliary

equation belonging to {k,,}, a power of a recur-
rence sequence {k,}, thus generalizing such
results for recurrence sequences of small order
(cf.(4)). We should remark that the principal
motive of this note is to show that the analytic
techniques invariably applied to recurrence
sequences over C are unnecessary and tend to
disguise the formal structure of the situation.
At the same time we collect, in a generalized
form, results, which, though well known, are
by no means readily accessible elsewhere in
the literature.

2. Let {k,} be a sequence of elements, of an
arbitrary commutative ring R with unity, satis-
fying a linear homogeneous recurrence relation of
order ¢ over R (so that a,0)

R,=ayk, +h, 2+... +4,k,_,
t
i Ges ese
j=1
where we are given initial values fy, ky, ..., Ry}.

By multiplying by X” and summing over 1 we
obtain

whence writing k(X)= Xk,X" for the gener-

n=0
ating function of the sequence, we obtain
(es —k,_,X't-1_-.,. bX —ha]
t
=) asXi((X) —hk,_j,X*-J-1_., , —hX—I}
j=1
and thus

panels

e(X)°

where

i
e(X)=1— Xa,X/ and
j=1

i j-1
F(X)=2 (4.4 ps ayhj-1-1)XI4
= l=1
Thus £(X) is a rational function over R, whose
denominator is a polynomial of degree ¢ with
constant coefficient 1, and whose numerator is
a polynomial of degree at most ¢—1l. Con-
versely we see by multiplying by g(X) that any
such rational function is the generating function
of a sequence {k,} satisfying a linear homo-
geneous recurrence relation over R.

3. We turn now to consider the collection
D(R) of all recurrence sequences over R. We
see immediately that the generating function of
the termwise sum of two recurrence sequences is
a rational function over FR of the shape described
in section 2 above. Accordingly the sum of
two recurrence sequences is again a recurrence
sequence, and thus we may view D(R) as a

R-submodule of the R-module RY of all
sequences over Kt.
Indeed if
J(X)
ee)
ae ems

denote by q(X) the polynomial
t
GX) =Xig(X—-) =X! — aX’ 4,
j=l
the so-called auxiliary equation to the recurrence
relation satisfied by {k,}. Denote by E the
endomorphism of R% which sends a sequence
{u,,+ to the sequence {u,,,}, the n-th term of
which is u,,,. Since the recurrence relation
for {k,} is simply
g(E){k,}=(0}
we see that the recurrence sequences with auxi-
liary equation q(X) constitute exactly the kernel
of the endomorphism q(F) on RN. It follows
that the collection D(k) of all recurrence sequences
over R 1s exactly the R-submodule of RN consisting
of those sequences for which there exists a monic
polynomial h(X) over R with non-zero constant

116

coefficient, so that the sequence lies in the kernel
of the endomorphism h(E).

4. KRephrasing this result we see that it is
appropriate to view RN as an R[E]-module.
Then the recurrence sequences D(R) lie in exactly
those R[E]-submodules of RX which are finitely
generated as R-modules and no element of which
is annihilated by EF (thus avoiding those se-
quences which satisfy a recurrence relation if
some initial terns are excluded). To see this
we require only elementary linear algebra (in
effect the Cayley-Hamilton theorem) for then
for each such submodule we can find a monic
polynomial g(X) with non-zero constant term,
such that g(£) annihilates the submodule.

We can identify the term by term sum of
sequences with their direct sum, and the term
by term product of sequences with the symmetric
part of their tensor product. Then it is im-
mediate that both the direct sum and tensor
product of submodules as described are again
invariant under FE and finitely generated as
R-modules and contain no element annihilated
by &. Thus both the term by term sum and
term by term product of recurrence sequences
are again recurrence sequences and therefore
D(k) is an R-algebra. Hence was have shown
that the collection D(R) of all recurrence sequences
over a commutative ring R with unity 1s an
k-algebra with respect to the termwise operations
on sequences.

5. In order to show that D(C), the collection
of recurrence sequences of complex numbers,
forms a commutative ring Klarner‘?) appealed
to a result of Hadamard'‘*) (at page 157), to the
effect. that “if 2(z) Diu 2”, *y (2) aoe are
analytic in suitable regions about the origin,
then

ee. SL avy
Lt 9D 42" =5— { AOL AI

where x, is a closed contour in the y-plane which
includes the singularities of u(z/y)/y and excludes
those of v(y). It follows that if u(z) and v(z)
are rational functions then dXw,v,2" is rational
and its poles are at (some of) the points of shape
af where u(z) has a pole at « and v(z) a pole at .
Hence the termwise product of recurrence
sequences has a generating function of approp-
riate shape and is again a recurrence sequence.
For further details of the complex analysis in-
volved the reader is refered to‘! (at pp. 346-350).

We would however appear to obtain more
insight from purely algebraic considerations.
Given a monic polynomial p(X) ¢ RLX] irreduc-
ible in R[LX] we can construct the quotient ring
R[X]/(p(X)), where (f(X)) denotes the principal

A. J. VAN DER POORTEN

ideal generated by £(X) in R[X]. The condi-
tion that #(X) be monic suffices to guarantee
that (f(X)) and R have trivial intersection,
hence the quotient ring is an extension of R, —
and it obviously contains a zero of p(X). Pro-
ceeding in this manner, simply echoing the well-
known theory of finite algebraic extensions of
fields, we can produce, for any given collection
of monic polynomials in R[X], an extension

R of R in which each polynomial of that collec-
tion splits into monic linear factors. In this
construction we are neither discomfited by the
possible presence of zero divisors nor by factori-

zation in R[X] not necessarily being unique.

Having constructed a suitable extension R
for those polynomials we propose to factorize, we

go over to the R-module, RY@,pR&RN (which

one might call the R-ification of RY in analogy
with the familiar complexification of a real
space). We wish to prove the following :

Suppose that over an extension R- of R, the
polynomial q(X) factorizes into linear factors
q(X) =(X—ay)Ps41(X —ag)Patl (XK —ar,)Pe+t
where a, %,..., &, are distinct elements of R.
Then the kernel of the endomorphism q(E) on
RY consists exactly of those sequences {k,\ where
hk, ¢ R 1s of the shape

k,=b,(n)at+bo(n)axt...+b,(n)a%, n>0

and the b;(n) are polynomials in n over R of degree
at most p; respectively. Conversely wf the sequence
{k,,} has its terms given by the above expression
then the sequence 1s a recurrence sequence with
auxiliary equation q(X). To see this notice that

if «oe R then the kernel of the endomorphism

(E—a)?+1 on RX consists of sequences of RN
of the shape {b(m)x”} where b(n) is of degree at
most finn. It is now elementary linear algebra
to see that the kernel of g(£) is a sum of the
shape indicated in the assertion.. Conversely
of course, the assertion is obvious; one sees,
for example, that if {k,} is as in the assertion
then the -th term of the sequence (E —a,){k,}
has the shape given for k, except that the co-

efficient of « has its degree reduced by 1.

6. There is an alternative explicit expression
for the terms of recurrence sequences entirely in
terms of the coefficients of the auxiliary equation
and avoiding any question of determining the
zeros of the auxiliary equation.

For let {u,} be a recurrence sequence satis-
fying the recurrence satisfied by {k,}, and let
the initial values u%, “4, ..., 4,1 be given by

A NOTE ON RECURRENCE SEQUENCES

(a
aa pg as 2, ws», te.
1=1

Then the generating function u(X)= » WU,”

n=0
satisfies
| u(X)=(g(X))~*
and the sequences {k,,} and {u,} are related by
F(X)u(X)=R(X),
so that on equating coefficients we obtain

t j-1
k= 2 ri Ba > ays} n=,
joa 1=1

(where, formally, one puts u,,=k,,=0 for m<0).
Thus we have

t -1
U(X) =(e(X))-1=(1- za)
j=1
and expanding formally

foe) t m
u(X)= > ajXj
m=0\j=1
eo m!
aS a oe
m=0 Ait. O -+A;=m Ay!Ag! eee A,!

ne tae atXMt2hs +. ~+tAt

where the inner sum is over all non-negative
integers A,,...,A, withsum m. Hence equating
coefficients of X” we see that for n>0,
7 aa pape Th) gh .. ay
At2Aat. +iAy=n AylAg! .. . Ay!

where the sum is over all non-negative integers

Ay, . +, A, such that A,+2A,+...+iA, =n.
Writing (4,;=”—2),—. ..—tA, one reorganizes
this result to obtain
[n/2} — [n/3]
as p>
As=0 2s=0

as (’ sale —2)3—. oo (¢ a es ee -
= 0 cay eee e re
Fe tale ie nates tp ae | Ae
toe ay Ag...
\y-1

generalizing a formula proved in‘®) for the case
t=3. As usual [/j] means the greatest integer
not larger than n/j. Combining the result for
u, with that expressing k, in terms of u,, one
obtains an explicit expression for the k,. The
result is clearly of limited practical application
but is a fount for interesting combinatorial
identities.

As an example we see that the well-known
Fibonacci sequence {z,} defined by the recur-
rence “4,=u,_,+u,-, and the initial conditions
Uj=uU,=1, has generating function

uu, A"=(1—X —X?2)-1

117

whence

[m/2 (" 7
u,= &
A=0\ 2
7. From the explicit expression for the terms
of recurrence sequences given in section 5 one
immediately reads off that for positive integers
y the v-th power of a recurrence sequence has its
term of shape
i p>
Ar tAet. .tAs=”
where 6,2(m) are polynomials in 1 of degree at
most A,pytAcho+...-+A,p,. It follows that
if {k,} ts a recurrence sequence over R with
auxiliary equation q(X), such that q(X) factorizes

b, rx(n)(aas?.. .ods)n n>0

Ts—

over an extension R of R as
g(X)=(X—ay)P+1(X —og)rott...(X—a,)Pa+

then {ki,\ is a recurrence sequence with auxiliary
equation g,(X) given by the monic lowest common
multiple of the polynomials

(X —ahaxd? aa: ons) hpi +. » +A, +1,
Ay Ae + + + A, running over all non-negative
integers with sum yr. Thus the generating

function k,(X)=DR,X" is a rational function
f(X)/¢,(X), where we may write f,(X) explicitly
in terms of the initial values of the sequence
using the results of section 1 above. This
result generalizes particular cases for r=2 and 3
mentioned in [4]. The reader should note that

degeneracy is possible, and that whilst {h;,}
certainly satisfies the recurrence relation given
by g,(X), it may satisfy a relation of smaller
order.

Similarly the above described approach allows
one to explicitly provide the auxiliary equation
belonging to the term wise product of any infinite
collection of recurrence sequences.

References

DIENES, P., 1957. The Taylor Series. Dover Books,
New York.
KLARNER, D. A., 1967.
by Rational Functions.

74, 813-816.

SHANNON, A. G., 1972. Iterative Formulae Associated
with Generalized Third Order Recurrence Re-
lations. SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics.

SHANNON, A. G., and Horapaw, A. F., 1971. Generating

Functions for Powers of Third Order Recurrence

A Ring of Sequences Generated
Amer. Math. Monthly,

Sequences. Duke Math. J., 38, 4, 791-794.
TITCHMARSH, 1939. The Theory of Functions (2nd
ed:).. OUP.

School of Mathematics,
University of New South Wales.
Kensington, N.S.W., 2033.

(Received 27-6-73)

Report of the Council for the Year Ended 31st March, 1973

Presented at the Annual General Meeting of the
Society held on 4th April, 1973 in accordance with
Rule 18 (a).

At the end of the period under review the composition
of the membership was 343 members, 15 associate
Members and seven honorary mem bers.

During the year 13 new members and two associate
members were elected and three Members were written
off under Rule 5 (6).

It is with regret that we announce the loss by death
of the following members :

Sir Charles Bickerton Blackburn (1961).

Sir Lawrence Bragg (1960).

Professor Oscar Ulric Vonwiller (1929).

Mr. Lionel Lawry Waterhouse (1919).

Associate Professor Clive Melville Harris (1948).

Both Sir Charles Bickerton Blackburn and Sir Law-
rence Bragg were esteemed honorary members of the
Society.

Nine monthly meetings were held. The abstracts of
addresses have been printed on the notice paper.
The proceedings of these will appear later in the issue
of the Journal and Proceedings. The members of
Council wish to express their sincere thanks and
appreciation to the nine speakers who contributed to
the success of these meetings, the average attendance
being 60.

The Lecture, under the joint auspices of the Society
and the University of Sydney, was given by Professor
Laurent Schwartz, Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, the
title being ‘‘ Cylindrical Probabilities and P-
Radonifying Maps’’. The text of this lecture will
appear later in the Journal and Proceedings.

The Annual Social Function was held at the Pitt
Club on 21st March and was attended by 54 members
and guests. The speaker was Dr. F. H. Talbot,
Director of the Australian Museum, his subject being
““Museums and Research ’’.

The Society’s Medal for 1972: Mr. W. H. G. Poggen-
dori, ssc. Aer,

The Clarke Medal for 1972: Mr. Haddon F. King,
BIAS Sc:

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1972: Awarded
jointly to Donald Harold Napper, M.Sc., Ph.D. ;
Jonathan< Stone; B:sex(Med-), Ph.D:

The Society received a grant of $1,500 from the
Government of New South Wales and it very much
appreciates the Government’s continued interest in
the work of the Society.

After a considerable amount of preparatory work
was Carried out by the sub-committee, the Summer
School was cancelled because of lack of support.
Despite this disappointment, Council recommends that
plans should be made for another School in January,
1974.

The Society’s financial statement shows a surplus
of $1,848.50.

The New England Branch had a successful year with
six well attended meetings.

The South Coast Branch held several meetings,
ncluding an Annual Dinner, during the year.

The Section of Geology continued to meet regularly
throughout the year.

Proceedings of the Branches and Section of Geology
will appear in the Journal and Proceedings.

The Council held 11 ordinary meetings and two
special meetings. Attendances at ordinary meetings
were as follows: Mr. J. C. Cameron, 10;° Mr. M. J.
Puttock, 8; Mr. E. K. Chatfer, 10; Dire W.orickert
8; Mrs. M. Krysko v. Tryst/-1QctyG AY 7G
Poggendorff, 11; Professor W. E. Smith, 8; Professor
R. J. W. LeFevre, 6; Professor W. B. Smith-White,
7; Mr. W. H. Robertson, 6; Professor L. J. Lawrence,
6; Mr.-D. S: Bridges, 7;/ Mr. J> Waiiimmpuries, ie
Dr. P. D.. Tilley, 7; Dr. B:, Ee @laney esi Wie yj
Pollard, 7; Professor R. L. Stanton} mils ™Dr.-]. Ae
Facer, 1; Dr. A. J. van der Poorten, 4; .Proiessor
EG. Watton. 3:

The President represented the Society at: The
Celebrations of the Captain Cook Landing at Kurnell
and placed a wreath on the Banks Memorial; The
Annual Dinner of the Chamber of Manufactures of
New South Wales; The Annual Dinner of the Sydney
Division of the Institution of Engineers, Australia ;
The Annual Dinner of the N.S.W. Division of the
Institution of Surveyors, Australia.

Four parts of the Journal and Proceedings were
published during the year: Volume 104, parts 1 and 2
and Volume 104, parts 3 and 4. Volume 105, parts 1
and 2 is expected from the printer in a few weeks.
Volume 105, parts 3 and 4 should be issued in July and
Volume 106, parts 1 and 2 in November, 1973. A
new cover has been designed for the Journal by Mr.
Barry White and will appear on Volume 105, parts 1
and 2.

The Library.—The number of items received and
processed was 3,755. These were periodicals received
by exchange from 396 Societies and Institutions,
donations and by the purchase of periodicals on which
$428.86 was expended.

Among the Institutions who made use of the
Library through the Inter-Library Loan Scheme were :

N.S.W. and Other State Governments: Geological
Survey of New South Wales; N.S.W. Departments of
Motor Transport, Health, Soil Conservation Service,
Water Sewerage and Drainage Board; Conservation ;
Water Conservation and _ Irrigation Commission ;
Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, N.S.W.; Electricity
Commission. Queensland: Irrigation and Water
Supply Commission and Department of Primary
Industries.

Commonwealth Government Departments :
ment of Works, Royal Australian Navy.

C.S.I.R.O.: National Standards Laboratory, Textile
Physics Division of Applied Chemistry, Animal Physiol-
ogy, Mineral Chemistry, Radiophysics (all in Sydney) ;
Long Pocket Laboratories, Meat Research Laboratory
(in Queensland); Division of Wildlife Research and
Canberra Laboratories (in Canberra).

Universities and Colleges : University of New South
Wales; University of Sydney ; Macquarie University ;
Institute of Technology, Gore Hill; Mitchell College

Depart-

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1973

of Advanced Education ; Darling Downs Institute of
Advanced Education; University of New England ;
University of Queensland; James Cook University of
North Queensland; Wollongong University College ;
Newcastle Teachers’ College ; University of Papua and
New Guinea; Granville Technical College ; University
of Newcastle; Hawkesbury Agricultural College ;
Sydney Technical College; School of General Studies,
Australian National University ; Barr Smith Library,
University of Adelaide; University of Tasmania ;
Queensland Institute of Technology.

Companies: Dulux Australia Ltd.; James Hardie
& Co. Pty. Ltd.; Esso Exploration ; Peko Wallsend ;
IC. uO: In. Research ;, Roche Products Pty. Ltd: ;
Sulphide Corporation Pty. Ltd.; A.G.L. Co.; M.I.M.
Holdings Ltd.; John Lysaght (Aust.) Ltd.; B.H.P.
Newcastle ; Shell Co. of Australia Ltd. ; Union Carbide
Aust. Ltd.; A.C.I. Technical Library; Dames and
Moore.

Research Institutes : Medical Library, University of
Western Australia; Australian Food Research Labora-
tories; Waite Agricultural Research Institute.

Miscellaneous : Australian Broadcasting Commission,
Gore Hill; Institution of Engineers ; Snowy Mountains
Hydro Electric Authority; Commonwealth Serum
Laboratories, Parkville; Royal Newcastle Hospital.

A total of 334 loans were made to the above and 34 to
mtembers of the Society. There were 43 requests for
photocopying of articles with a total of 967 pages
copied.

119

Within the past two weeks the Society has been paid
the final compensation monies relating to the resump-
tion of Science House. Except for a relatively small
sum, the compensation money has been invested in
short-term securities awaiting the final decision on the
Science Centre Project.

This project has been under earnest consideration
during the year. The Planning Committee (formed
jointly with the Linnean Society of New South Wales)
has been in close consultation with its consultants,
Messrs. Jones, Land and Wootton, who presently are
negotiating for a site. A joint company has been
formed by the Linnean Society and the Royal Society
for the purposes of administering their share of the
compensation funds received from the resumption of
Science House, and ultimately to establish a Science
Centre.

This Company, Science Centre Pty. Ltd. was formed
during the past two weeks and replaces the Planning
Committee referred to above. Each of the Societies
has four Directors on the Board of the Company,
those from the Royal Society being Mr. E. K. Chaffer,
Mr. J. W. Humphries, Mr. M. J. Puttock and Prof.
W.. E. Smith.

Following the resignation of the Assistant Secretary,
Mrs. Margaret Collier, the Council appointed Mrs.
Valda Lyle to this position, on a full-time basis, from
the 12th February, 1973.

J. W. HUMPHRIES,
Hon. Secretary (General)

Honorary Treasurer’s Report

There was a surplus for the period of $1,849 as against
a surplus for the previous year of $2,900 resulting in a
total decrease of $1,051 made up as follows:

$ $
Income in general interest A 535
Increase in sale of back numbers 2,351
Increase in sale of reprints .. oe 6 206
Increase in commission received .. aes 2
Increase in donations received cs .8 17
3,111
Less :
Reduction in members’ subscriptions 139
Reduction in subscriptions to journal 163
Reduction in Science House surplus 498
Reduction in summer school surplus 243
Increase in salary costs 813
Increase in printing costs 1,910
Increase in general expenses 396
4,162
Total decline $1,051

The payment of compensation monies for the
resumption of Science House has resulted in the loss
of the income previously derived from that source.
Anticipating that —it will be at least three years until
the Society once again derives an income from rent
of office space, budgets for the next three financial
years have been drawn up allowing for a total deficit
of $28,420 over the three year period. This deficit will
be covered by a sum retained from the compensation
money not reinvested in the Science Centre Project.

On the last financial statement the Society’s share
of the original cost of Science House was written off
due to the resumption. This year it is replaced by a
figure for the resumption reserve.

J. W. PICKETT,
Hon. Treasurer.

Report of the South Coast Branch of the Bova Society of
New South Wales

Annual General Meeting: 1978,

8.30 p.m. to 9.00 p.m.

The meeting was preceded by a dinner and followed
by two films on Wild Life Conservation.

Eleven (11) members were present.

Minutes of the previous meeting were read and
adopted.

Election of Office-bearers took place:

26th February,

President: - 4B. Clancy; proposed W..,Upfold,
seconded A. Keane.
Secretary: G. Doherty; proposed A. Keane,

seconded D. Thompson.

Council Rep.: G. Doherty; proposed B. Clancy,
seconded W. Upfold.

(All elected unopposed.)

Moved: B. Clancy, seconded: W. Upfold—‘ that
the next meeting of the Branch to be held in conjunction
with a barbeque on Saturday, 28th April, 1973, at
Jervis Bay ”’

The hole dug by the A.A.E.C. for its proposed reactor
was thought to be of some interest.

The availability of Professor Keane for membership
of the Science Centre Trustee Committee was
established.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT, 1972——

$
Previous Balance 45.95
1972 Funds from Spdat 50.00
$95.95
Subsidy towards Annual Dinner 39.85
$56.10
1973 Funds from Sydney 50.00
Present Balance

$106.10

Report of the New England Branch of the Royal Society of
New South Wales

Officers :

Chairman: H. G. Royle.

Secretary-Treasurer: T. O’Shea.

Committee: RK. L. Stanton, ‘D: Hi. Fayle, NaH.

Fletcher, I. Douglas.

Branch Representative on Council: R. L. Stanton.
Since the last report of October, 1971, the following

meetings were held:

6th October, 1971: Professor N. C. W. Beadle, Uni-
versity of New England. ‘“‘ Vegetation and Con-
servation in the Australian Arid Zone ”’

25th November, 1971: Dr. D. J. Swain, Division of
Mineral Chemistry, C.S.I.R.O. ‘“‘The Relevance
of Geo-chemistry to Problems of the Natural
Environment.”

7th March, 1972: Professor H. M. Whyte, The Aus-
tralian National University, Canberra. ‘‘ The
Role of Nutrition in Heart Disease.”’

30th March, 1972: Dr. J. Beardsley, University of
Hawaii. ‘‘ The Biological Control of Insects.”’

28th June, 1972: Professor W. Stephenson, Professor
of Zoology, University of Queensland. ‘‘ My Life
and Hard Times with Computers.”

3rd August, 1972: Professor Court, California State
University at Northridge. ‘‘ Recent Advances in
Weather Prediction.”’

30th November, 1972: Dr. J. Sands, Senior Physician
at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney. ‘‘ The

Renal Dialysis and Transplant Patient/Medical,
Social, and Psychological Problems.”’

Financial Statement :

$ $
Balance at University of New Eng-
land Branch, C.B.C. Sydney at
6th October, 1971.. ss .. 375.66
Credit
Remittance from Royal Society of
N.S.W., 1971 ee 50.00
Interest to 31st December, 1971 “ase Gule
Interest to 29th June, 1972. os) 7
Interest to 29th December, Las 972 6.45
Remittance from Royal Society of
N.S.W., 1973 sigs 50.00
496.01
Debit
Expenses visit Prof. H. M. Whyte.. 62.80
Expenses visit Dr. J. Sands 42.00
Expenses visit Dr. D. J. Swain 53.20
158.00
Balance at 8th May, 1973 $338.01

T. O’SHEA,
1/5/73

Secretary- Treasurer.

1972
$

8,898

35,770
$44,668

1,865
2
13,600
18

15,485

19,280

—

19,280

7,000
2,342

9,342

2,419
559

2,978

54,091

9,342
81

9,423
$44,668

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1973

RESERVES

Library Reserve
Resumption reserve—note 1

ACCUMULATED FUNDS

NET FUNDS

Represented by:
CURRENT ASSETS

Cash at bank and in hand
Debtors for subscriptions—note 2
Debtor for compensation—note 1
Other current debtors rs
Deposits at call—note 3

CURRENT LIABILITIES

Sundry creditors and accruals ..

Subscriptions paid in advance .. ie
Life members’ subscriptions—current portion. ;
Provision for specific commitments—note 4 ..

NET CURRENT ASSETS

FIXED ASSETS—note 5

Furniture and office equipment
Lantern 3 ae
Library

Pictures

INVESTMENTS—note 6

Commonwealth bonds and inscribed stock
Deposits at call

TRUST FUNDS—note 7

Commonwealth bonds and inscribed stock
Deposits at call -

NON-CURRENT ASSETS

Centenary volume
Science centre project—note 4.

NON-CURRENT LIABILITIES

Trust funds—note 7
Life members’ subscriptions—non- -current portion

NETSASSETS ..

$

601.69

428,500.00
828.14
15,847.47

340.77
80.35

8.40
420,000.00

1,771.72
2.00
13,600.00
16.77

9,680.00

9,600.00

7,000.00

2,703.61

2,218.80
420,000.00

9,703.61
73.50

$

8,898.49
435,897.79
37,367.29

$482,163.57

445,777.30

420,429.52

25,347.78

15,390.49

19,280.00

9,703.61

422,218.80

491,940.68

9,777.11

$482,163.57

(The above balance sheet is to be read in conjunction with the notes attached.)

(Signed) J. W. PICKETT,
Hon. Treasurer.

J. C. CAMERON,
President.

121

122

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT
FOR THE YEAR ENDED 28TH FEBRUARY, 1973

1972
$ $
2,900 NET SURPLUS for period before bad debts 1,848.50
Less:
(45) INCREASE in provision for bad debts .56
67 SUBSCRIPTIONS written off 250.10
22 250.66
2,878 NET SURPLUS for period 1,597.84
Add:

— COMPENSATION re resumption Science House .. 438,000.00
63,362 ACCUMULATED FUNDS brought forward from 1972 .. 35,769.45
66,240 FUNDS AVAILABLE.. 475,367.29

Less:
30,470 SCIENCE HOUSE—one-third capital cost —

— TRANSFER to resumption reserve—note 1 438,000.00
30,740 438,000.00

$35,770 ACCUMULATED FUNDS—28th February, 1973 $37,367.29

1. In our opinion :

(The above account is to be read in conjunction with the notes attached.)

AUDITORS’ REPORT TO THE MEMBERS
(a) The attached Balance Sheet and Income and Expenditure Account,

together with the notes thereon, have been properly drawn up so as to
correctly show the state of the Society’s affairs at 28th February, 1973

and the surplus for the year ended on that date.

(bo) The accounting and other records have been properly kept in accordance

with the Rules of the Society.

2. We have satisfied ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are
properly held and registered.

65 York Street,
Sydney.
26th March, 1973.

HORLEY & HORLEY,

Chartered Accountants.
Registered under the Public Accountants
Registration Act 1945, as amended.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
NOTES ON ACCOUNTS—28th FEBRUARY, 1973

1. RESUMPTION RESERVE.

Compensation offered by the Sydney Cove Brae ean: pea ee re the

resumption of Science House (see below)

Less:

Expenditure incurred to date re Science Centre Project

Compensation received to date ..

Owing by the Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority

2. DEBTORS FOR SUBSCRIPTIONS.
1972
$
655 Owing by members

Less:
655 Reserve for bad debts

3.. DEPOSITS AT CALL.
1972

General funds
673 Long service leave fund

4. SCIENCE CENTRE PROJECT.

$438,000.00
2,101.21
$435,897.79

9,500.00
428,500.00

$438,000.00

$
15,130.50
716.97

$15,847.47

The Society is currently planning a joint venture with the Linnean Society for the
establishment of a Science Centre for New South Wales and $420,000 is the anticipated
amount to be contributed by each Society.

5. FIXED ASSETS.

The basis adopted for the valuation of fixed assets is:

Furniture and office equipment—cost less depreciation
Lantern —cost less depreciation

Library —1936 valuation
Pictures —cost less depreciation
6. INVESTMENTS.
1972
$ $
9,680 General funds 9,680.00
9,600 Library fund 9,600.00
$19,280 $19,280.00
7. TRUST FUNDS.
Walter
Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Ollé
Memorial Prize Bequest Bequest
$ $ $ $
Capital 3,600.00 2,000.00 1,400.00 —
Revenue :
Income for period 211.32 117.40 82.18 101.00
Iessi:
Expenditure — 150.00 — —
211.32 (32.60) 82.18 101.00
Balance from 1972 565.33 717.49 206.63 852.26
$776.65 $684.89 $288.81 $953.26

124

1972

62
21

243
$15,416

12,516

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
DETAILED INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT

FOR YEAR ENDED 28th FEBRUARY, 1973

INCOME

Membership subscriptions—ordinary ..
—life members

Application fees

Subscriptions to journal ..
Government subsidy

Total memberhips and journal income ..

Science House management—share of surplus

Interest on general investments

Sale of reprints .. — ee

Sale of back numbers
Cammission

Donations .. 2
Summer school surplus

TOTAL INCOME

ess.
EXPENDITURE

Accountancy

Advertising. .

Annual social

Audit aN ie

Branches of the society ..

Cleaning =. ae

Depreciation

Electricity ..

Entertaining

Insurance a5

Library purchases. .

Miscellaneous ke oe

Postages and telegrams ..

Printing—Vol. 104, Parts 1-4
Binding
Postages

Printing, general and stationery
Rent ae i 0 :
Repairs

Salaries

Telephone ..

TOTAL EXPENDITURE ..

$2,900 NET SURPLUS for period

"3,153.30

95.00
307.61

3,555.91

365.42

4,215.00

29.33

4,815.12
180.31

$
3,015.00
8.40
23.00
3,046.40

1,368.46
1,500.00

$5,914.86

6,717.40
2,087.62
312.81
2,413.41
23.05
16.90

$17,486.05

15,637.55

$1,848.50

Abstract of Proceedings

5th April, 1972

The one hundred and fifth Annual Meeting of the
Society was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.

‘The President, Mr. M. J. Puttock was in the chair.
There were present 59 members and visitors.

The President announced with regret the death of:
Sir Ronald S. Nyholm, honorary member (elected in
1940).

Dr. Francis Lions, life member (elected in 1929).

It was announced that Sir J. Philip Baxter had been
elected honorary member of the Society at a Council
Meeting on 23rd February, 1972.

Mina J. Rhodes (Mrs.) was elected a member of the
Society.

The awards of the Society were announced as
follows :

The Society’s Medal for 1971 to Professor J. L.

Griffith.

3rd May, 1972

The eight hundred and fifty-ninth (859) General
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron was in the chair.
There were present 80 members and visitors.

An announcement was made that due to the sudden
illness of Mr. E. K. Chaffer (Hon. Secretary) it was
agreed at a Council Meeting held on 26th April, 1972,
that Mr. J. W. Humphries be appointed Hon. Secretary
and that Mr. Chaffer be elected a member of Council.

The following were elected members of the Society.
Norman Arthur Clayton, Ian Douglas, George Seddon,
David Hayes Small.

The following papers were read by title only :

“The Geology of the Coolac Serpentinite and
Adjacent Rocks East of Tumut, N.S.W.”’, by
ie We; “Ashley, ..6./E. Chenhall, P.. L-“Cremer,
As--J: Irving.

“Mineralogical Changes as Marker Horizons for
Stratigraphic Correlation in the Narrabeen Group

of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W.’’, by C. R. Ward.

“On Hoyle’s Electrodynamic Version of the Steady-
State Cosmology ’’, by R. R. Burman.

“Palaeozoic Sedimentology and Igneous Geology of
the Woolgoolga District, North Coast, New South
Wales ’’, by R. J. Korsch.

“Note on Sandstone Dykes
Neo. W.°; by G. S. Gibbons.

“Words, Actions, People: 150 years of Scientific
Societies in Australia’’, by D. F. Branagan
(Sesqui-centenary address).

“Radiation Pressure and Related Forces’’, by
W. E. Smith (Presidential Address, 1971).

Address—An address entitled ‘‘ Researches in
Archaeo-Gemmology ’’ was delivered by Dr. Leo Koch.

at Minchinbury,

7th June, 1972
The eight hundred and sixtieth (860) General
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron was in the chair.
There were present 32 members and visitors.

Mr. Ian George Percival was elected an associate
member of the Society.

The following paper was read by title only:

“On the Motion of Particles in Conformally Flat

space’ Times”, by RK. R. Burman.

Address.—An address entitled ‘‘ Galileo and the
Shapes of Venus’”’ was delivered by Professor J. B.
Thornton.

5th July, 1972

The eight hundred and sixty-first (861) General
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron was in the Chair.
There were present 18 members and visitors.

The President announced with regret the death of
Dr. R. K. Murphy, member since 1915.

Address.—In the absence of Mr. R. A. Hall the
address was delivered by Mr. D. G. Christy, Principal
Veterinary Officer.

2nd August, 1972
The eight hundred and sixty-second (862) General
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.
The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron, was in the chair.
There were present 60 members and visitors.
The following papers were read by title only :
“Occultations observed at Sydney Observatory
during 1971’, by K. P. Sims.
“A gabbo-troctolite-anorthosite intrusion at Dir-
naseer, near Temore, New South Wales’’, by
P. M. Ashley and A. J. Irving.
Address.—An, address entitled ““ Congenital Anom-
alies ’’ was delivered by Dr. W. G. McBride.

6th September, 1972

The eight hundred and sixty-third (863) General
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron was in the chair.
There were present 36 members and visitors.

The death was announced with regret of Emeritus
Professor Oscar U. Vonwiller, member since 1903,
Past President and Honorary Secretary.

Elizabeth A. Walsh was elected member of the
Society.

Ross E. Pogson was elected associate member of the
Society.

Address.—An addresss titled ‘“‘ Antarctic Glaciology
Provides a Unique Insight into the Problem of Long
Term Changes of Climate’’, was delivered by Dr.
W. F. Budd, Antarctic Division, Dept. of Supply,
Commonwealth of Australia.

4th October, 1972
The eight hundred and sixty-fourth (864) General
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

126

The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron, was in the chair.
There were present 120 members and visitors.

Mr. T. S. M. Ranneft was elected as a member.

Dr. A. Kalokerinos of Collarenebri delivered an audio-
visual lecture entitled ‘‘ Australian Precious Opal ’’.

1st November, 1972

The eight hundred and sixty-fifth (865) General
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron, was in the chair.
There were 35 members and visitors present.

The death was announced with regret of : Sir Charles
Bickerton Blackburn and Sir Lawrence Bragg, both
honorary members of the Society.

Addvess—An address entitled ‘ Environmental
Effects of Supersonic Transports’’ was delivered by
Dr. R. G. Hewitt, Department of Theoretical Physics,
University of Sydney.

6th December, 1972

The eight hundred and sixty-sixth (866) General
Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

Wales was held in the Large Hall of Science House,
157 Gloucester Street, Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron, was in the chair.
There were present 39 members and visitors.

The death was announced with regret of Lionel
Lawry Waterhouse.

The following members were elected, John Pallister
Barkas and Allan Ross Chivas.

The following papers were read by title only :
‘“ Astronomical Objects Embedded in Matter I—

External Metrics’’, ‘‘ Astronomical Objects Em-
bedded in Matter II—Light Tracks’’, by R. R.
Burman.

‘““ Late Devonian (Frasnian) conodonts from Ettrema,
New South Wales’’, by J. W. Pickett.

“A Study of Root Concretions at Kurnell, N.S.W. ’’,
by G. S. Gibbons and J. L. Gordon.

Addvess.—An address entitled ‘‘ Dietary and Nutri-
tion Problems in the 70’s ’’ was delivered by Dr. W. F.
Clements, School of Public Health and _ Tropical
Medicine at the University of Sydney.

Section of Geology

Abstract of Meetings, 1972

Five meetings were held during 1972, the average
attendance being about 12 members and visitors.

MARCH 17th (Annual Meeting) :

(1) Election of office-bearers: Chairman, Dr. B. B.
Guy; Hon. Secretary, Mr. E. V. Lassak.

(2) Address by Dr. R. Wass: ‘“‘ Recent Bryozoans
and their Environmental Significance ’’.

Bryozoa, especially the Cheilostomata were discussed.
They are found between widely ranging parameters
but their best development is within a restricted range
of temperature, salinity and depth. The growth type
may be dependant on substrate and sedimentation
rate.

(3) Presentation of Notes and Exhibits.

Dr. Pickett exhibited several specimens illustrating
the interaction of species by examples from the fossil
record.

Mr. Lassak exhibited a specimen of crystallized
mordenite from the Omo valley in Ethiopia.

MAY 19th:

Address by Mr. K. Maiden: ‘‘ The Metamorphism
of the Broken Hill Sulphide Ore Body ’”’.

In the Broken Hill orebody, mesoscopic structures
such as layering, brecciation and ore veins, can be
interpreted in terms of processes occurring during high
grade Metamorphism. ‘These processes include plastic
flow of sulphides, fluid phase transport, partial melting
and recrystallization. From the relationship between
the various structures, a history of events during
deformation and metamorphism can be erected.

JULY 21st:

Address by Mr. R. Fountain:
at Panguna ”

“Rock Alteration

The porphyry copper deposit at Pangunaon Bou-
gainville Island occurs in an andesitic host rock. The
three stages of porphyry recognized are associated with
four stages of quartz veins. The copper mineraliza-
tion is related to stage two prophyry.

SEPTEMBER T5th':
Address by Dr. P. C. Rickwood: ‘‘ New Zealand’s
Subantarctic Auckland Islands ’’.

Dr. Rickwood described the history, geography and
geology of the Auckland Island group. The islands
appear to be the remnants of two (or possibly three)
volcanoes. Adams Island in the south is the remaining
rim of the southern volcano. The island is composed
of alkaline basalts including numerous lava flows.
Extremely inclement weather during the speaker’s
visit made detailed geological examination almost
impossible.

NOVEMBER i7th:

Address by Dr. M. B. Katz: ‘‘ Paired Metamorphic
Belts of the Gondwanaland Precambrian and Plate
Tectonics ’’.

Precambrian, granulite facies, paired metamorphic
belts can be traced throughout the basement rocks of
Gondwanaland. These belts can be divided into a
Barrovian-Abukuma couple, which run side by side
with lithological-structural-chronological continuity.
Their pattern suggests plate tectonic interactions
between Indian, Antarctic-Australian and African
proto plates in the early Precambrian.

Citations

The Society’s Medal for 1972

The Royal Society of New South Wales’ own Medal
for service to Science and to the Society is awarded to
Walter Poggendorff, B.Sc. Agr.

Walter Poggendorff, formerly Chief of the Division of
Plant Industry, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture,
has made notable contributions to Australian plant
breeding. He is well known particularly for his work
in the development of new rice strains, also for the
development of three new varieties of canning peaches,
a new variety of apricot and the only new commercial
grape ever developed in Australasia to this date.

Walter Poggendorff became interested in agriculture
from a very early age. He attended Hurlstone Agri-
cultural High School and attended the Hawkesbury
Agricultural College where he graduated with diplomas
in both Agriculture and Dairying.

In January, 1924, he was granted a cadetship with
the New South Wales Department of Agriculture.
He attended the University of Sydney where he
studied under Professor R. D. Watt and Dr. Walter
Waterhouse, both late members of the Society. He
graduated in 1928. It was Walter Waterhouse who
influenced young Walter Poggendorff towards the field
of plant breeding, a field in which he was later to enjoy
such great success.

Upon graduation Mr. Poggendorff was posted to the
Yanco Experiment Farm with the specific task of
developing rice for the then fledgling N.S.W. rice
industry. His responsibilities were not confined to
this pursuit alone, for he was entrusted with research
into any other crops which could offer commercial
potentialities in the district.

The next 13 years of plant beeding at Yanco were
very dedicated, productive and happy ones. For it
was during this period that his main object of develop-
ing new rice strains was realized, together with his
research on new canning peaches and the new com-
mercial grape, the latter being achieved after 10,000
Seedlings yielded three possibilities from which one
finally proved to be of commercial value.

Mr. Poggendorff, in his capacity as an advisor on
rice production to the New South Wales Rice Marketing

Board visited the United States of America and Mexico
in 1935.

In 1941 due to the outbreak of World War II he
was recalled to the Head Office of the New South
Wales Department of Agriculture (Sydney) to take up
the post of Special Agronomist—miscellaneous crops.

In this capacity he was responsible for the crop
development and production control of drugs, fibres,
essential oils and others. At the same time he still
continued with plant breeding especially rice at Yanco.

Mr. Poggendorff was seconded to the Commonwealth
and also to a private development company for work
in Northern Australia, Papua-New Guinea and the
Solomon Islands in 1952, 1955, and 1965.

For a short time he held an appointment as Special
Agronomist (Irrigation) and in 1953 he represented
Australia at the International Rice Conference organ-
ized by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO). In 1966 he was a representa-
tive on the International Rice Commission of FAO in
New Delhi.

In 1947 Mr. Poggendorff became Chief of the Division
of Plant Industry for the New South Wales Department
of Agriculture.

Walter Poggendorff has also been active in the New
South Wales Branch of the Australian Institute of
Agricultural Science and was president of the New
South Wales Branch in 1947.

For the Royal Society of New South Wales Walter
Poggendorff has given freely of his time and services
over a lengthy period, being a member of Council and
Executive Council since 1957.

His most notable contribution has been in his role
as Honorary Librarian—a position he has fulfilled
since 1968—for it was during this period that the
then librarian of the Society, Mr. A. F. Day, revised
the Society’s Library so thoroughly and efficiently,
a process demanding many extra chores of the Honorary
Librarian, Walter Poggendorff.

It gives me and the Council great pleasure in con-
ferring on Walter Poggendorff the Society’s Medal for
1972.

The Clarke Medal for 1972

The Clarke Medal is awarded for distinguished work
in the Natural Sciences done in or on the Australian
Commonwealth and its territories. It is considered
annually and is awarded in the fields of Geology,
Botany and Zoology in rotation.

The award for 1972 goes to Mr. Haddon F. King,
Consultant Geologist to Riotinto Zinc Corporation and
Conzinc Riotinto Australia.

Mr. Haddon F. King was born in British Guiana and
obtained the Bachelor of Science degree in Mining
Geology at the University of Toronto, Canada. He
came to Australia in 1934 and worked for several

years as a geologist with Western Mining Corporation
in Western Australia. In 1946, after war service in
the South West Pacific, he joined the staff of The
Zinc Corporation at Broken Hill and in 1953 was
appointed Chief Geologist to Consolidated Zinc Pty.
Ltd. in Melbourne. In 1964, after the formation of
Conzinc Riotinto (Australia) Mr. King was appointed
Director of Exploration and a Director of C.R.A.
Exploration Pty. Ltd.

In addition to his outstanding work as a mine
geologist at Broken Hill, Mr. King has been associated
with some of the major mineral discoveries of recent

128

years, in Australia and its Territories. These include
the iron ore deposits of the Hammersley Ranges and
Mount Tom Price in Western Australia and the copper
deposits of Bougainville in the Territory of Papua
and New Guinea.

Notwithstanding his heavy commitments as an
executive member of a large mining company Haddon
King has found time to contribute very substantially,
and very significantly, to fundamental and applied
research on the problems of ore genesis—particularly
the origin of stratiform sulphide ores. His interest
in this problem arose at Broken Hill where he formu-
lated his (now widely accepted) concepts on the origin
of syngenetic-stratiform base-metal deposits. This

CITATIONS

led to several original (and at that time controversial)
papers on the origin of the Broken Hill orebody.
During his numerous overseas visits he has been able
to demonstrate that orebodies in other parts of the

world had an origin similar to that at Broken Hill. ~

In this way he has laid the foundations of a theory of
ore genesis that is now universally accepted. His
research in this field has revolutionized concepts on
the origin of layered sulphide ores and has opened up
new approaches to the exploration for these deposits.
In recognition of his contributions to ore genesis
research Mr. King was awarded the Penrose Medal of
the Society of Economic Geologists in the United
States of America.

The. Edgeworth David Medal, 1972

The Edgeworth David Medal is awarded for dis-
tinguished contributions by young scientists, under
the age of 35 for work done mainly in Australia or its
territories or contributing to the advancement of
Australian science.

The award for 1972 is made jointly to Dr. Donald
Harold Napper, Senior Lecturer in Physical Chemistry,
University of Sydney, for his work in four fields of
physical chemistry and Dr. Jonathan Stone, for his
work on certain aspects of the visual system.

Dr. DoNALD HAROLD NAPPER

Dr. Napper graduated as a Bachelor of Science with
First Class Honours in Physical Chemistry from the
University of Sydney in 1959, sharing the University
Medal. He became a Master of Science at the same
University in 1960 and obtained his Doctorate of
Philosophy at Cambridge University in 1963.

From 1963-1966 he was a research officer at the
Colonial Sugar Refining Company Research Labora-
tories, East Roseville, N.S.W., and from 1966 to 1968
he held a joint appointment as Lecturer in Physical
Chemistry at the University of Bristol and as Research
Officer in the Paints Division of Imperial Chemical
Industries at Slough in the United Kingdom. He
returned to the University of Sydney in 1968 as
Queen Elizabeth II Research Fellow in the Department
of Physical Chemistry, in which Department he is
now a senior lecturer.

The research studies for which he received the
Edgeworth David Award for 1972 fall into four main
subject categories: polymerization kinetics, steric
stabilization, dissolution kinetics and light scattering.
Except for the light scattering studies which he carried
out in England, most of this research was carried out
in Sydney.

Dr. Napper’s studies on steric stabilization which
have been carried out in the last five years, are the
most extensive and, in a sense, the most pioneering
of those listed in the award. Steric stabilization refers
to the stabilization against flocculation imparted to
colloidal particles by non-ionic Macromolecules. Al-
though this phenomenon was well-known in early
Egyptian technology, a proper understanding of its
origins was lacking until recently.

The preparation of model sterically stabilized dis-
persions permitted a thorough investigation of the
phenomenology of flocculation to be made. The

application of modern theories of the thermodynamics
of polymer solutions resulted in a quantitative theory
of steric stabilization. Its predictions appear to be in
accord with experiment.

The studies of the kinetics of polymerization were
designed to clarify the role of surfactants in emulsion
polymerizations. It was shown that, in addition to
controlling colloid stability, surfactants may exert
additional effects due to their charge (if ionic) or their
polymeric nature (if non-ionic).

His studies in the field of Dissolution Kinetics of
hydro-oxyapatite (which is the major inorganic com-
ponent of teeth or bones) were undertaken in the
research laboratories of the Colonial Sugar Refining
Company. These fundamental studies were designed
to establish possible Mechanisms by which calcium
sucrose phosphates (known commercially as ‘‘ Anti-
cay’’) can reduce the incidence of dental caries in
children, as shown by clinical trials. A plant to
manufacture “‘ Anticay’’ on a commercial scale is
currently being erected in Sydney.

The light scattering studies examined both experi-
mentally and theoretically the scattering behaviour
of particles containing edges and corners. It was
shown how to handle such particles theoretically, at
least in certain limiting cases.

Dr. JONATHAN STONE

The greater part of Dr. Stone’s work has been con-
cerned with the structure and function of the retina
and the visual pathways in the brain. The general
aim of the work is to understand the functioning of
the nervous system at the level of the single cell. In
particular he has been concerned with the complex
neuronal connections and circuits at the various levels
in the visual pathway by which the cells code, transmit
and analyse visual information.

Dr. Stone began his work on the visual system in
1962 when, as an undergraduate in the Faculty of
Medicine at Sydney University, he spent an additional
year in the Department of Physiology in order to take
the degree of Bachelor of Science (Medical). He already
had a distinguished record as a medical undergraduate.
Nevertheless, his first experience in research made such
a deep impression on him that he decided to embark
immediately on a research career in neurophysiology
without waiting till he had completed the clinical
years of the medical course. He enrolled immediately

CITATIONS

as a candidate for the Ph.D. degree and he was still
only 23 when he submitted his thesis for the degree.

His Ph.D. thesis was a remarkable achievement,
leading to the publication of his first six papers. The
quality of this work can be judged from the fact that
Dr. Stone shared the award of the University of
Sydney’s P. J. Bancroft Prize for Medical Research
in 1966.

Dr. Stone was responsible for the entirely new and
important discovery of the presence of a naso-temporal
overlap in the retina. This organization of the retina
enables a vertical strip of ganglion cells centred on the
vertical midline of the retina to send their axons to
both cerebral hemispheres. This finding has since
been confirmed by others using physiological methods
and working at the levels of the lateral geniculate
nucleus and the visual cortex. More recently Dr.
Stone has again returned to this problem and, with his
collaborators, he has now shown that this naso-temporal
overlap is also present in the monkey, making the

The Archibald D. Olle Prize

The Archibald D. Olle Prize may be awarded
annually by the Council to a member of the Society
who has submitted the best paper for publication in
the Journal of the Society.

No award was made for the current year.

129

finding particularly relevant to human vision. The
importance of Dr. Stone’s discovery is that this overlap
is a basic element in the binocular mechanisms which
are now believed to be responsible for stereoscopic
vision.

In his immediate post-doctoral year Dr. Stone made
a detailed study of the dendritic morphology of ganglion
cells in the retina and began the further study of the
geniculate nucleus and cortex. These concepts of
cortical function have challenged previous concepts
which have envisaged only a hierarchical serial type of
processing of information in the primary visual pathway.

Dr. Stone’s work is very well known abroad and he
has already earned for himself a high international
reputation. Even as a graduate student working for
the Ph.D. degree he showed himself to be a gifted and
independent research worker. Since he has been in
Canberra he has had a number of post-doctoral fellows
from overseas working in collaboration with him,
though there is no doubt that he has been the principal
investigator and driving force in their various studies.

The James Cook Medal

The James Cook Medal may be awarded for out-
standing contributions to Science and Human Welfare
in and for the Southern Hemisphere.

No award was made for the current year.

Obituaries

Professor Oscar Ulrich Vonwiller

Professor Vonwiller joined the Royal Society of
New South Wales in 1903, after obtaining his Bachelor
of Science degree with First Class Honours in both
physics and mathematics from the University of
Sydney. Shortly afterwards, he started his career at
the University of Sydney as a Demonstrator in Physics,
was appointed to Assistant Lecturer in 1903 and became
temporary Head of the Physics Department from 1914
to 1918 during Professor Pollock’s absence on active
service overseas. After Professor Pollock’s death in
1922 O. U. Vonwiller was appointed to the Chair of
Physics at the University of Sydney in 1923, a position
he held until his retirement at the end of the Second
World War.

During his retirement Professor Vonwiller chose a
quiet life in the country. He mostly enjoyed good
health until his death on 17th July, 1972.

Since 1903 Professor Vonwiller entertained a long
and close relationship with the Royal Society of New

South Wales. For a number of years (1923, 1924,
1927, 1928 and 1948) he loyally served the Society as
an Honorary Secretary. During 1930 he held the office
of President and delivered the first presidential address
in the then new home of the Society : Science House,
Sydney.

His presidential address was primarily concerned
with the future of the Society, its aim and its purpose :
a theme still very appropriate and alive in our present
days of change. Professor Vonwiller stressed the
important role the Society should and could play, a
role that to-day is still as promising as it was then,
i.e. ‘““showing the people and their representatives
the possibilities, and the lmitations, of scientific
endeavour ”’.

The year Professor Vonwiller held the presidential '

chair of the Society saw also the first Liversidge
Memorial Lecture being delivered, a lecture which
since has become famous and of a high integrity.

Clive Melville Harris

Clive Melville Harris, a member of the Society since
1948, died suddenly on 16th February at the com-
paratively early age of forty-six.

Soon after leaving Sydney High School in 1943, he
joined the staff of the Museum of Applied Arts and
Science and began studying in the evening for the
Chemistry Diploma of Sydney Technical College.
While still an undergraduate, he carried out investi-
gations, the results of which were subsequently
published in the Proceedings under the title “‘ The
Coordination Compounds of Copper ’’ (1949, 52, 281).
This was the first of a series of papers that appeared
in the Proceedings over the next few years. He was
awarded a credit diploma in 1948.

In the following year he joined the staff of Sydney
Technical College as a teacher of chemistry. In 1952,
after graduating with an honours B.Sc., he was
appointed lecturer in chemistry at the newly established
University of Technology (later the University of New
South Wales). He was awarded the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in 1955 and subsequently became a

senior lecturer. He was appointed an Associate
Professor in 1963, a position he held at the time of his
death.

Altogether, he published somewhere between 60 and
70 original scientific papers on coordination compounds.
He was especially interested in their magnetic properties
and the relation of these to their atomic and molecular
structure. For a thesis entitled ‘“‘ Studies in Unusual
Coordination Numbers, Stereochemistries and Magnetic
Properties of Metal Complexes’’, the University of
New South Wales in 1969 conferred on him the degree
of Doctor of Science.

Harris was able to attract as research collaborators
some of the most able men and women who were then
passing through that university’s School of Chemistry.
He was, of course, not entirely preoccupied by science ;
he was very fond of classical music and poetry and
wrote, though he did not publish, a considerable amount
of verse. He was a friendly man with a keen sense of
humour. His sudden death shocked and greatly
saddened his many friends. D.P.M.

OBITUARIES

131

Sir Charles Bickerton Blackburn

Sir Charles Blackburn, Chancellor Emeritus of the
University of Sydney, N.S.W., and Honorary Member
of the Royal Society of New South Wales since 1960,
died on 20th July, 1972, at the age of ninety-eight.

Sir Charles was born at Greenhithe, Kent, in 1874.
He attended the University of Adelaide, where he was
awarded the Bachelor of Arts degree in 1893, and
studied medicine at the University of Sydney,
graduating M.B., Ch.M. in 1899 and M.D. in 1903.
He was appointed to Royal Prince Alfred Hospital
in 1899 as a Resident Medical Officer, and was Medical
Superintendent from 1901 to 1904. From then until
1911 he was an Honorary Assistant Physician there,
and Honorary Physician from 1911 to 1934, after which
he was Honorary Consultant. He was also an Honorary
Consultant to Prince Henry Hospital for almost thirty
years. From 1912 to 1934 he was Lecturer in Clinical
Medicine in the Faculty of Medicine in the University
of Sydney, and from 1932 to 1935 was Dean of the
Faculty.

Sir Charles was a Fellow of the Royal Australian
College of Physicians and was President of that body
in 1938. He was a Fellow also of the Royal College of

Physicians and the Royal College of Physicians,
Edinburgh. He was elected to the Branch Council
of the B.M.A. in 1910 and was its President in the
year 1920-21. He was awarded Honorary degrees
by the Universities of New South Wales, New England,
Melbourne, Tasmania, Queensland, Western Australia.
and Sydney.

He saw active service in the First World War as.
Lieutenant-Colonel in the Australian Medical Corps,
was twice mentioned in despatches, and was awarded
the O.B.E. In the Second World War Sir Charles
again held active rank as Lieutenant-Colonel at 113th
Australian General Hospital, Concord.

He was created a Knight Bachelor in 1936 and a
Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael and
St. George in 1960.

In March, 1965, the Senate, by resolution, conferred
on Sir Charles the title of Chancellor Emeritus, and in
November of the same year he was awarded the degree
of Doctor of Letters (honoris causa) in recognition of
his services to the University.

(With acknowledgement to The Gazette, University
of Sydney, September, 1972.)

Sir Lawrence Bragg

In the summer of 1912, W. L. Bragg, then a student
at Cambridge, re-interpreted the X-ray (Laue) photo-
graphs which had been published by the Munich group
earlier that year. With this achievement, he estab-
lished a subject of wide-ranging significance with which
he continued to be identified actively up to his death on
Ist July, 1971.

For this work, he shared with his father, W. H. Bragg,
then professor of physics at Leeds, the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1915, given “ for their services in the analysis
of crystal structure by means of X-rays”. His
subsequent career established very clearly his right
to this honour.

His was, in fact, an astonishing career in its length,
its diversity, and its influence. It is difficult to
appreciate the full impact on the science and tech-

DD

nology of our present society of the work of Bragg and
of the many research workers who derived from Sir
Lawrence or his father, Sir William. One obvious
reason is that it is almost impossible for us to return
to the state of knowledge concerning the structure of
matter which pertained in 1912 and thus to realize
again the changes wrought and contributed to by X-ray
diffraction during the intervening 60 years. Physics,
chemistry, mineralogy, metallurgy and biology were
all transformed, while new subjects such as chemical
physics and molecular biology have been created
whose existence can be related in large measure to the
brilliant and seminal contributions of Sir Lawrence
Bragg.

His investigations in the short period between 1912
and 1914 established the structures of zincblende,

132

fluorspar, iron pyrites, calcite, dolomite and metallic
copper. This activity was interrupted by the First
World War. Bragg joined the cavalry and was
engaged, inter alia, in the use of sound-ranging for the
location of gun batteries.

After the war, he succeeded Rutherfcrd at Manchester.
Here, two main lines of work developed, one on the
structure of silicates and the other on the relationship
of the intensities of X-ray reflections and the state of
periodic perfection of crystals. The former, probably
better known, demonstrated the varied mode of linkage
of SiO, tetrahedra by sharing corners, edges and faces
to produce the diverse range of silicate structures
based on linear, sheet or three-dimensional arrange-
ments. ‘The basic structural theme thus established
has been elaborated since then in other inorganic
oxide structures and, from this work, generalizations
of wide-ranging implication followed.

The second interest belonging to this period involved
a valuable association with C. G. Darwin and R. W.
James. Darwin had, in 1914, written definitive
theoretical papers on the relationship between structure
(factor), F, and intensity, I. The experimental results
were found in many cases to deviate from the pre-
dictions of the early theory and part of the theory was
modified to take account of the inner morphology of
the crystal. For the “ perfect ’’ crystal, IocF and for
the “‘ideally mosaic’ crystal, IocF*. Real crystals
mostly lay somewhere between these two extremes.
The resolution of this situation in a practical manner
was of vital concern in order to yield direct information
concerning the distribution of electrons around atoms,
particularly with the provision by D. R. Hartree,
at this time, of improved theoretical scattering factors.
Bragg, with James and Bosanquet, therefore carried
through very careful experiments to determine accurate
structure factors for NaCl, devising methods of
estimating the effect of ‘‘ extinction ’’ on the observed
intensities. As a result of this work, a small meeting
was held at Holzhausen in Bavaria in 1925, organized
by P. P. Ewald, to discuss which was the proper
relationship under specific circumstances, IocF or F?.
The situation at that time was summarized by Bragg,
Darwin and James in the Philosophical Magazine
in 1926. For the majority of structure analyses in
the next 15-20 years, using small crystals, it was
assumed that, essentially IocF*. On this basis an
immense amount of structural information was derived.
With the increasing use of quantum counters for single
crystal intensity measurement in the late 50’s and early
60’s the question of accuracy and its allied problem,
the relationship of intensity, I, and structure factor, F,
was once more of importance. This led to the holding
of an International Meeting on Accurate Determination
of X-ray Intensities and Structure Factors in Cambridge
in 1968 and it was entirely appropriate that Sir
Lawrence opened this with recollections of the earlier
work.

After his work on the silicates, summarized in Atomic
Structure of Minerals (1937), his interest turned to the
structure of metals, mainly in relation to order-disorder
phenomena, much of this work being carried out with
E. J. Williams. During this period he moved from
Manchester to the National Physical Laboratory, and
shortly after to the Cavendish. While still continuing
his work on metals, it was during 1939 that he became
more closely interested in the X-ray photographs
of haemoglobin which M. F. Perutz had been engaged
in taking. At this time the task of solving the structure
of proteins seemed to many a completely hopeless
endeavour. There were even those who felt that

OBITUARIES

proteins were not homogeneous enough to yield
identifiable atomic positions. There was, however, no
doubt in Bragg’s mind and he gave Perutz his full
support and encouragement. With this sustained
backing, Perutz and his associates gradually began to —
find out how to cope with the special] problem posed by
this new scale in structure analysis. Looking back,
a critical first stage is indicated by the important
letter to Nature in 1942 by Perutz and Boyes-Watson.
Then in 1954 came the breakthrough when Perutz
showed that the “heavy atom ’”’ method which had
proved so valuable for smaller molecules could work
also for proteins. From then on, the task of analysing
the mass of diffraction data became feasible and the
structures of myoglobin (Kendrew) and of haemoglobin
(Perutz) were solved in the Medical Research Council
unit, located then in the Cavendish. With this step
(to which Bragg himself made contributions relating
to the phase problem) the remarkable development of
X-ray structure studies—from ZnS to proteins—reached
a new height, again presided over by Sir Lawrence.

It was of course only a little later that Crick and
Watson in the Cavendish demonstrated the power of
X-ray techniques by re-interpreting the data of Wilkins
and determining the structure of DNA.

Civca 1954 Bragg moved from the Cavendish to the
Royal Institution and set up there a small group on
protein structures under D. C. Phillips. It was this
group that achieved for Bragg’s 75th birthday the
completed analysis of the third protein to be solved—
the enzyme, lysozyme.

It was at the Royal Institution that his 80th birthday
was celebrated with the Bragg Symposium 1970 in
March of that year. The subjects dealt with were
those to which he had contributed during his long life—
minerals, metals, methods of analysis, and big molecules.
As well as the presentation of scientific papers with
Bragg himself as one of the most alert listeners and
questioners, there was a fascinating display of his
correspondence and papers particularly relating to the
early era.

Sir Lawrence had always been an excellent and
popular speaker, but during his period at the R.I.
he further developed his interest in the popularization
of science. He instituted a series of lectures which
were attended by 22,000 school children each year.

The clear grasp of basic physical principles which
characterized his approach to research also are
illustrated by the models which he devised—the
bubble raft model of metals, the X-ray microscope,
and the fly’s eye.

In a real sense, Sir Lawrence and his subject of
X-ray diffraction were perfectly matched. MHis astute
powers of piercing through the apparent complexities
to their underlying simplicity were ideally adapted
to this technique—a technique which is experimentally
simple, and yet, in interpretation, both robust and
subtle so that it has been capable of transforming
whole subjects. He was indeed the persona of his
subject.

With the death of Sir Lawrence Bragg, we seem to
see the passing of a golden scientific era of expanding
opportunities, of the discovery of new and exciting
techniques, and of their application to matter in all its
forms, elemental, inorganic, organic, biological. Some
of us have been fortunate to have lived through at
least part of this era and to have seen some of the
developments take place in X-ray diffraction in these
60 years. All scientists owe him an immense debt.

A.McL.M.

A

Annual Report of Council, 3lst March, 1973

Annual Report of South Coast Branch, 1973.

Annual Report of New England Branch, 1973

_ Abstract of Proceedings, 1972 ..

Abstract of Proceedings of Section of Geology,
1972

Acoustical Design Considerations of the Sydney
Opera House, ey A es pee :

_ Astronomy

B

Balance Sheet as at 28th February, 1973

Basalt Ages and their Significance in the Macquarie
Valley, New South Wales. Potassium
Argon-, by J. A. Dulhunty ..

Cc

Clarke Medal for 1972...

Clarke Memorial Lecture, 197
cambrian Glaciation, with Particular Re-
ference to the Southern Hemisphere, by
K. Rankama ..

Concert Hall of the Sydney Opera House, The
Design of the, by Peter Hall os

Contractor and Some Aspects of Stage II,
Sydney Opera House, by H. R. Hoare

Council :
Annual Report, 3lst March, 1973 ..
Balance Sheet, 28th February, 1973 ;

Criterion for See Clocks, Slow ini sed
as a, by S. J. Prokhovnik .. ive

D

Design of the Concert Hall of the Sydney Opera
House, by Peter Hall

Dulhunty, J. A. —Potassium-Argon Basalt Ages
and their Significance in the Macquarie
Valley, New South Wales oe —

E
Edgeworth David Medal, 1972

G

Geology

Glaciation, with Particular Reference ‘to the
Southern Hemisphere, The Late Precambrian,
by Kalervo Rankama :

Grand Organ in the yoy Opera House, by
Ronald Sharp .

H

Hall, Peter—The Design of the Concert Hall of
the Sydney Opera House aia
Hoare, H. R.—The Sydney Opera House: The
Contractor and Some Aspects of Stage III ..

INDEX

Page

118
120
120
124

125

33
81

121

104

126

54

104

127

98

89
70

54
3

J

Jordan, V. L.—<Acoustical Design Considerations
of the Sydney Opera House ;

K

Korsch, R. J. — Structural Analysis of the
Palaeozoic Sediments in the Woolgoolga
District, North Coast, N.S.W. zed ays

L

Late Precambrian Glaciation, with Particular
Reference to the Southern Hemisphere, by
Kalervo Rankama Zs

Lewis, Michael—Roof Cladding of the _ Sydney
Opera House .. s

List of Office-bearers, 1973-1974.

M

Macquarie Valley, New South Wales, Potassium-
Argon Basalt Ages and their See ines
in the; iby ji. A. siemens? sie :

Mathematics

Minor Planets at Sydney "Observatory during
1971 and 1972, Precise Observations of, PY
W. H. Robertson

ee e@

N

New South Wales:

Potassium-Argon Basalt Ages and _ their
Significance in the Macquarie Valley,
by J. A. Dulhunty

Structural Analysis of the Palaeozoic Sedi-
ments in the Woolgoolga District, North
Coast, by R. J. Korsch :

Note on Recurrence Sequences, 2 Bey. van der

Poorten . ; ays om oe

O

Obituaries ..
Observatory during 1971 ad 1972, Precise Obser-
vations of Minor Planets at Sydney, by
W. H. Robertson .
Observatory during 1972, Occultations Observed
at Sydney, by K. P. Sims ..
Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory
during 1972, by K. P. Sims .
Opera House :
Acoustical Design Consideration of the
Sydney, by V. L. Jordan
Roof Cladding of the Sydney, by Michael
Lewis

Page

33

98

89
18

104
111

84

104

98
115

130

Sydney: The Contractor and Some Aspects |

of Stage III, by H. R. Hoare ..
The Design of the Concert Hall of the
Sydney, by Peter Hall .
The Grand Organ in the Sydney, by ‘Ronald
Sharp
Organ in the Sydney Opera House, The Grand,
by Ronald Sharp ie

70
70

134
Page
Pp
Palaeozoic Sediments in the Woolgoolga District,
North Coast, N.S.W., by R. J. Korsch 98
Potassium-Argon JBasalt Ages and _ their
Significance in the Macquarie Valley, New
South Wales, by J. A. Dulhunty .. 104
Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney
Observatory during 1971 and 1972, by W. H.
Robertson é 84
Precambrian Glaciation, with Particular Reference
to the Southern Hemisphere, The Late, by
Kalervo Rankama_ . 89
Prokhovnik, S. J.—Slow Transport as a Criterion
for Synchronizing Clocks ‘. pede el Lh
R
Rankama, Kalervo — The Late Precambrian
Glaciation, with Particular Reference to the
Southern Hemisphere — Clarke Memorial
Lecture, 1973 .. a ue ais Sat 89
Recurrence Sequences, A Note on, by A. J.
van der Poorten 3 115
Robertson, W. H.—Precise Observations of Minor
Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1971
and 1972 84
Roof Cladding of the Sydney Opera House, by
Michael Lewis .. 18
Ss
Sequences, A Note on Recurrence, by A. J.
van der Poorten 115
Sharp, Ronald—The Grand Organ. in the Sydney
Opera House .. 70
Sims, K. P.—Occultations Observed at Sydney
Observatory during 1972 81

INDEX

Page

Slow Transport as a Criterion for Synchronizing

Clocks, by S. J. Prokhovnik : 111
Southern Hemisphere, The Late Precambrian

Glaciation, with Particular Reference to the,

by Kalervo Rankama 89

Stage III, Sydney Opera House, The Contractor

and Some Aspects of, by H. R. Hoare 4? 3
Structural Analysis of the Palaeozoic Sediments

in the Woolgoolga District, North Coast,

N.S.W., by: R. J. Korsthegre 98
Sydney Observatory during 1971 and 1972,
Precise Observations of Minor Planets at,
by W. H. Robertson ¥% .. 84
Sydney Observatory during 1972, Occultations
Observed at, by K. P. Sims ou Se
Sydney Opera House:
Acoustical Design Considerations of the, by
V. L. Jordan : oe
Roof Cladding of the, by Michael Lewis 18
The Contractor and Some Aspects of Stage
Ill, by H: ‘R. Hoarex es 3
The Design of the Concert Hall of the, by
Peter Hall 54
The Grand Organ in the, by Ronald Sharp . 70
Synchronizing Clocks, Slow Transport as a
Criterion for, by S. J. Prokhovnik 111

Sydney Opera House 3, 18, 33, 54, 70

Vv
van der Porten, A. J.—A Note on Recurrence
Sequences eke ae ate old a» | IG
W
Woolgoolga District, North Coast, N.S.W.,
Structural Analysis of the Palaeozoic Sedi-
ments in the, by R. J. Korsch 98

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Contents

Astronomy :

Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1972. K.P. Sums ..
Precise Observations of Minor Planets at (ec ae nae 1971
and 1972. W. H. Roberison ..

Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1973:

The Late Precambrian Glaciation, with Particular Reference to the Southern
Hemisphere. Kalervo Rankama

Geology :

- Structural Analysis of the Palaeozoic Sediments in the Woolgoolga District,
North Coast, New South Wales. R. J. Korsch ..

Potassium- -Argon. Basalt Ages and their Significance in the Macquarie Valley,
New South Wales. J. A. Dulhunty Z

Mathematics :
Siow T#agsport. as a Criterion for Synchronizing Clocks. S. J. Prokhovnth ..
A Note on Recurrence Sequences. A. J. van der Poorten =

| Report, of Council, 31st March, 1973
Balance Sheet

index” fo Volume 1 106
List of Office-Bearers, 1973-1974

rom

84

89

i BOE

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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

Ol (ake

ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES

VOLUME
107

1974

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
SCIENCE HOUSE, GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS, SYDNEY

Royal Society of New South Wales
OFFICERS FOR 1974-1975

Patrons

His ExXcELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF AUSTRALIA
THE HONOURABLE SIR JOHN KERR, K.c.M.G., K.St.J., Q.C.

His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SoutTH WALES
SIR RODEN CUTLER; V.c., K:c:MG., K.c\V.0.5 (CBee

President
J. W. PICKETT, M-Sc., Dr.phil.nat.

Vice-Presidents
D. S. BRIDGES M. J. PUTTOCK, BSc. (Eng.), M_.Inst.P.,
J. C. CAMERON, M.A., B.Sc. (Edin.), D.I.C. A.A.Inst.P.
E. K. CHAFFER W. E. SMITH, Php.

Honorary Secretaries

J. W. HUMPHRIES, B.Sc., M.Inst.P., A.A.Inst.P. M. KRYSKO ov. TRYSEy, (ier se.
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L. J. LAWRENCE, D.Sc., Ph.D. P: PD: ‘TILLEYS: BAG Pap:

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South Coast Branch Representative: G. DOHERTY, Ph.D.

Executive Secretary: VALDA LYLE (Mrs.), A.1.P.S.A.

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Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881.

CONTENTS

3 Parts 1-2
Chemistry :
Sympathomimetic Tertiary Amines. Robert A. Buist and Lyall R. Williams ave oe

Environmental Archaeology :
The Re-Deposition of Midden Material by Storm Waves. P. J. Hughes and M. E. Sullivan

Geology :
Sedimentary Basin Tectonics and a Geological my Reserve wa Presidential
Address, 4th April, 1973. J.C. Cameron .

Sedimentology of Permian Rocks near Renew orth N prttiem Sydney J coe, N. S. W.
D. R. Gray

Vesuvianite Hornfels at @icmbeyan. N. S, W. T. G Vallance

Geophysics :

Seismicity of New South Wales. Lawrence Drake

List of Members .. ies af Bb as we mh we ag ats
Parts 3-4

Astronomy :
Proper Motions of Variable Stars. K. P. Sims

Geobotany :

Influence of Soil Composition on the Vegetation of the Coolac Serpentite Belt in New South
mvalcs MoT. Lyons, R. R. Brooks and D.C. Craig

Geology :

Carboniferous Non-Marine Stratigraphy of the Paterson-Gresford District, New South
Wales. G. Hamilton, G. C. Hall and John Roberts

Phonolite-Trachyte Spectrum in the Warrumbungle Volcano, New South Wales Aue
J. J. Hockley AG

Structural Interpretation of New Poetnd Rocce Ne ew F South wales: Bn Rod

Liversidge Lecture 1974:

Chance and Design: An Historical Perspective of the Chemistry of Oral Contraceptives.
mi): birch i i 3

Mathematics :
Extremally Disconnected Topological Groups. S.A. Morris and A. J. van der Poorten ..

Floppy Rulers and ee Pens—Reactor Mathematical Aids. Presidential Address, 3rd
mpril, 1974. |. P. Pollard : aL Mae shi ue 2

#

ill

35

41

49

67

76

87
90

100

114

116

iv CONTENTS

Contents—Continued

Review of the Society’s Activities, March 1974:

Address delivered by His Excellency The Governor of New South Wales, Sir Roden Cutler,
WG 5 6. CML.G. ROG NO. “Cab ae

Report of Council, 31st March, 1974

Balance Sheet

Abstract of Proceedings ..

Index to Volume 107

List of Office-Bearers, 1974-1975

122
124
127
131
137

li

Ayatye

pst and
Droceedings

of the
- Royal Sociely

- New SouthWales

VOLUME 107 1974 PARTS 1 and 2

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Published by the Society
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_ Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 1-5, 1974

Sympathomimetic Tertiary Amines

ROBERT A. BuIST AND LYALL R. WILLIAMS

ABSTRACT—A series of arylamino ketones and phenylethanolamines containing different
combinations of aryl substituents and a variety of cyclic tertiary amino groups have been synthesized.
The results of preliminary biological testing reveal that many of the series exhibit 8-adrenoreceptor
agonist activity while several also exhibit concomitant «-adrenoreceptor antagonist activity.

Introduction

Once it was established that dilation of the
bronchial smooth muscle was mediated by the
activation of the $-adrenergic receptors, most
chemical and pharmacological research associ-
ated with the therapeutic use of bronchodilator
agents has centred on the development of drugs
with a 6-adrenoreceptor agonist activity.

As a result of this effort sympathomimetic
amines that relax bronchial smooth muscle by
stimulation of -adrenoreceptors such as
moprenaiune (1, x Y—OH, Z—H and R,;=H,
R,=—CH(CH,).) and more recently salbutamol
(Cullum, Farmer, Jack and Levy, 1969) (I,
o_O Y—CHoOH, . Z—H and K,=H,
R,=C(CHg)3) which can exert some degree of
selectivity for bronchial over cardiac muscle,
have been developed and successfully used as
bronchodilators.

X
CCHLN Het.

|
0 I

The experimental findings of several
investigators have led to the suggestion that
there might be a fine balance in bronchial
smooth muscle between (-receptor stimulation

A

causing bronchodilation and a-receptor stimula-
tion causing bronchoconstriction (Szentivanyi,
1968; Cho, Aviado and Lish, 1968). Since
then the existence of «-receptors in the bronchial
smooth muscle of the human respiratory tract
has been demonstrated (Mathé, Astrém and
Persson, 1971) thus lending strong support to
the hypothesis. It was decided to attempt to
design a series of compounds which would have
not only #-agonist activity but also a mild
a-antagonist activity. Compounds with these
properties could have potential as new broncho-
dilator agents and in addition may have useful
applications in the study of the role of «-receptors
in bronchial smooth muscle.

Structure-Activity Studies

The structural requirements for maximal
B-adrenoreceptor agonist activity are well
documented: A phenylethylamine backbone
requires 3’, 4’-dihydroxy substituents in the aryl
ring, a secondary amino substituent and a
2-hydroxyl group on the ethyl side chain
(Barlow, 1964). A study of the structure-
activity relationship of the known 6-adreno-
receptor agonists and «-adrenoreceptor
antagonists was then undertaken to search for
areas of comparability so that we could attempt
to modify the optimum structural requirements
for (-agonist activity to accommodate the
additional «-antagonist activity.

a«-Adrenergic blocking agents with a skeletal
structure similar to isoprenaline have been
studied by Chapman, Clarke and Harvey (1971).
The most powerful of these contained a 2-halogen
atom and a tertiary amine substituent, neither
of which favours B-agonist activity, but other
of their tertiary amine derivatives containing a
2-hydroxyl exhibited mild «-antagonist effects
(exe Vea ZC ok —ho—-CH.)t > Further
examples of 2-hydroxyphenethyl amine
derivatives with mild a-antagonist activity

2 ROBERT A. BUIST AND LYALL R. WILLIAMS

were found in a series of compounds reported by
Carron, Jullien and Bucher (1971) and in this
case the aryl substituent was more compatible
with $-agonist activity requirements.

As other cyclic tertiary amine derivatives
prepared by Heinzelman and Aspergren (1953)
(II, X, Y=OH; pyrrolidine) and Larson and
co-workers (1967) (II, X=OH, Y=NHSO,CH, ;
piperidine) possessed mild (-agonist activity it
was decided to synthesize and evaluate the
biological properties of a series of phen-
ethanolamine derivatives with a variety of ring
substituents and containing cyclic tertiary
amines on the side chain.

Chemistry

The required phenylethanolamines (see Table
2) were prepared by reduction of the corres-
ponding arylamino ketones III (see Table 1).

The synthesis of the hydrohalide salts of the
mono-hydroxy and the 3’, 4-dihydroxyphenyl
amines ketones (Lil; xX=OH) Y= - xX,
Y—OH and X—OH, Y—OH) proceeded via the
reaction of halogenated acetophenones (com-
mercially available or prepared by the bromina-
tion of the corresponding acetophenones with
cupric bromide) with the various secondary
amines using 2-propanol as solvent. Catalytic
reduction (Pd—C/H,) of the arylamino ketone
salts in ethanol gave the phenethanolamines
which crystallized as their hydrohalide salts.

The 4-hydroxypheny] and the 3, 4-dihydroxy-
phenyl morpholino compounds (1, 4, 13 and 16)

(Rubin and Day, 1940) and the 3, 4-dihydroxy
pyrrolidino compounds (3, 15) (Heinzelman and
Aspergren, 1953) have been described previously.
The evaluation of their biological properties was
not reported in sufficient detail to be of use to us
and so they have been included in the present
study.

Our melting point of 176-177° for 1-(3, 4-
dihydroxyphenyl) 2-morpholino ethanol hydro-
chloride (13) is considerably lower than the
value of 250° reported by Rubin and Day.

Compositional analysis figures for nitrogen
and chlorine only were given for the compound
with m.p. 250°, and as these are not sufficient to
differentiate between the ketone and _ the
alcohol, we suggest that the high melting point
may indicate incomplete reduction. Considera-
tion of our Tables 1 and 2 reveals that the
alcohols have lower melting points than the
parent ketone derivatives. Detailed spectral
analysis has confirmed the purity and structure
of our compound. In the n.m.r. spectrum
reduction of compound (1) caused a shift of the
methylene protons adjacent to the carbonyl
from 4:95 ppm to 3:5 ppm with the six
methylene protons adjacent to the nitrogen
atom then having the same chemical shift. A
triplet appeared at 5:2 ppm (1 proton
CH(OH)) and in addition the deshielding effect
of the carbonyl group on the adjacent aromatic
protons was removed. The three aromatic
protons of (1) at 7-6 ppm (doublet J 9-0 c/s),
7:4 ppm (singlet) and 7-0 ppm (doublet J 9-0
c/s) were all found at 7 ppm in the reduced

TABLE 1
Arvylamino Ketones III

No. xX BY) N Het Yield Crystn Mp, °C Formula Analysis»
% Solvent?
1 OHG S| OF morpholino 69 A-—D 227—228dec¢ C,.H, NO; Hel Cok N, Cl
2 OH OH piperidino 60 A-D 237-238dec C,,Hj,NO,- HCl Cai, N; Gt
3 OH OH pyrrolidino 60 A-B 244—-245dec4 CieHisNO,- Ete! Carb Ny Ct
4 OH H morpholino 75 A-B 230-235¢ C,.H,,NO3.HCl Cron Ch
5 OH H piperidino 72 A-B 254-255dec Cig NO; Bel C, HN; Gi
6 OH H pyrrolidino 59 A-B 233—234dec C),E NO; Cl Cr Ne Gl
7 let OH morpholino 56 Cc 242—244dec Cio, NO; BE CAEL IN, Bs
8 H OH piperidino 52 A-D 235-237dec C,H NO, ELBE C; HN; Be
9 OH | OH f 65 B 198-199dec Ci.H.,N.O, Hel Cr N,. Cl
10 O) sag i =! f 66 A 165—166dec Ci, Fig N.O, el Ciba NC
1] OH | CO,Me | morpholino 64 B- 178-179dec C,,H,,NO;.HCI C, HyN;-Cl
12 OH | CO,Me | piperidino 51 B- 162—165dec C,H, NO; HE! Cy Pee Nel

@ A, ethanol; B, methanol; C, 2-propanol; D, H,O; E, Petroleum Ether 40-60°. 5 So
b Analyses are indicated only by the symbols of the elements, analytical values obtained were within +0-4%

of the calculated values.
¢ Rubin and Day reported m.p. 224—225° dec. (corr.).
4d Heinzelman and Aspergren reported m.p. 244° dec.
€ Rubin and Day reported m.p. 242—243° (corr.).
f N-6-hydroxyethyl piperazino.

ee

SYMPATHOMIMETIC TERTIARY AMINES 3

TABLE 2
Phenylethanolamines II

No xX ng N Het Yield Crystn Mp, °C Formula Analysis?
% Solvent?
13 OH | OH morpholino 78 A-B 176-177dec¢ Cin NOPHG! G; Hi Neel
14 OH. | OF: piperidino 74 C 157—158dec Cio gNOs-Hel Gi EN: Gl
15 OH | OH pyrrolidino 65 A 166—167dec4 Cie NO; HCl C, H,-N, Cl
16 Orie Fp morpholino 75 A-B 172-173decé C,.H,,NO;.HCl C) A, NAGI
LT ORL!) H piperidino 76 A 171-172dec C,H, NO, Cl C) HAN el
18 OH: +H pyrrolidino 55 A-B 175-176dec C,.H,,NO;.HCl CH aN; Gl
19 H OH morpholino 58 C 128—-129dec C,2.H,,NO;,.HBr C, H,’N; Br
20 H OH piperidino 61 A 121-122 Ci3H,,NO,.HBr CEN, Br
21 OF | H f 82 Cc 140-142dec C,,H.,.N,0,HCl CELA IN Nel
228 OH | CH,OH| morpholino 78 C 130-131 Ci,HigNO, Cari N
238 OH CH,OH | piperidino 50 C 112-113 Ci,H.,NO, C,H, N

@A, ethanol; B, methanol; C, 2-propanol.

b Analyses are indicated only by the symbols of the elements, analytical values obtained were within +0-4%

of the calculated values.
¢ Rubin and Day reported m.p. 250° dec. (corr.).
4 Heinzelman and Aspergren reported m.p. 168-169°.
€ Rubin and Day reported m.p. 178° (corr.).
! N-§-hydroxyethyl piperazino.
# Prepared as the free base.

compound. The mass spectrum of the alcohol
gave a peak at m/e 239 corresponding to the
free base and the infra-red indicated that the
carbonyl stretching band at 1,685 cms~} had
been removed.

The tertiary amino analogues of salbutamol
were prepared via the methyl salicylate IV (see
scheme 1). The reaction sequence outlined in
the scheme represents a shorter and more
convenient pathway to salbutamol analogues
than that reported by Collin and co-workers
(1970), who synthesized methyl 5-bromoacetyl
salicylate by the Fries rearrangement of the
corresponding phenolic esters of salicylic acid
followed by esterification and bromination steps.

We have been able to prepare methyl-5-
chloroacetyl salicylate IV in one step in good
yield by the Friedel-Crafts reaction of methyl
salicylate with chloroacetyl chloride using
nitrobenzene as solvent.

The chloro compound condensed readily with
the secondary amines to give yields of the
amino ketone salts V comparable to those
obtained from methyl 5-bromoacety] salicylate.
Reduction of the ketone and ester groups of V
was best performed on the free base with lithium
aluminium hydride in ether. The saligenin
derivatives VI were isolated by continuous
extraction with chloroform.

Pharmacological Screening
The compounds were screened for §-adrenergic
activity using isolated organs of the guinea pig
{tracheal chains and atria) and «a-adrenergic

blocking activity using isolated guinea pig vas
deferens. Several of the phenylethanolamines
showed variable f-agonist and «-antagonist
activity which was dependent upon the type of
ring substituent and amine group, whereas the
arylamino ketones in general showed no activity
in the test systems used. A more detailed
account of the results of the pharmacological
tests will be reported elsewhere.

OH OH
COCH, ico.) CO,CH,
AICI,
Nitrobenzene COCH,CI
WV
| HN Het.
OH OH
CH
CHA liyNaHCO; oan
(ii) LiAIH,
CHOH CH.N Het. COCH,N Het. )HCI
wt Scheme | ¥
Experimental
Microanalyses were carried out by the

Australian Microanalytical Service, Melbourne.
Infrared spectra were measured on a Perkin-
Elmer 621 spectrometer, and n.m.r. spectra at
60 Mc/s in CDCl, or D,O on a Varian A-60D
spectrometer. Mass spectra were measured on

4 ROBERT A. -BUISF An» LYALE Ro WiILEPAMS

an A.E.I. MS-12 spectrometer. Melting points
were determined in open capillary tubes on a
Gallenkamp Melting apparatus and were un-
corrected. The secondary amines were obtained
from Aldrich Chemical Company, Inc.

The numbers referred to in this section
correspond to those shown in Tables 1 and 2.

N-(3', 4'-dihydroxyphenacyl) piperidine hydro-
chloride (2)

Piperidine (42-5g, 0-5 mole) and «-chloro 3’,
4’-dihydroxyacetophenone (46-6g, 0-25 mole)
were dissolved in 2-propanol (250 ml.) and
heated under reflux for 3 hours. Hydrogen
chloride gas was passed into the cooled reaction
mixture and the brown solid that formed was
isolated by filtration. Recrystallization from
ethanol (95%) using charcoal gave (2) as
colourless needles (387-5g, 55:2%) with m.p.
237-—238° dec. (Found: C, 57-73; H, 6°85;
Cle.) N, 5-22, C,H, CINO,, requires -C,
Di AG eG 68: =Ch 13-05 Neb- 15%):

1 - (3', 4 - dihydroxyphenyl) - 2 - piperidinoethanol
hydrochloride (14)

The above amino ketone (2) (10:0 g, 0-037
mole) was dissolved in 100% ethanol (300 ml.).
Pd-C catalyst 10% (1:4 g) was added and the
mixture subjected to 3 atm hydrogen pressure in
the Parr hydrogenator. Consumption of the re-
quired amount of hydrogen was completed after
6 hours. Removal of the catalyst and evapora-
tion of the solvent gave an oily residue which was
dissolved in hot 2-propanol (5 ml.). The
resultant solid that formed as the solution cooled
was collected by filtration. Recrystallization
from 2-propanol gave (14) as white crystals
(7-4g, 74%) with m.p. 157—158° dec. (Found:
encase tt ay) ba ClO AZ: S aN, ob bO:
C,H.,cINO, requires C,-57-03; H, 7-36; Cl,
t3°05 N, 5+12%).

1-(3', 4'-dihydroxyphenyl) - 2 - morpholinoethanol
hydrochloride (13)

This compound was prepared in a manner
similar to that described above, as colourless
needles with m.p. 176-177° dec. (Found: C,
5208 5H 6°74) CL 124.7 Necbel4 Calcd:
for, ©,oh, .CINO, 3) ©, 62°27,;" Ee 6-58):
12:9 N) 5:-08%)) N.m-r. spectrum -(D,0)
5 p.p.m.: 7:00 (singlet, three protons); 5-15
(triplet, one proton); 4-71 (singlet, exchange-
able protons); 4:20-3:80 (multiplet, four
protons) ; 3-80-3-30 (multiplet, six protons).
Mass spectrum, m/e (%): 239 Mt (0-7); 101
(6-1) ; 100 (100-0) ; 56 (11-5).

Methyl 5-chloroacetyl salicylate

A solution of methyl salicylate (30-5g, 0-2
mole), chloroacetyl chloride (34-0g, 0:3 mole)
and nitrobenzene (75 ml.) was slowly added to
a vigorously stirred solution of AlCl, (anhydrous)
(74-0g, 0:55 mole) dissolved in nitrobenzene
(100 ml.). The temperature was maintained
below 25° during the addition to control the
violent evolution of hydrogen chloride gas. The
reaction mixture was then stirred for 3 hrs. at
60°, and poured into cold dilute HCl solution
(500 ml.). The aqueous layer was separated
from the organic layer, washed with ethyl acetate
(2250 ml.) and discarded. The combined
ethyl acetate extracts and the organic layer
was washed with water (5150 ml.) and dried
over anhydrous MgSO,. The solvents were
removed under vacuum (100°/0-1 mm.) and the
resultant oily residue crystallized at room
temperature. The crystals were washed with
petroleum ether 40-60° and recrystallized from
2-propanol to give colourless needles (33:-0g,
72-0%) with m.p. 106—107° (Granger, Corbier
and Vinas (1952) report m.p. 110°). (Found:
C, 52°69; H; 4:03. .Cltb- a ecaled) tien
Ci pH, ClO, : -G, 52-52 > Hi oe 9e ee)

Methyl 5-morpholinoacetyl salicylate hydrochloride
(11

Morpholine (24-7g, 0-284 mole) was added to
a solution of methyl 5-chloroacetyl salicylate
(32-5g, 0-142 mole) dissolved in ethyl methyl
ketone (800 ml.). The solution was refluxed for
3 hrs., cooled to 0°, and the morpholine hydro-
chloride salt removed by filtration. Hydrogen
chloride gas was then bubbled through the
filtrate to precipitate the morpholino compound
(11).
hydrogen chloride and then the solvent was
decanted and the precipitate washed several
times with anhydrous ether and recrystallized
from a methanol-diethyl ether mixture to give
colourless needles (28-8g, 64%) with m.p.
178-179° dec. (Found: C, 52-96; H, 5-63;
Cl; 11:0; —N, 4°36." GH CING@] requires
C, 62-25 3. H, 5°75 ; Cl, 1-25; NG ae ae

1-(4-hydroxy-3-hydroxymethylphenyl) -2-morpho-
linoethanol (22)

Compound (11) (1-88g, 0-006 mole) and
NaHCO, (2:2g) were warmed together in ethyl
methyl ketone (40 ml.) for5 min. The mixture
was filtered and the solvent evaporated to give
the free base as a yellow oil which was dissolved
in anhydrous ether (30 ml.) and added to a
solution of LiAIH, (0-76g) in diethyl ether
(60 ml.). The mixture was refluxed for 14 hrs.,

—

Nitrogen gas was used to remove excess —

SYMPATHOMIMETIC TERTIARY AMINES 5

cooled, and ethanol (Ca 10 ml.) added in small
portions to destroy excess LiAlH,. The
mixture was adjusted to pH 3-0 with dil. HCl
solution and stirred at 15°C. for 1 hr. NaHCO,
solution (0:5 molar) was added dropwise until
basic (pH 8-0) and the solution extracted
continuously with CHCl, for 12 hrs. The
CHCl, solvent was removed and the resultant
oil recrystallized as colourless crystals from

2-propanol (0:935g, 62:3) with m.p. 130-1°.

mound: €, 61-45; HH, 7-54; N, 5:82.
Pera NOe tequires C, G6L-64; H, 7-56;
IN, 5-53%).

References
BaRLow, R. B., 1964. Introduction to Chemical

Pharmacology. Methuen, London.

BARRON, C.,: FULLIEN, A., and Bucuer, B., 1971.
Synthesis and Pharmacological Properties of a
Series of 2-Piperidino Alkanol Derivatives.
Arzneim-Forsch. (Drug. Res.), 21, 1992.

RHAPMAN, N. B:, CLARKE, K., and Harvey, D. J.,
1971. Some o-substituted NN-Dimethyl-2-
halogeno-2-phenethylamines. J. Chem. Soc. (C),
1202.

School of Chemistry,
Macquarie University,
North Ryde, N.S.W., 2113.

Cuo, Y. W., Aviapo, D. M., and Lisu, P. M., 1968.
Efficacy of a new bronchodilator, soterenol, on
experimental locked-lung syndrome in_ dogs.
Jj. Allergy, 42, 36.

CoLrmy Dale HARTLEY), JACK, DA LuNTS, 1 C::
ERESS wae Ca IRPECHIE, Aj C., and Toon; Bilg70)
Saligenin Analogues of Sympathomimetic
Catecholamines. j/. of Med. Chem., 13, 674.

CuLLum, V. A., FARMER, J. B., Jack, D., and Levy,

GIP... 1969: Salbutamol.:*a ‘new,: selective 3-
adrenoceptive receptor stimulant. Brit. Jf.
Pharmacol., 35, 141.

GRANGER, R., CORBIER, M., Vinas, J., 1952. Applica-

tions of the Friedel Crafts and the Fries Reaction
to Salicylamide. Compt. Rend., 234, 1058.

HEINZELMAN, R. V., and ASPERGREN, B. D., 19538.
Compounds containing the Pyrrolidine Ring.
Analogues of Sympathomimetic Amines. /. Amer.
Chem. Soc., 75, 3409.

LARSEN, A. A., GouLpD, W. A., Rory, H. R., ComEr,
WT. Uvoru, R. H.;. DUNGAN, K. W:,:and-IsH:
P. M.,. 1967.’ Sulfonanilides. If. Analogs? of
Catecholamines. J. Med. Chem., 10, 462.

RuBIN, N., and Day, A. R., 1940. Analogs of
Ephedrine and Adrenaline Containing The
Morpholine Nucleus and Some of Their Esters.
J. Org. Chem., 5, 54.

SZENTIVANYI, A., 1968. The Beta Adrenergic Theory
of the Atopic Abnormality in Bronchial Asthma.
J. Allergy, 42, 203.

(Received 5 September 1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 6-10, 1974

The Re-deposition of Midden Material by Storm Waves
P. J. HuGHES AND M. E. SULLIVAN

AxBstTRAcT—The results of a study of sixteen coastal midden-like deposits in southern New
South Wales indicate that many such deposits are not undisturbed Aboriginal middens, but have
These re-worked middens are characterized by the presence of
one or more of the following: shells of species and sizes not thought to be eaten by Aborigines,
marine shell grit, water-worn shells, rounded pebbles and pumice.

been re-worked by storm waves.

Introduction

Coastal shell deposits in Australia are usually
classed by researchers as either Aboriginal
midden, or natural shell beds (e.g., Gill, 1951 ;
Coutts, 1966) and criteria for distinguishing
between them are given in Table 1. However,
observations by the authors in southern coastal
New South Wales (Figure 1) show the existence
of a third type of deposit: midden material
which has been transported and re-deposited by
storm waves.

These re-worked deposits indicate heights
reached by storm waves, evidence of wave
activity that may have been ignored by
geomorphologists who have assumed them to be
undisturbed middens. Unless recognized as
being disturbed they are also likely to provide
misleading archaeological information because
of mixing or removal of cultural material.

Characteristics of Wave Re-worked Middens

The deposits vary greatly in appearance and
composition, some being barely distinguishable
from undisturbed midden while others closely
resemble natural shell beds. They consist
mainly of midden shell with charcoal and stone
artifacts, probably transported from a more
shoreward location by storm waves. Included
with this midden component are varying
amounts of materials of marine origin: shells of
species and sizes not usually eaten by Aborigines,
shell grit, water-worn shell, rounded gravel, and
pumice. As storm waves represent short-term
very high energy events, they tend not to sort
the materials they transport (Folk, 1968, p. 4)
with the result that these wave re-worked
middens comprise a very wide range of materials,
in terms of both size and density.

A number of midden-like deposits were
investigated to see whether wave re-worked
middens could be distinguished from undisturbed

middens or natural shell beds. (Figure 1,
Table 2.) A small volume (approximately
0-01 m.%) of each deposit was sieved through a
5 mm. sieve and each fraction examined, to see
if it contained matter not usually present in
undisturbed middens.

TABLE |
Characteristics of Undisturbed Middens and Marine
Shell Beds
Modified after Gill (1951)

Middens Marine Shell Beds
Charcoal, burnt wood,
blackened shells, artifacts,
hearth stones : .. | Absent
Unstratified or roughly
stratified .. aye .. | Generally well stratified

and show sedimentary
features of water laid
deposits

Varied shell species and
sizes both edible and
non-edible

Shell often worn due to
transport in the off-
shore or beach zone

Edible shell species and sizes

Absent

Bones of mammals used for

food Absent
Absent Forms of marine life not
used by Aborigines,
e.g., corals, worm

tubes

Shellfish too small to be eaten, but of species
commonly used as food by Aborigines (Bowdler,
1970, p. 99; Lampert, 1971, pp. 12, 59), occum
in undisturbed middens but make up less than
1% of the shell volume. Especially common
are the gastropods Melanerita spp. and
Austrocochlea spp. and it is probable that these
were scooped up with the larger snails of these
species. Consequently, small shells have been
marked as ‘‘ present ”’ in the column in Table 2
for species and sizes not thought to be eaten,

i

RE-DEPOSITION OF MIDDEN MATERIAL BY STORM WAVES 7

only where they make up more than 5% of the
shell volume. Although Galeolaria worm tubes
are occasionally found in middens, having been
carried on to the sites attached to shells, where
large fragments consisting of aggregates of these
tubes were found, they were also included.

Marine-derived shell grit less than 5 mm.
across is usually sub-rounded to well-rounded,
due to abrasion of the shell in the surf zone.
While finely divided shell less than 5 mm across
commonly occurs in undisturbed middens, it is
usually sub-angular to very angular, still
showing clearly signs of fracturing. Where the

10
Kilometres

30

Currarong
Beach

Jervis Bay

Bendalong

Be eC maens

Batemans Bay

Broulee

Boaf Harbour

Lake //lawarra
> | Bass Point

shell is fresh in appearance the two types are
easily recognized, but where it is poorly preserved
finely divided midden shell tends to become
indistinguishable from shell grit. Shell grit
was noted as being present where it could be
identified as forming 10% or more of the deposit.

Smooth, water-worn shells and fragments
larger than 5 mm. are distinguishable from
midden shells, especially when both are well-
preserved. Water-worn shells were noted when
recognized in the deposits.

Rounded beach pebbles were commonly used
by Aborigines for making implements (Branagan

laLong Reef Point

Sydney

Kurnell

z

Little Garie Beach

Coledale Beach

Murramarang
Beach

Murramarang
Point

2 Point Nunderah

FIGURE 1.—Locality map showing location of sites studied.

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-—————— | ———————————_ | —__—_—_—_ — |
——— [EE | | |
— | |

WOT}BI0'T 9}1S

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~ alavy

RE-DEPOSITION OF MIDDEN MATERIAL BY STORM WAVES )

and Megaw, 1969, p. 11; Lampert, 1971, p. 27)
and whole pebbles, usually larger than 10 cm.
across, are found in undisturbed middens.
Rounded pebbles less than 5 cm. are rarely
found in undisturbed middens, especially if the
stone types are unsuitable for implements, and
the presence of such pebbles was noted if they
occurred in the deposits studied. Often small
rounded pebbles were found in large numbers,
for example, parts of the deposit at Hooka Point
consists of 20-40% gravel finer than 5 cm.,
much of it being the local tuffaceous sandstone.

Pumice is commonly found in wave re-worked
middens. At the northern end of Murramarang
Beach, rounded fragments of pumice up to
0-5 cm. across were observed being blown over
a level sand surface. Larger pieces were not
moved, even by strong gusts of wind. As it is
possible that small fragments of pumice could
be blown into a midden this material was only
recorded where pieces were larger than 1 cm.
across. However, pumice smaller than this
was only found at one site (Hooka Point),
whereas pieces 5-10 cm. across were common.
No pumice was found in any site subsequently
classed as undisturbed.

Although no natural shell beds were found
within the area studied, such beds could be
distinguished from re-worked middens using
eritetia ‘given im Table 1. They could also
contain marine shell grit but would not contain
significant amounts of charcoal, and could not
contain other cultural materials such as stone
artifacts. Some deposits consisted almost
entirely of material of marine origin with a
relatively small amount of culturally-derived
material. Numerous fragments of charcoal, up
to 2 cm. across, were found in all of the deposits
studied, including those made up predominantly
of materials of marine origin. In most cases
stone artifacts were also present. The origin of
water-worn shell and shell grit in these deposits
is uncertain but it seems likely that much of it
is midden shell modified by wave action.

Discussion

Descriptions of the deposits studied, including
their composition, location, exposure to storm
waves, and height above and distance from the
highest limit of swash are given in Table 2.
From these it has been concluded that many of
the deposits consist primarily of midden material
re-worked by storm waves. The results of this
survey, while not conclusive, would indicate
that many coastal midden-like deposits less than
6—7 m. above the upper limit of swash, especially
in exposed locations, are re-worked in this way.

The presence of any of the five constituents
described above, i.e., shell species and sizes not
eaten by Aborigines, shell grit, water-worn shell,
rounded gravel or pumice is sufficient to indicate
that a midden-like deposit is re-worked. The
composition of a re-worked midden will depend
on the material available on the beach at the
time of re-deposition by storm waves. Suc-
cessive layers may vary considerably in com-
position, as at Bass Point 4, where many
individual layers consist almost entirely of shell
grit, midden shell or beach sand and gravel.
The boundaries between such layers are generally
more sharply defined than those which may
occur in undisturbed middens.

It should be noted that the data in Table 2
refer to the seaward margin of each deposit, and
it is possible that wave re-worked layers may
give way to undisturbed midden further from
the shoreline. Similarly, undisturbed midden
may overlie wave re-deposited material. This
has been noted at the Captain Cook landing site
at Kurnell (M. A. J. Williams, pers. comm.)
where the basal layer of wave re-worked midden,
containing a high proportion of pumice, extends
beneath the undisturbed midden layers.

The deposit at Hooka Point on the northern
Shore of Lake Illawarra has probably been
disturbed more by lower energy wave action
associated with fluctuating lake levels than by
storm wave activity. Several phases of dis-
disturbance of the deposit are indicated by
successive layers of comparatively well-sorted
sediments and shells, up to 3 m. above the
present lake level... The nature vot thismiake
shore deposit with its distinctly sorted layers,
contrasts markedly with the re-worked coastal
deposits studied, where no sorting of material
occurs within layers.

It seems likely from the state of preservation
of the shell that the deposits are highly variable
in age, and do not represent one phase of
storminess. The deposit at Bendalong, for
example, included rusted nails and worn glass.
They are not to be regarded as evidence for a
recent higher sea-level stand. Storm wave
activity is part of the normal process of coastline
development, and these deposits thus offer no
indication of a different shoreline ecology in
the past.

The deposit at Hooka Point however, does
imply changes in lakeshore morphology and
ecology. Lake levels 1-3 m. higher than at
present would have caused the inundation of up
to approximately 13 sq. km. of the surrounding
land. Unless such levels were maintained for
sufficiently long time periods for lacustrine

10 P.. J. HUGHES Ann M..E- SULLIVAN

shellfish (especially Anadara trapezia) to colonize
the new near-shore zone, the shellfish food
supply of Aborigines exploiting the lake resources
would have been greatly restricted.

Although charcoal occurs within the re-worked
deposits, 14C dates of this material would in
general refer to the age of the original midden,
not to the time of deposition, and could only
indicate a maximum age. Charcoal from bush-
fires or middens could have been transported
along shore and incorporated in any order in
these deposits. Thus, 14C dates need not show
consistency with depth.

While beyond the scope of this study, it
should be noted that midden deposits can be
re-worked by other than marine or lacustrine
processes. These include fluvial re-deposition,
mass movement and very commonly, wind
deflation (Coutts, 1972). While these processes
concentrate or re-sort cultural deposits, they
do not supply additional materials which may
be confused with the cultural deposit—as do
marine or lacustrine processes.

Conclusion
From this study of a small number of sites we
conclude that deposits near the shoreline which
appear to be undisturbed midden should be
carefully investigated, as they may represent
midden materials re-worked and _ re-deposited
by storm waves or fluctuating lake levels.

School of Geography,
University of New South Wales,
Kensington, New South Wales, 2033

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Mr. R. J. Lampert,
Australian National University, and Dr. M. A. J.
Williams, Macquarie University for helpful
comments on and criticisms of this paper, and
also Mr. K. Maynard for drawing the location
map.

References

BowDLeR, S., 1970. Bass Point: the excavation of
a south-eastern Australian shell midden showing
cultural and economic change. Unpublished B.A.
(Hons.) thesis, University of Sydney.

BRANAGAN, D. F., and Mecaw, J. V. S., 1969. The
lithology of a coastal Aboriginal settlement at
Curracarrang, N.S.W. Archeology and Physical
Anthropology in Oceania, 4 (1), 1-17.

Courts, P..J:-F., 1966:
sites in Australia.

Courts, BJS 1972:
material eroded from coastal dune sites.
Soc. N.Z., 2 (3), 407-12.

FoLk, R. L., 1968. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks.
Hemphill’s, Austin, Texas.

GILL, E. D., 1951. Aboriginal kitchen middens and
marine shell beds. Mankind, 4 (6), 249-54.

LAMPERT, R. J., 1971. Burrill Lake and Currarong :
coastal sites in southern New South Wales. Terra
Australis 1. Canberra. Department of Pre-
history, Research School of Pacific Studies, the
Australian National University.

Features of prehistoric camp-
Mankind, 6 (8), 338-46.

Interpretation of archeological
J. Roy.

(Received 30 May 1973)

en

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 11-16, 1974

1973 Presidential Address

Sedimentary Basin Tectonics and a Geological Energy Reserve Appraisal

JOHN CRAIG CAMERON

Introduction

It is sobering to recall that a mere decade
ago it was fashionable in geological circles to
play down Australian prospects in the field of
oil and natural gas exploration. Some of the
popular arguments that were seriously advanced
included lack of Phanerozoic section, the
predominant area of Precambrian shield and
even the fact that Australia is situated in the
Southern Hemisphere.

The situation has changed dramatically due
to commercial oil and gas discoveries in Bass
Strait and the promise of even greater energy
reserves, mainly in the form of natural gas, on
the North West Shelf. As exploration and
production technology have gathered momentum,
it has become increasingly apparent that Aus-
tralia possesses some extremely interesting
basins with considerable promise of becoming
petroleum producers in due course.

In my Presidential address I propose to
discuss some of the geological, mainly structural,
conditions that have contributed to this volte-
face in Australia’s hydrocarbon potential and to
make from a geological standpoint a balanced
comparison of the energy reserves available to
the nation.

Impact of the new Global Tectonics

Australia’s disengagement from Antarctica
and its subsequent northward drift are relatively
recent geological events (late Cretaceous to early
Tertiary). This is reflected in the tectonic style
and nature of the sediments in the Bass Strait
Basins (offshore Gippsland, the Bass and Otway
Basins) and the structural style of the North
West Shelf.

In the Gippsland Basin, approximately,
5,500 m. (18,000 feet) of post Jurassic sediment-
ary section is preserved in what is basically a
half graben type depositional environment.
The style of tectonic deformation reflects
basement activity and the role of major crustal
dislocations rather than a compressional stress

regime. This has given rise to important
structures that predate or are synchronous with
the epeirogenic manifestation of the Kosciusko
Uplift of late Tertiary age.

On the North West Shelf the tensional regime
is even more manifest in the “ pull apart”
tectonics on a regional scale. It is especially in
evidence by the fault bounded horst structures
on the Rankin Trend.

Despite the obvious limitation of analogies
the author wishes to draw attention to the
remarkably similar tectonic picture as seen in
the section from Saudi Arabia, across the
Persian Gulf to the Zagros ranges of Iran and
the section from the North West Shelf to the
Indonesian Island Arc (see Figure 1).

The analogy whilst good is not perfect. The
major dissimilarity lies in the absence of a zone
of subduction fronting the Zagros Range cor-
responding to the Benioff Zone forming the
plate margin between South East Asia and the
Indo-Australian plate.

Infra Basins

A dramatic consequence of the search for
hydrocarbons has been the delineation of
previously unsuspected relatively deep infra-
basins beneath blanket cover of Mesozoic and
Tertiary sediments.

In Western Australia, the Kidson and Joanna
Springs infra-basins underlie the superficial cover
of Canning Basin. “A deep test by. WAPET:
Sahara 1, was abandoned at over 4,500 m.
(15,000 feet) the sedimentary sequence proving
considerably greater than the initial geological
prognosis.

Possibly the best-known of these infra-basins
occur in Eastern Australia underlying the
Mesozoic of the Great Artesian Basin. The
Adavale and Coopers Creek basins have con-
siderable hydrocarbon potential. Gas from the
Permian of the Coopers Creek Basin is already
supplying Adelaide and will provide the main
source of supply by 1975 to the Port Kembla-

12

Exmouth
Plateau

S carn arvon

a Basin
ar Ness

INDIAN

Deen Oceanic +++

OCEAN Trench

JOHN CRAIG CAMERON

vee KALIMANTAN

2,000 km m

Se
=| Palaeozoic

—~

Pre-Tertiary
of Indonesia

Granite-Andesitic

Soe Basalts + + Volcanic
ARABIAN PERSIAN en Baieste not
b MAINLAND GULF

CAMBRIAN

BASEMENT

V.E.x IO

HORIZONTAL

TRIASSIC, CARBONIFEROUS
AND OLDER PALAEOZOIC

SCALE

Miles

FIGURE 1.—Sections illustrating similarity of tectonic style.
(a) N.W. Australia to Indonesian Island Arc
(b) Saudi Arabia to Zagros Ranges, Iran.

Sydney-Newcastle conurbation. The gas poten-
tential of the Adavale basin awaits further
evaluation before exploitation is possible. It
should be recalled that Phillips Petroleum found
substantial gas in Devonian sandstones on the
Gilmore structure.

In the interests of logical scientific nomen-
clature a plea is made from the use of the term
infra-basin for these deeper (often fault bounded)
sedimentary sequences entirely masked by
younger rocks and separated from them by
numerous unconformities. The connotation
“sub-basin ’’’ seems more appropriate as a
designation for a lateral development of a major
basin as in the Coonamble sub-basin which is a
lateral appendage of the Great Artesian Basin.

The importance of these infra-basins is due to
the very considerable geological section which
may be present. The adjoining subsurface map
of the Adavale Basin shows depth to basement
exceeding 6,100 m. (20,000 feet) in several
places. This is in marked contrast to the
figure of 2,000 m. (7,000 feet) or so of sedi-
mentary section considered likely only two
decades ago.

Salt Tectonics (Halokinesis)

Geologists studying Australian stratigraphic
successions have been somewhat baffled by the
comparative lack of evaporites in Australian
sequences. Evaporites and diapiric structures
are known from the Amadeus Trough and
halite has been encountered by WAPET in the
Fitzroy Trough in earlier drilling, but there has
been nothing to indicate the development of
evaporites and especially halite on a scale
similar to the Gulf Coast of North America or
the Zechstein Sea area of North Europe.

Now, due entirely to exploration for oil and
gas in the offshore Bonaparte Gulf Basin, it
appears that a major halokinetic province has
been found. Geophysical surveys (magnetic,
gravity and seismic), followed by exploratory
drilling have demonstrated the widespread
distribution of salt of probable Devonian age
and its important role in the structural evolution
of the basin. All the classical structures of salt
tectonics are present, salt domes, salt pillows,
salt flowage. For further details on this
exciting new development, the reader is referred
to a recent paper by Crist and Hobday.

1973 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 13

The discovery of this new salt province brings

Australia into line with Africa where important
salt basins have been found on the continental
margin with obvious genetic implications with
the separation process of Africa from its adjacent
plates. Itis interesting to note in the Bonaparte
Gulf Basin that the salt predates considerably
the rupture of Australia from Antarctica,
confirming once again that an important
tensional stress regime occurs well before the
active drift episode—this is further corrobora-
tion for the observation by Dr. P. Kent in his
1973 address to the Australian Petroleum
Exploration Association, that important tectonic
events vital for economic hydrocarbon accumula-
tion take place well before the actual physical
separation of adjacent continental plates.

\
\
\
QO
Pd
zm
Ps
=
>
<
|
>!
+p!
Oo)
ae

ADAVALE
BASIN

ae} Palaeozoic basement
—_— Subcropt contact
——— Anttcline
~------:-, Total feet of
20,000;

‘ clinal lows

Continental Margins

Although exploration for oil and gas has by
no means been exhaustive in the onshore basins
of Australia, it is nevertheless true to say that
possibly with one or two exceptions the tectonic
style and the sedimentary facies have proven
none too encouraging for major hydrocarbon
accumulations.

However, when we turn our attention to the
oil and gas potential of Australia’s offshore
margin the situation is much more optimistic.
Not only are the sedimentary sections sub-
stantially greater but the geological environment
or as geologists like to say the facies, tectonic
and sedimentary are favourable.

It is worth studying the geometry and
lithology of the sedimentary basins fringing the

VE

ve

AME ee gs HIGH

84P 4
= : 26
, 72E

COOLADD| Weer enee
|

eee BASIN

Fault, tick on
downthrown side

section in syn-

FIGURE 2.—Subsurface map of Adavale Basin showing depth to basement.

14

JOHN CRAIG CAMERON

Australian coast line. Dr. R. Beck, Exploration Energy Comparisons

Manager of the Shell Group of Companies, in a
recent address to APEA provided the following

illustrations of continental margins (see South and Warner of the Australian Atomic
Energy Commission, an extremely useful and
With the possible exception of the third valuable account was given of Australia’s
possible future role in the nuclear energy field.
A tabulation comparing the reserve of the

Figure 3).

category (and this is probably due to delays in
release of information) all the remaining varia-
tions are found in the marginal basins of various forms of energy was also given. See

Australia. Table I.

AUSTRALIAN ENERGY RESOURCES
IN TERMS OF BLACK COAL EQUIVALENT

TABLE |
Black Coal |
Type poe noma Equivalent
Recoverable Reserves (12000 Btu per Ib.)
Bioee Goal (million tons)
ac (oxe) non-
coking) SOOOn Mallon ons 5,000

10,000 million tons 3,900 |
Puree g

Liquids
oie heer Sapa tO we bomnets
Uranium 72 000F short fonisicU..O, 142000 |

151,830

—— eS

™THE ORIGINAL FIGURE 5200 HAS BEEN ADJUSTED AS THIS 1S AN OBVIOUS COM -
PUTATIONAL ERROR

FABLE* Hl
Black Coal |

(million tons)

Black Coal (non-
coking) 8O00 million 8000

| Brown Coal | 15,000 million tons 5,800 |

enero cal Ga 4° Strillioness Cok oo i
(140x107 standard cubic. ft) !

Natural Gas 3.5 billion barrels
Lia hacic (3.5x 10° barrels)

Crude Oil 2 ee barrels 500
(2x10 bonnes)

| Uranium | 200,000 short tons 150, | | soem

fons

In a recent paper on “ Uranium Reserves and
Prospects for a nuclear fuel industry ” by Miles,

1973 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 15
PROGRADING CLASTIC WEDGE
S.L,
Oceanic
eo . Basement
nN
A AN
O 500km 1000 km
CARBONATE PLATFORM
S.L
\Okm
Oo 500 km 1000 km
S.L.
a SS SE a
Oe Oy
oO | 500km lIOOO km
sielesenetsinistetee
SAS
FAR RON EN Oe OOS
RE : Ee a 77
Oo 500 km loOOOkm

ccc Carbonates Gf Oceanic basement=-basalt
2a Clastics

Sait

\- \%}| Continental basement
&

FiGuRE 3.—Sections illustrating tectonic modifications of continental margins.

16 JOHN CRAIG CAMERON

Coal, whether black or brown, is the dominant
fuel for central power generation and is likely
to remain so for at least several decades. Also
as will be shown, the reserves of coal surpass
those of other fuels—so it is convenient that the
energy comparison of the various fuels should
be made in terms of black coal equivalent.

The writer welcomes the opportunity of
expressing his own views on this important
subject and presenting an energy comparison
tabulation which at least in his own view is
more realistic and corresponds to the situation
obtaining in the time interval 1975-80. See
Table II.

A few comments on the above figures will
serve to highlight and justify some differences
between the two tabulations.

The figures given for coal, black and brown,
are likely if anything to err on the conservative
side. Possible recoverable reserves of brown
coal in Victoria, for instance, may prove to be
as high as 30,000 million tons of minable coal.

At the time of writing (mid-1973), natural gas
reserves of the order of 140 trillion standard
cubic feet are in sight (i.e., 14010" SCF)
The Gippsland offshore gas fields alone have
reserves of the order of 14 trillion SCF, whilst
the reserves discovered to date on the North
West Shelf are expected to be many times
greater.

A conspicuous weakness in the Australian
energy position is the low figure for the reserves
of crude oil. Indeed this is the Achilles heel of
the Australian energy situation and should
prompt further intensive search for this vital
fuel. The situation could easily be reversed if
further exploration on the North West Shelf
should prove that the area is not entirely a
natural gas province, a geological contingency
which in the opinion of the author is not outside
the bounds of possibility.

It will be noted that the reserves of U,0, have
been more than doubled in the second tabulation
but the energy expressed in terms of black coal
equivalent has been revised severely downwards.
This has been done because all available
evidence indicates that commercial fast breeder
reactors capable of utilizing up to 70% of
Uranium atoms are unlikely to be available
before 1995. Considerable engineering, metal-
lurgical and ecological problems have still to be
surmounted before it can be said that the
breeder reactor is a commercial reality.

School of Applied Geology,
University of New South Wales,
Kensington, N.S.W., 2033.

A fact worthy of attention, emerging from
the second tabulation is that the energy values
of black coal, brown coal, natural gas and
uranium are all of the same order of magnitude. —
This prompts the observation that rational
exploitation policies of all energy sources will
be necessary to solve Australia’s forthcoming
energy problems.

If the writer can be permitted a presidential
prognostication it is that the 140 trillion cubic
feet for natural gas will prove to be a gross
underestimate—and that the present and im-
pending breakthrough in oil and gas exploration
and production technology will allow production
from significantly deeper water (perhaps 300 to
600 metres of water).

Looking even further into the future, i.e. the
post 2000 A.D. epoch, it is confidently expected
that the advent of fast breeders, nuclear fusion
and perhaps, most important of all, solar energy
will present themselves as timely energy
alternatives. The author is optimistic that
Australian fossil fuel reserves will prove adequate
to tide over the interim period before solar energy
and nuclear fusion become available, with the
important proviso that Australia does not
squander her resources to an energy hungry
world.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are extended to George Melville for
drafting the illustrations and to Professor F. C.
Beavis for reviewing the manuscript. The
author, however, accepts full responsibility for
views expressed in this paper.

References

Beck, R. H., 1972. The Oceans, the new frontier in
Exploration. A.P.E.A. Journal, 12, Part 2.
CAMERON, J. C., 1967. Australia’s Oil and Gas Poten-
tial—A Review of the Main Sedimentary Basins.
Proceedings of the Seventh World Petroleum

Congress.

CAMERON, J. C., 1962. Basement Features in Relation
to Sedimentation, A.P.E.A. Journal.

Crist, R. P., and Hoppay, M., 1973. Diapiric Features
of the Offshore Bonaparte Gulf Basin. Bull.
Aust. Soc. Explor. Geophys. 4, No. 1.

HEIKKILA, H. H., 1966. Palaezoic of the Adavale
Basin, Queensland. Proceedings, 8th Common-
wealth Mining and Metallurgical Congress.

MILEs, G. L., Soutu, S. A., and WARNER, R. K., 1972.
Uranium Reserves and Prospects for a Nuclear
Fuel Industry. 44th A.N.Z.A.A.S. Congress.
August, 1972.

Raccatt, H. G., Editor, 1969. Fuel and Power in
Australia. Cheshire Publishing Pty. Ltd.

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 17-30, 1974

Sedimentology of Permian Rocks near Ravensworth, N.S.W.,
Northern Sydney Basin

DAvip R. "GRAY.

ABSTRACT—Permian rocks near Ravensworth,, N.S.W. form part of the northern margin of the
Sydney Basin, a Permo-Triassic structural basin in central eastern N.S.W. They consist of marine
lithic arenites, conglomerates and siltstone of the Maitland Group, conformably overlain by
interbedded mudstones, siltstones, sandstones, conglomerates and coal seams of the Singleton Coal
Measures.

The sedimentary succession reflects changing depositional environments. Initially, marine
sedimentation characterized by littoral and shallow neritic deposition (Branxton Formation) gave
way to open shelf deposition (Mulbring Siltstone). Paralic sedimentation associated with coal
swamp and meandering stream deposition (Singleton Coal Measures) followed. Tectonic instability
related to movements along the Hunter Thrust initiated piedmont conditions with braided stream

deposition in the Late Permian (upper portion of the Goorangoola Formation).
Maitland Group marine sedimentation appears to have been dominated by northwesterly

directed longshore currents.

The fluviatile-lacustrine sedimentation of the Singleton Coal Measures

was associated with a northwest flowing drainage system, whereas the Late Permian braided stream
deposition was due to south-south-west directed palaeocurrents.

Changes in the nature of sedimentation and palaeocurrent trends in the Singleton Coal Measures
near Ravensworth are directly relatable to tectonic instability associated with the development

of the Hunter Thrust.

Such instability has probably controlled the nature, direction and rate of

sediment influx along the entire northern margin of the Sydney Basin in the Late Permian.

Introduction

This paper stems from work undertaken as
part requirement of a B.Sc.(Hons.) degree at
the University of Newcastle in 1971. It
attempts to integrate new data on lithology,
sediment provenance, lithosome geometry, sedi-
mentary structures and palaeocurrent trends in
order to elucidate environmental aspects of Late
Permian sedimentation along the northern
margin of the Sydney Basin.

The Ravensworth district is located midway
between Singleton and Muswellbrook, 96 km.
northwest of Newcastle. It is situated on the
eastern flank of the Muswellbrook Anticline and
is bounded to the north by the Hunter Thrust.
The region contains Late Permian strata which
to the north are in faulted contact with rocks of
Carboniferous age (Figure 1). The oldest
Permian rocks crop out in a zone between the
Hebden and Hunter Thrust Faults, and belong
to the Maitland Group which contains marine
sedimentary rocks of the Branxton Formation
and Mulbring Siltstone (Figure 2). The
Branxton Formation comprises fine, medium
and coarse grained lithic arenites, pebbly
arenites and pebble conglomerate with minor
cobble zones. The Mulbring Siltstone is typic-
ally a massive light grey to green siltstone with
minor arenaceous phases.

B

The Maitland Group is conformably overlain
by the Singleton Coal Measures which are
equivalent in age to both the Tomago and
Newcastle Coal Measures. The Singleton Coal
Measures contains three formations: the Salt-
water Creek Iormation, predominantly sand-
stone, siltstone and minor shale; the Vane
Formation comprising sandstones, shales, mud-
stones and coal seams; and the Goorangoola
Formation, consisting of sandstone, irregular
coal seams and minor mudstones and _ shales
which pass upward into sandstones and con-
glomerates.

The recognition and delineation of strati-
graphic units is difficult because of poor outcrop,
poor lateral continuity of the strata and the
lack of any distinctive marker horizons. The
chronological development of stratigraphic
nomenclature and salient lithological character-
istics of the stratigraphic units in the Ravens-
worth area are summarised in Table 1.
Robinson (1969), using subsurface information
revised the stratigraphy of the Singleton Coal
Measures employing recognisably persistent coal
seams as formation boundaries (Figure 2).
Mapping outcrops of the coal seams is difficult
because of poor exposure, and in the present
study, projected seam outcrops from Booker
(1953) were used in the construction of the
geological map. The nomenclature employed

DAVID R. GRAY

18

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SEDIMENTOLOGY OF PERMIAN ROCKS NEAR RAVENSWORTH 19

by Robinson, although suitable for subsurface
mapping, is difficult to apply to surface studies
because of poor stratigraphic control.

REFERENCE .

i! Coal
Sands tone
Conglomerate

700 909,90
36.101 s ge, 1a

[=] Shale 5
Siltstone “8 ae
GOORANGOOLA [===>
FORMATION aE
wo
uJ
faa
>
a
LJ
=
===] Ravensworth Seam
= fy
<< Bayswater Seam
So
Zz
(eo)
5 VANE
rG} FORMATION Pykes Gully Seam
= =
n

=| Arties Seam

mame Liddell Seam
amy Barrett Seam

SALTWATER Ck. E= a eee

FORMATION

MULBRING
SILTSTONE

Qa

=)

fe BRANXTON
FORMATION

(am)

=

<

—)

Z

SCALE
t 60m gen

FIGURE 2.—Stratigraphic column of Permian
rocks in the Ravensworth area.

Alby eid, references; ‘cited= refer to ~ the
Camberwell (denoted by suffix “C’’) and
Muswellbrook (denoted by suffix “M’’) 1: 63,
360 military sheets. The terminology used in
this paper is as follows :

1. Arenite classification is that of McBride
(1963).

2. Particle size classification is based on the
Wentworth Grade Scale (Krumbein and
Sloss, 1963. Table 4.1, p. 96).

3. Cross stratification nomenclature is that of
Allen (1963).

Petrology

Rudites: The rudites are generally poorly
sorted, pebble to cobble orthoconglomerates
with rounded to well rounded clasts of moderate
to high sphericity. The rocks are typically
light to mid-grey and comprise clasts of quartzite,
quartz, acid and intermediate volcanics, chert,
jasper, arenite and lutite set in a generally
dense arenaceous or argillaceous matrix.

Pebble lithology analyses, based on random
samples of 100 pebbles within a 2 square metre
sampling grid show that compositional variations
occur in rudites throughout the stratigraphic
section (Figure 3). The Vane and lower portion
of the Goorangoola Formation contain a higher
proportion (40-45%) of quartz/quartzite clasts
than other rudites in the area. Branxton
Formation conglomerates are characterized by
dropstone clasts of metamorphic lithologies and
those of the upper portion of the Goorangoola
Formation by a higher proportion of clasts of
intermediate volcanic (40%).

Generalized descriptions of pebble shape, size
and morphology are given in Table 2. Pebble
shape analysis after Zing (1935; cited in
Krumbein and Sloss, 1963, p. 107) showed that
quartz and quartzite clasts are spherical or
cubic, sedimentary lithic clasts are oblate and
volcanic clasts are oblate or cylindrical.

Aventtes: Arenites within the area in-
vestigated are typically fine to coarse grained,
compositionally and texturally immature lithic
sandstones (Table 3). The immaturity is
reflected in the low proportion of quartz, the
high proportion of lithic fragments, the
angularity and low to moderate sphericity of
the clastic mineral grains.

Modal compositions are plotted in Figure 3,
where triangular diagrams show the composi-
tional variation of these rocks for stratigraphic
units in which arenites are conspicuous elements.
Arenites in the Branxton Formation contain a
high or proportion of volcanic rock fragments
than sedimentary rock fragments and mineral

20

Booker (1953)

DAVID R. GRAY

TABLE 1

Stratigvaphic Nomenclature and Formation Lithology

Veevers (1960) Robinson Thickness
(1969) (metres)

% Goorangoola} 230 m. from
A 5 Formation bore data
or Fa but up to
3 = 400 m.
go Rixs = Rixs ——_—__—
Z 2 Creek 9 Creek Vane 303 m.
am S Formation = Formation | Formation
aa 3 PEE AES Sai,
or Ro Saltwater 70 m.
0.8 2 Creek
5 a) Formation
fo}
Fe Bayswater
Formation
Mulbring
Siltstone
E
Ss 5 | Branxton
aie Formation
= o)

%a

_—_— . | | |

Ponds Creek| Mulbring 240 m.
Formation Siltstone

Formation Formation

5

2 Mulbring

S) Siltstone

S ee

as Branxton Branxton 605 m.
~Y

‘3

=

BRANXTON FORMATION

50, HEBDEN- 081955 ¢

ul
to]

FREQUENCY

faa
m
@
m
=z
o

QUARTZ , QUARTZITE
CHERT

ACID PLUTONK

ACD VOLCANIC
INTERMEDIATE VOLCANIC
METAMORPHIC

LUTITE

ARENITE

BNEMRSO2

ITHOLOGY

FREQUENCY

FIGURE 3—Pebble phenoclast lithology histograms.

Description

Sandstone, shales, mudstones and
irregular coal seams which pass
upward into sandstone and con-
glomerate.

Sandstones, shales, mudstones, coal
seams and minor conglomerates.

Sandstone, siltstone with minor
shales, conglomerates and an ir-
regular coal seam (Hebden Seam).

Grey-green siltstone with minor aren-
aceous phases (glacial erratics in
lower 15 m.).

Fine, medium and coarse grained
lithic arenites, pebbly arenite and
pebble conglomerates with minor
cobble phases.

VANE FORMATION
QUARRY, LIDDELL - 005937C¢

FREQUENCY,

GOORANGOOLA FORMATION. GOORANGOOLA FORMATION

STATE FOREST - 121957C€

FREQUENCY

FAL BROOK - 146906 C

LITHOLOGY

Each histogram represents a sample of 100 pebbles

randomly selected from a 2 square metre sampling grid.

ce
:

TABLE 2

SEDIMENTOLOGY OF PERMIAN ROCKS NEAR RAVENSWORTH 21

Textural and Compositional Features of Rudites

Size Range of |Gross Rudite

Formation Clasts Composition} Sorting | Roundness Clast Lithology

Goorangoola pebble to boulder | polymictic | unsorted | angular to | intermediate volcanics (35-40%), lutite

' Formation (range: 2-48 subangular (18-23%), quartz/quartzite (15-
(upper cm.) 20%), chert (13-18%) ; acid
section) volcanic (15-18%), arenite (4-7%).

Goorangoola | granule to cobble | polymictic poor rounded to | quartz/quartzite (35-45%), acid vol-
Formation (range : 2mm.— sorting | subrounded canics (15-23%), lutite (12-15%),
(lower 16 cm.) chert/jasper (5-8%), intermediate
section) volcanics (4-6%), arenite (2-3%).

Vane granule to pebble | polymictic poor rounded to | quartz/quartzite (35-40%), acid vol-
Formation (range: 2mm. sorting | subrounded canics (15-23%), acid volcanics

—13 cm. ; (15%), lutite (10-13%), chert/jasper
average : 2cm.) (5-8%), arenite (3-5%).

Saltwater generally pebble | polymictic | unsorted | rounded to | quartz/quartzite, acid and intermediate
Creek size with minor subrounded volcanics, chert, lutite and arenite.
Formation cobble zones.

Mulbring no rudites
Siltstone

Branxton granule to cobble | polymictic | unsorted | subrounded | quartz/quartzite (20-23%), inter-
Formation to mediate volcanic (18-21%), chert

subangular (15-18%), acid plutonic (10-13%)

grains ; those of the Singleton Coal Measures
show a higher proportion of sedimentary grains.

Lutites: Lutites are poorly exposed because
of weathering. Except for some minor “ silty ”’
arenites in the lower portion of the Branxton
Formation, the lutites of the Maitland Group
are essentially confined to the Mulbring Siltstone
except for some minor “ silty’ arenites in the
lower portion of the Branxton Formation. The
Mulbring Siltstone is a grey-green, massive,
puggy siltstone which contains angular, elongate
quartz, plagioclase, minor microcline and sub-
rounded calcilutite fragments in a dense
argillaceous matrix with minor sericite and
calcite cement. Dropstones, comprising quartz-
fedlspar porphyry, toscanite, hornfels, phyllite
and granite of cobble and boulder size (up to
1 metre in diameter) are common in the lower
15 metres.

The Singleton Coal Measures also contain
lutites, principally siltstone, mudstone, shale
and claystone; these lithologies are most
common in the Vane Formation. The siltstones
are generally light grey, massive, relatively even
grained and often transitional from mudstone
to fine grained sandstone. The siltstones com-
prise grains of subangular to subrounded quartz

metamorphic (3-5%), arenite (2-3%).

and plagioclase, subrounded to rounded lithic
sedimentary rocks and carbonaceous material.
Claystones are common as bands within coal
seams. They are soft and waxy, exhibit a
colour range from white to pale brown, and are
probably tuffaceous (Booker, 1960).

Provenance

The composition of detrital components in
arenites and rudites indicates varying proven-
ance for the Permian strata in the region
(Table 4). During Maitland Group sedimenta-
tion a lithological change in source terrain is
evidenced by a difference in the detrital
composition of arenites in the Branxton
Formation and those in the Mulbring Siltstone.
The Branxton Formation has a_ volcanic
provenance with minor granitic and pegmatitic
sources, whereas a predominantly sedimentary
source is indicated for the Mulbring Siltstone.
Additionally, Maitland Group rocks contain
dropstones of metamorphic and igneous lithol-
ogies, and these evidently reflect ice rafting from
areas of like composition.

Provenance during deposition of the Singleton
Coal Measures was relatively uniform and
associated with a sedimentary source. An

%

-

DAVID R. GRAY

22

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SEDIMENTOLOGY OF PERMIAN ROCKS NEAR RAVENSWORTH 23

TABLE 4
Sediment Provenance

Formation Provenance
Singleton Coal Measures Volcanic
(upper section)
Singleton Coal Measures Sedimentary
(lower section)
Mulbring Siltstone Sedimentary

Branxton Formation 1. Volcanic.

marked increase in the proportion of volcanic phenoclasts in
rudites.

Indicator

(35-40% of clasts.)

high proportion of sedimentary lithic fragments (45-50% of
detrital grains).

sedimentary lithic fragments.

1. high proportion of volcanic rock fragments in arenites

(50-60% of detrital grains) and rudites.

2. Minor granite and
pegmatite source.

increase in intermediate and acid volcanic rudite
phenoclasts in the upper portion of the
Goorangoola Formation reflects a change from
a sedimentary to a volcanic provenance.

Sedimentary Structures

Other than bedding, sedimentary structures
within the Maitland Group are rare. Alpha,
heterogenous “alpha” and_ epsilon cross
stratification are present in the lower section of
the Braxton Formation. Lithologically homo-
geneous alpha cross stratification is formed by
the migration of solitary sand banks (Potter and
Pettijohn, 1963) ; the origin of heterogeneous
“alpha ’”’ cross bedding is problematical and
this structure, although not uncommon elsewhere
in the Sydney Basin in Triassic rocks, is yet to be
described in detail in the literature (Conaghan,
pers. comm., 1973). Epsilon cross bedding is
commonly generated on muddy intertidal flats
forming from the lateral migration of meanders
in channels (Potter and Pettijohn, 1963). The
upper section of the Branxton Formation is
characterized by rapid lateral facies changes
with interfingering of arenites and _ rudites,
expressed by sandstone lenses and wedges within
cobble conglomerate zones. The sedimentary
features of the Branxton Formation (Table 5)
suggest that the lower and upper parts of the
Branxton Formation were deposited in tidal
flat and shallow neritic/shoreface environments
respectively.

Within the Singleton Coal Measures cross-
stratification is the most common sedimentary
structure. Ripple marks, channels and other
small scale sedimentary structures, such as
flame structures, convoluted foresets, ball-and-
pillow structures and load casts are also present.

The Saltwater Creek and Vane Formations
are characterized by alpha, beta, epsilon and nu
cross-stratification. Lensing of the interseam

2. quartz with inclusions ; graphic intergrowths ; microcline
and plagioclase.

sediments is common. Booker (1953) described
the depositional sequence as “‘a_ series of
interlocking lenses’’. Lateral facies changes
are marked and abrupt : arenites up to 4 metres
thick taper to 1 metre within a distance of
9 metres. Seam splitting is also frequent.
Splits occur as thin “ rider ’’ seams which diverge
from the main seam at angles of 30° to 40°.
Strata within the split “ shadow ”’ the divergent
splitting seam as large scale foresets. These
foresets are up to 7 metres in height and up to
200 metres in length. Britten (1970, 1972)
considered that these foresets are the result of
“mobile differential compaction ’’, where seam
splitting is dependent on the direction and rate
of sedimentary fill into the postulated coal
swamps.

The stratigraphic interval between the
Bayswater and Ravensworth Seams, in_ the
lower portion of the Goorangoola Formation
contains pi cross-stratification, and channel-like
troughs. These structures presumably reflect
a distinct change in the hydraulic regimen from
that prevailing during deposition of the Vane
Formation. A channel, exposed in a creek
bank (024865C) is approximately 50 metres in
width and has the asymmetrical profile char-
acteristic of meandering streams. Rare
imbricated pebbles within the _ channel-fill
indicate the palaeocurrents responsible for
channel infilling flowed from north to south.
Linear channel structures exposed in a railway
cutting (038920C) are up to two metres deep,
25 metres in width and are infilled with massive
sandstone. The massive sandstone is inferred
to be the product of upper to transition flow
regime conditions and together with the basal
erosion surfaces of the channels suggests episodic
periods of high velocity channelized flow
(Coleman, 1969). The lower bounding surfaces
of the channel truncate sandstone with pi cross

24

DAVID R. GRAY

TABLE 5

Palaeoenvironment Data

Lithosome Lithology Sedimentary Palaeocurrents Fossils
Geometry Structures
Singleton Coal | prism shapes; | coarse clastics: cobble | epsilon, alpha and | unidirectional macerated
Measures (wedge shape conglomerate with eta cross bed- (vector mag- plant
(upper cross section) boulder conglomer- ding (rare) nitude: 8.18) debris
portion) ate phases; coarse
sandstones
Singleton Coal | varies from tab- | sandstone, siltstone, | (i) alpha cross bed- | unimodal (vec- | macerated
Measures ular to prism shale, coal and minor ding and chan- tor magni- plant
(lower shapes, with conglomerates nel-like troughs. tude: 5.53). debris
portion) shoestring (ii) alpha, beta,
sands. nu, epsilon cross |
bedding.
Mulbring tabular siltstone, with minor = — micro-fossils
Siltstone arenaceous phases (ostracods,
formini-
era).
Branxton prism shapes, | pebble and cobble con- — limited data ir- | brachiopods
Formation with shoe- glomerate, with regular pat-
(upper string sands coarse sandstones tern)
portion) and conglom-
erates
Branxton tabular, with | fine and medium sand- | alpha and epsilon | limited data | brachiopods
Formation minor shoe- stones, with minor cross bedding (appears uni-
(lower string sands pebble conglomerates (rare) directional)
portion)
stratification. The channel trends are parallel Ripple marks were observed at two localities

to palaeocurrent trends as defined by azimuths
of cross bedding foresets and presumably
indicate a palaeoslope control. The pi cross
stratified units are formed of interfering grouped
sets, individually large in scale, and have
plunging, scoop shaped lower erosional surfaces.
They have an average width of 3 metres and
trough amplitudes of 0-4 metres to 0-7 metres.

in the Goorangoola Formation (13886C and
059876C) ; they plot within the “ windformed ”
zone on diagrams of Tanner (1966).

The upper section of the Goorangoola Forma-
tion contains alpha, epsilon and eta cross-
stratification. Epsilon foresets (up to 3 metres
in height) are present in pebble conglomerate
exposed in the bank of Glennies Creek (145884(C).

Ficure 4.—Arenite composition (based on point count analyses)

4A. LOF (Lithic-Quartz/Chert-Feldspar) Diagram.
(Matrix/Cement-Lithic/Feldspar-Quartz) Diagram.

4B. MLO

4C. MF-SRF-VRF (Mineral Fragments-Sedimentary Lithic Fragments-Volcanic Lithic Fragments) Diagram.
O Branxton Formation; x Vane Formation; @ Goorangoola Formation; # Carboniferous (from Hansen, 1968).

SEDIMENTOLOGY OF PERMIAN

Palaeocurrent Trends

The palaeocurrent trends within the Branxton
Formation (Figure 5) may suggest a complex
interplay of currents associated with the
variable marine inshore or littoral environment
envisaged for this formation. The predominance
of a northwesterly trend (mean azimuth 324°)
possibly reflects the influence of longshore
currents in this inshore zone.

The Singleton Coal Measures show distinct
palaeocurrent trends for the Vane and
Goorangoola Formations. The Vane Formation
has a mean vector palaeocurrent direction
(Pincus, 1956; Curray, 1956) of 304° and a
resultant vector magnitude (Curray, 1956) of
5-53. Current directions range from 0° to 330°.
These trends (Figure 6) suggest a moderate to
high sinuosity, meandering stream pattern with
a general westerly flow direction. In the

Singletan Coal Measures

Mulbring Siltstone

Branxton Formation
Carboniferous

Fault
Palaeocurrent Direction

ROCKS NEAR RAVENSWORTH 25

vicinity of Liddell the palaeocurrent trends
diverge to the north and south, possibly indicat-
ing the presence of a local high.

Palaeocurrent trends for the Goorangoola
Formation (Figure 7) show a change in flow
direction from that observed in the Vane
Formation. The trends define a unidirectional
current pattern perhaps related to a braided
stream system associated with alluvial fan
development. The mean vector direction is
213° and the “resultant vector magnitude ”’
(Curray, 1956) is 9-18. Flow directions range
from 125° to 260°.

Palaeoenvironments

The lenticular nature, textural immaturity
and the presence of marine fossils and dropstones
in the Branxton Formation (Table 5) indicates
an extremely variable marine environment

~
7~ GR.053993

M7, ae Va WADA
ay of Zs Cg; Was

FIGuRE 5.—Palaeocurrent Data, Branxton Formation.

Pebble imbrication 23-2%, 20%, 16:5%, 13-3%.
Pebble long axes (apparent).

5.2 Pebble imbrication 20%, 16-5%, 10%.

All contours per 1% area.

Pebble imbrication 35%, 25%, 20%.
Pebble long axes (apparent).

Note 1. Pebble imbrication diagrams are contoured poles to oblate clasts.
Bedding is horizontal in all diagrams.
2. Apparent pebble long axes (measured on bedding planes or surfaces

close to bedding).

26 DAVID R. GRAY

y) \
™ Liddell Power set)
A

4 Trig point
Crp Opencut

co)

G.R.079920C

Foult.
Inferred
Geological
bou!

‘ Vane Formation} — ged
NS Carboniferous MB Polecaurre

wy,
q

G.R.005937C

FIGURE 6.—Palaeocurrent Data, Vane Formation.

6.1 Fossil leaf orientation (long axes).

associated with glacial or periglacial conditions.
Deposition took place in a variable nearshore or
littoral environment ranging from a shallow
water intertidal zone in the lower portion to a
strandline zone in the upper portion. Alpine
glaciation is thought to have been established
on a northwest-southeast trending mountain
range to the south (Dulhunty, 1964; Crowell
and Frakes, 1971).

Pebble imbrication 16-5%, 13-3%. 10%.
Pebble long axes (apparent).
Pebble imbrication 16°59, 13-3975 1007:
Pebble long axes (apparent) (GR.072905C).
Pebble imbrication 17-5%, 15%, 10%.
b Pebble long axis (apparent).
Pebble imbrication 33%, 30%, 23:2%, 16-5%.
a Pebble long axes (apparent).
b Pebble imbrication 27%, 20%, 16%.
Cross-stratification (poles to foresets).
ll contours per 1% area.

These muddy strandline conditions are in
complete contrast to the environment of
deposition of the overlying Mulbring Siltstone.
Raggatt (1938) considered that the Siltstone was
deposited partly at least under shallow water
conditions containing floating ice. The presence
of cold-water calcareous foraminifera and
ostracods also point to a cold shallow-water
environment, whereas the development of

SEDIMENTOLOGY OF PERMIAN ROCKS NEAR RAVENSWORTH 27

glendonites indicates tranquil water and the
presence of pyrite nodules reflect neutral or
alkaline conditions (Reynolds, 1956). The
absence of erratics in the upper portion of the
Siltstone reflects a decline of ice rafting activity.

The Saltwater Creek Formation is character-
ized by a marine regression and the establishment

a
é

a“
‘3b N

A

9%
31 G.R. 059877C

of a fluviatile-lacustrine environment. Environ-
ments probably fluctuated between marine
intertidal and peat swamp conditions. Raggatt
(1938) suggests that the change in conditions
was gradual and not abrupt.

The Vane Formation was deposited under
fluviatile-lacustrine conditions in a meandering

Fault
Wi
BB Permian ee
[] Goor angoola Geological
Formation boundary
Polceocurrent
direction

/ ye eee D\
N

730 :
2 G.R. 059877¢

FIGURE 7.—Palaeocurrent Data, Goorangoola Formation.
7.1 Pebble long axes (apparent).

7.2a
7.2b
7.3a
hob
74a
7.4b
15a
7.5b
7.6a
7.6b
7.7a
aris
All contours per 1% area.

Pebble long axes (apparent).

Pebbleampbrication 359%, 30%, 23°2%, 16-5%.

X Trough cross-stratification axes; @poles to foresets.
Fossil log casts (long axes).

Cross stratification (poles to sf) 41, 31, 22-3, 13-6%.
Fossil log casts (long axes).

X Trough cross-stratification axes ; @ poles to foresets.
Fossil log casts (long axes).

Pebble imbrication 27%, 23:2%, 13-:3%, 10%.

Pebble long axes (apparent).

Pebble imbrication 16-5%, 13-3%, 10%.

Pebble long axes (apparent).

‘seed

28 DAVID Ro GRAY,

stream environment. Fine sandstones, silt-
stones and claystones represent overbank flood-
plain deposits, whereas the coarse sandstones,
pebbly sandstones and conglomerates
characterize the main channel deposits. Peat
accumulation presumably occurred in abandoned
river channels (oxbow lakes) and backswamps.
The extent of coal seam development was
controlled largely by the nature, the rate and
direction of sedimentary fill and the location of
the channel zones within the floodplain. Duff
(1967) points out that there are two alternating
environments involved—one where peat and
fine clastics accumulated and the other where
coarse clastics are deposited.

The origin of the coal, however, remains
uncertain. The lack of seat earths has been
considered to indicate an allochthonous origin
for coal within eastern Australia (Duff, 1967).
Duff suggested two models for coals which lack
recognisable associated seat earths :

(1) ‘‘ Drift Theory ”’, where vegetable debris

is washed into the area of deposition.

(2) “Modified Drift Theory”, where

vegetation grows on floating peat.
He also suggested that the deciduous character
of southern hemisphere glossopterids, combined
with the possibility that rooting took place on
vegetable ooze rather than clay or sand, may
explain the lack of seat earths.

The occurrence of vertical tree stems and
vertically oriented ‘‘ Vertebraria’’, considered

. A
7
é
6
4
3
ry
I

Perarorras

PFO PEO SPQZA
rREOFPEroOparns
PRAP OF EAB POZD OY

Peo
PzO>,

to be glossopterid rootlets, in the Hebden Open
Cut Mine (072940C) indicates that some
vegetation grew in zones of peat accumulation —
in this area.

Cyclic sedimentation, often characteristic of
coal measure sedimentation was first recognized
in the Singleton-Muswellbrook coalfield by
Booker (1953). Veevers (1960) defined three
major cycles compounded of minor cycles
consisting essentially of sandstone, siltstone,
shale and coal in ascending order. Duff (1967),
however, concluded that there was a variety of
cycle types in the Singleton Coal Measures with
no particular one dominant. Analysis of bore-
hole data after Duff (1967), in the Hebden
region (Figure 8) also shows no obvious cyclicity.
The overall sedimentation rhythms have
generally been obliterated by cumulative cycle
development. The complex cycles commonly
observed are an expression of the superposition
of several reduced or incomplete cycles, which
results from continual channel switching of the
alluvial drainage system.

Marked changes in palaeocurrent trends and
sedimentary structures suggest a change in
depositional environment for the Goorangoola
Formation. A southerly flowing braided stream
system developed on a terrestrial piedmont in
front of an uplifted Carboniferous source area
to the north. The uplift, caused by movements
along the Hunter Thrust was initially gradual
and prolonged, punctuated by sporadic phases

OfPrZaZe
CZrzqPrzoO>

neo

FiGcuRE 8.—Lithology cycle frequency histogram (after Duff, 1967).

A—mudstone, shale
B—siltstone
C—sandstone

D—conglomerate
M—mixed

Histogram represents the analysis of 20 bores, in which 163

cycles were identified.

SEDIMENTOLOGY OF PERMIAN ROCKS NEAR RAVENSWORTH

of rapid uplift. Such phases probably caused
flooding and swift drainage in parts of the area.
The strata between the Bayswater and Ravens-
worth Seams, characterized by linear scour-
channels and pi cross-stratification reflect a
period of flooding.

Increased uplift resulted in the development
of extensive conglomerate sheets. These con-
glomerates generally become more coarse to the
north, and form part of the outcrop along the
western bank of Glennies Creek, north of the
village of Glennies Creek.

Conclusions

The Permian strata in the Ravensworth
region form part of the northern margin of the
Sydney Basin. Duff (1967) considers that the
Basin corresponds to a depositional model of an
intermontane basin with an outlet to the sea.

FIGURE 9.—Schematic depositional facies models.

29

Dulhunty (1964) provides a general palaeo-
geographic description of the Basin. He
considered that the Sydney Basin in the late
Early Permian (Kungurian-Kazanian) was a
marine embayment bordered to the southwest
by a northwest-southeast mountain range carry-
ing permanent snowfields and glaciers. Towards
the close of the Permian (Tatarian) a waning of
glaciation and a marine regression led to the
development of freshwater lakes and swamps
where alluvial sediments and peat beds were
deposited.

Sedimentation in the Ravensworth area
reflects this changing palaeogeography and has
been characterized by marine strandline,
fluviatile-lacustrine and alluvial fan—piedmont
deposition. Depositional facies models (Figure
9) derived from the stratigraphic geometry, the
sedimentary lithology and the palaeocurrent

SINGLETON COAL MEASURES.

Goorangoola Formation.

Paleoenvironment: Fluviatile— lacustrine to
piedmont conditions, with braided stream development .

Palceocurrents: SSW trend ( 213°)

Rock Types: Conglomerate ,minor sandstone , sandstone,
shale, mudstone and irregular coal seams in lower
section.

SINGLETON COAL MEASURES.
Vane Formation.

Palgoenvironment : Fluviatile — lacustrine
conditions in a meandering stream environment.

Palaeocurrents: WNW. trend (304°)

Rock Types: Sandstone, siltstone , shale, mudstone
coal seams minor conglomerates.

MAITLAND GROUP

Mulbring Siltstone

Palzoenvironment: Marine open shelf associated
with glaciation to the S.W.

Rock Types: Siltstone with silty sandstone
phases.

MAITLAND GROUP.
Branxton Formation.

Paleoenvironment: Voriable marine deposition
strandline intertidal flat conditions and
glaciation to the S.W.

Palocurrents : predominant NW. longshore currents.
Rock Types: Sandstones , conglomerates.

The diagrams represent

hypothetical models adapted from Allen (1964) of successive depositional
environments from the late Early Permian to the Late Permian for rocks in
the Ravensworth area.

30 DAVID BR. GRAY

data for each stratigraphic unit pictorially depict
these changing depositional environments. The
models exist within the regional framework of
the intermontane basin proposed by Duff (1967).

Booker (1960) considered a number of agencies
responsible for such depositional changes in the
Sydney Basin, of which climate, sea level
changes and tectonic instability are the most
important. The changes in the nature of sedi-
mentation and palaeocurrent trends in the
Singleton Coal Measures near Ravensworth are
directly related to movements along the Hunter
Thrust. Tectonic instability associated with this
progressively developing structure very probably
controlled the nature, direction and rate of
sediment influx along the northern margin of
the Sydney Basin during the Late Permian.

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges use of facilities at
the University of Newcastle and the advice and
assistance given by Professor B. Nashar, Mr. B.
Engel, Dr. K. Moelle, Dr. C. Diessel and Mr. B.
Vitnell during the course of the work. Thanks
are extended to Liddell Colliery, Hebden
Mining Company, Foybrook Open Cut and
Liddell State Mine managements for access onto
their property, and to Mr. R. Britten for some
drilling information.

Finally, the author would like to thank
Dr. P. J. Conaghan for some invaluable sugges-
tions during the preparation of this paper and
for criticism of the final draft. All diagrams
were drafted at Macquarie University, under the
supervision of Mr. K. Kendall.

References

ALLEN, J. R. L., 1963. Classification of cross-stratified
units. Sedimentology, 2, 93-114.

ALLEN, J. R. L., 1964. A review of the origin and
characteristics of recent alluvial sediments.
Sedimentology, 5, 89-191.

Booker, F. W., 1953. The Geology and Coal Resources
of the Muswellbrook-Singleton Coalfield. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Sydney (unpublished).

Booker, F. W., 1960. Studies in Permian sedimenta-
tion..- Dept. Mines Tech. rep., -5 (for, 1957);
10-62.

BOOKER, F. W.. BURSILE, GC. ‘and “McELRoy, C2,

1953. Sedimentation in the Tomago Coal
Measures: "fs. Broco) IROys, SOC. aN. SW ea one
137-151.

School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University,
North Ryde, N.S.W., 2113.

BRITTEN, R. A., 1970. Comparison of geological
features between the eastern and western flanks
of the Muswellbrook Anticline, New South Wales.
Abstr. Fifth Symposium Advances in the Study
of the Sydney Basin. F

BRITTEN, R. A., 1972. A review of the stratigraphy
of the Singleton Coal Measures and its significance
to coal geology and mining in the Hunter Valley
region of New South Wales. Papers and Proc.
Aus. I.M.M. Conference (Newcastle), 11—22.

CoLEMAN, J. M., 1969. Brahmaputra River: channel
processes and sedimentation. Sediment. Geol.,
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(Received 18 July 1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 31-34, 1974

Vesuvianite Hornfels at Queanbeyan, N.S.W.: The Nature and Status
of a So-called Periclase Rock

T. G. VALLANCE

ABSTRACT—A contact metamorphic product, described in the literature as a periclase rock,

occurs in a situation highly unusual for periclase.
material shows the earlier diagnosis to be in error.

Re-examination of the locality and original
Vesuvianite (a=15-57A, c=11-84A) is, in

fact, the principal phase present in the rock which also carries minor wollastonite and calcite.
Vesuvianite appears to be stabilized in calcareous rocks at medium grades of contact metamorphism

only where the vapour phase has a high H,O content.

Relatively hydrous metamorphism is

typical of other contact zones in the Queanbeyan area.

Introduction

In her account of the geology of the Quean-
beyan district, Phillips (1956) reported an
occurrence of periclase rock at a contact between
intrusive dacite and Middle Silurian limestone
some 5km south of the town. She described
the material as extremely fine-grained and
consisting of four minerals. ‘‘ The predominat-
ing periclase occurs as a granular isotropic
mass in which is scattered a small proportion
of flaky brucite. The other minerals are hydro-
magnesite and calcite, the latter generally
veining the periclase ’’ (Phillips, 1956, p. 123).
Formation of the periclase was attributed to a
dedolomitization reaction operating during
thermal metamorphism.

Local metamorphic features associated with
silicic intrusive rocks, variously termed dacites
or quartz-feldspar porphyries and perhaps better
named porphyritic microgranodiorites, are
known at several localities in the Queanbeyan
area. In these other cases, however, the
metamorphic situation is recognized as relatively
low- to medium-grade, from albite-epidote
hornfels to hornblende hornfels facies. Even
in carbonate rocks it is common to find hydrous
phases stabilized. At London Bridge, 18 km
south-south-east of Queanbeyan, for instance,
contact limestones carry the association calcite-
epidote-tremolite with, locally, the hydrous
borosilicate axinite (Vallance, 1966).

Stability and Occurrence of Periclase

Generation of periclase by dedolomitization
requires rather elevated temperatures even at
low pressures, and for such solid=solid+-vapour
reactions increased vapour pressure leads to
higher reaction temperatures. According to
Harker and Tuttle (1955) at 250 bars

(Pco,=Ptota) adjustment does not proceed for
pure dolomite below about 700°C. With a
mixed vapour phase (CO,+H,0O) reaction
temperatures are decreased, but as mole fraction
H,O (Xu,o) in the vapour rises towards unity
the equilibrium curve for the reaction passes
into a region of brucite stability. Brucite
itself dehydrates to periclase plus H,O at
about 530°C where Prota=Pu,o=250 bars
(Fyfe, 1958). Periclase is nowhere stable much
below this temperature.

In natural situations, there is commonly
sufficient water available even in carbonate
rocks to ensure hydration of periclase to brucite,
if not during waning stages of metamorphism
then under post-metamorphic conditions.
Pseudomorphs of brucite after periclase are
unexceptional in higher-grade (normally,
pyroxene hornfels facies) contact dolomites ;
periclase itself is a rare mineral. Good examples
of brucite after periclase from the contact
aureole at Ben Bullen, N.S.W., have been
described by Joplin (1935).

Even if periclase had been generated in the
case reported by Phillips (1956), its persistence
there would be quite extraordinary. Not only
was the terrain, including the dacites and
related volcanic material, involved in a low-
grade regional metamorphic event (Stauffer,
1967) but a granitic body (the Barrack Creek
Adamellite) invaded the country near the
so-called periclase rock.

Nature of the Contact Rocks

The material identified by Phillips as periclase
rock (her sample 337; University of Sydney
Collection No. 21887) comes from a contact zone
in the southernmost limestone lens in Portion
103, Parish of Googong (incorrectly given as

32 T. G. VALLANCE

Parish of Queanbeyan in Phillips’s paper).
Quarrying operations in the vicinity have been
extended since the time of Phillips’s study and
the particular occurrence is now obscured by
spoil. Limestone samples from the locality
(about grid ref. 241 282, Canberra 1 : 63360
sheet) are distinctly recrystallized to fine-grained
marbles, most of them displaying evidence of a
schistosity. Staining of these marbles reveals
that they are predominantly calcite rocks.
Dolomite rarely exceeds about 15% by volume
of the total carbonate and occurs typically as
fractured porphyroblasts in recrystallized calcite
mosaics or as trails of angular grains that serve
to emphasize schistosity. The only other
phases found commonly with the carbonates
are minor pale green to colourless chlorite and
scattered pyrite euhedra. No dolomite rocks
have been recognized here and, indeed, an
analysed sample (Table 1, column A) from the
same general locality is not distinctly magnesian.

Re-examination of Phillips’s collection con-
firms broadly the existence of contaminated
dacite, in which diopside-hedenbergite plus
wollastonite are generated, as an intermediate
between normal dacite and the massive, pale
yellow-green “periclase rock’’ (21887). The
composition of the latter (Table 1), however,
bears little resemblance to what it should be
were the mineral association stated by Phillips
present. The rock is clearly a calc-silicate
hornfels containing some Ca-aluminosilicate
phase. Examination of thin sections shows that a

single phase constitutes more than 90% of the
rock. This phase is practically isotropic with
a mean refractive index 1.722 and must be-
that termed periclase. The refractive index
is too low for periclase and, in addition, X-ray
study shows the mineral has _ tetragonal
symmetry agreeing with vesuvianite with cell
dimensions a=15-57A and c=11-84A. The
“flaky ’”’ phase that Phillips may have confused
with brucite is fibrous wollastonite. Its presence
has been confirmed by diffractometry on light
fractions concentrated by centrifuging in diluted
methylene iodide. No sign has been found of
either brucite or the third phase, hydro-
magnesite, mentioned by Phillips. A thin
chalk-white crust on the rock may have been
mistaken for hydromagnesite but X-ray study
shows it to consist almost entirely of vesuvianite,
indistinguishable from the pale yellow-green
vesuvianite.

There are, in fact, only three phases present,
namely, vesuvianite with minor wollastonite
and calcite. A modal check reveals almost
4-5°% wollastonite present and the composition
of vesuvianite quoted in Table 1 is calculated
from the bulk analysis assuming ideal CaSiO,
and CaCO,;. The formula derived from this
calculated composition agrees generally with
data listed by Deer, Howie and Zussman (1962),
though it departs, as do many analysed
vesuvianites, from ideal

Cay o(Mg.Fe).(Al.Fe),Si,0,,(OH.F),.

TABLE |
Rock Calculated
A 21887 Vesuvianite Formula: 76 (O.OH.F)
(21887)
SiO, L027 37-73 37-8 Si 18-16 18-16
Al,O3 h 0-64 11-85 14-4 Al 8-15 9-71
Fe,O, 3:55 4-3 Fe8+ 1-56
FeO — 0-63 0-8 Shy 0-14
MnO 0-24 0-05 0-06 HeAh 0-31 > 3°12
MgO 0-69 3-05 3:7 Mn 0-02
CaO 54-25 38-90 36-5 Mg 2:65
Na,O _— 0-12 0-14 Ca 18-80
K,O —— 0-03 0-04 Na 0-13 >+18-95
H,O+ — 1-54 1-87 K 0-02
20— a 0-07 — OH 5-99 5:99
TiO, as 0-31 0-4
P,O — 0-03 —
Con 43-47 2-05 ae
Total 100-31 99-91 100-01

i Gangue..

A—Limestone, Portion 114, Parish of Googong (Carne and Jones, 1919; assay 447).
21887—Vesuvianite-wollastonite-calcite hornfels, Portion 103, Parish of Googong, County of Murray (grid

ref, 241 282, Canberra 1 : 63360 sheet).

Anal. :

T. G. Vallance.

VESUVIANITE HORNFELS

Discussion

Vesuvianite has not been noted previously
in contact zones in this area and the occurrence
of wollastonite here might suggest somewhat
higher temperatures than in other local cases.
As we shall see, however, temperatures need
not have been exceptional. The subvolcanic
character of the intrusive rocks points to contact
metamorphism being achieved at distinctly low
pressure. Data on thickness of cover during
metamorphism are lacking, but a total pressure
not exceeding 500 bars and probably nearer
250 bars is considered reasonable.

Definition of the stability field of vesuvianite
is still quite uncertain, though it is clear it
must be confined by reactions involving a
H,O-bearing vapour phase and hence be
influenced by critical concentrations of CO, in
relations of the type (for end-member Mg.Al-
vesuvianite) :

15 vesuvianite + 98 CO, = 6 tremolite + 20
clinozoisite +98 calcite 197 quartz+14 12 O

3 vesuvianite + 16 CO.= ws 6 diopside f 4

clinozoisite +16 calcite 43 quartz+4 H,O
PE ue RGAE ape (2)

3 vesuvianite + 11 CO, = 6 diopside + 3
clinozoisite+3 grossularite+11 calcite ++ 5
BO ee eos SGN wndas Soste eb ee > (3)

i eetianite + 4CO, = 2 diopside + 1
anorthite+1 grossularite-+-4 calcite+2 H,O

4)

eee ee ec © © & © ee we ©

Ito and Arem (1970), in fact, failed to produce
vesuvianite in any synthetic experiments with
a mixed vapour phase though, for reasons
obscure to the author, they predict vesuvianite
should be stable “in a narrow overlap region
in which pure calcite and quartz react to form
moilastonite .. . under CO, pressure... even if
Bene activity of CQ, is considerable”. It is
impossible to evaluate Xco, from the information
given by Ito and Arem, but their use of ascorbic
acid (which would yield Xco,=0-6) plus CaCO,
and hydrous gels in the mixes suggests Xco,
cannot have exceeded 0:6 and may well have
been much lower.

Equations (1), (2), (3) and (4), arranged in
order of increasing temperature, suggest increas-
ing tolerance of vesuvianite to CO, in that sense.
Vesuvianite is expected to be on the higher-
temperature side in each case which should
have a IT—X equilibrium curve with inflected
positive slope towards Xco,=1 (Greenwood,
1967a). The solid phases in (4) suggest this
possible reaction straddles the curve for calcite
+quartz—wollastonite+CO,. Stability _ rela-
tions of vesuvianite and grossularite are of

Cc

AT OUBANBEYAN, N.S. W. 33

especial interest. These two phases occur
together commonly in nature and the J-X
field of end-member grossularite has been
defined by Gordon and Greenwood (1971).

The simple dehydration arrangement
vesuvianite=grossularite-+-H,O plotted schem-
atically by Agrell (1965, fig. 1) cannot obtain
for natural vesuvianites, even end-member
Mg.Al-vesuvianite. Equations such as:

vesuvianite +Si0,+2CO,=2 diopside +2 gros-

sularite+2 calcite+2 H,O ........ (5)
vesuvianite +3 SiO,=2 diopside + 2 gros-
sularite-+2 wollastonite+2H,O .... (6)
express more likely limits. Equation (5)
represents a special case where product-vapour
balances reactant-vapour and vesuvianite occurs
on the low-CO, side of a vertical T—X curve.
T-—X curves for (5) and (6) intersect at an
invariant point on the wollastonite reaction
curve (Trommsdorff, 1968) and (6) effectively
defines upper temperature limits for vesuvianite
plus excess silica. These limits must le below
those of the reaction: grossularite+Si0O,=
anorthite-++-2 wollastonite which is independent
of vapour composition and has been studied
experimentally by Newton (1966).

In cases with no excess silica vesuvianite must
be less restricted with regard to T and Xco, but
even here vesuvianite appears limited on the
higher Xco, side by grossularite-stable fields at
moderate temperatures. Either (4) or both (3)
and (4) must pass into a T-X region with
Xco, greater than that for (5) but less than that
of a grossularite+CO, reaction (Gordon and
Greenwood, 1971) at the same temperature. As
Trommsdorff (1968) has shown, the T—X curve
for the reaction :

1 vesuvianite + 1 wollastonite + 3 CO, = 2
diopside+2 grossularite+3 calcite +2 H,O
Se AA ge oe (7
emerges from the invariant point shared by 16
and (6). Thus the assemblage vesuvianite
+wollastonite appears restricted to a more
hydrous part of the vesuvianite field.

Ito and Arem (1970) report generation of
melilite (of unstated composition) +monticel-
lite-+-wollastonite(+-vapour) from mixtures of
vesuvianite composition at about 640°C at
Protaa=Pu,o=500 bars (and, by extrapolation,
about 610° C at 250 bars). These authors also
show that synthesis temperatures for a given
pressure are lowered by the presence of Na and
appear to have stabilized vesuvianite at 350° C
(500 bars) in such a case. In the absence of
experimental data on reversed reactions, these
results are quoted as a guide to stability of

a - —

34 iG. VALEANCE

Mg.Al-vesuvianite where mole fraction H,O
is unity.

As it seems clear that vesuvianite is restricted
at medium metamorphic temperatures to an
even narrower range of Xco, than grossularite,
the reaction calcite-+-quartz to yield wollastonite
associated with vesuvianite must proceed at
temperatures well below that of the simple
decarbonation in pure CO, (cf. Greenwood,
19676). The Queanbeyan hornfels appears to
have formed in what must be a narrow field
above the temperatures of the calcite+quartz
reaction and limited in terms of Xco, by (7)
but outside the extremely hydrous situation
where xonotlite is stabilized in place of wol-
lastonite (cf. Vallance, 1973). The rock was
evidently derived from a carbonate parent, but
the present mineralogy points to a water-rich
environment at temperatures of the order of
450° C, well within the hornblende hornfels
facies (Turner, 1968).

The revised mineral assemblage in the
Queanbeyan hornfels is in reasonable accord
with experience of other contact metamorphic
zones in the area. This particular example
seems to have generated allochemically. Dilution
of CO, by H,O during progress of decarbonation
reactions presumably was related to addition
of magmatic water, but the presence of con-
taminated dacite and the apparent absence of
rocks, such as calcareous shales, that could
yield vesuvianite isochemically point to transfer
of other components as well as water from the
intrusive body. Until the outcrop is accessible
once more, this aspect remains unresolved.

As an addendum, attention is drawn to the
existence at Canberra, about 14km to the
north-west, of metamorphosed calcareous shales.
Four of these hornfelses, denoted ‘“‘ calcareous
rocks from Canberra (limestone with silicate
of lime)”, have been chemically analysed
(Department of Mines, N.S.W., 1911, p. 188).
The analysed samples (which cannot now be
found) almost certainly came from Red Hill,
where Upper Silurian calcareous shales and
associated volcanic sediments have been locally
metamorphosed by another of the numerous
subvolcanic intrusions of the region. Calc-
silicate rocks collected at Red Hill by the author
include types with colourless, anomalously-
birefringent Ca-garnet + diopside + quartz.
Vesuvianite has not been seen here (nor has
“silicate of lime’’); grossularite appears to

Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney,
Sydney, N.S.W., 2006.

(Received 9

have formed instead, reflecting more siliceous
bulk compositions. Again, a distinctly hydrous
metamorphism of carbonate rocks at only
moderate temperatures is indicated.

References

AGRELL, S. O., 1965. Polythermal Metamorphism of
Limestones at Kilchoan, Ardnamurchan. Miner.
Mag., 34 (Tilley Vol.), 1-15.

CARNE, J. E., and Jonss, L. J., 1919.
Deposits of New South Wales.
Surv., Mineral Resources, 25.

DEER, W. A., Howie, R. A., and Zussman, J., 1962.
Rock-Forming Minerals. Vol. 1, Ortho- and Ring
Silicates. Longmans, London.

DEPARTMENT OF MINES, N.S.W., 1911. Annual Report
of the Department of Mines for the Year 1910.
Government Printer, Sydney.

Fyre, W. S., 1958. A Further Attempt to Determine
the Vapour Pressure of Brucite. Amer. J. Sci.,
256, 729—732.

GorpDon, T. M., and GREENWOOD, H. J., 1971. The
Stability of Grossularite in H,O-CO, Mixtures.
Amer. Minerval., 56, 1674-1688.

GREENWOOD, H. J., 1967a. Mineral Equilibria in the
System MgO-SiO,-H,O-CO,. Researches in Geo-
chemistry (ed. Abelson), 2, 542-567.

GREENWOOD, H. J., 1967b. Wollastonite: Stability
in H,O-CO, Mixtures and Occurrence in a Contact-
metamorphic Aureole near Salmo, British
Columbia, Canada. Amer. Mineral., 52, 1669-1680.

HARKER, R. I., and Turtiez, O. F., 1955. Studies in
the System CaO-MgO-SiO,. Part I. The Thermal
Dissociation of Calcite, Dolomite and Magnesite.
Amer. J. Sci., 253, 209-224.

Iro, J., and AReM, J., 1970.) Idocrase== synthesis
Phase Relations and Crystal Chemistry. Amer.
Minerval., 55, 880-912.

Joriin, G. A., 1935. The Exogenous Contact-zone
at Ben Bullen, New South Wales. Geol. Mag.,
72, 385-400.

Newton, R. C., 1966. Some Calc-silicate Equilibrium
Relations. Amer. J. Sct., 264, 204-222.

PHILLIPS, J. R. P., 1956. Geology of the Queanbeyan
District. Proc. - Roy. \S0c-) NS: oe
(for 1955), 117-126.

STAUFFER, M. R., 1967. The Problem of Conical
Folding Around the Barrack Creek Adamellite,

The Limestone
N.S.W. geol.

Queanbeyan, New South Wales. J. geol. Soe.
Austry., 14, 49-56.
TROMMSDORFF, V., 1968. Mineralreaktionen mit

Wollastonit und Vesuvian in einem Kalksilikatfels
der alpinen Disthenzone (Claro, Tessin). Schweiz.
miner. pety. Mitt., 48, 655-666.

TURNER, F. J., 1968. Metamorphic Petrology. Muneral-
ogical and Field Aspects. McGraw-Hill, New York.

VALLANCE, T. G., 1966. A Contact Metamorphic
Axinite Paragenesis at London Bridge, near
Queanbeyan, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
99 (Browne Vol.), 57-67.

VALLANCE, T. G., 1973. Notes and Exhibits (Hydro-
garnet-calcite-xonotlite Formed by Hydrous Meta-
morphism of Limestone near Mudgee, N.S.W.).
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 97 (for 1972), 315.

May 1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 35-40, 1974

The Seismicity of New South Wales

LAWRENCE DRAKE

ABSTRACT—Riverview College Observatory in Lane Cove has been recording ground motion

in the neighbourhood of Sydney from earthquakes since 1909.
in this time has been of half-amplitude 500 microns and of period approximately 1 sec.

The largest ground motion measured
There have

been six earthquakes in New South Wales in this time of Wood-Anderson magnitude 5-5 or greater.
Two of these have occurred in the Dalton-Gunning region and two have occurred near the southern

and western boundaries of the Sydney Basin.

Wales have been much less seismic than these two regions.

Sydney itself and the South Coast of New South

However, in evaluation of seismic

risk, even in less seismic regions, allowance must be made for faults, ground with poor bearing capacity

and potential landslide areas.

Introduction

The earthquake felt in Sydney (Modified
Mercalli intensity IV) at 5.10 a.m., E.S.T., 10th
March, 1973, served as a reminder that a study
needed to be made of the ground motion caused
in Sydney by past earthquakes before any
estimate can be made of the likely effects of
future earthquakes.

In this paper a brief summary of the more
significant earthquakes felt in New South Wales
between 1788 and 1909 is given. Since 1909,
seismographs have been operating at Riverview
College Observatory in Lane Cove and estimates
of the Wood-Anderson magnitudes of the larger
earthquakes felt in New South Wales between
1909 and 1973 are presented. Finally, some
observations on earthquake risk in southeastern
New South Wales are made.

Earthquakes in New South Wales
from 1788-1909

Within a month of the founding of the colony
of New South Wales in 1788, a small earthquake
was felt at Port Jackson (Clarke, 1869).
Another earthquake was felt in Parramatta in
1801 (Cotton, 1921). An earthquake which was
felt in Prospect in 1809 was reported to have
“changed well water from fresh to salt ”’
(Clarke, 1869), and there exists an anonymous
account of an earthquake near Lake George in
1828 (Doyle, ef al., 1968). Explorers, for
example, Sturt, also felt earthquakes in western
New South Wales (Clarke, 1869).

Further earthquakes were felt in Sydney in
1837, in Maitland and Parramatta in 1841, and
in St. Leonards and Maitland in 1868. As a
result of the earthquake in 1868, a clock in East

Maitland “ which had not gone for months and
could not be coaxed or forced to go .. . since
midnight last night has continued to oscillate. . .
and is apparently as reliable a time-teller as in
its most palmy days” (Clarke, 1869). The
Report of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science of 1892 mentions
earthquakes felt at Coonamble (Rossi-Forel
intensity VI) in 1880, and at Yass (Rossi-Forel
intensity VII-VIII) in 1886 (Morton, 1893).

Clarke (1869) observed that the few earth-
quakes “ that have been rescued from oblivion
are sufficient to justify the belief that numerous
others have passed unrecorded’’, and _ the
seismicity of New South Wales between 1788 and
1909 appears to have been quite similar to that
since 1909.

Seismographs at Riverview

Mainka and Wiechert seismographs began
operating at Riverview in 1909. The response
of these seismographs to ground motion at
various periods is calculated from their free
period, static magnification, viscous damping
and pen friction (Byerly, 1933). Galitzin seis-
mographs began operating at Riverview in 1941.
The response of these seismographs to ground
motion at various periods is calculated from
their free period and synchronous magnification
(Sohon, 1932). The responses of the Mainka,
Wiechert and Galitzin seismographs_ at
Riverview are shown in Figure 1. Also shown
in Figure 1 is the response of a standard Wood-
Anderson seismograph of free period 0°8 sec.,
static magnification 2,800, and viscous damping
parameter 0-8 (Richter, 1935, 1958). It can
be seen from Figure 1 that, for ground motion
at a period of 0-9 sec., the magnification of the

36

LAWRENCE DRAKE

2000 WOOD - ANDERSON
1000
GALITZIN
500
S vaN
a Wea
E
3
‘Ss 100
g
=) 50
=
=
20
10
02 0:5 l 2 5 0 20

Period of ground movement (sec)

FIGURE 1.—Response to ground motion of a standard Wood-Anderson
seismograph and of the Mainka, Wiechert and Galitzin seismographs at
Riverview.

Mainka seismograph (approximately 150) is one-
tenth that of a standard Wood-Anderson
seismograph (approximately, 1,500).

The magnifications of Benioff and Spreng-
nether seismographs of the Worldwide Standard
Seismograph Network which began operating at
Riverview in 1962, are readily available (Geotech,
1962; University of Michigan, 1966).

Wood-Anderson Magnitudes

Burke-Gaffney (1951) estimated Wood-
Anderson magnitudes of earthquakes in New
South Wales from seismograms made at River-
view. He observed the period of the motion of
largest amplitude on the seismogram and
compared the magnification with that of a
standard Wood-Anderson seismograph at that
period. He then used the table of Richter
(1935, 1958) for California to calculate the
Wood-Anderson magnitude.

In this paper, Burke-Gaffney’s procedure has
been modified in three ways.

First, more attention has been paid to motion
on the seismograms at periods of less than one
second. Since 1962 the Benioff seismographs
at Riverview have shown that earthquakes, at
least in the eastern part of New South Wales,
cause considerable ground motion at these
periods. Figure 1 shows that the Wood-
Anderson seismograph has a relatively high
magnification at these periods.

Second, the Wood-Anderson magnitudes for
earthquakes at distances greater than 100 km.
from Riverview have been reduced by the
amounts shown in Table 1. This is because
Cooney (1962) shows a radius of perceptibility
for the earthquake of 21st May, 1961, near
Robertson, New South Wales, of approximately
300 km., while Richter (1958) gives a radius of
perceptibility in California for an earthquake of
similar size of approximately 200 km. Thus,
there appears to be less attenuation of local
earthquake motion in New South Wales than
there is in California. Similar effects have

THE SEISMICITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

been found by White (1968) in South Australia,
and by Nuttli (1973) in the eastern United
States. The reductions of Wood-Anderson mag-
nitudes shown in Table 1 are approximate
estimates based on comparison of magnitudes
of earthquakes calculated at Riverview with
those calculated in Canberra at the Australian
National University (Department of Geophysics
and Geochemistry) and at the Bureau of Mineral
Resources (Geology and Geophysics).

TABLE 1
Reduction of Wood-Anderson Magnitudes

Distance of Epicentre
(km)

Units of Magnitude

100-249 ae a 0-1
250-499 x. ria aye 0-2
500- ; 0-3

Third, the static magnification of actual
Wood-Anderson seismographs is often nearer
2,000 than 2,800 (D. Denham, personal com-
munication). Hence, 0-1 has been subtracted
from Wood-Anderson magnitudes calculated
using the curve shown for the Wood-Anderson
seismograph in Figure 1.

Earthquakes in New South Wales
since 1909

Earthquakes in New South Wales of Wood-
Anderson magnitude, four or greater recorded at
Riverview since 1909, are tabulated in Table 2
and plotted in Figure 2.

The epicentres and origin times of the first 15
earthquakes of Table 2 are those of Burke-
Gaffney (1951) with the exception of two: the
epicentre of the earthquake of 22nd May, 1932,
has been placed near the town of Narromine,
where it was felt, and the epicentre of the
earthquake, 10th March, 1949, has been moved
0-1° westward into a well-defined meizoseismal
area (Joklk, 1951).

The Wood-Anderson magnitudes of the earth-
quakes in Table 2 are based on ground motions
recorded at Riverview. A magnitude of 4:5 of
the earthquake of 10th March, 1949, found by
Burke-Gaffney (1951), is inconsistent with the
Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII estimated
near the town of Dalton (10 km. northwest of
Gunning and 50 km. west of Goulburn) by
Joklk (1951), or even with an intensity of VII,
which would appear a more accurate estimate
from the effects described. Wiechert seismo-
grams indicate that there was ground motion at

37

Riverview of half-amplitude 170 microns and of
period approximately 1 sec. The distance to the
epicentre was approximately 220 km. This
ground motion and epicentral distance imply a
Wood-Anderson magnitude of approximately
5:5, which is more consistent with the above
intensities. Hence, the magnitude of the earth-
quake of 10th March, 1949, has been increased
to 5-5 in Table 2. A body wave magnitude of
5-3 is given by the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey for this earthquake.

The epicentres and origin times of the four
earthquakes near the town of Gunning in 1952 are
those of the Bureau of Mineral Resources
(Geology and Geophysics) in Canberra (cf.
Joklik and Casey, 1952).

The epicentres and origin times of the two
earthquakes in the Snowy Mountains region in
1958 and 1959 are those of Cleary, et al. (1964).
The magnitude of 5-3 given in Table 2 for the
earthquake of May 18, 1959 is 0-3 higher than
that given by Cleary, e¢ al. (1964). This
earthquake is of some importance since its
epicentre is within a few kilometres of the large
Eucumbene and Jindabyne dams. Cleary, ef al.

145°E \50°E

o 40KM4(4:5 2 Collorenebri
O 45«M(50

O 5-0KM(5'5

© 5:5«M

Groftons

a)
Armidale

o)
Tamworth

Coonamble
re) s

a

Coonabarabran

Wingham®

O a Dubbo

N SW Newcastle

Orange,

Griffith
s

"Hay Temora’
Wagga,

= Berrigan

145°E

FIGURE 2.—Earthquakes in New South Wales,
1909-1973.

(1964) note that the earthquake occurred before
the filling of Lake Eucumbene had proceeded to
any significant extent. Hence, it is unlikely to

have been caused by the weight of water in that
lake.

38 LAWRENCE DRAKE

TABLE 2
Earthquakes in New South Wales, 1909-1973

Date ea CT) Ages Me Region
hime es “Ss a

1919, August 15 Sig ee lO 2r 21 33°5 150-7 4-6 Kurrajong, Sydney
1921, May 30 re be) =F 45 ol 59 35:0 145-0 5-5 Hay, Tocumwal
1925, December 18 eas ee LOy 472 10 33:0 152-0 52 Sydney, Wingham
1930, October 27 .. Ks nes 027 03, 51 34:°5 149-0 5:0 Boorowa
1932, May 22 Me at2 as 10, ° 46°. 28 32°3 148:°3 4°5 Narromine, Dubbo
1933, January 11 .. ye As, 20) 1051 34-8 149-5 4-8 Gunning
1934, January 30 .. i. bg 20 27 54 34°8 149-5 4-7 Gunning
1934, November 10 ae wh 23-47. 40 34-9 150-0 4-8 Goulburn, Canberra
1934, November 18 Be ce 21 58 41 34-5 149-5 5:6 Gunning
1934, November 21 ah ie 06 32 06 34:5 149-2 4-8 Crookwell
1938, March 24 .. ore aN 20, 05 33 35-5 146-0 535 Berrigan
1938, June 27 sa ste as 22 38 47 30-4 151-8 4-7 Armidale, Guyra
1947, May 5 fe as =, 04 438 48 35:0 149-5 4-5 Goulburn, Canberra
1947, September 25 oe - TOW 5 6u 2 277 34:0 148-6 4-6 Cowra, Orange
1949, March 10 te, oF a: 2 to) eo 34:8 149-2 5:5 Dalton, Gunning
1952, September 7 my ay Ob, 34197 14 34:8 149-3 4-7 Gunning, Yass
1952, November 18 ie Mie 10 03 06 34-8 149-3 4-4 Gunning, Yass
1952, November 19 ee Se: Ol 59 16 34°8 149:3 4-9 Gunning, Yass
1952, November 22 4 “aa OV ee yl PAY) 34-8 149-3 4-6 Gunning, Yass
1958, September 1 ae Ed. Lips lS 02 36-4 149-2 4-0 Rock Flat, Cooma
1959, May 18 Ets ee Ais 06 12°59 36-2 148-7 Deo Berridale, Cooma
1959, October 12 .. a es Dibaeeoc 40, 31-0 151-5 4:7 Uralla, Tamworth
1961, May 16 ae op “e 06 52 54 al-0 147-5 4-8 Coonamble
1961, May 21 ae. sik, a 21 740-*01 34:6 150-4 5-6 Bowral, Robertson
1962, September 29 dees Bie One sil, 3a 34-4 150-0 4-2 Bowral, Moss Vale
1968, March 8 ae a oes 1l 48 46 34:2 149-1 4°6 Cowra, Orange
1968, July 8 - Pi. oe De a50ee rs 34:7 150-7 4-0 Kiama, Moss Vale
1968, December 31 sh BA 162 08" 233 31-0 149:°3 5-0 Coonabarabran
1970, August 8 5 sh ae 165105 53 29-1 148-4 4-0 Collarenebri
LO7l, june 21 ae i ene ODT 41 36-2 148-8 4-1] Berridale, Cooma
1971, November 3 ie oA 20 05 38 34-8 149-2 4-3 Gunning, Dalton
1972, February 25 ae be 15 22 34 34-2 147-5 4-0 Temora
1973, March 9 ae af Ss T9509 15 34-2 150-3 5:5 Burragorang Valley

The epicentres and origin times of the earth- the lake. It was of similar magnitude to the

quakes of 12th October, 1959, and 16th May,
1961, are those of Doyle, e¢ al. (1968b). The
epicentre and origin time of the earthquake of
21st May, 1961, near Bowral and Robertson is
that of Cooney (1962). However, Cleary and
Doyle (1962) give an epicentre approximately
10 km. nearer Sydney, which fits the
meizoseismal region better. This earthquake
caused ground motion at Riverview of half-
amplitude 500 microns and of period approx-
imately 1 sec. The epicentre and origin time
of the earthquake of 29th September, 1962, west
of Bowral, are those of Doyle, e¢ al. (1968a).

The epicentres and origin times of the last
eight earthquakes in Table 2 have been cal-
culated at the Australian National University
(Department of Geophysics and Geochemistry)
in Canberra. The epicentre of the earthquake
of 9th March, 1973, is under the south end of
Lake Burragorang. This earthquake may have
been caused partly by the weight of the water in

earthquake of 21st May, 1961, and caused
ground motion at Riverview of half-amplitude
500 microns and of period approximately 1 sec.

Seismic Risk in New South Wales

Prior to 1962, when a set of instruments of
the Worldwide Standard Seismograph Network
began operating at Riverview, earthquakes of
Wood-Anderson magnitude less than 4-5 occurr-
ing more than 300 km. from Sydney were
unlikely to be detected at Riverview. Hence,
Table 2 and Figure 2 are incomplete representa-
tions of the seismicity of northern and western
New South Wales, and, at present, little can be
said about the seismic risk in particular sections
of these regions.

From the observed distribution of epicentres
shown in Figure 2, it appears that most of the
seismicity in southeastern New South Wales
occurs in the Dalton-Gunning region and near
the southern and western boundaries of the

THE SEISMICITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES 39

Sydney Basin. Other regions, for example,
Sydney itself and the South Coast, are much
less seismic. For the Dalton-Gunning region,
Cleary (1967) found that most of the seismic
activity from 1958 to 1961 occurred near the
boundaries of a granite wedge which was over-
riding the surrounding country in a south-
easterly direction. For the Snowy Mountains
region, which was also an area of detailed study,
Cleary, et al. (1964) found that between 1958
and 1962 small earthquakes occurred more or
less randomly. For the Sydney Basin region
and the region of the South Coast, Doyle, e¢ al.
(19682) found that most of the earthquakes
between 1959 and 1967 occurred near the
southern and western boundaries of the Sydney
Basin.

With any estimate of seismic risk, two
reservations need to be made. First, Richter
(1958) states that earthquakes recorded over two
or three centuries are not an adequate basis for
estimating the seismicity of any region. Second,
he adds that stratigraphic and geomorphic
evidence also needs to be used. This can rarely
be done entirely satisfactorily, since active
faults do not always have conspicuous surface
manifestations. Hence, most estimates of
seismic risk involve unavoidable assumptions.
Steinbrugge (1968) also notes that allowance
must be made in any seismic region for geological
hazards, such as faults, ground with poor bearing
capacity, and potential landslide areas. An
example of all of these geological hazards occurs
near the town of Picton within the Sydney
Basin. The Nepean Fault dips westward
towards the more seismically active region near
the western edge of the Sydney Basin. It may
be active. Also, the alluvial valley near Picton
contains ground of poor bearing capacity.
Finally, the slopes around Picton are potential
landslide areas.

Conclusion

Ground motion at Riverview College Ob-
servatory in Lane Cove caused by earthquakes
in New South Wales between 1909 and 1973 has
been measured and estimates of the Wood-
Anderson magnitudes of these earthquakes
have been made. The largest ground motion
measured in Sydney from earthquakes has been
of half-amplitude 500 microns and of period
approximately 1 sec. Six earthquakes in New
South Wales of Wood-Anderson magnitude 5-5
or greater have been recorded between 1909 and
1973. Two of these have occurred in the
southwestern part of the State, two have
occurred in the Dalton-Gunning region, and two

have occurred near the southern and western
boundaries of the Sydney Basin. The South
Coast of New South Wales and Sydney itself
have been comparatively lessseismic. However,
even in less seismic regions allowance must be
made for faults, ground with poor bearing
capacity, and potential landslide areas.

Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to Dr. David Denham
of the Bureau of Mineral Resources (Geology
and Geophysics) in Canberra, to Dr. John Cleary
of the Australian National University (Depart-
ment of Geophysics and Geochemistry), and to
Mr. P. F. Rheinberger of Riverview College
Observatory for help and advice.

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School of Earth Sciences,
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(Received 27 July 1973)

Members of the Society, April, 1974

The year of election to membership and the number of papers contributed to the Society’s Journal are shown in

brackets, thus:

(1934: P8), * indicates Life Membership.

Honorary Members

-Baxver, Sir John Philip, KBE. CMG. O.BE.,
Ph.D., F.A.A., Australian Atomic Energy Com-
mission, 1 Kelso Street, Enfield, 2136 (1950).

Browne, William Rowan, D.Sc., F.A.A., 363 Edgecliff

Road, Edgecliff, 2022 (1913: P23; President
1932).
BurRnET, Sir Frank Macfarlane, O.M., Kt., D.Sc.,

F.R.S., F.A.A., c/o Department of Microbiology,

University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria,
3052 (1949).
Pirro, Raymond William, D.Litt., .M.A., Ph.D.,

Professor of Anthropology, University of London,
33 Southwood Avenue, London, N.6, 5.SA,
England.

Hitt, “Dorothy, :Sc., HARS; b.A.A.,. Protessor ot
Geology and Mineralogy, University of Queens-
land, St. Lucia, Brisbane, 4067 (1938: P6).

O'CONNELL, -Rev.. Daniel=J.; 9.j., D:sc.,. Pipe
F.R.A.S., Borgo S. Spirito 5, 00193 Rome, Italy
(1953).

OLIPHANT, (Sir Marcus’ L., K.B-E:, Ph.D., Bsce
F.R.S., F.A.A., Emeritus Professor, Research
School of Physical Sciences, Australian National
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IROBINSON, .Sir Robert, M.A., D.Sce:, FR S., B:@iss
F.I.C., Professor of Chemistry, Oxford University,
England (1948).

WHITE, Sir Frederick W. G., K.B.E., D.Sc., Ph.D.,
EAL AS R.S.j.837 Investicator Street, IKked ulb
AGL 2603:

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A.M.1.E.(Aust.), Dip.App.Sc., School of Mining
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ADRIAN, Jeannette, B.Sc., Geological Survey of New
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ALBANI, Alberto D., Dr.Geol.Sci. (Florence), M.Sc.
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*ALBERT, Adrien, D.Sc., F.A.A., Professor of Medical
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ANDERSON, Geoffrey William, B.Sc., c/o Box 30,
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ASHLEY, Paul Michael, B.Sc., 2 Fernhill Avenue,
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ATKINS, Francis Edward, B.A.,
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*BAKER, Stanley Charles, Ph.D., Associate Professor,
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BANFIELD, James Edmund, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Melb.),
Department of Organic Chemistry, University
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Banxs, Maxwell Robert, B.Sc., Department of
Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart,
Tasmania, 7000 (1951).

Barxas, John Pallister, B.Sc., Department of Geology
and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Sydney,
2006 (1972).

BARKER, Norman Thomas, M.Sc., Ph.D., 15 Albion
Avenue, Pymble, 2073 (1973).

Barwick, Kathleen Harvison, 4 Roylston Street,
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IBASDEN, Kenneth Spencer, Ph-D.; B-Sc., Department
of Fuel, University of New South Wales, Ken-
sington, 2033 (1951).

BEADLE, Noel Charles William, D.Sc., Professor of
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BEALE, James Edgar Osborne,
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School of Applied Geology, University of N.S.W.,

P.O. Box 1, Kensington, 2033 (1973).

Beavis, Margaret, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 3 Rosebank Avenue,
Epping, 2121 (1961).

BELL, Alfred Denys Mervyn, B.Sc.(Hons.), School of
Applied Geology, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1960).

*BENTIVOGLIO, Sydney Ernest, B.Sc.Agr., 41 Telegraph
Road, Pymble, 2073 (1926).

Binns, Raymond Albert, B.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (Cantab.),
Professor of Geology, University of Western
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Bircu, Arthur John, M.Sc., D.Phil., 3 Arkana Street,
Yarralumla, A.C.T., 2600 (1973).

*BisHop, Eldred George, Box 13, P.O. Mosman, 2088
(1920).

Banks, Fred Roy, B.Sc., 19 Innes Road, Greenwich,
2065 (1948).

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Road, Roseville, 2069 (1966).
Booker, Frederick William, D.Sc.,

Street, Roseville, 2069 (1951: Pl).

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Teacher, 6 Jellicoe Street, Hurstville, 2220 (1964).

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107 Faulkner Street, Armidale, 2350 (1964).

166 Keira Street,

11 Boundary

42

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Brown, Desmond J., D.Sc., Ph.D., Department of
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ment, University of Western Australia, Nedlands,
W.A., 6009 (1970: PS).

Burns, Bruce Bertram, D.D.S., Suite 607, T. & G.
Building, Park Street, Sydney, 2000 (1961).
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Professor of Geography, University of New

England, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

CALLENDER, John Hardy, Lot 101, Dallas Street,
Mount Ousley, 2519 (1969).

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15 Monterey Street, Kogarah, 2217 (1957: P1;
President 1972).

CAMPBELL, Ian Gavan Stuart, B.Sc.,
College, Hornsby, 2077 (1955).
*CAREY, Samuel Warren, D.Sc., Professor of Geology,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania,

7000 (1938: P2).

CAVILL, -George William Kenneth, PhD, D)Sc..
Professor of Organic Chemistry, University of
New South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1944).

*CHAFFER, Edric Keith, 66 Victoria Avenue, Chats-
wood, 2067 (1954).

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Street, Sydney, 2000 (1933: Pl).

c/o Barker

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Glen Shian Lane, Mount Eliza, Victoria, 3930
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Research Development Wing, Weapons Research
Establishment, G.P.O., Box 1424 H, Adelaide,
5001 (1968).

CorTIS-—JONES, Beverley, M.Sc., 65 Peacock Street,
Seaforth, 2092 (1940).

Cox, Charles Dixon, B.Sc., 51 Darley Street, Forest-
ville, 2087 (1964).

CRAWFORD, Edwin John, B.E., 7A Battle Boulevarde,
Seaforth, 2092 (1955).

CREELMAN, Robert Aughterlonie, B.A., 28 Vimiera
Road, Eastwood, 2122 (1973).

*CRESSWICK, John Arthur, 101 Villiers Street, Rockdale,
2216 (1921: Pl).

Crort, James Bernard, B.E.; PhD the unten
Valley Research Station, P.O. Box 23, Tighes
Hill, 2297 (1956).

Crook, Keith Alan Waterhouse, Ph.D., Geology

Department, Australian National University,
Canberra, A.C.T., 2600 (1954: P9).
CRUIKSHANK, Bruce Ian, B.Sc.(Hons.), 16 Arthur

Street, Punchbowl, 2196 (1965).

Davies, George Frederick, 57 Eastern Avenue,
Kingsford, 2032 (1952).

Day, Alan Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1952: Pl; President 1965).

DEAN-JONES, Gregory Lloyd, B.A., 124 Midson Road,
Epping, 2121 (1973).

Dr DECKKER, Patrick, M.Sc., School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University, North Ryde, 2113 (1973).

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 43

DENTON, Leslie A., Bunarba Road, Miranda, 2228
(1955).

DoHERTY, Gregory, B.Sc.(Hons.), Wollongong Uni-
versity College, Wollongong.

*DoNEGAN, Henry Arthur James, M.Sc., F.R.A.C.I.,
F.R.1.C., 18 Hillview Street, Sans Souci, 2219
(2O25% Pl; President 1960).

WOWGLAS, lan, B.Litt., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of
Geography, University of New England, Armi-
dale, 2351 (1972).

DRAKE, Lawrence Arthur, B.A.(Hons.), 3B.5Sc.,
Director, Riverview College Observatory, River-
view, 2066 (1962: P2).

*DULHUNTY, John Allan, D.Sc., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1987: P24; President 1947).

fhEKIn, Adolphus Peter, C.M.G.,- Ph.D., Emeritus
Professor, 15 Norwood Avenue, Lindfield, 2070
(1934: P4; President 1940).

ELLison, Dorothy Jean, M.Sc., 45 Victoria Street,
Roseville, 2069 (1949).

EMERSON, Donald Westland, M.Sc., B.E.(App.Geo.),
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Uni-
versity of Sydney, 2006 (1966: Pl).

EMMERTON, Henry James, B.Sc., 37 Wangoola Street,
East Gordon, 2072 (1940).

ENGEL, Brian Adolph, M.Sc., Geology Department,
University of Newcastle, 2308 (1961: P1]).

Evans, Phillip Richard, B.A. (Oxon.), Ph.D. (Bristol),
c/o Esso Australia, 127 Kent Street, Sydney,
2000 (1968).

Facer, Richard Andrew, B.Sc.(Hons.), Department
of Geology, Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, 2500 (1965: P2).

FALLon, Joseph James, Loch Maree Place, Vaucluse,
2030 (1950).

FAYLE, Rex Dennes Harris,
Armidale, 2350 (1961).
FisHER, Mark Geoffrey, 10 Ferdinand Street, Hunters

Hill, 2110 (1973).

FLEISCHMANN, Arnold Walter, 5 Erang Street, Carss
Bark e222) (1956); PI).

*RLETCHER, Harold Oswald, M.Sc., 131 Milson Road,
Cremorne, 2090 (1933).

FLETCHER, Neville Horner, B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D.,
Professor of Physics, University of New England,
Armidale, 2350 (1961).

FLoop, Peter Gerard, B.Sc.(Hons.), Department of
Geology, University of Queensland, St. Lucia,
4067 (1969).

FoLtpvary, Gabor Zoltan, B.Sc., 267 Beauchamp
Road, Matraville, 2036 (1965: Pl).

Forp, George William Kinvig, M.A. (Cantab.),
133 Wattle Road, Janalli, 2226 (1974).

FRENCH, Oswald Raymond, 6 Herberton Avenue,
Hunters Hill, 2110 (1951).

FRIEND, James Alan, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry,
University of West Indies, St. Augustine,
Trinidad, W.I. (1944: P2).

141 Jeffrey Street,

GALLOWAY, Malcolm Charles, B.Sc., 46 Duntroon
Avenue, Roseville, 2069 (1960: P1).

GARRETTY, Michael Duhan, D.Sc., Box 763, G.P.O.,
Melbourne, Victoria, 3001 (1935: P2).

GASCOIGNE, Robert Mortimer, Ph.D., Department of
Philosophy, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1939: P4).

GELLERT, Emery, Dr.phil. (Basle), 38 Toorak Avenue,
Wollongong, 2500 (1968).

GIBBONS, George Studley, M.Sc., 8 Marsh Place,
Lane Cove, 2066 (1966: P1).

Gipson, Neville Allan, Ph.D., 103 Bland Street,
Ashfield, 2131 (1942: P6).

*GILL, Stuart Frederic, 45 Neville Street, Marrickville,
2204 (1947).

GLasson, Kenneth Roderick, B.Sc., Ph.D., 70
Beecroft Road, Beecroft, 2119 (1948: Pl).
GoLpiInGc, Henry George, M.Sc., Ph.D., School of
Applied Geology, University of New South

Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1953: P35).

Goopwin, Robert Henry, B.Sc., M.Sc. (1968: Pl).

GoRDIJEW, Gurij, Engineer Hydro Geology (Inst.
Hydro Meteorology in Moscow, 1936), 41 Abbots-
ford Road, Homebush, 2140 (1962).

GouLD, Rodney Edward, B-Sc., PhiD. (Q’ld.),, De-
partment of Geology, University of New England
(1973).

Gow, Neil Neville, B.Sc.(Hons.), c/o C.R.A. Explora-
tion Pty. Ltd., Box 306, Darwin, 5794 (1966).

GRAHAME, Mervyn Ernest, B.A., 161 Parry Street,
Hamilton, 2303 (1959).

GRANT, John Guerrato, Dip.Eng., 37 Chalayer Street,
Rose Bay, 2029 (1961).

Gray, Charles Alexander Menzies, B.E., M.E., Pro-
fessor of Engineering, Wollongong University
College, Wollongong, 2500 (1948: Pl).

Gray, David Ross, B.Sc.(Hons.), 3 Stratford Avenue,
West. Ryde, 2113 (1973: Pl).

Gray, Noel Macintosh, B.Sc., 1 Centenary Avenue,
Hunters Hill, 2110 (1952).

GREEN, James. Henry, M.Sc. (Qld.), -Ph.D.,; Scam
(Cantab.), Professor of Chemistry, Macquarie
University, North Ryde, 2113 (1973).

GRIFFIN, Derek K., B.Sc., 21 Myra Street, Wahroonga,
2076 (1969).

GRIFFIN, Russell John, B.Sc. (No Address.) (1952).

GRIFFITH, James Langford, B.A., M.Sc., Associate
Professor of Mathematics, University of New
South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1952: P17;
President 1958).

GRODEN, Charles Mark, M.Sc., Box 13, Post Office,
Lindfield, 2070 (1957).

GUTMANN, Felix, Ph.D., 70a Victoria Road, West
Pennant Hills, 2120 (1946: Pl).

GUTSCHE, Herbert William, B.Sc., School of Earth

Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde,
2133 (1961).
Guy, Brian Bertram, B.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (Syde);

c/o Union Miniere Development and Mining
Corporation, Golden Fleece House, 100 Pacific
Highway, North Sydney, N.S.W., 2060 (1968:
BZ)

Hackett, Ian Harry, B.Sc. (Chem.Eng.), 5 Wyralla
Avenue, Epping, 2121 (1968).

Hare, Brian Keith, Ph.D. (U.N.E.), B.Sc.(Hons.),
Assistant Professor of Biology, Dalhousie Uni-
versity, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (1967).

Hari, Francis Michael, Ph.D., M.Sc., A.S.1.C,;
Chemistry Department, Wollongong University
College, Wollongong, 2500 (1968).

*F[atLt, Norman Frederick Blake, M.Sc., 164 Wharf
Road, Longueville, 2066 (1934).

HiaArr. Peter Brian, -B.A., “B:Archi FUR AIA
107 Shadforth Street, Mosman, 2088 (1973: P1).

HamiLton, Lloyd, B.E., c/o Mining Geology Depart-
ment, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College,
Wondon, «SsWiie (196075 P11).

Hancock, Harry Sheffield, M.Sc., 16 Koora Avenue,
Wahroonga, 2079 (1955).

44 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

HANLON, Frederick Noel, B.Sc.,
Street, Mosman, 2088 (1940:
1957).

HARDWICK, Reginald Leslie, B.Sc., 12/38-40 Meadow
Crescent, Meadowbank, 2114 (1968).

HARPER, Arthur Frederick Alan, M.Sc., National
Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City
Road, Chippendale, 2008 (1936: Pl; President
1959).

HAYDON, «sydney, Charles; M.A. Ph.Ds -F.imst-P.,
Professor of Physics, University of New England,
Armidale, 2351 (1965).

*Haves, Daphne (Mrs.), B.Sc., 41/108 Elizabeth Bay
Road, Elizabeth Bay, 2001 (1943).

HELBy, Robin James, M.Sc., 344 Malton Road,
North Epping, 2121 (1966: P2).
Hices, Alan Charles, 40 Hilma Street,

Plateau, 2098 (1945).

Hitt, Helen Campbell (Mrs.), 14 Miowera Road,
North Turramurra, 2074 (1951).

HOARE. Lienty,)-holand.. = LoL BAUR). Al Be
10 Normurra Avenue, Turramurra, 2074 (1973:

21/43 Musgrave
P14; President

Collaroy

el):

LLODGINS,; 4) Ixeginald>+ William,” AvS Cys Bsc.
Engineering Analyst, Department of Main
Roads, N.S.W:34p.r.) 108 Savoy Street, “Port

Macquarie, 2444 (1967).

*HOGARTH, Julius William, B.Sc., c/o The Little
Sisters of The Poor, Box 146, Drummoyne, 2047
(1948: P6).

Horne, Allan Richard, 1494 Hawkesbury Road, North
Springwood, 2777 (1960).

HuGuHes, Donald Keith, B.Sc. (N.S.W.), Dip.Ed.
(Syd.), 16 Badgery Avenue, Homebush, 2140
(1973).

HuGuHEs, Philip Joseph, M.Sc., School of Geography,
University of New South Wales, Kensington,
2033 (1973i-< PP):

HuMPHRIES, John William, B.Sc., M.Inst.P., National
Standards Laboratory, University Grounds, City
Road, Chippendale, 2008 (1959: Pl; President
1964).

*ELYNES, “Elarold john, D:Sc.Agr., 7, Futuna. Street,
Hunters? Hill 210 (1923) P3).

Irvinc, Anthony J., B.Sc.(Hons.) (Syd.), Department
of Geophysics and Geochemistry, Australian
National University, Canberra, 2600 (1970: Pl).

Isaacs, Geoffrey, B.Sc.(Hons.), Tertiary Education
Institute, University of Queensland, St. Lucia,
4067 (1971).

JAEGER, ‘John- Conrad, D:Sc.,- F.A.A., Geophysics
Department, Australian National University,
Canberra, A.C.T., 2600 (1942: Pl).

JENKINS, Thomas Benjamin Huw, Ph.D., Department
of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1956).

JonEs, James Rhys, 25 Boundary Road, Mortdale,
2223 (1959).

*JOPLIN, Germain Anne, D.Sc., Geophysics Depart-
ment, Australian National University, Canberra,
ALC FE: 2600 (19352""P10):

JORDAN, Vilhelm Lassen, Ph.D., Gevninge,
Roskilde, Denmark (1973: Pl).

Joycre, John Thomas, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., Parramatta
Marist High School, Old Windsor Road, West-
mead, 2145 (1973).

4000,

KALOKERINOS, Archivides, M.B., B.S., F.A.C.M.T.,
Walgett Street, Collarenebri, 2383 (1970).

KEANE, Austin, Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics,
Wollongong University College, Wollongong,
2500 (1955: P4; President 1968).

KIMBLE, Jean Annie, B.Sc., 2/163 Homer Street,
Earlwood, 2206 (1943).

Kinc, Haddon Forrester, B.App.Sc. (Min.Eng.),
P.O. Box 47, Kallista, Victoria, 3791 (1973).

*KIRCHNER, William John, B.Sc., “ Fairways ”’,
Linkview Avenue, Blackheath, 2785 (1920).

KiTaAMuRA, Torrence Edward, B.A., B.Sc.Agr., 18
Pullbrook Avenue, Hornsby, 2077 (1964).

Kocu, Leo E., D.Phil.Habil., School of Applied
Geology, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1948).

Koxort, Ernest, B.Sc. .BhoDa(NeS aye)
A.R.A.C.1., .4> Cosgrove Avenue;
2500 (1969).

KORBER, Peter Henry Wilibald, B.Sc., 9 Harcourt
Avenue, East Killara, 2071 (1968).

Korscu, Russell John, B.Sc.(Hons.), Dip.Ed. (N.E.),
Department of Geology, University of New
England, Armidale, 2351 (1971: P2).

Krysko v. Tryst, Maren (Mrs.), B.Sc., Grad.Dip.,
A.M.Aus.I.M.M., School of Applied Geology,
University of New South Wales, Kensington,
2033 (1959).

A.S.1.CH
Keiraville,

LABuTIS, Vidmantas
(AN-U.);
(1973).

Lack, N. Edith (Mrs.), 471 Sailors Bay Road, North-
bridge, 2063 (1968).

LassaAk, Erich Vincent, M.Sc. (N.S.W..); B.sce.(Honsis
A.S.T.C., Research Chemist, 167 Berowra Waters
Road, Berowra, 2081 (1964: P2).

LAWRENCE, Laurence James, D.Sc., Ph.D., Associate
Professor, School of Applied Geology, University
of New South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1951:
P4).

LEAVER, Gaynor Eiluned (Mrs.), B.Sc. (Wales),
F.G.S. (Lond.), 30 Ingalara Avenue, Wahroonga,
2076 (1961).

LE FEvRE, Raymond James Wood, D.Sc., F.R.S.,
F.A.A., Professor of Chemistry; p.r. 6 Aubrey
Road, Northbridge, 2063 (1947: P4; President
1961).

*LEMBERG, Max Rudolph, D.Phil. EuiK.s., F.A.Ag
Assistant Director, Institute of Medical Research,
Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, 2065
(1936: P38; President 1955).

Lions, Jean Elizabeth (Mrs.), B.Sc., 93a Mona Vale
Road, Pymble, 2073 (1949).

Lockwoop, William Hutton, B.Sc., Institute of
Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital,
St. Leonards, 2065 (1940: Pl).

LOVERING, John Francis, Ph.D., Professor of Geology,
University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria,
3052 (1951 = B4).

Low, Angus Henry, Ph.D., Associate Professor, —
Department of Applied Mathematics, University —
of New South Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1950:
P4; President 1967).

LOWENTHAL, Gerhard C., Ph.D., M.Sc., 17 Gnarbo
Avenue, Carss Park, 2221 (1959).

Lucas, James Patrick, 8 Musgrave Street, Mosman,
2088 (1971).

LyLe, Valda Emma Louise, A.I.P.S.A.,
Street, Balgowlah, 2093 (1973).
Lyons, Lawrence Ernest, Ph.D., Professor of
Chemistry, University of Queensland, St. Lucia,

Brisbane, 4067 (1948: P38).

Romualdas, 3B.Sc.(Hons.)
88 Bellevue Street, Cammeray, 2062

26 White

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 45

MacCott, Allan, M.Sc., Department of Chemistry,
University College, Gower Street, London,
W.C.1, England (1939: P4).

McCartuHy, Daryl John, F.R.M.S., 29 Johnson Street,
Chatswood, 2067 (1969).

McCarty, Frederick David, Dip.Anthr., 10 Tycannah
Road, Northbridge, 2063 (1949: Pl; President
1956).

McCoy, ns Kevin, P.O. Box 2560, Khartoum,
Sudan (1943).

McCutracH, Morris Behan (1950).

'McEtroy, Clifford Turner, Ph.D., M.Sc., 6 Boyne

Place, Killarney Heights, Forestville, 2087
(1949: P2).
McGreEGoR, Gordon Howard, 4 Maple Avenue,

Pennant Hills, 2120 (1940).

McKay, Maxwell Herbert, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of
Mathematics, University of Papua and New
Guinea, Boroko, T.P.N.G. (1956: PI).

McKeErn, Howard Hamlet Gordon, M.Sc., F.R.A.C.I.,
Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris
Street, Broadway, 2007 (1943: P12; President
1963).

McLean, Ross Alastair, B.Sc., Ph.D., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1973).

McMauon, Barry Keys,
Lindfield, 2070 (1961).

McManon, Patrick Reginald, Ph.D., Professor of
Wool Technology, University of New South
Wales, Kensington, 2033 (1947).

McNamara, Barbara Joyce (Mrs.), M.B., B.S., Flat 7,
58 Ocean Street, Woollahra, 2025 (19483).

MacKE tar, Michael John Randal, B.Sc.Agr. (Syd.),
B.A.(Hons.) (Oxon.), 21 Mulgowrie Crescent,
Balgowlah Heights, 2093 (1968).

MaGEE, Charles Joseph, D.Sc.Agr., 57 Florida Road,
Palm Beach, 2108 (1947: P2; President 1952).

MajJSTRENKO, Petro, M.Sc. (Copenhagen) (1966).

Mates, Pamela Ann, 13 Gelding Street, Dulwich Hill,
2203 (1951).

ManseEr, Warren, B.Sc. (Syd.), Department of Earth
Sciences, University of Papua and New Guinea,
Boroko, T.P.N.G. (1964).

MarsHALL, Charles Edward, D.Sc., Professor of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1949: PI).

MARTIN, Peter Marcus, M.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Dip.Ed.,
Deputy Principal, Hawkesbury Agricultural
College, Richmond, 2753 (1968).

Mawson, Ruth, B.A., School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University, North Ryde, 2113 (1973).

*MELLOR, David Paver, Emeritus Professor of Inorganic
Chemistry, 20 Pindari Avenue, St. Ives, 2075
(1929: P25; President 1941).

MILLERSHIP, William, M.Sc., 18 Courallie Avenue,
Pymble, 2073 (1940).

Minty, Edward James, M.Sc., B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 5 The
Crest, Prench’s—Forest, 2086 (1951: P2).

MoELLE, Konrad Heinrich Richard, Absolutorium
(Innsbruck), Ph.D. (Innsbruck), University of
Newcastle; p.r. 2 Hillcrest Road, Merewether,
2308 (1967).

MOORE, -Laurence Frederick, B.A. (N.E.),
Boundary Road, Parramatta, 2150 (1967).

Morean, Noel Charles, 21 Page Street, Canterbury,
2193 (1973).

Morris, Grainger Rabone, B.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D.
(Cantab.), Professor of Mathematics, University
of Armidale, 2351 (1973).

B.Sc., 58 Bent Street,

10A

Morris, Sidney Allen, Ph.D., Department of Mathe-
matics, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, New South Wales, 2033 (1973: P1).

MorrissEY, Matthew John, M.B., B.S., 152 Marsden
Street, Parramatta, 2150 (1941).

Mort, Francis George Arnot, 29 Preston Avenue,
Fivedock, 2046 (1934).

MoseErR, William E., B.A., B.Econ., B.Comm., 19
Hurlstone Avenue, Hurlstone Park, 2193 (1978).

MosuHeER, Kenneth George, B.Sc., 9 Yirgella Avenue,
Killara, 2071 (1948).

Move, Daniel George, B.Sc., 36 Sylvander Street,
North Balwyn, Victoria, 3104 (1944).

MurRrRAy, Charles John, 41 Cambewarra Crescent,
Berowra, 2081 (1978).

Murray, Bede Edward, B.A., Wollongong Teachers’

College, Wollongong; p.r. 18 Bulwarra Street,
Keiraville, 2500 (1969).

NapPER, Donald Harold, M.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (Cantab.),
Department of Physical Chemistry, University
of Sydney, 2000 (1973).

NAsSHAR, Beryl, Ph.D., Professor of Geology, Uni-
versity of Newcastle, 2308; p.r. 15 Princeton
Avenue, Adamstown Heights, 2289 (1946: P2).

*NaYLOoR, George Francis King, Ph.D., Department

of Psychology and Philosophy, University of
Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, 4067 (1930:
7).

*NEUHAUS, John William George, M.Sc., 32 Bolton

Street, Guildford, 2161 (1943: Pl; President
1969).
*NEWMAN, Ivor Vickery, Ph.D., 1 Stuart Street,

Wahroonga, 2076 (1932).

NinHAM, Barry William, Ph.D., M.Sc., Department
of Mathematics, Research School of Physical
Sciences, Australian National University,
Canbetra, A:C.1., 2600, (1970).

Noakes, Lyndon Charles, B.A., Bureau of Mineral
Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Canberra,
A.C.is, 2601 -(1945:: )).

*NoBLE, Robert Jackson, Ph.D., 32a Middle Harbour

Road, Lindfield, 2070 President

1934).

(1920 > P4;

O’FaRRELL, Antony Frederic Louis, A.R.C.Sc., B.Sc.,
Professor of Zoology, University of New England,
Armidale, 2351 (1961).

OHALLORAN,? Peter Joseph, B.cc., “Dipsed.. M.Sc,
52 Bindaga Street, Aranda, A.C.T., 2614 (1968).

Op, Adrian Noel, B.A., B.Sc.Agr., N.S.W. Depart-
ment OL wgriculture; pir. WS Fallon ‘Street
Rydalmere, 2116 (1947).

O’SHEA, Timothy, Department of Physiology, Uni-
versity of New England, Armidale, 2350 (1978).

OXENFORD, Reginald Augustus, B.Sc., 10 Greaves
Street, Grafton, 2460 (1950).

PacKHAM, Gordon Howard, Ph.D., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1951: P4).

PEARCE, Marcelle Gordon Ivy, M.Sc. (Melb.),
C3 .1K.O0:,. “Division .of. -Appleds Physics & px:
108 Burns Road, Wahroonga, 2076 (1967).

PEARSON, Robert John Butler, 25 Burling Avenue,
Fairy Meadow, 2519 (1969).

*PENFOLD, Arthur Ramon, Flat 516, Baroda Hall,
6a Birtley Place, Elizabeth Bay, 2011 (1920:
PS82'5) President, 1935),

PERRY, Hubert Roy, B.Sc., 74 Woodbine Street,
Bowral, 2576 (1948).

46

PETERSON, George Arthur, B.Sc., B.E., 55 Roseville
Avenue, Roseville, 2069 (1966).

PHILIP, Graeme Maxwell, M.Sc. (Melb.), Ph.D.
(Cantab,),,-F.G:S.,: “Professor of Geology “and
Geophysics, University of Sydney, 2006 (1964:
Bil),

PHILLIps, Marie Elizabeth, Ph.D., 16 Lawley Place,
Deakin, A.C.T., 2600 (1938).

Puipps, Charles Verling Gayer, Ph.D., Department
of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1960).

PickEtTT, -johm: William, “MSc. (N.E),) Drphil.nat.
(Frankfurt/M), N.S.W. Geological Survey, Mining
Museum, 28 George Street North, Sydney ;
p-r. 112 Blues Point Road, McMahons Point,
2060 (1965).

PINWILL, Norman, B.A., The Scots College, Victoria
Road, Bellevue Hill, 2023 (1946).

POGGENDORFF, Walter Hans George, B.Sc.Agr., 85
Beaconsfield Road, Chatswood, 2067 (1949).

POLLARD, John Percival, MeSe. “(N-7S.W =);
Dip.App.Chem. (Swinburne), Australian Atomic
Energy Commission; p.r. 89 Bunarba Koad,
Gymea, 2227. (1963 Pl; ~President 1973),

Porritt, Raymond Ernest John, 23 Rothwell Road,
Turramurra, 2074 (1973).

PRaTT, Boyd Thomas, B.Sc.(Hons.) (N.S.W.), 11
Harbourne Road, Kingsford, 2032 (1967).
Price, Patrick Arthur, c/o B.T.V. Contractors Pty.
Ltd., 20 Barry Street, Mortdale, 2223 (1971).
PRIESTLEY, John Henry, WB?) BS; B.sc., 137 Dangar

Street, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

PROKHOVNIK, Simon Jacques, M.A., B.Sc., School of
Mathematics, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1956: P4).

*PRouD, John Seymour, B.E., Finlay Road, Turra-
murra, 2074 (1945).

Puttock, Maurice James, B.Sc.(Eng.), M.Inst.P.,
C.S.I.R.O. National Standards Laboratory, Uni-
versity Grounds, City Road, Chippendale; p.r.
2 Montreal Avenue, Killara, 2071 (1960: Pl;
President 1971).

*QUODLING, Florrie Mabel, Ph.D., B.Sc., 145 Midson
Road, Epping, 2121 (1935: P5).

RADE, Janis, M.Sc., Box 28A, 601 St. Kilda Road,
Melbourne, 3004 (1953: P6).

Ramo, Eric John, Australian Atomic Energy Com-
mission, Lucas Heights, 2232 (1959).

RANNEFT, Theodoor Seth Meijer, A.B. (Cornell),
813 Caltex House; 167. Kent Street, Sydney,
2000 (1972).

RatTTiGAN, John Herbert, Ph.D., M.Sc., 46 Blarney
Avenue, Killarney Heights, 2087 (1966: P2).
*RAYNER, Jack Maxwell, O.B.E., B.Sc., 5 Tennyson
Crescent, Forrest, Canberra, A.C.T., 2603 (1931 :

Pr):

READ, Harold Walter, B.Sc. (1962: Pl).

REICHEL, Alex, Ph.D., M.Sc., Department of Applied
Mathematics, University of Sydney (1957: P4).

RuHopEs, Jill Mina, B.Sc. (N.Z.) (1971).

Rice, Thomas Denis, B.Sc., 5 Harden Road, Artarmon,
2064 (1964).

RiGcBy, John Francis, B.Sc. (Melb.), Geological Survey
of Queensland, 2 Edward Street, Brisbane,
Queensland, 4000 (1963).

Rices, Noel Victor, B.Sc. (Adel.), Ph.D. (Cantab.),
F.R.A.C.I., Associate Professor of Organic
Chemistry, University of New England, Armidale,
2350 (1961).

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

RILEy, Steven James, B.Sc.(Hons.), School of Earth
Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde,
2113 (1969).

RitcuHi£, Arthur Sinclair, M.Sc., Associate Professor

of Geology, University of Newcastle, 2308
(1947 7 7P2):.
RITCHIE, Ernest; D.Sc., F.A.A., \ Professor of

Chemistry, Chemistry Department, University
of Sydney, 2006 (1939: P19).

RoBBINS, Elizabeth Marie (Mrs.), M.Sc., 21 Palm
Street, St. Ives, 2075 (1939: P32).

ROBERTS, Herbert Gordon, B.Sc.,
Manuka, 2603 (1957).

Roperts, John, Ph.D., School of Applied Geclogy,
University of New South Wales, Kensington,
N.S.W., 2033 (1961; Pa).

RoBERTSON, William Humphrey, B.Sc., c/o Sydney
Observatory, Sydney, 2000 (1949: P31).

Rosinson, David Hugh, A.S.T.C., Chemist, 12
Robert Road, West Pennant Hills, 2120 (1951).

Rop, E., 9 Minns Road, Gordon, 2072 (1969).

ROSENTHAL-SCHNEIDER, Ilse, Ph.D., 48 Cambridge
Avenue, Vaucluse, 2030 (1948).

Ross, Victoria (Mrs.), M.Sc., B.Sc.(Hons.), ““ Meroo ’’,
Mill Road, Kurrajong, 2758 (1960).

ROUNTREE, Phyllis Margaret, D.Sc.,
Street, Paddington, 2021 (1945).

RoyLe, Harold George, M.B., B.S. (Syd.), 161 Rusden
Street, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

RUNNEGAR, ‘Bruce, B.Sc., ' PhD.) Depantmien€ “or
Geology, University of New England, Armidale,
2351 (1970).

c/o Box 529,

7 Windsor

SAMPSON, Stephen Sydney, 16 Amelia Place, North
Narrabeen, 2101 (1970).
SCHEIBNER, Viera, Dr.Nat.Rer.,
Beacon Hill, 2100 (1970).
SCHOLER, Harry Albert Theodore, M.Eng., Unisearch
Laboratory, King Street, Manly Vale, 2094

(1960).

Scort, John, Atomic Energy Commission; p.r. l
Kurrajong Street, Sutherland, 2232 (1973).
SELBY, Edmond Jacob, P.O. Box 121, North Ryde,

2113 (1933).

10 Landy Place,

*SHARP, Kenneth Raeburn, B.Sc., Engineering Geology

Branch, Snowy Mountains Authority, North
Cooma, 2629 (1948).

SHARP, Ronald William, 4 Hearne Street, Mortdale,
2223 (1973: PI).

SHAW, Stirling Edward, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D., F.G.A.A.,
School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University,
North Ryde, 2113 (1966).

SHERRARD, Kathleen Margaret (Mrs.), M.Sc., 43
Robertson Road, Centennial Park, 2021 (1936:
P6).

sees Lawrence, B.Sc.(Hons.) (Syd.), 186 Sylvania
Road, Miranda, 2228 (1967).

Sims, Kenneth Patrick, B.Sc., 25 Fitzpatrick Avenue
East, French’s Forest, 2086 (1950: P17).

SLADE, Milton John, B.Sc., Dip.Ed. (Syd.), M.Sc
(N.E.), Armidale Teachers’ College, Armidale,
2350 (1952).

SLANSKY, Ervin, Ph.D., Geological Survey, Geological
and Mining Museum, 36 George Street North,
Sydney, 2000 (19783).

SMALL, David Hayes, B.A. (Macquarie), 20 Gladys
Street, Rydalmere, 2116 (1972).

SmitH, Ann Ruth (Mrs.), B.Sc.(Hons.), (No address)

1959).

ess oe Forbes, B.Sc. (Syd.), (No address)

(1962).

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 47

SmitH, William Eric, Ph.D. (N.S.W.), M.Sc. (Syd.),
B.Sc. (Oxon.), Associate Professor of Applied
Mathematics, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, 2033 (1963: P2; President, 1970).

SMITH-WHITE, William Broderick, M.A., Associate
Professor of Mathematics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1947: P4; President, 1962).

SourH, Stanley Arthur, B.Sc. (No address) (1967).

SraER, Ronald Robert, F.R.A.S., 29 Maple Avenue,
Pennant Hills, 2120 (1972).

STANTON, Richard Limon, Ph.D., Associate Professor
of Geology, University of New England, Armidale,
2351 (1949: P2).

STEPHENS, James Norrington, M.A. (Cantab.), Ph.D.,
170 Brokers Road, Mt. Pleasant, Wollongong,
2519 (1959).

STEVENS, Eric Leslie, B.Sc., Department of Mines,
N.S.W., 20 Myra Street, French’s Forest, 2086
1963).

celalles hae Leslie, B.Sc., Senior Analyst, Depart-
ment of Mines, N.S.W., 20 Myra Street, French’s
Forest, 2086 (1963).

STEVENSON, Barrie Stirling, B.E.(Mech. and Elec.)

(Syd.), 21 Glendower Street, Eastwood, 2122
(1964).
Stock, Alexander, D.Phil., Ph.D., Professor of

Zoology, University of New England, Armidale,
2351 (1961).

SToKES, Robert Harold, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.A.A., 45
Garibaldi Street, Armidale, 2351 (1961).

STONE, Jonathan, B.Sc.(Med.), Ph.D. (Syd.), Depart-
ment jot Physiology, John Curtin School. of
Medical Research, Australian National University,
Canberra, 2600 (1973).

Srrusz, Desmond Leslie, Ph.D., B.Sc., Bureau of
Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics,
Canberra, A.C.T., 2601, p.r. 97 Burnie Street,
Lyons, A.C.T., 2606 (1960: P83).

STUNTZ, John, B.Sc., 11 Jackson Crescent,’ Pennant
Hills, 2120 (1951).

SuTERS, Ralph William, B.Sc. (N.S.W.),

High School ;
2500 (1968).

SWAINE, Dalway John, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.A.C.L.,
29 Trentino Road, Turramurra, 2074 (1973).

SWANSON, Thomas Baikie, M.Sc., Flat 4, 112 Walsh
Streets south, Yarra, Victoria, 3141 (194]: P2).

SWIDOWSKI, Waclaw, M.I.E. (Aust.), A.C.E. (Aust.),
18 The Barbette, Castlecrag, 2608 (1973).

SWINBOURNE, Ellice Simmons, Ph.D., 30 Ellalong
Road, Cremorne, 2090 (1948).

Berkeley
p-r. 49 Walang Avenue, Figtree,

TALENT, John Alfred, B.A., M.Sc., Ph.D., 46 Woodvale
Road, Epping, 2121 (1973).

Tay tor, Nathaniel Wesley, M.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (N.E.),
Department of Mathematics, University of New
England, Armidale, 2351 (1961).

TuHEew, Raymond Farly, 88 Braeside Street,
Wahroonga, 2035 (1955).
THOMPSON, Don Gregory, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., R.A.N:;

College, Jervis Bay, 2540 (1967).

THOMPSON, Philip Wayne, B.Sc., R.A.N. College,
Jervis Bay, 2540 (1971).
THomson, David John, B.Sc., 87

Lidcombe, 2141 (1956).
THomson, Vivian Endel, B.Sc., 1/171-177 Rokeby
Road, Howrah, Tasmania, 7018 (1960).
THWAITE, Eric Graham, B.Sc., 8 Allars Street, West
Ryde, 2112 (1962).

Frances Street,

TICHAUER, Erwin R., D.Sc.(Tech.), Dipl.Ing., Research
Professor of Biomechanics; p.r. Apt. 12J, Kips
Bay Plaza, 330 East 33rd Street, New York,
N.Y., 10016, U.S.A. (1960).

TILLEY, Philip Damien, B.A., Dr.Phil., Department
of Geography, University of Sydney, 2006 (1967).

TOMPKINS, Denis Keith, Ph.D., M.Sc., 14 Warrowa
Road, Pymble, 2073 (1954: Pl).

TYRELL, William Trevor, 328 Pacific Highway, Crows
Nest, 2065 (1978).

UPFOLD, Robert Wiliam, B.E., M.E., Department of
Engineering, Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, 2500 (1968).

VAGG;, Kobert (Sylvester, MSc. “(N.S2W.), , Paes
(Macq.), A.R.A.C.I., School of Chemistry, North
Ryde, 2113 (1973).

VaGG, William James, B.Sc., Ph.D., 9 Cooleen Street,
Blakehurst, 2221 (1978).

VALLANCE, Thomas George, Ph.D., Associate Pro-
fessor, Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney, 2006 (1949: P4).

VAN DIK, Dirk Cornelius, D.Sc, Agry c/o C.S1RO;
Division of Soils, Cunningham Laboratory, St.
Lucia, Queensland, 4067 (1958).

VEEVERS, john James, Ph.D.,. School of Earth
Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde,
2113 (1958).

VERNON, Ronald Holden, Ph.D., M.Sc., School of

Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, North
Kyde, 2113 (1968: Pl):
VICKERY, fioyce -Wanitred, M.B-E:, DSc) be the

Promenade, Cheltenham, 2119 (1935).
VoIsEy, Alan Heywood, D.Sc., G.P.O. Box 3582,
Sydney, 2001 (1933: P13; President 1966).

*WaLkom, Arthur Bache, D.Sc., 5/521 Pacific Highway,
Killara (1919 and previous membership
1910-1913: P2; President 1943).

WavsH, Elizabeth Ann, B.Sc., Dip.Sc., 19 Frameis
Street, Strathfield West, 2140 (1972).

WARD, Colin Kex, Ph-D., B.Sc.(Hons.),- Schoolivot
Physical Sciences, N.S.W. Institute of Tech-
nology, Broadway, 2007 (1968: Pl).

WarD, Judith (Mrs.), B.Sc., 16 Mortimer Avenue,
Newtown, Hobart, Tasmania, 7008 (1948).
WARREN, . Bruce Albert), M.:, btS5\(Syd.)) Mi A®
D: Phil. (Oxon:); -F R.C-P.A,, Department “or
Pathology, Health Sciences Centre, University
of Western Ontario, London 72, Canada (1973).

Wass, Robin Edgar, Ph.D. (Syd.), B.Sc.(Hons.) (Qld.),
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Uni-
versity of Sydney (1965: Pl).

WaTTon, Edward Charlton, Ph.D., B.Sc.(Hons.),
A.S.1.C., Associate Professor of Chemistry;
pr. 17 Malory Avenue, West Pymble, 2073
(1963).

WEBBY, Barry Deane, Ph.D., M.Sc., Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
2006 (1966).

West, Norman William, B.Sc., c/o Department of
Main Roads, Sydney, 2000, p.r. 3/17 Claude
Avenue, Cremorne, 2090 (1954).

WESTHEIMER; Gerald; :Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D., F.S.:1:G,
Professor of Physiology, University of Califcrnia,
2575 Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, California,
94720, U.S.A. (1949).

48 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

WHEELHOUSE, Frances, School of Biological Sciences,
University of New South Wales, Kensington,
2033 (1968).

WHITLEY, Alice, M.B.E., Ph.D., 39 Belmore Road,
Burwood, 2134 (1951).

WHITLEY, Gilbert Percy, F.R.Z.S., Honorary Associate
of the Australian Museum, College Street,
Sydney, 2000 (1968).

WILcox, Ronald Walter, B.Sc., Dip.Ed., Wollongong

Teachers’ College, Wollongong, 2500; p.r.
9 Benney Avenue, Fig Tree, 2500 (1969).
WILKINSON, John Frederick George, M.Sc. (Qld.),

Ph.D. (Cantab.), Professor of Geology, School of
Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, North
Ryde w2lt3 (196) =) PP):

WILLIAMS, Benjamin, 30 Croft Road, Eleebena, 2280
(1949).

WarrrAms, doyall: Richard, i3:sc;. PhD) School of
Chemistry, Macquarie University, North Ryde,
2S (Ota: Tey

WILLIAMS, Peter Allan, B.A.(Hons.), School of
Chemistry, Macquarie University, North Ryde,
2113 (1973).

WILLIAMSON, William MHarold, M.Sc., 6 Hughes
Avenue, Ermington, 2033 (1949: Pl).

WILson, Christopher John Lascelles, B.Se., Ph.D.,
Department of Geology, University of Melbourne,
(96 Grose s).

WINcH, Denis Edwin, Ph.D., M.Sc., University of
Sydney, 2006 (1968).

*Woop, Harley Weston, D.Sc., M.Sc., Government
Astronomer, Sydney Observatory, Sydney, 2000
(19386: P16; President 1949).

WriGcut, Anthony James, Ph.D., B.Sc., Department

of Geology, Wollongong University College,
Wollongong, 2500 (1961).
WRIGHT, Leslie Arthur, B.A.(Arch.) (Hons.),

B.Sc.(Eng.), Dip.Arch., F_R.EB. Ay, WEE: (Aust.);
M.A.P.I., 17 Richmond Avenue, St. Ives, 2075

(19783).
WyLiz, Russell George, Ph.D., M.Sc., Physicist,
National Standards Laboratory, University

Grounds, City Road, Chippendale, 2008 (1960).

YEATES, Neil Tolmie McRae?) Disc Aer (Olds.
Ph.D. (Cantab.), Associate Professor of Livestock
Husbandry, University of New England,
Armidale, 2351 (1961).

Younc, Cynthia Glynn, P.O. Box 245, Strathfield,
2135 (1971).

Associates

Brown, Ada Marjory (Mrs.), 40 Woolgoolga Street,
North Balgowlah, 2093 (1969).

DENTON, Norma (Mrs.), Bunarba Road, Miranda,
2228 (1959).

DoNEGAN, Elizabeth (Mrs.),
Sans Souci, 2219 (1956).

18 Hillview Street,

Emery, Hilary May Myvanwy (Mrs.), c/o Dr. F. W.
Clutterbuck, 234 Bay Terrace, Wynnum, Queens-
land, 4178 (1965).

GRIFFITH, Elsie A. (Mrs.), 9 Kanoona Street,
Caringbah, 2229 (1956).

GUNTHORPE, Robert John, B.Sc.(Hons.), James
Cook University of North Queensland, Towns-

ville, 4810. (1965).
Gwynne, David Joseph, Law Courts, Queens Square,
G. PO: (Box 456) Sydney, 2001 (1973).

HaRpDIE, John Robert, 59 Yarrabung Road, St. Ives,
2075 (1978).

LEAVER, Harry, B.A‘, B.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., M.R.C.0.G:,
F.G.S., 30 Ingalara Avenue, Wahroonga, 2076
(1962).

Le FEvRE, Catherine Gunn, D.Sc. (Lond.), 6 Aubrey
Road, Northbridge, 2063 (1961).

PERCIVAL, Ian George, 66 Sutherland Road, Beecroft,
2119 (1972).

Pocson, Ross Edward, 178 Marco Avenue, Panania,
2213 (1972).

Puttock, Alan Maurice, 5/52, Martin Street, Harbord,
2096 (1969).

RitEy, Beatrice Elizabeth, B.A.(Hons.), 2/45 Bay
Road, Waverton, 2060 (1978).

STANTON, Alison Amalie (Mrs.), B.A., 35 Faulkner
Street, Armidale, 2350 (1961).

STOKES, Jean Mary (Mrs.), M.Sc., 45 Garibaldi Street,
Armidale, 2350 (1961).

SWAINE, Winifred Christian Hendry,
Road, Turramurra, 2074 (1973).

SZWIDOWSKI, Helena, 18 The Barbette, Castlecrag,
2068 (1978).

29 Trentino

WADLEy, David Alastair, Department of Human
Geography, Research School of Pacific Studies,
Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T.,
2600 (1970).

Obituary

1971-1972

Rupert Boswood SCAMMELL (1920).
Thomas IREDALE (1943).

1973-1974
Robert FISHER (1940).

1972-1973

Sir Charles Bickerton BLACKBURN (1960).
Sir Lawrence BRAGG (1960).

Clive Melville HARRIS (1948).

Robert Kenneth MURPHY (1915).

Oscar Ulric VONWILLER (1929).

Lionel Lawry WATERHOUSE (1919).

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD.
71-79 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBE, N.S.W., 2037

1974

Royal Society of New South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1974-1975

Patrons
His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA,
THE RicHT HONOURABLE SIR PAUL HASLUCK, G.c.m.G., G.c.vi0.
His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SoutH WALES,
SLR RODEN. CUTLER, vic. K.CG.M.G:,. K.C.V.0., C.B.E.

President
Joe Wo PICKETT ,..M:Sc., Drophmat.

Vice-Presidents
Jj. C. CAMERON, M.a., B.Sc. (Edin.), D.I.c. EK. CHAFFER
M. J. PUTTOCK, B.Sc. (Eng.), M.Inst.P., A.A.Inst.P. D. S. BRIDGES
W. E. SMITH, pPh.p.

Honorary Secretaries
J. W. BUMPHREIES, B.sc., M.Inst.P., A.A.Inst.P. M, -KRYSKO@ ve TRY SI ((Mrs.), Bisex

(General) Grad.Dip. (Editorial) A.M. Aus. I.M.M.
Honorary Treasurer
J. P. POLLARD, Ph.D., M.Sc., Dip.App.chem.
Honorary Librarian
W. H. G. POGGENDORFYF, B.sc.agr.
' Members of Council
DS. 5 RIDGES DP. De TILLEY -B.Ac, Ph.D.
oj BAW RENCE, D.Sc, Ph.D. E. C. WATTON, Ph.D., B.Sc.(Hons.), A.S.T.C.
W. B. SMITH-WHITE, o.a. A. A. DAY, Ph.D., F.R.A.S.
je. GRIFFITH, B.A.; M-.Se., Dip.Ed. D. J. SWAINE, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.A.C.S
New England Branch Representative: R. L. STANTON, ph.p.
South Coast Branch Representative: G. DOHERTY, ph.p.
Executive Secretary > VALDA LYLE ((Mrs.), -A:1.P.s.A.
NOTICE
The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “‘ Philosophical Society of
Australasia ’’’; after an interval of inactivity it was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the

“* Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was
changed to “ Philosophical Society of New South Wales’’. In 1866, by the sanction of Her Most

Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the Society assumed its present title, and was incorporated by
Act of Parliament of New South Wales in 1881.

Contents

Chemistry :
Sympathomimetic Tertiary Amines. Robert A. Buist and Lyall R. Williams

Environmental Archaeology :
The Re-disposition of Midden Material A Storm Waves. P. J]. Hughes and
M. E. Sullivan .. Ae a ae

Geology :
Sedimentary Basin Tectonics and a Geological Energy Reserve Appraisal.
Presidential Address, 4th April, 1973. J.C. Cameron ..

Sedimentology of Permian Rocks near Ravensworth, Northern Sydney Basin,
NS: Wa] S: (Gray i #8 i

Vesuvianite Hornfels at Queanbeyan, N.S.W. T. G. Vallance

Geophysics :
Seismicity of New South Wales. Lawrence Drake

List of Members

41

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71-79 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBF, N.S.W., 2037
1974

Journaland .
sae
Moe 0) oe

ew South Wales — |

VOLUME 107, 1974, PARTS 3 and 4
te

Published by the Society . oe
Science House, Gloucester and Essex Streets, Sidney. 5 Sa ie
Issued 22nd January, 1975 , “ epee ee

<antt HSONIAG

APR 41/5

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157 Gloucester Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000.
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Continued on Inside Back Cover

THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 49-66, 1974

Proper Motions of Variable Stars in the Sydney Astrographic Zone

KEP SrMs

AxsstrRact—tThe relative proper motions (Ag cos 6,As) of 30 stars determined photographically
are given together with absolute measures (u« cos 6, us) found by applying corrections for the
parallactic motion of the reference stars and for the effects of differential galactic rotation.

The stars whose proper motions are measured
form part of a programme on variable stars
brighter than 12-0 at maximum. The pro-
gramme stars are those within the Sydney
Astrographic Zone listed by L. Plaut and G.
Van Herk in response to resolutions adopted at
the Symposium for Co-ordination of Galactic
Research in 1953.

Originally these lists contained 221 variables
in the Sydney Zone but for only about 90 of them
do old epoch plates exist with the image of the
variable well-defined and within 45’ of the plate
centre. This latter much reduces the coma
which could well introduce effects in magnitude
and colour.

The new epoch plates (Ilford Zenith Astron-
omical) have a colour sensitivity similar to the
plates used for the old ones.. Photographs have
been taken with the same standard astrographic
objective lens and with the same plate centres
as before. Exposure times of 5 min. and
3 min. for a catalogue plate and 10 min. for a
chart plate with a single image give, in general,
images of density comparable with that on the
earlier plates. Chart plates with two exposures
separated in declination, were matched by using
two exposures of 10 min. duration or by taking
two separate plates on the same night.

In order to reduce the effects of parallax and
refraction the aim was to match the hour-angle
and date of the old plate. Since the radius of
the reference field is always half a degree or less,
the differential refraction, as given in the
discussion of refraction by H. W. Wood (1956)
is small enough to be neglected. Differences in
date in a few cases may be as large as 0°3 year.
Since the variable and reference stars are distant
objects, error from difference of parallax would
be small enough in the position measures to be
neglected.

A

Measurement

In general the same set of 16 to 20 reference
stars symmetrically placed around the variable
were used for all catalogue or chart plate pairs.
Reference stars close to reseau lines on the old
epoch plates were avoided and if this applied
to the variable the plate was rejected as unsuit-
able for measurement. The reference stars
were basically chosen so that their mean
magnitude approached 11:5 to 12-0 for
catalogue plates and 12-5 to 13-0 for chart
plates.

Measurement of the plate, in direct and
reverse directions, was made in rectangular
coordinates on a long screw measuring machine
by Hilger and Watts. The image of the
variable was measured at the beginning, middle
and end for each position of the plate carriage.
A difference ot these measures exceeding 3
microns was regarded as indicating plate
movement and in these cases the plate was
remeasured. A new plate was set for measure-
ment with an orientation to correspond to the
measures on the earlier plate. Periodic and
progressive corrections of the screw were applied.

Reduction of Measures

If the old and new plates are designated by

o and m and X°, Y° are the rectangular measures

of reference stars parallel to the original reseaux

relative to the variable on the old plate the

corresponding rectangular coordinate measures

(X”, Y”) on the new plate are related to the old
by equations of the type.

tAX =Mx+aXe+bYo+c

tAY =My+dXe+eYo4+f

where AX, AY is the relative annual measured

motion of the reference star in rectangular

co-ordinates, Mx=X"—X°, My=Y"—Y+,, a, b,

c, d, e and f are plate constants and r is the

50 KB:

epoch difference. A coma term, corresponding
to a term H(m—m,) x in the x coordinate,
appears in positional solutions for the astro-
graphic plates. Here it is omitted because the
measures are relative with the same star occurring
at the same position on each plate of a pair and
because the distribution of the reference stars
reduces its effect on the motion of the variable.
The magnitude term J(m—m,) which appears
in positional astrographic work has been looked
for in the present work but no real evidence of
such an effect has been found.

Since the variable has been chosen as the
centre of the measured area, its rectangular
annual motion relative to the mean motion of
the reference stars would be given by

The equatorial proper motion measures
(Ax cos 6, As) of the variable can be expressed in
terms of the motion A&, Ay in standard cor-
ordinates by means of the formulae.

Aa cos 6=AE+Ay.€ tan Da
As=Ay —AE.€ tan Da
Taking &, 7 in millimetres, A, cos 5, As in seconds
of arc and the focal length f=3437-747 mm the
formulae become

thy cos 6=AX ,{60(1-+ A) +GD}
+AY,{60B+G(1+E)}

tAs=AX ,{60D —G(1+ A)}
+AY ,{60(1+£)—GB}
where G=0-01745 &, tan Da, Da being the
declination of the plate centre and A, Bb, D, E
are constants of the old epoch plate as given

in the Sydney Astrographic Catalogue.

In cases where the old epoch plate was not
included in the catalogue or was a chart plate,
the constants 6 and D were determined by the
process outlined in work on double stars by
W. H. Robertson (1953). The constants A and
E have both been assumed to be 0-0048 for
plates taken near to 1900 and 0-0044 for plates
taken in the period 1920-30.

The relative proper motions of the reference
stars were then determined by substituting the
values of the plate constants, a, b, c, d, e and fin
equation (1). These were then examined and
any stars whose relative proper motion exceeded
0”-05/yr were then excluded and the process
repeated without them. A _ limit 0”-05/yr
although arbitrary has been used in other
proper motion investigations and since large
relative proper motions would have a dis-
proportionate influence on the plate constants
and on the mean proper motion of the reference

. (3)

SIMS

sample some kind of limit seems necessary.
The mean parallax of the reference stars (and
hence the parallactic motion) is affected by the -
rejection of reference stars and to adjust for
this, the procedure described by J. H. Oort
(1936) has been followed.

Assessment of the standard error <¢,, ¢
associated with the derived relative proper
motion of the variable and the intrinsic proper
motion dispersion o,, 6, as they appear in
Table Il has been made, in units of 0”-001/yr,
from the formulae

SAK2 YA
sth 2
a= eta f F
[oA eae

Nae
fai 2
ey= Em iN 8) S ‘

eae
oy NP ee

as given by S.V.M. Clube (1968), where AX,
AY is the measured relative proper motion of
the reference star, <,, the error associated with
the process of measurement, N is the number
MAX AY2
N—3' N—8
of the dispersion amongst the reference stars.

For stars having only one single plate pair,
each with two images, the value of the measuring
er1or has been derived from the difference
between the measures and averages 0”-0031/yr
in A, cosé and 0"-0025/yr in As for a 60-year
epoch difference. Where two or more plate
pairs are available the measuring error has also
been assessed from the differences between the
plate pair measures which, for a 60-year epoch
difference, averages 0”-0026/yr in A, cosd and
and 0"-0021/yr in As.

The standard error associated with the
relative proper motion of a variable star averages
0” -0042/yr in A, cosd6 and 0”-0032/yr in As for
a result dependent upon one pair of plates. For
stars having two or more plate pairs, the
standard error has to be correspondingly

of reference stars ; iS a measure

reduced.

Positions of the variable stars and the ref-
erence stars were derived from the plates. This
is straightforward for catalogue plates. For

other plates, stars from the catalogue were
included in the measuring process to provide
data for transforming these measures to the
system of the Catalogue plate enabling the
standard co-ordinates to be calculated.

PROPER MOTIONS OF VARIABLE STARS IN THE SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC ZONE 51

Reduction of Relative Measures to Absolute

In the absence of sufficient faint reference
stars with known motions, the reduction of
relative proper motion measures (A, cos 5, As) to
absolute proper motion measures (u, cos 4, ws)
have been effected via the formulae

Uz COS O=A, cos +P, cosd+Q

Ls =hs apeses ae
where P, cosd, Ps represent equatorial correc-
tions for the parallactic motion of the reference
stars and Q, Q’ the equatorial corrections for
the effect of galactic rotation on the reference
stars.

The corrections for parallactic motion of the
reference stars have been obtained by

(a) determining the mean parallax 9,, of the
reference group from the mean magnitude by
using the relationship.

log ,,=log Py2—0-115(m,,—12) ...... (4)
as given by L. Binnendijk (1943). Values of
log ,. were taken from Table 10 of this work.
Mean parallaxes obtained in this way are
designated 4.

(b) ascertaining the mean parallax 7,, of the
reference stars from the number of stars J ,,
brighter than the mean magnitude of the
reference stars within one square degree of the
variable using Binnendijk’s relationship.

log p ,, =9-98—0-36 log N ,,
Such parallaxes are called fy.

Both techniques involve knowledge of the
mean magnitude of the reference stars and this
has been achieved by photographic comparisons
with stars of the nearest FE region (centred at
declination —45°) using the Taylor, Taylor and
Hobson astrometric lens (scale 1 mm=116")
which gives uniformly good images all over the
plate. The photographic magnitude S’P, of
the FE region stars were those given by A. W. J.
Cousins and R. H. Stoy (1962). To guard
against changes in transparency two exposures
of the variable star field, one each side of the
E region exposure, were made. If a change
was detected the plate was rejected.

In cases when two magnitude plates were
taken a comparison of their magnitude difference
yielded a standard error near 0-07 magnitude
for the mean magnitude of the reference group
and 0-19 magnitude for an individual magnitude.

The mean magnitude of the reference stars
then give P,, for the reference stars from (4) and
a corresponding mean secular parallax and
corrections P, cos $, Ps for a parallactic motion
of the reference stars.

The alternative procedure of using star counts
to derive a mean parallax p, was also used. In
practise the counts of stars brighter than or
equal to the mean magnitude of the reference
group were made on plates taken for magnitude
measurement over an area of four square
degrees centred around the variable and an
average taken. Differences between counts
arise from uncertainty in the magnitude, that
is as to whether or not a star should be countered,
and imply an error of up to 0”-0001 in Ay.

A plot of #, against #, in Figure 1 shows a
reasonable correlation for galactic latitudes less
than 15°. For galactic latitudes lying between
15° and 60° #, tends to systematically exceed py.

JS +
++
+
++
JO +
5 +
+
Pp.
anes re) +
re)
Oe: sha ee
(Oy) re +
+
20
04-0 fo)
CO 00
+ ©
1S fe)
fe)
fe)
lo anti oat is Tse al, ae
10 IS 20 25 JO Js 40

FIGURE 1].—Stars with open circle have b<15°.
Stars with plus sign have 15°>b<60°.

Corrections for the effect of galactic rotation on
the reference stars have been derived using
HI, 6 galactic coordinates and galactic constants
A=+15 kms/sec/kpc B=—10 kms/sec/kpc.
For convenience, tables were prepared using the
customary formulae with the right ascension of
the ascending node for equinox 1900-0 being
taken as 281°-65 and the inclination of the
galactic plane to the equator 62°-20’. These
corrections differ only slightly from those given
by A. Blaaw and J. Delhaye (1949). The
galactic coordinates JU, 61! of the variable for
equinox 1900-0 were computed with the same
data.

52 Ka Po SIMs

Motions of some of the variable stars in this
paper were already published in either Royal
Observatory Bulletin No. 161 or 136 or Annals
of the Cape Observatory, Vols. 19-20. The
differences Sydney minus the other results are
given in Table I in units of 0”-0001/yr.

There may be a systematic difference between
my results and those of the Cape.

The degree to which the conversion of relative
proper motions to absolute by using statistically
derived mean parallaxes is hable to systematic
error should possibly be considered.

A. R. Klemola and S. Vasilevskis (1971) in a
preliminary investigation for determining the
proper motions of faint stars relative to galaxies
compare their mean secular parallaxes with
those of Binnendijk who used a solar motion of
20 kms/sec. They achieve good agreement for

TABLE I

Star Source Au, cos 8 Aus
iW. Car R.O.B. 161 +110 —4
DK Vel RAO WB: 16} —2] —48
BI Cen RO. Be 161 —29 +16
TY Pav ROB: 161 +55 +239
LY Pav KGOlB. e360 —155 —151
W Hor Cape +153 —3l
R Dor Cape +112 —Il]
I W Car Cape +108 +107
CM Vel Cape +92 +142
RR Car Cape +5 +16
BZ. Car Cape —75 +95
V369 Cen .. | Cape +100 +220
S Phe Cape +51 +78
Ss) Pay Cape +10 +58
V Hor Cape —40 —139

the magnitude range 11-12 for middle and high
galactic latitudes with only small difference at
low galactic latitudes. Beyond magnitude 12
the discrepancies occur at all galactic latitudes
and amount to 0”-003 to 0” -004/yr for magnitude
13. At fainter magnitudes the discrepancies
become more marked. A higher value of solar
speed may be indicated for faint hight latitude
stars.

Then Z. Aslam (1971) who has made a re-
examination of the material used by Binnendijk
believes that as a result of an incorrect weighting
system Binnendijk’s average parallaxes are
under-estimated by about 15%. The revised
mean parallaxes would produce a somewhat
better agreement with the Lick data although
discrepancies would still exist. Evidence is
also presented which indicates that _ the
log N ,,, m relation varies with location in the
sky and that since equations (4) and (5) imply

a linear relationship between log V,, and m,
equations (4) and (5) might not be applicable to
all regions of the sky. This could explain the
discrepancies pointed out in Figure 1.

Although the available evidence seems to
indicate a need to increase Binnendijk’s mean
parallaxes, further observational data seem to
be needed before any correction could be
confidently applied. For southern hemisphere
fields any doubt about regional difference must
require re-evaluation. In view of this, the
procedure has been to derive mean patallaxes
from equation (4) leaving to the future any
adjustment that may be needed. For this
reason no errors are given for the absolute proper
motion of the variable as given in Table 3.

The results of the measured relative proper
motions and their reduction to absolute are
given in Tables II and III.

Table II gives:

\ethe name of the sear

b) the plate centre for equinox 1900-0,

c) the plate pair or pairs,

d) the epoch of each plate,

e) the hour angle of each plate at mid
exposure,

(f) the measured relative proper motion of
the variable in units of 0”-0001/yr.

Table III gives:

(a) the name of the star,

(6) for 1900-0 «, 5, 24, 64 and type of variable,

(c) Nm the numbe1 of stars per square degree
around the variable with m<mean m,, of
the reference stars,

(d) m,, the mean photographic magnitude of
the reference group or groups,

(e) the intrinsic dispersion of the proper
motions of reference stars o,, oy.

(f) For each reference star the Catalogue
number when available, the standard
coordinates relative to the plate centre
~, 7 in reseau intervals of 5’ and the
relative proper motion,

(An asterisk before the catalogue
number represents a rejected star.)

(g) the photographic magnitude of each
reference star,

(h) the mean parallaxes #,, po,

(i) the relative proper motion A, cos 6, As of
the variable in units of 0”-0001/yr together
with the associated standard error,

(7) the absolute proper motion pu, cos 5, us of
the variable in units of 0”-0001.

(a
(
(
(
(

PROPER MOTIONS OF VARIABLE STARS IN THE SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC ZONE 53

TABLE II
Star Plate Plate Date H.A. Relative Proper Motion in
Centre Pair units of 0",0001/yr in
ist end ist 2nd
Image Image Image Image
RS Hor pitzom N1502 1926826 18° qt 4 343 mao ee
263° 4621Sa 1965.781 12"E
890rh 1901.855 47 W te" A to
46228a 1965.781 ow
W Hor ange" 1991s 1894. 733 39"E = 152 og AS 4-793
-55 4629Sa 196 5.803 3"E
V Hor 370g" 1118rh 1902.970 44°W +. 162 ii
=59 3299S8a 1961-744 17 W
R Dor 4°32" 2064s 1894. 792 41™E - 602 - 668 - 826 =" 187
. -62 2041Sa 1958.748 14°E
IU Car 65a” N1002 1924.083 24"W 25 + 281
=o 5238Sa 1968.121 4
2828s 1896.176 6"E an1536 + 320
5237Sa 1968.121 20"E
1116rh- 1902.921 39° eek + 290
3974Sa 1963.864 1"E
DK Vel 974g” 3177s 1897.015 WH +36 een5 |
—53 4369Sa 1965. 220 20
674rh 19012195 Ww fe nC 20
4392Sa 1965. 299 8"W
647rh 1901.043 24° 5 ras) = 229
4368Sa 1965.220 6'w
IW Car gg" N1193 1925, 291 337 W + 163 + 95 Fie i = AG
-63 5029Sa 1967-335 omy
1321s 1894.228 OnE + 166 + 45
5279Sa 1968.267 ow
SZ Car gM 52m 244rh 1900. 184 3278 70 =i 59 + 46 fone]
-60 49798a 1967. 220 97
RR Car 95a” 1405s 1894. 288 43°E ee abet 4 + 84 + 49
-59 4070Sa 1964.261 1B
CM Vel 10°96" 810s 1893.195 10 W + 46 + 56 ery Bi Sie)
-53 2153S8a 1959.280 11°E
682rh 1901.223 130M ey 723
4414Sa 1965-324 ae
CL Car 10748" 1246s 1894.097 TW Oe xis) ee es, oy peat
-61 5230Sa 1968.097 OE
BZ Car 10°48" 1246s 1894.097 TW 043 + 10 ae + 58
-61 5230Sa 1968.097 5 E
1064 1924. 310 34 W +0853 yh oy, ts ree F
5291Sa 1968. 305 5 "W
T™ Car 10754” 2841s 1896.179 5 W BGs + 68
-59 5287S8a 1968.291 OE
3330s 1897. 327 3nid - 139 + 31
50358a 1967.338 5 W
RS Cen 11°20" 1248s 1894.098 qe =5.403 =o130 +a 36 (3)
-61 5554Sa 1969. 155 147°W
N1053 1924.278 20" y a 76 =) 112 HOF +564
5307Sa 1968.316 3
BI Cen a 537rh 1909. 305 17 W S58 eA
-59 3467Sa 1962.406 17 W
3340s 1897. 330 14"5 - 112 - 53
349 1Sa 1962.428 17 Ww
2885s 1896.269 39" W - 39 m5
52558a 1968.247 15 W
W Cen 11854" 3332s 1897. 327 25° = O98 16
er) 5309Sa 1968. 316 10 W
2859s 1896. 193 21H Soo 7 ers)
33718a 1962. 163 22

54 K. P. SIMS
TABLE II (continued)
Star Plate Plate Date HA. Relative Proper Motion in
Centre Pair units of 0",0001/yr in
1st ond 1st ond
Image Image Image Image
V369 2 ee 1309s 1894.220 20 = 30 a8 ag + 11
Cen 54 1694Sa 19 58.245 3"E
C1608 1927.403 30°F +o ey: - 35 - 5 - 89
6010Sa 1970-327 OE
U Cra 12°30" 1393s 1894. 283 18° + 108 £496 ee) -. og
BT 5099Sa 1967.694 16 W
2843s 1896.185 375 od Sh Te
45118a 1965-497 35"W
U Cen 12°24" 280rh 1900.220 3 W 4 eB4 4130 + 170 + 170
—54 5293Sa 1968. 302 5 W
Al Cen 1230" 361xrh 1900. 332 40"'W Pete 78 = 98 -.9f
-54 3026Sa 19612351 10"
815s 1893.195 14°E + 64 +A 5 Gil - 55
5256Sa 1968.247 12°5
360rh 1900. 332 OTE + 82 me?
30758a 1961.453 42"W
33078 1897-272 17 "W + 95 - 15
5257Sa 1968247 ow
y m | se ee ee
KQ Cen 14'16 735rh 19014374 37 W sn 88 + 42
-63 3083Sa 1961-455 ow
2908s 1896.289 33 W + 99 em
52728a 1968.254 on
R Cir 15°48" 1399s 1894. 284 11% + 185 PATA
aa 5269Sa 1968.251 10"W
1033rh 1902. 568 ow 4 1107 4+ 33
31558a 1961. 543 SE
TY Pav 17°36" C2109 1929.658 15 W — 294 = 230 =a ew 121)
~62 5797S8a 1969.628 TE
RZ Pav 17°40" 3422s 1897.492 20 y me ~ 110
-59 4254Sa 1964. 595 6'E
828rh 1901.623 58 Ww pep eis = Ge
42558a 1964.595 15" W
BM Pav 19°20" 3714s 1898. 549 65" W | + 154
-63 3892Sa 1963.688 15 Ww
T71rh 1901.472 4 G46 + 150
5346Sa 1968.423 0
S Pav 19°4a” 1741s 1894. 529 3205 347 + 238 — 269 ~ 265
-60 5388Sa 1968. 502 A":
61894 1928.694 16° W
6376Sa 1971.631 oR + 240 + 276 - 294 — 252
W Ina 21"g6" 3085s 1896. 740 23H + 263 - 93
253 3929Sa 1963770 3 W
1011s 1893.549 11°E #93923 - 98
5396Sa 1968.541 12"E
BU Pav 2148" 1758s 1894.541 63° — 132 pee 10)
-64 5419Sa 1968.707 17 E
N920 1923664 50 Ww S426 Sie + 93 + 50
3930Sa 1963.770 5 W
Y Ind a1" go” 485rh 1900.634 4 w — 170 + 18
-53 5420Sa 1968. 703 19 "EB
3808s 1898. 762 26°58
248 1Sa 1959836 36" W etd Rega)
S Phe 23"5q™ 1037s 1893. 598 300 p30 se ED
-57 36118a 1962.563 20 W
3137s 1896844 30" W ~ 59 ~ 48
39758a 1963.880 Ww

PROPER MOTIONS OF VARIABLE STARS IN THE SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC ZONE 55

RS HOR
933575 08 284° .33 M
-63°01" 06".9 -50°..60
Neh) G28)
m
W2e26e) 43.07
O,,= 168, 107; Oy= 163, 113

Cat No. € n Ax

118 fo 6691 + 2.955 —- 155 -

144 + 8.511 + 8.160 + 322 +

157 + 8.086 + 6.009 + 37 +

134 + 8.076 + edi = 164 =

- + 5.680 + 6.395 = ow) =
66 + 10.657 - 3.399 - 354 . +
59 + 8.267 — 4.286 = 85 -
42 + 5.734 - 6.196 +. 60 fe
45 +) Bie 56 —- 6.622 + 223 -
46 + 3.650 — 6.265 + 173 +

432 Se dd + 4.391 + 139 +

139 - 1.694 + 5.370 + 36 -

150 =) 2.23) + 7.394 et rs

123 = Be rOe + 2.153 ae i

67 + 1.760 - 2.988 - 116 =
68 ~ e181 - 3.497 + 104 =
84 +. 0,290 = e004 S102 +
52 = Oi boy. - 5-741 Baye +
f2 - 4.843 - 3.245 + 133 +
*151 = 55.133 fe e202 + 153 +
110 Oe 1 el 53.1 - 96 =
119 + 6.404 + 2.574 ey) -
= + 5764 + 2.371 —j98 -
- fe e523 ail © + 60 +
142 + 5019 + 2.231 + 94 +
- + ie Ot — 4.293 + 24 -
42 oe (34 - 6.190 + 108 +
78 5601 SS OLOB7 - AT +
_ + 3.641 - 1.338 Sikes) +
213 + 20210 oe PAMels| =11 24 +
= eo e148 + 2,108 = a0e =
x = 20,969 + 1.168 + 187 +
= =. 26414 + 2.544 + 8 +
pas =) 02,624 + 5-147 = cf +

115 = 2.819 + 1.510 met +

- + 3.731 — 3.400 + 169 +

- 36236 = O16 = 144 ue

= + 2.447 ~ 2.394 on =

69 + 0.402 — 3.367 + 93 -
84 + 0.291 —- 1.663 = ahs) -
= Tle ae 2 + 77 -

Magnitudes of Reference Stars

(eet en 2.A oe WsGs 12 s2e) 12.02. 4469's
MO Onor Mets IOS te. F266 s:. 12643
P2CCeee och dese | VWOe4s 13.022 12.7%
12.1:

GOI Oy A. os ise 33 “13ets 13.38 913034
Teo eee leds 13045) 13645) 13025
de MOL8s {18529-18645 4aeber 1362s
12. Oe) 41226 213.0"

Pp, = 040034, 0.0028

Py = 0.0031, 0.0026

Relative Proper Motion of RS Hor is
(1) Ne cos§ = -15 = 45
Re 3 * 20
(2) rq cos 6 = -4
eS
Absolute Proper Motion of RS Hor is
(1) By cos 5 = +85
Se +51
(2) Kg cos&é = +93
Ms = +42

Table III

W HOR
24 109°. 64 273°.49
=54°43' 24".0 -55° .89
Nao 26
m
1234.
One = 197 Oy= 186
Cat No. é n
209 a 6A + 5.862 a
225 + 4.180 + 6.663 +
194 #3709 + 4.238 -
196 # eTeOiril + 4.650 =
183 a c069 + 3.420 +
213 + 0.395 + 5.478 +
125 es 5e8 = 0.060 ze
150 + 1.404 + 1.969 =
aba 7 + 1.045 - 1.495 a
Unie) - 1.029 + 2.497 -
228 - 3.111 + 6.521 +
214 —- 3.132 $56 (43 +
OAS - 3.243 + 5.499 +
PAG - 8.393 + 5.916 -
203, = 6 (Al + 4.515 -
218 - 10.065 + 52828 a
128 ae neo =O. 320 a
152 = 654 + 1.712 as
11533) 3.866 + 1.765 =
120 =) 6661 - 1.469 +
156 = “Tel'52 + 1.349 +
*99 + 4.167 — 3.369 -
*110 + 3.897 = 25502 +
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
We ct liltedasae dices Ose ieedlheh) water li
fle ae ran ee mheOr = aeeOs
telhew (Asie alblreu/aste alist foni(aee yaultere Os iennlicueloss
WEE6PS ABEeR WAsdOR Woe
p, = 0.0035 Py = 0.0030
Relative Proper Motion of W Hor is
dg cos 8 = Pte 60
de oo 5 5
Absolute Proper Motion of W Hor is
Ky cosé = +23
Ks = +49
VY HOR
3"01™o08. 52 276° .46
-59°19" 21.7 “50°48
N= 50
13.16
Gy = 119 Oy = 79
Cat No. é 7
- - 2.165 SleJay +
a ae SIL - 1.348 ao
= - 4.775 - 2.643 -
= 6.533 + 0.111 as
- - 6.963 + 0.107 +:
38 ST AsonG 286252 +
- 6.107 aif fe +
by 6s109 - 4.376 -
ae 6 2506 = 62079 ot
= "64965 - 4.904 “
- - 8.579 - 2.909 +
= zy Oesor e214 #
- —- 9.890 - 2.641 +
119 - 10.598 - 0.492 -
- - 10.802 = 15951 =

Pettit rttei eet
(ee) o>
(ee) \O

tl btteeteee ti
UI
N

oRb

Ke PS SIMS

56
Table III
Cat No. é f Ax AY
- - 11.509 — 0.261 - 143 — 196
=- - 8.079 - 4.736 - 53 + 16
39 - 8.861 - 8.203 - 68 - 92
e SOR oiG — 5.630 te + 90
= — 10.266 - 6.054 =D + 32
= = 10.406 - 4.756 + 332 - 84
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
MS cOR Polat vith tinea PO slOn Os a alle One at Ogos
USO 1 eds el eAwe 1SeO5h Heh ye Berm at a6 Os
LBISHIRS RS LIRS vey le 9 Bore giisibr TASS ec)
125
Pp, = 0.0027 P, = 0,0023
Relative Proper Motion of V Hor in
Ne cose = + 62
= 2
As 17
Absolute Proper Motion of V Hor in
Ky cosh = +1
Ls = —219
R DOR
435135". 25 272° ..65 SRb
62°16! 30".3 39734
No = 17
esq)
O,= 99 Cis iy
Cat No. E | Ax AY
23 + 10.390 + 1.484 - 106 - 79
51 + 10.094 =. 3. 148 -—- 20 + 152
80 + 6.784 + 0.861 mel ae. SSG i
81 + 6.579 + 0.930 + 156 - 65
60 + 5.208 E.On 576 38 eee |
a + 9.664 = 5.51 ere: 34
22 + 8.814 S750 te + 119
23 +. 8.723 - 6.957 + 13 +. 35
31 + 7.016 - 6.055 + 139 + 13
40 + 6.426 — 5.856 = 21 + 38
82 + 4.254 + 0.375 + 21 + 92
84 + 2.488 + 0.590. + 188 + 222
61 + 2.104 =" 22383 - 113 - 26
70 + 0.976 _- 0.411 + 79 - 26
98 = e096 ee sage | -— 189
33 + 3.860 - 6.140 = o2 eos
41 + 3.407 AD ae esl) = 174
15 + 2.643 - 9.044 - 143 + 161
48 = 06515 SPAR? 45h 62
28 - 3.302 —- 7.123 + 74 - 104
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
A lieOsectlileh sal eee) Sat See nT Oa eee dt oO
Meds One te ieee eM ene 1 ea eal ce Onm oasiOr
Cec tie Ol 1 Ole el Ore Asien tenis eel
ee 0.0037 Py = 0.0034
Relative Proper Motion of R Dor in
Ne cos6 = -635 = 60
= =806 = 45
Absolute Proper Motion of R Dor in
He cosé= —578
Ks = -691

(continued 2)

IU CAR
6o 5141840 269° .57 R Rab
59°28 121.4 -22° .89
No eto
Ve62e eee
OO, = 80, 104 Oy, = 158,129
Cat No. E 7 Ax
169 4+ 2.164 etoile <4) B52 =
154 + 0.928 = 51023 + 55 +
126 cl0) STS) = 2606 ny Ae
140 + 0.424 OT) = 5S +
j2i + 0.144 Sse AE 207 + 88 +
129 en O6 2 NG: eel a
69 + 1.923 — 72865 + 145 3
11 + 1.691 = ata + 56 +
50 coe 1 aE - 8.967 slaeel oscar -
33 + 1.373 - 9.529 - 44 +
103 - 0.207 - 5.928 - 124 -
21 Saclay 10.837 oe +
143 - 3.991 ce elt + 19 +
156 - 6.217 = 1.372 SOs =
146 =| 1.2306 - 3.135 faa) -
159 =N8611 es) + 90 +
149 - 9.448 S43, 032 = 36 =
90 - 5.092 =O (oT Sim ail a
(2 = 6.951 —- 7-525 - 167 -
38 - 6.960 - 9.573 + 97 -
73 - 7.287 == alceplar + 26 =
54 - 8.806 - 9.079 + 130 +
* 56 — 9.062 = 8.855) 23586 2
*174 One 1.158 + 48 =
= eda = level = 94 {e
440 +) Oe42? Se ATO = 2) +
- + 0.122 in 559) Sale =
- + 0.008 = 0.480 + °=2 =
= = 3631 [ - 4.394 + 22 -
68 + 2.203 = 7.657 2234 rs
= On SF DOP - 27 =.
89 + 0.146 = feu SO + 272 +
18 + 0.189 11.026 = 404: A
34 = 0.303 - 9.568 =eong pe
142 =13.969 = Oncor = ligsl +
116 =O 204 - 4.966 + 15 +
- — 6.322 - 2.636 + 38 +
= = 65994 - 5.086 a 8 +
117 - 8.972 - 4.559 + 135 +
52 BNE NS 8.601 + 36 =
37 - 5.866 =. 10.079 =5100 =
92 = 16.077 SOG =o +
40 - 7.570 - 9.450 cient =
- — 8.639 - 8.699 + 88 +
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
(a) 116157 11.35 1s OG ae leet
12.45 12.5532 WB = SI aie eal eel oie
41053 TOs 113 OC eee ti
WO cs Aes i eis rele ore
(b) 12.6; 11.83 12.43 4926; =4eede eee
{245° 1OsAs = 12.65 6 pee Or ee ea
1353 13043 1261s eed he ieee eon:
12.635 A 2a
P, = 0028, .0022 Po = 0.0033, 0.0022

PROPER MOTIONS OF VARIABLE STARS IN THE SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC ZONE 57

Table III (continued 3)

Relative Proper Motion of IU Car in Cat No. € 7 Ax a
GN cond = - 25. — 49 398 ~ 3.002 - 2.181 + 188 ay
eo = oe Sis 500 - 3.141 — 0.128 — 120 ae
8 i 349 + 0.098 - 3.497 + 92 - 24
(2) Novas = 30 = 25 207 +0013 = 6.510 ey Ae ~- 24
ror EB hor 33 399 = 3.046 - 2.688 =030 ah43
$ 217 =) 32°70 mabe (LG 1.780 + 96
Absolute Proper Motion of IU Car in 445 ~ 7.727 Bs ae neh
4) Me cosO= - 59 504 Tet 30 - 0.854 = 404 +, £0
Ca 449 - 8,305 - 1.454 =, 26 +68
6 549 ~ 8.628 + 0.888 eens 55
(2) [Ly cosS = - 6 450 - 8.824 - 1.469 + 6 aA
p- = 4397 Bog - 5.770 - 3.962 = "8 + 18
é 273 - 5811 =- 5.478 ie £8
274 - 6.665 — 5-562 + 96 + 12
318 2165019 - 4.516 Uy is he)
ey 216 6.900 ~ 5.850 seta ae
home 438 + 0.709 =. 11260 Pres, = On
a aes elke oe 492 ~ 0.620 ~ 0.507 + 91 ae
52391 54.7 -2.69 395 - 1.357 - 2.162 + 98 - 75
We S430 350 176 = 3.932 a 45 ae ney
m 311 =a 1.630 SAO ioe Send 415
12.41 314 - ee - 4.949 + 37 - AT
Rel ee a A ee aCe = M2 On be
Cat No. Ax AY 544 —hfeul i + 0.329 = 36 +. 40
at No : 7 105 ~ 5.151 - 2.688 93 + «75
801 - 3.330 + 6.045 - 43 + 109 271 - 5.366 - 5.480 + 164 Gl
782 - 3.490 + 5.218 = G29 + 36
Bs - 4.360 + 6.503 =e OD + 81 Magnitudes of Reference Stars
=. : - 1
ie = ie : Coe = G i ote U2 eOnr RAV IOs ALO Wife 12,02 IO eel tee
656 — 5.676 + 2.244 er) ih Fl 1204; 12.2; 1263.
Ze — 5.836 + 3.228 - 35 - 4 p, = 0.0021 p, = 0.0023
808 ~ 7.889 PeSo2T eH 30. OA
we ~ 8.161 qe 715 489 5.68 Relative Proper Motion of IW Car in
- — 8.601 + 6.222 - 87 - 21 ee Gono = FGA AA
= - 8.798 + 4.896 + 177 - 134 \ te
- — 9.065 + 4.146 sO 6 = 151 eaten
tala - 7-725 + 3.191 He al - 2 Absolute Proper Motion of IW Car in
= - 8.000 + 1.868 melt = [2 5
= =O 165 + 2.396 - 249 + 286 lade cos O= +58
712 - € 394 + 2.910 - 29 - 2 Ms = +87
= — 9.795 He Oy 2e8 FiLe5O
Magnitude of Reference Stars RR CAR
MECC WO oe Teds 1255s “1193s “We 73 12633 lh ane
Wel; 12.15 12.9; 1027; 13.3; 13613 11.93 , ae 262.11 Silo
Vaated. 123 12675 12015, 12.9. 58°23" 01.1 33° 18
Py = 0.0017 Py = 0,0017 N OD
Relative Proper Motion of DK Vel in Aiteeefisy
Ng cosd= +23 4 28 O,= 46 Oy= 47
Re Saree) 98 i Ay
aoe : § j Cat No. é 7] x
i P ti DK Vel i
Absolute Proper oy fo) K Vel in 2906 + 3.965 + 8.288 _ 55 a 4
HM, cos = -61 2907 . —4 3.838 + 8.081 2 100) gag eee
Eero 3041 + 2.730 + 8.900 + 90 - 82
oe 8 3140 + 2.011 + 9.958 23 + 120
2919 + 1.885 + 8.376 + 220 =; 50
IW _CAR 2530 + 4.292 + 5.512 - 33 220
m s
2 One 282, RVb 2782 + 3.994 ar 6.929 - 61 = 26
? a aa 5 2 2650 + 3.605 + 6.378 + 20 + 10
—63°11' 42".0 -9° 223 2652 fe 2053 + 65139 eA SC Os
Ne = 51 2656 + 2.362 + 6.069 - 14 + 38
2922 aah 16 + 8.102 SAG Sele
11.8, 12606 2804 + 0.903 a 16043 ae BP 5
= 8 2 3051 + 0.782 + 9.652 are 35 44 236
Gre 6 Oya 7 3053 — 0.201 + 9.117 £86 + 24
Cat No. é 7 Ax AY 2812 20.635 Sapa + 24 tg
439 - 0.682 he) 2.691 AG ne 8 2661 + 1.039 + 6.427 - 28 - 106
440 a 1720 — 1.062 +) 76 43 eee a eee + 7.154 ee, + 48
1 Oe npe30) Be 8 yaa 2 2 + ° + 4.433 + 22 = 35
Me ad ani ZI) D660 © 10.688 + 6.077 eee ee
2820 — 1.277 + 6.954 + 48 + 10

58 Ky RS SIMS

Table III (continued 4)

Magnitudes of Reference Stars

Aeon mee aOse edleOs iil Osi malillso sa ale ltarah callers
Alte ire al lis Och ot dlei{ecneualievel rata alle smal Mc Olsen eles Ore
Neenah leaked lie O's mat reese ew On nlilrsoe
Relative Proper Motion of RR Car in
Ke cosé = -d2 a 54
As = +066 zt Be
Absolute Proper Motion of RR Car in
My cosd = -145
Ks = +106
SZ CAR
G51 65 283) 2 SRb
-59°44" 17".7 EAS 12
N = 102
m
11.59
(Os =o Oy = = 3h0,
Cat No. E n Ax AY
1976 + 9.096 + 4.353 —- 22 + 14
1978 + 8.794 + 4.590 + 26 O
1805 + 8.360 + 3.632 - 20 + 9
1993 + 7.2500 + 4.187 - 38 a fyi
1815 + 72358 + 32258 =) 12 ef lt SA.
1500 + 90756 + 0.934 + 40 — 40
1635 + 8.697 + 22630 - 4 - 58
1368 + 72830 - 0.062 - 8 - 42
1641 + 7750 + 24289 - 8 + 26
1372 + 72395 + 0.484 + 30 + 29
1999 + 6.557 + 4.800 - 9 - 26
2001 + 66352 + 4.190 - 4 + 6
2004 + 6.197 + 4.805 - 104 - 10
1834 + 4.689 + 3.546 —- 116 + 25
2016 + 4.145 + 4,802 + 285 = 65
1650 + 6.472 + 1.924 + 3 + 4
1652 + 6.257 + 2.038 - 54 + 2
1386 + 5708 + 0.665 - 19 +. 72
1662 + 5226 + 2.717 + 90 — 34
1393 + 3.631 + 0.585 - 70 + 29
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
diate see dsl 2s late One malities: Culettowe a Al list ste alteniss
TSS 2 ACTA pete BOs STB ee IBA Sle sloc
Relative Proper Motion of SZ Car in
ae cos6= 26a 5 23
ds = 4255 26
Absolute Proper Motion of 5Z Car in
Ky cos6é = -171
. CM VEL
40 03"50°.34 279° 082 SRa
—52°46" 16,2 +2°.10
Nn = 90, 154
Aeon 12.80
Ox = 72,38 = 62, 41
Cat No. é n Ax ach
1035 - 0.427 + 5340 - 54 0
1036 — 0.737 + 52054 + 57 + 82

Cat No. E 7) Ax
1038 - 1.199 + 5.521 + 4
1081 =e 504 + 66251 AG
1043 = 2.560 + 5350 a Ae
790 + 0.699 + 0.487 - 80
884 - 0.919 + 1.984 =) def
885 —- 1.235 + 32055 + 172
7192 — 2.464 + 0.792 - 60
890 -— 3.214 + 22357 + 62
995) - 4.833 + 4.150 - 23
1090 — 5494 + 6.254 + 4
lel — 6.181 + 72174 - 11
1091 — 6.274 + 6.474 + 40
1054 - 6.871 + 5.067 + 64
794 - 4.801 + 0.623 yo YO)
754 — 5450 - 0.875 + 108
199 — 6.154 - 0.030 - 110
800 = Geilo + 05574 ee Wi
895 - 6.616 + 2.550 + 2
a SOara6 + 4.627 + 4d
- - 0.932 + 3.587 + 40
1042 - 2.218 + 5.487. + 63
992 — 32390 + 4.251 - 42
1084 = 30467 + 5.968 + 27
834 - 0.500 Ss ee2 base
750 - 0.464 — 0.374 GPS
751 =| 2,687 - 0.880 =i
889 — 3.085 + 2.157 - 5
- - 3.483 + 12245 =" 35
1048 - 4.798 + 5-780 = 25
996 — 52186 + 4.319 a 2
- — 5e227 + 3.304 - 49
946 — 50214 + 3.477 Se:
= - 6.382 + 4.666 - 40
698 - 4.689 — 1.201 + 66
= Se5oiGe + 1.561 eo
797 — 52281 + 0.096 + 16
156 = 62346 - 0.855 = 30
- - 8.337 + 0.984 ae
Magnitudes of Reference Stans
(a) Catalogue plate: 168% 4s Gren
12635 12023). 11.045 4 110ml weal
WWe4s 12603. 12625 eA litem le aie
Wis Se. ase
(b) Chart plate: 12.8: \T3J2sledeeGeutee7:
12043 1268; 13023 12. On te isieA er eee
13.053--13..0; | 12.8% CAG en dC meh aeie
13.0.

p= 0.0019, 0.0015 Py = 0.0019, 0.0016
Relative Proper Motion of CM Vel in

(1) d 4 cosd = +51 = 20
g- 718 ni

(2) Ay cos h= +27
Re =

Absolute Proper Motion of CM Vel in

(1) My cosé = -52

Ks Se rS)
(2) Ky cos 6 = -63
be Bee
CL CAR
10%50™0*o, 58 289.22 SRb
60°33! 33.8 —1 238
w= 85
11.05
G,= 59 O,= 59

+

TT Fae ear) (ARN eet ig) ic Jot ee [itr oe Gr Ieeifome th all

+a ot

b+itttit

PROPER MOTIONS OF VARIABLE STARS IN THE SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC ZONE 59

Table III (continued 5)

Cat Noe & 7) Ax Ay Relative Proper Motion of BZ Car in
QM0A = +. 54225 + 7.241 =e eG? Ng cosS= 4215 31
2278 + 5077 + 6.411 + 94 + 24 > i Baka
2281 + 4.810 GS 537 =8 65 eS Sas at eal
2415 + 32539 + 72333 ‘aS —- 32 Absolute Proper Motion of BZ Car in
2170 + 32495 + 50548 cil Puan + 36
2017 + 6p 103 + 4.397 + 24 + 23 Hy cosd = -85
2020 6.022 + 4.463 36 oe 28 Ms = +55
2029 fo TRO + 4.653 ran Wi aio
1892 + 3.773 + 3.826 SuOe ime 5)
1766 $03,092 Tho. gO2 avo Sui 9 TX CAR
2424 + 2.508 + 72936 + 76 = 3 hepm os
2425. + 20487 ERIS o0) et Se SON aes 50 Deore a aoe ste
2296 + 1.661 #168068 aan 5.64 me ae ten taser!
2179 + 12652 + 5.642 ah 30) ae N. 2 2/0452
2430 + 12485 + 76599 26 Eager ee re
1771 + 2.010 + 2.312 aed SHG 209
2040 + 10851 + 4.051 - 96 + 112 O,= 95 O,= 67
1901 TAGS esa DG eto. x
2043 + 0.809 + 4.632 - 20 =I Cat No. & n Ax AY
1902 + 0.357 + 3.845 + 163 - 1 2789 EORCIC + 5.900 36 ess
Magnitudes of Reference Stars 2955 + ee + 6.708 + 10 —~ 16
a : : ; ; : ‘ 2795 + e623 + 6.059 EG BORG
Gites, 20s 8 fice ens Se =
MeleiOle: 10,6: 10.7: 10.8: oie / ne eset + 72981 See SeCgee
‘ : 4 : , - + 2.589 + 4.489 + 32 + 32
p, = 0.0024 Py = 0.0019 2790 + 2.542 + 50130 Sao + 56
Relative Proper Motion of ot Car in ae 4 at ‘ ee ei a a re
A, cos es 43 2647 Bete S555 + 4.291 — 118 ie
he “Ree 2803 a ee + 50936 + <0 Bsa (2)
iS - + 0.782 + 72616 + 14 + 23
Absolute Proper Motion of CL Car in - + 0.186 ee fet LO - 28 + 43
at 2815 = 02163 + 6.040 55 — dK
Mg cos d = -133 3152 Se aS 06 - 20 2a
2504 + 0.422 93.770 = 38 Ee
rs + 0.373 + 5.001 ES (6; + 18
BZ CAR el + 0.267 + 50167 0G 0
ioe m, 4 : Bene 2657 - 0.337 + 4.714 + 46 - 64
| a . : 4 y Magnitudes of Reference Stars
—61- 30% 35", Or
ee 2 OG 130, 612.080, 1300s. 13802 A266: 112592." d3<0:
fh Mei ASO F lies dees wees, al 2sOe. 12e0s 4 Vee Or
11453 WSoOR SAS SR SHO Se asta s Wale ae ke
O,- 114 Tn 90 p, = 0.0014 Py = 0.0001
2 ‘ Ve Relative Proper Motion of TX Car in
Cat Noe x
? e g ro cosé = -151 £36
606 + 50554 = 52690 + 11 “re 8 at ep 5Ora 28
751 + 56147 BASS ec) Ma 9 a et Suro te
on + 3.683 = 5252 + 37 - 26 Absolute Proper Motion of TX Car in
23 + 36535 — 5-051 ee Zi ea
373 + 5474 fel (o Poa hee ng Hg cosd ee
374 + 52396 — 7-589 —- 25 + 27 Peo = +67
379 + 3.962 PT eAOG pee). Athens =< 5 é
380 + 3.782 — 66952 23°39 = 62
ay + 30454 e542 PAS + 48 RS CEN
2 $3,022 = 52049 ol At 20 h,-m,_s 0
169 ores ieee =: N56 1171605" .46 292” .43 M
633 #20164 = 5.496 + 142 eye ~61°19" 46".7 ~0° .87
116 4 OTT5 =. 090 Tana - 34 " é
784 04975 —~ 46111 ey ZF ieR Rae
387 ae — 66969 en ay cae a 11.62
499 e109 - 6.581 + 144 =H 400
394 + 12448 - 72484 - 120 + 109 G90? Tae
501 so GAME — 6.620 + 167 a. «53 A AY
503 + 1.053 262705 Sa = 49 eae é :

%612 4.933 — 5.681 + 740 =) 180 966 — 2.026 a 95 gon =/i28
Magnitudes of Reference Stars ey Y Se i ie i aH 7, re
Cue ieds 12st 11s65 12.0: 12.1; 1261; 850 Si red. - 3.414 ey io =
PEO ed teGs | 10.9% 11233; T1e3s 1104; 11.6% 972 - 4.604 = 2.780 7 100
Peel teOr. dhe dg. 1164951158. 538 - 1.975 - 6.401 =the - 16

= 0,0021. = 0.0020 Oe eam eae hb eae ei tha oe
P Po 2 649 030861 ~ 4.982 BG, tes

Ms Se eat

60 K.. P:"SIMS
Table III (continued 6)
Cat No. é 7] Ax AY W CEN
Gian ROD Bos ubb a) Vc ake One ae 11"5001°.62 295°.77 M
744. - 4.567 SiAe SOA). See en ada cen Coa gaan 0
978 - 6.055 Sony Sot Shy as ag =O 1 51. 3 42° 84
981 - 6.585 = 26510 SR NAT Ge pean ae N22 266
1116 = 6063 = F572 NSC Me tS. lly es i
ide. ¥ = 7.536 fie Onde ae =e si 0 3423
"985 - 7.849 - 2.766 BE Cnb Nan eae G,,= 101 Oy= 40
W583 - 6.814 SA Oil = Sle) 29
553 - 7.106 - 6.454 Speco Me Rey Cat No. E 7 Ax
667 - 8.432 — 5.808 e 1 as
668 =1On26 Bees: RAS Pa ee = — 3.646 + 4.840 aise. a
670 = 9,092 = 56120) 8 04 126 er ms is ais + 1-029 SS a
ax = = 5G + 4.440 oe s
= = 529710 + 5.518 =, OA =
Magnitudes of Reference Stars 806 ~ 6.079 + 4.388 Bers s,
Ace Ad Os e dliodiee WAee und Weis oat edie clits = = 3.487 i) Stilt =
Aer Ate ote sO cll ce Caml ei ed nOlsnt i dea = At + 3.559 Be | A
AAi. CIN ARU ACOs lee cee sl eemias MeO. "= - 4.992 + 2.555 = 56 2
= a = — 5566 + eo thy = 42 Le
P, = 0.0020 Py = 0.0016 713 ~ 5.780 + 26531 Bea
808 a6. 507 + 4.741 - 56 =
Relative Proper Motion of i Cen in = ~ 6.794 + 4.315 Bea
Kg con = 2130 = 24 = - 6.885 + 5.169 + 54 +
i: + = =.85015 + 5.153 + 4124 =
Ag + be) ik i. — 8.109 + 4.185 + 80
Absolute Proper Motion of RS Cen in - — 6.276 + 3.372 - 44 -
ee = - 6.429 + 3.456 = 20 +
[icon Osi eae = - 6.804 ope Mes
Ms= + 65 - — 6.920 + 2.247 = +
= ST s0N3 5. 3.017 Se 4 =
BI CEN Magnitudes of Reference Stars
hoem2s e) 8 13043: 13043 13% Ag = 135 Ae tenleO rete Sire
ae ae oe zeal ae 1304; 12.53, 12.85" 13025 aoe Any elo cecum ees
—58° 49" 20".6 +2 44 1302: 13043 13023 13d aes ane
WY emi 253 p, = 0.0014 Py = 0.0013
18.025 Relative Proper Motion of W Cen in
fom Oy= 56 No, cos6= -27574
+
Cat No. E n Ax AY Ag = + 34 59
th 442648 + 4.185 ra ogls Mies Absolute Proper Motion of W Cen in
- + 0.443 + 2.873 - 14 - 44 Ka cos = —364
= - 0.596 $2911 73d + aNG pL :
= ~ 0.625 A Ae aris =" AA be
= - 0.936 + 3.184 =10 + 9-30
- a WO 70 + 0.515 + 39 - 30
o + 1.043 + 0.384 - 50 20) - f V369 CEN
= + 0.460 + 2.067 a2 127 e120) 42°09742°. 30 297.65 SR
= + 0.446 44.404 gee Vl 043 O “ O°
a eG + 0.261 Peaaiget scape se Sol? Moles +7 268
= - 1.691 7 e336 AT] +A NS ee
= co) pistols) 403. AT 55 Em
= ~ 2.620 #125536 + 10 ey, 12-03, 12235
- - 2.641 + 3.804 + 16 = 37 OTe tat ile (eRe 109
= - 3.310 + 0.631 + 15 =e
- - 1.554 + 0.191 + 18 - 11 Cat No. E 7 Ax AY
iz eee Solos Sarat te 408 + 0.461 = 2.064 ea _ ae
a were (sy + 1.884 SS Pay + 49
= 413 = le fal. - 1.908 + 124 + 6
=, 2.632 #106 132 - 96 Sens}
% 3 saan ais ee 5 366 Ba aANs - 2.646 4 56 _ AG
370 = 3.614 - 2.934 + 31 — 26
: 239 - 0.764 - 5639 =) 4 - 89
Magnitudes of Reference Stars 199 s ies hoe a TeOPA 25/2) a 238
WdeAy 13 As Be Os 1S 604 5) ml Ses eal Se pel es 316 - 1.858 — 3.368 SD — 19
WBeAs, 28h. 1k yh sees Sec ete Ore ali dadas 156 - 2.815 - 7.766 ee + 142
AoC so Sols” Al cose Seema es neeioie ee B18 — 5307 - 2.709 + 144 =
= 0.001 = 0.001 Ae) = eLUDe Tee tS
oy a ve : 427 - 7.339 = iaese toe + 59
Relative Proper Motion of BI Cen in 378 —1Oee (5 =) 23873 — 285 + 98
r Bus eater 324 - 6.441 - 3.836 + 27 + 6
er dat ie A a 277 EGneA Ei. 505 + 94 oe
Ag= -24 = 22 208 = 5.907 iG 'Bep -“46 3
Absolute Proper Motion of BI Cen in 254 - 7.877 - 5.169 + 26 -
y 454 - 0.495 - 0.390 = 13% +
flag cs 0-5 alo? 364 - 1.820 = 2.330 + 68 -
500 2.409 = 0.038 ee +

*
ae
#3

PROPER MOTIONS OF VARIABLE STARS IN THE SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC ZONE

Cat No. é 7 ms
311 + 0.494 — 3.915 - 172
238 —- 0.394 =) Selle il + 176
318 — 2.035 — 3.661 - 39
421 — 4.825 — 1.460 + 36
462 me gi 123 = 0.796 + 208
426 —- 64.293 =o eoOS - 92
428 - Oe 555 = ORO26 + 3)
246 -— 4.307 — 5407 - 27
206 - 4.951 — 6.569 —OS
213 — 5396 - 4.567 + 39
250 — 6.045 — 5.446 + 48
328 — 7.687 — 4.908 + 40
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
eles; s liheOs) 1264; 1128; 12.0;
Wieoreelwe rele os -, teeOs = 126
ee lO ie Loses, 7 lee (s
Meet los. 12.23" 12.6; 11.83
sor comes Or ys eeos 212603, 12653
NAC oielee dso Mees 12045
12566
Relative Proper Motion of V369 Cen in
Na GosOmee eos 203
ds Ere. WAG
Absolute Proper Motion of V369 Sen in
Ky cosé = —130
Hee = - 30
U CRU
42°26" 49° 247 300°. 37
=57°01" 51.0 +5° 420
N= 93, 200
Ze Dil’ guia ail! ie 2D)
Ge = 1105792 Ci e751
Cat No. g 7] Ax
853 = 22106 + 0.780 ee
922 — 2.511 pede - 170
988 — 2.836 + 2.768 + 32
1034 - 4.378 £20915 - 42
858 - 4.664 + 0.923 + 8
108 - 1.665 — 1.329 = AA
as — 3.060 - 1.855 aay
788 - 3.839 - 0.575 = 2
193 - 4.593 -—- 0.715 + 136
650 — 4.821 - 2.337 + 78
934 — 6.290 + 1.199 + 29
1000 - 7.098 + 2.001 - 20
866 - 8.771 + 0.590 + 54
943 — 9.329 + 16139 + 84
580 — 6.026 — 3.637 mei Qi.
730 Toll] = Tene + 34
734 — 7-446 -— 1.051 sae fA
655 —- 8.014 — 2.238 - 274
806 - 8.374 - 0.675 + 120
- — 2-100 + 3-044 - 113
_ —- 2.924 eS TIT - 41
= — 3.655 + 0.613 - 20
= - 4.399 Toile + 135
859 - 4.973 + 0.530 + 162
710 — 2.306 BI OTE Bay as
= — 32353 = 1.168 = A4
790 — 4.379 =4..027, nA)
- ete = 1.835 =e)

Table III (continued 7)

ise
12.4;

lelreSis
Meo 's
1256-

M

I +

+

lett teetsti

ee |

ar deenpge fh i Se ge

ttl tteteiti

A Yi

Cat No. é 7] Ax
— 5.782 + 0.174 - 10 -
ashe O tit + 0.245 ~ 86 +
941 — 8.206 + 1.787 - 46 -
- — 5616 - 1.328 + 109 -
25 = 66148 — 2.320 ort) ae
726 - 6.213 - 1.462 eh ee Call -
803 — [e317 -— 0.823 + 124 +
= — 8.330 - 1.639 - 85 +
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
(a) Catalogue plate: TACO a Qe Otaenlonere 2 a
L2e eee Owens Mics Osa) BUC ROM em edit. milioeO ss md
Toe, Voeiue a dow Or. eis al eG ao eG. oi
eo ye sine
(je Chart plate: “13.507 1365s t4eden 1360-02 1
Srey re Ais Seis) el Sieieace Me ease Eloise al
W362 sso ts WeaSe siaulge asioule = eee 4
(Boece
y= 0.0017, 0.0014 Py = 0.0019, 0.0014
Relative Proper Motion of U Cru in
(1) Ng cos d = ioe Be
ds Seema ae
( Ne cosh§ = +121
— _— 72
Absolute Proper Motion of U Cru in
(1) Mg cos $= 415
= —34
(2) Ke CcosG = +35
Ms = -88
U CEN
42%o7M58° 46 300°. 31 M
—54°06! 271.3 HBrede
N = 60
m
12.00
Ox= 63 Oy= 55
Cat No. E n Ax
465 + 9.862 + 2.096 - 72 +
349 +96 (99 - 0.534 + 28
306 + 9.046 - 1.206 - 62 +
350 + 8.837 - 0.963 - 48 +
393 + 76157 + 0.765 - 28 -
266 +10.038 - 2.789 + 25 -
270 + 8.908 La 200 (4 he) 67 =
198 + 8.577 - 4.585 + 120 +
at + 7-440 - 1.878 + 48 -
313 + 7.302 - 1.642 + 56 -
396 + 6.814 + 0.528 + 34 au
468 + 64340 + 2.341 - 117 -
SHS + 6.042 — 1.166 + 79 te
400 + 3.947 + 0.776 + 102 -
440 + 3.442 + 1.387 + 82 -
273 + 6.237 — 2.638 - 64 +
821 + 4.816 - 1.603 - 173 +
234 + 4.253 - 3.398 + 76 +
322 + 36763 - 1.551 fae] a
239 + 3.094 - 3.208 - 26 -
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
Tesh etie alte On Ne licen yealzeon. Its deus Il Os
lille Ati Nees wue dices 1126; re Sig Sle eles

61

62

KP Sins

Table III (continued 8)

Relative Proper Motion of U Cen in
Ke cos6é = +106 = 42
Ag = +170 aie

Absolute Proper Motion of U Cen in
Ky Gos =)—. 11
Ms = +144
AL CEN
12°30"308 80 300°.65 SRa
—53°03' 02,3 49.21
Na = AALS 1229)
143 12.84
Ge 65, 124 Oy = 88, 84
Cat No. € ta] Ax
209 + 52359 te DD Fae -
214 Fe NATE ree823 + 54 2
210 + 3.652 + 1.607 - 28 -
200 + 3.259 + 0.223 = i +
202 + 2.098 + 0.361 + 49 +
178 + 6.216 - 1.046 + 12 -
159 + 5.152 —- 1.498 + 10
109 + 3.052 - 4.786 +. 61 -
oul + 2.518 - 3.582 = Dif -
132 + 2.480 - 3.901 — § 55 +
Zee + 0.645 a isclpearye (floyal + 27 +
203 + 0.206 + 0.750 - 66 -
185 — 0.534 = 0.155 sik Nh -
212 He ATS #15235 =i) os
213 Bit iS Te 219 +n Od =
146 =10.751 BD EO. iis +
462 Seon ee ie8 32 + 148 Hs
148 =. 25483 22 752 Bp +
450 BBE 368 OES Ge =
166 eS aoT - 1.890 a ce =
= + 3.530 #16244 aa aB
- + 2.803 + 0.863 22 ~
3 ane. da2 OE 170 SVk62 +:
- + 2.233 + 2.743 + 28 -
- + 1.966 eee ere + 168 -
- + 4.717 - 1.176 + 70 +
= + 4.636 AD AEOT, = OT He
= + 3.552 - 0.964 ah ey i
- + 2.268 - 1.756 + 183 ~
- + 1.738 - 2.892 + (72 +
- + 0.843 + 0.902 — 246 +
- + 0.504 - 0.357 + 15 -
- + 0.230 - 0.455 + 94 +
- — 0.757 + 3.170 + 102 -
os - 1.783 + 0.669 + 60 -
- + 0.748 - 3.274 ie) =F
= + 0.165 + 1.626 E30 +
< 102021 = 4.652 0 a
os SOLIS —- 3.369 ree) ts
- - 2.561 - 1.993 + 76 -
Magnitude of Reference Stars
CRs Tier leGs © IsOe 2A teoen allelic ume or
TO Seis reali weee es Uden cal oO ee ellis Orr 1Ocor
WAS MRR alate ee Be adie eal ibeeie
elicits a valulvenare
Mee dP .Oc cose Neb de a Sie 2 Oe ee aa Onur
MeO 12.0) 1220 fans Ton emma Ar
(EAR woe ATOR ze nemaleien paar
T6AR ae oOa

By, = 0.0025, 0.0016 Py = 0.0024, 0.0017

Relative Proper Motion of Al Cen in
(Gi) re cos 6 = + 614 19
ds sea) iE 25
(2) Ng cos +166: = 32
Ne = oy
Absolute Proper Motion of Al Cen in
Ci) fg cand =e
Me= -112
(2) Ko Chs0 = eee
bg = enzo
KQ CEN
149177378 ..85 313°.01 SR
nt —63°32' 32.4 -2°.97
N 1
34 m Me
if 1e69D
85 = 98 O,= 44
18 Ox = Yer
ae Cat No. é 7 Ax AY
85 - + 5.436 - 5.188 + 32 - 97
42 = 4? A409 — 4.526 + 230 2 ee
24 - + 36160 - 4.450 — 100 + 22
29 = es Ae, - 6.152 - 56 =
58 ce + 4.485 — 7.855 pe —- 26
2 - + 3.664 —- 8.323 - 97 MS
44 80 + 3.442 - 6.938 —- 36 + 26
128 - + 2.962 - 7.174 Palo) Sy
22 - + 1.962 - 4.633 - 14 army)
54 - t5 Alo UZ - 5.142 - 2 + 22
15 - O02 - 4.650 YES) eer 6)
O - =O pe - 5.674 - 1 + 7
16 = oro wil ebaG soa) a. 4g
60 85 + 0.836 - 6.665 SN iD 0 750)
44 - + 0.371 - 8.245 + 24 —- 24
74 = + 0.330 = 7-335 + 54 et neh ey
51 - - 2.324 - 7.348 + 102 + 22
a Magnitudes of Reference Stars
106 12093). 3. 1G) W228i. AD. ada ame eer
15 130131262: 126; “134s ae eee emer
124 SiO Me WeOg OOO Hen elotias aos Wea Ts
48 - ir
142 PD, = 0.0016 Py = 0.0015
85 Relative Proper Motion of KQ Cen in
. X g 008 6 = Pa oy Soom
15 ds aie an I | 2304
e Absolute Proper Motion of KQ Cen in
114 Ha Costo =) Fries
Ms = + 63
R CIR
15 20M02°.83 3200362 SR
D5 7 oot. 30NKkS =0% 295
Ni =) A200
11.395 ewe
GO, = 102, 60 Gea (4, 90
Cat No. é a) Ax AY
297 + 6.252 + 0.516 + 113 = 3D
212 + 5.936 — 2.946 — 125 + 106

| PROPER MOTIONS OF VARIABLE STARS IN THE SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC ZONE 63

Table III (continued 9)

Cat No. E 7 Ax
274 este (il - 0.368 - 28
214 + 3.438 —- 2.102 + 104
128 + 9.313 — 5.594 + 261
159 + 8.264 = Ae O37 =e 2]
93 +. 4,505 - 7-417 - 36
51 + 4.141 - 9.270 174
276 + 2.689 - 0.100 52
188 + 2.011 —- 3.011 = A6
215 + 1.197 - 2,028 + 52
2218 = 1.362 —-2.921 + 72
141 + 1.909 - 5.381 eS)
142 + 1.541 - 5.903 - 23
144 + 0.462 — 5315 + 61
99 - 0.218 7.139 aes)
* 94 fe D4 - 7.899 - 780
#7193 - 0.424 — 3.107 + 776
184 + Geta m3 30166 - 83
s + 5.880 - 3.923 78
a + 4.923 - 3.182 - 36
- + 4.318 Sr5.875, = 14
a + 3.914 - 2.996 = y
- + 6.360 — 5.087 + 114
- + 6.090 —- 5.065 - 32
- + 4.884 - 5.193 = 10
= + 5.728 - 5.766 Bree)
Bis + 4.856 - 6.408 + 93
190 + 1.677 scan Beieob + 42
- + 1.023 - 3.167 - 54
ai + 0.631 - 4.302 - 44
96 + 1.855 - 7.868 - 52
- + 1.697 - 6.309 te
2a + 1.174 - 6.170 + 23
+ - 0.689 - 5.401 + 656
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
Bee e1O.Gr telh. 1154. .14.8:" 10.6;
ieee iO) 1060; 10.0;2 1166; 1262;
licOsey ile csr il ieOss. 1he6s 41.43: 12.1.
Bess APO) 13622) 13.29 012.73) 12675
eaomgelewosr Hilceos el secg fle (3 1205s
MOC tien oan leets Tljecsy Iaed? (13623
1216
Py = 0.0022, 0.0015 Po = 0.0025, 0.0018
Relative Proper Motion of R Cir in
(1) AQ cosS= +185
Sc 74
(2) No cosé = +158
As ei at 66
Absolute Proper Motion of R Cir in
(1) Kg cosS = 4124
pg la fa
2) Ke Cosi = 113
PSiact 7%
Ty PAV
1793918" .85 BBO. 35 RR
62°33" 38.6 = 309
Ls = 70
Wes)
OC, = 85 Oe 1296

AY

Pboutie¢tet Pitt t Pitre te eree eer itr eet
OW 1S) = DS WwW
nm & ne fo co a a) On BK

t+eitteti
\O
oO

Cat No. E 7] Ax.
= + 727139 - 2.678 £206
93 + 7.703 - 4.414 ag END)
81 +e 190 - 5.759 + 149
= + 6.548 = 6) 48 - 180
83 + 6.004 — 5.660 - 42
yD) + 5. 134 - 4.047 + 30
21 i Ole - 9.249 ee
= + 7.520 al 6G + 140
- + 6.795 - 7-144 =7 36
- + 5.897 - 9.166 + 12
- + 5.690 - 7.149 - 124
= + 5.654 - 9.698 SG
97 + 4.003 — 4.856 oe
68 + 3.669 - 6.290 - 84
- + 3.248 - 3.709 570
69 + 2,803 = 6.477 - 198
98 + 2eA30 = 12093 S12
127 + 1.099 = P6965 + 252
42 + 3-536 = 8,230 - 56
A3 AVC - 8.969 #428
- OOS - 9.148 =i qd
44 aS Ie 2S Ii =P O2208 ase
60 + 0.501 - 7.939 ee
a #05347 SOT #50

Magnitudes of Reference Stars

(ihe Cicer wali hee ee Oreelacdose lq nore ime =
WeAce we Hess wil ecGrm iO sy hes Den ec:
W264 BATS oa Teas eon “e252

NS. Mites, Mela Oe
Py = 0.0022 Po = 0.0021
Relative Proper Motion of TY Pavin
Ne cos 6 = -262 ats A5
Ng = 1162 20
Absolute Proper Motion of TY Pav in

Ha cos é = =265

§ = -211
RZ PAV
17°40™09°.51 334°.17
=58°41' 22%,2 215436
No = 148
12.85
Gea G,= 170
Cat No. € 7] Ax
é = O,0715 +0 36928 A 168
Bs, 06759 + 6.372 ai Fy
on — 1.545 + 4.780 - 89
= a Toi G6 56 a
= + 12399 + 0.024 + 38
ie SG t0 42,430 eng
Es = 0.355 #215 786 enon
& - 0.743 + 0.832 =. 160
157 SG) see oh = a6
= ~ 4.659 + 4.305 - 30
- = Det 13 + 3.599 +
= - 6.408 +A. fO4 a ad
os =e 38070 ei Peen6
pe - 4.216 aF 22413 ste
- - 4.328 + 0.942 = 12
= — 6.267 + 2.549 yo

Magnitudes of Reference Stars

aD uliceds recor ee O wn LoeOs il Swiess
TOs 2 12508 13.605 COS Seven (ya eOs

13025 13025 124.
p, = 0.0018 Pp = 0.0016

12.6%
routes
12.2;

t+eeteiteteteil

>
ee

Ww —_ —s
wonrN = eee
WO NWNM ODANDAL oe)

14

64

Relative Proper Motion of RZ Pav in
ie cos} = — 55
do 2685
Absolute Proper Motion of RZ Pav in
Mg cos6= - 55
Hg- -163
BM PAV
19°49"05°.77 333°.63
—63°00'46".4 E28 20%
Nn = 51
12.60
OF = 91 oe =
Cat No. é 7
- + 22755 + 1.2353 -
Ca! + eONs aF 52385 I
- + 0.909 + 0.768 +
AS, + 0.673 + 2.814 +
- - 1.139 + 0.666 =
on + 3.679 eof 1.051 =.
Lees + 2.482 bos PESVAS) bn
- + 1.022 — 1.600 +
- + 0.123 - 12755 =
63 - 0.947 — 3.875 =
- - 2.046 + 1.545 -
> — 3.255 + 4.226 =
116 - 3.642 + 2.320 +
= — 32532 + 1.433 -
ae be 4.698 + 1.462 —
La aged 1.652 a 1.863 +
- - 2.248 —- 2.274 +
-_ be! Areal, a 22200 +
- - 6.183 - 1.440 -
* - - 3.305 +0495 -
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
ISG = SSRs eGR > aeaske” ale S)r
125k Asie. WldsGe “Wes WSs)
Te (ite Miietiseealiceiisivel Collis ice gs
Py = 0.0024 Py = 0.0023
Relative Proper Motion of BM Pav in
X 4 cos = 3A. 2 330
de = 1. 3ilf5 2
Absolute Proper Motion of BM Pav in
Ky cosé = ae 16)
Ms = + 60
S PAV
19746"47° 07 338° .02
-59°27" 13".7 ~31°.05
N = 1655 32
WobPa eo lai
O,= 107, 143 Oy
Cat No. E 7
287 + 6.624 + 10.790 +
272 + 6.018 + 9.303 +
244 + 5.853 + 7.648 -
295 + 50249 + 11.874 -
179 + 5-804 2009 en
181 + 4.819 Fe 1015015, -
182 + 4.449 aD al telete! +
274 + 3301 + 9.990 +
245 + 2.791 + 7.975 +
234 - 0.005 + 6.951 -
290 - 1.286 + 11.096 -
279 + 12823 + 9.814 -
219 + 4.034 + 5e213 -

SR

32
868

126 56
VESTS

Ke PS SIMs

Table III (continued 10)

+

+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

12.
126

SRa

cee it) Gre TE [ge 1) etc eae

Ay

10
128
110
diffs)
124

22
100

50

81

86

14

82

32

46

58

78

50
110

22

1088

33
15

Magnitudes of Reference Stars

12065 1268; 12075 13225 1268;
12693-12695 1 3edistcOs Mile Ss

13.3;
12.8;
12.8;

Cat No. g 7) Ax AY
209 + 3.131 + 4.349 - 86 + 44
162 + 2.163 + 0.024 cee Ii - 7
211 + 0.755 + 4.277 + 117 + 44 2
183 - 0.051 + 1.362 + 28 - 52
243 + 8.622 + 8.146 + 227 - 64
270 + 76533 + 10.090 + 75 - 28
261 + 5.761 + 9.174 — 328 + 356
207 + 8.144 + 4.690 - 45 - 100
232 + 0.672 + 6.849 + 25 - 93
246 + 0.605 + 74893 - 61 ess)
lll + 0.774 ane Doris) - 22 + 349
202 + 2.554 + 3.315 Pre alt + 172
194 + 1.879 + 2.463 - 31 - 61
231 + 1.511 + 62237 — 187 + 109
*260 + 6.885 + 8.283 — 274 + 854
¥217 + 6.922 + 5.334 —1115 +1630
*218 + 6.783 + 52420 -1128 +1701
Magnitudes of Reference Stars
(a) 10.683 11043 14.83" 11 Settee rune eerie
11673 11-67 10.05) W1heGssditiecte nln some Or
Ave Or elle sills Ole
(b) 12063 12625 11.9% Wet tesore Inc mme Or
AVeAs 1083 11053 WO Giah A ei eens
HSA NA Sess Tei Cisne ese
= 0.0033, 0.0027 Py = 0.0035, 0.0027
Relative Proper Motion of 5 Pav in
(1) Ag cosd= 42774 56
A « = 22628
+
(2) as cos 6 = +258 = 40
Ag = -273 = 50
Absolute Proper Motion of S Pav in
(1) My cos dé = +333
Me= -376
(2) Hy cosh = +308
Ms = —367
W INDI
2179714" .81 344° .49 SRe
—53°26"17".4 -42°.59
N= 56
12.82
(0 ite 170 C= 115
Cat No. E n Ax Ay
- + 72997 = 3.326 + 478 - 61
- + 6,028 — 2.153 - 170 + 70
- + 5839 - 1.563 - 119 + 80
_— + 5.806 i 32544 = 11 = 44
- + 5407 - 4.048 - 170 ae AS
- + 3.617 -— 1.206 + 26 + 42
- + 76575 - 5.953 + 120 + 70
- + 6.756 — 8.765 - 98 + 8
- + 52929 — 6.872 - 2 — 184
- + 3.526 — 7.669 - 30 + 22
- + 2.842 — 56716 - 72 bate AU
- + 2.676 — 6.357 + 42 - 17
ing + 1.899 = 22940 + 76 = 30
= 2 1.379 = 3.589 + 7 = 25
fs + 0.057 - 3.921 + 44 + 130
- - 1.283 - 1.987 - 64 - 8
- — 2.127 - 3.914 - 23 - 7
- — 2.266 - 4.614 - 76 - 90
as + 1.824 - 7.019 + 231 + 289
- + 1.758 - 6.702 - 124 - 61
-_ + 0.747 — 5.837 + 200 - 112
- + 0.660 — 72455 + 24 + 16
- + 0.649 — 7.918 - 173 + 62
- - 3.115 — 6.134 - 118 - 92

12.6: 12.8:
Weis leeOr
1? eG 12.8.

Table III (continued 11)

De 0.0027 Po 0.0022
Relative Proper Motion of W padi in
Ne cose to7 be
Ins EOS, AGI
Absolute Proper Motion of W Indi in
Ky CosoOl= “376
Ks = -179
: BU PAV
2443"59° 276 330°.87 SR
-63°45! 22141 -40.64
No = Iio22
A sASiee del (0
GE = 138,210 OF Sy ores’)

Cat No. 1a) Ax

135 + 1.262 + 4.999 = 66 -

130 maemo (4: + 4.378 + 216 -

151 - 1.946 + 7536 - 148 +

126 —- 2.062 + 3.2900 = td +

86 — 0,109 —- 1.485 + 38 -
108 = 1.660 + 1.299 + 308 +
88 - 2.4370 — 1.667 = 5S +
109 - 3.408 + 1.748 - 144 -
5 = 36555 — 0.043 = i -

138 —- 5.482 ee elD + 187 +

ay — 6.045 + 6.884 + 92 -

aXe 51 cig eo + 4,262 - 113 +

139 =H eh) BN + 5678 + 175 -

140 — 10.467 + 50326 - 417 ar

103 = 54050 aE Oa + 42 =

74 =) eg 1aks) — 3.888 + 195 +
qe - 6.962 + 1.991 — 382 +
80 — 10.458 - 2.391 + 25 -
94 - 11.495 - 1.203 + 201 -
- Sem OS SLA + 6.896 =) 281 ae
- - 74201 + 6.366 + 46 -
= - 7567 + 4.714 - 37 +
- = 62355 - 1.734 - 194 =
= - 7334 - 0.742 - 174 =
- - 8.129 + 0,082 + 721 +

x + 0.541 + 3.224 = 605 -

Magnitudes of Reference Stars

(Eye aoe eno ise 11508 11045-91595 11.9%
iitteon liltero.s 10.9; lille 2s Pee Wa 25 ilo aks
Meme litso se ielieOs L6G.

Goeller meet. ls IcOs 12.13 11663) 12.0;
lieos Bera sOs tes 1 lieeshleGs Teecs
rome el Oeil Nees ldtossi i leOs! Tie O's

P, = 0.0038, 0.0035 Py = 040034, 0.0031

Relative Proper Motion of BU Pav in

(1) Nee icos 6 = 136
» = ate aii
(2) Ne Copies, Sigor 43
Neg ae eer 3 ae
Absolute Proper Motion of BU Pav in
(1) Ky e08.0%2). . 40
feng or
(2) My cos b= - 44
Ks = = 96

Note: Both plate pairs
in common.

21°3706".97
53°11! 07.6

have 14 reference stars

Y IND
343° 30 M
-46° e 98
y= 4
12265

= 120

le Qie
1e53ks
i QeOe

PROPER MOTIONS OF VARIABLE STARS IN THE SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC ZONE 65

Cat No. E 7 Ax es
85 22535302 = 10.639 - 190 + 68
91 = 2H + 0.506 =f. 3 + 63
That = “Weslo =F 23d - 17 + 202
= = e256 - 1.194 - 105 - 52

105 =e Oe + 1.616 + 130 - 179
25 - 7.335 + 0.687 - 113 =. 70
= = fly 5h) - 3.591 = 1150 + 123
57 = 50S - 4.526 + 189 - 130
= = HOVE -— 3.259 + 24 + 172
78 =! 3.069 - 2,890 - 60 - 38
= =, 6.330 = A133 + 180 - 63
36 = Ona 90 - 6.253 + 114 - 94
- = §9.398 - 1.484 + 10 —- 56
= = 9.950 + 1.729 0 = fs}
88 — 10.360 - 0.959 — 164 + 90
= SS eee = Out + 337 a7 We
= ee Ue 59 - 1.939 + 52 - 175
- = ileo3i = 30.385 + 59 = Ao
46 - 9.102 = e239 - 403 + 279
- = 106206 —- 4.872 + 145 38
58 = 10.586 - 4.172 - 46 + 52
= eal en iO - 3.820 + 144 - 90
= = hoy aif - 3.077 - 56 - 104

Magnitudes of Reference Stars
W268 Wath WG2R WAcOR 12.05 Wases Weseig Wester
1Bi62R WRsOs WAGs Woes sinks W858 Wesse Wee
W36ds 12528 Wadls 13.09 Wases Wess Wajs4s W260
Pie 0.0030 Py = 0.0025

Relative Proper Motion of Y Indi in

d, cosd = —140 as 49

ds = eG e 29

Absolute Proper Motion of Y Indi in
Mgocosd= - 44
Ks = - 99
> PH
23%53™54° 02 316°.97 SR

=57°07! 56".6 -59° 09

Ne = 36
2. 10

O,= 184 O,= 112

Cat No. E 7”) Ax Ay
- + 5.800 + 1.554 4 - 62
= +. 5s 706 + 3.398 + 206 in 53)
- + 2.631 + 5.238 + 48 + 52
- + 1.955 + 5.166 + 66 = 10)7/
- + 1.131 + 3.175 + 16 — 125
- + 6.266 = 42 + 100 + 166
— + 2.899 — 3.004 + 148 + 68
- + 1.917 - 3.719 —- 18 - 187
- + 1.862 = 350 - 189 + 143
- + 05071 — 0.337 + 3 - 146
= - 0.987 + 3.075 + 684 - 62
- - 1.366 + 0.623 + 40 + 34
- — 1.946 fee Ou -—- 144 OG
= — 4.140 ar BOs) If + 72 a tye
- — 6.255 + 1.132 + 170 - 96
- - 2.744 - 2.665 + 48 + 48
= - 3.297 = 1.672 - 76 + 6
- - 3.509 — 1.802 + 202 + |
- - 4.384 - 2.100 - 399 =e es

*- — 6.299 — 2.641 — 564 - 298

Magnitudes of Reference Stars

IBOGE WBasis sI25cis) WAGes WesR ese a snOn. Weaele

del Geto On ie sOs el aO tase eel Os Lee

ISHOR AHS Bane ae ele

Py = 0.0033 Po = 0.0026

Relative Proper Motion of S Phe in

X 4 cos § = -46 £ 4o
dg BT Oe 26
Absolute Proper Motion of S Phe in
Ky cosé} = +77
Ms ae

66 kK. P. SIMS

I woulk like to thank Dr. H. Wood for advice CLUBE, S. V. M., 1968. R.O.B., 136, 16.
and criticism and Misses W. Bellamy, R. Couvsins, A. W. J., and Sroy, R. H., 1962. R.0.B.,
Stanfield, A. Davis, R. Bleakley and E. Wiegold No. 49. :
for assistance in measurement and in some of KteEmora, A. R., and VasiLevakis, S., 1971. P.L.O.,

the computations. Vol. 22, Pt. 3.
Oort, -J. H., 1936. BAIN 8h ioe

ROBERTSON, W. H., 1953. Sydney Observatory Papers

References No. 20. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 87, 124.
AsLaM, Z., 1971. The Observatory, 91, 11 and 14. Woop, H. W., 1956. Sydney Observatory Papers
BINNENDIJK, L., 1943. B.A.N., 10, 9. No. 28. J. Proc. Roy. Soca Neo.) 20; Lol,

Sydney Observatory,
Observatory Park,
Sydney, N.S.W., 2000.

(Received 3.12.1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 67-75, 1974

The Influence of Soil Composition on the Vegetation of the Coolac
Serpentinite Belt in New South Wales

Me SEE YVONS. ORY Re BROOKS. “AND: D: <C. CRAIG

ABsTRACT—Plants and soils from the Coolac Serpentinite Belt, New South Wales, were analysed
for calcium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, nickel and zinc,
in order to establish plant-soil relationships for this area and also to evaluate those principal

compositional factors of the soil, which affected plant distributions.

Species analysed were:

Casuarina stricta, Ricinocarpos bowmanii, and Xanthorrhoea australis.
Relationships for pairs of elements in soils showed a strong mutual association of elements of

the iron family (cobalt, chromium, iron, manganese and nickel).

Correlation analysis of vegetation

alone, showed mutual antagonism to uptake of calcium and potassium and also iron and potassium.
The only highly significant plant-soil association is for zinc in C. stvicta and none of the other species
therefore appeared to be useful in biogeochemical prospecting.

Discriminant analysis of the soil data, showed that X. australis strongly favours soils high in
magnesium and low in copper, whereas the distribution of C. stvicta appeared to be controlled mainly

by the high potassium and nickel values in the soils.

controlling the distribution of R. bowmanit.

Introduction

There is a very extensive literature on the
so-called “‘ serpentine problem ”’ (Brooks, 1972 ;
Krause, 1958; Kruckeberg, 1954; Lee e¢ ai.,
1974; Lyon ef al., 1968, 1970, 1971; Paribok
and Alekseyeva-Popova, 1966 ; Robinson e¢ al.,
1935; Rune, 1953; Sarosiek, 1964; Walker,
1954 ; Walker e¢ al., 1955). This problem arises
from the general infertility of serpentine soils
and is believed to be due to three main causes.
mccording to Robinson ¢ al. (1935), Rune
(1953), and Louanamaa (1956), the infertility of
serpentine soils arises from the toxic levels of
chromium and nickel. Other workers such as
Walker (1954), Kruckeberg (1954) and Walker
et al. (1955), consider that the main limiting
factor is the low level of available calcium and
this is further aggravated by the antagonistic
effect of high magnesium levels which hinder
uptake of calcium by vegetation. The third
factor is said to be the low levels of essential
nutrients in serpentine soils (Paribok and
Alekseyeva-Popova, 1966; Robinson e ai.,
1935). Other workers (Sarosiek, 1964) consider
that successful colonizers of serpentine soils
have been able to adapt simultaneously to all
and not merely one or several of the unfavourable
factors of a serpentine environment.

In September 1973, an investigation was
carried out on a serpentine flora near Tumut,
New South Wales. The purpose of this study

There is little evidence for any soil factors

was the examination of plant-soil relationships in
the area in order; (a) to search for nickel
accumulators (Brooks, 1972; Severne and
Brooks, 1972) ; (b) to determine the suitability
of the flora for biogeochemical prospecting
(Brooks, 1972) ; and above all, (c) to determine
the soil factors primarily responsible for the
distribution of typical members of the serpentine
community, with a view to attempting to solve
the serpentine problem for this particular area.
The results of the investigation are reported in
this paper.

The Coolac Serpentinite Belt

Location and physiography

The Coolac Serpentinite Belt (Adamson,
1957 ;~ Ashley e¢ al. 1971; Boots, 1968;
Golding, 1966, 1969; Veeraburus, 1963) is
located some 450 km.southwest of Sydney near
the township of Tumut. The belt isa continuous
outcrop of ultrabasic rocks over a distance of
55 km.in a north-south direction and with an
average width of 1 km.

The region traversed by the belt is broadly
divisible into three physiographic zones (Ashley
et al., 1971). The eastern zone consists largely
of a dissected plateau with an elevation of
about 900 m.and is underlain by Burrinjuck
granite. The central zone, the Coolac
Serpentinite Belt, is a zone of major tectonism
which largely coincides with ridges and scarps

68 M. T. LYONS,’ R: R.. BROOKS Any BD, Ce CRAIG

of the Mooney Mooney Range in the north and
the Honeysuckle Range in the south. The
western zone is underlain by lower palaeozoic
sedimentary volcanics and low-grade meta-
morphic rocks, folded about sub-meridional

/ Da eons
A a i |

Tax

axes and locally intruded by porphyrites and
in the south, by Bogong granite.

The study area is located in the southern half.
of the serpentinite belt in the Honeysuckle
Range where it is traversed by Brungle Creek.

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FicurE 1.—Location map of the Coolac Serpentinite Belt, New South Wales
(by courtesy N.S.W. Department of Lands).

THE COOLAC SERPENTINGIE BELT IN NEW SOUTH WALES 69

Geology

The dominant rocks of the Coolac Serpentinite
Belt (Ashley e¢ al., 1971; Golding, 1969) are
serpentinite and partly-serpentinized harzburgite.
There are also widespread pockets of wehlite,
lherzolite, clinopyroxenite and chromite, together
with narrow discontinuous dykes of rodingitic
rocks.

Along the eastern contact with the Burrinjuck
Granite, there is a zone of brecciated granite up
to several meters wide abutting peridotite in the
Honeysuckle Range. The most common rock
type forming the granite, is massive to foliated
biotite granodiorite, grading to adamellite.

The western margin of the serpentinite belt is
flanked by the Honeysuckle Beds which are a
discontinuous series of low-grade metabasaltic

and spilitic rocks with quartzofeldspathic meta- |

sediments and rare porphyritic metadacite.

Climate

The study area has a cool temperate climate
with mild to warm summers and cold winters.
Mean summer and winter temperatures are
Zi? C€ in January and 5°C in July. The mean
annual rainfall is 1023 mm with a maximum of
108 mm in July and a minimum of 57 mm in
February. Frosts are widespread and can occur
over approximately half the year.

Vegetation

The outline of the Coolac Serpentinite Belt is
well defined in those areas where the original
vegetation still remains. To the east of the
study area (Figure 2), the Burrinjuck Granite
supports a comparatively dense eucalypt wood-
land with a dominance of Eucalyptus melliodora.
At the boundary with the serpentinite, there is
a sharp change of vegetation with no species
(except for a few grasses) being common to both
geological formations. At this contact, the
eucalypt woodland gives way to a typically
xerophytic vegetation assemblage with a paucity
of numbers of species, diminution of total cover
(from 100% to about 40%) and with the appear-
ance of species with needle-like leaves.

Table 1 is a list of the major species en-
countered upon the serpentinite belt. It does
not include herbs or grasses.

The most typical plants of the serpentine
flora are: Casuarina stricta, Ricinocarpos
bowmanu, and Xanthorrhoea australis.

South of Brungle Creek and to the west of the
belt, there is no clear-cut vegetation boundary
because the original cover has been cleared and

[7 a eRIDGE
—©-©— CONTACT
¢¢@e. SAMPLE SITES

Q 0:5 1:0
Km

FIGURE 2.—Detailed map of the Brungle Creek area,
Coolac Serpentinite Belt, New South Wales.

replaced with pasture. It is interesting to
observe however, that the boundary between
pasture and uncleared bush, corresponds exactly
with the geological boundary. Presumably the
ultrabasic area was never cleared because of the
difficulty of growing suitable pasture grasses
upon it.

X. australis was found only to the north of
Brungle Creek and not a single specimen was

TABLE 1

List of Major Plant Species Growing upon the Coolac
Serpentinite Belt

Relative
Species Family Abundance
Acacia decorva Reichb. | leguminaceae +
Acacia implexa Benth. | leguminaceae 2
Banksia marginata
Cav. sie .. | proteaceae 1
Casuarina stricta Ait. | casuarinaceae 4
Clematis microphylla
D.C. an .. | ranunculaceae 3
Exocarpus cupressi-
formis Labill. santalaceae 1
Ricinocarpos bowmanit
Muell. . .. | euphorbiaceae 5
Stackhousia sp. .. | stackhousiaceae 1
Xanthorrhoea australis
RR: Br. .. | xanthorrhoeaceae 4
5—extremely abundant; 4—abundant; 3—fairly
abundant ; 2—uncommon; 1—rare.

70 M. T. LYONS, R. R. BROOKS anp D. C. CRAIG

recorded in the south of the test area. To the
north, there is some evidence of clearance of the
original vegetation cover, but nevertheless
R. bowmann and C. stricta are still to be found in
abundance.

Xanthorrhoeas and casuarinas seem to be
typical of serpentine floras in Australia as they
are found in ultrabasic belts in other parts of
the country including Baryulgil in northern
New South Wales. Casuarinas are also typical
of ultrabasic areas throughout Oceania as for
example in New Caledonia (Baumann-
Bodenheim, 1956; Jaffré, 1973) and in the
Solomon Islands (Krause, 1958).

Methods
Collection and treatment of samples

Plants and soils were collected according to
the sampling pattern shown in Figure 2. Leaves
(about 100 g) were removed from different parts
of each specimen by means of pruning shears
and were stored in numbered polythene bags.
A soil sample (100 g) was taken from the B
horizon below each plant sampled, and was
also stored in a numbered polythene bag. Rock
chip samples were also collected.

Plant samples were washed, dried at 105° C,
weighed, and then ashed at 500°C in pyrex
beakers by means of a muffle furnace. The
weight of the ash was recorded in order to
obtain a factor to convert concentration data
from an ash-weight to a dry-weight basis if
desired.

Soil samples were air dried and sieved to
—80 mesh particle size by means of a nylon
sieve.

Rock chips were ground in a “ Tema”’ disc
mill to —100 mesh size.

Chemical analysis

Plant ash samples (0-1 g) were dissolved in
15 ml of 2M hydrochloric acid prepared from
redistilled, constant-boiling, analytical-grade
reagent. The containers were immersed in
boiling water for 10 min. in order to ensure
complete dissolution of the plant ash.

Soil and rock samples (0-1 g) were treated
with 10 ml. of a 1:1 mixture of concentrated
A.R. grade hydrofluoric and nitric acids. The
mixtures were taken to dryness in 50 ml squat
polypropylene beakers immersed in a water
bath maintained at 100°C. The residues were
redissolved in 10 ml. of 2M hydrochloric acid
prepared as above.

All solutions were analysed by flame photo-
metry for potassium and by atomic-absorption

spectrophotometry for: calcium, chromium,
cobalt, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese,
nickel and zinc.

Analyses were carried out by use of a Varian-
Techtron AA5 instrument. Possible effect of
phosphate interference upon calcium determina-
tions was avoided by the addition of lanthanum
chloride to the solutions.

Statistical analysis

Elemental associations were determined by
computing Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficients for various pairs of variables. All
data were logarithmically transformed since
visual observation of the data showed that
distributions are closer to a log-normal rather
than normal mode. In assessing the significance
of correlation coefficients, the convention used
is that of Brookes e¢ al. (1966) : namely** =very-
highly significant (6<0-001); and *=highly
significant (0:001<f<0-01). Values of the
corielation coefficient with significances less
than 99% (#<0-01) have not been listed.

Discriminant analysis was carried out by
classifying each soil sample into one of three
groups depending on which of the three species
of vegetation was growing init. A discriminant
function of the form: 2=1,X%7--1.Xx%, 3
1,X,+CONSTANT, was then calculated for each
soil group where: Z is the score of the dis-
criminant function, X,...X, are the variablse
measured (elemental concentrations in soils),
and 1,...1, are appropriate coefficients. The
coefficients were selected so that the differences
of values of Z were maximized. The extent of
this degree of discrimination was measured by
the so-called Mahalanobis Dz? _ statistic
(Mahalanobis, 1936), which is in effect a measure
of the “distance’’ between the groups. A
similar procedure was used by Nielsen ef al.
(1973) for evaluation of geobotanical and
biogeochemical data from Western Australia.

All statistical calculations were carried out by
means of a Univac 1108 computer with pro-
grammes written in Fortran.

Results and Discussion
Elemental relationships im sotls

Table 2 summarizes the data for elemental
concentrations in soils of the serpentinite belt.
Data for a small number of rocks are also
included for comparison. The general levels
for most elements are in the expected range for
serpentine soils developed in temperate climates
and correspond very closely for values obtained
in New Zealand (Lee et al., 1974). Cobalt,

THE COOLAC SERPENTINITE BELT IN NEW SOUTH WALES 71

chromium, nickel and magnesium have the usual
high values and the macronutrients calcium and
potassium are characteristically low.

TABLE 2

The Elemental Content of Serpentine Rocks and Soils
of the Coolac Serpentinite Belt

Interelemental relationships in soils alone,
are summarized in Table 3 in terms of values for
correlation coefficients and their degrees of
significance for various pairs of variables.

As may be expected, there is strong mutual
correlation of elements which are indicators of
the basic character of rocks and soils (magnesium
and members of the iron group of the periodic

Soils (138 samples) | Rocks (12 sas :
samples) table). Iron has a strong positive correlation
ne Pees Soe abe, “Withecobalt, chromium, manganese and nickel:
Geometric | Standard | Geometric : ae re . é
Nina il Demietonine Nene Magnesium is inversely correlated with the
Range nutrients copper and potassium. This is an
ES) pom) ae zeae eh a6 important factor in assessing the fertility of these
Cr (ppm) 1,496 1,176-1,903| 1,706 soils. In this are at least, it appears that the
Cu (ppm) 22 13-37 19 higher the magnesium content, the lower the
i es ey inks Gas ae concentration of the above nutrients. When
Ni (ppm) 1,984 1,660-2,373| 2,167 this factor is compounded by the known mutual
ee ep) - 54 47-62 66 antagonism of calcium and magnesium in plant
a OR zs a or rend aire nutrition (Mulder, 1953), it is clear that this
Mg (%) .. e 7-58 | 6:43-8:93 18-80 environment will be particularly hostile to
growth of vegetation.
TABLE 3
Elemental Correlations in Plants and Soils
Ca | Cr Cu Fe K Mg : Mn | Ni | Zn
Soils (138)
Ca = 2. = —0-41**} = os a ae
Co —0-47**| 0-54** — Ooze — 0#33**)\ -0-63** O-70** —
Cr —0-33** — —0-35** 0-63** — — 0-36** 0-42**| Q-31*
Cu = = ae —0-26* = —0:26* ae = 0-43**
K —0-32* ~— — — — —0-36** — —0-25* 0-25*
Mn —0-29* ~- —- 0-63** — — - 0-28* 0-34**
Ni —0-44**| So 0-48**| 0:33**| = — ~~ =
Zn = a se 0-26* a ae = = am
C. stricta (46)
Ca 23 zaey ce. a —0:-41* a be oe eae
Cr a se as 0-81* as a sat 0-37* as
Cu ae ae i= sis aa os = 0-67**| 0-37*
Zn ea cae PA eee 0-37* anes = sae =
R. bowmanii (42)
Ca — = == —0-49** = as 2 —
Cr a — — 0-77** — — —_ — —
Cu _ _ — — — 0-50**| — 0-70**| —
Mn — — = — — — = == 0-45*
Ni — — _ == 0-63** — _
Zn ~— — — — — — — — 0-46*
X. australis (43)
Ca — — — = —0-41* _ = _ as
Cr = ate ae 0: 66** aa ae _ wah a
Cu es pba sh, Bas 0°44* ae oe uty saith,
Fe — —— — — —0:49**| = = — —
Mn = aes ws nas mee as as 0:39* a
Zn — — — — — 0-474, — — —

** Very highly significant (p<0-001).
* Highly significant (0-01>p> 0-001).

72 M. T. LYONS, ‘KK. R. BROOKS ann DC. "CRAIG
TABLE 4
The Elemental Content of the Ash of Plants of the Coolac Serpentinite Belt
Ash Wt.-
Species No. Dry Wt. Element Geometric Mean Standard Deviation
Factor

C. stricta oa 46 0-041 Cr (ppm) 42 27-65
Cu (ppm) 74 50-109
Fe (ppm) 4,650 2,831—7,636
Mn (ppm) 1,561 1,067—2,284
Ni (ppm) 474 334-672
Zn (ppm) 609 418-888
Ca. (% 22-1 17-6-27-7
He (9%) 5:3 3-6-7-9
Mg (%) 8-4 6-1-11-6

Rk. bowmanii .. 42 0-036 Cr (ppm) 48 30-79
Cu (ppm) 148 103-212
Fe (ppm) 6,920 4,678-10,239
Mn (ppm) 1,941 1,361-2,769
Ni (ppm) Tol 503-1,121
Zn (ppm) 307 237-396
Gas -(%) PHO: 15-9-28-6
Ke (°F) 4-6 3-3-6-5
Mg (%) 7°6 5:3-10°8

Alausivalis .. 43 0-021 Cr (ppm) 27 19-39
Cu (ppm) 77 62-95
Fe (ppm) 2,448 1,519-3,946
Mn (ppm) 1,715 1,118—2,631
Ni (ppm) 271 179-409
Zn (ppm) 519 320-843
Ca (%) 13-4 9-7-18-4
HES AEYA)) 6-4 4-1-9-9
Mg (%) 14:0 10-2-19-2

Elemental relationships in vegetation

Table 4 lists elemental concentrations in
plants from the Coolac Serpentinite Belt.

Correlation coefficients and significance value
are also shown in Table 3 for interelemental
relationships in vegetation considered separately.
Relationships are far fewer than in soils but
there is a general trend towards positive cor-
relation of iron and chromium and for copper
and nickel.

There is an inverse relationship (i.e. mutual
antagonism) between calcium and potassium in
all three species. Iron is also strongly
antagonistic to potassium in X. australis. This
same element is also weakly antagonistic to
potassium in C. stricta (0:05>p/>0-01—data
not shown in Table 3).

Plant-soil relationships for individual elements

Plant-soil relationships for individual elements
were studied with a two-fold purpose: (a) to
determine whether any of the vegetation species
would be suitable for biogeochemical prospecting
(Brooks, 1972), and (b) to ensure that inter-

elemental relationships discussed above, were in
fact real antagonisms or stimulations and not
merely a_ reflection of associations already
existing in the soils alone. For example, the
strong antagonism between calcium and potas-
sium in all three species, would not be a real
effect if an inverse relationship already existed
between these two elements in the soil and if in
addition, there were direct plant-soil relation-
ships for calcium and potassium considered
separately. Inspection of Table 3 shows that
there is indeed a weak calcium-potassium
association in soils, but there is no significant
plant-soil relationship for either of these elements
in any of the three species “studiedey Phe
relationship in soils therefore cannot be trans-
mitted to the vegetation and the mutual
antagonism found in the plants must be real for
this pair of elements.

Correlation analysis showed that with one
exception, there are no highly-significant (0-01 >
p>90-001) plant-soil relationships for any
element in any species. The exception is for
zinc in C. stricta for which the value of the
correlation coefficient is 0-46*. With this

THE COOLAC SERPENTINITE BELLI IN NEW SOUTH WALES 73

exception therefore, none of the species is
suitable as an alternative to soil sampling in
geochemical prospecting work. The suitability
of the plants for biogeochemical prospecting has
not of course, been fully evaluated since the
criterion of acceptability is how well vegetation
reflects bedrock values compared with soils
used for the same purpose. A complete analysis
of bedrock values was outside the scope of this
- investigation because of the difficulty of obtain-
ing meaningful samples of the bedrock.

Evaluation of soil factors affecting plant distribu-
tions

Discriminant analysis was used to characterize
the specific compositional characteristics of the
group of soils in which each plant species is
growing. The procedure has been described
above. Having obtained from the discriminant
(regression) equation, the overall chemical
characteristics of each soil group, the model was
tested by using it to assign each soil sample to
a specific group and then comparing the
theoretical result with the actual assignation.
A high score in this procedure, would indicate
the correctness of the model proposed and
would enable an evaluation of the compositional
factors affecting the distribution of each plant
species.

Table 5 lists the elemental content of each of
the three groups of soils and a preliminary visual
inspection shows that soils supporting X.
australis usually have appreciably lower copper
and nickel contents and a higher magnesium
concentration than the serpentine soils as a
whole. The other two groups are less well
differentiated from each other.

Table 6 shows that as might be expected, the
best overall discrimination is obtained by using
all ten elemental concentrations (D?=246:-9).

Hecalcium cobalt" chromium, iron -and'
manganees are neglected (since they have
approximately the same mean concentrations in
all three soil groups), the overall discrimination
is poorer (D?=154-9), though that for group 3
is improved and for group 2 is worsened.
Further discrimination tests were carried out
using various combinations of three, taken from
the five best discriminators.

Easily the best discrimination for group 1
(C. stricta) was obtained with the trio copper-
potassium-zine (62°%). Inspection of Table 5
shows that this group is separated almost
completely from group 3 (X. australis) by its
higher copper content. It also has the highest
potassium and nickel content of any group.

Discrimination for group 2 (R. bowmaniz) is
never very good. The best results were obtained
with copper-nickel-magnesium (41%). Since a
random assignation of soils would in any case
give a discrimination of 33%, it cannot be said
that successful discrimination of group 2 has
been achieved.

Examination of the data for group 3 (X.
australis), shows a very successful degree of
discrimination which includes 92% for
potassium-magnesium-nickel and 88% for
copper-nickel-magnesium. Magnesium, which
occurs in both combinations, has substantially
the highest value in group 3. X. australis also
seems to favour soils with the lowest copper,
nickel and potassium values. The low copper
concentration alone, is almost sufficient to
discriminate group 3 from the others.

The role that magnesium plays in controlling
the distribution of X. australis is further
indicated in Table 4, which shows that the mean
magnesium content of ashed leaves of this
species (14-:0%) is nearly double that of the
others. The propensity of plant indicators to

TABLE 5
The Elemental Content of Three Soil Groups from the Coolac Serpentinite Belt

1
C. stricta (45)

2
R. bowmanii (44)

3
X. australis (49)

Element © |——-~_—___—___ > _—___ #7 >
G. Mean Std. Dev. G. Mean Std. Dev. G. Mean Std. Dev.
Co (ppm) 205 166—253 207 169-253 204 180-231
Cr (ppm). 1,444 1,109-1,882 1,495 1,104—2,023 1,545 1,357—1,760
Cu (ppm) 27 17-41 ‘ 18-45 15 10-22
K (ppm) 1,660 1,277-2,157 1,581 1,207—2,070 1,515 1,255-1,828
Mn (ppm) 1,640 1,324—2,030 1,623 1,373-1,918 1,694 1,541-1,863
Ni (ppm) 2/107 1,754-2,530 2,056 1,727—2,445 1,819 1,573—2,103
Zn (ppm) 57 49-65 49-64 51 46-56
Ca (%) 0:47 0:38-0:58 0:48 0: 37-0: 62 0:52 0-45—-0- 60
ie (9%) 9-96 8-54-11: 62 10-21 8-57-12-18 10-62 9-59-11-77
Hvis .(°%) Par | 6:06-8:72 7°30 8-15 7:08-9:38

6-32-8-43

74 M. 1. LYONS; RR. RosBROOKS “nw: DP C7CKAIG

TABLE 6

Values for the Mahalanobis D* Statistic and the Degree of Discrimination (number of correct assignations) for Soil
Groups Associated with Individual Plant Species

Variables D2

Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Me; Mn, Ni, Zn. 246-9
Cu, K, Mg, Ni, Zn ie 154-9
Cu, Ni, Mg ‘ 3 x se 122-8
Cu, K, Ni a ae < ss sis TRE
Guy NieZne. - Sr +t: yes a 90-3
Mg, Ni, Zn eile ss be Ne 87-4
Ke Vig. Ni 2: af ats ae Se 72°3
Cu, Mg, Zn ns és ae Wi 63-1
Cuyj ley Zne , a io oe 61-2
Cu, K, Mg .. Se wigs Pe aN 53°5
Ni Zn 3. a xs ss ae 51-7
8

K, Mg, Zn .. i He o od 38:

1 2 3
a Total
(C. stricta) |(R. bowmanit)| (X. australis)

24 22 45 91
27 15 44 86
23 18 43 84
28 16 41 85
21 13 38 72
25 14 39 78
24 12 45 8l
21 11 40 72
20 19 38 77
21 16 39 76
25 12 37 74
21 14 36 71
45 44 49 138

Total number of soils ni —

accumulate the element or elements which they
indicate, has been well established in the
literature, particularly for serpentine plants and
especially for nickel (Severne and Brooks, 1972)
and magnesium (Lee et al. 1974). For example,
Lee et al. (1974) in studies on the Dun Mountain
Serpentinite Belt, New Zealand, have shown
that the serpentine endemics Myosotis monroti
and Pimelea suteri have a two-fold higher
magnesium content (16-3°% and 14-9°%% respect-
ively) than any other plants of the area.

X. australis is also characterized by a lower
calcium content than the other species. This is
in accordance with the general principle that
plant species with the lowest calcium/magnesium
ratios are the most successful colonizers of
serpentine environments (Krause, 1958).

Conclusions

It is concluded that the Coolac Serpentinite
Belt is a typical ultrabasic environment with
the usual strong associations of elements of the
iron group of the periodic table. The soils are
characteristically low in the macronutrients
calcium and potassium.

None of the plants studied seems to be
suitable for biogeochemical prospecting for
elements such as chromium, copper and nickel.
All three species showed typical mutual
antagonism patterns for uptake of calcium and
potassium thus aggravating other hostile
features of this environment.

Soil chemical factors do not appear to affect
the distribution of R. bowmanii to any extent,
whereas the distribution of C. stricta appears to
be controlled largely by higher potassium and

nickel values. It is concluded however, that the
distribution of X. australis is strongly influenced
by the chemical composition of the soil, par-
ticularly with regard to the magnesium content.
It seems that this species may be tolerant to
high magnesium levels in the soil. This
tolerance to magnesium is reflected in the very
high concentrations of this element in the plant
ash, a level that is at least twice as high as in
other species studied. High uptakes of
magnesium are typical of serpentine endemics
and although X. australis cannot be considered
endemic in serpentines in New South Wales, it
is nevertheless, a characteristic plant of ultra-
basic complexes in this state and is probably a
useful indicator plant in this connection. The
species will merit further investigations into its
role as an indicator.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Professor L. E.
Smythe and the School of Chemistry of this
University, for transport and research facilities
to support this investigation; Dr. T. Howard
and Mr. J. T. Waterhouse of the School of
Botany of this University and also the staff of
the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Sydney, for identification of plant species ;
Dr. H. G. Golding of the School of Applied
Geology of this University for valuable advice
and identification of rock samples; Mr. G.
Windsor of the Forestry Commission of New
South Wales, Tumut, for maps and other
information; and Mr. G. N. Baur of the New
South Wales Forestry Commission, Sydney, for
providing climatological data.

ON

THE COOLAC SERPENTINITE BELT IN NEW SOUTH WALES 75

References

Apamson, C. L., 1957.
the Snowy Mountains Area.
Mines N.S.W., 5, 139.

ASHLEY, P. M., CHENHALL, B. E., CREMER, P. L., and
IrvinG, A. J., 1971. The Geology of the Coolac
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New South Wales. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W..,
104, 11

BAUMANN-BoDENHEIM, M. G., 1956. The Relationship
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Southern Hemisphere Subtropical Flora (in Ger.).
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Boots, M. K., 1968. Geology of the Coolac-
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BROOKES, C. J., BETTELEY, I. G., and LOoOxsTon,
C. M., 1966. Mathematics and_ Statistics for
Chemists. Wiley, New York.

Brooks, R. R., 1972. Geobotany and Biogeochemistry
in Mineral Exploration. Harper Row, New York.

GOLDING, H. G., 1966. The Constitution and Genesis
of the Chrome Ores of the Coolac Serpentinite
Belt, New South Wales. Ph.D. thesis, Univ
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Gotpinec, H. G., 1969. The Coolac-Goobarragandra
Witramatic Belt, N.S.W. Jj: Proc. Roy: Soc.
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JAFFRET., , 1973. The Vegetation of the Koniambo
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KRUCKEBERG, A. R., 1954. The Ecology of Serpentine
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LEE, J., BRooxs, R. R., REEvEs, R. D., and BoswELL,
C. R., 1974. Soil Factors Controlling a New
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HEVON, “GL, (BROOKS, RK. K., PETERSON, P. J., and
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Box 1, N.S.W., 2033.

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133.

Lyon, G. L., Peterson, P. J., Brooxs, R. R., and
BuTLer, G. W., 1971. Calcium Magnesium and
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(Received 3.12.1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 76-86, 1974

The Carboniferous Non-Marine Stratigraphy of the Paterson-Gresford
District, New South Wales

G. Hamirron, G. ©. HALt AND@]. ROBERTS

ABsTRACT—Non-marine units in the Paterson-Gresford district comprise part of the Flagstaff
Sandstone and the classical succession of Gilmore Volcanics, Mt. Johnstone Formation, Paterson
Volcanics and Seaham Formation. The units range in age from late Early Carboniferous to Late
Carboniferous, and were deposited on a piedmont plain which gradually prograded northwards into a
marine area of deposition. The Gilmore Volcanics are subdivided into the Newtown and Mowbray
Formations (new names). Ignimbrites in the lower part of the sequence have been mapped out and
defined as members. A non-marine portion of the Flagstaff Sandstone contains the Mount Rivers
Ignimbrite Member (new name), the Newtown Formation the Martins Creek and Vacy (new name)
Ignimbrite Members, and the Mowbray Formation the Breckin and Lambs Valley (new names)
Ignimbrite Members. Erosion of the Lambs Valley Ignimbrite at the top of the Mowbray Formation
and a change in sediment colour from red or purple in the Mowbray Formation, to yellow in the
Mt. Johnstone Formation indicates a hiatus between the two units. Rocks in the Paterson-Gresford
District are folded into basinal structures in the south-west near the Hunter Thrust, and into more
open north-westerly trending folds in the north-east. Faults, which mainly have a steep reverse
component, extend north-eastwards normal to the Hunter Thrust but swing towards the north at
Gresford.

Introduction

The Paterson-Gresford district is located in
the Lower Hunter Valley, New South Wales,
between the townships of Paterson and Gresford
(Figure 1). Paterson is situated on the Paterson
River 15 km north of Maitland, and the village
of Gresford lies between the Paterson and Allyn
Rivers 20 km farther to the north. Recent
geological mapping in the district has clarified
stratigraphic relationships within the Carbon-

Stratigraphy
The carboniferous sequence in the Paterson-
Gresford district has been described by Osborne
(1922) and Roberts (1961). A summary of the
stratigraphic succession was given by Campbell

Mount Rivers

iferous sequence, and has revised previous ie
mapping by Sussmilch and David (1920), eae
Osborne (1922, 1950) and Roberts (1961). barat ies
The Carboniferous rocks of the Paterson- (re me aR
Gresford district comprise an Early Carbonif- et an ee
erous marine sequence which intertongues with a /

Pa Ines
eee
< ¥
ov
aa

and is overlain by a terrestrial sequence ranging
in age from late Early to Late Carboniferous.
They now constitute a belt of basins and folds,
trending in a north-westerly direction, which are
dislocated by faults extending in a north-easterly
direction normal to the Hunter Thrust. This
paper describes the terrestrial part of the SCALE
Carboniferous succession and includes the defini- 5 10
tion of a number of new units. The Mount 0 10

Rivers Ignimbrite Member is described from a
non-marine part of the Flagstaff Sandstone, and

LEGEND
+— Railway » River
— Road 4 Trig. Station

Newcastle
15 Miles

20 Km

the Gilmore Volcanics are subdivided into the

Newtown and Mowbray Formations. The
Newtown Formation contains the Vacy
Ignimbrite Member, and the Mowbray

Formation the Lambs Valley and Breckin
Ignimbrite Members.

FiGuRE 1.—Locality map.

et al. (in Packham, 1969). This paper deals
with the succession above the Bonnington
Siltstone and is concerned mainly with the
subdivision of the Gilmore Volcanics and the

CARBONIFEROUS NON-MARINE STRATIGRAPHY (re

definition of Ignimbrite Members within the
terrestrial portion of the Flagstaff Sandstone
and within the Newtown and Mowbray
Formations.

Early Carboniferous units, of predominantly
marine origin, were defined from the Gresford
district by Roberts (1961). The lithological
characters of these formations may be
summarized as follows :

Flagstaff Sandstone: 1,250 m. Coarse lithic
sandstone. South-east of Gresford three
sedimentary units are recognized within the
formation :

(1) lithic sandstone and pebbly lithic sand-
stone, siltstone and impure lmestone
(at the base of the succession) ;

(2) interbedded mudstone and lithic sand-
stone ;

(3) massive lithic sandstone with inter-
bedded ignimbrite (Mt. Rivers
Ignimbrite Member) or devitrified ash
fall tuff.

Bonnington Siltstone: 265 m. Hard blue-
grey siltstone, mudstone and minor lime-
stone.

Ararat Formation: 730 m. Fine to coarse
lithic sandstone with subordinate mudstone,
oolitic limestone and conglomerate. South
of Gresford the formation contains the
Glenroy, Gresford and Trevallyn Con-
glomerate Members. An ignimbrite under-
lies the uppermost (Trevallyn) conglomerate.

Bingleburra Formation: 350m-+. Regularly
bedded mudstone, silty sandtone, and minor
limestone (base of sequence).

In the Paterson-Gresford district the Flagstaff
Sandstone is overlain by the non-marine
Wallaringa Formation and succeeding terrestrial
units (Figure 2). Farther northwards, away
from the influence of prograding terrestrial
sedimentation, the Flagstaff Sandstone is over-
lain by an unnamed marine unit of late Visean
age (Roberts and Oversby, 1973).

Sediments in the blocks bounded by the
Bingleburra and Camyr Allen Fault System were
previously identified as Bingleburra Formation
(Roberts, 1961). A re-assessment of the strati-
graphy of the Gresford district by Roberts
during 1970, and by Hall during 1972 indicates
that these rocks were mis-correlated. The
Bingleburra Formation is restricted to a narrow
band of outcrop in the east, where it is faulted
against a sliver of Bonnington Siltstone along
the Bingleburra Fault. The Ararat Formation

contains three conglomerate markers ; it overlies
the Bingleburn Formation and passes upwards
into the Bonnington Formation. A _ fault
extending between the Camyr Allen Fault
System and the Bingleburra Fault appears to
repeat the Bonnington Siltstone west of the
Gresford-Vacy Road. Stratigraphic details of
marine units in the Gresford district will be
given in a forthcoming paper (Roberts, in
preparation).

PATERSON VOLCANICS

3,000

MT. JOHNSTONE FM.

i
WESTPHALIANISTEPHANIAN
'

2200 Lambs V. Jgnimbrite

Breckin Ignimbrite

MOWBRAY FM.

NEWTOWN FM.

WALLARINGA
FORMATION

FLAGSTAFF SANDSTONE

BONNINGTON SILTSTONE

ARARAT FORMATION

BINGLEBURRA FM.

FIGURE 2.—Composite stratigraphic column showing
formations in the Paterson Gresford district.

-) Vacy Ignimbrite

2,000

Martin's Creek

1500 > Ignimbrite

CARBONIFEROUS

Z Mt. Rivers Ignimbrite
O00

VISEAN

Flagstaff Sandstone

In the type section in the Lewinsbrook
Syncline, 10 km north-east of Gresford, the
Flagstaff Sandstone consists of coarse grained
thickly bedded green lithic sandstone, some of
which is tuffaceous, and minor grey siltstone
(Roberts, 1961); the unit is 1,250 m_ thick.
North of Gresford the Flagstaff Sandstone lies
between the Bonnington Siltstone and an
unnamed unit which in the Salisbury district
contains brachiopods of the Rhipidomella
fortimuscula Zone (Roberts and Oversby, 1973).

The lowermost beds of Flagstaff Sandstone in
the Paterson-Gresford district are exposed in
the core of the Hilldale Anticline at Greenhills
near Hilldale. These sediments comprise coarse
grained lithic sandstone, grey siltstone, and
impure limestone (Roberts, 1964). Fossils from
the lowermost beds were originally assigned to

78 G. HAMILTON,’ G. €) HAUL anpn>]. ROBERTS

the Orthotetes australis Zone by Roberts (1965).
Recent biostratigraphical investigations in the
Salisbury and Brownmore districts, 30 km to
the north, indicate that this fauna is either
transitional with or is the lowermost part of the
Delepinea aspinosa Zone (Roberts, 1975). The
aspinosa Zone is positively identified from
slightly higher in the sequence at Greenhills by
the presence of the index species and Productina
Sp.
On the southern limb of Hilldale Anticline
the lowermost unit of Flagstaff Sandstone is
overlain by interbedded mudstone and sandstone
mapped as Member A, an informal unit, of the
Flagstaff Sandstone. Member A forms subdued
countryside beneath the steep scarp of Mt.
Ararat, and has been identified in the valleys of
the Paterson and Allyn Rivers, north-west and
north of Gresford (Roberts, Gresford 1 : 50,000
geological map in preparation). Member A is
overlain by thickly bedded green and brown
lithic sandstone and conglomerate which near
Gresford contains the Mount Rivers Volcanic
Member, and at Mt. Ararat devitrified ash fall
tuffs. Brachiopods from the lower part of the
Delepinea aspinosa Zone are present in Member
A at Toryburn (Dungog 595855).

West and south-west of Gresford, Member A
is overlain by yellow-brown lithic sandstone,
conglomerate, plant-bearing siliceous siltstone
and two ignimbrites. The ignimbritic part of
the succession is mapped as the Mount Rivers
Ignimbrite Member of the Flagstaff Sandstone.
The welded nature of the ignimbrites and
quantity of plant debris in some of the associated
siltstone indicate a terrestrial environment of
deposition. The ignimbrites are restricted to
the north-western part of the Gresford-Paterson
district (Figure 1). In this area the boundary
between the Flagstaff Sandstone and _ the
Wallaringa Formation is taken at the transition
between greenish-yellow and red lithic sandstone.
In the south-east, the boundary is taken at the
base of a distinctive green and red water
distributed lithic tuff.

Age of the Flagstaff Sandstone

Brachiopod faunas from the Flagstaff Sand-
stone belong to the Delepinea aspinosa Zone
(Roberts, 1975 ; Jones, Campbell and Roberts,
1973). The oldest fauna, from the core of the
Hilldale Anticline at Greenhills may be trans-
itional between the Orthotetes australis and
Delepinea aspinosa Zones, but it is almost
immediately overlain by a fauna which can
definitely be assigned to the aspinosa Zone
(Roberts, 1975).

The aspinosa Zone is dated as Cu III, in
terms of the German ammonoid zones (Jones,
Campbell and Roberts, 1973). The Flagstaff —
Sandstone can therefore be informally correlated
with the middle to late Visean. Roberts and
Oversby (1973) termed the unit middle Visean
for the purpose of palaeogeographic reconstruc-
tions, but did not imply a direct correlation with
the Visean zones of Belgium.

Most faunas from the Paterson-Gresford
district represent a level low in the aspinosa
Zone. This suggests that non-marine sedimen-
tation commenced earlier in this district than
in the Wallarobba district, 7 km north-east of
Hilldale, where faunas from the upper part of
the zone are preserved below the Wallaringa
Formation.

Mount Rivers Ignimbrite Member

Derivation: Mount Rivers Township (Camber-
well 498977).

Type Section: Camberwell 431972 (White,
1969).

Thickness: 1 mm.

LIithology: According to White (1969) the

Mount Rivers Member comprises a basal dacitic
ignimbrite (4 m) overlain by volcanic breccia
(12 m), ight brown siliceous siltstone and chert
(15 m), medium to coarse grained micaceous
sandstone with minor siltstone and chert (36 m)
and further dacitic ignimbrite (4 m).

Regional variation: In the western part of the
Gresford district two ignimbrites are recognized
within the Mount Rivers Member. Both ignim-
brites lens out northwards and eastwards, and
are replaced by siliceous siltstone containing a
large proportion of devitrified glass. The
siltstone is interpreted as an ash fall which was
devitrified when deposited in water. The
lowermost ignimbrite is mapped from the
western side of the Webbers Creek Fault to the
vicinity of Gresford, where it passes into siltstone.
North of Gresford the uppermost ignimbrite,
previously mapped as Martins Creek Andesite
(Roberts, 1961), is present around the southern
parts of Colstoun (Dungog 544938), and passes
northwards into a devitrified silty sediment.
Around Vacy the Mount Rivers Member is
represented by a water distributed lithic tuff.

Petrology : In hand specimen the Mount Rivers
Ignimbrite has a red-brown vitric groundmass
containing euhedral biotite crystals and rare
quartz and feldspar crystals. Collapsed pumice
fragments are present as pale glassy inclusions.

CARBONIFEROUS NON-MARINE STRATIGRAPHY 79

Under the microscope the ignimbrite ranges
from partly to completely welded and displays
eutaxitic and axiolitic textures, although these
are frequently obscured by devitrification. The
groundmass is coloured red because of haematite
derived from the weathering of small grains of
magnetite ; it contains crystals of plagioclase
(Ab,An,), minor resorbed quartz, orthoclase and
biotite. The biotite exhibits kink-bending, and
the feldspar is highly sericitized and has an
undulose extinction. These features indicate a
substantial degree of placticity and hydro-
thermal action during cooling. An explosive
eruption is suggested by the fragmentation of
the crystals.

Age: The Mount Rivers Ignimbrite Member lies
180 m stratigraphically above mudstone con-
taining brachiopods typical of the lower part of
the Delepinea aspinosa Zone (Roberts, personal
communication). It is overlain by units in-
cluding the Martins Creek Ignimbrite, the latter
having been dated radiometrically as 319-+-9 my
(Harland et al., 1964).

Wallaringa Formation

The Wallaringa Formation was defined in
the Wallarobba district and named after
‘“ Wallaringa’’ homestead by Roberts (1961).
The base of the formation is defined by a
transition in lithology from green lithic sand-
stone, typical of the Flagstaff Sandstone, to red
zeolitic lithic sandstone. The top of the unit
is taken at the base of the Martins Creek
Ignimbrite Member of the Newtown [ormation.

In a section measured in the Paterson-
Gresford district, the Wallaringa Formation
lacks the basal Wallarobba Conglomerate
Member found in parts of the Wallarobba
district, and overlies either the Mount Rivers
Ignimbrite Member or thinly bedded greenish-
yellow lithic sandstone of the Flagstaff Sand-
stone. In the latter case in the south-eastern
part: of the district, the basal ‘beds of the
Wallaringa Formation usually contain sediments
laterally equivalent to the Mount’ Rivers
Ignimbrite (Figure 3) which consist of brightly
coloured angular coarse-grained lithic agglom-
erate cemented by zeolite. Red zeolitic vitric
tuff is interbedded in the Wallaringa Formation
west of Gresford.

Cyclic sedimentation showing sequences of
fining upwards, similar to that described by
Rattigan (1967) from Balickera, is present in
the Wallaringa Formation in the Paterson-
Gresford district. The cycle consists of a basal
boulder conglomerate up to 1 m in thickness,

coarse to fine grained red lithic sandstone up
to 2 m in thickness, and blue-grey to purple
silty mudstone up to 1 m in thickness (Figure 4)
Sedimentary structures, mainly within the

feet Martin's Creek Ignimbrite Member

Medium grained, pinkish, micaceous
lithic sandstone with pebble bands
up to 15 cms thick.

1,000

Pebble conglomerate; pebbles from

ped up to 30% of the rock.

Medium grained, yellowish lithic
sandstone.

Pebbly, micaceous, lithic sandstone;

600
pebbles form up to 5% of the rock.

ca Pebble conglomerate.

Pinkish-yellow, micaceous lithic
sandstone, with random pebble bands.

200

Lithic Tuff

Flagstaff Sandstone

FIGURE 3.—The Wallaringa Formation measured on
the eastern side of the Martins Creek-Hilldale road,
north of Martins Creek.

coarse red sandstone, roughly crossbedded, showing
heavy mineral lineation, pebble layers and a few
calcite beds.

3m lenticular pebble conglomerate, very scoured
sub-stratum.

3m sandstone, becoming very fine upwards.

4m boulder conglomerate.

METRES

1 thinly bedded sandy siltstone with plant fossils.
coarse-grained, red lithic sandstone.
boulder polymictic conglomerate.

conglomeratic sandstone, becoming very
micaceous upwards.

silty sandstone.

pebbly sandstone with rough crossbedding.
pebbly banded conglomerate, coarse-grained
red zeolitic sandstone matrix, shale
introclast and scoured lower bedding plane.

Not to Scale

FIGURE 4.—Sedimentary cycles in the Wallaringa
Formation on the Gresford-Singleton Road, west of
Mt. Tyraman.

conglomerates, include large scale cross
stratification of trough or channel type, heavy
mineral lineation, scour and fill, pebble imbrica-
tion, and rafted mudstone clasts. Individual

80 G. HAMILTON, (G5:C HALE: anny) SRO RTS

cycles are not continuous over wide areas, but
the cyclical nature of the formation 1s constant
throughout the area.

Petrology : Sandstones in the Wallaringa Forma-
tion contain grains which are fine to coarse
(4 to 0-1 mm), subangular, and poorly to
moderately sorted. The grains consist of
quartzo-feldspathic volcanics often showing
eutaxitic and spherulitic structures, plagioclase
(Ab,An,) and orthoclase, and minor embayed
crystals of volcanic quartz, biotite, hornblende,
magnetite and apatite; they are cemented by
chlorite and heulandite. The red colour of the
sandstones distinguishes them from the pre-
dominantly green sediments of marine origin.
The colour is derived from clay-sized haematite
which commonly adheres to grain surfaces and
stains the zeolite cement. The haematite may
have been derived from either contemporaneous
weathering of magnetite, or the progressive
alteration of mafic constituents and the re-
distribution of iron from decomposing grains by
oxygenated pore waters during diagenesis (Blatt
et al., 1971). Abundant microscopic magnetite
grains in the groundmass of most volcanic rocks
provide a source for the magnetite in the
sediments. The presence of magnetite grains
in the yellow to green marine Flagstaff Sand-
stone tends to support the weathering hypothesis.

Age: The Wallaringa Formation overlies the
Flagstaff Sandstone, which contains the
Delepinea aspinosa Zone, and is overlain by the
Martins Creek Ignimbrite dated radiometrically
as 319+9 my (Harland e al., 1964). The
formation is late Visean in age.

Gilmore Volcamc Group

The Volcanic Stage of the Kuttung Series,
defined from Mt. Gilmore by Osborne (1922),
was renamed the Gilmore Volcanics by Roberts
(1961). Rattigan (1967), from work in the
Balickera Tunnel, recognized two formations
within the Gilmore Volcanics, and raised the
status of the unit to a group. The type section
of the Gilmore Volcanics extends from the
Williams River opposite Clarencetown, south-
eastwards to the distal part of the Gilmore
Range, and is 884 m in thickness (Osborne,
1922). The sequence consists of a lower unit,
384 m in thickness, of conglomerate, lithic
sandstone and interbedded pitchstone, rhyolite,
keratophyre and andesite, overlain by 500 m of
rhyolite, dacite and felsite with interbeds of
conglomerate (Osborne, 1922). The Group con-

formably overlies the Wallaringa Formation,
and is overlain, with possible disconformity, by
the Mount Johnstone Formation.

In the Paterson-Gresford district the Gilmore
Volcanic Group contains two formations, the
Newtown and Mowbray Formations (new names).
The Newtown Formation consists of lithic
sandstone and two ignimbrite members, the
basal Martins Creek Ignimbrite, and the Vacy
Ignimbrite. The Mowbray Formation is pre-
dominantly volcanic and contains the basal
Breckin Ignimbrite Member, and the uppermost
Lambs Valley Ignimbrite Member.

Radiometric dating of the Martins Creek
Ignimbrite indicates that the base of the Gilmore
Volcanics Group has an age of 319+9 my
(Harland et al., 1964).

feet _metres
500

Mowbray Formation

1,600 Purple, micaceous, lithic sandstone
with random pebble bands. Sandstone
becomes finer towards top.

t 400
Pebble conglomerate

172008 5 VACY IGNIMBRITE peers
Red, purple, green siltstone
Fepple cong Toner with purple

| ithic sandstone
300
800 4
Unexposed
200
Purple, micaceous, medium grained
| lithic sandstone with random pebble
400 bands
r 100
Pebble conglomerate band
Yellowish, lithic sandstone and
pebble conglomerate
aR Blue grey, porphyritic, andesitic
ignimbrite
Wallaringa Formation

FIGURE 5.—The type section of the Newtown
Formation.

Newtown Formation

S 5 ce )
Derivation: “ Newtown ”’ homestead (Paterson

602800).

Iype section : Measured from a prominent ridge
1 km east of the Allyn River (Paterson 612805)
to Breckin (584796).

Thickness : 565 m in the type section.

The Newtown Formation is comprised pre-
dominantly of sedimentary rocks, consisting of
reddish-purple micaceous lithic sandstone and
pebble conglomerate, with interbedded volcanics.
The volcanics include the Martins Creek Ignim-
brite Member, an unnamed hypersthene andesite
pitchstone of limited areal extent, and the Vacy
Ignimbrite Member (Figure 5). Sandstones of
the Newtown Formation are distinguished from
those of the Wallaringa Formation and Flagstaff
Sandstone by their characteristic purple colour.

CARBONIFEROUS NON-MARINE STRATIGRAPHY 81

The base of the formation is identified at the
base of the Martins Creek Ignimbrite, and the
upper boundary is taken at the Breckin
Ignimbrite Member of the Mowbray Formation
(Figure 2).

Martins Creek Ignimbrite Member

Roberts (1961) mapped the Martins Creek
_ Andesite as a member of the Gilmore Volcanics
in the Gresford district. The unit is renamed
the Martins Creek Ignimbrite Member because of
shard structures which indicate a partly to
thoroughly welded ignimbrite. Stratigraphic-
ally, the Martins Creek Ignimbrite overlies
sandstone of the Wallaringa Formation ; it is
overlain by reddish-purple lithic sandstone of
the Newtown Formation. The maximum thick-
ness of the ignimbrite in the Paterson-Gresford
district is 35 m, measured on a ridge 1 km east
of ‘‘Newtown’’. The apparent greater thick-
ness at Martins Creek quarry results from
repetition by a westerly dipping fault; the
maximum thickness at the quarry is 30 m.

Numerous lithological variations within the
ignimbrite were observed in a diamond drill
core from Martins Creek quarry. The log of
DDH 5 from the top of the hole is: typical
grey-blue andesitic ignimbrite with phenocrysts
of oligoclase-andesine (Ab,An,) enclosing nuclei
of hornblende, magnetite or chlorite, and
hornblende in a partially welded devitrified
shard-rich matrix (10 m); grey-blue andesitic
ignimbrite with phenocrysts of oligoclase-
andesine with nuclei of hornblende magnetite
and chlorite, hornblende, and quartz in a
partially welded devitrified shard-rich matrix
(6 m); altered red-green andesitic ignimbrite
with phenocrysts of oligoclase, orthoclase,
hornblende and quartz in a partially welded
devitrified shard-rich matrix (15 m); and a
basal black glassy ignimbrite with phenocrysts
of oligoclase with replaced centres, hornblende
and quartz in a welded devitrified shard-rich
matrix (2 m).

Sediments of the Newtown Formation: Two
hundred metres of reddish-purple micaceous
lithic sandstone are present between the Martins
Creek and Vacy Ignimbrite Members. The
sandstones are fine to coarse grained (0:1 to
3 mm), contain grains which are subangular
and poorly sorted, and are composed dominantly
of lithic fragments; these comprise ash flow
tuffs, intermediate to acid volcanics, siltstone
and foliated sediments. Oligoclase (Ab,Ans)
and orthoclase are corroded and sericitized, and
quartz grains are pitted, cracked and contain

Cc

inclusions of magnetite and muscovite. The
cement is colourless acicular zeolite (possibly
laumontite or heulandite).

Volcanic units within the Newtown Formation
are frequently overlain by pebble bands; a
porous pebbly lithic sandstone containing clasts
of ash-flow tuff and crystalline volcanics up to
3 cm in diameter overlies the Martins Creek
Ignimbrite; and a conglomerate containing
intermediate to acid ash-flow tuff pebbles over-
lies the Vacy Ignimbrite. The volcanic members
are underlain by reddish-purple and green
silstones composed of quartz, feldspar and rock
fragments and containing plant remains.
Siltstone is found beneath the Martins Creek
Ignimbrite in drill holes at Martins Creek quarry,
and beneath the Vacy Ignimbrite in road
cuttings west of Kealy’s Bight on the Paterson
River.

Pitchstone: A flow of hypersthene andesite
pitchstone crops out prominently 300 m west of
Martins Creek, and lies stratigraphically beneath
the Vacy Ignimbrite Member. The pitchstone
contains phenocrysts of zoned andesine, and
small crystals of hypersthene, augite and
magnetite in a glassy matrix. The pitchstone
crops out only in a fault block between the
Brownmore and Hilldale Faults west of Martins
Greek:

Vacy Ignimbrite Member

Derwation: The village of Vacy (Paterson

593765).

Type section: Paterson 632767 in a railway
cutting beneath an overhead bridge on the
Paterson-Dungog road.

Thickness :

The Vacy Ignimbrite contains a basal red
micaceous ignimbrite with crystals of oligoclase
(Ab,An,), orthoclase, quartz, biotite and mag-
netite in a devitrified partially welded shard-rich
matrix. “Axiolitie “textures and~ complete
spherulites are present within the matrix.
Overlying the basal unit is a white micaceous
ignimbrite with crystals of oligoclase (Ab,Ans),
orthoclase, quartz and biotite in a devitrified
partially welded shard-rich matrix. The upper-
most unit consists of grey micaceous ignimbrite
of dacitic composition with eutaxitic and
axiolitic textures.

The Vacy Ignimbrite has a constant thickness
of 5 min the Paterson-Vacy district, but becomes
thinner to the north and west. In the vicinity
of Mt. Tyraman on the Gresford-Singleton road,

5 m.

82

the Ignimbrite degenerates into red micaceous
siltstone interbedded with coarse and fine
grained purple lithic sandstone. The member
is absent west of Myall Creek.

A sequence of reddish-purple lithic sandstone
and conglomerate, 149 m thick, overlies the
Vacy Ignimbrite Member.

Mowbray Formation

Derivation : ‘“ Mowbray ”’ homestead (Paterson
616756).

Type section: Paterson 627763 to 614751 from
near the Paterson-Dungog overbridge across the
North Coast Railway, south-westwards to the
Paterson River.

Thickness : 198 m in the type section.

The Mowbray Formation consists of
ignimbrites, reddish-purple sandstone, lithic tuff,
and conglomerate (Figure 6). The unit con-
formably overlies the Newtown Formation and
is overlain, possibly disconformably, by the
Mt. Johnstone Formation. Two members
within the Mowbray Formation are named the
Breckin and Lambs Valley Ignimbrite Members
(new names); they mark the base and top of
the formation.

Breckin Ignimbrite Member

Derivation : Breckin, 153 m (Paterson 583798).
Type section : Breckin (Paterson 593795).
Thickness : 20 m in the type section.

The Breckin Ignimbrite Member consists of a
basal grey andesitic ignimbrite containing
crystals of olgoclase to andesine, orthoclase,
hornblende and biotite in a welded matrix of
devitrified glass shards. The grey ignimbrite
reaches a thickness of 12 m on Lees Mountain,
but becomes thinner towards the south and is
2m thick near Martins Creek. The upper part
of the member is red and contains crystals of
oligoclase (Ab,An;), hornblende and biotite in a
welded matrix of devitrified glass shards. The
red ignimbrite reaches a thickness of 8 m in the
type section of the Mowbray Formation but
becomes thinner northwards, and is 3 m thick
west of Kealeys Bight, and 6 m thick on Lees
Mountain.

In the Vacy area, the Breckin Ignimbrite is
overlain by pebbly lithic sandstone, con-
glomerate and ignimbrites. The ignimbrites
have a limited areal extent, and include a
rhyolitic ignimbrite, 25 m thick, which is mainly
light brown in colour but becomes white at the

G. HAMILTON, G. C. HALL anp J. ROBERTS

top. In thin section the ignimbrite contains
crystals of corroded _ sericitized oligoclase
(Ab,An,) and _ orthoclase,
vesicles and inclusions, altered laths of biotite,
and magnetite in a nearly completely welded
devitrified matrix. The ignimbritic sequence
is overlain by lithic tuff, 62 m thick, containing
angular water-born rock fragments, feldspar,
quartz and biotite in a matrix of glass shards
and zeolite. Interbedded with the lithic tuff is
a highly fractured zeolitized brown to white
ignimbrite of rhyodacitic composition. The
sequence of lithic tuffs is overlain by the Lambs
Valley Ignimbrite Member (Figure 6). In the
Tyraman-Myall Creek area the ignimbritic
sequence is replaced by water distributed
volcanic breccias and agglomerate.

feet metres ;
200 Mt. Johnstone Formation

LAMB'S VALLEY IGNIMBRITE MEMBER

Reddish and greenish white lithic tuf€
and pebble conglomerate.

Lithic sandstone and yellowish, rhyo-dacitic /
Reddish and greenish white, lithic tuff.
White, prophyritic, rhyolitic ignimbrite.
Yellow-brown, porphyritic, rhyo-dacitic

ignimbrite.

Yellow-red, medium grained, lithic
sandstone and conglomerate.

vv
L “4 BRECKIN IGNIMBRITE MEMBER
Sandstones of Newtown Formation

6.—The type section of the Mowbray
Formation.

FIGURE

Lambs Valley Ignimbrite Member

Derivation: Lambs Valley (Singleton 1 : 63360
sheet).

Type section: Singleton 482752 from Lambs
Valley Creek westwards along Lambs Valley
Creek road.

Thickness: 49 m.

The Lambs Valley Ignimbrite Member con-
tains two ignimbritic horizons. The basal unit
is a white dellenitic porphyritic ignimbrite with
highly sericitized and corroded crystals of
orthoclase, zoned oligoclase, embayed and
corroded quartz, magnetite and small distorted
flakes of biotite in a welded devitrified shard-
rich matrix. The ignimbrite has a thickness of
21 m in Lambs Valley and 20 m on Lees
Mountain. It becomes thinner southwards, and
in the type section of the Mowbray Formation is
8 m thick. The basal ignimbrite is overlain by
a purple dellenitic ignimbrite containing crystals
of orthoclase, oligoclase, quartz and biotite in
a welded devitrified eutaxitic matrix. When
weathered, the purple ignimbrite turns toa

quartz containing —

ignimbrite.

CARBONIFEROUS NON-MARINE STRATIGRAPHY 83

lime-green colour. The purple ignimbrite has
a maximum thickness of 27 m in Lambs Valley ;
west of Martins Creek it is 10 m thick.

Both ignimbrites pass westwards into water-
distributed volcanic breccias. In the area
around Mt. Tyraman the breccias vary between
40 and 100 m in thickness. Elsewhere in the
Gresford district, relics of a white ignimbrite
overlie the purple ignimbrite. Both of these
data suggest a disconformity between the
Mowbray and Mt. Johnstone Formations.

feet metres

2,000 | 600

Paterson Volcanics

Yellowish red lithic sandstone and
* silty sandstone; silty layers contain
Rhacopteris sp.
r 500
1,600 +
ag + Lithic tuff- angular rock fragments,
feldspar and quartz.
+ 400
a Rags 1 eee Pebble conglomerate.
/.J 4 Reddish-yellow lithic sandstone and
conglomerate; silty layers contain
L 300 Rhacopteris sp.
* Medium grained, well bedded sandstone
800 | conglomerate; silty sandstone contains
Rhacopteris sp.
| 200
Yellowish lithic sandstone with

random pebbles.
100

Pebble conglomerate in yellowish
lithic sandstone; pebbles form up to
30% of the rock.

Mowbray Formation

fIGURE 7.—The type section of the Mt. Johnstone
Formation.

Mt. Johnstone Formation

The Mt. Johnstone Formation, originally
termed Mt. Johnstone Beds, was defined from
Mt. Johnstone near Paterson by Sussmilch and
David (1920). The section given by Sussmilch
and David is faulted and is replaced as type
section by one measured from the Paterson
River (Paterson 613753) to Mt. Johnstone
(Paterson 598738).

The Mt. Johnstone Formation consists of
yellowish-brown lithic sandstone, pebble con-
glomerate, and siltstone. The formation dis-
conformably overlies the Mowbray Formation
and is conformably overlain by the Paterson
Volcanics. In the Paterson-Vacy area the Mt.
Johnstone Formation contains a basal pebble
conglomerate with clasts of acid and _ inter-
mediate volcanics similar in lithology to the
remnant volcanic in the uppermost part of the
Lambs Valley Member (Figure 7). The con-
glomerate grades upwards into coarse to medium

grained well bedded reddish lithic sandstone
with thin stringers of pebble conglomerate. The
sandstone is comprised of poorly sorted angular
grains of intermediate to acid ignimbrites,minor
quartz, and feldspar cemented by iron stained
laumontite ; heavy minerals include magnetite
and titanomagnetite. Above a distinctive hthic
tuff, 425 m from the base of the formation, the
sediments become finer grained and comprise
siltstone containing Rhacopteris sp., silty sand-
stone, green fine grained lithic sandstone, and
yellow medium grained lithic sandstone.

Regional variation: The coarse and_ fine
sequences observed in the type section are also
present at Tyraman (Figure 8). The basal
280 m contains at least three polymictic pebble
conglomerate horizons separated by coarse
grained yellow lithic sandstone and occasional
Paterson Volcanics

Feet Metres

brown-yellow coarse-grained sandstone
possible fault break
ash fall tuff horizon

2,000 + 600

green-grey medium to coarse-grained
lithic sandstone

1,600
ash fall tuff horizon

yellow-brown coarse-grained sandstone
with pebble layers

yellow-brown medium to coarse-grained

sandstone and conglomerate
ash fall tuff

800

sandstone and interbedded pebble
conglomerate

pebble conglomerate

coarse-grained sandstone and lenticular
conglomerate

massive pebble conglomerate

400
100
fine-grained thinly bedded sandstone

coarse-grained sandstone

massive pebble conglomerate

Gilmore Volcanic Grourfr

FicurE 8.—The Mt. Johnstone formation measured at
Mt. Tyraman.

pebble conglomerate lenses, and grades upwards
into fine grained sandstone; plant-bearing
siliceous siltstone is present in the upper part of
the unit. The uppermost 370 m at Mt. Tyraman
consists of medium grained yellow lithic sand-
stone containing small lenses of pebble con-
glomerate, which grades upwards into fine
grained sandstone and siliceous siltstone. In
the Myall Creek area there is a similar but
expanded sequence, 790 m thick.

At Balickera, Rattigan (1967) divided the
two sequences into formations, the Balickera
Conglomerate and the Italia Road Formation.
The Balickera Conglomerate (420 m) is a
polymictic boulder conglomerate containing
two prominent members of grey pumiceous

84 G. HAMILTON, G. C) HALE An» |} ROBERTS

rhyolitic tuff. The Italia Road Formation
consists of lithic sandstone, shale, coal and chert
which were deposited in cycles. Thin ignim-
brites and bentonites are also present in the
formation (Rattigan, 1967).

Age: The overlying Paterson Toscanite has
been dated radiometrically as 298 my (Harland
et al., 1964), and is considered by Jones, Campbell
and Roberts (1973) to be early Stephanian in
age. The Mt. Johnstone Formation cannot be
accurately dated, but probably spans the
Namurian and Westphalian.

Paterson Volcanics

The Paterson Volcanics were originally termed
the Paterson Rhyolite by Sussmilch and David
(1920). Engel e¢ al. (in Packham, 1969) gave
the unit formational status and changed the
name to Paterson Toscanite. Subsequently,
the unit has been termed Paterson Volcanics
(Jones, Campbell and Roberts, 1973). The
Paterson Volcanics consist of two ignimbrites
which in some areas are separated by a sedimen-
tary lens. The formation lies conformably
between the Mt. Johnstone and Seaham Form-
ations and is 88 m in thickness. The basal
ignimbrite is a brown to grey toscanite with
crystals of oligoclase (Ab,An,), orthoclase,
quartz, hornblende and hypersthene in a
partially devitrified welded eutaxitic matrix.
At Vacy, sediments overlying the lowermost
ignimbrite comprise medium grained red lithic
sandstone ; at the southern margin of the
Moonabung Basin there is an_ oligomictic
boulder conglomerate; and in the Sharps
Mountain district the sediments comprise up
to 60 m of coarse grained grey-green to brown
lithic sandstone. The sedimentary lens is absent
at Tyraman. The upper ignimbrite is a grey
dellenite with crystals of oligoclase (Ab,Ans),
orthoclase, quartz, hornblende and biotite in a
massive welded shard rich matrix. At Paterson,
the volcanics are 88 m thick (Engel e¢ al., 1969).

Seaham Formation

The Seaham Formation, originally termed the
Seaham Glacial Beds, was first described from
the vicinity of Seaham township by Sussmilch
and David (1920). A section measured at
Seaham contains about 80 m of fluvioglacial
conglomerate, varve shale, tillite, lithic sand-
stone, mudstone, and tuffaceous deposits (Engel
et al., in Packham, 1969), The Seaham Forma-
tion conformably overlies the Paterson Volcanics,
and is conformably overlain by the Lochinvar
Formation.

In the Paterson-Gresford district only a little
more than 150 m of the Seaham Formation is
preserved. The sediments comprise coarse--
grained pebbly lithic sandstone and _ pebble
conglomerate containing interbeds of siliceous
siltstone with abundant Rhacopteris sp. (Figure
9). Varved shales overlie the Paterson
Volcanics in the southern part of Lambs Valley
and the formation has also been mapped in the
Moonabung Basin and in a northerly extension
of the Cranky Corner Basin adjacent to the
Webbers Creek Fault (Figure 1). A complete
section through the Seaham Formation is
present on the western side of Lambs Valley
between the Paterson Volcanics and Permian
outliers in the Cranky Corner Basin.

feet metres Top unknown

150 ‘
/ Yellowish lithic sandstone with
AVON) Mie Sacer: pebble bands
100 a) op 1 "
° rown, pebble conglomerate
Yellowish lithic sandstone with
pebble conglomerate
200

Yellowish lithic sandstone and shale

lithic sandstone and

Coarse-grained,
Pebbles up to

pebble conglomerate.
50% of rock

Paterson Volcanics

FIGURE 9.—The Seaham Formation measured in the
fault block west of Mt. Johnstone.

Structural Geology

The Paterson-Gresford district is situated
north of the Hunter Fault System on the margin
of a belt of structural basins formed during the
Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. Parts of three basins,
the Mirannie, Cranky Corner-Gresford, and
Moonabung Basins, are present along the
south-western margin of the Paterson-Gresford
district. The basins are separated from one
another by a set of major north-easterly trending
faults. North-east from the belt of basins is a
series of broad fold axes striking north-west,
parallel with the basin belt, which are dislocated
by the same set of faults. Immediately north
of the area portrayed in the geological map fold
axes and faults become parallel with one
another, and strike in a north-south direction.

The north-westerly trending fold axes comprise
the Hilldale Anticline (Roberts, 1961), which
strikes N35°W and plunges at 5° to the east,
and a parallel syncline. The syncline passes
through Mt. Ararat and before faulting may
have been a southerly extension of the Ararat
Syncline mapped at Bingleburra by Roberts

CARBONIFEROUS NON-MARINE STRATIGRAPHY 85

(1961). The syncline is separated from the
Wallarobba Syncline to the east of this area by
two major faults, the Brownmore and Hilldale
Fault Systems.

Major fault systems in the Paterson-Gresford
district post-date folding, and originate from the
Hunter Fault System. In the southern part of
the region near Paterson the faults strike
_-north-easterly, but towards Gresford they swing
to a more northerly orientation. All of the
major faults are interpreted as high angle reverse
faults.

The Webbers Creek Fault originates at the
Hunter Fault System, flanks the southern and
eastern margins of the Mirannie Basin and cuts
the north-western flank of the Cranky Corner
Basin. The fault plane is visible at The Pass
on the Singleton-Gresford road. The Camyr-
Allen Fault System (Roberts, 1961) bifurcates
into the Webbers Creek and Bingleburra Faults
in the south, and extends northwards from
Gresford, where it has a throw of approximately
2,000 m. The Bingleburra Fault, mapped in
part by Roberts (1961), has a maximum throw
of 2,000 m indicated by the displacement o1 the
Martins Creek Ignimbrite west of Mt. Breckin.
The throw descrease to 1,000 m near Mt. George.
At Lewinsbrook, 5 km southeast of Gresford, a
wedge of Bonnington Siltstone appears to be
caught in a splay of the Bingleburra Fault.
The Brownmore Fault system extends sub-
parallel to the Hilldale Fault System and is
linked with the Vacy Fault System. The
Brownmore Fault has a throw of 50 m at Martins
Creek. Dextral movement of the fault has
produced a rotation of strike from 315° to 343° in
a fault block 1 km north-west of Martins Creek,
and drag folds in the Mowbray Formation. The
Vacy Fault System, which dissects the Mt.
Johnstone and Moonabung Basin structure, has
a maximum throw of 200 m east of Hilldale.
The Hilldale Fault, originally identified by
Osborne (1922) from the railway cutting east of
Hilldale, has a throw varying from 150 m near
Paterson to 460 m near Mt. Douglas, 4:5 km
south of Hilldale.

Palaeogeography

The Early Carboniferous palaeogeography of
the southern New England Belt, which includes
the Paterson-Gresford district, has recently been
described by Roberts and Oversby (1973) and
will be considered only breifly in this paper.

In the late Tournaisian and earliest Visean,
shelf muds (Bingleburra Formation) accumulated
in the Gresford district. Volcanism in the south

during the early Visean caused sandy sediment
to prograde into the marine shelf. The sand
was interbedded with marine mud and calcareous
sediment in the north, and with terrestrial
welded ignimbrite and gravel wedges in the
south; all of these units now comprise the
Ararat Formation. Vast amounts of volcanic
ash fell into the marine shelf during the middle
Visean, and when mixed with silt gave rise to
the Bonnington Siltstone. Marine conditions
prevailed over the area during the early part of
the late Visean, with interbedded mud and sand
(Member A of the Flagstaff Sandstone) being
deposited probably behind a barrier bar complex.
Sand in the barrier bar complex comprises the
sand-rich type section of the Flagstaff Sandstone
situated 10 km north-east of Gresford. An
increase in the influx of sand, presumably from
volcanism and uplift in a south-western source
area caused a marine regression slightly later
in the Visean. Welded ignimbrites (Mount
Rivers Member) and plant-bearing silt were
deposited with sand on a terrestrial region west
and north-west of Gresford, while to the east at
Mt. Ararat similar sands containing devitrified
ash layers were deposited in a marine environ-
ment. Both the terrestrial and marine sands
are referred to the Flagstaff Sandstone.

Volcanism and uplift in the south during the
late Visean caused coarse terrestrial debris to
be deposited on a piedmont plain. Meandering
streams flowing across the piedmont caused
cyclicity in the alluvial sediments (Wallaringa
Formation) and left lag deposits in channels
(Wallarobba Conglomerate). Increased volcan-
ism in the same sedimentological setting resulted
in the accumulation of the Newtown and
Mowbray Formations. The red sediments in the
Wallaringa, Newtown and Mowbray Formations
which derive their colour from haematite, may
have formed in a moist warm climate ; palaeo-
magnetic data indicate a palaeolatitude of about
30°S during deposition of the Martins Creek
Ignimbrite (Irving, 1964).

Regional uplift around the end of the Visean
caused erosion of the Mowbray Formation. Red
sediments which characterized most of the earlier
terrestrial units were replaced by yellow-brown
sediments which display a sequence of “ fining
upwards’”’ and appear to be characteristic of
flood plains (Mt. Johnstone Formation). Fine
grained sediments in the upper part of the Mt.
Johnstone Formation suggests derivation from
a source area with a mature physiography. The
abrupt colour change between the Mt. Johnstone
and Mowbray Formations may indicate a sig-
nificant hiatus in deposition. Volcanism in the

86

early Stephanian (Paterson Volcanics) followed
deposition of the Mt. Johnstone Formation. By
this time climatic conditions were much cooler,
as indicated by palaeolatitudes of slightly less
than 50°S from the Paterson Volcanics and of
nearly 70° S for the succeeding Seaham Forma-
tion (Irving, 1964). Sediments comprising the
Seaham Formation were probably derived from
a nearby glaciated upland region (Crowell and
Frakes, 1971) which still contained active
volcanoes. Varved shale and fine grained
glacigene sediments were deposited in lakes south
of Paterson, and gravel and sand were derived
by glacial action from the upland region.

Acknowledgements

We wish to acknowledge the assistance of
Miss P. Ryan and Mr. G. Melville in drafting the
map and figures.

References

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Origin of Sedimentary Rocks. Prentice Hall, New
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CAMPBELL, K. S. W., et al., 1969. Carboniferous
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CROWELL, ) J. #C.,. and ,HRAKES,” du. Aw “lOW1 bate
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G. HAMILTON, G:C) HALE AnD) “ROBERIS

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SUSSMILCH, C. A., and Davin, . Tew... 11928
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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 87-89, 1974

The Phonolite-Trachyte Spectrum in the Warrumbungle Volcano,
New South Wales, Australia

Ae LOCKERY.

AgBstRAcT—The spectrum of salic magmas ranging in composition from phonolite to trachyte
from the Warrumbungle Shield Volcano is attributed to high-level, low pressure crystal fractionation.
Field, petrographic, mineralogical and chemical evidence all support the derivation of the phonolite-
trachyte spectrum by differentiation of a range of nepheline and hypersthene normative alkali
basalt parental magmas respectively. Rare xenoliths in the Breadknife trachyte are interpreted as

fragments of a crystal accumulate formed in a high-level magma chamber.

Rejuvenation of volcanic

activity resulted in disintegration and incorporation of the accumulate in the Breadknife trachyte.
No evidence to support an upper mantle origin for the phonolite-trachyte spectrum has been

recognized.

The Warrumbungle Volcano is a Middle
Miocene continental alkaline shield volcano that
occupies an almost circular area in excess of
1,200 sq. km in central western New South
Wales, Australia. Rocks of the alkali basalt-
trachyte phonolite assemblage forming the
shield comprise three rock lineages.

I. A sodic undersaturated alkali basalt-
hawaiite-mugearite-trachyte lineage.

II. A mildly potassic hypersthene normative
trachybasalt - trachyandesite - tristanite -
trachyte lineage.

A mildly potassic nepheline normative
trachyandesite-high iron trachyandesite-
nepheline bearing trachyte-phonolitic
trachyte lineage.

III.

High or Low Level Formation of Salic Magmas :

The rock lineages from the Warrumbungle
Shield are characterized by the abundance of
intermediate variants, the hawaiites and trachy-
andesites. In these rock lineages the degree of
undersaturation of the parental liquids that is
reflected by the basic and salic end members is
also reflected by the intermediate lineage
members. The norm of a clinopyroxene from
a hy trachyandesite contains /y and the norm of
a clinopyroxene from a we _ trachyandesite
contains me. Coombs, (1963); Wilkinson
(1966) ; Coombs and Wilkinson (1969).

The Chemistry of the vitric groundmass of
basaltic lavas (Wilkinson, 1966; Coombs and
Wilkinson, 1969) of felsic veins and schlieren in
differentiated alkaline intrusives (Yagi, 1953 ;
Wilkinson, 1958, 1965 ; Wilshire, 1967) demon-
strate that low pressure fractionation of alkali
basalts is capable of producing liquids of
hawaiitic, mugearitic, benmoreitic, trachy-
andesitic, trachytic and phonolitic composition.

By contrast the occurrence of megacryst and
Iherzolitic xenoliths that are regarded (Green
and Ringwood, 1967) as being derived from the
upper mantle in phonolites (Proscholdt and
Thhusach, "1895:; de Rover, 1961 ;. Woelhe
1966), trachytes (Wright, 1969) hawaiites
(Wilkinson and Binns, 1969; Binns, Duggan
and Wilkinson, 1970) analcimites, trachybasalts
and nephelinites (Binns, Duggan and Wilkinson,
1970) indicate that the full spectrum of evolved
alkaline lavas may be generated in the upper
mantle (Bailey, 1965; Bailey and Schairer,
1966 ; Wright, 1971).

A feature of the lavas from the Warrumbungle
Shield is the absence of any high pressure
phases such as megacrysts or lherzolite xenoliths
that are indicative of low level formation under
high pressures in the lower crust or upper mantle.
The presence of several coarse grained segrega-
tions (up to 10 cm in length and 8 cm in width)
in a high iron trachyandesite indicates that
fractionation occurred under low pressures.
These segregations consist of abundant olivine
(Fa;3), plagioclase (An,,), titaniferous augite or
salite, titanomagnetite, apatite and glass, the
liquidus phases in an alkali olivine basalt at
low pressures (Yoder and Tilley, 1962; Green
and Ringwood, 1967).

The existence of high level magma chamber(s)
are supported by the presence of numerous
parasitic centres erupting material of diverse
composition during the growth of the Warrum-
bungle Shield Volcano. Two of these centres
are indicated from the available K/Ar age
determinations (Dulhunty and McDougall, 1966 ;
McDougall and Wilkinson, 1967). Additional
evidence reflecting the existence of high level
magma chamber(s) are the widespread scoria

88 J. J. HOCKLEY

throughout the Warrumbungle Shield, the
presence of siliceous sinter, the paucity of alkali
basalts and the late eruption of valley filling
mugearite flows. A combination of field, petro-
graphic, mineralogical and chemical evidence
supports the conclusion that the abundant
intermediate and salic volcanics recognized in
the Warrumbungle Shield were only produced
when sufficient parental alkali basalt magma
differentiated by processes of crystal fractiona-
tion at the low pressures of 9 kb or less in a high
level magma chamber. Mineralogical evidence
from the quartz-bearing trachytes indicates that

LOCATION OF THE
WARRUMBUNGLE SHIELD
IN
EASTERN AUSTRALIA

100 0 200 400
KM

QUEENSLAND

Nandewar

Shield armidale
worrumbungle ®

enald Se jonabacdbran

NEW SOUTH WALES

\ Lysol
VICTORIA
Newer Vo/canics

<TR
9G MELBOURN

FIGURE l.

with time the efficiency of the differentiation
processes increased. Concomitant with an
increase in the differentiation indices of the
quartz-bearing trachytes is a change in the
ferromagnesian content from arfvedsonite-+
minor aegirine augite—arfvedsonite—a ferro-
magnesian-free assemblage in the leucocratic
trachytes of quartz-+alkali feldspar+titano-
magnetite.

Several elongated xenoliths (up to 12 cm in
length and 4 cm in width) have been recognized
in» ‘the. Breadknife:: trachyte* “dy kea dyke
radiating from the volcanic neck of Crater Bluff.
These xenoliths represent a stage in the volcanic
history of the vent of Crater Bluff, when a

slight amount of fractional crystallization
occurred in a high level magma chamber
resulting in some crystal accumulation. The
crystal accumulation occurred prior to the final
eruptive stage of Crater Bluff that culminated
with the intrusion of the Breadknife dyke.
Rejuvenation of the vent in the final eruptive
stage resulted in fragmentation and incorporation
of the crystal accumulate as xenoliths in the
Breadknife trachyte. The process of crystal
accumulation envisaged is similar but on a
much smaller scale to that recorded by Upton
et al. (1967), from Rodriguez Island, Indian
Ocean.

The restriction of basaltic hornblende to the
xenoliths where it partially and in some instances
completely replaces aegirine-augite indicates that
its formation is dependant upon local develop-
ment of a relatively hydrous magma prior to an
explosive phase. The replacement of pyroxene
by amphibole indicates that the buildup of
volatiles most probably occurred over a
prolonged period of time. The development of
basaltic hornblende in the xenoliths from the
Breadknife trachyte is regarded as analogous to
the formation of basaltic hornblende in the
xenoliths from the Rodriguez lavas (Upton e¢ al.,
(1967) and to the formation of secondary
amphibole in the Tristan xenoliths (Baker e¢ al.,
(1964). The fact that the Breadknife dyke has
been intruded into agglomerates verifies the
existence of an explosive phase from Crater
Bluff and its subsiduary parasitic vent.
Belougery Spire, prior to the intrusion of the
Breadknife dyke.

In summary, it is concluded that the phonolite-
trachyte spectrum in the Warrumbungle Shield
Volcano was derived by fractional crystalization
of parental alkali basalt magmas with varying
degrees of saturation undersaturation at the
relatively low pressures of 9 kb or less in a high
level magma chamber. The mineralogy of the
quartz-bearing trachytes indicates that the
efficiency of the differentiation processes
increased with time. Fractional crystallization
in a high level magma chamber in the latter
stages of volcanic activity during a period of
quiescence resulted in slight crystal accumula-
tion. The localized accumulation of volatiles
in the upper level of this magma chamber prior
to the explosive phase that preceded rejuvena-
tion of the vent resulted in the formation of
basaltic hornblende. Fragmentation and incor-
poration of the crystal accumulate as xenoliths
in the Breadknife trachyte occurred during the
rejuvenation of volcanic activity.

THE PHONOLITE-TRACHYTE SPECTRUM IN THE WARRUMBUNGLE VOLCANO 89

References

BaliLteEy, D. K., 1964. Crustal Warping—A Possible
Tectonic Control of Alkaline Magmatism. /.
geophys. Res., 69, 1103.

foagieny. 1: K., ‘and SCHAIRER, J. F., 1966. The
System Na,O-Al,O,-Fe,O3-SiO, at 1 Atmosphere,
and the Petrogenesis of Alkaline Rocks. J. Petrol.,
7, 114.

BAKER, P. E., Gass, J.G., Harris, P. G.,and LE MAITRE,
R. W., 1964. The Vulcanological Report of the
Royal Society Expedition to Tristan du Cunha,
[962 Phil. Trans. R. Soc., 256, 439.

Binns, R. A., DuGcaAn, M. B., and WILKINSON, J. F. G.,
1970. High Pressure Megacrysts in Alkaline
Lavas from North-eastern New South Wales.
Amer. J. Sci., 269, 132.

Coomes, D. S., 1963. Trends and Affinities of Basaltic
Magmas and Pyroxenes as Illustrated on the
Diopside-Olivine-Silica Diagram. Miner. Soc. Am.
Spec. Pap., 1, 227.

SOomMBS, .D.- S.; and WILKINSON, J. F. G., 1969.
Lineages and Fractionation Trends in Under-
saturated Volcanic Rocks from the East Otago
Volcanic Province (New Zealand) and Related
Rocks. J. Petrol., 10, 440.

DE RoEvER, W. P., 1961. Mantelgesteine und Magmen
Tiefer Herkunft. Fortsch. Mineralogie, 39, 96.

DutuHunty, J. A., and McDouGa tt, I., 1966. Potas-
sium-argon Dating of Basalts in the Coonabarabran-

Gunnedah District, New South Wales. Aust. J.
Sci., 28, 393.
GREEN, D. H., and RINGwoop, A. E., 1967. The

Genesis of Basaltic Magmas. Contr. Mineral. and
Petyol., 15, 103.

McDovucatu, I., and WILKINSON, J. F. G., 1967.
Potassium-argon Dates on Some Cainozoic Volcanic
Rocks from North-eastern New South Wales.

J. geol. Soc. Aust., 14, 225.

613 Polding Street,
Wetherill Park, 2164.

PROSCHOLDT, isle and THURACH, lates 1895.
Evldéuterungen zur geologischen Specialkarte von
Preussen, Blatt Helburg. F. Beyschlag & H.
Proéscholdt, Berlin.

Upton, B. G. J., WADsworTH, W. J., and NEwman,
rT. C., 1967. Petrology of Rodriguez Island,
Indian Ocean. Bull. geol. Soc. Amery., 78, 1495.

WILKINSON) J." FF. G., (1958). the Petrology (of a
Differentiated Teschenite Sill Near Gunnedah,
New South Wales. Amer. J. Sci., 256, 1.

WILKINSON, J. FF. Gi. 1965; “Some- Heldspars,
Nephelines and Analcimes from the Square Top
Intrusion, Nundle, N.S.W. J. Peirol., ©, 420.

WILKINSON, J. F. G., 1966. Residual Glasses from
Some Alkali Basaltic Lavas from New South
Wales. Miner. Mag., 35, 847.

WILKINSON, JeqvE G., and (SmInNs,” Ke. A, ~1969:
Hawaiite of High Pressure Origin from North-
eastern New South Wales. Nature, Lond., 222,
BOG

WILSHIRE, Hi. G., 1967, [he Prospect Alkalime
Diabase-Picrite Intrusion in New South Wales,
Australia. jf. Petvol., 8, 97.

WRIGHT, J. B., 1966. Olivine Nodules in a Phonolite
of the East Otago Alkaline Province, New Zealand.
Nature, Lond., 210, 519.

WRIGHT, J. B., 1969. Olivine Nodules in a Trachyte
from the Jos Plateau, Nigeria. Nature, Lond.,
223, 285.

WRicHt =] | be) Lock poke
Spectrum. Luvthos, 4, 1.

Yaoi, K., 1953. Petrochemical Studies on the Alkalic

Phonolite-Trachyte

Rocks of the Morutu District, Sakhalin. Bull.
geol. Soc. Amer., 64, 769.
YODER, Hi. S:., and Tititey,,C. E.;: 1962. Orisingor

An Experimental Study of
J «Petron,

Basalt Magmas :
Natural and Synthetic Rock Systems.
3, 342.

(Received 8.4.1974)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 90-99, 1974

Structural Interpretation of New England Region

EMILE Rop

ABSTRACT—AsS a result of a geologic study of the New England Region it appeared that many
terms for newly proposed structural units in this region are ill-founded and more the expression of

guesswork than an evaluation of established geologic observations.

The fact that the age and relative

position within the sequence of all those low-grade metamorphic rocks which make up the bulk of
the rock units and are so characteristic for the eastern portion of the New England Region, are
unknown or just a matter of conjecture, is not sufficiently emphasized in many recent publications.

The New England Block and the Tamworth Fold Belt are the only two structural units which

can be regarded as well defined and valid.

Introduction

A study of the geology of New England
showed that in any structural interpretation the
Mihi Fault (Figures 1 and 5) and the indentation
(re-entrant) at Murrurundi would be of great
significance. The Murrurundi re-entrant separ-
ates the Mooki Thrust and the Tamworth Fold
Belt to the north from the Hunter Thrust to the
southeast.

It was realized as a result of this investigation
that the position within the stratigraphic
sequence of each Palaeozoic rock unit would
have to be closely scrutinized because too many
rock units are shown on the published maps
without any question marks or without any
comments in the legend in spite of the fact that
the age of the rock units or their relative position
within the sequence is not known.

By referring repeatedly to the same opinion
in a publication without going back to the
source, a tendency arises to transform state-
ments expressing some doubts into simple facts
and thus many rock units of very questionable
age have gradually become regarded as well
established as to their age. Within a few years,
the age of a certain formation—without any
added evidence from fossils or radiometric age
determination—moved from conjecture to fact.

Most of the current stratigraphic classification
of the low-grade metamorphic rocks exposed in
the New England region is based on circum-
stantial evidence. These rocks consist mainly
of slate, phyllite, greywacke and some
subordinate chert and jasper. Thus there is no
direct evidence for the age of the following rock
units :

Woolomin Beds.

Myra Beds.

Nambucca slates and phyllites (or beds).

Neranleigh-Fernvale Beds (area north of

Coffs Harbour).

How complicated the situation is can best be
seen when studying and comparing the geological
maps 1: 250,000 covering the New England
region. Not one map agrees with the other on
the age assignment or relative position of these
low-grade metamorphic rocks.

On the Geological Map of New South Wales
1 : 1,000,000 (Pogson, 1972), thousands of square
kilometres of the New England area are under-
lain by rocks which did not merit an informal
name. On the map and legends these rock
units are coded “‘S-Dz’’ and “S-D”’ and are
referred to the Silurian-Devonian. Reference
sheet 3 (Pogson, 1972) shows in the columnar
sections that they might range up or down in
the geologic sequence. Again here this pile of
rock of uncertain age consists mainly of argillite,
greywacke and phyllite.

The Nambucca Phyllites are referred to the
Lower Palaeozoic by Voisey (1969). Voisey
makes it quite clear that no diagnostic fossils
have been found and that the stratigraphic
position of these beds is doubtful. Packham
(1973, p. 373) does not leave any doubt on the
questionable age of these rock units. On the
Geological Map of New South Wales 1 : 1,000,000
(Pogson, 1972) the Nambucca Beds are shown
as unquestionable Permian, whereas the 1971
provisional edition of the J : 500,000 Geological
Map of New England (Offenberg and Pogson,
1971) indicates that the Nambucca beds might
range down into the Lower Carboniferous.
Where is the proof that the Nambucca Beds are
Permian ? As long as the Nambucca Beds, the
Woolomin Beds and the Myra Beds cannot be
exactly dated, any attempt at a structural
interpretation of the area east of the Mihi Fault
and north of the Hunter Thrust must be regarded
aS an assumption. Based on _ radiometric
measurements, Green (1973) recently suggested
that at least part of the Neranleigh-Fernvale

STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION OF NEW ENGLAND REGION 91

Group was probably as Lower

Carboniferous.

Many palaeogeologic reconstructions and plate
tectonic models based on the assumed age of
rock units covering such a large area should not
be taken seriously and might be misleading.

The kind of structural interpretation obtained
based on conjecture is best demonstrated by the
map 1:6,000,000 called “ Structural Units of
New South Wales ’”’ included in the Geological
Map of New South Wales 1 : 1,000,000 (Pogson,
1972). Figure 4, shows the New England
portion of this map. The colours of the original
map are rendered here by black and white
patterns. The way in which the finger-like
lobes of the southeastern “‘ Woolomin-Texas
Block ”’ are interlocked with some fingers of the
Tamworth Synclinorial Zone or the tooth-like
protuberances of the Nambucca Block is
mechanically incongruous. The same can aiso
be said when considering how some blue wedges
of the Nambucca Block are dovetailed with
isolated masses of the southern portion of the
Woolomin-Texas Block.

When studying the New England region on
the same map called “ Structural units of New
South Wales’ (Pogson, 1972) the following
questions might be asked:

(a) Where is the boundary between the
Tamworth Synclinorial Zone and Kempsey
Block? (See Figure 4.)

(b) Where are the boundaries between the
Demon Block, the “‘ Brisbane Block ”’ and
the Emu Creek Block ?

(Note that “ Brisbane Block”’ is a misnomer
since the name Beenleigh Block has priority and
the city of Brisbane lies on the edge of the
D’Aguilar Block.)

The discussion of the validity of calling eleven
structural units of New South Wales “ Syn-
clinorial Zones ’’ lies beyond the scope of this

paper.

young as

Discussion of Some Structural Units and
their Boundaries

Peel Fault (Figures 1 and 5)

For its history of exploration and terminology,
see Packham (1969). Both the terms “ Peel
Fault ’ and “ Peel Thrust ’’ have been used in
the literature and on maps. The more general
term of “fault ’’ is used here because the Peel
Fault is typically a fault zone having had a long
history of complex dip slip and _ horizontal
movements. Depending on the cross section

considered (Figure 3) the fault might have the
nature of a normal fault or a reverse fault.
Locally the strains caused by horizontal com-
ponents might be dominant. The Peel Fault is
characterized especially by lenses or wedges of
ultramafic rocks emplaced as solid masses of
various sizes along the trend of the fault. It
was therefore described as the “* Great Serpentine
(Serpentinite) Belt of New South Wales”’ by
earlier workers (Benson, 1912-1918, quoted by
Voisey, 1969; Wilkinson, 1969). The Peel
Fault is a distinctive geosuture, in the same
class as the Owen-Stanley Fault of Papua, the
New Caledonian Geosuture or the Alpine Fault
of New Zealand (see Figure 3, cross sections).

From a point 35 km south of Bingara the trace
of the Peel Fault is remarkably straight for
some 153 km as far as Hanging Rock where the
fault is covered by the Tertiary basalts of the
Liverpool beds. East of Tamworth where the
fault zone is obliterated by the intrusion of the
Moonbi Porphyritic Adamellite, a plutonic body
belonging to the New England Batholith, the
Peel Fault is slightly displaced in a left sense by
a north-south fault (see Figures 1,3 and 5). For
the last 40 km the Peel Fault has a bearing of
159° and is completely straight before it dis-
appears under the Liverpool Beds at Hanging
Rock (Figure 5). There is no suggestion that
the trace of the fault might gradually curve
toward east. The Tectonic Map of Australia
and New Guinea (Geological Society of Australia,
1971) and the Geological Map of New South
Wales, 1:1,000,000 (Pogson, 1972) show the
above described feature clearly.

Twelve kilometres southeast of Hanging
Rock, northwest of the village of Barry, some
older rocks are again exposed. under the cap of
the Liverpool Beds and a questionable fault
has been mapped in this area. However, the
average trend of the fault changed to a bearing
of 131°. Several outcrops of small masses of
ultramafic rocks have been observed.

Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the
Tamworth 1 : 250,000 geological sheet (Offen-
berg, 1971) indicates only an inferred or probable
fault.

At Boonara homestead (50 km southeast of
Hanging Rock, see Figure 5) in the headwaters
of the Manning River, a ten kilometre long lense
of ultramafic rocks is gently curved towards the
east and dissected by several faults. From this
locality towards the east and northeast, many
wedges and lenses of ultramafic rocks occur
always associated with some fault zones (see
Figures 1, 3, 5). The area between Port

92 EMILE ROD

tie Goondiwindi +

ae ee
—— =~

Warialda

mare +
Glen Innec-.2 +,
Cea + rsieioear:
at +,* Ft gl t%ee-. ys
aor + ote

ye
-2 Bundarra:+;
ches ere

Coffs Harbour

dure. ‘. re Sar
aa peretaelrn ad idale
at #3. Armida Bua)

KREME ee

Port Macquarie

AVN, Vw
BS \WAMvundie SSN .
ron Quirindi f eee

Faults

XN
1B
(2) Murrurund»

We Position accurate

x

._ Position approximate

ese or inferred
a X Thrust fault
3 5

New England Batholith
Hillgrove Plutonic Suite
Bundarra Plutonic Suite
Of uncertain age

©)

« Intrusives

M/, ‘\
—— Td 1K” all ty |
Singleton!” \ J na
—_ Lys x
3 — Pee S .
Z CV Maitland 4 % ¥] Ultramafic Rocks
After: AN

— ee ©
Geol. Survey N.S.W. } Newcastl

Sheet New ngland 1+ 500 000 (
Provisional edition 197!

New England Area

| Structural Sketch Map
showing
f Sedi 5 Gk Re
ri Saleen 50 \00 Lines of Sections
Scale of Kilometres sv).
October 25,1973 Ro 13/154

Figure 1.—Structural sketch map of New England area after New England and Sydney Basin 1 : 500,000
Geological Sheets (Offenberg and Pogson, 1971; Brunker and Rose, 1969). Cross sections numbers
1 to 6 are on Figure 2, and cross sections 7 to 12 on Figure 3.

+.
a

Projected trace

Mihi Fault’
Guyra

t

' t
Ae t9 Goa 6 SES Re ore Gy Gy x Xx x + + Mt
riers f eon Petrie = Corbonifeobs eae eee x x is a ¢ ‘eal Bs Asean
ee C55 oe og sere Hse 4. It
Tr

See cogs i

Extension of
Mihi Fault

Sere
ce

Mount Boss

ne Se Se
Se iSO eae ana oS 2) Doe |
Ss S < x

S By

HastingsF
Ellen bor:

|
‘
1
|

STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION OF NEW ENGLAND REGION 93

Macquarie and the upper Manning River seems folds it can be regarded as certain that it has a
to be built up by a group of imbricate structures. horizontal component with a left sense of
Until more is known about the age and correla- displacement. im

tion of the rock units in this area, and assump- Based on the same characteristics the attitude
tions can be replaced by some facts, it is tutile of the fault in general appears to be vertical or
to attempt astructural interpretation. Judging steeply dipping to either side. Some dips of
from the published geological maps it cannot be _ 60° to the east have been reported locally. Thus
stated that the ultramafic rocks are all arranged it appears not to be a thrust fault in the usual
along one thrust zone which was deformed into _ sense of the word. Therefore an average dip of
oops in the manner as can be done with a 32° to 40° toward the east as shown by Scheibner
string of pearls. and Glen (1972, Figure 4) for the Peel Thrust
From the general character of the Peel Fault, seems to be unrealistic. ;
from its topographic expression, arrangement of Moreover it is difficult to see how Scheibner
secondary faults and alignment ot adjoining (1972) could postulate “due to the relative

ae Stroud -Glovcester

©) Huswellbrook Anticline Goorangools Favit Camyr bilyn Fault Syncline coer ee
(

' '

|

ST
PoE
Yh

Wats Lake
i 3 Pacific Ocean

Ls} : Celatovn Basin
@ Muswellbrook Anticline Beli ignnie Che Webbers Fault Targan Fault Myall Syncline Bungwbl Anticline saat
mciine
| 4 ’ wv AG ‘ 4 4 ' 4 Pacific Ocean
sl

5 Skm
km Comberwell Hunter Thrust MI Synct
umicline. Sedgefies ye . Hajors Creek Williams River Targan fautt = prt syccline
Hunter River fine Cranky Corner Basin faut Fault Girvan Anticline
| The Benad water
‘ ' ‘ hh ‘ ‘ ' ‘ ‘ eat Pacific Ocean
West si East
Butlerwi ie ill River.
) Wollombi Brook Loder Dome Bedford, Dome Hunter River ets Cat Cs Torgen Fault Girvan/Antidine
‘ ia ‘ ‘ " Ot ' a b camt Pacific Ocean

Hunter Thrust

qo

tiary: olivine basalt km Lochin
ae reiesy Lola * Halthews Gap ve cline Hedowe Syncine
Fat Greta Fault Lachnager Fault Sornan Kos Seldiers Point

Triassic sediments ir 10 Gell psctaenllisterhons Pacific Ocean

Permian sediments
(Some volcanics included )

s
WHA, Carboniferous sediments Es
and volcanics : sec Symet
{locally may ince some Devonian) © Lochinvar Anticline Macquarie Syncline
t ‘i coat Newcastle Bight
th peoes a oo
5 Skm
° 1o 20 30 Ix
Ceneeteceed
Kilometres

| No vertical exaggeration Seplember 1973

For lines of sections
see Structural Sketch Map

Cross Sections Through
Hunter Thrust System

in area between

Hunter Valley, Dome Belt
New England Fold Belt

Emile Rod Re 73/152
—}

Ficure 2.—Cross sections through Hunter Thrust system in area between Hunter Valley Dome Belt and New
England Fold Belt. The sections were prepared from information on the Singleton and Newcastle 1 : 250,000
Geological Series Sheets (Rasmus and others, 1969; Rose and others, 1966).

94 EMILE ROD
asi poryuigh ENE |
ase) Clarence Nes Da
River, Serpentinite |
s\
Bingara
km Fe north
Wsw Peel Fault Demon Fault
ge8 Rocky Creek Campo Santo
Syncline Throst 1 Drake Dandohara Clarence River ENE
H Velcanics ‘ Granite 78" |
i u URS s|
os ea SS SATU ATA Oe n
PUSS OHS Ss EAN psa SOO feat > A
% SYST Ak (ordevician - ‘ 2 eis Ce Er Sn Kin
Silor ian ) »
10
; erry Demon Fault
WswW Borrabs Ske tone Projected Wrace Glen Bluff ENE
258" + Peel Fault Mihi Fault Fault c
Mooki Trust Rocky Creek Mamet Fault Guyra Chaelundi Complex 78
Syncline 1) Wesdsrasf H hu Clevcoadameitite)
' ' ' ti U
a

ISS SOS

AACA Gers a a OCH Se ee mS

Bae Pameelcarbon{erauen Roy cs
Sediments (5 6 50CG |x

Basia Say

Ce oay o

ENE
wey Hooki Thrust Sees aul Extension of Nambucca 78°
Breeza | Dori Hoontain Sensei Mihi Favit 16 km te north
H H ;
4 4 ‘ H + edie Pacific Ocean
: sl
34 PIPES. = TEU Se S OGG SATS SC GGTS SASS SO) SSS oH SD ee: OE Go e5 Sole EES :
SEAS 6 oT SSNS SY aS anal ai i PERSE aR Sete Wesco eG NEGO LORS
is \ \ oe SPSEES SANA SS eS rat seg ss4oggngyss 5 km
10
Gs (Andersons Flat ) Kempsey ENE
a AAI Hooki Thrust Peel Fault Hihi Fault ? 2s teisedh Bi)
7
dai) oe Aepert ‘ ‘ 1 Hount Boss Sleans Range tucLeay Rier care
— = = tt 1
eal SIS 6 55.5 5656555185 5 958005 S65 ares
SNES BEAGERS ad) VQ “OSG
5 5 km
lo 10
Km
Wsw ZExlension of- ENE [HEU] utramafic rocks
258° Hurrurundi Mihi Fault: - Port Macquarie 78° fensesisllcesipees
(@) Thrust HatlingsRiver 10 km te sovlh emplaced cen i
Liverpool Hount Royal Ellen borevgh ce ae
Range | eae ia Rife econ eae
st 7 i sl |
S x aS x ra -
SWostanite Sy deoees See Ni |
= soared POR boty
re ASS) IS
lo 10
> f9 20. 3 New England Region |
Gesetasest——s ty For lines of sections im Carboniferous sediments RERy Lowgrade Metamorphics, pre-Permian pouibly Carboniferous Bes) Mesozoic +Cainozoic sediments Geologic Cross Sections |

Kilometres see Structural Sketch Map

No vertical exaggeration

Devonian sediments

variouly referred te as: Woolomin beds, Nambucca phyllites,
Hyre beds |* Permo- Carboniferous sediments

Permian sediments

Ficure 3.—Geologic cross sections through New Eng!

Emile Rod
Jgneous rocks of granite family Ups

making up New England batholith

land Region, prepared from information on the Tamworth,

Hastings, Manilla, Dorrigo-Coffs Harbour, Inverell and Grafton 1 : 250,000 Geological Series Sheets (Offenberg,
1971; Brunker and others, 1970; Chesnut and others, 1970; Leitch and others, 1971; Chesnut and others,
1971; Brunker and others, 1969).

94 EMILE ROD

@ abe Clarence Bonyulae
River Serpentinite

s |
Demon Fault
Mt Mitchell
Adamellite Drake maahare
Volcanics { Granite
{
( x a s.\

+4 XK UAV «© 5 emcee

Gy Gig NN ha OS q SD Pt Ge &

Silurian’) Xe tt A NIG NS Fille Ree me
(Ordovician - 4 q \ 5 lan

Silurian )
Ke)
Wonaqwibinda
SF autt Demon Fault
Glen Blu
Fault if ENE
Chaelundi Complex 78°
Veal 1 Cleucoadameltite)
s.|

co lo

fer Nea Nie iM : ee
Aa

ENE

Nambucca 78°
(8 Km fo north

coast

sl.

Kempsey ENE
2 km Ne south 78°
Ste Range q
ae a Mac Leay River coast
s.l.
S Km
Ke)

ENE Ag Ultramafic rocks:

iy Port Macquarie 78° lenses, slices, pods
ord 10 km to sovth emplaced as solid
augh : masses, main|
Coas' acme
hae Serpentinite
1 Pacific Ocean P

asso Oe SQA SSSA Seunenensat sual oaniee aaa ea eet = 2 S L E Se a oe x9

TP GUE 1 SU UCLUTal SKELCL Tiap Ul INCEW Cugianu alta alien Wew eaigiana ant syaney “Basi PT Svv,000

Geological Sheets (Offenberg and Pogson, 1971; Brunker and Rose, 1969). Cross sections numbers
1 to 6 are on Figure 2, and cross sections 7 to 12 on Figure 3.

STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION OF NEW ENGLAND REGION 95

rotation of the plates involved “‘ a right displace-
ment (he calls it “‘ clockwise ’’) “‘ amounting to
150 km in some sections ”’.

Mihi Fault (figures 1 and 5)

When considering the sudden change in
structural grain as it occurs at the latitude of
the town of Murrurundi (Figures 1 and 5), it
will be realized that this Murrurundi re-entrant
must be of great structural significance. The
folds and faults of the Tamworth Fold Belt
exhibit a south-south easterly to southerly grain,
whereas the dominant structural direction in
the belt southeast of Murrurundi is south-
westerly. This change in direction is one of the
outstanding geologic features well illustrated on
all geologic maps.

Several large, northeast trending faults east
of Murrurundi are perfectly aligned with the
projected extension of the Mihi Fault.

According to this working hypothesis which is
illustrated in Figure 5, the Mihi Fault intersects
the Peel Fault at an angle of 40° just about 8 to
10 km southeast of Hanging Rock. South and
East of Armidale, where the Mihi Fault is well
established, it has an average bearing of 22°
and may be regarded as a steeply dipping strike-
sip fault. Its sense of horizontal displacement
can not be determined with certainty. <A right
sense of movement is probable and is here
proposed as a working hypothesis.

Many plutonic bodies of the New England
Batholith truncate the trace of the Mihi Fault.
Therefore, movement along this fault ceased
during the late Permian and faulting in this
trend was not reactivated in later geologic time.

The Peel Fault appears to have been active
already in Devonian to early Carboniferous time.
Moreover, both the Peel Fault and the Mihi
Fault originated very likely as a result of
slightly different directions of the greatest
principal stress. It does not seem that they
belong to a conjugate set of master faults.
Insufficient detailed observations have been
published on both the Peel and Mihi faults
making it impossible to elaborate any further
on their relationship.

Other major faults in the area:

Mooki Thrust (Figures 1 and 5)

The Mooki Thrust is. a well established
structural feature forming the west boundary
of the Tamworth Fold Belt. The nature and
the general attitude of this thrust is illustrated
in a series of cross sections in Figure 3.

The history of exploration and the terminology
of both the Mooki and Hunter thrusts have been
adequately discussed in the various contributions
included in the volume on the “ Geology of
New South Wales ”’ (Packham, 1969, ed.). The
practice of Bembrick and others (1973) is
followed here calling the thrust north of the
Murrurundi re-entrant ‘‘ Mooki Thrust” (or
Thrust System) and the thrust to the southeast
the ‘‘ Hunter Thrust’’. The general termin-
ology shown in their Figures 1 and 4 is also
adopted here (Bembrick, 1973).

Based on an analysis of the many folds and
faults making up the Tamworth Fold Belt, it
might be suggested that the Peel Fault and the
Mooki Thrust are actually just the border faults
of one 40 km and to 50 km wide fault zone now
known under its three main component parts,
namely the Peel Fault, Tamworth Fold Belt
and Mooki Thrust. In the south, near
Murrurundi, the Mooki thrust swings into the
Murrurundi Fault.

Hunter Thrust (Figures 1 and 5)

The way the intensity of structural deforma-
tion gradually increases in the Hunter Valley
Dome Belt toward northeast, in the direction of
the Hunter Thrust, is well depicted on the
Newcastle 1 : 250,000 Geological Series Sheet
(Rose, 1966). The six cross sections of Figure 2,
illustrate this relationship and should also make
it clear that for such a highly dissected belt of
folds forming an upthrust block of imbricated
slices, the term “ Synclinorial Zone ’’ becomes
meaningless.

Demon Fault (Figures 1, 3 and 5)

According to Shaw (1966) the Demon Fault
has in its type area along Demon Creek a right
displacement of 30 km. Reportedly some late
Permian granites have been dissected so that
the activity of the fault lasted at least into the
early Mesozoic. The extension of the Demon
Fault toward the south is questionable, especially
as its relationship with a probable fault trending
through Dorrigo toward northwest, and with
the Bellinger Fault is not known. Any
suggested connection of the Demon Fault with
some inferred faults in the area of Kempsey
should be regarded as highly speculative.

New England Block (Figure 5)

The triangular shaped custal block bounded
by the Peel Fault, Mihi Fault and the Birrie
Geosuture (Rod, 1966) and their concealed

96 EMILE ROD

CS

Brisbane Block
Emu Creek Block ie

oe
aes

oC

s

Woolomin

PAS,

‘Sydney -Bowen
72 BASIN ee

=
e

—

e
a
®

e e@
e a
e

es

. -* 8 e

.
2

Ro
Figure 4.—Structural units of New England Region after portion of map called ‘‘ Structural units of New
South Wales ” included in Geological Map of New South Wales 1 : 1,000,000 (Pogson, 1972).

The colours
of the original map have been rendered here by black and white patterns.

STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION OF NEW ENGLAND REGION we

Bou
te

= Goondiwindi SE RES on
/ 5 Beenleigh Block:'>,)
: inate
C mgt
oy rf
re) nny)
| 2 ag
or ; “tl
| 2 ct
| of ee
S ee
fo} ris,
| ~ Bete i
| St ey,
° Renan:
| Se fy
* OU
é Oo are “yf
or aa
‘oul
et Oo esl
Bt Re Oe
E (e) ene Gee Corer)
eo Ss WA gan 7
ZEEE Gi Ga
PAA
EAs
BZ

é ¢ 5 Coffs Harbour
° gDeorrigo

Bellinger ult

Nambucca *

\

yer

awe?
, ant :

\

yrses =
\"

a!

3

é

a

. B

oh
ees

i;
if Spley or

7, Horsetail faults
at end of
\ Mihi master favl.

Q

hg h

i) Ji Port Naquarie

°

5 ie Boundaries of
New England Block

Position \ Brisbane
\\ accurate
ss Sale eee
4% osition approximale ~.
« dnferred trace beteN
covered by granites, 4)
ee varanicsiee 1%

post - Permian gdiments: Pre

mG phesins
Ultramafic rocks es 4 Ste,

In ovl crop ae ee)

Tentative Structural interpretation’ =.‘

New England Region

Scale of Kilometres
Emile Rod

(2 ~~ 73

Ro 73 /ise

FIGURE 5.—Tentative structural interpretation of New England Region proposed in this paper.

98 EMILE ROD

extended traces (see Figure 5) is named the
“ New England Block’’. Previously, more or
less the same structural unit was named the
“New England Massif’’ (Hill and Denmead,
1960), or the “New England High” (Geo-
logical Society of Australia, 1971) Hill (1960)
mentioned the Texas structural high as the
‘“ Queensland part of the New England massif ”’.
Moreover the term ‘‘ New England Block ’’ is
widely used by geologists in Queensland.
Swindon’s map (1971) of the Regional Setting
of the Moreton District spells it out clearly.
Thus” “ New “England” has priority. over
‘““ Woolomin-Texas ”’

Blocks East of New England Block Named
on Map “ Structural Units of New South
Wales ” (Pogson, 1972)

On this map (see Figure 4) the following blocks
were proposed :

Demon Block

Emu Block

Brisbane Block
Nambucca Block
Kempsey Block

Port Macquarie Block

None of these blocks has been well defined.
They have either boundaries which are mechanic-
ally unreasonable or no clear boundaries at all.
It is worthwhile to have a good look at this map
which is rendered in black and white patterns
as Figure 4 (after Pogson, 1972). As mentioned
in the introduction, as long as the stratigraphy
of all those low-grade metamorphic rocks so
widely distributed in the area east of the New
England Block has not been sorted out and
settled, it is futile to attempt any structural
analysis and subdivision. On Figure 5, this
area was therefore left blank.

Beenleigh Block

As mentioned previously, the name “ Bris-
bane ”’ for this block is a misnomer because the
city of Brisbane lies on the south east corner of
the d’Aguilar Block. Moreover, Beenleigh
would have priority (Swindon, 1971). It is
possible that the faults associated with the north-
northwesterly trending Baryulgil Serpentinite
Belt might form the western boundary of this
block (Figure 5).

Conclusion

A critical study of the geology of the New
England Region, based mainly on the 1 : 250,000
Geological Series and the published information,

reveals that, with the exception of the sediment-
ary basins which are well established (Sydney,
Great Artesian, Clarence-Moreton and Lorne
Basins) only the New England Block and the
Tamworth Fold Belt can be regarded as properly
defined structural units. As long as_ the
stratigraphy of the many poorly described rock
units consisting of low-grade metamorphic
rocks, predominantly of argillite, phyllite, slate
and greywacke, is unsettled, any further
structural interpretation is in vain.

References

BEMBRICK, C. S., HERBERT, C., SCHEIBNER, E., and
StuNTzZ, 1973. Structural Subdivision of the
New South Wales Portion of the Sydney-Bowen
Basin. Quart. Notes, Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 11, 1.

BRUNKER, L., CHESNUT, W. S., and CAMERON, R. G.,
1969. Grafton 1 : 250,000 Geological Series Sheet
SH56-6. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.

BRUNKER, R. L., and Rose, G., 1969. Sydney Basin
1 : 500,000 Geological Sheet (Special). Geol. Surv.
N.S.W.

BRUNKER, R. L., OFFENBERG, A. C., and CAMERON,
R.“G., 1970. Hastings’ 1: 250;000 ~ Geolosical
Series Sheet SH56-14. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.

CHESNUT, W. S., and CAMERON, R. G., 1971. Inverell
1 : 250,000 Geological Series Sheet SH56—5. Geol.
Surv. N.S.W.

CHESNUT, W. S., FLoop, R)- Ee, MicKkerery 5. c.
and CAMERON, R. G., 1970. Manilla 1 : 250,000
Geological Series Sheet SH56-9. U.N.E. Armidale
and Geol. Surv. N.S.W.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AUSTRALIA, 1971. Tectonic
Map of Australia and New Guinea I: 5,000,000,
Sydney.

GREEN, D. C., 1973. Radiometric Evidence of the
Kanimblan Orogeny in Southeastern Queensland
and the Age of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group.
J. Geol. Soc.iAust:, 20) 153:

HILL, DorotHy, and DENMEAD, A. K. (Eds.), 1960.
The Geology of Queensland. J. Geol. Soc. Aust.,
Toe

LeItcuH, E. C., NEILSoN, M. J.; and Hopson, (1971.
Dorrigo-Coffs Harbour 1: 250,000 Geological
Series Sheet SH56-10 and 11. U.N.E. Armidale
and Geol. Surv. N.S.W.

OFFENBERG, A. C., 1971. Tamworth 1: 250,000
Geological Series Sheet SH56-13. Geol. Surv.
N.S.W.

OFFENBERG, A. C., and Pocson, D. J., 1971. New
England 1: 500,000 Geological Map (Provisional
Edition, 2 sheets, 1 separate legend). Geol. Surv.
NESW:

PackHaMm, G. H. (Ed.), 1969. The Geology of New
South Wales. jJ. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16 (1).

PackHAM, G. H., 1973. A Speculative Phanerozoic
History of the South-west Pacific. In Coleman,
Patrick, J. (Ed.). The Western Pacific, University
Western Aust. Press, Nedlands, 369.

Pocson, D. J., 1972. Geological Map of New South
Wales 1: 1,000,000. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.
Rasmus, P. L., Rost, D. M., and Ross, G., 1969.
Singleton 1: 250,000 Geological Series Sheet

SI56-1. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.

STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION OF NEW ENGLAND REGION 93

Rop, Emite, 1966. Clues to Ancient Australian
Geosutures. FEclogae Geol. Helvetiae, 59, 848.

Rose, G., Jones, W. H., and KENNEDY, D. R., 1966.
Sheet

Newcastle 1: 250,000 Geological Series
SI56—-2. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.
SCHEIBNER, E., and GLEN, R. A., 1972. The Peel

Thrust and its Tectonic History. Quart. Notes
Geole Suyv. N.S.W., 8, 2.

SHaw, S. E., 1969. Granitic Rocks from the Northern
Portion of the New England Batholith. In Pack-
ham, G. H. (Ed.). The Geology of New South
Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 285.

9 Minns Road,
Gordon, N.S.W., 2072.

SWINDON,’ V. . G., 1971... Moreton © District. In
Playford, Geoffrey (Ed.), Geological Excursions
Handbook. Geol. Soc. Aust., Queensland Division,
105.

VoisEy, A. H., 1969. The New England Region. In
Packham, G. H. (Ed.). The Geology of New
South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 227.

WILKINSON, J. F. G., 1969. Ultramafic and Associated
Rocks of Northeastern New South Wales. In
Packham, G. H. (Ed.). The Geology of New
South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 299.

(Received 13.12.1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 100-113, 1974

Chance and Design: An Historical Perspective of the Chemistry*
of Oral Contraceptives

JeXeeh || ASTON CTE!

ABstTRACT—The requirement of total synthesis of sex and cortical hormones is discussed in the
historical context of evolution of ideas and techniques leading to biologically active analogues. In
particular, the desire to make 18- and 19-norsteroids led to development of the technique of metal-
ammonia reductions and eventually to the 19-norsteroid hormones used as oral contraceptives.
This history is considered against a background of the role of chance and design in scientific research in
general and pharmaceutical research in particular.

Most scientists are too busy to analyse why
they carry out scientific work in the way they
do. If they pause to consider how creative
new discoveries are made they probably think
in terms of the scientific method. This method
involves collecting facts, drawing logical deduc-
tions from them and testing these deductions by
experiment. It is usually thought to define the
respectable way to discovery. The destructive
testing of hypotheses once they are initiated is
vitally necessary, but the real stories behind
the origins of genuinely new and creative
scientific theories are rarely told, and they
often do not accord with the orthodox “ official ”’
scientific approach. Although a _ creative
scientist operates instinctively by leaps of
imagination, he often feels bound to make
Obeisance before: the official tablets, Phe
authentic process of discovery is often rational-
ized in recounting to what it should have been,
usually unconsciously. Sometimes the motives
are more conscious and less admirable, designed
to confer apparently greater insight on the
discoverer. There is no apparent sin attached,
since the primary objective is thought to be to
reach the facts and providing these are stated
the process by which they are reached is often
thought to be unimportant in any case. The
pathway may even be forgotten and be later
recounted in terms of what must have happened.

The high regard for the truth, which is an
absolute necessity in testing scientific theories, is
often strangely missing in defining the origins
of the theories. A particular manifestation is
the omission of discussion of previous ideas. It
is perhaps incredible but true that one highly-
distinguished scientist, on being challenged on

“The Liversidge Research Lecture, delivered before

the Royal Society of New South Wales, 15th August,
1974.

this score, replied ““ Am I not as good a scientist
as he is; could I not have thought of this for
myself? ”’.

This remark is not as egocentric and irrelevant
as it sounds. From the viewpoint of complete-
ness in presentation, all previous ideas should
be acknowledged, but frequently these played
no part in a particular crucial development,
since the developer was unaware of them
despite their presence in the literatune.< 7A tame
picture of the evolution of his ideas can therefore
apparently falsify the “ true ”’ historical develop-
ment of the subject, as shown by complete
documentation. The size of the literature and
the fallibility of abstractors guarantee large
areas of ignorance. Furthermore, Journal
referees who presumably know their fellow
scientists, tend not to accept any statements
relative to independence of ideas which cannot
be demonstrably documented. That con-
troversy is now barred under the heading of
“polemics ’’ is sometimes unfortunate, since
resolutions of the origins of ideas have value
quite apart from bolstering egos. On a more
practical plane, demands by Journal editors
and costs of publication are also factors leading
to brief logical presentations of facts, presenta-
tions which not only obscure the intellectual
processes involved but often falsify them.

Science is one of the most creative of intel-
lectual activities, so falsifications, for whatever
reasons, of processes of intellectual adventure,
are very regrettable in cultural terms. They
are also misleading for young scientists, who
pursue invalid approaches, or despair, because
their work does not proceed in the smooth
logical manner they are often led, by reading the
Journals, to believe it should.

A story tracing the origins of an idea can be
told authentically only by the discoverer.

4

CHANCE AND DESIGN ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

However, to recount it thus requires an interest
in and awareness of the nature of the processes
as they occur, considerable intellectual honesty
and detachment, and a good memory. With
these requirements very consciously in mind
and with a long continued interest in historical
/ processes in science as well as in results, I
recount my own contact with the course of
development of synthetic sex hormone analogues.

I finished a D.Phil. degree course at Oxford,
with Sir Robert Robinson, in late 1940 and was
asked to join a group attempting to synthesize
steroid hormones, the structural group to which
the cortical and sex hormones belong. A report
from the Polish underground had suggested that
Luftwaffe pilots were being given cortical
hormones, which are involved, for example, in
shock conditions. I still have no idea whether
this was true, or whether they would have been
useful, but in consequence, the R.A.F. wanted
reasonable quantities of substances biologically
active as corticoids.

The molecules of the sex hormones and those
from the adrenal cortex contain the same basic
carbon skeleton (1), variations in the types of
group present and in their positions leading to
substances with different kinds of biological
activities (Fieser and Fieser, 1959a). For
exaimple. (sic —CH., K’—OH) is the male sex
hormone testosterone, and (1,R=CH,, R’=
COCH;) is progesterone, one of the two types of
female hormone. The molecules of cortical
hormones are of the progesterone type but
require for activity critical groups, containing
oxygen atoms, at certain positions, such as 3,
11,17, 21 (cf. 1) notably the last is needed in the
17-side chain as R’=COCH,OH. Many com-
pounds of these series have several types of
biological activity although one usually pre-
ponderates, for example, a cortical hormone
can also be androgenic, and androgens normally
have the generalized anabolic action (stimulation
of protein formation) in addition to their
specialized effects on male sex organs and second-
ary sex characteristics.

At this time, the natural hormones were, and
still now are, available only in minute amounts
by extraction from animal glands. The original
work on cortical molecular structures by
Reichstein and Kendall (Fieser and _ Fieser,
1959a) met with great difficulties because of the
rarity of the substances and because of their
presence in complex mixtures of twenty or more
related compounds. The development of partial
synthesis, that is of chemical modification of
steroids which are available naturally in large
quantities, still awaited the advent of the

101

remarkable Russell Marker and his diosgenin
from Mexican yams.

The answer, if any, then appeared to be a total
synthesis, and it was a logical deduction that
if the Germans had indeed succeeded in making
a practical hormone, they were either producing
the natural structure synthetically, or more
likely were preparing a structurally simplified
but biologically active analogue. The subject
of sex hormone analogues was then much in
mind because of recent work on stilboestrol
(2, R=H), a replacement for the oestrogenic
female hormone oestradiol (3, R=H).

The discovery of stilboestrol is an interesting
illustration of the role of accident (Campbell
et al., 1938). When oestrone [the 17-ketone
corresponding to (3, R=H) and the first oestro-
genic hormone discovered} was shown to be a
phenol, Sir Charles Dodds and Sir James Cook
commenced examination of other “ natural ”’
phenols. Among those to be tested was anole
(4, R=H) the phenol corresponding to anethole
(4, R=CH,) the readily available flavouring
matter of aniseed.

According to the literature, drastic alkaline
treatment of (4, R=CH,) gives (4, R=H), and
the product of such a reaction was tested without
adequate purification. It was _ powerfully
oestrogenic. The activity was then found to be
concentrated in mother lquors from the pure
phenol and was thought possibly to be due to a
dimer of anole. Sir Robert Robinson, who then
with Leon Goldberg collaborated on the chemical
side, synthesized possible dimers, the first being
stilboestrol (2, R=H) (Dodds e¢ al., 1939) which
proved to be a very powerful hormone. It is
still used in medicine and in veterinary practice.
Later, Robinson rationalized the structural
resemblance to oestradiol (3, R=H) by writing
the formula of (2, R=H) as shown. This has
led to the fairly general belief that it was
synthesized because of this structural resem-
blance, although the authentic story is well
documented.

A possible answer to the problem of supply of
corticoids seemed to be the attachment of the
highly characteristic cortical COCH,OH side-
chain to a nucleus of the stilboestrol type.
Even at that time there were considerable doubts
about the validity of such an approach because
it was becoming clear that many aromatic
compounds, particularly phenols, are oestrogenic,
and that oestrogenic activity is less linked to
exact structure than any other hormonal activity.
However, I was asked to make aromatic com-
pounds of the general type, basically because
they were easy to make.

102

About eighteen months of frustrating work
led only and, not unexpectedly, to oestrogenic
compounds. These would merely have femin-
ized R.A.F. pilots, which was not exactly what
was needed. I started in 1942 to rethink the
problem on the basis of possible rational, rather
than accidental, modifications of the skeleton
which might assist synthesis by simplification
and yet result in structures with some possibility
of retaining biological activity. In pharmaco-
logical-structural relations usually there are no
predictable certainties, merely finite probabilities
of finding activity which make the synthetic
operations worthwhile. To see what simplifica-

eee ke

(3)

tions might conceivably be made with profit,
let us look at the difficulties to be surmounted
in a total synthesis of the natural compounds,
multiplied in their effects if the synthesis needs
to be employed for making quantities for
practical use, rather than formally to prove a
scientific point. This need for a_ practical
synthesis was an aspect which the origins of
the work had impressed on me long after the
original war necessity had vanished and it led
to a continued preoccupation with the possibility
of a given route for large-scale production. In
all probability, I could have carried out a
formal total synthesis earlier but for this ; for
example, an abandoned procedure published in
1951 (Birch, 1951a) was completed by others
(Narasimha Rao and Axelrod, 1965).

m4. BIRCH

The first problem is that of stereoisomerism:
There are a number of asymmetric centres, e.g:
for testosterone (1, R=CH,, K’—OM miner. are
6, giving rise to the possibility of 2=64 isomers
with different shaped but otherwise identical
molecules. Normally only one isomer is likely
to be highly active (the normal series shown)
(8) although progestational activity seems from
the subsequent results to be less linked to exact
shape than is androgenic activity. The subject
of steric specificity in synthesis of cyclic systems
was then in its infancy, and made notable
advances only from about 1950, with Sir Derek

Barton’s work on conformational analysis.
OR
RO
2)
RO

(4)

Some empirical correlations were then known
(e.g. a relevant one was that the stable configura-
tion of two six-membered fused rings is normally
trans—as in the steroids). Much of the experi-
mental work on steric specificities of reactions
in complex molecules indeed grew out of the need
for synthesis of steroids and other natural
products.

A further synthetic difficulty was due to the
presence of two angular CH, groups at 18- and
19- (e.g. 1, R=—CH,) the formationze: a ynich
require the production of quaternary carbon
atoms. This greatly limits tempting approaches
through benzenoid precursors, made possible by
the presence of the six-membered rings.
Aromatic compounds are attractive because of
the practical ease and known specificities of

CHANCE AND DESIGN: ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

substitution and ring-closures. Reduction by
direct or indirect addition of hydrogen to such
benzenoid rings can lead to non-aromatic
products f[e.g. (5) from oestradiol (3, R=H)|
(Discherl e¢ al., 1936), but the structural equi-
valent of addition of CH, rather than H required
to produce the angular methyl group is more
difficult, since it involves formation of new
C-C rather than just C-H bonds. If CH, is
present in the precursors it limits the number of
possible synthetic procedures, although a
possible one, the Robinson annelation, was
known at the time. Robinson had _ also

Ses OH

elaborated previously (Koebner and Robinson,
1938) a very simple route to (6) which seemed
potentially capable of development for quantity
production, particularly of corticoids, in view
of the oxygenation at 3, 11, 17- [cf. corticosterone
(i Wse of{6) _ would however, require
elaboration of specific reduction processes. I
had this route in mind, or one involving the
precursors of (6), as a possible basis of our
work. However, it was many years later before
Subba'Rao and I succeeded, as I note below, in
completing such an approach.

The effect of structural, including steric,
difficulties on total synthesis are shown by the
historical sequence: equilenin (14, R=H) in

103

1937) (Backmann e al., 1937) (two aromatic
rings and only one angular CH, and two asym-
metric centres), oestrone (3, R=—H) in 1948
(Anner and Miescher, 1948) (one aromatic ring,
one angular CH, and 4 asymmetric centres) and
finally, the non-aromatic steroids in 1951
(Cardwell e¢ al., 1951) (no aromatic rings, two
angular CH, and six or more asymmetric
centres):

Which analogues to synthesize might be
decided by starting with the natural structures
and working away from them (mentally and on
paper) by progressive stages, omitting structures

causing difficulties in the syntheses. Com-
pounds with the resulting structures would then
have to be made and their activities examined to
find at what point of structural alteration
activity disappeared in a given biological series.
The then known structural factors necessary for
activity were first summarized. A clear require-
ment for high activity in all series except the
oestrogens was known to be the presence of the
cyclohexenone ring-A (e.g. in 1). Hydrogena-
tion of this unsaturation normally leads in the
product to lowering or loss of biological activity
in any hormonal series. Another clear factor
was stereochemistry. Despite a remarkable
exception in the progestational series noted

104

below, activity, which depends on the shape of
the main skeleton, normally is found only when
this is identical with the natural one [e.g. (8)
is a three-dimensional model of testosterone
(ek —_CH.) RR’ OH) (Even) a ominor stene
alteration such as that of the 17-OH from
8- (above) to a- (below) the ring system can
abolish activity in the androgenic series.

CHs
OH
CH;

O72 (8)

I decided from such considerations that a
fairly direct method of making cyclohexenones
from aromatic systems might be useful for
ring-A synthesis. However, because of the
practical difficulty of inserting the angular CH,
at position 19-, the question then arose whether

a
eee

OH

(9)

the presence of this group is really necessary.
Omission of the 18-CH, would also be desirable
to facilitate a synthesis using an aromatic
precursor of ring-C.

On searching the literature I found one clue
that the 19-CH, might be omitted. Oestradiol
(3, R=H) had been catalytically hydrogenated
(Dirscherl e¢ al., 1936) to an octahydro-derivative
of undefined stereochemistry (5) which was
weakly androgenic. Since this structural type
of A-ring even with the complete skeleton and
m the authentic stereochemical series would not
be expected to confer high activity, it seemed to

A. J. BIRCH

me of great interest to make the 19-nor analogue
(9) of testosterone which contained the cyclo-
hexenone A-ring (nor implies loss of one carbon,
in this case the 19-CH, attached to carbon 10).
My second objective was to omit the 18-CHg,
but this was liable to lead to stereochemical
problems, since the C-D ring-junction is trans
(e.g. in 9) and the stable junction is czs. Most
syntheses would probably involve an_inter-
mediate carbonyl at the 17-position, which
would permit equilibration of the stereoisomers
and would almost certainly lead in consequence
to the unnatural cis C-D junction. A six-
membered D-ring would give a stable trans
C-D junction. A practical objective was there-
fore to make 18, 19-bisnor-D-homotestosterone
(10), retaining a good deal of the overall shape
of the natural molecule.

This intuitive approach is a characteristic
example, leading merely to a suggestion of what
should be submitted to experimental test.
Such intuitions cannot be exercized in the
absence of some known facts; frequently there
are too many facts and the creativity lies in
choosing which are significant in the context.
In the present connection the cyclohexenone
A-ring requirement was fairly obvious, but the
Discherl hydrogenation result, which was critical
to the decisions, was rather obscure and was
deliberately sought in the form of any information

OH

(10)

available on hydrogenated oestrones. The work
of Ehrenstein, discussed below, apparently did
not start from this same point, since he mentions
it in none of his publications, despite an implica-
tion to the effect by Fieser (Fieser and Fieser,
19590).

In 1942 oestrone was available only at a high
price (about £25 per g) but it nevertheless
seemed worthwhile to try to convert it into (9)
to see whether androgenic activity resulted and
whether consequently the further labour of
total synthesis of this and other hormone
analogues was justified. The initial synthetic

CEHEANCEVANDODESIGN: ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

problem was therefore how to obtain from the
oestrone phenolic A-ring the required cyclo-
hexenone A-ring. An objective which could
more immediately be attacked experimentally,
since the starting-material was available, was
to modify the original approach via stilboestrol
analogues to make corresponding cyclohexenones.

_ The reduction of aromatic rings had hitherto
been by two methods: catalytic, using a
transition metal and hydrogen gas, or by sodium
and an alcohol. They both have severe draw-
backs for the present requirements. Catalytic
hydrogenations, such as used by Dirscherl,

GH:

cannot usually be stopped short of saturation,
stereochemistry is unpredictable and frequently
resulting mixtures contain mostly c7zs-isomers,
in this case undesirable. A further drawback is
that oxygenated groups are _ frequently
undesirably removed.

Although unsaturation could theoretically be
reinserted after complete hydrogenation, this
would almost certainly be an inefficient procedure
and direct partial hydrogenation would clearly
be better. In some respects, laziness can be
equated with efficiency : the smaller the number
of stages in a synthesis, the more likely is it to
be efficient. Calculated on the basis of reverse

OH

(15)

105

compound interest: a four-stage synthesis at
80%, per stage gives an overall molecular
efficiency in the product of 41°, and even two
further similar stages reduce this to 26%.
Yields of 80° per stage are normally very good,
and a continued run of them would be unusual
except in the very best synthetic sequences.

The sodium method cannot be used with
monobenzenoid compounds, but its existence
gave the clue to the solution of the problem.
At this time Cornforth and Robinson were
beginning their work on steroid total synthesis
which culminated in 1951 (Cardwell e¢ al., 1951),

CH30
(I)
'
CH30
(12)
'
O

(13)

A key model process was the reduction by sodium
and ethanol of 2-methoxynaphthalene (11) into
a dihydro-derivative (probably mostly 12)
which, as an enol-ether, was hydrolysed by acid
to give the ketone (13) (Cornforth e¢ al., 1942).
A similar reduction of equilenin methyl ether
(14, R=CH3) gave finally (15). I thought at
the time that my problem would be solved if a
similar process could have been carried out on
an (oestradiol ether (e.g. 3, R=CH,) through
(16), reaction of which with acid would yield
first (17) and then the more stable 19-nortesto-
sterone (9). Unfortunately, it was known that
similar reductions of monobenzenoid compounds

106 yal
do not take place. This is now known to be
because of the lower electron affinity of a benzene
compared with a naphthalene ; the first stage of
electron-addition to the aromatic ring does not
take place. A search was then made of the
literature, greatly assisted by a review then
recently published (Campbell and Campbell,
1942) to see whether any chemical rather than
catalytic reduction of monobenzenoid compounds
had been reported other than the special case
of benzoic acids which were well known to be
reducible with sodium. Several very hopeful
results were found.

In 1916 Dumanskui and Zvyerava (Dumansku
and Zvyerava, 1916) showed that benzene was
converted into cyclohexa-1, 4-diene by an
ammoniate of calcium, produced by the action
of ammonia gas on the metal. Kazansku

OH

CH;

(16)

(Kazanskii and Glushner, 1938) later examined
the reaction further, but obtained mainly
cyclohexene with some _ unidentified diene.
Alkylbenzenes similarly were found to give
chiefly —_|-alkylcyclohexenes. Unconjugated
dienes could have been intermediates in the
process since he also showed that these are
further conjugated and reduced, e.g. cyclohexa-l,
4-diene gives cyclohexene. I had _ initially
intended to examine control of this type of
process in an attempt to isolate intermediates,
but a more exciting prospect was based on an
observation of C. B. Wooster (Wooster and
Godfrey, 1937).

Sodium in liquid ammonia, which reacts with
addition to naphthalenes, does not react with
benzenes but Wooster found that if water or
ethanol is added to such a solution containing
benzene, toluene or anisole [methoxybenzene
(18)| reduction occurs. The basic observation
was “accidental”’. Toluene was intended to
be a solvent for adding other substances he
wished to react with sodium in ammonia but
which were insoluble in the reagent. He
recovered the product by adding water, still in

BIRCH

the presence of dissolved metal, and the hydrogen
gas given off was found to be deficient by 2H
for every molecule of toluene used as solvent._
This deficiency also occurred with benzene and
with anisole on similar treatment, and he
correctly deduced that dihydro-aromatic prod-
ucts are formed, although he proved only the
structure of the 1, 4-dihydrobenzene. Measure-
ment of gas evolution was probably made
originally to measure the metal consumption of
his substrate, not of the admixed solvent, but
the observation and deduction were crucial.
Many workers would probably have dismissed
the anomaly, since it was not closely related to
the primary objective.

Wooster stated the anisole product to be
“1, 4-dihydroanisole ’’ which is (19), and which
on reaction with acid would probably give

OH

CH;

(17)

benzene. I thought it more likely to be 2,
5-dihydro-anisole (20), precisely the type of
enol-ether required. Perhaps Wooster merely
intended to indicate an opinion that the hydro-
gens had added para- to each other as with

benzene. He published no more work in the
area.
Accidentally, in connection with another

projected steroid synthesis (Birch and Robinson,
1944) I fortunately had a cylinder of ammonia
in the laboratory. In 1942 it took three months
or more to obtain a cylinder from ICI (Billing-
ham) and I might otherwise well have decided
not to bother to test the possibility in view of
other urgent tasks. After reaction of anisole
(methoxybenzene) with sodium and ethanol in
ammonia, the product, which already had a
different sharp smell, was reacted directly with
Brady’s reagent. This was calculated to
hydrolyse any enol-ether and to form the
2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of the _ cyclo-
hexenone directly. There was an immediate
orange precipitate [the derivative of (21) ] which
slowly changed to vermilion, rapidly on heating,
to give the beautifully crystalline derivative of
(22). It was a very satisfying moment.

CHANCE AND DESIGN : ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

The scope and specificity of the reduction
process was then further examined with available
substituted anisoles. Among the reductions
reported was that of (23), the simple model for
oestrone methyl ether, shown to give (24) the
model for 19-norsteroids. This was published
in 1944 (Birch, 1944) without mention of
steroid work for a number of reasons, one being
that I hoped to continue the steroid line myself.
However, thenceforth it must have been
apparent to a steroid chemist “ skilled in the
art ’’ who made the correct selection from the
available literature what the application to
steroids might be. Despite the large amount of
work I carried out to generalize the procedure as
a synthetic method, its genesis lay in steroid

chemistry as outlined and it was not more or
less accidentally later applied in that area. Its
specificity and the simplicity and cheapness of
the experimental procedure have led to wide
use in sophisticated synthesis in other connec-
tions, e.g. (Birch and Subba Rao, 1972).

With the steroids themselves I had run into
two types of problem: political and practical.
The practical difficulties were the unavailability
of oestrone, or rather of funds to buy it since I
was Officially still working on _ ring-opened
analogues, and the insolubility in ammonia of
the methyl ether, when I finally obtained
500 mg. Such low solubility was true also of
hexoestrol dimethyl ether (25) which I wished
to convert into (26). Insolubility defeated all
reduction attempts. The political problems
were concerned with whether I should have
been carrying out such reductions at all. ICI
(Dyestuffs Division, Blackley) which for some
curious reason was connected with the organiza-
tion of the project, was technically my employer.
I was ordered to stop the reductions because of

E

107

a cartel agreement with Dupont, who held a
Wooster patent. I recall sorting this out at
Blackley with the kind assistance of Dr. H. A.
Piggott, on my first visit to Manchester in 1943,
when the centre of the town was a smoking ruin,
but continuation of the work was not viewed
with favour.

In 1944 a tremendous impetus was given to
the topic by M. Ehrenstein (Ehrenstein, 1944).
His starting point was also the desire to simplify
the skeleton but he set out to make 19-norpro-
gesterone from the natural material digitoxigenin
(27), which differs from most other natural
steroids by having the 19-CH, oxidized to CHO.
Simple mechanisms for its removal and replace-
ment of H can therefore be devised. Although

O
- (21)

OCH;

(20) vox

it was not known for certain at the time, the
conversion procedures produce an unnatural
C-D cis ring-junction and the COCH, at 17-
consequently becomes stabilized in the unnatural
a- instead of the B-configuration (28). The
product initially obtained was amorphous and
a mixture, but was claimed to be as biologically
active as progesterone. Work much later,
published in 1957 (Barber and Ehrenstein,
1957) reported obtaining the major product as
pure (28) which, although of unnatural con-
figuration (cf. 1), is more biologically active
than progesterone itself. Because of the cost
and rarity of digitoxigenin, the process is not a
practical one, but the result led to an expectation
that compounds of the natural stereochemical
series would be of notable biological interest.
Following this demonstration, a number of
steroid chemists realized the desirability of
making authentic 19-norprogesterone but were
unable to devise methods to make it either by
total or partial synthesis.

108

Up to the end of the war, and for some time
afterwards, partly in collaboration with Robin-
son, I was still pursuing methods which might
be practical ones for the synthesis of oestrone.
The closest approach, based on precursors of
(6), was that of isoequilenin methyl ether (Birch
et al., 1945).

Our original wartime project had folded by
this time and I was employed on research
fellowships in Oxford which permitted me to
undertake work independently of Robinson’s

CH, COCHs

HO (27)

OH

interests. Accordingly, I was mainly engaged
on examination of the reduction method, rather
than with steroids which Robinson was still
pursuing. Also I had no oestrone, and no
research assistance. About 1946, William S.
Johnson, then at Madison, wrote to me indicating
that he had also made the appropriate deduc-
tions from the reduction work and was interested
in making 19-norsteroids. With his usual
generous approach, he desisted on learning of
my progress. In 1947, following the first
IUPAC Conference held after the war, I met
Gilbert Stork (now at Columbia University)
and explained my situation. With character-
istic generosity he gave me 5 g of oestrone which
he had obtained from industrial sources.

Ay. BIRCH

Efforts to reduce oestrone methyl ether [or
oestradiol methyl ether (3, R=CH,) into which it

is converted initially by the reduction process]—

had been initially defeated by lack of solubility
in ammonia.
from the cylinder, when it usually contains
impurities such as iron which were later found
to catalyse decomposition of the reducing agent.
Only soluble compounds can compete with this
loss. A. L. Wilds and N: A. Nelsont jas the
result of several years’ study of the experimental

OCH;

0 (26)

conditions, evolved a technique using lithium
instead of sodium which can cope with this
impure ammonia. Using this technique (Wilds
and Nelson, 1953), they were eventually able to
reduce oestrone methyl ether. Providing
purified ammonia is used, the original technique,
particularly with sodium and _ tert-butanol
(Birch, 1944), is effective and an industrial
process (Colton e al., 1957).

In the first synthesis of 19-nortestosterone I
solved the problem in a different way. Alcohols
are usually soluble in ammonia, and using the
B-hydroxyethyl (1, R=CH,CH,OH) or glyceryl
ethers of oestrone, reduction proceeded readily.
The nature of the ether group is unimportant
since it is removed by the acid hydrolysis. I

The ammonia was used direct

a
rd

&

i’

j

CHANCE AND DESIGN: ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

was able also to make greater progress because,
for the first time I received research assistance
in the form of a collaboration with Dr. S. M.
Mukherji, now Professor at Kanpur. With
Stork’s oestrone we were able to carry out the
sequence (3, R=OCH,CH,OH or
OCH,CHOHCH,OH) to (16, R=OCH,CH,OH,
etc.) to the @y-unsaturated ketone (17) and
thence to the objective (9) (Birch and Mukherji,
1949a) about July 1948. We also prepared
(about May 1948) the dione (26) from hexoestrol
dimethyl ether (Birch and Mukherji, 19496).
For structural reasons this undergoes only
partial conjugation, and neither pure (26) nor
the partially conjugated material has androgenic
activity. This result appears to dispose finally
of the initial ring-open approach based on
stilboestrol.

19-Nortestosterone was the first synthetic
potent androgen (Birch, 1950a), in fact it was
the first synthetic hormone other than an
oestrogen if we neglect the weakly active
compound of Dirscherl. Oestrone had been
synthesized in 1948, so according to the rules of
the game, anything made from it counted as
synthetic. Unfortunately this biological
activity was not known when the chemical work
was published in 1950 (Birch and Mukherji,
1949a). The compounds (17) and (9) were both
sent to ICI for testing but were withdrawn at
the urgent request of Sir Robert Robinson and
sent to Sir Charles Dodds at the Courtauld
Institute. This action was unfortunate for two
reasons : it delayed the testing by several years
(until late 1950) and also publication of the
chemical paper which finally was submitted
without the biological results. It also removed
the series from an industrial atmosphere where
exploitation of the biological breakthrough
might have been favoured. One ketone (17)
was found to be slightly oestrogenic (Birch,
1950a), but 19-nortestosterone (9) has a marked
androgenic activity although this is somewhat
lower than that of testosterone.

In January 1949, I went to Cambridge as
Smithson Fellow of the Royal Society. Lord
Todd there generously obtained for me a grant
in 1950 from the Nuffield Foundation and also
gave me an exceptionally able Ph.D. student,
Herchel Smith. By then it was probably basic-
ally too late for us to compete with industrial
laboratories since both objectives and methods
had become obvious. Our first objective was
19-norprogesterone followed by 19-norcortisone,
as foreshadowed in the paper of 1949 (Birch and
Mukherji, 1949a@) and also in the Report of the
Smithson Fellow (September 1950) in the Royal

EE

109

Society Yearbook 1951 (issued in January 1951)
(Birch, 19510). It is perhaps worth quoting (it
first discusses making «($-unsaturated cyclo-
hexenones from phenol ethers). “‘ Almost ali
of the active hormones of the cyclopenteno-
phenanthrene group, including testosterone,
progesterone and cortisone, contain such a
cyclohexenone group, and the method thus
provides a method of synthesizing analogues
from aromatic starting materials. It cannot,
however, directly provide the 19-methyl group
and experiments have been carried out to
determine whether this group is in fact necessary
for physiological activity. The reduction of the
a-oestradiol glyceryl or hydroxyethyl ether
followed by acid hydrolysis and bond-migration
with alkali has provided 10-nortestosterone*
(*naming by the Editor, Chemical Society, now
19-nor). Since this compound is physiologically
active, the methyl group is not necessary, at
least in this case, and the method is being
extended to make 10-nor derivatives of pro-
gesterone and desoxy-corticosterone’’. These
other 19-nor derivatives specifically, of natural
configuration, were therefore conceived in print
although not then made.

Physically, our starting material was still
oestrone and we were in process of adding the
17-COCH, via the 17-C=CH when Carl Djerassi
of Syntex, who had the aromatic progesterone
already available, reported (Miramontes eé al.,
1951) the reduction of its methyl ether by metal-
ammonia solutions, using the Wilds-Nelson
technique, to 19-norprogesterone, and also the
high progestational activity of the product.
This work is dated May 21st, 1951. Further
industrial interest was evinced by Byron Riegel,
then recently appointed research director of
Searle, who visited Herchel Smith and me in
Cambridge in, I think, 1950 to discuss our work
and ideas.

It was in restrospect a mistake for us to drop
the 17-acetylene work because our initial
objective had been reached by others. The
progestational activity of 17«-ethynyl-
testosterone (29, R=CH,) was well known and
the substance had been used medically because
it is more active than natural progesterone,
when given by mouth (Stavely, 1939). It was
therefore logical to attach this known activating
group to the 17-position in the 19-nor series
and also to hope for oral activity. The Syntex
work (Djerassi et al., 1954) on (29, R=H) and
the Searle work (Colton, 1955) for the isomer (30)
are dated 1954. Both compounds are potent
oral progestational agents, and were adopted as
oral contraceptives, chiefly as the result of

110

investigations by Gregory Pincus. It was well
known that progesterone prevents ovulation but
has to be injected. The compounds norethin-
drone, norethisterone (29, R=H) and _ nor-
ethynodrel (30) were, accidentally apart from
the clue noted, highly active when given by
mouth. It is of interest that initially traces of
aromatic oestrogen were left, from incomplete
reduction, which potentiate the activity and
later were deliberately added (norinyl, enovid).

In another account of the industrial develop-
ment (Djerassi, 1966), Djerassi makes the
statement “‘ The likelihood that the absence of
the angular methyl group was associated with
high biological activity became more remote
when .. . Birch described the synthesis of
19-nortestosterone . . . which exhibited con-
siderably lower androgenic activity than the

OH
"1C=CH

(29)

parent hormone’. This is a misunderstanding
of the resulting situation. In fact Djerassi notes
elsewhere (Djerassi e¢ al., 1954) after mentioning
the lower activity of 19-nortestosterone “‘ Since
the mechanism of androgenic and progestational
activity is not necessarily comparable it appeared
of very considerable interest to synthesize
19-norprogesterone ’’. The importance of the
19-nortestosterone activity was that it indicated
that the 19-nor series, the first with an altered
carbon nucleus, showed very considerable
activity in at least one hormonal series with
highly structure-sensitive relationships. It was
well-known that a change in activity produced by
a particular structural alteration in one hormonal
series is not usually parallel to change in another
series. The matter of higher or lower activity
in the progestational and cortical series was thus
completely open, and it was clear that what was
needed experimentally was to attach known
activating groups for different hormonal series
to the 17-position, followed by biological tests.
In the 19-nor series compared with the natural
series the progestational analogues were found
to have higher activities, the anabolic analogues
to be about as active, and the cortical analogues

A. J. BIRCH

to have almost no activity. However important
in other areas, the work would not have led to
anything useful for fighter pilots. =
In telling this history there is an element of
selection on the basis of what became important.
Other ideas and lines of work to overcome
synthetic problems discussed above were simul- |
taneously conducted. The major lines con-
cerned the introduction of angular methyl
groups and the stereospecific synthesis of ring-A
aromatic steroids with useful 17-substituents
including new methods of closing rings. In line
with my interest in general methods rather than
in specific syntheses the reactions were initially
more successful than the resulting syntheses.
Three early methods of producing quaternary
carbon atoms of scope beyond the original
intention, emerged: (i) the methylanilino-

OH
11C=CH

CH;

(30)

methylene blocking group which I devised in
1943 (Birch and Robinson, 1944a@) which
permits substitution in the angle of rings at the
CH centre of—-CHCOCH,—(rather than in the
CH,) which led in our hands to isoequilenin
(Birch e¢ al., 1945); (ii) the copper-catalyzed
addition of Grignard reagents (Birch and
Robinson, 1943), developed from an observation
of Kharasch (Kharasch and Tawney, 1941),
which gave cis-9-methyldecalone from 2-octalone.
The wrong stereochemistry of the process led to
its neglect in the steroid connection, but later
work, especially in the LiCuR, development, has
had many uses; (iii) the alkylation of the
correct enolate anions of «-unsaturated ketones,
e.g. (31)—(32) (Birch e¢ al., 1952), developed
from my initial work on this ‘type of deconjuga-
tion process, the prototype being the conversion
of cholest-4-en-3-one into cholest-5-en-3-one
(Birch, 19500), a necessary step in the total
synthesis of cholesterol.

The ideas of stereochemical control were still
rather primitive and based on equilibration of
6-6 ring junctions to the fvans or steroid
configuration. One example is the synthesis of
(33) below, in which all of the asymmetric centres

CHANCE AND DESIGN : ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

(8, 9, 14, 17) are equilibratable (adjacent or
vinylic to carbonyl) (Birch and Robinson, 1944).
This is not pursued for two reasons: the
problem of placing a useful group at 17- and
the failure of additions to the unsaturated
carbonyl system.

A ring-closure process which can only be
briefly noted, but the discovery of which was
also accidental in an interesting way, was the
first use of polyphosphoric acid as a general
cyclising agent for arylpropionic and butyric
acids (Birch e al., 1945). It was later re-
discovered in an equally interesting and
accidental manner (Snyder and Werber, 1950).

)

MeO

Also, Herchel Smith and I continued to make
the 18-nor and 18, 19-bisnor and D-homo- series
(Birch and Smith, 1956). Our work and that
of others, particularly of Gilbert Stork (Stork
et al., 1959) showed that removal of the 18-CH,
even with the correct stereochemistry is
catastrophic for any kind of activity. Two out
of the three of our original bases for action thus
provied to be invalid. Much later Herchel
Smith (Smith e al., 1964), taking into account
the loss of activity by removal of the 18-CH,
and effectively standing the 19-nor result on its
head, inserted an extva CH, on the 18-carbon (to
give an ethyl group). The resulting series,
related to norethindrone, proved to be the most
highly progestational known, and the compound
norgestrel forms a very successful low-dosage
contraceptive pill.

O @)
Me
©
‘ee =
(31)
E oS
Que
MeO

did

As a matter of some pride, although at present
of no practical importance, in completing the
original task I did eventually succeed in finding
out how to insert the missing CH, groups and
how to make use of intermediates in the original
Robinson synthesis of (2). Inserting the 19-CH,
turned out to be very simple (Birch e¢ al., 1964).
The type of process used for (16) was employed
to make (34) which on reaction with dichloro-
carbene gave (35, R=Cl) which was reduced to
(35, R=H), converted by acid into andro-
stenedione (36). Since oestrone is now readily
synthesized by a process due to Ananchenko
and Torgov (Ananchenko and Torgov, 1959) in

(32)

=

sy (33)

Russia and to Herchel Smith in Manchester
(Douglas et al., 1963), this efficient procedure, or
related ones, could be used for practical total
syntheses of non-aromatic steroids. Our inser-
tion of the 18-CH, and consequent synthesis of
oestrone from precursors of (6) (Birch and Subba
Rao, 1970) is of no practical interest compared
to the Torgov-Smith procedure but completes
the sequence back to the original Robinson
synthesis with which we started in 1941.

What general points are there to make?
One is the obvious role of accident, although to
interpret Goethe and Pasteur, accident tends to
favour only those who have the attitude of mind
to take advantage of it. The creative process
involves the choice of significant features from
numbers of facts, and I have tried to indicate

112

the conscious part of this process in the present
connection. It is also a demonstration of the
oblique nature of attainment of unpredictable
objectives. The initial conscious objective, the
synthesis of useful corticoids, was not achieved,
but the need generated in that area was trans-
ferred to a new but related area. The require-
ment was to simplify synthesis, and a logical
analysis of the situation led to a selection of
literature results culminating in the metal-
ammonia procedure. This in turn had much
more general application, including at least one
initially unexpected impact back in the steroid
field due to its stereospecificity. The high oral
activity in the progestational series of the new

(36)

nucleus was accidental, although Ehrenstein’s
work was a good indicator of probable high
activity. The fact that I was not encouraged
initially to pursue this line of work is an indica-
tion of how difficult it was to foresee develop-
ments. No patents were taken out initially on
19-norsteroids chiefly because it appeared that
they were likely to be much more expensive than
the 19-Me series. Probably universities should
be better organized to take advantage, materially,
of breakthroughs of this type.

However, accidentally, I am pleased that, to
quote a Chemical Society Christmas competition,
the Birch Reduction ultimately became a birth
reduction.

A.J, BIRCH

References

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BircuH, A. J., and SuBBA Rao, G., 1972.
Organic Chemistry. (Ed. E. C. Taylor.)
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Bircu, A. J., BRown, J. M., and SuspBa Rao, G. S. R.,
1964. J. Chem. Soc., 3309.

Advances in
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2S ry

CHANCE AND DESIGN: ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

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CARDWELL, H. M. E., CoRNForTH, J. W., DuFF, S. R.,

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Research School of Chemistry,

The Australian National University,
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113

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MIRAMONTES, L., ROSENKRANZ, G., and DJERAssI, C.,
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DJERASSI, C., MIRAMONTES, L., and ROSENKRANZ,
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NARASIMHA Rao P., and AXELROD, L. A.,
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SmitH, H., HuGues, G. A., Douctas, G. H., WENDT,
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McMENAMIN, J., Parrison, T. W., PHILLIPs, P. C.,
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ToKo.Lics, J., and Watson, D. H. P., 1964.
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SNYDER, H. R., and WERBER, F. X., 1950.
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STAVELY, H. E., 1939. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 61,79.

SToRK, G., Kuastair, H. N., and Soro, A. |J., 1958.
J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 80, 6457. cf. Jouns, W. F.,
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1965.

J. Amer.

Wixtps, A. L., and Nrtson, N. A., 1953. J. Amer.
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Chem. Soc., 59, 596.
WS. Patent: 2-182 242.

cf. Wooster, C. B., 1939.
Chem. Abs., 34, 1993.

(Received 17.7.1974)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 114-115, 1974

Extremally Disconnected Topological Groups

SIDNEY A. MORRIS AND ALFRED J. VAN DER POORTEN

ABSTRACT-—It is shown that a metrizable extremally disconnected topological space is
This general result is applied to show that a non-discrete finitely generated nilpotent
topological group with a subgroup topology is not extremally disconnected.

discrete.

1. Introduction

Arhangelskii [1] has shown that every
compactly generated extremally disconnected
topological group is finitely generated (a
topological space is said to be extremally dis-
connected if the closure of every open set is
open). It is not clear, however, whether there
exists a non-discrete finitely generated
extremally disconnected topological group.

We show that if an extremally disconnected
topological space is metrizable then it is discrete
(indeed it is sufficient that the space have a
countable basis of open sets at each point) ; this
result does appear to be known in the folklore
but no elegant proof seems accessible. We
apply this general result to the investigation of
extremally disconnected topological groups in
order to conclude that a finitely generated
nilpotent topological group with a subgroup
topology is not extremally disconnected, unless
it is discrete.

A topological group with an open basis at the
identity consisting of subgroups, that is, with a
subgroup topology, clearly is “rather discon-
nected ”’ in the sense that each set in the open
basis is open and closed. It therefore seems
reasonable to search for examples of extremally
disconnected groups among the subgroup top-
ologies. The negative conclusions reached tend
to suggest that a subgroup topology on any
group will not be extremally disconnected unless
it is discrete.

2.

Theorem: Vf X is a metrizable extremally
disconnected topological space then it is discrete.

Proof: Since X is metrizable, for each point
xeX there is a sequence W,,W,, . . . of open
neighbourhoods of x such that W,,W,, ...is a
base of neighbourhoods at x. As X is extremally
disconnected each W, is open, so W,,W,, . . . is
an open basis at x.

Without loss of generality we can therefore
assume that W,,W,, . . . are open and closed

sets, that they are an open basis at x and that
So we have W,.,—W,UT) WW, 6 ane
IT; 1S open.

Let L be the even natural numbers, and M@

the odd natural numbers: Define S—.U 73
leL

We assert that (a) @S= U 7, U {x} and (b) S is

leM

an open set whose closure is not open unless
{x} is open and X is thus discrete (where
@S=X\S is the complement of these 15):

To see (a) simply note that X is the disjoint
union U 7, U {x}. To see: (b): note that 7s
n=1

contains a non-trivial open set containing {x}

then @S2>W, for somez. So @S contains T, for

all />7 which clearly contradicts the definition

of S. Hence the interior of GS is50-f ce
leM

S= U T,U {x} (where S is the closure of S).
leL

Similar reasoning shows that S contains no

non-trivial open set containing {x} so S is not
open unless {x} itself is open. Consequently, if
X is extremally disconnected then {x} must be
open. Since this argument holds for all xeX we
see that X is discrete.

”)

Remark: In the theorem “ metrizable
be replaced by “ first countable ”’.

can

3.

We apply the general result to topological
groups with a subgroup topology.

Proposition: Every Hausdorff subgroup top-
ology on a finitely generated nilpotent group G
is metrizable.

Proof: Gis metrizable if there exists a countable
open basis at the identity. This is certainly
the case if G has only countably many subgroups
but any subgroup of a finitely generated nilpotent
group is finitely generated (see [2; at p. 182})

and there are only a countable number of finite |
subsets of G.

EXTREMALLY DISCONNECTED TOPOLOGICAL GROUPS

Corollary : No non-discrete Hausdorff subgroup
topology on a finitely generated nilpotent group
is extremally disconnected.

Remarks :

1. In the proposition and its corollary the

words “ finitely generated nilpotent ”’ can
be replaced by “ supersoluble’”’ (see [2 ; at
p. 212)).

2. Noting that a quotient group of an
extremally disconnected group with a
subgroup topology is extremally discon-
nected our results extend to a somewhat
larger class of groups than is explicitly
mentioned.

4,

The technique employed in the proof of
the theorem can be adapted to prove more
general propositions. We illustrate such a
generalization by means of an example which
shows incidentally that metrizability is certainly
not a necessary condition for the result of the
theorem.

Example: Let F,(X) be-the vector space over
the field F,, of two elements with basis an
uncountable set X,; and let the subspaces
F(X Y) where Y is a jfimite subset of X be an

School of Mathematics,
The University of New South Wales,
Kensington, N.S.W., 2033, Australia.

115

open basis at 0 for the topology of the additive
STOuUp wit. = Lhent (4). .1s, nob. metmzabple:
Let 41,%5;. .. be a sequence of distinct elements
of X and write

Wo=F A(X), Wy=Fo(X\ {%4}),
Wy= F(X \ {%4,%9}),
Upven 1G — gegen ON
n=1
open set in (XxX).
As in the proof of the theorem we write
TP —=W NW, and consider the sets™,5— ea 1
and @S= i TUK, Wefind that 1.7 “KV

Siemally ndigeonneeted then we obtain the
contradiction that AK contains an open subgroup
and so is open.

..}) IS* not .an

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to thank Dr.
for his helpful comments.

DD: Co Aant

References

ARHANGEL’SKII, A. Y., 1968. Mappings Related to
Topological Groups. Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR.

Tom 181., No. 6.
MacDONaLpD, [an D., 1968. The Theory of Groups.
Oxford.

(Received 6.12.1973)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 107, pp. 116-121, 1974

Floppy Rulers and Light Pens—Reactor Mathematical Aids*

JOHN POLLARD

ApstRAcT—Much of present day nuclear reactor mathematics is concerned with numerical

methods which require the use of giant digital computers.
ago sturdy rulers and ink pens were used as graphical aids to computation.

Even as little as a quarter of a century
These aids, or at least

their computer analogues, still play a part in computation, although the present fashion is to use

floppy rulers and light pens.

1, Preamble
If I were to tell you that I intend to talk
about solution of the neutron reactor diffusion
equation, even in the simplest form,

1a
—y Dyg+op=—= =
in the reactor material .. (1)
n.DYyp+ap=0
on the reactor boundary .. (2)

(where D, co, v and a are known, outward
normal and go, the neutron flux, is required to
be calculated as a function of space and time
(¢)) then I am sure you would not want to stay.
I will, therefore, talk about minor matters that
are, nevertheless, part of the procedure used
in solving the above equations (for a somewhat

@ Experimental Points
Straight Line Approximation

x

FIGURE 1.—A straight line fit to experimental data.

more general form see Pollard 1974) when using
a giant digital computer. We will use such
everyday objects as rulers and pens, and
computer analogues of these, to bring some
focus on ideas of mathematics pertinent to the
use of digital computers for nuclear reactor
computation.

* Presidential Address delivered to the Royal
Society of New South Wales at Science House, Glouc-
ester Street, Sydney, on April 3, 1974.

2. Sturdy Rulers

You are all familiar with the old foot ruler.
Perhaps you have used one to draw in a line
of best fit to some experimental data. The
idea here is that the ruler is moved around on a
plot of the data until the eye is satisfied with
the fit as in Figure 1.

Maybe you have even tried to fit a straight
line, or several straight lines, to some other
continuous function as in Figure 2.

Well, a digital computer does not usually
include as part of its working parts, so-called
‘“hardware’’, a ruler or an eye, so we must
simulate these in order to use the machine for
the type of approximation task briefly indicated
so far.

Given Function
Straight Line Approximation

Approximation with
Several Straight Lines

x

FiGuRE 2.—A straight line fit to a given function.

2.1 Sturdy ruler simulation

Simulation of a ruler is easy as any father of
a high school student knows. We simply have

V(X) SEO ee re (3)

with m=slope and c=intercept for the line.
A digital computer can add and multiply, hence
the above is easy to set as a task or “ program ”’
for the machine to calculate.

FLOPPY RULERS AND LIGHT PENS—REACTOR MATHEMATICAL AIDS

2.2 Simulation of the eye

A mathematical analogue for an eye requires
in its simplest form a measure of size of a
function—that is, how big is a function? We
extend the idea of size of a number x, which is
simply the absolute value (magnitude) of the
number, |x|. Mathematicians delight in the
expressiveness of notation and since the size of
a function y(x) is a generalization of the absolute
value we write for it |||| and we call it a norm.
Fortunately, when we make the generalization,
many different norms exist. We might even
say that our simulated eye sees things differently
with different norms. One possible approach
is to take the maximum value of the function
y(x) for a certain interval of x, say [a,b], then

{|y|]| =maximum |y(x)|. .... (4)
xela, 5]
Figure 3 illustrates the idea involved here.
y
yl
qa b x

FIGURE 3.—A norm of a function.

Fairly readily we see that our norm ||y|| given
by equation (4) satisfies the desirable size
properties (Kantorovich and Akilov, 1964).

1. (a) |lyl|>0, 1. (6) |ly||=0 implies y—0,

2. |ley|| =el|y|

3. ||y+ez|| <||y|]-+]]z|| (“ triangle inequality ’’).

Using the above mathematical equipment we
are able to measure the nearness of two functions
g(x) and y(x) through the norm ||g—y||, the
size of the difference between the two functions.
We may then simulate our eye fit by the mathe-
matically precise, and computer feasible, process
of calculating that y,(x) is closer to g(x) than
Vm(*) when

for c a positive constant, and

eval MNS = rll...)
The best fit of a class of functions y,,(x) to a
given function g(x) is then the particular function
y,(*) for which

\|g—y,,|| minimum (Meinardus, 1967) (6)

117

3. Ink Pens

Most of us are no doubt familiar with the
idea of graphical display of data. At a glance,
a graph is able to convey the general trend of
behaviour of, say, a function ¢(¢) plotted against
t. Nowadays, it is fashionable and extremely
useful to have graphs plotted automatically
from results produced on a computer. Figures
(4) to (6) illustrate the versatility of such
automatic graph plotting. The results plotted
are for the solution of a more general form of
equation (1) from calculations on the AAEC
reactor MOATA when a safety rod is suddenly
dropped into the fuel in one half of the reactor
in order to shut the reactor down, o(t)—+0
(Pollard, 1974). Figure 4 is a plot carried out
by fifth form high school students at a recent
AAEC Summer School (Barry e¢ al., 1974).

4, Floppy Rulers

In Figure 2 we notice that, as an approxima-
tion to the given function, we obtained a better
fit, as measured by our norms, when two straight
lines were used. We could obviously join
together many straight lines, but the resulting
many cornered approximation would not be
acceptable to our human eye as it would lack
smoothness. Draftsmen have been able to
achieve this smoothness property in their
drawing of curves by using thin beams of
flexible wood or plastic called splines—these are
our floppy rulers. Figure 7 shows the idea of
using a spline to achieve a smooth fit to a set of
exact data points, g(x%,) with x;(=@) <x, 28
<%,(—)).

4.1 Floppy ruler simulation

Now when the spline is only bent slightly to
pass through the given points, the potential
energy 1s proportional to

b a2 2
{ i dx (Handscomb, 1966) .... (7)
AAA

and the shape taken up by the spline minimizes

d*y

7 (for small

the above. Since mathematically

aNie,
slopes 2) is a measure of curvature, that is

extent of bending, we could say that the spline
enables a curve to be drawn through the points

which minimizes curvature or is the smoothest
curve through the points.

11g JOHN POLLARD

4.2 Simulation of the eye with smoothness
discernment

In section 2.2 we sought a mathematical

analogue of an eye based on the size of a

function (equation (4)). Here we want to

specify a smoothness measure—how about the

through the given points and y(x) is the spline
through the points then

lIylle<{lgllz- + +++++-- (9) —

In fact, if the given points are obtained from a
smooth-looking function g(x) then the spline
fit is even smoother! We accept our candidate
as an ‘‘eye’”’ with suitable discrimination,
although we must not take smoothness as an
universally desirable property.

candidate
tz b 2 1
\ d*y d i ?
— < BATE No eee, ag aaa 8
UIE it A dx2 ) ( )
MORATA SAFETY ROD DROP WITH RHO.C AND GP= -1.158 2.298 @
12 3 Cs SGU eg i
4
10 F
[
iP
2 ma
L
|
gE

L
1

12 ee
g

4) 12d 158 rata)

200 320 358 0)

Veith Ou)

FicuRE 4.—MOATA flux o(¢t); approximation y=0

Our desirable size properties (1) to (3) of section
2.2 are met, provided we accept the lapse that

(1. (b)) |lyll2=0 implies y(x) =mx-e
(an arbitrary straight line).
You could almost say that our new eye cannot
see straight lines and, consequently, mathe-
maticians term our candidate a pseudo-norm.
In addition the minimum potential energy
condition (7) tells us that if g(x) is any curve

An interesting property of our spline y(x) and
pseudo-norm |||], is that

lg —vI1R=llgl13—Ilyll3 (Holladay, 1957), (10)
which immediately gives us condition (9) :
ll 3=Hl3118—lle—vIl5 < Mle.

4.3 Spline functions
You might reasonably ask “what is this
spline function y(x)?”’ It turns out (Ahlberg,

Nilson and Walsh, 1967) that y(x) is no at
polynomial but rather consists of neighbouring
smooth joining cubic polynomials with each
cubic holding between neighbouring data points
(“ knots ’’), say corresponding to x; and %;,;

3
and with a possible jump in a at the knots.

dx3
We have
(x) a,x? +04" +¢,%+d;, Xj;<K Xj 44 (11)
and the constants may be determined from the
conditions

oe. <on x <&
ei So SSS
yA

FiGuRE 5.—MOATA flux 9(%,,t=0.)

2.
(1) continuity of y, ay

an 72 at the internal

knots

(2) interpolation through the given data
points

Y(%i)=8(%;), 7=L2,..., 0,

(3) specification of two arbitrary end con-

ditions, one at each end x, and x,, say

and

Calculation of the coefficients is not a difficult
task as the process may be reduced to solution of
a tridiagonal set of equations, readily solvable
using a forward elimination and backward
substitution scheme (Ahlberg, Nilson and Walsh,
1967).

The advantage of spline approximation over
polynomial approximation employing neigh-

FLOPPY RULERS AND LIGHT PENS—REACTOR MATHEMATICAL AIDS

119

bouring straight lines, quadrics, etc., up to a
polynomial of order n—1 through 7 data points,
is its greater insensitivity to the dropping of
data points and its ability to uniformly approxi-
mate not only the function but also the low
order derivatives of the function.

A generalization of the spline approximation
briefly outlined here, which attempts only to
pass near experimentally inexact data points
rather than to pass through each one, is used
in reactor studies for producing smooth fits to

y

9 (Xp)

g(x,)

X, (=a) x, (=b)

FIGURE 7. A spline fit to a set of exact data points.

basic cross section data o as a function of
reacting neutron energy (Parker, 1970). A
further generalization of the idea to surface
smoothing is used in vehicle body design and,

120

indeed, one of the earliest applications for
splines was in the “ fairing”’ of ship lines
(Theilheimer and Starkweather, 1961).
Figure 8 shows a spline fit to an idealized
neutron resonance cross section
1

a(x) See with knots at

KO a pow va Oe aes

oe ee @ © © © © eo oe we we ew ew

In the plot the actual cross section o(%) and the
spline fit essentially coincide. A comparison

JOHN POLLARD

(TV) screen for viewing and may be photo-
graphed for later perusal. Here we meet a
device, a light pen, which in essence may—
communicate to the computer by drawing
actions carried out with the pen in near contact
to the cathode ray screen. Some pens emit a
light beam for user orientation, but communica-
tion to the computer is by the pen detecting the
dynamic light changes of the phosphor glow on
the screen with subsequent pulse signal trans-
mission to the computer. Use of a light pen
opens up a new mode of communication to a

PLOT OF 1/7(€1+X*XJ CASTERISKS),SPLINECSOLID LINE) AND POLYNOMIALCDOTTED LINE)

7 cara)

0.8

0.6 F

f
\ i)
= ' ' ' a es
G.2 FE ‘ y t i ‘7 yh -
1 i]

Usa =T; Tens T ara pat

Ina T f Tae
'

1
‘

-6.8 -4,0 -2,0

F '
; )
—
> ' H i '
\ ‘
i ,
- ; 1
H ' ‘
' } ’ : !
1 ! \ ' '
H , ‘ 1
‘ } ’ 1 ) 1
1 H 1 j '
a } ’ : ' ' 1
Ww, 1 H 1 3 ) '
i Y , ' '
'
1 1 s } :
! '
1 , ' ' 1
1 1 1 i 1
1 \
1 \ ' '
\ ; 1
i : \ i i
) 4 ? ‘ f
1 i \ 1 '
. i , { !
1 1 1 ' : 1
‘ ' 1
\ ‘i \ ) i \
: f \ \ ’
‘
1 Fi ’ t !
'
5 4 ) ' '
‘ F 1 ! i
1
La ' . ' ' !
H.6 =f rue 4 1 ee Lar Le L ob ood BESS ar ees Bes Peer

2.8 2.0 4,8 6.8 3.8

FIGURE 8.—An idealized neutron resonance cross section.

plot is also given of the (Lagrangian) polynomial
of degree 16 that passes through the same knots
—note that the off scale peaks are c=4°-8 and
o=——50!

Full marks to floppy rulers—the advantage
of the spline approximation over polynomial
approximation is indeed marked for the example
given. In general, the advantage is not as
pronounced as indicated here.

5. Light Pens
In section 3 on Ink Pins we were introduced
briefly to computer driven graph plotting. The
graphs may also be produced on a cathode ray

computer—we can communicate with each
other through pictures !

Use of a TV screen and light pen enables
new approaches to be adopted when using a
computer. Draughtsmen can recall a drawing
to be modified and quickly make the change
using the light pen. Copies of the new drawing
can then be obtained for distribution. Civil
engineers can simulate driving along a road as
yet still only in the planning stages. The
blending of the road with the countryside can
be assessed. Mechanical engineers can simulate
the flight of aircraft. Body surface shapes can
be quickly changed and new computer assess-
ments tackled. Nuclear physicists can judge

FLOPPY RULERS AND LIGHT PENS—REACTOR MATHEMATICAL AIDS

the smoothness of their fits to neutron cross
sections, o. New “ knots’’ may be chosen and
new fits obtained. This rapidly developing
field of ‘“‘computer graphics’ offers not only
picture presentation of already understood
phenomena but, because of its interactive
nature (men and computer working together),
new insights can be gained into the phenomena
being studied. The extensive book by Parslow
and Green (1971) shows further applications
covering a wide range of disciplines. Figure 9
is a photograph of the type of equipment being
used for computer graphics work.

121

References

AHEBERG, J. H., Nivson,.. Ek. N7j-and “WALSH, J. L:
1967. The Theory of Splines and Their Applica-
tions. Academic Press, New York.

BARRY, J. oMi,- CLANCY.) Ey @GIGBERD,>C:2P Nice
CULLocH, DD; Bt, POLLARD, j.02.). and SANGpRe
P. L. 1974. A Mathematician’s Computer Study
of the Reactor MOATA. AAEC Summer School
Report S15.

HANDscomB, D. C., 1966. Spline Functions. Hands-
comb, D.C. (Ed.). Methods of Numerical A pprox-
amation. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 163.

Hotuapay, J. C., 1957. A Smoothest Curve Approx-

imation. Math. Tables Aids Computation, 11, 233.
KANTOROVICH, L. V., andt AKILov,! G. Py? 1963)
Functional Analysis in Normed Spaces. Pergamon

Press, Oxford.

FiGuRE 9.—The IBM2250 display.

6. What Next ?

It is to be expected that sometime during
their school life present kindergarten children
will use digital computers. The teaching aid
could consist of a TV screen, light pen and
typewriter, all connected to a computer. Not
only mathematics, but perhaps unexpected
subjects, geography, economics and geology,
will use the teaching aid.

Acknowledgements

The slide and film presentation made use of
material from the Australian Atomic Energy
Commission Research Establishment (Lucas
Heights), Meterological Bureau (Canberra) and
International Business Machines (Canberra).
Thanks are expressed to the people who made
this material available.

MEINARDUS, G., 1967. Approximation of Functions :
Theory and Numerical Methods. Springer-Verlag,
New York,

PARKER, K., 1970. Experience with Cubic Splines in
the Graduation of Neutron Cross Section Data.
Hayes, J. G. (Ed.). Numerical Approximation to
Functions and Data. Athlone Press, London, 107.

PARSLow, KR. D.,- and’ GREEN. CR.) 2. (dye 9 7a
Advanced Computer Graphics. Plenum Press,
London

POLLARD, J. P., 1974. Solution of Neutron Diffusion
Equations. Anderssen, R. S., and Watts, R. O.
(Ed.). Computational Methods in Mathematical
Physics, Australian National University Seminar,
December 1973 (to be published).

THEILHEIMER, F., and STARKWEATHER, W., 1961. The
Fairing of Ship Lines on a High-Speed Computer.
Math. Computation, 15, 338.

A.A.E.C. Research Establishment,
Lucas Heights,
New South Wales.

(Received 10.6.1974)

122

Review of Society’s Activities

Royal Society of New South Wales Dinner*
Wednesday, 20th March, 1974

President and Members of the Royal Society of New
South Wales, Ladies and Gentlemen :

Thank you for your invitation to my wife and myself
to join you at your dinner tonight in The Sydney
Opera House. I think that this arrangement is an
imaginative one, and no doubt Sir Philip Baxter would
have been a supporter of the idea. The Opera House
gives excitement and charm to Sydney and is an
outstanding feat of architecture and scientific construc-
tion—a feat which you have recognized in your publica-
tion last year. This story of The Opera House and its
complexities is, I think, of considerable interest, and
no doubt will become a valuable item in your library,
particularly to future members who will wish to look
back on the challenge of constructing a building which
stretched technology in some respects to its limit.

IT am also pleased to be here in the capacity of one of
your two patrons, and am conscious of the close links
between the Royal Society of New South Wales and
the Governors of this State since you first formed the
Philosophical Society of Australasia on the 4th July,
1821, and asked the incoming Governor, Major-General
Sir Thomas Brisbane, on the 14th November of that
year to accept the Presidency of the infant body. It
is interesting to note that Brisbane had only arrived
in the Colony a week before, on the 7th November,
and he must have replied immediately to the Society’s
letter of the 14th, because he accepted two days later
and attended his first meeting on the 2nd January,
1822. Today the rules of vice-regal patronage would
prevent a governor accepting the invitation of such a
newly formed body, no matter how learned its members
and how estimable its aims.

Brisbane, of course, was noted for his interest in
astronomy, an interest which he developed after nearly
being involved in a shipwreck in 1795. In 1808 he
built at Brisbane House, the second observatory in
Scotland, and had been a member of the Royal Society
of London since 1810. His friend, Arthur Wellesley,
the Duke of Wellington, when asked about Brisbane
on one occasion replied that he “ kept the time of the
army ’’. He was, however, a competent officer, and
as Governor introduced a number of reforms in the
Colony. He experimented in the growing of Virginian
tobacco, Georgian cotton, Brazilian coffee and New
Zealand dax, but without much success. He had much
more success in commencing an observatory at Parra-
matta near his residence, and was obviously the man
to be offered the Presidency of the Society. It is
interesting that he equipped the observatory at his
own expense, buying books and instruments, and
engaging two astronomical assistants, Charles Rumker
and James Dunlop. Brisbane took a detailed interest
in your Society, to such an extent that when it was

* Address delivered by His Excellency the Governor
of New South Wales, Sir Roden Cutler, V.C., K.C.M.G.,
CV OVC Bik.

ae

«

proposed that a commemorative tablet be erected at
Kurnell to mark the point of landing of Cook, he made
two special trips from Parramatta to Sydney, but on
the first occasion, Botany Bay was too rough to risk a
crossing from the north to the south shore, and so
apparently the Governor and members of the Society
had a picnic lunch and decided to return a week later.
On this occasion the weather was favourable and the
tablet was affixed to a rock on the shore above sea
level. The inscription said: ‘‘ Under the Auspices of
British Science, these Shores were Discovered by James
Cook and Joseph Banks, the Columbus and Myecaenas
of their time. This spot once saw them ardent in the
pursuit of knowledge. Now, to their memory, this
tablet is inscribed in the first year of the Philosophical
Society of Australasia ’’. I don’t know whether the
Plaque is still there, but I attended the Cook
Bi-Centenary Celebrations at Kurnell in 1970 and did
not remember any reference to the plaque.

The Founding Society was very firm in its rules,
and laid down that each of its original seven members
had to produce a monthly paper under penalty of £10;
no refreshments were to be introduced except tea and
coffee under penalty of £5; the Society was to meet
every Wednesday at each other’s house in Sydney in
rotation, and if not present within a quarter of an hour
of the time of seven o’clock, there was a fine of five
shillings. Mr. Wollstonecraft was excused from one
meeting because of attendance at a friend’s funeral in
the country, but was fined when he accepted the
Governor’s invitation to dine at Government House
rather than fulfil his obligation to attend a meeting.
Whether or not this reached the Governor’s ears I do
not know, but for the July meeting in 1822, the
Governor invited all members of the Society to dinner
to mark the anniversary.

The Philosophical Society of Australasia ceased to
function early in 1823, apparently because colonial
politics, particularly concerning free settlers and
emancipists, and Brisbane’s instructions following upon
Commissioner Biggs’ inquiry into affairs of the Colony
left, in the words of a member, Barron field, “‘ A
baneful atmosphere of distracted politics ’’ in which the
Society “‘soon expired’’. There was a revival on the
19th, January, 1850, when Charles Nicholson and Henry
Grattan Douglass founded the Australian Philosophical
Society with the object of encouraging such research
as should help in developing the Colony’s material
resources. Obviously the Society’s name was causing
some difficulty, because in June of that year it was
changed to “‘ Australian Society ’’, and again in August
to the ‘“‘ Australian Society for the encouragement of
arts, science, commerce and agriculture’’. It is no
wonder that with a name like that the Society ceased to
function after five years, in 1855.

Again, it was probably due to the encouragement of
the then Governor that the Society was reformed as
the Philosophical Society of New South Wales on the

REVIEW TOR SOCIETY'S /ACTIVITIES

30th July, 1855. Sir William Denison, who was an
engineer of some merit, read a paper at the first meeting
entitled ‘“‘ The development of the railway system in
England, with suggestions as to its application to the
Colony of New South Wales ’’. He continued to write
articles for the Philosophical Society, and indeed
regarded this activity as compensating for what he
described as the ‘“‘ work (of the Government) being
taken out of my hands”’ by the formation of a Legis-
lative Council. I should not have thought that my
distinguished predecessor was a man of humour, but
one of the papers which he read was “ On the dental
system of mollusca’’. (It occurs to me that I might
read this paper if I am ever asked again to the oyster
farmers’ luncheon.) He also took a great interest in
the grounds of Government House and sought the
advice of Professor John Smith of Sydney University,
and one of the members of the Society’s council, as to
the composition of the soil in the Government House
gardens and what fertilizers should be used. The
Society holds a letter which Sir William Denison wrote
to the Professor in October, 1858, in which he solemnly
(and perhaps again without humour) sent ‘“ Dear
Smith ”’ several bags of soil and invited him to dine at
Government House to discuss the matter.

The Philosophical Society of New South Wales was
said to be in a “ languishing condition ” in 1865, and
therefore in November of that year the members sought
permission to change the name to “ Royal Society of
New South Wales ’’, and again this would have involved
the Governor, Sir John Young, in obtaining Royal
consent in September, 1866. In 1881 an Act of
Parliament of New South Wales incorporated the
Society. From that day the Society has continued its
learned work and investigations, and I think that one
of its most valuable functions has been the keeping of
alibrary. The papers which are written by its members
are carefully filed and are available with other books
and documents for study and research.

123

The Royal Society of New South Wales may not be
as widely known as it deserves, nor may its functions
be fully understood. However, there is encouragement
in the fact that in the last year your membership has
increased by 60 to 402, and it must be remembered that
the real value of your Society is in the learned qualifica-
tions of your membership, not in the total number.
The medals which you award are held in high regard,
and include the Clarke Medal, which has been given for
the last 96 years for work in the field of natural sciences.
There are others, such as the Walter Burfitt Medal for
contributions to science and, since 1947, The James
Cook Medal for contributions to science and human
welfare in the southern hemisphere. The medal
named after Edgeworth David is awarded to younger
scientists for contributions in learning. These medals
are a valuable source of encouragement to workers in
these fields.

The purpose of the Society becomes increasingly
important over the years, and in essence I should think
your object is to make the public aware of the contribu-
tions of science and its influence on everyday affairs.
The rapidly increasing fields of scientific study and the
proliferation of scientific knowledge in recent years
almost makes it an impossible task for the Society to
keep the public informed. Scientific investigations and
discoveries in the last 25 to 30 years have both excited
public imagination and at the same time occasionally
frightened the public. The Society’s task is to bring a
balance into people’s assessment of the advantages and
limitations of scientific progress. You need _ to
encourage research and investigation, and occasionally
express a word of warning.

It is, as I said, a pleasure to be with you tonight as
one of your patrons. I compliment you on the work
which you are doing. Thank you for the dinner and
thank you for your good sense in not asking the
Governor these days to read learned treatises for you.

124

Report of the Council for the

Presented at the Annual General Meeting of the
Society held on 3rd April, 1973 in accordance with
Rule 18 (qa).

At the end of the period under review the composition
of the membership was 375 members, 21 associate
members and nine honorary members.

During the year, 55 new members and five associate
members were elected, and eight members were written
off under Rule 5 (0).

It is with regret that we announce the loss by death
of the following members :

Joseph James Fallon (1950).
William John Kirchner (1920).
Robert Fisher (1940).

Nine monthly meetings and two special meetings
were held. The abstracts of addresses have been
printed in the Notice Paper. The Proceedings of these
will appear later in an issue of the Journal and
Proceedings.

The members of Council wish to express their sincere
thanks and appreciation to the 12 speakers who
contributed to the success of these meetings, the
average attendance being 45.

The Annual Dinner was held on the 20th March,
1974, at the Reception Hall, Sydney Opera House.
The guest speaker was the Society’s Patron His
Excellency the Governor of New South Wales, Sir
igodene Cutler, /V:6., 0 1-C.M.G.; KC. V.0O°.,0 €.B EB.
accompanied by Lady Cutler. The text of his speech
is printed in full in this issue of Journal.

There were 150 members and guests present, the
Honourable E. A. Willis, B.A., M.L.A., Minister for
Education (accompanied Mrs. Willis) representing the
Premier of New South Wales, Sir Robert Askin. Sir
Philip Baxter, Honorary Member of the Society gave
the vote of thanks to His Excellency.

Arrangements for the smorgasbord dinner were
carried out by Executive Secretary, Mrs. Lyle and
Mrs. D. F. Coleman of Sydney Chapter of Ikebana
International was responsible for the Ikebana flower
arrangement.

The Society’s rooms were open during the Sydney
Opera House Opening Fortnight in October and the
Executive Secretary reported that 35 people called.
Laurence Hargreaves’ original drawings of the Flying
Machine were of considerable interest.

Awards for 1973 were made as follows :

The Society’s Medal: Prof. R. L. Stanton, M.Sc.,

Ph.

The Clarke Medal: Dr. M. R. Hatch.

The Edgeworth David Medal: Dr. C. S. Osmond.

A highly successful five-day Summer School was held
during January when sixty fifth form students attended

a series of laboratory workshops organized around the
theme ‘“‘ Chemistry and Environment ”’.

The Society wishes to acknowledge the co-operation
of the Chemical Education Committee of New South
Wales and Macquarie University School of Chemistry

Year Ended 3lst March, 1974

for arranging the details of the programme and
providing facilities and staff for the practical activities.

Students and staff of the School were each presented
with a copy of the Society’s Centenary Volume.

The Society’s financial statement shows a net deficit
of $5,041.

The New England Branch of the Society held five
meetings and their activities will be included in the
Proceedings to follow. The” President) Dr. |: “ra
Pollard, addressed a meeting of the Branch in April.

A report of the Proceedings of the South Coast
Branch will be included in the Proceedings of the Branch
to follow.

The Section of Geology continued to hold regular
meetings and its Annual Report is tabled.

The Council held 11 ordinary meetings. Attendances
were as follows.: Mr. D. S- Budges (G5 ins jue
Cameron 11; Mr. E. F. Chaffer $5 Dr (.9h. Clancy
Nil; Dr. A. A. Day 83 Dri E. -E) Boberty Nik Shine
J. W. Humphries 10; Mrs. M. Krysko v. Tryst 8;
Prof. L. J. Lawrence 6; Prof. K. je-Woele Beyre ae
Dr. J. W.. Pickett 9; Mr. Woe 4Possendortt. iim
Mr. J. Pollard (in the Chair) 115° Miyj- Pottock ae
Prof. W. B. Smith-White 6: Prof. W Smith -Ge
Prof. R. L. Stanton Nil’; Dre] Diaillewoe Ora
Van Der Poorten 6 ;- Prof. HC. wWwattones

The President represented the Society at: The
Celebrations of the Captain Cook Landing at Kurnell
and placed a wreath on the Banks Memorial; at the
Annual Dinner of the Chamber of Manufacturers of
N.S.W., at the Annual Dinner of the Sydney Division
of the Institution of Engineers Australia; the Annual
Dinner of the N.S.W. Division of Surveyors, Australia,
‘at the State Reception for the delegates to the Inter-
national Astronomical Congress and at the Opening of
the Sydney Opera House by Her Majesty Queen
Elizabeth IT.

The Honorary General Secretary represented the
President at a meeting of the International Association
of Geology at the University of N.S.W. The President
also attended meetings at the Board of Visitors of the
Sydney Observatory and a meeting of the Donovan
Astronomical Trust.

Eight parts of the Journal and Proceedings were
published during the year. Volume 105, 1/2 (1972)
was issued on 15th April, 1973, 3/4 on 15th September,
Volume 106 (1973 1/2 on 15th November and 3/4 on
15th January, 1974). This brings the publication up
to date.

Of particular interest was Volume 106, 1/2 of which
was issued as the Sydney Opera House Commemorative
Issue. Following a decision of Council to invite articles
on the Opera House for an issue of the Journal, an
approach was made to one of the Society’s Honorary
Members, Sir Philip Baxter, Chairman of the Opera
House Trust. Names of interested authors were given
to the Society by the Trust. This resulted im five
manuscripts being presented covering some aspects of
design and construction of the Opera House. Six
hundred copies were printed. Following as publicity

REPORT OF -rHE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1974-125

campaign these were sold and a further 300 copies
printed. The Executive Secretary presented a bound
copy to Sir Martin Charteris, Queen’s Private Sec-
retary, at Buckingham Palace.

Negotiations are proceeding with the National
Library, Canberra for the publication of a cumulative
index of the first 50 years of the Journal and Proceedings.
A stocktake of back issues has been taken and efforts
will be made to sell as many as possible before the move
to the new Science House.

Gifts of surplus copies have been made, following
negotiations with the Commonwealth Scientific Founda-
tion, London, to institutions in Sri Lanka, India,
Zambia and Malawi.

The Library.—The number of items received and
processed was 2,502. These were periodicals received
on exchange from 398 societies and institutions dona-
tions and by the purchase of periodicals in which
$315 was expended.

Among the Institutions who made use of the Library
through the Inter-Library Loan Scheme were :

New South Wales and Other State Government De-
partments : Geological Survey of New South Wales ;
Metropolitan Water Sewerage and Drainage Board,
Sydney ; N.S.W.—Department of Education; N.S.W.
—Department of Main Roads; Queensland—Depart-
ment of Primary Industries—Plant Pathology Library ;
Victoria—Mines Department.

Commonwealth Government Departments : Bureau of
Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics ; Atomic

Energy Commission; esearch Laboratory of the
Royal Australian Navy.

C.S.I.R.O.: Divisions of Animal Genetics; Animal
Physiology; Applied Chemistry; Fisheries and

Oceanography ; Mineral Chemistry ; Textile Physics ;
Food Research Library; and National Standards
Laboratory.

Universities and Colleges : Advanced Studies Library
—Australian National University; Avondale College
Library, Cooranbong, N.S.W.; Badham Library,
University of Sydney ; Barr Smith Library, University
of Adelaide ; Broken Hill University College ; Darling
Downs Institute of Advanced Education ; Footscray
Institute of Technology; Geography Department
Library, University of Sydney; Geology Department
libkaty.. University of: Sydney; General Studies
Library, Australian National University ; Macquarie
University ; Mitchell College of Advanced Education ;
Monash University; New South Wales Institute of
Technology, Gore Hill; Newcastle Technical College ;
Riverina College of Advanced Education; University
of Newcastle ; University of New England; University
of New South Wales; University of Queensland ;
Western Australian Institute of Technology ; Wollon-
gong University College.

Australian Consolidated Industries
Australian Mineral Foundation Inc.
South Australia; Australian Oil Refining Pty. Ltd.,
Kurnell; Australian Pharmaceutical Manufacturers
Association, Sydney ; Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd.,
Sydney; Commonwealth Steel Co. Ltd., Sydney ;
Conzinc Riotinto of Australia Ltd., Melbourne ; Esso

Companies :
Lid. sydney ;

Australia Ltd., Sydney; Kennecott Explorations
(Australia) Ltd., Sydney; Peko-Wallsend Ltd.,
sydney ;. Roche Products Pty.Ltd.) sydney.;7 Shell

Co. of Australia Ltd., Melbourne ;
(Australia) Ltd., Rhodes, N.S.W.

Research Institutes : Prince Henry Hospital; Royal
North Shore Hospital.

Miscellaneous: Institution of Engineers, Sydney.

A total of 303 loans were made to the above and 50
to members of the Society. There were 50 requests for
photocopying of articles with a total of 796 pages
copied.

The Library has been completely dusted and a
tax-deductible Library Fund has been established,
representations being made to large companies who
borrow from it for contributions.

Union Carbide

New Science Centre Project: In order to perpetuate
the name Science House, the name of the company
formed jointly with the Linnean Society for the purpose
of establishing a science centre was changed from
Science Centre Pty. Lid. to Science Houseryetyekide
The change became possible after some earlier legal
difficulties had been overcome.

The four Directors representing the Royal Society
on the Board of Science House Pty. Ltd. are: Mik:
Chaffer, Mr. J. W. Humphries; Mr. M.: "J. Puttock
(Vice-Chairman) and Prof. W. E. Smith.

After nearly two years of fruitless endeavour the
proposal to purchase a site and erect a science centre
thereon has been abandoned. Instead it is now
proposed to purchase an existing building which can be
suitably modified to fulfill the requirements of a
Science centre.

Currently, negotiations for the purchase of such a
building have reached an advanced stage and in
anticipation of a successful outcome, the Royal Society
and the Linnean Society have each transferred to
Science House Pty. Ltd., a substantial portion of the
compensation monies received for the present Science
House. The amount transferred by each Society was
$400,000 together with interest earned. ‘The balance,
about $28,000 has been retained to meet contingencies.

The Council wishes to acknowledge the excellent work
carried out during the year by the Executive Secretary,
Mrs. Valda Lyle and by the Assistant Librarian, Mrs.
Grace Proctor.

Honorary Treasurer’s Report

There was a deficit for the period of $5,293 as against
a surplus for the previous year of $1,597 resulting in a
total decrease of $6,890 made up as follows :—

$ $
Increase in general interest : os 1,246
Increase in sale of back numbers. 405
Increase in subscriptions to journal 426
Increase in members subscriptions 561
Increase in government subsidy 251

Sale of ‘“‘ Sydney Opera House Com-
memorative Issue’ ; ; 1,602
Increase in donations received ets 6
Increase in summer school surplus Ae 6
4,503
Less’:
Reduction in Science House geal 3,347
Reduction in sale of reprints. . 4 59
Reduction in commission received. 23
Increase in salary costs 1,934
Increase in printing costs 2,476
Increase in rentals ba 2,191
Increase in general expenses 1,363
11,393
Total decline $6,890

At the end of the last financial year, due to the loss |
of income from Science House, and the intangible date
of commencement of income from the new company _
Science House Pty. Ltd., budgets for three successive
financial years were drawn up, allowing for a total
deficit of $28,420, and for the year just ended a deficit
of $8,491. That the year ended with a deficit of
$5,293, in spite of increased salaries and the general
effect of inflation is due in the main to sales of back
numbers of the journal, an erratic source of income
for which no budget allowance can be made. This
means at least that we enter the second year of the
triennium in a slightly better financial situation than
anticipated.

J. W. Pickett,
Hon. Treasurer.

Report of the South Coast Branch of the Royal Society of
New South Wales

Officers :

President: B. Clancy.
Secretary: G. Doherty.
Council representative: G. Doherty.

A meeting was held at Jervis Bay on 28th April,
1973, but no further meetings were held during the
past year. It is hoped to recommence regular activities
shortly.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT, 1973—

Previous balance $106.10
Accumulated interest $12.03
Present balance $118.13

G. DOHERTY,

29th March, 1974 Secretary.

Report of the New England Branch of the Royal Society of
New South Wales

Officers :
Chairman: H. G. Royle.
Secretany-lreasurer:. 1; ©' Shea.
Committee >) IR. Stanton,..D..H rayle NaH:

Fletcher, I. Douglas.
Branch Representative on Council :
The following meetings were held :

4th May, 1973: Mr. J. Pollard, President, Royal
Society of N.S.W. ‘Nuclear Reactors—Pre-
cambrian Times to Present Day ’’.
June; 1973: Mr. /Z.. J.- Buzo,. World Health
Organization. “‘ The Role of the Engineer in the
Development of Water Resources and the Control

R. L. Stanton.

7th

and Elimination of Disease in Developing
Countries.”’

12th July, 1973: Dr. B. Tyson, McWilliams Wines,
Sydney. ‘‘ Wine and the Chemist.”

12th October, 1973: Professor C. M. Williams, Harvard
University. ‘‘ Everything You Wanted to Know
about Insect Hormones and Were Afraid to Ask.’’

13th March, 1974: Prof. M. W. Thring, University of
London. ‘“‘ Energy in the 21st Century ”

$ $
Financial Statement :
Balance at peut of New Ee
land . . 338.01
Credit
Interest to 29th June, 1973 Ca eS
Interest to 28th December, 1973... 5.05
348.84
Debit
Expenses talk Mr. Buzo ; 29.00
Expenses talk Professor Thring 25.00
Advertising ome ss 7.50
Purchase crockery 6.50
Petty cash 7.50
75.50
Balance at 29th May, 1973 $273.34

T. O’SHEA,

29th March, 1974. Secretary- Treasurer.

1973
$
8,898
435,899

37,367
$482,164

602

—

428,500
828
15,847

445,777

340

80

9
420,000
420,429

25,348

i iar
2
13,600
17
15,390
9,680
9,600

19,280

7,000
2,704

9,704
2,219
420,000
422,219
491,941

9,704
73

O3077
$482,164

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1974

RESERVES

Library reserve

Resumption reserve—note ee
LIBRARY FUND
ACCUMULATED FUNDS

NET FUNDS

Represented by :

CURRENT ASSETS
Cash at bank and in hand ..
Cash at bank—library fund
Debtors for subscriptions—note 2.
Debtor for compensation ae
Other current debtors and prepayments Re
Deposits at call—note 3 aie

eeSSy.
CURRENT LIABILITIES
Sundry creditors and accruals
Subscriptions paid in advance :
Life members subscriptions—current portion
Provision for specific commitments—note 4

NET: GURRENT ASSETS

‘Add:

FIXED ASSETS—note 5
Furniture and office equipment
Lantern. . 3 ait te
Library
Pictures

INVESTMENTS—note 6
Commonwealth bonds and inscribed stock
Deposits at call—lbrary reserve

ASSOCIATED CORPORATIONS—note 4
Shares ’
Advances and loane-“unsécured

TRUST FUNDS—note 7
Commonwealth bonds and inscribed stock
_ Deposits at call

NON-CURRENT ASSETS
Centenary volume...
Science centre project—note 4

Less":
NON-CURRENT LIABILITIES
Trust funds—note 7.

Life members subscriptions—non-current ‘portion

NET ASSETS A ead a

424,490

12,123
453,971
205
26,696

$492,995

32,090

808

31,282

15,486

21,803

424,49]

10,036

503,098

10,103

$492,995

127

128

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT
FOR YEAR ENDED 28th FEBRUARY, 1974

1973
$ | $ $
1,848 NET SURPLUS (DEFICIT) for period before bad debts ou ive (5,041)
Less :
1 INCREASE in provision for bad debts id i os 175
250 SUBSCRIPTIONS written off ‘ ake a ie 77
251 252
1,597 NET SURPLUS (DEFICIT) for period ee a a, ee oy (5,293)
Add:
438,000 COMPENSATION re resumption Science House .. 4 ae ots —
-— INTEREST on compensation investment .. dys wis Ge 17,162
35,770 ACCUMULATED FUNDS brought forward from 1973... aie ave 37,367
475,367 FUNDS AVAILABLE .. ri8 ~ = fh oe Bn oy 49,236
Less :
438,000 TRANSFER to resumption reserve—note 1 ie te 17,162
— TRANSFER to library reserve a ube 3,224
— CENTENARY VOLUME—stock written off oa 2,154
438,000 22,540
$37,367 ACCUMULATED FUNDS—28th February, 1974 .. ms ts -- $26,696

(The above account and the balance sheet on the previous page are to be read in con-

junction with the notes attached.)
(Signed) J. W. PICKETT, J. 2. POLLART,

Hon. Treasurer. President.

AUDITOR’S REPORT TO THE MEMBERS

1. In our opinion: (a) The attached Balance Sheet and Income and Expenditure Account,
together with the notes thereon, have been properly drawn up so as to
correctly show the state of the Society’s affairs at 28th February, 1974,
and the surplus for the year ended on that date.
(b) The accounting and other records have been properly kept in accordance
with the Rules of the Society.
2. We have satisfied ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are
properly held and registered.

HORLEY: & HORLEN

65 York Street, Chartered Accountants.
Sydney. Registered under the Public Accountants
27th March, 1974. Registration Act 1945, as amended.

See ee ae eee ee eat eee

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
NOTES ON ACCOUNTS—28th FEBRUARY, 1974

1, RESUMPTION RESERVE.
1973

$
438,000 Compensation from Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority re the
resumption of Science House at 2 si nie oH

Add:

— Refund of expenditure incurred to date re Science Centre Project
— Interest on investment are ae ,

438,000
Less:

2,102 Expenditure incurred to date re Science Centre Project

$435,898

2. DEBTORS FOR SUBSCRIPTIONS

1973

655 Owing by members .. a. os :

Less :

655 Reserve for bad debts es a

Se
$
———

3. DEPOSITS AT CALL.
1973

$
15,130 General funds

717 Long service leave fund

$15,847

4, ASSOCIATED CORPORATIONS.

The Society is currently planning a joint venture with the Linnean Society for the

establishment of a Science Centre for New South Wales and to facilitate this a company,
Science House Pty. Limited, has been formed in which each Society has a 50% interest.

5. FIXED ASSETS.

The basis adopted for the valuation of fixed assets is:
Furniture and office equipment—cost less depreciation
—cost less depreciation

Lantern
Library
Pictures

6. INVESTMENTS.
1973

$
9,680 General funds

—1936 valuation

—cost less depreciation

9,600 Library reserve ..

$19,280

foto lL, HUNDS,

Capital se ele

Revenue :
Income for period
HESS 5
Expenditure

Balance from 1973

Clarke
Memorial

$
aD se 3,600

Walter
Burfitt
Prize

$

2,000

Liversidge
Bequest

$
1,400

81

$370

$
438,000

2,378
17,162

457,540

3,569

$453,971

$
29,554
764

$30,318

$
9,680
12,123

$21,803

Ollé
Bequest

$
ery

129

130

$1,848

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
DETAILED INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT
FOR YEAR ENDED 28th FEBRUARY, 1974

INCOME
Membership subscriptions—ordinary
—life members
Application fees

Subscriptions to journal
Government subsidy

Total membership and journal income

Science house management—share of surplus

Interest on general investments

Sale of reprints

Sale of back numbers

Sale of “‘ Sydney eee House Commemorative Issue ”
Commission .. ; oe

Donations

Summer school surplus

TOTAL INCOME

ess:
EXPENDITURE
Accountancy
Advertising .
Annual social
Audit.
Branches of the Society i
Cleaning }
Depreciation
Electricity
Entertaining
Insurance
Legal expenses
Library purchases ..
Miscellaneous ck
Postages and telegrams

Printing—Vol. 105, Parts 1-4 .. a3 2,705

Vol. 106, Parts 1-2 “ Sydney Opera House
Commemorative Issue ”’ , 2,654

New cover design en he sale 60
Binding ~)..% uF es ie bia 105
Postages..- 2. £6 iis He ae 508

Printing, general and stationery. .

emt: ai ie

Repairs

Salaries and superannuation

Telephone a

TOTAL EXPENDITURE
NET SURPLUS (DEFICIT) FOR.Y EA.

5 REND is

23
6

$18,559

6,032
617
6,406
123
6,749

- 338

23,600
($5,041)

131

Abstract of Proceedings

4th April, 1973
The one hundred and sixth Annual Meeting of the
Society was held in the Hall of Science House, 157
Gloucester Street, Sydney.
The President, Mr. J. C. Cameron was in the chair.
There were present 53 members and visitors

John Robert Hardie was elected an Associate
Member of the Society.

The Society’s Medal for 1972 was presented to Mr.
W. H. G. Poggendorff and Dr. Jonathan Stone and
Dr. D. H. Napper were present to receive The
Edgeworth David Medal for 1972, which was awarded
jointly.

Messrs. Horley and Horley were re-elected Auditors
for the Society 1973/74.

ine incoming; President, Mr. J.P. Pollard--was
installed and took the chair. The address “ Sedi-
mentary Basin Classification : with Specific Reference
to Oil and Gas Occurrence in Australia ’’ was delivered
by the retiring President, Mr. J. C. Cameron, School of
Applied Geology, University of New South Wales.

2nd May, 1973

The eight hundred and sixty seventh (867) Meeting
of the Society was held in the Large Hall of Science
House, on Wednesday, 2nd May, 1973.

The President, Mr. J. P. Pollard was in the chair.
There were present 53 members and visitors.

Viliaam Teodor Buchwald, Margaret A. Collier,
Patrick De Deckker and Valda E. L. Lyle were elected
to membership and the names of new members
proposed: Jonathan Stone, Donald Harold Napper
and Charles John Murray, were read for the first time.

The Council advised that it had elected Dr. Dorothy
Hill to Honorary Membership of the Society at its
meeting on 18th April.

The Clarke Medal for 1972 was presented to Mr.
Haddon F. King, the citation read by Prof. L. J.
Lawrence.

The Address: ‘‘ Alchemy, Chemistry and Minerals ”’
was delivered by Dr. D. J. Swaine, Division of
Mineralogy, C.S.I.R.O., North Ryde.

6th June, 1973

The eight hundred and sixty eighth (868) Meeting of
the Society was held in the Large Hall of Science
House. The President, Mr. J. P. Pollard was in the
chair and 36 members and visitors were present.

Jonathan Stone, Donald Harold Napper and Charles
John Murray were elected members and the names of
new members proposed : Timothy O’Shea,
Haddon Forrester King, John Alfred Talent, Vidmantas
Romualdas Labutis, Grainger Rabone Morris, Ervin
Slansky and Dalway John Swaine were read for the
first time. .

A new Associate Member, Winifred Christian Hendry
Swaine was presented to the Meeting.

The following papers were presented (by title only)

“A Method for the Exact Orientation of the Plane
Table’’, by A. D. Albani.

““Vesuvianite Hornfels at Queanbeyan ”’, by T. G..
Vallance.

‘““ Potassium-Argon Basalt Ages and Their Signific-

ance in the Macquarie Valley ’’, by J. A. Dulhunty.

“Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney

Observatory During 1971 and 1972’’, by W. H.
Robertson.

The address: entitled “Trafic Safety :* A. Time-tor
Reappraisal ’’ was given by Dr. Michael Henderson,
Executive Director of Traffic Safety, Traffic Safety
Research Unit, Department of Motor Transport.

4th July, 1973

The eight hundred and sixty ninth (869) Meeting of
the Society was held on Wednesday, 4th July, 1973.

The President, Mr. J. P. Pollard, was in the. char
and 50 members and visitors were present.

The following new members were elected :

Timothy O’Shea, Haddon Forrester King, John
Alfred Talent, Grainger Rabone Morris, Ervin
Slansky, and Dalway John Swaine.

The meeting was advised by Council that David
Joseph Gwynne was elected to associate membership
at the Council Meeting on 27th May.

The address was given by Professor Hugh Muir,
Professor of Physical Metallurgy and Head of the
School of Metallurgy, University of New South Wales.
Title of the address was “‘ Why Metal Fails ’’.

Ist August, 1973

The eight hundred and seventieth (870) Meeting of
the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in the
Large Hall, Science House.

The President, Mr. J. P. Pollard, was in the Chair
and 36 members and visitors were present.

The following new members were elected :

Alberto D. Albani: Proposers M. Krysko v. Trust,
J. C. Cameron.
Arthur John Birch:

Brown.

Gregory Lloyd Dean-Jones :
Pickett; \S: ap.ingicy:
James’ Richard SBruce-Smith :

Stanton, H. Royle.
Two papers were read by title only :
“VA Note von] Recurrence | Sequences), by vA) 4,
Van der Poorten.
“Structural Analyses of the Woolgoolga District ’’,
Dyke Ss tSOrsen:

The address “The Role of the Chemist in the
Australian Wine Industry’’ was given by Mr. B.
Tyson, Technical Manager, McWilliam’s Wines and
was followed by wine and cheese in the Edgeworth
David Room.

Proposers A. Albert, D.
Proposers J. W.

Proposers’ R.

132

20th August, 1973

A special meeting in conjunction with The Donovan
Astronomical Trust was held in the Hall of Science
House.

The speaker was Dr. J. Allen Hynek, Professor of
Astronomy, Northwestern University, Illinois, U.S.A.
a delegate to the International Astronomical Union
Congress in Sydney, and the subject was “ Television
Astronomy ”’

5th September, 1973
The eighth hundred and seventy first (871) meeting
of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in
the Hall of Science House.

The Chairman, Mr. Pollard was in the Chair and
there were present 45 members and visitors.

The following members were elected : William James
Vagg, David Ross Gray, John Thomas Joyce, Robert
Sylvester Vagg, Norman Thomas Barker, Peter Allan
Williams, James Henry Green, and the Council advised
the election to associate membership of Beatrice Eliza-
beth Riley.

Papers read by title only were:

“ Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory
Durning: 1972") by 1K. Py Sims.

“Slow Transport as a Criterion for Synchronizing
Clocks’, by S. J. Prokhovnik.

“Sedimentology of Permian Rocks near Ravens-
worth ’’, by David R. Gray.

A Symposium on the Environment took place, with

the following speakers :

Professor J. Green,
Macquarie University,
Environment ”’.

Mr. J. Steele, Assistant Director, Fauna, National
Parks and Wildlife Service, “‘ Fauna and the
Environment ’’.

Professor Peter Spooner, School of Architecture,
University of New South Wales, ‘‘ Landscape
and the Environment ”

3rd October, 1973
The eight hundred and seventy second (872) meeting
of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in
the Hall of Science House.

There were present 20 members and visitors and the
President, Mr. J. P. Pollard was in the Chair.

The following new members were elected: Francis
Edward Atkins, Francis Clifford Beavis, Robert Brain,
William E. Moser, William Trevor Tyrrell, John Scott,
Leslie Arthur Wright, and Lyall Richard Williams.

Council advised of the receipt of the manuscript of
the Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1973 ‘‘ The Late
Precambrian Glaciation, with Particular Reference to
the Southern Hemisphere ’’ and the following papers
were presented by title only :

“The Sydney Opera House: The Contractor and
Some Aspects of Stage III’’, by H. R. Hoare.
“Roof Cladding of the Sydney Opera House ’’, by

Michael Lewis.
““ Acoustical Design Considerations of the Sydney
@pera House ”,) by Vi L. jordan:

Professor of Chemistry,
““Chemistry and the

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

“The Design of the Concert Hall in the Sydney
Opera House ’”’, by Peter Hall.
“ The Grand Onan in the Sydney Opera House ”
Ronald Sharp.
The address was given by Dr. R. S. Nielsen, Com-
mission, Public Transport Commission of New South
Wales, the subject being ‘‘ Urban Transportation ”’

; bys

23rd October, 1973

A special meeting of the Royal Society of New
South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, to
celebrate the opening of the Sydney Opera House

The President, Mr. J. P. Pollard was in the chair
and there were present 58 members and visitors.

The address “‘ The Grand Organ in the Sydney
Opera House ’’ was given by Mr. Ronald Sharp, organ
builder and was accompanied by slides and recorded
music.

The vote of thanks to Mr. Sharp was given by Prof.
H. Pollard, Division of Acoustics, School of Physics,
University of New South Wales.

7th November, 1973

The eight hundred and seventy third (873) meeting
of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held in
the Hall, Science House.

The President, Mr. J. P. Pollard was in the chair
and 35 members and visitors were present.

The following new members were elected: Mark
Geoffrey Fisher, Peter Brian Hall, and Henry Roland
Hoare.

Papers read by title only:

“The Seismicity of New South Wales ”’, by Lawrence
Drake.

““Sympathomimetic Tertiary Amines ’’, by R. Buise
and L. A. Williams.

“The Re-Deposition of Midden Material by Storm
Waves ’’, by P. G. Hughes and M. E. Sullivan.

The Address “‘ The Place of the Engineer in Society ”’
was given by Professor J. W. Roderick, Dean of the
Faculty of Engineering and Professor of Civil Engineer-
ing, University of Sydney.

5th December, 1973

The eight hundred and seventy fourth (874) meeting
of The Royal Society of New South Wales was held in
the Hall of Science House, 157 Gloucester Street,
Sydney.

The President, Mr. J. P. Pollard, was in the chair
and there were present 35 members and visitors.

The following were elected to membership: Rodney
Edward Gould, Donald Keith Hughes, Wilhelm Lassen
Jordan, Ronald William Sharp, Noel Charles Morgan,
Philip Joseph Hughes.

The address was given by Dr. Harry Windsor,
F.R.A.C.S. who discussed current trends in Heart
Surgery and his recent visit to China, where he studied
the use of acupuncture

Fhe ieee hot
aoe ee i

133

Section of Geology

Abstracts of Meetings, 1973

Five meetings were held during 1973, the average
attendance being 15 members and visitors.

16th MARCH (Annual Meeting) :

(1) Election of office-bearers: Chairman, Dr. B. B.
Guy; Hon. Secretary, Dr. E. V. Lassak.

(2) Address by Dr. B. B. Guy: “ Aspects of Gossan
Formation ”’

The minor element geochemistry of anomalous
copper gossans and pseudogossans (“‘ ironstones ’’) from
an area 70 miles northwest of Mt. Isa, Queensland, has
been investigated. Two main controls are considered
to markedly influence this minor element geochemistry,
V1Z ;

(i) geochemistry of chalcopyrite and pyrite mineral-
ization in the primary zone—pyrite being sig-
nificantly enriched in Ag, As, Co, Ni, and Pb
and depleted in Hg and Se, relative to
chalcopyrite.

(ii) physical environment in the oxidized zone—
element dispersal being influenced by the
associated rocks—graphitic shales and dolomites,
the former producing reducing environments,
the latter alkaline environments.

Correlation and regression analysis of multi-element
geochemistry data of surface ironstones is being used to
distinguish gossans from pseudogossans, and pyritic
from chalcopyritic sources for surface anomalies.

18th MAY (Exhibits Night) :

Dr. G. Gibbons exhibited a specimen of prismatic
Hawkesbury sandstone from Baulkham Hills, showing
original cross-bedding and a specimen of Carboniferous
conglomerate from Dungog. A _ pyritized limestone
fragment within the conglomerate showed a weathering
crust around it. All pyrite appeared to have been
weathered to siderite.

Mr. I. Mumme exhibited a specimen of crystallized
scholtzite from South Australia as well as slides of
mining operations at the Jabiru uranium deposit in
the Northern Territory.

Mr. J. Scott exhibited a specimen of green glass,
possibly of volcanic origin, from the Northern Territory,
as well as root concretions in sandstone from Yowals
and fossil brachiopods from Suxxes Inlet.

Mrs. B. Clark exhibited a ‘‘ sulphur bomb ”’ from the
eastern shore of Lake Eyre. The specimen consisted
of a sulphur core with crystals of gypsum around it.
The sulphur core was derived from gypsum by microbial
action.

Mrs. R. Rowe exhibited worm casts from Kalbarri»
W.A.

Dr. E. Lassak exhibited a specimen of petrified wood
from the vicinity of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

20th JULY

Address by Dr. S.R. Sangameshwar: ‘“ The
Economic and Barren Sulphide Deposits of the Flin
Flon—Snow Lake Mineralized Belt, Canada ’’.

The Flin Flon—Snow Lake region comprises a belt
of metamorphosed Precambrian volcanic and intrusive
rocks over 100 miles long containing many base metal
sulphide deposits with varying amounts of pyrite,
pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and
galena. These are the ‘‘economic’”’ deposits. In
addition to these there are numerous “ barren”
sulphide deposits which are sometimes mineralogically
similar but are composed mainly of iron sulphides.

A geochemical study of trace elements such as Ni,
Co, Se and Te sulphur isotopes in sulphides of both
““economic’’ and “ barren’’ types has been made.
The results suggest that these data may be useful in
distinguishing between the two types of deposits in
exploration programmes. Some comments are
presented on the modes of formation of the two types
of deposits.

21st SEPTEMBER (Exhibits Night) :

Mrs. B. Clark exhibited the following specimens :
lizard-like mudstone concretions from Longreach; a
starfish fossil from Roma ; ammonites from Normanton,
trilobite resting trails from Alice Springs; and colour
slides of the Henbury meteorite crater south of Alice
Springs.

Mr. Percival exhibited a doubly terminated rock
crystal from Kingsgate, fossils of a water plant from
the Glenbourne Dam in N.S.W. and slides of fossils.

Mr. J. Scott exhibited a fragment of chalcedony-
ironstone conglomerate from Yowa.

Dr. E. Lassak exhibited a selection of cut and
polished gemstones from the collection of the Museum
of Applied Arts and Sciences.

23vd November

Address by Mr. D. Nicholson: “‘ Quaternary Deposits
of the Port Stephens Area ’’.

Mr. Nicholson described in detail the geomorphology
of the area and its depositional environment.
Economic aspects, such as the occurrence of heavy
mineral sands and of various types of clays, have also
been discussed. The area is also rich in sand suitable
for glass manufacture.

134

Citations

The Society’s Medal for 1973

The Society’s Medal is awarded to a member of the
Society for “‘ meritorious contributions to the advance-
ment of science. This may include administration and
organization of scientific endeavour; and for services
to the Society.

Richard Limon Stanton graduated Bachelor of
Science of The University of Sydney in 1947, having
been one of the pioneers of The New England University
College where he had shone out as one destined to
become a major contributor to geological science.

A spirit of adventure and a desire to see rocks and
minerals at close quarters led him to suspend his

academic career and accept the position of exploration _

geologist for Broken Hill South Ltd. He thereby
gained extensive and detailed experience of occurrences
and geological settings of the metalliferous deposits of
eastern Australia. Armed with this knowledge he
joined the staff of the Department of Geology of The
University of Sydney in 1950. Interspersed with his
field-work on the Palaeozoic rocks of central western
New South Wales he carried out geological mapping of
the British Solomon Islands and detailed studies of
the New Caledonian chromites. Realising the influence
of geological environments on ore genesis he was the
first to recognize the part played by vulcanism in the
formation of a special group of metalliferous deposits.
He was later able to consolidate his field observations
with microscopic and experimental work and the
investigation of lead and sulphur isotopes.

He was awarded the Master of Science (1952) and
Doctor of Philosophy (1955) degrees by The University
of Sydney—and, in 1955, the Olle Research Prize by
this Society. In 1956 he accepted a post-doctorate

fellowship of the National Research Council of Canada
to enable him to study what he judged to be volcanic arc
environments in America, notably in New Brunswick.
In addition, however, in close collaboration with
Professor Hawley of Queen’s University, Kingston, he
was able to carry out intensive work on the important
nickeliferous ores of Sudbury, Ontario.

On his return to Australia in 1958, he joined the staff
of what had then become The University of New
England and soon became Associate Professor, a
position which, for personal reasons, he still holds in
spite of persistent offers of overseas chairs.

Professor Stanton went abroad in 1964 as Koyal
Society and Nuffield Foundation Bursar to Imperial
College, London and again in 1966 in response to a
Fulbright award and Hoffman Fellowship to Harvard
University. He was awarded the David Syme Research
Prize by The University of Melbourne in 1972.

The author of over fifty scientific papers and a
widely acclaimed book on “‘ Ore Petrology ’’ Professor
Stanton has proved himself to be one of Australia’s
great geologists.

However, it is not only because of his outstanding
contributions in geological research that the Society
awards him its own medal but also because of his
service to it over a number of years. He was involved
in early discussions with the then president, Mr. H.
Donegan with regard to the establishment of the New
England Branch in 1961 and since this time has
consistently maintained his early enthusiasm. He has
kept it alive and flourishing. Professor R. L.Stanton
is a very worthy recipient of this award. (A.H.V.)

The Clarke Medal for 1973

The Clarke Medal is awarded for distinguished work
in the Natural Sciences done in or on the Australian
Commonwealth and its territories. It is considered
annually and is awarded in the fields of Geology,
Botany and Zoology in rotation.

The award for 1973 goes to Dr. Marshall Hatch,
currently a Senior Principal Research Scientist in the
Division of Plant Industry, Canberra.

Dr. Hatch gained his first degree (B.Sc. Honours) at
Sydney in 1955, and his Ph.D. in plant physiology in
the Botany Department, Sydney in 1959. From 1955
until 1960 he held an appointment in the C.S.I.R.O.
Plant Physiology Unit, Botany Department, University
of Sydney, under the directorship of Dr. (now Sir)
Rutherford Robertson.

In 1961 he held a post-doctoral appointment at the

University of California at Davis, California, and from
1962 until 1969 held an appointment at the David

North Plant Research Centre, C.S.R., Toowong,
Queensland. In 1967 he held a Readership in the

_ University of Queensland.

Whilst working at the David North Plant Research
Centre, Hatch and his collaborator, Dr. Slack, became
aware of work published by a Russian worker (Karpilov,
1960) and Hawaiian workers (Kortschak e¢ al., 1965)
which suggested a different pathway for photosynthesis
to that which was then currently accepted.

Hatch and Slack followed up this work, and
formulated the first working biochemical model of the
C, photosynthetic pathway. They then filled in the
details of the process in terms of enzymes, and were
able to partition the C,; and C, pathways morpho-
logically between mesophyll and vascular bundle-
sheath tissues.

The C, pathway and the models proposed by Hatch
and his co-workers, have provided striking insights
into many aspects of plant science. Variation in the

CITATIONS

anatomical features of the leaf, discovered by the great
German investigators of the last century, remained
largely unexplained in functional terms until these
models were elucidated. Since this pathway and its
associated syndrome of characters appears in a number
of groups of flowering plants, a fact which is itself a
matter of much interest and investigation, it has been
used to solve some particularly critical taxonomic
problems and to evaluate phylogenetic relationships.
Distributional characteristics of many groups—notably

135

the tribes of Grasses—have taken on a new significance
when correlated with the occurrence of the C, pathway
and thus contributed further to our knowledge of
Physiology, Plant Geography, Ecology and Plant
Introduction techniques. Within these last four
disciplines are many unsolved problems related to the
C, pathway and it must be expected that long after the
biochemical pathways are completely known, the
impetous given by their discovery will continue through
descriptive and experimental botany. (S. S.-W.).

Edgeworth David Medal 1973

The Edgeworth David Medal is awarded for dis-
tinguished contributions by young scientists, under the
age of 35 for work done mainly in Australia or its
territories or contributing to the advancement of
Australian science.

The Council of the Royal Society of New South
Wales has awarded the Edgeworth David Medal for
1973 to Dr. C. B. Osmond, a Senior Fellow in the
Research School of Biological Sciences, Australian
National University.

Dr. Osmond is an outstanding Plant Physiologist
whose work in different research fields, performed
mainly in Australia using Australian plants has
attracted world-wide attention.

He has worked chiefly with plants from arid and
saline environments where the significance of certain
physiological processes can be more easily assessed.
His publications fall into two main groups.

1. Studies in ion absorption.

2. Studies in Photosynthesis and Photorespiration in

C, plants.

Dr. Osmond determined the mechanism of carbon
fixation via the C, dicarboxylic acid pathway of
photosynthesis in dichotyledonous plants. This photo-
synthesis is insensitive to atmospheric oxygen which is

inhibitory to the process in other plants. Dr. Osmond’s
work has been directed to elucidating the process in C,
plants. It represents a major advance in understand-
ing the effective utilization of solar energy and depends
essentially on his studies on ionic transport within and
between leaf cells.

Dr. Osmond’s achievements and his contacts abroad
have contributed to substantial exchange of plant
physiologists between Australia and a number of
overseas countries. (W.S.-W.).

The Archibald D. Olle Prize

The Archibald D. Olle Prize may be awarded annually
by the Council to a member of the Society who has
submitted the best paper for publication in the Journal
of the Society.

No award was made for the current year.

The James Cook Medal

The James Cook Medal may be awarded for out-
standing contributions to Science and Human Welfare
in and for the Southern Hemisphere.

No award was made for the current year.

INDEX

Page
A
Annual Report of Council, 3lst March, 1974 .. 124
Annual Report of South Coast Branch, 1974 126
Annual Report of New England Branch, 1974 .. 126
Abstract of Proceedings, 1973 os 131
Abstract of Proceedings of Section of Geology,

1973 133
Amines, Sympathomimetic Tertiary, by Robert A.

Buist and Lyall R. Williams : 1
Archaeology, Environmental oe ois a 6
Astronomy .. neh me a oe gs AO

B
Balance Sheet as at 28th February, 1974 127

Birch, A. J.—Chance and Design: An Historical
Perspective of the Chemistry of Oral Contra-

ceptives alee ae os ss sar OO
Buist, Robert A., and Williams, Lyall R.—

Sympathomimetic Tertiary Amines a 1
Brooks, R. R., Craig, D. C., Lyons, M. J.—The
_ Influence of Soil Composition on the Vegeta-
tion of the Coolac ip cage Belt in New

South Wales .. is = 67

C

Cameron, J. C.—Sedimentary Basin Tectonics and
a Geological Energy Reserve Appraisal,
Presidential Address, 4th April, 1973 a ll
Carboniferous Non-Marine Stratigraphy of the
Paterson-Gresford District, New South
Wales, by G. Hamilton, G. C. Hall and John
Roberts : 76
Chance and Design ; An Historical Perspective of
the Chemistry of Oral fer ae by
A. J. Birch “th
Chemistry . 1,100
Chemistry of Oral Contraceptives : Chance and
Design: An Historical Perspective of the,
by A. J. Birch :
Contraceptives, Oral : Chance and Design : An
Historical Perspective of the Chemistry of,
by A. J. Birch : a a
Craig, D. C., Brooks, R. Ry Lyons, M. J.—The
Influence of Soil Composition on the Vegeta-
tion of the Coolac Serpentite Belt in New
South Wales .. 67
Cutler, Sir Roden—Review of the Society's S
Activities, March 1974 an 122

100

100

100

D

Drake, Lawrence—The Sees of New South
WW ales; re ihe : ae ieee oO

E

Energy Reserve Appraisal, Sedimentary Basin
Tectonics and a Geological, by James Craig
Cameron. Presidential Address, 1973 .. teat

Environmental Archaeology 6

Extremally Disconnected Topological "Groups,

by S. A. Morris and A. J. van der Poorten.. 114

Page
F

Floppy Rulers and Light Pens—Reactor Mathe-
matical Aids, by J. P. Pollard, Presidential

Address 1974 116
G

Geobotany .. oi eas sts Ne ave Ne O
Geology Ge 11, 17, 31, 76, 87, 90
Geophysics .. es ie 35
Governor of New South Wales Sir F Roden Cutler—

Review of the ipa s Activities, March

1974 122
Grays Ae Decedimentsiene of pecmiad Rocks

near Ravensworth, Northern that Basin,

NOSE Wo 4). .s 17
Groups. Extremally Disconnested Topological,

by S. A. Morris and A. J. van der Poorten. 114

H

Hall, G. C., Roberts, J., Hamilton, G.—The
Carboniferous Non-Marine Stratigraphy of
The Paterson-Gresford District, New South
Wales... 76
Hamiiton, G., Hall, ie Ci ed Roberta 5 Dorie
Carboniferous Non-Marine Stratigraphy of
the Paterson-Gresford District, New South
Wales i 24. a 76
History tes ata as o% Le Peni iy

Hockley, J. J.—The Phonolite-Trachyte Spectrum
in the Warrumbungle Volcano, New South

Wales, Australia a sn ek in 87
Hornfels at Queanbeyan, N.S.W., Vesuvianite,
by? DGi Vallance sy) g% me Je oe 31

Hughes, P. J., and Sullivan, M. E.—The re-
deposition of Midden Material, by Storm
Waves .. Fu a Sed i 6

I

Influence of Soil Composition on the Vegetation
of the Coolac Serpentite Belt in New South
Wales, by M. T. poe: R. R. Brooks and
DPC. Craigc as 67

L

Mathematical Aids.
by J. P. Pollard,

Light-Pens—Reactor
Floppy Rulers and—,

Presidential Address, 1974 116
List of Members .. ; a main at
List of Office-Bearers, 1974- 1975, =e de il
Liversidge Lecture 1974, by A. J. Birch 100
Lyons, M. T., Brooks, R. R., and Craig, D. C.—

The Influence of Soil Composition on the

Vegetation of the Coolac sada? aS Belt in

New South Wales as 67

138 INDEX

Page
M
Mathematics : ee 114, 116
Mathematical Aids. Floppy ules and Light
Pens, Reactor, by J. P. Pollard. Presidential
Address, 1974 ae ee ce ere Kis)
Midden Material by Storm Waves. Redisposition
of, by P. J. Hughes and M. E. Sullivan .. 6

Morris,,,S. -A:, and, van. .der Poorten, A; J :—
Extremally Disconnected Topological Groups 114

Motions of Variable Stars, Proper, by K. P. Sims 49

N
New England Region, N.S.W., Structural Inter-
pretation of, by Emile Rod me Bie 90
New South Wales:
Seismicity of, by Lawrence Drake - 35

Sedimentology of Permian MRocks near
Ravensworth, North Sydney Basin, by
Dee Gray. 2 17

Structure and Jointing of Permian Rocks
near Ravensworth, North Sydney Basin,

by) D...1K. Gray)... 17
Structural Interpretation of New England
Region, by Emile Rod . 90
Vesuvianite Hornfels at Queanbeyan, by
TG. Vallances Hh ‘ 31
le

Permian Rocks Near Ravensworth, Northern
Sydney Basin, N.S.W., er catanass 2e of,
by D. R. Gray Pa 17
Phonolite-Trachyte Spectrum in He Ce
bungle Volcano, New South Wales, Australia,
by. }-" J. Hockley, i 87
Pollard, J. P.—Floppy Rulers ane Light Dunwes
Reactor Mathematical Aids, Presidential
Address, 1974 a 116
Presidential Address, 1973 (4th Apri) Seda oate
ary Basin Tectonics and a Geological Energy
Reserve Appraisal, by J. C. Cameron .. 11
Presidential Address, 1974 (3rd April)—Floppy
Rulers and Light Pens—Reactor Mathemati-
cal Aids, by J. P: Pollard. —.. 116

Proper Motions of Variable Stars, by K. P. Sime 49

Q
Queanbeyan, New South Wales, Vesuvianite
Hornfels at, by T. G. Vallance oe ae 31
R

Ravensworth, Northern Sydney Basin, N.S.W.,
Sedimentology of Permian Rocks Near, by
OAR Gray). : 17

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL

Report of Council, 3lst March, 1974 5

Review of the Society’s Activities, March 1974, by
Sir Roden Cutler

Reactor Mathematical Aids. Floppy Rulers and
Light Pens, by J. P.. Pollard, mena
Address, 1974

Re- -Disposition of Midden Material by Storm
Waves, by P. J. Hughes, and M. E. Sullivan

Roberts, J., Hamilton, G., and Hall, G. C.—The
Carboniferous Non-Marine Stratigraphy of
The Paterson-Gresford District, New South
Wiales:...;

Rod, Emile—Structural Interpretation “of New
England Region, New South Wales

S

Sedimentary Basin Tectonics and a Geological
Energy Reserve Appraisal, Presidential
_ Address, 4th April, 1973, by J. C. Cameron

Sedimentology of Permian Rocks near Ravens-
worth, Northern orcs! ae N.S: W.,. by
Di. Gray ira Hi ae

Seismicity of New South. Wales, by Lawrence
Diake i

Sims, K. P.—Proper Motions of Variable Stars

Society’s Activities, March 1974. Review of—by
Sir Roden Cutler : ;

Stars, Proper Motions of Variable, by i: ie Sims

Structural Interpretation of New England Region,
N.S.W., by Emile Rod Me

Sullivan, M. E.,. and Hughes, 2: J.—The Re-
Deposition ‘of Midden Material by Storm
Waves ..

Sydney Basin, N. S.W.—Sedimentology of
Permian Rocks Near Ravensworth, Northern,
by D. R. Gray ant a

Sympathomimetic Telctieces! Amines, by kia VA,
Buist and L. R. Williams si ge

an
Tectonics and a Geological Energy ~ Reserve
Appraisal, Sedimentary Basin, by J. C.
Cameron, Presidential Address, 1973 8
Topological Groups, Extremally Disconnected, by
S. A. Morris and A. J. van der Poorten

Vv

Vallance, T. G.—Vesuvianite Hornfels at Quean-
beyan, N.S.W.

Van der:Poorten; A. J:, Morris, Suk. —Extremally
Disconnected Topological Groups ..

Vesuvianite Hornfels at capes N.S.W. , by
T. G. Vallance.

WwW

Williams, Lyall R., and Buist, Robert A.—
Sympathomimetic Tertiary Amines :

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Contents

Astronomy :
Proper Motions of Variable Stars. K. P. Sims aa a x0. Du aekere

Geobotany :
Influence of Soil Composition on the Vegetation of the Coolac Serpentite Belt
in New South Wales. M. T. Lyons, R. R. Brooks and D. C. Craig

Geology :

Carboniferous Non-Marine Stratigraphy of the Paterson-Gresford District,
New South Wales. G. Hamilton, G. C. Hall and John Roberts .. :

Phonolite-Trachyte Spectrum in the Warrumbungle Volcano, New South
Wales, Australia. J. J. Hockley

Structural Interpretation of New nus ond Region, New South “Wales
Emile Rod ; ae ti

Liversidge Lecture 1974:
Chance and Design: An Historical See of the pes. of Oral
Contraceptives. A. /. Birch.

Mathematics :

Extremally Disconnected Topological Cave. S.A. Morris and A. J. van der
Poorten he .

Floppy Rulers and tiene Pere erection Netenatea pads Presidential
Address, 3rd April, 1974. J. P. Pollard .. ; : he we

Review of the Society’s Activities: March 1974:
Address Delivered by His Excellency The Governor of New South Wales,
Sir) Rodem. Cutler, V.C.7 K:C. MG. K-C-V.0;, CBE:

Report of Council, 31st March, 1974 .
Balance Sheet

Abstract of Proceedings .

Index to Volume 107

List of Office-Bearers, 1974-1975

49

67

76

87

90

100

114

116

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD.
71-79 ARUNDEL ST., GLEBE, N.S.W., 2037
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